A Grammar of Modern Indo European

A GRAMMAR OF
MODERN
INDO-EUROPEAN
Third Edition
Part I.
Language and Culture
Part II.
Phonology & Morphology
Part III.
Syntax
Part IV.
Texts & Dictionary

Etymology
Carlos Quiles
Fernando Lpez-Menchero
Version 5.00 (April 2011)

2011 by Carlos Quiles
2011 by Fernando Lpez-Menchero
INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION

Avda. Sta. Mara de la Cabeza, 3, E-LL, Badajoz 06001, Spain.
Badajoz Leg. Dep. BA-145-0 (2006) | Sevilla Leg. Dep. SE -4405-2007 U.E.
ISBN-13: 978-1461022138 | ISBN-10: 1461022134
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Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS...............................................................................3
PREFACE..................................................................................................9
GUIDE TO THE READER .................................................................................................. 13
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... 15
CONSIDERATIONS OF METHOD....................................................................................... 16
The Three-Dorsal Theory ....................................................................................... 18
The Loss of Laryngeals...........................................................................................26
CONVENTIONS USED IN THIS BOOK................................................................................ 33
Writing System ....................................................................................................... 35
Modern Indo-European .........................................................................................42
1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................49
1.1. THE INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE FAMILY ...............................................................49
1.2. TRADITIONAL VIEWS ............................................................................................... 51
1.3. THE THEORY OF THE THREE STAGES ....................................................................... 53
1.4. THE PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN URHEIMAT ............................................................... 59
1.5. OTHER ARCHAEOLINGUISTIC THEORIES ..................................................................69
1.6. RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER LANGUAGES .................................................................... 71
1.7. INDO-EUROPEAN DIALECTS ..................................................................................... 73
Schleichers Fable: From PIE to Modern English ................................................. 73
1.7.1. Northern Indo-European dialects ................................................................ 76
1.7.2. Southern Indo-European Dialects.............................................................. 109
11.7.3. Anatolian Languages ................................................................................ 128
2. PHONOLOGY.....................................................................................135
2.1. CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS .................................................................................. 135
2.2. PRONUNCIATION .................................................................................................. 138
2.3. SYLLABLES ............................................................................................................141
2.4. PROSODY .............................................................................................................. 144
2.5. ACCENT ................................................................................................................ 145
2.6. VOWEL CHANGE ................................................................................................... 147
2.7. CONSONANT CHANGE ........................................................................................... 150
A GRAMMAR OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN
3. WORDS AND THEIR FORMS.............................................................153

3.1. THE PARTS OF SPEECH .......................................................................................... 153
3.2. INFLECTION.......................................................................................................... 154
3.3. ROOT AND STEM ................................................................................................... 155
3.4. GENDER ............................................................................................................... 158
3.5. NUMBER ...............................................................................................................161
4. NOUNS..............................................................................................163
4.1. DECLENSION OF NOUNS ........................................................................................ 163
4.2. FIRST DECLENSION .............................................................................................. 168
4.2.1. First Declension Paradigm......................................................................... 168
4.2.2. First Declension in Examples..................................................................... 169
4.2.3. The Plural in the First Declension ............................................................. 170
4.3. SECOND DECLENSION ............................................................................................ 171
4.3.1. Second Declension Paradigm ...................................................................... 171
4.3.2. Second Declension in Examples ................................................................. 172
4.5.3. The Plural in the Second Declension .......................................................... 173
4.4. THIRD DECLENSION ............................................................................................. 174
4.4.1. Third Declension Paradigm ....................................................................... 174
4.4.2. In i, u ........................................................................................................... 175
4.4.3. In Diphthong ...............................................................................................177
4.4.4. The Plural in the Third and Fourth Declension ........................................ 178
4.5. FOURTH DECLENSION........................................................................................... 179
4.5.1. Fourth Declension Paradigm ..................................................................... 179
4.5.2. In Occlusive, m, l......................................................................................... 181
4.5.3. In r, n, s ....................................................................................................... 182
4.5.4. The Plural in the Fourth Declension .......................................................... 183
4.6. VARIABLE NOUNS ................................................................................................. 184
4.7. INFLECTION TYPES ............................................................................................... 184
Excursus: Nominal Accent-Ablaut Patterns ....................................................... 186
4.8. NUMBER DEVELOPMENTS: THE DUAL................................................................... 190
5. ADJECTIVES......................................................................................191
5.1. INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES ...................................................................................191
5.2. THE MOTION .........................................................................................................191
4
Table of Contents
5.3. ADJECTIVE SPECIALISATION .................................................................................. 194

5.4. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES ................................................................................ 195
5.5. NUMERALS ........................................................................................................... 197
5.5.1. Classification of Numerals.......................................................................... 197
5.5.2. Cardinals and Ordinals .............................................................................. 198
5.5.3. Declension of Cardinals and Ordinals ....................................................... 201
5.5.4. Distributives............................................................................................... 204
5.5.5. Numeral Adverbs ....................................................................................... 204
5.5.6. Multiplicatives ........................................................................................... 205
6. PRONOUNS......................................................................................207
6.1. ABOUT THE PRONOUNS .........................................................................................207
6.2. PERSONAL PRONOUNS ..........................................................................................207
6.3. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS ........................................................................................ 209
6.4. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS ........................................................................................ 210
6.5. ANAPHORIC PRONOUNS ........................................................................................ 210
6.6. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS .................................................................................211
6.7. INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS ........................................................ 213
6.7.1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 213
6.7.2. Compounds ................................................................................................. 215
6.7.3. Correlatives................................................................................................. 216
6.8. RELATIVE PRONOUNS ........................................................................................... 217
6.9. OTHER PRONOUNS ............................................................................................... 218
7. VERBS...............................................................................................219
7.1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 219
7.1.1. Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, Number ......................................................... 219
7.1.2. Voice............................................................................................................ 220
7.1.3. Moods ..........................................................................................................222
7.1.4. Aspect...........................................................................................................222
7.1.5. Tenses of the Finite Verb .............................................................................223
7.2. FORMS OF THE VERB .............................................................................................224
7.2.1. The Verbal Stems ........................................................................................224
7.2.2. Verb-Endings .............................................................................................. 225
7.2.3. The Thematic Vowel .................................................................................. 230
5
7.3. THE CONJUGATIONS ............................................................................................. 231

7.4. THE FOUR STEMS ................................................................................................. 236
7.4.1. Tense-Stems and Verb Derivation ............................................................. 236
7.4.2. The Present Stem ........................................................................................ 237
7.4.3. The Aorist Stem...........................................................................................249
7.4.4. The Perfect Stem ......................................................................................... 252
7.5. MOOD STEMS ....................................................................................................... 253
7.7. NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS .............................................................................. 257
7.8. CONJUGATED EXAMPLES ......................................................................................262
7.8.1. Thematic Verbs ...........................................................................................262
7.8.2. Athematic Inflection ................................................................................... 267
7.8.3. Common PIE Stems .................................................................................... 271
7.9. VERBAL COMPOSITION .......................................................................................... 273
7.10. THE VERBAL ACCENT .......................................................................................... 273
8. PARTICLES........................................................................................275
8.1. PARTICLES ............................................................................................................ 275
8.2. ADVERBS .............................................................................................................. 277
8.3. DERIVATION OF ADVERBS ..................................................................................... 277
8.4. PREPOSITIONS ...................................................................................................... 279
8.5. CONJUNCTIONS ................................................................................................... 282
8.6. INTERJECTIONS ................................................................................................... 284
9. MORPHOSYNTAX.............................................................................287
9.1. VERBAL MORPHOSYNTAX ...................................................................................... 287
9.1.1. Person .......................................................................................................... 287
9.1.2. Tense-Aspect and Mood.............................................................................. 287
9.1.3. Voice ............................................................................................................ 291
9.2. NOMINAL MORPHOSYNTAX...................................................................................292
9.2.1. Nominative..................................................................................................292
9.2.3. Vocative ...................................................................................................... 293
9.2.4. Accusative ................................................................................................... 293
9.2.5. Instrumental ...............................................................................................294
9.2.6. Dative .......................................................................................................... 295
9.2.7. Ablative .......................................................................................................296
6
Table of Contents
9.2.8. Genitive ....................................................................................................... 297

9.2.9. Locative....................................................................................................... 297
9.2.10. Case Forms: Adverbial Elements............................................................ 298
10. SENTENCE SYNTAX........................................................................301
10.1. THE SENTENCE ................................................................................................... 301
10.1.1. Kinds of Sentences .................................................................................... 302
10.1.2. Nominal Sentence .................................................................................... 304
10.1.3. Verbal Sentence ........................................................................................ 306
10.2. SENTENCE MODIFIERS ....................................................................................... 308
10.2.1. Intonation Patterns .................................................................................. 308
10.2.2. Sentence Delimiting Particles .................................................................. 310
10.3. VERBAL MODIFIERS .............................................................................................311
10.3.1. Declarative Sentences ................................................................................311
10.3.2. Interrogative Sentences ........................................................................... 312
10.3.3. Negative Sentences ................................................................................... 315
10.4. NOMINAL MODIFIERS ......................................................................................... 317
10.4.1. Adjective and Genitive Constructions ...................................................... 317
10.4.2. Compounds ............................................................................................... 318
10.4.3. Determiners in Nominal Phrases.............................................................324
10.4.4. Apposition ................................................................................................. 325
10.5. MODIFIED FORMS OF PIE SIMPLE SENTENCES ..................................................... 327
10.5.1. Coordination ............................................................................................. 327
10.5.2. Complementation .....................................................................................329
10.5.3. Subordinate Clauses .................................................................................332
10.6. SYNTACTIC CATEGORIES..................................................................................... 338
10.6.1. Particles as Syntactic Means of Expression ............................................ 338
10.6.2. Marked Order in Sentences ...................................................................... 341
10.6.3. Topicalisation with Reference to Emphasis ............................................342
10.6.4. Wackernagels Law and the placement of clitics .................................... 345
10.7. PHRASE AND SENTENCE PROSODY ...................................................................... 348
10.8. POETRY ..............................................................................................................349
10.9. NAMES OF PERSONS ............................................................................................ 352
APPENDIX I: INDO-EUROPEAN IN USE...............................................357

I.1. KOMTLOQJOM (CONVERSATION) ............................................................................ 357
I.2. HORATJOSJO KANM (HORATII CARMINVM)......................................................... 360
I.3. THE NEW TESTAMENT IN INDO-EUROPEAN ........................................................... 362
I.3.1. Pater Nos (Lords Prayer) ........................................................................... 362
I.3.2. Slwje Marij (Hail Mary) ......................................................................... 363
I.3.2. Krddhmi (Nicene Creed) ......................................................................... 363
I.3.3. Nouds Sns (Parable of the Prodigal Son) ............................................366
I.3.4. Newos Bheidhos (New Testament) Jhans, 1, 1-14............................... 370
I.4. THE RIGVEDA IN INDO-EUROPEAN ........................................................................ 372
APPENDIX II: LATE INDO-EUROPEAN LEXICON.................................373
FORMAL ASPECTS ........................................................................................................ 373
II.1. ENGLISH LATE INDO-EUROPEAN ....................................................................... 375
II.2. LATE INDO-EUROPEAN ENGLISH ...................................................................... 413
II.3. ETYMOLOGY FROM DESCENDANT LANGUAGES ..................................................... 491
APPENDIX III: IN-DEPTH ANALYSIS...................................................765
III.1. ROOT NOUNS...................................................................................................... 765
III.2. INDEFINITE, DEMONSTRATIVE, AND PERSONAL PRONOUNS ................................. 770
III.2.1. Indefinite Pronouns .................................................................................. 770
III.2.2. Demonstrative Pronouns ..........................................................................771
III.2.3. Personal Pronouns ....................................................................................771
III.3. WORD FORMATION: COMMON PIE LENGTHENINGS AND SUFFIXES ..................... 775
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING..........................................783
ONLINE RESOURCES .................................................................................................... 786
Wikipedia .............................................................................................................. 787
Images and maps .................................................................................................788
BIOGRAPHY.789
PREFACE
In this newer edition of our Grammar, we follow the first intention of this work,
trying not to include personal opinions, but a collection of the latest, most reasoned
academic papers on the latest reconstructible PIE, providing everything that might
be useful for the teaching and learning of Indo-European as a living language.
With that aim in mind, and with our compromise to follow the scientific method,
we have revised the whole text in search for out-dated material and unexplained
forms, as well as inconsistencies in reconstructions or conventions. We have also
restricted the amount of marginal choices in favour of the general agreement, so that
we could offer a clear, sober, and commonly agreed manual to learn Indo-European.
The approach featured in this book for more than half a decade already is similar to
the one followed in GamkrelidzeIvanov (1994-1995), and especially to that followed
by AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998). Both returned to (and revised) the
Brugmannian Indo-European, the historical result of the development of certain
isoglosses, both phonetic (loss of laryngeals, with the development of brief and long
vowel system) and morphological (polythematic system in noun and verb,
innovations in their inflection).
AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998) distinguished between Late IndoEuropean and its parent-language Indo-Hittite laryngeal, without distinction in
vowel length, monothematic system. We developed that trend further, focussing on a
post-Late Indo-European period, in search for a more certain, post-laryngeal IE, to
avoid the merged laryngeal puzzle of the disintegrating Indo-European of Bomhard
(1984), and the conventional notation of a schwa indogermanicum (kept in
AdradosBernabMendoza), most suitable for a description of a complex period of
phonetic change which is possibly behind the flight of all other available modern
works on PIE to the highly theoretical (but in all other respects clear and
straightforward) PIH phonology. Morphology and syntax remain thus nearest to the
older IE languages attested, always compared to Anatolian material, but avoiding the
temporal inconsistencies that are found throughout the diachronic reconstructions in
other, current manuals.
We try to fill the void that GamkrelidzeIvanov and AdradosBernabMendoza

left by following works (Lehmann 1972, Rix 1986, etc.) that already differentiated
PIH from Late Indo-European, trying to see the three-stage theory to the bitter end.
Once established the existence of the three-staged IE, a lot must still be done. We
have to define the detail, and we must explain the reason for the evolution, which
formal elements does PIE deal with, and how they are ascribed to the new functions
and categories. These developments shall influence the history of individual
languages, which will have to be rewritten. Not only in the field of morphology, but
also in phonetics and syntax (AdradosBernabMendoza 1995-1998).
Apart from a trustable reconstruction of the direct ancestors of the older IE
languages (North-West Indo-European, Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian), this
work corrupts the natural language like any classical language grammar with
the intention to show a living language, and the need to establish some minimal
writing conventions to embellish the phonetic notation. The question why not learn
Indo-European as a living language? arises from the same moment on when
reconstruction is focussed on a (scientifically) conservative approach an ultimate
consequence of the three-stage-theory, and the search for more certain
reconstructions , yielding a reliable language system. A language system free from
the need for theoretical artifices, or personal opinions on original forms, that try to
fill unending phonetic, morphological and syntactical uncertainties of the current
diachronic PIE reconstruction.
As the learned reader might have already inferred, the question of natural vs.
artificial is not easily answered concerning ancient languages. Ancient Greek
phonetics, for example, is known through internal as well as external reconstruction,
and the actual state of the art is largely based on the body of evidence discussed
extensively by linguists and philologists of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries,
with lots of questions unsolved. Furthermore, Ancient Greek is not one language; in
fact, there are many dialects, each with different periods, and different
representations of their sounds, all of which account for what we know with the
unitary name Ancient Greek. Another example is Sanskrit, retained as different
historical linguistic stages and dialects through oral tradition. Its first writings and
grammatical rules were laid down centuries after it had ceased to be spoken, and
centuries earlier before it became the classical Indian language. Latin is indeed not
10
Preface
different from the above examples, being systematised in the so-called classical
period, while a real, dialectally and temporarily variable Vulgar Latin was used by the
different peoples who lived in the Roman Empire, making e.g. some questions over
the proper pronunciation still debated today.
The interest in the study and use of Indo-European as a living language today is
equivalent to the interest in the study and use of these ancient languages as learned
languages in the the Byzantine Empire, India and Mediaeval Europe, respectively.
With regard to certainty in reconstruction, Late Indo-European early dialects are not
less natural than these classical languages were in the past. Even modern languages,
like English, are to a great extent learned languages, in which social trends and
linguistic artifices are constantly dividing between formal and colloquial, educated
and uneducated, often simply good or bad usage of the language.
About the question of dead vs. living languages, heated debate is e.g. held on the
characterisation of Sanskrit, which is not as other dead languages, being spoken,
written and read today in India. The notion of the death of a language remains thus
in an unclear realm between academia and public opinion.
I prefer to copy Michael Coulsons words from the preface of a great introductory
work on Sanskrit (from the Teach Yourself series), referring originally to the way
Indians used Sanskrit as a learned (and dead) language, far beyond the rules that
grammarians had imposed. I think this text should also be valid if we substituted
Sanskrit for Indo-European; the rules of Sanskrit grammarians for the
reconstruction of IE scholars; and the renowned Sanskrit writers for the potential
future IE writers:
By [the time Klidsa, a writer fl. ca. the fifth century AD, lived] Sanskrit was not a
mother tongue, but a language to be studied and consciously mastered. This
transformation had come about through a gradual process, the beginnings of which are
no doubt earlier than Pini [ancient Indian Sanskrit grammarian, fl. fourth century
BC] himself. () Klidsa learnt his Sanskrit from the rules of a grammarian living
some 700 years before his time. Such a situation may well strike the Western reader as
paradoxical. Our nearest parallel is in the position of Latin in Medieval Europe. There
is, however, an important difference. Few would deny Cicero or Vergil a greater
importance in Latin literature than any mediaeval author. Conversely, few Sanskritists
would deny that the centre of gravity in Sanskrit literature lies somewhere in the first
millennium AD, for all that its authors were writing in a so-called dead-language.
11
On this point it may be useful to make a twofold distinction between a living and a
dead language, and between a natural and a learned one. A language is natural when it
is acquired and used instinctively; it is living when people choose to converse and
formulate ideas in it in preference to any other. To the modern Western scholar
Sanskrit is a dead as well as a learned language. To Klidsa or akara [ninth century
Indian philosopher from a Dravidian-speaking region] it was a learned language but a
living one. (The term learned is not entirely satisfactory, but the term artificial, which
is the obvious complementary of natural, is normally reserved for application to totally
constructed languages such as Esperanto.)
() Living languages, whether natural or learned, change and develop. But when a
learned language such as literary English is closely tied to, and constantly revitalized by,
a natural idiom, its opportunities for independent growth are limited. Sanskrit provides
a fascinating example of a language developing in complete freedom from such
constraints as an instrument of intellectual and artistic expression. To say that Classical
Sanskrit was written in conformity with Pinis rules is true, but in one sense entirely
misleading. Pini would have been astounded by the way in which B or Bhavabhti
or Abhinavagupta handled the language. It is precisely the fact that Sanskrit writers
insisted on using Sanskrit as a living and not as a dead language that has often troubled
Western scholars. W. D. Whitney, a great but startlingly arrogant American Sanskritist
of the nineteenth century, says of the Classical language: Of linguistic history there is
next to nothing in it all; but only a history of style, and this for the most part showing a
gradual depravation, an increase of artificiality and an intensification of certain more
undesirable features of the language such as the use of passive constructions and of
participles instead of verbs, and the substitution of compounds for sentences. Why
such a use of passives, participles and compounds should be undesirable, let alone
depraved, is left rather vague, and while there have been considerable advances in
linguistic science in the past fifty years there seems to have been nothing which helps to
clarify or justify these strictures. Indeed, Whitneys words would not be worth
resurrecting if strong echoes of them did not still survive in some quarters.
Acceptance of Pinis rules implied a final stabilization of the phonology of Sanskrit,
and also (at least in the negative sense that no form could be used which was not
sanctioned by him) of its morphology. But Pini did not fix syntax. To do so explicitly
and incontrovertibly would be difficult in any language, given several ways of
expressing the same idea and various other ways of expressing closely similar ideas.
Badajoz, April 2011
12
Preface
GUIDE TO THE READER

A. ABBREVIATIONS
abl.: ablative
acc.: accusative
act.: active
adj.: adjective
adv.: adverb
Alb.: Albanian
Arm.: Armenian
aor.: aorist
aux.: auxiliary
Av: Avestan
BSl.: Balto-Slavic
CA: Common Anatolian
Cel.: Celtic
cf.: confer compare, contrast
Cz.: Czech
dat.: dative
Du.: Dutch
e.g.: exempli gratia for example
Eng.: English
esp.: especially
f.: feminine
fem.: feminine
gen.: genitive
Gaul.: Gaulish
Gk.: Greek
Gmc.: Proto-Germanic
Goth.: Gothic
Hitt.: Hittite
Hom.: Homeric
IE: Indo-European
IED: Late Indo-European dialects
imp.: imperative
imperf.: imperfect
Ind.-Ira.: Indo-Iranian
ins.: instrumental
int.: interrogative
Ita.: Italic
Lat.: Latin
LIE: Late Indo-European
Lith.: Lithuanian
Ltv.: Latvian
loc.: locative
Luw./Luv.: Luvian
NP: noun phrase

NWIE: North-West Indo-European
O: object
Obj.: object
O.Av.: Old Avestan
O.C.S.: Old Church Slavic
O.E.: Old English
O.Ind.: Old Indian
O.Ir.: Old Irish
O.H.G.: Old High German
O.Hitt.: Old Hittite
O.Lat.: Archaic Latin
O.Lith.: Old Lithuanin
O.N.: Old Norse
O.Pers.: Old Persian
O.Pruss.: Old Prussian
O.Russ.: Old Russian
opt.: optative
Osc.: Oscan
OSV: object-subject-verb order
OV: object-verb order
perf.: perfect
PAn: Proto-Anatolian
PGmc.: Pre-Proto-Germanic
PII: Proto-Indo-Iranian
PGk: Proto-Greek
Phryg: Phrygian
PIE: Proto-Indo-European
PIH: Proto-Indo-Hittite
pl.: plural
pres.: present
pron.: pronoun
Ptc.: particle
Russ.: Russian
sg.: singular
Skt.: Sanskrit
Sla.: Slavic
SOV: subject-object-verb order
subj.: subjunctive
SVO: subject-verb-object order
Toch.: Tocharian
Umb.: Umbrian
Ved.: Vedic
13
Lyc.: Lycian
m.: masculine
masc.: masculine
M.H.G.: Middle High German
mid.: middle-passive voice
MIE: Modern Indo-European
Myc.: Mycenaean
n.: neuter
neu.: neuter
nom.: nominative
v.i.: vide infra see below

VO: verb-object order
voc.: vocative
VP: verb phrase
v.s.: vide supra see above
VSO: verb-subject-object order
1st: first person
2nd: second person
3rd: third person
B. SYMBOLS
*
**
<
()
denotes a reconstructed form, not preserved in any written documents

denotes a reconstructed form through internal reconstruction
comes from or is derived from
turns into or becomes
indicates morpheme boundary, or separates off that part of a word that
the reader should focus on
encloses part of a word that is not relevant to the discussion, or that is an
optional part
zero desinence or zero-grade
denotes a wrong formation
C. SPELLING CONVENTIONS
All linguistic forms are written in italics. The only exceptions are reconstructed IED
forms, that are given in boldface; and in italics if morphemes or dialectal forms
(from PII, PGk, or from East or West European). We use a non-phonetic writing for
IEDs, following the conventions in Writing System (see below).
When representing word schemes:
C = consonant
V = vowel
R = resonant (r, l, m, n)
= long vowel
T = dental
I = i, u
K = occlusive
= epenthetic or auxiliary vowel
J = glide (j, w)
(conventionally, the symbol under the vocalic
any
laryngeal
merged laryngeal
or
resonants is placed before it in these cases)
# = syllabic limit
Citation: parenthetical referencing of author-date is used for frequently cited books

(referenced in the Bibliography), and author-title for articles and other books.
14
Preface
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I owe special and personal gratitude to my best friend and now fiance Mayte,
whose many lovely qualities do not include knowledge of or an interest in historical
linguistics. But without her this never would have been written.
I have been extremely fortunate to benefit from Fernando Lpez-Mencheros
interest and from his innumerable contributions, revisions, and corrections. Without
his deep knowledge of Ancient Greek and Latin, as well as his interest in the most
recent research in IE studies, this grammar would have been unthinkable.
I have received the invaluable support of many colleagues and friends from the
University of Extremadura (UEx), since we began publishing this book half a decade
ago. The University has been crucial to this enterprise: first in 2005 when Prof.
Antonio Muoz PhD, Vice-Dean of the Faculty of Library Science, expert in Business
Information, as well as other signatories doctors in Economics and English
Philology , supported this language revival project before the competition
committee and afterwards; in 2006, when representatives of the Deans office, of the
Regional Government of Extremadura, and of the Mayors office of Caceres,
recognised our work awarding our project a prize in the Entrepreneurship
Competition in Imagination Society, organizing and subsidizing a business trip to
Barcelonas most innovative projects; and in 2007, when we received the
unconditional support of the Department of Classical Antiquity of the UEx.
Over the years I have also received feed-back from informed end-users, as well as
from friends and members of the Indo-European Language Association, who were in
the best position to judge such matters as the intelligibility and consistency of the
whole. I am also indebted to Manuel Romero from Imcrea Diseo Editorial, for his
help with the design and editorial management of the first printed edition.
The influence of the work of many recent scholars is evident on these pages. Those
who are most often cited include (in alphabetical order): D.Q. Adams, F.R. Adrados
David Anthony, R.S.P. Beekes, Emile Benveniste, Alberto Bernab, Thomas Burrow,
George Cardona, James Clackson, B.W. Fortson, Matthias Fritz, T.V. Gamkrelidze,
Marija Gimbutas, Eric Hamp, V.V. Ivanov, Jay Jasanoff, Paul Kiparsky, Alwin
Kloekhorst, F.H.H. Kortlandt, Jerzy Kuryowicz, W.P. Lehmann, J.P. Mallory,
Manfred Mayrhofer, Wolfgang Meid, Michael Meier-Brgger, Torsten Meissner,
Craig Melchert, Julia Mendoza, Anna Morpurgo Davies, Norbert Oettinger, Edgar
Polom, C.J. Ruijgh, Paolo Ramat, Donald Ringe, Helmut Rix, A.L. Sihler, Sergei
Starostin, J.L. Szemernyi, Francisco Villar, Calvert Watkins, M.L. West.
15
CONSIDERATIONS OF METHOD
This work is intended for language learners, and is not conceived as a defence of
personal research. Excerpts of texts from many different sources have been copied
literally, especially regarding controversial or untreated aspects. We feel that,
whereas the field of Indo-European studies is indeed mature, and knowledge is out
there to be grasped, we lack a comprehensive summary of the available consensual
theories, scattered over innumerable specialised personal books and articles.
We must begin this work by clearly exposing our intended working method in
selecting and summing up the current available theories: it is basically, as it is
commonly accepted today for PIE reconstruction, the comparative method, with the
help of internal reconstruction.
NOTE. AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998): We think () that a linguist should
follow, to establish relations among languages, linguistic methods. If then the results are
coincident, or compatible, or might be perfected with those obtained by archaeologists, so
much the better. But a mixed method creates all types of chain mistakes and arbitrary results.
We have seen that many times. And a purely archaeological method like the one supported
lately by Renfrew 1987 or, in certain moments, the same Gimbutas 1985, clashes with the
results of Linguistics.
The method has to rely on [the comparative method and internal reconstruction]. We have
already expressed our mistrust in the results based on typological comparisons with remote
languages (glottalic theory, ergative, etc.). Now they are more frequent in books like
Gamkelidze-Ivanov 1994-1995.
And fundamentally lexical comparisons should not be the first argument in comparisons,
either. We do not doubt their interest in certain moments, e.g. to illuminate the history of
Germanic in relation with Finnish. And they could have interest in different comparisons:
with Uralo-Altaic languages, Semitic, Caucasic, Summerian, etc.
The guidelines that should be followed, as summarised by Beekes (1995):

1.
See what information is generated by internal reconstruction.
2. Collect all material that is relevant to the problem.

3. Try to look at the problem in the widest possible contact, thus in relation to
everything else that may be connected with it. ()
4. Assume that corresponding forms, that is to say, forms whose meaning
(probably) and whose structures (probably) seem to be alike, all derive from
one common ancestor.
16
Preface
5. The question of how deviant forms should be evaluated is a difficult one to

answer. When such a form can be seen as an innovation within a particular
language (or group of languages), the solution is that the form in question is
young and as such cannot be important for the reconstruction of the original
form. Whenever a deviant form resists explanation it becomes necessary to
consider the possibility that the very form in question may be one that
preserves the original. ()
6. For every solution the assumed (new) sound-laws must be phonetically
probable, and the analogies must be plausible.
7. The reconstructed system must be probable (typological probability). If one
should reconstruct a system which is found nowhere else in any of the known
languages, there will always be, to say the least, reasons for doubt. On the other
hand, every language is unique, and there is thus always the possibility that
something entirely unknown must be reconstructed.
There are two main aspects of the comparative method as is usually applied that
strikes the pure scientific reader, though, always obsessed with adopting a
conservative approach to research, in the sense of security or reliability. We shall
take words from Claude Bernards major discourse on scientific method, An
Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine (1865), to illustrate our point:
1. Authority vs. Observation. It is through observation that science is carried
forward not through uncritically accepting the authority of academic or scholastic
sources. Observable reality is our only authority. When we meet a fact which
contradicts a prevailing theory, we must accept the fact and abandon the theory, even
when the theory is supported by great names and generally accepted.
NOTE. Authority is certainly a commonly used, strong and generally sound basis to keep
working on comparative grammar, though, because it this is a field based on pyramidal
reasoning and not experimental research. But authority should be questioned whenever it is
needed. Authority be it the view of the majority, or the opinion of a renowned linguist or
linguistic school do not mean anything, and ideas are not to be respected because of who
supports (or supported) them.
2. Verification and Disproof. Theories are only hypotheses, verified by more or

less numerous facts. Those verified by the most facts are the best, but even then they
are never final, never to be absolutely believed. What is rationally true is the only
authority.
17
On hypothesis testing in science, decisions are usually made using a statistical nullhypothesis test approach. Regarding linguistics and its comparative method,
sometimes authority is placed as null hypothesis or H0 (as in many non-experimental
sciences), while counter-arguments must take the H1 position, and are therefore at
disadvantage against the authority view.
If two theories show a strong argument against the basic H0 (nothing
demonstrated), and are therefore accepted as alternative explanations for an
observed fact, then the most reasonable one must be selected as the new H0, on the
grounds of the lex parsimoniae (or the so-called Ockhams razor), whereby H0
should be the competing hypothesis that makes the fewest new assumptions, when
the hypotheses are equal in other respects (e.g. both sufficiently explain available
data in the first place).
NOTE. The principle is often incorrectly summarised as the simplest explanation is most
likely the correct one. This summary is misleading, however, since the principle is actually
focussed on shifting the burden of proof in discussions. That is, the Razor is a principle that
suggests we should tend towards simpler theories until we can trade some simplicity for
increased explanatory power. Contrary to the popular summary, the simplest available theory
is sometimes a less accurate explanation. Philosophers also add that the exact meaning of
simplest can be nuanced in the first place.
As an example of the applicability of the scientific method, we will take two difficult
aspects of PIE reconstructions: the series of velars and the loss of laryngeals.
The problem with these particular reconstructions might be summarised by the
words found in Clackson (2007): It is often a fault of Indo-Europeanists to overreconstruct, and to explain every development of the daughter languages through
reconstruction of a richer system in the parent language.
THE THREE-DORSAL THEORY

PIE phonetic reconstruction is tied to the past: acceptance of three series of velars
in PIE is still widespread today. We followed the reconstruction of palatovelars,
according to general authority and convention, but we have changed minds since the
first edition of this grammar.
Direct comparison in early IE studies, informed by the centum-satem isogloss,
yielded the reconstruction of three rows of dorsal consonants in Late Indo-European
by Bezzenberger (Die indogermanischer Gutturalreihen, 1890), a theory which
18
Preface
became classic after Brugmann included it in the 2nd Edition of his Grundriss. It was
based on vocabulary comparison: so e.g. from PIE *kmtm hundred, there are socalled satem (cf. O.Ind. atm, Av. satm, Lith. imtas, O.C.S. sto) and centum
languages (cf. Gk. -katn, Lat. centum, Goth. hund, O.Ir. cet).
The palatovelars *kj, *gj, and *gjh were supposedly [k]- or [g]-like sounds which
underwent a characteristic phonetic change in the satemised languages three
original velar rows had then become two in all Indo-European dialects attested.
After that original belief, then, the centum group of languages merged the
palatovelars *kj, *gj, and *gjh with the plain velars *k, *g, and *gh, while the satem
group of languages merged the labiovelars *kw, *gw, and *gwh with the plain velars
*k,*g, and *gh.
The reasoning for reconstructing three series was very simple: an easy and
straightforward solution for the parent PIE language must be that it had all three
rows found in the proto-languages, which would have merged into two rows
depending on their dialectal (centum vs. satem) situation even if no single IE
dialect shows three series of velars. Also, for a long time this division was identified
with an old dialectal division within IE, especially because both groups appeared not
to overlap geographically: the centum branches were to the west of satem languages.
Such an initial answer should be considered unsound today, at least as a startingpoint to obtain a better explanation for this phonological puzzle (Bernab).
Many Indo-Europeanists still keep a distinction of three distinct series of velars for
Late Indo-European (and also for Indo-Hittite), although research tend to show that
the palatovelar series were a late phonetic development of certain satem dialects,
later extended to others. This belief was originally formulated by Antoine Meillet (De
quelques difficulties de la thorie des gutturals indoeuropennes, 1893), and has
been followed by linguists like Hirt (Zur Lsung der Gutturalfrage im
Indogermanischen, 1899; Indogermanische Grammatik, BD III, Das Nomen 1927),
Lehmann (Proto-Indo-European Phonology, 1952), Georgiev (Introduzione allo
studio delle lingue indoeuropee, 1966), Bernab (Aportaciones al studio fonolgico
de las guturales indoeuropeas, Em. 39, 1971), Steensland (Die Distribution der
urindogermanischen sogenannten Guttrale, 1973), Miller (Pure velars and palatals
in Indo-European: a rejoinder to Magnusson, Linguistics 178, 1976), Allen (The
PIE velar series: Neogrammarian and other solutions in the light of attested
19
parallels, TPhS, 1978), Kortlandt (H2 and oH2, LPosn, 1980), Shields (A new
look at the centum/satem Isogloss, KZ 95, 1981), etc.
NOTE. There is a general trend to reconstruct labiovelars and plain velars, so that the
hypothesis of two series of velars is usually identified with this theory. Among those who
support two series of velars there is, however, a minority who consider the labiovelars a
secondary development from the pure velars, and reconstruct only velars and palatovelars
(Kuryowicz), already criticised by Bernab, Steensland, Miller and Allen. Still less acceptance
had the proposal to reconstruct only a labiovelar and a palatal series (Magnusson).
Arguments in favour of only two series of velars include:

1. In most circumstances palatovelars appear to be allophones resulting from the
neutralisation of the other two series in particular phonetic circumstances. Their
dialectal articulation was probably constrained, either to an especial phonetic
environment (as Romance evolution of Latin k before e and i), either to the analogy
of alternating phonetic forms.
NOTE. However, it is difficult to pinpoint exactly what the circumstances of the allophony
are, although it is generally accepted that neutralisation occurred after s and u, and often
before r or a; also apparently before m and n in some Baltic dialects. The original allophonic
distinction was disturbed when the labiovelars were merged with the plain velars. This
produced a new phonemic distinction between palatal and plain velars, with an unpredictable
alternation between palatal and plain in related forms of some roots (those from original plain
velars) but not others (those from original labiovelars). Subsequent analogical processes
generalised either the plain or palatal consonant in all forms of a particular root. Those roots
where the plain consonant was generalised are those traditionally reconstructed as having
plain velars in the parent language, in contrast to palatovelars.
2. The reconstructed palatovelars and plain velars appear mostly in complementary

distributions, what supports their explanation as allophones of the same phonemes.
Meillet (Introduction ltude comparative des langues indo-europennes, 1903)
established the contexts in which there are only velars: before a, r, and after s, u;
while Georgiev (1966) clarified that the palatalisation of velars had been produced
before e, i, j, and before liquid or nasal or w + e, i, offering statistical data supporting
his conclusions. The presence of palatalised velar before o is then produced because
of analogy with roots in which (due to the ablaut) the velar phoneme is found before
e and o, so the alternation *kje/*ko would be levelled as *kje/*kjo.
20
Preface
3. There is residual evidence of various sorts in satem languages of a former

distinction between velar and labiovelar consonants:
In Sanskrit and Balto-Slavic, in some environments, resonants become iR
after plain velars but uR after labiovelars.
In Armenian, some linguists assert that kw is distinguishable from k before
front vowels.
In Albanian, some linguists assert that kw and gw are distinguishable from k
and g before front vowels.
NOTE. This evidence shows that the labiovelar series was distinct from the plain velar series
in LIE, and could not have been a secondary development in the centum languages. However,
it says nothing about the palatovelar vs. plain velar series. When this debate initially arose, the
concept of a phoneme and its historical emergence was not clearly understood, however, and
as a result it was often claimed (and sometimes is still claimed) that evidence of three-way
velar distinction in the history of a particular IE language indicates that this distinction must
be reconstructed for the parent language. This is theoretically unsound, as it overlooks the
possibility of a secondary origin for a distinction.
4. The palatovelar hypothesis would support an evolution kj k of centum dialects,

i.e. a move of palatovelars to back consonants, what is clearly against the general
tendency of velars to move forward its articulation and palatalise in these
environments. A trend of this kind is unparallelled and therefore typologically a
priori unlikely (although not impossible), and needs that other assumptions be
made.
5. The plain velar series is statistically rarer than the other two in a PIE lexicon
reconstructed with three series; it appears in words entirely absent from affixes, and
most of them are of a phonetic shape that could have inhibited palatalisation.
NOTE. Common examples are:
o *yug-m yoke: Hitt. iukan, Gk. zdugn, Skt. yug-, Lat. iugum, O.C.S. igo, Goth. juk.
o *ghosti- guest, stranger: Lat. hostis, Goth. gasts, O.C.S. gost.
The paradigm of the word for yoke could have shown a palatalizing environment only in
the vocative *yug-e, which is unlikely ever to have been in common usage, and the word for
stranger ghosti- only ever appears with the vocalism o. (Clackson 2007).
21
6. Alternations between plain velars and palatals are common in a number of roots
across different satem languages, where the same root appears with a palatal in some
languages but a plain velar in others.
NOTE. This is consistent with the analogical generalisation of one or another consonant in
an originally alternating paradigm, but difficult to explain otherwise:
o *ak-/ok- sharp, cf. Lith. akotas, O.C.S. ostr, O.Ind. asrs, Arm. aseln, but Lith. asrs.
o *akmon- stone, cf. Lith. akmu, O.C.S. kamy, O.Ind. ma, but Lith. smens.
o *keu- shine, cf. Lith. kiune, Russ. kuna, O.Ind. svas, Arm. sukh.
o *bhleg- shine, cf. O.Ind. bhrgas, Lith. balgans, O.C.S. blag, but Ltv. blzt.
o *gherdh- enclose, O.Ind. gh, Av. grda, Lith. gardas, O.C.S. gradu, Lith. zardas, Ltv.
zrdas.
o *swekros father-in-law, cf. O.Sla. svekry, O.Ind. varu.
o *peku- stock animal; cf. O.Lith. pkus, Skt. pau-, Av. pasu-.
o *kleus- hear; cf. Skt. rus, O.C.S. sluat, Lith. klusiu.
A rather weak argument in favour of palatovelars rejecting these finds is found in Clackson
(2007): Such forms could be taken to reflect the fact that Baltic is geographically peripheral
to the satem languages and consequently did not participate in the palatalization to the same
degree as other languages.
7. There are different pairs of satemised and non-satemised velars found within the
same language.
NOTE. The old argument proposed by Brugmann (and later copied by many dictionaries)
about centum loans is not tenable today. For more on this, see Szemerny (1978, review
from AdradosBernabMendoza 1995-1998), Mayrhofer (Das Guttrualproblem un das
indogermanische Wort fr Hase, Studien zu indogermanische Grundsprache, 1952),
Bernab (1971). Examples include:
o *selg- throw, cf. O.Ind. sjti, sargas
o *kau/keu- shout, cf. Lith. kaukti, O.C.S. kujati, Russ. sova (as Gk. kauax); O.Ind. kauti,
suka-.
o *kleu- hear, Lith. klausti, slove, O.C.S. slovo; O.Ind. karnas, sruti, srsati, rnti,
sravas.
o *leuk-, O.Ind. roks, ruant-.
22
Preface
8. The number and periods of satemisation trends reconstructed for the different
branches are not coincident.
NOTE. So for example Old Indian shows two stages,
o
PIE *k O.Ind. s
PIE *kwe, *kwi O.Ind. ke, ki; PIE *ske, *ski > O.Ind. c (cf. cim, candra, etc.)
In Slavic, three stages are found,

o
PIE *ks
PIE *kwe, *kwi (to, elobek)
PIE *kwoi*koi*ke gives ts (as Sla. tsen)
9. In most attested languages which present aspirates as a result of the so-called

palatovelars, the palatalisation of other phonemes is also attested (e.g. palatalisation
of labiovelars before e, i), what may indicate that there is an old trend to palatalise all
possible sounds, of which the palatalisation of velars is the oldest attested result.
NOTE. It is generally believed that satemisation could have started as a late dialectal wave,
which eventually affected almost all PIE dialectal groups. The origin is probably to be found in
velars followed by e, i, even though alternating forms like *gen/gon caused natural analogycal
corrections within each dialect, which obscures still more the original situation. Thus, nonsatemised forms in so-called satem languages would be non-satemised remains of the original
situation, just as Spanish has feliz and not heliz, or fcil and not hcil, or French facile and
nature, and not fle or nre as one should expect from its phonetic evolution.
10. The existence of satem languages like Armenian in the Balkans, a centum
territory, and the presence of Tocharian, a centum dialect, in Central Asia, being
probably a northern IE dialect.
NOTE. The traditional explanation of a three-way dorsal split requires that all centum
languages share a common innovation that eliminated the palatovelar series, due to the a
priori unlikely move of palatovelars to back consonants (see above). Unlike for the satem
languages, however, there is no evidence of any areal connection among the centum
languages, and in fact there is evidence against such a connection the centum languages are
geographically noncontiguous. Furthermore, if such an areal innovation happened, we would
expect to see some dialect differences in its implementation (cf. the above differences between
Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian), and residual evidence of a distinct palatalised series. In fact,
however, neither type of evidence exists, suggesting that there was never a palatovelar series
in the centum languages. (Evidence does exist for a distinct labiovelar series in the satem
languages, though; see above.)
23
11. A system of two gutturals, velars and labiovelars, is a linguistic anomaly, isolated
in the IE occlusive subsystem there are no parallel oppositions bw-b, pw-p, tw-t, dwd, etc. Only one feature, their pronunciation with an accompanying rounding of the
lips, helps distinguish them from each other. Such a system has been attested in
some older IE languages. A system of three gutturals palatovelars, velars and
labiovelars , with a threefold distinction isolated in the occlusive system, is still less
likely.
NOTE. In the two-dorsal system, labiovelars turn velars before -u, and there are some
neutralisation positions which help identify labiovelars and velars; also, in some contexts (e.g.
before -i, -e) velars tend to move forward its articulation and eventually palatalise. Both trends
led eventually to centum and satem dialectalisation.
Those who support the model of the threefold distinction in PIE cite evidence from
Albanian (Pedersen) and Armenian (Pisani), that they seem to treat plain velars
differently from the labiovelars in at least some circumstances, as well as the fact that
Luwian could have had distinct reflexes of all three series.
NOTE 1. It is disputed whether Albanian shows remains of two or three series (cf. lberg
Zwei oder drei Gutturaldreihen? Vom Albanischen aus gesehen ScrittiBonfante 1976;
Kortlandt 1980; Pnzer Ist das Franzsische eine Satem-Sprache? Zu den Palatalisierung im
Ur-Indogermanischen und in den indogermanischen Einzelsprachen, Festschrift fr J.
Hbschmidt, 1982), although the fact that only the worst and one of the most recently attested
(and neither isolated nor remote) IE dialect could be the only one to show some remains of the
oldest phonetic system is indeed very unlikely. Clackson (2007), supporting the three series:
Albanian and Armenian are sometimes brought forward as examples of the maintenance of
three separate dorsal series. However, Albanian and Armenian are both satem languages, and,
since the *kj series has been palatalised in both, the existence of three separate series need not
disprove the two-dorsal theory for PIE; they might merely show a failure to merge the
unpalatalised velars with the original labio-velars.
NOTE 2. Supporters of the palatovelars cite evidence from Luwian, an Anatolian language,
which supposedly shows a three-way velar distinction *kjz (probably [ts]); *kk; *kwku
(probably [kw]), as defended by Melchert (Reflexes of *h3 in Anatolian, Sprache 38 1987).
So, the strongest argument in favour of the traditional three-way system is that the the
distinction supposedly derived from Luwian findings must be reconstructed for the parent
language. However, the underlying evidence hinges upon especially difficult or vague or
otherwise dubious etymologies (see Sihler 1995); and, even if those findings are supported by
other evidence in the future, it is obvious that Luwian might also have been in contact with
24
Preface
satemisation trends of other Late IE dialects, that it might have developed its own
satemisation trend, or that maybe the whole system was remade within the Anatolian branch.
Clackson (2007), supporting the three series, states: This is strong independent evidence for
three separate dorsal series, but the number of examples in support of the change is small, and
we still have a far from perfect understanding of many aspects of Anatolian historical
phonology.
Also, one of the most difficult problems which subsists in the interpretation of the
satemisation as a phonetic wave is that, even though in most cases the variation *kj/k
may be attributed either to a phonetic environment or to the analogy of alternating
apophonic forms, there are some cases in which neither one nor the other may be
applied, i.e. it is possible to find words with velars in the same environments as
words with palatals.
NOTE. Compare for example *okjt(u), eight, which presents k before an occlusive in a form
which shows no change (to suppose a syncope of an older *okjit, as does Szemernyi, is an
explanation ad hoc). Other examples in which the palatalisation cannot be explained by the
next phoneme nor by analogy are *swekru- husbands mother, *akmn stone, *peku cattle,
which are among those not shared by all satem languages. Such unexplained exceptions,
however, are not sufficient to consider the existence of a third row of later palatalised velars
(see Bernab 1971; Cheng & Wang Sound change: actuation and implementation, Lg. 51,
1975), although there are still scholars who come back to the support of the hypothesis of
three velars. So e.g. Tischler 1990 (reviewed in Meier-Brgger 2003): The centum-satem
isogloss is not to be equated with a division of Indo-European, but rather represents simply
one isogloss among manyexamples of centum-like aspects in satem languages and of
satem-like aspects in centum languages that may be evaluated as relics of the original threepart plosive system, which otherwise was reduced every-where to a two-part system.
Newer trends to support the old assumptions include e.g. Huld (1997, reviewed in Clackson
2007), in which the old palatal *kj is reconstructed as a true velar, and *k as a uvular stop, so
that the problem of the a priori unlikely and unparallelled merger of palatal with velar in
centum languages is theoretically solved.
As it is clear from the development of the dorsal reconstruction, the theory that
made the fewest assumptions was that an original Proto-Indo-European had two
series of velars. These facts should have therefore shifted the burden of proof, already
by the time Meillet (1893) rejected the proposal of three series; but the authority of
Neogrammarians and well-established works of the last century, as well as traditional
conventions, probably weighted (and still weight) more than reasons.
25
NOTE. More than half century ago we had already a similar opinion on the most reasonable
reconstruction, that still today is not followed, as American Sanskritist Burrow (1955) shows:
The difficulty that arises from postulating a third series in the parent language, is that no
more than two series () are found in any of the existing languages. In view of this it is
exceedingly doubtful whether three distinct series existed in Indo-European. The assumption
of the third series has been a convenience for the theoreticians, but it is unlikely to correspond
to historical fact. Furthermore, on examination, this assumption does not turn out to be as
convenient as would be wished. While it accounts in a way for correspondences like the above
which otherwise would appear irregular, it still leaves over a considerable number of forms in
the satem-languages which do not fit into the framework () Examples of this kind are
particularly common in the Balto-Slavonic languages (). Clearly a theory which leaves
almost as many irregularities as it clears away is not very soundly established, and since these
cases have to be explained as examples of dialect mixture in early Indo-European, it would
appear simplest to apply the same theory to the rest. The case for this is particularly strong
when we remember that when false etymologies are removed, when allowance is made for
suffix alternation, and when the possibility of loss of labialization in the vicinity of the vowel u
is considered (e.g. krav-, ugr-), not many examples remain for the foundation of the
theory.
Of course, we cannot (and we will probably never) actually know if there were two
or three series of velars in LIE, or PIH, and because of that the comparative method
should be preferred over gut intuition, historical authority, or convention, obstacles
to the progress in a dynamic field like IE studies.
As Adrados (2005) puts it with bitterness: Indo-Europeanists keep working on a unitary
and flat PIE, that of Brugmanns reconstruction. A reconstruction prior to the decipherment of
Hittite and the study of Anatolian! This is but other proof of the terrible conservatism that has
seized the scientific discipline that is or must be Indo-European linguistics: it moves forward
in the study of individual languages, but the general theory is paralised.
THE LOSS OF LARYNGEALS

Today, the reconstruction of consonantal sounds to explain what was reconstructed
before as uncertain vocalic schwa indogermanicum or schwa primum is firmly
accepted in IE studies in general, and there is a general agreement on where
laryngeals should be reconstructed. Even the number and quality of those laryngeals
is today a field of common agreement, although alternative number of laryngeals and
proposals for their actual phonemic value do actually exist.
26
Preface
However, as Clackson (2007) sums up: Particularly puzzling is the paradox that
laryngeals are lost nearly everywhere, in ways that are strikingly similar, yet
apparently unique to each language branch. We can of course assume some common
developments already within PIE, such as the effect of the laryngeals *h2 and *h3 to
change a neighbouring *e to *a or *o, but the actual loss of laryngeals must be
assumed to have taken place separately after the break-up of the parent language ()
it would have seemed a plausible assumption that the retention of *h2, and possibly
also *h1 and *h3, is an archaism of Anatolian, and the loss of the laryngeals was made
in common by the other languages.
In the vocalic inventory of current Late Indo-European reconstruction, the
following evolution paradigm is widespread, following Beekes (1995), Meier-Brgger
(2003) and Ringe (2005):
PIH
pre-LIE post-LIE NWIE PGk PII
PIH pre-LIE post-LIE NWIE PGk
PII
*iHC
*iHC
*Hi
*Hi
*i
*uHC
*uHC
*Hu
*Hu
*u
*oH
*oH
*Ho
*Ho
*o
*eh1
*eH
*h1e
*He
*e
*eh2
*aH
*h2e
*Ha
*a
*eh3
*oH
*h3e
*Ho
*o
PIH
*Ch1C *Ch2C *Ch3C
*h1C-
*h2C- *h3C- *VHV *CRHC
pre-LIE
*h1
*h2
*h3
*H(H) *H(H)*H(H) *VHV
*RH
post-LIE
NWIE
()R
PGk
PII
*VV *()RH
V()V (R)V
NOTE 1. A differentiation between early or pre-LIE and late or post-LIE has to be made. An
auxiliary vowel was firstly inserted in the evolution PIH pre-LIE in a certain position,
known because it is found in all dialects alike: *Ch1C *Ch1C, *Ch2C *Ch2C, *Ch3C
*Ch3C. By post-LIE we assume a period of a Northern-Southern dialectal division and
Southern dialectal split, in which the whole community remains still in contact, allowing the
spread of innovations like a generalised vocalisation of the auxiliary vowel (during the first
migrations in the Kurgan framework, the assumed end of the LIE community). During that
27
period, the evolution pre-LIE post-LIE would have been as follows: *Ch1C
*Ch1C*CHC*CC. That evolution reached IEDs differently: whereas in South-West IE
(Greek, Armenian, Phrygian, Ancient Macedonian) the pre-LIE laryngeal probably colourised
the vocalic output from *Ch1C as in the general scheme (into e, a, o), in NWIE and PII the
late LIE the * from *CC was assimilated to another vowel: generally to a in NWIE, and to i
in PII. Word-initially, only South-West IE dialects appear to have had an output *H *H
e, a, o, while the other dialects lost them *H .
NOTE 2. The following developments should also be added:
- In South-West IE there are no cases of known *Hj- *Vj-. It has been assumed that this
group produced in Greek a z.
- It seems that some evidence of word-initial laryngeals comes from Indo-Iranian, where
some compound words show lengthening of the final vowel before a root presumed to have
had an initial laryngeal.
- The *-ih2 group in auslaut had an alternative form *-jh2, LIE *-/-j, which could produce
IED -, -ja (alternating forms are found even within the same dialect).
- Apparently a reflect of consonantal laryngeals is found between nonhigh vowels as
hiatuses (or glottal stops) in the oldest Indo-Iranian languages Vedic Sanskrit and Old
Avestan, as well as in Homeric Greek (Lindeman Introduction to the Laryngeal Theory,
1987). For a discussion on its remains in Proto-Germanic, see Connolly (Grammatischer
Wechsel and the laryngeal theory, IF 85 1980).
- Contentious is also the so-called Osthoffs Law (which affected all IE branches but for
Tocharian and Indo-Iranian), which possibly shows a general trend of post-LIE date.
- When *H is in a post-plosive, prevocalic position, the consonantal nature of the laryngeal
values is further shown *CHVC *ChVC; that is more frequent in PII, cf. *plth2- Ved.
prth-; it appears also in the perfect endings, cf. Gk. oistha.
- The group *CRHC is explained differently for the individual dialects without a general
paradigm; so e.g. Beekes (1995) or Meier-Brgger (2003) distinguish the different dialectal
outputs as: Tocharian (*rHC*rHC), Germanic (*rH*r) and to some extent Balto-Slavic
(distinction by accentuation), Italo-Celtic (*rH*rH), while in Greek the laryngeal
determined the vowel: e.g. *rh1*rh1*reH.
There are multiple examples which do not fit in any dialectal scheme, though; changes of
outputs from PIH reconstructed forms with resonants are found even within the same
dialects. The explanation in AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998) is probably nearer
to the actual situation, in going back to the pronunciation of the common (pre-LIE) group:
the different solutions in this case depend solely on two factors: a) if there are one or two
auxiliary vowels to facilitate the pronunciation of this group; b) the place where they
28
Preface
appear. So e.g. a group *CRHC could be pronounced in LIE with one vowel (*CRHC or
*CRHC) or with two (*CRHC, *CRHC, or *CRHC). That solution accounts for all
LIE variants found in the different branches, and within them.
- The laryngeal of *RHC- in anlaut was vocalised in most languages, while the resonant was
consonantal (*RHC- became *RVC-).
- In the group *CRHV, a vowel generally appears before the resonant and the laryngeal
disappears; that vowel is usually coincident with the vocalic output that a resonant alone
would usually give in the different dialects, so it can be assumed that generally
*CRHVC(V)RV, although exceptions can indeed be found. A common example of parallel
treatment within the same dialect is Greek pros/paros < *pros/pros.
- Accounting for some irregularities in the outcome of laryngeals (especially with *-h2, but
not limited to it) is the so-called Saussure effect, whereby LIE dialects do not show an
usual reflection of the inherited sequences #HRo- and -oRHC-. According to Nussbaum
(Sound law and analogy: papers in honor of Robert S.P. Beekes on the occasion of his
60th birthday, Alexander Lubotsky, 1997), this effect reflects something that happened, or
failed to happen, already in the proto-language.
Hence, for the moment, we could assume that a South-East and a South-West IE dialects
were already separated, but still closely related through a common (Northern) IE core,
because the loss (or, more exactly, the vocalic evolution) of laryngeals of Northern IE did in
fact reach Graeco-Aryan dialects similarly and in a complementary distribution. That is
supported by modern linguistic Northern-Southern separation model (v.i. 1.3, 1.4, 1.7): ()
today it is thought that most innovations of Greek took place outside Greece; no doubt, within
the Indo-Greek group, but in a moment in which certain eastern isoglosses didnt reach it.
AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998).
Apart from those fictions or artifices that help linguists keep on with their work on
individual dialects from a secure starting point (conventional PIH phonetics), there
is no reason to doubt that the most (scientifically) conservative starting point for PIE
evolution is that LIE had lost most laryngeals but for one merged *H of the
Disintegrating Indo-European of Bomhard (Toward Proto-Nostratic: A New
Approach to the Comparison of Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Afroasiatic, 1984)
into the known timeline and groupings, and that a late post-LIE vocalisation of
interconsonantal *H into *H and later * did eventually substitute the original
forms, albeit at a different pace, arriving probably somehow late and incompletely to
the earliest dialects to split up, which completed independently the laryngeal loss.
29
Some individual finds seem to support a different treatment of laryngeals in certain

dialects and environments, though.
NOTE. Examples are the contentious Cogwills Law (such shortening is fairly common
cross-linguistically, and the IE examples may have each arisen independently, Fortson
2004), or other peculiar sound changes recently found in Latin and Balto-Slavic, all of them
attested in late IE dialects that had already undergone different vocalic evolutions.
Meier-Brgger (2003) mentions 3 non-Anatolian testimonies of laryngeals:
1) Indo-Iranian: the Vedic phrase devytu, i.e. dev etu is best understandable if we
suppose that dev goddess still contained the laryngeal form *dewH (with *-iH<*-ih2)
at the time of the formulation fo the verse in question. In the phase *-H it was possible
for the laryngeal simply to disappear before a vowel. Other common example used is
*wrkiH. It is not justified, though, that it must represent a sort of unwritten laryngeal,
and not an effect of it, i.e. a laryngeal hiatus or glottal stop, from older two-word sandhis
that behave as a single compound word, see 2.4.3. Interesting is also that they are in fact
from words alternating in pre-LIE *-iH/*-jH (or post-LIE *-/*-j) which according to
Fortson (2004) reflect different syllabification in Indo-Iranian vs. Greek and Tocharian,
whilst [t]he source of the difference is not fully understood. In line with this problem is
that the expected case of *-aH stems is missing, what makes it less likely that IndoIranian examples come from a common hypothetic PII stage in which a word-final *-H
had not still disappeared, and more likely that it was a frozen remain (probably of a
glottal stop) in certain formal expressions. In fact, it has long been recognised that the
treatment of word-final laryngeals shows a strong tendency to disappear (so e.g. in
Hittite), and most of the time it appears associated with morphological elements
(AdradosBernabMendoza 1995-1998). They should then be considered like the
hiatuses or glottal stops found in Hom. Gk. and Germanic compositions probable
ancient reminiscences of a frozen formal language.
2) The sandhi variant in *-aH is found, according to Meier-Brgger (2003) and Ringe
(2006), in Greek and Old Church Slavonic. In both clear traces are missing that would
confirm a PIE ablaut with full grade *-eh2- and zero grade *-h2- () That is why it
appears as if the differentiation between the nominative and vocative singular in this case
could be traced to sandhi-influenced double forms that were common at a time when the
stems were still composed of *-ah2, and the contraction *-ah2- >*-- had not yet
occurred. Szemerny (1999) among others already rejected it: The shortening of the
original IE ending - to - is regular, as the voc., if used at the beginning of a sentence or
alone, was accented on the first syllable but was otherwise enclitic and unaccented; a
30
Preface
derivation from -ah with the assumption of a prevocalic sandhi variant in -a fails
therefore to explain the shortening.
3) The latest example given by Meier-Brgger is found in the unstable *CRHC model (see
above), which is explained with PIE *gnh1-t- created, born: so in Vedic jt- < PII
t- < *aHt- < *gjnh1t-, which would mean that the laryngeal merged after the
evolution LIE *n PII a. The other irregular dialectal reconstructions shown are easily
explained following the model of epenthetic vowel plus merged laryngeal (or glottal
stop?) in *gnh1t-; cf. for the same intermediate grade PGk gnt- (< post-LIE
*gneHt-), pre-NWIE g()nat- (<post-LIE *gnHt-) into Ita., Cel. *gnt-, PGmc.
*kunda-, Bal.-Sla. *gint-. Such dialectal late loss of the merged laryngeal *H (or
glottal stop) is therefore limited to the groups including a sonorant, and the finds support
a vocalisation of LIE *n
m PII a earlier than the loss of laryngeal (or glottal stop) in
that environment. That same glottal stop is possibly behind the other examples in MeierBrgger: O.Av. va.ata-< PII waata-, or Ved. *ca-kar-a (the still preserved in the
period of the activity of Brugmanns law), or Ved. nus < *naus.
In Lubotsky (1997) different outputs are proposed for *CRH groups before certain vowels:
It is clear that the short reflexes are due to laryngeal loss in an unaccented position, but the
chronology of this loss is not easy to determine. If the laryngeal loss had already occurred in
PIIr., we have to assume that PIIr. *CruV subsequently yielded CurvV in Sanskrit. The major
problem we face is that the evidence for the phonetically regular outcome of *CriV and *CruV
in Indo-Iranian is meager and partly conflicting. Again, the conflict is solved assuming a late
loss of the laryngeal; however, the attestation of remains of glottal stops, coupled with the
auxiliary vowel solution of AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998) solves the irregularities
without making new assumptions and dialectal sound laws that in turn need their own further
exceptions.
Kortlandt seems to derive the loss of laryngeals from Early Slavic (see below 1.7.1.I.D), a
sister language of West and East Baltic languages, according to his view. Also, on Italo-Celtic
(2007): If my view is correct, the loss of the laryngeals after a vocalic resonant is posterior to
the shortening of pretonic long vowels in Italic and Celtic. The specific development of the
vocalic liquids, which is posterior to the common shortening of pretonic long vowels, which is
in its turn posterior to the development of , , from short vowel plus laryngeal, supports
the hypothesis of Italo-Celtic linguistic unity. Hence the problematic environments with
sonorants are explained with a quite late laryngeal loss precisely in those groups.
The most probable assumption then, if some of those peculiar developments are
remnants of previous laryngeals, as it seems, is that the final evolution of the merged
*H was coincident with LIE disintegration, and might have reached its end in the
31
different early prehistoric communities, while still in contact with each other (in
order to allow for the spread of the common trends); the irregular vocalic changes
would have then arisen from unstable syllables (mainly those which included a
resonant), alternating even within the same branches, and even in the same phonetic
environments without laryngeals (v.i. 2.3).
While there are reasons to support a late evolution of the pre-LIE merged laryngeal,
there seems to be no strong argument for the survival of LIE merged *H into the later
periods of NWIE, PGk or PII dialects, still less into later proto-languages (as
Germanic, Slavic, Indo-Aryan, etc.). However, for some linguists, the complete loss of
the LIE laryngeal (or even laryngeals) must have happened independently in each
dialectal branch attested; so e.g. Meier-Brgger (2003): As a rule, the laryngeals
were disposed of only after the Proto-Indo-European era; Clackson (2007): But the
current picture of laryngeal reconstruction necessitates repeated loss of laryngeals in
each language branch.
NOTE. The question is then brought by Clackson into the Maltese and Modern Hebrew
examples, languages isolated from Semitic into an Indo-European environment for centuries.
That is indeed a possible explanation: that all IE branches, after having split up from the LIE
common language, would have become independently isolated, and then kept in close contact
with (or, following the Maltese example, surrounded by) non-IE languages without laryngeals.
Then, every change in all branches could be explained by way of diachronic and irregular
developments of vowel quality. In Clacksons words: () the comparative method does not
rely on absolute regularity, and the PIE laryngeals may provide an example of where
reconstruction is possible without the assumption of rigid sound-laws.
Even accepting that typologically both models of (a common, post-LIE vs. an

independent, dialectal) laryngeal loss were equally likely, given that all languages had
lost the merged laryngeal before being attested, all with similar outputs, and that
even the final evolution (laryngeal hiatuses or glottal stops) must have been shared
in an early period since they are found only in frozen remains in old and distant
dialects , an early IED loss of laryngeals fits into a coherent timeline within the
known dialectal evolution. With that a priori assumption, we limit the need for
unending ad hoc sound-laws for each dialectal difference involving a sonorant,
which would in turn need their own exceptions. Therefore, we dispense with
unnecessary hypotheses, offering the most conservative approach to the problem.
32
Preface
CONVENTIONS USED IN THIS BOOK

1. We try to keep a consistent nomenclature throughout the book, when referring to
the different reconstructible stages of Proto-Indo-European (PIE). From Pre-PIH,
highly hypothetical stage, only reconstructible through internal reconstruction, to the
most conservative reconstruction of early LIE dialects (IEDs). We do so by using the
following schema of frequent terms and dates:
5000
3000
BC
4000
2500
BC
2900
2100
BC
2300
1500
BC
Indo-Hittite (PIH) or Middle PIE

P
I
E
Late Indo-European (LIE) or Late PIE

Northern dialects (N.LIE)
I
E
D
NWIE
PreIta.Cel.
PreGer.
PreBal.Sla.
Southern dialects (S.LIE)
S-E IE
PGk
PreToch.
MelloGk.
ProtoAnatolian
(PAn)
Proto-I.-I. (PII)
IndoAryan
Iran.
CA
Anat.
lang.
NOTE. This is just a simplified summary to understand the following sections. The full
actual nomenclature and archaeological dates are discussed in detail in 1.3, 1.4, and 1.7.
The dates include an archaeological terminus post quem, and a linguistic terminus ante
quem. In such a huge time span we could differentiate between language periods. However,
these (linguistic and archaeological) limits are usually difficult to define, and their
differentiation hardly necessary in this grammar. Similarly, the terms Hittite, Sanskrit,
Ancient Greek, Latin, etc. (as well as modern languages) might refer in the broadest sense to a
time span of over 1,000 years in each case, and they are still considered a single language; a
selection is made of the prestigious dialect and age for each one, though, as it is done in this
grammar, where the prestigious language is Late Indo-European, while phonetics remains
nearer to the middle-late period of IEDs, whose post-laryngeal output is more certain.
2. The above graphic is intended to show stemmatic, as well as synchronic levels.

The reconstruction of North-West Indo-European is based on secondary materials: it
is a level 3 proto-language, reconstructed on the basis of level 5 proto-languages (of
ca. 1000 BC), i.e. primary Proto-Celtic, Proto-Italic, secondary Proto-Balto-Slavic
33
(through Proto-Slavic and Proto-Baltic) and secondary Pre-Proto-Germanic (through

internal reconstruction), see 1.7.1.
NOTE. Coeval level 3 dialects Proto-Greek (from level 5 Mycenaean and level 6 Ancient
Greek primary materials) and Proto-Indo-Iranian (from level 5 Old Indian and level 6 Iranian
materials) could be considered reconstructions based on primary as well as secondary
materials. All of them, as well as data from other dialects (Tocharian A and B, Armenian,
Albanian), conform the secondary and tertiary materials used to reconstruct a level 2 Late
Indo-European. Proto-Anatolian is a level 2 internal reconstruction from level 3 Common
Anatolian, in turn from level 4 and level 5 primary materials on Anatolian dialects. Both Late
Indo-European and Proto-Anatolian help reconstruct a parent language, Indo-Hittite, which
is then a level 1 language.
Each reconstructed parent level is, indeed, more uncertain and inconsistent than the
previous one, because the older a material is (even primary texts directly attested), the more
uncertain the reconstructed language. And more so because all parent reconstructions are in
turn helpful to refine and improve the reconstruction of daughter and sister proto-languages.
With that scheme in mind, it is logical to consider more consistent and certain the
reconstruction of IEDs, these in turn more than LIE, and this more than PIH.
3.
Palatovelars
are
neither
reconstructed
for
Late
Indo-European,
nor
(consequently) for Indo-Hittite. While not still a settled question (v.s. Considerations
of Method), we assume that the satem trend began as an areal dialectal development
in South-East Indo-European, and spread later (and incompletely) through contact
zones e.g. into Pre-Balto-Slavic.
NOTE. Because West and Central European (Italo-Celtic and Germanic) and Proto-Greek
were not affected by that early satemisation trend although Latin, Greek and Celtic actually
show late independent satemisations , the reconstruction of centum NWIE and PGk, and
satem PII (the aim of this book) should be an agreed solution, no matter what the different
personal or scholarly positions on LIE and PIH might be.
4. We assume an almost fully vocalic i.e. post-laryngeal nature of IEDs since the
end of the LIE community (assumed to have happened before ca. 2500 BC, according
to archaeological dates), although not a settled question either (v.s. Considerations
of Method). Whether LIE lost the merged laryngeal *H sooner or later, etymological
roots which include laryngeals will be labelled PIH and follow todays general threelaryngeal convention, while some common LIE vocabulary will be shown either with
pre-LIE merged *H or post-LIE vocalic output * (which was assimilated to NWIE a,
PII i), or with the reconstructed post-LIE glottal stop *.
34
Preface
NOTE. In this grammar we will show the reconstructed phonetics of a post-LIE period,
focussing on NWIE vocalism, while keeping a vocabulary section with a Late Indo-European
reconstruction, respecting NWIE/PII dialectal differences; not included are the different
vocalic outputs of South-West IE, from word-initial and interconsonantal laryngeals.
WRITING SYSTEM
This table contains common Proto-Indo-European phonemes and their proposed
regular corresponding letters in alphabets and Brahmic alphasyllabaries.
CONSONANTS AND CONSONANTAL SOUNDS

Phoneme
Greek
Latin
Perso-Arab
Armenian
Cyrillic
Ngar
[p]
Pp
[b]
Bb
[bh]
Bh bh
[t]
Tt
[th]
Th th
[d]
Dd
[dh]
Dh dh
[k]
Kk
[kh]
Kh kh
[g]
Gg
[gh]
Gh gh
[kw]
Qq
[gw]
Cc
[gwh]
Ch ch
[h]
Hh
[]
[j]
Jj
[w]
Ww
[r]
Rr
[l]
Ll
[m]
Mm
[n]
Nn
[s]
Ss
35
Sounds found in Proto-Greek only
[ph]
Ph ph
[kwh]
Qh qh
[ts]
Ts ts
[ z]
Dz dz
Sounds found in Proto-Indo-Iranian only
[t]
[ ]
h h
[t]
[ ]
[ h]
h h
[]
h]
VOWELS AND VOCALIC ALLOPHONES

Phoneme
Greek
Latin
Perso-Arab
Armenian
Cyrillic
Ngar
[a]
Aa
[e]
Ee
Ee
[o]
Oo
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[i]
Ii
[ ]
[u]
Uu
[ ]
[r]
[l]
[m]
[n]
36
Preface
This proposal is purely conventional, and it takes into account values such as
availability, simplicity (one letter for each sound), transliteration, tradition.
NOTE. We have followed this order of objectives in non-Brahmic scripts:
Availability: especially of letters in common Latin and Cyrillic keyboards and

typography, since they account for most of the current Northern IE world.
Simplicity: each sound is represented with one letter (or letter plus diacritics). Digraphs
used only when necessary: aspirated consonants are represented with the consonant
plus the letter for [h], unless there is an independent character for that aspirated
consonant.
Equivalence of letters: a character in one alphabet should be transliterated and read

directly in any other to allow an automatic change from the main alphabets into the
others without human intervention. The lack of adequate characters to represent PIE
phonetics (resonants, semivowels, long vowels) in alphabets conditions the final result.
Tradition: the historic or modern sound of the letters is to be retained when possible.
Writing systems of the Indo-European World.

(2011, modified from Mirzali Zazaolu 2008)
The names of the consonants in Indo-European following the Latin pattern would
be B, be (pronounced bay); Bh, bhe (bhay); C, ce (gway); Ch, che (gwhay); D, de
(day); Dh, dhe (dhay); G, ge (gay); Gh, ghe (ghay); H, ha; K, ka; L, el; M, em; N,
en; P, pe; Q, qa (kwa); R, er; S, es; T, te; W, wa.
In Aryan, the letters are named with their sound followed by a, as in Sanskrit ba,
bha, ca, cha, da, dha, ga, gha, and so on.
37
An acute accent () is written over the vowel in the accented syllable, except when
accent is on the second to last syllable (or paenultima) and in monosyllabic words.
NOTE. Since all non-clitic words of more than one syllable would be marked with one
accent, as we have seen, a more elegant convention is not to write all accents always. The
second to last syllable seems to be the most frequent accented syllable, so we can spare
unnecessary diacritics if the accent is understood in that position, unless marked in other
syllable.
Long vowels are marked with a macron ( ), and vocalic allophones of resonants
are marked with a dot below it (
). Accented long vowels and resonants are
represented with special characters that include their diacritics plus an acute accent.
NOTE. It is recommended to write all diacritics if possible, although not necessary. The
possibility of omitting the diacritical marks arises from the lack of appropriate fonts in
traditional typography, or difficulty typing those marks in common international keyboards.
Therefore, alternative writings include pater/patr, m. father, nmrtos/mts, m.
immortal, kmtom/ktm, hundred, etc. Such a defective representation of accents and
long vowels is common even today in Latin and Greek texts, as well as in most modern
languages, which lack a proper representation for sounds. That does not usually hinder an
advanced reader from read a text properly.
1. The Modern Greek alphabet lacks letters to represent PIE phonetics properly.
Therefore, the Ancient Greek letters and values assigned to them are used instead.
NOTE. The consonant cluster [kh] was in Ancient Greece written as X (Chi) in eastern Greek,
and (Xi) in western Greek dialects. In the end, X was standardised as [kh] ([x] in modern
Greek), while represented [ks]. In the Greek alphabet used for IE, X represents [kh], while
represents [kwh], necessary for the representation of a Proto-Greek voiceless aspirate. As in
Ancient Greek, stands for [ph], and for [th].
The Greek alphabet lacks a proper representation for long vowels, so they are all marked (as
in the other alphabets) with diacritics. is used to represent the sound [h], as it was
originally used in most Ancient Greek dialects; it is also used to mark (voiced) aspirated
phonemes. represents [e] and stands for [o] in the Greek alphabet for IE. For more on
the problem of historical Eta and its representation in the Modern Greek alphabet, see
<http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/unicode/unicode_aitch.html>.
While not a practical solution (in relation to the available Modern Greek keyboards), we
keep a traditional Ancient Greek script, assuming that it will enjoy the transliteration of texts
mainly written in Latin or Cyrillic letters; so e.g. Archaic koppa stood for [k] before back
vowels (e.g. , Korinthos), hence its IE value [kw]. Archaic digamma represented
38
Preface
[w], a sound lost already in Classical Greek. Additions to the IE alphabet are new letter koppa
for [gw], based on the alternative Unicode shapes of the archaic koppa, and the more
traditional inverted iota for [j], preferred over Latin yot although the lack of capital letter
for inverted iota makes the use of (at least) a capital J necessary to distinguish [j] from [i]. See
<http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/unicode/yot.html>.
2. The Latin alphabet used to write Indo-European is similar to the English, which
is in turn borrowed from the Late Latin abecedarium. Because of the role of this
alphabet as model for other ones, simplicity and availability of the characters is
preferred over tradition and exactitude.
NOTE. The Latin alphabet was borrowed in very early times from the Greek alphabet and
did not at first contain the letter G. The letters Y and Z were introduced still later, about 50
BC. The Latin character C originally meant [g], a value always retained in the abbreviations C.
(for Gaius) and Cn. (for Gnaeus). That was probably due to Etruscan influence, which copied
it from Greek , Gamma, just as later Cyrillic , Ge. In early Latin script C came also to be
used for [k], and K disappeared except before in a few words, as Kal. (Kalendae), Karthago.
Thus there was no distinction in writing between the sounds [g] and [k]. This defect was later
remedied by forming (from C, the original [g]-letter) a new character G. In Modern IndoEuropean, unambiguous K stands for [k], and G for [g], so C is left without value, being used
(taking its oldest value [g]) to represent the labiovelar [gw].
V originally denoted the vowel sound [u] (Eng. oo), and F stood for the sound of consonant
[w] (from Gk. , called digamma). When F acquired the value of our [f], V came to be used for
consonant [w] as well as for the vowel [u]. The Latin [w] semivowel developed into Romance
[v]; therefore V no longer adequately represented [u] or [w], and the Latin alphabet had to
develop alternative letters. The Germanic [w] phoneme was therefore written as VV (a
doubled V or U) by the seventh or eighth century by the earliest writers of Old English and Old
High German. During the late Middle Ages, two forms of V developed, which were both used
for its ancestor U and modern V. The pointed form V was written at the beginning of a word,
while a rounded form U was used in the middle or end, regardless of sound. The more recent
letters U and Germanic W probably represent the consonantal sounds [u] and [w]
respectively more unambiguously than Latin V.
The letter I stood for the vowel [i], and was also used in Latin (as in Modern Greek) for its
consonant sound [j]. J was originally developed as a swash character to end some Roman
numerals in place of I; both I and J represented [i], [i], and [j]. In IE, J represents the
semivowel [j], an old Latin value current in most Germanic and Slavic languages. Y is used to
represent the vowel [y] in foreign words. That [j] value is retained in English J only in foreign
words, as Hallelujah or Jehovah. Because Romance languages developed new sounds (from
39
former [j] and []) that came to be represented as I and J, English J (from French J), as well as
Spanish, Portuguese or Italian J have sound values quite different from [j]. The romanisation
of the sound [j] from different writing systems (like Devanagari) as Y which originally
represented in Latin script the Greek vowel [y] is due to its modern value in English and
French, and has spread a common representation of [j] as Y in Indo-European studies, while J
is used to represent other sounds.
A different use of the Latin alphabet to represent PIE, following the Classical Latin tradition,
is available at <http://verger1.narod.ru/lang1.htm>.
3. The Perso-Arabic script has been adapted to the needs of a fully differentiated
PIE alphabet, following Persian, Urdu and Kurdish examples.
NOTE. The Perso-Arabic script is a writing system that is originally based on the Arabic
alphabet. Originally used exclusively for the Arabic language, the Arabic script was modified
to match the Persian language, adding four letters: [ p], [ t], [ ], and [ ]. Many
languages which use the Perso-Arabic script add other letters. Besides the Persian alphabet
itself, the Perso-Arabic script has been applied to the Urdu or Kurdish Soran alphabet.
Unlike the standard Arabic alphabet, which is an abjad (each symbol represents a
consonant, the vowels being more or less defective), the IE perso-arabic script is a true
alphabet, in which vowels are mandatory, making the script easy to read.
Among the most difficult decisions is the use of letters to represent vowels as in modern
alphabets like Kurdish or Berber instead of diacritics as in the traditional Arabic or Urdu
scripts. Following tradition, hamza (originally a glottal stop) should probably be placed on the
short vowels and resonants, instead of the long ones (especially above alif), but automatic
equivalence with the other alphabets make the opposite selection more practical.
Because waw and yodh could represent short and long vowels u and i, and consonantal
w and j, a conventional selection of current variants has been made: Arabic letter Ve,
sometimes used to represent the sound [v] when transliterating foreign words in Arabic, and
also used in writing languages with that sound (like Kurdish) is an obvious selection for
consonantal [w] because of its availability. The three-dotted yodh becomes then a consequent
selection for consonantal yodh. Hamza distinguishes then the long vowel from the short ones,
which is represented with the original symbols.
4. Armenian characters, similarly to Greek, need to be adapted to a language with a

different series of short and long vowels and aspirated phonemes.
NOTE. Because of that, a tentative selection is made, which needs not be final as with any
other script. Because Armenian lacks a proper character for [u], and because it has not
different characters to represent long vowels other than [e] or [o], the more practical choice
40
Preface
is to imitate the other alphabets to allow for equivalence. The characters that represent short
vowels also represent different sounds; as, for [] and word initially [j], and for [o] and
word initially [vo], so a less ambiguous choice would be for [e] and for [o]. Hence the
letter historically used to write [o] and [u] (in digraphs) stands for [u].
The conventional selection of one-character representation of aspirated voiceless consonants
follows Armenian tradition and equivalence with Greek, a closely related language, as we have
already seen; i.e. Proto-Greek is probably the nearest branch to the one Pre-Armenian actually
belonged to, and it is therefore practical to retain equivalence between both scripts.
Armenian diacritics (like the abbreviation mark proposed for long vowels) are defined as
modifier letters, not as combining diacritical marks in Unicode, so they do not combine as
true superscript. Some fonts do combine them, as Everson Mono .
6. The Cyrillic script is used following its modern trends, taking on account that
Russian is the model for most modern keyboards and available typography.
NOTE. Non-Russian characters have been avoided, and we have followed the principle of
one letter for each sound: While is commonly used to represent [j], Cyrillic scripts usually
lack a character to represent consonantal [w], given that usually [v] (written ) replaces it.
While is generally used in Cyrillic for foreign words, a one character, one sound policy
requires the use of a character complementary to , which is logically found in a sound
lacking in Indo-European.
In Slavistic transcription jer and front jer were used to denote Proto-Slavic extra-short
sounds [] and [] respectively (e.g. slovnsk adj. slavonic). Today they are used with other
values in the different languages that still use them, but the need for traditional labial [ w] and
palatal [j] signs available in most Cyrillic keyboards made them the most logical selection to
mark a change of value in the characters representing stops.
7. The Brahmic or Indic scripts are a family of abugida (alphabetic-syllabary)

writing systems, historically used within their communities from Pakistan to
Indochina to represent Sanskrit, whose phonology is similar to the parent PIE
language. Devangar has come to be the most commonly used Brahmic script to
represent Sanskrit, hence our proposal of its character values for the rest of them.
NOTE. The characters and accents are generally used following their traditional phonetic
value. Exceptions are the lack of vocalic characters to properly represent [m ] and [n]. Hence
anusvara , which represents [], is used to represent [m]. Also, visarga , which stands for
[] (allophonic with word-final r and s) is proposed for [n].
41
Automatic transliteration between many Brahmic scripts is usually possible, and

highly available within scripts used in India.
NOTE. That happens e.g. with the InScript keyboard: because all Brahmic scripts share the
same order, any person who knows InScript typing in one script can type in any other Indic
script using dictation even without knowledge of that script.
However, due to the lack of characters in western alphabets to represent resonants

and long vowels, diacritics are used. These diacritics are not commonly available (but
for the Arabic hamza), and therefore if they are not written, transliteration into
Brahmic scripts becomes defective. That problem does not exist in the other direction
i.e. from Brahmic scripts into the other alphabets.
MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN
1. Modern Indo-European (MIE) is therefore a set of conventions or rules applied
to systematise the reconstructed North-West Indo-European dialect of Late IndoEuropean see below 1.3, 1.7.1. Such conventions refer to its writing system,
morphology and syntax, and are conceived to facilitate the transition of the
reconstructed language into a learned and living one.
2. Because proto-languages were spoken by prehistoric societies, no genuine sample
texts are available, and thus comparative linguistics is not in the position to
reconstruct exactly how the language was, but more or less certain approximations,
whose statistical confidence decrease as we get further back in time. The
hypothesised language will then be always somewhat controversial.
NOTE 1. MalloryAdams (2007): How real are our reconstructions? This question has
divided linguists on philosophical grounds. There are those who argue that we are not really
engaged in reconstructing a past language but rather creating abstract formulas that describe
the systematic relationship between sounds in the daughter languages. Others argue that our
reconstructions are vague approximations of the proto-language; they can never be exact
because the proto-language itself should have had different dialects (yet we reconstruct only
single proto-forms) and our reconstructions are not set to any specific time. Finally, there are
those who have expressed some statistical confidence in the method of reconstruction. Robert
Hall, for example, claimed that when examining a test control case, reconstructing protoRomance from the Romance languages (and obviously knowing beforehand what its ancestor,
Latin, looked like), he could reconstruct the phonology at 95% confidence, and the grammar
at 80%. Obviously, with the much greater time depth of Proto-Indo-European, we might well
wonder how much our confidence is likely to decrease. Most historical linguists today would
42
Preface
probably argue that reconstruction results in approximations. A time traveller, armed with
this book and seeking to make him- or herself understood would probably engender frequent
moments of puzzlement, not a little laughter, but occasional instances of lucidity.
On the same question, Fortson (2004): How complete is our picture of PIE? We know there
are gaps in our knowledge that come not only from the inevitable loss and replacement of a
percentage of words and grammatical forms over time, but also from the nature of our
preserved texts. Both the representative genres and external features such as writing systems
impose limits on what we can ascertain about the linguistic systems of both PIE and the
ancient IE languages ()
In spite of all the scholarly disagreements that enliven the pages of technical books and
journals, all specialists would concur that enormous progress has been made since the earliest
pioneering work in this field, with consensus having been reached on many substantial issues.
The Proto-Indo-Europeans lived before the dawn of recorded human history, and it is a
testament to the power of the comparative method that we know as much about them as we
do.
NOTE 2. The Hebrew language revival is comparable to our proposal of speaking IndoEuropean as a living language. We have already said that living and dead, natural and
learned, are not easily applicable to ancient or classical languages. It is important to note
that, even though there is a general belief that Modern Hebrew and Ancient Hebrew are the
same languages, among Israeli scholars there have been calls for the Modern Hebrew
language to be called Israeli Hebrew or just Israeli, due to the strong divergences that exist
and further develop with its use between the modern language spoken in Israel and its
theoretical basis, the Ancient Hebrew from the Tanakh. The old language system, with its
temporary and dialectal variations spanned over previous centuries of oral tradition, was
compiled probably between 450-200 BC, i.e when the language was already being substituted
by Aramaic. On that interesting question, Prof. Ghilad Zuckermann considers that Israelis
are brainwashed to believe they speak the same language as the prophet Isaiah, a purely
Semitic language, but this is false. Its time we acknowledge that Israeli is very different from
the Hebrew of the past. He points out to the abiding influence of modern Indo-European
dialects especially Yiddish, Russian and Polish , in vocabulary, syntax and phonetics, as
imported by Israels founders.
3. Features of Late Indo-European that are common to IEDs (North-West IndoEuropean, Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian), like most of the nominal and verbal
inflection, morphology, and syntax, make it possible for LIE to be proposed as
Dachsprache for the living languages.
43
NOTE 1. Because North-West Indo-European had other sister dialects that were spoken by
coeval prehistoric communities, languages like Modern Hellenic (a revived Proto-Greek) and
Modern Aryan (a revived Proto-Indo-Iranian) can also be used in the regions where their
surviving dialects are currently spoken. These proto-languages are not more different from
North-West Indo-European than are today English from Dutch, Czech from Slovenian,
Spanish from Italian. They might also serve as linguae francae for closely related languages or
neighbouring regions; especially interesting would be to have a uniting Aryan language for
todays religiously divided South and West Asia.
NOTE 2. The terms Ausbausprache-Abstandsprache-Dachsprache were coined by Heinz
Kloss (1967), and they are designed to capture the idea that there are two separate and largely
independent sets of criteria and arguments for calling a variety an independent language
rather than a dialect: the one based on its social functions, and the other based on its
objective structural properties. A variety is called an ausbau language if it is used
autonomously with respect to other related languages.
Dachsprache means a language form that serves as standard language for different dialects,
even though these dialects may be so different that mutual intelligibility is not possible on the
basilectal level between all dialects, particularly those separated by significant geographical
distance. So e.g. the Rumantsch Grischun developed as such a Dachsprache for a number of
quite different Romansh language forms spoken in parts of Switzerland; or the Euskara
Batua, Standard Basque, and the Southern Quechua literary standard, both developed as
standard languages for dialect continua that had historically been thought of as discrete
languages with many dialects and no official" dialect. Standard German and standard Italian
to some extent function (or functioned) in the same way. Perhaps the most widely used
Dachsprache is Modern Standard Arabic, which links together the speakers of many different,
often mutually unintelligible Arabic dialects.
The standard Indo-European looked for in this grammar takes Late Indo-European
reconstruction as the wide Dachsprache necessary to encompass (i.e. to serve as linguistic
umbrella for) the modern usage of IEDs, whose phonetic, morphological, syntactical
peculiarities are also respected.
4. Modern Indo-European words to complete the lexicon of North-West IndoEuropean, in case that no common vocabulary is found in Late Indo-European, are to
be loan-translated from present-day Northwestern IE languages. Common loan
words from sister dialects can also be loan-translated or borrowed as loan words.
NOTE. Even though the vocabulary reconstructible for IEDs is indeed wider than the
common Proto-Indo-European lexicon, a remark of MalloryAdams (2007) regarding
44
Preface
reconstructible PIE words is interesting, in that it shows another difficulty of trying to speak a
common LIE or PIH:
To what extent does the reconstructed vocabulary mirror the scope of the original PIE
language? The first thing we should dismiss is the notion that the language (any language)
spoken in later prehistory was somehow primitive and restricted with respect to vocabulary.
Counting how many words a language has is not an easy task because linguists (and
dictionaries) are inconsistent in their definition or arrangement of data. If one were simply to
count the headwords of those dictionaries that have been produced to deal with nonliterate
languages in Oceania, for example, the order of magnitude is somewhere on the order of
15,00020,000 words. The actual lexical units are greater because a single form might have
a variety of different meanings, each of which a speaker must come to learn, e.g. the English
verb take can mean to seize, to capture, to kill, to win in a game, to draw a breath,
imbibe a drink, to accept, to accommodate to name just a few of the standard dictionary
meanings. Hence, we might expect that a language spoken c. 4000 BC would behave very
much like one spoken today and have a vocabulary on the order of 30,00050,000 lexical
units. If we apply fairly strict procedures to distinguishing PIE lexical items to the roots and
words listed in Mallory and Adamss Encyclopedia or Calvert Watkinss The American
Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots (1985) we have less than 1,500 items. The range
of meanings associated with a single lexeme is simply unknown although we occasionally get a
hint, e.g. *bher- indicates both carry (a load) and bear (a child). So the PIE vocabulary that
we reconstruct may well provide the basis for a much larger lexicon given the variety of
derivational features in PIE.
Examples of loan translations from modern NWIE languages are e.g. from Latin aquaeduct
(Lat. aquaeductus MIE aqsduktos) or universe (Lat. uniuersus<*oin(i)-uors-o-<*oinowt-to- MIE oinowsts turned into one); from English, like software (from Gmc.
samu-, war MIE somtwor); from French, like ambassador (from Cel. amb(i)actos
MIE ambhagtos public servant); or chamber (from O.Lat. camera, from PGk. kamr,
vault MIE kamar); from Russian, like bolshevik (MIE belijwikos); etc.
Loan words from sister IE dialects can be either loan-translated or directly taken as loanwords; as e.g. photo, which should be taken directly as loan-word o-stem phwotos, from
Gk phawots, gen. phawots, as Gk. (<), , in compound phawotogphj,
photography, derived from IE root bh-, shine, which could be loan-translated as MIE
bhwots, from bhawotogbhj, but without having a meaning for extended bha-wes-,
still less for bha-wot-, in North-West Indo-European or even Proto-Indo-European, as it is
only found in Ancient Greek dialects. Or MIE skhol , from Lat. schola, taken from Gk.
(<PGk. skhol ) spare time, leisure, tranquility, borrowed from Greek with the meaning
school, which was in O.Gk. (scholeon), translated as PGk. skholehjom <*-esjo-m,
45
from IE root segh-, which could also be loan-translated as MIE sghol or even more purely
(and artificially) sgholesjom, none of them being Proto-Indo-European or common IndoEuropean terms. Examples from Indo-Iranian include wasranas, bazaar, from O.Ira.
vahacarana sale-traffic, bazaar, which could also be translated as proper MIE
wesqlenos, from PIE roots wes- and qel-; or atrangam, chess, from Skt.
caturagam (which entered Europe from Pers. shatranj) a bahuvrihi compound, meaning
having four limbs or parts, which in epic poetry often means army, possibly shortened from
aturangabalam, Skt. caturagabalam, lit. four-member force, an army comprising of
four parts, could be loan-translated as MIE qaturangom and qaturangobelom, from
roots qetur-, ang- and bel-.
Loan words and loan translations might also coexist in specialised terms; as, from
*h1rudhrs, red, PGk eruthrs, in loan eruthrkutos, erythrocyte, proper MIE rudhrs,
in rudhr (senos) ktj, red (blood) cell; cf. also MIE ms, muss, mouse, muscle, PGk
ms, muhs, in loan muhokutos, myocyte, for muskosjo ktj, muscle cell.
1.8.5. The name of the Modern Indo-European is eurpjm, or eurpj

dghw, European language, from adj. eurpjs, m. European, in turn from the
Greek noun Eurp.
NOTE. Gk. Eurp is from unknown origin, even though it was linked with Homers epithet
for Zeus euruop, from *hur-oqeh2 far-seeing, broad, or *h1ur-woqeh2 far-sounding
(Heath, 2005). Latinate adj. europaeus, which was borrowed by most European languages,
comes from Gk. adj. eurpaos, in turn from PGk eurpai-js < PIE *eurpeh2-js MIE
eurp-js. For the evolution PIH *-eh2jo- PGk *-aijo-, cf. adjective formation in Gk.
agor -agoraos, Ruigh (1967).
In the old IE languages, those which had an independent name for languages used the
neuter. Compare Gk. n.pl. (hellnik), Skt. n.sg. (sasktam), O.H.G.
diutisc, O.Prus. prsiskan, etc.; cf. also in Tacitus Lat. ucbulum latnum. In most IE
languages, the language is also referred to as language defined by an adjective, whose gender
follows the general rule of concordance; cf. Skt. saskt vk refined speech, Gk.
, Lat. latna lingua, O.H.G. diutiska sprhha (Ger. Deutsche Sprache), O.Prus.
prsiskai bil, O.C.S. (slovnskyi jzyk), etc.
Common
scholar
terms
would
include
sindhueurpjm,
Indo-European,
prmosindhueurpjm, Proto-Indo-European, pitjom sindhueurpjm, Modern

Indo-European,etc.
46
PART I
LANGUAGE &
CULTURE
Collection of texts and images adapted and organised by Carlos Quiles, with
contributions by Fernando Lpez-Menchero
1. Introduction
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. THE INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
1.1.1.
The
Indo-
European languages
are
family
of
several
hundred
modern
languages
and
dialects,
including most of
the major languages
of Europe, as well as
many
in
Asia.
Contemporary
languages
in
this
Countries with a majority (dark colour) and minority or

official status (light) of Indo-European language speakers.
(2011, modified from Brianski 2007)
family include English, German, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Hindustani (i.e., Hindi
and Urdu among other modern dialects), Persian and Russian. It is the largest family
of languages in the world today, being spoken by approximately half the worlds
population as mother tongue. Furthermore, the majority of the other half speaks at
least one of them as second language.
1.1.2. Romans didnt perceive similarities between Latin and Celtic dialects, but they
found obvious correspondences with Greek. After grammarian Sextus Pompeius
Festus:
Suppum antiqui dicebant, quem nunc supinum dicimus ex Graeco, videlicet pro
adspiratione ponentes <s> litteram, ut idem dicunt, et nos silvas; item sex, et
septem
Such findings are not striking, though, as Rome was believed to have been
originally funded by Trojan hero Aeneas and, consequently, Latin was derived from
Old Greek.
1.1.3. Florentine merchant Filippo Sassetti travelled to the Indian subcontinent, and
was among the first European observers to study the ancient Indian language,
Sanskrit. Writing in 1585, he noted some word similarities between Sanskrit and
Italian, e.g. deva/dio God, sarpa/serpe snake, sapta/sette seven, ashta/otto
49
eight, nava/nove nine. This observation is today credited to have foreshadowed the
later discovery of the Indo-European language family.
1.1.4. The first proposal of the possibility of a common origin for some of these
languages came from Dutch linguist and scholar Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn in
1647. He discovered the similarities among Indo-European languages, and supposed
the existence of a primitive common language which he called Scythian. He
included in his hypothesis Dutch, Greek, Latin, Persian, and German, adding later
Slavic, Celtic and Baltic languages. He excluded languages such as Hebrew from his
hypothesis. However, the suggestions of van Boxhorn did not become widely known
and did not stimulate further research.
1.1.5. On 1686, German linguist Andreas Jger published De Lingua Vetustissima
Europae, where he identified an remote language, possibly spreading from the
Caucasus, from which Latin, Greek, Slavic, Scythian (i.e. Persian) and Celtic (or
Celto-Germanic) were derived, namely Scytho-Celtic.
1.1.6. The hypothesis re-appeared in 1786 when Sir William Jones first lectured on
similarities between four of the oldest languages known in his time: Latin, Greek,
Sanskrit and Persian:
The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure;
more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin , and more exquisitely
refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the
roots of verbs and the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced
by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them al l three,
without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps,
no longer exists: there is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for
supposing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very different
idiom, had the same origin with the Sanskrit; and the old Persian might be added
to the same family
1.1.7. Danish Scholar Rasmus Rask was the first to point out the connection
between Old Norwegian and Gothic on the one hand, and Lithuanian, Slavonic,
Greek and Latin on the other. Systematic comparison of these and other old
languages conducted by the young German linguist Franz Bopp supported the theory,
and his Comparative Grammar, appearing between 1833 and 1852, counts as the
starting-point of Indo-European studies as an academic discipline.
NOTE. The term Indo-European itself now current in English literature, was coined in 1813
by the British scholar Sir Thomas Young, although at that time there was no consensus as to
50
1. Introduction
the naming of the recently discovered language family. Among the names suggested were
indo-germanique (C. Malte-Brun, 1810), Indoeuropean (Th. Young, 1813), japetisk (Rasmus
C. Rask, 1815), indisch-teutsch (F. Schmitthenner, 1826), sanskritisch (Wilhelm von
Humboldt, 1827), indokeltisch (A. F. Pott, 1840), arioeuropeo (G. I. Ascoli, 1854), Aryan (F.
M. Mller, 1861), aryaque (H. Chave, 1867), etc.
In English, Indo-German was used by J. C. Prichard in 1826 although he preferred IndoEuropean. In French, use of indo-europen was established by A. Pictet (1836). In German
literature, Indo-Europisch was used by Franz Bopp since 1835. The term Indo-Germanisch
had already been introduced by Julius von Klapproth in 1823, intending to include the
northernmost and the southernmost of the familys branches, as it was as an abbreviation of
the full listing of involved languages that had been common in earlier literature; that opened
the doors to ensuing fruitless discussions whether it should not be Indo-Celtic, or even
Tocharo-Celtic.
1.2. TRADITIONAL VIEWS

1.2.1. In the beginnings of the Indo-European studies using the comparative
method, Indo-European was reconstructed as a unitary proto-language. For Rask,
Bopp and other linguists, it was a search for the Indo-European. Such a language was
supposedly spoken in a certain region between Europe and Asia and at one point in
time.
1.2.2. The Stammbaumtheorie or Genealogical Tree theory states that languages
split up in other languages, each of them in turn split up in others, and so on, like the
branches of a tree. For example, a well-known out-dated theory about IndoEuropean is that, within the PIE language, two main groups of dialects known as
centum and satem were formed, a model represented by a clean break-up from the
parent language.
NOTE. The centum and satem isogloss is one of the oldest known phonological differences
of IE languages, and is still used by many to classify PIE in two main dialectal groups
postulating the existence of proto-Centum and proto-Satem languages , according to their
pronunciation of PIE *(d)kmtm, hundred, disregarding their relevant morphological and
syntactical differences, and usually implicitly accepting a common PIE series of palatovelars.
Tree diagrams remain the most used model for understanding the Indo-European
language reconstruction, since it was proposed by A. Schleicher (Compendium,
1866). The problem with its simplicity is that the branching of the different groups is
portrayed as a series of clean breaks with no connection between branches after they
51
have split, as if each dialectal group marched away from the rest. Such sharp splits
are possible, but assuming that all splits within Proto-Indo-European were like this is
not very plausible, and any linguist surveying the current Indo-European languages
would note dialectal variations running through some but not all areas, often linking
adjacent groups who may belong to different languages (MalloryAdams, 2007).
1.2.3. The Wellentheorie or Waves Theory, of J. Schmidt, states that one language is
created from another by the spread of innovations, the way water waves spread when
a stone hits the water surface. The lines that define the extension of the innovations
are called isoglosses. The convergence of different isoglosses over a common territory
signals the existence of a new language or dialect. Where isoglosses from different
languages coincide, transition zones are formed.
NOTE. After Mallory and Adams (2007), their criteria of inclusion, why we are looking at
any particular one, and not another one, are no more solid than those that define family trees.
The key element here is what linguistic features actually help determine for us whether two
languages are more related or less related to one another.
1.2.4. Because of the difficulties found in the modelling of Proto-Indo-European

branches and daughter languages into the traditional, unitary Diverging Tree
framework, i.e. a uniform Proto-Indo-European language with its branches, a new
model called Converging Association of Languages was proposed, in which
languages that are in contact (not necessarily related to each other) exchange
linguistic elements and rules, thus developing and acquiring from each other. Most
linguists have rejected it as an implausible explanation of the irregularities found in
the old, static concept of PIE.
NOTE. Among the prominent advocates is N.S. Trubetzkoy (Urheimat, 1939): The term
language family does not presuppose the common descent of a quantity of languages from a
single original language. We consider a language family a group of languages, in which a
considerable quantity of lexical and morphological elements exhibit regular equivalences ()
it is not necessary for one to suppose common descent, since such regularity may also
originate through borrowings between neighboring unrelated languages () It is just as
conceivable that the ancestors of the Indo-European language branches were originally
different from each other, but though constant contact, mutual influence, and borrowings,
approached each other, without however ever becoming identical to one another (MeierBrgger, 2003).
52
1. Introduction
Agreeing with Neumann (1996), Meier-Brgger (2003) rejects that association of languages
in the Proto-Indo-European case by stating: that the various Indo-European languages have
developed from a prior unified language is certain. Questionable is, however, the concrete
how of this process of differentiation, and that this thesis of a converging association of
languages may immediately be dismissed, given that all Indo-European languages are based
upon the same Proto-Indo-European flexion morphology. As H. Rix makes clear, it is precisely
this morphological congruence that speaks against the language association model, and for
the diverging tree model.
1.3. THE THEORY OF THE THREE STAGES

1.3.1. Even the first Indo-Europeanists had noted in their works the possibility of
reconstructing older stages of the Brugmannian Proto-Indo-European.
NOTE. The development of this theory of three linguistic stages can be traced back to the
very origins of Indo-European studies, firstly as a diffused idea of a non-static PIE language,
and later widely accepted as a dynamic dialectal evolution, already in the twentieth century,
after the decipherment of the Anatolian scripts. Most linguists accept that Proto-IndoEuropean must be the product of a long historical development, as any common language is
being formed gradually, and proto-languages (like languages) have stages, as described by
Lehmann (Introduccin a la lingstica histrica, Spa. transl. 1961). On this question, H. Rix
(Modussystem, 1986) asserts [w]hereby comparative reconstruction is based upon a group of
similar forms in a number of languages, internal reconstruction takes its point of departure
from irregularities or inhomogeneities of the system of a single language () The fundamental
supposition of language-internal reconstruction is that such an irregularity or inhomogeneity
in the grammar of a language is the result of a diachronic process, in which an older pattern,
or homogeneity is eclipsed, but not fully suppressed. According to Meier-Brgger (2003),
Rix works back from Late Proto-Indo-European Phase B (reconstructible Proto-IndoEuropean) using deducible information about an Early Proto-Indo-European Phase A, and
gathers in his work related evidence on the Proto-Indo-European verbal system. On that
question, see also the Late Indo-European differentiation in GamkrelidzeIvanov (19941995), AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998); a nomenclature also widespread today stems
from G.E. Dunkels Early, Middle, Late Indo-European: Doing it My Way (1997); etc.
1.3.2. Today, a widespread Three-Stage theory divides PIE internal language

evolution into three main historic layers or stages, including a description of
branches and languages either as clean breaks from a common source (e.g. PAn and
LIE from Indo-Hittite) or from intermediate dialect continua (e.g. Germanic and
53
Balto-Slavic from North-West IE), or classifying similarities into continued linguistic

contact (e.g. between Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian):
1) Pre-Proto-Indo-European (Pre-PIE), more properly following the current
nomenclature Pre-Indo-Hittite (Pre-PIH), also Early PIE, is the hypothetical
ancestor of Indo-Hittite, and probably the oldest stage of the language that
comparative grammar could help reconstruct using internal reconstruction. There
is, however, no common position as to how it was like or when and where it was
spoken.
2) The second stage corresponds to a time before the separation of ProtoAnatolian from the common linguistic community where it should have coexisted
(as a Pre-Anatolian dialect) with Pre-LIE. That stage of the language is today
commonly called Indo-Hittite (PIH), and also Middle PIE, but often simply ProtoIndo-European; it is identified with early kurgan cultures in the Kurgan
Hypothesis.
NOTE. On the place of Anatolian among IE languages, the question is whether it separated
first as a language branch from PIE, and to what extent was it thus spared developments
common to the remaining Proto-Indo-European language group. There is growing consensus
in favour of its early split from Indo-European (Heading, among others, Indo-Hittite); see N.
Oettinger (Indo-Hittite Hypothesen und Wortbildung 1986), A. Lehrman (Indo-Hittite
Revisited, 1996), H. Craig Melchert (The Dialectal Position of Anatolian within IE in IE
Subgrouping, 1998), etc.
For Kortlandt (The Spread of The Indo-Europeans, JIES 18, 1990): Since the beginnings of
the Yamnaya, Globular Amphora, Corded Ware, and Afanasievo cultures can all be dated
between 3600 and 3000 BC, I am inclined to date Proto-Indo-European to the middle of the
fourth millennium, and to recognize Proto-Indo-Hittite as a language which may have been
spoken a millennium earlier.
For Ringe (2006), [i]nterestingly, there is by now a general consensus among IndoEuropeanists that the Anatolian subfamily is, in effect, one half of the IE family, all the other
subgroups together forming the other half.
On the Anatolian question and its implications on nomenclature, West (2007) states that
[t]here is growing consensus that the Anatolian branch, represented by Hittite and related
languages of Asia Minor, was the first to diverge from common Indo-European, which
continued to evolve for some time after the split before breaking up further. This raises a
problem of nomenclature. It means that with the decipherment of Hittite the Indo-European
previously reconstructed acquired a brother in the shape of proto-Anatolian, and the
54
1. Introduction
archetype of the family had to be put back a stage. E. H. Sturtevant coined a new term IndoHittite () The great majority of linguists, however, use Indo-European to include
Anatolian, and have done, naturally enough, ever since Hittite was recognized to be an IndoEuropean language. They will no doubt continue to do so.
3) The common immediate ancestor of most of the reconstructed IE protolanguages is approximately the same static Brugmannian PIE searched for since
the start of Indo-European studies, before Hittite was deciphered. It is usually
called Late Indo-European (LIE) or Late PIE, generally dated some time ca. 35002500 BC using linguistic or archaeological models, or both.
NOTE. According to MalloryAdams (2007): Generally, we find some form of triangulation
based on the earliest attested Indo-European languages, i.e. Hittite, Mycenaean Greek, and
Indo-Aryan, each of these positioned somewhere between c. 2000 and 1500 BC. Given the
kind of changes linguists know to have occurred in the attested histories of Greek or IndoAryan, etc., the linguist compares the difference wrought by such changes with the degree of
difference between the earliest attested Hittite, Mycenaean Greek, and Sanskrit and
reconstructed Proto-Indo-European. The order of magnitude for these estimates (or
guesstimates) tends to be something on the order of 1,500-2,000 years. In other words,
employing some form of gut intuition (based on experience which is often grounded on the
known separation of the Romance or Germanic languages), linguists tend to put Proto-IndoEuropean sometime around 3000 BC plus or minus a millennium () the earliest we are
going to be able to set Proto-Indo-European is about the fifth millennium BC if we want it to
reflect the archaeological reality of Eurasia. We have already seen that individual IndoEuropean groups are attested by c. 2000 BC. One might then place a notional date of c. 45002500 BC on Proto-Indo-European. The linguist will note that the presumed dates for the
existence of Proto-Indo-European arrived at by this method are congruent with those
established by linguists informed estimation. The two dating techniques, linguistic and
archeological, are at least independent and congruent with one another.
Likewise, in Meier-Brgger (2003), about a common Proto-Indo-European: No precise
statement concerning the exact time period of the Proto-Indo-European linguistic community
is possible. One may only state that the ancient Indo-European languages that we know,
which date from the 2nd millennium BC, already exhibit characteristics of their respective
linguistic groups in their earliest occurrences, thus allowing one to presume the existence of a
separate and long pre-history () The period of 5000-3000 BC is suggested as a possible
timeframe of a Proto-Indo-European language.
However, on the early historic and prehistoric finds, and the assumption of linguistic
communities linked with archaeological cultures, Hnsel (Die Indogermanen und das Pferd,
55
B. Hnsel, S. Zimmer (eds.), 1994) states that [l]inguistic development may be described in
steps that, although logically comprehensible, are not precisely analyzable without a
timescale. The archaeologist pursues certain areas of cultural development, the logic of which
(if one exists) remains a mystery to him, or is only accessible in a few aspects of its complex
causality. On the other hand, he is provided with concrete ideas with regard to time, as vague
as these may be, and works with a concept of culture that the Indo-European linguist cannot
attain. For the archaeologist, culture is understood in the sense of a sociological definition ()
The archaeological concept of culture is composed of so many components, that by its very
nature its contours must remain blurred. But languages are quite different. Of course there are
connections; no one can imagine cultural connections without any possibility of verbal
communication. But it is too much to ask that archaeologists equate their concept of culture,
which is open and incorporates references on various levels, to the single dimension of
linguistic community. Archaeology and linguistics are so fundamentally different that, while
points of agreement may be expected, parallels and congruency may not. The advantage of
linguistic research is its ability to precisely distinguish between individual languages and the
regularity of developments. The strength of archaeology is its precision in developing
timelines. What one can do, the other cannot. They could complement each other beautifully,
if only there were enough commonality.
1.3.3. Another division has to be made, so that the dialectal evolution is properly
understood. Late Indo-European had at least two main inner dialectal branches, the
Southern or Graeco-Aryan (S.LIE) and the Northern (N.LIE) ones.
It seems that speakers of Southern or Graeco-Aryan dialects spread in different
directions with the first LIE migrations (ca. 3000-2500 BC in the Kurgan
framework), forming at least a South-East (including Pre-Indo-Iranian) and a SouthWest (including Pre-Greek) group. Meanwhile, speakers of Northern dialects
migrated to the North-West (see below), but for speakers of a North-East IE branch
(from which Pre-Tocharian developed), who migrated to Asia.
NOTE. Beekes (1995), from an archaeological point of view, on the Yamnaya culture: This is
one of the largest pre-historic complexes in Europe, and scholars have been able to distinguish
between different regions within it. It is dated from 3600-2200 B.C. In this culture, the use of
copper for the making of various implements is more common. From about 3000 B.C. we
begin to find evidence for the presence in this culture of two- and four-wheeled wagons ()
There seems to be no doubt that the Yamnaya culture represents the last phase of an IndoEuropean linguistic unity, although there were probably already significant dialectal
differences within it.
56
1. Introduction
Fortson (2004) similarly suggests: in the period 3100-2900 BC came a clear and dramatic
infusion of Yamna cultural practice, including burials, into eastern Hungary and along the
lower Danube. With this we seem able to witness the beginnings of the Indo-Europeanization
of Europe. By this point, the members of the Yamna culture had spread out over a very large
area and their speech had surely become dialecticaly strongly differentiated.
Meier-Brgger (2003): Within the group of IE languages, some individual languages are
more closely associated with one another owing to morphological or lexical similarities. The
cause for this, as a rule, is a prehistoric geographic proximity (perhaps even constituting single
linguistic community) or a common preliminary linguistic phase, a middle mother-language
phase, which would however then be posterior to the period of the mother language.
About Tocharian, AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998): even if archaic in some
respects (its centum character, subjunctive, etc.) it shares common features with Balto-Slavic,
among other languages: they must be old isoglosses, shared before it separated and migrated
to the East. It is, therefore, [a N.LIE] language. It shows great innovations, too, something
normal in a language that evolved isolated.
On the Southern (Graeco-Aryan or Indo-Greek) LIE dialect, see Tovar (Krahes
alteuropische Hydronymie und die west-indogermanischen Sprachen, 1977; Actas del II
Coloquio sobre lenguas y culturas prerromanas de la Pennsula Ibrica, Salamanca, 1979),
GamkrelidzeIvanov (1993-1994), Clackson (The Linguistic Relationship Between Armenian
and Greek, 1994), AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998), etc. In MalloryAdams (2007):
Many have argued that Greek, Armenian, and Indo-Iranian share a number of innovations
that suggest that there should have been some form of linguistic continuum between their
predecessors.
On the Graeco-Aryan community, West (2007) proposes the latest terminus ante quem for
its split: We shall see shortly that Graeco-Aryan must already have been differentiated from
[LIE] by 2500. We have to allow several centuries for the development of [LIE] after its split
from proto-Anatolian and before its further division. () The first speakers of Greek or
rather of the language that was to develop into Greek; I will call them mello-Greeks arrived
in Greece, on the most widely accepted view, at the beginning of Early Helladic III, that is,
around 2300. They came by way of Epirus, probably from somewhere north of the Danube.
Recent writers have derived them from Romania or eastern Hungary. () we must clearly go
back at least to the middle of the millennium for the postulated Graeco-Aryan linguistic unity
or community.
1.3.4. The so-called North-West Indo-European is considered by some to have

formed an early linguistic community already separated from other Northern dialects
(which included Pre-Tocharian) before or during the LIE dialectal split, and is
57
generally assumed to have been a later IE dialect continuum between different

communities in Northern Europe during the centuries on either side of 2500 BC,
with a development usually linked to the expansion of the Corded Ware culture.
NOTE. A dialect continuum, or dialect area, was defined by Leonard Bloomfield as a range
of dialects spoken across some geographical area that differ only slightly between
neighbouring areas, but as one travels in any direction, these differences accumulate such that
speakers from opposite ends of the continuum are no longer mutually intelligible. Examples of
dialect continua included (now blurred with national languages and administrative borders)
the North-Germanic, German, East Slavic, South Slavic, Northern Italian, South French, or
West Iberian languages, among others.
A Sprachbund, also known as a linguistic area, convergence area, diffusion area or language
crossroads is a group of languages that have become similar in some way because of
geographical proximity and language contact. They may be genetically unrelated, or only
distantly related. That was probably the case with Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian, v.i. 1.7.
North-West IE was therefore a language or group of closely related dialects that

emerged from a parent (N.LIE) dialect, in close contact for centuries, which allowed
them to share linguistic developments.
NOTE. On the so-called Nort-West Indo-European dialect continuum, see Tovar (1977,
1979), Eric Hamp (The Indo-European Horse in T. Markey and J.Greppin (eds.) When
Worlds
Collide:
Grundstzliche
Indo-Europeans
berlegungen
zum
and
Pre-Indo-Europeans,
1990),
Nordwest-Indogermanischen
N.
(1997),
Oettinger
and
Zum
nordwestindogermanischen Lexikon (1999); M. E. Huld Indo-Europeanization of Northern

Europe (1996); AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998); etc.
Regarding the dating of European proto-languages (of ca. 1500-500 BC) to the same time as
Proto-Greek or Proto-Indo-Iranian (of ca. 2500-2000), obviating the time span between
them, we might remember Kortlandts (1990) description of what seems to be a general
tendency to date proto-languages farther back in time than is warranted by the linguistic
evidence. When we reconstruct Proto-Romance, we arrive at a linguistic stage which is
approximately two centuries later than the language of Caesar and Cicero (cf. Agard 1984: 4760 for the phonological differences). When we start from the extralinguistic evidence and
identify the origins of Romance with the beginnings of Rome, we arrive at the eighth century
BC, which is almost a millennium too early. The point is that we must identify the formation
of Romance with the imperfect learning of Latin by a large number of people during the
expansion of the Roman empire.
58
1. Introduction
1.3.4. Apart from the shared phonology and vocabulary, North-Western dialects
show other common features, as a trend to reduce the noun inflection system, shared
innovations in the verbal system (merge of imperfect, aorist and perfect in a single
preterite, although some preterite-presents are found) the -r endings of the middle
or middle-passive voice, a common evolution of laryngeals, etc.
The southern IEDs, which spread in different directions and evolved without
forming a continuum, show therefore a differentiated phonology and vocabulary, but
common older developments like the augment in -, middle desinences in -i,
athematic
verbal
inflection,
pluperfect
and
perfect
forms,
and
aspectual
differentiation between the types *bhre/o- and *tud/o-.
1.4. THE PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN URHEIMAT

The search for the Urheimat or Homeland of the prehistoric Proto-IndoEuropeans has developed as an archaeological quest along with the linguistic
research looking for the reconstruction of the proto-language.
NOTE. Mallory (Journal of Indo-European Studies 1, 1973): While many have maintained
that the search for the PIE homeland is a waste of intellectual effort, or beyond the
competence of the methodologies involved, the many scholars who have tackled the problem
have ably evinced why they considered it important. The location of the homeland and the
description of how the Indo-European languages spread is central to any explanation of how
Europe became European. In a larger sense it is a search for the origins of western
civilization.
According to A. Scherers Die Urheimat der Indogermanen (1968), summing up

the views of various authors from the years 1892-1963, still followed by mainstream
Indo-European studies today, [b]ased upon the localization of later languages such
as Greek, Anatolian, and Indo-Iranian, a swathe of land in southern Russia north of
the Black Sea is often proposed as the native area of the speakers of Proto-IndoEuropean.
1.4.1. HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS

In AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998), a summary of main linguistic facts is
made, supported by archaeological finds:
It is communis opinio today that the languages of Europe have developed in situ in
our continent; although indeed, because of the migrations, they have remained
59
sometimes dislocated, and also extended and fragmented () Remember the recent
date of the crystallisation of European languages. Old European [=North-West IE],
from which they derive, is an already evolved language, with opposition
masculine/feminine, and must be located in time ca. 2000 BC or before. Also, one
must take into account the following data: the existence of Tocharian, related to
[Northern LIE], but far away to the East, in the Chinese Turkestan; the presence of
[Southern LIE] languages to the South of the Carpathian Mountains, no doubt
already in the third millennium (the ancestors of Thracian, Iranian, Greek speakers);
differentiation of Hittite and Luwian, within the Anatolian group, already ca. 2000
BC, in the documents of Kltepe, what means that Common Anatolian must be much
older.
NOTE. Without taking on account archaeological theories, linguistic data reveals
that:
a) [Northern LIE], located in Europe and in the Chinese Turkestan, must come
from an intermediate zone, with expansion into both directions.
b) [Southern LIE], which occupied the space between Greece and the north-west
of India, communicating both peninsulas through the languages of the Balkans,
Ukraine and Northern Caucasus, the Turkestan and Iran, must also come from
some intermediate location. Being a different linguistic group, it cannot come
from Europe or the Russian Steppe, where Ural-Altaic languages existed.
c) Both groups have been in contact secondarily, taking on account the different
recent isoglosses in the contact zone.
d) The more archaic Anatolian must have been isolated from the more evolved IE;
and that in some region with easy communication with Anatolia.
() Only the Steppe North of the Caucasus, the Volga river and beyond can
combine all possibilities mentioned: there are pathways that go down into Anatolia
and Iran through the Caucasus, through the East of the Caspian Sea, the Gorgan
plains, and they can migrate from there to the Chinese Turkestan, or to Europe,
where two ways exist: to the North and to the South of the Carpathian mountains.
These linguistic data, presented in a diagram, are supported by strong
archaeological arguments: they have been defended by Gimbutas 1985 against
GamkrelidzeIvanov (1994-1995) (). This diagram proposes three stages. In the
first one, [PIH] became isolated, and from it Anatolian emerged, being first relegated
60
1. Introduction
to the North of the Caucasus, and then crossing into the South: Common Anatolian
must be located there. Note that there is no significant temporal difference with the
other groups; it happens also that the first IE wave into Europe was older. It is
somewhere to the North of the people that later went to Anatolia that happened the
great revolution that developed [LIE], the common language.
Stage 1
PIH
Anat.
Northern horde
Tocharian
Stage 2
N.LIE
West IE Bal.-Sla.
S.LIE
Gk.-Thrac. Arm. Ind.-Ira.

Southern Horde
Stage 3
Northern Horde
Germanic
Cel.
Northern
Bal.-Sla.
Ita.
Indo-Iranian
Southern
Thr.
I.-I.
Arm.
Gk.
Southern Horde
Diagram of the expansion and relationships of IE languages . Adapted from

Adrados (1979).
The following stages refer to that common language. The first is the one that saw
both [N.LIE] (to the North) and [S.LIE] (to the South), the former being fragmented
in two groups, one that headed West and one that migrated to the East. That is a
proof that somewhere in the European Russia a common language [N.LIE] emerged;
to the South, in Ukraine or in the Turkestan [S.LIE].
The second stage continues the movements of both branches, that launched waves
to the South, but that were in contact in some moments, arising isoglosses that unite
61
certain languages of the [Southern IE] group (first Greek, later Iranian, etc.) with
those of the rearguard of [Northern IE] (especially Baltic and Slavic, also Italic and
Germanic).
NOTE. The assumption of three independent series of velars (v.s. Considerations of
Method), has logical consequences when trying to arrange a consistent chronological and
dialectal evolution from the point of view of historical linguistics. That is necessarily so
because phonological change is generally assumed to be easier than morphological evolution
for any given language. As a consequence, while morphological change is an agreed way to
pinpoint different ancient groups, and lexical equivalences to derive late close contacts and
culture (using them we could find agreement in grouping e.g. Balto-Slavic, Italo-Celtic, and
Germanic between both groups, as well as an older Graeco-Aryan dialects), phonetics is often
used whether explicitly or not as key to the groupings and chronology of the final split up
of Late Indo-European, which is at the core of the actual archaeological quest today.
If we assume that the satem languages were show the most natural trend of leniting palatals
from an original system of three series of velars; if we assume that the other, centum
languages, had undergone a trend of (unlikely and unparallelled) depalatalisation of the
palatovelars; then the picture of the dialectal split must be different, because centum
languages must be more closely related to each other in ancient times (due to the improbable
happening of depalatalisation in more than one branch independently). That is the scheme
followed in some manuals on IE linguistics or archaeology if three series are reconstructed or
accepted, as it is commonly the case.
From that point of view, Italic, Celtic and Tocharian must be grouped together, while the
satem core can be found in Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian. This contradicts the finds on
different Northern and Graeco-Aryan dialects, though. As already stated, the Glottalic theory
might support that dialectal scheme, by assuming a neater explanation of the natural
evolution of glottalic, voiced and voiceless stops, different from the depalatalisation proposal.
However, the glottalic theory is today mostly rejected (see below 1.5). Hulds (1997)
explanation of the three series could also support this scheme (see above).
1.4.2. ARCHAEOLOGY
The Kurgan hypothesis was introduced by Marija Gimbutas (The Prehistory of
Eastern Europe, Part 1, 1956) in order to combine archaeology with linguistics in
locating the origins of the Proto-Indo-Europeans. She named the set of cultures in
question Kurgan after their distinctive burial mounds and traced their diffusion
into Eastern and Northern Europe.
62
1. Introduction
NOTE. People were buried with their legs flexed, a position which remained typical for
peoples identified with Indo-European speakers for a long time. The burials were covered with
a mound, a kurgan (Turkish loanword in Russian for tumulus).
According to her hypothesis, PIE speakers were probably a nomadic tribe of the
Pontic-Caspian steppe that expanded in successive stages of the Kurgan culture and
three successive waves of expansion during the third millennium BC:
Kurgan I, Dnieper/Volga region, earlier half of the fourth millennium BC.
Apparently evolving from cultures of the Volga basin, subgroups include the
Samara and Seroglazovo cultures.
Kurgan IIIII, latter half of the fourth millennium BC. Includes the Sredny Stog
culture and the Maykop culture of the northern Caucasus. Stone circles, early
two-wheeled chariots, anthropomorphic stone stelae of deities.
Kurgan IV or Pit Grave culture, first half of the third millennium BC,
encompassing the entire steppe region from the Ural to Romania.
Hypothetical Urheimat (Homeland) of the first PIE speakers, from 4500 BC

onwards. The Yamna (Pit Grave) culture lasted from ca. 3600 till 2200 BC. In
this time the first wagons appeared. (PD)
63
There were proposed to be three successive waves of expansion:

o Wave 1, predating Kurgan I, expansion from the lower Volga to the Dnieper,
leading to coexistence of Kurgan I and the Cucuteni culture. Repercussions of
the migrations extend as far as the Balkans and along the Danube to the Vina
and Lengyel cultures in Hungary.
o Wave 2, mid fourth millennium BC, originating in the Maykop culture and
resulting in advances of kurganised hybrid cultures into northern Europe
around 3000 BC Globular Amphora culture, Baden culture, and ultimately
Corded Ware culture.
o Wave 3, 3000-2800 BC, expansion of the Pit Grave culture beyond the steppes;
appearance of characteristic pit graves as far as the areas of modern Romania,
Bulgaria and eastern Hungary.
The kurganised Globular Amphora culture in Europe is proposed as a secondary
Urheimat of PIE, the culture separating into the Bell-Beaker culture and Corded
Ware culture around 2300 BC. This ultimately resulted in the European IE families
of Italic, Celtic and Germanic languages, and other, partly extinct, language groups of
the Balkans and central Europe, possibly including the proto-Mycenaean invasion of
Greece.
1.4.3. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

Glottochronology tries to compare lexical, morphological or phonological traits in
order to develop more trustable timelines and dialectal groupings. It hasnt attracted
much reliability among linguists, though, in relation with the comparative method,
on which the whole IE reconstruction is still based.
NOTE. Most of these glottochronological works are highly controversial, partly owing to
issues of accuracy, partly to the question of whether its very basis is sound. Two serious
arguments that make this method mostly invalid today are the proof that Swadesh formulae
would not work on all available material, and that language change arises from sociohistorical events which are of course unforeseeable and, therefore, incomputable.
A variation of traditional glottochronology is phylogenic reconstruction; in

biological systematics, phylogeny is a graph intended to represent genetic
relationships between
biological taxa. Linguists try to transfer these biological
models to obtain subgroupings of one or the other branch of a language family.
64
1. Introduction
NOTE. Clackson (2007) describes a recent phylogenetic study, by Atkinson et al. (From
Words to Dates: Water into Wine, Mathemagic or Phylogenetic Inference?, Transactions of
the Philological Society 103, 2005): The New Zealand team use models which were originally
designed to build phylogenies based on DNA and other genetic information, which do not
assume a constant rate of change. Instead, their model accepts that the rate of change varies,
but it constrains the variation within limits that coincide with attested linguistic sub-groups.
For example, it is known that the Romance languages all derive from Latin, and we know that
Latin was spoken 2,000 years ago. The rates of lexical change in the Romance family can
therefore be calculated in absolute terms. These different possible rates of change are then
projected back into prehistory, and the age of the parent can be ascertained within a range of
dates depending on the highest and lowest rates of change attested in the daughter languages.
More recently (Atkinson et al. 2005), they have used data based not just on lexical characters,
but on morphological and phonological information as well.
Their results show a late separation of the Northwestern IE languages, with a last core of
Romance-Germanic, earlier Celto-Romano-Germanic, and earlier Celto-Romano-GermanoBalto-Slavic. Previous to that date, Graeco-Armenian would have separated earlier than IndoIranian, while Tocharian would have been the earliest to split up from LIE, still within the
Kurgan framework, although quite early (ca. 4000-3000 BC). Before that, the Anatolian
branch is found to have split quite earlier than the dates usually assumed in linguistics and
archaeology (ca. 7000-6000 BC).
Holm proposed to apply a Separation-Level Recovery system to PIE. This is made (Holm,
2008) by using the data on the new Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben, 2nd ed. (Rix et al.
2001), considered a more modern and linguistic reliable database than the data traditionally
used from Pokorny IEW. The results show a similar grouping to those of Atkinson et al.
(2005), differentiating between North-West IE (Italo-Celtic, Germanic, Balto-Slavic), and
Graeco-Aryan (Graeco-Armenian, Indo-Iranian) groups. However, Anatolian is deemed to
have separated quite late compared to linguistic dates, being considered then just another LIE
dialect, therefore rejecting the concept of Indo-Hittite altogether. Some of Holms studies are
available at <http://hjholm.de/>.
The most recent quantitative studies then apparently show similar results in the
phylogenetic groupings of recent languages, i.e. Late Indo-European dialects, excluding
Tocharian. Their dates remain, at best, just approximations for the separation of late and well
attested languages, though, while the dating (and even grouping) of ancient languages like
Anatolian or Tocharian with modern evolution patterns remains at best questionable.
65
1.4.4. ARCHAEOGENETICS
Cavalli-Sforza and
Alberto Piazza argue
that Renfrew (v.i.
1.5) and Gimbutas
reinforce
rather
than contradict each

other, stating that
genetically
speaking, peoples of
the Kurgan steppe
descended at least in Distribution of haplotypes R1b (light colour) for Eurasiatic
Paleolithic and R1a (dark colour) for Yamna expansion;
part from people of black represents other haplogroups. (2009, modified from
the Middle Eastern Dbachmann 2007)
Neolithic who immigrated there from Turkey.
NOTE. The genetic record cannot yield any direct information as to the language spoken by
these groups. The current interpretation of genetic data suggests a strong genetic continuity in
Europe; specifically, studies of mtDNA by Bryan Sykes show that about 80% of the genetic
stock of Europeans originated in the Paleolithic.
Distribution of haplogroup R1a (2011, modified from Crates 2009)

66
1. Introduction
Spencer Wells suggests that the origin, distribution and age of the R1a1 haplotype
points to an ancient migration, possibly corresponding to the spread by the Kurgan
people in their expansion across the Eurasian steppe around 3000 BC, stating that
there is nothing to contradict this model, although the genetic patterns do not
provide clear support either.
NOTE. R1a1 is most prevalent in Poland, Russia, and Ukraine, and is also observed in
Pakistan, India and central Asia. R1a1 is largely confined east of the Vistula gene barrier and
drops considerably to the west. The spread of Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup R1a1 has been
associated with the spread of the Indo-European languages too. The mutations that
characterise haplogroup R1a occurred ~10,000 years bp. Haplogroup R1a1, whose lineage is
thought to have originated in the Eurasian Steppes north of the Black and Caspian Seas, is
therefore associated with the Kurgan culture, as well as with the postglacial Ahrensburg
culture which has been suggested to have spread the gene originally.
The present-day population of R1b haplotype, with extremely high peaks in

Western Europe and measured up to the eastern confines of Central Asia, are
believed to be the descendants of a refugium in the Iberian peninsula at the Last
Glacial Maximum, where the haplogroup may have achieved genetic homogeneity. As
conditions eased with the Allerd Oscillation in about 12000 BC, descendants of this
group migrated and eventually recolonised all of Western Europe, leading to the
dominant position of R1b in variant degrees from Iberia to Scandinavia, so evident in
haplogroup maps.
NOTE.
High
concentrations
(2011, modified
from Cadenas
2008)
of
Mesolithic or late
Paleolithic
YDNA
haplogroups
of
types R1b (typically

well above 35%) and
I (up to 25%), are
thought to
ultimately
robust
derive
of
the
Eurasiatic
Cro Magnoid homo sapiens of the Aurignacian culture, and the subsequent gracile
leptodolichomorphous people of the Gravettian culture that entered Europe from the Middle
East 20,000 to 25,000 years ago, respectively.
67
1.4.5. THE KURGAN HYPOTHESIS AND THE THREE-STAGE THEORY

ARCHAEOLOGY (Kurgan Hypothesis)
LINGUISTICS (Three-Stage Theory)
ca. 4500-4000 BC. Sredny Stog, Dnieper-Donets Proto-Indo-Hittite?

and Sarama cultures, domestication of the horse.
ca. 4000-3500 BC. The Yamna culture, the Pre-LIE and Pre-PAn dialects evolve in
kurgan builders, emerges in the steppe, and the different communities but presumably still in
Maykop culture in northern Caucasus.
contact within the same territory.
ca. 3500-3000 BC. Yamna culture at its peak:
stone idols, two-wheeled proto-chariots, animal
husbandry, permanent settlements and hillforts,
subsisting on agriculture and fishing, along
rivers. Contact of the Yamna culture with late
Neolithic Europe cultures results in kurganised
Globular Amphora and Baden cultures. Maykop
culture shows earliest evidence of the beginning
Bronze Age; bronze weapons and artifacts
introduced.
Proto-Anatolian becomes isolated (either to the

south of the Caucasus or in the Balkans), and
has no more contacts with the linguistic
innovations of the common Late IndoEuropean language.
ca. 3000-2500 BC. The Yamna culture extends

over the entire Pontic steppe. The Corded Ware
culture extends from the Rhine to the Volga,
corresponding to the latest stage of IE unity.
Different cultures disintegrate, still in loose
contact, enabling the spread of technology.
Dialectal communities begin to migrate,

remaining still in loose contact, enabling the
spread of the last common phonetic and
morphological innovations, and loan words.
PAn, spoken in Asia Minor, evolves into
Common Anatolian.
ca. 2500-2000 BC. The Bronze Age reaches

Central Europe with the Beaker culture of
Northern Indo-Europeans. Indo-Iranians settle
north of the Caspian in the Sintashta-Petrovka
and later the Andronovo culture.
The breakup of the southern IE dialects is

complete. Proto-Greek spoken in the Balkans;
Proto-Indo-Iranian in Central Asia; NorthWest Indo-European in Northern Europe;
Common Anatolian dialects in Anatolia.
ca. 2000-1500 BC. The chariot is invented,

leading to the split and rapid spread of Iranians
and other peoples from the Andronovo culture
and the Bactria-Margiana Complex over much of
Central Asia, Northern India, Iran and Eastern
Anatolia. Greek Darg Ages and flourishing of the
Hittite Empire. Pre-Celtic Unetice culture.
Indo-Iranian splits up in two main dialects,

Indo-Aryan and Iranian. European protodialects like Pre-Germanic, Pre-Celtic, PreItalic, and Pre-Balto-Slavic differentiate from
each other. Anatolian languages like Hittite
and Luwian are written down; Indo-Iranian
attested through Mitanni; a Greek dialect,
Mycenaean, is already spoken.
ca. 1500-1000 BC. The Nordic Bronze Age sees

the rise of the Germanic Urnfield and the Celtic
Hallstatt cultures in Central Europe, introducing
the Iron Age. Italic peoples move to the Italian
Peninsula. Rigveda composed. Decline of Hittite
Kingdoms and the Mycenaean civilisation.
Celtic, Italic, Germanic, Baltic and Slavic are

already different proto-languages, developing
in turn different dialects. Iranian and other
related southern dialects expand through
military conquest, and Indo-Aryan spreads in
the form of its sacred language, Sanskrit.
ca. 1000-500 BC. Northern Europe enters the

Pre-Roman Iron Age. Early Indo-European
Kingdoms and Empires in Eurasia. In Europe,
Classical Antiquity begins with the flourishing of
the Greek peoples. Foundation of Rome.
Celtic dialects spread over western Europe,

German dialects to the south of Jutland. Italic
languages in the Italian Peninsula. Greek and
Old Italic alphabets appear. Late Anatolian
dialects. Cimmerian, Scythian and Sarmatian
in Asia, Palaeo-Balkan languages in the
Balkans.
68
Late Indo-European evolves in turn into

dialects, at least a Southern or Graeco-Aryan
and a Northern one.
1. Introduction
1.5. OTHER ARCHAEOLINGUISTIC THEORIES

1.5.1. The most known new alternative theory concerning PIE is the Glottalic theory.
It assumes that Proto-Indo-European was pronounced more or less like Armenian,
i.e. instead of PIE *p, *b, *bh, the pronunciation would have been *p, *p, *b, and the
same with the other two voiceless-voiced-voiced aspirated series of consonants
usually reconstructed. The IE Urheimat would have been then located in the
surroundings of Anatolia, especially near Lake Urmia, in northern Iran, hence the
archaism of Anatolian dialects and the glottalics found in Armenian.
NOTE. Those linguistic and archaeological findings are supported by Gamkredlize-Ivanov
(The early history of Indo-European languages, Scientific American, 1990) where early
Indo-European vocabulary deemed of southern regions is examined, and similarities with
Semitic and Kartvelian languages are also brought to light.
This theory is generally rejected; Beekes (1995) for all: But this theory is in fact very
improbable. The presumed loan-words are difficult to evaluate, because in order to do so the
Semitic words and those of other languages would also have to be evaluated. The names of
trees are notoriously unreliable as evidence. The words for panther, lion and elephant are
probably incorrectly reconstructed as PIE words.
1.5.2. Alternative theories include:

I. The European Homeland thesis maintains that the common origin of the IE
languages lies in Europe. These hypotheses are often driven by archeological
theories. A. Husler (Die Indoeuropisierung Griechenlands, Slovenska Archeolgia
29, 1981; etc.) continues to defend the hypothesis that places Indo-European origins
in Europe, stating that all the known differentiation emerged in the continuum from
the Rhin to the Urals.
NOTE. It has been traditionally located in 1) Lithuania and the surrounding areas, by R.G.
Latham (1851) and Th. Poesche (Die Arier. Ein Beitrag zur historischen Anthropologie,
1878); 2) Scandinavia, by K.Penka (Origines ariacae, 1883); 3) Central Europe, by G.
Kossinna (Die Indogermanische Frage archologisch beantwortet, Zeitschrift fr
Ethnologie, 34, 1902), P.Giles (The Aryans, 1922), and by linguist/archaeologist G. Childe
(The Aryans. A Study of Indo-European Origins, 1926).
a. The Paleolithic Continuity theory posits that the advent of IE languages should
be linked to the arrival of Homo sapiens in Europe and Asia from Africa in the Upper
Paleolithic. The PCT proposes a continued presence of Pre-IE and non-IE peoples
69
and languages in Europe from Paleolithic times, allowing for minor invasions and
infiltrations of local scope, mainly during the last three millennia.
NOTE.
There
are
some
research
papers
concerning
the
PCT
available
at
<http://www.continuitas.com/>. Also, the PCT could in turn be connected with Frederik

Kortlandts Indo-Uralic and Altaic studies <http://kortlandt.nl/publications/>.
On the temporal relationship question, MalloryAdams (2007): Although there are still
those who propose solutions dating back to the Palaeolithic, these cannot be reconciled with
the cultural vocabulary of the Indo-European languages. The later vocabulary of Proto-IndoEuropean hinges on such items as wheeled vehicles, the plough, wool, which are attested in
Proto-Indo-European, including Anatolian. It is unlikely then that words for these items
entered the Proto-Indo-European lexicon prior to about 4000 BC.
b. A new theory put forward by Colin Renfrew relates IE expansion to the Neolithic
revolution, causing the peacefully spreading of an older pre-IE language into Europe
from Asia Minor from around 7000 BC, with the advance of farming. It proposes that
the dispersal (discontinuity) of Proto-Indo-Europeans originated in Neolithic
Anatolia.
NOTE. Reacting to criticism, Renfrew by 1999 revised his proposal to the effect of taking a
pronounced Indo-Hittite position. Renfrews revised views place only Pre-Proto-IndoEuropean in seventh millennium Anatolia, proposing as the homeland of Proto-IndoEuropean proper the Balkans around 5000 BC, explicitly identified as the Old European
culture proposed by Gimbutas.
MalloryAdams (2007): () in both the nineteenth century and then again in the later
twentieth century, it was proposed that Indo-European expansions were associated with the
spread of agriculture. The underlying assumption here is that only the expansion of a new
more productive economy and attendant population expansion can explain the widespread
expansion of a language family the size of the Indo-European. This theory is most closely
associated with a model that derives the Indo-Europeans from Anatolia about the seventh
millennium BC from whence they spread into south-eastern Europe and then across Europe in
a Neolithic wave of advance.
() Although the difference between the Wave of Advance and Kurgan theories is quite
marked, they both share the same explanation for the expansion of the Indo-Iranians in Asia
(and there are no fundamental differences in either of their difficulties in explaining the
Tocharians), i.e. the expansion of mobile pastoralists eastwards and then southwards into Iran
and India. Moreover, there is recognition by supporters of the Neolithic theory that the wave
of advance did not reach the peripheries of Europe (central and western Mediterranean,
70
1. Introduction
Atlantic and northern Europe) but that these regions adopted agriculture from their
neighbours rather than being replaced by them.
Talking about these new hypotheses, AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998) discuss the
relevance that is given to each new personal archaeological revolutionary theory: [The
hypothesis of Colin Renfrew (1987)] is based on ideas about the diffusion of agriculture from
Asia to Europe in [the fifth millennium Neolithic Asia Minor], diffusion that would be united
to that of Indo-Europeans; it doesnt pay attention at all to linguistic data. The [hypothesis of
GamkrelidzeIvanov (1980, etc.)], which places the Homeland in the contact zone between
Caucasian and Semitic peoples, south of the Caucasus, is based on real or supposed lexical
loans; it disregards morphological data altogether, too. Criticism of these ideas to which
people have paid too much attention are found, among others, in Meid (1989), Villar (1991),
etc.
II. Another hypothesis, contrary to the European ones, also mainly driven today by
nationalistic or religious views, traces back the origin of PIE to Vedic Sanskrit,
postulating that this is very pure, and that the origin of common Proto-IndoEuropean can thus be traced back to the Indus Valley Civilisation of ca. 3000 BC.
NOTE. Pan-Sanskritism was common among early Indo-Europeanists, as Schlegel, Young,
A. Pictet (Les origines indoeuropens, 1877) or Schmidt (who preferred Babylonia), but are
now mainly supported by those who consider Sanskrit almost equal to Late Proto-IndoEuropean. For more on this, see S. Misra (The Aryan Problem: A Linguistic Approach, 1992),
Elst (Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate, 1999), followed up by S.G. Talageri (The
Rigveda: A Historical Analysis, 2000), both part of Indigenous Indo-Aryan viewpoint by
N. Kazanas, the Out of India theory, with a framework dating back to the times of the Indus
Valley Civilisation.
1.6. RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER LANGUAGES

1.6.1. Many higher-level relationships between PIE and other language families
have been proposed, but these speculative connections are highly controversial.
Perhaps the most widely accepted proposal is of an Indo-Uralic family, encompassing
PIE and Proto-Uralic, a language from which Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian, Saami
and a number of other languages belong. The evidence usually cited in favour of this
is the proximity of the proposed Urheimaten for both of them, the typological
similarity between the two languages, and a number of apparent shared morphemes.
NOTE. Other proposals, further back in time (and correspondingly less accepted), model
PIE as a branch of Indo-Uralic with a Caucasian substratum; link PIE and Uralic with Altaic
71
and certain other families in Asia, such as Korean, Japanese, Chukotko-Kamchatkan and
Eskimo-Aleut (representative proposals are Greenbergs Eurasiatic and its proposed parentlanguage Nostratic); etc.
1.6.2. Indo-Uralic or Uralo-Indo-European is therefore a hypothetical language

family consisting of Indo-European and Uralic (i.e. Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic).
Most linguists still consider this theory speculative and its evidence insufficient to
conclusively prove genetic affiliation.
NOTE. The problem with lexical evidence is to weed out words due to borrowing, because
Uralic languages have been in contact with Indo-European languages for millennia, and
consequently borrowed many words from them.
Bjrn Collinder, author of the path-breaking Comparative Grammar of the Uralic

Languages (1960), a standard work in the field of Uralic studies, argued for the
kinship of Uralic and Indo-European (1934, 1954, 1965).
The most extensive attempt to establish sound correspondences between IndoEuropean and Uralic to date is that of the late Slovenian linguist Bojan op. It was
published as a series of articles in various academic journals from 1970 to 1989 under
the collective title Indouralica. The topics to be covered by each article were sketched
out at the beginning of Indouralica II. Of the projected 18 articles only 11 appeared.
These articles have not been collected into a single volume and thereby remain
difficult to access.
Dutch linguist Frederik Kortlandt supports a model of Indo-Uralic in which its
speakers lived north of the Caspian Sea, and Proto-Indo-Europeans began as a group
that branched off westward from there to come into geographic proximity with the
Northwest Caucasian languages, absorbing a Northwest Caucasian lexical blending
before moving farther westward to a region north of the Black Sea where their
language settled into canonical Proto-Indo-European.
1.6.3. The most common arguments in favour of a relationship between PIH and
Uralic are based on seemingly common elements of morphology, such as:
Meaning
PIE
Proto-Uralic
I, me
*me me (Acc.), *mene my (Gen.)
*mun, *mina I
you (sg)
*tu (Nom.), *twe (Acc.), *tewe your (Gen.)
*tun, *tina
1st P. singular
*-m
*-m
1st P. plural
*-me
*-me
72
1. Introduction
2nd P. singular
*-s (active), *-tHa (perfect)
*-t
2nd P. plural
*-te
*-te
Demonstrative
*so this, he/she (animate nom)
*a (3rd person singular)
Interr. pron. (An.)
*kwi- who?, what?; *kwo- who?, what?
*ken who?, *ku-, who?
Relative pronoun
*jo-
*-ja (nomen agentis)
Accusative
*-m
*-m
Ablative/partitive
*-od
*-ta
Nom./Acc. plural
*-es (Nom. pl.), *-m-s (Acc. pl.)
*-t
Oblique plural
*-i (pronomin. pl., cf. *we-i- we, *to-i- those)
*-i
Dual
*-H
*-k
Stative
*-s- (aorist); *-es-, *-t (stative substantive)
*-ta
Negative particle
*nei, *ne
*ei- [negative verb] , *ne
to give
*deh3-
*toHe-
to wet,water
*wed- to wet, *wodr- water
*weti water
water
*mesg- dip under water, dive
*muke- wash
to assign,
name
*nem- to assign, to allot, *h1nomn- name
*nimi name
metal
*h2weseh2- gold
*wake some metal
trade
*mei- exchange
*miHe- give, sell
fish
*(s)kwalo- large fish
*kala fish
sister-in-law
*galou- husband's sister
*kl sister-in-law
much
*polu- much
*palj thick, much
1.7. INDO-EUROPEAN DIALECTS

SCHLEICHERS FABLE: FROM PIE TO MODERN ENGLISH
The so-called Schleicher's fable is a poem composed in PIE, published by August
Schleicher in 1868, originally named The Sheep and the Horses. It is written here
in the different reconstructible IE dialects for comparison.
NOTE. Only the versions inLate Indo-European early dialects are supposed to use correct
dialectal forms and vocabulary. The other examples in PIH and late European protolanguages are mainly phonetic examples following the Late Indo-European morphological
and syntactical model.
73
A hypothetical PIH version (ca. 3500 BC?): h3owis h1ekwskwe. H3owis, kwesjo wlh1neh2 ne
h1est, h1ekwoms spekt, h1oinom gwrh3m woghom wghontm, h1oinomkwe megeh2m
bhorom, h1oinomkwe dhh1ghmonm h1oh1ku bhrontm. H3owis nu h1kwobhos weukwt:
Krd h2ghnutoi h1mo, h1ekwoms h2gontm wih1rm wdntei. H1ekws tu weukwnt:
Klu, h3owi! krd h2ghnutoi nsmi wdntbhos: h2ner, potis, h3owjom-r wlh1neh2m swebhei
gwhermom westrom kwrneuti. H3owjom-kwe wlhneh2 ne h1esti. Tod kkluwos h3owis
h2egrom bhugt.
CA (PAn), 2500 BC
Howis ekwskwu.
Howis, kwosjo ulhneh ne est,
ekwons spekt,
oikom gwurrm wogom wgontm,
oikomkwu megehm borom,
oikomkwu dgomonm oku brontm.
Howis nu kwobos wkwt:
Krdi xgnutor moi,
ekwons xgontm wirm wdnt.
Ekws tu wkwnt: Klu, howi!
krdi hegnutor nsm wdntbos:
hnr, potis, howjom-r ulhnehm
sweb gwermom wstrom kwrndi.
Howjomkwu ulhneh ne esti.
Tod kkluwos howis hegrom bugt.
NWIE (N.LIE), ca. 2500 BC

Owis ekwskwe.
Owis, kwosjo wln ne est,
ekwons spekt,
oinom gwrawm woghom wghontm,
oinomkwe megm bhorom,
oinomkwe dhghomonm k bhrontm.
Owis nu kwobhos weukwt:
Krdi ghnutor moi,
ekwons gontm wrm widntei.
Ekws tu weukwnt: Klnu, owi!
krdi ghnutor nsmi widntbhos:
neros, potis, owjom ar wlnm
sebhei gwhormom westrom kwrneuti.
Owjomkwe wln ne esti.
Tod kkluwos owis agrom bhugt.
Proto-Aryan (S.LIE), ca. 2500 BC

Awis awsa.
Awis, kasja wrn na st,
awans spat,
aikam gurm waham whantm,
aikama maham bharam,
aikama dhhmanm u bharantm.
Awis nu wabhjas waukat:
rdi ghnutai mai,
awans aantam wrm wdntai.
ws tu wawkant: rnudh avi!
rd ghnutai nsmi wdntbhjas:
n r, patis, awjam ar wrnm
swabhi gharmam wastram krnauti.
Awjama wrn na asti.
Tat ruwas awis aram bhugat.
Proto-Greek (S.LIE), ca. 2500 BC

Owis ekwoikwe.
wis, kwohjo wln ne st,
ekwons spekt,
oiwom kwarm wokhom wekhontm,
oiwomkwe megm phorom,
oiwomkwe khthmonm ku phrontm.
wis nu kwophos weukwet:
Krdi khnutoi moi,
ekwons gontm wrm wdntei.
kwoi tu weukwont: Klnuthi, owi!
krdi gnutoi nsmi wdntphos:
anr, potis, owjom ar wlnm
sephei kwhermom westrom kwrneuti.
Owjom-kwe wln ne esti.
Tot kkluwos owis agrom phuget.
74
1. Introduction
Proto-Celtic (ca. 1000 BC)

Owis ekwoikwe.
Owis, kwosjo wlan ne est,
ekws spekt,
oinom barm woxom wxontam,
oinomkwe megam borom,
oinomkwe dxonjom ku berontam.
Owis nu kwobos weukwt:
Kridi xnutor mai,
ekws gontom wrm wdanti.
Ekwoi tu wewkwnt: Kalnu, owi!
kridi xnutor ansmi wdantbos:
neros, otis, owjom ar wlanm
sebi gwormom westrom kwarneuti.
Owjomkwe wlan ne esti.
Tod kklowos owis agrom bugt.
Proto-Italic (ca. 1000 BC)

Owis ekwoikwe.
Owis, kwosjo wln ne est,
ekws spekt,
oinom grwm woxom wxontem,
oinomkwe megam orom,
oinomkwe xomonem ku erontem.
Owis nu kwoos weukwt:
Kordi xnutor mei,
ekws gontom wrm wdentei.
Ekwoi tu wewkwnt: Kalnu, owi!
kordi axnutor ensmi wdentos:
neros, potis, owjom ar wlnm
seei ghormom westrom kworneuti.
Owjomkwe wln ne esti.
Tud kkluwos owis agrom ugt.
Pre-Proto-Germanic (ca. 1000 BC)

Awiz exwazxwe.
Awiz, hwas wuln ne est,
exwanz spext,
ainan karn wagan wganun,
ainanxwe mekon baran,
ainanxwe gmanan xu branun.
Awiz nu xwamaz weuxw:
Hurti gnuai mei,
exwanz kanun wern wtan.
Exwaz tu wewxwant: Hulnu, awi!
hurti knuai unsm wtunmaz:
neraz, faiz, awjan ar wulnn
sib warman wesran hwurneui.
Awjanxwe wuln ne isti.
at hxluwaz awiz akran buk.
Proto-Balto-Slavic (ca. 1000 BC)

Awis ewskje.
Awis, kasja wiln ne est,
ewas spet,
ainan grun waan wantun,
ainanke megan baran,
ainanke manan ku brantun
Awis nu ewamas wjaukjt:
irdi gnutei mei,
ekwans gantun wirn wduntei.
Ews tu wjaukunt: Klud, awi!
irdi gnutei insmi wdntmas:
neras, patis, awjam ar wilnn
sebi gormom westran kjirnjaut.
wjamkje wiln ne esti.
Ta kjekluwas awis agram bugt.
Translation: The Sheep and the Horses. A sheep that had no wool saw horses, one
pulling a heavy wagon, one carrying a big load, and one carrying a man quickly. The
sheep said to the horses: My heart pains me, seeing a man driving horses. The horses
said: Listen, sheep, our hearts pain us when we see this: a man, the master, makes the
wool of the sheep into a warm garment for himself. And the sheep has no wool. Having
heard this, the sheep fled into the plain.
75
1.7.1. NORTHERN INDO-EUROPEAN DIALECTS

I. NORTH-WEST INDO-EUROPEAN
1. North-West Indo-European was probably spoken in Europe in the centuries on
either side of ca. 2500 BC, including Pre-Celtic, Pre-Italic, Pre-Germanic, Pre-Baltic,
and Pre-Slavic, among other ancestors of IE languages attested in Europe. Its
original common location is usually traced back to some place to the East of the
Rhine, to the North of the Alps and the Carpathian Mountains, to the South of
Scandinavia and to the East of the Eastern European Lowlands or Russian Plain, not
beyond Moscow (AdradosBernabMendoza 1995-1998).
Generalized distribution of all Corded Ware variants (ca. 3200 -2300), with
adjacent third millennium cultures. MalloryAdams (1997). The Globular
Amphora culture (ca. 3400-2800) overlaps with the early territory of the Corded
Ware culture (ca. 3200-2800 BC), which later expanded to east and west. (2011,
modified from Dbachmann 2005).
2. The Corded Ware (also Battle Axe or Single Grave) complex of cultures,
traditionally represents for many scholars the arrival of the first speakers of Northern
LIE in central Europe, coming from the Yamna culture. The complex dates from
about 3200-2300 BC. The Globular Amphorae culture may be slightly earlier, but the
relationship between these cultures remains unclear.
NOTE. From a linguistic-archaeological point of view, Beekes (1995): The combined use of
the horse and the ox-drawn wagon made the Indo-Europeans exceptionally mobile. It is
76
1. Introduction
therefore not surprising that they were able to migrate over such a very large area after having
first taken possession of the steppes (). It has long been assumed that the Corded Ware
culture (from 3300 to 2300 B.C., in German the Schnurkeramiker of which the Battle Axe
culture, the Single Grave Folk, the East Baltic and the Fatyanovo culture on the upper reaches
of the Volga are all variants) from the middle Dniepr region and the upper Volga as far as
Scandinavia and Holland, was developed by an Indo-European people. They would seem to
have been nomads, their society was warlike, and they introduced both the horse and wagon.
We find them in Holland as early as 3000 B.C., where they are clearly immigrants, and it is
here that the earliest wheels of western Europe have been found. There is a problem in the fact
that this culture is very early indeed when compared to the Yamnaya culture (3600-2200 B.C.,
although the Yamnaya may be still older), but the central problem is the origin of Corded
Ware. The Globular Amphorae culture (Kugelamphoren in German) preceded that of the
Corded Ware (as of 3500 B.C.) in roughly the same area, though it extended in a more
southerly direction and reached as far as the middle Dniepr and the Dniestr. The relation
between this culture and the Corded Ware culture is not clear, but it does seem probable that
there was a relationship of some kind.
MalloryAdams (2007): Many of the language groups of Europe, i.e. Celtic, Germanic,
Baltic, and Slavic, may possibly be traced back to the Corded Ware horizon of northern,
central, and eastern Europe that flourished c. 3200-2300 BC. Some would say that the Iron
Age cultures of Italy might also be derived from this cultural tradition. For this reason the
Corded Ware culture is frequently discussed as a prime candidate for early Indo-European.
Anthony (2007) gives a detailed account of archaeological events: The Corded Ware
horizon spread across most of northern Europe, from Ukraine to Belgium, after 3000 BCE,
with the initial rapid spread happening mainly between 2900 and 2700 BCE. The defining
traits of the Corded Ware horizon were a pastoral, mobile economy that resulted in the near
disappearance of settlement sites (much like Yamnaya in the steppes), the almost universal
adoption of funeral rituals involving single graves under mounds (like Yamnaya), the diffusion
of stone hammer-axes probably derived from Polish TRB [=Funnelbeaker] styles, and the
spread of a drinking culture linked to particular kinds of cord-decorated cups and beakers,
many of which had local stylistic prototypes in variants of TRB ceramics. The material culture
of the Corded Ware horizon was mostly native to northern Europe, but the underlying
behaviors were very similar to those of the Yamnaya horizon, the broad adoption of a herding
economy based on mobility (using oxdrawn wagons and horses), and a corresponding rise in
the ritual prestige and value oflivestock. The economy and political structure of the Corded
Ware horizon certainly was influenced by what had emerged earlier in the steppes().
The Yamnaya and Corded Ware horizons bordered each other in the hills between Lvov and
Ivano-Frankovsk, Ukraine, in the upper Dniester piedmont around 2800-2600 BCE (see
77
figure). At that time early Corded Ware cemeteries were confined to the uppermost
headwaters of the Dniester west of Lvov, the same territory that had earlier been occupied by
the late TRB communities infiltrated by late Tripolye groups. If Corded Ware societies in this
region evolved from local late TRB origins, as many believe, they might already have spoken
an Indo-European language. Between 2700 and 2600 BCE Corded Ware and late Yamnaya
herders met each other on the upper Dniester over cups of mead or beer. This meeting was
another opportunity for language shift (). The wide-ranging pattern of interaction that the
Corded Ware horizon inaugurated across northern Europe provided an optimal medium for
language spread. Late Proto-Indo-European languages penetrated the eastern end of this
medium, either through the incorporation of Indo-European dialects in the TRB base
population before the Corded Ware horizon evolved, or through Corded Ware-Yamnaya
contacts later, or both. Indo-European speech probably was emulated because the chiefs who
spoke it had larger herds of cattle and sheep and more horses than could be raised in northern
Europe, and they had a politico-religious culture already adapted to territorial expansion.
3. The Corded Ware horizon spans over centuries. Most linguists agree that
Northern LIE dialects shared a common origin within the original Yamnaya territory
(ca. 3500-2500 BC), and that North-West Indo-European was a close linguistic
community, already separated from Pre-Tocharian, during the time of the first
Corded Ware migrations (ca. 2900-2500 BC, in the Kurgan framework). After that
shared linguistic community, their speakers migrated to the east and west, spreading
over a huge territory, which turned into a European continuum of different IE
dialects in close contact.
4. The general internal linguistic division proposed for North-West Indo-European
includes a West European group, with Pre-Italic and Pre-Celtic, and an East
European group, comprising Pre-Baltic and Pre-Slavic. Pre-Germanic is usually
assumed to have belonged to the West European core, and to have had contacts with
East European later in time, into a loose Balto-Slavo-Germanic community.
NOTE 1. Those who divide between Italo-Celto-Germanic and Balto-Slavic include e.g.:
Burrow (1955): The Western group of Indo-European languages consisting of Italic, Celtic
and Germanic, is distinguished by certain common features in grammar and vocabulary,
which indicate a fairly close mutual connection in prehistoric times. These ties are particularly
close in the case of Italic and Celtic, even though they are not sufficient to justify the theory of
common Italo-Celtic.
Kortlandt (1990): If the speakers of the other satem languages can be assigned to the
Yamnaya horizon and the western Indo-Europeans to the Corded Ware horizon, it is attractive
78
1. Introduction
to assign the ancestors of the Balts and the Slavs to the Middle Dnieper culture [an eastern
extension of the Corded Ware culture, of northern Ukraine and Belarus, see below IndoIranian].
Beekes (1995): Probably the Corded Ware people were the predecessors of the Germanic,
Celtic and Italic peoples, and, perhaps, of the Balto-Slavic peoples as well.
AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998): We think, to sum up, that a language more or
less common, between Celtic and Germanic, is plausible. And that in equally gradual terms,
but with a unity, if not complete, at least approximate, we should think the same for Baltic and
Slavic. Even though it is a theory that has awoken polemic discussions, with Meillet and Senn
as main representatives of the separation idea, Stang and Scherer of the unity; cf. Untermann
1957, Birnbaum 1975 () still more dubious is in relation with Illyrian, Venetic, etc. And
models of more unitary common languages, like Indo-Iranian ().
Those who divide between Italo-Celtic and Balto-Slavo-Germanic:
GamkrelidzeIvanov (1993-1994), departing from an Anatolian homeland: Especially
intense contacts at level 5 can be found between the Balto-Slavic-Germanic and Italic-Celtic
dialect areas. A long list of cognates can be adduced with lexical isoglosses reflecting close
historical interaction between these areas (see Meillet 1922) () New arrivals joined earlier
settlers to form an intermediate homeland shared by the tribes which later moved on to the
more western zones of Europe. This intermediate settlement area thus became a zone of
contacts and secondary rapprochements of dialects which had partially differentiated before
this. This is where the common lexical and semantic innovations were able to arise. () The
out-migration of the dialects from this secondary area - a secondary, or intermediate, protohomeland - to central and western Europe laid the foundation for the gradual rise of the
individual Italic, Celtic, Illyrian, Germanic, Baltic, and Slavic languages.
MalloryAdams (2007), who suppose an early separation of all European dialects
independently from the parent language: A major group presumably created or maintained
by contact is labelled the North-West group and comprises Germanic, Baltic, and Slavic (as
one chain whose elements may have been in closer contact with one another), and additionally
Italic and Celtic. () The evidence suggests that this spread occurred at some time before
there were marked divisions between these languages so that these words appear to have been
inherited from an early period; also, [t]here are so many of these words that are confined
within these five language groups (Celtic, Italic, Germanic, Baltic, and Slavic) that most
linguists would regard cognates found exclusively between any two or among all of these
groups as specifically North-West Indo-European and not demonstrably Proto-IndoEuropean. To accept a series of cognates as reflections of a PIE word requires that the
evidence come from further afield than a series of contiguous language groups in Europe;
79
and, [t]he North-West European languages (Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, Celtic, Italic) shared a
series of common loanwords (probably created among themselves as well as derived from
some non-Indo-European source) at some period.
This late continuum of closely related Northwestern IE languages has been linked
to the Old European (Alteuropisch) of Krahe (Unsere ltesten Flunamen, 1964;
Die Struktur der alteuropischen Hydronymie, 1964), the language of the oldest
reconstructed stratum of European hydronymy in Central and Western Europe.
NOTE. This Old European is not to be confused with the term as used by Marija Gimbutas,
who applies it to Neolithic Europe. The character of these river names is Pre-Germanic and
Pre-Celtic, and dated by Krahe to ca. 2000 BC, although according to the recent
archaeological and linguistic studies, it should probably be deemed slightly earlier. Old
European river names are found in the Baltic and southern Scandinavia, in Central Europe,
France, the British Isles, and the Iberian and Italian peninsulas. This area is associated with
the spread of the later Western Indo-European dialects, the Celtic, Italic, Germanic, Baltic,
Slavic, and Illyrian branches. Notably exempt are the Balkans and Greece. Krahe locates the
geographical nucleus of this area as stretching from the Baltic across Western Poland and
Germany to the Swiss plateau and the upper Danube north of the Alps, while he considers the
Old European river names of southern France, Italy and Spain to be later imports, replacing
Aegean-Pelasgian and Iberian substrates, corresponding to Italic, Celtic and Illyrian
invasions from about 1300 BC.
Tovar (1977, 1979) combines the split of the Graeco-Aryan group with the development of an
Old European language in Europe, which evolved into the historical languages attested.
Adrados (Arqueloga y diferenciacin del indoeuropeo, Em. 47, 1979) assume, as we have
seen, a North-West Indo-European or Old European language (of ca. 2000 BC or earlier,
according to Krahes account). In his view, the western core (Italo-Celto-Germanic) is still a
unitary dialect in the late dialect continuum, while the eastern core (Pre-Balto-Slavic) is
another, closely related dialect. This grouping has been supported by the latest phylogenetic
studies (Atkinson et al. 2005, Holm 2008, v.s.). According to that view, the late North-West
Indo-European community would have been similar e.g. to the German or to the NorthGermanic dialect continua: a West European core (equivalent to the German and
Scandinavian cores), plus a more different East European or Pre-Balto-Slavic territory
(equivalent to Dutch, and to Icelandic, respectively).
About the identification of the North-West European dialect continuum with the Old
European concept, AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998): The IE languages of Europe
are all derived from [Late Indo-European]; most of them are [Northern dialects], Greek (and
Thracian, we think) are [Southern] dialects. The first ones crystallised late, ca. 1000 BC or
80
1. Introduction
even later. But there are marks of earlier IE languages in Europe. Then a hypothesis results,
whereby an ancient IE language could have existed in Europe, previous to Baltic, Slavic,
Germanic, Latin, etc., a [Late Indo-European], or maybe an [Indo-Hittite] dialect.
This was put forward by the theory defended by Krahe (1964a, 1964b, among many
writings), in which the European hydronymy, because of its roots and suffixes, bears witness
to the existence of a European language previous to the differentiated languages (Germanic,
Celtic, etc.), which would have been born from it in a later date. This is the so-called Old
European (Alteuropisch). We would have here a new intermediate language. For a defence
of its presence in [the Iberian] Peninsula, cf. de Hoz 1963.
We lack otherwise data to decide the dialectal classification of this hypothetical language
(the existence of a distinct feminine speaks in favour of a [LIE dialect]). Some names have
been proposed: Drava, Dravos; Druna, Dravina, Dravonus; Dravan-, Dravantia, Druantia;
Druta, Drutus. Or, to put other example, Sava, Savos; Savina; Savara, Savira; Savintia;
Savistas. In cases like these, the roots are clearly IE, the suffixes too. The thesis that it is an IE
language previous to the known ones seems correct, if we take into account the huge time
span between the arrival of Indo-Europeans to Europe (in the fourth millennium BC) until the
crystallisation of European languages, much more recent ()
Therefore, the proposal of Schmid [(Alteuropisch und Indogermanisch, 1968)], that the
Old European of Krahe is simply IE, cannot be accepted. Apart from the arguments of Tovar
in different publications, especially in Tovar 1979 and 1977, we have to add that in our view
this IE knew the opposition masc./fem. -os/-a (-y), i.e. it [derived from LIE]. We have to add
Tovars corrections: we shouldnt think about a unitary language, impossible without political
and administrative unity, but about a series of dialects more or less evolved which clearly
shared certain isoglosses. ()
Indeed, all these discoveries, that took place in the 1950s and later, remain valid today, if we
place them within the history of [Late Indo-European]. We still have to broaden its base by
setting Old European (or more exactly its dialects) to the side of some IE languages whose
existence we trace back to Europe in a previous date to the formation of the big linguistic
groups that we know. They have left their marks not only in hydronymy (and toponymy and
onomastics in general), but also in the vocabulary of the later languages, and even in
languages that arrived to the historical age but are too badly attested; and, in any case, they
arent Celtic, nor Illyran, nor Venetic, nor any other historical dialect, but independent and
we believe older languages.
The investigation of Old European began precisely with the study of some toponymies and
personal names spread all over Europe, previously considered Ligurian (by H. dArbois de
Jubainville and C. Jullian) or Illyrian (by J. Pokorny), with which those linguistic groups
81
in turn badly known were given an excessive extension, based only on some lexical
coincidences. Today those hypotheses are abandoned, but the concept of Old European is
not always enough. It is commonly spoken about Pre-Celtic languages, because in territories
occupied by Celts toponyms and ethnic names have non-Celtic phonetics: especially with
initial p (Parisii, Pictones, Pelendones, Palantia); there are also, in the Latin of those regions,
loans of the same kind (so Paramus in Hispania).
In [the Iberian] Peninsula, more specifically, it has been proposed that peoples like the
Cantabri, Astures, Pellendones, Carpetani and Vettones were possibly of Pre-Celtic language
(cf. Tovar 1949:12). More closed is the discussion around Lusitanian () (see below).
5. Linguists have pointed out ancient language contacts of Italic with Celtic; Celtic
with Germanic; Germanic with Balto-Slavic. Southern dialectal isoglosses affect
Balto-Slavic and Tocharian, and only partially Germanic and Latin.
NOTE. According to AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998): One has to distinguish, in
this huge geographical space, different locations. We have already talked about the situation of
Germans to the West, and by their side, Celtic, Latin and Italic speakers; Balts and Slavs to the
East, the former to the North of the later. See, among others, works by Bonfante (1983, 1984),
about the old location of Baltic and Slavic-speaking communities. Isoglosses of different
chronology let us partially reconstruct the language history. Note that the output obtained
with phonetics and morphology match up essentially those of Porzig, who worked with lexica.
Celtic too shares isoglosses with Southern dialects, according to Meier-Brgger (2003):
Celtic contacts with eastern Indo-Europe are ancient. Compare the case, among others, of
relative pronouns, which in Celtic, contrarily to the Italic *kwo-/*kwi-, is represented by *Hio-,
a characteristic that it shares with Greek, Phrygian, Indo-Iranian and Slavic.
Against the inclusion of Pre-Latin IE within West Indo-European, there are some
archaeological and linguistic theories (Szemernyi, Colin Renfrew; v.s. for J.P. Mallory);
Polom (The Dialectal Position of Germanic within West-Indo-European, Proc. of the 13th
Int. Congress of Linguists, Tokyo, 1983) and Schmidt (1984, reviewed in AdradosBernab
Mendoza, 1995-1998) argued that innovations common to Celtic and Germanic came from a
time when Latin peoples had already migrated to the Italian peninsula, i.e. later than those
common to Celtic, Latin and Germanic.
On the unity of Proto-Italic and Proto-Latin, AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998):
dubious is the old unity scheme, no doubt only partial, between Latin and Osco-Umbrian,
which has been rejected by famous Italian linguists, relating every coincidence to recent
contacts. I am not so sure about that, as the common innovations are big; cf. Beeler 1966, who
doesnt however dispel the doubts. Obviously, according to the decision taken, there are
different historical consequences. If one thinks that both linguistic groups come from the
82
1. Introduction
North, through the Alps (cf. Tovar 1950), from the end of the 2nd millennium, a previous unity
can be proposed. But authors like Devoto (1962) or Szemernyi (1962) made Latin peoples
come from the East, through Apulia. There has been a continued archaeological and
(especially) linguistic support by mainstream IE studies to the derivation of Italic (and Latin)
from a West Indo-European core, even after critics to the old Italo-Celtic concept (C. Watkins
Italo-Celtic Revisited, 1963, K.H. Schmidt Latein und Keltisch, 1986); see Porzig (Die
Gliederung des indogermanischen Sprachgebiets, 1954), Dressler (ber die Reknostruktion
der idg. Syntax, KZ 85, 1971), Tovar (1970), Pisani (Indogermanisch und Europa, 1974),
Bonfante (Il celtibrico, il cltico e lindoeuropeo in RALinc., ser. VIII 1983; La protopatria
degli Slavi, in Accademia Polaca delle Scienze, Conferenze 89, 1984), AdradosBernab
Mendoza (1995-1998), etc.; on the archaeological question, see Ghirshman (LIran et la
migration des indo-aryens et des iraniens, 1977), Thomas (Archaeological Evidence for the
Migrations of the Indo-Europeans, in Polom (ed.) 1984), Gimbutas (Primary and
Secondary homeland of the Indo-Europeans, JIES 13, 1985), etc.
On Meillets Italo-Celtic, it appears today that the idea is rejected by a majority of scholars,
on the grounds of shared isoglosses which do not conform a community (cf. e.g. Watkins
1966). However, some common elections do reflect that both linguistic domains could in
ancient times penetrate each other (AdradosBernabMendoza 1995-1998). Recent
publications (GamkrelidzeIvanov 1994-1995, Kortlandt 2007, etc.), as well as quantitative
studies (see above 1.4.3) classify Italic and Celtic within the same branch, although
sometimes as a West group including a late Italo-Germanic or Celto-Germanic subgroup.
NOTE 3. Today, the contacts between Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian are usually classified as
from a late areal contact or Sprachbund, or some sort of late North-WestEast continuum
(so e.g. in Kortlandt 1990, Mallory 1989, AdradosBernabMendoza 1995-1998, West 2007,
Anthony 2007); e.g. MalloryAdams (2007): The Indo-Iranian and Balto-Slavic languages
share both satemisation and the ruki-rule and may have developed as some form of westeast
(or northwestsouth-east) continuum with certain features running through them (see below
Indo-Iranian).
6. The Germanic homeland is usually traced back to the Nordic Late Neolithic in
Scandinavia, still in contact with the Italo-Celtic homeland in Central Europe (Protontice?); the Late Corded Ware groups to the east probably represent the BaltoSlavic homeland. Beekes (1995), AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998), etc.
83
Haywood et al. The Cassell Atlas of World History. (1997) (2011, modified from Briangotts 2009)
Eurasian cultures in 2000 BC, after the disintegration of IEDs.
84
1. Introduction
A. GERMANIC
The largest Germanic
languages are English
and German, with ca.
340 and some 120
million
native
speakers, respectively.
Other
significant
languages include Low

Germanic dialects (like
Dutch)
and
the
Scandinavian languages.
Their
common
Germanic languages as first language of the

majority (dark colour) or official language of the
country (light colour). (2011, modified from Shardz Hayden 2010)
ancestor is Proto-Germanic, probably still spoken in the mid-1st millennium B.C. in

Iron Age Northern Europe, since its separation from an earlier Pre-Proto-Germanic,
a Northern Indo-European dialect dated ca. 1500-500 BC. The succession of
archaeological horizons suggests that before their language differentiated into the
individual Germanic branches the Proto-Germanic speakers lived in southern
Scandinavia and along the coast from the Netherlands in the west to the Vistula in
the east around 750 BC. Early Germanic dialects enter history with the Germanic
peoples who settled in northern Europe along the borders of the Roman Empire from
the second century AD.
NOTE. A few surviving inscriptions in a runic script from Scandinavia dated to ca. 200 are
thought to represent a later stage of Proto-Norse; according to Bernard Comrie, it represents a
Late Common Germanic which followed the Proto-Germanic stage. Several historical
linguists have pointed towards the apparent material and social continuity connecting the
cultures of the Nordic Bronze Age (1800-500 BC) and the Pre-Roman Iron Age (500 BC - AD
1) as having implications in regard to the stability and later development of the Germanic
language group. Lehmann (1977) writes: Possibly the most important conclusion based on
archeological evidence with relevance for linguistic purposes is the assumption of one huge
cultural area which was undisturbed for approximately a thousand years, roughly from 1500500 BC Such a conclusion in a stable culture permits inferences concerning linguistic stability,
which are important for an interpretation of the Germanic linguistic data.
85
The earliest evidence of the Germanic branch is recorded from names in the first
century by Tacitus, and in a single instance in the second century BC, on the Negau
helmet. From roughly the second century AD, some speakers of early Germanic
dialects developed the Elder Futhark. Early runic inscriptions are also largely limited
to personal names, and difficult to interpret. The Gothic language was written in the
Gothic alphabet developed by Bishop Ulfilas for his translation of the Bible in the
fourth century. Later, Christian priests and monks who spoke and read Latin in
addition to their native Germanic tongue began writing the Germanic languages with
slightly modified Latin letters, but in Scandinavia, runic alphabets remained in
common use throughout the Viking Age.
The so-called Grimms law is a set of statements describing the inherited NorthWest
Indo-European
stops
as
developed
they
in
Pre-
Proto-Germanic. As it
is
presently
formulated,
Grimms
Negau helmet. It reads (from right to left):

///
harikastiteiva\\\ip, Harigast the priest. (PD, n.d.)
Law consists of three parts, which must be thought of as three consecutive phases in
the sense of a chain shift:
Voiceless stops change to PGmc. voiceless fricatives: p*f, t*, k*x,

kw*xw.
Voiced stops become PGmc. voiceless stops: b*p, d*t, g*k, gw*kw.
Voiced aspirated stops lose their aspiration and change into plain voiced
stops: bh*b, dh*d, gh*g, gwh*gw,*g,*w.
Verners Law addresses a category of exceptions, stating that unvoiced fricatives are
voiced when preceded by an unaccented syllable: PGmc. *s*z, *f*v, **; as,
NWIE bhratr PGmc. *brr brother, but NWIE mtr PGmc. *mr
mother.
NOTE 1. W. P. Lehmann (1961) considered that Jacob Grimms First Germanic Sound
Shift, or Grimms Law and Verner's Law, which pertained mainly to consonants and were
considered for a good many decades to have generated Proto-Germanic, were Pre-ProtoGermanic, and that the upper boundary was the fixing of the accent, or stress, on the root
syllable of a word, typically the first. Proto-Indo-European had featured a moveable pitch
86
1. Introduction
accent comprising an alternation of high and low tones as well as stress of position
determined by a set of rules based on the lengths of the word's syllables.
The fixation of the stress led to sound changes in unstressed syllables. For Lehmann, the
lower boundary was the dropping of final -a or -e in unstressed syllables; for example, PIE
woid- >, Goth. wait, knows (the > and < signs in linguistics indicate a genetic descent).
Antonsen (1965) agreed with Lehmann about the upper boundary but later found runic
evidence that the -a was not dropped: Gmc. kwakraz ... wraita I wakraz ... wrote (this). He
says: We must therefore search for a new lower boundary for Proto-Germanic.
NOTE 2. Sometimes the shift produced
allophones
(consonants
that
were
pronounced differently) depending on the

context of the original. With regard to
original PIE k and kw, Trask (2000) says
that the resulting PGmc. *x and *xw were
reduced to *h and *hw in word-initial
position. Consonants were lengthened or
prolonged under some circumstances,
appearing in some daughter languages as
geminated
(2003)
graphemes.
states
that
Kraehenmann
Proto-Germanic
already had long consonants, but they

contrasted with short ones only word- Nordic Bronze Age culture (ca. 1200 BC),
medially. Moreover, they were not very Harper Atlas of World History (1993, PD)
frequent and occurred only intervocally almost exclusively after short vowels. The phonemes
*b, *d, *g and *gw, says Ringe (2006) were stops in some environments and fricatives in
others.
Effects of the aforementioned sound laws include the following examples:

pf: pods, foot, cf. PGmc. fts; cf. Goth. ftus, O.N. ftr, O.E. ft, O.H.G. fuoz.
t,: tritjs, third, cf. PGmc. rijaz; cf. Goth. ridja, O.N. rie, O.E. ridda,
O.H.G. dritto.
kx,h: kwon, dog, cf. PGmc. xunaz; cf. Goth. hunds, O.N. hundr, O.E. hund,
O.H.G. hunt.
kwxw,hw: kwos, what, who, cf. Gmc. hwoz; cf. Goth. hwas, O.N. hverr, O.S. hwe,
O.E. hw, O.Fris. hwa, O.H.G. hwr.
87
bp: werb, throw, cf. Gmc. werp; cf. Goth. wairpan, O.S. werpan, O.N.
verpa, O.E. weorpan, M.L.G., Du. werpen, Ger. werfen.
dt: dekm, ten, cf. Gmc. tehun; cf. Goth. taihun, O.S. tehan, O.N. tiu, O.Fris.
tian, O.Du. ten, O.H.G. zehan.
gk: gelu, ice, cf. Gmc. kaldaz; cf. Goth. kalds, O.N. kaldr, O.E. cald, O.H.G.
kalt.
gwkw: gwws, alive, cf. Gmc. kwi(k)waz; cf. Goth. kwius, O.N. kvikr, O.E. cwic,
O.H.G. quec.
bhb: bhrtr, brother, cf. Gmc. brr; cf. Goth. brar, O.N. brir, O.E.
bror, O.H.G. bruoder.
dhd: dhworis, door, cf. Gmc. duriz; cf. Goth. dar, O.N. dyrr, O.E duru,
O.H.G. turi.
ghg: ghansis, goose, cf. Gmc. gansiz; cf. Goth gansus, O.N. gs, O.E. gs,
O.H.G. gans.
gwhgw/g/w: gwhormos, warm, cf. Gmc. warmaz; cf. O.N. varmr, O.E.
wearm, O.H.G. warm. For gwhondos, fight, cf. Gmc. gandaz; cf. Goth. guns,
O.N. gandr, O.E. g, O.H.G. gund.
Putzger, Historischer Atlas (1954) (Dbachmann 2005)

88
1. Introduction
A known exception is that the voiceless stops did not become fricatives if they were
preceded by PIE s., i.e. sp, st, sk, skw. Similarly, PIE t did not become a fricative if it
was preceded by p, k, or kw. This is sometimes treated separately under the
Germanic spirant law.
NWIE vowels: a,o*a; ,*. PGmc. had then short *i, *u, *e, *a, and long *, *,
*, *, *?
NOTE 1. Similar mergers happened in the Slavic languages, but in the opposite direction. At
the time of the merge, the vowels probably were [] and [:] before their timbres
differentiated into maybe [] and [:].
NOTE 2. PGmc. * and * are also transcribed as *1 and *2; *2 is uncertain as a phoneme,
and only reconstructed from a small number of words; it is posited by the comparative
method because whereas all probable instances of inherited NWIE (PGmc. *1) are
distributed in Gothic as and the other Germanic languages as , all the Germanic languages
agree on some occasions of (e.g. PGmc. *h2r Goth.,O.E.,O.N. hr, here). Krahe treats
*2 (secondary *) as identical with *. It probably continues NWIE ei or i, and it may have
been in the process of transition from a diphthong to a long simple vowel in the ProtoGermanic period. Gothic makes no orthographic and therefore presumably no phonetic
distinction between *1 and *2. The existence of two Proto-Germanic [e:]-like phonemes is
supported by the existence of two e-like Elder Futhark runes, Ehwaz and Eihwaz.
B. LATIN
The
Romance
or
Romanic (also Neolatin)

languages comprise all
languages
that
descended from Latin,

the
language
of
the
Roman Empire.
Romance
languages
have some 800 million

Regions where Romance languages are spoken as
official languages (dark), by sizeable minorities or
official status (lighter) (2011 modified from PD)
native
speakers
worldwide, mainly in the
Americas, Europe, and Africa, as well as in many smaller regions scattered through
the world. The largest languages are Spanish and Portuguese, with about 400 and
89
200 million mother tongue speakers respectively, most of them outside Europe.
Within Europe, French (with 80 million) and Italian (70 million) are the largest ones.
All Romance languages descend from Vulgar Latin, the language of soldiers, settlers,
and slaves of the Roman Empire, which was substantially different from the Classical
Latin of the Roman literati. Between 200 BC and AD 100, the expansion of the
Empire, coupled with administrative and educational policies of Rome, made Vulgar
Latin the dominant native language over a wide area spanning from the Iberian
Peninsula to the Western coast of the Black Sea. During the Empires decadence and
after its collapse and fragmentation in the fifth century, Vulgar Latin evolved
independently within each local area, and eventually diverged into dozens of distinct
languages. The oversea empires established by Spain, Portugal and France after the
fifteenth century then spread Romance to the other continents to such an extent
that about two thirds of all Romance
speakers are now outside Europe.
Latin is usually classified, along
with Faliscan, as an Italic dialect. The
Italic speakers were not native to
Italy, but migrated into the Italian
Peninsula in the course of the second
millennium BC, and were apparently
related to the Celtic tribes that
roamed over a large part of Western
Europe at the time.
Archaeologically,
the
Apennine
culture of inhumations enters the

Italian Peninsula from ca. 1350 BC,
east to west; the Iron Age reaches Based on The Harper Atlas of World
Italy from ca. 1100 BC, with the
History 1987 (Zymos 2007)
Villanovan culture (with the practice of cremation), intruding north to south. The
later Osco-Umbrian, Veneti and Lepontii peoples, as well as the Latino-Faliscans,
have been associated with this culture. The first settlement on the Palatine hill dates
to ca. 750 BC, settlements on the Quirinal to 720 BC, both related to the founding of
Rome. As Rome extended its political dominion over Italy, Latin became dominant
90
1. Introduction
over the other Italic languages, which ceased to be spoken perhaps sometime in the
first c. AD.
Italic
is
usually
divided into:
Sabellic, including:
o Oscan, spoken
in south-central
Italy.
o Umbrian
group:
Umbrian.
Volscian.
Aequian.
Marsian.
South
Picene.
Latino-Faliscan,
including:
o Faliscan,
spoken in the
area
around
Ethnic groups within the Italian peninsula, ca. 600-500
Falerii Veteres, BC. In central Italy, Italic languages, (2011, modified

north of the city
from Ewan ar Born)
of Rome.
o Latin, spoken in west-central Italy. The Roman conquests eventually spread
it throughout the Roman Empire and beyond.
The ancient Venetic language, as revealed by its inscriptions (including complete
sentences), was also closely related to the Italic languages and is sometimes even
classified as Italic. However, since it also shares similarities with other Western IndoEuropean branches (particularly Germanic), some linguists prefer to consider it an
independent IE language.
Phonetic changes from NWIE to Latin include: bhf/b, dhf/b, ghh/f, gww/g,
kwkw/k, pp/kw.
91
The Italic languages are first attested in writing from Umbrian and Faliscan
inscriptions dating to the seventh century BC. The alphabets used are based on the
Old Italic alphabet, which is itself based on
the Greek alphabet. The Italic languages
themselves show minor influence from the
Etruscan and somewhat more from the
Ancient Greek languages.
Oscan had much in common with Latin,
though there are also some differences,
and many common word-groups in Latin
were represented by different forms; as,
Lat. uolo, uelle, uolui, and other such
forms
from
PIE
wel-,
will,
were
represented by words derived from gher-,

desire, cf. Osc. herest he wants, desires as
opposed to Lat. uult (id.). Lat. locus place
was absent and represented by Osc.
slaagid.
In phonology, Oscan also shows a
different evolution, as NWIE kw Osc. p
instead of Lat. kw (cf. Osc. pis, Lat. quis);
NWIE gw Osc. b instead of Latin w;
The Duenos (O.Lat. duenus, Lat.

buenus) Inscription in Old Latin,
sixth century BC. Illustration from
Hermes (1881, PD)
NWIE medial bh, dh Osc. f, in contrast to Lat. b or d (cf. Osc. mefiai, Lat. mediae);
etc.
NOTE. A specimen of Faliscan appears written round the edge of a picture on a patera: foied
vino pipafo, cra carefo, which in Old Latin would have been hodie vinom bibabo, cras carebo,
translated as today I will drink wine; tomorrow I won't have any (R. S. Conway, Italic
Dialects). Among other distinctive features, it shows the retention of medial f which in Latin
became b, and evolution of NWIE ghf (fo-, contrast Lat. ho-).
Hence the reconstructed changes of North-West Indo-European into Proto-Italic:

Voiced labiovelars unround or lenite: gw*g/*w, gwh*gh.
Voiced aspirates become first unvoiced, then fricativise: bh*ph**f;
dh*th*; gh*kh*x.
92
1. Introduction
NOTE. About intervocalic gh Ita. *x, linguists (see Joseph & Wallace 1991) generally
propose that it evolves as Faliscan g or k, while in Latin it becomes glottal h, without a change
of manner of articulation. Picard (1993) rejects that proposal citing abstract phonetic
principles, which Chela-Flores (1999) argues citing examples of Spanish phonology.
NWIE s Ita. * before r (cf. Ita. kererom, Lat. cerebrum); unchanged

elsewhere.
Up to 8 cases are found; apart from the 6 cases of Classic Latin (i.e. N-V-A-G-DAb), there was a locative (cf. Lat. proxumae viciniae, dom, carthagini; Osc. aasai,
Lat. in r, etc.) and an instrumental (cf. Columna Rostrata Lat. pugnandod,
marid, naualid, etc; Osc. cadeis amnud, Lat. inimicitiae causae; Osc. preiuatud,
Lat. prut, etc.). For originally differentiated genitives and datives, compare
genitive (Lapis Satricanus:) Popliosio Valesiosio (the type in - is also very old,
Segomaros -i), and dative (Praeneste Fibula:) numasioi, (Lucius Cornelius Scipio
Epitaph:) quoiei.
C. CELTIC
The Celtic languages
are
the
languages
descended from ProtoCeltic,
or
Common
Celtic.
During
millennium
the
first
BC,
especially between 400100 BC they were spoken

across Europe, from the
Diachronic distribution of Celtic-speaking peoples:
maximal expansion (ca. 200 BC) and modern Celtic speaking territories. (2011, modified from Dbachmann
2010)
southwest of the Iberian

Peninsula and the North
Sea, up the Rhine and
down the Danube to the
Black Sea and the Upper Balkan Peninsula, and into Asia Minor (Galatia). Today,
Celtic languages are now limited to a few enclaves in the British Isles and on the
peninsula of Brittany in France.
93
The distinction of Celtic into different sub-families probably occurred about 1000
BC. The early Celts are commonly associated with the archaeological Urnfield
culture, the La Tne culture, and the Hallstatt culture.
Some scholars distinguish Continental and Insular Celtic, arguing that the
differences between the Goidelic and Brythonic languages arose after these split off
from the Continental Celtic languages. Other scholars distinguish P-Celtic from QCeltic, putting most of the Continental Celtic languages in the former group except
for Celtiberian, which is Q-Celtic.
NOTE. There are two competing schemata of categorisation. One scheme, argued for by
Schmidt (1988) among others, links Gaulish with Brythonic in a P-Celtic node, leaving
Goidelic as Q-Celtic. The difference between P and Q languages is the treatment of NWIE kw,
which became *p in the P-Celtic languages but *k in Goidelic. An example is the Cel. verbal
root kwrin- to buy, which became Welsh pryn-, but O.Ir. cren-.
The other scheme links Goidelic and Brythonic together as an Insular Celtic branch, while
Gaulish and Celtiberian are referred to as Continental Celtic. According to this theory, the PCeltic sound change of kw to p occurred independently or regionally. The proponents of the
Insular Celtic hypothesis point to other shared innovations among Insular Celtic languages,
including
inflected
prepositions,
VSO word order,
and the lenition
of intervocalic m
to , a nasalised
voiced
fricative
bilabial
(an
extremely
rare
sound),
etc.
There
is,
however,
no
assumption that
the
Continental
Celtic languages
descend from a
94
Hallstatt core territory (ca. 800 BC) and its influence (ca. 500
BC); La Tne culture (ca. 450) and its influence (ca. 50 BC).
Major Celtic tribes are labelled. (Mod. from Dbachmann 2008)
1. Introduction
common Proto-Continental Celtic ancestor. Rather, the Insular/Continental schemata

usually consider Celtiberian the first branch to split from Proto-Celtic, and the remaining
group would later have split into Gaulish and Insular Celtic.
Known NWIE evolutions into Proto-Celtic include:

Consonants: p **h in initial and intervocalic positions. Cel. *sxs,
*txt
NOTE. LIE p was lost in
Proto-Celtic, apparently going
through the stages (perhaps
in Lus. porcos) and h (perhaps
attested
by
the
toponym
Hercynia if this is of Celtic

origin)
before
being
lost
completely word-initially and

between vowels. NWIE spbecame
Old
Irish
and
Brythonic f; while Schrijver

(1995) argues there was an Gaulish iscription
intermediate stage *s- (in
"Segomaros, son of Uill, citizen
which
remained
an (toutious) of Namausos, dedicated this sanctuary to
independent phoneme until Belesama" (Fabrice Philibert-Caillat 2004)
after Proto-Insular Celtic had diverged into Goidelic and Brythonic), McCone (1996) finds it
more economical to believe that sp- remained unchanged in PC, that is, the change p to *
did not happen when s preceded.
Aspirated: dhd, bhb, ghx, gwhgw; but gwb.

Vowels: , (in final syllable); ; NWIE u-w Cel. o-w.
Diphthongs: iai, iei, ioi; uau, u,uou.
Resonants: lla, li (before stops); r ar, ri (before stops); m am; n an.
Italo-Celtic refers to the hypothesis that Italic and Celtic dialects are descended
from a common ancestor, Proto-Italo-Celtic, at a stage post-dating Late IndoEuropean. Since both Proto-Celtic and Proto-Italic date to the early Iron Age (say,
the centuries on either side of 1000 BC), a probable time frame for the assumed
period of language contact would be the late Bronze Age, the early to mid-second
95
millennium BC. Such grouping was proposed by Meillet (1890), and has been
recently supported by Kortlandt (2007), among others (see above).
NOTE. One argument for Italo-Celtic was the thematic genitive in I (e.g. dominus, domini).
Both in Italic (Popliosio Valesiosio, Lapis Satricanus) and in Celtic (Lepontic, Celtiberian -o),
however, traces of PIE genitive -osjo have been discovered, so that the spread of the i-genitive
could have occurred in the two groups independently, or by areal diffusion. The community of
- in Italic and Celtic may be then attributable to late contact, rather than to an original unity.
The i-Genitive has been compared to the so-called Cvi formation in Sanskrit, but that too is
probably a comparatively late development.
Other arguments include that both Celtic and Italic have collapsed the PIE Aorist and
Perfect into a single past tense, and the -subjunctive, because both Italic and Celtic have a
subjunctive descended from an earlier optative in --. Such an optative is not known from
other languages, but the suffix occurs in Balto-Slavic and Tocharian past tense formations,
and possibly in Hitt. -ahh-.
D. SLAVIC
The Slavic or Slavonic
languages have speakers
in most of Eastern Europe,
in much of the Balkans, in
parts of Central Europe,
and in the northern part of
Asia.
The
largest
languages are Russian and

Polish, with 165 and some
million
speakers,
World map of countries with a majority Slavic 47
speakers (dark colour), and a significant minority respectively. The oldest
(light) of more than 10%. (Therexbanner 2010)
Slavic
literary
language
was Old Church Slavonic, which later evolved into Church Slavonic.
There is much debate on whether Pre-Slavic branched off directly from a Northern
LIE dialect, or it passed through a common Proto-Balto-Slavic stage, which would
have necessarily split apart before 1000 BC in its two main sub-branches.
96
1. Introduction
The original homeland of the speakers of Proto-Slavic remains controversial too.

The most ancient recognisably Slavic hydronyms are to be found in northern and
western Ukraine and southern Belarus. It has also been noted that Proto-Slavic
seemingly lacked a maritime
vocabulary.
The Proto-Slavic language
secession from a common
Proto-Balto-Slavic
is
estimated on archaeological
and
criteria
glottochronological
to
have
occurred
between 1500-1000 BC (see

below
Slavic
Baltic).
is
Common
usually
reconstructible to around AD
600.
Based on information and maps from Mallory

Adams (1997). (Slovenski Volk 2009)
By the seventh century, Common Slavic had broken apart into large dialectal zones.
Linguistic differentiation received impetus from the dispersion of the Slavic peoples
over a large territory which in Central Europe exceeded the current extent of
Slavic-speaking territories. Written documents of the ninth, tenth and eleventh
centuries already show some local linguistic features.
NOTE. For example the Freising monuments show a language which contains some
phonetic and lexical elements peculiar to Slovenian dialects (e.g. rhotacism, the word
krilatec).
In the second half of the ninth century, the dialect spoken north of Thessaloniki
became the basis for the first written Slavic language, created by the brothers Cyril
and Methodius who translated portions of the Bible and other church books. The
language they recorded is known as Old Church Slavonic. Old Church Slavonic is not
identical to Proto-Slavic, having been recorded at least two centuries after the
breakup of Proto-Slavic, and it shows features that clearly distinguish it from ProtoSlavic. However, it is still reasonably close, and the mutual intelligibility between Old
Church Slavonic and other Slavic dialects of those days was proved by Cyrils and
Methodius mission to Great Moravia and Pannonia. There, their early South Slavic
97
dialect used for the translations was clearly understandable to the local population
which spoke an early West Slavic dialect.
As part of the preparation for the mission, the Glagolitic alphabet was created in
862 and the most important prayers and liturgical books, including the Aprakos
Evangeliar a Gospel Book lectionary containing only feast-day and Sunday readings
, the Psalter, and Acts of the Apostles, were translated. The language and the
alphabet were taught at the Great Moravian Academy (O.C.S. Vekomoravsk
uilite) and were used for government and religious documents and books. In 885,
the use of the O.C.S. in Great Moravia was prohibited by the Pope in favour of Latin.
Students of the two apostles, who were expelled from Great Moravia in 886, brought
the Glagolitic alphabet and the Old Church Slavonic language to the Bulgarian
Empire, where it was taught and Cyrillic alphabet developed in the Preslav Literary
School.
Vowel changes from Late IndoEuropean to Proto-Slavic:
LIE *, *ei Sla. *i1; LIE *i *i
Sla. *; LIE *u *u Sla. *;

LIE Sla. *y.
LIE *e Sla. *e; LIE * Sla.
*1;
LIE *en, *em Sla. *; LIE *an,
*on; *am, *om *an; *am Sla.

* .
LIE *a, *o *a Sla. *o; LIE *,
* * Sla. *a; LIE *ai, *oi

*ai Sla. *2. Reduced *ai
(*i/*ui) Sla. *i2; LIE *au,*ou
*au Sla. *u.
NOTE. Apart from these simplified
equivalences, other patterns appear (see
Page from Codex Zographensis (10 th 11 th c. AD) in Old Church Slavonic. (PD)
Kortlandts article <http://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art066e.pdf>, From Proto-IndoEuropean to Slavic):

98
1. Introduction
o The vowels *i2, *2 developed later than *i1, *1. In Late Proto-Slavic there were no
differences in pronunciation between *i1 and i2 as well as between *1 and *2. They had
caused, however, different changes of preceding velars, see below.
o Late Proto-Slavic yers *, * < earlier *i, *u developed also from reduced LIE *e, *o
respectively. The reduction was probably a morphologic process rather than phonetic.
o We can observe similar reduction of * into * (and finally *y) in some endings,
especially in closed syllables.
o The development of the Sla. *i2 was also a morphologic phenomenon, originating only in
some endings.
o Another source of the Proto-Slavic *y is * in Germanic loanwords the borrowings
took place when Proto-Slavic no longer had * in native words, as LIE * had already
changed into *.
o LIE * disappeared without traces when in a non-initial syllable.
o LIE *eu probably developed into *jau in Early Proto-Slavic (or during the Balto-Slavic
epoch), and eventually into Proto-Slavic *ju.
o According to some authors, LIE long diphthongs *i, *i, *i, *u, *u, *u had twofold
development in Early Proto-Slavic, namely they shortened in endings into simple *ei, *ai,
*oi, *eu, *au, *ou but they lost their second element elsewhere and changed into *, *, *
with further development like above.
After Barford (A history of Eastern Europe: crisis and change, 2007).

(Slovenski Volk (2009)
99
Other vocalic changes from Proto-Slavic include *jo, *j, *jy changed into *je, *j, *ji; *o, *,
*y also changed into *e, *, *i after *c, *, *s which developed as the result of the 3rd
palatalisation; *e, * changed into *o, *a after *, *, *, * in some contexts or words; a similar
change of * into *a after *j seems to have occurred in Proto-Slavic but next it can have been
modified by analogy.
On the origin of Proto-Slavic consonants, the following relationships are found:

LIE *p Sla. *p; LIE *b, *bh Sla. *b.
LIE *t Sla. *t; LIE *d, *dh Sla. *d.
LIE *k, *kw Sla. k (palatalised *kj Sla. s); LIE *g, *gh, *gw, *gwh Sla. *g
(palatalised *gj, *gjh Sla. *z)
LIE *s Sla. *s; before a voiced consonant LIE *z Sla. *z; before a vowel
when after *r, *u, *k, *i, probably also after *l Sla. *x.
LIE word-final *m Sla. *n (<BSl. *n).
LIE *m Sla. *im, *um; LIE *n Sla. *in, *un; LIE *l Sla. *il, *ul; LIE r
Sla. *ir, *ur.
LIE *w Sla. *v (<BSl. *w); LIE *j Sla. *j.
In some words the Proto-Slavic *x developed from LIE phonemes like *ks, *sk.
E. BALTIC
The Baltic languages were spoken in areas extending east and southeast of the
Baltic Sea in Northern Europe.
The language group is often divided into two sub-groups: Western Baltic,
containing only extinct languages as Prussian or Galindan, and Eastern Baltic,
containing extinct as well as the two living languages in the group, Lithuanian and
Latvian. While related, Lithuanian and Latvian differ substantially from each other
and are not mutually intelligible.
The oldest Baltic linguistic record is the Elbinger lexicon of the beginning of the
fourteenth century. It contains 802 Old Prussian equivalents of Old Middle German
words. The oldest Baltic text is Old Prussian as well; it comes from the middle of the
fourteenth century and includes only eleven words. The first Old Lithuanian and Old
Latvian texts come from the sixteenth century and appear already in book form, and
were translations of a catechism and the Lords Prayer.
100
1. Introduction
Adapted
from
Gimbutas
(The
Balts,
1963).
(Map
Master
2007)
Baltic and Slavic share so many similarities that many linguists, following the lead
of such notable Indo-Europeanists as August Schleicher and Oswald Szemernyi,
take these to indicate that the two groups separated from a common ancestor, the
Proto-Balto-Slavic language, dated ca. 1500-500 BC, depending on the different
guesstimates.
NOTE 1. About Balto-Slavic guesstimates, Classical glottochronology conducted by Czech
Slavist M. ejka in 1974 dates the Balto-Slavic split to -910340 BC, Sergei Starostin in 1994
dates it to 1210 BC, and recalibrated glottochronology conducted by Novotn & Blaek dates
it to 1400-1340 BC. This agrees well with Trziniec-Komarov culture, localised from Silesia to
Central Ukraine and dated to the period 1500-1200 BC.
NOTE 2. Until Meillets Dialectes indo-europens of 1908, Balto-Slavic unity was
undisputed among linguists as he notes at the beginning of the Le Balto-Slave chapter,
Lunit linguistique balto-slave est lune de celles que personne ne conteste. Meillets
critique of Balto-Slavic confined itself to the seven characteristics listed by Karl Brugmann in
101
1903, attempting to show that no single one of these is sufficient to prove genetic unity.
Szemernyi in his 1957 re-examination of Meillets results concludes that the Balts and Slavs
did, in fact, share a period of common language and life, and were probably separated due
to the incursion of Germanic tribes along the Vistula and the Dnieper roughly at the beginning
of the Common Era.
A new theory was proposed in the 1960s by V. Ivanov and V. Toporov: that the
Balto-Slavic proto-language split from the start into West Baltic, East Baltic and
Proto-Slavic. In their framework, Proto-Slavic is a peripheral and innovative BaltoSlavic dialect which suddenly expanded, due to a conjunction of historical
circumstances. Onomastic evidence shows that Baltic languages were once spoken in
much wider territory than the one they cover today, and were later replaced by Slavic.
Linguistic area of Balto-Slavic areas, Ramat (1993). (Slovenski Volk 2009)

NOTE. The most important of these common Balto-Slavic isoglosses are:
o Winters law: lengthening of a short vowel before a voiced plosive, usually in a closed
syllable.
o Identical reflexes of LIE syllabic resonants, usually developing i and u before them.
Kuryowicz thought that *uR reflexes arose after LIE velars, and also notable is also older
102
1. Introduction
opinion of J.Endzelns and *R. Trautmann according to whom *uR reflexes are the result
of zero-grade of morphemes that had LIE *o PBSl. *a in normal-grade. Matasovi
(2008) proposes following internal rules after LIE *r BSl. *r: 1) **i in a final
syllable; 2) **u after velars and before nasals; 3) **i otherwise.
o Hirts law: retraction of LIE accent to the preceding syllable closed by a laryngeal.
o Rise of the Balto-Slavic acute before LIE laryngeals in a closed syllable.
o Replacement of LIE genitive singular of thematic nouns with ablative.
o Formation of past tense in *- (cf. Lith. pret. dv, he gave, O.C.S. imperfect b, he
was)
o Generalisation of the LIE neuter to- stem to the nominative singular of masculine and
feminine demonstratives instead of LIE so- pronoun, so, s, tod BSl. *tos, *t, *tod.
o Formation of definite adjectives with a construction of adjective and relative pronoun; cf.
Lith. gersis, the good, vs. gras, good; O.C.S dobrj, the good, vs. dobr, good.
Common Balto-Slavic innovations include several other prominent, but non-exclusive
isoglosses, such as the satemisation, Ruki, change of LIE *o BSl. *a (shared with Germanic,
Indo-Iranian and Anatolian) and the loss of labialisation in LIE labiovelars (shared with IndoIranian, Armenian and Tocharian). Among Balto-Slavic archaisms notable is the retention of
traces of an older LIE pitch accent. Ruki is the term for a sound law which is followed
especially in BSl. and Aryan dialects. The name of the term comes from the sounds which
cause the phonetic change, i.e. LIE *s / r, u, k, i (it associates with a Slavic word which
means hands or arms). A sibilant *s is retracted to * after *i, *u,* r, and after velars (i.e. *k
which may have developed from earlier *k, *g, *gh). Due to the character of the retraction, it
was probably an apical sibilant (as in Spanish), rather than the dorsal of English. The first
phase (*s *) seems to be universal, the later retroflexion (in Sanskrit and probably in ProtoSlavic as well) is due to levelling of the sibilant system, and so is the third phase - the
retraction to velar *x in Slavic and also in some Middle Indian languages, with parallels in e.g.
Spanish. This rule was first formulated for IE by Holger Pedersen.
Baltic and Slavic show a remarkable amount of correspondence in vocabulary too; there are
at least 100 words exclusive to BSl., either being a common innovation or sharing the same
semantic development from a PIE root; as, BSl. *lip, tilia Lith. lepa, O.Prus. lpa, Ltv.
lipa; Sla. *lipa; BSl. *rank, hand Lith. rank, O.Prus. rnkan, Ltv. roka; Sla. *rk
(cf. O.C.S. rka). BSl. *galw, head Lith. galv, O.Prus. galwo, Ltv. galva; Sla. *golv (cf.
O.C.S. glava).
103
F. FRAGMENTARY DIALECTS
MESSAPIAN
Messapian (also known as Messapic) is an extinct language of south-eastern Italy,
once spoken in the regions of Apulia and Calabria. It was spoken by the three
Iapygian tribes of the region: the Messapians, the Daunii and the Peucetii. The
language, a centum dialect, has been preserved in about 260 inscriptions dating from
the sixth to the first century BC. It became extinct after the Roman Empire
conquered the region and assimilated the inhabitants.
Some have proposed that Messapian was an Illyrian language. The Illyrian
languages were spoken mainly on the other side of the Adriatic Sea. The link between
Messapian and Illyrian is based mostly on personal names found on tomb
inscriptions and on classical references, since hardly any traces of the Illyrian
language are left.
NOTE. Some phonetic characteristics of the language may be regarded as quite certain:
o PIE short *oa, as in the last syllable of the genitive kalatoras.
o PIE final *mn, as in aran.
o PIE *njnn, as in the Messapian praenomen Dazohonnes vs. the Illyrian praenomen
Dazonius; the Messapian genitive Dazohonnihi vs. Illyrian genitive Dasonii, etc.
o PIE *tjtth, as in the Messapian praenomen Dazetthes vs. Illyrian Dazetius; the
Messapian genitive Dazetthihi vs. the Illyrian genitive Dazetii; from a Dazet- stem
common in Illyrian and Messapian.
o PIE *sjss, as in Messapian Vallasso for Vallasio, a derivative from the shorter name
Valla.
o The loss of final *-d, as in tepise, and probably of final *-t, as in -des, perhaps meaning
set, from PIE *dhe- set, put.
o The change of voiced aspirates in Proto-Indo-European to plain voiced consonants: PIE
*dhd, as in Messapian anda (< PIE *en-dha- < PIE *en- in, compare Gk. entha); and
PIE *bhb, as in Messapian beran (< PIE *bher- to bear).
o PIE *au before (at least some) consonants: Bsta, from Bausta.
o The form penkaheh which Torp very probably identifies with the Oscan stem pompaio
a derivative of the Proto-Indo-European numeral *penkwe five.
o If this last identification be correct it would show, that in Messapian (just as in Venetic
and Ligurian) the original labiovelars (*kw,*gw, *gwh) were retained as gutturals and not
104
1. Introduction
converted into labials. The change of o to a is interesting, being associated with the
northern branches of Indo-European such as Gothic, Albanian and Lithuanian, and not
appearing in any other southern dialect hitherto known. The Greek Aphrodite appears in
the form Aprodita (Dat. Sg., fem.).
o The use of double consonants which has been already pointed out in the Messapian
inscriptions has been very acutely connected by Deecke with the tradition that the same
practice was introduced at Rome by the poet Ennius who came from the Messapian town
Rudiae (Festus, p. 293 M).
VENETIC
Venetic was spoken in the Veneto region of Italy, between the Po River delta and
the southern fringe of the Alps. It was a centum language.
The language is attested by over 300 short inscriptions dating between the sixth
century BC and first century AD. Its speakers are identified with the ancient people
called Veneti by the Romans and Enetoi by the Greek. The inscriptions use a variety
of the Northern Italic alphabet, similar to the Old Italic alphabet. It became extinct
around the first century when the local inhabitants were assimilated into the Roman
sphere.
NOTE. The exact relationship of Venetic to other Indo-European languages is still being
investigated, but the majority of scholars agree that Venetic, aside from Liburnian, was closest
to the Italic languages. Venetic may also have been related to the Illyrian languages, though
the theory that Illyrian and Venetic were closely related is debated by current scholarship.
Interesting parallels with Germanic have also been noted, especially in pronominal forms:
Ven. ego I, acc. mego me; Goth. ik, acc. mik; but cf. Lat. ego, acc. me.
Ven. sselboisselboi to oneself; O.H.G. selb selbo; but cf. Lat. sibi ipsi.
Venetic had about six or even seven noun cases and four conjugations (similar to Latin).
About 60 words are known, but some were borrowed from Latin (liber.tos. < libertus) or
Etruscan. Many of them show a clear Indo-European origin, such as Ven. vhraterei (< PIE
*bhreh2terei) to the brother.
In Venetic, PIE stops *bhf, *dhf, *ghh, in word-initial position (as in Latin and OscoUmbrian), but to *bhb, *dhd, *ghg, in word-internal intervocalic position, as in Latin. For
Venetic, at least the developments of *bh and *dh are clearly attested. Faliscan and OscoUmbrian preserve internal *bhf,* dhf, *ghh.
There are also indications of the developments of PIE initial *gww-, PIE *kwkv and PIE
initial *gwhf in Venetic, all of which are parallel to Latin, as well as the regressive assimilation
105
of PIE sequence *p...kw... kw...kw... (e.g. *penkwe *kwenkwe, five, *perkwu *kwerkwu,
oak), a feature also found in Italic and Celtic (Lejeune 1974).
LIGURIAN
The Ligurian language was spoken in pre-Roman times and into the Roman era by
an ancient people of north-western Italy and south-eastern France known as the
Ligures. Very little is known about this language (mainly place names and personal
names remain) which is generally believed to have been Indo-European; it appears to
have adopted significantly from other IE languages, primarily Celtic (Gaulish) and
Latin.
Strabo states As for the Alps... Many tribes (thn) occupy these mountains, all
Celtic (Keltik) except the Ligurians; but while these Ligurians belong to a different
people (hetero-ethneis), still they are similar to the Celts in their modes of life
(bois).
LIBURNIAN
The Liburnian language is an extinct language spoken by the ancient Liburnians in
the region of Liburnia (south of the Istrian peninsula) in classical times. It is usually
classified as a centum language. It appears to have been on the same Indo-European
branch as the Venetic language; indeed, the Liburnian tongue may well have been a
Venetic dialect.
NOTE. No writings in Liburnian are known, though. The grouping of Liburnian with Venetic
is based on the Liburnian onomastics. In particular, Liburnian anthroponyms show strong
Venetic affinities, with many common or similar names and a number of common roots, such
as Vols-, Volt-, and Host- (<PIE *ghos-ti- stranger, guest, host). Liburnian and Venetic names
also share suffixes in common, such as -icus and -ocus.
These features set Liburnian and Venetic apart from the Illyrian onomastic province, though
this does not preclude the possibility that Venetic-Liburnian and Illyrian may have been
closely related, belonging to the same Indo-European branch. In fact, a number of linguists
argue that this is the case, based on similar phonetic features and names in common between
Venetic-Liburnian on the one hand and Illyrian on the other.
Liburnia was conquered by the Romans in 35 BC, and its language was eventually
replaced by Latin, undergoing language death probably very early in the Common
Era.
106
1. Introduction
LUSITANIAN
Lusitanian or Lusatian (so named after the Lusitani or Lusitanians) was a
Paleohispanic IE language known by only five inscriptions and numerous toponyms
and theonyms. The language was spoken before the Roman conquest of Lusitania, in
the territory inhabited by Lusitanian tribes, from Douro to the Tagus River in the
western area of the Iberian Peninsula, where they were established already before the
sixth century BC.
Their language is usually considered a Pre-Celtic (possibly stemming from a
common Italo-Celtic) IE dialect, and it is sometimes associated with the language of
the Vettones and with the linguistic substratum of the Gallaeci and Astures, based on
archaeological findings and descriptions of ancient historians.
(2011, modified from
Alcides Pinto 2010)
NOTE. The affiliation of the Lusitanian language within a Pre-Celtic IE group is supported
by Tovar, Schmidt, Gorrochategui, among others, while Untermann e.g. considers it a Celtic
language.The theory that it was a Celtic language is largely based upon the historical fact that
the only Indo-European tribes that are known to have existed in Hispania at that time were
Celtic tribes. The apparent Celtic character of most of the lexicon anthroponyms and
107
toponyms may also support a Celtic affiliation. There is a substantial problem in the Celtic
theory, though: the preservation of PIE initial *p-, as in Lusitanian pater father, or porcom
pig. The Celtic languages had lost that initial PIE *p- in their evolution; compare Lat. pater,
Gaul. ater, and Lat. porcum, O.Ir. orc. However, that does not necessarily preclude the
possibility of Lusitanian being Celtic, because of the theoretical evolution of LIE initial *p *
*h Cel. , so it might have been an early Proto-Celtic (or Italo-Celtic) dialect that split off
before the loss of *p-, or when *p- had become *- (before shifting to *h- and then being lost);
the letter p of the Latin alphabet could have been used to represent either sound.
F. Villar and R. Pedrero relate Lusitanian with the Italic languages. The theory is based on
parallels in the names of deities, as Lat. Consus, Lus. Cossue, Lat. Seia, Lus. Segia, or
Marrucinian Iovia, Lus. Iovea(i), etc. and other lexical items, as Umb. gomia, Lus. comaiam,
with some other grammatical elements.
II. NORTHERN INDO-EUROPEAN IN ASIA: TOCHARIAN

Tocharian or Tokharian is one of the most obscure branches of the Northern
dialects. The name of the language is taken from people known to the Greek
historians (Ptolemy VI, 11, 6) as the Tocharians (Greek , Tkharoi).
NOTE. These are sometimes identified with the Yuezhi and the Kushans, while the term
Tokharistan usually refers to first millennium Bactria. A Turkic text refers to the Turfanian
language (Tocharian A) as twqry. F. W. K. Mller has associated this with the name of the
Bactrian Tokharoi. In Tocharian, the language is referred to as arish-kna and the Tocharians
as arya.
Tocharian consisted of two languages; Tocharian A (Turfanian, Arsi, or East

Tocharian) and Tocharian B (Kuchean or West Tocharian). These languages were
spoken roughly from the sixth to ninth centuries; before they became extinct, their
speakers were absorbed into the expanding Uyghur tribes. Both languages were once
spoken in the Tarim Basin in Central Asia, now the Xinjiang Autonomous Region of
China.
NOTE. Properly speaking, based on the tentative interpretation of twqry as related to
Tokharoi, only Tocharian A may be referred to as Tocharian, while Tocharian B could be
called Kuchean (its native name may have been kuie), but since their grammars are usually
treated together in scholarly works, the terms A and B have proven useful.
Tocharian is documented in manuscript fragments, mostly from the eighth century

(with a few earlier ones) that were written on palm leaves, wooden tablets and
Chinese paper, preserved by the extremely dry climate of the Tarim Basin. Samples of
108
1. Introduction
the language have been discovered at sites in Kucha and Karasahr, including many
mural inscriptions.
Tocharian A and B were not intercomprehensible. The common Proto-Tocharian
language must have preceded the attested languages by several centuries, probably
dating to the first millennium BC.
1.7.2. SOUTHERN INDO-EUROPEAN DIALECTS

I. GREEK
Ancient Greek dialects by 400 BC after R.D. Woodard (2004). (2009, modified
from Fut. Perf. 2008)
1. Greek has a documented history of 3500 years. Today, Modern Greek is spoken
by 15 million people.
2. The major dialect groups of the Ancient Greek period can be assumed to have
developed not later than 1120 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasions, and their first
appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the eighth century BC.
109
3. Mycenaean is the most ancient attested form of the Greek branch, spoken on
mainland Greece and on Crete between 1600-1100 BC, before the Dorian invasion. It
is preserved in inscriptions in Linear B, a script invented on Crete before the
fourteenth century BC. Most instances of these inscriptions are on clay tablets found
in Knossos and in Pylos. The language is named after Mycenae, the first of the
palaces to be excavated.
NOTE. The tablets remained long undeciphered, and every conceivable language was
suggested for them, until Michael Ventris deciphered the script in 1952 and proved the
language to be an early form of Greek. The texts on the tablets are mostly lists and inventories.
No prose narrative survives, much less myth or poetry. Still, much may be glimpsed from
these records about the people who produced them, and about the Mycenaean period at the
eve of the so-called Greek Dark Ages.
5. Unlike later varieties of Greek, Mycenaean probably had seven grammatical

cases, the nominative, the genitive, the accusative, the dative, the instrumental, the
locative, and the vocative.
The instrumental and the
locative however gradually
fell out of use.
NOTE. For the locative in *ei,
compare
didaskalei,
di-da-ka-re,
e-pi-ko-e,
Epikhei, etc (in Greek there

are syntactic compounds like
puloi-gens, born in Pylos);
also, for remains of an ablative
case in *-d, compare (months Mycenaean tablet (MY Oe 106) inscripted in linear
B coming from the House of the Oil Merchant (ca.
names)
ka-ra-e-ri-jo-me-no,
1250 BC). The tablet registers an amount of wool
wo-de-wi-jo-me-no, etc.
which is to be dyed. National Archaeological
Museum of Athens. (Marsyas 2005)
6. Proto-Greek (the so-
called Proto-Hellenic, or Pre-Greek in Sihler 1995) was a Southern LIE dialect,

spoken in the late third millennium BC, roughly at the same time as North-West
Indo-European and Proto-Indo-Iranian, most probably in the Balkans.
NOTE. According to Anthony (2007): Greek shared traits with Armenian and Phrygian,
both of which probably descended from languages spoken in southeastern Europe before 1200
110
1. Introduction
BCE, so Greek shared a common background with some southeastern European languages
that might have evolved from the speech of the Yamnaya immigrants in Bulgaria. Proponents
of a Proto-Greek homeland in Bulgaria or Romania are found in Sergent (1995), J. Makkay
(Atti e memorie del Secondo Congresso Internazionale di Micenologia, 1996; Origins of the
Proto-Greeks and Proto-Anatolians from a Common Perspective, 2003).
7. Proto-Greek (Pre-Greek or Proto-Hellenic) has been posited as a probable

ancestor of Phrygian, and a possible ancestor of Thracian, Dacian, and Ancient
Macedonian. Armenian has traditionally been regarded as derived from it through
Phrygian, although this is disputed today.
NOTE. The Graeco-Armenian hypothesis proposed a close relationship to the Greek
language putting both in the larger context of the Paleo-Balkan Sprachbund notably
including Phrygian, which is widely accepted particularly close to Greek , consistent with
Herodotus recording of the Armenians as descending from colonists of the Phrygians. That
traditional linguistic theory, proposed by Pedersen (1924), proposed a close relationship
between both original communities, Greek and Armenian, departing from a common
language. That vision, accepted for a long time, was rejected by Clackson (1994) in The
linguistic relationship between Armenian and Greek, which, while supporting the GraecoAryan community, argues that there are not more coincidences between Armenian and Greek
than those found in the comparison between any other IE language pair; shared isoglosses
would therefore stem from contiguity within the common S.LIE community. Those findings
are supported by Kortlandt in Armeniaca (2003), in which he proposes an old Central IE
continuum Daco-Albanian / Graeco-Phrygian / Thraco-Armenian. Adrados (1998), considers
an older Southern continuum Graeco-[Daco-]Thraco-Phrygian / Armenian / Indo-Iranian.
Olteanu (2009) proposes a Graeco-Daco-Thracian language.
8. The unity of Proto-Greek probably ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek
peninsula around 2300 BC.
NOTE. About the archaeological quest, Anthony (2007): The people who imported Greek or
Proto-Greek to Greece might have moved several times, perhaps by sea, from the western
Pontic steppes to southeastern Europe to western Anatolia to Greece, making their trail hard
to find. The EHII/III transition about 2400-2200 BCE has long been seen as a time of radical
change in Greece when new people might have arrived ().
In Wests (2007) words, The first speakers of Greek or rather of the language that was to
develop into Greek; I will call them mello-Greeks arrived in Greece, on the most widely
accepted view, at the beginning of Early Helladic III, that is, around 2300. They came by way
of Epirus, probably from somewhere north of the Danube.
111
9. The primary sound changes from PIE to Proto-Greek include:

Aspiration of PIE intervocalic *s PGk h.
NOTE. The loss of PIE prevocalic *s- was not completed entirely, famously evidenced by the
loss
of
prevocalic *s was
not
completed
entirely,
famously
evidenced
by PGk
ss (also hs, pig, from PIE *suh-); sun with, sometimes considered contaminated with
PIE *kom (cf. Latin cum) to Homeric / Old Attic ksun, is possibly a consequence of Gk. psisubstrate (Villar).
De-voicing of PIE voiced aspirates: *bhph, *dhth, *ghkh, *gwhkwh.

Dissimilation of aspirates (Grassmanns law), possibly post-Mycenaean.
PIE word-initial *j- (not *Hj-) is strengthened to PGk dj- (later Gk. -).
In the first stage of palatalisation (Sihler 1995), PIE *dj- was possibly palatalised
into PGk dz(j)- , while PIE *tj-, *dhj- probably became PGk ts(j)-.
Vocalisation of laryngeals between vowels and initially before consonants, i.e.
*h1e, *h2a, *h3o; as, from PIE *h2nr man, PGk. anr.
NOTE. That development is common to Greek, Phrygian and Armenian; cf. Gk. anr,
Phrygian anar, and Armenian ayr (from earlier *anir). In other branches, laryngeals did not
vocalise in this position and eventually disappeared. The evolution of Proto-Greek should be
considered with the background of an early Palaeo-Balkan Sprachbund that makes it difficult
to delineate exact boundaries between individual languages. Phrygian and Armenian also
share other phonological and morphological peculiarities of Greek.
The sequence CRHC evolves generally as follows: *CRh1C PGk CRC; PIE
*CRh2C PGk CRC; PIE *CRh3C PGk CRC.
The sequence PIE *CRHV becomes generally PGk CaRV.
NOTE. It has also been proposed by Sihler (2000) that PIE *Vkwukw; cf. PIE *nokwts
night PGk nukwts Gk. nuks/nuxt-; cf. also *kwekwlos wheel PGk kwukwlos Gk.
kuklos; etc. This is related to Cowgill's law, raising *o to u between a resonant and a labial.
10. Later sound changes from Proto-Greek into mello-Greek (or from Pre-Greek
into Proto-Greek after Sihler 1995), from which Mycenaean was derived, include:
o The second stage of palatalisation, which affected all consonants, including the
restored tsj and dzj sequences (Sihler 1995).
o Loss of final stop consonants; final mn.
o Syllabic mam, and nan, before resonants; otherwise both were nasalised
m/na.
112
1. Introduction
o Loss of s in consonant clusters, with supplementary lengthening, e.g. esmimi.

o Creation of secondary s from clusters, ntjansa. Assibilation tisi only in
southern dialects.
o Mycenaean i-vocalism and replacement of double-consonant -kw- for -kwkw-.
NOTE. On the problematic case of common Greek (hippos), horse, derived from PIE
and PGk ekwos, Meier-Brgger (2003): the i-vocalism of which is best understood as an
inheritance from the Mycenaean period. At that time, e in a particular phonetic situation must
have been pronounced in a more closed manner, cf. di-pa i.e. dipas neuter lidded container
fror drinking vs. the later (since Homer): Risch (1981), O. Panagl (1989). That the iform extended to the entire Greek region may be explained in that the word, very central
during Mycenaean rule of the entire region (second millennium BC), spread and suppressed
the e-form that had certainly been present at one time. On the -pp-: The original doubleconsonance -kuwas likely replaced by -kwkw- in the pre-Mycenaean period, and again, in turn
by -pp- after the disappearance of the labiovelars. Suggestions of an ancient -kwkw- are already
given by the Mycenaean form as i-qo (a possible *i-ko-wo does not appear) and the noted
double-consonance in alphabetic Greek. The aspiration of the word at the beginning remains a
riddle.
Other
features
common
to
the
earliest Greek dialects

include:
Late
satemisation
trend, evidenced
by
the
Mycenaean
change
labiovelars
Main dialectal distribution in territories with Greek -
post- speaking majorities (ca. 15th c.): Koin, Pontic and

Cappadocian Greek. The language distribution in Anatolia
remained almost unchanged until the expulsion of Greeks
of (1914-1923) from Turkey. (2011, modified from Ivanchay,
Infocan 2008)
into
dentals before e; as, kwe te and.

PIE dative, instrumental and locative were syncretised into a single dative.
Dialectal nominative plural in -oi, -ai (shared with Latin) fully replaces LIE
common *-s, *-s.
The superlative -tatos (<PIE *-to-) becomes productive.
113
The peculiar oblique stem gunaik- women, attested from the Thebes tablets is
probably Proto-Greek; it appears, at least as gunai- also in Armenian.
The pronouns houtos, ekeinos and autos are created. Use of ho, h, ton as
articles is post-Mycenaean.
The first person middle verbal desinences -mai, -mn replace -ai, -a. The third
singular pherei is an analogical innovation, replacing the expected PIE *bhreti,
i.e. Dor. *phereti, Ion. *pheresi.
The future tense is created, including a future passive, as well as an aorist
passive.
The suffix -ka- is attached to some perfects and aorists.
Infinitives in -ehen, -enai and -men are also common to Greek dialects.
II. ARMENIAN
The earliest testimony of the
Armenian language dates to the fifth
century AD, the Bible translation of
Mesrob
Mashtots.
The
earlier
history of the language is unclear

and the subject of much speculation.
It is clear that Armenian is an IndoEuropean
language,
but
its
development is opaque.
NOTE. Proto-Armenian sound-laws
are varied and eccentric, such as IE
*dw- yielding Arm. k-, and in many
cases still uncertain. In fact, that
phonetic development is usually seen as
*dw- to erk-, based on PIE numeral
*dwo- two, a reconstruction Kortlandt
(Armeniaca 2003) dismisses, exposing
Armenian manuscript, ca. 5 th -6 th c. AD (PD)
alternative etymologies for the usual

examples.
PIE voiceless stops are aspirated in Proto-Armenian.
114
1. Introduction
NOTE. That circumstance gave rise to the Glottalic theory, which postulates that this
aspiration may have been sub-phonematic already in Proto-Indo-European. In certain
contexts, these aspirated stops are further reduced to w, h or in Armenian so e.g. PIE
*pots, into Arm. otn, Gk. pous foot; PIE *treis, Arm. erek, Gk. treis three.
Armenia today (darkest colour), Armenian majorities (dark) and greatest extent
of the Kingdom of Armenia (light). Territory of the 6 Armenian Vilaye ts in the
Ottoman Empire (dotted line), and areas with significant Armenian population
prior to the Armenian Genocide (stripes). Ivaca Flavius (2010).
III. INDO-IRANIAN
The Indo-Iranian or Aryan language group consists of two main language
subgroups, Indo-Aryan and Iranian. Nuristani has been suggested as a third one,
while Dardic is usually classified within Indo-Aryan.
The contemporary Indo-Iranian languages form the second largest sub-branch of
Late Indo-European (after North-West Indo-European), with more than one billion
speakers in total, stretching from Europe (Romani) and the Caucasus (Ossetian) to
East India (Bengali and Assamese). The largest in terms of native speakers are
Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu, ca. 540 million), Bengali (ca. 200 million), Punjabi (ca.
100 million), Marathi and Persian (ca. 70 million each), Gujarati (ca. 45 million),
Pashto (40 million), Oriya (ca. 30 million), Kurdish and Sindhi (ca. 20 million each).
While the archaeological identification of Pre-Proto-Indo-Iranians and Proto-IndoIranians remains unsolved, it is believed that ca. 2500 BC a distinct Proto-Indo-
115
Iranian language must have been spoken in the eastern part of the previous Yamna
territory.
NOTE. Parpola (The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European, 1999) suggests the
following identifications:
Date range
2000-1800 BC
2000-1800 BC
Archaeological culture
Late Catacomb and Poltavka
cultures
Srubna and Abashevo cultures
Petrovka-Sintashta
1900-1700 BC
BMAC
1900-1400 BC
Cemetery H
1800-1000 BC
Alakul-Fedorovo
1700-1400 BC
early Swat culture
1700-1500 BC
late BMAC
1500-1000 BC
Early West Iranian Grey Ware
2800-2000 BC
1400-800 BC
1400-1100 BC
1100-1000 BC
1000-400 BC
late Swat culture and Punjab,

Painted Grey Ware
Yaz II-III, Seistan
Gurgan Buff Ware, Late West
Iranian Buff Ware
Iron Age cultures of Xinjang
Suggested by Parpola
LIE to Proto-Indo-Iranian.
Proto-Iranian
Proto-Indo-Aryan
Proto-Dasa Indo-Aryans establishing
themselves in the existing BMAC
settlements, defeated by Proto-Rigvedic
Indo-Aryans around 1700
Indian Dasa
Indo-Aryan,
including
ProtoSaumaAryan practicing the Soma cult
Proto-Rigvedic = Proto-Dardic
ProtoSauma-Dasa,
assimilation
of
Proto-Dasa and ProtoSauma-Aryan
Mitanni-Aryan (offshoot of Proto-SaumaDasa)
late Rigvedic
Proto-Avestan
Proto-Persian, Proto-Median
Proto-Saka
It is generally believed that early Indo-Iranian contacts with the easternmost part of
North-West IE (Pre-Balto-Slavic) accounts for their shared linguistic features, such
as satemisation and Ruki sound law. Assuming as it is commonly done that both
phonetic trends were late developments after the LIE community, an early NorthWestSouth-East Sprachbund or dialect continuum must have taken place before
the Proto-Indo-Iranian migration to the East.
NOTE. From a linguistic point of view, Burrow (1955): () in the case of Sanskrit
migrations at a comparatively late date took it to the extreme East of the Indo-European
domain. Before this period its ancestor, primitive Indo-Iranian must have held a fairly central
position, being directly in contact with the other dialects of the satem-group, and having to the
East of it that form of Indo-European which eventually turned into the dialects A and B of
Chinese Turkestan. Its position can further be determined by the especially close relations
which are found to exist between it and Balto-Slavonic. Since the Balts and the Slavs are not
likely to have moved far from the positions in which they are to be found in their earliest
116
1. Introduction
recorded history, the original location of Indo-Iranian towards the South-East of this area
becomes highly probable.
As we have seen Kortlandts (1990) interpretation of linguistic contacts according to
Mallorys (1989) account of archaeological events (v.s. 1.7.1. North-West Indo-European): If
the speakers of the other satem languages can be assigned to the Yamnaya horizon and the
western Indo-Europeans to the Corded Ware horizon, it is attractive to assign the ancestors of
the Balts and the Slavs to the Middle Dnieper culture, an identification also made by Anthony
(2007).
Archaeological cultures associated with late Indo-Iranian migrations. The early

phases of the Andronovo culture have often been seen to offer a staging area
for Indo-Iranian movements. The BMAC offers the Central Asian cultural filter
through which some argue the Indo-Iranians must have passed southwards to
such sites as Mehrgarh and Sibri. MalloryAdams (1997) (Dbachmann 2005)
Similarly, AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998), about the dialectal situation of Slavic
(from a linguistic point of view): To a layer of archaisms, shared or not with other languages
() Slavic added different innovations, some common to Baltic. Some of them are shared with
Germanic, as the oblique cases in -m and feminine participle; others with Indo-Iranian, so
satemisation, Ruki sound law (more present in Slavic than in Baltic) () Most probably, those
common characteristics come from a recent time, from secondary contacts between [N.LIE]
(whose rearguard was formed by Balto-Slavs) and [S.LIE] (in a time when Greeks were not in
contact anymore, they had already migrated to Greece).
117
Because Proto-Indo-Aryan is assumed to have been spoken ca. 2000-1500 BC

(preceding Vedic cultures), historical linguists broadly estimate that the continuum
of Indo-Iranian languages had to diverge ca. 2200-2000 BC, if not earlier. The Aryan
expansion before the Indo-Iranian split for which the terminus ante quem is 2000
BC (cf. Mallory 1989) , implies centuries of previous Pre-Indo-Aryan and PreIranian differentiation. This time is commonly identified with the early bearers of the
Andronovo culture (Sintashta-Petrovka-Arkaim, in Southern Urals, 2200-1600 BC),
who spread over an area of the Eurasian steppe that borders the Ural River on the
west, the Tian Shan on the east where the Indo-Iranians took over the area
occupied by the earlier Afanasevo culture , and Transoxiana and the Hindu Kush on
the south.
Current distribution of Indo-Aryan languages, A Historical Atlas of South

Asia (1992) (Dbachmann 2008)
118
1. Introduction
A Two-wave model of Indo-Iranian expansion has been proposed (Burrow 1973,

Parpola 1999), strongly associated with the chariot. Indo-Aryans left linguistic
remains in a Hittite horse-training manual written by one Kikkuli the Mitannian.
Other evidence is found in references to the names of Mitanni rulers and the gods
they swore by in treaties; these remains are found in the archives of the Mitannis
neighbours, and the time period for this is about 1500 BC.
NOTE. The standard model for the entry of the Indo-European languages into South Asia is
that the First Wave went over the Hindu Kush, either into the headwaters of the Indus and
later the Ganges. The earliest stratum of Vedic Sanskrit, preserved only in the Rigveda, is
assigned to roughly 1500 BC. From the Indus, the Indo-Aryan languages spread from ca. 1500
BC to ca. 500 BC, over the northern and central parts of the subcontinent, sparing the extreme
south. The Indo-Aryans in these areas established several powerful kingdoms and
principalities in the region, from eastern Afghanistan to the doorstep of Bengal.
Current distribution of Iranian dialects. Dbachmann(2006)

The Second Wave is interpreted as the Iranian wave. The Iranians would take over all of
Central Asia, Iran, and for a considerable period, dominate the European steppe (the modern
Ukraine) and intrude north into Russia and west into central and Eastern Europe well into
historic times and as late as the Common Era. The first Iranians to reach the Black Sea may
have been the Cimmerians in the eighth century BC, although their linguistic affiliation is
uncertain. They were followed by the Scythians, who are considered a western branch of the
Central Asian Sakas, and the Sarmatian tribes.
119
The main changes separating Proto-Indo-Iranian from Late Indo-European include

(according to Burrow 1955 and Fortson 2004):
Early satemisation trend: The satem shift, consisting of two sets of related
changes:
o Palatalisation of LIE velars: *k , *g , *gh h; as, *kmtm atm,
*gnu nu, *ghimn hima-.
o Merge of LIE labiovelars with plain velars: *kwk , *gwg, *gwhgh; as, *ko ka-, *gwou- gau-, *gwhorm- gharm-.
These plain velars, when before a front vowel (pre-PII *i or *e) or the glide *j,
were then palatalised to affricates: *k , *g , *gh h; as, *kwe a-,
*gwws ws, *gwhnti hanti.
NOTE. This palatalisation is often called the Law of Palatals. It must have happened before
the merge of PIE *e, *o, with *a. An illustrative example is found in weak perfect stem *kwekwr- did pre-PII *ke-kr- *e-kr- PII *a-kr- (Ved. cakr-, Av. and O.Pers. caxr-).
Before a dental occlusive, , ; , with aspiration of the occlusive;

as, *ot at , *mrt- md-, *ut- ud-.
The sequence *s was simplified to ; as, *aks- -.
Assimilation of LIE vowels *e, *o a; *, * .
Interconsonantal and word-final LIE *H PII i, cf. *ph2tr PII pit r, *medH *-madhi.
LIE *m *n merge with a; as, *kmtm atm, *mnt- mat-.
Bartholomaes law: an aspirate immediately followed by a voiceless consonant
becomes voiced stop + voiced aspirate. In addition, *dh+t dzdh; as, *ubhto-
ubdha-, *urdhto- urdzdha-, *augh-t- augdh-.
The Ruki rule: *s is retracted to when immediately following *r *r *u *k or *i.
Its allophone *z likewise becomes ; as, *wers- war-, *prsto pta-,
*geus- au-, *ksep- kap-, *wis- wi-, *nisdo- nida-.
Brugmanns law: *o in an open syllable lengthens to ; *dehtr-m Pre-PII
*dehtr-m* dtram.
Resonants are generally stable in PII, but for the confusion *l/*r, which in the
oldest Rigveda and in Avestan gives a trend LIE *l PII , as well as *lr; as,
*wkos wkas / wkas.
120
1. Introduction
A synoptic table of Indo-Iranian phonetic system:

Coronals
Labials
Voiceless
Plosive Aspirated
Affricates
dental/
post-
alveolo-
post-
alveolar
alveolar
palatal
alveolar
t
th
Gutturals
Velars
k
kh
Voiced
Aspirated
bh
dh
gh
Nasals
Fricatives Voiceless
Voiced
Liquids
Approximant
(z)
()
IV. PALAEO-BALKAN LANGUAGES

A. PHRYGIAN
The
Phrygian
language
spoken
was
by
the
Phrygians, a people
that settled in Asia
Minor during the
Bronze
Age.
It
survived probably
into
the
sixth
century AD, when

it was replaced by
Greek.
Phrygian Kingdom ca. 800-700 BC, from Atlas of the Bible

Lands (1959) (2011 from PD)
Ancient historians and myths sometimes did associate Phrygian with Thracian and
maybe even Armenian, on grounds of classical sources. Herodotus recorded the
Macedonian account that Phrygians migrated into Asia Minor from Thrace, and
121
stated that the Armenians were colonists of the Phrygians, still considered the same
in the time of Xerxes I. The earliest mention of Phrygian in Greek sources, in the
Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, depicts it as different from Trojan: in the hymn,
Aphrodite, disguising herself as a mortal to seduce the Trojan prince Anchises, tells
him:
Otreus of famous name is my father, if so be you have heard of him, and he reigns
over all Phrygia rich in fortresses. But I know your speech well beside my own, for
a Trojan nurse brought me up at home. Of Trojan, unfortunately, nothing is known.
Phrygian is attested by two corpora, one, Palaeo-Phrygian, from around 800 BC
and later, and another after a period of several centuries, Neo-Phrygian, from around
the beginning of the Common Era. The Palaeo-Phrygian corpus is further divided
geographically into inscriptions of Midas-city, Gordion, Central, Bithynia, Pteria,
Tyana, Daskyleion, Bayindir, and various. The Mysian inscriptions show a
language classified as a separate Phrygian dialect, written in an alphabet with an
additional letter, the Mysian s. We can reconstruct some words with the help of
some inscriptions written with a script similar to the Greek one.
Its structure, what can be recovered from it, was typically LIE, with at least three
nominal cases, three gender classes and two grammatical numbers, while the verbs
were conjugated for tense, voice, mood, person and number.
Phrygian seems to exhibit an augment, like Greek and Armenian, as in Phryg.
eberet, probably corresponding to PIE *-bher-e-t (cf. Gk. epheret).
A sizable body of Phrygian words is theoretically known; however, the meaning and
etymologies and even correct forms of many Phrygian words (mostly extracted from
inscriptions) are still being debated.
Phrygian words with possible PIE origin and Graeco-Armenian cognates include:
Phryg. bekos bread, from PIE *bheh3g-; cf. Gk. phg to roast.
Phryg. bedu water, from PIE *wed-; cf. Arm. get river.
Phryg. anar husband, man, PIE *h2ner- man; cf. Gk. aner- man, husband.
Phryg. belte swamp, from PIE root *bhel- to gleam; cf. Gk. baltos swamp.
Phryg. brater brother, from PIE *bhreh2ter-; cf. Gk. phrter-.
Phryg. ad-daket does, causes, from PIE stem *dh-k-; cf. Gk. ethka.
Phryg. germe warm, from PIE *gwher-mo-; cf. Gk. thermos.
122
1. Introduction
Phryg. gdan earth, from PIE *dhghom-; cf. Gk. khthn.

NOTE. For more information on similarities between Greek and Phrygian, see Neumann
(Phrygisch und Griechisch, 1988).
B. ILLYRIAN
The Illyrian languages are a group of Indo-European languages that were spoken in
the western part of the Balkans in former times by ethnic groups identified as
Illyrians: Delmatae, Pannoni, Illyrioi, Autariates, Taulanti.
The main source of authoritative information about the Illyrian language consists of
a handful of Illyrian words cited in classical sources, and numerous examples of
Illyrian anthroponyms, ethnonyms, toponyms and hydronyms. Some sound-changes
and other language features are deduced from what remains of the Illyrian
languages, but because no writings in Illyrian are known, there is not sufficient
evidence to clarify its place within the Indo-European language family aside from its
probable centum nature.
Roman provinces in the Balkans, Droysens Historischem Handatlas (1886)

123
NOTE. A grouping of Illyrian with the Messapian language has been proposed for about a
century, but remains an unproven hypothesis. The theory is based on classical sources,
archaeology, as well as onomastic considerations. Messapian material culture bears a number
of similarities to Illyrian material culture. Some Messapian anthroponyms have close Illyrian
equivalents. A relation to the Venetic language and Liburnian language, once spoken in
northeastern Italy and Liburnia respectively, is also proposed.
B. THRACIAN
Excluding Dacian, whose status as a Thracian language is disputed, Thracian was
spoken in what is now southern Bulgaria, parts of Serbia, the Republic of Macedonia,
Northern Greece especially prior to Ancient Macedonian expansion , throughout
Thrace (including European Turkey) and in parts of Bithynia (North-Western
Anatolia). Most of the Thracians were eventually Hellenised (in the province of
Thrace) or Romanised (in Moesia, Dacia, etc.), with the last remnants surviving in
remote areas until the fifth century AD.
NOTE. As an extinct language with only a few short inscriptions attributed to it, there is little
known about the Thracian language, but a number of features are agreed upon. A number of
probable Thracian words are found in inscriptions most of them written with Greek script
on buildings, coins, and other artifacts. Some Greek lexical elements may derive from
Thracian, such as balios dappled (< PIE *bhel- to shine, Pokorny also cites Illyrian as
possible source), bounos hill, mound, etc.
C. DACIAN
The Dacian language was spoken by the ancient people of Dacia. It is often
considered to have been either a northern variant of the Thracian language, or closely
related to it.
There are almost no written documents in Dacian. It used to be one of the major
languages of South-Eastern Europe, stretching from what is now Eastern Hungary to
the Black Sea shore. Based on archaeological findings, the origins of the Dacian
culture are believed to be in Moldavia, being identified as an evolution of the Iron
Age Basarabi culture.
It is unclear exactly when the Dacian language became extinct, or even whether it
has a living descendant. The initial Roman conquest of part of Dacia did not put an
end to the language, as free Dacian tribes such as the Carpi may have continued to
124
1. Introduction
speak Dacian in Moldavia and adjacent regions as late as the sixth or seventh century
AD, still capable of leaving some influences in the forming of Slavic languages.
E. PAIONIAN
The Paionian language is the poorly attested language of the ancient Paionians,
whose kingdom once stretched north of Macedon into Dardania and in earlier times
into southwestern Thrace.
Classical sources usually considered the Paionians distinct from Thracians or
Illyrians, comprising their own ethnicity and language. Athenaeus seemingly
connected the Paionian tongue to the Mysian language, itself barely attested. If
correct, this could mean that Paionian was an Anatolian language. On the other
hand, the Paionians were sometimes regarded as descendants of Phrygians, which
may put Paionian on the same linguistic branch as the Phrygian language.
NOTE. Modern linguists are uncertain on the classification of Paionian, due to the extreme
scarcity of materials we have on this language. However, it seems that Paionian was an
independent IE dialect. It shows a/o distinction and does not appear to have undergone
satemisation. The Indo-European voiced aspirates became plain voiced consonants, i.e. *bhb,
*dhd, *ghg, *gwhgw; as in Illyrian, Thracian, Macedonian and Phrygian (but unlike Greek).
F. ANCIENT MACEDONIAN
The Ancient Macedonian language was the tongue of the Ancient Macedonians. It
was spoken in Macedon during the first millennium BC. Marginalised from the fifth
century BC, it was gradually replaced by the common Greek dialect of the Hellenistic
Era. It was probably spoken predominantly in the inland regions away from the
coast. It is as yet undetermined whether the language was a dialect of Greek, a sibling
language to Greek, or an Indo-European language which is a close cousin to Greek
and also related to Thracian and Phrygian.
Knowledge of the language is very limited, because there are no surviving texts that
are indisputably written in the language. However, a body of authentic Macedonian
words has been assembled from ancient sources, mainly from coin inscriptions, and
from the fifth century lexicon of Hesychius of Alexandria, amounting to about 150
words and 200 proper names. Most of these are confidently identifiable as Greek, but
some of them are not easily reconciled with standard Greek phonology. The 6,000
surviving Macedonian inscriptions are in the Greek Attic dialect.
125
NOTE. Suggested phylogenetic classifications of Macedonian include: An Indo-European

language which is a close cousin to Greek and also related to Thracian and Phrygian
languages, suggested by A. Meillet (1913) and I. I. Russu (1938), or part of a Sprachbund
encompassing Thracian, Illyrian and Greek (Kretschmer 1896, E. Schwyzer 1959). An
Illyrian dialect mixed with Greek, suggested by K. O. Mller (1825) and by G. Bonfante
(1987). Various explicitly Greek scenarios: A Greek dialect, part of the North-Western
(Locrian, Aetolian, Phocidian, Epirote) variants of Doric Greek, suggested amongst others by
N.G.L. Hammond (1989) Olivier Masson (1996) and Michael Meier-Brgger (2003). A
northern Greek dialect, related to Aeolic Greek and Thessalian, suggested among others by
A.Fick (1874) and O.Hoffmann (1906). A Greek dialect with a non-Indo-European substratal
influence, suggested by M. Sakellariou (1983). A sibling language of Greek within IndoEuropean, Macedonian and Greek forming two subbranches of a Greco-Macedonian subgroup
within Indo-European (sometimes called Hellenic), suggested by Joseph (2001) and others.
The Pella katadesmos is a katadesmos (a curse, or magic spell) inscribed on a lead

scroll, probably dating to 380-350 BC. It was found in Pella in 1986 (PD)
The Pella curse tablet, a text written in a distinct Doric Greek idiom, found in Pella
in 1986, dated to between mid to early fourth century BC, has been forwarded as an
argument that the Ancient Macedonian language was a dialect of North-Western
Greek. Before the discovery it was proposed that the Macedonian dialect was an early
form of Greek, spoken alongside Doric proper at that time.
NOTE. Olivier Masson thinks that in contrast with earlier views which made of it an Aeolic
dialect (O.Hoffmann compared Thessalian) we must by now think of a link with North-West
Greek (Locrian, Aetolian, Phocidian, Epirote). This view is supported by the recent discovery
at Pella of a curse tablet which may well be the first Macedonian text attested (...); the text
includes an adverb opoka which is not Thessalian. Also, James L. ONeil states that the
curse tablet from Pella shows word forms which are clearly Doric, but a different form of
Doric from any of the west Greek dialects of areas adjoining Macedon. Three other, very brief,
fourth century inscriptions are also indubitably Doric. These show that a Doric dialect was
spoken in Macedon, as we would expect from the West Greek forms of Greek names found in
Macedon. And yet later Macedonian inscriptions are in Koine avoiding both Doric forms and
the Macedonian voicing of consonants. The native Macedonian dialect had become unsuitable
for written documents.
126
1. Introduction
From the few words that survive, a notable sound-law may be ascertained, that PIE
voiced aspirates *dh, *bh, *gh, appear as (=d[h]), (=b[h]), (=g[h]), in contrast to
Greek dialects, which unvoiced them to (=th), (=ph), (=kh).
NOTE. Since these languages are all known via the Greek alphabet, which has no signs for
voiced aspirates, it is unclear whether de-aspiration had really taken place, or whether the
supposed voiced stops , , were just picked as the closest matches to express voiced
aspirates PIE *bh, *dh, *gh. As to Macedonian , , = Greek , , , Claude Brixhe (1996)
suggests that it may have been a later development: The letters may already have designated
not voiced stops, i.e. [b, d, g], but voiced fricatives, i.e. [, , ], due to a voicing of the
voiceless fricatives [, , x] (= Classical Attic [ph, th, kh]). Brian Joseph (2001) sums up that
The slender evidence is open to different interpretations, so that no definitive answer is really
possible, but cautions that most likely, Ancient Macedonian was not simply an Ancient
Greek dialect on a par with Attic or Aeolic. In this sense, some authors also call it a deviant
Greek dialect.
PIE *dhenh2- to leave, A.Mac. (ans) death; cf. Attic (thnatos). PIE
*h2aidh- A.Mac. (araia) bright weather, Attic (aithra).
PIE *bhasko- A.Mac. (skioi) fasces. Compare also for A.Mac.
(arotes) or (arowes), Attic (ophrs) eyebrows; for Mac.
(ere-nk), Attic (Phere-nk) bearing victory.
o According to Herodotus (ca. 440 BC), the Macedonians claimed that the Phryges were
called Brygoi (<PIE *bhrugo-) before migrating from Thrace to Anatolia ca. 1200 BC.
o In Aristophanes The Birds, the form (kel-pyris) red-cap (bird), shows a
voiced stop instead of a standard Greek unvoiced aspirate, i.e. Macedonian ()
(keal) vs. Greek (kephal) head.
If A.Mac. (otn) pig, is related to PIE *gwou- cow, this would indicate that the
labiovelars were either intact (hence *gwotn), or merged with the velars, unlike the usual
Gk. (bos). Such deviations, however, are not unknown within Greek dialects;
compare Dor. - (glep-) for common Gk. - (blep-), as well as Dor. (glchn)
and Ion. (glchn) for Gk. (blchn).
Examples suggest that voiced velar stops were devoiced, especially word-initially: PIE
*genu- A.Mac. (knadoi) jaws; PIE *gombh- A.Mac. (kmbous)
molars.
o Compared to Greek words, there is A.Mac. (arkn) vs. Attic (args); the
Macedonian toponym Akesamenai, from the Pierian name Akesamenos if Akesa- is
127
cognate to Greek agassomai, agamai to astonish; cf. also the Thracian name
Agassamenos.
V. ALBANIAN
Albanian is spoken by over
8 million people primarily
in Albania, Kosovo, and the
(Megistias 2010)
Former Yugoslav Republic

of Macedonia, but also by
smaller numbers of ethnic
Albanians in other parts of
the
Balkans,
along
the
eastern coast of Italy and in

Sicily. It has no living close
relatives among the modern
IE languages. There is no
consensus over its origin
and dialectal classification.
References
existence
to
of
the
Albanian
survive from the fourteenth century AD, but without recording any specific words.
The oldest surviving documents written in Albanian are the Formula e Pagzimit
(Baptismal formula), Unte paghesont premenit Atit et birit et spertit senit I baptise
thee in the name of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit, recorded by Pal
Engjelli, Bishop of Durres in 1462 in the Gheg dialect, and some New Testament
verses from that period.
11.7.3. ANATOLIAN LANGUAGES

The Anatolian branch is generally considered the earliest to split off from the ProtoIndo-European language, from a stage referred to as Proto-Indo-Hittite (PIH).
Typically a date ca. 4500-3500 BC is assumed for the separation.
NOTE. A long period of time is necessary for Proto-Anatolian to develop into Common
Anatolian. Craig Melchert and Alexander Lehrman agreed that a separation date of about
4000 BCE between Proto-Anatolian and the Proto-Indo-Hittite language community seems
128
1. Introduction
reasonable. The millennium or so around 4000 BC, say 4500 to 3500 BC, constitutes the
latest window within which Proto-Anatolian is likely to have separated.
Within a Kurgan framework, there are two possibilities of how early Anatolian speakers
could have reached Anatolia: from the north via the Caucasus, and from the west, via the
Balkans. The archaeological identification of Anatolian speakers remains highly speculative,
as it depends on the broad guesstimates that historical linguistics is able to offer.
Nevertheless, the Balkans route appears to be somewhat more likely for archaeologists; so e.g.
Mallory (1989) and Steiner (1990).
Map of the Hittite Empire at its greatest extent under Suppiluliuma I (ca.13501322 BC) and Mursili II (ca. 13211295 BC). (Javier Fernandez-Vina 2010).
Attested dialects of the Anatolian branch are:

Hittite (nesili), attested from ca. 1800 BC to 1100 BC, official language of the
Hittite Empire.
Luwian (luwili), close relative of Hittite spoken in Arzawa, to the southwest of the
core Hittite area.
Palaic, spoken in north-central Anatolia, extinct around the thirteenth century BC,
known only fragmentarily from quoted prayers in Hittite texts.
129
Lycian, spoken in Lycia in the Iron Age, most likely a descendant of Luwian,
became extinct ca. the first century BC. A fragmentary language, it is also a likely
candidate for the language spoken by Trojans.
Lydian, spoken in Lydia, extinct ca. the first century BC, fragmentary, possibly
from the same dialect group as Hittite.
Carian, spoken in Caria, fragmentarily attested from graffiti by Carian
mercenaries in Egypt from ca. the seventh century BC, extinct ca. the thirteenth
century BC.
Pisidian and Sidetic (Pamphylian), fragmentary.
Milyan, known from a single inscription.
Anatolia was heavily Hellenised following the conquests of Alexander the Great,
and it is generally thought that by the first century BC the native languages of the
area were extinct.
Hittite proper is known from cuneiform tablets and inscriptions erected by the
Hittite kings and written in an adapted form of Old Assyrian cuneiform orthography.
Owing to the predominantly syllabic nature of the script, it is difficult to ascertain the
precise phonetic qualities of some Hittite sounds.
The Hittite language has traditionally been stratified partly on linguistic and
partly on paleographic grounds into Old Hittite, Middle Hittite and New or NeoHittite, corresponding to the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms of the Hittite Empire,
ca. 1750-1500 BC, 1500-1430 BC and 1430-1180 BC, respectively.
Luwian
was
spoken
by
population groups in Arzawa,

to the west or southwest of
the core Hittite area. In the
oldest texts, e.g. the Hittite
Code, the Luwian-speaking
areas including Arzawa and
Kizzuwatna
were
called
Luwia. From this homeland,

Luwian
Clay tablet in Hittite cuneiform containing the

King of
gradually correpondance between the Luwian

spread through Anatolia and Arzawa and the Pharaoh of Egypt. (PD)
130
speakers
1. Introduction
became a contributing factor to the downfall, after ca. 1180 BC, of the Hittite Empire,
where it was already widely spoken. Luwian was also the language spoken in the NeoHittite states of Syria, such as Milid and Carchemish, as well as in the central
Anatolian kingdom of Tabal that flourished around 900 BC. Luwian has been
preserved in two
forms,
named
after the writing

systems
used:
Cuneiform
Luwian
and
Hieroglyphic
Luwian.
For the most
part,
the
immediate
ancestor of the
known
Anatolian
Luwian language spreading, second to first millennium BC

(Hendrik Tammen 2006)
languages, Common Anatolian (a late Proto-Anatolian dialect spoken ca. 3000-2000

BC) has been reconstructed on the basis of Hittite. However, the usage of Hittite
cuneiform writing system limits the enterprise of understanding and reconstructing
Anatolian phonology, partly due to the deficiency of the adopted Akkadian cuneiform
syllabary to represent Hittite sounds, and partly due to the Hittite scribal practices.
NOTE. This especially pertains to what appears to be confusion of voiceless and voiced
dental stops, where signs -dV- and -tV- are employed interchangeably different attestations of
the same word. Furthermore, in the syllables of the structure VC only the signs with voiceless
stops are generally used. Distribution of spellings with single and geminated consonants in the
oldest extant monuments indicates that the reflexes of PIE voiceless stops were spelled as
double consonants and the reflexes of Proto-Indo-European voiced stops as single
consonants.
Known changes from Indo-Hittite into Common Anatolian include:

Voiced aspirates merged with voiced stops: *dh*d, *bh*b, *gh*g.
131
Voiceless stops become voiced after accented long vowel or diphthong: PIH *wk CA *wg- (cf. Hitt. wk- ask for); PIH *dheh1ti putting CA *ddi (cf. Luw.
taac- votive offering).
Conditioned allophone PIH *tj- CA *tsj-, as Hittite still shows.
PIH *h1 is lost in CA, but for *eh1*, appearing as Hitt., Pal. , Luw., Lyc., Lyd. ;
word-initial *h2*x, non-initial *h2*h; *h3*h.
NOTE 1. Melchert proposes that CA *x (voiceless fricative) is lenited to *h (voiced fricative)
under the same conditions as voiceless stops. Also, word-initial *h3 is assumed by some
scholars to have been already lost in CA.
NOTE 2. There is an important assimilation of laryngeals within CA: a sequence *-VRHVbecomes -VRRV-; cf. PIH *sperh1V- Hitt. isparr- kick flat; PIH *sun-h3-V- Hitt. sunnafill, Pal. sunnuttil- outpouring; etc.
PIH resonants are generally stable in CA. Only word-initial *r has been
eliminated. Word-initial *je- shows a trend to become CA *e-, but the trend is not
complete in CA, as Hittite shows.
Diphthong evolved as PIH *ei CA * ; PIH *eu CA *. PIE *oi, *ai, *ou, *au,
appear also in CA.
NOTE. Common Anatolian preserves PIE vowel system basically intact. Some cite the
merger of PIH *o and (a controversial) *a as a Common Anatolian innovation, but according
to Melchert that merger was secondary shared innovation in Hittite, Palaic and Luwian, but
not in Lycian. Also, the lengthening of accented short vowels in open syllables cannot be of
Common Anatolian, and neither can lengthening in accented closed syllables.
The CA nominal system shows an productive declension in *-i, *-u, considered an

archaic feature retained from PIH.
There are only two grammatical genders, animate and inanimate; this has usually
been interpreted as the original system in PIH.
Hittite verbs are inflected according to two general verbal classes, the mi- and the
hi-conjugation. They had two voices (active and mediopassive), two moods
(indicative and imperative), and two tenses (present and past), two infinitive
forms, one verbal substantive, a supine, and a participle.
132
PART II
PHONOLOGY &
MORPHOLOGY
By Carlos Quiles & Fernando Lpez-Menchero
2. Phonology
2. PHONOLOGY
2.1. CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS
2.1.1. The vowels are short [a], [e], [i], [o], [u], written a, e, i, o, u, and long [
[ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], written , , , , , respectively. The other sounds are consonants.

The Indo-European diphthongs proper are [ei], [oi], [ai], written ei, oi, ai, and
[eu], [ou], [au], written eu, ou, au. Both vowel sounds are heard, one following the
other in the same syllable.
NOTE. For the so-called long diphthongs [ i],
i], [ i], written i, i, i, and [ u],
u],
[ u], written u, u, u, which remained only in Indo-Iranian, Greek and partly in Baltic
languages, Schulze (1885) interpreted a regular correspondence of the type i//, which
came respectively from the full grade of the long diphthong, the full grade before consonant
(where the second element was lost), and the zero-grade (a contraction of schwa with the
semivowel). Martinet (1953) proposed that laryngeals were behind those long diphthongs.
In any case, in the languages in which they are retained, long diphthongs have not a longer
duration than normal diphthongs; phonologically they are equivalent, as Vedic and Greek
metric shows. AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998): [t]he difference, therefore, is not
the duration of the group, but the relative duration of their components; in other words, e.g.
ei and i have the same phonological duration (they are long, as opposed to a brief vowel), but
in ei both elements have approximately the same duration, whereas in i the duration of i is
perceptibly shorter than e. Because of that, the name long first-element diphthongs is more
appropriate to refer to these phonemes. Cf. Allen (Long and short diphthongs, in Morpurgo
Davies and Meid (eds.), 1976) for an analysis of these diphthongs.
Strictly speaking, phoneticians do not consider the so-called rising diphthongs, [je],
[jo], [ja], [j ], [j ], [j ], nor [we], [wo], [wa], [w ], [w ], [w ], as diphthongs
proper, but rather sequences of glide and vowel.
The formations usually called triphthongs are [jei], [joi], [jai], [jeu], [jou], [jau], as
well as [wei], [woi], [wai], [weu], [wou], [wau]; and none can be strictly named
triphthong, since they are formed by a consonantal sound [j] or [w] followed by a
diphthong. The rest of possible formations are made up of a diphthong and a vowel.
NOTE. Whilst most Indo-Europeanists differentiate between sequences of approximant and
vowel (rising diphthongs) from true falling diphthongs in their transcriptions, i.e. writing [je]
(from [i]+[e]) but [ei] or [ei] (from [e]+[i]), some use a different approach, considering all of
135
them combinations of vowel plus glide or glide plus vowel, i.e. writing [je] and [ej], or [ie] and
[ei].
2.1.2. Consonants are either voiced (sonant) or voiceless (surd). Voiced consonants
are pronounced with vocal cords vibration, as opposed to voiceless consonants,
where the vocal cords are relaxed.
a. The voiced consonants are [b], [d], [g], [gw], [l], [r] and [], [m], [n], [z], [j], [w].
b. The voiceless consonants are [p], [t], [k], [kw], [s].
c. The digraphs bh [bh], dh [dh], gh [gh] and ch [gwh] represent the Indo-European
voiced aspirates proper whereas th [th], kh [kh], represent voiceless aspirates.
NOTE. Although written as digraphs, each aspirate is considered a single consonant, not a
combination of consonant plus aspiration. The same is valid for labiovelars.
d. The resonants [r], [l], [m], [n], and the semivowels [j] and [w], can function both
as consonants and vowels, i.e. they can serve as syllabic border or centre.
NOTE. There is a clear difference between the vocalic allophones of the semivowels and
those of the resonants, though: the first, [i] and [u], are very stable as syllabic centre, whereas
the resonants ([r], [l], [m], [n]) arent, as they cannot be pronounced more open. Because of
that, more dialectal differences are found in their evolution.
2.1.3. The mutes are classified as follows:

voiceless
voiced
aspirated
labials
bh
dentals
dh
velars
gh
labiovelars
kw
gw
gwh
Labialised velars or Labiovelars q [kw], c [gw], ch [gwh], are pronounced like [k], [g],
[gh] respectively, but with rounded lips.
NOTE 1. Labiovelar stops are neutralised adjacent w, u or ; as in Gk. bou-klos cowherd,
from *gwou-kolos, dissimilated from *gwou-kwolos (which would have given Gk. *bou-plos),
cf. Gk. ai-plos goatherd<*ai(g)-kwolos (Fortson 2004). This is related to the question of the
actual existence of the groups [kw], [gw], and [ghw], different from (and similar or identical in
their dialectal outputs to) labialised [kw], [gw], and [gwh]. A distinction between both is often
found, though; as, kwn, dog, ekwos, horse, ghwer-, wild, kweidos, white, kwet-, cook
(cf. O.Ind. kwathati), tekw-, run, etc. For a defence of such unified forms, see e.g. Halla-aho
<http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/hum/slavi/vk/halla-aho/problems.pdf>.
136
2. Phonology
NOTE 2. German Neogrammarians reconstructed a fourth series of phonemes, the voiceless

aspirates *ph, *th, *kh, to explain some irregularities in the outputs of the voiceless row. Most
Indo-Europeanists reject this fourth independent row of phonemes, and findings of IndoIranian, Armenian and Greek have been explained as 1) expressive in origin, 2) contact of a
voiceless with a laryngeal phoneme, and 3) effect of a prior s. For support of the fourth row,
see e.g. Szemernyi (1985).
2.1.4. The so-called liquids are l, which represents the alveolar lateral approximant
[l], and r, pronounced in PIE and (at least occasionally) in most modern IE
languages as alveolar trill [r], today often allophonic with an alveolar tap [],
particularly in unstressed positions. These sounds are voiced.
NOTE. Cf. Banczerowski (indoeuropisches r und l, LPosn. 12/13, 1968).
2.1.5. The nasals are labial [m], written m, and dental [n], written n. These are
voiced. The velar nasal [] as ng in English sing could have existed in IE as
allophone of [n] before velars.
NOTE. Erhart (Studien zur indoeuropischen Morphologie, 1970) reconstructs three nasals,
*N, *M1 and *M2, this one a fricative seminasal with which he explains the results of
alternating m and w in some suffixes and roots; as, -ment-/-went-, men-/wen-, etc. He left
unexplained, though, under which conditions they would have changed.
2.1.6. The fricatives are voiceless [s] and voiced [z], with z being usually the output
of s before voiced consonants.
NOTE. [z] was already heard in Late Indo-European, as a different pronunciation
(allophone) of [s] before voiced stops, as can be clearly seen in LIE nisdos [nizdos] nest,
which comes from PIE roots ni-, down, and zero-grade -sd- of sed-, sit.
2.1.7. The semivowels are usually written j, and w. These are voiced.
NOTE. Some authors make a distinction between consonantal [j], [w], and vocalic [i], [u].
Actually, however, both appear as CIC and VJV, and never as CJC or VIV (and the same is
valid for resonants and their vocalic allophones).
2.1.8. Gemination appears in phonemes whose duration is long enough to be

perceived their implosion and explosion, both audible as distributed in two
syllables. They existed in LIE: in stops, as apps, atts (and tt), dad, pappj,
eat, or kakkj, shit; in nasals, as ann, amm (and mamm), mother, mum; in
liquids, as bull, buble; and in the sibilant, as kuss, kiss.
137
NOTE. They appear mostly in words of expressive origin, children vocabulary,

onomatopoeia, etc., which makes it more likely that PIE inherited gemination mainly as an
expressive resource, different from its central phonological system; a resource that was
retained for a long time by most IE languages as a recurrent possibility.
2.1.10. A synoptic table of the Indo-European phonetic system:
Voiceless
Plosive
Labials
Coronals
th
kh
Aspirated
Velars
Labiovelars Gutturals
kw
Voiced
gw
Aspirated
bh
dh
gh
gwh
Nasals
Fricatives
Palatal
Voiceless
Voiced
(z)
Liquids
Approximant
l, r
w
NOTE. The glottal stop is the remain of the unified Late Indo-European laryngeal *H (v.s.
The Loss of Laryngeals). Its effect was usually a lengthening of the preceding vowel, although
remains might be found in some ancient lexica and frozen expressions, especially
accompanying sonorants. It is not usually written in this book, though; cf. gat-, written
with a late West IE output gnt- for practical reasons; see 5.5.2 for writing conventions in
numerals. Examples of its actual pronunciation are found today in Germanic; cf. American
Eng. cat [kh(t)], BBC Eng. button [ n], Ger. (northern dialects) Beamter [bamt],
(western dialects) Verwaltung [fvalt], Du. beamen [bamn], or Danish hand [hn].
2.2. PRONUNCIATION
2.2.1 The following pronunciation scheme is substantially that used by IndoEuropean speakers at the end of the common Late Indo-European period.
2.2.2. Indo-European vowels and examples in English and French:
English
French
English
French
father
tard
idea
partie
made (esp. Welsh)
t (but longer)
met
les
meet
pire
chip
ici
note (esp. Welsh)
port
pot
mot
boo
court
put
tout
138
2. Phonology
NOTE. Following the mainstream laryngeal theory, Proto-Indo-Hittite knew only two
vowels, *e and *o, while the other commonly reconstructed vowels were earlier combinations
with laryngeals. Thus, short vowels a < *h2e; e < *(h1)e; o < *h3e, *(h1)o; long vowels < *eh2;
< *eh1; < *eh3, *oh. Different schools consider a or o to be the output of *h2o in Late IndoEuropean. Short and long vowels ,
are variants of the semivowels j and w.
2.2.3. Falling diphthongs and equivalents in English and French:

i as in Eng. vein, Fr. Marseille
u Eng. e (met) + u (put), Fr. Soul
i as in Eng. oil, Fr. coyotes
u as in Eng. know, Fr. au + ou
i as in Eng. Cairo, Fr. travail
u as in Eng. out, Fr. caoutchouc
NOTE. In long diphthongs, the first component is pronounced longer than the second one,
but the duration of the group is the same (see above).
2.2.4. Consonants:
1. b, d, h, l, m, n, are pronounced as in English.
2. p, k, t, are plain as in Romance, Balto-Slavic, Greek or Indo-Iranian languages,
and unlike their English or German equivalents, cf. Fr. ple vs. Eng. pain, Fr. qui vs.
Eng. key, Fr. tous vs. Eng. tongue.
NOTE. The aspirate or h-sound which follows the English k disappears when the k is
preceded by an s, as in skill.
3. t and d are made by striking the edge of the teeth with the tip of the tongue, as in
Romance languages, and unlike English, in which it is made with the tongue drawn a
little further back, so that the tip strikes against the front of the palate or the
teethridge. In other words, the place of articulation is the same as for the English th
en thin.
4. g always as in get.
NOTE. For Balto-Slavic palatalisation, compare the g in garlic and gear, whispering the two
words, and note how before e and i the g is sounded farther forward in the mouth (more
palatal) than before a or o. That is what we represent as [gj] when writing a palatalised g.
Similarly, we use [kj] pronounced as k in key compared to c in cold.
5. c stands for [gw], which is pronounced similar to [g] but with rounded lips.
Compare the initial consonant in good with get to feel the different articulation. The
voiceless q (which stands for [kw]) is similar to [k] but pronounced with rounded lips;
as c in cool, compared to c in car.
139
6. The voiceless aspirated kh, th, are pronounced very nearly like English wordinitial p, k, t, as in pen, ten, Ken, but much more aspirated. The extra aspiration
might be trained by using English words with combinations of p+h, t+h, k+h, i.e. to
the corresponding mutes with a following breath, as in loop-hole, hot-house, blockhouse, pronouncing them first in two distinct parts and then more rapidly, trying to
run the p, k, t, on to the following syllable.
7. The aspiration of voiced bh, dh, gh, ch, must be a voiced aspiration, which
makes their pronunciation troublesome.
NOTE. The key to the pronunciation of all these letters is learning to pronounce a voiced h
instead of the voiceless English h (it is true that some English speakers make voiced h a rather
infrequent allophone of h e.g. in the word inherent). Voiced sounds are those made with a
vibration of the vocal cords. Some consonants are voiced, others voiceless. All vowels are
voiced, unless you whisper them. An extremely easy way to tell whether a sound is voiced or
not is to put your hands firmly over your ears: start by making a prolonged sss sound, which is
voiceless; then make a zzz sound, which is voiced, and you will hear the vibration of the vocal
cords very plainly as a droning in your ears. Lengthen the ordinary English h into a prolonged
breathing and it will be quite obviously voiceless. The task now is to modify this breathing
until you can hear that it is accompanied by the droning. The sound you are aiming at is
similar to the sound children sometimes use when they want to make someone jump. The
voiced h, once produced, can easily be combined with g, b, etc., and practice will soon smooth
the sound down until you do not seem to be trying to give your listeners a series of heart
attacks. Coulson (2003).
8. j as the sound of y in yes (probably more lightly), never the common English
[ ], as j in join; w as in will.
9. Indo-European r was probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue (still
common today in many IE languages), as in Scottish English curd. In the majority of
IE languages, and thus possibly in PIE, this sound is at least occasionally allophonic
with an alveolar tap [], pronounced like the intervocalic t or d in American or
Australian English, as in better.
NOTE. Speakers of Southern or BBC English should be careful always to give r its full value,
and should guard against letting it colour their pronunciation of a preceding vowel.
10. l is dental, and so even more like a French than an English l. It does not have
the dark quality which in varying degrees an English l may have.
140
2. Phonology
11. s is usually voiceless as in English sin, but there are situations in which it is
voiced (therefore pronounced z), when followed by voiced phonemes (see below).
12. Doubled letters, like ss, nn, etc., should be so pronounced that both members of
the combination are distinctly articulated, as s+s in English less soap, n+n in Eng.
greenness.
2.3. SYLLABLES
2.3.1. In many modern languages, there are as many syllables in a word as there are
separate vowels and diphthongs. Indo-European follows this rule too:
swe-sr, sister, skrei-bh, write, ne-w, new, ju-gm, yoke.
NOTE. According to Fortson (2004): PIE grouped sounds into syllables in much the same
way as Greek, Latin, Sanskrit and many other languages. In any given sequence of consonants
and vowels, the vowels constituted the syllabic peaks, and were linked to a preceding
consonant (if one was available) which formed the onset (beginning) of a syllable. If two or
more consonants occurred together in the middle of a word, they were usually split between
two syllables. In the abstract, a word of the structure VCCVCVCCVC would have been
syllabified VC.CV.CVC.CVC. It is possible that certain consonant clusters could group together
in the middle of a word as the onset of a syllable; if so, by a universal phonological principle
they would have also been able to form word-initial onsets.
2.3.2. Resonants can also be centre of a syllable. It is possible to hear similar sound
sequences in English interesting (ntsting), cattle (catt), bottom (bott), or
Brighton (Bright), as well as in other modern languages, as in German Haben
(Hab), Czech hlt, Serbian srpski, etc. In this kind of syllables, it is the vocalic
resonant [r], [l], [m], or [n] constrained allophones of [r], [l], [m], [n] , the one
which functions as syllabic centre, instead of a vowel proper:
k-di, heart, w-qos, wolf, de-k, ten, n-m, name.
NOTE. Words derived from these groups, represented CRC, are unstable and tend to add
auxiliary vowels before or after the resonants, i.e. CRC or CRC. Because of that, their
evolutions differ greatly in modern IE languages. For example, dghw, language, evolved
probably as *dnghw, into PGmc. tung(w), and later English tongue or German Zunge, and
into Old Latin dingwa, and then the initial d became l in Classic Latin, written lingua, which
is in turn the origin of Modern English words linguistic and language. For wqos (cf. Ved.
vkas < PII wkas), it evolved either as *wlkwos into PGmc. *wulxwaz (cf. O.H.G. wolf) or
141
BSl. *wilkas (cf. O.C.S. vlk), or as *wlukwos into Common Greek *wlukwos (cf. Gk. lykos),
Ita. *wlupos (cf. Lat. lupus).
2.3.3. According to Ringe (2006), each sequence of one or more resonants was
syllabified as follows. If the rightmost member of the sequence was adjacent to a
syllabic (i.e. a vowel, on the initial application of the rule), it remained nonsyllabic,
but if not, it was assigned to a syllable peak. The rule then iterated from right to left,
the output of each decision providing input to the next.
NOTE. Ringe (2006): Forms of kwon-, dog, neatly illustrate the process: The zero grade
was basically kwn- (since full-grade forms show that the high vocalic was an alternating
resonant, not an underlying syllabic high vowel). The genitive singular kwn-s, dogs, of a
dog, was syllabified as follows: the n was adjacent to a vowel and therefore remained
nonsyllabic; consequently the w was not adjacent to a syllabic, and it therefore surfaced as
syllabic u, giving kuns (cf. Skt. nas, Gk. kuns). On the locative plural kwn-s, among
dogs, was syllabified as follows: the n was not adjacent to a vowel and therefore became
syllabic ; consequently the w was adjacent to a syllabic and therefore remained nonsyllabic,
giving kw-s (cf. Skt vsu). There are some exceptions to this rule, though.
2.3.4. Apart from the common vocalic resonant CRC, another, less stable sequence
is found in PIE *CRV CVRV/CRV; as, kerwos<*krwos, deer. Auxiliary vowels
were sometimes inserted in difficult *CRC; as, cemj<*gwmj, come, etc.
NOTE. Some have proposed a reduced IE vowel, the so-called schwa secundum (Hirt
1900, Gntert 1916, Sturtevant 1943), although they were probably just auxiliary vowels, mere
allophonic vocoids initially necessary to articulate complex groups (AdradosBernab
Mendoza 1995-1998). It is commonly accepted that LIE dialects did in fact add an auxiliary
vowel to this sequence at early times, probably before the first dialectal split: as early IndoIranian and Balto-Slavic dialects show, vocalisation of most *CRV groups had already
happened when *CRC hadnt still been vocalised, i.e. PIE *CRV *CVRV.
The most unstable *CRV sequences found in LIE are possibly those with a resonant
or glide as the initial consonant, i.e. *RRV; as, suffix -mno-, mrijar, die, etc.
Although cf. also adjectival suffix (-t/s)-mo-, ordinal sptmos, etc.
NOTE. Such irregular forms kept their apparent alternating pattern in post-LIE period,
hence probably an auxiliary vowel was still inserted in the IEDs. The convention is to write the
dot before the resonant, but in this grammar we prefer a simpler notation, with the dot
below; since compounds of CRV cannot naturally include a resonant in IE, there is no possible
confusion. From the examples above, it is written here conventionally mo- (v.i. 7.7.2),
142
2. Phonology
mijar, die (cf. Skt. mriyate, Av. miryeite, Gk. emarten, Lat. morior, O.C.S. mr, mrti, Lith.
mrti), suffix -(t/s)-o- (v.i. 5.4), sptos, etc.
Most dialects show a common auxiliary vowel with maximal opening (in [a]) for the
resonant, into a general CaRV, even in those dialects that show different outputs (as well as
non-vocalisation) for CRC; i.e. m(a)rijar, -(t/s)-amo-, sptamos, etc. AdradosBernab
Mendoza (1995-1998). As with consonant change, in this grammar the phonetically correct
notation is therefore avoided in favour of the phonemically correct notation.
2.3.5. In the division of words into syllables, these rules apply:

a. A single consonant is joined to the following vowel or diphthong; as lon-dhom,
land, rei-dh, ride, etc.
b. Combinations of two or more consonants are regularly separated, and the first
consonant of the combination is joined to the preceding vowel; as legh-trom,
support, pen-qe, five, etc.
When a consonant is followed by a resonant or a glide, the consonants are not
separated, even in the middle of a word and preceded by a vowel; as, a-gros, field,
me-dhjos, middle.
c. In compounds, the parts are usually separated; as a-p-sta-tis, distance, from
apo + statis.
2.3.6. The semivowels [j], [w] are more stable than resonants when they are syllable
centres, i.e. [i] or [u].
NOTE. Both forms appear like resonants in a complementary distribution, i.e. as CIC
and VJV, and never as CJC or VIV. Some authors make a distinction between consonantal
[j], [w], and vocalic [i], [u]; see Schmitt-Brandt (Die Entwicklung des Indogermanischen
Vokalsystems, 1967), Szemernyi (1985), or Mayrhofer (Lautlehre (Segmentale Phonologie
des Indogermanischen), in Indogermanische Grammatik I, Cogwill-Mayrhofer 1986).
When they are pronounced lento, they give the allophones (or allosyllables) ij, uw.
Examples of alternating forms in PIE include mdhijos (cf. Lat. medius), and
medhjos (cf. O.Ind. mdhjas or Gk. ); dwu, two (cf. Goth. twai, Gk. -),
and duwu (cf. O.Ind. duva, Gk. d < dw, Lat. duo).
NOTE. The so-called Sievers Law was behind most of these forms; it explains that the
weight of a syllable in LIE affected the pronunciation of following consonant clusters
consisting of a consonant plus a glide before a vowel (e.g. -tjo-, -two-): if the syllable before
the cluster was heavy (i.e. if it ended in -VCC or -
C), the vocalic equivalent of the glide was

143
inserted into the cluster (yielding -tijo-, -tuwo-). One of the conditions is that the rule only
applied when the glide began the final syllable of the word.
It is the same rule as Lindemans Law, whereby monosyllables beginning with consonant
plus glide (like kwn, dog, or djus, sky) had the cluster broken up in the same way as
Sievers Law (kuwn, dijus) if the word followed a word ending in a heavy syllable.
Descendants of both alternating forms might be preserved in the same dialect, or be found in
different different dialects. Lindemans Law can be interpreted as the sandhi equivalent to
Sievers Law; the variant dijus is determined by the final position of the preceding word: on
one
hand
we
have
##... #dijus
##
and
##...VR#dijus##,
on
the
other
##...C#djus##. See Fortson (2004) and Meier-Brgger (2003).
2.4. PROSODY
2.4.1. The Indo-European verse is quantitative: it is based, that is to say (as in Latin,
Greek or Sanskrit), on a regular arrangement of long and short syllables and not, as
in English, of stressed and unstressed syllables.
Syllables are distinguished according to the length of time required for their
pronunciation. Two degrees of quantity are recognised, long and short.
NOTE. To distinguish long and short syllables more clearly from long and short vowels the
former may be referred to as heavy and light respectively (corresponding to the Sanskrit
terms guru and laghu, IE crw and legh, respectively).
In syllables, quantity is measured from the beginning of the vowel or diphthong to the end of
the syllable. Such distinctions of long and short are not arbitrary and artificial, but are purely
natural, a long syllable requiring more time for its pronunciation than a short one.
2.4.2. A syllable is long or heavy usually,

a. if it contains a long vowel; as, m-tr, mother, k-l-j, hide,
b. if it contains a diphthong; as, lai-ws, left, oi-nos, one,
c. if it is followed by two or more consonants (even in another word); as,
dherghs, shit, korm-nos, bleach.
2.4.3. A syllable is short or light usually if it contains a short vowel (or vocalic
resonant) followed by a vowel or by a single consonant; as, dre-p, cut, or e--mi,
go; or q-mis, worm, c-tis, march.
NOTE. In old compositions, sometimes final short vowels are found as heavy syllables; as,
Skt. dev etu, or vocat. vki, tanu, cf. Lindeman (1987) or Beekes (On laryngeals and
144
2. Phonology
pronouns, KZ96, 1982). They are possibly glottal stops, remains of the old merged LIE
laryngeal *H, i.e. *dewH, *wrkiH, etc. The Rig Veda preserves many words that must scan as
though a laryngeal or some remnant of a laryngeal (like a glottal stop) were still present
between vowels, a phenomenon called laryngeal hiatus. For example, Skt. v tas wind must
sometimes scan trisyllabically as vaatas, which comes from earlier pre-PII *weHntos or PII
watas < PIE *h2weh1ntos NWIE wentos; although for Ringe (2006) from Lat. ventus,
Welsh gwynt, PGmc. *windaz, only NWIE wents or wntos (cf. Proto-Toch. *wyent)
could be reconstructed.
2.5. ACCENT
2.5.1. There are accented as well as unaccented words. The last could indicate words
that are always enclitic, i.e., they are always bound to the accent of the preceding
word, as -qe, and, -w , or; while another can be proclitics, like prepositions.
2.5.2. Evidence from Ancient Greek, Vedic Sanskrit and Balto-Slavic accent let us
reconstruct a LIE pitch (also tonic or musical) accent system, with only one, acute
accent. Late Indo-European was therefore a stress language in which syllable
strength was chiefly a matter of pitch differences: the accented syllable was higher in
pitch than the surrounding syllables.
NOTE 1. For Beekes (1995): There are several indications that Proto-Indo-European was a
tone language at some time in its development. The accent-systems of both Sanskrit and
Greek already give reason enough to surmise that this may have been the case.
According to Clackson (2007): Qualitatively our best evidence for PIE accent comes from
two of the oldest and most conservative branches: Greek and Vedic Sanskrit. For both
languages there is a large body of texts with word-accents marked and adequate metalinguistic
descriptions of the nature of the accentual system. The accent of both Greek and Sanskrit was
a mobile pitch-accent type, but there were differences between the two systems () Since the
two morae of some of the Greek circumflex nuclei have arisen from contraction of two
syllables, it seems reasonable to assume that the syllable-based accent of Sanskrit is original
().
We can therefore assume that the attested distinction between acute and circumflex accent
in Ancient Greek and Baltic languages does not come from the LIE period, but were late
independent dialectal developments. According to this description of events, the Greek and
Indic systems were lost: Modern Greek has a pitch produced stress accent, and it was lost
entirely from Indic by the time of the Prkrits. Balto-Slavic retained LIE pitch accent,
reworking it into the opposition of acute (rising) and circumflex (falling) tone, and which,
145
following a period of extensive accentual innovations, yielded pitch-accent based system that
has been retained in modern-day Lithuanian and West South Slavic dialects. Some other
modern Indo-European languages have pitch accent systems; as, Swedish and Norwegian,
deriving from a stress-based system they inherited from Old Norse, and Punjabi, which
developed tone distinctions that maintained lexical distinctions as consonants were conflated.
NOTE 2. A possibility is that PIE (or, more exactly, PIH) was a tonal language, i.e. that it had
more than the limited word-tone system usually called pitch-accent. This position was argued
by Szemernyi (1985), Lubotsky (The system of nominal accentuation in Sanskrit and ProtoIndo-European, 1988) and by Kortlandt (The laryngeal theory and Slavic accentuation in
Bammesberger (ed.), 1988). They are mainly based on Sanskrit accentual system and
typological considerations, since such a system would account for the old ablauting patterns
found in PIE.
2.5.3. The accent is free, but that does not mean anarchy. On the contrary, it means
that each non-clitic word has an accent and only one accent, and one has to know
usually by way of practice where it goes. Its location usually depends on the
inflectional type to which a given word belongs.
NOTE. The term free here refers to the position of the accentits position is (at least partly)
unpredictable by phonological rules, i.e. it could stand on any syllable of a word, regardless of
its structure. Otherwise homophonous words may differ only by the position of the accent,
and it is thus possible to use accent as a grammatical device.
2.5.4. The place of the original accent is difficult to reconstruct, and sometimes
different positions are attested. According to Clackson (2007), comparison of
Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, Greek and Sanskrit allows us to reconstruct the place of the
PIE word accent with confidence, what let us deduce some properties of the
accentual system:
a) The accent can fall on any element which functions as a syllabic nucleus.
b) The accent can fall on any syllable of a word.
c) No word has more than one accent.
2.5.5. According to Ringe (2006), thematic nominal (i.e. those ending in the
thematic vowel) had the accent on the same syllable throughout the paradigm;
thematic verb stems also have generally a fixed accent.
Some athematic verb stems and nominal have fixed accent (mostly on the root), but
most had alternating accent; there were different patterns, but in all of them the
146
2. Phonology
surface accent was to the left in one group of forms (the nominative and accusative
cases of nominal, the active singular of verbs) and to the right in the rest.
Stems and endings can be underlyingly accented or not, and words with no
underlying accent are assigned accent on the leftmost syllable by default.
NOTE. According to Lehmann (1974): The location of the high pitch is determined
primarily from our evidence in Vedic; the theory that this was inherited from PIE received
important corroboration from Karl Verners demonstration of its maintenance into Germanic
(1875). Thus the often cited correlation between the position of the accent in the Vedic perfect
and the differing consonants in Germanic provided decisive evidence for reconstruction of the
PIE pitch accent as well as for Verners law, as in the perfect (preterite) forms of the root
*deyk-, show.
1 sg.
IE
dedika
Vedic
dida
O.E.
th
O.H.G.
zh
1 pl.
dedikm
didiim
tigon
zigum
2.6. VOWEL CHANGE

2.6.1. The vowel grade or ablaut is normally the alternation between full, zero or
lengthened grade vocalism. Proto-Indo-European had a regular ablaut sequence that
contrasted the five usual vowel sounds called thematic, i.e. e//o//. This means
that in different forms of the same word, or in different but related words, the basic
vowel, a short e, could be replaced by a long , a short o or a long , or it could be
omitted (transcribed as ).
NOTE. The term Ablaut comes from Ger. Abstufung der Laute, vowel alternation. In
Romance languages, the term apophony is preferred.
In Romance languages, theme is used instead of stem. Therefore, theme vowel and thematic
refer to the stem endings. In the Indo-European languages, a common conventional
nomenclature is that thematic stems are those stems that have the common theme vowel,
i.e. the e/o ending. Athematic stems lack that theme vowel, and attach their inflections
directly to the stem itself.
2.6.2. When a syllable had a short e, it is said to be in the e grade; when it had no
vowel, it is said to be in the zero grade, when in o, in o grade, and they can also be
lengthened. The e-grade is sometimes called full grade.
NOTE. While changes in the length of a vowel (as e--, o--) are usually termed
quantitative ablaut, changes in the quality of a vowel (as e-o or -), are termed qualitative
147
ablaut. Because qualitative changes are more frequent than lengthened-grades, these forms
are usually termed e-grade or o-grade for convenience (Fortson 2004).
A classic example of the five grades of ablaut in a single root is provided by the
following different case forms of IE patr, father, and patr, fatherless.
Ablaut grade
IE
Greek
(translit.)
Case
e-grade or full grade
pa-ter-
--
pa-tr-a
Accusative
lengthened e-grade
pa-tr
pa-tr
Nominative
zero-grade
pa-tr-s
--
pa-tr-s
o-grade
-p-tor-
---
a-p-tor-a
Accusative
lengthened o-grade
-pa-tr
--
a-p-tr
Nominative
Genitive
NOTE. Another example of the common Ablaut is t-stem nepot-, grandson, which gives
lengthened grade Nominative, nep-ts, full-grade Genitive np-ot-os, and zero-grade
feminine nep-t-is, grand-daughter. The study of declensions and practice with vocabulary
should help the reader learn such alternations.
2.6.3. Synoptic table of common examples of different vowel grades (adapted from
AdradosBernabMendoza 1995-1998):
Vowel Grade
Full (F)
Zero ()
Lengthened (L)
e/o - - /
dom-
dm-
dm-
je/jo - i - j/j
djeu-
diw-
dju-
we/wo - u - w/w
kwon-
kun-
kwn
ei/oi/ai - u/i - i/i/i
bheid-
bhid-
bhid-
eu/ou/au - u/i -
bheud-
bhud-
bhud-
au/ai
- u/i - u/i
u/u/u
pau-
pu-
pu-
// - a - //
st-
sta-
st-
i/i - / - i/i
pi
pi
2.6.4. There are also some other possible vowel grade changes, as a-grade, i-grade
and u-grade, which usually come from old root endings, rather than from
systematised phonetic changes.
NOTE. It seems that the alternation full-grade/zero-grade in PIE was dependent on the
accent. Compare klewos/kluts, eimi/ims, patr/patrs, etc., where the unstressed
morpheme loses its vowel. This happens only in the oldest formations, though, as Late IndoEuropean had probably lost this morphological pattern, freezing many older ablauting words
and creating a new (more stable) vocabulary without changes in accent or vowel grade.
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2. Phonology
2.6.5. As we have seen, vowel change was common in Proto-Indo-European. In

many words the vowel varies because of old ablauting forms that gave different
derivatives.
So for example in o-grade domos, house, which gives dmnos, lord, as Lat.
dominus, Skt. dmnas; but full grade root dem-, which gives demspts, master,
lord (from older gen. *dems) as Gk. (despts), Skt. dampati, Av. dg
pati, (with fem. demspotnja).
NOTE. The forms attested in Indo-Iranian (and maybe Greek) come from i-stem potis,
probably derived from the original Late PIE form dems-pts, cf. ghsti-pots, guest, as Lat.
hosps, hospitis, O.Russ. gospod<*-ostpot-; compare, for an original PIE ending -t in
compounds, Lat. sacerds < *sakro-dhots, O.Ind. devastt-, who praises the gods, etc. The
compound is formed with pot-, lord, husband, and pot-nja, mistress, lady.
2.6.6. Different vocalisations appeared in IE dialects in some phonetic

environments, especially between two occlusives in zero-grade; as e.g. skp-, which
evolved as Lat. scabo or Got. skaban.
NOTE. According to Fortson (2004): In word-initial consonant clusters consisting of two
stops plus a resonant, a prop vowel was introduced between the two stops to break up the
cluster; this vowel was introduced between the two stops to break up the cluster; this vowel is
called schwa secundum () . For example, one of the forms of numeral four was *kwtuor-,
which developed a schwa secundum to become *kwetuor- or *kwtuor-, yielding Lat. quattuor
and Homeric Gk. psures (as opposed to Gk. tssares from a different form, *kwetuor-).
Although the dialectal solutions to such consonantal groups arent unitary, we can find some
general PIE timbres. A general a; an i with a following dental (especially in Gk. and BSl.); or
u, also considered general, but probably influenced by the context, possibly when in contact
with a labial, guttural or labiovelar. AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998).
2.6.7. Sometimes different reconstructions might account for some vowel

differences, most frequently in combinations of *RH or *HR; as, *law for low,
wash, *Sos for Samos, summer, *kwos for kerwos, deer, etc.
NOTE. Different reconstructions might be equally valid, depending on the criteria employed.
Sometimes different PIE language stages have to be taken into account; as, for root neqt-,
night, a common PIH *noqts is reconstructible, which had a genitive in *neqts according to
Hitt. nekut; however, pre-LIE shows a generalised non-ablauting pattern; cf. O.Gk. nuks,
nukts, O.Lat. nox, noctis. The newer i-stem noqtis was the general post-LIE (and later also
149
PII, NWIE) form, without accent-ablaut changes; cf. O.Ind. nakti, Gmc. naxti, Sla. notj, Bal.
nakti. See below 4.7 for a discussion on the reconstruction of root nouns.
2.7. CONSONANT CHANGE

2.7.1. Regarding consonant change, different similar reconstructions might appear,
too. Some might not fit into a single LIE original word; as, ghortos, garden (cf. Gk.
khortos, Lat. hortus, O.Ir. gort), and ghordhos, enclosure (cf. Gk. khortis, Lith.
gardas, O.C.S. gradu, Goth. gards, Phry. -gordum, Alb. garth).
NOTE. They have been explained as one original form borrowed with a (dialectal) consonant
change into other dialects, but it is more likely that both forms were found in LIE.
2.7.2. The so called s-mobile refers to the phenomenon of alternating word pairs,
with and without s before initial consonants, in roots with similar or identical
meaning. This moveable prefix s- is always followed by another consonant. Typical
combinations are with voiceless stops (s)p-, (s)t-, (s)k-, with liquids and nasals, (s)l, (s)m-, (s)n-; and rarely (s)w-.
NOTE. Examples include (s)ten-, cf. with s- O.Ind. stnati, Gk. stn, O.Eng. stenan, Lith.
sten, O.Sla. stenjo, and without s- in O.Ind. tnyati, Gk. Eol. tnnei, Lat. tonare, O.H.G.
donar, Cel. Tanaros (name of a river). For (s)pek-, cf. O.Ind. spati, Av. spata, Gk. skops
(<spoks), Lat. spektus, O.H.G. spehon, without s- in O.Ind. pyati, Alb. pash. For (s)ker-,
cf. O.Ind. ava-, apa-skara-, Gk. skraphos, O.Ir. scar(a)im, O.N. skera, Lith. skiri, Illyr.
Scardus, Alb. hurdh (<*skd-), without s- in O.Ind. knti, Av. krntaiti, Gk. kero, Arm.
kcorem, Alb. kjth, Lat. caro, O.Ir. cert, O.N. horund, Lith. kkarn, O.Sla. korc, Hitt.
kartai-, and so on. Such pairs with and without s are found even within the same branch, as
Gk. (s)tgos, roof, (s)mikrs, little, O.Ind. (s)t, star, and so on.
NOTE. Some scholars posit that it was a prefix in PIE (which would have had a causative
value), while others maintain that it is probably caused by assimilations of similar stems
some of them beginning with an s-, and some of them without it. It is possible, however, that
the original stem actually had an initial s, and that it was lost by analogy in some situations,
because of phonetic changes, probably due to some word compounds where the last -s of the
first word assimilated to the first s- of the second one. That helps to explain why both stems
(with and without s) are recorded in some languages, and why no regular evolution pattern
may be ascertained: so for example in wqons spekjont, they saw wolves, becoming
wqons pekjont. AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998).
2.7.3. In a cluster of two consonants differing in voicing, the voicing of the first is
assimilated to that of the second.
150
2. Phonology
Voiceless s was assimilated to voiced z before a voiced consonant; as, nisdos [nizdos], nest, misdhom [miz-dhom], meed, salary, or osdos [oz-dos], branch.
Voiced stops become voiceless when followed by a voiceless consonant: e.g. agts
[ak-tos] (cf. Gk. (aktos), Lat. actus). The same happens with voiced aspirates,
as in leghtrom, support (cf. Gk. lektron, O.H.G. Lehter or from the same root Lat.
lectus); or nicts, washed (cf. Gk. a-niptos <*n-niqtos, unwashed, O.Ir. necht).
Voiceless stops become voiced before voiced consonants; as, ped- in zero-grade -pd, cf. Gk. (epi-bd-a), Av. frabda, forefoot.
Voiced and voiceless stops are pronounced alike in final position; as, qid [kwit] (cf.
O.Ind. cit), or pod, foot (cf. voiceless O.Ind. nom. pt, after having lost the final -s).
NOTE. Although the accuracy of some allophones in Late Indo-European is certain, for
practical reasons the phonetically correct notation is therefore avoided in favour of the
phonemically correct notation. We deem that to write them as a general rule, like writing th
or thi for English the, or dogz for dogs, while possibly helpful to show the actual
pronunciation, would probably be an obstacle to the understanding of the underlying
etymology; also, such phonetical variations exist naturally, and dont need to be supported by
the orthography.
2.7.4. A sequence of two dentals -TT- (such as -tt-, -dt-, -tdh-, -ddh-, etc.) was
eliminated in all Indo-European dialects, but the process of this suppression differed
among branches: Vedic Sanskrit shows little change, some others an intermediate sT- (Iranian, Greek, Balto-Slavic) and others -ss- or -s- (Italic, Celtic, Germanic).
Compounds were not affected by this trend; as, krd-dhmi, believe.
We find a common intermediate stage in Iranian, Proto-Greek (cf. Gk. st, sth, in
pistis, oistha), and North-West Indo-European (cf. *Hed-ti eats, in Lat. est, Lith.
esti, OCS jast, and afield O.H.G. examples). Therefore, we can assume that PIE
*d+t, *t+t, *dh+t NWIE, PGk st; PIE *d+d, *t+d, *dh+d NWIE, PGk sd; PIE
*d+dh, *t+dh, *dh+dh NWIE, PGk sdh.
Common examples are found in forms derived from PIE root weid-, know, see,
which gave verb widj, cf. Lat. vidre, Goth. witan, O.C.S. vidti, Lith. pavydti;
p.p. wists, seen, from wid-t-, cf. O.Ind. vitta-, but Av. vista-, O.Pruss. waist,
O.Sla. vest, or Ger. ge-wiss, Lat. vsus, O.Gk. (wistos), O.Ir. rofess, etc.; noun
wistis, sight, vision, from wid-ti-, cf. Goth wizzi, Lat. vsi; Greek wistr, wise,
learned man, from wid-tor, cf. Gk. (hstr)<* (wstr), PGk wistorj,
151
history, from Gk. (histora); Imp. wisdhi! know!, from wid-dhi, cf. O.Ind.
viddh, O.Gk. (wsthi), O.Lith. veizdi, and so on.
NOTE. An older PIE *TT *TsT has been proposed, i.e. that the cluster of two dental stops
had a dental fricative s inserted between them (giving *-tst- and *-dzd-). It is based on some
findings in Hittite, where cluster tst is spelled as z (pronounced ts), as in PIH *h1ed-te, eat!
*h1ette *h1etste Old Hitt. zten (pronounced tsten), or Ved. Skt. att (interpreted as from
*atst, where *s is lost). Cf. also for Indo-Iranian imperative *da-d-dh give! in L.Av. dazdi,
O.Ind. deh<dazdhi<*dadzdhi (Mayrhofer Lautlehre 1986), instead of the expected O.Ind.
*daddhi. However, confirmation from a common LIE *-stis found in Indo-Iranian too
(which might be interpreted as previous *TsT where the initial *T is lost); as, O.Ind. mastis,
measure, from *med-tis, or Av. -hasta-, from *sed-ts. This LIE evolution TT ( TsT)?
sT was overshadowed by dialectal developments, v.s. 1.7.2.III.
2.7.5. It seems that simplification of geminated PIE *-ss- occurred already in LIE,
as Greek and Indo-Iranian dialects show. However, in this book the written
gemination is considered the most conservative approach. Only the attested
simplification of gemination is reconstructed; as, esi for es-si, you are.
NOTE. So, from *essi we have O.Ind. si, Av. ahi, Gk. <*esi (Hom. and Dor. are
obviously analogic forms), etc. That form from es- is reconstructed e.g. by AdradosBernab
Mendoza (1995-1998), Fortson (2004), Cardona (2004), Ringe (2006), among others. It is
therefore to be pronounced with a simple /-s-/, and written accordingly -s-.
This is not the only solution to gemination in PIE, though, as shown by e.g. Lat. amass,
propriassit, with original IE gemination after Kortlandt. Therefore, the fact that *-ss- is
simplified into -s- in some attested words does not confirm that the simplification occurred
necessarily and always in LIE (or IED) times, because it could have occurred later, although it
shows a clear trend toward simplification.
2.7.6. Consonant clusters *KsK were simplified by loss of the first stop; as, present
stem of prek-, ask, pk-sk- [pr-sk ] (cf. Lat. poscit, Skt. prcchti).
2.7.7. Word-final -n was often lost after ; as, kw(n), dog (cf. O.Ir. c); or
dhghom(n), man (cf. Lat. hom); this loss was not generalised, although it seems
that it was already common in Late Indo-European.
NOTE. Fortson (2004): PIE forms where the *-n disappeared, like the word for dog above,
are written by Indo-Europeanists variously with or without the n, or with n in parentheses:
kwn or kw or kw(n). We prefer to write them always with -n by convention.
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3. WORDS AND THEIR FORMS

3.1. THE PARTS OF SPEECH
3.1.1. Words are divided into eight parts of speech: nouns, adjectives (including
participles), pronouns, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.
3.1.2. A noun is the name of a person, place, thing or idea; as, Klewopatr,
Cleopatra, dnus, river, dhworis, door, wdhom, word.
Names of particular persons and places are called proper nouns; other nouns are
called common.
NOTE. An abstract noun is the name of a quality or idea. A collective noun is the name of a
group or a class.
3.1.3. An adjective is a word that attributes a quality; as, patrjm, parental,

leuks, bright, karts, hard, grdhs, grown.
NOTE 1. A participle is a word that attributes quality like an adjective, but, being derived
from a verb, retains in some degree the power of the verb to assert.
NOTE 2. Etymologically there is no difference between a noun and an adjective, both being
formed alike. So, too, all nouns originally attribute quality, and any common noun can still be
so used. Thus, Aleksanr Regs, King Alexander, distinguishes this Alexander from other
Alexanders, by the attribute expressed in the noun regs, king. See 10.9 for names of persons,
and 10.4.4 for apposition of titles.
3.1.4. A pronoun is a word used to distinguish a person, place, thing or idea without
either naming or describing it: as, eg, I, twos, thine, wejes, we.
Nouns and pronouns are often called substantives.
3.1.5. A verb is a word capable of asserting something: as, bher, I carry, bear.
NOTE. In English the verb is usually the only word that asserts anything, and a verb is
therefore supposed to be necessary to complete an assertion. Strictly, however, any adjective
or noun may, by attributing a quality or giving a name, make a complete assertion, see below
10 Syntax.
3.1.6. An adverb is a word used to express the time, place, or manner of an assertion
or attribute: as, peri, in front, epi, near, ant, opposite.
NOTE. These same functions are often performed in Indo-European by cases of nouns,
pronouns and adjectives, and by phrases or sentences.
3.1.7. A preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun or pronoun
and some other word or words in the same sentence; as, e.g., ad, at, to, d, from
upwards, kom, with, ek(s), outside, upo, under, and so on.
3.1.8. A conjunction is a word which connects words, or groups of words, without
affecting their grammatical relations: as, -qe, and, -w , or, -ma, but, -r, for.
3.1.9. Interjections are mere exclamations and are not strictly to be classed as parts
of speech; as, al! hello!, O (vocative), wai, alas (grief), ha ha! (laughing sound);
ha! (surprise); etc.
NOTE. Interjections sometimes express an emotion which affects a person or thing
mentioned, and so have a grammatical connection like other words.
3.2. INFLECTION
3.2.1. Indo-European is an inflected language. Inflection is a change made in the
form of a word to show its grammatical relations.
NOTE. Some modern Indo-European languages, like most Germanic and Romance dialects,
have lost partly or completely their earliest attested inflection systems due to different
simplification trends , in nominal declension as well as in verbal conjugation.
3.2.2. Inflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, or at the
beginning, but oftener in its termination:
pods, the or a foot, peds, of the foot; eimi, I go, ims, we go.
3.2.3. Terminations of inflection had possibly originally independent meanings
which are now obscured. They probably corresponded nearly to the use of
prepositions, auxiliaries and personal pronouns in English.
Thus, in ghrdejos, of the barley (Gen.), the termination is equivalent to of the;
in deik, I show (indicative), and deikom, I was showing, I used to show
(imperfect),.
3.2.4. Inflectional changes in the body of a verb usually denote relations of tense or
mood, and often correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs in English:
Present dikesi, thou show, aorist diks, you showed; present (g)gnsketi, he
knows, recognises, is able, perfect gnowa, I am able or I am in the state of knowing
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3. Words and their Forms
(having recognised); the change of vowel grade and accent signifies a change in the
aspect.
3.2.5. The inflection of nouns, adjectives, pronouns and participles to denote
gender, number and case is called declension, and these parts of speech are said to be
declined.
The inflection of verbs to denote voice, mood, tense, number and person is called
conjugation, and the verb is said to be conjugated.
NOTE. Adjectives are often said to have inflections of comparison. These are, however,
properly stem-formations made by derivations.
3.2.6. Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections are not inflected, and
together form the group of the so-called particles.
3.3. ROOT AND STEM

3.3.1. The body of a word, to which the terminations are attached, is called the stem.
The stem contains the idea of the word without relations; but, except in the first part
of compounds (e.g. somo-patr, of the same father, sibling, m-dmi, commit),
it cannot ordinarily be used without some termination to express them.
Thus the stem pater- denotes father; patr, nominative, means a father or the
father, as the subject or agent of an action; patr (or pater) is the vocative, as in O
father!; patr is the accusative and means to a father or to the father, as the direct
object; patrs is the genitive and indicates of a father or of the father, and so on.
NOTE. In inflected languages like Indo-European, words are built up from roots, which at a
very early time were possibly used alone to express ideas. Roots are modified into stems,
which, by inflection, become fully formed words. The process by which roots are modified, in
the various forms of derivatives and compounds, is called stem-building. The whole of this
process is originally one of composition, by which significant endings are added one after
another to forms capable of pronunciation and conveying a meaning.
According to MalloryAdams (2007): To the root might be added a variety of suffixes to
create a stem and then finally the case endings depending on number and perhaps gender. In
some cases, the so-called root-nouns, there are no suffixes before the case ending. Using R for
root, S for stem-creating suffix, and E for case-number-ending, we might establish the
formula for an inflected word in Proto-Indo-European as R-(S)-E.
3.3.2. A root is the simplest form attainable by analysis of a word into its
component parts. Such a form contains the main idea of the word in a very general
155
sense, and is common also to other words either in the same language or in kindred
languages; cf. for st-, stand, reduplicated present s-st-mi, I stand, noun st-m,
place for standing, zero-grade p.p. sta-ts, placed, standing, or noun sta-tis,
erection, standing.
For example, the root of verb spekj, look, is spek-, which does not necessarily
mean to look, or I look, or looking, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of looking,
and possibly cannot be used as a part of speech without terminations.
The roots of the reconstructed PIE language are basic morphemes carrying a lexical
meaning. By addition of suffixes, they form stems, and by addition of desinences,
they form grammatically inflected words (nouns or verbs).
NOTE. Clackson (2007): The most influential theory of root-structure was put forward by
Benveniste, in a chapter of a book concerning nominal formations in IE languages (Benveniste
1935). Benveniste used recent findings from work on the laryngeal theory () to present a
unified view of the PIE root, and his root theory closely follows earlier work by Cuny and
Kuryowicz (see Szemernyi 1973). According to Benveniste, the basic structure of all PIE
roots was *CeC- (C = any consonant), i.e. monosyllabic, with initial and final consonants and
with e as fundamental vowel; as, sed-, sit, bher-, carry.
Fortson (2004) offers a practical summary of complementary information to the theory:
o This template could be modified in certain ways, especially by adding consonants either
at the beginning or the end to form consonant clusters. Most commonly, a resonant could
occur on either side of the vowel, resulting in roots of the shape *CReC-, *CeRC-, and
*CReRC- (remember that both i and u can function as resonants). Examples of them are
dhwer-, door, derk-, see, or ghrendh, grind.
o Roots could also have any of the basic structures above preceded by s; as, spek-, see,
sneich-, snow. We have already talked about the s-mobile, v.s. 2.7.
o Certain classes of consonants rarely or never co-occur within a given PIE root. According
to Meillet, impossible PIE combinations are voiceless stop and voiced aspirate (as in
*tebh or *bhet), as well as two plain unaspirated voiced stops (as in *ged or *bed). The
*tebh type is commonly found if preceded by an *s-, though. The source of these
constraints is unknown, although similar constraints are known from other language
families.
o A few roots began with a cluster consisting of two stops; as, tkei-, settle, and pter, wing,
as well as those with word-initial thorn clusters, as tkos, bear, or dhghom-, earth.
156
NOTE 2. For peculiarities of the PIH reconstruction, also from Forston (2004):
The bulk of roots with laryngeals fall into four types: *CeH-, *HeC-, *HReC and *CeRH. In
all these cases, the laryngeal was either the first or last consonant of the root. Some roots
contained a laryngeal before the final consonant.
Some roots had a rather than e as the original PIH vowel; as, nas-, nose, sal-, salt. For
reasons that are debated, initial k- is particularly common in this class of roots; as, kadh-,
protect, kamp-, bend, and kan-, sing.
3.3.3. The reconstructed PIE roots that appear with extra phonetic material (one or
two sounds) added on to them, without any discernible change to the meaning of the
root, are called extended roots (Fortson 2004).
NOTE. Clackson (2007) compares gheud-, pour (Lat. fund, perf. fd, Goth. giutan), with
ghew-, pour (cf. Skt. juhti, Gk. kh, Toch B kewu): The longer form *gheud- is easily taken
to be composed of *ghew- followed by a determinative *d. According to Benveniste, every
root with a structure more complex than *CeC- was an extended root (he used the term thme
to denote what we call here extended root). The root *yeug- can therefore be seen as an
extended form of a more basic *yew-, a hypothesis which is supported by the fact that there is
actually a root *yew- join reconstructed from Sanskrit yuvti ties and Lithuanian juju I
mix.
3.3.4. Most of the reconstructed PIE lexicon is in the form of roots. However, there
are some words which apparently belong to a very ancient layer of IE vocabulary, and
cannot easily derived from roots; as, swl, sun, dhughtr, daughter, acnos,
lamb, wortokos, quail.
A few, like abel-, apple, and pelekus, ax, have a shape that seems un-IndoEuropean, and are thought by some to be prehistoric borrowings from non-IE
languages. Fortson (2004).
3.3.4. The stem may be the same as the root; as, d-, give, dakru, tear; but it is
more frequently formed from the root:
1. By changing or lengthening its vowel; as, from athematic root verb d-, divide,
common derivative dai-mai, divide up, distribute.
NOTE. Formally, following Benvenistes theory, the PIE root for the verb is reconstructed as
*deh2(j)-, i.e. from root *deh2-, and enlargement *-j-, see Rix (2001).
157
2. By the addition of a simple suffix; as, from root d-, divide, derivative d-mos,
people, peoples division (cf. Dor. Gk. , O.Ir. dm, Hitt. da-ma-a-i).
NOTE. Some suffixes probably conveyed an earlier underlying meaning, e.g. the suffix trom tends to indicate an instrument, as ar-trom, plough, from a verb arj, plough,
while kinship names tend to have the suffix -er- or -ter-, cf. swes-r, sister, bhr-tr,
brother.
3. By two or more of these methods; from the same root, suffixed derivative dai-tis,
time, period, cf. Gmc. t, Arm ti, as well as Gk. , O.Ind. dtu-.
4. By derivation and composition, following the laws of development peculiar to the
language, which we will see in the corresponding chapters.
3.3.5. Inflectional terminations are modified differently by combination with the
final vowel or consonant of the stem, and the various forms of declension and
conjugation are so developed.
3.4. GENDER
3.4.1. The genders distinguished in Late Indo-European are three: masculine,
feminine (both are referred to as animate) and neuter or inanimate.
The masculine functions as the negative term in the opposition of animates; i.e.
when the gender is not defined when referring to animates, the masculine is used.
NOTE. This is a grammatical utility, one that is only relevant for concordance, and whose
development is probably related to the evolution of the language and its inflection. Therefore,
the feminine is the positive term of the opposition within the animates, because when we use
it we reduce the spectrum of animates to the feminine, while the masculine still serves as the
negative (i.e. non-differentiated) term for both animates masculine and feminine when
used in this sense, i.e. when not differentiating the gender.
Clackson (2007): Masculine nouns in other IE languages appear as nouns of the common
gender in Hittite, but Hittite has no nominal declension corresponding to the feminine stems
in *-eh2 or *-ih2. The lack of a feminine gender in Hittite has led scholars to ask whether the
feminine ever existed in the Anatolian branch.
According to MalloryAdams (2007): The fact that Proto-Indo-European also forms
collectives in *-h2- (e.g. the Hittite collective alpa, group of clouds from a singular alpe,
cloud) has suggested that this was its original use and that it later developed the specifically
feminine meaning.
158
3.4.2. The gender of Indo-European nouns is either natural or grammatical.

a. Natural gender is distinction as to the sex of the object denoted: bhrtr (m.),
brother; cen (f.), woman, wife.
b. Grammatical gender is a formal distinction as to sex where no actual sex exists in
the object. It is shown in the form of the adjective joined with the noun: as swds
noqtis (f.), a pleasant night; mgh kanm (n.), brief song. The gender of the
adjective is simply a gender of concordance: it indicates to which noun of a concrete
gender the adjective refers to.
NOTE 2. Names of classes or collections of persons may be of any gender. For example,
wolgos (masc.), (common) people, or teut (fem.), people (of a nationality).
3.4.3. The neuter or inanimate gender differs from the other two in inflection, not
in the theme vowel. The gender of animates, on the contrary, is usually marked by
the theme vowel, and sometimes by declension, vocalism and accent.
3.4.4. The neuter does not refer to the lack of sex, but to the lack of liveliness or life.
Sometimes, however, animates can be designated as inanimates and vice versa.
While the distinction between masculine and feminine is usually straightforward,
sometimes the attribution of sex is arbitrary; thus, different words for parts of the
body are found feminine, as nsis, nose, kanm, leg; masculine, as kolsos, neck,
armos, arm, upper arm; and neuter, as kaput, head, or genu, knee.
3.4.5. The animate nouns can have:
a. An oppositive gender, marked:
I. by the lexicon, as in patr/mtr, father/mother, bhrtr/swesr,
brother/sister, sns/dhugtr, son/daughter;
II. by the stem ending, as in general ekwos/ekw, horse/mare; or infrequent
wlqos/wlqs, wolf/she-wolf, deiwos/deiwja, god/ goddess;
III. by both at the same time, as in swekros/swekrs, father-in-law-motherin-law, wrs/cen, man-woman, regs/regein, king-queen.
b. An autonomous gender, that does not oppose itself to others, as in nus (f.),
ship, pods (m.), foot, egnis (m.), fire, owis (f.), sheep, jewos (n.) or legs (f.), law.
159
c. A common gender, in nouns that are masculine or feminine depending on the

context; as, cus, cow or bull, deuks, leader, ghostis, foreigner.
d. An epicene gender, which, although being masculine or feminine, designates
both sexes; as, mdodiks, doctor, nawgs, sailor, nemots, enemy, setis, visitor.
3.4.6. The gender of a noun can thus be marked by the stem vowel (or sometimes by
inflection), or has to be learnt: it is a feature of a word like any other. In its context,
concordance is a new gender mark; a masculine noun has a masculine adjective, and
a feminine noun a feminine adjective. However, not all adjectives differentiate
between masculine and feminine, a lot of them (those in -i-s, -u-s, -s, -n, and
some thematic in -os) are masculine and feminine: only the context, i.e. the noun
with which they agree, helps to disambiguate them. This happens also in nouns with
a common gender.
3.4.7. Most endings do not indicate gender, as in patr and mtr. Only by
knowing the roots in many cases, or from the context in others, is it possible to
determine it.
NOTE. Clackson (2007): Nouns of all genders can occur in the athematic declension. Nonneuter animate nouns are usually assigned gender through correspondence with the natural
sex of the referent, non-neuter inanimate nouns are assigned gender by convention.
Some of the suffixes determine, though, totally or partially if they are masculine or
feminine. These are the following:
1. -os marks masculine when it is opposed to a feminine in - or -/-ja, as in
ekwos/ekw, deiwos/deiwja, god/goddess, etc. This happens also in adjectives in
the same situation, as in newos/new, or bheronts/bherontja, bearing.
In isolated nouns, -os is generally masculine, but some traces of the old
indistinctness of gender still remained in LIE, as in the names of trees (among
others). In adjectives, when the ending -os is not opposed to feminine, concordance
decides. A common example is snuss, daughter-in-law, a feminine from the odeclension.
2. - marks the feminine in oppositions of nouns and adjectives. It is usually also
feminine in isolated nouns, in the first declension.
160
NOTE. There seems to be no reconstructible masculines in -; so e.g. BSl. *slough , servant

(cf. O.Sla. slga, Lith. slauga service, O.Ir. sluag, army unit) etc. is probably to be
reconstructed as original NWIE sloughos (cf. Ir. teg-lach < *tegoslougo-).
According to Clackson (2007): () the only one of the three major declension classes to
show a restriction to a single gender is the class of feminine nouns formed with the suffix *-eh2
or *-ih2. Where IE languages show masculine nouns in this declension class, such as Latin
agricola farmer or Greek nenas young man, they can be explained as post-PIE
developments. The feminine is only therefore distinguished in one declension type, and it is
this same declension that is absent in Hittite. It appears that the category of feminine gender
is to be closely associated with the declension class in *-h2.
3. Endings -
<*-(e/o)h2, -/-ja <*-ih2, although generally feminine in LIE, show
remains of its old abstract-collective value, as neuter plural. It appears in nouns,

adjectives and pronouns
3.5. NUMBER
3.5.1. Nouns, pronouns, adjectives and participles, all are declined in IndoEuropean in two numbers, singular and plural. The same is found in the PIE verbal
conjugations.
NOTE. The same categories of case are found in singular and plural, but with a greater
degree of syncretism in the latter, with common ablative-dative endings, and nominativevocative, see below. According to Meier-Brgger (2003): Singular and plural are grammatical
categories that are common to the verb and the noun. They permit one to indicate by means of
congruence the association of the noun with the subject of the action, indicated by the verb
form employed. The relationship of singular to plural is a question of syntax.
3.5.2. Late Indo-European shows also traces of a dual number for some nouns and
pronouns, but the formation of stable verbal dual forms is only traceable to
individual dialects.
NOTE. Clackson (2007): The dual does not just denote that there are two of something: it
can also be used as an associative marker in a construction standardly referred to as the
elliptical dual in grammars and handbooks. So e.g. Ved. Skt. dual Mitr refers to Mitra and
his companion Varuna; Hom. Gk. dual Aante referred probably to Ajax and his brother
Teucer. In languages that do not show dual, however, the plural is used as an associative to
denote pairs in Latin Castors, the plural of the name Castor, is used to denote the semi-god
Castor and his twin Pollux.
161
Meier-Brgger (2003) reproduces the words of Matthias Fritzs work on the dual: The
origins of the dual are contained in two word types: On the one hand, the personal pronoun is
a starting point of the numerus dual; on the other, among nouns, terms for paired body parts
are of great importance. While pronouns in the first and second person feature the dual as
grammatical category as far back as they can be traced, the dual category initially does not
exist among substantives. In the case of the terms for paired body parts the duality is lexically
founded. () The formation of verbal dual forms based upon the first person personal
pronoun takes place where the formation was no longer completed in the Proto-IndoEuropean period, which then does not take place in the language branches. Thus, the
secondary endings may be reconstructed. In the case of syntagmata, using the substantive as a
basis, a dual form and the number word for two transferred the dual inflection over to the
numera, thus echoing the relation of syntagmata to pronouns and adjectives.
Given the scarcity of remains found in West IE languages, it is likely that that LIE
did not have a fully developed system for the dual. Also, its use seems to have been
optional even in its most common use: body parts.
NOTE. Clackson (2007): The dual is reconstructed for pronouns, animate nouns and
inanimate nouns, but it is likely that its usage was optional at least with words denoting
inanimates (that is, the lower end of the animacy hierarchy). Note that in the two early IE
languages with a paradigmatic dual, Greek and Sanskrit, pairs of body parts, such as hands,
eyes, legs, knees etc., may be denoted either by the plural or by the dual, and the plural is in
fact more common for bodypart terms in Homeric Greek.
3.5.3. Verbs which are collocated with non-neuter plural forms of nouns must agree
with them in number; that is also the case for most neuter plural forms of nouns.
However, the so-called collective neuter plural requires concordance in the
singular. Such forms are scarce, and found only in the nominative and accusative; in
the other cases, they follow the plural paradigm.
NOTE. Examples are given in Meier-Brgger (2003) and Clackson (2007) from Greek
kklos wheel, circle (kkloi circles vs. kkla set of wheels), mrs thigh (m ro thighpieces vs. mra agglomeration of thigh-meat), Hitt. alpas cloud (alpes clouds vs. alpa
cloud-mass), or Lat. locus place (loc places vs. loca places).
162
4. Nouns
4. NOUNS
4.1. DECLENSION OF NOUNS
4.1.1. Declension is made by adding terminations to different stem endings, vowel
or consonant.
Adjectives are generally declined like nouns, and are etymologically to be classed
with them, but they have some peculiarities of inflection which will be later
explained.
4.1.2. There are eight commonly reconstructed cases for Late Indo-European:
I. The nominative is the case of the subject of a sentence and predicate nominative.
II. The vocative is the case of direct address.
III. The accusative is the case of the direct object of a verb. It is used also with
many prepositions.
IV. The genitive may generally be translated by the English possessive.
V. The ablative, the source or place from which.
VI. The dative, the case of the indirect object. It also indicates possession, and
beneficiary of an action.
VII. The locative, the place where.
VIII. The instrumental, the means and the agent.
NOTE. The oblique cases appear in the English pronoun set; these pronouns are often called
objective pronouns; as in she loves me (accusative), give it to me (dative) or that dirt wasnt
wiped with me (instrumental), where me is not inflected differently in any of these uses; it is
used for all grammatical relationships except the genitive case of possession, mine, and a nondisjunctive nominative case as the subject, I.
4.1.3. Nouns and adjectives are inflected in LIE in four regular declensions,
distinguished by their final phonemes characteristic of the stem , and by the
opposition of different forms in irregular nouns. They are numbered following
Graeco-Roman tradition: first or a-stem declension, second or o-stem declension,
third or i/u-stem declension, fourth or c-stem declension, and the variable nouns.
The stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant stem, by omitting the case-ending;
if a vowel stem, by substituting for the case-ending the characteristic vowel.
163
Decl.
Stem ending
Nominative
Genitive
1.
(ja/, , )
-s
2.
e/o (Thematic)
m., f.-s, n.-m
-os/-osjo
3.
i, u and Diphthong
m., f.-s, n.-
-eis, -eus; -jos, -wos
4.
Resonants & Consonants
-s, -
-es/-os
(5)
Heteroclites
-, -r
-(e)n
NOTE. Most Indo-Europeanists tend to distinguish at least two major types of declension for
the oldest PIE, thematic and athematic. Thematic nominal stems are formed with a suffix -o(also -e-), and the stem does not undergo ablaut, i.e. there is no ablaut difference between the
strong and the weak cases, and there is no accent change, see below.
Feminine stems in - < *-eh2 were originally c-stems with final *-h2 which, under pressure
from the o-stem adjectives, were adapted to the thematic paradigm of the masculine o-stems.
It is sometimes separated from the athematic declension into a new class, even if being
originally consonantal, because of such peculiarities; so e.g. in Clackson (2007): In respect of
the reconstructed case-endings, the class of feminine nouns in [a-stem declension] shows
clear affinities with the athematic class [c-stem declension], and the o-stem declension
diverges more radically from both. In the daughter languages, however, there is a general
tendency for the o-stem class and the feminine -stems to become more closely associated,
almost certainly through the combination of the two classes in a number of pronominal and
adjectival declensions as masculine and feminine alternatives.
The declension of i/u-stems and c-stems is more complex, as it involves accentablaut changes. Fortunately the most productive (thus more frequent) declensions in
LIE are mainly o-stems and -stems.
NOTE. Stems in consonant, i, and u, are more archaic, and they are classified further by
their ablaut behaviour into different so-called dynamic patterns, after the positioning of the
early PIE accent in the paradigm. See below 4.7.
The distinction of i-stems and u-stems from c-stems is also traditional, but according to
Fortson (2004), to keep that distinction for PIH probably is both unnecessary and
misleading, as it masks the fundamentally identical behavior of both groups over against that
of the thematic nouns. In LIE, however, there are pragmatic reasons to distinguish them.
4.1.3. The following are general rules of declension:

a. The nominative singular for animates ends in -s when the stem endings are i, u,
diphthong, occlusive and thematic (-os); in - when the stem ends in , resonant and
s; in the plural -es is general, -s for those in , and -os for the thematic ones.
164
4. Nouns
NOTE. For collectives/feminines in -ja/- <*-j<*-ih2 we prefer to use in our texts the
ending -ja for feminines, and - for neuters as a general rule. It is not intended as a
normative selection, though, but as a conventional simplification of the otherwise tedious
repetition -ja/- that is followed in other books, while at the same time reflecting the natural
evolution pattern of such forms in NWIE (see below 4.2, 4.4.2). So e.g. this convention does
not limit the use of feminines in -; as e.g. Lat. -trx, or coxendx.
b. The accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in -m or - (after

consonant), the accusative plural in -ns or -s.
NOTE. A general accusative plural ending -ns (-s after consonant) is usually reconstructed
for Late Indo-European, because e.g. within the u-stem from PIE *-u-ns, early IE languages
show *-uns, *-ns, *-s; cf. Goth. sununs, O.Ind. snn, Gk. uuns, Lith. snus, O.C.S. syny,
Lat. mans. See H. Rix (FS Risch 1986). Most scholars also posit an original, older **-ms
form (a logical accusative singular -m- plus the plural mark -s), but they usually prefer to
reconstruct the attested *-ns, thus implicitly suggesting either the theoretical origin of the
ending, or a previous PIH *-ms LIE *-ns. For a PIH *-ms, cf. maybe Hitt. -u (Ottinger
1979), but Lyc -s (<*-ns?). To be consistent with decisions taken elsewhere in this grammar
(as e.g. reconstructed PIE *-T(s)T- as NWIE intermediate -sT-, see 2.7), the intermediate,
attested -ns is the conservative choice, whereas **-ms is just a probable hypothesis about its
actual origin.
c. The vocative singular for animates is always -, and in the plural it is identical to
the nominative.
d. The genitive singular is common to animates and inanimates, it is formed with s: -s, -es, -os. An alternative possibility is extended -os-jo. The genitive plural is
formed in -m, and in -m in a-stems.
NOTE. Case endings in -e/o-, -/-, are generally written in this book in -o-, --, in
inflected nouns, given the alternating nature of these forms even within the same dialectal
branches, and the unknown nature of the original ablauting forms. Sihler (1995), Fortson
(2004), Ringe (2006), reconstruct original forms in -es, while Beekes (1995) deems -(o)s the
oldest
athematic
declension.
Meier-Brgger
(2003)
or
AdradosBernabMendoza
reconstruct both as alternating -es/-os. For Sihler (1995), since e-grade is typical of
consonant stems, maybe forms in -o- in o-stems were the original ones, and those in -e- were
secondary creations; that same argument is found for the genitive of athematic nouns in -es,
supposedly substituted by the original thematic -os (Fortson 2004). In any case, it seems
that in Late Indo-European forms in -o- prevailed, as did the thematic declension; as, kuns,
over kuns, from kwn.
165
e. The obliques singular end usually in -i: it can be -i-, -ei-, -i-, -oi-, -i- or -i-,
and their extensions. In the plural, there are two series of declensions, instr. -bhis/mis (from sg. -bhi), dat.-abl. -bhos/-mos (PII -bhjas) as well as (BSl. and PII) loc.
in -su (PGk. -si).
NOTE. Comparison shows an ins. sg. -bhi, (cf. Gk. -phi, Myc. -pi, and also Arm. ins. marb),
BSl. -mi (cf. Lith. akmenim, O.C.S. kamenm) and for Northwestern IE dialects a division
between Italic+Celtic and Germanic+Balto-Slavic Plural forms: Celtic shows traces of an
instrumental -bhis (cf. O.Ir. dat.-loc.-ins.-abl. cridib, and in Graeco-Aryan, cf. O.Ind.
snbhis, Av. bzubs, Arm. srtiwkh), Italic and Celtic show a dat.-abl. -bhos (cf. Celtiberian
dat.-loc.-ins.-abl. arecoraticubos, Lat. matribus, Osc. luisarifs), while Balto-Slavic shows Inst.
-mis (cf. Lith. sunums, O.C.S. synum), dat.-abl. -mos (cf. O.C.S. synm, Lith. snms,
snmus), and Germanic shows a dat.-abl.-ins. -m-.
Meier-Brgger (2003) considers that [e]vidence seems to indicate that while the dative and
ablative plural were marked with *-mos, the instrumental plural was marked with *-bhi ()
Thus, -bh- would have established itself in Italic and Indo-Iranian as the sole initial consonant,
replacing -m-. Conversely, -m- would have established itself in Balto-Slavic and Germanic.
Indo-Iranian *-bhias can thus be regarded as a cross between the instrumental *-bhi and the
dative/ablative *-mos. Similarly MalloryAdams (2007) differentiate for the oldest PIH
declension a Dat. *-mus, instrumental *-bhi, and Abl. *-bh(j)os. Kortlandt (1983) and Beekes
(1985) reconstruct an original Dat. Pl. *-mus and Abl. Pl. *-jos, both supposedly substituted
later by the ending *-bh(j)os.
For an original *-mus, the Leiden school revitalised an old claim (Van Helten 1890, Loewe
1918) to explain the lack of Umlaut of -i in dat. pl., as e.g. OHG tagum, which followed
Georgievs (1963) and Kortlandts (1983) proposals to explain the ending away by comparing
it to O.Lith. -mus, thereby suggesting an original *-u-. That proposal has been questioned e.g.
on the basis that the O.Prus. dat. pl. -mans, is generally believed to have resulted from the
contamination of dat. Pl. *-mos > -mas, and acc. Pl. -ans (Bemeker 1896, Brugmann 1911,
Poljakov 1995). The Leiden position has been questioned on the grounds of the late and
dialectal character of BSl. and Gmc. edings among others by lvarez-Pedrosa (2001, see
<http://revistas.ucm.es/fll/15781763/articulos/ESLC0101110239A.PDF>)
and
Halla-aho
(2006, see <http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/hum/slavi/vk/halla-aho/problems.pdf>).

Fortson (2004) sums up the problem of reconstructing -bh- and -m- endings for PIH: All
this taken together suggests that the *-bh- and * -m- endings developed late, probably after
Anatolian split off from the family, and may have originally been postpositions or adverbs
ultimately related to Eng. by and Germ. mit with. (It is cross-linguistically common for
postpositions to develop into case-endings.)
166
4. Nouns
What is certain is that there was a NWIE west/east dialectal differentiation into -bh- or -m-;
i.e. dat.-abl. pl. -bhos/-mos (and PII -bhjas), ins. sg. -bhi/-mi, ins. pl. -bhis/-mis. We
generally prefer to write the only the forms in -bh- in this grammar, though, given the
extension of those forms in all PIE territory, against the forms in -m-, limited to Germanic
and Balto-Slavic. In any case, when writing these endings, one should keep in mind that they
are dialectally distributed in a uniform way, so that forms in -bh- are not found in the same
branches as those in -m-; i.e., if you use forms in -m- when writing or speaking IE, dont use
forms in -bh-, and vice versa.
f. Inanimates have a syncretic form for nom.-acc.-voc. - in athematics, or -m in

thematics. The plural forms end in - .
NOTE. Inanimates have a nom.-voc.-acc in *-(e/o)h2, which evolved as - in Sanskrit and
Slavic, and -a in most other dialects. A convention is therefore followed in this book, using
short -a to distinguish the overlapping neu. pl. nom.-voc.-acc. from the fem. sg. nom.
g. All animates share the same form in the plural for nom.-voc. -es.
4.1.4. The so-called oblique cases - opposed to the straight ones, nom.-acc.-voc ,
are the genitive and the obliques proper, i.e. ablative, dative, locative, and
instrumental. Straight cases are generally identified with strong cases (those which
do not undergo ablaut in athematic declension), while the rest are the weak cases.
NOTE. IE languages show an irregular oblique declension system, especially in the plural,
due to its syncretic original nature and to late dialectal merging trends. Sanskrit or Avestan
had 8 cases. Anatolian and Italic dialects show up to 8 (cf. Osc. loc. aasai for Lat. in r, or
ins. cadeis amnud for Lat. inimicitiae causae, preiuatud for Lat. prut, etc.). Balto-Slavic
shows seven, Mycenaean at least six cases, while Koin Greek and Proto-Germanic had five.
Nominal Desinences (Summary)

Singular
Animates
NOM.
-s, -
VOC.
-e, -
ACC.
-m
Plural
Inanimates
-m, -
Animates
Inanimates
-es
- , -
-ns
GEN.
-es/-os/-s; -osjo
-om
ABL.
-es/-os/-s; -d/-d/-d
-bhos (-mos); -om
DAT.
-ei
-bhos (-mos)
LOC.
-i
-su (-si)
INS.
-/- ; -bhi (-mi)
-eis; -bhis (-mis)

167
4.2. FIRST DECLENSION

4.2.1. FIRST DECLENSION PARADIGM
1. They are usually animate nouns and end in (or j), and rarely in ja/, , and .
Stems in are very common, generally feminine in nouns and always in adjectives,
and the ending is used to make feminines in the adjectival motion. Those in ja/
are rare, generally feminine, and etymologically identical to the neuter plural in
nom.-acc.-voc. Those in and are feminine only in lesser used words.
NOTE. The entire stem could have been reduced to IE a (hence a-stem declension), because
this is the origin of the whole PIE stem system, the ending *-(e)h2.
2. The IE first declension corresponds loosely to the Latin first declension (cf. Lat.
rosa, rosae, or puella, puellae), and to the Ancient Greek alpha declension (cf. Gk.
, , or , ).
a-Declension Singular Paradigm
NOM.
VOC.
- (- )
ACC.
-m
GEN.
-s
ABL.
-d/(-s)
DAT.
-i
LOC.
-i
INS.
-/-bhi (-mi)
NOTE. This declension in , older *-eh2, is usually reconstructed in the singular as older
(athematic) PIH nom.-voc. *-eh2 (voc. -h2e?) acc. *-eh2m, gen.(-abl.) *-(e)h2os, dat. *-(e)h2ei,
loc. *-eh2i, ins. *-(e)h2eh1, abl. *-(e)h2ed; as, dat. *h1ekw(e)h2ei ekwi (see Beekes 1995,
Clackson 2007). The ablative sg. was linked to the genitive sg. (-s) in the older stages of the
language, but as the feminine declension was adapted to the thematic declension in o/e, an
ablative in -d was generalised already by Late Indo-European. From Beekes (1995), Adrados
BernabMendoza (1995-1998), Clackson (2007).
3. It is therefore identical to those nouns in r, n, s of the fourth declension, but for

some details in vocalism: the gen. has an -s and not -es/-os; the difference between
nom. and voc. can be obtained by nom. - vs. voc. -a (as found in Gk. and BSl.). The
zero-grade of the nom.-acc.-voc. in ja/ stems is different from the gen. in j.
168
4. Nouns
4.2.2. FIRST DECLENSION IN EXAMPLES

1. Nominative singular in -; as, ekw, mare, patrj, fatherland, adj. new, new,
cowij , bovine.
NOTE. The representative noun of this paradigm is the word for mare which occurs in
Sanskrit v, Latin equa and (Old) Lithuanian av. This word is probably not of common
PIE origin, although it is likely a post-LIE word that appeared to differentiate the feminine of
the animate horse, which was previously used for male and female alike. Clackson (2007).
Examples of ja/ include potnja/potn, lady, mistress, deiwja/deiw, goddess.

NOTE. Stems in ja/ (<*-ih2) are productive in adjectives of the -u- and -nt- form, found
generally as - in Indo-Iranian (cf. Skt. bhrant), -ja in NWIE (cf. O.C.S. nesti <*-ontj-)
and PGk (cf. phrousa<*-ontja), Beekes (1995). Because they were not productive in nouns
already in IEDs, the declension of the attested nouns is frozen as an athematic stem from
which they derive. So e.g. from nom. deiw, Skt. dev- , Gk. d -a (<*diw-ja), gen.-abl. diwj s,
cf. Skt. dev-y s, Gk. d -s (<*diw-js). Clackson (2007).
Those in , , also rare, make the nominative in -s; as, spekjs, aspect.
NOTE. These are known from Latin (since Indo-Iranian merged with especially from the
word for path. Like the forms from *-ih2, these old nouns in *-eH or *-oH retain their c-stem
declension paradigm (with accent-ablaut); a famous example found in Beekes (1995) or
Fortson (2004) includes ponts, path, found in Skt. pnths, Av. pant, and afield in Lat.
vts although later reinterpreted as i-stem pontis in NWIE, cf. Lat. pons, Russ. put,
O.Pruss. pintis. Its declension is reconstructed as nom. ponts, acc. pontm, gen. pts,
ins. pl. ptbh.
2. Vocative singular in -. It is normally identical to the nominative, but

disambiguation could happen with distinct vowel grades, i.e. nom. in -, voc. in -a.
NOTE. According to Ringe (2006), the vocative of those in ja/<*-iH would have been made
in *-i, following the example of the fall of the laryngeal in vocatives of those in *-aH.
3. Accusative singular in -m; as, ekwm, patrjm, potnjam/potnm, spekjm.

4. Genitive singular in -s; as, ekws, patrjs, spekjs.
Stems in ja/ produces a genitive singular in -s; as, potnjs.
5. Dative-ablative singular in -i, ekwi, patrji.
NOTE. This LIE -i comes probably from an older PIE general dat. *-ei ending; as,
*h1ekweh2-ei ekwi. A dat.-abl. ending *-ei is also found for stems in and in ja/.
169
6. Locative singular in -i; as, ekwi, patrji.

7. Instrumental singular in -, --bhi, --mi; as, kwbhi, ptrjbhi.
f. ekw
adj. f. cowij
f. potnja
f. spekj-
NOM.
ekw
cowij
potnja/potn
spekjs
VOC.
ekw
cowij
potnja/potn
spekj
ACC.
ekwm
cowij m
potnjam/potnm
spekjm
GEN.
ekws
cowij s
potnjs
spekjs
ABL.
ekwd
cowij d
potnjd
spekjd
DAT.
ekwi
cowij i
potnji
spekji
LOC.
ekwi
cowij i
potnji
spekji
INS.
kwbhi
cowij bhi
potnjbhi
spekjbhi
There is only one example from this declension with a proterodynamic inflection (see
4.7), namely the word for woman: nom. cen, gen. cns, cf. O.Ir. nom. ben, gen.
mn, Skt. nom. jnis (gn ), gen. gn s (jnyur). Beekes (1995).
4.2.3. THE PLURAL IN THE FIRST DECLENSION

1. The following table presents the plural paradigm of the a-stem declension.
a-Declension Plural Paradigm
NOM.-VOC.
-s
ACC.
-ns
GEN.
-m
DAT.-ABL.
-bhos (-mos)
LOC.
-su (-si)
INS.
-bhis (-mis)
NOTE. The plural is reconstructed as from PIH nom.-vocc. *-eh2(e)s, Acc. *-eh2ns (<**-eh2m-s), gen.(-abl.) *-(e)h2om, dat.-abl. *-(e)h2bh(j)os or *-(e)h2mus, loc. *-(e)h2su, ins. *(e)h2bhi(s); as, *h1ekweh2es ekws. From Beekes (1995), Clackson (2007).
2. Nominative-vocative plural in -s: ekws, patrjs, cowij s.

3. Accusative plural in -ms: ekwns, patrjns.
4. Genitive plural in -m: ekwm, patrjm.
170
4. Nouns
5. Dative and ablative plural in -bhos, -mos, and PII -bhjas; as, kwbhos,
patrjbhos.
6. Locative plural in -su (also PGk -si); as, kwsu, ptrjsu.
6. Instrumental plural in -bhis, -mis; as, kwbhis, patrjbhis.
NOTE. The obliques have also special dialectal forms Gk. -isi, -ais, Lat. -ais; as, Lat.
ross<*rosais.
f. ekw
f. cowij
f. potnja
NOM.-VOC.
ekws
cowij
potnjs
ACC.
ekwns
cowij ns
potnjns
GEN.
ekwm
cowij
potnj m
DAT.-ABL.
kwbhos
LOC.
kwsu
INS.
kwbhis
cowij bhis
ptnjabhis
ABL.
kwbhos
cowij bhos
ptnjabhos
cowij bhos
cowij
ptnjabhos
ptnjasu
4.3. SECOND DECLENSION

4.3.1. SECOND DECLENSION PARADIGM
1. Nouns of the second declension have a stem ending in e/o, and they are usually
called thematic. They can be animates and inanimates, as well as adjectives. The
inanimates have an ending -m in nom.-acc.-voc. The animates, with a nominative in
-s, are generally masculine in nouns and adjectives, but there are also feminine
nouns and animate (i.e. masc.-fem.) adjectives in -os, probably remains of the old
indistinctness of animates.
NOTE. The o-stem declension is probably very recent in PIE even though it happened
already in PIH, before the Proto-Anatolian split and thats why it is homogeneous in most IE
dialects. As MalloryAdams (2007) say, [t]he o-stems were the most productive form of
declension. By this is meant that through time, especially at the end of the Proto-IndoEuropean period and into the early histories of the individual Indo-European languages, the
o-stems appeared to proliferate and replace other stem types. In Vedic Sanskrit, for example,
they constitute more than half of all nouns. High productivity is often interpreted as evidence
that the o-stems are a later declensional form than many of the other stems. Highly productive
forms are ultimately capable of replacing many other forms as they provide the most active
model by which speakers might decline a form.
171
2. The IE second declension is equivalent to the second declension in Latin (cf. Lat.
dominus, domin, or uinum, uin), and to the omicron declension in Greek (cf. Gk.
, , or , ).
o-Declension Singular Paradigm
Animate
NOM.
-os
VOC.
-e
ACC.
-om
Inanimate
-om
GEN.
-os/-osjo/(-oso)/(-)
ABL.
-d/-d
DAT.
-i
LOC.
-ei/-oi
INS.
-/-
NOTE 1. This model could have been written without the initial vowel -o-; the probable
origin of this vowel is the ending of some primitive original stems in -o, while other,
primitive athematic stems would have then been reinterpreted, and an -o added to their stems
by means of analogy (AdradosBernabMendoza 1995-1998). So, this paradigm could be
read from a historical point of view as nom. -s, acc. -m, gen. -s, -sjo, -so, and so on.
NOTE 2. The thematic declension is usually reconstructed in the singular as from older PIH
nom. *-os, voc. *-e, acc. *-om (neu. nom.-voc.-acc. *-om), gen. *-os, dat. *-i (<**-o-ei), loc. *oi, ins. *-oh1, abl. *-d (<**-o-ed); as, dat. *wlkwo-ei wqi, abl. *wlkwo-ed wqd.
Sometimes, the a-stem and o-stem ablative is reconstructed as from PIE *-ot or *-et, or even
*-h2at (in Fortson 2004). As we have seen, -d and -t are pronounced alike at the end of the
word, so the difference is mainly an etymological one.
4.3.2. SECOND DECLENSION IN EXAMPLES

1. Nominative singular animate in -os; as in wqos, wolf, dmnos, lord, wrs,
man, adj. cws, alive.
2. Vocative singular animate in -e; as in wqe, dmne, cw.
3. Accusative singular animate in -om; as in wqom, dmnom, cwm.
4. Nominative-vocative-accusative singular inanimate in -om; as in jugm, yoke,
adj. newom, new.
5. Genitive singular in -os, -osjo, also -e/oso, -; as in wqosjo, jugs,
dmnosjo.
172
4. Nouns
NOTE. The original genitive form -os is rare in animates, as the genitive had to be
distinguished from the nominative. This disambiguation happens by alternatively lengthening
the ending, as -os-jo (or -e/os-o, probably from the pronominal declension) or changing it
altogether, as in Ita.-Cel. -. In Hittite, the genitive -os is found, so it is usually considered the
oldest form, as in the athematic declension. A generalised -osjo is found in Sanskrit,
Armenian, Greek and Italic, so this alternative ending must have replaced -os early, still
within the LIE community.
6. Ablative singular in -d, -d: wqd, cwd, jugd.

7. Dative singular in -i: wqi, dmni, newi, jugi.
8. Locative singular in -oi, -i: wqoi, dmnoi, newoi, jugi.
9. Instrumental singular in -, -: wq, dmn, new, jug.
m. wqo-
n. jug-
adj. newo-
NOM.
wqos
jugm
newos
VOC.
wqe
jugom
newe
ACC.
wqom
jugm
newom
GEN.
wqosjo
jugs
newosjo
ABL.
wqd
jugd
newd
DAT.
wqi
jugi
newi
LOC.
wqoi
jugi
newoi
INS.
wq
jug
new
4.5.3. THE PLURAL IN THE SECOND DECLENSION

1. The thematic plural system is usually depicted as follows:
o-Declension Plural Paradigm
Animate
NOM.-VOC.
-s/(-oi)
ACC.
-ons
Inanimate
-
GEN.
- m/-m
DAT.-ABL.
-obhos (-omos)
LOC.
-oisu (-oisi)
INS.
- is
NOTE. The animate plural paradigm is reconstructed as PIH nom.-voc. *-s (<**-o-es), acc.
*-ons (<**-o-m-s), gen.(-abl.) *- m (<**-o-om), dat.-abl. *-o(i)bh(j)os/-omos, loc. *-oisu
173
(<**-o-eis-su), ins. *- is (<**-o-eis); as,*wlkwo-es wqs. Inanimates have a nom.-voc.-acc

in *-(e/o)h2 evolved as - in Sanskrit and Slavic, and -a in most dialects. A nom.-voc.
(pronominal) ending -oi is also found. See Beekes (1995), Fortson (2004), Clackson (2007).
2. Nominative-vocative animate plural in -s; as, wqs, dmns, wrs.

3. Accusative animate pural in -ons; as, wqons, dmnons, cwns.
4. Nom.-voc.-acc. inanimate plural in - ; as, jug, cw.
5. Genitive plural in -m; as, wqm, dmnm, cwm, jugm.
6. Dative and ablative plural in -obhos, -omos; as, wqobhos, cwbhos.
7. Locative in -oisu, PGk. -oisi; as, wrisu, dmnoisu.
8. Instrumental in - is; dmnis, cwis, jugis.
m. wlqo-
n. jugo-
adj. newo-
NOM.-VOC.
wqs
jug
news
ACC.
wqons
jug
newons
GEN.
wqm
jugm
newm
DAT.-ABL.
wqobhos
jugbhos
newobhos
LOC.
wqisu
jugisu
newisu
INS.
wqis
jugis
newis
4.4. THIRD DECLENSION

4.4.1. THIRD DECLENSION PARADIGM
1. Third declension nouns end in i, u (also , ) and diphthong. They are found as
neuter, masculine or feminine; those in , , are always feminine.
2. This declension usually corresponds to Latin nouns of the third declension in -i
(cf. Lat. ciuis, ciuis, or pars, partis), and of the fourth declension in -u (cf. Lat. corn,
corns, or portus, ports), and to Greek vowel stems in , , , , , (cf. Gk.
, , or , ).
174
4. Nouns
i/u-Declension Singular Paradigm

Animate
NOM.
-s
VOC.
ACC.
-m
Inanimate
-
GEN.-ABL.
-s
DAT.
-ei
LOC.
-/-i
INS.
- /-/-bhi (-mi)
NOTE. The i/u-stem declension is a variation of the common athematic declension of cstems. The obliques show weak stems (root ablaut and accent shift) in some nouns.
The proterodynamic paradigm for u-stems is reconstructed in the sg. as nom. *-u-s, voc. *eu, acc. *-u-m, gen. *-ou-s, dat. *-eu-i, loc. *-u, ins. *-u-h1; for i-stems nom. *-i-s, voc. *-ei,
acc. *-i-m, gen. *-oi-s, dat. *-ei-i, loc. *-i, ins. *-i-h1. See Beekes (1995).
3. The -s can indicate nominative and genitive: the distinction is made through the
full-grade or extension of the vowel before the declension, see below.
4.4.2. IN I, U
1. Nominative sg. animate in -s; as, owis, sheep, noqtis, night, ghostis, guest,
sns, son, egnis, fire, ptus, ford, swdhus, custom; adj. swdus, pleasant.
2. Vocative singular animate in -, or full -ei, -eu; owi, snu/sneu, swdhu.
3. Accusative singular animate in -m; as in owim, noqtim, ghostim, snm.
4. Nominative-vocative-accusative singular inanimate in -; as in mari, sea, kdi,
heart, peku, cattle, deru, wood, medhu, mead, adj. swdu.
5. The genitive singular shows two inflection types:
Type I genitive singular in -eis, -eus, also -ois, -ous; as, ghosteis, mareis,
snus, swdheus, adj. swdeus.
Type II genitive singular in -(e)jos, -(e)wos; as, owjos, noqtjos, kdejs,
swdhewos, pkewos.
NOTE 1. About both types of inflection, a description was made by Wackernagel-Debrunner
(Altindische Grammatik, 3 vols., 1896/1954), Kuryowicz (The inflectional categories of Indo-
175
European, 1964), Szemernyi (1985), etc. It is so found in Sihler (1995), AdradosBernab

Mendoza (1995-1998).
They are usually said to be derived from a PIH proterodynamic inflection, originally made
with a weak form (vowel change and accent shift), from which LIE simplified its root ablaut
formation and accentuation; starting from the weak stems, zero grade roots were generalised
and accents became static on the root or the suffix (Meier-Brgger, 2003); as, from PIH
*pertus, ptus, remade LIE (without root ablaut) ptus, ptewos. See below 4.7.
NOTE 2. Both types are sometimes said to be derived from two original PIH i/u-stem
accent-ablaut inflections, later merged into the known paradigms. They would have been a
proterokinetic inflection, represented by **mnt-i-s, **mnt-i-m, **mt-i-s, and an
amphikinetic (?) inflection represented by **h3ew-i-s, **h3w-i-m, **h3w-jo-s, that gave birth
to the LIE types known to us. Sihler (1995): In any case, the surviving i-stem inflections,
which in this view are a sort of Chinese menu selection of items from [proterokinetic] and
[amphikinetic], exhibit too much agreement in detail in InIr., Gmc., Ital. and BS to be
independent innovations. Accordingly, even if this theory is accepted, the necessary leveling to
get to the usual reconstruction must have been complete in the parent language.
6. Dative in -ei, usually full -ei-ei, -eu-ei; as, ghstejei, pkewei.

NOTE. For a dat. sg. -ei, pure stem or full ending in -i, cf. Gk. -se (<*-t-ej-i?), O.C.S. kosti.
7. Locative in -ei, -eu, usually lengthened -i, -u, -ewi; as, noqti, sunu.
8. Instrumental in -, - (<*-h1), in - (<*-eh1) following the genitive, or in-bhi, mi: pt, ptw.
NOTE. While the instrumental ending *-h1 (from Indo-Iranian) follows the athematic
declension, the ending -mi from Balto-Slavic (hence also LIE -bhi) follows the thematic
declension, but could have been a later innovation from an old trend to reinterpret athematic
as thematic nouns. The older Hitt. -awet doesnt clarify the situation.
Type I
Type II
f. ghosti-
m. snu-
n. mari-
f. noqti-
m. ptu-
n. peku-
NOM.
ghostis
sns
mari
noqtis
ptus
peku
VOC.
ghosti
snu
mari
noqtei
ptu
peku
ACC.
ghostim
snm
mari
noqtim
ptum
peku
G.-A.
ghosteis
snus
mareis
noqtjos
ptwos
pkewos
DAT.
ghstejei
snwei
mrejei
nqtejei
ptwei
pkewei
LOC.
ghosti
snu
mari
noqti
ptu
pkewi
INS.
ghost
snew
mar
noqt
ptw
pek
176
4. Nouns
NOTE. For information on the alternative reconstruction mari/mori, sea, see Appendix II
Formal Aspects.
THE STRONG TYPE

Its inflection is similar to the consonant stems, and they have no alternating vowels
before the declension; and are substituted before vowel by -ij, -uw. They are
always feminine, and they cannot be inanimates nor adjectives. They are mostly PIE
roots (in *-iH, *-uH), and found mainly in Indo-Iranian.
NOTE. This inflection is usually classified within the i/u-stems, for nouns where an i
precedes the final laryngeal, i.e. in *-i(e)H- (It is not always clear when it comes from *-h1 and
when from *-h2; they were probably completely parallel in LIE and merged). The old
declension shows nom. *-iH, acc. *-ieH-m, gen. *-iH-os: in Sanskrit *-iH became generalised,
showing gen. -as, while Slavic and Germanic show -j- < *-jH. The *-uH stems are
completely parallel with those in *-iH; cf. for tongue, a general LIE dghw, but also found
as PII dghs. See Beekes (1995), AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998).
Only NWIE forms and declension is followed here (wq-, she-wolf, is apparently found in
Celtic, apart from Indo-Iranian).
f. bhr-
f. s-
f. dh-
f. wq-
NOM.
bhrs
ss
dhs
wqs
VOC.
bhr
dh
wq
ACC.
bhrm
sm
dhm
wqm
GEN.-ABL.
bhruw s
suw s
dhij s
wqij s
DAT.
bhruwi
suwi
dhiji
wqiji
LOC.
bhruw
suw
dhij
wqij
INS.
bhrbh
sbh
dhbh
wqbh
4.4.3. IN DIPHTHONG
1. There are long diphthongs u, u, u, i, which sometimes present short vowels.
NOTE. Other stems that follow this declension in the attested dialects, in , , , are
probably remains of older diphthongs. Therefore, these can all be classified as diphthong
endings, because the original stems were formed as diphthongs in the language history.
Its paradigm is reconstructed for those in -u as *-/us(s), acc. *-e/ou-m, gen. *-u-os, and
for those in -i as nom. *-oi, *-is, acc. *-oi-m, gen. *-i-os. Beekes (1995). It is not a common
177
declension, and IE nouns proper included in it are found inflected as follows: strong forms
with nom. *-s, voc. *-, acc. *-m, loc. *-i; weak forms with gen.-abl. *-s, dat. *-i, ins. *-h1.
m. f. cu-
m. dju-
f. nu-
NOM.
cus
djus
nus
VOC.
cou
djeu
nu
ACC.
cm
djm/dijm
num
GEN.-ABL.
cous
diws
nws
DAT.
cowi
diwi
nwi
LOC.
cowi
djewi/diw
nw
INS.
cow
diw
nw
NOTE. An expected accent-ablaut reconstruction for nu- would be strong nu <*neh2u-,

weak nau-<*nh2u- or rather *nh2u-; however, forms in nu- are found in Vedic and Ancient
Greek dialects throughout the whole paradigm, possibly indicating older strong *noh2u- and
weak *neh2u-, respectively. See Meier-Brgger (2003) for more on this question.
In zero-grade genitives there are forms with -i- or -ij-, -u- or -uw-.
NOTE 1. Some secondary formations especially found in Greek are so declined, in -eus,
-ewos as in Av. bzus, Arm.,Gk. Basileus, possibly from PIE -us (Perpillou, 1973) but
Beekes (2007) considers it Pre-Greek.
NOTE 2. Stangs law governs the word-final sequences of a vowel + semivowel j or w +
nasal, simplified in PIE so that semivowels are dropped, with compensatory lengthening of a
preceding vowel, i.e. VJM
M; as, djm, not *djewm; cm, not *gwowm, cns, not
*gwowns, etc. A similar trend is found with laryngeals, *VJhm >
M; as, sm, also attested
as suw, etc.
4.4.4. THE PLURAL IN THE THIRD AND FOURTH DECLENSION

1. The following table depicts the general plural system of the fourth declension.
i/u- and Consonant-Declension Plural Paradigm
Animate
178
NOM.-VOC.
-es
ACC.
-ns
Inanimate
-
GEN.
- m/-m
DAT.-ABL.
-bhos (-mos)
LOC.
-su (-si)
INS.
-bhis (-mis)
4. Nouns
NOTE. An older plural paradigm for u-stems is reconstructed as nom.-voc. *-eu-es, acc. *-uns, gen.-abl. *-eu-om, dat. *-u-bhos, *-u-mos (<**-u-mus?), loc.* -u-su, ins. *-u-bhis, *-u-mis
(<**-u-bhi?). See Beekes (1995), Fortson (2004).
2. Unlike in the singular, in which only some nominatives have an -s, in nom.-voc.
plural the -s is general, and there is always one fix-grade vowel, e. So, the opposition
singular-plural in -s/-es is actually /e.
3. The nom.-voc. plural animate is made in -es, in full-grade -ei-es for i, -eu-es for
u, and -ijes, -uwes, for , ; as wejes, snewes, ptewes, bhruwes.
4. The accusative plural animate is in -ns: owins, snns, ptuns, cns.
5. The nom.-voc. acc. plural inanimate in -a: pekwa, marja, swdwa.
NOTE. The athematic inanimate plural ending commonly represented by -a corresponds to
an older collective *-h2, which sometimes lengthened the preceding vowel (i or u) instead.
6. Gen. pl. in -om (type I usually in full -ei-om, -eu-om); as, ghstejom,
ptwom.
NOTE. The -m of the acc. sg. animate, nom.-acc.-voc. sg. inanimate and this case could
sometimes be confused. It was often disambiguated with the vocalic grade of the genitive, full
or lengthened, as the singular is always .
7. For the obliques plural, cf. dat.-abl. wibhos, snubhos, nqtibhos; loc.
snusu, nqtisu, ins. snubhis, wibhis, mribhis.
Type I
Type II
Diphth.
f. ghosti-
m. snu-
f. noqti-
n. peku-
m. cou-
NOM.-VOC.
ghstejes
snewes
nqtejes
pekwa
cowes
ACC.
ghostins
snns
noqtins
pekwa
cns
GEN.
ghstejom
snewom
noqtjom
pekwom
cowom
DAT.-ABL.
ghstibhos
snubhos
nqtibhos
pkubhos
coubhos
LOC.
ghstisu
snusu
nqtisu
pkusu
cousu
INS.
ghstibhis
snubhis
nqtibhis
pkubhis
coubhis
4.5. FOURTH DECLENSION

4.5.1. FOURTH DECLENSION PARADIGM
1. The stem of nouns of the second declension ends in consonant or resonant, i.e. n, -r, -s, occlusive (especially -t), and rarely -l, -m. The inflection of animates is
essentially the same as that of the second or thematic declension.
179
2. Nouns of the fourth declension correspond to Latin nouns of first declension in -r

(cf. Lat. magister, magistr), and third declension in consonant (cf. Lat. prnceps,
prncipis, cnmen, cnminis, etc.), and to the Ancient Greek consonant stems
declension (cf. Gk. , , , , , , etc.).
The nominative ending is -s (with occlusive, -m, -l), but there is also a nominative
sg. with pure stem vowel (desinence - and lengthened ending vowel), so that the
full-grade vocative is differentiated. And there is no confusion in nom./gen., as -s has
a different vowel grade (nom. -s, gen. -s or -os).
Consonant-Declension Singular Paradigm
NOM.
Occlusive, -m, -l
-r, -n, -s
-s
- (long vowel)
ACC.
VOC.
-
-
- (full grade)
GEN.-ABL.
-es/-os
DAT.
-ei
LOC.
-i/-
INS.
-/-bhi (-mi)
NOTE. The so-called common, basic or athematic paradigm, the hypothetically oldest
attainable PIE noun declension system, is reconstructed in the singular as nom. *-s, *-, voc.
*-, acc. *-m, gen.-abl. *-(e/o)s, dat. *-ei, loc. *-i, *-, ins. *-(e)h1. See Meier-Brgger (2003),
Fortson (2004). This paradigm was originally common to the i/u-stems, and it was probably
inherited (and innovated) by the first and second declensions.
Besides the usual loc. ending -i there was also the bare stem without ending. Such unmarked
(flat) locatives are widely encountered in modern languages (cf. Eng. next door, home), and
in PIE they are well-attested in n-stems, but are rare in other consonant stems.
3. Inanimates have pure vowel stems with different vowel grades. In nouns there
should be no confusion at all, as they are different words, but neuter adjectives could
be mistaken in nominative or vocative animate. Distinction is thus obtained with
vocalism, as in animate -n vs. inanimate -on, animate -s vs. inanimate -es (neuter
nouns in -s show -os).
180
4. Nouns
4.5.2. IN OCCLUSIVE, M, L
1. Nominative sg. animate in -s; as, pods, foot, regs, king, preks, plea, bhurghs,
watch-tower, ghjems, winter, nepts, grandson, adj. blowents, strong.
NOTE. The nom. of some stems are often reconstructed with a long vowel; as, *pds, *rgs,
*prks. Such forms are found in the different languages showing ablaut with lengthened
grade; as, /o in Goth. fotus, Gk. pd-a, and /e in Lat. ps, pedis. It is usually interpreted that
these are levelled forms from an original o/e opposition, so the long vowel vs. short vowel
becomes unnecessary for the parent language. Also, sometimes it is doubted whether the
original nominative had an s, cf. *pd(s) in Beekes (1995), because all attested languages show
a lengthened vowel with either the final occlusive or -s, but not with both (cf. Skt. p t, which
could derive from *, *, or *o, Dor. Gk. ps, Lat. ps), what suggests a compensatory
lengthening with the loss of a final consonant cluster, that was reinterpreted as the original
stem in declension (e.g. to form the accusative in some languages), i.e pods *ps *pds
(Sihler 1995).
2. Accusative singular animate in -; as, pod, reg, bhurgh, ghjem,

npt, blowent.
NOTE. Forms in m make the accusative by lengthening the root vowel, *Vmm > * m, as a
consequence of Stangs Law, v.s. 4.4.2; as, nom. *doms, house, acc. *dm (<*dom-), cf.
Arm. tun or Gk. , or nom. *dhghm, earth, acc. *dhghm (<*dhghom-), cf. Skt. km.
Root nouns like these ones are quite old in the language history, and are therefore rare in LIE,
which had replaced them for newer derived nouns; as, domos, house, or dhghs, earth.
3. Vocative singular animate in -; as, pod, reg, bhurgh, blowent.

4. The nom.-voc.-acc. singular inanimate in -; as sal, salt, part. bheront.
5. Genitive singular in -os, -es; as, peds, rgos, bhurghos, ghims, sals,
npotos, blowentos, bhrontos.
NOTE. Older root nouns made the genitive-ablative often in -s, -/s, i.e. ablaut and accent
on stem vowel; as, for strong nom. *doms, weak gen. *dems or *dms/dms, for strong nom.
*dhghm, gen. *dhghms/*dhghms or (possibly already in the proto-language) metathesised
*ghdhms/*ghdhms. They appear in IEDs mainly frozen in compounds (cf. dems- in
demspots), because most of them were reinterpreted. On forms like *dms or *pds,
[u]nsurprisingly, such forms have been largely eliminated from the attested paradigms.
Sihler (1995). For the original lengthened grade rgos/rges, see 4.7.
6. Dative singular in -ei: pedei, rgei, bhurghei, bhrontei.

181
7. Locative singular in -i: podi, regi, bhurghi, blowenti.

m. pod-
f. prek-
f. bhurgh-
n. bheront-
NOM.
pods
preks
bhurghs
bheront
VOC.
pod
prek
bhurgh
bheront
ACC.
pod
prek
bhurgh
bheront
GEN.-ABL.
peds
prkos
bhurghos
bhrontos
DAT.
pedi
prkei
bhurghei
bhrontei
LOC.
ped
preki
bhurghi
bhronti
INS.
pedbh
prkbhi
bhurghmi
bhrontbhi
4.5.3. IN R, N, S
1. Nominative singular animate in - with lengthened vowel; as in mtr (also
m
r), mother, elr, swan, kwn, dog, osn, autumn, s, mouth, ms,
character, adj. juwn, young, mtr, motherless.

NOTE. The lengthening of the predeclensional vowel in stems in r, n and s stems has been
explained (Szemernyis Law) as a consequence of an older (regular PIE) nom. -s ending; as,
**ph2tr-s*ph2tr, **kwon-s*kwn, etc.
Common s-stems without lengthening include neuter stems (which are not usually
marked in the nominative); as, opos, work, nebhos, cloud, spes, hope, etc.
Adjectives usually end in -es; as, sugens, well-born, of good stock (cf. Gk.
eugens, O.Ind. sujan).
2. Accusative sg. animate in -m; as in mter, lor, kwon, pos,
jwon.
3. Voc. sg. animate in - with full vowel; as mtr, lor, kon, juwon, opos,
sugens.
4. The nom.-acc.-voc. singular inanimate in -; as in nm, name, genos, kin.
The adjectives in -s have a neuter in -es; as, sugens.
5. Genitive singular in -os, usually with an e, not an o, as the final stem vowel; as,
leros, nmenos, bhugenos, jwenos, nbhesos, gnesos, pesos, sos,
spsos; but cf. zero-grade in old stems, as mtrs, kuns, and also o, as moss.
NOTE. Athematic nouns made the genitive in -es, -os; even though some reconstruct only
one gen. ending for an original paradigm, we prefer to write always -s for pragmatic
reasons; as, kuns instead of kuns.
182
Examples of an apparently old, so-called static
4. Nouns
inflection, is found in PII nom. m-tr, gen. m-tr-s, acc. pl. m-tr-ns; remains of this rare
paradigm are also found in Gmc. dialects for father in gen. pats.
6. Dative singular in -ei, mtri, lerei, kunei, jwenei, pesei, sugenesei.

7. Locative singular in -i: mteri, leri, kuni, jweni, pesi, sugenesi.
8. Instrumental singular in - or -bhi/-mi: mtbh, lerbhi, patbh, kunbh,
jwenbhi, pesbhi, sugenesbhi.
m. kwon-
f. pater-
n. genes-
n. nom-
adj. sugenes-
NOM.
kwn
patr
genos
nm
sugens
VOC.
kwon
patr
genos
nm
sugens
ACC.
kwon
pater
genos
nm
sugenes
G.-A.
kuns
patrs
gnesos
nmenos
sugeneses
DAT.
kuni
patri
gnesei
nmenei
sugenesei
LOC.
kun
pateri
gnesi
nmn
sugenesi
INS.
kwbh
patbh
gnesbhi
nmenbhi
sugenesbhi
NOTE. Where the derivation is transparent, neut. s-stem nouns were built to the tonic egrades of verb roots. The stem had the form *-os in the (endingless) nom./acc.sg., *-s<**osH2 in the nom./acc.pl; the stem of the remaining cases and numbers was an invariant *-es-.
Sihler (1995), who further reconstructs the inflected forms of genos, with root accent
throughout the paradigm.
4.5.4. THE PLURAL IN THE FOURTH DECLENSION

With a paradigm common to the third declension, here are some inflected
examples.
m. pod-
f. prek-
m. kwon-
f. mter-
n. genes-
N.-V.
podes
prekes
kwones
mteres
gnesa
ACC.
pods
preks
kwons
mters
gnesa
GEN.
pedm
prkom
kunm
mtrm
gnesom
D.-A.
pedbhs
prkbhos
kwbhs
mtbhs
gnesbhos
LOC.
peds
prksu
kws
mts
gnesu
INS.
pedbh
prkbhi
kwbh
mtbhs
gnesbhis
NOTE. The plural of adj. mtr, motherless, consists of masc./fem. nom. m tores, neu.
nom-voc.-acc. m tora gen. matrm, etc.
183
4.6. VARIABLE NOUNS

4.6.1. Many nouns vary in declension, and they are called heteroclites.
4.6.2. Heteroclitic forms are isolated and archaic, given only in inanimates, as
remains of an older system, well attested in Anatolian.
4.6.3. They consist of one form to mark the nom.-acc.-voc, and another for the
obliques, usually r/(e)n; as, bhem/bhmenos, thigh, ghs/ghsenos, hand,
gut/gtenos,
throat,
kow/kwenos,
cavern,
dh/dhenos,
udder,
wedh/wdhenos, weapon, etc.

4.6.4. Different paradigms are also attested:
Opposition r/(e)n- (lengthened ending); as, jeq/jeqneros, liver,
NOTE. For PIE jeq, cf. Ved. ykt, Gk. hpar, Lat. iecur, Av. ykar, and compare its Obl.
Skt. yakn-s, Gk. hpat-os<*hpnt-, Lat. iecinoris.
Alternating with other suffixes; as, gheim/gheims/ghjems, winter,

skw/kwn/skinn, shinbone, later column, ws/wsts, spring,
wed/wdenos/wod, water, swep/swopnos, dream.
Formed from the consonant r or n of the heteroclite; as, pw/pr/pun,

fire, nom/nmeros/nmenos, precision, number, Gk. skr (gen.
skatos), Hitt. akkar (gen. akna), Lat. -scerda, shit.
4.6.5. The heteroclites follow the form of the genitive singular when forming the
obliques. That is so in accent-ablaut and in the lengthening before declension.
4.7. INFLECTION TYPES

1. While in o-stems and generally in a-stems there are generally no accent-ablaut
changes, within the c-stems it is possible to distinguish different old accent-ablaut
patterns, which make this a more complicated declension.
NOTE. Fortson (2004): To understand athematic nomina inflection, one must distinguish
between the so-called strong and weak cases. The strong cases differ from the weak cases
typically in where the accent is located and which morpheme is in the full grade; most
commonly, the full grade and the accent shift rightward in the weak cases, comparable to the
shift seen in most athematic verbs.
184
4. Nouns
Fortunately it is the least productive of all declensions (i.e. it is infrequent in new

nouns), and most stems that included accent-ablaut patterns were progressively
substituted for other stems in LIE.
NOTE. Fortson (2004): All athematic nouns consisted of three parts: root, suffix, and
ending. (...) As already alluded to, these three morphemes could each show up in different
ablaut grades depending principally on the position of the accent, which could fall on any of
the three. According to the standard theory, in any given case-form of an athematic noun the
unstressed morphemes appeared in the zero-grade, while the stressed morphemes were in a
grade stronger than zero-grade- that is, one with a vowel, generally e, but also o.
2. We can distinguish at least two kinds of inflections in PIE, which differ in ablaut
and accent. These types are called hysterodynamic (dynamis accent; hystero- more
toward the back) and proterodynamic (protero- more toward the front). In these
types the accent shifts rightward in the weak cases from its position in the strong
cases (Beekes 1995).
NOTE. Other inflection pattens are apparently inherited from the parent language the
definition, pattern and the very existence of some of them is still debated , but they are
usually not found in IEDs, if not in frozen remains of the older system. Therefore, it is not
interesting to complicate the regular athematic system further, and we will treat such remains
as irregularities of a common LIE system. For more information, see below.
3. The neuters followed the proterodynamic inflection, and do not have nom. -s,
acc. -m. Some of the masculine-feminine nouns follow the proterodynamic inflection
too.
4. In hysterodynamic nouns, the suffix is accented in the strong cases, the ending in
the weak. So e.g. in the word for father, we have strong nom. sg. pa-tr s, acc. sg.
patr-, but weak gen. pa-tr-s.
NOTE. Fortson (2004): Root nouns with mobile accent (on the root in the strong cases, on
the endings in the weak cases) are often considered as belonging to this type, though the fit is
not exact: they have full grade or lengthened grade of the root in the strong cases and full
grade of the ending in the weak cases. For pragmatic purposes, we will include nouns formed
with only a root and ending among hysterodynamics, too. The most common type has o-grade
of the root in strong cases, and e-grade in the weak cases. So e.g. for foot, nom. pods, acc.
peds.
In the so-called amphikinetic nouns, the root is also accented in the strong cases, the ending
in the weak, and the suffix is typically in the lengthened o-grade (rather than the expected
185
zero-grade) in the nominative singular, and ordinary o-grade in the accusative singular. The
old word for dawn (found in PGk and PII) belongs here; us-s (c. Gk. as), acc. sg. usos-m (Ved. uasam ), gen. us-s-s (Ved. uss).
5. In proterodynamic nouns, the root is in the full grade and accented in the strong
cases, and both accent and full grade shift to the suffix in the weak cases.
NOTE. According to Fortson (2004): Most i- and u-stems in Sanskrit appear to have been
proterokinetic, such as Ved. nomin. mats thought, accus. matm, genit. mates, from PIE
*mn-ti-s, *mn-ti-m, *mn-ti-s. Vedic had generalised the zero-grade of the root throughout
the paradigm, as the other languages; hence LIE mtis, mtis. The same could be said of
the remodelling of old *pertus, *ptus, remade ptus, ptewos.
As we have seen, some i/u-stems behave in parallel to those athematic nouns, showing zerograde ending -i-, -u- in strong cases (as nom. -i-s, -u-s, acc. -i-m, -u-m, and full-grade -ei-, eu- in weak cases (nom. -ei-s, -ei-os, -eu-s, -eu-os). By the time of LIE these nouns do not
usually show ablaut in their root syllable. Common examples are found of verbal abstract
nouns in -ti-, one of the most common groups of i-stems; also common were abstract nouns in
-tu-, although this usually appears in post-LIE infinitives.
Remodellings like these led to a new class of proterodynamics that descriptively had o-grade
of the root in the strong cases and zero-grade in the weak. Among animate nouns of this type,
the best attested is the word for dog, nom. kwn, acc. kwn-, gen. kun-s (or kun-s).
EXCURSUS: NOMINAL ACCENT-ABLAUT PATTERNS

While nominal accent-ablaut patterns are very interesting for internal reconstruction, they
remain a marginal issue for the largely thematic Late Indo-European language, and more so
for IEDs. The state of the art about such patterns is summed up in a recent article by Alvin
Kloekhorst <http://www.kloekhorst.nl/KloekhorstIENominalAblautPatterns.pdf>.
The author exposes results based on testimonies of Hittite, in which he is a renowned expert.
Accent-ablaut paradigms can be reconstructed according to two systems, Leiden and
Erlangen, which correspond to two different times, which we could roughly assign to PIH and
(early) LIE respectively. He explains the transformations from one system to the other, from
which a system of two models (static and dynamic) turns into a system of four (static,
proterodynamic, hysterodynamic, and resulting from analogical changes, amphidynamic).
The system of four models of Erlangen is explained by Frazier in the following link, with
examples in p. 112: <http://roa.rutgers.edu/files/819-0406/819-FRAZIER-0-0.PDF> and
summed up in <http://www.unc.edu/~melfraz/ling/frazier-UCLA-handout.pdf>.
186
4. Nouns
The Erlangen system is therefore nearer to the Late Indo-European system, because the
reconstructed patterns are more recent. However, in some cases the reconstructed forms
since they look for a logical agreement with Anatolian are clearly different from nonAnatolian results; as e.g. the oblique cases of *nebhos see note 34 in Kloekhorsts article and
Clackson (2007, p. 94).
About root nouns of the type Lat. rex, lux, ps, etc., the problem gets more complicated. A
priori there are only two possibilities about the distribution of the tone: either static (with
columnar accent on the root), or kinetic/dynamic, with accent on the root in the strong forms,
and on the ending in the weak forms. However, to make grades and vowel ablaut fit into
common patterns is more difficult (see Appendix III.1 for some examples).
Kloekhorst shows some problems in the ablaut models of root nouns. Examples are:
The word for foot, which is usually reconstructed as having a static paradigm, *pd-s,
*pd-m, *pd-s, seems to be mobile in Hittite: acc.pl. pdu < *pd-ms vs. gen.pl. patn <
*pd-m.
Av. vxs shows gen. vac, but Old Indian and Latin show systematically lengthened grade
(gen. O.Ind. vch, Lat. ucis); for example Brugmanns Law, if applicable, should apply to
O.Ind. and Av. See <http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~iranian/Avesta/a14_lesson11.pdf>, p.4
for Avestan grammar. Hence it could be that O.Ind. and Av. alternate with different
ablauts.
The inflection of *gwow is static in Old Indian, but dynamic in Greek.
Inflection of *ker(d) is dynamic in O.Ind., but is the only example of static inflection in
Greek, so this could correspond to an older model.
The position of the accent in weak cases of *kwon are not coincident in Gk. and O.Ind.
*suH and *dieH show alternating forms in O.Ind.
The reconstruction of *j(e)uH needs *juHs- in Sanskrit and Lithuanian, but *jeuHs- in
Slavic (de Vaan).
Also, Greek has lost the ablaut changes in those monosyllabics (e.g. ); Latin has
merged diphthongs and has lost the original ablaut patterns; O.Ind. has merged vocalic
ablaut *e/o into a; in Hittite, root nouns are limited to some words in transition to other
inflection types (pat, gwau, siw-at, nekuz, karaz, tekan, kess-ar, gim(a)-, happar-, tuekk). Frequently root nouns of one language are only found as derived nouns in others, and
because of that coincidences are scarce.
Paul
Kiparsky
helps
clarify
the
problem
with
the
following
recent
article
<http://www.stanford.edu/~kiparsky/Papers/ucla_IE_09.submitted.new.pdf>, although in
187
p.7 he exposes the difficulties of fitting the attested results with the created models. In section
d) p. 12 of this article, Kiparsky resorts to the artifice of accented morphemes to explain the
brief *o of O.Ind. dat. gve. It is possibly derived from weak form *gwew.
Clackson (2007) proposes a different alternating paradigm; in p.86 he reconstructs *pods,
gen. *peds., while Kloekhorst in the note of p. 3 proposes *pds/peds. In Greek and Old
Indian, these nouns arent acrostatic.
About Lat. rex, in Latin, Celtic and Old Indian the declension of this word shows
systematically lengthened grade in Latin letter x is considered as two consonants, so the
syllable is in every case long. For results in Celtic, see p. 19 in the article
<http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_1_general.pdf>.
Fort he reconstruction of this root noun there are, a priori, at least four possibilities:
a) Nom. sg. *Hregs / gen. *Hrgs, as Gk. nom. <*Hner-s gen. <*Hnrs. It
seems that the Vedic (Sharfe) Celtic (McCone) words for king and queen point to that
form.
b) Nom. sg. *Hregs / gen. *rgos, as Gk. , where the weak form is not *Hrg, but
*reHg-.
NOTE. It has been assumed that it is acrostatic, with alternating full/long, based on:
The attested nominative could be analogical in relation to the weak forms.
The long vowel appears systematically in the attested languages.
The derived form in O.Ind. rjan has lengthened grade, when long grade was expected
(there could be a special form in Gk. argn). Cf. Av. brzi-rz with Osc. meddiss (zerograde).
c)
Nom sg. *rgs, gen. *rgs, taking as model O.Ind. vac (if the long vowel is not
derived from Brugmanns Law), or nuh.
d) Nom sg. *rgs, gen. *regs, taking as model Av. vac, or O.Ind. ap. In this case we
should have to explain the difference in results within Old Indian as a result of later
analogies with nau.
It is therefore quite difficult to obtain unequivocal reconstructions for these old athematic
root nouns, so the forms reconstructed are usually just one possibility of the alternating
patterns.
Unfortunately it often happens that we can demonstrate one form and the opposite at the
same time. Fernando Lpez-Menchero has followed these criteria in the reconstruction of the
LIE lexicon in Appendix II, according to the available data on LIE dialects:
188
4. Nouns
Acrostatic:
*gwow-, Lat. Bs o/e, maybe o/o
*knouk-, Lat. Nux o/e
*pod-, Lat. Ps o/e
*woq-, Lat. Vox o/e AK maybe dynamic of the type /o / (a.i.) or maybe /e
(Avestan), or o/o (Greek)
Dynamic:
*djeHw-, Lat. Dis e/
*(H)reHj-, Lat. Rs e/
*weik-, Lat. Vcus e/
*leuk-, Lat. Lux e/
*deuk-, Lat. Dx e/
*sneich-, Lat. Nix e/
*ghjems-, Lat. Hiems e/
*weis-, Lat. Vs e/ (also *wejos/es)
Special dynamics:
*p/ap-, /a
*kwon-, Lat. Canis o/
*naHw-, Lat. Nuis /
*dheghom-, Lat. Humus e-o/-
*ms/moss, Lat. Ms /o (or maybe /?)
Without reference these nouns are supposedly full/lengthened within an acrostatic

system, hence they are all put into the same group (even though Lat. prex is not inflected with
a long vowel):
*leg- Lat. Lex
*reg- Lat. Rex
*prek- Lat. Prex
*pag- Lat. Pax
*H3ops (pos) the laryngeal does not colour the following vowel (Eichners Law)
*ros, rsos, Lat. Rs (H3ops and ros could be inflected like ms and vice versa)
*jeus could be inflected on the basis of *js; on the other hand, it is commonly
reconstructed meus as *ms<*muHs, and *ss<*suHs, so the weak forms would
have a long * (Kiparsky in p. 16 shows the same paradigm with *suh-nu-s, *suhn-s).
Some stems that only appear dialectally as root nouns have been transferred to their general
o-stem or i-stem declension:
189
*kerd- heart, *mems- meat, *meHns- month, *nas nose, *ner man, *noqt- night;
stems in *os/es, *puwos pus, rottenness and *bhos light and speech. *sal, *dont
(assimilated to a root noun) and *weis strength are reconstructed as alternating.
gwen- has been transferred to the feminine declension. For its consideration as root noun,
see Jasanoff <http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~jasanoff/pdf/Old%20Irish%20be_.pdf>.
4.8. NUMBER DEVELOPMENTS: THE DUAL

4.7.1. While singular and plural are relatively fixed values, the dual has proven to be
unstable; it is found in Ind.-Ira., Gk., BSl. and Cel.
NOTE. Generally speaking, the rise and decline of the dual may be directly investigated in
individual IE languages, e.g. in Greek, in which the dual is a fixed component of the language,
while it is missing altogether in Ionic and Lesbian. The origins of the dual might be found in
two word types: the personal pronoun and terms for paired body parts (as ears, eyes,
breasts, etc.). It is uncertain whether the dual was an old category that gradually
disappeared, or more likely a recent (Late Indo-European) development that didnt reach all
IE dialects. See Meier-Brgger (2003).
4.7.2. The formations vary depending on the stems.

1. The nominative-accusative-vocative is made:
Stems in a: in -i for ; in - for ja/.
Stems in o: Animates in -u (alternating -/-u); inanimates in -oi.
Stems in i, u: Animates and inanimates in -, -.
Consonant stems: in -e (not general).
NOTE. The endings are usually summed up as a common PIE *-h1(e), *-(i)h1. See Fortson
(2004).
2. The obliques were still less generalised, the system being reconstructed as
follows:
190
Genitive in -ous,
Dative-ablative in -bhos/-mos,
Locative in -ou,
Instrumental in -bhis/-mis.
5. ADJECTIVES
5.1. INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES
5.1.1. In Proto-Indo-European, the noun could be determined in three different
ways: with another noun, as in stone wall; with a noun in genitive, as in the fathers
house; or with an adjective, as in paternal love. The adjective corresponds to the
third way, i.e., to that kind of words possibly derived from older genitives that are
declined to make it agree in case, gender and number with the noun they define.
5.1.2. The adjective is from the older stages like a noun, and even today IndoEuropean languages have the possibility to make an adjective a noun (as English), or
a noun an adjective (stone wall). Furthermore, some words are nouns and adjectives
as well: wersis, male, can be the subject of a verb (i.e., a noun), and can determine a
noun.
Most stems and suffixes are actually indifferent to the opposition noun/adjective.
Their inflection is common, too, and differences are usually secondary. This is the
reason why we have already studied the adjective declensions; they follow the same
inflection as nouns.
5.1.3. However, since the oldest reconstructible PIE language there were nouns
different from adjectives, as wqos, wolf, or pods, foot, and adjectives different
from nouns, as rudhrs, red, solwos, whole. Nouns could, in turn, be used as
adjectives, and adjectives be nominalised.
NOTE. Noun has a wide sense in PIE, for many nouns may be used both adjectivally and
substantivally, and the classification of nouns by inflectional type is independent of whether
they are substantives or adjectives. In this book the terms noun and nominal are then to be
interpreted in their wider sense.
5.2. THE MOTION

5.2.1. In accordance with their use, adjectives distinguish gender by different forms
in the same word, and agree with the nouns they define in gender, number and case.
This is the motion of the adjective.
5.2.2. We saw in 3.4 that there are cases of motion in the noun. Sometimes the
opposition is made between nouns, and this seems to be the older situation; as,
patr/mtr, bhrtr/swesr.
But an adjective distinguishes between masculine, feminine and neuter, or at least
between animate and neuter (or inanimate). This opposition is of two different kinds:
a. Animates are opposed to inanimates by declension, and also vocalism and accent;
as, -os/-om, -is/-i, -nts/-nt, -s/-es.
b. The masculine is opposed to the feminine, when it happens, by the stem vowel;
as, -os/-, -nts/-ntja, -us/-wja.
NOTE. From Beekes (1995): Two feminine forms are strongly deviant:
o
fem. potnja, mistress (originally powerful), next to masculine potis. The feminine
may contain the individualizing suffix -en-, one who is (powerful).
fem. piwerja, fat, alongside masc. piwn. Here too the forms are originally
independent: from *peiHu-n one who is fat, and fem. from *peiH-ur fat.
The general system may be so depicted:

Animates
Inanimates
Masculine
Feminine
Neuter
-o-
-os
-om
-i-
-is
-is
-i
-u-
-us
-wja/-w
-u
-nt-
-nts
-ntja/-nt
-nt
-e-
-s
-s
-es
5.2.3. Compare the following examples:

1. For the so-called thematic adjectives, in -os, -, -om, cf. soms, - , -m,
equal, rudhrs, - , -m, red, wols, - , -m, willing, ksers, - , -m, dry, etc.
But note the root accent in newos, -, -om, new, solwos, -, -om, whole, kaikos, , -om, blind, lajos, -, -om, fat, etc.
NOTE. Most adjectives have o-stem, among them verbal adjectives and compound
adjectives, cf. diws, heavenly, kluts, heard, famous. The corresponding feminine forms
feature .
2. For adjectives in -is, -i, cf. grdhs, -, grown, lnis, -i, weak, moinis, -i,
obliged, muttis, -i, speechless, widis, -i, ignorant, etc.
192
5. Adjectives
3. For adjectives in -us, -wja/-w, -u, cf. ss, -uj, -, good, mghs, -uj, -,
short, leghs, -uj, -, light, ks, -uj, -, swift. With root accent, cf. swdus, uja, -u (Southern IE swds, -uj, -), pleasant, mdus, -uja, -u, soft, tghus, uja, -u, fat, tanus, -uja, -u, thin, tsus, -uja, -u, dry, dhsus, -uja, -u, bold, etc.
NOTE. On the original stress of PIE *swdus, see the so-called Erlangen School Ablaut
system,
e.g. at
<https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/1887/2667/1/299_021.pdf>
from Lubotsky (1987), and Frazier (2006) at <http://roa.rutgers.edu/files/819-0406/819FRAZIER-0-0.PDF>.
4. Adjectives in -nts, -ntja, -nt, are frequently found in suffixes; as, -went-,
possessing, rich in (masc. nom. -wents, gen. -wts, neu. -wt, fem. -wt-ja),
and especially in present participles in -nt-.
The old athematic declension is reconstructed as hysterodynamic, with nom. -nts,
acc. -nt, gen. -nts.
NOTE. Some participles also show traces of the static inflection that we saw in athematics,
especially in PII; they show nom. -nt-s, acc. -nt-, gen. -nt-s. Beekes (1995).
However, -o/e-nt- was reinterpreted (probably still within the LIE community) as
from the thematic conjugation, where no accent-ablaut patterns are applied, see
7.7.2. Only Sanskrit shows a generalisation of the athematic paradigm.
5. Adjectives in -s, -es, are found with possessive semantics formed from neuter sstems by internal derivation; so e.g. -klews, -famed, from klwos, fame; -gens, born, from genos, kin; or -mens, -minded, from menos, sense (intelligence).
A special s-stem is perfect participle suffix -wos-, which has an ablauting
declension; as, knowing, nom. weid-ws (cf. O.Ind. vids-, Av. vduu , Gk. eids),
acc. weid-wos-, zero-grade oblique forms, as gen. weid-us-os (cf. Skt. vidas,
Av. vdu, Gk. weidwtos), fem. wid-us-ja / wid-us- (cf. Skt. vids, Gk. widia,
Myc. a-ra-ru-ja), pl. nom. weid-wos-es, gen. weid-us-om, etc.
NOTE. Cf. for the zero-grade further afield Toch. B. acc. lt-wes, fem. lt-usa, and Lith. fem.
ug-us-i having grown. For tentative reconstructions of original PIH ablaut-accent nom.
*wid-wos or *wd-wos, acc. *weid-ws- or *wid-ws, gen. *wid-s-, etc. cf. Beekes (1995),
Sihler (1995), Fortson (2004).
193
5.3. ADJECTIVE SPECIALISATION

5.3.1. Adjectives could be formed by the addition of suffixes to roots or word-stems.
Most adjectives so formed are o-stems.
5.3.2. Common adjectival suffixes for nouns and verbs are (Fortson 2004):
The all-purpose adjectival suffix -jo- and -ijo-, also used as a compositional suffix
(cf. Lat. gregius), and often to form patronymics (son of), cf. Hom. Gk. Telamnios Aas Aias (Ajax) son of Telamon, Lat. Seru-ius son of a slave (seruus), Servius.
NOTE. For adjectival suffix -jo- and -ijo-, cf. Hitt. istarniya- central (<itarna between),
Ved. dmiya- domestic, gvya- pertaining to cows, Lat. gregius outstanding (< grege
out of the herd) etc. According to one widely held view, locational adjectives like Skt.
dmiya- (from dam- home) were originally possessive derivatives formed by adding -o- or -.
The suffix -kois most commonly found added to nouns to indicate origin or
material composition, cf. Gaul. Are-mori-c those by the sea, Aremoricans, Goth.
staina-hs stony. It appears frequently in extended -iko- as a suffix indicating
appurtenance, as Gk. hipp-iks having to do with horses, Lat. bell-icus pertaining to
war.
NOTE. Related is -isko-, found in Gmc. and Bal.-Sla. to indicate affiliation or place of
origin. The suffix -ko- was apparently also used as hypocoristic or diminutive, cf. Ved. putrak-, little son (putr-), avi-k - ewe-lamb (avi- sheep); cf. Slavic *-koin O.C.S. ov-ca
sheep, ot-c (Russ. otec) father, etc. (Meillet 1961, Fortson 2004), or Lat. forms in -ko- for
diminutives, as -cus or -culus (combined with -lo-, see below), as well as Hittite, after Shields
(Hittite neka- and the origin of the Indo-European diminutive suffix *-ko-, 1998). The older
function was possibly simply adjectival. Miller (Latin suffixal derivatives in English and their
Indo-European ancestry, 2006).
The suffix -ro- was added to the zero-grade of an adjectival root to form that roots
free-standing adjectival form, and was usually accented; as, rudhrs, red.
The suffix -t- forms passive verbal adjectives (v.i. 7.7), and also possessive
adjectives, as Lat. barb-tus bearded, Eng. beard-ed, O.C.S. bogat wealthy.
Stems in -nt- form adjectives (viz. in -ment-/-went-), but are mostly found within
the verbal system as present participles.
Words in -ter- are nouns, and adjectives are derived usually in -trjo- and others.
Nouns in -ti make adjectives in -tjo-, or -tiko-, usually with an ethnic meaning.
194
5. Adjectives
IE -lo- formations are found in a variety of adjectival functions, including ancient

hypocoristics (shorter forms of a word or given name), as well as (later) diminutives.
NOTE. Cf. Lat. porculus small pig, MHG verhel (Germ. Ferkel), Lith. parlis piglet,
snlis little son, etc. or Goth. Wulfila, O.H.G. Wolfilo lit. little wolf (according to Senn,
Krahe and Meid, Risch, etc.), while O.Ir. Tathal (personal name; cf. tath tribe, people),
cited by Jurafsky (1996) is possibly not a diminutive, Miller (2006).
The accent is sometimes used to distinguish thematic nouns from adjectives.

NOTE. There are sometimes secondary processes that displace the accent from an adjective
to create a noun; cf. Gk. leuks white, lukos white spot.
5.3.3. Common adjectival suffixes from prepositions and examples include:

In -tero: prteros, nteros, ksteros, nteros, etc.
In -no: pernos, Lat. supernus, ksternos, Lat. externus.
In -jo: enjos, cf. O.Ir. inne interior zone, O.Ind. ni-j-, Goth. inna; autjos,
ntitjos, preitjos, cf. Ltv. pr e(k)a, O.Ind. n-tya-, Lit. ios, Ltv. ios
intestine.
In -qo: wiqos, diverse (cf. O.Ind. viva-, all), niqos, inferior (cf. Gmc.
*nihuuela), proqos near/far (cf. Lat. procul/prope/proximus), seqos, isolated
(cf. Lat. secus, sequius, Corn heb, Bret. hep, O.Ir. sech; but Lat. antqus <*antih3qo-).
In -qo: poros, cf. O.Ind. apara-.
In -mo: epiromo- (cf. O.Ir. iarum, Alb. i prm), Lat. immus, summus.
5.4. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

5.4.1. In Proto-Indo-European, as in English, there are three degrees of
comparison: the positive, the comparative and the superlative.
5.4.2. The adjective in its natural or positive state may be made comparative and
superlative by the addition of suffixes.
5.4.3. The comparative, a difference of grade between two compared values, is
generally formed by adding the primary comparative suffix -jos- to the root in egrade (if there was one), regardless of the grade or stem of the generic adj. Thus from
swd-s, comp. swd-js, sweeter, rather than swdu-js, or from dnghos,
comp. dlegh-js, longer, rather than dngh-js; also, from karts, kret-js,
195
harder, but from mag-nos (no-stem) mag-js, bigger (Lat. maiior), from sen-os,
sen-js, older (cf. Skt. san-yas, Lat. senior), etc.
NOTE. Older (probably PIE) was -is, which is preserved in adverbs: Lat. ntr. maius greater
< *-ios, adv. magis; Goth. min less < *minn-is, mais more > *meh2-is (cf. E. more).
According to Sihler (1995), [t]he suffix *-yos- added to a root X originally meant X to a
pronounced degree; very X. This is essentially the force of the affix in InIr. Pragmatically, of
course, a statement like fruit is sweet, but honey is very sweet is equivalent to fruit is sweet,
but honey is sweeter, and that is the basis for the evolution of the paradigmatic comparative
(). This origin is probably behind its use as augmentative and pejorative in some languages.
Also, the intensive/comparative was added directly to the root (in full grade) rather than to
the stem of the adjective, in accordance with the view that the original meaning of the suffix
was different from our notion of a paradigmatic comparative, which would be a derivative of
the generic itself (as is clearly the case in NE damnedest and L difficilior). Thus Vedic
tavyas-, a form with both the intensive suffix and the privative prefix, means not very
strong (from tavys- very strong) rather than very unstrong; very weak. That is, it is a
privative based on an intensive, not the other way around like the NE comparative untidier.
Cf. O.Ir. sr, cp. sa<*sjs, longus, longior; ln (plnus cf. ln numerus), cp. lia<*pljs (Lat
ploios, Gk. plos); cf. Lat. ploirume, zero-grade Lat. maios, O.Ir. ma. So, for jwen- we find
Umb. cp. jovie<*jowj-s, O.Ir. ac iuuenis, a iunior; am iuuenissimus, O.Ind. yuva(n)(ynah), cp. yavyas-, sup. yavista-h.
The form -jos- varies allophonically with -ijos-, cf. new-js, new-ijs, newer. According
to Meier-Brgger, [*-ijos] replaces [*-jos] in nominative singular masculine and feminine
forms with the structure K .K- and KVR.K-; whereas, according to rules of phonetics, *-jos- is
expected in forms with three or more syllables.
The inflection of the comparative is that of the hysterodynamic inflection for sstems: singular nom. masc./fem. -js, acc. masc./fem. -jos, nom.-acc. neu. -jos,
gen. -jesos, dat. -jesei, loc. -jesi; plural masc./fem. -joses, acc. masc./fem. -joss,
nom.-acc. neut. -js, gen. -jesom, dat. -jesbhos, etc.
NOTE. This declension comes from an older ablauting *-js, acc. m.f. *-js-m, gen. *-is-s,
dat. *-is-i, loc. -jes-i, dat. pl. -is-bh-, etc. Sihler (1995). Beekes (1995):
The suffix -(t)er-o- is the basis for the secondary comparative forms; as, from upo,
up, upon, peros (cf. O.Ind. par-a-) beneath, nearer.
NOTE. The suffix -(t)ero- is the -o- adjective form of adverbs ending in -(t) and -(t)er; as,
sup, under, sup-er-, over, and sup-er-o-, found above; pro, at the front, forward, and prter-o-, toward the front, earlier. Adverbs and adjectives that were derived from them were
196
5. Adjectives
capable of marking relative contrast, e.g. in the case of opposites or selection from a pair; cf.
from sem-, one, s-ter-o, the other of two in a unity. The original use of this suffix was then
probably to convey the idea of binary contrast to something else, rather than intensive; as,
qteros, which (of two)?, enteros, the other (also second, v.i. 5.5.2) in contrast to aljos,
(an)other. Sihler (1995), Meier-Brgger (2003).
5.4.4. The superlative marks the highest grade among two compared values. The
same suffix (with the ablaut -is-) is the base for a common suffix -is-tos (<*-ist(h2)o, cf. Skt. -iha-, Gk. -istos, Goth. -ista), and -t-os (cf. Skt. -tamas, Gk. -tato-, tamo-), and (possibly a combination of -is-tos and -t-os) -is-os (Ita.-Cel. *isamo-);
as,
snistos,
oldest,
mgistos,
biggest
(Gk.
megistos,
Lat.
maximus<*magisamos), nwistos, newest, etc.; probably common to certain

numeral suffixes.
NOTE. As stated by Sihler (1995), a complex of two separate elements *-- and *-mo- is
indefensible morphologically. An original PIH *-(t)mHo- solves the phonological problem, but
there is no reason otherwise to suppose the presence of a laryngeal. This form in *-mo- is
also preferred by Fortson (2004) among others, while a laryngeal is preferred e.g. in MeierBrgger (2003). Again, the auxiliary vowel in a sequence *T-RE is the most logical assumption
(AdradosBernabMendoza 1995-1998), hence LIE *-mo/- mo-.
Superlative of the secondary comparative is made in -o-; as, per-o-, supos (Lat. summus), from dhers, underly, dh-os (Lat. infimus, Skt.
dhamas), from ents, inside, nt-os, (Lat. intimus), innermost.
NOTE. While adjectival suffixes -jos-, -istos, are added to the root (in e-grade) without
extensions, -teros and -os are added with the extensions.
Suffixes -jo-, -tero-, and -is-to-, had probably an original nominal meaning.
NOTE. Thus, the elongations in -jos- had a meaning; as in Latin, where iuniores (<*jun-joses) and seniores (<*sen-jos-es) were used for groups of age; or those in -teros, as *mtrter
aunt on the mothers side, *ekw teros lit. the horsy one (in contrast to ass), mule, Sihler
(1995). Forms like *jun-jos-es were not common in PIE, although indeed attested in different
dialects.
5.5. NUMERALS
5.5.1. CLASSIFICATION OF NUMERALS
Indo-European numerals may be classified as follows:
I. Numeral adjectives:
197
1. Cardinal numbers, answering the question how many? as, oinos, one; dwu,
two.
2. Ordinal numbers, adjectives derived (in most cases) from the cardinals, and
answering the question which in order? as, prmos, first; nteros, second.
3. Distributive numerals, answering the question how many at a time? as, semli,
one at a time; dwisni, two by two.
II. Numeral adverbs, answering the question how often? as, dwis, twice, tris,
thrice.
5.5.2. CARDINALS AND ORDINALS

1. These two series are as follows, from one to ten:
Cardinal
Eng.
Ordinal
Eng.
1.
oinos, oin, oinom
one
prmos
first
2.
dwu, dwi, dwoi
two
nteros
second
3.
trejes, trja/tr, trsores
three
tritjos
third
4.
qtwores
four
qetwtos
fourth
5.
penqe
five
penqtos
fifth
6.
s(w)eks
six
sekstos
sixth
7.
sept
seven
sptos
seventh
8.
oktu
eight
kt wos
eighth
9.
new
nine
neunos
ninth
dek
ten
dktos
tenth
0.
NOTE 1. From root oi-, PII ai-kas (<*oi-k-os), CA ei-kos, PGk oi-wos. For prwos
(<*prHwos<*ph2-wo-),
first,
cf.
O.Ind.
prva-,
O.C.S.
prv.
For
prmos,
(<*prHmos<*ph2-mo-), cf. Gk. Dor. pratos (<*pr-wo-to<*pr-mo-), Lith. prmas, O.Eng.

forma, or Goth. fruma (maybe also in Lat. prandre < *prmdo-dejom first eating); Lat.
prmus (<*pr-isamos<*prei-isamos, Pael. prismu). All forms are probably related through
the same root as in particle pr , forth, thus originally meaning foremost or similar. For. fem.
trja/tr<*triH, three, cf. Skt. tr, Gk. tra, Lat. tria, U. triia, Goth. rija, O.Ir. tre, but. It
seems that weks, six, could have been the original PIH form, to which an s- from sept was
added; it would have lost the -w- later (Sihler 1995).
NOTE 2. The ordinals were formed by means of the thematic suffix -o-, which caused the
syllable before the ending to have zero-grade. The newer suffix -to- was the most productive
in Late Indo-European. For internal reconstruction in PIH, Late Indo-European and early
dialects, see Szemernyi (1970). For eighth, Beekes (1995) reconstructs an original short vowel
198
5. Adjectives
*h3kt(e)h3w- cf. gr. ogdo(w)os, but cf. for lengthened grade Lat. octuus <*oktwos <*eh3w-. An original *dekt-- is reconstructed, later metanalysed into the attested dk-to(Sihler 1995). The same could be said of most ordinals, apparently from earlier zero-grade
forms and accent on the ending, Sihler (1995) and Beekes (1995), but recognised as having
been replaced already in parent language; as, **trj- *trij- third.
2. The forms from eleven to nineteen were usually formed by placing the number
and then dek, ten. Hence Late Indo-European used the following system:
Cardinal
Ordinal
11.
smdek / oinos dek
smdektos / prmos dktos
12.
dwu dek
teros dktos
13.
trejes dek
tritjos dktos
14.
qtwores dek
qetwtos dktos
15.
penqe dek
penqtos dktos
16.
seks dek
sekstos dktos
17.
sept dek
sptmos dktos
18.
okt dek
kt wos dktos
19.
new dek
newnos dktos
NOTE. Eleven and twelve were already fossilised collocations in O.Lat. undecim
(<*oinodecem), O.Ind. ikadaa, probably from oinom dekt (Sihler 1995). For a frozen
thirteen, cf. Skt. trayodaa, Lat. trdecim (<*trsdecem).
Also Gmc. and BSl. apparently from *inoliqa one left, *dwliqa two left, with ordinals
*inoliqtos, *dwliqtos, although the exact reconstruction of these forms is problematic
(Beekes 1995).
3. The tens are normally formed with the units and suffix -dkta group of ten.
Cardinal
Ordinal
20.
(d)widkt
(d)wdktos
30.
trdkta
trdktos
40.
qatwdkta
qatwdktos
50.
penqdkta
penqdktos
60.
sksdkta
sksktos
70.
septdkta
septktos
80.
oktdkta
oktdktos
90.
nwdkta
nwdktos
100.
(d)ktm
dktmtos
199
NOTE. These forms are traditionally reconstructed for LIE with lengthened preceding vowel
or resonant (as a conventional writing of LIE uncertain output for *RH), based on
comparative evidence alone (e.g. Sihler 1995, AdradosBernabMendoza 1995-1998), but
internal reconstruction might explain the development of all attested forms more elegantly
following the Leiden school (Kortlandt, Beekes, De Vaan, etc.), with the hypothesis that the
glottal stop of the d in dktm with the preceding vocalic resonant caused the development
toward outputs similar to those of *RH; i.e. -Rkta <*-HktH < *-h1kth2 <*-dkt-(h2?).
Hence our selection of writing an etymological d- to represent the old glottal stop, that had the
common effect in the attested dialects of lengthening the preceding vowel (or vocalic
resonant). The ending - , comes from neuter ending *-(e)h2, which by convention we write -a.
See e.g. at <http://eprints.ucm.es/tesis/19911996/H/3/AH3005401.pdf> Lujans tesis on
numerals, with a full review of the available theories, or Kortlandts original 1983 article
<https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/1887/1877/1/344_043.pdf>.
4. The hundreds are made as compounds of two numerals, like the tens:
Cardinal
Ordinal
200.
dwiktos
dwiktmtos
300.
triktos
triktmtos
400.
qatwktos
qatwktmtos
500.
penqektos
penqektmtos
600.
seksktos
seksktmtos
700.
septktos
septktmtos
800.
oktktos
oktktmtos
900.
newktos
newktmtos
1000.
sgheslom
sgheslotos
NOTE. For n. (s)gheslom, thousand, cf. Skt. n. sa-hsra-m, Av. ha-zara, from PII sahasla-m; from i-stem adjective gheslijos, -, -om, having a thousand, thousand-fold, cf.
Skt. sahasrya-, Gk. khl(l)ioi< PGk khesl-ij-o- (Sihler 1995), Lat. n. mlle, (n. pl) mlia,
possibly from an original fem. abstract *s-ih2 ghesl-i, or *sm-ih2 ghsl-ih2; for fem. *sm-ih2,
cf. Gk. ma. Both Lat. *ml(l)i and mlia might be postulated as free forms within the same
synchronic structure J. Gvozdanovi (1992) against a starting point *-ij (E. Hamp, 1968).
For the ordinal, cf. Skt. sahasra-tama.
A difficult to reconstruct *tst<*ts-kt-ij-os? fat hundred?, is found (MalloryAdams
2007) in Northern IE; cf. Gmc. sund-i, pl. sundjs, Toch. tumame, Bal. tksunt-i, O.Prus.
tsimtons, Sla. *t st-j-.
200
5. Adjectives
5. The other numerals are made similar to the tens, with the units in first place; as,
oin widkt, f. twenty-one; m. qtwores tridkta, thirty-four.
NOTE. For the simple type oinos widkt, cf. Skt. ka-viati (in compounds where the
unit could be inflected); with copulatives, cf. Lat. unus et uiginti, Bret. unan-warn-ugent, Ger.
einundzwanzig, Du. eenentwintig, Fris. ienentweintich, Da. enogtyve, etc.
The normal order of composite numerals is units+tens, and there was a natural
tendency to follow a units+tens+hundreds+, cf. Skt. ekdaa sahasram, lit. one
ten thousand, one thousand and eleven. So e.g. penqe dek ktm, one hundred
and fifteen, oinom qatwdkta septktos, seven hundred and forty-one.
All numbers signal the ordinal; as, prmos widktos, (masc). twenty-first,
tritj trdkt triktmt, (fem.) three hundred thirty-third.
6. Numerals were often inserted as prefixes of possessive compound forms, of the
type qatw-pods, four-footed, quadruped. As first members, numbers 1-4 had a
special zero-grade form: s-, one-; dwi-, two-, tri-, three-, and q(a)tur- [q(a)twbefore consonant], four-.
NOTE. The original zero-grade qtw-, qtur-, appears usually with an inserted schwa
secundum, generally LIE [a], i.e. qatw-, qatur-; also, PGk qetw-, qetur-. See 2.6.6.
5.5.3. DECLENSION OF CARDINALS AND ORDINALS

Of the cardinals oinos, dwu, trejes (and dialectally qtwores), are declinable.
a. The declension of oinos, -, -om has often the meaning of certain, a, single,
alone; as, oinos dinos, a certain day. Also, as a simple numeral, it agrees with a
plural noun of singular meaning. The plural occurs also in phrases like oins
ltersqe, one party and the other one (the ones and the others).
The root sem-, in semos, one, refers the unity as a whole, found in adj. soms,
equal.
NOTE. Gk., Arm., Toch., show an old declension, found in frozen compounds in Late IndoEuropean: masc. nom. *sems, acc. *sm (<**sem-m) neu. nom.-acc. *sem (gen.-abl. *sms,
dat. *smei, loc. *sem(i), ins. *sm), and fem. *smja/ (acc. *smja/m, gen.-abl. *smjs, dat.
*smji, loc. *smj(i), ins. *smj). Beekes (1995), Ringe (2005).
c. The inflection of dwu, two, is irregular, connected to issues concerning the

dual:
201
N.-V.-A.
masc.
fem.
neu.
dwu
dwi
dwoi
GEN.
dwous
DAT.-ABL.
dwobhos/dwomos
LOC.
dwou
INS.
dwobhis/dwomis
NOTE. Apparently an older n./f. dwoi was separated into a newer Late Indo-European f.
dwi. Also, IE ambhu, both, from ambh, is inflected like dwu; for adjective ambhojos,
cf. Skt. ubhya-, O.C.S. oboji, Lith. abej (Beekes 1995).
c. The inflection of trejes, three, is mostly a regular i-stem one:

masc.
fem.
neu.
NOM.-VOC.
trejes
trja/tr
trsores
ACC.
trins
trjans/trns
trsores
GEN.
trijom
DAT.-ABL.
tribhos/trimos
LOC.
trisu
INS.
tribhis/trimis
NOTE. The inflection attested of qtwores seems to have followed an old accent-ablaut
paradigm acc. qet-wr-ns, gen. qet-ur-m, loc. qet-w-s, etc. (Beekes 1995). A feminine
form qtes(o)res (*kwetu-sre- for Beekes), is found in Celtic and Indo-Iranian, deemed
therefore usually an old PIE formation (although in decline, given that most old IE languages
had already lost it), or an innovation based on trisores. A neuter qetwr <*kwetworH is
found in Greek and Balto-Slavic. Tocharian, Italic, and Gothic show no gender distinction; all
such finds indicate either an old common LIE trend of disuse of inflection for this number, or
dialectal innovations. Sihler (1995), AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998).
d. The ordinals are adjectives of the o and declensions, and are regularly declined.
6.3.2. Cardinals and ordinals have the following uses:
a. Only compound numbers have no gender or flexion; as, penqdkta kmtm
m., f., n. hundred and fifty; numbers including one, two, or three have gender and
flexion; as, oin sksdkta, (fem.) sixty-one, dwi widkt, (fem.) twenty-one,
trsores qetwdkta, (neu.) forty-three, oinom widkt putla, (masc. acc.) 21
children.
202
5. Adjectives
b. The highest denomination generally stands last, the next before it, etc., and the
unit is first; as, qtwores sksdkta septktom sgheslom, 1764.
c. LIE had no special words for million, billion, trillion, etc. They were expressed by
multiplication. From common loan million, from Lat. mille one thousand, we could
reconstruct sghslijn, million, dwighslijn, billion, trighslijn, trillion,
etc.
d. A common expression in PIE is the adverbial use of the accusative singular
neuter of the ordinal; as, prmom, firstly; nterom, secondly, etc.
e. Fractions are expressed, as in English, by cardinals in the numerator and ordinals
in the denominator. The neuter is generally used for substantivised ordinals, or the
feminine with noun part; as, n. dwi septa (or f. dwi septi ptes) twosevenths; n. trsores kt wa, three-eighths.
When the numerator is one, it is usually omitted: tritjom, one-third; qtwtom,
one-fourth, and so on.
NOTE. Indo-Iranian exhibits an old trend to omit the parts in which it is divided, if only one
is left; as, dwi ptes, two-thirds (two parts), trja ptes, three-fourths, etc.
The compositional smi-, half-, is combined with ordinals to express cardinals plus
half; as, smi-tritjos, two and a half, lit. having a half of the third (item).
NOTE. For IE half, cf. Lat. adj. dwismedhjos, noun dwismedhjom, divided medially;
however, proper forms meaning divided in two are reconstructed from multiplicatives, v.i.
f. In approximatives, the old disjunctive use of numerals was made by collocations

of adjacent cardinals in ascending order, e.g. penqe seks sept, five, six, or seven.
A common IE penqe sept (for penqe septwe), five or seven, is also possible.
g. Time periods are made with compounds:
For years, as dwiatnjom, a period of two years, triatnjom, qaturatnjom,
sgheslijatnjom, millenium, etc.
For
days,
as
dwidjwijom,
period
of
two
days,
tridjwijom,
qatwdjwijom.
For months, as dwimnstris, a period of two months, bimester, trimnstris,
trimester, qatwmnstris, seksmnstris, semester, etc.
NOTE. For month names, a compound with mns-ri- is followed; as, septmnsris,
september, oktmnsris, october, etc.
203
5.5.4. DISTRIBUTIVES
1. Distributive numerals are number words which express group membership. They
are used mainly in the sense of so many apiece or on each side, and also in
multiplications. They answer to the question how many of each? how many at a
time?
2. The oldest formations are collocations of geminated cardinals, with both
members inflected; as, semos semos, oinos oinos, each one, penqe penqe, each
five, etc.
NOTE. For this kind of distributives, cf. Gk. tri tri, O.Ind., ka- eka-, Zor. Pahl. k k, Pers.
das das, Parth. Sogd. yw yw, Arm. tasn tasn, Toch. A sam sam, B eme eme, okt okt, u u;
also in Hittite iterated groups, in place of distributives, 1-a 1-a, 1-an 1-an.
This is also found in nouns, cf. Lat. alteros alterom each other, O.Ind. dve dve,
each day; Myc. we-te we-te each year; etc.
3. Some PIE distributives were formed with adj. suffix -(s)no-, and
abstract/collective suffix -; as, dwsn, two at a time, two each, trisn, qtrusn.
NOTE. For this formation e.g. dwsn, cf. Lat. bn, Gmc. *twiznaz (<*dwisns, cf. O.N.
tvenner, O.H.G. zwirnn, O.Eng. twn, Du. twijn), Russ. dvjni, Lith. dvyn, Arm. krkin, Lyc.
kbisni. Also, it is believed that oi-no- was originally the first member of that series
(remember dialectal PGk oi-wos, PII oi-kos), meaning singleness, unity, before replacing
sem-. Distributives for higher numerals were later expressed in IE languages using a word
that meant each, as, Eng. each, Fr. chaque, Alb. kaa, Bret. cach, etc.
4. Distributives can be used to express percentage; as, for twenty percent, dek
dek dwu, two for each ten, ktm ktm widkt, twenty for each
hundred.
5.5.5. NUMERAL ADVERBS

1. The so-called numeral adverbs are a distinctive class of adverbs which specifically
answer the question qoti, how many times? how often?
2. The most common ones are formed with zero-grade and a lengthening in -s; as,
semli, once, dwis, twice, tris, thrice, and qatrus (<*kwtw-s), four times.
NOTE. For NWIE semli, cf. O.Lat. semol, Umb. sumel, Goth. simble, O.H.G. siml, O.Ir.
amal; for the expected *sni-, maybe Hitt. ani. PII s-qt, from -qt, v.i.; PGk s-pqus,
alone, cf. Gk. hapaks, Hitt. pa-an-ku-u, L. cnctus. For the rest, e.g. tris, cf. Lat. ter, Myc. ti204
5. Adjectives
ri-se-roe (<Tris-(h)rhei), Gk. tris, O.Ind. tri, Goth. driror, O.Ir. thr, Luv. tarisu, Lyc.
trisu. Higher numbers are found in Lat. and maybe behind Hitt. 3-i, 10-i, 20-i, 30-i, etc.
See Sihler (1995).
3. Some old compounds are also found in -ki.

NOTE. A certain reconstruction is difficult, though; cf. Hitt. -an-ki, Gmc. zwis-ki, Gk. -ki,
Indian *-ki (cf. Sogd. -ky, Yaghnobi ki ki one by one, one each, Chorasmian -c); maybe also
in Arm. erkics. Variant Gk. -kis, Hitt. -kis are probably due to assimilation to the type dwis,
twice, twofold. For higher numbers, probably an innovation, cf. Greek numeral adverbs in -akis, and Hittite in -an-ki, maybe from a common PIE *-ki.
4. A system of simple collocations is used, placing the cardinal number before a

noun meaning time; as, penqe qtewes, five times, okt qtewes, eight times,
and so on.
NOTE. For m. qtus, time, cf. O.Ind. -ktwa (<*kwt-wnt-m, see Hollifield 1984), Bal.
*kart-a-, Sla. *kort, O.Ir. cruth, O.Welsh pryd. For (rare) compounds, viz. s-qt, once, cf.
O.Ind. sa-kt, Av. ha-krt; cf. also Umb. trioper three times, Osc. petiropert four times.
5.5.6. MULTIPLICATIVES
1. Multiplicatives like single, double, triple, etc. which answer the question how
many fold?, had a variety of compounds for the first numerals.
2. The oldest PIE multiplicatives found were collectives, made in -jo-, -t- and -k-;
as, inokos, single, sole, unique, dwojs, two-fold, group of two, duad, trejs,
three-fold, triad, qetwers, four-fold, group of four, penqsts, group of five,
dekts, group of ten, decade.
NOTE. For North-West common inokos, cf. Gmc. *ainagas (cf. Goth ainahs, O.N. einga,
O.Eng. anga, O.Sax. enag, O.H.G. einac), O.C.S. inok, Lat. unicus (<*oine-kos? or *oinoikos?); suffix -kois also found in O.Ind. -, Gk. -ks, Hitt. -ka. For PIE dwojs, trejs,
cf. Ved. tvay-, tray, Myc. duwojo-/dwojo-, Gk. dois, O.H.G. zw, g. zwes, Lith. dvej, trej,
O.C.S. dvoj, troj, O.Ir. trode. For qetwers, cf. Skt. catvarm, O.C.S. etvori, Lith.
ketver, Lat. quatern. Apart from -jo-, common PIE collectives are found in -t-, usually -ti-,
as penq-s-tis, group of five, fist, cf. O.Ind. pakt-, Av. sast-, xsvasti-, O.C.S. pst, -t, Lith. t-, -ti-, Gmc. funxstiz (cf. Goth. fst), O.Ir. bissi, O.Welsh bys, but also -ts, as, dek-ts, Gk.
(deks), Lat. *dekents>*dekients, spreading *j-ts as new formant, into Gk.

(pents), then (tris), etc. Lat. *quinquens>quinquiens, then trins, etc; cf. e.g. neuter
plurals widkt (interpreted as dual), lit. a group of two decades, double decads, twenty,
tridkta, triple decads, thirty, and so on.
205
4. Proportional or relative numerals express how many times more (or less) one
thing is than another; they are made as follows:
a. in -pls, as spls, simple, dwipls, two-fold, double, twice as much, twice
as large, tripls, three-fold, triple.
NOTE. For dwi-plos, cf. Lat. duplus, Hom. Gk. f. acc. dipln (<dwi-pl -m) Umbr. dupla,
Goth. twei-fls, O.H.G. zv-fal, doubt, O.Ir. dabul, maybe Av. bi-fra- comparison, Lyc. B
dwipl. s-plos is found in Gk. - (ha-pls), Lat. simplus, tri-plos is found in Gk.
(triplous), Lat. triplus, Umb. tripler. For -plos (cf. Arm. -hal), a connection with PIE
pel-, fold, is usually assumed.
b. in -pks, as, dwipks, with two folds, duplex, tripks, with three folds.
NOTE. For pk-, also reconstructed as from root pel-, cf. Lat. -plicare, Gk. plek <*pl-ek, to
fold. For dwipks, cf. Lat. duplex, Gk. (dplaks), Umbr. tuplak.
c. with verbal adjective -pts, folded, is used to denote something divided in n

parts; as, dwipts, an object folded in two.
NOTE. Cf. Gk. -plasio-<*-platio-<*pt-jo-s, a derivative that could express belonging to the
class of objects folded in two (Gvozdanovi, 1992); maybe also here i-stem O.Ir.
trilis<*triptis? For dwipts, cf. Gk. (diplsios), Ger. zwifalt. A similar form is in
Gmc. *poltos fold.
d. with suffix -dh, as dwidh, two-fold, divided in two parts.

NOTE. cf. Skt. duv-dha, dve-dha, Gk. <*- (di-th) and maybe also (with the
meaning half) O.N. twdi, O.Eng. twde, O.H.G. zwitaran, O.Ir. dde, Hitt. dak-a-an.
206
6. PRONOUNS
6.1. ABOUT THE PRONOUNS
6.1.1. Pronouns are used as nouns or as adjectives. They are divided into the
following seven classes:
1. Personal pronouns: as, eg, I.
2. Reflexive pronouns: as, se, himself.
3. Possessive pronouns: as, sers, our.
4. Demonstrative pronouns: as, so, this, that.
5. Relative pronouns: as, jos, who.
6. Interrogative pronouns: as, qis? who?
7. Indefinite pronouns: as, qis, anyone.
6.1.2. Like adjectives, pronouns are declined for case and number and except for
the personal and reflexive pronouns for gender. Pronouns have a special
declension, differing from the nominal declension in several respects.
6.2. PERSONAL PRONOUNS

6.2.1. The personal pronouns of the first person are eg, I, wejes, we; of the
second person, t, thou, juwes, you. The personal pronouns of the third person - he,
she, it, they - are wanting in Indo-European, an anaphoric (or even a demonstrative)
being used instead.
NOTE. Late Indo-European had no personal pronouns for the third person, like most of the
early dialects attested. For that purpose, a demonstrative was used instead; as, from ki, id, cf.
Anatolian ki, Gmc. khi-, Lat. cis-, id, Gk. ekeinos, Lith. sis, O.C.S. si, etc.
6.2.2. Since every finite verb form automatically indicates the person of the verb,
the nominal pronoun forms are already adequately marked. Therefore, pronouns are
not generally used in verbal sentences; they might be used to mark insistence,
though: esmi, I am; eg esmi, me, I am.
In comparison with the orthotonic forms, often strengthened by particles, the
special enclitic forms feature the minimal word stem and may be used in multiple
cases.
NOTE. Tonic forms are fully stressed (emphatic or contrastive), while enclitic are unstressed
clitic object pronouns; these are clearly attested in Anatolian, Indo-Iranian, Greek, BaltoSlavic and Tocharian. They are mostly reduced versions of the full forms, and it is a common
resource write them added to the preceding verb, cf. Hitt. -mu, O.Lith. -m(i).
6.2.3. The personal (non-reflexive) pronouns are declined as follows:

First Person
Singular eg-, meOrthotonic
NOM.
Plural we-, no-
Enclitic
Orthotonic
Enclitic
wejes, sms, we
eg(h)m, eg, I
ACC.
mewm, me
me
sm, nns, us
nos
GEN.
mene, of me
mo
serm, of us
nos
DAT.
meghei,
moi
smi, nosbhos
nos
LOC.
meghjom mei
sm, nosi
INS.
mojo
nosbhis
ABL.
med
-
smd
Second Person
Singular tu-, teOrthotonic

NOM.
Enclitic
t, tu, thou
Plural ju-, weOrthotonic
Enclitic
juwes, jusms, you
ACC.
tewm, thee
t(w)e
jusm, wns, you
wos
GEN.
tewe; of thee
t(w)o
wesrm, of you
wos
DAT.
tebhei, tebhjo
t(w)oi
jusmi, wosbhos
wos
LOC.
t(w)ei
jusm, wosi
INS.
t(w)ojo
wosbhis
ABL.
t(w)ed
jusmd
NOTE. A comprehensive comparison of the reconstructed forms is at the end of this book:
1) For 1st P. Nom. eghm (<*egh2-m), emphatic from eg (<*eg-h2), cf. O.Ind. ahm, Av.
azm, Hom.Gk. , Ven. ehom.
2) Enclitics moi, mei, and t(w)oi, t(w)ei, are found in genitive, dative and locative, but
they are deliberately specialised in this table.
3) 1st sg. dative is often found reconstructed as mebhi/mebhei, following the 2nd pl.
tebhei/tebhi.
4) -es endings in nom. pl., sms, (j)usms (<*jusws?) attested in Att.-Ion. Greek and
Gothic.
208
6. Pronouns
5) An older ju(s)wes is probably behind the generally reconstructed nominative *jHs?

based on Balto-Slavic (and Germanic) forms, which would therefore be a contraction of the
original form (cf. Skt. y-ym, Gk. u-meis, Lat. us, Cel. s-ws, Goth. iz-wis<*uz-wes?)
6) Zero-grade forms in jus- are also found as us- (from wes-? cf. Goth. izwis<*uswes?).
7) Possibly accusatives jusm<*jusmn<**jusmens, and sm<*smn<**smens.
8) Probably acc. pl. **nos-m-snns and **wos-m-swns.
8) Gen. n som, w som, is also attested.
9) Osc.-Umb., O.Ind. variant (orthotonic) series of Acc. Sg. in -m, as mm(e), twm,
tewem, usm, s(w)m.
10) Dual forms (in *-h1) are for the 1st nom. w, acc. tonic w, enclitic n; for the 2nd j,
acc. tonic w, enclitic w.
For the personal pronouns of the third person singular and plural, the anaphoric iis used. See 6.5 and 6.6 for more details on its use and inflection.
6.3. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

6.3.1. Reflexive pronouns are used in the accusative and the oblique cases to refer to
the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand, meaning (one)self.
They do not have a nominative case, do not distinguish number, and can be used
with any of the three persons.
se, -self
ACC.
se, myself, yourself, himself/herself/itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.
GEN.
sewe, soi, of myself, yourself, himself/herself/itself, ourselves, etc.
ABL.
swed, by/from/etc. myself, yourself, himself/herself/itself, ourselves, etc.
DAT.
sebhei, soi, to myself, yourself, himself/herself/itself, ourselves, etc.
L.-I.
sei, in/with myself, yourself, himself/herself/itself, ourselves, etc.
NOTE. Particular IE languages show an old swoi and swe, cf. Gk. Lesb. . According to
J.T. Katz precisely this swe is regarded as ancient and se as secondary. In contrast, G.E.
Dunkel connects se/soi, which he considers more ancient, with the demonstrative pronoun
so.
6.3.2. The reciprocals one another, each other, were expressed like the distributives
(v.s. 5.5.4), with the first member in the nominative, and the second in the
accusative (or other oblique case); as, aljos aljom, onjos onjom, etc.; as,
209
NOTE. Cf. Hitt. 1-a 1-an ku-w-a-ki-it one killed the other continuously, O.Ind. anyonya<*anys anym, Av. anii.aniia-, Chor. nywny, Gk. alllo-<*alos allon, *alloi allous one
another, Lat. ali alis, alterius alterum; for oinos lterom, cf. Latin unus alterum, Eng.
one another, Ger. einander, etc. Reciprocity is one of the principal meanings of middle voice
forms, v.i. 7.1.2.
6.4. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

6.4.1. From the bases of the personal pronouns, the oldest possessive pronouns
seem to have been mos, mine, sms, ours, twos, thine, usms, yours, swos,
own.
NOTE. So e.g. in Gk. ems (<*h1ms), ammos, ss, ummos, hos, Av. ma-, wa-, O.Ind. tva-.
Variants exist in tews (as Gk. tes, Lat. tuus), sews (as Gk. hes, Lat. suus), explained as
neologisms, but which may well be as early as Late PIE (Sihler 1995).
6.4.2. The common Late Indo-European possessives were formed from the same
bases with suffixes -(i)join the singular, -(t)ero- in the plural; as, mwijos,
menjos, my, sers, our, twijos, thy, users, your, swijos.
NOTE. For such common PIE forms, similar to the genitives of the personal pronouns (v.s.
6.2), cf. Gk. mteros (<sm-tero-), umteros (<usm-tero-), O.Lat. noster (<nos-tero-)
uoster (<wos-tero-), Goth. unsara-, (<s-ero-), izwara- (<wesw-ero-?), etc. all used as
possessive pronouns; for the singular, cf. Lat. meus, O.C.S. moj, Goth meina-, etc. O.Ind.
madya-, tvadya, etc. were formed from the ablatives mad, tvad, etc., while possessives
mamaka-, asmka-, jusmka-, were made from the genitives. See Szemernyi (1970),
AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998), Meier-Brgger (2003).
6.4.3. Possessives are declined like adjectives of the first type, in -os, -, -om.
NOTE. PIE swos, swijos, are only used as reflexives, referring generally to the subject of
the sentence. For a possessive of the third person not referring to the subject, the genitive of
the anaphoric must be used. Thus, pater swijom chenti, (s)he/it kills his [own] father;
but pater esjo chenti, (s)he/it kills his [somebody (m.) elses] father. See below 10.1.2 for
more on its use.
6.5. ANAPHORIC PRONOUNS

6.5.1. Anaphora is an instance of an expression referring to another, the weak part
of the deixis. In general, an anaphoric is represented by a pro-form or some kind of
deictic. They usually dont have adjectival use, and are only used as mere
abbreviating substitutes of the noun.
210
6. Pronouns
NOTE. Old anaphorics were usually substituted in modern IE languages by demonstratives.
They are usually integrated into the pronoun system with gender; only occasionally
some of these anaphorics have been integrated into the personal pronouns system in
Indo-European languages.
6.5.2. Indo-European has a general anaphoric pronoun, is, ja/ id, an old
demonstrative pronoun with basis on PIE root i- with ablaut ei-.
NOTE. PIE root i- is also the base for common relative jo-. Demonstrative is, ja/, id, with
anaphoric value, he/she/it, in Italic (e.g. Lat. is, ea, id), Germanic (e.g. O.H.G. ir, er/iz, ez),
Baltic (e.g. Lith. js/j), Greek (e.g. Cypriot n), Indo-Iranian (e.g. Skt. ay-m, iy-m, i-d-m).
6.5.3. The other demonstrative pronoun, so, s, tod, functions as anaphoric too,
but tends to appear leading the sentence, being its origin probably the relative. They
are also used for the second term in comparisons.
NOTE. Demonstrative so, s, tod is also widely attested in Celtic (e.g. O.Ir. -so/-d), Italic
(e.g. Lat. is-te, is-ta, is-tud), Germanic (e.g. Goth. sa, s, ata, O.Eng. s, so, t, O.H.G. der,
die, daz), Baltic (e.g. Lith. ts, t), Slavic (e.g. O.C.S. t, ta, to), Alb. ai, ajo, Gk. ho, h, t,
Indo-Iranian (e.g. Skt. s, s , tt), Toch B se, s, te, Arm. ay-d, Hitt. ta. Modern IE languages
have sometimes mixed both forms to create a single system, while others maintain the old
differentiation.
6.6. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

6.6.1. The function of demonstrative pronouns, deixis, includes an indication of
position in relation to the person speaking. It is possible to express a maximum of
four (generally three) different degrees of distance; as, I-deixis (here, near the
speaker), thou-deixis (there, near the person addressed), that-deixis (there, without a
particular spatial reference), yonder-deixis (yonder, over there).
6.6.2. The demonstrative pronouns so, this, that, and is, this one, that one, the
(just named), are used to point out or designate a person or thing for special
attention, either with nouns, as adjectives, or alone, as pronouns, and are declined as
follows:
211
so, s, tod, this, that

Singular
masc.
NOM.
so
ACC.
tom
neu.
tod
Plural
fem.
masc.
toi
tm
tons
neu.
fem.
ti
tns
GEN.
tosjo
tesjs
toisom
tsom
ABL.
tosmd
tesjs
toibhos/toimos
tbhos/tmos
DAT.
tosmi
tesji
toibhos/toimos
tbhos/tmos
LOC.
tosmi
tesji
toisu
tsu
INS.
toi
tesj
tis
tbhis/tmis
NOTE. Variants are observed in the attested dialects: 1) Nom. so (before all consonants) is
also found as sos in Old Indian, Greek and Gothic (in all other circumstances), and as se in
Latin (cf. Lat. ipse). 2) Nom. s is found as sja/s in Germanic and Celtic. 3) Nom. Pl. ti is
general, while si is restricted to some dialects, as Attic-Ionic Greek, possibly from original
fem. *t and masc. *to (Meier-Brgger 2003). However, linguists like Beekes (1995) or
AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998) reconstruct the nominative form in s- as the
original Proto-Indo-European form. 4) The instrumental singular forms are difficult to
reconstruct with the available data.
is, ja, id, this one, that one

Singular
masc.
NOM.
is
ACC.
im
neu.
id
Plural
fem.
masc.
ja/
ejes
jam/m
ins
neu.
/ja
GEN.
esjo
esjs
eisom
ABL.
esmd
esjs
DAT.
esmi
esji
eibhos/eimos
esom
eibhos/eimos
LOC.
esmi
esji
eisu
INS.
ei
esj
eibhis/eimis
fem.
js
jns
NOTE. Some emphatic forms exist; as, ejm for is, idm for id; ijm for ja.
6.6.2. Distance degrees in demonstratives might be classified as follows: kos, k,

kod (also ghei-ke, ghi-ke, ghod-ke), I-deixis, this here, oisos, ois, oisom,
thou-deixis, this there, general so, tod, s, that-deixis; elne, eln, elnod, yonderdeixis.
212
6. Pronouns
NOTE. While there is no definite or indefinite article in PIE, and nouns might be translated
as indefinite or definite depending on the context as in Sanskrit or Latin , when the
difference is crucial demonstratives are used. See 10.4.3.
6.6.3. Deictic particles which appear frequently with demonstrative pronouns

include -ke/-ko-, here; -ne-/-no-, there; -wo-, away, again.
NOTE. For PIE i-, se-, he, cf. Lat. is, O.Ind. sa, esa, Hitt. ap, Goth. is, O.Ir. (h); for -ke/ko-, in (e)ke, ghei-(ke), this (here), cf. Hitt. ks, eda (def.), Lat. hic (<*ghe-i-ke), Goth. hi-,
sa(h), O.Ir. sin, O.C.S. s, si, se, Lith. s, i; for ke-enos, cf. Gk. kenos (<*ke-enos), O.N.
hnn, hann, he; for au-, away, again, cf. Gk. houtos, O.Ind. a-sau, u-, Av. ava-, OCS.
ovov; for se-, te-, in oi-se, is-te, ene, this (there), cf. Lat. iste, Gk. (<*oihos), O.Ind.
enam (clit.); for en-, cf. O.C.S. on, Lith. ans that; for -ne, -no-, that, cf. Lat. ille (<*el-ne),
ollus (<*ol-nos), Gk. kenos (<*ke-enos), Goth. jains. Common derivatives kei, here (loc. from
ke), num-ke, now (from n, now), or i-dhei, there, tom-ke, then (from tom, then). Latin
(c)ib, (c)ub are frequently found reconstructed as PIE *ibhi, *qobhi (cf. Hitt. kuwaapi(t), see
Kloekhorst 2007), but it is not difficult to find a common origin in PIE i-dhei, qo-dhei for
similar forms attested in different IE dialects; cf. Lat. ub, Osc. puf, O.Ind. kuha, O.Sla. kude,
etc.
6.7. INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

6.7.1. INTRODUCTION
1. There are two forms of the interrogative-indefinite pronoun in Proto-IndoEuropean, and each one corresponded to a different class: qi- (with ablaut qei-) to
the substantive, and qo- to the adjective pronouns.
SUBSTANTIVE
ADJECTIVE
qis bhreti? who carries?
qos wrs bhreti? what man carries?
qid widjesi? what do you see?
qom autom widjesi? which car do you

see?
NOTE. In the origin, qi-/qo- was possibly a noun which meant the unknown, and its
interrogative/indefinite sense depended on the individual sentences. Later both became
pronouns with gender, thus functioning as (orthotonic) interrogatives or (enclitic) indefinites
(Szemernyi, 1970). The form qi- is probably the original independent form (compare the
degree of specialisation of qo-, further extended in IE dialects), for which qo- could have been
originally the o-grade form (Beekes 1995, AdradosBernabMendoza 1995-1998). The
substantive interrogative pronoun in PIE was qi-, whereas qo- was used to fill adjectival
functions (Meier-Brgger 2003, Sihler 1995). Some IE dialects have chosen the o-stem only,
213
as Germanic, while some others have mixed them together in a single paradigm, as IndoIranian, Balto-Slavic or Italic. Cf. Sktr. ka, Av. ko, Gk. tis, Lat. qui, quae, quod; quis, quid,
Osc. pisi, Umb. p, svepis, O.Pers. iy, Pers. ki, Phryg. kos, Toch. kus/kse, Arm. ov, in,
Gmc. *khwo- (cf. Goth. hwas, O.N. hverr, O.S. hwe, O.E. hw, Dan. hvo, O.Fris. hwa, O.H.G.
hwr), Lith. kas, Ltv. kas, O.C.S. kuto, Rus. kto, Pol. kto, O.Ir. ce, cid, Welsh pwy, Alb. kush,
Kam. ka; in Anatolian, compare Hitt. kui, Luw. kui-, Lyd. qi-, Lyc. tike, and Carian kuo.
2. The substantive interrogative pronoun qis? who?, qid? what?, declined like i-:
Singular
m.
Plural
f.
NOM.
qis
ACC.
qim
n.
qid
m.
f.
n.
qejes
q/qja
qins
GEN.
qesjo
qeisom
ABL.
qesmd
qeibhos/qeimos
DAT.
qesmei
qeibhos/qeimos
LOC.
qesmi
qeisu
INS.
qeibhis/qeimis
NOTE. PIE -qe, and, is probably derived from the same root, and was originally a modal
adverb meaning as, like; e.g. patr mtrqe, father like mother (Szemernyi 1970).
Similarly, jo- is probably behind Hitt. -ya.
3. The adjective interrogative pronoun, qos? q? who (of them)?, qod? what kind
of? what one?, is declined throughout like the relative:
Singular
214
m.
f.
NOM.
qos
ACC.
qom
qm
Plural
n.
qod
m.
f.
qoi
qs
qons
qns
GEN.
qosjo
qoisom
ABL.
qosmd
qoibhos/qoimos
DAT.
qosmi
qoibhos/qoimos
LOC.
qosmi
qoisu
INS.
qoi
qoibhis/qoimis
n.
q
6. Pronouns
4. The indefinite pronouns qi-/qo-, any one, any, are declined like the
corresponding interrogatives.
SUBSTANTIVE
qis, anyone; qid, anything
ADJECTIVE
qos, q, qod, any
5. PIE had other interrogative or relative particle, me-/mo-.

NOTE. It survived in Celtic (e.g. Bret ma, may that), Anatolian (Hit. masi how much), and
Tocharian (Toch. A mnt how).
6.7.2. COMPOUNDS
1. The pronouns qi- and qo- appear in different combinations:
a. The forms can be repeated, as in substantive qisqis, anyone, qidqid, anything,
or adjective qqos, qq, qqod, whoever.
NOTE. For this use, similar to the distributive ones, e.g. qqos, whoever, cf. Gaul. papon,
O.Ir. cch, O.C.S. kak, Lith. kk(i)s, and also Gk. , , O.Ind. pratieka, Hitt.
kuissa, Goth. ainhvaaruh; for qisqis, anyone, cf. Gk. , , O.Ind. kim kid, kacit,
kacana, kopi, Hitt. kuis kuis, kuis-as kuis, Lat. quisquis, qulbt, quvis, Goth. hvazuh,
hvarjizuh, Arm. in-.
Other common PIE forms include solwos, all, cf. Gk. , O.Ind. visva, sarva, Hitt.
hmant-, O.Ir. u(i)le; enis, certain, cf. Gk. , O.Ind. ekacana Lat. qudam; lteros,
nteros, the other, from aljos, onjos, some other, etc.
b. In some forms the copulative conjunction -qe is added to form new pronouns,
usually universals; as, qiskomqe, qisimmoqe, whoever. Indefinites itaqe, and
also, toqe, also, joqe, and.
NOTE. Cf. Gk. , , O.Ind. ya ka cit, yo ya, yadanga, Hitt. kuis imma, kuis
imma kuis, kuis-as imma (kuis), Lat. quiscumque, Goth. sahvazuh saei, Ger. wer auch
immer, O.Ir. cib duine, Russ. ;
c. Some forms are made with prefixes, like (substantive) edqis, some(one) among
many, edqid, something, (adjective) edqos, edq, edqod, whether, some. Other
forms with suffixes; as, qjespejoi, some.
NOTE. For (ed)qis, cf. Gk. , O.Ind. anyatama, Hitt. kuis ki, Lat. ecquis, quis, aliquis,
Goth. hvashun, Russ. edv, O.Ir. nech, duine. For qjespejoi cf. Gk. , O.Ind. katipaya,
Hitt. kuis ki, Russ. .
215
d. The negatives are usually composed with negation particles, usually ne; as,
neqis, nobody, neqid, nothing, neqom, never; but neqos, someone.
NOTE. For neqis, nobody, no one, cf. Gk. , O.Ind. na ka, Hitt. UL kuiski, Goth. (ni)
hvashun, Gaul. nepon, O.Ir. n aon duine, Lat. nec quisquam, Russ. .
e. It is also found as in compound with relative jo-; as, jos qis, anyone, jod qid,
anything, cf. Gk. hstis htti, Skt. ys cit, yc cit.
f. With identity or oppositive forms; as, qidpe, indeed, aljodhei, elsewhere.
2. There are compounds with numerals; as, ghei-sem, exactly so, in this one way.
NOTE. Cf. Hitt. ki-an thus, in the following way, from ghei-sem, in this one way,
exactly so, also found in eni-an thus, in the manner mentioned, apeni-an thus, in that
way, etc. For ne-oinom, no one, none, not any, cf. Eng. none, Ger. nein, maybe Lat. nn.
Also, Latin nllus (<ne-oinolos, not any), none, null.
3. Reflexives are found in jota sei, alike, nearly, sweike, thus, swi, so, etc.
6.7.3. CORRELATIVES
1. Many pronouns, pronominal adjectives and adverbs have corresponding
demonstrative, relative, and interrogative-indefinite forms in Indo-European. Such
parallel forms are called correlatives, and some common forms are the following:
216
Demonstrative
Relative in jo-
Interrogative
so, s, tod
jos, j, jod
qis? qid?, qos? q? qod?
this, that
who, which
who?, what? which?
ita
jota
qota?
so
so
how?
tlis
jlis
qlis?
so constituted
as
of what sort?
tm
jm
qm?
that way
which way
how, in what way?
tom, tod
jom
qom? qod ?
then
when
when?
idhei, tor
jodhei
qor? qodhei?
here, there
where
where?
t i
j i
q i? qote?
thither
whither
whither?
6. Pronouns
totrd
jomde
qomde? qotrd?
from there
wherefrom
from which?
totjos
jotjos
qotjos?
so many
as many
how many?
toti
joti
qoti?
so often
as often
how often?
t wtos
j wtos
q wtos?
so much/large
as much/large
how much/large?
to(s)jo
josjo
qosjo?
of whom/which
whose
pertaining to whom/what?
teros
jteros
qteros?
(an)other
which (of two)
which (of two)?
tori
jori
qori?
therefore
wherefore
why?
NOTE. Relative forms in italics are inferred following the general paradigm, because its
reconstruction is missing with the available comparative data. The rest of them are
reconstructed in MalloryAdams (2007), Szemernyi (1996), Sihler (1995), among others.
6.8. RELATIVE PRONOUNS

6.8.1. There are two general pronominal stems used as relative pronouns, one
related to the anaphorics (jo-), and one to the interrogative-indefinites (qi-/qo-).
NOTE. The interrogative pronoun is also used as indefinite in all IE languages. In some it is
used additionally as relative, without differentiation in Anatolian, with it in Italic (e.g. Lat.
quo- opposed to quis), Tocharian, later Celtic, Germanic and Baltic; the other group,
comprising Aryan, Greek, Phrygian and Slavic kept using the PIE relative pronoun jo- (<*Hjo), from the anaphoric root i-; cf. Gk. hs, h, ho, Skt. ys, y, yad, Av. ya-, Phryg. ios, Sla. i-e,
Cel. io, Goth ja-bai, maybe Hitt. ya, Toch. A yo. Despite Szemernyi (1970), who considers it
mainly a S.LIE innovation, only Proto-Italic shows no traces of the common PIE relative, and
because of that it is generally considered lost in that branch, not an innovation of the others.
6.8.2. PIE forms in jo- introduced appositive-explicative relative clauses, while

those in qi-/qo- introduced attributive-restrictive clauses. For more information, see
below 10.5.3.
6.8.3. IE relative pronoun jos, j, jod, the o-stem derivative from i-, is inflected
like so, s, tod.
217
6.9. OTHER PRONOUNS

6.9.1. Identity pronouns are those generally called intensifiers or emphatic
pronouns, expressions like Eng. x-self (himself, herself, myself, oneself, etc.), Ger.
selbst, selber, Lat. ipse, Ita. stesso or Russ. sam.
Proto-Indo-European formations that function as identity pronouns stem from a
common epe, self; as, se epse, s(w)el (e)pe, -self.
NOTE. cf. Hitt. apsila, O.Lat. sapsa, sumpse, ipse, Goth. silba, O.Ir. fessin, fadessin
(>fin), Russ. .
6.9.2. Oppositive pronouns are usually derived from suffix -tero-; as, qteros?
which of two? teros, another, lteros, the other one, prteros, first (of two).
NOTE. For qteros, cf. Lat uter, O.Eng. hwer (Eng. whether), Lith katars, OCS
koteryj, Gk. pteros, Skt. katar-; from this word is Latin neuter<neqteros, neither one
nor the other. For ster, missing, cf. Gmc. *sun-dr- (e.g. Ger. sonder), Gk (ater),
O.Ind. sanutar; from sni, apart, cf. Lat. sine without, Goth. sundr, O.Sla. svene, O.Ir. sain
different.
6.9.3. Adjectival pronouns include identity as well as oppositive pronouns; as,

soms, the same, or aljos, onjos, the other.
NOTE. Such nominal forms, properly categorised as vaguely belonging to the field of
pronuns, receive pronominal inflection. For adj. soms, equal, same, cf. Gmc. *samaz, Gk.
, , , Skt. sama, Av. hama, O.C.S. , O.Ir. som. The best attested
pronominal adjective is aljos, alj, aljom, other (cf. Gk. llos, Lat. alius, Goth. aljis, O.Ir. ail,
Toch. B alyek).
218
7. VERBS
7.1. INTRODUCTION
7.1.1. VOICE, MOOD, TENSE, PERSON, NUMBER
1. The inflection of the verb is called its conjugation.
2. Through its conjugation the verb expresses voice, mood, tense, person and
number.
3. The voices are two: active and middle (or more exactly middle-passive).
4. The moods were up to five:
a. The indicative, for plain statement of objective fact.
b. The imperative, for commands.
c. The optative, for intentions or hopes for action.
d. The subjunctive, for potentiality, possibility.
NOTE. An old injunctive is also reconstructed to account for S.LIE forms; v.i. 7.4.2.
5. The general tenses are three, viz.:

a. The present.
b. The past.
c. The future.
NOTE. The so-called future stem is generally believed to have been an innovation in postLIE, not spreading to some dialects before the general split of the proto-languages; however,
the distinction between a present and a future tense is common to all IE languages.
6. The aspects were up to three:

a. For continued, not completed action, the present.
b. For the state derived from the action, the perfect (or more exactly stative).
c. For completed action, the aorist.
7. There are three verbal tense-stems we will deal with in this grammar:
I. The present stem, which gives the present with primary endings and the
imperfect with secondary endings.
II. The aorist stem with secondary endings, giving the aorist (always past), usually
in zero grade, with dialectal augment.
III. The perfect stem, giving the perfect, only later specialised in present and past.
NOTE. From this reconstructed original PIE verbal system, a future stem was created from
some present stem formations. The aorist merged with the imperfect stem in Northwestern
dialects, and further with the perfect stem in Germanic, Italic, Celtic and Tocharian. The
aorist, meaning the completed action, is then reconstructed as a third PIE aspect, following
mainly the findings of Old Indian, Greek, and also mixed with the imperfect and perfect
stems Latin.
8. The persons are three: first, second, and third.

9. The numbers in the Indo-European verb are two: singular and plural, and it is
the only common class with the noun. It is marked very differently, though.
NOTE. The reconstructed dual in the verbal system seems to have been a late development,
systematised only after the LIE split in some dialects, and disappeared in others, see 3.5.
7.1.2. VOICE
1. In grammar, voice is the relationship between the action or state expressed by a
verb and its arguments.
2. When the subject is the agent or actor of the verb, the verb is said to be in the
active. When the subject is in some way affected by the verbal action, it is said to be
in the middle-passive.
NOTE. For Clackson (2007): The middle is the voice used to denote that the subject is in
some way affected by the verbal action. Thus, for transitive verbs the active typically
represents the subject as the actor, and the middle represents the subject as the undergoer.
For intransitive verbs the middle is preferred when there is some notion of control over the
verbal action (hence the middle inflection of think and speak), but if the verb denotes an
event or action where the participant cannot have control, the active is used (thus be, vomit
and wait).
2. The active and middle-passive voices in Indo-European generally correspond to

the active and passive in English. The middle had these uses in LIE (Clackson 2007):
a. Personal involvement, or sense of benefaction for the subject; as, Skt. yjati
(active) (s)he performs a sacrifice (said from the priest), and
yjate (s)he
performs a sacrifice (said of person for whose benefit the sacrifice is made).
220
7. Verbs
b. Reflexivity, generally referring to an action whose object is the subject, or an

action in which the subject has an interest or a special participation; as, Greek
lw (active), I wash, lwomar (middle), I wash myself, or wstijetor, (s)he
dresses (him/herself), (s)he gets dressed.
c. Reciprocity; as, Hitt. appanzi (active) they take, Hittite SU-za appantat (lit.
hand take-middle) they took each other by the hand.
b. Passivity, usually meaning that an action is done. This is the default meaning in
Italo-Celtic and Germanic, also found in the Greek and Anatolian middle; as,
stoighs pwontor, streets are (being) cleaned.
NOTE. According to Fortson (2004): The middle could also express the passive voice,
which indicates that the subject is acted upon by someone else: is being fought, was washed.
A tradition of scholarship rejects positing a passive voice for PIE because there was no
separate set of passive endings. But all the daughter languages that have a separate passive
conjugation have developed it in whole or in part from the PIE middle endings, and it seems
best to regard the middle as having been, in fact, a mediopassive or middle-passive capable
of expressing either voice depending on the context.
3. Apart from this middle-passive voice system, the relic of an old impersonal -( )r
desinence is reconstructed for LIE times.
NOTE. This desinence begins in the third person (singular or plural), according to Jasanoff
(The r-endings of the Indo-European middle, Sprache 23, 1977) and Szemreny (1985), and
probably not as middle mark, as proposed by Kuryovicz (Indogermanische Grammatik II
Akzent-Ablaut, 1968) and Bader (Relations de structure entre les desinences dinfectum et de
perfectum en latin, Word 24, 1968); it is indeed probably at the origin of middle-passive
primary endings in -r, though, but was apparently used as impersonal mark within the active
voice. It is the oldest reconstructed meaning of the -r ending, and it is only found originally in
the 3rd sg. and 3rd pl. (probably originally without lengthening or distinction of singular vs.
plural). The ending is reconstructed as *-( r. It is found in Italo-Celtic, Germanic (cf. O.H.G.
skritun), Tocharian, Old Indian, and possibly in Armenian. AdradosBernabMendoza
(1995-1998).
It marked impersonality, as in Celtic impersonal verbal forms; it is similar to Eng.

there in there are three books, and equivalent to Ger. es wird in es wird
geschlafen, or Spa. se in aqu se duerme. It was attached directly to the present,
aorist or perfect stem. So e.g. kei sweper, one sleeps here, it is slept here, edju
wgjer, today one works, it is worked today.
221
4. Some verbs are only active; as, esmi, be, edmi, eat, or dmi, give.
5. Many verbs are middle-passive in form, but active or reflexive in meaning.
These are called deponents in Latin; as, gnskar, be born, keimar, lie, lay;
sqomar, follow, etc.
7.1.3. MOODS
1. The mood in which a verb appears expresses the speakers attitude or stance
taken towards the action whether (s)he is asserting that it is factual, or indicating a
wish that it were or were not true, or reporting the action second-hand, or indicating
a contrafactual condition (Fortson 2004).
NOTE. While the oldest PIE had possibly only indicative and imperative, a subjunctive and
an optative were common in Late Indo-European, both used in the present, perfect and aorist.
Not all dialects, however, developed those new formations further into a full system.
2. The indicative mood is used for most direct assertions and interrogations, with
the action described as fact.
3. The imperative is used for exhortation, entreaty, or command.
3. The subjunctive mood is used for actions described as completely theoretical,
generally with a future meaning, frequently translated by means of the auxiliaries
may, might, would, should.
c. The optative is used to express wishes, hopes, and various other non-factual
modalities.
7.1.4. ASPECT
1. Aspect is a grammatical category that refers to the type of action indicated by a
verb. Actions can be done once or repeatedly, to completion or not, or be ongoing
with neither a true beginning nor end.
2. According to the generally accepted view, the imperfect and aorist were distinct
aspectually, the imperfect expressing incomplete or ongoing action in past time
(imperfective aspect), the aorist indicating completed or punctual (one-time) action
in past time (perfective aspect).
3. The perfect or stative referred to a current state derived from the action
(resultative aspect), without a temporal reference.
222
7. Verbs
NOTE. A number of archaic examples of the perfect, especially in Indo-Iranian and Greek,
refer to states in present time; so e.g. Lat. meminit remembers, Gk. mmone, Goth. man is
mindful of, thinks. Furthermore, the singular perfect endings are sued to inflect a class of
presents in Anatolian, the so-called i-conjugation. These facts together have led researchers
to believe that the PIE perfect was a stative. In the dialects attested, however, except for relic
forms like these, perfect forms express past tense; to explain this development, it is usually
said that the PIE stative perfect had (or optionally had) resultative overtones (is in a state
resulting from having done X, therefore has done X). Fortson (2004).
The Late Indo-European aspectual system might be so depicted, using a amore exact vs. the
traditional notation:
Process
Stative
Eventive
Aspect
Aspect (traditional)
Tense
Tense (traditional)
Stative
Perfect system
(unmarked)
Perfect tense
Perfective
Aorist system
(unmarked)
Aorist tense
Present
Present tense
Past
Imperfect tense
Imperfective Present system
The terminology around the stative, perfective and imperfective aspects can be confusing.
The use of these terms in this table is based on the reconstructed meanings of the
corresponding forms in PIE and the terms used broadly in linguistics to refer to aspects with
these meanings. In traditional PIE terminology, the forms described in the above table as
stative, perfective and imperfective are known as the perfect, aorist and present systems. The
present/imperfective system in turn can be conjugated in two tenses, described here as
present and past but traditionally known as present and imperfect. The traditional terms are
based on the names of the corresponding forms in Ancient Greek (also applied to Sanskrit),
and are commonly encountered. The existence of the terms perfect and perfective, with
quite different semantics, is especially problematic, and is a perennial source of confusion in
linguistics as a whole.
7.1.5. TENSES OF THE FINITE VERB

The tenses of the indicative have, in general, the same meaning as the
corresponding tenses in English:
a. Of continued action
I. Present: deik, I show, I am showing, I do show
II. Imperfect: deikom, I was showing, I used to show
b. Of completed action or the state derived from the action
223
V. Aorist: dikm, I showed, I had shown, I have shown

c. Of state derived from the action
IV. Perfect: doika, I am in a state derived from having shown.
7.2. FORMS OF THE VERB

7.2.1. THE VERBAL STEMS
1. The actual forms of the tenses and moods were made from tense-stems, of which
there were up to four for each verb, called (1) the present, (2) the aorist, (3) the
perfect; and also (4) future stems in post-LIE times.
NOTE. There are some characteristic forms of each stem, like the suffix -n- or -sko, which
give mostly present stems. Generally, though, forms give different stems only when opposed
to others.
2. The different stems are used in the verbal conjugation as follows:

STEMS
WHERE USED
Present
Present and Imperfect (active and middle-passive)
Aorist
Aorist (active and middle-passive)
Perfect
Perfect
Future
Future
3. There are some monothematic verbs, as esmi, be, or edmi, eat apparently
remains of the oldest PIE. And there are also some traces of recent or even
nonexistent mood oppositions. To obtain this opposition there are not only
reduplications, lengthenings and alternations, but also ablaut and accent shifts.
NOTE. Not every verb could form all three tense-stems. Quite a few did not form perfects,
for example, and derived verbs only had present stems in PIE. IEDs did usually however
innovate additional tense-stems for these verbs.
4. Most Late Indo-European verbs are built with a series of derivational suffixes
that alter the root meaning, creating denominatives and deverbatives. The first are
derived from nouns and adjectives; as, torsj, dry, make dry, from ters-, dry, or
newj, make new, from new-, new. The last are derived from verbs, as widj,
see, from weid-, see, know.
224
7. Verbs
NOTE. It is not clear whether these deverbatives causatives, desideratives, intensives,

iteratives, etc. are actually derivatives of older PIE roots, or are frozen remains, formed by
compounds of older PIE independent verbs added to other verbs, the ones regarded as basic.
5. Reduplication is another common resource; it consists of the repetition of the

root, either complete or abbreviated; as, sisd, sit down, settle down, from sed-, sit,
ggnsk, know, from gn-, mmnsk, remember, from men-, think, etc.
6. Thematic e/o has no meaning in itself, but it helps to build different stems
opposed to athematics. Thus, It can be used to oppose a) indicative athematic to
subjunctive thematic, b) present thematic to imperfect athematic, c) active to middle
voice, etc. Sometimes accent shift helps to create a distinctive meaning, too.
7. Stems are inflected, as in the declension of nouns, with the help of vowel grade
and endings or desinences.
7.2.2. VERB-ENDINGS
1. Every form of the finite verb is made up of two parts:
I. The stem. This is the root or an extension, modification or development of it.
II. The ending or desinence, consisting of:
a. The signs of mood and tense.
b. The personal ending.
So e.g. the root deik-, show, lengthened as thematic present verb-stem deik-e/o-,
to show, and by the addition of the personal primary ending -ti, becomes the
meaningful dik-e-ti, he shows.
2. Verbal endings can thus define the verb stem, tense and mood. Fortson (2004):
DESINENCES
WHERE USED
Primary active
present indicative active, active subjunctives
Secondary active
imperfect and aorist indicative active, active optatives
Primary middle-passive
present indicative middle, middle subjunctives
Secondary middle-passive
imperfect and aorist indicative middle, middle optatives
Perfect
perfect
3. The primary series indicates present and future; sg. -mi, -si, -ti, and 3rd pl. -nti
are the most easily reconstructed LIE formations. The secondary endings indicate
past; sg. -m, -s, -t and 3rd pl. -nt. The subjunctive is marked with primary
225
desinences, while the optative is usually marked with secondary endings. The
imperative has or special endings.
The secondary endings are actually a negative term opposed to the primary ones.
They may be opposed to the present indicative, they may indicate indifference to
tense, and they might also be used in the present.
They can also mark the person; those above mark the first, second and third person
singular and third plural.
Also, with thematic vowels, they mark the voice: -ti active primary | -t active
secondary; -tor/-toi middle primary | -to middle secondary.
4. The augment appears in Ind.-Ira., Gk., and Arm., to mark the past tense (i.e., the
aorist and the imperfect). It was placed before the stem, and consisted generally of a
stressed -, which is a dialectal Graeco-Aryan feature not found in N.LIE.
ACTIVE ENDINGS
1. The characteristic active primary endings are singular -mi, -si, -ti, 3rd plural nti, while the secondary dont have the final -i, i.e. sg. -m, -s, -t, 3rd pl. -nt.
NOTE. The secondary endings are believed to be older, being originally the only verbal
endings available. With the addition of a deictic -i, termed the hic et nunc particle (Latin for
here and now), the older endings became secondary, and the newer formations became the
primary endings. It may have been the same as the -i found in pronominal and adverbial
forms. AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998), Fortson (2004). Compare a similar
evolution in Romance languages from Lat. habere, giving common Fr. il y a there (it) is, or
Cat. i ha there is, while the Spanish language has lost the relationship with such older Lat. I
there, viz. Spa. hay there is (from O.Spa. ha+i), already integrated within the regular verbal
conjugation of the verb haber.
2. These desinences are used for all verbs, whether athematic or thematic; as, esti,
he is, or diketi, he shows. However, in the 1st sg., thematics end in -; as, deik.
NOTE. These endings in - are probably remains of an older situation, in which no ending
was necessary to mark the 1st sg. (that of the speaker), and therefore, even though a desinence
-m became general with time, the older formations prevailed, along with a newer thematic -omi.
3. The thematic and athematic endings of the active voice are reconstructed as
follows:
226
7. Verbs
Athematic
Thematic
Primary
Secondary
Primary
Secondary
Sg.
1.
-mi
-m
-om
Sg.
2.
-si
-s
-esi
-es
3.
-ti
-t
-eti
-et
1.
-mes
-me
-omos
-omo
2.
-te
-te
-ete
-ete
3.
-ti
-t
-onti
-ont
Pl.
NOTE. About the reconstruction of PIE active endings:

1) 1st p. pl. thematic endings -o-mo, -o-mos, are found in Italic (Lat. -mus), Celtic (O.Ir. *mo or *-mos), Balto-Slavic (cf. Pruss. -mai, O.C.S. -m<*-mo, *-mos or *-mom), and from mo- or -me-,
in Germanic (cf. Goth. -m) and Indo-Iranian (cf. O.Ind. -ma). Primary
Thematic ending -o-mo- does not have a clear original PIE ending, but an -s the most logical
choice, given the contrast between primary endings -mes/-me. So in Ringe (2006). Beekes
(1995) tentatively reconstructs -o-mom-.
2) 2nd P. Pl. ending athematic -the (<*-tH) is only found differentiated in PII, while in the
other dialects it would have evolved as a common -te.
3) Athematic desinences in *-enti, as found in Mycenaean and usually reconstructed as
proper PIE endings, werent probably common PIE desinences. Compare Att. Gk. -aasi (<ansi<-anti), or O.Ind. -ati, both remade from an original zero-grade PIE *-nti. In fact,
Mycenaean shows some clearly remade examples, as Myc. e-e-esi<*esenti (cf. Ion. ), or kiti-je-si (<ktensi).
MIDDLE-PASSIVE AND PERFECT ENDINGS

1. The middle-passive endings are generally those of the active voice with a
characteristic middle voice -o, in which the primary endings have an additional -i or
-r, depending on the dialects.
NOTE. In the moods, the endings attested are the same. Only dialectally were some new
endings developed to differentiate the subjunctive.
2. There were apparently two possible set of endings already in Late IndoEuropean: either because the original primary -r endings were replaced by the
endings in -i, or because both came to be used with the same meaning by different
dialects at the same time, with an expansion of that use through neighbouring
227
contact zones. Syncretic trends led in any case to dialectal specialisation of both
marks into the known (middle, middle-passive or passive) systems attested.
NOTE. Italic, Celtic, Tocharian, and Phrygian had mediopassive primary endings in -r (cf.
Lat. -tur, O.Ir. -tha(i)r, Toch. -tr, Phryg. -tor), whilst others show -i (cf. Skt., Av. -te, Gk.,
Toch. -tai, Goth. -da); both forms coexisted in Anatolian (with -r as primary ending,
combined with -i cf. Hitt. -ta-r-i, nta-r-i), in Tocharian (with -r as primary ending, -i as
secondary), Indo-Iranian (with -r- passive forms), and afield cf. also Germanic (with remains
of forms in -r with impersonal value, cf. O.H.G. skritun).
From these finds it is thought that -r was the old original primary middle marker (possibly
taken from the impersonal mark, v.s. 7.1.2), corresponding to the -i of the active. Both
mediopassive endings (-r and -i) coexisted already in the earliest reconstructible PIE, and -i
probably began to replace the old impersonal -r as the general middle marker already by Late
Indo-European, as the Anatolian endings -r- and Sanskrit remains of middle forms in -roshow. In the northern dialects -r became later specialised for the passive constructions or
disappeared. It is therefore reasonable to think that while the general trend in N.LIE was to
keep (or generalise) the middle-passive with primary endings in -r, in S.LIE the middlepassive in -i gradually replaced the older endings. Endings in -r generalised in Phrygian and
impersonal -r in Armenian (both S.LIE dialects), and endings in -i generalised in Germanic (a
N.LIE dialect), which also shows traces of an old -r, further complicate the situation, showing
that specialisation trends at least in a post-IED period were not uniform.
Fortson (2004): This *-r is now generally thought to have been the primary middle marker,
corresponding to the *-i of the active. Middles in Anatolian, Italic, Celtic, Tocharian, and
Phrygian preserve this -r, but it has been replaced by the -i of the active in Indo-Iranian,
Greek, Germanic, and Albanian.
Clackson (2007): The morph *-r appears therefore to have acted as the analogue to *-i in
the active endings and originally marks the here and now of middles. This explanation,
proposed by Cowgill (1968:25-7), also accounts for the absence of *-r in Greek and Vedic
middle endings: at one stage these languages must have replaced the primary marker *-r with
*-i on the analogy of the active endings.
Ringe (2006) also considers the hic-et-nunc particle of the mediopassive to have been *-r
rather than *-i, having been replaced by the spread of active *-i.
Beekes (1995) considers the addition of *-r or *-i to the original (secondary) endings to be a
late development from a PIH point of view: From this it follows that the -r was not
characteristic of the primary endings. But neither was the -i of Sanskrit and Greek the marker
of the primary ending in PIE, because the languages which generalized the -r show no trace of
the -i. That on the other hand especially the marker of the primary endings of the active (the i) in some languages was also used for the middle, is understandable. The conclusion is that
228
7. Verbs
there was no opposition between primary and secondary () we shall see that the perfect
endings can be considered as secondary endings of the middle ().
AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998) also deem both marks *-r and *-i to have
coexisted parallel to each other as systems to mark the primary endings, as a late
development.
3. The thematic and athematic endings of the middle-passive, reconstructed from a

Northern Late Indo-European point of view, are as follows:
MIDDLE-PASSIVE AND PERFECT ENDINGS
ATHEMATIC
Sg.
Pl.
THEMATIC
STATIVE
Primary
Secondary
Primary
Secondary
-mar
-ma
-ar
-a
-a
-sor
-so
-esor
-eso
-tha
-tor
-to
-etor
-eto
-e
-mesdha
-medha
-omesdha
-omedha
-m
-(s)dhwe
-dhwe
-e(s)dhwe
-odhwe
-t
-tor
-to
-ontor
-onto
-()r
NOTE. 1) The Southern Late Indo-European middle primary endings in -i are easily
reconstructed for the singular, -ai, -soi, -toi, and the 3rd plural -ntoi, even though Toch. B
(secondary endings) -tai, -te, -nte still suggest to some (Neu 1968) that the original PIE were
*-sai, *-tai, *-ntai, instead of the general opinion. Dialectal Greek forms in the singular point
to an alternative 1st sg. -oi. A full discussion of the reconstruction is found e.g. in Villanueva
Svenssons <http://eprints.ucm.es/tesis/fll/ucm-t26697.pdf>.
2) The forms of the 1st and 2nd person plural were apparently the same in both systems.
Greek, Indo-Iranian, and Anatolian dialects show middle-passive 2nd plural forms in -medha
(<*-medh-h2, O.Ind. -mahe, Gk. -metha, Toch. -mt-), -mesdha (<*-mesdh-h2, cf. Gk. mestha, Hitt. -wata-), Toch. -cr (cf. Toch. -t<-dhwe), O.Ind. mahi>*-megha, and -men,
cf. Gk. -men, Hitt. -wen-i.
1st pl. *-mo(s)r, Lat. -mur, and 2nd P. Pl. Osc. -ter, Hitt. -ttumari,. In Ita.-Cel. a form *-ntro
has been related to the perfect, hence related to the original paradigm with an 3rd p. pl.
secondary -ro, primary -ro-r?; a 3rd p.sg. -o, -or is also reconstructible.
4) The forms in -r are reconstructed according to Kortlandt (1979), Sihler (1995), Beekes
(1995), Fortson (2004), and Clackson (2007); all of them make a similar account of the older
paradigm, which includes the forms 3rd sg. prim. -or, sec. -o, 3rd pl. prim. -ro, sec. -ront,
attested in scattered remains in Hittite, Sanskrit, Tocharian, Sabellian, and Old Irish, what
suggest that they were the original ones, being replaced by the common endings. The old
229
middle-passive ending system was then apparently sg. -a-, -tha-, -o-/-to-, pl. -ro-/-nto-, to
which primary endings were attached in -i, *-so-i, *-to-i , *-nto-i, or in -r, *-ar, *-tar, *-or, pl.
*-ro-r?/*-ntor, from older *-h2-, *-th2-, *-o, pl. *-r.
These endings share similarities with the perfect ones, cf. *-h2e, *-th2e-, *-e, pl. *-m-, *-, *r. About the different writing of *-th2e-, as -tha or -ta, it is not only restricted to Proto-IndoIranian; cf. perf. Gk. ostha.
This similarity of perfect and original middle endings is explained differently according to
the available theories on the prehistory of PIE verb (through internal reconstruction),
apparently involving complicated syncretic and innovative trends regarding the voices, tenses
and aspects. However, what seems clear from the later developments attested in the older IE
languages, is that the synchronic picture of the Late Indo-European middle and perfect verbal
ending system had to be near to the one depicted above.
DUAL ENDINGS
A complete reconstruction of the dual endings is not possible, because there is too
little and contradictory data, probably because of the late development of the verbal
dual (see above 3.5).
Only the active paradigm shows common endings:
Du.
Primary
Secondary
1.
-wes
-we
2.
-t(h)os
-tom
3.
-tes
-tm
NOTE. Dual endings are found in Ind.-Ira., Gk., BSl. and Gmc., but apart from a common 3rd
prim. -tom / sec. -tm in O.Ind. and Gk., there is only a general (usually incomplete)
paradigm 1st w-, 2nd & 3rd t-, with different lengthenings in *-e/-o, *-es/-os, *-. This table has
ben taken from Beekes (1995). Fortson (2004) reconstructs an uncertain -to- for 2nd and 3rd.
Only Beekes tentatively reconstructs uncertain middle endings for the parent language.
7.2.3. THE THEMATIC VOWEL

1. Stem vowels are as in nouns the vowel endings of the stem, especially when
they are derivatives. They may be i, u, , (and also in roots). But the most
extended stem vowel is e/o (also lengthened /), called thematic vowel (see above
2.6) which existed in PIH before the split of the Anatolian dialects, and which had
overshadowed the (older) athematic stems already by Late Indo-European. The
230
7. Verbs
thematisation of stems, so to speak, relegated the athematic forms especially to the

aorist and to the perfect; many old athematics, even those in -- and --, are usually
found extended with thematic endings -je/o-.
NOTE. The old thematics were usually remade, but there are some which resisted this trend;
as edmi, I eat, dti, he gives, or idhi! go!
The stem vowel has sometimes a meaning, as with -- and --, which can indicate
state. There are also some old specialisations of meanings, based on oppositions:
a. Thematic vs. athematic:
- Athematic indicative vs. thematic subjunctive. The contrary is rare.
- Thematic present vs. athematic aorist, and vice versa.
- It may also be found in the middle-active voice opposition.
b. Thematic stem with variants:
- The first person, thematic in lengthened -.
- Thematic o in 1st sg. & pl. and 3rd pl.; e in 2nd and 3rd sg. and 2nd pl. There are
also archaic 3rd pl. in e, as senti, they are.
c. Opposition of thematic stems. This is obtained with different vowel grades of
the root and by the accent position.
2. In the so-called semithematic inflection, ahematic forms alternate with thematic
ones.
NOTE. The semithematic inflection is for some an innovation of LIE, which didnt reach
some of the dialects, while for other scholars it represents a situation in which the opposition
thematic-athematic and the accent shifts of an older PIE system had been forgotten, leaving
only some mixed remains within an already generalised LIE regular thematic verbal system.
7.3. THE CONJUGATIONS

7.3.1. Conjugation is the traditional name of a group of verbs that share a similar
conjugation pattern in a particular language, a verb class. Late Indo-European shows
regular conjugations, and all verbs may be conjugated in any person, number, tense,
mood and voice by knowing which conjugation it belongs to.
NOTE. According to Clackson (2007): In order to explain the number of different stem
formations with the same function, Meillet supposed that in the parent language not just one
present stem was opposed to one aorist stem, but rather it was possible to form several
231
present and aorist stems from the same root. These stems were held to show different
nuances of aspectual meaning (or, to use the German term, Aktionsart), such as punctual,
repeated or incipient action. Each root could show a wide variety of different formations, none
of which presupposed the other. ()
However, better knowledge of the earliest attested IE languages has led to a revision of this
view, and researchers have increasingly become aware that if two stems can be reconstructed
for PIE, one may represent an archaism and the other an innovatory replacement. Thus
athematic verbs are in general a relic class, replaced over the history of individual languages
by thematic formations. Motivation for the replacement of athematic verbs is not difficult to
find: the juxtaposition of root-final consonants and the athematic endings (mostly consonantinitial) led to clusters which were often simplified or otherwise altered, so that the boundary
between root and desinence, or suffix and desinence, became opaque to speakers. In some
languages, paradigms still survive which exemplify the extent to which regular phonological
developments can conceal the form of the root and the suffix. ()
7.3.2. A reference classification of PIE verbs into conjugations is the Lexikon der
indogermanischen Verben (2001), supervised by H. Rix. It offers a conservative

approach, not including much information on the Hittite verb (and thus Anatolian),
being thus very interesting as a real approach to a living Late Indo-European verb.
NOTE. Nevertheless, it features a PIH phonetic reconstruction, and looks for the original
pre-LIE lexicon, what makes the work fit somewhere between the conventional PIH
reconstruction and the modern PIH/LIE distinction, being thus somehow inconsistent, and at
best showing a picture of a pre-LIE verbal system. It is therefore complex for a simple
grammar, and indeed not directly applicable to an IED scheme, in which some athematic
paradigms had been lost (or frozen into scarce, hence irregular examples), while newer verbs
(and remade ones) further split within the most productive classes. Nevertheless, it is no
doubt the most comprehensive work to date on the Proto-Indo-European verb.
7.3.3. The most important LIV verbal classes is as follows (Meier-Brgger 2003):
LIV
STEM CLASS
Examples
1a
Present, athematic, amphidinamic root
*gwhen-ti/*gwhn-nti
1b
Present, athematic, acrodynamic root
alternance with -o*stu-ti/*stw-n

ti + -- = -
1g
Present, athematic, with -e- reduplication
h-dhoh1-ti/*d
h-d-ohh1-n
o-ti.alternance
n
with
+ti- o
*d
1h
Present, athematic, with -i- reduplication
-*sti-sth
= -- 2-ti/*sti-sth2-nti
1i
Present, thematic, with -i- reduplication
*gi-gnh1--ti
1k
Present, athematic, with nasal Infix
*li-n-kw-ti/li-n-kw-nti
1n
Present, thematic suffix -e-, e grade root
*bhr-e- ti
232
7. Verbs
1o
Present, thematic suffix --, zero grade root
*ghrh3-- ti
1p
Present, thematic suffix -sk-, zero grade root
*gwm-skti
1q
Present, thematic suffix -j-, zero grade root
*gnh1-j-toi
2a
Aorist, athematic, root
*gwem-t
2b
Aorist, athematic, suffix -s-
*prek-s-nt
2c
Aorist, thematic, reduplicated
*we-ukw-e-t
3a
Perfect, reduplicated
*gwe-gwom-/gwe-gwm-
7.3.4. We have divided the Late Indo-European verbs in two main conjugation
groups: athematic and thematic. The latter were the most productive and abundant
ones in IEDs, and often replaced the older athematics by means of derivation.
Athematic and thematic groups are, in turn, subdivided into four and eight
subgroups respectively.
A. THE THEMATIC CONJUGATION

The thematic conjugation group is formed by the following 8 subgroups:
I. Root verbs with root vowel e in the present and o in the perfect:
a. Triliteral: deik, dikm, doika, deiks, show, etc.
b. Concave: teq, teqm, toqa/tqa, teqs, escape, sqomai, follow, etc.
NOTE. For IE teq, cf. O.Ir. tchid/tich (<e/).
II. Concave root verbs with non-regular perfect vocalism. Different variants
include:
a. labh, lbha, take; law, lwa, enjoy, slabai, slboma, fall (Middle
Voice); aisdai, praise.
NOTE. Compare Gk. , O.ind. ile, Gmc. part. idja-.
b. kano, kkana/kkna, sing.

c. leg, lga, join, read, decide.
d. low, lwa, wash.
e. rd, rda, shuffle, scrape, scratch.
f. rp, rpa, grab, rip out.
g. rd, rda, gnaw.
233
III. Verba vocalia, i.e., thematic - -je/o-, - -je/o-, --je/o-, --je/o-:

a. amj, love.
e. lubhj, love, desire.
i. sgij, look for, search.
u. arguj reason, argue (cf. Lat. argu, Hitt. arkuwwai).
o. Causative-iteratives in -ejo-: bhoudhej, wake somebody up.
IV. Verbs in -je/o-:
a. Triliteral: kupj, kup(j)m, koupa, keups, demand, desire, tremble.
b. Concave: jakj, jka, throw.
c. Lamed-he: parj, pepra/pprka, produce.
d. Reduplicated Intensives: krkarj, proclaim, announce (cf. Gk.
, but Skt. carkarti).

V. Intensives-inchoatives in -ske/o-:
a. Of mobile suffix: swdhsk, swdhjm, swdhwa, swdhs, get used
to.
b. Of permanent suffix: pksk, inquire.
VI. With nasal infix or suffix:
a. Perfect with o vocalism: jung, jugm, jouga, jeugs, join.
b. Reduplicated perfect: tund, tt(o)uda/tt(o)uda, strike.
c. Convex: bhrang, bhrga, break.
d. Nasal infix and perfect with o root: gusn, gousa (cf. Lat. dgn,
dgustus)
e. Nasal infix and reduplicated perfect: cf. Lat. toll, sustulii (supsi+tt-),
lift.
VII. With reduplicated present:
a. sis, swa, sow.
b. gign, gegna, ggnka, produce.
VIII. Other thematics:
o pd, pp(o)la.
o widj, woida, see.
o etc.
234
7. Verbs
B. THE ATHEMATIC CONJUGATION

Verbs of the second or athematic conjugation group may be subdivided into:
I. Monosyllabic:
a. In consonant: esmi, be, edmi, eat, smai, find oneself, be.
b. In (<*-h2): snmi, swim, bhmai, speak.
c. In (<*-h1): bhlmi, cry, (s)rmai, calculate.
d. With
nasal
infix:
leiq-
(lineqti/linqti),
leave,
kleu-
(kneuti/knunti), hear, peu- (punti/punnti), purify, etc.

NOTE. These verbal types appear mostly in Indo-Iranian and Hittite examples, and could
therefore be more properly included in the suffixed (BIVc) type below.
e. Others: eimi, go, etc.

II. Reduplicated:
a. (s)stmi, stand.
b. (dh)dhmi, set, place, do.
c. (j)jmi, throw, expel.
d. (d)dmi, give.
e. (bh)bheimi, fear.
f. k keumi/kuwm/kkuwa, strengthen.
III. Bisyllabic:
a. wmmi, vomit.
NOTE. These verbal types appear mostly in Indo-Iranian and Hittite examples, and could
therefore be more properly included in the suffixed (BIVc) type below.
b. bhleumi, weaken, (cf. Goth. bliggwan, whip).

NOTE. This verb might possibly be more correctly classified as bhleuj, within the verba
vocalia, type AIIIu in -u-jo- of the thematic group.
IV. Suffixed:
a. In -n- (<*-neh2): pnmi, grant, sell (cf. Gk. , O.Ir. ren(a)id,
etc.), qr nmi, buy (cf. O.Ind. krnti, O.Ind. cren(a)im, gr.
etc).
b. In -nu-: neumi, rise (up).
c. With nasal infix: lineqmi (linq), bhenegmi (bheg), amneghti
(amgh)
NOTE. For these verbs Old Indian shows zero grade root vowel and alternating suffixes.
235
7.4. THE FOUR STEMS

7.4.1. TENSE-STEMS AND VERB DERIVATION
1. In the earliest reconstructible PIE, secondary verbs existed probably only in the
present-tense system, and had no perfect or aorist forms although presumably they
could be conjugated in the imperfect, since it forms part of the imperfective/present
system.
NOTE. Even some of the primary verbs were missing perfect and aorist forms, or had forms
with unpredictable meanings, and many primary verbs had multiple ways of forming some or
all of their aspects. Furthermore, evidence from Old Indian indicates that some secondary
verbs in PIE were not conjugated in the subjunctive or optative moods.
Collectively, all of this indicates that in PIH, especially early on, all of the aspects and moods
were probably part of the derivational rather than inflectional system. That is, the various
tenses, aspects and moods were originally independent lexical formations. Furthermore, a
basic constraint in the verbal system might have prevented applying a derived form to an
already-derived form (Rix 1986).
That old dynamic situation reconstructed for the PIH conjugation is similar to the system
found in Late Indo-European, where old desiderative present stems are generalised as new
future stems in a post-LIE period, without the possibility of conjugating it in the subjunctive
or optative moods, or even create participles (see below 7.4.2).
2. With verb creation we refer to the way verbs are created from nouns and other
verbs by adding suffixes and through reduplication of stems.
3. There are generally two kinds of suffixes: root and derivative; they are so
classified because they are primarily added to the roots or to derivatives of them.
Most of the PIE suffixes (like -u-, -i-, -n-, -s-, etc.) are root suffixes. The most
common derivational suffixes are studied in the following sections.
4. Reduplication is a common resource of many modern languages. It generally
serves to indicate intensity or repetition in nouns, and in the Proto-Indo-European
verb it helped create present stems (especially intensives), and more frequently it
marked the different stems, whether present, aorist or perfect.
5. Examples of the stems found for PIE verbal root leiq-, leave, include:
Present stem nasal li-n-qe/o- (cf. Gk. limpn, Lat. linqu, -ere, O.Ir. lici), and also PII athem. li-n-eq-e/o- (cf. Ved. rikti, Av. irinaxti)
236
7. Verbs
Aorist stem liq-/- (cf. Ved. rikths, Gk. lipon, Lat. lqu)
Perfect stem (l-)loiq- (cf. Ved. rireca, Gk. lloipen, Goth. lai, O.Pruss.
po-likt, O.Lith. liekti)
Desiderative/Future stem leiq/liq-se/o- (cf. Gk. leps).
Causative-Iterative derivative present stem loiq-je- (cf. Ved. recayati,

Lith. laica, laikti)
ACCENT-ABLAUT IN INFLECTION
Thematic stems, including subjunctives, had fixed accent on the stem.
In athematic stems, the accent usually alternated in PIE, falling on the endings in
the middle-passive and the nonsingular active, but on the preceding syllable in the
singular active.
However, s-aorists seem to have had fixed accent on the root, and it appears that
there were a few root presents that exhibited a similar pattern; and reduplicated
presents (but not perfects) seem to have had a fixed accent on the reduplicating
syllable (Ringe 2006).
NOTE. No matter what the accentual pattern was, there was normally a difference in ablaut
between the singular active and all other forms of athematic stems. The commoner attested
patterns are exemplified in the paradigms shown in 7.8.1, 7.8.2.
Obviously, the inflection of thematic stems was simpler and easier to learn. In the
development of Northwestern dialects, nearly all presents would become thematic.
7.4.2. THE PRESENT STEM

PRESENT ROOT STEM
A pure root stem, with or without thematic vowel, can be used as a present,
opposed to the aorist and perfect. Present verbal roots may be athematic and
thematic. The athematics were, in Late Indo-European, only the remains of an older
system.
CLASS BIa Monosyllabic Athematic
[LIV types 1a & 1c, Old Indian 2nd class] Monosyllabic athematic root presents
ending in consonant or resonant; their inflection is usually made:
in the active voice sg., root vowel e and root accent.
237
in the active voice pl. and middle voice, root vowel and accent on the ending.
The most common example is es-mi, to be, which has a singular in es- and plural
in s-. There are also other monosyllabic verbs, as chen-mi, to strike, ed-mi, to eat,
wek-mi, to will, etc.
NOTE. There was a general tendency within Late Indo-European to use thematic
verbs instead of the old athematic ones. The athematic verbs have been largely
replaced by those of the thematic type Beekes (1995).
BIe.- Other monosyllabic athematic root stems, as ei-mi, go; these follow the same
declension.
Sg.
Pl.
i
ed-, eat
chen-, knok
ei-, go
es-, be
1.
edmi
chenmi
eimi
esmi
2.
edsi
chensi
eisi
esiii
3.
estii
chenti
eiti
esti
1.
dmes
chms
ims
smes
2.
dte
cht
it
ste
3.
denti
chenti
jenti
senti
post-LIE sti(<*etsti?)<*dti.
ii
please note PIE es- + -si = esi.
NOTE. In an old inflection like that of the verbal root es, i.e. sg. esmi, pl. sms, sometimes
a semithematic alternative is found. Compare the paradigm of the verb be in Latin, where
zero-grade and o vowel forms are found: s-omi (cf. Lat. sum), not es-mi; s-omos (cf. Lat.
sumus), not s-me; and s-onti (cf. Lat. sunt), not s-enti. Such inflection, not limited to Latin,
has had little success in the Indo-European verbal system, at least in the older IE languages
attested. There are, however, many examples of semithematic inflection in non-root verbs,
what could mean that an independent semithematic inflection existed in PIE, or, more likely,
that old athematic forms were remade and mixed with the newer thematic inflection
(AdradosBernabMendoza 1995-1998).
The middle voice forms that correspond in terms of formation are treated
separately as zero grade root statives in LIV (type 1c); only two cases are certain.
CLASS BIII Disyllabic Athematic
Disyllabic athematic root stems that make the present in full/ root vowel; as,
wmmi, vomit, bhleumi, weaken.
The alternative /full root vowel is generally reserved for the aorist.
238
7. Verbs
CLASSES BIb & BIc Narten Present

[LIV type 1b, Narten present] Root athematic stems with alternating long/full root
vowel and fixed root accent, acrodynamic; as, stu-ti, 3rd pl. stw-ti. They are
conjugated frequently in the middle voice.
CLASS AI bhrati/tudti
[LIV types 1n & 1o Old Indian 6th Class] Thematic root stems with e grade and
thematic suffix -e/o- before the endings. A common example is bhr-e-ti, bears.
Thematic inflection shows two general old paradigms:
a. Root vowel e and root accent, as diketi, (s)he/it shows.
b. Root vowel and accent on the theme vowel.
NOTE. The b-types are called tudti-presents from a representative example in Ved. tudti
beats < *(s)tud--ti, a verb that forms a common LIE nasal infix present (s)tu-n-d-. There
seems to be no certain present reconstructible for common PIE, according to Beekes (1995).
The a-type appears usually in the present, and the b-type in the aorist pres. diko
vs. aor. dikm , although apparently both could appear in both stems in PIE. In
fact, when both appear in the present stem, the a-type is usually a durative
meaning an action not finished , while b-type verbs are terminatives or punctuals
meaning the conclusion of the action. This semantic value is not general, though,
often found only in Graeco-Aryan dialects. The a-type present stems correspond to
LIV type 1n, while the b-type present stems correspond to LIV type 1o.
NOTE. The newer inflection is, thus (in a singular/plural scheme), that of full/full vocalism
for present, / for aorist. The athematic root inflection in full/ appears to be older than the
thematic one. The thematic inflection therefore probably overshadowed the athematic one by
Late Indo-European, and there are lots of examples of coexisting formations, some of the
newer being opposed to the older in meaning.
PRESENT REDUPLICATED STEM

Depending on its formation, present stems may show either full reduplication,
sometimes maintained throughout the conjugation, or simple reduplication, which
normally consists of the initial consonant of the root followed by -i-.
Depending on its meaning, reduplication may have a general value (of iteration or
intensity), or simply opposed values in individual pairs of basic verb vs. deverbative,
helping to distinguish the verb in its different forms.
239
Simple reduplication is made:

With consonant + i,
- in athematic verbs; as, bhi-bher-, carry (from bher-),
- in thematic verbs; as, gi-gn-sko-, know (from gn-), etc. si-sdo-, sit
down, (from zero-grade of sed-, sit),
- Some intensives have half full, half simple reduplication, as in dei-dik-,
show (from deik-).
- There are other forms with -w, -u, as in leu-luk-, shine (from leuk-, light).
- There are also some perfect stems with i.
With consonant + e/, as dhe-dh-, de-d-, etc.
Simple reduplication in e appears mainly in the perfect, while i is characteristic of

present stems. Reduplication in e is also often found in intensives in S.LIE.
CLASS BII Athematic in -i-/-e[LIV types 1g & 1h] Athematic present with -i- or -e- reduplication. Roots with long
vowel (as dh-, st- or d-) are rare in present stems, usually reserved for the aorist.
The reconstructed PIH paradigm of stis given here for comparison.
Sg.
Pl.
dh-, do
d-, give
st-, stand
*steh2-, stand
1.
dhdhmi
(d)dmi
(s)stmi
*(s)steh2mi
2.
dhdhsi
(d)dsi
(s)stsi
*(s)steh2si
3.
dhdhti
(d)dti
(s)stti
*(s)steh2ti
1.
dhedhams
(di)dams
(si)stams
*(si)sth2ms
2.
dhedhat
(di)dat
ms
(si)stat
*(si)steh2t
3.
dhedhanti
(di)danti
(si)stanti
*(si)sth2ti
NOTE. 1) Reduplication didnt affect the different root vowel grades in inflection, and
general accent rules were followed; as, bbherti-bibhms, sstmi-sistams, etc.
2) Most athematic verbs are usually reconstructed with an accent-ablaut paradigm (as in
Sanskrit, or the assumed older situation in PIE), but another simple columnar accent could
have been possible, as in Greek, probably from a LIE trend to simplify the system, similarly to
the simplified nominal accent-ablaut paradigm; it could read post-LIE dhdhames,
dhdhate, dhdhanti, or ddames/dames, sstames/stames, etc.
240
7. Verbs
3) Formal reduplication was optional in Late Indo-European, its generalisation being a

Graeco-Aryan feature; as, ddmi/ddmi vs. dmi, ggnsk vs. gnsk, etc.
4) Reduplication reconstructed in -e- (cf. for dhe-dh- Skt. ddhti, O.Lith. desti, O.C.S.
ded, Lat. re-ddo?; for d-d-, Skt. ddati) is also found in -i- (cf. for dh-dh-, Gk. tthmi;
for d-d- Gk. ddmi, Celtib. didonti). The LIV classifies Greek forms in -i- as from an
original PIE -e- assimilated to the -i- class, but there is no certainty in that assumption for all
cases, given that reduplication appears not to have been obligatory in PIE. A general
reduplication in -e- for dh- seems to be well established for most languages, though. As
Fortson (2004) states: in many examples of the type from the daughter languages, the
reduplicating syllable has -i- rather than -e-, as in Vedic Skt. j-g-ti he goes and Gk. d-dmi I give. This pattern probably spread from thematic reduplicated presents like Gk.
ggnomai I become. Or, after Beekes (1995): It is unclear when e and when I were used. Skt
ddmi, Gr. ddmi to give perhaps suggest that both forms appeared in the same
paradigm.
CLASS AVII Thematic in -i[LIV type 1i] Thematic present with -i- reduplication is clearly a secondary
development from the LIV type 1h. Common examples are gi-gn, beget, pi-b,
drink.
CLASS BIVd Intensives
[LIV type 6a] Stem formations of the action type intensive, meaning repeated
bringing about of a state of affairs, have an (almost) complete reduplication of the
root (only an occlusive at the end of the root was not repeated); as, wer-w(e)rt-, to
turn, dei-dik-(sk)-, to indicate, qr-qr-, to do again and again, from qer-, cut
(off), carve.
Full reduplication, normally found in the present stem, repeats the root or at least
the group consonant/resonant+vowel+consonant/resonant. gal-gal-, talk, bherbher-, endure, d-dr-, m-mr-, whisper, murmur, etc.
Full
reduplication
is
also
that
which
repeats
root
with
vowel+consonant/resonant; as, ul-ul-, howl (cf. Lat. ululre).

NOTE. Examples include Greek , , , , ,
, , , , and, in other IE dialects, Slavic glagoljo, Latin

(broken reduplication with different variants) bombico, bombio, cachinno, cacillo, cracerro,
241
crocito, cucullio, cucurrio, curculio, didintrio, lallo, imbubino, murmillo, palpor, pipito,
plipio, pipio, tetrinnio, tetrissito, tintinnio, titio, titubo, etc.
PRESENT CONSONANT STEM

IN -sA present-tense thematic suffix -(e)s- is found, for example in kleu-s, obey, be
obedient, g-es, carry (*h2g-es-, from *h2eg- ag), aug-s, grow (cf. Gk. aks,
Lat. auge).
Thematic -s- also makes desideratives which are the basis of post-LIE futures, v.i.
Extended -s- stems, as -sk- and -st-, are almost all thematic.
NOTE. Thematic suffix -ste/o- has usually an expressive meaning, meaning sounds most of
the times; as, bhst, burst, break (from bhresj, shatter).
CLASS AV In -ske/o[LIV type 1p].- Thematic suffix -ske/o- is added to roots in the zero-grade,
especially to monosyllabics and disyllabics, and make iterative (or inchoatives); as,
pk-sk (from prek-), ask, ask repeatedly, c-sk, walk about (cf. cemj, come),
gn-sk (from gn-), know.
It can also be added to reduplicated stems, as d-dk-sk (from dek-), g-gn-sk,
and to lengthened roots, especially in , u, , , as kr-sk (from ker-).
NOTE. Several verbs reconstructed for PIE with this ending refer to asking or wishing.
Sometimes these deverbatives show limited general patterns, creating especially iteratives
(with repeated, habitual or background action, i.e. durative sens, cf. Hitt. wal-iki-zzi beats
repeatedly, beats several objects, Gk. phegeskon they would habitually flee), but also
inchoatives (indicating beginning or inception of an action or state, cf. Lat. rub-sc-ere to
grow red), causatives, and even determinatives or terminatives. Apparently, the same -ske/ocan also produce denominal duratives like medhusk, get drunk (from medhu, mead,
intoxicating drink) or wodsk, wash (from wod-, water). (Piotr Gsiorowski, n.d.)
This lengthening in -sk- seems to have been part of present-only stems in LIE; cf. Lat.
flresc/flru, Gk. /, and so on. Cases like LIE verb pksk, ask, demand
(cf. O.H.G. forscn, Ger. forschen, Lat. posc>por(c)sc, O.Ind. pcch, Arm. harcanem, O.Ir.
arcu), which appear in zero grade throughout the whole conjugation in different IE dialects,
are apparently exceptions of the PIH verbal system; supporting a common formation of zero
grade root iterative presents, compare also the form (e)sk/- (<h1sk), the verb es- with
existential sense, as O.Lat. escit, is, Gk. ske, was, Hom. Gk. ske, Pal. ika, etc.
242
7. Verbs
Supporting the theory that -sk has a newer development than other lengthenings is e.g. the
Hittite formation duskiski(ta) (cf. O.Ind. tsyate, silenter, O.Ir. inna tuai silentia), which
indicates that in Anatolian (hence possibly in Indo-Hittite as well) such an ending unlike the
other endings shown - was still actively in formation.
CLASSES BIVb & AVI Nasal Presents

[LIV type 1k Old Indian class 7] Stems in -n- are said to have a nasal suffix or a
nasal infix a morpheme placed inside another morpheme. They may be athematic
or thematic, and the most common forms are -n, and extended -neu-/-nu-, -n-.
The so-called nasal presents are thematic and thematics with nasal infix -n-,
typically active transitives. The distribution of the ablaut grades was the same as in
root presents: full grade in the singular active, zero-grade elsewhere.
The infix was inserted into the zero-grade of the root, between its last two sounds
(generally a resonant or high vowel followed by a consonant), i.e. in CeRC- roots, the
produced the characteristic alternation CR-n-C-/CR-n-C-; as, from jug-, 3rd sg.
nasal present 3rd sg. ju-n-g-ti, he yokes, 3rd pl. ju-n-g-nti; ku-n-s-mi, kiss.
Other examples include li-ne-q-mi, becoming thematic li-n-q-, leave; other
thematics include pu-n-g-, prik, bhu-n-dh-, be aware. Other stems with nasal
infix became verba vocalia; as, dhre-n-g-j, hold; pla-n-t-j, plant.
CLASSES BIVc & AVI In -neu[LIV type 1l Old Indian classes 5, 8] Athematic nasal infix present -nu-/-nuusually enforcing the weak vocalism of the root, as in st-neu-mi, becoming
thematic ster-n(u)-, spread, -neu-mi, set into motion, etc.
NOTE. Derivative kneumi is difficult to reconstruct with certainty; often interpreted as
with infix -n-, i.e. k-n-eu-, it has been proposed that it is a zero-grade suffixed klu-neu-, cf.
Buddh. Skt. run; Av. surunaoiti; Shughni in; O.Ir. cluinethar; Toch. A and B kln. Skt.
Rno-/Rnu- < *kluneu-/klunu- would show a loss of u analogous to the loss of i in tRtyathird < IE tritijo-.
It produced (often transitive and vaguely causative) athematic verbs that refer to
the beginning or termination of an action (the so-called inchoatives), or suggest that
something is done once (rather than repeated) (Piotr Gsiorowski, n.d.).
A rarer variant of this pattern involves -nu-, -ne/o-, formations with stress
alternating between the full-vowel root and the inflection.
243
NOTE. Other forms (possibly derived from inflected -neu- and -nei-) include -nwe/o-, nje/o-. These formations seem to be very recent in Late Indo-European. In Greek it is
frequent the nasal suffix -an-. Others as -nwe/o-, -nje/o-, appear often, too; as Gk.
phthnuo, Goth. winnan (from *wenwan); Gk. iano, phanomai (from bh-) and O.Ind.
verbs in -nyati.
CLASS BIVa In -n[LIV type 1m Old Indian class 9] Athematic nasal infix -n-; as, p-n-mi, grant,
sell, qr -n-mi, buy, d-n-mi, to subdue, etc.
IN OCCLUSIVE
Indo-European roots could be lengthened with an occlusive to give a verb stem,
either general or present-only. Such stems are usually made adding a dental -t-, -d-, dh- (as plek-t, plait, from plek-, weave) or a guttural -k-, -g-, -gh- (as dha-k-j,
do), but only rarely with labials or labiovelars. They are all thematic, and the
lengthenings are added to the root.
PRESENT VOWEL STEM

CLASS AIV Primary je/o-Presents
[LIV types 1q & 1r Old Indian 4th class] Some roots and derivatives (deverbatives
or denominatives) form the thematic verb stems with -je/o-, usually added to stems
ending in consonant. These are called primary je/o-presents (not to be confused
with primary in the meaning non-past of verbal endings).
NOTE. According to the LIV, it forms thematic durative verbs, conveying a subjects state of
being without stressing the entry of the subject into the state of being; as kapj, take, seize,
msj, not heed, ignore (from mors-, forget), oqj, eye (from noun oqos, eye, cf. oq, see).
In these cases, the root grade is usually ; as, mn-j, from men-, think, bhudh-j,
wake up, from bheudh-; but the full grade is also possible, as in spek-j, look, lj, from l-, bark.
NOTE. Fortson (2004): The type with zero-grade of the root and accented suffix,
characteristically used with intransitives, may have been restricted to middle inflection
originally, which would explain why in some branches (Indo-Iranian, Armenian) it came to be
used to form the passive.
244
7. Verbs
These verbs may be deverbatives normally iteratives or causatives or

denominatives. With an iterative-causative action type [LIV type 4b], cf. swopj, lull
to sleep, from swep-, sleep.
They served especially to form verbs from nouns and adjectives, as, from nm,
name, nmnj, name (cf. Gk. onomain, Got. namnjan), from melit, honey,
mitj, take honey from the honeycomb (as Gk. bltt), etc.
NOTE. Equivalent stems in thematic -u-e/o- are rarely found in the present, but are often
found in the past and perfect stems. Stems in -u- show then an opposed behaviour to those in
-i-, which are usually found in present stems, and rarely in past or perfect stems. In present
stems, -u- is found in roots or as a suffix, whether thematic or athematic, giving a stem that
may normally appear as the general stem of the verb. It is therefore generally either part of the
root or a stable lengthening of it (cf. gheu-/gh-, pleu-/pl-, etc.).
CLASS AIII Verba Vocalia

[LIV types 1q & 1r Old Indian 4th class] The preceding vowel may be an --, --, i- or -u-, sometimes as part of the root or derivative, sometimes as part of the suffix.
Possible suffixes in -je/o- are therefore also the so-called verba vocalia, - je/o-,je/o-, -je/o-, and -je/o-.
Class AIIIa Factitives
[LIV type 7] Roots or stems in -- (<*-eh2-/*-h2-), added to the weak form of a root
to produce athematic or thematic stems mixed with -i-, generally indicating the
entry of the subject into a new state of being; as, am--j, love, sd--j, settle (cf.
sed-ej).
NOTE. Athematic presents in -- are classified in LIV as fientive stems, like mn-, become
furious, from men-, hold a thought.
Some find apparently irregular formations as Lat. am, I love, from an older am -je/o-,
mixed with -i-; however, they are sometimes reconstructed as from *am-, i.e. in - without
ending (cf. Lat. amas, amat,...), as in AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998); against it,
compare common IE formations as Umb. suboca invoke, Russ. dlaiu, and so on.
Added to thematic adjectival stems it was used to form factitives, verbs meaning to
make something have the quality of the adjective, especially when opposed to
statives in -- (cf. Hitt. mara-mare-, Lat. clarre-clarre, albre-albre, nigrrenigrre, liqure-liqure); as, from new-o-, new, new--j, make new,
245
They may also form statives or duratives. But there are also many deverbatives in - without a special value opposed to the basic verb.
NOTE. Stems in -- help create (usually athematic) subjunctives and aorists. -- is less
commonly used than -- to make iterative and stative deverbatives and denominatives.
Class AIIIe Statives

[LIV type 8] Thematic stems in --, mixed with -i-. Sometimes the -- is part of the
root, sometimes it is a suffix added or substituting the -e- of the stem.
NOTE. These stem formations are defined in LIV as of the essive action type, conveying a
subjects state of beingwithout stressing the entry of the subject into the state of being (see
above Class AIV). Its stem ending is reconstructed as *-h1j-, as a derivative of *-j-, upon the
fientives with *-eh1-/-h1-.
They may form verbs of state (or statives) if added to and adjectival root thematic
in e/o, meaning have the quality of the adjective, as rudhj, be red, albhj, be
white, with a stative value, lubhj, be dear, be pleasing, senj, be old, etc.
It is also found in combination with -s- in --s-, --ske/o-, yielding intransitive
verbs denoting change of state (become X); as, roudhsk, turn red, sensk, get
old (Piotr Gsiorowski n.d.).
CLASS AIIIo Causative-Iteratives
[LIV type 4a] The co-called causative-iterative stems show root in o-grade and
accented thematic suffix in -jo-, conveying the meaning a cause of bringing about a
state of affairs, or the repeated bringing about of a state of affairs; as, from sed-, sit,
sodej, cause to sit, from men-, think, monej, remind, advise; wortej, cause to
turn, from wert-, turn, from wes-, dress, wosej, clothe, put on clothes, (cf. Hitt.
waizzi, Skt. vsiati, Ger. wazjan, Alb. vesh), sedej, be sitting (cf. sed-, sit),
bhoudhej, wake somebody up (cf. bheudh, awake), ghej, incite (cf. guj,
reason, discuss), etc. And it is also used to form denominatives, as wosnej, buy,
sell, from wesnom, sale.
It formed non-causatives, too; as, from leuk-, light, loukj, shine (cf. Hitt.
lukiizzi, Skt. rocyati, Av. raoayeiti, O.Lat. lmina lcent).
NOTE. It is sometimes difficult to know if the original form was -je/o- or -je/o-, because
the former is apparently attested only in Anatolian, Indo-Iranian, Greek and Armenian (cf.
Arm. Gen. siroy, love, sirem, I love<*keire-j-); Greek loses the -j- and follows (as Latin)
246
7. Verbs
the rule uoclis ante uoclem corripitur, what helps metrics. However, Greek had probably a
present with long (as in non-liquid future and perfect). Mycenaean doesnt help clarify
uncertain reconstructions; moreover, it is often accepted that some forms in O.Ind. -ayati are
isolated. See Appendix II Guide to the Reader for dubious reconstructions.
DESIDERATIVES AND THE FUTURE STEM

[LIV type 5] Following the LIV, the desiderative action type conveys the subjects
desire or intent to bring about a state of affairs. These stems are built with a
thematic -s- ending. cf. wid-se/o-, want to see, go to see, hence visit, as Lat.
vsere, Goth. gaweisn, O.S. O.H.G. wsn, a deverbative from root weid-, from
which the general present stem is wid-je/o-, see.
NOTE. Aorist stems in -s- are usually athematic. Sometimes the -s- marked the subjunctive.
Because of its common use in verbal inflection, deverbatives with a lengthening in -s- arent
generally opposed in meaning to their basic stems, and there was no general common
meaning reserved for the extended stem in -s-. Compare Lat. press <* pres-sai vs. Lat.
prem; Lat. trem vs. a Gk. <*tre-s, O.Ind. trsate he is frightened.
Some of their descendants function as futures, hence the assumption that future
formations in IEDs come from LIE desideratives/causatives. Present stems, usually
formed with extensions in -s- (and its variants), became with time a regular part of
the verbal conjugation in some dialects, whilst disappearing in others.
NOTE. It is assumed then that PIE did not have a future stem. That might seem strange, but
it is possible to express future tense without having a special formation (I do it tomorrow).
Gothic, for example, is an IE language that didnt have an especial future formation.
Nevertheless, the development of the earliest languages attested show that within the postLIE times a future stem must have been developed.
[LIV type 5a] Desiderative/causative stems were usually made in IEDs with root
vowel e, i.e. in full-grade, with a suffix -s-<*-(H)s-:
1. Thematic -s(j)e/o-; as, do-sj-ti, he intends/wants to give, later will give or
about to give (cf. Skt. d-y -mi, Lith. dosiant-).
NOTE. A common origin of the future in -s- is found in Sanskrit, Balto-Slavic, Italic
(Sabellian), and in Celtic futures in -sje/o- (cf. O.Russ. byt<*bhuH-sjont- about to be,
Gaul. pissiumi I will see), and Doric Greek in -sje/o-, -sje/o-. Cf. also Hom. Gk. kal
<*kal-e-s I will call, Classical Greek and Archaic Latin in -se/o- (cf. O.Lat. fax<*dhak-s I
will make, O.Lat. peccas-s, from peccre, etc. and Gk. dk-s-o-mai I will bite to active
present dkn I bite). Cf. from derk-, see, Skt. drakyti he shall see, and Gk. drksomai I
247
shall see. Some more dialectal extensions are found appearing before the -s- endings; as, -i-sin Indo-Iranian and Latin, -e-s- in Greek and Osco-Umbrian.
For the future stem coming from sigmatic aorist stem, AdradosBernabMendoza (19951998): Homeric Greek aorists dseto, bseto, are exactly parallels to future dsomai,
bsomai, remains of the same sigmatic thematic stem, and not remade forms as Leumann
(1952-53) and Prince (1970) proposed.
2. An athematic future in -s- is found in Italic (cf. Umbr. fu-s-t he will be) and
Baltic (Lith. bs he will be).
3. [LIV type 5b] A reduplicated desiderative with i-reduplication and a suffix *(h1)se-, found in Indo-Iranian and Celtic; as, wi-w-s, overpower, win, from wen, overpower, win; from chen-, slay, chi-chn-se-ti<*gwi-gwn-h1se, wants to slay,
will slay (cf. Ved. Skt. jghsati wants to slay, O.Ir. fut. (-)gna < Cel. *gwi-gwnse-ti will slay); di-dk-s, want to see.
It seems that future stems originated already within a disintegrating post-LIE
community, which tended to integrate the known -s- desiderative present stem
formation paradigm into the conjugation system, so that it became possible to create
systematic futures of all verbs.
IMPERFECT AND INJUNCTIVE

The present stem was used to form the present tense and the imperfect, which as
already said is usually thought to have signified durative or repeated action in the
past time (was going, used to go). Formally it was usually identical to the present
stem, except that secondary endings were used instead of primary. 1st sg. -m is the
same in both thematic and athematic imperfects.
NOTE. Fortson (2004) continues: The original type is best preserved in Anatolian, IndoIranian, and Greek: for example, Hitt. (preterite) dakinun I (repeatedly) took, Vedic Skt.
bharam I was carrying, Av. barmz I was carrymg, and Gk. pheron I was carrying ()
Outside of these branches, the IE imperfect has either been completely lost, or merged with
the aorist. In those branches where the imperfect was lost, a new imperfect conjugation was
often innovated (as in Italic and Slavic), sometimes of obscure origin (as in Celtic).
Indo-Iranian, Greek, Armenian and Phrygian attest a prefix called the augment that
was added to past-tense forms. It is reconstructible as e-; as, imperfect -bher-e-t
he was carrying (cf. Ved. Skt. bharat, Gk. phere, Arm eber), or aorist e-dhplaced (cf. Phrygian edaes he placed).
248
7. Verbs
NOTE. The great success of that particular augment (similar to other additions, like Lat. peror Gmc. ga-) happened apparently later in those proto-languages. Vedic Sanskrit clearly
shows that augment was not obligatory, and for Proto-Greek, cf. Mycenaean do-ke/a-pe-doke, Myc. qi-ri-ja-to, Hom. Gk. , etc. It is often shown in most PIE grammars because
(Brugmannian) tradition in IE studies has made augment seem obligatory for PIE.
According to Meier-Brgger (2003): The PIE augment *(h1) was quite probably an adverb
with the meaning at that time and could be employed facultatively where indicative forms of
present and aorist stems were combined with secondary endings to produce a clear past tense
() The establishment of the augment as a norm in the indicative aorist, indicative imperfect,
and indicative pluperfect took place in a post-Proto-Indo-European phase. Other IE languages
such as Latin or Germanic developed their own suffixal means of indicating past tense forms.
The augment is in fact related to the so-called injunctive mood, defined as augmentless
past-tense forms that appear in Indo-Iranian and Ancient Greek, of obscure function, much
discussed by scholars. Their precise function or functions are still not fully clear. In Homer,
injunctives are interchangeable with past tenses but sometimes have gnomic force (that is, are
used to express general truths). In Indo-Iranian, injunctives can indicate intent, futurity, and
some quasi-modal meanings, and were also used in commands, especially prohibitions
(Fortson 2004).
7.4.3. THE AORIST STEM

AORIST ROOT STEM
[LIV type 2a] Monosyllabic athematic root aorists are formed by adding the
secondary endings directly to the full grade of the root in the active singular, and to
the zero-grade of the root elsewhere. They are usually opposed to presents:
In -neu-; as, pres. kneumi, aor. 3rd p. sg. kleum, 3rd p. pl. klwent, hear, or
pres. qneumi vs. aor. qerm, make, do, etc.
Reduplicated; as, pres. s-st-mi, I stand, aor. 1st sg. st-m, I stood, 3rd pl.
sta-nt, they stood; pres. dh-dh-mi, I do, I put, aor. dh-m, I did, pres.
p(m)-pl-mi, I fill, aor. pl-m, I filled.
In -ske/o-, -je/o-; as, pres. csk, I walk about, aor. 3rd sg. cem-t, he
walked about, 3rd pl. cm-ent, they walked about.
Thematic presents; as, pres. ghew, I pour, aor. gheum, I poured.
Thematic aorist root stems are usually made in / root vowel grade, secondary
endings, and sometimes reduplication; as, pres. deik-, aor. dik-m, pres. linq-, I
249
leave, aor. liq-m, I left, pres. wid-j, aor. wid-m; cf. also from leudhgo/come, ludhm, I went, I came, most commonly used as aorist of cemj
(<cj), I come.
NOTE. As already seen, these stems could form aorists and presents: The liq/- form (i.e.
zero grade and accent on thematic vowel) is usually reserved for the aorist stem, while the
leiqe/o- form (i.e. full grade) is rarely found in the aorist but, when it is found, the present
has to be differentiated from it. This is made (1) with vowel opposition, i.e., full grade, o-grade
or zero grade, (2) thematic vowel, or (3) with secondary phonetic differentiations (as accent
shift).
AORIST REDUPLICATED STEM

[LIV type 2c] Aorist reduplicated stems are usually thematic, with a general vowel e
(opposed to the i of the present), zero-grade root vowel (general in aorists); as,
chenmi/che-ch-om, murder, kill; weqmi/we-uq-om, say, speak;
NOTE. Fortson (2004): () reduplicated aorists typically have causative meaning, such as
Ved. Skt. -p-par-as you made cross over, Gk. d-da-e he taught (<caused to know), and
Toch. A a-rs he made known. Cf. also Lat. momorit, totondit, spopondit, etc., or O.Ind.
atitaram, ajijanam, etc.
In roots which begin with vowel, reduplication is of the type vowel+consonant.

Some roots which begin with vowel form also reduplicated aorists; as ag-ag-om (as
Gk. , where<<*+a Wackernagel, hence *-agagom).
AORIST CONSONANT STEM
[LIV type 2b] The most common consonant stem is the sigmatic aorist, formed with
the suffix -s-, generally athematic.
The -s- is added usually to the root, whether monosyllabic or disyllabic, in
consonant or vowel, opposed to the present. Such root aorists usually show
lengthened e-grade in the active voice, and zero grade in the rest; as, pres.
p(m)plmi, I fill, aor. plsm, I filled, 3rd pl. plest, they filled; qrs, I made, 3rd
pl. qst, they made, from qer-, make; dik-s-m, I indicated,
wgh-s-m, I
carried, I conveyed, etc.

NOTE. Lengthened vocalism in sigmatic aorists was probably an innovation in Late IndoEuropean. For lengthened grade, cf. maybe Latin forms like dx (<*dik-s-), ux from ueh
(cf. O.Ind. vk-am from vhmi drive), rx from reg, etc., or Toch. B preksa, A praks
250
7. Verbs
(<*prk-s-), according to Lindeman (1968). Without lengthening (i.e. full grade) they are
found in Greek and in the s-aorist middle in Indo-Iranian, cf. Gk. lekse<*-leg-s- he said.
For Beekes (1995), the lengthened grade perhaps it has disappeared through regular sound
developments (*dik- deik-, Osthoffs Law).
It could also be added to a vowel , , , with the same stem as the present, or to
the noun from which the verb is derived; as, pres. alkj, aor. alksom, grow.
The general system of thematic present vs. sigmatic aorist stems may be so
depicted: -je/o- vs. -s-; -je/o- vs. -s-; -je/o- vs. -is-; -je/o- vs. -s-; -je/o- vs.
s-; and -e/o- vs. -s-.
Monosyllabic or disyllabic sigmatic aorist root stems in i, u, , , , have a fixed
vowel grade; as, aor. pewism, pewist, purify.
NOTE. Aorist stem formation in -i-, --, -- is still less common. Other common formations
in -s- include the following: In -is- (Latin and Indo-Aryan), -es- (Greek), as genis- from gen-,
beget, wersis- from wers-, rain; also, cf. Lat. amauis (amuist, and amuerm<*-wism),
etc. In -s-, attested in Latin, Tocharian and Armenian. Also attested are aorists in -s-,
thematic -sje/o-, etc.
Stems in -t- function usually as aorists, opposed to present stems, especially in

Italic, Celtic and Germanic.
NOTE. While the use of -t for persons in the verbal conjugation is certainly old, the use of an
extension in -t- to form verbal stems seems to be more recent, and mainly a North-West IE
development.
Stems in -k- are rare, but there are examples of them in all forms of the verb,
including aorists.
AORIST VOWEL STEM
Aorists in , , are very common, either as root stems with athematic inflection, or
mixed with other endings, e.g. -u-.
NOTE. As already said, stems extended in -u- are rarely found in present stems, but are
frequent in past stems; the opposite is true for -i-.
When opposed to a present, stems extended in -, -, are often aorists. Possible

oppositions present stem vowel vs. aorist stem vowel include:
251
Present thematic in -i- vs. aorist athematic in -, -; as, mj vs. mm,

consider, alkj vs. alk m, protect.
Present thematic in e/o vs. aorist athematic in -, -; as, leg-legm, collect.
The use of stems in -u- is usually related to the past, and sometimes to the perfect.
Such endings may appear as -we/o-, often -we/o-, -we/o-; as, plu-, from pl-,
su-, from s-, gnu-, from gn-.
Endings -i-/-- are scarcely used for aorists, but they appear in some stems used
both for present and aorist stems; as, awisdhij vs. awisdhijm, hear, Lat. audo,
audui.
7.4.4. THE PERFECT STEM

[LIV type 3a] The perfect stem has
or lengthened root vowel and special perfect
endings, sg. -a, -tha, -e, pl. -m, -t, -()r, which are only used in the perfect
indicative.
In Gk. and Ind.-Ira., the stem was often reduplicated, generally with vowel e; in
Latin and Germanic, reduplication is often absent.
NOTE. Historically the perfect was possibly a different stative verb, a deverbative from the
root with certain formation rules, which eventually entered the verbal conjugation, meaning
the state derived from the action of the present stem. PIE perfect did not have a tense or voice
value.
Root vowel is usually /, i.e. o-grade in the singular and zero-grade in the plural;
for a contrast pres. 1st sg./ perf. 1st sg. / perf. 3rd pl., cf. ggn / g-gon-a / ge-gm, know; bhindh- / bhondh-a / bhdh-m, bind; bheudh / bhoudh-a /
bhudh-m, wake up.
NOTE. 1) for different formations, cf. kan- / (k)kan-a / k-m, sing, cf. O.Ir. cechan,
cechan, cechuin (and cechain), cechnammar, cechn(u)id, cechnatar.; d--mi / de-d-ai, give,
cf. O.Ind. dad, Lat. ded. 2) For examples of root vowel , cf. Lat. scb, or Gk. , and
for examples with root vowel a, cf. Umb. procanurent (with ablaut in Lat. procinuerint) this
example has lost reduplication as Italic dialects usually do after a preposed preposition (cf.
Lat. compul, detinu), although this may not be the case (cf. Lat. concinu).
2) There are also perfects with lengthened root vowel; as, from Latin sed-j, perf. sd-a,
sit; ed-, perf. d-a, eat; cem-j, perf. cm-a, come; ag-, perf. g-a, act; from Germanic,
sleb-, perf. sslb-a, sleep; etc.
Reduplication is made in e, and sometimes in i or u.

252
7. Verbs
NOTE. Apparently, in Indo-Iranian and Greek dialects reduplication was obligatory,

whereas in North-West Indo-European it wasnt. For an older nonobligatory reduplication,
there is common PIE perfect woistha (<*woid-th2e), know, from weid-, see (hence the
stative meaning state derived from having seen?), cf. O.Ind. vttha, Gk. (w)ostha, Goth.
waist. Cf. also afield Gk. , Lat. su (which seems old, even with Goth. saiso), Lat. sed,
from sede and sdo, which do not let us reconstruct whether the original form is sesdi or
sdi.
7.5. MOOD STEMS

7.5.1. INDICATIVE
The indicative expresses the real action, and it is the default mood; the other ones
were specialised in opposition to it. It appears in the three verbal stems. The
following table depicts the minimal verbal stem system attested for IEDs, according
to finds from Vedic Sanskrit and Ancient Greek (Clackson 2007):
Indicative
Subjunctive
Present
Aorist
Perfect
Future? ii
past & non-past
past
[no voice/tense
non-past
active & middle
active & middle
opposition]
active & middle
active & middle
active & middle
[no voice opp.]i
opp.]i
Optative
active & middle
active & middle
Imperative
active & middle
active & middle
Infinitive
active & middle?
active & middle?
Participle
active & middle
active & middle
[no voice opp.]
[no voice
The moods in the perfect were probably developed late in the history of the proto-language
(see 7.4.1). AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998), Fritz (Meier-Brgger, 2003), Fortson

(2004), Clackson (2007), among others attribute their development to a late innovation,
probably a Graeco-Aryan one. For a reconstruction of a PIE moods in the perfect, see Beekes
(1995), Ringe (2006). Given that Northwestern dialects tended to merge later perfect, aorist
and imperfect into a common preterite, it is probably safe to assume that in any case mood
distinctions for the perfect were not much used in NWIE.
ii
With the future we refer to the post-LIE stem incorporated into the conjugation of a certain
verb. Those desideratives with present stems in thematic -s- reconstructed for LIE (of which
the LIV cites more than 100 examples, with almost 40 of them certain) could have in turn
their own present, aorist, perfect, and even future stems.
The general mood system might be so depicted:
253
Indicative
Imperative
Optative
Subjunctive
action
commands
wishes, hopes
action described as
Function described
completely
as fact
Charact.
theoretical
default
not conjugated in
ablauting athematic
thematic -e/o-
mood
the first person
-/j-, thematic -oi-
suffix affixed to
special personal
affixed to stem
stem
endings
secondary endings
primary endings
7.5.2. IMPERATIVE
The imperative, used to express direct commands, had probably in PIH the same
basic stem of the indicative, and was used without ending, in a simple expressiveimpressive function, of exclamation or order. Imperatives are the equivalent in verbal
inflection to the vocative in nominal declension.
NOTE. In Late Indo-European a new system was derived from this older scheme, a more
complex imperative system, featuring person, tense and even voice.
The general athematic 2nd sg. imperative ending was -; as in ei! go! from eimi; or
es! be! from esmi. An ending -dh seems to have been common in LIE too; as, idh! go!, s-dh! be!
The thematic 2nd singular imperative was the bare thematic stem; bhere! carry!,
age! do! act! The 2nd pl. ends in -te, as bhrete! carry!, agete! do! act!
The thematic and athematic 3rd sg. and 3rd pl. have a special ending -td.
NOTE. Endings in *-u, i.e. 3rd sg. *-tu, 3rd pl. *-ntu, are also reconstructed (see Beekes 1995)
from forms like Hitt. paiddu let him go, or Skt. -tu, go; the inclusion of that ending within
the verbal system is, however, difficult. A common IE ending -td (cf. Skt. -t t, Gk. -t, O.Lat.
-td, Celtib. -tuz, Goth. -dau), on the other hand, may obviously be explained as the
introduction into the verbal conjugation of a secondary ablative form of the neuter pronoun
tod, this, a logical addition to an imperative formation, with the sense of here, hence now,
just as the addition of -i, here and now to oppose new endings to the older desinences
(AdradosBernabMendoza 1995-1998, Fortson 2004). This formation was further
specialised in some dialects as future imperatives.
In root athematic verbs, plural forms show vowel and accent on the ending; as, sentd! be they!
254
7. Verbs
For Late Indo-European, only the person distinctions of the active voice are
reconstructed with certainty. Common middle forms include the bare stems plus
middle desinences; as, 2nd sg. -s(w)e/o (cf. Skt. -sva, Gk. lou<*le-so, Lat.
sequere<*seque-se, Ira. *-swe/o), 2nd pl. -dhwe, cf. Gk. les-the, O.Ind. bhvadhvam. Beekes (1995), Sihler (1995).
Sg.
Pl.
Athem.
Them.
Middle
2.
-, (-dh)
-e
-so
3.
-td
-etd
(-to)
2.
-te
-ete
-dhwe
3.
-td
-ontd
(-nto)
NOTE. Forms for the 3rd person are uncertain, although a common sg. -td (from the active
voice) is reconstructed; cf. Skt. -tt, Gk. -sth (sth- from plural and - from td), Lat. -td.
Middle secondary endings 3rd sg. -to, 3rd pl. -nto, are tentatively reconstructed by Beekes
(1995) as imperative marks with basis on the Sanskrit (-tm, -ntm) and Hittite (-taru, antaru) endings.
7.5.3. SUBJUNCTIVE
1. The subjunctive is normally formed by the addition of the thematic vowel to the
verb stem (be it athematic or already thematic), followed apparently by primary
endings (although in Indo-Iranian both primary and secondary endings were used).
The subjunctives made from thematic verbs end therefore usually in so-called
doubled thematic vowels, i.e. -, -, and -, always opposed to the indicative. These
are sometimes called athematic subjunctives.
NOTE. The reader should take on account that the classification of forms in -, -, -, as
athematic is purely conventional; so, for example, Dahl considers them as two thematic stem
allomorphs, terming them long-vowel-subjunctive [=athematic] against short-vowelsubjunctive [=thematic]. See <http://folk.uio.no/eysteind/PaperICHL.pdf>.
2. The subjunctive always has full grade in the root, and is usually made following
these rules:
a. Indicative athematic vs. subjunctive thematic; as, ind. esmi, I am, senti, they
are, subj. es, (if) I be.
b. Indicative thematic vs. subjunctive with lengthened thematic vowel; as, ind.
bhresi, you carry, Sub. bhrsi, you may carry, (if) you carried.
255
NOTE. Following Meier-Brgger, [t]he subjunctive suffix is PIE *-e-, In the case of
athematic verbal stems, the rule is [where K=Consonant] -K+- (indicative stem), -K+e(subjunctive stem); correspondingly, that of thematic verbs is -e+ - (indicative stem), -e+e(subjunctive stem).
3. Subjunctives could also be formed in the same way from root and s-aorists,
where likewise the full grade of the aorist stem was used (Fortson 2004).
NOTE. As indicated by first-person subjunctives like Ved. krav I will do, Old Avestan
yaoj I will yoke, Gk. phr let me carry, and Lat. er I will be, the 1st singular ended in -
rather than -mi (Fortson 2004).
7.5.4. OPTATIVE
The optative mood is a volitive mood that signals wishing or hoping, as in English I
wish I might, I hope it may, I wish you could, etc. It is made with the following
suffix, and secondary endings.
1) In the athematic flexion, a general alternating suffix -j-/-- with full-grade in
the singular and 3rd pl. and zero-grade elsewhere; as, s-j-m, may I be, s-m, may we be, es--nt, may they be.
NOTE. The stress was on the ending in the 1st and 2nd pl. forms of the mobile paradigms,
and evidently also in the sg. forms of the middle voice, but not in the 3rd pl. forms, where a
number of indications point to original root stress, as Lat. velint, Goth. wileina, and O.C.S.
velt. But, Vedic -ur appears in all those athematic forms where the stress is either on the
root or on a preceding syllable. See <https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/2878>,
Kortlandt (1992).
2) When the stress is fixed, it is -oi- in the thematic flexion, and -- in the
athematic (e.g. Narten presents); as, bher-oi-t, may he carry.
NOTE. This is probably the thematic -o- plus the zero-grade Optative suffix -i- (<*i-h1-), i.e.
originally *-o-ih1-, or maybe *-o-jh1-, see Hoffmann (1976). Optative endings might yield a
reconstruction of vocalic resonants in PII, PGk from -o-j, -o-jt.
3) In the 1st person middle the thematic ending is found (cf. Skt. bruv-y); as, sj-, bhr-oj-a.
Athematic stems have usually root vowel in zero-grade, while thematic stems show
no ablaut.
NOTE. For athematic optatives form the present with zero-grade; cf. Lat. sim, duim, Gk.
, , , O.Ind. syaam (asmi), dvisym (dvesmi), iym (emi), juhuym
256
7. Verbs
(juhkomi), sunuykm (sunomi), rundhym (runadhmi), kurym (karomi), krnym

(krnmi), etc. Exceptions are Lat. uelim (not uulim), Goth. (concave) wiljau, wileis, etc.
7.7. NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS

7.7.1. INFINITIVES
1. The infinitives are indeclinable nouns with non-personal verbal functions, which
can be as many as inflection, voice, aspect and even time.
2. The oldest infinitives are the verbal nouns, casual forms inflected as nouns,
sometimes included in the verbal inflection. A verbal noun is a declinable
substantive, derived from the root of a verb.
NOTE. Infinitives are, thus, old nouns reinterpreted as forming part of the verbal
conjugation, probably within the Late Indo-European period. As Meier-Brgger (2003) notes,
The development of means of differentiation of voice, aspect, and tempus in the infinitive
formations is post-Proto-Indo-European.
The difference in syntax is important: the verbal noun is constructed as a

substantive, thus e.g. with the object in the genitive; as, wrosjo chentis, the
murder of a man. Such a formation is opposed to an infinitive with an accusative; as,
wrm chentum, to murder a man.
3. Verbal nouns were, thus, the normal way to express the idea of a modern
infinitive in PIE. They were formed with the verbal stem and usually a nominal
suffixes -ti-, -tu-; as, statis (<*sth2-ti-), standing, placing, from st- (<*steh2-)
stand; cem-tus, coming, from cem-, come.
NOTE. Cf. Skt sthti- stay, sojourn, Grk stsis place, setting, erection [of a statue], Lat
statim firmly, steadfastly, Eng. stead. MalloryAdams (2007). Some IE dialects chose later
between limited noun-cases of those verbal nouns for the infinitive formation, generally Acc.,
Loc., Abl.; compare Lat. *-os (sibilant neuter), Gmc. *-on-om (thematic neuter), etc.
4. In Late Indo-European, a common infinitive suffix -tu- (and more limited -ti-)
seems to have been usually added to the accented strong verbal root, conveying the
same meaning as the English infinitive; as, sttum, to stay, opposed to the weak,
unaccented form in participle stats, placed.
NOTE. For generalised IE infinitive formation in -tu [generally -tu-m, i.e. the accusative of
the abstract noun suffix -tu-, often called supine (solely used with verbs of motion to indicate
purpose)], cf. Skt. -tus, -tum (acc.), Gk. -ts (<*-tew-os), Av. -tos (gen.), -tave, -tavai (dat.), -
257
tum, Lat. (active & passive supine) -tum (acc.) -t (dat.-loc.) -tui (dat.), Prus. -twei (dat.) -tun,
-ton (acc.), O.Sla. -t (supine), Lith. -t, etc.; for -ti-, cf. Ved. -taye (dat), BSl., Cel. -ti (loc.),
Lith. -tie (dat.), etc.; also, in -m-en-, cf. Skt. -mane, O.Gk. -men(ai), etc.
Also, a common ending -dhji added to the verbal stem formed common middle
infinitives.
NOTE. The reconstructed -dhji (Haudry), is the basic form behind Ved. -dhyai, Gk.
Middle -, Umb. -fi, Toch. -tsi, as well as Latin gerunds and the Germanic *-dhji (Rix
1979), all related to an original middle infinitive (Beekes 1995, Sihler 1995), although
appearing in both active and passive formations (Fortson 2004). Other forms include -u-, er/n-, -(e)s-, extended -s-, -u-, -m-, also Gmc. -no- (as Goth. ita-n<*edo-no-), Arm. -lo-, etc.
7.7.2. PARTICIPLES
1. The participles are adjectives which have been assimilated to the verbal system,
expressing tense and voice; like other adjectives, they have nominal inflection.
NOTE. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European shows an intense reliance on participles,
and thus a certain number of participles played a very important role in the early language.
2. Those in -nt-, fem. -nt-ja/, are the older ones, and form participles of active
voice to present or aorist stems.
NOTE. In Anatolian, this participle is semantically equivalent to verbal adjectives in -t-.
In athematics it seems that an ablauting suffix -e/ont with full and zero grade
coexisted in the declension of present participles; cf. s-ent-(also s-ont-)/s-t-, who
exist, being, weq-ont-/uq-t-, who speaks, speaking, dhe-dh-nt-/dhe-dha-nt-,
placing, jung-ent-/jung-t-, joining, d-ent-, eating (from which dentis, tooth), jent-, going, chn-ent-, killing, ag-ent-, driving, guiding, etc.
NOTE. For s-t- instead of sent-, cf. ap-st- (for apo-we-s-ent-is) in Lat. (ab)sent-,
Myc. pl. (a-p)e-a-sa, i.e. ap-ehassai (with -assa-<*-t-ih2-). A. Morpurgo Davies (1978,
reviewed in Meier-Brgger 2003) considered that [a]s far as we know, there is no reason to
attribute *h1s-ent- to Proto-Greek.
In thematics, a form -o-nt- (i.e. -nt added to the thematic vowel) is generalised as,
bher-ont-, who carries, carrying.
NOTE. The suffix -o-nt- shows no generalised ablaut full-grade/zero-grade paradigm in
IEDs. It is safe to assume no accent-ablaut change for North-West IE, and probably also for
LIE, as [i]t remains to be seen whether the thematic forms were originally declined as *-ont-
258
7. Verbs
/*-nt- (as in Vedic), and were only secondarily reinterpreted as *-o-nt-, as some have posited;
Meier-Brgger, 2003 (reviewing Rix 1976, Szemernyi 1990).
Also, some questions about the participles are not easily reconciled: in Latin, they are
formed with e ending for stems in -i-; in Greek, they are formed in o and are consonantal
stems. Greek, on the other hand, still shows remains of the thematic vowel in participles of
verba vocalia -jont-, -jont-, etc. Latin doesnt.
Aorist active participles were formed similarly to present participles, as the root
aorist participle st-nt-, having stood (cf. Ved. sthnt-, Gk. stant-), s-aorist dhechs-t- [dhek-snt], having burnt, dik-s-t-, having indicated,
3. The perfect active participle has an ablauting suffix -wos-/-us-, fem. -us-ja/;
as, weid-ws-, wid-us-ja, knowing, who is in a state of having seen, from weid-,
see; bher-ws-, who is in a state of having carried. Common is the reduplicated
Perfect stem; as, qe-q-ws-, making, from qer-.
For the declension of these participles in -nt- and -wos-, see above 5.2.
4. The middle participles have a common suffix -mo- for athematic, -o-mo in
thematics; as, bhro-mos, carrying (oneself, for oneself), lo-mos, who feeds
himself, nurtured, from al, raise, feed (cf. Lat. alumnus), dh-m, the one who
gives suck, from dh-i-, suck (milk), suckle (as Av. danu-, Lat. femina, woman).
NOTE. On the *-mXno- question, where X is a vowel or laryngeal or even laryngeal+vowel,
while Melchert (1983) or Szemernyi (1990) support an original -mn-o-, a competing
hypothesis is Fritzs one with an original *-mh1eno-, into variants *-mh1no- and then -mno-, in
which the laryngeal disappears when the suffix is added to a root or stem with a non-syllabic
final position preceding the full vowel e. The non-laryngeal full grade form *-meno- would
then have the newly constructed zero grade form *-mno- (Meier-Brgger 2003). The
differentiation of the perfect *-mh1n-- vs. the present *-o-mh1no- in the various IE
languages may be traced back to the athematic/thematic dichotomy (Rix 1976). For an
explanation on the auxiliary vowel in AdradosBernabMendoza (1995-1998), see 2.3.
5. In addition to participles, PIE had verbal adjectives in -t- and -n-, added
usually to the zero-grade of a verbal stem that indicated completed action, and were
semantically like past participles in English. If the verb they were formed from was
transitive (like eat), the verbal adjective was passive and past in tense (eaten), but if
the verb was intransitive (like go), the verbal adjective was simply past in tense
(gone) Fortson (2004). Examples include ch-ts, slain, from transitive chenmi,
259
murder, cf. Skt. hat-, Gk. -phats, sj-ts, sewn, from sis, t-ts, stretched,
kluts, heard; c-ts, (having) come, from intransitive cemj, come.
a. General -t-, added usually to zero-grade roots; as, alts, grown, dhats,
placed, kapts, taken, liqts, left, etc. Exceptions include e.g. gnts, having
been understood.
b. Old (not generalised) -n- and its variants; as, plns, (having been) filled
up, full, bhidhns, having been split, parted, bitten; wgns, worked.
NOTE. For plns, from pel-, fill, an adjective which was not part of the verbal paradigm,
cf. Skt. pr-, Lat. plnus (vs. past participle pltus filled), Goth. fulls (double -ll- < *-ln-),
O.Ir. ln, Lith. plnas. Also, the common PIE verb is found from this root, plnmi, fill, cf.
O.Ind. pn ti Goth. fullnan, Ger. fllen, O.Ir. ln(a)im, Arm. lnum, and root Gk. pplmi.
Verbal adjectives in -m-, -l-, functioned as past participles in individual languages; as,
present passive participle in Balto-Slavic -mo-, cf. O.C.S. nsom, Lith. namas being
carried, perhaps Anatolian, cf. Luv. kammi- combed. For its old use, cf. prms,
foremost, first, from per-, v.s. 5.5.2; however, Latin prmus is usually reconstructed as from
prei-isams (cf. Paelignian pr sm), but possibly superlative pw-isams, from the same
root as common PIE prmos, prwos, first, is the solution (see Szemernyi 1970, Adrados
BernabMendoza 1995-1998).
7.7.3. GERUNDIVES AND ABSOLUTIVES

1. Verbal adjectives are not assimilated to the verbal system of tense and voice.
Those which indicate need or possibility are called gerundives.
NOTE. Verbal adjectives and adjectives (as verbal nouns and nouns) cannot be easily
differentiated.
2. Whereas the same participle suffixes are found, i.e. -t-, -n-, -m-, there are
two forms especially identified with gerundives in IEDs:
a. -l- and -li- are found in Latin, Balto-Slavic, Tocharian and Armenian; as,
bherels, unbearable, gilis, agile, etc.
NOTE. For suffix -lo- as a participle suffix, cf. Russ. videl, Lat. credulus, bibulus, tremulus,
etc.
b. -j- (a common lengthening to differentiate adjectives) is sometimes a

gerundive of obligation, as well as forms in -tu-, -ti-, -ndho-, etc.; as, dhsjs,
260
7. Verbs
that has to be dared; gntins, that has to be known; gn skendhos, that has to
be born, awisdhjendhos, that has to be heard; and so on.
NOTE. Some forms in -ndhos seem to retain a so-called fossil proto-gerundive (Meiser
1998), from an archaic ending *-dns, whose meaning lack the passive obligation common to
the gerundive; so e.g. *mlje-dns>O. Lat. *blandos, *rotodns (Lat. rotundus), round, or
*seqodns (Lat. secundus). Outside Latin it is possibly found e.g. in Gk. tked consumption
or
*phagedn
(cf.
Gk.
phagdaina
gangrene);
see
Blanc
(2004)
in
<http://www.cairn.info/publications-de-Blanc-Alain--7916.htm>.
Jasanoff dismisses this so-called lex unda, proposing an original -tino-, in his article
<http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~jasanoff/pdf/Latin%20gerundive%20(preprint).pdf>.
We would have then a group of passive participles-gerundives, which indicate
possibility/obligation, built by agglutination of two suffixes; as, -ti-no-, -i-jo- (cf. O.Ind.
ramanya,
miranya),
-tew-(ij)o-,
-ti-mo-
(cf.
Gk.
aidesimos),
O.C.S.
pealn deplorable (cf. O.Ir. fedelm), Lat. ambilis, etc. Jasanoff also presents abstracts in
-(n)ti-, which are behind the Latin gerund.
c. A future (or obligation) passive gerundive ending, -tw(ij)os, existed in Late

Indo-European; as, legtw(ij)os, which has to be said, read or gathered. Because
of its passive use, it may be used only with transitive verbs.
NOTE. For the absolutive use of -tw(ij)os, cf. Gk. -, -, O.Ind. -tavya, O.Ir. -the,
etc., probably all from verbal adjectives in -tu-, full grade -tew-, usually lengthened with
common gerundive ending -ij-.
d. -m, with a general meaning of able; as, mnm, mindful.

NOTE. For the internal derivation (after the German and Austrian schools) of this PIE
suffix -m*-mon, cf. Gk. mnma < m-m reminder, Gk. mnmon < mnm who
remembers; compare also Skt. brhman prayer, Skt. brahmn brahman, etc.
3. The adverbial, not inflected verbal adjectives are called absolutives or gerunds.
They were usually derived from older gerundives.
NOTE. PIE speakers had to use verbal periphrases or other resources to express the idea of a
modern gerund, as there were no common reconstructible PIE gerunds. Just like verbal nouns
were the usual basis to express the idea of infinitives, verbal adjectives (and especially
gerundives) were a common PIE starting point to create gerunds.
261
7.8. CONJUGATED EXAMPLES

7.8.1. THEMATIC VERBS
I. PRESENT STEM
ACTIVE
loutum, to wash (present stem low-o-)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
Imperative
IMPERFECT
low
low
lowoim
lowom
lwesi
lwsi
lowois
lowe
lowes
lweti
lwti
lowoit
lwetd
lowet
lwomos
lwmos
lwoime
lwomo
lwete
lwte
lwoite
lwete
lwete
lwonti
lwnti
lowoint
lwontd
lowont
deiktum, to show (present stem deik-o-)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
Imperative
IMPERFECT
deik
deik
deikoim
deikom
dikesi
diksi
deikois
deike
deikes
diketi
dikti
deikoit
diketd
deiket
dikomos
dikmos
dikoime
dikome
dikete
dikte
dikoite
dikete
deikete
dikonti
diknti
deikoint
dikontd
dikont
weistum (<weid-tum), to see (present stem wid-jo-)
Sg.
Pl.
262
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
Imperative
IMPERFECT
widj
widj
widjoim
widjom
widjesi
widjsi
widjois
widje
widjes
widjeti
widjti
widjoit
widjetd
widjet
widjomos
widjmos
widjoime
widjomo
widjete
widjte
widjoite
widjete
widjete
widjonti
widjnti
widjoint
widjontd
widjont
7. Verbs
MIDDLE-PASSIVE
loutum, to wash (present stem low-o-)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
IMPERFECT
lowar
lwmar
lwoima
lowa
lwesor
lwsor
lwoiso
lweso
lwetor
lwtor
lwoito
lweto
lwomesdha
lwmesdha
lwoimedha
lwomedha
lwedhwe
lwdhwe
lwoidhwe
lwedhwe
lwontor
lwntor
lwointo
lwonto
deiktum, to show (present stem deik-o-)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
IMPERFECT
deikar
dikmar
dikoima
deika
dikesor
diksor
dikoiso
dikeso
diketor
diktor
dikoito
diketo
dikomesdha
dikmesdha
dikoimedha
dikomedha
dikedhwe
dikdhwe
dikoidhwe
dikedhwe
dikontor
dikntor
dikointo
dikonto
weistum, to see (present stem wid-jo-)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
IMPERFECT
widjar
widjmar
widjoima
widja
widjesor
widjsor
widjoiso
widjeso
widjetor
widjtor
widjoito
widjeto
widjomesdha
widjmesdha
widjoimedha
widjomedha
widjedhwe
widjdhwe
widjoidhwe
widjedhwe
widjontor
widjntor
widjointo
widjonto
263
II. AORIST STEM

ACTIVE
loutum, to wash (aorist stem sigmatic lou-s-)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
lous
lous
lousm
lous
lousesi
louss
loust
louseti
loust
lousme
lusomos
lusme
louste
lusete
luste
loust
lousonti
lousnt
deiktum, to show (aorist stem dik--, zero-grade)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
dikm
dik
dikim
diks
diksi
dikis
dikt
dikti
dikit
dikome
dikmos
dikoime
dikete
dikte
dikoite
diknt
diknti
dikint
NOTE. For original dikm, cf. diti, Gk. , etc.
weistum, to see (aorist stem wid--, zero-grade)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
widm
wid
widim
wids
widsi
widis
widt
widti
widit
widome
widmos
widoime
widete
widte
widoite
widnt
widnti
widint
NOTE. For PIE accent on the optative suffix, following the accent on the thematic vowel of
certain Aorist formations, cf. O.Ind. them. aor. opt. sg. vid-s (<*widi-s).
264
7. Verbs
MIDDLE-PASSIVE
loutum, to wash (aorist stem lou-s-, sigmatic)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
lousma
lousar
lusma
louso
lusesor
lusso
lousto
lusetor
lusto
lusmedha
lusomesdh
lusmedha
lousdhwe
lusedhwe
lusdhwe
lousto
lusontor
lusnto
deiktum, to show (aorist stem dik--, zero-grade)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
dik
dik r
dikoima
dikeso
diksor
dikiso
diketo
diktor
dikoito
dikmedha
dikmesdh
dikimedha
dikedhwe
dikdhwe
dikoidhwe
dikonto
dikntor
dikointo
weistum, to see (aorist stem wid--, zero-grade)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
wid
wid r
widoima
wideso
widsor
widoiso
wideto
widtor
widoito
widmedha
widmesdh
widimedha
widedhwe
widdhwe
widoidhwe
widonto
widntor
widointo
265
III. PERFECT STEM

loutum, to wash (perfect stem lu-/lou-)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
lwa
lw
loujm
lutha
lwsi
loujs
lwe
lwti
loujt
loum
lwmos
lowm
lout
lwte
lowt
lowr
lwnti
low nt
deiktum, to show (perfect stem doik-/dik-)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
doika
doik
dikjm
doiktha
doikesi
dikjs
doike
doiketi
dikjt
dikm
dikomos
dikm
dikt
dikete
dikt
dikr
doikonti
dik nt
weistum, to see (perfect stem woid-/wid-, know)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
woida
woid
widjm
woisthai
woidesi
widjs
woide
woideti
widjt
widm
widomos
widme
wistii
widete
widte
widr
woidonti
wid nt
266
From woid-tha.
ii
From wid-t.
7. Verbs
7.8.2. ATHEMATIC INFLECTION

I. PRESENT STEM
ACTIVE
estum, to be (present stem es-/s-)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
Imperative
IMPERFECT
esmi
es
sjm
es
esi
sesi
sjs
es/sdh
es
esti
seti
sjt
estd
est
smes
somes
sme
sme
ste
sete
ste
(e)ste
ste
senti
esonti
snt
sentd
sent
NOTE. Proto-Indo-European verb es-, be, exist, originally built only a durative aspect of
present, and was therefore supported in some dialects (as Gmc., Sla., Lat.) by the root bheu-,
be, exist, which helped to build some future and past formations.
kleutum, to hear (present stem kneu-/knu-, with nasal infix)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
Imperative
IMPERF.
kneumi
knew
knujm
knew
kneusi
knwesi
knujs
knu/knudh
knus
kneuti
knweti
knujt
kneutd
knut
knums
knwomos
knwm
knum
knut
knwete
knwt
knut
knut
knunti
knwonti
knewnt
klnwentd
knnt
NOTE. Indicative forms could have possibly been read with a columnar accent in a post-Late
Indo-European period, i.e. knumes, knute, opt. knwme, knwte, imp. knudhi, as in
Greek.
The 3rd pl. optative had full-grade root vowel, see Kortlandt (1992), Beekes (1995).
267
sttum, to stand (present stem (si)st-/(si)sta-, reduplicated)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
Imperative
IMPERFECT
(s)stmi
stj
(si)stajm
(si)stm
(s)stsi
stjesi
(si)stajs
st/stadh
(si)sts
(s)stti
stjeti
(si)stajt
sttd
(si)stt
(si)stams
stjomos
(si)stam
(si)stam
(si)stat
stjete
(si)stat
stat
(si)stat
(si)stanti
stjonti
(si)sta nt
stanti
(si)stant
NOTE. Indicative forms were possibly read in post-LIE period with columnar accent, as
sstames, sstate, etc. or stames, state, etc.
The optative formations show zero-grade stem sta-, and the accent is written to distinguish a-- from a diphthong -a-.
For sta-jo- as a thematic subjunctive (cf. O. Gk. subj. 1st pl. (< PGk stejo- < LIE
*stjo- > NWIE stajo-), from Gk. ; also, (<PGk dhejo- < LIE *dhjo- > NWIE
dhajo-) from , IE dh-; (<PGk dejo- < LIE *djo- > NWIE dajo-) from Gk.
, IE d; and so on.
MIDDLE-PASSIVE
kleutum, to hear (present stem kneu-/knu-, with nasal infix)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
IMPERFECT
knumr
knwomar
knwm
knum
knusr
knwesor
knws
knus
knutr
knwetor
knwt
knut
knumesdha
knwomesdha
knwmedha
knumdha
knudhw
knwedhwe
knwdhw
knudhw
knuntr
knwontor
knwnt
knunt
NOTE. In a post-LIE period a common columnar accent would have been also possible; viz.
knumar, knusor, etc.
268
7. Verbs
sttum, to stand (present stem (si)st-/(si)sta-, reduplicated)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
IMPERFECT
(si)stamr
stjomar
(si)stam
(si)stama
(si)stasr
stjesor
(si)stas
(si)staso
(si)statr
stjetor
(si)stat
(si)stato
(si)stamesdha
stjomesdha
(si)stamedha
(si)stmedha
(si)stadhw
stjedhwe
(si)stadhw
(si)stadhwe
(si)stantor
stjontor
(si)stant
(si)stanto
II. AORIST STEM

ACTIVE
kleutum, to hear (aorist klew-/klu-)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
klewom
klew
klujm
klewes
klwsi
klujs
klewet
klwti
klujt
klwome
klwmos
klwm
klwete
klwte
klwt
klwont
klwnti
klwnt
NOTE. For aorist klew-/klu- cf. Gk. -, O.Ind. rot.
sttum, to stand (aorist stem st-)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
stm
staj
stajm
sts
stajesi
stajs
stt
stajeti
stajt
stam
stjomos
stam
stat
stjete
stat
st nt
stajonti
stant
269
MIDDLE-PASSIVE
kleutum, to hear (aorist stem kluw-)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
klw
klwomar
klwm
klwes
klwsor
klws
klwet
klwtor
klwt
klwomesdha
klwmesdha
klwmedha
klwedhw
klwdhwe
klwdhw
klwont
klwntor
klwnt
sttum, to stand (aorist stem st-)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
stam
stajar
stam
stas
stjesor
stas
stat
stjetor
stat
stamedha
stjomesdha
stamedha
stadhw
stjedhwe
stadhw
stant
stjontor
stant
III. PERFECT STEM

kleutum, to hear (perfect stem k-klou-/k-klu-, reduplicated)
Sg.
Pl.
270
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
kklowa
kklow
keklujm
kkloutha
kklowesi
keklujs
kklowe
kkloweti
keklujt
keklum
kklowomos
keklwm
keklut
kklowete
keklwt
keklwr
kklowonti
keklw nt
7. Verbs
sttum, to stand (perfect stem se-st-/se-sta-, reduplicated)
Sg.
Pl.
Indicative
Subjunctive
Optative
sest
sstj
sestajm
ssttha
sstjesi
sestajs
sest
sstjeti
sestajt
sestam
sstjomos
sestam
sestat
sstjete
sestat
sest r
sstjonti
sesta nt
NOTE. For reduplicated s(t)e-sta-, cf. O.Ind. perf. tasthu, Av. -astar, Gk. hstamen,
O.Ir. -sestar.
7.8.3. COMMON PIE STEMS

I. THEMATIC VERBS
1. Root:
o Present low, I wash, aorist lous, perfect llowa.
o Present serp, I crawl, aorist spm.
o Present bher, I carry, aorist bhrm, perfect bhbhora.
o Present bheug, I flee, aorist bhugm.
o Present bheidh, I believe, persuade, aorist bhidhom.
o Present weq, I speak, aorist (them. redupl.) weuqom.
o Present trem, I tremble, aorist tmom.
NOTE. A particular sub-class of thematic presents without suffix is of the type Skt. tudti,
which have present stems with zero-grade root-vowel, as glubh/gleubh, skin.
2. Reduplicated:
There are many reduplicated thematic stems, analogous to the athematic ones:
o Present gign, I beget, (from gen-), aorist gnom/genm, perfect ggona,
p.part. gnts.
NOTE. For gnts, cf. O.Ind. jts, Av. zta-; Lat. ntus, Pael. cnatois, Gaul. f. gntha
daughter; O.N. kundr son, also in compound, cf. Goth. -kunds, be a descendant of , O.E.
-kund, O.N. -kunnr.
o Present pib, I drink (<reduplicated p-p, from pi-).

o Present mimn, I remember, (from men-).
271
3. In -je/o-, some of them are causatives:

o Present spekj, I watch, aorist speks, p.part. spekts.
o Present tenj, I stretch, aorist tnom/tenm, perfect ttona, p.part. tts.
4. Verba vocalia:
o Present widj, I see, I know, aorist widm, perfect woida p.part. wists
(<wid-ts).
o Present monej, I make think, warn, as Lat. moneo, from men-, think.
o Present tromej, I make tremble, from trem-, tremble.
5. In -ske/o-:
o Present pksk, I ask, demand, inquire (cf. Lat. posco, Ger. forschen) from
prek-, ask.
o Present gnskar, I am born (cf. Lat. gnascor), p.part. gnts, from zerograde of gn-, beget.
o Present (g)gnosk, I begin to know, I learn, from gn-, know.
6. With nasal infix:
o Present jung, join (from jeug-), aorist jeugom; p.part. jugts.
NOTE. Compare O.H.G. (untar-)jauhta (as Lat. sub-jugaui), Lat. jung, -ere, -nxi, -nctus,
Gk. , ; O.Ind. yunkti (3. Pl. yunjnti = Lat. jungunt), yunjati, fullgrade yjayati (<jeugjeti); Av. yaoj-, yuj-; Lit. jngiu, jngti, etc. For past participles (with
and without present infix -n-), compare O.E. geoht, iukt, Lat. junctus, Gk. , O.Ind.
yukt-, Av. yuxta-, Lit. jngtas, etc.
II. ATHEMATIC VERBS

1. Root: They are the most archaic PIE verbs, and their present conjugation is of the
old type singular root vowel in full-grade, plural root vowel in zero-grade.
o Present esmi, I am.
o Present eimi, I go.
o Present bhmi, I speak.
NOTE. The verb talk is sometimes reconstructed as PIE *mi, I talk, and imperfect *m, I
talked/have talked; for evidence of an original ag(h)-j, compare Lat. ai, Gk. , Umb. aiu,
Arm. asem. Thus, this paradigm would rather be thematic, i.e. present ag(h)j, I talk, vs.
imperfect ag(h)jm, I talked/have talked.
272
7. Verbs
o Present edmi, I eat.

NOTE. Note that its early present participle dent-, eating, was frozen as substantive
dentis, meaning tooth.
o Present welmi, I want.

2. Reduplicated:
o Present (s)stmi (from st-, stand), aorist stm, p.part. stats.
o Present didikmi (from deik-, show), aorist diks, perfect ddoika,
p.part. dikts.
o Present dhdhmi (from dh-, do, make), aorist dhm, p.part. dhats.
o Present ddmi (from d-, give), aorist dm, p.part. dats.
o Present jjmi, expel, aorist jem.
NOTE. For evidence on an original PIE jjmi, and not jjmi as it is sometimes
reconstructed, cf. Lat. pret. ic, a form due to its two consecutive laryngeals, while Lat. iaci
is a present remade (J. Gonzlez Fernndez, 1981).
3. With nasal infix:

o knumi, hear (from kleu-), aorist klewom, perfect kklowa, p.part.
kluts, heard, also famous.
o punmi, rot (from pew), aorist pws.
7.9. VERBAL COMPOSITION

Verbs were often combined with adverbs to modify their meaning. Such adverbs
were called preverbs and in the first instance remained separate words. Over time
they tended to join with verbs as prefixes.
NOTE. For more on preverbs, see below 10.6.1.
Occasionally, verbs were compounded with a non-adverbial element, such as a

noun. The most familiar example of this is krd-dh-mi, believe, trust, literally
place ones heart in, cf. Vedic Skt. rd dadhti, Lat. crd, and O.Ir. cretim
(Fortson 2004).
7.10. THE VERBAL ACCENT

The finite verb of a LIE main clause was normally placed following the subject and
the object, at the end of the sentence, where the sentence accent usually decreases.
273
However, when the verb was stressed at the beginning of the sentence, or in a
subordinate clause, it carried its normal accent.
NOTE. Fortson (2004): In Vedic Sanskrit, main-clause finite verbs that do not stand at the
beginning of their clause are written in the manuscripts without accent marks. In Greek, the
rules for accenting verbs are different from those for nouns, and resemble the accentuation of
strings of clitics; this suggests an affinity between the prosody of verbs and the prosody of
chains of weakly stressed or unstressed particles. In Germanic heroic poetry, fully stressed
words alliterate with one another, but certain verbs, together with unstressed pronouns and
particles, do not participate in alliteration; this suggests weaker prosodic status for those
verbs. In certain Germanic languages, such as modem German, verbs are required to be the
second syntactic unit in main clauses, which is the same position taken by many unstressed
sentence particles elsewhere in Indo-European (Wackernagels Law).
Meier-Brgger (2003) also states that [r]esearchers agree that Vedic generally reflects the
fundamental characteristics of Proto-Indo-European, and thus, that the finite verb in a main
clause was unstressed () It remains disputed whether the second position of the finite verb,
common to modern Germanic languages such as German, originated from the inherited
phenomenon of enclitics, or whether it appeared secondarily. On that, Wackernagel (1892)
the German rule of word order was already valid in the mother language.
Finite verbs were therefore prosodically deficient in PIE, they could behave as
clitics, i.e. they had no stress and formed an accentual unit with a neighbouring
stressed word. However, they were fully stressed when moved to the front of a clause
for emphasis or contrast, or when occurring in subordinate clauses. See below 10
Syntax.
274
8. Particles
8. PARTICLES
8.1. PARTICLES
8.1.1. Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections are called particles.
They cannot always be distinctly classified, for many adverbs are used also as
prepositions and many as conjunctions.
8.1.2. Strictly speaking, particles are usually defined as autonomous elements,
usually clitics, which make modifications in the verb or sentence, but which dont
have a precise meaning, and which are neither adverbs nor preverbs nor
conjunctions.
8.1.3. Indo-European has some particles (in the strictest sense) which mark certain
syntax categories, classified as follows.
8.1.4. Emphatics or generalisers may affect the whole sentence or a single word,
usually a pronoun, but also a noun or verb.
i. The particles -ge/-gi, -ghe/-ghi, usually strengthen the negation, and
emphasise different pronouns; as, egge, I (for one), as for myself, I, negh,
certainly not.
NOTE. The origin of these particles is possibly to be found in the same root as PIE -qe,
acquiring its coordinate value from an older use as word-connector, from which this
intensive/emphatic use was derived. Compare O.Ind. gha, ha, h, Av. zi, Gk. ge, -g, -, Lith.
gu, gi, O.Sla. -go, e, i, Also, compare, e.g. for intensive negative neghi, O.Ind. nah, O.E.
nek, Balt. negi. If compared with Gk. -th, O.Ind. gha, ha, O.Sla. -e, -go, and related to -qe, a
common PIH particle gwhe/o might tentatively be reconstructed.
ii. e comes probably from the pronoun i-, v.s. 6.5, 6.6. It appears e.g. in edju, today, e-so, this, etc.
iii. , e.g. in num- , now.
iv. ke, here, this, cf. Lith. , Lat. -c(e), O.Lat. hocce <*hod-ce.
v. u, cf. Skt. u, Gk. hotos, Goth. u.
vi. tar, cf. Luv. -tar, Hom. Gk. tar. It appears to have been especially used with
interrogatives, qis tar?, who (indeed)? cf. Luv. kui-tar = Hom. Gk. ts tar.
vii. kem, a modal particle; cf. Hitt. -kan, Gk. ke(n), Ved. km.
8.1.5. Verb modifiers:
275
a. The old -ti had a middle value, i.e. reflexive.

NOTE. This is a very old value, attested in Anatolian, cf. Hitt. za, Pal. -ti, Luw. -ti, Lyd. -(i)t,
Lyc. -t/di.
b. The modal -man, associated with the indicative, expresses potentiality (when
used in present) and irreality (in the past).
NOTE. It is probably the same as the conjunction man, if, and closely related to -ma, but.
c. The negative particle m, n, associated with the indicative or forms

indifferent to the moods.
8.1.6. Sentence categorisers indicate the class of sentence, whether negative or
interrogative.
i. Absolute interrogatives were introduced by special particles, generally an.
NOTE. The origin could be the non-declarative sense of the sentence. It has been proposed
a common origin with the negative particle ne/.
ii. Negation has usually two particles, etymologically related:

-
Simple negation is made by the particle ne, and lengthened with -i, -n, -d,
etc.; as, emphatic nei, not at all. From the same root is the privative prefix
-, un- (cf. Hitt. am-, Skt. and Gk. a(n)-, Lat. in-, Eng. un- etc.).
Mood negation or prohibitive (used with verb forms in negative

commands) is the particle m, general west IE n.
NOTE. For PIE m, compare Gk. , O.Ind.,Av.,O.Pers. m, Toch. mar/m, Arm. mi, Alb.
mos. In some PIE dialects (as generally in west IE), n (from ne) fully replaced the function
of m, cf. Goth. ne, Lat. n, Ira. ni. It is not clear whether Hitt. l is ultimately derived from
m or n. For ne oinom, not ever, not at all, cf. Lat. nn, Eng. none, Gk. ou from *ne h2oiu.
8.1.7. Sentence connectives introduce independent sentences or connect different

sentences, or even mark the principal sentence among subordinates.
so and to, which are in the origin of the anaphoric pronoun.
nu, now, which has an adverbial, temporal-consecutive meaning; cf. Skt. n,
O.C.S. nyne, Lith. n, Hitt. nu, Gk. nu, Lat. nunc, O.Ir. nu, Goth. nu.
de; postpositive, cf. Gk. d.
276
8. Particles
ar, and, thus, therefore, an introductory or connective particle, which is possibly

the origin of some coordinate conjunctions; cf. Lith. ir and, also, Gk. ra, ar, ra
thus, as known. Also reconstructed as -.
ne, thus, cf. Lat. ne, Gk. ne, Skt. n, Lith. nei.
-pe, cf. Lith. ka-p how, Lat. quip-pe because.
sma, truly, cf. Skt. sm, Gk. mn.
swod, as, like, cf. Av. hvat, Goth. swa.
tu, cf. Skt. t, O.C.S. thu-s, Goth. dau(h), Ger. doch.
8.2. ADVERBS
8.2.1. There is a class of invariable words, able to modify nouns and verbs, adding a
specific meaning, whether semantic or deictic. They can be independent words
(adverbs), prefixes of verbal stems (preverbs) originally independent but usually
merged with them and also a nexus between a noun and a verb (appositions),
expressing a non-grammatical relationship, normally put behind, but sometimes
coming before the word.
NOTE. In PIE the three categories are only different uses of the same word class; they were
eventually classified and assigned to only one function and meaning in the different languages
attested. In fact, adverbs are often clearly distinguished from the other two categories in the
history of Indo-European languages, so that they change due to innovation, while preverbs
and appositions remain the same and normally freeze in their oldest attested positions.
8.2.2. Adverbs come usually from old particles which have obtained a specific
deictic meaning. Traditionally, adverbs are deemed to be the result of oblique cases
of old nouns or verbal roots which have frozen in IE dialects, thus loosing inflection.
8.3. DERIVATION OF ADVERBS

8.3.1. Adverbs were regularly formed in PIE from nouns, pronouns and adjectives.
8.3.2. From pronouns we find adverbs made as follows:
i. With a nasal lengthening; as, tm, at that point, jmi, already, teni, until,
kina, from this side, dom, still, num-, now, nom, so.
NOTE. Those in -m are interpreted as being originally acc. sg. fem. of independent forms.
ii. An -s lengthening, added to the adverb and not to the basic form, giving
sometimes alternating adverbs; as, ap/aps, ek/eks, ambh/ambhs, etc.
277
iii. An -r lengthening; as, tor, kir, etc. which is added also to other derived
adverbs. It is less usual than the other two.
NOTE. Compare for such lengthenings Goth. hwar, her, (O.E. where, hier), Lat. cur, O.Ind.
kr-hi, tr-hi, Lith. kur, Hitt. kuwari. Also, IE qor-i, tor-i, kir-i, etc. may show a final
circumstantial -i, probably the same which appears in the oblique cases and in the primary
verbal endings, and which originally meant here and now.
8.3.3. Some older adverbs, derived as the above, were in turn specialised as suffixes
for adverb derivation, helping to create compound adverbs from two pronoun stems:
a. From d, from upwards; as, imde, from there; or nasal -dem.
b. Possibly from root dh-, put, place, there are two particles which give suffixes
with local meaning here, from stems of pronouns, nouns, adverbs and
prepositions, -d(h)em, and -dhei/-dhi; as idhei, there, dhi, in excess.
NOTE. For -dem, cf. Lat. idem, quidam, O.Ind. idn-im; for -dhem, -dhi, Gk. -then, -tha, thi.
c. Some adverbial suffixes with mood sense some with temporal sense, derived
from the older modal; as, ita, so, uta, rather, anta, towards, etc.; and itim,
item, autim, otherwise, uti, out, etc.
NOTE. Compare from PIE -ta (<*-th2), Lat. iti-dem, ut(i), ita, Gk. prot, au-ti, O.Ind. iti,
prti; from -t(i)m, Lat. i-tem, Gk. ei-ta, epei-ta, O.Ind. u-t.
d. In -d: cf. Lat. prob, Osc. prufd; O.Ind. pasct, adhart, purastt.
e. In -nim: cf. Osc. enim and, O.Ind. tsnim silently, maybe also idnim is
*id-nim, not *idn-im.
f. In -tos: cf. Lat. funditus, diuinitus, publicitus, penitus; O.Ind. vistarata in
detail, samkepata, prasangata occasionally, nmatta namely, vastuta
actually, mata by/for me.
g. In -ks: cf. Lat. uix, Gk. , O.Ind. samyak well, prthak separately, Hitt.
hudak directly.
8.3.4. From nouns and adjectives (usually neuter accusatives), frozen as adverbs
already in Late Indo-European. The older endings to form adverbs are the same as
those above, i.e. generally -i, -u and -(i)m.
Common cases of substantives and adjectives include the following, from which
mainly the accusative and locative were productively used (Beekes 1995):
278
8. Particles
The nominative might be behind edju, today (cf. Lat. hodi, O.Ir. indiu, Welsh
heddyw, Skt. ady ).
The accusative singular is found very often in adverbs:
Of content: One of the most extended adverbs was neuter nominativeaccusative singular of the adjective for great, used to mean greatly, mega (cf.
Hitt. mk, Ved. mhi, Gk. mga, O.N. mjk); also, we could infer plim, much,
from plis, more (cf. Gk. pol, O.C.S. mnogo, Lat. multum, Goth. filu).
Of space or time: prmom, firstly; terom, secondly, already seen.
Of direction: cf. Lat. domum<domom, housewards, Skt. drm < drm,
in (toward) the distance.
From an apposition: partim, partly.
The genitive is seen in words which indicate place and time; as, noqtjos, at night
(cf. Gk. nukts, Goth. nahts).
The ablative indicates the origin of something; as, Skt. dr t < drd, from far
away.
The locative is often found; as, pruti, in the previous year (cf. Skt. prut, Gk.
peruse, Ir. uraid, M.H.G. vert), tmesi, in the dark (cf. Skt. tmas, Lat. temere,
blindly), domoi, at home (cf. Gk. okoi, Lat. domi), dhghjesi, yesterday (cf. Skt.
hys, Alb. dje, Gk. khths, Lat. her, O.Ir. in-d, Goth. gistra-), etc.
The instrumental is found in diw, during the day, noqt, during the night (cf.
Skt. dv, O.C.S. nojo i dnjo).
8.4. PREPOSITIONS
8.4.1. Prepositions were not originally distinguished from adverbs in form or
meaning, but have become specialised in use. Originally postpositions, most
eventually became prepositions, being its original placement attested in Anatolian,
Indo-Iranian, Sabellic, and sometimes in Latin and Greek.
NOTE. They developed comparatively late in the history of language. In the early stages of
the Proto-Indo-European language the cases alone were probably sufficient to indicate the
sense, but, as the force of the case-endings weakened, adverbs were used for greater precision.
These adverbs, from their common association with particular cases, became prepositions; but
many retained also their independent function as adverbs.
279
8.4.2. Prepositions are regularly used either with the accusative or with the oblique
cases.
8.4.3. Some examples of common PIE adverbs/prepositions are:
ad, to, by, near; cf. Lat. ad, Goth. at.
ambh, on both sides, around; cf. O.Ind. abh, Gk. amphi, amphis, Lat. am, amb-,
Gaul. ambi, O.Ir. imb-, O.H.G. umbi (as Eng. by, Ger. bei).
ana, to; on, over, above. Cf. O.Ind. na, Gk. n, an, Goth. ana, O.C.S. na.
ant, opposite, in front. Cf. O.Ind. nti, tha, Gk. ant, Lat. ante, Goth. and, Lith.
at; Hitt. anti.
apo, po, from; out. Cf. O.Ind. pa, Gk. apo, aps, apothen, Lat. ab, abs, po- Goth.
af, Slav. po-.
apteri, behind.
au-/we-, out, far. Cf. O.Ind. va, vi-,Lat. au-, u-, Gk. au, authi, autr, O.Ir. , ua,
Toc. -/ot-, O.C.S. u.
d/d, from, to . Cf. Skt. -d , Lat. d, O.Ir. d, O.C.S. -da. Also behind O.H.G. zdal.
deks(), at the right side. Cf. Skt. dkia-, Lith. dinas, Gk. deksis, deksteros.
ek(s) (<*h1egh-s-), out. Cf. Gk. ek(s), Lat. ex, Gaul ex-, O.Ir. ess-.
ekts, except.
en(i)/, in. Cf. O.Ind. ni, nis, Gk. en, en, Lat. in, Goth. in, Lith. in, O.C.S. on, v.
enter, between, within, inside; cf. Skt. antr, Lat. inter, O.Ir. eter, O.H.G. untar,
Alb. ndr.
ents, even, also.
epi, opi, pi, on, upon, by, at, towards here, around, circa. Cf. Gk. epi, opi, pi,
O.Ind. pi, Av. ipi, Lat. ob, op-, -pe, Osc. p-, Gmc. ap-, ep-, Arm. ev, Lith. ap-, O.Ir.
iar, a-, ei-, Alb. pr, etc.
eti, even, also; over. Cf. O.Ind. ti, ta, at, Gk. eti, Lat. et, Goth. i, O.C.S. ot.
kta, by, along, down. Cf. Hitt. katta, Gk. kta, O.Ir. ct, O.W. cant. Perhaps from
kom.
ko(m), together, with; near. Cf. Lat. cum, Ir. co, Goth. ga-.
280
8. Particles
meta, between, with. Cf. Gk. mta, Goth. mi, Ger. mit.
dhos, dher(), down, under. Cf. Av. aairi, O.Ind. dha, dhara-, Lat. infra,
inferus, Goht. undar, Gmc. under-.
dhi, more, over. Cf. O.Ind. dhi, Gk. ntha.
ni, downward, down, under. Cf. Skt. n, O.C.S. ni-z, , and also in the word for
nest, ni-sd-o- (from sed-, sit).
nteros, down, below, inferior. Cf. Skt. nitram, O.H.G. nidar, Eng. nether, etc.
obhi, bhi, in the middle; around, from, to, etc. Cf. Lat. ob towards, to, O.Ind.
abhi, Av. aiwi, Goth. bi.
lteri, beyond.
per(i), over, around, through. Cf. O.Ind. pri, Gk. pri, Lat. per, O.Pruss. per, Alb.
pr.
perti, through, otherwise.
pos/posti/psteri, behind.
poti, toward, cf. Av. paiti, Gk. pti.
psteri, afterwards.
postrd, backwards.
pra, next to.
pri, at the front, in front, ahead. Cf. O.C.S. prd, Lat. prae.
pr iteri, along(side).
pro, in front, opposite; before; forwards, ahead. Cf. O.Ind. pr, Gk. pr, Lat. prd, O.Ir. ro-, Goth. fra (Eng. from), O.Pruss. pra, pro, Lith. pra.
prteri, in front of.
pros, before, ahead. Cf. Skt. purs, Gk. pros. Maybe here Goth. fara (Eng. for).
proti, (over) against. Cf. Skt. prti, O.C.S. protiv, Gk. prti, pros.
rdh, because (of).
sni, sneu, without. Cf. Skt. sanu-tr, Toch. sne/snai, Gk. neu, Lat. sine, O.Ir.
sain.
ster(i), separately, Cf. Gk. ter, M.H.G. sunder.
281
som, together. Cf. Skt. sm, O.C.S. s, Lith. sam-.

trs, trntis, through. Cf. Skt. tirs, O.Ir. tar, Lat. trans, O.Ir. tre. From the same
root Goth. airh.
ud(s), on high. Cf. Skt. d, O.C.S. vy-, Goth. t (Ger. aus).
upr(i), on, over, above. Cf. O.Ind. upri, Gk. hupr, Lat. s-uper. O.Ir. for, Goth.
ufar, Arm. (i) ver.
upo, under, down, below. O.Ind. pa, Gk. hup, Lat. s-ub, O.Ir. fo, Goth. uf.
w, separately.
NOTE. Further information e.g. in <http://eprints.ucm.es/tesis/fll/ucm-t26697.pdf>.
8.5. CONJUNCTIONS
8.5.1. Conjunctions, like prepositions, are closely related to adverbs, and are either
petrified cases of nouns, pronouns and adjectives, or obscured phrases: as, jod, an
old accusative. Most conjunctions are connected with pronominal adverbs, which
cannot always be referred to their original case-forms.
8.5.2. Conjunctions connect words, phrases or sentences. They are divided in two
main classes, coordinate and subordinate.
8.5.3. Coordinates are the oldest ones, which connect coordinated or similar
constructions. Most of them were usually put behind and were normally used as
independent words. They are:
i. Copulative or disjunctive, implying a connection or separation of thought as well
as of words; as, -qe, and, -w, or, toqe, also, joqe, atqe, and, itaqe, and also,
neqe, nor, enim, and.
NOTE 1. Postpositive particles were placed directly after the word (or first word of the
phrase or clause) that was being conjoined or disjoined; -qe, it can be put once or twice; cf.
Lat. arma uirumque can, Arms and the man I sing, Lat. sentus populusque the senate and
the people, Skt. dev ca surs ca, Gods and Asuras, Gk. patr andrn te then te father of
men and gods. The same can be said of -we, cf. Skt. nkta v dv v, during the night or
during the day.
NOTE 2. For PIE neqe, compare Lat. ne-que, Gk. -, Arm. o-c, O.Ir. n, n, Welsh ne-u,
O.Bret. no-u, Alb. a-s, Lyc. ne-u, Luw. na-pa-wa, and for PIE mqe, in Greek and IndoIranian, but also in Toch. ma-k and Alb. mo-s. The parallel newe is found in Anatolian, IndoIranian, Italic and Celtic dialects.
282
8. Particles
ii. Adversative, implying a connection of words, but a contrast in thought: as, ma,
but, auti, or, autim, perti, otherwise, ati, but, d, and, but, ekts, excepted.
NOTE. Adversative conjunctions of certain antiquity are at(i) (cf. Goth. adh-, Lat. at, Gk.
atr), (s)ma/(s)me (cf. Hitt.,Pal. ma, Lyd. -m, Lyc. me, Gk. m, m, Messap. min), auti (cf.
Lat. autem, aut, Gk. aute, authis, autis, autr), d, and, but (cf. O.Ind. d, Av. ()at, Lith. o,
Sla. a), etc. In general, the oldest IE languages attested use the same copulative postpositive
conjunctions as adversatives, their semantic value ascertained by the context.
iii. Causal, introducing a cause or reason: as, nam, for.

iv. Illative, denoting an inference: as, tori, therefore, ar, thus, therefore, ita,
swi, so, dha, then, s(w)eike, thus.
8.5.4. Subordinates connect a subordinate or independent clause with that on
which it depends. They were introduced in PIE generally with relative clauses. The
(rare) conjunctions that could have subordinate value included:
a. j/jd, how, as; jod/qod, that; jwod, so long as; all have a general
subordinate value, usually relative, final or conditional.
NOTE. For common derivatives of PIE jo, related to the relative pronoun, compare for jod,
qod, that, Skt. yd, Gk. h, hti, Lith. kd, Lat. quod, Goth. at-ei; for j, jd, how, as, Skt.
y d, Av. y, Gk. h(s), Myc. jodososi /j-dsonsi/ as they shall give; for jwod cf. Skt. yav t,
Gk. hos>hs; for -jo (probably replaced by -qe) Hitt. -a/-ya, Toch. -/yo.
b. Conditional, denoting a condition or hypothesis; as, mn, if, ei, in that case,
nemn, unless, sd, sni, apart.
NOTE. For ei, possibly related to i-, hence to jo, cf. Goth. -ei, Gk. e, O.C.S. i, Lat. s-.
c. Comparative, implying comparison as well as condition; as, mn, as if.

d. Concessive, denoting a concession or admission; as, eti, even, an, perhaps, au,
howbeit, although, perom, besides.
NOTE. For eti, even, and, cf. Lat. et, Gk. eti, maybe nasalised ti in Germanic und-, as
Goth., Eng. and.
e. Temporal: as, ant, pri, before, pos(ti), after.

g. Final, expressing purpose; as, uta, in order that, ne, that not.
h. Causal, expressing cause; as, jodqid, because.
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8.6. INTERJECTIONS
Interjections are natural exclamations of pain, surprise, horror and so forth, and
they are onomatopoeic in nature.
These are the most common IE interjections, not taking into account pure examples
of onomatopoeia, like boom! and the like (from Beekes 1995, MalloryAdams 2007):
(surprise, pain); cf. Skt. , Lith. (a), Gk. , Lat , ah, Goth. o.
ai (surprise, pity); cf. Skt. e, ai, Av. i, Lith. a, ai, Gk. a, aia, Lat. ai.
bh, truly; cf. Av. b(t), Lith. b, Gk. ph.
bheu, bh (pain); cf. Gk. pheu, ph, Lat. f, f.
(exclamation, vocative-particle); cf. Skt. , Lith. , Gk. , Lat. eh (-castor by
Castor); perhaps O.H.G. nein- oh no;
(exclamation, vocative-particle); cf. Gk., Lat. , O.Ir. ,a, Lith., Goth. o, Eng. oh.
eheu (complaint); cf. Skt. aho, Lat. eheu.
ha (surprise); cf. Skt. ha, Gk. h, Lat. h, M.H.G. ha.
ha ha (laughter); cf. Skt. ha ha, Russ. xa xa, Gk. h h, Lat. hahae, N.H.G. ha ha.
Compare khkhatnos, laugh, and the verb Skt. kkhati, C.S. xoxotati, Arm xaxank
laughter, Gk. kakhz, Lat. cachinn, O.H.G. kachazzen, suggesting that one may
have laughed kha kha! earlier in PIE (Beekes 1995).
wai! woe, alas! (grief); cf. Latv. wai, Arm. vay, Lat. vae, O.Ir. fe, W. gwae, Goth.
wai, Eng. woe. Lat. vae victis woe to the vanquished.
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PART III
SYNTAX
Like Pini, we havent made and probably couldnt make any conventional selection of
the proper IE syntax, since [t]o do so explicitly and incontrovertibly would be difficult in any
language, given several ways of expressing the same idea and various other ways of expressing
closely similar ideas (Coulson 2003). We have nevertheless collected some studies on the
common PIE syntax, with examples attested in the older dialects, so that the natural means of
expression of Proto-Indo-Europeans their principles and parameters (Chomsky-Lasnik
1993) are properly exposed, for the learner to adopt the correct setting.
The most comprehensive summary available on PIE morphosyntax was written by Matthias
Fritz in Indo-European Linguistics (Michael Meier-Brgger, 2003), pp. 238-276.
The most comprehensive, widely referenced work on sentence syntax is still Winfred Philipp
Lehmanns Proto-Indo-European Syntax (1974). It has been made available online for free at
the
University
of
Texas
at
Austin
Linguistics
Research
Center
<http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/books/pies00.html>.
Excellent recent works on syntax include Benjamin W. Fortson IV Indo-European Language
and Culture (2004), pp. 137-153, and James Clacksons Indo-European linguistics (2007), pp.
157-186.
Their texts have been adapted to this grammar, omitting specialised comments, references
to academic articles, or the source of examples in the different old IE languages, so that any
reader interested in further information on IE syntax should read the original works.
Collection of texts arranged and adapted by Carlos Quiles
9. Morphosyntax
9. MORPHOSYNTAX
9.1. VERBAL MORPHOSYNTAX
In addition to its lexical meaning, the finite verb consists of grammatical categories,
which are in turn composed of the following five dimensions: person, number, mode,
tense-aspect, and diathesis.
There are three categories of number (singular, dual and plural), four modes
(indicative, imperative, subjunctive, optative), three tense-aspects (present, aorist,
perfect), and three voices (active, middle, passive).
9.1.1. PERSON
1. There are three dimensions in person, classified according to classical
grammarians: In the singular, the first person indicates the speaker; the second, the
person to whom he speaks; and the third, that about which one speaks.
The first person refers to an object thought of as animated, whether a human being
or not. The second person refers to the being or object thought of as listening. The
third person may indicate living beings or objects.
The 1st plural may indicate that there is more than one speaker, and the 2nd plural
that there are more than one listener, but they could refer to the speaker or listener
as groups (M. Fritz 2003).
NOTE. The distinction between the inclusive first person plural (we, i.e. including the
speaker, his group, and the listener) and exclusive first person plural (we, i.e. the speaker and
his group, without the inclusion of the listener) cannot be reconstructed as Proto-IndoEuropean. That which is true of the plural, also applies to the dual (M. Fritz 2003)
9.1.2. TENSE-ASPECT AND MOOD

TENSE-ASPECT
The Proto-Indo-European tense-aspect system shows three common formations:
perfect or stative stem (expressing a state of being), present or imperfective stem
(depicting ongoing, habitual or repeated action), and aorist or perfective stem
(depicting a completed action or actions viewed as an entire process). In the
indicative mood the present or imperfect stem was conjugated in two tenses: present
and past.
287
NOTE. In the post-Proto-Indo-European period, there were, aside from the languages that
continued the use of the subjunctive, various other means of expressing future actions,
including a new future stem formation, v.s. 7.4.2. Periphrastic future was express by means
of an auxiliary verb, usually meaning become in North-West IE, while Hittite had come o
go (cf. Hitt. uwami/paimi) + present. Vedic had also a form in -tar- (nomen agentis) +
copula.
Examples (Fritz 2003):

a) Present: Lat. aperiuntur aedes the house is opened; Gk. nston dzdnai
melida You seek honey-sweet homecoming, Ved. dki
vam dki g
dadti the Daki gives a steed, the Daki gives a cow.

b) Imperfect: Lat. nam ego ibam ad te for I came to you; Gk. mla gr kraters
emkhonto for they fought very hard.
c) Aorist: Gk. tn rh' bale prtos It was him that he hit first; Ved. ray ca
putr
cdd He gave riches and sons.
d) Perfect: Lat. servos es, liber fuisti A slave you are; free you have been; Gk. kak
d khro emata emai I clothe bad garment on my skin; Ved. ap rireca he released
the water.
INDICATIVE
The indicative is used for statements to which the speaker lends validity: By using
the indicative, the speaker gives his statement the character of a true statement.
Whether or not the contents of the statements in fact correspond to reality, is of
course uncertain (M. Fritz 2003).
Examples Gk. ep khthon banei (s)he runs on the earth; Ved. candrm
apsvntr
supar dhvate div the beautifully winged moon runs in the waters
across the sky.
IMPERATIVE
According to M. Fritz (2003), the imperative holds a special place in the verbal
paradigm, similar to that in the nominal paradigm occupied by the vocative, which
is equally directed to a listener, and with which the imperative shares the formal
characteristic of having a singular form which is composed of the stem without an
ending, with no sign of its connection to the sentence.
288
9. Morphosyntax
Examples Lat. habe bonum animum have good courage; Gk. ll ge mmnete
pntes come now, stay; Ved. t
indra shase piba Drink this, oh Indra, for
strength.
SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE

According to Delbrcks investigations of fundamental notions (Ai. Syntax 1888),
the subjunctive mood expresses a will, while the optative mood expresses a wish. It is
important to note that the will or the wish (as the case may be) that is meant is that of
the speaker, and not that of the subject, or, more precisely stated, that of the actor
that is designated by the nominative form. The wish of the subject was originally
expressed through its own derivational verbal form, namely, the desiderative (M.
Fritz 2003).
1. The subjunctive, which originally indicates the future, has three main functions
(Mendoza 1998):
In its voluntative function, it indicates the will of the speaker; as, Gk. mp
ekese men lit. not-yet there-to we-should-go; Ved. s dev n h vaksati lit.
(that) he the-gods here should-bring.
In its deliberative function, it indicates the deliberation of the speaker; as, Gk.
p i gr lit. where-to, thenI-shall-go?; Ved. kath
mah rudryya
bravma lit. how from-the-great-court of-Rudra we-shall-talk?

In its prospective function, it serves to express things that happen in the
future; as, Gk. ei de ke m dsin, eg d ken autos hlmai if Ptc. Ptc. theygive not (to me), I Ptc. Ptc. myself will-take (it) .
According to M. Fritz (2003), the subjunctive is used to express his will when he
considers that it is within his power to bring about the verbal action. A declaration of
will in a strict sense is only possible when the speaker has direct influence on events,
such that that which is desired may also be executed. This means that a true
expression of will may only be in the first person singular, while all other cases are
equally requests. If the first person subjunctive is taken as a request made of oneself,
a connection to the second and third person subjunctive is possible in which the
speaker has no direct influence on the realization of the verbal action, so that the
statement may only be understood as a request. A further connection may be made
289
with the 1st person plural, in which the speaker communicates his own will, and at the
same time directs a request to others.
Examples (Fritz 2003):
a) 1 sg.: Lat. quod perdundumst properem perdere what may be lost, I will/want to
hurry up and lose; Gk. ll ge o ka eg d ksenion thus I will/want to give a gift of
welcome also to him; Ved. pur
v vry pr brav jne, your earlier heroic
deeds I will/want to announce to all people; Ved. pr n voc sutu vm On the

occasion of the pressing, I thus will/want to announce the heroic deeds of both of
you.
b) 1 pl.: Gk. nn d mnsmetha drpou now we will/want to think about the
meal; Ved. svastye vym pa bravmahai We will/want to call to Vaayu for the
sake of welfare.
c) 2nd person: Lat. taceas you should remain silent; Ved. abh na skhnm
avit
jaritrn m satm bhavsi tbhi you, oh helper of the singers friends,
will/should protect us well with a hundred helps.

d) 3rd person: Lat. sed uti adserventur magna diligentia but they should be
guarded with great care; Gk. o gr ts me bi ge hek n akonta dtai For none
will/should force me to leave against my own will; Gk. ka pot tis episi ka
psignn anthrpn and one day, even one of the descendants will say; Ved. s
sunvat ca stuvat ca rsate who will/should give both to him who presses, and to
him who prizes; Ved. s no vvni hvanni joad That man will/should be
friendly and take receipt of all our sacrifices.
2. The optative, which originally indicates possibility, has three functions (Mendoza
1998):
A desiderative function, expressing the wish of the speaker; as Gk. eth hs
hboimi lit. I-wish that I-would-be-young; Ved. ahm pratham pibeyam
lit. I the-first want-to-drink.
An exhortative function; as, Gk. k rks ts hoi hpoito lit. (that) herald one
him accompanies.
A potential function expressing possibility or potentiality; as, Gk. nn gr ken
hloi plin lit. now really ptc can-take the-city.
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9. Morphosyntax
According to M. Fritz (2003), when the optative is used to express a wish, the
speaker indicates that he is not directly able to bring about the verbal action. The
optative proves to be more uniform that the subjunctive, given that in its cupitive
function, the optative, independently of the category of person, always indicates a
simple wish of the speaker, regardless of his influence on the realization of the verbal
action.
Examples of the potential function: Lat. nec me miserior femina est neque ulla
videatur magis a more miserable woman than myself does not exist, and will most
probably never be seen; Lat. roget quis one might ask; Gk. o tis kenon anr
alalmenos elthn alllln peseie gunak te ka phlon huin a man, who comes
travelling with news of that, could not convince his son and the woman; Ved. vvo
devsya netr mrto vurta sakhym each mortal will likely desire the friendship of
the leading god.
Examples of the desiderative function:
a) 1st person: Gk. nn d klos esthln apomn and now I would like to wrest noble
fame; Ved. vvbhir grbhr abh prtm aym by all songs, I would like to obtain
fulfillment; Ved. sy md ndrasya srmani we would like to be under Indras
protection.
b) 3rd person: Lat. ut illum di deaeque senium perdant that elder is the one that the
gods and the goddesses would like to ruin; Gk. humn mn theo doen to you
indeed, the gods like to give; Gk. allautou gaa mlaina psi khnoi the black earth
should open to all precisely here; Ved. dev vo devayajyygnim ta mrtya
the mortal should praise your god Agni through worship.
In terms of content, the similarity between the prospective function of the
subjunctive and the potential function of the optative is evident in the comparison of
Gk. ka pot tis episin one day, someone will say and Gk. ka pot tis epoi one
day, someone will in all likelihood say.
9.1.3. VOICE
1. Active and middle voices are distinguished formally by their endings, see above.
NOTE. According to Fortson (2004), in traditional grammatical usage, active means that
the subject is doing the action rather than being acted upon, while middle means the subject is
either acting upon itself or is in some other way internal to the action. This rough guideline
291
works reasonably well for verbs that could inflect in either voice () But in many other cases,
the distinction between active and middle inflection was purely a formal one: there were some
verbs that inflected only in the active and others only in the middle, without clear difference in
meaning. Verbs having only middle inflection are often called middle verbs. (Students familiar
with Latin can think of these as equivalent to the Latin deponent verbs active in meaning
but having only passive endings, which come historically from the PIE middle.).
For Clackson (2007): Combining the functions of the middle in opposition to the active and
the semantics of the lexical stems which are associated with the middle, we can say something
of the prototypical use of the middle, which appears to be dependent on how speakers view the
semantic role of the subject. The middle is the voice used to denote that the subject is in some
way affected by the verbal action. Thus, for transitive verbs the active typically represents the
subject as the actor, and the middle represents the subject as the undergoer. For intransitive
verbs the middle is preferred when there is some notion of control over the verbal action
(hence the middle inflection of think and speak), but if the verb denotes an event or action
where the participant cannot have control, the active is used (thus be, vomit and wait).
3. The function of the category passive, which appears in many IE languages, but
did not exist as a grammatical category in Proto-Indo-European, was performed by
the middle voice (Fritz 2003, Fortson 2004, Clackson 2007). The various IE
languages that feature a passive voice each formed it independently from each other
(Fritz 2003).
9.2. NOMINAL MORPHOSYNTAX

9.2.1. NOMINATIVE
According to M. Fritz (2003), the nominative indicates the theme of the sentence
which, in a non-marked sentence, is placed in sentence-initial position. Other
sentence elements are also thematized in taking the sentence-initial position, which,
in the non-marked sentence, is reserved for the subject.
The Proto-Indo-European nominative does not indicate the subject of an action in
the logical sense, but rather in the sense that appears to the observer to be bearer and
middle-point of the action that is expressed by the verb (Delbrck 1879).
The concept of the subject is itself difficult to grasp; for H.-J. Sasse it is a
syntactical relation with semantic and pragmatic functions [the] sentence element
that is indicated as the subject has a doubled function as it is both pragmatic (as an
292
9. Morphosyntax
indicator of the topic of the sentence) and semantic (as an identifier of the agent).
This double-function finds expressing in its syntactical characteristics (Sasse, 1982).
9.2.3. VOCATIVE
According to M. Fritz (2003), the vocative is the nominal form that is used for
addressing a listener. There is only a distinct vocative in the singular, and even then,
not all nominal paradigms feature a separate vocative form. Where there is no
separate vocative, its function is taken by the nominative. The same occurs when two
actions of addressing are linked: While the first is in the vocative, the second is in the
nominative. Examples: Gk. Zde pterlis th Oh father Zeus (voc.) and
Helios (nomin.); Ved. gna ndra ca Oh Agni (voc.) and Indra (nomin.).
NOTE. On the v yav ndra ca construction, Fortson (2004): It was apparently a rule of
PIE grammar that when two vocatives were conjoined, the one preceding the conjunction was
put in the nominative rather than the vocative case. Almost all the examples of this come from
Vedic, as in the phrase v yav ndra ca o Indra and Vayu after which the construction is
named. In this example, the god Vayus name is in the vocative but Indra's is in the
nominative, as it precedes the conjunction ca and. The sole example outside Indo-Iranian is
from an archaic passage in the Iliad already seen, Zde pterlis th.
i. The vocative element in the sentence receives no accent. Example: Ved. asm
vra mdayethm Enjoy yourselves nicely, you two heroes, in our company.
ii. In Old Indian, when the vocative forms a sentence of its own, and is thus in
sentence-initial position, it receives stress, regardless of its normal nominal accent,
on its first syllable, i.e. on the first syllable of the sentence. In this case, sentence
stress is meant and not word stress. Example: Ved. dv j vata Gods! Live!
9.2.4. ACCUSATIVE
According to M. Fritz (2003), the accusative has the following functions:
a) Accusative of direction: it expresses that the verbal action bears an orientation in
terms of space; as, Gk. rkhesthon klisn go both of you to your tent; Gk. hsoi
keklato bouln who where summoned for consultation; Ved. yad
mkha
gachaty thodra gachati if it goes to the mouth, then it goes to the stomach.
b) Accusative of extent: is further used to express spatial or chronological expanse;
as, Lat. noctem in stramentis pernoctare to pass one night in the straw; Gk. dours
293
ern at a spear throws distance; Gk. khema in the winter; Ved. saptdaa
pravydh n j dhvanti they run a race for a distance of seventeen times the
range of one shot; Ved. s asvatth savatsarm atihat he remained in the
Asvattha (tree) for one year.
c) Accusative of relation: it expresses the relation of the verbal action to a referent
in a non-spatial sense; as, Lat. indutumpallam clothed in a dress; Gk. melaneto
d khra kaln and she was reddened on her beautiful skin; Ved. nina krtkrt
tapata neither things done, nor things undone hurt this one.
d) Object accusative: it indicates the direct object in the case of transitive verbs; as,
Ved. jghran vi td ghrtvya n jighrati truly smelling, he smells not what is to
be smelled.
e) Accusative of content: used when the contents of a verb are additionally
expressed through a noun which appears in the accusative; as, Lat. quod bonis bene
fit beneficium which charitable act is well direct to the good; Gk. lloi d mph
llisi mkhn emkhonto nessin here and there they fought the fight for the ships;
Ved. yd y ma y nti vybhi when they go the way with the winds.
9.2.5. INSTRUMENTAL
According to M. Fritz (2003), the instrumental case indicates that which
accompanies the verbal activity. This meaning forms the basis from which other
meanings have developed:
a) Instrumental of accompaniment: in the case of a person, it indicates that the
person executes, or helps to execute the action; as, Lat. postquam utrimque exitum
est maxuma copia after they marched up in great numbers on both sides; Gk.
enthd hikneis n te ka hetroisi you arrive here with the ship and the
companions; Ved. dev devbhir
Ved. vvair mebhir
gamat the god should come here with the gods;
gahi come here with all helpers; Ved. div stave duhit
gtamebhi the daughter of the heavens is prized by the Gotamas.

b) Instrumental of means: in the case of inanimate objects, the instrumental
indicates the means by which the verbal action is executed; as, Lat. neque etiam queo
/ pedibus mea sponte ambulare and I cannot even walk around independently on
my own feet; Lat. vehimur navi we sail with the ship; Gk. kephali katanes I will
nod with my head; Gk. pteto pnoiis anmoio he flew with a breath of the wind;
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9. Morphosyntax
Ved. at cko akbhi the god that sees with a hundred eyes; Ved. nvva
y ntam as to those who go with the ship.
c) Instrumental of route: Lat. nemo ire quemquam publica prohibet via no one
hinders another from walking on a public street; Lat. terra marique on earth and
sea; Ved. antrikea ptatm which fly in the air; Ved. h ytam pathbhir
devay nai comes this way on divine paths; Ved. mitrsya yym path I would
walk on Mitras path.
d) Instrumental of constitution: Lat. amphoram defracto collo an amphora with a
broken neck; Myc. ti-ri-po e-me po-de i.e. tripos hem pod a tripod with one leg;
Ved. dy m iva strbhi like the heavens with the stars.
e) Instrumental of accompanying circumstances: in the indication of temporal
circumstances, the instrumental bears a resemblance to the temporal locative; as, Gk.
tetiti thumi with a worried temperament; Gk. phthngi eperkhmenai coming
forward with noise; Ved. t sryo jyti dev ti up comes the divine sun with
light; Ved. ndram
via brhat rvea go to Indra with great noise.
f) Instrumental of reason: Lat. nam mihi horror membra misero percipit dictis tuis
for fright seizes from poor me my limbs because of your words; Gk. gthosni out
of joy; Skt. s bh
n lilye he hid himself out of fear.
g) Instrumental of comparison: Lat. qui omens homines supero antideo

cruciabilitatibus animi I, who supersede all men, surpass in tortures of the heart;
Gk. eurteros d moisin wider, however, than the shoulders.
9.2.6. DATIVE
According to M. Fritz (2003), the dative had the following uses:
a) Relational dative: when used to indicate people, the dative indicates an actor or
actors who receive (action; [indirect] object dative) or possess (state; possessive
dative); as, Lat. nullan tibi lingua est? have you no tongue?; Lat. tibi me exorno ut
placeam I adorn myself for you, in order to please; Lat. quoniam vox mihi prope hic
sonat? what voice thus sounds for me so near?; Lat. nunc tibi amplectimur genua
now we shall seize your knees; Lat. mihi quidem atque oculis meis indeed for me
and my eyes; Gk. ho d nteon allloisin and they met one another; Gk. tide d
eg n auts thrksomai and for this one I will arm myself; Gk. autos d helria
295
tekhe knessin and he gave them to the dogs as prey; Gk. md moi hots thne
do not rage so to me; Gk. tosi d thumn en stthessin rine and he stirred the
soul in their chests; Gk. damosin enai alitrs to be a sinner to the gods; Ved.
ddhti rtna vidhatmrtyya he distributed wealth to the devoted mortal;
Ved. dev n devayat yaja sacrifice to the gods for the worshipper of gods; Ved.
tithis c rur yve a dear guest for the son of yu.
b) Dativus finalis: when applied to abstract nouns, the dative indicates that the
noun is the goal of an action; as, Lat. ut quaestui habeant male loqui melioribus that
they have it as a gain, that they speak badly of their betters; Lat. khrmi
prokalssato he called out to battle; Lat. rdhvs tih na tye be there upright
to support us.
9.2.7. ABLATIVE
According to M. Fritz (2003), the ablative expresses the place of origin of the verbal
action. Accordingly, the ablative is principally featured when a locatum moves, or is
moved, away from a relatum. Its functions include:
a) Ablative of place of origin: refers to a spatial idea, relating to separation, which is
accompanied by a movement away; as, Lat. primus cubitu surgat he gets up out of
bed first; Lat. cunctos exturba aedibus drive all from the house; Gk. nen mn
ekhrsan they retreated from the ships; Gk. ouk n d tnd ndra mkhs ersaio
could you not push this man from the fight?; Ved. yr g vo n yvasd gop
they went like cows from the field without a herdsman; Ved. tv dsy r kasa
agna ja you, oh Agni, drive the Dasyus from their homeland.
b) Ablativus originis: it is used to indicate the object in relation to which a
compared object differs; as, Lat. quo de genere natust from which family he
originates; Ved. ukr kr
d ajania the shining one was born from the darkness;
Ved. sata sd ajyata from the non-being came the being forth.
c) Ablativus separativus: Gk. ot on esthtos deuseai and you will not lack in
clothing; Gk. md m ruke mkhs do not hold me back from battle.
d) Ablativus comparationis: Lat. levior pluma est gratia thanks is lighter than a
feather; Gk. eo khra mkhi worse than he in battle; Gk. pol glukn mlitos
much sweeter than honey; Ved. svd sv dyo sweeter than sweets; Ved. shasa
cid shyn stronger even than the strong.
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9. Morphosyntax
9.2.8. GENITIVE
According to M. Fritz (2003), the genitive had the following functions:
a) Partitive: in its partitive root meaning the genitive expresses that a part is meant
of the noun in the genitive case; as, Lat. modiussalis a scoop of salt; Gk. ltoo
phagn eating of lotus; Gk. os in the morning.
b) Genitivus qualitatis: Lat. lauri folia leaves of the laurel; Gk. kp d elphantos
epen a handle of ivory was on it.
c) Genitivus possessivus: Lat. patris amicus the fathers friend; Gk. Dis rtemis
Artemis (daughter) of Zeus; Gk. patrs dem gathoo and I am (the son) of a
noble father.
d) Genitivus relationis: it is used in comparisons to indicate that with which
something is compared; as, Lat. monstri simile similar to a miracle; Gk.
trpodos peridmethon lbtos both of us are betting a tripod and a basin; Gk.
psato gonn she touched the knee.
The genitive may often replace other cases without expressing their meaning; it
lends an additional partitive meaning to the meaning that the expected case would
have brought
9.2.9. LOCATIVE
According to M. Fritz (2003) , the locative had these uses:
a) Locative of place: the local meaning of the locative is not limited to a certain part
of the object, but rather may just as well pertain to its interior, exterior, or
environment; Lat. homo idem duobus locis ut simul sit that the same man should be
in two places at the same time; Gk. aithri nan living in the heavens; Gk. sti d
tis nsos mssi al there is an island in the middle of the sea; Gk. reos koruphi
on the peak of the mountain; Gk. et reos koruphisi Ntos katkheuen omkhln
as when Notos (=the south wind) pours fog down from the mountain top; Ved.
mdhye samudr in the middle of the sea; Ved.
y vvni v ry vsni
hstayor dadh (lit. who all desirable-ACC. goods-ACC. hand-LOC-DU put-PERF-3sg-med.) who holds all treasures that one could desire to have in his own hands;
Ved. hann him prvate iriym he smote the dragon that had occupied the
mountain; Ved. prvatasya prh on the back of the mountain; Ved. srasvaty
297
revd agne didhi shine beautifully on the Sarasvati (river) oh Agni; Ved. tsmin n
jahi vjram Strike him with the cudgel!.
b) Locativus temporalis: when the noun indicates, e.g. a unit of time, the use of the
locative only reveals the original spatial metaphor that underlies the concept of a
temporal relation; as, Lat. tempore uno at one time; Gk. r in the spring; Gk.
mati ti on this day; Ved. y dev sas trr hann yjante whom the gods
summon three times a day.
c) Locativus conditionis: the spatial idea may be carried over to the most various
circumstances; as, Ved. vidthe santu dev the gods should be present at the
sacrifice; Ved. vve dev havi mdayadhvam all of you gods amuse yourselves at
the pouring of libations.
9.2.10. CASE FORMS: ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS

Nonmandatory case forms are found in great variety, as may be determined from
the studies of substantival inflections and their uses. Five groups of adverbial
elements are identified: (1) circumstance, purpose, or result; (2) time; (3) place; (4)
manner; (5) means (Lehmann 1974).
CIRCUMSTANCE, PURPOSE OR RESULT
Additional case forms may be used to indicate the purpose, result, or circumstance
of an action. So e.g. the instrumental in Skt. mry na suast Be gracious to us for
our well-being (Lehmann 1974).
The dative was commonly used in this sense, as in the infinitival form Skt. pr a
yur jvse soma tr Extend our years, soma, for our living [so that we may live
long]; Hitt. nu-kan mNana-Luin kuin DUMU.LUGAL ANA mNuwanza haluki para
nehhun and the prince NanaLUi whom I sent to Nuwanza to convey the message
where Hittite dative noun haluki message (Raman 1973).
When an animate noun is involved, this use of the dative has been labelled the
indirect object; as, Skt. rikti kr rau ya pnthm (lit. he-yields black to-ruddy
path) Black night gives up the path to the red sun.
NOTE. As these examples may indicate, the dative, like the other cases, must be interpreted
with reference to the lexical properties of the verbal element.
298
9. Morphosyntax
TIME
A further adverbial segment in sentences indicates the time of occurrence. The
cases in question are various, as in Skt. dv nkta rum asmd yuyotam By day
and during the night protect us from the arrow. The nominal form dv by day,
which with change of accent is no longer an instrumental but an adverbial form
outside the paradigm, and the accusative nkta during the night differ in
meaning. The instrumental, like the locative, refers to a point in time, though the
point may be extended; the accusative, to an extent of time. Differing cases
accordingly provide different meanings for nouns marked for the lexical category
time (Lehmann 1974).
PLACE
According to Fritz (2003), The Proto-Indo-European cases with local meaning are
the locative, accusative, and the ablative. These cases designate a general spatial
relationship between two objects, which include places (which are concrete objects)
and actions (in which concrete persons or objects participate). The locative simply
organizes spatially. With the accusative and the ablative, the concept of direction
comes into play, with each indicating an opposing direction: The accusative indicates
that the verbal action is oriented toward the object referent; the ablative indicates
that the verbal action is oriented away from the object referent. These local
dimensions then serve in a process of transfer that is itself the result of cognitive
reflection equally to describe temporal relations and other circumstances.
A. The accusative indicates the goal of an action, as in Lat. Rmam re go to Rome,
Hitt. tu alkitan tarnahhe and those (birds) I release to the branch (Otten and
Souek 1969).
B. The instrumental indicates the place over which an action extends (Macdonell
1916): srasvaty ynti they go along the Sarasvat.
C. The ablative indicates the starting point of the action: s rtht papta he fell
from his chariot; and the following example from Hittite (Otten and Souek 1969):
iaz ()mit llan AN.BARa [d]i He takes the iron tongue out of their mouths.
D. The locative indicates a point in space, e.g., Skt. div in heaven or the locative
kardi in heart, in the following Hittite example (Otten and Souek): kardi-mi-iaat-kn dahhun And I took away that [illness which was] in your heart.
299
Nouns with lexical features for place and for time may be used in the same
sentence, as in Skt. stam pa nktam eti He goes during the night to the house.
Although both nouns are in the accusative, the differing lexical features lead to
different interpretations of the case. In this way, inflectional markers combine with
lexical features to yield a wide variety of adverbial elements.
MANNER
Among the adverbial elements which are most diverse in surface forms are those
referring to manner. Various cases are used, as follows (Lehmann 1974).
A. The accusative is especially frequent with adjectives, such as Skt. kiprm
quickly, bah greatly, nyk downward.
B. The instrumental is also used, in the plural, as in Skt. mhobhi mightily, as
well as in the singular, shas suddenly.
Similar to the expression of manner is the instrumental used to express the sense of
accompaniment: Skt. dev devbhir gamat May the god come [in such a way that
he is] accompanied by the other gods.
C. The ablative is also used to express manner in connection with a restricted
number of verbs such as those expressing fear: rjante vv ktrmi bh All
creatures tremble fearfully.
MEANS
Adverbial expressions of means are expressed especially by the instrumental; as,
Skt. han vtrm ... ndro vjrea Indra killed ... Vrtra with his bolt. The noun
involved frequently refers to an instrument; cf. Hitt. kalulupu mu gapinit
hulaliemi (lit. fingers their with-thread I-wind) I wind the thread around their
fingers.
Animate nouns may also be so used. When they are, they indicate the agent: agnn
turva ydu parvta ugr deva havmahe Through Agni we call from far
Turvasa, Yadu, and Ugradeva. This use led to the use of the instrumental as the
agent in passive constructions (Lehmann 1974).
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10. SENTENCE SYNTAX

10.1. THE SENTENCE
A sentence is a form of words which contains a statement, a question, an
exclamation, or a command.
The fundamental order of sentences in PIE appears to be OV. Support for this
assumption is evident in the oldest texts of the materials attested earliest in the IE
dialects. Examples of this include the following, from Fortson (2004): Hitt. nu=za
MUilluyanka DIM-an
tarata And the serpent overcame the Stormgod; Ved.
maruto ha enam na ajahu Indeed the Maruts did not abandon him; Lat.
Eumolpus tanquam litterrum stdisus utque trmentum habet Eumolpus, so
interested in learning, surely has (some) ink; Runic ek hlewagastiz holtijaz horna
tawido I, Hlewagastiz of Holt, made (this) horn; Toch. A. ksu om-klyu tsraii
k klymentwa stkatar Good fame of the strong spreads out in ten directions.
NOTE. Lehmann (1974): The fundamental order of sentences in these early dialects cannot
be determined solely by frequency of sentence patterns. For, like other linguistic
constructions, sentence patterns manifest marked as well as unmarked order. Marked order is
expected in literary materials. The documents surviving from the earliest dialects are virtually
all in verse or in literary forms of prose. Accordingly many of the individual sentences do not
have the unmarked order, with verb final. For this reason conclusions about the characteristic
word order of PIE and the early dialects will be based in part on those syntactic patterns that
are rarely modified for literary and rhetorical effect: comparative constructions, the presence
of postpositions and prepositions, and the absence of prefixes ().
Lehmann is criticised by Friedrich (1975) who, like Watkins (1976) and Miller (1975),
support a VO prehistoric situation, probably SVO (like those found in central IE areas), with
non-consistent dialectal SOV findings. In any case (viz. Lehmann and Miller), an older PIH
OV (VSO for Miller), as attested in Hittite, would have been substituted by a newer VO (SOV
for Miller, later SVO through a process of verb transposition) thus, all Indo-European
dialects attested have evolved (therefore probably from a common post-Proto-Indo-European
trend) into a modern VO.
Fortson (2004): Part of the problem with it is arriving at a clear definition of a verb-final
language. In the strict sense, a verb-final language is one where the verb always comes at the
end of each clause unless other factors intervene. The only well-known older PIE language
that meets this criterion is Hittite. No matter what the genre, no matter how stylistically
marked the text, the verb in Hittite is always clause-final, with one exception when it is
fronted to the beginning of the clause for emphasis or contrast (). None of the other old IE
languages behaves so rigidly (); there is essentially no position in the clause (on the surface
at least) where the verb cannot appear.
It is usually stated that in these languages, the pragmatically neutral order is SOV. This may,
in fact, be true, at least of some of them (such as Latin); but with so many word-order
permutations possible (and frequent), clearly they cannot be called verb-final in the same
way as Hittite. There are any number of reasons, according to current theory, why a verb may
or may not appear as the last word in its clause.
Clackson (2007): The investigation of PIE word order in terms of rigid SVO and SOV
patterns was rightly criticised as a pseudo-problem by Watkins in a much-cited article of
1976. It would be wrong, however, to think that because word order cannot be expressed in
terms of strict SOV or SVO patterns it is somehow unimportant, or that it was free. If PIE were
a non-configurational language, with completely freeword order, we would still have to
explain why the unmarked place of the verb is sentence-final in Hittite, Sanskrit and Latin,
and why word comparisons which reflect original juxtapositions of noun and dependent
genitive agree in showing the order genitive head noun () Agreements such as these could
lead to the conclusion that the unmarked order was SOV for the PIE sentence, and head-final
for the PIE noun phrase. But variation from these patterns is widely attested, particularly in
poetic or highly stylised texts, which make up a large part of our corpus of many early IE
languages.
10.1.1. KINDS OF SENTENCES

1. PIE sentences were either nominal, i.e. formed by nouns, or verbal, if they
included a verb.
2. Sentences are formed by a subject and a predicate. The subject of a sentence is
the person or thing spoken of. The predicate is that which is said of the subject.
a. The subject is usually a noun or pronoun, or some word or group of words used
as a noun. However, because the personal endings of verbs encode the subject in
them, it is not grammatically necessary to use an overt personal pronominal subject
in addition. When subject pronouns occur, it is usually said that its use is emphatic
(Fortson 2004); as, Lat. scut ego accp as I understand it (Sallus, Bellum
Catilinae 6.1), where I serves to contrast his own understanding with the opinion of
others.
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10. Sentence Syntax
However, in nominal sentences, an overt pronominal subject is generally required

for clarity; as, O.Pers. adam navama, I (am) the ninth.
The syntax of possessive swos, own, is treated by Fortson (2004): Reflexive
adjectives (and pronouns) refer back to the grammatical subject of a sentence. But
the possessive swo- had broader usage, to judge by the daughter languages: it could
refer back not to the grammatical subject, but to newly introduced discourse material
or to an older topic that is returned to. As an example of the former, consider Ved.
trya ndrasya sma sut sa santu devsya sv kye sutap vna Let the three
somas be pressed for the god Indra in the soma drinkers own house (translation
following Brent Vine; soma was an intoxicating sacred drink). Here the grammatical
subject is trya. .. sma the three somas and the possessive sv refers to the somadrinker, who is newly introduced. Similar behavior can be found in other older IE
languages.
b. The predicate of a sentence may be a verb (as the dog runs), or it may consist of
some form of esmi, be, and a noun or adjective which describes or defines the
subject (as It is good). Such a noun or adjective is called a predicate noun or
adjective.
3. In Proto-Indo-European, simple sentences may be composed of only one word, a
noun or a verb; as, God! or (it) rains.
NOTE 1. Nominal sentences of this type are usually interjections and vocatives. Verbal
sentences of this type include imperatives (at least of 2nd sg.) and impersonal verbs, which had
never a subject in the oldest dialects attested; as, for Eng. (it) rains, cf. Goth. rignei, Lat.
pluit, Gk. , Skt. vrati. It is believed that when IE dialects became SVO in structure, so
that a subject was required, the third singular anaphoric pronoun, corresponding to it,
German es, French il, etc., was introduced as subject in such sentences. Such pronouns were
introduced because SVO languages must have subjects in sentences, as do intransitive verbs in
any OV language. Such verbs could be supplemented by substantives in various cases, among
them the accusative. These constructions are especially prominent for verbs referring to the
emotions; as, Skt. kitav tatpa (lit. with-regard-to-the-gambler there-is-pain) it pains the
gambler, Lat. miseret, pudet, taedet It makes one pitiful, ashamed, bored. Compare also
Ciceros Lat. erum ns miseret (lit. of-them us it-makes pitiful/there-is-pity) we feel pity for
them or O.H.G. thes gnges thih nirthrzzi (lit. of-the way you may-there-not-be-weariness)
Do not let yourself be wearied of the way. In PIE sentences various case forms could be used
with verbs. The simplest sentences may consist of verbs accompanied by nouns in seven of the
303
eight cases; only the vocative is not so used. The nouns fill the role of objects or, possibly
better stated, of complements (Lehmann 1974).
NOTE 2. Besides the simple sentence which consists only of a verb, a simple sentence in the
early dialects and in PIE could consist of a verb accompanied by a noun or pronoun as
complement. A subject however wasnt mandatory. Nor were other constructions which may
seem to be natural, such as indirect objects with verbs like give. The root *d- or in its earlier
form *deH- had in its simplest sense the meaning present and was often unaccompanied by
any nominal expression (Lehmann 1974).
10.1.2. NOMINAL SENTENCE

1. Nominal sentences, in which a substantive is equated with another substantive,
an adjective, or a particle, make up one of the simplest type of sentence in PIE.
Such a type of sentence is found in almost every IE dialect; cf. (Lehmann 1974) Hitt.
atta au the father (is) good, Skt. tv vrua, you (are) Varuna, O.Pers. adam
Drayavau I (am) Darius, Gk. emo d khos and to me (there is) pain, Lat. omnia
praeclara rara all the best things (are) rare. Apart from a noun or adjective, the
predicate could be an adverb; as, Hitt. mippa-L-i=wa=kan L anda Sippazitis
(is) not in (it); Gk. met d glaukpis Athn and Athena of glaucous eyes (was)
with (them).
In all dialects, however, such sentences were restricted in its use to a especially
formal use or, on the contrary, they are found more often than originally in PIE.
Thus, in Latin and Germanic dialects they are found in proverbs and sayings, as in
Old Irish; in Greek it is also found in epic and poetry. In Balto-Slavic dialects the
pure nominal sentence has become the usual type of nominal sentence, even when
the predicate is an adverb or an adverbial case. However, such a use, which is more
extended in modern dialects (like Russian) than in the older ones (as Old Slavic), is
considered the result of Finno-Ugrian influence. (Lehmann 1974).
2. An action, state, or event could be syntactically backgrounded using a
construction called an absolute. Typically the absolute consisted of a noun modified
by a participle semantically equivalent to a subject plus verb in an oblique case
(Fortson 2004).
Thus Latin has ablative absolutes (hs rbus gests lit. these things having been
done, i.e. after these things were done or because these things were done), Greek
has genitive absolutes (Homeric akontos emeo with me being unwilling, pr
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10. Sentence Syntax
moige ka hlloi hoi k m timsousi, near me (there are) others who [particle] will
praise me), Vedic Sanskrit has locative absolutes (ucchntym usi with dawn
shining forth, or havyar agnr mnua raydhyai, Agni must be prayed with the
sacrifices of men,), and Gothic and Old Church Slavonic have dative absolutes (Goth.
imma rodjandin and O.C.S. jemu glagoljemu with him speaking, while he is/was
speaking).
NOTE. PIE surely had such constructions too, although which case or cases were used is
debated.
3. In addition to such expansions by means of additional nouns in nonrequired

cases, sentences could be expanded by means of particles.
NOTE. For Lehmann (1974), three subsets of particles came to be particularly important.
One of these is the set of preverbs, such as . Another is the set of sentence connectives, such
as nu. The third is the set of qualifier expressions, e.g., PIE n/m (must) not. An additional
subset, conjunctions introducing clauses, will be discussed below in the section on compound
clauses. Preverbs are distinctively characterised by being closely associated with verbs and
modifying their meaning. In their normal position they stand directly before verbs (Watkins
1964).
Generally, thus, concordance governed both members of the pure nominal

sentence. Unlike the personal verb and its complements (governed by inflection), the
nominal sentence showed a strong reliance on concordance between subject and
predicate as a definitory feature: both needed the same case, and tended to have the
same number and gender (Lehmann 1974).
THE COPULATIVE VERB

Nominal sentences are not always simple clauses without copula; examples are
found with an explicit copula with stylistic and semantic change (Ramat 1993): Hitt.
L.UL.LU=ku GUD=ku UDU=ku zi whether he is man or ox or sheep.
The copulative verb esmi is only necessary when introducing late categories in the
verbal morphology, like time and mood. Therefore, when the mood is the indicative,
and the time is neuter (proverbs without timing, or present with semantic neuter)
there is no need to use esmi.
NOTE. The basic form of nominal sentences has been a matter of dispute. Some IndoEuropeanists propose that the absence of a verb in nominal sentences is a result of ellipsis and
assume an underlying verb esmi (Benveniste 1950). They support this assumption by
305
pointing to the requirement of such a verb if the nominal sentence is in the past tense; cf. Hitt.
ABU.IA genzuuala eta My father was merciful. On the contrary, Meillet (1906-1908),
followed by Lehmann (1974) and Mendoza (1998), consider that nominal sentences did not
require a verb but that a verb might be included for emphasis. This conclusion may be
supported by noting that the qualifiers which were found in PIE could be used in nominal
sentences without a verb. As an example we may cite a Hittite sentence which is negative and
imperative, 1-a 1-edani menahhanda l idlu One should not be evil toward another one.
Yet, if a passage was to be explicit, a form of esmi could be used, as in Skt. nkir indra tvd
ttaro n jy y asti No one is higher than you, Indra, nor greater.
Fritz (in Meier-Brgger 2003): Nominal phrases are not simply verbal phrases without a
finite verb (with what is called ellipsis of the copula), but rather constitute an independent
type of clause. Thus, the predicate noun in nominal phrases is always stressed, unlike the
verbal predicate in verbal phrases. In fact the term elipsis is not exact, since the copula is not
essential. Contrarily, the use of the copula should rather be seen as an adaptation to the
common pattern of verbal phrases, which always feature a finite verb form. This use of the
copula is in fact a sort of explicative signification, in which the content of the copula is
expressed through the connection of the various sentence elements and is given particular
emphasis alone through an independent linguistic symbol of comparable meaning.
On the original meaning of esmi, since Brugmann (1925) it is reconstructed as

exist hence its use as a copulative verb through constructions in which the predicate
express the existence of the subject, as in Hom. Gk. em Odusses Laertids, hs
I am Odisseus, son of Laertes, the one who (Mendoza 1998).
10.1.3. VERBAL SENTENCE

The simplest structure of the common Indo-European sentence consists of a verb,
i.e. the carrying out of an action. In it, none of the verbal actors (subject and object)
must be expressed the subject is usually not obligatory, and the object appears only
when it is linked to the lexical nature of the verb.
NOTE. The oldest morphological categories, even time, were expressed in PIE through
lexical means, and remains are found of such a system; cf. Hitt. -za (reflexive), modal particles
in Gk. and O.Ind., modal negation in some IE dialects, or the simple change in intonation,
which made interrogative or imperative a declarative sentence in fact, the imperative lacks a
mark of its own.
The relationship between the subject and the object is expressed through the case.
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10. Sentence Syntax
There is no clear morphological distinction between transitive and intransitive

verbs in Proto-Indo-European.
NOTE. Some Indo-European dialects have specialised certain verbal suffixes as transitives
(causatives) or intransitives, as Gk. -en, Gmc. -io, Lat. -a, etc., while in some others a preverb
combined with a verbal root makes the basic verb transitive or intransitive.
When subjects are explicitly expressed, the nominative is the case employed.
NOTE. Expression of the subject is the most prominent extension of simple sentences to
include more than one substantival expression. Apart from such explicit mention of the
subject, predicates may consist of verbs accompanied by two or more nouns, in cases which
supplement the meanings of the verbs (see below). Such constructions must be distinguished
from the inclusion of additional nouns whose case forms indicate adverbial use.
PREDICATES WITH TWO OR MORE SUBSTANTIVES

Few verbs are mandatorily accompanied by two nouns (Lehmann 1974):
1. The use of the dative in addition to the accusative. This is made almost obligatory
with verb d-, give; as in Skt. t bhim ena pri dehi (lit. those-two-DAT. himACC. over you-give), Give him over to those two; Gk. d ra phrein t i patr give
presents to the father (Mendoza 1998).
2. The instrumental and ablative, as Skt. han vrtrm ... ndro vjrea Indra killed
... Vrtra with his bolt; Skt. tv dsy r kaso agna ja You drove the enemies
from the house, O Agni.
NOTE.
While the addition to these sentences which is indicated by the nouns in the
instrumental and the ablative is essential for the meaning of the lines in their context, it does
not need to be included in the sentence for syntactic reasons.
3. The causative accompanied by two accusatives, as Skt. dev
uata pyay
hav (lit. gods desiring you-cause-to-drink libation) Make the desiring gods drink
the libation.
In such sentences the agent-accusative represents the object of the causative element: as
Arthur A. Macdonell indicated (1916), in a corresponding simple sentence this noun would
have been given in the nominative, as Skt. dev hav pibanti The gods drink the libation.
Accordingly a simple verb in PIE was at the most accompanied by one substantive,
unless the additional substantive was complementary or adverbial.
307
10.2. SENTENCE MODIFIERS

10.2.1. INTONATION PATTERNS
1. According to Fritz (in Meier-Brgger 2003), with regard to sentence accent, one
may note that the word that begins the sentence is stressed. Sentence-initial position
implies the function of establishing the topic: In nominative language, the subject in
sentence-initial position is considered the normal, unmarked type. In interrogative
sentences, the nominal element, about which the question is asked, establishes the
theme. It is thus the interrogative pronoun that begins the sentence
NOTE. An enclitic is added as a second word in the sentence; a further enclitic is added as a
third word. This is known as the (Delbrck-)Wackernagel Law, see 10.6.4.
2. The sentence was characterised in PIE by patterns of order and by selection

(Lehmann 1974):
A. Selection classes were determined in part by inflection, in part by lexical

categories, most of which were covert.
NOTE. Some lexical categories were characterised at least in part by formal features, such as
abstract nouns marked by -ti-, nouns in the religious sphere marked by -u- and collectives
marked by *-h.
B. In addition to characterisation by means of order and categories of selection, the

sentence was also delimited by intonation based on variations in pitch.
2. To the extent that the pitch phonemes of PIE have been determined, a high pitch
may be posited, which could stand on one syllable per word, and a low pitch, which
was not so restricted.
Words were characterised on one syllable by a high pitch accent, unless they were
enclitic, that is, unmarked for accent.
3. Accented words could lose their high pitch accent if they were placed at specific
positions in sentences:
A. Vocatives lost their accent if they were medial in a sentence or clause; and finite
verbs lost their accent unless they stood initially in an independent clause or in any
position in a dependent clause in Vedic. These same rules may be assumed for PIE.
On the basis of the two characteristic patterns of loss of accent for verbs,
characteristic patterns of intonation may also be posited for the IE sentence.
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10. Sentence Syntax
B. Judging on the basis of loss of high pitch accent of verbs in them, independent
clauses were characterised by final dropping in pitch. For in unmarked order the verb
stands finally in the clause; as, purodh m ev gacchati (lit. priesthood verily heattains) He attains the priesthood.
C. In marked order on the other hand it stands initially. H. S. Ananthanarayana
investigated the accent patterns in accented Vedic texts, particularly in the Taittirya
Brhmaa, and concluded on the basis of the interpretation of sentences with similar
lexical material that sentences with initial verb are marked.
Thus, in contrast with the previous example, the following indicates emphasis of
the verb (Ananthanarayana 1970): gcchati pratih m He attains stability
Since gacchati in the other example has no high pitch accent, and since other such
sentences have a similar distribution of accents, it may be concluded that sentences
with normal, unmarked meaning have a final lowered pitch accent. This might be
indicated with #.
Clauses, however, which are marked either to convey emphasis or to indicate
subordination, do not undergo such lowering. They may be distinguished with final ||
(Ananthanarayana 1970): yt stryam upey t || nrvryas syt # (lit. if woman hemay-approach impotent he-may-become) If he were to approach a woman, he might
become impotent.
The intonation pattern indicated by # apparently conveyed the notion of a simple,
nonemphatic utterance, whether a statement, question, or command: ksmai n
satrm smahe # (lit. why indeed sacrifice we-perform) Why should we perform
sacrifice?
The intonation pattern indicated by || apparently conveyed the notion of an
emotional or emphatic utterance or one requiring supplementation, as by another
clause. These conclusions are supported by the patterns found in Germanic
alliterative verse. For, as is well known, verbs were frequently placed by poets in the
fourth, nonalliterating, metrically prominent position in the line: eodcyninga rym
gefrnon (lit. of-peoples-kings glory we-heard-of) We heard of the glory of the kings
of the people.
This placing of verbs, retained by metrical convention in Germanic verse,
presumably maintains evidence for the IE intonation pattern. For, by contrast, verbs
could alliterate when they stood initially in clauses or in subordinate clauses; egsode
309
eorlas, syan rest wear (lit. he-terrified men since first he-was) He terrified
men from the time he first was [found]; enden wordum wold wine Scyldinga (lit.
as-long-as with-words he-ruled the-friend of-the-Scyldings) As long as the friend of
the Scyldings ruled with his words.
The patterns of alliteration in the oldest Germanic verse accordingly support the
conclusions that have been derived from Vedic accentuation regarding the intonation
of the Indo-European sentence, as do patterns in other dialects.
D. Among such patterns is the preference for enclitics in second position in the
sentence (Wackernagel 1892). Words found in this position are particles, pronouns,
and verbs, which have no accent in Vedic texts. This observation of Wackernagel
supports the conclusion that the intonation of the sentence was characterised by
initial high pitch, with the voice trailing off at the end. For the enclitic elements were
not placed initially, but rather they occupied positions in which unaccented portions
of words were expected, as in Skt. prvep m bhat mdayanti, The dangling
ones of the lofty tree gladden me. The pronoun m me, like other such enclitics,
makes up a phrase with the initial word; in this way it is comparable to unaccented
syllables of individual words, as in Skt. pravtej rie vrvtn (lit. in-windyplace on-dice-board rolling) [born] in a windy place, rolling on the dice-board.
10.2.2. SENTENCE DELIMITING PARTICLES

1. The particles concerned are PIE nu, so, to, all of them introductory particles.
Their homonymity with the adverb nu, nun and the anaphoric pronoun was one of
the reasons earlier Indo-Europeanists failed to recognise them and their function.
Yet Delbrck had already noted the clause-introducing function of Skt. sa (1888), as
in Skt. tsya t ni r i pr cicheda. (lit. his the heads off he-struck) s yt
somap nam sa tta kapjala sm abhavat (lit. Ptc. what soma-drinking it-was
from-that hazel-hen [grouse] together it-became] He struck off his heads. From the
one that drank soma, the hazel-hen was created. Delbrck identified sa in this and
other sentences as a particle and not a pronoun, for it did not agree in gender with a
noun in the sentence. But it remained for Hittite to clarify the situation.
In Hittite texts the introductory use of the particles is unmistakable (J.Friedrich
1960); ta and u occur primarily in the early texts, nu in the later, as illustrated in the
following Old Hittite example (Otten and Souek 1969): er-a-an GAD-an peiemi
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10. Sentence Syntax
u- u L-a natta auzi (over-and-Ptc. cloth I-throw Ptc.- them man not sees) I
throw a cloth over it and no one will see them (Lehmann 1974).
2. Besides such an introductory function (here as often elsewhere translated and),
these particles were used as first element in a chain of enclitics, as in n-at-i and it
to-him, nu-mu-za-kan and to-me self within and so on.
In Homeric Greek such strings of particles follow different orders, but reflect the IE
construction, as in: oud nu so per entrpetai phlon tor, Olmpie (lit. not-indeed
and to-you but it-turns dear heart Olympian) But your heart doesnt notice, Zeus.
As the translation of per here indicates, some particles were used to indicate the
relationships between clauses marking the simple sentence (Lehmann 1974).
3. Many simple sentences in PIE would then be similar to those in Hittite and Vedic
Sanskrit. Among the simplest is Skt. tm ndro didvea Indra hated him.
Presumably tam is a conflated form of the particle ta and the enclitic accusative
singular pronoun; the combination is attested in Hittite as ta-an (J. Friedrich 1960).
Similar examples from the other early dialects could be cited, such as the Italic
inscription of Praeneste, or the Germanic Gallehus inscription: Ek HlewagastiR
HoltijaR horna tawido, I, Hlewagastir of Holt, made the horn. In these late texts,
the subject was mandatory, and accordingly two nominal forms had come to be
standard for the sentence. If however the subject is not taken into consideration,
many sentences contained only one nominal element with verbs, in the early dialects
as well as in PIE (Lehmann 1974).
10.3. VERBAL MODIFIERS

10.3.1. DECLARATIVE SENTENCES
1. The injunctive has long been identified as a form unmarked for mood and
marked only for stem and person. It may thus be compared with the simplest form of
OV languages.
By contrast the present indicative indicates mood. We associate this additional
feature with the suffix -i, and assume for it declarative meaning.
2. As Lehmann (1974) says, Yet it is also clear that, by the time of Vedic Sanskrit
and, we assume, Late PIE, the injunctive no longer contrasted directly with the
present indicative. We must therefore conclude that the declarative qualifier was
expressed by other means in the sentence. We assume that the means of expression
311
was an intonation pattern. For, in normal unmarked simple sentences, finite

unaccented verbs stood finally in their clause, as did the predicative elements of
nominal sentences; Delbrcks repeatedly used example may be cited once again to
illustrate the typical pattern: va katryya bal haranti The villagers pay
tribute to the prince. Since the verb haranti was unaccented, i.e., had no high pitch,
we may posit for the normal sentence an intonation pattern in which the final
elements in the sentence were accompanied by low pitch.
Lehmann (1974) supports this assumption by noting that a distinctive
suprasegmental was used in Vedic to distinguish a contrasting feature, interrogation
or request (Wackernagel 1896). This marker, called pluti by native grammarians,
consisted of extra length, as in gn3i O fire (3 indicates extra length). But a more
direct contrast with the intonation of simple sentences may be exemplified by the
accentuation of subordinate clauses. These have accented verbs, as in the following
line from the Rigveda: ant ca pr g ditir bhavsi If you have entered inside, you
will be Aditi. As the pitch accent on g indicates, verbs in subordinate clauses
maintained high pitch, in contrast with verbs of independent clauses like bhavsi.
We may conclude that this high pitch was an element in an intonation pattern which
indicated incompleteness, somewhat like the pattern of contemporary English.
3. Evidence from other dialects supports the conclusion that, in late PIE, declarative
sentences were indicated by means of an intonation pattern with a drop in
accentuation at the end of the clause.
NOTE. In Germanic verse, verbs of unmarked declarative sentences tend to occupy
unaccented positions in the line, notably the final position (Lehmann 1956). Although the
surface expression of accentuation patterns in Germanic is stress, rather than the pitch of
Vedic and PIE, the coincidence of accentuation pattern supports our conclusions concerning
PIE intonation.
10.3.2. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES

1. The interrogation was apparently also indicated by means of intonation, for some
questions in our early texts have no surface segmental indication distinguishing them
from statements, for example, Plautus Aulularia 213, aetatem meam scis, Do you
know my age?.
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10. Sentence Syntax
NOTE. Only the context indicates to us that this utterance was a question; we may assume
that the spoken form included means of expressing interrogation, and in view of expressions
in the later dialects we can only conclude that these means were an intonation pattern.
2. Questions are generally classified in two groups:

Those framed to obtain confirmation, yes/no questions (Besttigungsfragen).
This feature accompanies statements in which a speaker sets out to elicit
information from the hearer.
Those framed to obtain clarification (Verdeutlichungsfragen).
3. Yes/no questions (Besttigungsfragen) were made (Clackson 2007):
a) By an intonation pattern alone, as noted above. That is the reconstruction
favoured by most of those who have addressed the issue (Delbrck 1893-1900,
Meier-Brgger 2003), because of the finds in Hittite and Vedic Sanskrit. It might
therefore be considered one of the oldest means to express interrogation of any type,
including yes/no questions. This is most probably the older situation in PIE.
b) Disjunctive questions can be formed by juxtaposition of a verb with a negated
verb, as in the following example of Vedic Sanskrit prose text (3 indicates extra
length): chintti s n chinatt3 [cuts she not cuts pluti] Does she divide or not?..
NOTE. For Clackson (2007): These different reconstructed hypotheses are not mutually
exclusive: it is possible that different types of yes-no question formation existed alongside
each other in PIE. Indeed, systems of marking through intonation exist alongside other
systems in many languages of the world. In French, for example, there are three different ways
of forming yes-no questions: Il vient?, Est-ce quil vient? and Vient-il? all mean Is he
coming?.
c) By an interrogative affix or particle. Such means of expression for interrogation

are found in most IE languages, apparently from a late development, since the
particles used are different. Two of them have been reconstructed for PIE, though:
i. The particle nu, found in Greek and Vedic Sanskrit as interrogative particle, is
also extremely widely used in non-interrogative sentences in Hittite, as well as in
Sanskrit and Greek. It was probably then mainly a S.LIE resource.
ii. Lehmann (1974), following Delbrck (1893-1900) and Eichner (1971) argues that
Lat. -ne, was the original interrogative particle, since its post-placement accorded
with the typology of OV languages, in which interrogative particles are placed
sentence finally. According to Minton Warren, it occurs about 1100 times in Plautus
313
and over 40 times in Terence (1881). Besides expressions like Lat. egone Me?,
sentences like the following occur (Plautus Asinaria 884): Adin quid ait?
Artemona: Adio. Did you hear what he is saying? Artemona: yes.
Other evidence for a postponed particle for expressing interrogation is found in
Avestan, in which -na is suffixed to some interrogatives, as in Av. kas-n who
(then)?; and in Germanic, where na is found finally in some questions in Old High
German. Old Church Slavic is more consistent in the use of such a particle than are
these dialects, as in chotei li Do you wish to? This particle is also used in
contemporary Russian.
The particle used to express interrogation in Latin, Avestan, and Germanic is
homophonous with the particle for expressing negation, PIE ne.
NOTE. It is not unlikely that LIE an of questions is behind same ne/ particle used for the
negative. As the interrogative particle, however, it has been lost in most dialects. After
Lehmann (1974), its loss is one of the indications that late PIE was not a consistent OV
language. After Mendoza, the fact that such interrogatives of a yes/no-answer are introduced
by different particles in the oldest attested dialects means that no single particle was
generalised by Late Indo-European; cf. Goth. niu, Lat. -ne, nonne, num, Gk. , , Skt. nu,
Sla. li. However, the common findings of Hittite, Indo-Iranian, Germanic and Latin are
similar, if not the same.
4. The partial interrogative sentences are those which expect an aclaratory answer
(Verdeutlichungsfragen), equivalent to English What?, Where?, Who?, and
so on. They are introduced in PIE by pronominal or adverbial forms derived from
interrogative qi-/qo-, always placed initially but for marked sentences, where a
change in position is admitted to emphasise it.
NOTE. In some languages, interrogatives may be strengthened by the addition of posposed
particles with interrogative sense, as in Av. ka-na (<*kwos-ne). Such forms introduce indirect
interrogatives when they ask about a part of the sentence. Indirect interrogatives in the form
of total interrogatives (i.e., not of yes/no-answer) are introduced by particles derived from
direct interrogative particles (when there are) or by conditional conjunctions; as Hitt. man.
5. According to Clackson (2007), question words are typically fronted and followed
by enclitics, as Vedic ks te mtra vidhvm acakrat (lit. who you-gen motheracc widow-acc he-made) Who made your mother a widow?; Vedic ksya brhmni
jujusur yvna lit. of whom the formulas like the-young-men?;
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10. Sentence Syntax
Where an element precedes the question word, it makes sense to interpret this as a
left-detached element, and it appears that in Vedic Sanskrit, as in Hittite, leftdetachment does not count in the calculation of second position; as Vedic ndra km
asya sakhy cakra (lit. Indra-nom what-acc he-gen friendship-loc he-did), As for
Indra, what did he do in his friendship?; Vedic brahm k va saparyati priest
which you honors? See 10.6.3 for more on emphasis.
10.3.3. NEGATIVE SENTENCES

1. Indications of negation, by which the speaker negates the verbal means of
expression, commonly occupy third position in the hierarchy of sentence elements.
2. We can only posit the particles ne and m/n, neither of which is normally
postposed after verbs.
NOTE. For prohibitive particle m, compare Gk. m, O.Ind.,Av.,O.Pers. m, Toch. mar/m,
Arm. mi, Alb. mos. In other IE dialects it appears as n, cf. Goth. ne, Lat. n (also as modal
negation), O.Ir. ni. It is not clear whether Hitt. l is ultimately derived from m or n,
although Clackson (2007) reconstructs a common Anatolian *n, due to Luv. ni(s), Lyc. ni.
Although m is sometimes reconstructed as the original PIE particle, the Anatolian finds
dont let us decide which form is older. Apparently, S.LIE and Tocharian had m, while
Anatolian and North-West IE seem to have used n.
PIE ne is found as Goth.,O.H.G. ni, Lat. n- (e.g. in nequis) O.Ind. n, O.Sla. ne, etc.
Sometimes it is found in lengthened or strengthened forms as Hitt. natta, Lat. non, Skt. ned,
etc. A common PIE lengthened form is nei, which appears in Lat. ni, Lith. ne, Sla. ni, etc.
3. The negative element ne was not used in compounding in PIE (Brugmann 1904);
the privative prefix -, un-, had this function.
Comparative evidence suggests, following Fortson (2004), that certain classes of
words were preferentially negated not with the adverb but with the privative prefix;
among these words were participles and verbal adjectives. Greek and Latin, for
example, ordinarily use their negative adverbs when negating participles, but some
fixed archaic constructions point to an earlier time when the privative prefix was
used instead, as Homeric Gk. a-kontos emeo with me being unwilling, against my
will, Lat. m n-sciente with me not knowing, in-utus unwilling (later replaced by
nn uolns not willing), im-prdns not knowing beforehand (later nn
prouidns). Compare also Av. an-usat- not wanting, Goth. un-agands not fearing.
315
4. In the oldest languages, negation seems to have been preverbal; Vedic nkis, Gk.
o tis, m tis, Lat. nmo, OHG nioman no one, and so on. If the negation has scope
over a single word or constituent, it usually directly precedes that constituent.
Sentential negation typically directly precedes the verb, as in English. But it could
also be moved toward the front of the sentence for emphasis. (Fortson 2004).
NOTE. Moreover, there is evidence for proposing that other particles were placed
postverbally in PIE (Delbrck 1897). Delbrck has classified these in a special group, which he
labels particles. They have been maintained postpositively primarily in frozen expressions:
in Gk. egn, ge in gge I (Schwyzer 1939). But they are also frequent in Vedic and early
Greek; Delbrck (1897) discusses at length the use of Skt. gha, Gk. ge, and Skt. sma, Gk. mn,
after pronouns, nouns, particles, and verbs, cf. Lat. nlo < ne volo, Goth. nist< ni ist, and also,
negative forms of the indefinite pronoun as O.Ind. m -kis, n-kis, Lat. ne-quis, etc. which may
indicate an old initial absolute position, which could be also supported by the development of
correlative forms like Lat. neque, etc., which combine negation and coordination. Lehmann,
on the contrary, believes in an older postposed order, characteristic of OV languages, because
of the usually attributed value of emphasis to the initial position of negation, postverbal
negation examples (even absolute final position in Hittite and Greek), the old existence of the
form nei, as well as innovative forms like Lat. ne-quis or Gk. o-tis (Lehmann 1974).
It is therefore safe to assume that in post-LIE times negation was usually preverbal,
as in modern Romance languages (cf. Fr. nest, Spa. no es, etc.), but it could be placed
word-initially in emphatic contexts, and it is also found postponed in some archaic
lexical or syntactic remains of the older IE languages, as it is found in modern
Germanic languages (cf. Eng. is not, Ger. ist nicht, etc.).
5. Prohibitive sentences have a different negative particle, m/n. The older IE
languages seem to have used the unmarked indicative (the so-called injunctive) for
prohibitions, as some relic forms in Vedic might show. In Tocharian and Hittite, the
tense-marked indicative was used. However, the tendency to replace the indicative
with the imperative in prohibitions is seen in Greek and Latin, where the imperative
became the marker of all commands, being m/n the modal negative.
For example, following Clackson (2007), while the original situation would have
been cemt, he came (aorist), ne cemt, he did not come (aorist), cemje, come,
m/n cemjes, stop coming, this was reinterpreted and the imperative was used
instead (hence a negative particle added to the positive utterance), i.e. m/n
cemje, stop coming.
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10. Sentence Syntax
NOTE. Clackson (2007) continues: Note also that several languages have opted to use
modal forms (subjunctive and optative) in prohibitions. The most likely explanation for this is
that speakers have extended the secondary functions of these modal forms, which include
marking requests, wishes and other directive expressions, to embrace negative commands as
well.
According to Clackson (2007), some older IE languages show a difference between

inhibitives, commands to stop doing something that the hearer is engaged in, and
preventatives, commands or warnings not to do something in the future; that
differentiation is found in Indo-Iranian, Tocharian, and apparently in Celtic too.
Although the constructions differ, the Indo-Iranian differentiation could have been
the original one: the present stem forms inhibitives, while the aorist stem forms
preventatives.
10.4. NOMINAL MODIFIERS

10.4.1. ADJECTIVE AND GENITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS
1. Proto-Indo-European attributive adjectives were normally preposed.
Delbrck (1900) summarises the findings for Vedic, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, and
Germanic, giving examples like the following from Vedic: vet prvat white
mountains. Lehmann (1974) adds an example of Hitt. uppi watar pure water.
In marked constructions adjectives might be postposed, as in Ved. va vet a
white horse, a gray.
2. The position of the attributive genitive is the same as that of the attributive
adjective. A striking example is given from the Old English legal language (Delbrck
1900): res mannes hses dura the door of the house of the other man.
3. Like the adjective construction, the attributive-genitive construction may have
the modifier postposed for marked effect, as is smasya in Skt. k nas tta syd
ti? prathamabhaks ev smasyar ja ti (lit. what us then it-might-be Ptc. firstenjoyment Ptc. of-soma) What might then happen for us? The first enjoyment of
[Prince] Soma. (Delbrck 1878)
NOTE 1. The relatively frequent marked use of the genitive may be the cause for the
apparently free position of the genitive in Greek and Latin. The ambivalent order may also
have resulted from the change of these languages toward a VO order. But, as Delbrck
317
indicates, the preposed order is well attested in the majority of dialects. This order is also
characteristic of Hittite (J. Friedrich 1960).
NOTE 2. In accordance with Lehmanns (1974) views on syntactic structure, the attributive
genitive, like the attributive adjective, must be derived from an embedded sentence. The
sentence would have a noun phrase equivalent with that in the matrix sentence and would be
a predicate nominal sentence. Such independent sentences are attested in the older dialects.
Delbrck gives a number of examples, among them: Skt. aa ha va putr dites (eight Ptc.
Ptc. sons of-Aditi) Aditi had eight sons; Skt. har dev nm st (lit. day of-gods it-was) Day
belonged to the gods. These sentences accordingly illustrate that the genitive was used in
predicate nominative sentences to convey what Calvert Watkins has labelled its primary
syntactic function: the sense of belonging. When such a sentence was embedded in another
with an equivalent NP, the NP was deleted, and the typical genitive construction resulted.
Hittite also uses s as a genitive as well as a nominative marker. For genitives like
haannaa (one) of his race can be further inflected, as in the accusative haanna-an
(to one) of his race (J. Friedrich).
4. Fortson (2004): Common to all the older languages was the ability of nouns and
their modifiers to be separated by intervening elements, yielding what are called
discontinuous or distracted noun phrases (a construction called hyperbaton in Greek
and Latin grammar): Cuneiform Luv. alati awienta Wiluati they came from steep
Wjlusa (KBo 4.11:46), Gk. ndra moi nnepe Mosa poltropon tell me, Muse, of
the resourceful man (Odyssey 1.1), Lat. magn cum laude with great praise, Old
Irish Marta for slaig saithiu on the swarm of the host of March (Felire Oengusso,
March 31). Distraction of other types of phrases was common as well. The technical
details of distraction are not well understood; in some cases, it is the result of part of
a phrase being moved to a position of emphasis or contrast.
10.4.2. COMPOUNDS
1. Nominal compositum or nominal composition is the process of putting two or
more words together to form another word. The new word, called a compound word,
is either a noun or an adjective, and it does not necessarily have the same meaning as
its parts.
2. According to their meaning, compounds can be broadly classified in two types
(Fortson 2004):
a. Endocentric (or determinative), as blackbird, (a type of) black bird, when the
compound is essentially the sum of its parts, and its referent (a type of bird) is one of
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10. Sentence Syntax
the compound members itself (usually the second one, as here). Examples include
Skt. Siha-puras Lion City (Singapore), Ger. Blut-wurst blood sausage.
b. Exocentric or possessive compounds (usually called bahuvrihis, see below),
illustrated by Eng. redthroat, is more than the sum of its parts and refers to
something outside itself: the referent is not a type of throat, but a type of bird
possessing a red throat. Examples include O.Ir. Fer-gus hero-strength = having a
heros strength, Gk. Arist-dmos best people = having the best people.
It is frequently said that bahuvrihis typically have o-grade of the ablauting syllable
of the second compound member. Such is indeed the case in such forms as Gk. euptr (<su-patr) having a good father, and Umbrian du-purs- (<dwi-pods)
having two feet. These o-grades are likely to be survivals of old ablauting inflection
rather than engendered directly by the process of compounding.
3. In the derivation of compounds special compounding rules apply.
The verbal compounds in a language observe the basic order patterns, For PIE we
would expect an older OV order in compounds, as e.g. Skt. agndh- priest < agni
fire + idh kindle.
NOTE. A direct relationship between compounds and basic syntactic patterns is found only
when the compounds are primary and productive. After a specific type of compound becomes
established in a language, further compounds may be constructed on the basis of analogy, for
example Gk. hppagros wild horse, in contrast with the standard productive Greek
compounds in which the adjectival element precedes the modified, as in agrikhoiros wild
swine (Risch 1944-1949). Here we will consider the primary and productive kinds of
compounds in PIE.
4. Two large classes and other minor types are found:

A. The synthetics (noun+noun), which make up the majority of the PIE
compounds:
a. Pure synthetics, i.e. noun+noun.
NOTE. While both members of the compound can be changed without a change in meaning,
some rules govern these compounds (Mendoza 1998);
- phonetic: there is a preference for a succession of high vowels low vowels, and for labial
or labialised sounds in the second term (Wackernagel 1928).
- prosodic: the law of growing members, i.e. the tendency to place the shorter member
before the longer one; that rule is followed in dvndv (copulative compounds of two
319
names in the dual number, cf. Skt. Mitr-Vru, Mitra and Varuna, Dy v-prhiv
sky and earth), but also concerning paratactic members, cf. Gk. lloi mn rha theo te
ka anres hppokorusta (Behagel 1923).
- semantic: since Krause (1922) it is believed that the most important, near and logical
notions are put in first place; i.e. compounds are subject to the principles of importance
and sequence (Bednarczuck 1980).
b. Sinthetics in which the first element is adverbial, i.e. adverb+noun.

B. The bahuvrihis.
c. Adjective + nouns, apparently not so productive in PIE as in its dialects.
d. A small number of additive compounds.
5. The second term of a compound word may be then (Ramat 1993, Adrados
BernabMendoza 1995-1998):
i) A noun (Gk. akr-polis high city, citadel)
ii) An adjective (Gk. theo-ekelos similar to the gods) or
iii) A noun adapted to the adjectival inflection (Gk. argur-toxos silver arc)
NOTE. Sometimes a suffix is added (cf. Gk. en-ne-boios of nine cows), and the compound
noun may have a different gender than the second term (cf. Lat. triuium cross roads, from
trs and uia).
6. The first term is a pure stem, without distinction of word class, gender or
number. It may be an adverb, a numeral (Gk. tr-llistos supplicated three times,
pol-llistos very supplicated) or a pronoun (cf. O.Ind. tat-purua that man), as well
as a nominal-verbal stem with nominal (Gk. andra-phnos who kills a man),
adjetival (Gk. akr-polis), or verbal function (Gk. arkh-kakos who begins the evil),
and also an adjective proper (Gk. pol-tropos of many resources).
7. Usually, the first term has zero-grade, cf. O.Ind. r-hn, Gk. pol-tropos, Lat.
aui-(caps), etc. Common exceptions are stems in -e/os, as Gk. saks-palos who
shakes the shield (Gk. skos shield), and some suffixes which are substituted by a
lengthening in -i, cf. Gk. kudi-neira who glorifies men (Gk. kudrs), Av. brziaxra- of high wheels (Av. brzant-).
In thematic stems, however, the thematic -e/o appears always, as an o if noun or
adjective (Gk. akr-polis), as an e if verb (Gk. arkh-kakos).
8. The first term usually defines the second, the contrary is rare; the main
compound types are:
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10. Sentence Syntax
A. Formed by verbs, cf. O.Ind. r-hn, Gk. andra-phnos (Gk. andro- is newer)
Lat. auceps, O.Sla. medv-d honey-eater, bear, and also with the second term
defining the first, as Gk. arkh-kakos.
B. Nominal determiners (first term defines the second), with first term noun (cf.
Gk. mtro-ptr mothers father, Goth. iudan-gardi kingdom), adjective (cf. Gk.
akr-polis, O.Sla. dobro-god good time, O.Ir. find-airgit white plant, Lat. angiportus narrow pass), or numeral (cf. Lat. tri-uium, from uia, Gk. maza chariot
frame, from zn).
C. Adjectival determiners (tatpurua- for Indian grammarians), with first term
Noun (cf. Gk. theo-ekelos, Goth. gasti-gods good for the guests), adverb (cf. O.Ind.
jtas, Gk. gnotos unknown, phroudos who is on its way, from pr and ods).
D. Possessive compounds (bahu-vrihi- which has a lot of rice, for Indian
grammarians), as in Eng. barefoot, (who goes) with bare feet, with the first term
Noun (cf. Gk. argur-tozos, O.Sla. rno-vlad, of black hair), adjective (cf. Lat.
magn-animus, of great spirit), adverb (cf. O.Ind. durman s, GK. dus-mens,
wicked).
9. The accent could also distinguish determiners from possessives, as in O.Ind.
rja-putrs a kings son, from O.Ind. raj-putras who has a son as king, kings
father, see below.
SYNTHETICS
Synthetics consist of a nominal element preceding a verbal, in their unmarked
forms, as in Skt. agndh- priest. As in this compound, the relation of the nominal
element to the verbal is that of target.
The particular relationship of nominal and verbal elements was determined by the
lexical properties of the verb; accordingly, the primary relationship for most PIE
verbs was that of target. But other nominal categories could also be used with verbs.
Kinds of relationships (Lehmann 1974):
1) The receptor relationship, as Skt. deva-hana god-angering, in m karma
devahanam (lit. not we-do god-angering) we will not do anything angering the
gods.
2) The instrument or means relationship; as Skt. dri-jta stone-speeded, in
rtho ha vm rtaj drijta pri dy vprthiv yti sady (lit. chariot Ptc. your
321
born-at-right-time speeded-by-stones about heaven-earth goes in-one-day) Your

chariot, created at the right time, speeded by stones, goes around heaven and earth
in one day.
3) The time relationship; as rta-j truly-born, in the example above.
4) The source relationship, as Skt. aho-mc distress-delivering, in bhreshv
ndra suhva havmahe homca suk tam (lit. in-battles Indra well-called
we-call-on freeing-from-trouble doing-well) In battles we call on Indra, whom it is
well to call, who frees from troubles, who does well.
5) The place relationship, as Skt. dru-d tree-sitting, in vr n druc camvr
sadad dhrih (lit. bird like sitting-in-tree bowls he-has-sat fallow) Like a bird
sitting in a tree the fallow one has sat down in two bowls.
6) The manner relationship; as, Skt. na-kt ruler-acting, in dh y vv
bhvanbh majmn nakt prvay abhy vardhata (lit. here who all worldsabove with-strenght acting-like-a-ruler with-youthful-strength above he-grew)
Who grew beyond all worlds with his strength, acting like a ruler, having youthful
strength.
These compounds exhibit the various relationships of nominal constituents with
verbal elements, as in Skt. tv -datta (by-)you-given, in vidm h ys te adrivas tv datta (lit. we-know Ptc. which your having-the-stones given-by-you) For we know
your [wealth] given by you, you of the pressing-stones.
Synthetics attested in the Rigveda accordingly illustrate all the nominal
relationships determinable from sentences. Synthetics are frequently comparable to
relative constructions, as in the following sentence: gnr agmi bh rato vtrah
puructaa (lit. to-Agni he-was-approached the-Bharatan Vrtra-killer by-manyseen) Agni, the god of the Bharatas, was approached, he who killed Vrtra, who is
seen by many.
Besides the large number of synthetics of the NV pattern, others are attested with
the pattern VN. These are largely names and epithets, such as pi-gu, a name
meaning one who raises cattle, and sand-rayi dispensing riches.
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10. Sentence Syntax
BAHUVRIHIS
The second large group of PIE compounds, Bahuvrihis, are derived in accordance
with the sentence pattern expressing possession. This pattern is well known from the
Latin mihi est construction (Bennett 1914; Brugmann 1911): nulli est homini
perpetuom bonum No man has perpetual blessings.
NOTE. Lehmann (1974) accounts for the derivation of bahuvrihis, like Lat. magnanimus
great-hearted, assuming that an equational sentence with a noun phrase as subject and a
noun in the receptor category indicating possession is embedded with an equivalent noun, as
in great spirit is to man = the man has great spirit.
On deletion of the equivalent NP (homini) in the embedded sentence, a bahuvrihi compound
magnanimus greathearted is generated. This pattern of compounding ceased to be primary
and productive when the dialects developed verbal patterns for expressing possession, such as
Lat. habeo I have.
Bahuvrihis may be adjectival in use, or nominal, as in the vocative use of snari

having good strength (made up of su good and *xner- (magical) strength) in Skt.
vvasya h pr ana j vana tv, v yid uchsi snari (of-all Ptc. breath life inyou Ptc. when you-shine having-good-strength) For the breath and life of everything
is in you, when you light up the skies, you who have good strength. The Greek
cognate may illustrate the adjectival use: phron d eunora khalkn (they-bore Ptc.
powerful bronze) They carried on board the bronze of good strength. The bahuvrihis
are accordingly similar to synthetics in being comparable to relative clauses
(Lehmann 1974).
NOTE. Although the bahuvrihis were no longer primary and productive in the later dialects,
their pattern remained remarkably persistent, as we may note from the various philocompounds in Greek, such as philsophos one who holds wisdom dear, phloinos one who
likes wine, and many more. Apart from the loss of the underlying syntactic pattern, the
introduction of different accentual patterns removed the basis for bahuvrihis. As Risch
pointed out, Greek euptr could either be a bahuvrihi having a good father or a tatpurusha
a noble father. In the period before the position of the accent was determined by the quantity
of final syllables, the bahuvrihi would have had the accent on the prior syllable, like r japutra having kings as sons, RV 2.27.7, in contrast with the tatpurusha r ja-putr kings son,
RV 10.40.3. The bahuvrihis in time, then, were far less frequent than tatpurushas, of which
only a few are to be posited for Late Indo-European. An example is Gk. proptr forefather.
If the disputed etymology of Latin proprius own is accepted, *pro-ptrjs from the
323
forefathers, there is evidence for assuming a PIE etymon; Wackernagel (1905) derives
Sanskrit compounds like pr-pada tip of foot from PIE. Yet the small number of such
compounds in the early dialects indicates that they were formed in the late stage of PIE
(Risch). Contrary to Pokornys reconstruction of *pro-ptrjs is the existence of adverb
*proprtim (<*priH-ti-) particularly, found in Lucretius, which makes it difficult for the
haplology to be sustained. A more plausible reconstruction is from verb prijj, from prijs,
dear, with an ancient meaning of inalienable possesion in Sanskrit, or just possesion in
Latin (see Blanc 2004).
NOTE 2. Dvandvas, such as ndrviu and a few other patterns, like the teens, were not
highly productive in PIE, if they are to be assumed at all. Their lack of productiveness may
reflect poorly developed coordination constructions in PIE (Lehmann 1969). Besides the
expansion of tatpurushas and dvandvas in the dialects, we must note also the use of expanded
root forms. Thematic forms of noun stems and derived forms of verbal roots are used, as in
Skt. deva-kta made by the gods. Such extended constituents become more and more
prominent and eventually are characteristic elements of compounds, as the connecting vowel o- in Greek and in early Germanic; Gk. Apoll-dros gift of Apollo (an n- stem) and Goth.
guma-kunds of male sex (also an n- stem). Yet the relationships between the constituents
remain unchanged by such morphological innovations. The large number of tatpurushas in
the dialects reflects the prominence of embedded-modifier constructions, as the earlier
synthetics and bahuvrihis reflected the embedding of sentences, often to empty noun nodes.
As noted above, they accordingly have given us valuable information about PIE sentence types
and their internal relationships.
10.4.3. DETERMINERS IN NOMINAL PHRASES

Nouns are generally unaccompanied by modifiers. Demonstratives are infrequent;
nouns which might be considered definite have no accompanying determinative
marker unless they are to be stressed, in which case the demonstrative precedes.
(Lehmann 1974).
The relationship between such demonstratives and accompanying nouns has been
assumed to be appositional; it may be preferable to label the relationship a loose one,
as of pronoun or noun plus noun, rather than adjective or article plus noun.
In Homer too the article is generally an anaphoric pronoun, differing from
demonstratives by its lack of deictic meaning referring to location (Munro). Nominal
phrases as found in Classical Greek or in later dialects are subsequent developments;
the relationship between syntactic elements related by congruence, such as
324
10. Sentence Syntax
adjectives, or even by case, such as genitives, can often be taken as similar to an

appositional relationship (Meillet 1937).
To illustrate nominal phrases, cf. Vedic em martm of-them of-Maruts. The
nominal phrase which may seem to consist of a demonstrative preceding a noun,
em martm, is divided by the end of the line; accordingly em must be
interpreted as pronominal rather than adjectival.
Virtually any line of Homer might be cited to illustrate the absence of close
relationships between the members of nominal phrases; cf. Odyssey ns d moi hd
hstken ep agronsphi plos, en limni Rhethri hup Ni hulenti My ship is
berthed yonder in the country away from the city, in a harbor called Rheithron below
Neion, which is wooded. The nouns have no determiners even when, like nus, they
are definite; and the modifiers with limni and Neoi seem to be loosely related
epithets rather than closely linked descriptive adjectives.
The conclusions about the lack of closely related nominal phrases may be supported
by the status of compounds in PIE. The compounds consisting of descriptive
adjectives + noun are later; the most productive are reduced verbal rather than
nominal constructions. And the bahuvrihis, which indicate a descriptive relationship
between the first element and the second, support the conclusion that the
relationship is relatively general; rj-putra, for example, means having sons who
are kings rather than having royal sons; g-vapus means having a shape like a
cow, said of rainclouds, for which the epithet denotes the fructifying quality rather
than the physical shape. (Lehmann 1974).
Accordingly, closely related nominal expressions are to be assumed only for the
dialects, not for PIE. Definiteness was not indicated for nouns. The primary
relationship between nominal elements, whether nouns or adjectives, was
appositional.
10.4.4. APPOSITION
1. Apposition is traditionally when paratactically joined forms are grammatically,
but not in meaning, equivalent (Lehmann 1974).
NOTE. Because of the relationship between nouns and modifiers, and also because subjects
of verbs were only explicit expressions for the subjective elements in verb forms, Meillet
325
(1937) considered apposition a basic characteristic of Indo-European syntax. Subjects were

included only when a specific meaning was to be expressed.
2. A distinction is made between appositional and attributive (Delbrck); an

appositional relationship between two or more words is not indicated by any formal
expression, whereas an attributive relationship generally is (Lehmann 1974).
A. Thus the relationships in the following line of the Odyssey are attributive:
arnmenos hn te psukhn ka nston hetarn lit. striving-for his Ptc. life and
return of-companions. The relationship between hn and psukhn is indicated by the
concordance in endings; that between nston and hetarn by the genitive.
B. On the other hand the relationship between the two vocatives in the following
line is appositional, because there is no mark indicating the relationship: t n
hamthen ge, the, thgater Dis, eip ka hm n Tell us of these things, beginning
at any point you like, goddess, daughter of Zeus. Both vocatives can be taken
independently, as can any appositional elements.
3. Asyndetic constructions which are not appositive are frequently attested, as Skt.
t vo hd mnase santu yaj These sacrifices should be in accordance with your
heart, your mind. Coordinate as well as appositive constructions could thus be
without a specific coordinating marker.
4. Comparable to appositional constructions are titles, for, like appositions, the two
or more nouns involved refer to one person.
NOTE. In OV languages titles are postposed in contrast with the preposing in VO languages;
compare Japanese Tanaka-san with Mr. Middlefield. The title king with Varuna and
similarly in the Odyssey, Poseidni nakti, when naks is used as a title. But, as Lehmann
himself admits, even in the early texts, titles often precede names, in keeping with the change
toward a VO structure (Lehmann 1974).
5. Appositions normally follow, when nouns and noun groups are contiguous, as in
the frequent descriptive epithets of Homer: Tn d mebet peita the, glaukpis
Athn, Him then answered the goddess, owl-eyed Athene.
To indicate a marked relationship, however, they may precede (Schwyzer 1950). But
the early PIE position is clear from the cognates: Skt. dyaus pit, Gk. Ze pter, Lat.
Jpiter.
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10. Sentence Syntax
10.5. MODIFIED FORMS OF PIE SIMPLE SENTENCES

10.5.1. COORDINATION
1. While coordination is prominent in the earliest texts, it is generally implicit.
The oldest surviving texts consist largely of paratactic sentences, often with no
connecting particles; cf. Lat. ueni, uidi, uici I came, I saw, I won; Gk. iomen, hs
ekleues, an drum / heromen en bssisi tetugmna dmata kal lit. we-went
as you-commanded, through the-jungle/we-found in the-valley a-polished palace
beautiful; Hitt. adueni akueni nu
URUattusa
iyannae we-eat, we-drink Ptc. from-
Hatusa I-go.
2. New sentences may be introduced with particles, or relationships may be
indicated with pronominal elements; but these are fewer than in subsequent texts.
Similar patterns of paratactic sentences are found in Hittite, with no overt marker
of coordination or of subordination. According to Friedrich (1960) purpose and
result clauses are not found in Hittite; coordinate sentences are simply arranged
side by side with the particle nu, as in the Hittite Laws. Conditional relationships too
are found in Hittite with no indication of subordination, v.i. 10.5.3.
The arrangement of sentences in sequence is a typical pattern of PIE syntax,
whether for hypotactic or for paratactic relationships.
3. Expressions for coordination were used largely for elements within clauses and
sentences. When used to link sentences, conjunctions were often accompanied by
initial particles indicating the beginning of a new clause and also indicating a variety
of possible relationships with neighbouring clauses (Lehmann 1974).
NOTE. Sentence-connecting particles are, however, infrequent in Vedic and relatively
infrequent in the earliest Hittite texts; Lehmann (1974) concludes that formal markers of
sentence coordination were not mandatory in PIE.
COPULATIVE
The normal coordinating copulative particle in most of the dialects is a reflex of PIE
-qe.
NOTE. Hittite -a, -ia is used similarly, as in atta anna a father and mother (J. Friedrich
1960). This is probably related to Toch. B yo.
327
This is postposed to the second of two conjoined elements; as, Ved. gna ndras ca
o Agni and Indra; or to both, as Skt. dev ca surs ca, Gods and Asuras, Gk.
patr andrn te then te father of men and gods (Beekes 1995).
Introducing another sentence, as Gothic fram-uh amma sokida Peilatus fraletan
ina And at this Pilate sought to release him.
There is an tendency toward a polysyndetic use (Mendoza 1998); cf. Gk. aie gr toi
pis te phl plemoi te mkhai te (lit. always then for-you the-discord -and dear thewars -and the-battles -and) Discord, wars and battles are always dear to you.
NOTE. With the change in coordinating constructions, new particles were introduced; some
of these, for example, Lat. et, Goth. jah, O.E. and, have a generally accepted etymology;
others, like Gk. ka, are obscure in etymology. Syntactically the shift in the construction rather
than the source of the particles is of primary interest, though, as noted above, the introduction
of new markers for the new VO patterns provides welcome lexical evidence of a shift. The
syntactic shift also brought with it patterns of coordination reduction (Ersparung) which have
been well described for some dialects (Behaghel). Such constructions are notable especially in
SVO languages, in which sequences with equivalent verbs (S, V, O, Conj., S 2, V1, O2) delete the
second occurrence of the verb , as M.H.G. daz einer einez will und ein ander ein anderz, that
one one-thing wants and another another. Lehmann (1974)
ALTERNATIVE
The disjunctive particle PIE -w is also postposed to the second element; Lat. silua
alta Iouis lcusue Dinae the high forest of Jupiter or the grove of Diana; or to
both, as Skt. nkta v dv v, (either) during the night or during the day, or Gk.
thes gun (with change to prepositional order) or goddess or woman.
NOTE. In Hittite, however, the postposed particles -ku ... -ku (<-qe-qe) or, were used
with alternative function, always repeated and only as nexus between sentences; for nouns
there was the particle nama, which stood between nouns rather than after the last. This
pattern of conjunction placement came to be increasingly frequent in the dialects; it indicates
that the conjunction patterns of VO structure have come to be typical already by PIH.
DISJUNCTIVE
In all older IE languages it was possible to express this function of parataxis by
simple repetition of negation, and that was the only possibility in Vedic.
328
10. Sentence Syntax
However, a disjunctive compound conjunction neqe is found in Indo-Iranian,

Anatolian, Italic, Celtic and Germanic. It was not a frozen lexical remain, since the
older IE languages analyse the compound as ne+qe.
NOTE. A compound with the prohibitive negation mqe is also found in IndoIranian and Greek, and with the alternative newe in Indo-Iranian, Anatolian, Italic
and Celtic.
The compound conjunction can appear introducing only the second member of
both negatives, or it can be repeated also in the first member to emphasise the
parallelism of this type of construction (Mendoza 1998).
Both systems, as well as the simple negation, are attested in the oldest texts.
ADVERSATIVE
No common adversative conjunction seems to be reconstructible for PIE, although
dialectally some conjunctions did succeed with this function, probably in a LIE or
post-LIE period; as, at(i), d, etc. (v.s. 8.5).
NOTE. That has been related by Bednarczuk (1980) with the postpositive character of
paratactic conjunctions of the common language, what configures them as polysyndetic and
capable of joining words and sentences, while the adversative function exclusive of the
sentence parataxis demands prepositive conjunctions and necessarily monosyndetic.
In the older IE languages, the adversative function is expressed by the same

postposed copulative conjunction -qe, being its adversative use defined by the
context, by the semantic relationship between the sentences (Gonda 1954).
10.5.2. COMPLEMENTATION
1. Compound sentences may result from the embedding of nominal modifiers.
NOTE. In VO languages embedded nominal modifiers follow nouns, whereas in OV
languages they precede nouns. This observation has led to an understanding of the Hittite and
the reconstructed PIE relative constructions. If we follow the standard assumption that in
relative constructions a second sentence containing a noun phrase equivalent to a noun
phrase in the matrix sentence is embedded in that matrix sentence, we may expect that either
sentence may be modified. A sentence may also be embedded with a dummy noun; the verb
forms of such embedded sentences are commonly expressed with nominal forms of the verb,
variously called infinitives, supines, or participles. In OV languages these, as well as relative
constructions, precede the verb of the matrix sentence (Lehmann 1974).
329
2. An example with participles in the IE languages is Skt. vsna in the last lines
of the following strophic hymn: rad vsna sudkarpa lit. brightly dressinghimself beautifully-hued.
It may also have a final or consequential sense, as in the following strophic hymn:
tvm indra sravitav aps ka You, O Indra, make the waters to flow. Also in the
poetic texts such infinitives may follow the main verb, as in bodhi ht yajthya
dev n (lit. he-woke-up priest for-sacrificing gods) The priest has awakened to
sacrifice to the gods (Lehmann 1974).
NOTE. The postposed order may result from stylistic or poetic rearrangement; yet it is also a
reflection of the shift to VO order, a shift which is reflected in the normal position for
infinitives in the other IE dialects. In the Brahmanas still, infinitives normally stand directly
before the verb, except in interrogative and negative sentences (Delbrck). On the basis of the
Brahmanic order we may assume that in PIE nonfinite verbs used as complements to principal
verbs preceded them in the sentence. Hittite provides examples of preposed complementary
participles and infinitives to support this assumption (J. Friedrich). Participles were used
particularly with har(k)- have and e- be, as in ueriian eta was mentioned; the pattern is
used to indicate state.
INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES

According to Fritz (in Meier-Brgger 2003) in Proto-Indo-European, the existence
of participles may safely be asserted. Additionally, infinitive constructions with final
dative, accusative of direction, and the locative of destination are presumed to have
existed. While infinitives are defined by syntax, the very presence of participles
reveals that there were participial constructions in Proto-Indo-European. According
to J.L. Garca Ramn (1997), [the assertion] of a true Proto-Indo-European
infinitive ending in *-sn(i) is justified, which could be traced to a locative form,
which, according to K. Stber (2000) appears in the case of s-stem abstract nouns
with the locative forms ending in *en.
Infinitives could indicate result, with or without an object (J. Friedrich 1960): 1-a
1-an kunanna l anhanzi (lit. one one to-kill not he-tries) One should not try to kill
another.
Infinitives could be used to express purpose, as in the following example, which
pairs an infinitive with a noun (J. Friedrich): tuk-ma k uttar -ta iianna ihiull-a
330
10. Sentence Syntax
edu (lit. to-you-however this word in-heart for-laying instruction-and it-should-be)

But for you this word should be for taking to heart and for instruction.
The infinitive could be loosely related to its object, as in examples cited by
Friedrich, such as ap-ma-mu harkanna an(a)hta (lit. he-however-me fordeteriorating he-sought) But he sought to destroy me.
The complementary infinitive indicates the purpose of the action; as Friedrich
points out, it is attached to the verb anhta plus its object mu in a construction quite
different from that in subsequent dialects.
These uses are parallelled by uses in Vedic, as may be noted in the work of
Macdonell (1916), from which some examples are taken in Lehmann (1974). On the
basis of such examples in Vedic and in Hittite, he assumes that infinitive
constructions were used to indicate a variety of complements in PIE.
Hittite and Sanskrit also provide examples of participles functioning appositionally
or as adjectives indicating state (J. Friedrich 1960): ammuk-uar-an akkantan IQ.BI
(lit. to-me-Ptc.-indicating-quotation-him dying he-described) He told me that one
had died.
This pattern had been noted by Delbrck (1900) for the Rigveda, with various
examples, as ih m iay tv omi, Strengthen me; I hear that you are
strong. The adjective iay strengthening is an adjective derived from the same
root as ih. Delbrck also noted that such appositives are indicated in Greek by
means of clauses. Greek represents for Lehmann accordingly a further stage in the
development of the IE languages to a VO order. Yet Greek still maintained preposed
participles having the same subject as does the principal verb, as in: t n mn id n
gthse, lit. it Ptc. seeing he-rejoiced (Lehmann 1974).
This pattern permits the use of two verbs with only one indicating mood and
person; the nonfinite verb takes these categories from the finite.
Participles were thus used in the older period for a great variety of relationships,
though also without indicating some of the verbal categories.
Dependent clauses are more flexible in indicating such relationships, and more
precise, especially when complementary participles and infinitives follow the
principal verb.
331
10.5.3. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

1. As with coordination, subordination could be made without grammatical mark in
the older IE languages, hence the context alone decided if it was a subordinate; as in
Eng. the man he called paid the boy (Lehmann 1974).
So e.g. Hom. Gk. all ge nn epmeinon, aria tekhea du then now wait (until) I
dress the weapons of war; Lat. fac noscam make me know (Delbrck 1900).
2. These sentences, with a change in person, mood, or simply eliminating the pause
between both sentences, are usually considered the origin of some types of
subordinates.
Especially common is this archaic type of paratactic construction in substantive
subordinates, i.e. those sentences which take the role of a verbal actor (subject or
object), or of a constituent of the nominal sentence. Such archaic forms are found in
substantive subordinates expressing thoughts, words, desires or fears, in which these
are quoted literally, without change in person, i.e. in the direct syle, proper of a stage
of the language previous to the introduction of the indirect style (Rubio 1976).
3. The most extended substantive sentence in the older languages is in fact not the
one introduced by conjunctions which is considered a late development , but
those whose subordination is introduced by non-finite forms of the verb, like
participles and infinitives.
Almost all languages have infinitives and participles functioning as subject or object
of the sentence, especially with verbs of will or in nominal sentences. That is found in
Hittite, Greek, Latin, Germanic, Slavic, and especially frequent are participles in -nt
(the oldest ones), clearly differentiated from the main clause with the common
subordinate+main order.
NOTE. The order subordinate+main seems to have been obligatory in PIE. This has been
linked with the lack of subordinates of purpose and result, because in these constructions
iconicity demands a postposed order. Precisely conditionals apparently the first
subordinates introduced by conjunctions, see below have a structure which is necessarily
correlative, with a systematic preposed order to the subordinate.
In the attested IE languages that relative order subordinate+main was eventually inverted,
which has been linked with a typological change of a language OV into a VO one. At the same
time, there was a tendency to place the relative pronoun immediately after the noun to which
it refers, all of which is typically found in most IE languages of a late period.
332
10. Sentence Syntax
Examples of such subordinate clauses without mark include (Mendoza 1998): Hitt.
MU.KAM-za-wa-ta er tepaweanza nu-wa BE-LI-NI INA
URUayaa
l paii the
year having been shortened, (Ptc.) Lord, do not go to Hayasa; Gk. ka prn per
thum i memas Tressi mkhesthai d tte min trs tsson hlen mnos lit. and
before even in-his-soul willing-to against-the-Trojans fight Ptc. then to-him thrice
bigger took-him impetus.
NOTE. According to Mendoza (1998), such examples are usually analysed as absolute
constructions (see above 10.1.2). In Hittite, where there are no absolutes, they are interpreted
as pure nominal sentences, without copula.
But, if the relation between both clauses is inverted, and with it their order, the result is two
juxtaposed sentences, the second one (with participle) introduced by nu too, but with the
personal verb, with an explicit copula: Hitt. man I-NA URUayaa paun-pat nu-za MU.KAMza-wa-ta er tepaweanza eta (lit. ptc. to Hayasa I-would-have-gone ptc. the-year in-whichit-has-been-shortened is) I would have gone to Hayasa, but the year got shorter.
The conclusion is that from these sentences, with the integration of such substantive
subordinate constructions into the main clause, come the absolute participle constructions
attested in all IE branches but for Anatolian (Holland 1986).
4. A common resource in the older IE languages was to transform finite verbs into
nominal sentences, due to the syntactic flexibility of participles. As, for Gk.
hoppteros d ke niksi gunak te okad agsth who wins he carries home
the woman, Gk. ti d ke niksanti phl keklsi koitis by the one having won you
will be called dear wife (Ramat 1993).
NOTE. So e.g. the performative assertion, a linguistic act of guarantee and compromise,
expressed by the syntactic secondary rule of demonstrative in Ved. aym te asmi with-that
yours I-am, is transformed into a participle clause in the complex m
m m imam tva
sntam ni grit that he bolts me not, lit. being here yours. The participle reinforces a
performative assertion With that I promise you, Atri. Do not let Svarbhnu destroy me. This
is the case of the finite verb of existence in another linguistic act, of confessional formula; as,
Hitt. ziy=at iyawen=at It is. We did it, which is transformed into an=at iyanun=at , lit.
This (is) absent. I did it. From this syntactic use of Hitt. aant- we can glimpse Lat. sns,
sontis guilty, the old participle present of verb be, esse. Ramat (1993).
CONDITIONAL
Of all subordinate clauses introduced by conjunctions, only conditionals seem not
to be related to the relative clauses. In fact, they are the only conjunctional
333
subordinate developed in Hittite, well attested since the older texts (introduced by
takku), and whose conjunction is not derived from the relative (Mendoza 1998).
According to Clackson (2007), a particular marker appears to be used to introduce
conditional clauses in at least three different early branches of IE: -qe, the connective
enclitic (although it also has other functions), both at the word level and, less
generally, clause level. The Sanskrit derivative of -qe, ca, is used in thirty-one
passages in the Rig-Veda, the corpus of early Sanskrit hymns, to introduce
subordinate conditional or temporal clauses; in all cases the clause with the clitic ca
stands before the main clause.
Wackernagel (1942) had noticed similar, marginal, uses of the cognates of Sanskrit
ca to introduce subordinate, and in particular conditional, clauses in Gothic, Latin
and Greek. This support for a PIE use of -qe to introduce conditional clauses then
appeared to be confirmed by Hittite, since the element -ku of the conditional particle
takku if, can be derived from -qe.
RELATIVE
Indo-Europeanists
have
long
recognised
the
relationship
between
the
subordinating particles and the stem from which relative pronouns were derived in
Indo-Iranian and Greek.
Thus Delbrck has pointed out in detail how the neuter accusative form of PIE jowas the basis of the conjunction jod in its various meanings: (1) Temporal, (2)
Temporal-Causal, (3) Temporal-Conditional, (4) Purpose. He also recognised the
source of conjunctional use in sentences like Skt. yj j yaths td har asya k me
py am apibo girih m, On the day you were born you drank the mountain
milk out of desire for the plant (Lehmann 1974).
Thus, subordinated clauses that are introduced by relative pronouns can perform
the function of subject, object, adverbial phrase, appositional phrase, and attribute.
a) In the older IE languages, the relative clause often precedes the main clause (and
with it, the antecedent). The relative pronoun or adverb is often paired with a
pronominal or adverbial antecedent, yielding what are called correlative structures of
the type (the one) who , he , or in the way which , in that way (Fortson
2004).
334
10. Sentence Syntax
b) The earliest type of subordinate jo-, qi-/qo- clauses must have been the
preposed relative constructions; Vedic y no dvi, dharah ss pada who us
hates, down he will-fall. But elements could be left-detached for topicalisation (see
below 10.6.3): pro yd asya sampinak (lit. rocks when of-him you-destroyed)
when you destroyed his rocks.
NOTE. This conclusion from Vedic receives striking support from Hittite, for in it we find
the same syntactic relationship between relative clauses and other subordinate clauses as is
found in Vedic, Greek, and other early dialects. But the marker for both types of clauses
differs. In Hittite it is based on IE qid rather than jod; thus, Hittite too uses the relative
particle for indicating subordination. The remarkable parallelism between the syntactic
constructions, though they have different surface markers, must be ascribed to typological
reasons; we assume that Hittite as well as Indo-Aryan and Greek was developing a lexical
marker to indicate subordination. As does yad in Vedic, Hitt. kuit signals a loose
relationship between clauses which must be appropriately interpreted. Lehmann (1974).
As J. Friedrich has stated (1960), kuit never stands initially in its clause. Sentences in which
it is used are then scarcely more specifically interconnected than are conjoined sentences with
no specific relating word, as in examples cited by Friedrich (ibid.): nu takupi nu URU-a
dapiianzi idammazi (lit. Ptc. you-shout Ptc. city whole it-hears) Now cry out [so that] the
whole city hears. Like this example, both clauses in a kuit construction generally are
introduced with nu (J. Friedrich 1960). We may assume that kuit became a subordinating
particle when such connections were omitted, as in Friedrichs example. These examples
illustrate that both yd and kuit introduce causal clauses, though they do not contain
indications of the origin of this use.
CORRELATIVE
It is therefore generally believed that subordinates originated in relative sentences,
as Vedic, Old Irish, Avestan and Old Persian illustrate. Proverbs and maxims are a
particularly conservative field in all languages, and even etymologically there are two
series which appear especially often in correlatives; namely, qo-...to-, and jo-...to-.
NOTE. For IE qo-..to-, cf. Lat. cum...tum, qualis...talis, quam...tam, or Lith. ks...ts,
kks...ts, kap...tap, kek...tek, etc., and for jo-...to-, Ved. ys...s td, yth...tth,
y vat...t vat, Gk. oios...toios, sos...tsos, O.Pers. haya (a compound from so+jo, with the
same inverse compound as Lat. tamquam, from two correlatives), etc.
For Haudry this correlative structure is the base for subordination in all IndoEuropean languages. Proto-Indo-European would therefore show an intermediate
335
syntax between parataxis and hypotaxis, as the correlative structure is between a

loose syntax and a locked one.
Examples of equivalent old correlative sentences include the following (Watkins
1976, Ramat 1993): Hitt. nu tarzi kui nu ap KA.TAB.ANE pzi (lit. Ptc. wins
who Ptc. he reins takes) Who wins, (he) takes the reins [=takes charge]; Ved. sa yo
na ujjeyati sa pratama somasya psyati lit. he who Ptc. shall-win, he the-first
the-soma will-drink; Ved. sa yo na ujjeyati tasya idam bhaviyati he who Ptc.
shall-win, of-him this will-be; Gk. hs nun orkhstn ataltata pazei t tde k[]n
who now of the dancers more sporting plays, of him (is) this []; Gk. hoppteros d
ke niksi gunak te okad agsth who wins he carries home the woman.
RESTRICTIVE AND EXPLICATIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES
Greek, Indo-Iranian, Phrygian, Slavic and Celtic have inherited a stem jo- but
Anatolian, Latin, Sabellian and Tocharian derive their relative pronouns from a stem
qo-/qi-. This distribution cuts across other isoglosses separating the IE languages
and does not seem to reflect a dialectal difference of the parent language.
Common examples of relative clauses are (Fortson 2004): yna im viv cyavan
krt ni ... s jansa ndra (The one) by whom all these things have been made to
shake ... that, people, (is) Indra; Gk. hs ke theos epipethtai, mla t kluon auto
Whoever obeys the gods, they listen to him as well.
NOTE. Fritz (in Meier-Brgger 2003) sums up the uses of the qi-/qo- and jo- relative
pronouns, according to Ch. Lehmann. Clacksons (2007) description is very clear: A crucial
element of the recent work has been the difference between restrictive or defining relatives
and non-restrictive (also called descriptive or appositional) relatives. Restrictive relatives
delimit the head of the relative clause, but non-restrictive relatives merely add extra
information about their head. Compare the following sentences:
[a] The tea that I drank was cold.
[b] The tea, which I eventually drank, was cold.
In [a] the relative defines and restricts the referent, whereas in [b] the relative gives
incidental information, and is in effect a separate assertion from that of the main clause. In
English, if the relative pronoun is omitted, only a restrictive interpretation is possible. Some
English speakers prefer, or are taught, to use that as a relative pronoun in restrictive clauses.
The differentiation of relative clauses introduced by qo-/qi- and jo- is summarised

by Clackson (2007) according to the finds in the older IE languages:
336
10. Sentence Syntax
qo-/qi- shows a common use for attributive-restrictive relative clauses in

Hittite and Latin, and their most common order is relative-matrix; as, Lat.
pecuniam quis nancitor habeto fortune, who acquire it own it, Goth. ni weistu
hwaz ih sagen thir, you dont know what I say to you.
jo- is most commonly used in appositive-explicative relative clauses in Vedic
Sanskrit and Homeric Greek, with a matrix-relative order of the sentence; as,
Ved. sma y s te mayobhva tyah snti de t bhir no vit bhava (lit.
Soma which from-you benefitious aids are for-the-one-who-worships-you,
with-them of-us helper be-you) Soma, with your aids, which are benefitious to
those who worship you, help us.
NOTE. Clackson (2007): Should we then conclude that PIE had two separate relative
pronouns, and different clause structures for restrictive and non-restrictive relatives? It is
often a fault of Indo-Europeanists to over-reconstruct, and to explain every development of
the daughter languages through reconstruction of a richer system in the parent language. ()
However, the reconstruction of two relative pronouns for PIE does fit the attested facts better
than any of the other theories on offer.
Very characteristically, if the antecedent is a noun rather than a pronoun, it is

placed within the relative clause and in the same case as the relative, sometimes
repeated in the main clause. Thus instead of saying The gods who gave us riches can
take them away, speakers of these languages would have said literally, Which gods
gave us riches, they/those gods can take them away (Fortson 2004): Hitt. nu=kan
k IM-a kuz wappuwaz danza nu zik wappua DMA tul U-TIKA d (lit.)
from which riverbank this clay (has been) taken, o genius of (that) riverbank, take
(it) in your hand, i.e. 0 genius of the riverbank from which this clay has been taken
...; Old Latin quem agrum es undere herdemque sequ licet, is ager uectgal nei
siet the field which (lit., which field) they are allowed to sell and pass to an heir, that
field may not be taxable.
NOTE. As can be seen from some of the examples so far quoted, the relative pronoun did not
need to be the first member of its clause. In several of the ancient IE languages, the relative
could be preceded at least by a topicalised element, just like the subordinating conjunctions.
CIRCUMSTANCE
Lehmann (1974) assumes that the use of Skt. yd, Hitt. kuit, and other relative
particles to express a causal relationship arose from subordination of clauses
337
introduced by them to an ablative; cf. Skt. citt yt tva dhrm yuyopim lit.
unknowing that, because your law, order we-have-disturbed, m nas tsmd naso
deva rria (lit. not us because-of-that because-of-sin O-god you-harm) Do not
harm us, god, because of that sin [that] because unknowingly we have disturbed your
law.
As such relationships with ablatives expressing cause were not specific, more
precise particles or conjunctions came to be used. In Sanskrit the ablatival yasmt
specifies the meaning because.
Further, yad and ytra specify the meaning when. In Hittite, mn came to be
used for temporal relationships, possibly after combined use with kuit; kuitman
expressed a temporal relationship even in Late Hittite, corresponding to while,
until, though mahhan has replaced mn (J. Friedrich 1960 gives further details).
The conjunction mn itself specifies the meanings if and although in standard
Hittite. In both Hittite and Vedic then, the loose relative-construction relationship
between subordinate clauses and principal clauses is gradually replaced by special
conjunctions for the various types of hypotactic relationship: causal, temporal,
conditional, concessive.
Just as the causal relationship developed from an ablative modified by a relative
construction, so the temporal and conditional relationship developed from a clause
modifying an underlying time node.
10.6. SYNTACTIC CATEGORIES

10.6.1. PARTICLES AS SYNTACTIC MEANS OF EXPRESSION
Noninflected words of various functions were used in indicating relationships
between other words in the sentence or between sentences.
1. Some were used for modifying nouns, often indicating the relationships of nouns
to verbs. Although these were generally placed after nouns and accordingly were
postpositions, they have often been called prepositions by reason of their function
rather than their position with regard to nouns (Delbrck).
2. Others were used for modifying verbs, often specifying more precisely the
meanings of verbs; these then may be called preverbs.
338
10. Sentence Syntax
3. Others, commonly referred to as sentence connectives, were used primarily to

indicate the relationships between clauses or sentences (Watkins 1964; Lehmann
1969).
PREPOSITIONS AND POSTPOSITIONS

Prepositions and postpositions were simply independent adverbs in PIE (as in
Anatolian, Indo-Iranian and the oldest Greek), and they could appear before or after
their objects, although the oldest pattern found is agreed to be postposed. Anatolian
and Vedic have almost exclusively postpositions, not prepositions; as, Hitt. ui r
on the roof, Ved. jn
nu among men; and also remains in Gk. totn pri
about these things, and Lat. mcum with me (Fortson 2004).

Postpositions in the various dialects are found with specific cases, in accordance
with their meanings.
Yet in the Old Hittite texts, the genitive rather than such a specific case is
prominent with postpositions derived from nouns, such as piran (in) front (Neu
1970): kui LUGAL-ua-a piran zi (who kings front he-sits) whoever sits before
the king (Lehmann 1974).
PREVERBS
Rather than having the close relationships to nouns illustrated above, the same
adverbs could instead be associated primarily with verbs, often the same particles
which were used as postpositions.
Examples include (Fortson 2004) Hitt. =a ar URU-ya pait and he went up to
the city; Ved. abh y mahin dva mitr babhva saprth Mitra the renowned
who is superior to heaven by his greatness; O.Av. fr m sst vahit let him teach
me the best things; Gk. edtos eks ron hnto they put aside desire for food;
O.Lat. ob us sacr I entreat you (would be us obsecr in Classical Latin); O.Ir. adcruth can cichither fair form will be seen.
NOTE. German and Dutch are well known for having many separable affixes. In the
sentence Ger. Ich komme gut zu Hause an the prefix an in the verb ankommen is detached.
However, in the participle, as in Er ist angekommen He has arrived, it is not separated. In
Dutch, compare Hij is aangekomen He has arrived, but Ik kom morgen aan I shall arrive
tomorrow.
339
English has many phrasal or compound verb forms that act in this way. For example, the
adverb (or adverbial particle) up in the phrasal verb to screw up can appear after the subject
(things) in the sentence: He is always screwing things up.
Non-personal forms, i.e. nouns and adjectives, form a compound (karmadharaya)

with the preposition; as O.Ind. prasda favour, Lat subsidium, praesidium, O.Ind.
apaciti, Gk. apotisis reprisal, etc.
Preverbs might occupy various positions:
1. If unmarked, they are placed before the verb, as in the examples above.
2. If marked, they are placed initially in clauses (Watkins 1964); as, Av. pairi ui
vraiiam cover (their) ears, where the preverb (pairi, literally around) has
been fronted to the beginning of the clause for prominence or emphasis.
NOTE. In the course of time the preverbs in unmarked position came to be combined with
their verbs, though the identity of each element is long apparent in many of the dialects.
Thus, in Modern German the primary accent is still maintained on some verbal roots, and in
contrast with cognate nouns the prefix carries weak stress: ertilen distribute, rteil
judgment. The steps toward the combination of preverb and verbal root have been described
for the dialects, for example, Greek, in which uncombined forms as well as combined forms
are attested during the period of our texts.
NOTE. In the attested IE dialects:
- Preverbs which remained uncombined came to be treated as adverbs.
- Combinations of preverbs plus verbs, on the other hand, eventually came to function like
unitary elements.
The two different positions of preverbs in early texts led eventually to different word classes.
SENTENCE PARTICLES
Particles were also used to relate sentences and clauses (J. Friedrich 1959):
takku
L.ULLU-an
EL.LUM
QA.AZ.ZU
nama
GR-U
kuiki
if
man
free
his-hand
or
his-foot
someone
tuuarnizzi
nue
20
GN
KUBABBAR
paai
he-breaks
Ptc.-to-him
20
shekels
silver
he-gives
If anyone breaks the hand or foot of a freeman, then he must give him twenty
shekels of silver.
340
10. Sentence Syntax
Particles like the initial word in this example indicate the kind of clause that will
follow and have long been well described. The function of particles like nu is not,
however, equally clear.
NOTE. Dillon and Gtze related nu and the use of sentence connectives to similar particles
in Old Irish (Dillon 1947). Such particles introduce many sentences in Old Irish and have led
to compound verb forms in this VSO language. Delbrck had also noted their presence in
Vedic (1888).
Since introductory u and ta were more frequent than was nu in the older Hittite
texts, scholars assumed that sentences in IE were regularly introduced by these
sentence connectives. And Sturtevant proposed, as etymology for the anaphoric
pronoun, combinations of so- and to- with enclitic pronouns, as in the well-known
Hittite sequence ta-at, cf. IE tod, and so on (see Otten and Souek 1969 for the use of
such particles in one text).
It is clear that sentence connectives were used in Hittite to indicate continued
treatment of a given topic (Raman 1973). It is also found with Hittite relative
constructions, a function which may also be ascribed to Vedic s and td.
Compare this syntactic use of particles s, n, t, in Ved. s hovc Gargya lit. Ptc.
Ptc.-said Gargyas td u hovcsuri lit. Ptc. Ptc. Ptc.-said-Asuri.
NOTE. For Lehmann (1974), since this use may be accounted for through post-PIE
influences, sentence connectives may have had a minor role in PIE.
Other particles, like Hitt. takku if, had their counterparts in PIE, in this case in qe. This is also true for emphatic particles like Skt. d; they were used after nouns as
well as imperatives.
10.6.2. MARKED ORDER IN SENTENCES

1. Elements in sentences can be emphasised, by marking; the chief device for such
emphasis is initial position, i.e. elements are moved leftward in a process called
fronting.
2. In unmarked position the preverb directly precedes the verb. Changes in normal
order thus provide one of the devices for conveying emphasis.
341
Other devices have to do with selection, notably particles which are postposed after
a marked element.
3. Emphasis can also be indicated by lexical selection.
4. Presumably other modifications might also be made, as in intonation.
The various syntactic devices accordingly provided means to introduce marking in
sentences.
10.6.3. TOPICALISATION WITH REFERENCE TO EMPHASIS

1. Like emphasis, topicalisation is carried out by patterns of arrangement, but the
arrangement is applied to coequal elements rather than elements which are moved
from their normal order.
2. Topicalisation by arrangement is well known in the study of the early IE
languages, as in the initial lines of the Homeric poems. The Iliad begins with the
noun m nin wrath, the Odyssey with the noun ndra man, opening both poems:
m nin eide Sing of the wrath and ndra moi nnepe Tell me of the man. The very
arrangement of moi and other enclitics occupying second position in the sentence, in
accordance with Wackernagels law, indicates the use of initial placement among
nominal elements for topicalisation (Lehmann 1974).
Examples (Fortson 2004) include Hitt. alziai=wa=tta DINGIRME-a atta
DKumarbi
Kumarbi, the father of the gods, is calling you; O.Av. srat ssn
f hii suiie tat Let the bondsman (?), fashioned for benefit, hear the teachings,
Gk. mnei t theon douli per en phren The divine (power), even when in
bondage, stays in the mind, Lat. fuimus Tres, fuit lium We were (but no longer
are) Trojans, Troy was (but no longer is).
Fortson (2004): Certain verbs, especially existential verbs (e.g., there is) but also
verbs of speaking and imperatives, preferentially occur clause-initially across all the
IE languages: Skt. sd rj nalo nma there was a king named Nala (Mahbhrata
3.53.1), Lat. est in cnspect Tenedos ntissima fm nsula within sight there is a
most famous island, Tenedos (Vergil, Aeneid 2.21-22), dialectal Old Russian est
grad meu nobom i zemleju there is a city between heaven and earth (Novgorod
birch bark fragment 10.1).
342
10. Sentence Syntax
NOTE. The fronted element was characteristic of certain situations of the discourse, like the
beginning of a text, the kataphora (repetition of a cohesive device at the end of a sentence, like
a pronoun catching up an antecedent) and imperatives (Ramat 1993); compare e.g. the
beginning of a typical tale there was a king, in Skt. sd rj, Gk. ske tis (w)annssn,
Lith. bvo karlius, O.Ir. bo r, Russ. yl byl korol, etc.
As these passages and many others that might be cited illustrate, the basic sentence
patterns could be rearranged by stylistic rules, both for emphasis and for
topicalisation. In this way the relatively strict arrangement of simple sentences could
be modified to bring about variety and flexibility.
3. Clause-initial position is a place of prominence for any constituent, not only for
verbs; as Hitt. irma=ma=kan dun sickness I have taken away from you.
Topicalisation was probably a syntactic process in PIE (Fortson 2004).
4. Interrogatives, as already stated, move forward to the so-called complementiser
position, which can also be occupied by other elements, like relative pronouns or
subordinating conjunctions. The complementiser position precedes the rest of the
clausal positions proper, but this position is preceded by the topicalisation position;
if the latter is filled by a topicalised element, the complementiser is no longer clauseinitial (Fortson 2004).
Some examples are Hitt. ammuqq=a kuit arkun And also (that) which I had,
Ved. jtm yd enam apso dhrayan when the craftsmen held him, just born,
O.Av. nanastr yan vohunm mah since we are non-scorners of good
things, fst di s quid prodgeris if you splurge a bit on a holiday.
Topicalisation usually consists of one constituent or subconstituent, but it can be
more complex: Ved. her yt ram km apaya indra which avenger of the snake
you saw, o Indra? devena mnas y riayti who does wrong with impious
intention.
Cf. also from the Archaic Latin of Plautus, the subordinating conjunction s if can
be preceded by some or all the other clausal constituents save the verb: saluos
domum s redier if I shall have returned home safe, perfidia et pecultus ex urbe et
auritia s exulant if betrayal and embezzlement and greed are exiled from the city
(Fortson 2004).
5. According to Clackson (2007), some early IE languages show a clear distinction
between the left-detached and fronted position in the sentence. If the sentence
343
includes one of the introductory particles nu, su or ta (sometimes termed Sadverbs), then these normally precede the fronted element.
In these sentences, left-detached nominal phrases are picked up by anaphoric
pronouns in the body of the sentence. Enclitics and sentence adverbs are positioned
as if the left-detached element was absent; as, Old Irish maisse done n=s toimled
(lit. glory of-men, not=of-it he-partook) The glory of men, he did not partake of it;
Lat. N. Pumidius Q.f. [11 other names omitted] heisce magistreis Venerus Iouiae
muru aedificandum coirauerunt (lit. Pumidius-nom . . . these-nom magistrates-nom
Venus-gen of-Juppiter-gen wall-acc to-be-built-acc supervised) Numerius Pumidius
son of Quintus [and 11 others], these magistrates supervised the building of a wall to
belong to Venus daughter of Juppiter.
These examples suggest that the pattern of left-detached elements at the beginning
of the sentence should probably be allowed as a possible permutation in the parent
language.
6. Right-detached nominal phrases are another common feature of old IE
languages. Constituents are placed to the right of the verb as in Gk. otin eg
pmaton domai met hos hetroissin none will I eat last among his comrades,
where the prepositional clause is to the right of the verb domai eat. The object has
been fronted; the reflexive pronoun hos his own ones refers to the topic otin more
than the grammatical subject eg , as a rule (Ramat 1993).
The so-called sentence amplification or sentence expansion, consists in
appositional phrases and other adjuncts tacked on to the end of a grammatical
sentence (Clackson 2007). The first verse of the Rigveda provides an example: agnm
e purhita yajasya devm rtvjam htra ratnadh tamam (lit. Agni-acc Ipraise domestic-priest-acc sacrifice-gen god-acc sacrificer-acc invoker-acc bestbestower of treasure-acc) I praise Agni the domestic priest, god of the sacrifice,
sacrificer, invoker, best-bestower of treasure. All of the necessary grammatical
information is contained in the first two words, which could stand on their own as a
complete sentence, and the sentence is then expanded by the addition of five noun
phrases in apposition to the accusative agnm.
344
10. Sentence Syntax
10.6.4. WACKERNAGELS LAW AND THE PLACEMENT OF CLITICS

1. One of the best known features of clausal syntax of older IE languages is the
tendency of unstressed clitic particles to appear second in their clause after the first
stressed element, a phenomenon discovered by Jacob Wackernagel in the late
nineteenth century.
Examples include (Fortson 2004) Hitt. kill=a parna ar papratar QATAMMA
pattenuddu Of this house too may it likewise drive out the bloodshed (and)
uncleanliness; Mycenaean Greek da-mo=de=mi pa-si ko-to-na-o ke-ke-me-na-o ona-to e-ke-e (lit. people-NOM.=conn=she-ACC. say plot-GEN. communal-GEN. useACC. have-INFIN.) But the people say that she has the use of the communal plot;
Vedic
tv mantr kavisast vahantu Let the spells recited by the poets lead you
hither; Greek mos d rigneia phn rhododktulos s but when early-born,

rosy-fingered Dawn appeared, Lat. t autem in neru iam iacbis But you will soon
be lying in custody, Gothic fram-uh amma sokida Peilatus fraletan ina And at this
Pilate sought to release him.
NOTE. Sometimes, however, one of these clitics appears as the third or fourth word in its
clause. Recent research, especially by the American linguist Mark Hale, has shown that
Wackernagels Law actually involves several processes that usually, but not always, conspire to
place unstressed particles in second position in the clause. His discoveries have explained the
exceptions to a strict formulation of the law (Fortson 2004).
2. Three types of postpositive clitics (and clitic-positioning rules) can be

distinguished (Fortson 2004):
a. Word-level clitics modify or limit a single word or constituent, and are placed
directly after the word or the first element of the constituent. Such clitics tend to have
the function of emphasizing the word to which they are attached, or setting it in some
kind of contrastive relief or focus (the clitic is boldfaced): Hitt. nu=wa=za apun=pat
ei occupy only that (land), Vedic pracyvyanto cyut cid the ones who move
even unmovable things.
If the word that such a particle modifies is first in its clause, then the particle
appears (coincidentally) second in its clause: Ved. sthir
cid nni dayate v
jmbhai even tough food he cuts apart with his teeth (Rig Veda 4.7.10), Lat. hoc
quoque maleficium this crime too.
345
Such particles, when modifying a phrase, can often come second in the phrase, as in
Gk. n ge tas Thbais in all of Thebes indeed.
NOTE. Some clitics, such as the descendants of PIE -qe, and, can act as word-level clitics as
well as sentence connectors.
b. Sentence-connective clitics conjoin or disjoin clauses or sub-clausal constituents.

Examples of these clitics are PIE -qe, and, and -we, or. They are attached to the first
word of the constituent or clause being conjoined or disjoined, whether that is a
single word (Ved. gna ndras ca o Agni and Indra), a phrase (Lat. silua alta Iouis
lcusue Dinae the high forest of Jupiter or the grove of Diana), or a clause (Old
Avestan y z har y sc ht y sc mazd buuait indeed (those) who are
and who will be, o Mazda).
NOTE. A more complicated example is explained by Clackson (2007) from Ved. ut v y
no marcyd ngasa (lit. and part rel-NOM. us-ACC. harm-OPT. innocent-ACC.-Pl.) Or
also who would harm innocent us There are two enclitics, the disjunctive particle v, which
follows the left-detached slot, and the personal pronoun nas following the relative pronoun,
which occupies the front slot (the pronoun nas appears as no by a process of sandhi).
It should be noted that the position of the particle v, which has scope over the whole
sentence following the left-detached element, is exactly paralleled by the behaviour of
connectives and adverbs with scope over the sentence in Greek, which stand immediately after
the left-detached element. Hale (1987a and 1987b) collected evidence for second-position
enclitics in Indo-Iranian and showed that, in general, enclitics with scope over the sentence
and connectives occurred after left-detached elements, which he refers to as the topic position,
whereas enclitic pronouns were placed after the fronted element. Hale claims that the
behaviour of these two different sets of enclitics reflects an inherited difference between the
two sentence positions.
c. Sentential clitics are clitics whose scope is a whole clause or sentence. These
include the unstressed personal pronouns as well as a variety of sentential adverbs
that serve expressive functions and are often untranslatable into English. They are
positioned in various ways. Some are placed after the first stressed word in a
sentence and any emphatic or sentence-connective clitics associated with that word,
while others (called special clitics in the technical literature) are positioned after a
particular syntactic structural position in the clause. If the first word in a sentence is
a proclitic, that is, an unstressed word that attaches phonologically to a following
stressed word, the sentential clitic will of course not come directly after it, as in Gk.
346
10. Sentence Syntax
eks hmn gr phsi kk mmenai for they say that bad things are from us,
where the proclitic eks from is not a proper phonological host for the clitic gr.
Sentential clitics occur not infrequently in strings or chains: Ved. n v u etn
mriyase indeed you do not die thereby; Gk. rh n mo ti pthoio 'may you
indeed now trust me somewhat. In Vedic ut v y no marcyd ngasa or
also who would do wrong to us the innocents, where the pronominal clitic nas (no)
us is in the second position before the topicalized part, while the disjunctive clitic
v, PIE -w , (and ca, PIE -qe) take the second position within the topicalized part.
3. There are so-called preferential hosts, which are fronted rather than detached,
and which are not followed by enclitics in second position, which is apparently a
persistent exception to Wackernagels Law in languages like Sanskrit, Greek or Latin.
Adams (1994) explained it this way:
Unemphatic pronouns in Classical Latin prose, far from always being placed
mechanically in the second position of their colon, are often attracted to particular
types of hosts, namely antithetical terms, demonstratives / deictics, adjectives of
quantity and size, intensifiers, negatives, temporal adverbs and imperatives. I have
suggested that what these hosts have in common is their focused character, and have
accordingly argued that enclitic pronouns had tendency to gravitate towards focused
constituents. The prominent constituent serving as a host may be at the head of its
colon, in which case the clitic will indeed be second, in apparent conformity with
Wackernagels law. But often the host is in the second or a later position, thereby
entailing a place later than second for the pronoun.
According to Clackson (2007), we should also include relative and interrogative
pronouns in this list of preferential hosts for enclitics. Adams findings for Latin also
appear to apply well to cases of enclitic pronouns which do not follow Wackernagels
Law (or even Hales modifications of it) in Vedic Sanskrit. So for example in Vedic
gnom y ady vm / id vca saparyti (lit. Agni-and-Soma-VOC., relNOM. today you-two-DAT. this-ACC. speech-ACC. he-praises) Agni and Soma! The
one who today hymns you this praise . . . Note the placement of enclitic pronoun
vm, which is unexplainable in terms of second position, but can be explained if we
consider the temporal adverb ady today as a preferential host.
In other languages too there is evidence for breaches of Wackernagels Law, and for
the placement of pronominal enclitics after items identified by Adams as preferential
347
hosts. Consider the Greek sentence taken from Krisch (1990) and used by him to
support Hales arguments: Gk. autr eg thes eimi, diampers h se phulss (lit.
conn I-NOM. god-NOM. I-am, thoroughly who-NOM. you-ACC. I-protect) But I am
a goddess, the one who protects you steadfastly. Here the enclitic se follows the
relative pronoun h, which comes second in the clause after the emphatically placed
adverb diampers. The relative here can easily be seen as a preferential host, the
focussed element in its clause.
NOTE. Clackson (2007) summarises the situation by establishing that while in Hittite no
enclitics are allowed after left-detached elements, or delayed after fronted element, in
Sanskrit, Greek and Latin sentence enclitics can stand after left-detached elements, and
pronominal enclitics may be delayed, which may therefore reflect the evolution from PIH into
Late Indo-European syntax.
10.7. PHRASE AND SENTENCE PROSODY

1. On the so-called phonology-syntax interface, Fortson (2004): Words
belonging to the same constituent that start out as contiguous in the deep structure
and stay contiguous throughout the derivation will tend to be grouped together as a
single phonological unit, whereas words that only become contiguous through certain
kinds of movement sometimes do not. () For example, in Greek, clitics normally
receive no accent, but if two or more occur in a string, all but the last one get
accented, as in ei m ts me then if no one of the gods me . However, in a
sequence like douli per en phren even in bondage in the mind, there are two
clitics in a row but the first is not accented. The reason is that per even emphasizes
douli in bondage and is phonologically attached to it, while en in is a preposition
that governs phren the mind and is proclitic to that word. The two resultant clitic
groups [douli per] and [en phren] form two separate prosodic groups with what is
called a prosodic boundary between them. (A prosodic boundary, incidentally, is not
generally audible as a pause or other break). We conclude that the rule placing an
accent on the first of two successive clitics applies only if the two clitics belong to the
same clitic group.
2. According to Fortson (2004), noun phrases consisting of a bare noun are much
more likely to enter into certain kinds of clitic groups than are noun phrases where
the noun is modified by another element. In punctuated Greek inscriptions,
interpuncts do not ordinarily separate a definite article from a following noun; but an
348
10. Sentence Syntax
interpunct is present if the article is followed by a noun modified by another element,

indicating a stronger prosodic break between the two.
In Homer, there is a different behaviour of prepositional phrases vs. the positioning
of the sentence-connecting conjunction d, an enclitic that normally occurs second in
its clause. If the clause begins with a prepositional phrase consisting simply of a
preposition plus bare noun, the clitic will follow the whole phrase (e.g. eks pntn d
and of all), whereas if the clause begins with a more complex phrase consisting of
a preposition followed by an adjective-noun phrase, the clitic will come in between
the preposition and the rest of the phrase (e.g. di d khra kaln and into the fair
flesh). Therefore, eks pnton is prosodically cohesive enough to function as a
single word for the purposes of clitic placement, while di khra kaln is not.
A similar phenomenon is found in the Old High German of Notker Labeo: a definite
article is written without an accent when preceding a simple noun phrase (e.g. taz
hiza fur the hot fire), indicating clisis and destressing of the article, but is written
with an accent when preceding more complex noun phrases (e.g de uulsalda llero
brg the fortune of all cities).
3. Through the study of rules and behaviour of poetic meters (metrics), another rule
appears (Fortson 2004): In certain Greek and Roman meters, for example, there is a
rule that a sequence of two light syllables in particular verse-positions must belong to
the same word. The rule, though, has an interesting exception: a word-break between
the two syllables is allowed when one of them belongs to a proclitic (as in the
sequence ut opinione that in [his] opinion). This means that the prosodic group
consisting of proclitic plus word was tighter than that consisting of two full-content
words tight enough to behave, for the purposes of the poetic meter, as though there
were no word-division.
10.8. POETRY
1. In the oldest poetry, some common etymologically related Indo-European
formulae have been reconstructed; as, klewos dhchitom, immortal fame (cf. Skt.
kitam rvas, Gk. klos phthiton, where the Skt. form is deemed older); mega
klwos, big fame, klwesa nerm (<*klewesh2 h2nrm), famous deeds of men,
heroes (cf. Gk. kla andrn, Ved. rvas nr m); wesu klewos, good fame (cf. Av.
vohu sravah, O.Ir. fo chl). The sun was called the wheel of the sun, s weljosjo
349
qeqlos, cf. Skt. sryasya cakrs, zaranii.caxra-., (from PII swarjasja aklas,
see Lubotskys Indo-Aryan inherited lexicon, IEED, n.d.), Gk. hlou kklos (<PGk
s weljohjo quqlos), O.Ice. sunnu hvl, O.E. sunnan hweogul.
NOTE. Also, the concept sun chariot a mythological representation of the sun riding in a
chariot is typically Indo-European, corresponding with the Indo-European expansion after
the domestication of the horse and the use of wheels. Examples include the Trundholm sun
chariot of the Nordic deity, Sl, drawn by Arvak and Alsvid (see the cover image); Greek
Helios riding in a chariot, Sol Invictus depicted riding a quadriga on the reverse of a Roman
coin, and Vedic Surya riding in a chariot drawn by seven horses.
Epithets and adjectives pertaining to the gods might also be found (Beekes 1995);
as, dtr wesw m, those who give goods, riches (cf. Skt. dt vsnm, Av. dta
vahvm, Gk. dtres e n), from wesus, riches, goods, from the same root as
ss, good.
Other formulae are not etymologically related, but still deemed of PIE origin; as,
Skt. prth rvas, Gk. klos eur, broad fame; or a common name for the sun Skt.
spam vvasya jgatas he who spies upon the whole world (lit. the moving one,
or the living beings), similar to Gk. then skpon de kai andrn he who spies
upon gods and men (Beekes 1995, Clackson 2007).
It is possible to reconstruct formulae from a nexus of correlations, where no single
language preserves the complete formula (Clackson 2007). Watkins reconstructs the
formula plje wrs pkewaqe (<*peh2- *wro- *peku-), protect men and
livestock, from the correspondence of (etymologically related words underlined) Skt.
tr yantm asmn gr me / g m vam pruam pam lit. protect in-this village
cow, horse, man, (and) flock-animal Av. rri pasuu vraii lit. for protection ofcattle (and) of-men, Lat. pstrs pecuaque salua serusss lit. shepherds farmanimals-and may-you-preserve, Umb. nerf arsmo uiro pequo castruo frif salua
seritu magistrates ordinances men cattle fields fruit safe let-him-preserve (Clackson
2007).
2. The metrical structure of Indo-European poetic language was reconstructed by
Meillet, although his attribution of the Indo-Greek system to the parent language is
not widely accepted today. The oldest Indian and Greek poems were based on a
prosodic structure of alternating long and short syllables [see above 2.4.]:
350
10. Sentence Syntax
Beekes (1995): At the end of the line (the cadence) this alternation was strictly
regulated, whereas it was free at the beginning. Both the Indic and the Greek systems
used the caesura (word-end at a fixed place in the line at a syntactically significant
break); in both systems, too, a line had a fixed number of syllables, but a line could
also have a variant with a syllable less (catalexis). [Meillet] saw an exact similarity
between the eleven syllable line used by the Greek poetess Sappho and the triubh of
the Rigveda ( long, short, x long or short, | caesura; a begins the cadence);
triubh x x x x | x , x
Sappho x | x
Meillets theory was further developed by Roman Jakobson, who believed that the
oldest Slavic metric system was comparable to the one Meillet described, and derived
from an Indo-European decasyllabic line. A similar continuation could be seen in a
verse-tipe utilized in Old Irish.
It is probable then that the Proto-Indo-European verse consisted of a fixed number
of syllables, as was the case with Avestan. Longer lines would have contained a
caesura (division between phrases).
Beekes (1995) takes as example of PIE poetry a stanza from a hymn of Zarathustra
in Gatha-Avestan (Yasna 44.4), with a phonetic transcription: The line consists of
four plus seven syllables (with a caesura after the fourth syllable):
Tat v prs
r mai vauca, Ahura:
Kas-n drta
zam ca adah nabs ca
avapastai,
kah apah urvars ca?
Kah vaati
vanmabyas ca yaugi suu?
Kas-n vahau,
Mazd, dmi manahah?
This I ask Thee,
tell me truthfully, O Lord:
Who has upheld
the earth below and heavens [above]
from falling down
who the waters and the plants?
Who to the wind
and the clouds has yoked the swift [horses]?
Who, Wise One, is
the founder of Good Thinking?
Beekes (1995) continues: It is probable that this kind of song is of Indo-European

origin, for we find a parallel to it in the Edda (Alvssml 15):
351
Segu mr, Alvss,
ll of rc fira
voromc dvergr, et vitir

hv s sl heitir,
er si alda synir,
heimi hveriom .
Tell me this, Alwis
of everything in the world
I think, dwarf, that thou knowest

What the sun is called,
the sun which people see,
by all creatures of the world.

In the answer the sun is referred to, among other things, as a wheel, hvl [ see
above]. The Germanic verse here is stress verse, and is not related in this respect to
Indo-European poetry.
10.9. NAMES OF PERSONS

4.8.1. The use of two-word compounds for personal names was common in PIE; as,
Suklewos, of good fame, with cognates found in poetic diction, cf. Gk. Eukles, and
Skt. Surva-, or Illyr. Vescleves-.
NOTE. The use of two-word compound words for personal names is common in IE
languages (see above 10.4.2). They are found e.g. in Ger. Alf-red elf-counsel, O.H.G. Hluderch rich in glory, O.Eng. God-gifu gift of God (Eng. Godiva), Gaul. Orgeto-rix king who
harms, Gaul. Dumno-rix king of the world, Gaul. Epo-pennus horses head, O.Ir. Cin-nide
(Eng. Kennedy) ugly head, O.Ind. Asva-ghosa tamer of horses, O.Ind. Asv-medhas who
has done the horse sacrifice, O.Pers. Xa-yr (Gk. Xrxs) ruler of heroes, O.Pers. Artaxac whose reign is through truth/law, Gk. S-krts good ruler, Gk. Mene-ptlemos who
faces war, Gk. Hipp-archus horse master, Gk. Cleo-patra, Ptro-klos from famous lineage,
Gk. Arkh-laos who governs the people, O.Sla. Bogu-mil loved by god, Sla. Vladi-mir
peaceful ruler, from volodi-mirom possess the world; etc. Individual names may further be
modified through the use of suffixes to form hypocorisms.
4.8.2. Other area in which it is suspected the retention of ancient Proto-IndoEuropean personal names is the use of animal names or numerals, composed of one
stem; as Wqos, wolf, cf. O.Ir. Olc, O.Eng. Wulf, Gk. Lukos, Skt. Vka; or,
Qtwtos, fourth, cf. Lat. Qurta, Lith. Keturai, Russ. etvertoj, Gk. Tetartn.
NOTE. The word for name and possible Indo-European names can be found in Beekes
(1987), Markey (1981), Pinault (1982), Schmitt (1973), and Watkins (1970).
4.8.3. Further, the syntactical indication of the fathers name also dates from ProtoIndo-European, whether by adding the name of the father in the genitive, in the
352
10. Sentence Syntax
sense of son of X, or by adding a possessive adjective that is derived from the name
of the father.
NOTE. An example of the former is Hadubrand Heribrandes suno; an example of the later
is
Myc.
a-re-ku-tu-ru-wo
e-te-wo-ke-re-we-i-jo,
i.e.
Alektruwn
Etewoklewehijos
Alektruwn, son of Etewoklews, or Russ. Nikolaj Sergejevich. Patronymics ending in -ios

(later -ius) led to what is called the nomine gentile in Rome, cf. Gaius Iulius Caesar with
Gaius = praenomen < individual name, Iulius = nomen gentile < patronymic and Caesar =
cognomen.
4.8.4. When considering the giving of names to individuals, one departs generally
from the basis of the free men.
Whereas the man is addressed using the individual name, a simple oh woman
suffices in the case of woman. The woman is treated more as a typus, the man as an
individual. Wackernagel (1969) makes clear that the same forms of address were
adopted for interactions with the gods.
According to Meier-Brgger (2003), to say that the Indo-Europeans were not very
different from the Romans and Greeks would not likely be too far from the mark. In
Rome, women generally carried only the nomen gentile, cf. Cornelia, Julia, etc. In
the case of the Greeks, most names of women are simply feminine forms of
masculine names of individuals, e.g. Myc. a-re-ka-sa-da-ra, i.e Aleksandr
(corresponding to Aleks-anr who fights off men), Hom. Andromkh, from
Andrmakhos who fights with men, etc.
353
PART IV
TEXTS &
DICTIONARY
ETYMOLOGY
By Fernando Lpez-Menchero
Appendix I: Indo-European in Use
APPENDIX I: INDO-EUROPEAN IN USE

I.1. KOMTLOQJOM (CONVERSATION)
Common expressions in Indo-European include:
English
Eurpjm
hello!
al! / gheuse!
dear Peter:
qeime Perte:
welcome
crts / sucts t
good day
latom sm
good morning
wsrom sm
good afternoon / evening
wesprom sm
good night
noqtim sm
how are you?
qot wjesi?
I am fine
wj s
Who are you?
qis esi?
Whose (son) are you?
qosjo esi?
what is your name?
qot kluwjesi? lit. how are you heard?
what is your name?
qid esti tebhei nm?
my name is Peter
kluwj Pertos lit. I am heard Peter
my name is Peter
meghei Pertos nm
pleased to meet you
gaudhj tewe gntim
please
chedh lit. I ask you
thanks
mitimons / moitmom
thanks (I give you)
prijsna / prsdjom (tebhei ag)
I thank you
prijj tewom
you are welcome, sir
esti s, potei
excuse me
gndhi
sorry/pardon me
parke
I am sorry
kesd
dont worry
m koisje
good bye, darling
swj [swje], prijt

357
good luck
kobom sm
yes
d / ji / ne-(ghi)
indeed
nem-pe / ita tod
no
n / nei
alright
tagtei
attention
probhoudhos
where is the door
qodhei dhworis?
here is what I asked
kei esti jod pkskm
what is this?
qid (esti) tod?
this is food
pits tod (esti)
what time is it?
qid esti daitis?
it is true
wrom tod
very good / the best
bhodistom / bhodsom
is everything alright?
solw s (gontor)?
how old are you?
qtobhos tnobhos t?
I am ten years old
dek gnts esmi lit. ten born I am
do you speak European?
bhsor [bhasor] an Eurpjm?
I speak a little
pukolom bhmor
I dont understand you
n tewom peumi
tell me what you think
seqe moi qid ksjsi
I dont know
n woida
shut up
takj [takje] / takjete
sit down
sisde (sg.) / ssdete (pl.)
come here
cemj [cemje] kom-ke
I'm going right now
n ghengh kom
what do you do or study?
qterom ghlndhesi an dr jesi?
are they married?
esti lachjonti?
I love women
lubhj pel dhmonns / cenns
write here your address
deikom skreibhe kei tewe
I live in the Main Street
Stoighei Magni ceiw / trebh
358
Lucrecia and I are friends
Lukretj egqe meikes smes / meike

swes
the cat mews in the garden
katt ghortei mijaluti
the dog bites the cat
kattm mordjeti kwn
the woman walks with the cat
katt dhmon al jetor
I see the head of the cat
katts dk ghebhlm
Where is the train?
qodhei esti douknom?
the train is here
douknom (esti) kei
I want to eat fish
welmi piskim ghostum
do you want to sleep with me?
welsi mojo sweptum?
yes, I wish for it
ji, moksi gherijar
no, you stink / smell bad
n, smrdesi / bhragr jesi dus
it is hot!
qm kaljeti! lit. how hot is it!
it is cold!
qm srgjeti! lit. how cold is it!
I go swimming to the lake

everyday
laqom eimi dhochei sntum qqei
can I smoke?
mogh (an) smeughtum?
may I smoke?
moghnjom meghei an smeughtum

(esti)? / esti moi smeughtum?
smoking prohibited
smeughtum wtnom
happy new year
ghoilom newom atnom
I agree with everything that you

explained me yesterday in your
mail
solwei manj kom, jod dhghjstenei

bhresi dewtlei peri
I thank you for the interest that

you always have to carry on
mndhesi prijj te, jobhi iwesi prd

steightum awjsi
NOTE. About the sentence is it possible to smoke?, constructed with the verb esti,
compare Lat. est in Ovid (Metamorphoses Book III, 479) quod tangere non est, as it is not
possible to touch; also Virgil est cernere, it can be seen; also, for Gk. est(n), it is possible,
compare Lucian (The Parliament of the Gods, 12) , , is it possible, Hermes.
359
I.2. HORATJOSJO KANM (HORATII CARMINVM)

Liber primus XIV. The translation tries to respect the original Asclepiad metrical
pattern.
NOTE. It takes into account <http://e-spacio.uned.es/fez/eserv.php?pid=bibliuned:Epos4B3E2DFB-2CD0-30D4-D45C-87D42540B962&dsID=PDF>.
Eurpjm
nu, an mari isonti te prd ati
Neuwolms? qid ags? Isri ghde stipm
Kopnom; dknija n twoi
Rsplighsts nocs tewe
Bhod masds rins bhrikotwoisot
dtempnsqe krop s?; todper werwons
Moghsnt edli kareins
Per teutum dhnijom chorm
Pontom? Sekla ghi n senti tebhei swa
N deiws itim mghessi ghawsi t
Dhanwos d genos atl
Kselwagn eti pontik
Gentim nmqe morknm tewe sei bhleds
Nawts bhidheti n qrumnapikbhi qid
Bhls. Wentowojom tod
An t n sqesoi, kawi
Prsnim j bhudhis oghlos crs bhs meghei
N ghoidhos prijakoisqe ja leghwa n
Leuk ns nteri ghusti
Leinois plkon Qklads
NOTE. The form dhanwos has been reconstructed according to the Germanic form for
convenience in metrics, instead of an older common dhanus (found in Old Indian and
Hittite).
360
Latin (original)
English
O navis, referent in mare te novi
O luckless bark! new waves will force you back
Fluctus: o quid agis? fortiter occupa
To sea. O, haste to make the haven yours!
Portum: nonne vides, ut

Nudum remigio latus,
E'en now, a helpless wrack,

You drift, despoil'd of oars;
Et malus celeri saucius Africo,
The Afric gale has dealt your mast a wound;
Antennaeque gemant? ac sine funibus
Your sailyards groan, nor can your keel sustain,
Vix durare carinae

Possint imperiosius
Till lash'd with cables round,

A more imperious main.
Aequor? non tibi sunt integra lintea:
Your canvass hangs in ribbons, rent and torn;
Non Di, quos iterum pressa voces malo.
No gods are left to pray to in fresh need.
Quamvis Pontica pinnus,

Silvae filia nobilis.
A pine of Pontus born

Of noble forest breed,
Jactes et genus, et nomen inutile:
You boast your name and lineagemadly blind
Nil pictis timidus navita puppibus
Can painted timbers quell a seaman's fear?
Fidit, Tu, nisi ventis

Debes ludibrium, cave.
Beware! or else the wind

Makes you its mock and jeer.
Nuper sollicitum, quae mihi taedium,
Your trouble late made sick this heart of mine,
Nunc desiderium, curaque non levis,
And still I love you, still am ill at ease.
Interfusa nitentis
Vites aequora Cycladas.
O, shun the sea, where shine

The thick-sown Cyclades!
NOTE. Translation in English by John Conington (Horace. The Odes and Carmen Saeculare
of Horace, 1882). Taken from <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/>.
361
I.3. THE NEW TESTAMENT IN INDO-EUROPEAN

The original in Greek as well as Old Latin versions have been taken into account.
I.3.1. PATER NOS (LORDS PRAYER)

Eurpjm
Pater Nos,
kmeloisi jos
esi,
English
Our Father, who
art in heaven,
Latine
Pater noster, qui es

in caelis:

Nm
Hallowed be thy
sqnetoru tewe. Name.
sanctificetur
Nomen Tuum;
Regnom
cmjetd tewe.
Thy kingdom
come.
adveniat Regnum
Tuum;
Dhidhtoru
wolj Twij,
Thy will be done,
fiat voluntas Tua,
ita kmelei jota

ptwiji.
On earth as it is in
heaven.
sicut in caelo, et in
terra.
Qqodjtenom
bharsjom
serm edju
dasdhi nos
Give us this day

our daily bread.
Panem nostrum
cotidianum da
nobis hodie;
joqe dheglns
ser ns parke,
And forgive us our

trespasses,
et dimitte nobis
debita nostra,
swi skletbhos
prkomos.
As we forgive those Sicut et nos

who trespass
dimittimus
debitoribus
against us.
nostris;
Enim m sm
pritl i enke
prd,
And lead us not

into temptation,
m peld
nosje nos.
Estd.
But deliver us from sed libera nos a

evil. Amen
Malo. Amen
362
et ne nos inducas
in tentationem;

.
.
I.3.2. SLWJE MARIJ (HAIL MARY)

Eurpjm
English
Swje Marij,
crtj
t,
Hail Mary, full of

grace,
Latine
Ave Mara, gratia

plena,
,
,
,
Arjos twojo esti; the Lord is with

thee;
Dominus tecum.
swoqn cnisi blessed art thou

esi,
among women,
Benedicta tu in
mulieribus,
swoqnosqe
derosjo two
bhreugs, Jsus.
et benedictus

fructus ventris tui,
Iesus.
(

)
and blessed is the

fruit of thy womb,
Jesus.
Noibha Marij, Holy Mary, Mother Sancta Maria,

Diwosjo Mtr, of God,
Mater Dei,
nosbhos rje
geswtbhos,
pray for us sinners, ora pro nobis

peccatoribus,
nqe mtjosqe
nos daitei.
Estd.
now and at the

hour of our death.
Amen.
nunc et in hora
mortis nostrae.
Amen.
I.3.2. KRDDHMI (NICENE CREED)

Eurpjm
Oinom krddhmi
Deiwom,
English
Latine
We believe in one Credo in unum

God,
Deo,
Pater
the Father
solwomghmon, Almighty,
Patrem
omnipotntem,
djweptwdht, Maker of heaven

and earth,
factrem cli et
terr,
dknj m slwosom and of all things

dknj mqe
visible and
dhtr;
invisible.
visiblium
mnium et
invisiblium;
rjomqe Jsum
Ghristm oinom,
And in one Lord

Jesus Christ,
Et in unum
Dminum Iesum
Christum,
Diwosjo Snm
oingntom,
the only-begotten Flium Dei

Son of God,
unignitum,

,
363
Patrs jos gnts

begotten of the
aiwd pri solwd, Father before all
worlds (ons),
et ex Patre natum
ante mnia

scula:
,
Deiwos Deiwd,
Light of Light,
leuksm
very God of very
luksmene, wrom God,
Deiwom wrd
Deiwd,
Deum de Deo,
,
lumen de lmine,
Deum verum de
,
Deo vero,
gents, n dhats,
gnitum non
factum,
begotten, not
made,
Patri kmbhoutis, being of one

substance with
the Father;
consubstantilem
Patri,
josd solw dhakt

senti;
by whom all
things were
made;
per quem mnia

facta sunt;
'
qos nosbhis rdh

dhghmbhis
kmelobhos kidt,
who for us men,

and for our
salvation, came
down from
heaven,
qui propter nos

hmines et
propter nostram
saltem
descndit de
clis;
'

enim memsom
Noibhd namd
Wwtei Marijd
eks ndhesd,
enim dhghomn
geneto;
and was incarnate

by the Holy Ghost
of the Virgin
Mary, and was
made man;
et incarntus est
de Spritu Sancto
ex Mara Vrgine
et homo factus
est;
eti krukdhtos
nosbhis prd
Pontjei upo Pilatei,
pastos seplitosqe
esti,
he was crucified
for us under
Pontius Pilate,
and suffered, and
was buried,
crucifxus tiam
pro nobis sub
Pntio Pilto,
passus et sepltus
est;

,

,
joqe ati tritjei stete

diw, skribhmona
ad kmelomqe
skndws, Patr
dksiji sedjeti;
and the third day

he rose again,
according to the
Scriptures, and
ascended into
heaven, and
sitteth on the
right hand of the
Father;
et resurrxit trtia
die secndum
Scriptras; et
ascndit in
clum, sedet ad
dxteram Patris;

,

,

364
joqe dwonim
klwos cemjest
cwns mwonsqe
kmdhnqos;
from thence he
shall come again,
with glory, to
judge the quick
and the dead;
qosjo regnom n
antjom bhuseti.
whose kingdom
cuius regni non
shall have no end. erit finis;
joqe Noibhom
namom, potim
trodhtqe,
Patrs Sneusqe
proilm,
And in the Holy

Ghost, the Lord
and Giver of life,
who proceedeth
from the Father,
Et in Spritum
Sanctum,
Dminum et
vivificntem: qui
ex Patre Filique
procdit;

, ,
() ,

,
qei Patr
Snwqe semli
idetor enim
magt jetor bhats
jos prbhts
terqe esti.
who with the

Father and the
Son together is
worshiped and
glorified, who
spake by the
prophets.
qui cum Patre et

Flio simul
adortur et
conglorifictur;
qui loctus est
per Prophtas;
,

.
joqe oinm,
noibhm,
ktsolwm
apostlejm
kkltijm.
In one holy
Et in unam
catholic and
sanctam
apostolic Church; cathlicam et
apostlicam
Ecclsiam.
, ,

Oinom bhatjar
agesupomoukom
cadhm;
we acknowledge
one baptism for
the remission of
sins;
Confteor unum
baptsma in
remissinem
peccatorum
et exspecto
resurrectionem
mortuorum et
vitam ventri
sculi. Amen.
,

.
.
sitl mqe ctm

we look for the
cmjonq m. Estd resurrection of
the dead, and the
life of the world
to come. Amen.
et terum

ventrus est cum
glria iudicre

vivos et mrtuos;
365
I.3.3. NOUDS SNS (PARABLE OF THE PRODIGAL SON)

Eurpjm
English
Latine
11
Dhghomn
enis snuwe
eiket,
A certain man
had two sons.
Homo quidam
habuit duos filios:
12
joqe
jowsteros
patri
weuqt : Pater,
rijs dasdh
moi aitim qi
meghei ineti,
joqe rim
ibhom widht.
And the younger

of them said to
his father,
Father, give me
the portion of
goods that falls
to me. So he
divided to them
his livelihood.
et dixit
adolescentior ex
illis patri: Pater,
da mihi
portionem
substanti, qu
me contingit. Et
divisit illis
substantiam.

,
,

.
.
13
Enim n
pluwns
dinns pos,
solw garls,
jowsteros
sns reu
porstenom
oigheto
londhom,
idheiqe rim
nudt sewe
ghlidotos
ceiwents.
And not many

days after, the
younger son
gathered all
together,
journeyed to a
far country, and
there wasted his
possessions with
prodigal living.
Et non post
multos dies,
congregatis
omnibus,
adolescentior
filius peregre
profectus est in
regionem
longinquam, et
ibi dissipavit
substantiam
suam vivendo
luxuriose.
'

,

.
14
Enim tpo
solw csisst
kom, dhghts
molt
ghrdhus
londhei
lnosmei, joqe
egtum sepe
bhwije.
But when he had

spent all, there
arose a severe
famine in that
land, and he
began to be in
want.
Et postquam
omnia
consummasset,
facta est fames
valida in regione
illa, et ipse cpit
egere.

,

.
15
Itaqe cls,
qismei jugeto
kiwijom
lnosjo londh,
imqe sontjet
porkons
psksi.
Then he went
and joined
himself to a
citizen of that
country, and he
sent him into his
fields to feed
swine.
Et abiit, et
adhsit uni
civium regionis
illius: et misit
illum in villam
suam ut pasceret
porcos.

,

:
366
16
Atqe derom
skiqis
plntum
gherjeto
porks edent
jans atqe neqis
ismei dt.
And he would
gladly have filled
his stomach with
the pods that the
swine ate, and no
one gave him
anything.
Et cupiebat
implere ventrem
suum de siliquis,
quas porci
manducabant: et
nemo illi dabat.

,
.
17
Swei poti
wtomns,
gt: qotjoi
patrs domei
msdhotes
paskneis
sprigonti, kei
eg au dhami
mijar!
But when he
came to himself,
he said, How
many of my
fathers hired
servants have
bread enough
and to spare, and
I perish with
hunger!
In se autem
reversus, dixit:
Quanti
mercenarii in
domo patris mei
abundant
panibus, ego
autem hic fame
pereo!
,
.
18
somnos
pater eis
mene ad, joqe
ismei seks:
Pater,
kmelom proti
tewomqe ant
memlar,
I will arise and

go to my father,
and will say to
him, Father, I
have sinned
against heaven
and before you,
surgam, et ibo ad
patrem meum, et
dicam ei: Pater,
peccavi in clum,
et coram te:

,
,

,
19
jmi n
deknos eg,
sns twijos
kluwtum:
dhasdhi me
swi qimqim
msdhotom
tewe.
and I am no
longer worthy to
be called your
son. Make me
like one of your
hired servants.
jam non sum

dignus vocari
filius tuus: fac me
sicut unum de
mercenariis tuis.

:

.
20
Ita its
pater ludht
sewe. Eti jom
qeli bhl , em
patr tsjope
dket, joqe ana
ksents
kmqilj
krts esti
enim kolsom
petls em
bhusjt.
And he arose
and came to his
father. But when
he was still a
great way off, his
father saw him
and had
compassion, and
ran and fell on
his neck and
kissed him.
Et surgens venit
ad patrem suum.
Cum autem
adhuc longe esset,
vidit illum pater
ipsius, et
misericordia
motus est, et
accurrens cecidit
super collum ejus,
et osculatus est
eum.

.

.
367
21
Wedt
isosm i
sns: Pater,
kmelom proti
tewomqe anti
memlar: jmi
n deknos eg,
sns twijos
nmndhjom
And the son said

to him, Father, I
have sinned
against heaven
and in your sight,
and am no longer
worthy to be
called your son.
Dixitque ei filius:
Pater, peccavi in
clum, et coram
te: jam non sum
dignus vocari
filius tuus.

, ,

,

.
22
n
msdhatbhos
bhato patr
sewe; bhresi:
prmm
dhrghete
togm joqe
tom westjete,
anom tosjo
ghseni
krpjonsqe
esjo daste
peds:
But the father

said to his
servants, Bring
out the best robe
and put it on
him, and put a
ring on his hand
and sandals on
his feet.
Dixit autem pater

ad servos suos:
Cito proferte
stolam primam,
et induite illum,
et date annulum
in manum ejus, et
calceamenta in
pedes ejus:

,

,

,
23
kom
piwnqe
bhrete
loigom joqe
chnete, joqe
edmos, joqe
wdm
terpmos,
And bring the

fatted calf here
and kill it, and let
us eat and be
merry;
et adducite
vitulum
saginatum, et
occidite, et
manducemus, et
epulemur:
24
jodqid kei
sns mene
dhedhuws st
atqe coje ati:
skombns st,
atqe wtar.
Enim wdm
bhwijnt.
for this my son

was dead and is
alive again; he
was lost and is
found. And they
began to be
merry.
quia hic filius

meus mortuus
erat, et revixit:
perierat, et
inventus est. Et
cperunt epulari.

,

.
.
25
Agrei au
sensteros st
sns: joqe
jom cmst
enim domom
nedist,
kmkantum
ligqe
kluwt.
Now his older

son was in the
field. And as he
came and drew
near to the
house, he heard
music and
dancing.
Erat autem filius

ejus senior in
agro: et cum
veniret, et
appropinquaret
domui, audivit
symphoniam et
chorum:

:

,

,
368
26
Joqe neqom
mghuwom
ghauls pket
qid ghi-ke
bhousnt.
So he called one
of the servants
and asked what
these things
meant.
et vocavit unum
de servis, et
interrogavit quid
hc essent.
27
Isqe sqet:
bhrtr tewe
cme enim
piwon patr
two chone
loigom, jodqid
tom cwm
solwom ghde.
And he said to
him, Your
brother has
come, and
because he has
received him safe
and sound, your
father has killed
the fatted calf.
Isque dixit illi:

Frater tuus venit,
et occidit pater
tuus vitulum
saginatum, quia
salvum illum
recepit.

,

,

.
28
kdits autim
esti, joqe n en
eitum welwt.
Ar patr ejos
eksodls,
bhwijt im
chestum.
But he was
angry and would
not go in.
Therefore his
father came out
and pleaded with
him.
Indignatus est
autem, et nolebat
introire. Pater
ergo illius
egressus, cpit
rogare illum.

.

.
29
Atqe se
protiweqents,
patri bhato
sewe: edke
totjons atnons
sstmi twei
upo, joqe
neqom dikm
tewe kleus
dus, atqe
neqom meghei
ghaidom desta
wdi ameikos
senutwiji.
So he answered
and said to his
father, Lo, these
many years I
have been
serving you; I
never
transgressed
your
commandment
at any time; and
yet you never
gave me a young
goat, that I might
make merry with
my friends.
At ille
respondens, dixit
patri suo: Ecce tot
annis servio tibi,
et numquam
mandatum tuum
prterivi: et
numquam dedisti
mihi hdum ut
cum amicis meis
epularer.

,

,

:
30
M ita tom
sns tewe
kei, rim
loutsis cls
cme,
lnosmi
pwon
loigom chonta.
But as soon as
this son of yours
came, who has
devoured your
livelihood with
harlots, you
killed the fatted
calf for him.
Sed postquam
filius tuus hic, qui
devoravit
substantiam
suam cum
meretricibus,
venit, occidisti illi
vitulum
saginatum.

,

.
369
31
Atqe oise
tosm i
weuqt:
suneu, t
iwesi mojo
esi, enim
solw menj
twij senti.
And he said to
him, Son, you
are always with
me, and all that I
have is yours.
At ipse dixit illi:

Fili, tu semper
mecum es, et
omnia mea tua
sunt:
,
,
' ,

:
32
Wd m autim
terptum, joqe
gaudhtum
opos est,
jodqid bhrtr
tewe kei
dhedhuws st
atqe coje ati;
skombns st,
atqe wtar.
It was right that

we should make
merry and be
glad, for your
brother was dead
and is alive
again, and was
lost and is
found.
epulari autem, et
gaudere
oportebat, quia
frater tuus hic
mortuus erat, et
revixit; perierat,
et inventus est.

,

,

.
I.3.4. NEWOS BHEIDHOS (NEW TESTAMENT) JHANS, 1, 1-14

Eurpjm
English
Latine
Prjei Wdhom
bhewet, joqe
Wdhom
Deiwei st ens,
joqe Deiwos
Wdhom st.
In the beginning
was the Word,
and the Word was
with God, and the
Word was God.
in principio erat
Verbum et
Verbum erat apud
Deum et Deus
erat Verbum

,
,

.
Ens id prjei
Deiwei st.
He was in the
beginning with
God.
hoc erat in
principio apud
Deum
Eisd solw
gegner enim id
aneu neqid
ggnisst josjo
ggone.
All things were

made through
Him, and without
Him nothing was
made that was
made.
omnia per ipsum

facta sunt et sine
ipso factum est
nihil quod factum
est
'
,

.
Ismi ct
bhewet, joqe
ct st
dhghmonom
leuks.
In Him was life,

and the life was
the light of men.
in ipso vita erat et

vita erat lux
hominum
,

:
370
Itaqe leuks
skotei skjeti,
joqe oism
skotos n turt.
And the light

shines in the
darkness, and the
darkness did not
comprehend it
et lux in tenebris
lucet et tenebrae
eam non
conprehenderunt

,

.
Gnts esti
wrs Deiw
sontons
Jhans
nmtos.
There was a man

sent from God,
whose name was
John.
fuit homo missus

a Deo cui nomen
erat Iohannes
,
:
Tristimonj i
ludht se,
leukbhi
tristidhnts, ei
solwoi ijo
kreddhsnt.
This man came

for a witness, to
bear witness of
the Light, that all
through him
might believe.
hic venit in
testimonium ut
testimonium
perhiberet de
lumine ut omnes
crederent per
illum

,

,
'
.
N olne leuks,
imm, leukbhi
tristidhnts.
He was not that

Light, but was
sent to bear
witness of that
Light.
non erat ille lux

sed ut
testimonium
perhiberet de
lumine

, '

.
Leuks wrom
st, solwom
bh
dhghomon,
dhoubnom kod
ludhl
That was the true

Light which gives
light to every man
coming into the
world.
erat lux vera quae

inluminat omnem
hominem
venientem in
mundum

,

,

.
10
Dhoubnei st,
enim ijo
dhoubnom
gegner, atqe n
im dhoubnom
gnt.
He was in the
world, and the
world was made
through Him, and
the world did not
know Him.
in mundo erat et
mundus per
ipsum factus est
et mundus eum
non cognovit
,
'
,

.
11
Somobhos
ludht, atqe im
somi ghadnt
nei ad.
He came to His
own, and His own
did not receive
Him.
in propria venit et
sui eum non
receperunt
,

.
12
Jotjoi im
ghadnt,
moghtim
tobhos gnon
dt Diwoputla,
esjo nm
krddhntbhos,
But as many as
received Him, to
them He gave the
right to become
children of God,
to those who
believe in His
name:
quotquot autem
receperunt eum
dedit eis
potestatem filios
Dei fieri his qui
credunt in
nomine eius

,

,

,
371
13
joi n senos,
neqe mems
woljs, neqe
wr imm
Diwosjo
gnts sonti.
who were born,

not of blood, nor
of the will of the
flesh, nor of the
will of man, but of
God.
qui non ex
sanguinibus
neque ex
voluntate carnis
neque ex
voluntate viri sed
ex Deo nati sunt

'
.
14
Joqe Wdhom
memsom
wsts esti,
enim ptomm
sm dhke en,
enim ejos
qedos dkomes,
qedos swi
oingntejom
Patrs wrotj
crtjqe
plnm.
And the Word

became flesh and
dwelt among us,
and we beheld His
glory, the glory as
of the only
begotten of the
Father, full of
grace and truth.
et Verbum caro
factum est et
habitavit in nobis
et vidimus
gloriam eius
gloriam quasi
unigeniti a Patre
plenum gratiae et
veritatis

,

,

,

.
I.4. THE RIGVEDA IN INDO-EUROPEAN

Eurpjm
Sanskrit
English
Progpotis d-toi
prjei st
Prajapatir vai idam-agre

asit
In the beginning was

Prajapati (the Creator),
tosjo woqs dwitj st
Prajapatir vai idam-agre

asit
With Him was the Vak

(the Word),
Woqs d Promom
Bhlaghm
Vak vai Paramam Brahma
And the Vak (the Word)

was verily the Supreme
Brahman.
NOTE. It is possible that the Logos concept of Greek philosopher Philo of Alexandria
(adopted in John 1) was influenced by the Vak of Hindu philosophy.
372
APPENDIX II: LATE INDO-EUROPEAN LEXICON

This lexicon is available online with regular updates and as automatic dictionarytranslator at <http://indo-european.info/>.
An English Indo-European dictionary is found in Appendix II.1.
For detailed information on the Proto-Indo-European words, its etymology, usage,
root and meaning, see the following section, Appendix II.2.
For detailed forms from descendant languages used for the reconstruction of PIE
words, see Appendix III.3.
FORMAL ASPECTS
The reconstructed artifice schwa * (still widely used in modern IE linguistics, cf.
e.g. Ringe 2006, de Vaan 2008, etc.) does not represent an actual vowel. It might
represent in this reconstructed post-Late Indo-European lexicon:
1) The schwa primum, vocalic output of the older merged laryngeal *H, assimilated
to a different vowel in the different IEDs. That laryngeal schwa is omitted if it is
word-initial and appears alone, as in *H3bhruH, or if the preceding syllable has full
vocalism, as in *klamrs, but it is written elsewhere, as in *pter-. See The Loss of
Laryngeals, and Conventions Used in This Book.
2) The results of the so-called Saussure effect. See The Loss of Laryngeals.
3) The schwa secundum, reconstructed for irregular outputs of groups that
included resonants, i.e. *C()RV or *C()R()C, due to auxiliary vowels inserted in
LIE times. For this alternating auxiliary vowel, a dot below is more commonly
written for resonants plus vowel, i.e. CV. See Phonology, especially 2.3.
Some supposed late remains of the LIE merged laryngeal in groups including
resonants, i.e. *CRHC, *CHRC, *CRHV, *CHRV, etc. are not written down by
convention. A selection is made of the most common west IE evolution; as, Ita., Cel.
gnts (with an evolution equivalent to Gk. gnts) for an older gts, born. See
above The Loss of Laryngeals, and 2.1.
Middle-passive endings are written with the 1st sg. -ai, -oi, which correspond to
NWIE -ar. See above 7.2.2.
Sometimes, forms different to those found in this book are intentionally
reconstructed in this lexicon, to complement each other and give an overall image of
the possible reconstructions; as, -e- reduplicated athem. dhdhmi, shown in this
lexicon as -i- reduplicated athem. dhdhmi, and non-reduplicated, them. dhakj.
See 7.4.2. Class BII.
Dubious reconstructions of stative verbs, added in this edition, (see 7.4.2, Class
AIIIe vs. Class IIIo) include awj, bhwj, gudhj, ghbhj, lubhj;
while some appear to be bivalent -ej-/-j-: dgh j, k j, t j.
Heteroclite as well as athematic (especially root) nouns are shown according to the
general reconstruction paradigms. Some difficult choices have been made, though, if
more than one form is found. See 4.6, 4.7.
On the alternative vocalic reconstruction a/o, as in mari/mori, the Leiden school
(de Vaan among others) defends a phonetic law Lat. a < PIE *o (free and
accompanied by certain consonants); as, badius, canis, fax, lacus, lanius, manus,
malleus, mare, uagus, ualua, uas, uaris, etc. of which badius, canis, lacus, mare,
and maybe manus have correlatives with root vowel O.Ir. o. However, we have some
clear counterexamples; as mora, mola, mone, monle and maybe focus, for.
According to de Vaan, cohors, dol, dolus, domus, folium, glomus, hodi, (h)olus,
noce, oculus, odor, onus, opus, ouis, podium, probus, procus, rota, and toga
do not accomplish the phonetic conditions to be counterexamples.
374
II.1. ENGLISH LATE INDOEUROPEAN

English
a bit
abandoned
abound
about
above
absent
absolute
abundant
abuse
abyss
acarian
accelerate
accordance
acorn
acorn
acquire
acquire
acquit
activate
active
Adam's apple
address
adhere
adjust
administrate
adorn
adorn
adult
advanced
advantage
advise
affirm
afflict
after
afterwards
again
against
against
aggravate
agile
agitate
agitate
agitated
Late Indo-European
pau
ermos
spreig
per(i), per(ti)
upsi
apowsentis
pers
chons
dhebh
bhudhnm
koris
spreud
soitis
cldis
medjom
kwimi
potijai
luw ap
kjj
strnwos
croghos
deikos
gleibh
rarj
mdneumi
mond
peik
altjos
prokos
(s)stmi ant/pri
plkej
gj
ghneumi
pos(ti)
psteri
ati
komtrd
proti
odugjai
glis
dhneumi
kreut
kighrs
agnus castus
agonise
agreement
agreement
air
akin
alas
alas
alder
alder
alike
alive
all
allergy
alleyway
allied
along
already
also
altar
always
ambush
ancestor
ancient
and
and
and
and
and also
and not
angelica
angle
animal
animal
animal
ankle
announce
annoy
annoyance
annoying
annoying
anorak
another
another
anounce
ant
antique
anyone
weitks
cnmi
koim
meitrom
por
koins
troughi
wai
lesnos
wern
jota sei
cws
oljoi olji olja
dedrus
smoughos
soqjos
priteri
jmi
toqe
s
iw(es)i
nsdjom
strutjos
prskos
atqe
enim
joqe
qe
itaqe
neqe
qondhros
qedos
bhugos
cwotos
smalos
spos
krkarj
peig
oghlos
mlestos
trudsms
kroknos
onjos
aljos
mgj
mmeik
ntijos
qisqis qidqid
apart
apart
aperture
apparent
appear
appearance
appease
appease
appendix
apple
approach (to)
arch
arch
ardour
arise
arm
arm
arm
armour
army
army
around
arrange
arrangement
arrival
arrive
arrive
arrow
art
article
articulation
as
ash
ash
ashtr
ashtree
ashtree
ask
asp
aspect
aspire
ass
assigned
assort
asunder
asunder-legged
at
at hand
376
sd
si
stjom
windos
mlsk
wida
sdj
litj
pligh
belos
pnama
weit
wek
aisdhom
ken
armos
bhghus
dusontos
twakos
korjos
strtos
ambh
dnmi
stm
ghtis
kneumi
ghmi
klom
artis
melm
anglos
qm
sos
kens
oskos
bhksnos
sonos
pksk
aps
spekjs
wnmoi
klos
prts
kjj
w
wros
ad
prighesto
at least
at that point
ate
atribute
attack
attack
attack (to be in)
attention
auger
augur
aument
aunt
aunt
autumn
avoid
awaken
axe
axe
axe
axe
axle
babble
babble
babble
baby
back
back
back
backbone
backward
backwards
bad
bad
bad
badger
bag
bag
bald
ball
ball
ball
band
bandy-legged
banquet
barbaric
barefoot
bargain
bark
ge
tm
ghosm
bhag
wgos
wendh
wgj
prbhoudhos
tredhrom
kailom
ugej
met
mtrter
osn
lein
bhoudhej
ksij
bheitlom
sekris
teksl
aksis
bat
plabrjai
laljo
dhljos
awou
gurnos
retrd
waghm
pqos
postrd
dus
elks
upelos
brokos
bholghis
krukos
kalwos
ghroudos
gug
orghis
seim
walgos
daps
blbalos
bhosos
wesnej
baubjai
Appendix II: Late Indo-European Lexicon
barley
barley
barrel
basin
basket
basket
basket
basket
basket
bast
bath
bath-tub
be
be
be afraid
be allowed
be angry
be annoying
be bitter
be born
be bright
be broken
be cold
be cold
be concealed
be curved
be delayed
be dry
be empty
be expensive
be experienced
be far
be favourable
be fit
be flat
be followed
be furious
be high
be hot
be interested
be loaded
be named
be necessary
be old
be pregnant
be proper
be red
be rotten
ghrdejom
jewom
dljom
wghis
kist
korbhis
qasjos
sport
woidlos
lubhros
lowtrom
clwonom
bhewmi
esmi
timj
likj
eisskai
pigj
geig
gnskai
spndj
lugj
alghj
srgj
ltj
wijj
sttj
sj
ghj
dpnmi
kaldj
(s)stmi ap
bhwj
wj
lpj
swemr
sj
kels
kj
mendhai
gem
kluwj
opos esti
senj
kuwj
dekj
rudhj
ptj
be scratched
be sharp
be sitting
be situated
be sticked
be strong
be strong
be swollen
be swollen
be swollen (to)
be thirsty
be used
be violent
be visible
be warm
be wet
be withered
beak
beak
beam
beam
bean
bear
bear
beard
bearing
beast
beast
beast of burden
beastly
beat
beat up
beautiful
beautiful
beaver
because
become
accustomed
become vigorous
bed
bee
beech
been
beer
beer
beer
before
before
ksj
akj
sedj
smoi
lipj
weg
wigj
oidj
tumj
swlj
tsj
euk
chj
dkjai peri
tepj
mdj
mkj
rstrom
srokn
tegnom
trabhis
bhabh
tkos
bhermi (bher)
bhardh
bhtis
ghwer
weidr
jugsmtom
ghwrns
weis
orgj
chaisos
wmos
bhebhros
jod qid
swdhsk
k keumi
spondh
bheiql
bhgos
bhts
lum
kremom
sudhjom
ant
pros
377
before
before dawn
befoul
befriend (to)
beget
begird
beguile
behind
belch
believe
belly
belong
beloved
belt (for safety)
bend
bending
beneficial
benefit
benefit
bent
bent
berry
beseech
beset
besides
besiege
betrothed
better
between
beware
biceps
big
big
big eater
bile
bilge out
billow
bind
bind
bind
bind
bind
bind
biped
birch
bird
bird
birth
378
pri
anksi
sterk
nnmi
gign
jsneumi
dreugh
apteri
reug
krddhmi
tarss
ain
kros
wrunos
greug
ntos
sslwos
law
lawtlom
kambos
pandos
morom
prek
adgh
perom
sedj ambh
sponsts
bhodjs
nteri
kwj
kisk
crotsos
mgnos
cors
cheldi
semj
sredh
nedsk
bhendh
kekj
ligj
reig
sneumi
dwipods
bhergs
awis
petsns
gentlom
birth
bit
bite
bite
bitter
black
black
black
blackbird
blade
blame
blaze
bleach
bleat
bleat
blind
blind
blister
blister
block
blood
blood
bloom
blow
blow
blow
blow out
blue
blunt
boar
boar
board
boast
boast
boat
bodkin
body
boil
boil
bold
boldness
bolt
bone
border
bore
born
bosom
both
stus
akm
denk
mordj
bhidrs
tros
dhoubhs
ksnos
mesl
akjs
onj
sweid
kormnos
bebj
blkj
andhos
kaikos
kaldos
wenseik
mers
es
kruws
bhlosj
bhesmi
bhlmi
( )wmi
munk
ghlastos
bhuks
apros
twkos
ploutos
bhled
ghelb
plows
l
kpos
bherw
seut
dhsus
dhstis
tormos
ostis
krq
bhorj
gnts
sinus
ambhou
bought
boundary
boundary
bovine
bow
bowels
bowl
box
boy
boy
boy
bracelet
brain
bramble
bran
branch
branch
branches
brass
brassy
brave
breach
bread
break
break
break
break off
break up
breast
breath
breath
breath
breathe
breathe
breeze
brew
briar
bridge
bright
bright
brilliant
bring out
broad
brooch
brooch
brood
brook
brook
qrtm
egh
margn
cowijs
arqos
gudom
tekst
kps
kelots
maqos
pweros
welks
kersrom
dristos
tolkos
kankus
osdos
cespis
ajos
jesnos
tregsnos
bhern
bharsjom
bhrg
bhrsnmi
rump
rew
lem
bhrusos
anmos
tms
spoisn
t
pneus
welj
bhrew
ksentis
bhrw
bhns
leuks
argrs
dhragh
plts
bharkos
dhicodhl
agl
apnis
reiwos
broom
broom
broth
brother
brother-in-law
brotherly
brother's son
brown
bud
bug
building
building place
bull
bull
bulrush
bulrush
bumblebee
bundle
bundle
burden
burglar
burn
burn
burn
burn
burn
burn
burn
burnt
burst
burst in
bury
bury
bush
bush
bush
but
butter
butter
butterfly
buttock
buttocks
buy
buy
buzz
cabbage
cable
cable
aksteinos
swoplom
jeus
bhrtr
daiwr
bhratrijos
bhrtreinos
bhrounos
gnoubhos
keimx
demos
dpedom
porsis
tauros
bhrughnos
joinkos
krsrn
bhaskis
dhrighss
bherm
tjots
aidh
(pm)prmi
smel
dhech
eus
konkej
kremj
usts
spg
skek
ghrebh
seplij
bhrutks
dousmos
qsnos
m
arw
ghertom
ppeljos
klounis
poug
qrnmi
sel
susj
kaulis
snwr
winis
379
cackle
cackle
calculate
calf
calf
call
call for
calm
caluum caput
camel
camp
can
cancer
cannabis
canopy
captive
car
carbon
caress
carrot
carry
carry
cart
carve
carve
carve
castle
castrate
cat
catch
cattle
cattle
cauldron
cause
cause to slope
caution
cave
cave
cavern
cavity
cedar
ceiling
cellar
centre
cereal
cereal
cerebellum
certain
380
grakij
kaklj
delj
loigos
wetlos
ghaw
tolj
sknis
gholw
wbhontis
kastra
mogh
ghdhus
worgjom
skostrom
kptos
woghnos
kdhn
ghneumi
mk
portj
wegh
ksus
skalp
skreid
smeidh
kasterlom
skerd
katt
kpj
rmtom
peku
qorjom
wins
klnmi
wadhis
antrom
speqos
kow
celom
bhrosdhos
tegtom
gup
stornj
dhn
jwornjom
mosgom
enis
certainly
certainly
certainly
certainly
certainly
chaff
chain
chain
chair
chalk
chamber
chance
change
character
charge
charioteer
chatter
cheap
cheat
cheer
cheese
cheese
cherry tree
chest
chest
chew
chew
child
child
chin
chin
chirp
chirp
choice
choke
choose
choose
circle
circuit
circulate
citizen
city
civil
clack
claim
clang
classical
clean
d
ghi
ka
sm
toi
akos
katsna
seinus
sedl
krt
kl
wikis
mejn
ms
merkds
ots
blatsj
wsolis
meug
owj
kwatsos
trjs
kornos
pegtos
kl
gjew
mt
ppos
putlom
mtom
smeksl
bhrigij
titij
wolos
bhleus
wolj
opj
kirkos
mbhinom
qel
keiwis
polis
kiwijos
glokij
qnumoi
klagj
ntitjos
mdns
clean
clean
clean
cleanse
clear
clear
clear
cleave
close
close
close
close to
closed
cloth
clotted
cloud
clown
club
club
club
club
coal
coast
coat
cockoo
cockoo
cockroach
cold
cold
cold
collapsed
collar
collect
collect
collection
collection
colony
colorant
colour
colour
coloured
colt
colt
comb
comb
comb
comb
come
powej
pts
pew
spij
aiskrs
bhlaidos
skrs
bhind
klawd
weumi
wij
pra
klawsts
westis
tmktos
nebhis
skoirss
baktlom
lorgos
seik
wsog
oncl
molj
ptom
kukls
kukulj
blakt
kikls
ougros
srgos
rwts
monli
karp
leg
kmglom
qejtis
powoiks
keimos
kiwos
wornos
pqos
kblos
knkestos
kes
pek
pektn
pekt
cemj
come back
ghighj
come out
prj
command
judhej
commission
upqrijom
commit
mdmi
common
kmmoinis
communicate
mesg
community
kommoinitats
compasses
kirknos
compete
sperdh
complain
qsai
complete
kmplnos
complexed
(to wghj
be)
compose
qej
comprehend
tj
conceive
ddjmi
concession
ltis
concubine
pareik
condense
stej
condition
dhm
conducted
elm
conflagration
dwetus
connect
ser
conscience
kmwoistis
consider
mj
consideration
qeistis
consort
komjugs
conspiracy
jlos
conspirator
jrs
conspire
jneumi
contain
kj
contend
bhogj
contend
wikj
contrive
smudhn
convex
wekss
convey
nekmi
convey
porej
convocation
klstis
cook
peq
cook
peqtr
cook
poqs
cooked
peqts
cooking
peqtis
coot
bhelks
copy
imneumi
core
prs
corn
niktis
381
cornice
corruption
cost of a feast
couch
cough
cough
coughing
courage
course
course
court
courtyard
cousin
cover
cover
cover
cover
cover
covering
cow
cow
cow
crab
crack
crackle
cradle
crane
crawl
crawl
crazy
create
create
cretor
creature
creep
crest
crib
crime
crime
crimpy hair
crook
crop
cross
cross
crossbeam
crow
crowd
crowd
382
ghrendh
tdhis
dapnom
stlos
qost
tustij
tustis
nantis
drew
kstus
kmwoirjom
dhworom
jentr
kelos
skem
skeum
skeut
teg
sktos
cows
lpos
wakk
karkros
reim
krpmi
gretlom
cs
rp
serp
dhwolnos
genesj
krmi
amsus
teknom
snghj
kripst
bhondhs
kreim
lb
gouros
bhogjos
sasjom
kreuks
ter
ghlaghos
kornks
pldhwis
slougos
crown
crumb
crumb
crumble
crumble
crush
crush
cry
cry
cry
cry
cry
crying
cudge
cuirass
cup
cup
curb
curd cheese
curdled milk
curly
curtail
curve
curve
curve
curved
curved
cushion
custom
cut
cut
cut
cut
cut
cut off
cut off
cut open
cut out
cut out
dace
dad
dad
dad
dam
damage
damage
damage
damage
grendjom
groumos
smeik
dhrubhj
bhrijj
mtj
pins
dhrensj
wghij
kreug
krig
reud
roudos
dolj
bhrusnj
kaliks
koup
bheg
grutis
tmklos
kripsos
sneit
witjom
keub
qelp
kros
kwos
qolk
swdhus
tomos
kaid
kret
skmi
tmmi
snadh
sptj
bhij
drep
treuk
menis
apps
atts
tt
roinos
kldis
lumi
pm
wolsom
damp
dare
dark
dark
dark
dark
dark
dark
dark
darkness
darkness
dart
daughter
daughter-in-law
dawn
dawn
day
day
day
day
dead
dead
deaf
deaf
dear
dear
death
death
death
death
debt
deceive
deceive
deceive
decide
declare
decline
decree
deep
deer
defame
defecate
defecate
defect
defective
defence
defend
deflect
bew
dhs
dhncelos
dhoncos
dhuskos
keiros
mnos
morcs
skeuros
recos
temesras
golbhnos
dhugtr
snuss
auss
ussketi
dhochos
djws
djnos
latom
mtos
mwos
bodhrs
dhoubhos
leubhos
prijs
chentis
dheunos
mtis
neks
dheghl
chn
dhwer
mels
skidj
lenghmi
sterbh
dhedhms
dhubs
kerwos
kwij
ghed
kakkj
smeros
mkos
wertrom
mghneumi
skneumi
deity
delay
demand
demon
den
dense
densifiy
depart
departure
deposit
depressed
desert
desert
deserve
designate
desire
desire
desire
desire
desire
desire
desire
desire
desire
desire eagerly
destitute
destroy
destroy
destroy
destruction
detergent
development
devotion
devour
devour
devour
devour (to)
dew
diarrhea
dick
die
died
difference
different
dig
dig
dig out
dim
deiwotts
mor
kupj
dhwosos
bhljm
tegs
stoipej
oighai
proitis
loghos
neiws
jlom
teusqa
mj
mtj
aissk
gherijai
awj
chel
smeg
wnsk
wnsk
wekmi
wen
jt
awtjos
dheuk
nokej
olj
dhchitis
mdlom
augos
krbhtus
sleug
cerbh
cj
swelj
dolghos
dhorj
bhghus
mijai
walm
kritis
teros
bhodhj
knmi
teuk
bhlendhos
383
dimension
mtis
dinner
kersn
dip
wonkis
direct
dhghus
direct
reg
direction
wertmn
dirt
kqros
dirt
lutom
dirt
qoinom
dirty
coudhros
dirty
sals
dirty
keq
disrd/re
disabled
mkos
disgrace
ghlerom
disguise
meng
dish
plwis
disk
orbhis
dismantle
dhruslij
dispersed
rrs
dispossession
spoljom
disrupt
dolej
distaff
qolus
distance
apsttis
distribute
nem
dive
cadh
diverse
wikwos
divide
kj
divide
rnmi
divide
weidh
divide up
daimoi
do
dhdhmi-dhkj
do harm
ghudj
do harm
kep
do
military dhreugh
service
do not?
nom n
docile
glegos
doctor
mdodiks
dog
kolignos
dog
kwn
domain
dsegh
dome
krtis
door
dhworis
door
wr
door-bar
kslom
double
dwoplos
doubt
okj
384
dough
dough
dove
dove
down
dowry
drag
drag
drag
drag
drag away
drapery
draw
draw tight
dream
dream
dream
dream
dregs
dress
dress
drink
drink
drink
drinker
drinking
drip
drive
drizzle
drone
droop
drop
drop
drop
drop
drum
drunken
drunken
dry
dry
dry
dry
dry
dry
dry (to)
dry skin
duck
dust
reughm
taismos
dhombhos
klumbhos
n
dtis
selk
deuk
tragh
wers
tengh
drappos
streig
string
nerjos
swep
swopnjom
swopnjj
sulj
westij
wosej
ch
ptis
pib
ptr
pnom
seil
enk pr
aghlws
bhoiqos
lg
bdus
dhrubhtis
leibs
spakos
bmbalos
chjos
tmos
ksers
sisqos
susdos
tstos
tsus
torsej
dmi
sterbhnjom
ants
pelwos
duty (religious)
dwell
dwelling
dwelling
eagle
eagle owl
ear
early
early
earth
earth
earth
eastern
easy
eat
eat
eat
edge
edge
eel
effort
egg
eight
eighth
eject
elastic
elbow
elder
element
elm
elm
embank
embroidery
embryo
embryon
employee
empty
empty
empty
enact
encircle
enclose
enclosure
enclosure
enclosure
enclosure
enclosure
encourage
dhs
trebh
bhta
westus
roros
bughn
ousis
jeri
ghrw
dheghom
ptwij
ters
usteros
reidhos
knmi
edmi
weskai
r
bhren
ellus
mlos
w(ij)om
oktu
oktowos
jkj
tpus
ln
edhlos
sklos
olmos
woighos
klmi
sntj
geltis
cebhos
dhos
wstos
wns
ausij
sankij
gherdh
twer
ghordhos
kaghos
odhrom
wegis
wtom
ghorejai
end
end
end
end
endeavour
endure
enemy
enhance
enjoy oneself
enjoyment
enlarge
enough (to be)
entrails
entrails
entrance
envelope
environment
envy
equal
equipment
equipped with
erect
ermine
escape
establish
estimate
eternal
eternal
eternity
even
even
even
even
evening
evident
evil
example
excavator
excellent
excellent
excepted
exchange
exchange
exchange
excite
exclusive
exhaustion
expect
antjom
bend
dhicsnis
termn
rdhj
tlmi
nemots
bhelj
terp
terptis
augj
dheugh
sorw
sternom
januw
wlwtrom
bhewtlom
sj
soms
kmopjom
went
ghorsej
kormn
skeubh
tkeimi
qqeimi
aiws
jucis
iwotts
aiqos
eti
gladhros
tiqe
wespros
gnros
skelos
deikmn
kernos
bhodrs
wsus
ekts
mojnos
mej
moitj
sprew
kiwelos
dhtis
welp
385
expel
experience
expert
explode
expression
expression
extend
extend
extend
extend
extend
extend (to)
extended
extension
external
extinguish
extraordinary
exuberant
eye
eyebrow
face
fact
fair weather
fall
fall
fall asleep
fall asleep
fall down
fall into
fallow
false
family
family
famine
famous
fan
fan
fancy
far
far
far (from)
farewell
farm
farmer
far-reaching
fart
farther
fashion
386
(j)jmi
perij
suwids
blbolj
bhtis
weqtlom
spneumi
spmi
tend
tenj
tens
tonej
prstrnos
stnos
ksteros
csneumi
swodhros
jdros
oqos
bhrs
enq
dhtis
qoitrs, koitrs
poln
kad
swpij
dmij
pipt
ghrew
polk
mjos
gentis
wenj
nun
klts
bhldhrom
prj
lskj
dew
porsd
qeli
ts
woiksl
agrqols
sts
pesd
peros
teks
fastening
fat
fat
fat
fat
fatality
father
father-in-law
fatherland
fatherly
fault
fault
fault
favourable
fear
fear
fear
fear
fearful
feast
feast
feather
feather
feather
feather
feeble
feed
feel
feel
feel ashamed
female
fence
ferment
fern
ferret
fetch
fever
field
field
fierce
fierceness
fifteen
fifth
fifty
fig
fight
fight
file
apm
lajos
pms
piwn
tghus
moros
ptr
swkuros
ptrj
ptrjos
agos
loktos
mendom
bhwijs
pwj
ghar
bhbheimi
dweimi
dwoiros
westos
wda
perm
petsn
plousm
porns
trunos
psk
awisdhij
qeis
aichesj
dhmon
saipis
jes
pratis
wiwers
oitmi
tepnos
arwom
maghos
saiwos
tonslis
penqdek
penqtos
penqadkta
bheikos
katus
streud
sleim
fill
fill
filling
filling
filth
finch
find
find by chance
find out
finger
finger
fingernail
finish
fire
fire
firm
first
first
first
first (of two)
fish
fist
fist
five
fix
fixed
flake
flame
flame
flask
flat
flat
flat
flat-footed
flatness
flax
flea
fleabane
flee
flee
fleece
flexible
flight
flimmer
flimmer
flood
floor
flour
(pm)plmi
pnmi
plm
pltis
mergis
spingj
(w)wermi
nkskai
wind
cistis
dktulos
onchis
cerj
ecnis
pw
omos
prmos
prwos
prsmos
prteros
piskis
penqstis
pougnos
penqe
pastos
pgts
bhlokos
bhlgsm
bhokos
brusj
lergos
plkos
plnos
plautos
ptnos
leinom
puslks
dhwestus
bhougj
bhugj
gnebhis
lugns
bhoug
merk
mkmi
pleud
plrom
melwom
flour
flourishing
flow
flow
flow
flow
flow
flow
flow
flow down
flower
flower
fluoresce
flush away
flutter
fly
fly
fly
foal
foam
foenum
fog
fog
foggy, to be
fold
fold
fold
follow
food
food
food
foot
footprint
footprint
forbid
force
force
force
force in
ford
forearm
forehead
foreigner
foremost
forest
fork
fork
form
mltm
ghlustis
plew
ssermi
sormos
bhleuc
mejj
srew
weis
stelgh
bhls
bhltis
bhel
rnmi
spd
musk
pet
cj
kurnos
spoim
koinos
kalgn
nebhl
wapj
cij
bheug
plkmi
seqai
pasknis
pits
west
pods
lorg
pedom
wtmi
stolgos
tewos
twenk
treud
ptus
lakertos
bhrwtis
ghostis
prjs
nemos
ghabhlom
merg
mag
387
form
formerly
fortieth
fortification
fortify
forty
forwards
foundation
fountain
fountain
fountain
four
four days
four each
four hundred
four hundreth
four times
four years
fourteen
fourth
fox
foxglove
fragment
fragrant
framework
fraud
fray
free
free
freeze
frequent
friend
friend
fringe
from
from
from there
from there
from this side
from upwards
from which
frost
frozen snow
fruit
fruit
fry
fry
frypan
388
pptus
lim
qtwdktos
karkar
moinijai
qtwdkta
pr(d)
dhels
aw
aw
dhontis
qtwes
qtwdjwijom
qtrusnos
qtwktos
qtwktmtos
qtrus
qtwatnjom
qtwdek
qtwtos
wolpis
spjonos
bhroustom
swekos
wtja
dolos
srems
ludheros
nosej
pruns
menghos
meik
amiks
antjs
apo
extrd
imde
totrd
kina
d
jomde
pruswa
kerns
grnom
bhreugs
bhagj
bhreic
landhom
fuck
eibh
fuel
dawtis
fugacious
tokws
full
plns
full
plts
fundament
upsdjom
fungus
swombhs
furniture
endsdjom
furrow
pka
furrow
qels
furrow
solkos
further
lteros
furthest
ltos
gall
bistlis
gape
ghjj
garden
ghortos
garlic
alujos
garlic
kesnus
garment
tog
garment
wospos
gather
gerc
gather
katsj
gaul
galnos
gaze
qek
gender
genjos
gentle
klisrs
germ
genm
get angry
kdijai
get cumulated
dergh
get dressed
ew
get drunk
pojej
get dry
tersai
get encrusted
kreup
get in a space
telp
get tired
kmmi
gift
dnom
gird
king
girl
maq
give
(d)dmi
give birth
pij
give joy
sljai
give
one's tongej
opinion
glade
loukos
glance
auga
glare
swel
glass
ptlom
glide
sleidh
glimmer
glimmer
globe
gloomy
glory
glove
glow
glowing ash
glue
gnat
gnaw
gnaw (to)
gnaw away
go
go
go
go aside
go away
go down
goat
goat
goat
goat
goat
goatish
god
goddess
godly
gold
gold
golden
good
good
good
good
good
goos
grain
grand-daughter
grandfather
grandfather
grandmother
grandmother
grandson
granny
grant
grass
grass
bherk
ghlmi
globhos
mauros
klewos
ghesris
kand
geulom
gloit
kleks
ghrend
gnmi
trow
leit
eimi
skai
greubh
ccmi
keid
bokkos
digh
ghabhros
kapr
kapros
ghaidns
deiwos
deiw
diwijos
ausom
ghtom
ghtns
bhilis
dwenos
ss
mnos
probhwos
ghansr
grnom
neptis
awos
dhdhjos
anus
wij
nepts
ann
lmi
ghrsm
ghrsom
grave
gravel
greasy
greater
greatest
green
grey
grey
grey
grey
grind
grind
groan
groin
groin
groom
ground
ground
ground
group
group
grow
grow
grow fat
grow thin
growl
grown
grown
grumble
grumble
grunt
grunt
guardian
guerrilla
guest
guile
guilty
gull
gullet
gulp
gum
gush
gush up
hail
hair
hair
hair
hair
bhods
geis
liprs
pljs
plistos
ghelwos
kasnos
plowos
pows
rwos
ghrew
mel
onkj
ili
cn
pusbhis
bhudhnos
swlej
telsus
kerdhos
qelos
krsk
dhj
peid
kerk
ghelij
augts
grdhs
ghrem
wgai
bhrem
grundij
swos
bhog
ghstipots
astus
sontis
medgs
c
slgj
geng
skatj
bhrendh
grdis
ghait
kaisrom
kerom
low
389
hair
hair
hair
hair
hair (strong)
hairdresser
half
hall
ham
hammer
hammer
hammer
hand
hand
hand
hand
handle
handle
handle
handle
hang
hang
happen
hard
harm
harn
harrow
harsh
harvest
haste
hasten
hasten
hatchet
hate
hatred
have
have fever
have taste
have wrinkle
haven
hawk
hawk
hazel
hazelnut
head
head
head
head of cereal
390
pilos
rewm
welnos
wondhos
sait
tonstr
smiwerstidhlom
persn
matl
moltlom
ordhos
ghes
ghestos
mus
wonk
ans
ghetl
skpos
qeumi
lemb
pend
ggisai
karts
skodhos
wein
kt
drisms
sntis
spoud
bhsj
skeg
tkslos
odj (da)
djom
eik
cer
spij
gbj
kopnos
astris
kpteros
ksolos
rus
ghebhl
kaput
kers
speik
head towards
health
healthy
healthy
heap
heap
hear
hear
hearing
heart
hearth
hearth
heat
heat
heat
heath
heave
heaven
heavy
heavy
hedgehog
hedgehog
heed
heel
heel
hello
helmet
help
hen
henbane
herb
herd
herdsman
herdsman
here
heron
hesitate
hide
hide
hiding place
high
high
high
high
high
hill
hill
himself
werg
kilutts
jekos
koils
kms
struwis
gheus
kneumi
kleum
kdi / kdjom
aidhis
chornos
mi
cheros
olej
kaitom
er
kmelom
c(w)s
crtos
eghjos
ghr
psmi
kalkis
pers
al!
kelmos
jew
kerkos
bhlun
lubhj
gregs
cwqolos
kerdhjos
kei
rdej
kenkai
klj
keudh
kl
alts
bhghos
ors
peros
pselos
kolnis
montis
se
hinge
hint
hip
hip
hip bone
his
hiss
hit
hit
hit
hit
hit
hit
hit
hit
hit
hold
hold
hold (to)
hole
hollow
hollow
hollow
hollow
hollow out
holy
holy
holy
home god
honey
honour
honour
hoof
hook
hook
hook
hook
hoopoe
hope
horn
hornbeam
hornless
horse
horse
horse
hostage
hot
house
kdn
apteros
koks
londhwos
koksednks
swijos
streid
bhenjom
kawd
kaw
bhtj
bhlag
bhleic
bhutj
slak
steup
potj
segh
jem
lugj
dholos
dhnej
ghwej
kowos
skerbh
noibhos
qentos
sakros
ls
melit
aisdai
mgtj
kophos
ankos
kenkos
khamos
onkos
pop
spes
knu
gbeinos
kemos
ekwos
kabn
markos
gheislos
ktos
domos
house
housemaster
hovel
hover
how
how
how
how great
how many
howbeit
howl
hum
human being
humble
humiliate
hump
hundred
hunger
hunger
hunt
hunt
hurry
hurry
hut
hut
I
ice
ice
ice
ice
icicle
icicle
ignorant
ill
illuminate
illuminate
immediate
immediately
immortal
impel
important
impregnate
impression
in
in excess
in the middle
in the morning
incise
weiks
esos
ccestjom
prew
jota
qlis
qota
qawtos
qot(j)os
aw
ululj
kemj
dhghomn
wailos
neid
gibb
ktom
dhis
ghrdhus
woit
(w)weimi
spergh
speud
kleitis
kout
eg
eisom
gelu
glgjs
jegis
krust
stejsj
widis
aigros
bhneumi
loukej
dhs
kitd
mrtijos
peld
swrs
teng
wtus
en
dhi
meti
pri
ghel
391
incision
incite
incite
incited
inclined
include
incompetent
increase
increase
indeed
indeed
indication
induce (to)
infere
inferior
inflammation
inflate
inflate
inform
inheritance
insect
inside
inside
inside
insipid
inspect (to)
insult
intellect
intelligence
intelligent
intend
interest
interior
internal
internal
interval
intestine
intestine
intestiones
invert (to)
investigate
invisible
invoke
iron
irritate
island
ivy
jaws
392
bhm
ghj
trenk
orghs
nqos
glembh
duswids
augm
aug
gar
qidpe
deiktis
woghej
dens
n teros
dheghwis
bhleid
pusj
steumi
orbhjom
empis
endo
ents
t
merwos
skew
pj
menm
sstus
glkis
msjai
dhnos
enns
nternos
nteros
nterom
nteros
ghoros
routos
wortej
wind peri
eksoqs
kiklsk
sarnom
prousij
ensl
khderos
gombhos
jaws
join
joint
joint
joke
joke
journey
joy
joyful
joyful
judge
juice
juice
jump
jump
jump
juniper
juniper
just
keel
keep
keep
key
kidney
kill
kin
kindness
king
kingdom
kingly
kiss
kiss
kiss
knead
knead
knee
knee
knock
knot
knot
know
know
know
knower
knowing
knowledge
known
lack
gopos
jung
artus
koubos
ghloumos
ghleumi
itj
gaudhjom
ghoilos
rdos
jewesdiks
sapos
soukos
rebhj
dhnumoi
leig
lentos
toksos
jwestos
karein
bhergh
kadh
klws
neghrn
nkmi
genos
prsdjom
regs
regnom
regjos
kusis
swij
bhusj
bheur
debh
genu
teup
bheld
ndos
osbhos
(g)gnsk (gnwa)
woida
skij
gntr
woidws
gntis
gnts
egj
lack
lack
ladder
ladle
lake
lake
lamb
lamb
lame
lamp
land
land
land
land
land
land estate
landlady
landlord
lap
lapwing
large fish
last
last
last year
late
laugh
laugh
law
law
lax
lay
lay
lay down
lazy
lead
lead
lead
leader
leaf
leaf
lean
leap
leap
learn
leather
leather
leather bag
leave
ksj
meit
skandsl
trow
gherom
lakus
acnos
wn
klaudos
laps
agros
erw
kampos
londhom
oud
kpos
dmn
dmnos
gremjom
cwij
sqalos
pitjos
pstos
pruti
lodi
khkhatnos
wisdj
jewos
legs
loksos
leghos
strm
loghj
leghsks
nijm
plwaidhom
wedh
deuks
bholjom
leups
gneich
rebh
kek
didksk
korjom
letrom
wdris
linq
leek
left
left
left-handed
leg
leg
legal suit
legbent
lend
lend
length
leprosy
less
less
lessen
leuer
lick
lie
lie
lie
lie
lie open
life
life
lifetime
ligament
light
light
light
light
light
light
light up
lighting
like
like
likewise
lily
limb
limb
lime-tree
lime-tree
limit
limp
line
line
link
link
psom
laiwos
soujs
skaiws
kanm
krous
stltis
watjos
gher
loiqnom
dnghot
trudsk
mnusi
stjosi
sewj
weghtis
lingh
legh
keimoi
kbmi
leugh
ptj
ct
cwos
saitlom
tenos
bhos
dkt
leghs
leuks
leuksm
lghros
lukskj
bhnom
iwe
lubhj
itim
leiljom
apsos
karn
leip
ptelj
bhrun
skgj
streib
strigj
ned
wdhneumi
393
lion
lip
lip
lip
liquid
liquid
liquid
liquid (to be)
list
listen
listening
little
little owl
live
lively
liver
load
load
lobster
lock
lock of hair
lofty
long
long for
long hair
long-lasting
look
look like
loom
lot
lot
lotus
loud
loud
louse
love
love
love
love (to)
love potion
lovely
lower
luck
lung
lung
lush
luxury
lynx
394
wlew
ghelnom
lbjom
mknos
latks
serom
weiqos
wiqj
rim
kleumi
kleutis
paukos
warn
cejw
cwks
jeq
gomos
onos
kertos
ghrendhos
pulg
mldhrs
dnghos
gheidh
kisjs
sros
spekj
prep
weim
koupn
teusm
kmeros
klrs
tors
lousn
kmi
sterg
wenos
amy
wensnom
koimos
nrteros
tough
lnchijm
pleumn
crs
ghloidos
louksos
magic
magic
magic force
magnanimous
magnificent
magpie
maid
maim
maintain
make afraid
make bitter
make black
make equal (to)
make hot
make money
make noise
make noise
make up
male
mallow-plant
man
man
mane
manner
mantle
maple
maple
march
march
mare
mark
marrow
marry
marsh
mass
mass
mass
massacre
mast
master
matching
mate
mate
mattock
maxilla
me
mead
meager
qdnos
soitos
qedos
mgnnmos
gadhs
peikos
ndhes
skutj
dghj
trosej
streubh
merc
somej
dhochej
pel
bhel
strep
dkj
wersis
mw
mnnusos
wrs
kripsnis
koits
sagom
keris
kleinos
ctis
oimos
ekw
ghronos
smerw
sneubh
mreskos
kmos
mlis
sloidhos
agr
masdos
potis
dwskos
bhendhros
dmos
slign
genus
me
medhu
ptos
means
moghtrom
measure
mestis
measure
metrom
measure
modos
measure
mmi
measure
mtijai
measured
mests
meat
mmsm
meet
katsjai
meet
mimd
meet with point aik
(to)
meeting
komnom
melodious
bhendos
melt
tdhsk
memory
smemorj
mention
mtos
mention
cotej
metal
raudos
midday
mdhidjws
middle
medhjos
middle (in the) obhi
middling
leswos
might
moghtis
mild
loiss
mild
moilos
milk
glakti
milk
molgj
mill
molein
millet
meljom
millstone
cawenus
millstone
mol
mind
mtis
miracle
smeirtlom
miserable
treughos
missing
ster
mist
mighl
mistletoe
wiskom
mistress
potnj
mix
miskej
mix
krmi
model
dhingh
modest
nesros
molder
puj
moment
mqos
money
alchos
month
mnsis
moo
mugij
moon
more
more
more than that
morning
morning
morning
mortar
moss
mother
mother
mother-in-law
motley
mould
mound
mount
mountain
mountain
mountain
mountain-path
mouse
mouse
mouth
mouthful
move
move
move
move
move
move away
movement
much
mucus
mud
mud
mud
mud
multitude
multitude
mum
mundane
murder
murmur
murmur
muscle
muscle
must
mutilate
louksn
mgis
plis
imm
mros - mrei
ausrom
wsros
mtsjom
muskos
amm
mtr
swekrs
pknos
gheutis
tumls
skand
ceri
oros
prknjom
kdis
gleis
ms
s
bukk
djej
neumi
meic
mowej
pelk
spn
nutis
pelu
moukos
korkos
loimos
mtrom
penom
lugtos
tljom
mamm
cclos
chenmi
ddrj
mmrj
kkus
meus / musks
mudstos
kers
395
mutilated
mutter
mutual
myop
mystery
nail
nail
nail
naked
name
name
name
name
name
narrow
narrowness
nates
native
nature
navel
near
near
neck
neck
neck
neck
neck
necklace
need
needle
nest
net
net
nettle
network
network
never
new
newness
nigh
night
night
night bird
nightmare
nine
ninth
nipple
nit
396
klambs
muttij
moitwos
neukos
kelg
klawos
onghlos
pg
ncodos
nm
prinm
werj
kj
nmnj
amghs
mghustis
ntis
gnos
bhewtis
onbhlos
nedjos
proqd
knokos
kolsos
mongos
monos
ughn
torqis
kj
akus
nisdos
grebhos
neds
nedis
gers
krtis
neqom
new(ij)os
newotts
proqos
noqterins
noqtis
streigs
mor
new
nwos
spnos
sknid
no
noble
noble
nobody
nod
noise
noise
noisy
none
nord
nose
not
not
not at all
nothing
nourish
now
now
nut
oak
oak
oak tree
oakum
oar
oat
oath
oath
obedience
obey
obliged
obscurity
observe
observe
occipital
occupation
odor
of here
of horses
of rams/goats
of this side
offshoot
offspring
oil
oint
oint
ointed
ointment
ointment
n
atlos
mglos
neqis
new
swonos
tntenos
bhols
ninos
skouros
nsis
ghawd
m
nei
neqid
al
n
numki
knouks
aig
perqos
grbhos
stoup
rsmos
awigsn
loughjom
oitos
kleustis
kleus
moinis
temos
swj
tewai
moldh
kois
ods
ke
ekwns
agns
kteros
steln
gns
solpos
onc
ln
lns
ghreimn
onc
old
old
old
old (to become)
omoplate
on
on account of
on top
once
one
one
one-eyed
one-year
creature
onion
onion
open
open
open land
opening
opinate
opinion
oppress
oppress
or
or
oral
orange
orient
orphan
otherwise
otherwise
otter
our
out
outdoors
outermost
outside
over
over
over there
owen
owl
own
ox
ox-stall
paddle
page
gerls
senks
wetwos
ger
skubtis
epi
rdh
udsqe
semli
oinos
semos
kolnos
wetss
kaip
krmusom
smi
weumi apo
rewos
kaghl
ksj
dhms
amgh
ipj
awti
we
goulos
badjos
woidej
orbhos
awtim
perti
wdr
sers
ud
rew
kstos
ek(s)
(s)peri
uperi
oltrd
uqns
kwon
ghbhj
uksn
cowstas
pdj
pstrom
pain
pain
paint
palate
palisade
palm
panic
parent
parent
part
part
part
parterre
particle
partridge
pass
pass
passage
past
pasture
path
patience
patient
paunch
pause
pay attention
pea
peace
peaceful
pebble
pee
peel
peg
penetrate
penis
penis
penis
penis
penis
penthouse
penury
people
people
pepper
perch
perfect
perform
perhaps
edun
kormos
pink
stm
edh
pm
mrmoros
gentr
gentrks
aitis
ptis
qestis
leis
bhrustm
kkab
jmi
trep
teqom
pnos
pstus
sentos
kmttis
tltjos
pdks
row
ghowej
kikr
pags
qijts
ghrow
moighos
gleubh
kippos
negh
bhalns
lalu
moutos
pesnis
poutos
kliknom
loigs
teut
wolgos
pperi
dhghus
kmsqtos
sneumi
an
397
perimeter
period
permissive
permit (to)
persecute
persecute
perseverance
perspective
perspire
phantom
pick
pickaxe
piece
pig
pig
pig
piglet
pike
pile
pile
pillage
pillar
pimple
pin down
pin down
pinetree
pinetree
pink
pinnacle
pintle
pious
pipe
pipe
piss
pit
pit
pitch
place
place
place
place
placed on top
plait
plait
plane
planet
planitis
plate
398
wrbhis
iwesos
mdhos
leidmi
jegh
wnmi
mdos
dksmos
spoisj
lemsos
les
skesn
psn
porkos
ss
trogos
sks
ceru
keswos
kolnom
weumi
stobhos
wros
gang
karnj
bharwos
dhanwos
elwos
stertos
bendl
jgjus
srwtom
strudsm
mingh
mkj
skrobhis
peiks
stnom
stlokos
sin
stnj
piromos
plekt
resg
glabh
rewis
pltom
stlm
platform
plea
pleasant
pleasant
pleasant
pleasantly
pleased
pleasure
plough
plough
plough animal
plough handle
plough handle
ploughshare
pluck
plum
plump
plunder
pod
pod
poet
point
point
poison
pole
pole
policeman
polish
pond
ponder
poodle
pool
poor
poppy
porcine
porridge
portent
portico
portico
portion
position
post
post
post
posterity
pot
pot
potter wheel
sttlom
preks
seljos
swds
moghjos
ghornim
prts
prtis
artrom
arj
aghj
seghdhl
steiw
wogsmis
gnebh
sloiwom
kratsos
mrnami
gherghros
skiq
wtis
ardis
glghis
woisos
pert
spelgis
wors
sleimj
stagnom
medai
lm
staknom
ormos
makn
swns
poltos
sqeros
antas
pg
bhagos
sttus
kslom
mt
sparos
troghos
auqsl
kumbh
dhroghnom
pouch
pour
power
powerful
praise
praise
pray
pray
pray
prayer
precarious
preceding
precipitate
precisely
precision
predator
prepare
presence
present
press
press
press
press
press tightly
prestige
prevail
previous
previous
price
prick
prick
prickle
prickle
pride
priest
priest
principal
proclaim
procreation
produce
produce (to)
produce of land
productive
profession
profit
progeny
prominence
promise
makn
ghund
galnos
kwos
loudis
cer
chedh
meldh
rj
moldhos
dspis
preistos
krep
arti
nom
dhaunos
adej
weidos
priloghos
bhrkmi
dhengh
prem
pres
kam
meidos
cnmi
kintos
prwijos
pretjom
kentrom
wsnmi
akn
speiksn
molp
bhlaghm
skrodhots
promos
gsj
gentus
gonj
gnj
dhnom
dhliks
kerdos
bhwed
teukm
pstis
spondej
promontory
akrom
promontory
prostos
promote
kkneumi
pronounce
bhsk
property
rentus
property
selw
propice
sinsteros
propriety
ris
prosper
mj
protect
alkej
protect
plj
protest
glagha
protrusion
sondhos
proud
bhorsos
proud
meudos
prove
probhwj
provide
sep
provided
with anstos
handle
provision
penos
proximity
enstar
prune (to)
kastrj
pubescent
mjos
public servant
ambhagtos
pulse
ercom
pumice
poimks
punch
pung
puncture
dheic
punish
membh
punishment
woin
pure
kstos
pure
powros
purpose
meinom
pus
puwos
push
ag
push
kel
push away (to) steug
pushed
agts
pustule
pustl
put
dhej
put
stel
put forth
prddmi
put in order
tagj
put off
nocj
put on
mtijai
putrid
pls
quadruped
qtwpods
qualify
tdj
399
queen
question
quick
quick
quickly
quiet
quietness
radiance
radiant
raffle
rag
rag
rage
rain
rain
raise
ram
ram
range
range (to)
rank
rather
raven
raw
ray
raze
razor
reach
reach
ready
realise
reality
reap
reason
reason
receive
receive
recent
recitate
reckon
reckon
recline
recognize
recommend
red
red
red (-haired)
red ochre
400
regein
pksk
peimis
twtos
bhersi
smis
smn
louks
louktjos
kleut
kentom
pannos
rbhj
wst
plwij
tn
ags
erjos
rkneumi
kerdh
agmn
uta
korwos
ms
rdjom
gneibh
ksnowtl
pj
ikj
kins
pret
bhwonom
met
rtis
arguj
tek
ghd
kjs
spel
rmoi
puwj
kumb
gnsmi
swdej
dherghos
rudhrs
reudhos
miljom
red-deer
reddish
redness
reduce
reed
refrain from
region
rejoice
rejoice
rejoice oneself
relation
relative
relative
relax
release
relief
religion
remain
remain (water)
remaining
remember
remnant
remoteness
renew
renowned
rent
rent
repair
repellent
replication
reprove
reputation
request
require
residence
residence
resin
resin
resonate
resound
resound
respect
respect
rest
rest
rest
rest
restless
eln
rudhss
reudhos
mneumi
arom
park
pagos
torpej
gudhj
tusjai
pijos
pss
sweljos
rem
led
podjom
perstnom
mj
stag
loiqs
mmnsk (memna)
atiloiqos
ekstar
newj
mros
doros
keus
skij
aghls
aimom
kudj
klumtom
isosk
bhedh
sedos
selom
cetus
peitus
tnmi
boukj
gew
ais
wjai
qijtis
ermi
qejsk
tij
qijts
restrain
restrict
result
retain
retaliation
retire
revenge
rheum
rheum
rib
ribbon
rich
riches
ride
right
right
right way
righteous
rigid
rigid (to be)
ring
ring
rite
rivalry
river
river ford
road
roam
roar
roar
roaring
rob
rock
rock
rock
rock
rock
rod
rod
rod
rod
roebuck
roe-deer
roll
roof
room
root
root
ksmi
streng
temk
dhermi
qoina
spleigh
apqitis
gramm
lipp
kost
ten
deiwots
ops
reidh
dksteros
regts
jeunis
pjs
sterns
stupj
anos
krenghos
adm
neitom
dnus
wadhom
kelus
wgjai
dhrnos
rugij
ghromos
ster
krrk
ondos
pels
roupis
kdj
cosdhos
litwos
ment
slat
jorkos
alkis
wolmos
robhos
ktj
wdj
wrdks
rope
resgtis
rope
sognos
rot
kjs
rot
knmi
rotten
knos
rotten
pters
rough
bhorcos
rough
brenghos
rough
dpus
round
wolws
row
wstos
row
rj
rowan tree
sorbhos
rub
melk
rub
terj
rubbed
trts
rubber
gloidos
rubbish
ceudhos
rubbish
swordis
rudder
oisj
rude
rudls
ruin
rwesn
ruin
rikj
rule
wdhj
ruler
(in stolbos
topography)
rmen
reusm
ruminate
reusmnj
rummage
ruspjai
rumor
bhm
rumor
(to reumi
produce)
rump
ghodos
run
bhec
run
dhew
run
drem (ddrmi)
run
ks
run
ret
run around
dhregh
run away
tekw
rust
roudhstos
rye
wughis
ryegrass
air
ryegrass
dw
sack
coinos
sacrifice
skrodhokjom
sad
creughos
sad
gorgs
401
sad
sadness
safe
sailor
saint
salary
sale
saliva
salt
salt
sanctuary
sand
sand/gravel
sandal
satisfaction
satisfy
saucer
say
scabies
scald-crow
scale
scammony
scandal
scant
scanty
scar
scar
scatter
scatter (to)
scene
scissors
scold
scorch
scrape
scrape off
scrape out
scratch
scratch
scratch
scratch
scrath out
scream
scythe
sea
sea
sea heaviness
seabream
seal
402
treistis
gorgnm
stiprs
nawgs
kadros
misdhom
wesnom
saleiw
sal
sald
nmtom
samdhos
pnss
pedlom
stis
snmi
ptera
seq
skabhjs
bhodhwos
bhrounm
akks
bhloskos
mwos
sneitos
kektrks
krenktis
sked
sperj
polpos
kastrom
lj
dwneumi
gneid
greum
reub
gbh
gred
meuk
skabh
meid
waplj
dhlgs
mari
trjtos
srodhos
atis
swelks
seam
seaside
season
seat
second
second
second
secret
secrete
secretion
sect
secure
sedge
sedge
see
see
see
see
seed
seek
seem
seen
seesaw
seize
seizing
self
sell
send
send
send away
sense
sentence
separate
separate
serpent
servant
serve
service
set
set fire
set out
settle
settlement
settlement
seven
seventh
sew
sewer's awl
sjewmn
leitos
jrom
sodjom
dwteros
teros
nteros
roun
msnmi
seim
werein
seghurs
olw
sesqos
dk
oq
wel
widj
sm
sgij
dokej
dktis
sweig
ghreibh
ms
sewe
pnmi
smeit
sontej
lj
menos
bhnis
seqos
der
natrks
ambhqolos
bhncai
upstnom
staurej
wrj
ijai
sodej
leghsk
sedmn
sept
sptos
sjew
sjdhl
sewn
shackle
shade
shadow
shadow
shake
shake
shake
shaker
shall
shameful
share
sharp
sharp
sharp
sharp
sharpen
shatter
shave
shave
shave
sheath
sheep
sheep skin
shelf
shell
shelter
shepherd
sherd
shield
shield
shift
shimmer
shin-bone
shin-bone
shine
shine
shine
shine
shine
shine
shine (to)
ship
ship
shirt
shit
shit
shit
sjts
winkij
skoj
skotos
unksr
kreits
krotjj
qtj
mkstrom
skel
kauns
erk
akris
gigrs
ktos
pikrs
(k)kmi
bhresj
ksnuj
rd
tondej
wagein
owis
moisos
skolpos
konkh
krowos
pimn
skroupos
rebh
skoitom
mejtis
bhgj
skw
teibhj
erq
bhrg
dhel
lukj
nitj
skej
leuk
nws
plwijom
kdsus
coucis
dherghs
skerd
shit
shit
shit
shiver
shoddy
shoe
shoot
shoot
shore
short
shoulder
shoulder-blades
show
shrew
shriek
shrine
shuttle
sibling
sickle
sickle
side
side
sieve
sieve
sieve
sieve
sign
silent
silent (to be)
silent (to be)
silently
silver
similar
simple
simultaneously
made
sincere
sing
sing
single
sink
sink
sip
sip
sir
sir
sister
sister-in-law
smerd
sterkos
sterkos
tres
rups
kpjos
selg
skeud
aperos
mghs
omsos
pletj
deik
sworx
krokij
tegos
kristj
sptr
lewis
sp
splighsts
stltos
kreidhrom
sjdhlom
krin
sj
gntlom
tausos
silj
tkj
tausnim
rgtom
slis
meros
oinowsts
dwojos
kan
sench
inoikos
merg
senq
lb
sorbhj
arjos
audhos
swesr
gls
403
sister's son
sit down
site
six
sixth
skeletton
skillful
skin
skin
skirt
skull
slack
slack
slanting
slate
slaughterer
slave
sleep
sleep
sleep
sleeper
slender
slender
slip
slip
slip
slip in
sloe
slop
slow
slow
small
small
small
small pillar
smaller
smell
smell
smell
smell good
smile
smith
smog
smoke
smoke
smoke
smoke
smooth
404
swesreinos
sisd
loghjom
seks / sweks
sekstos
skroutos
dhabhros
ktis
pelnis
bait
mreghms
mlns
slags
lokss
lsanks
truks
dsos
swopnos
sesmi
swep
swelom
kklos
makrs
slabai
sleib
sleub
smghneumi
dherghnos
mouros
msos
trudos
alpos
ghers
paulos
skolm
meiwijs
bhragrj
odj
ssghrmi
swek
smej
ghwobhros
sneudhs
dhmj
dhms
smoughos
smeugh
rasts
smooth
smooth
snail
snake
snake
snake
snake
snappy
snare
snatch
sneeze
snore
snore
snow
snow
so
so
so
so
so many
so much
sob
soft
soften
softened
soil
soldier
solid
solid
solidify
some
someone
someone
son
song
son-in-law
soon
soot
soot
sorrow
soul
sound
sound
sound
soup
sour
sour
sow
sleig
sljs
sleimks
anghwis
klodhros
srpenos
snogh
swerwos
mergh
rpj
stneumi
srenk
stert
sneighs
snncheti
ita
mn
nom
swi
tot(j)os
tawtos
gheip
mdus
mduwij
mdsnos
bhudhm
neros
dhobos
mters
greut
edqos, -q, -qod
neqos
edqis, edqid
sns
kanm
gemros
moksi
dhoulis
sdj
croughnos
etm
dhwonos
klg
swnmi
sup
amrs
sauros
trogj
sow
sow
sowing
sowing
space
spade
span
sparrow
sparrow
speak
speak
speak
spear
spear
spearshaft
speckled
speckled
speech
speech
speechless
spelt
spelt
spend
spend the night
spill
spill
spin
spit
spit
splash
spleen
split
split
split
split
split
split
split
split
split
spoil
spokesman
spoon
spot
spray
spread
spread
spread out
seg
sis
segts
slom
ghewos
lagh
potmos
pars
sparwos
bhmoi
tloqai
wweqmi
ghaisom
lostos
ghast
bhktos
mktos
gtis
bhmn
muttis
ados
aliks
neud
aw
seiq
suj
snmi
spjwtos
spjew
pers
spelgh
dns
dtis
dts
lnmi
del
skerj
skind
skj
spleid
deus
kstr
leigl
klis
ros
strts
stn
pt
spring
spring
spring
spring
spring
spring
sprout
sprout
spurn
square
squeak
squeeze
stab
stab
stable
stain
stain
stain
stake
staked
stalk
stalk
stall
stamp on
stand
standing post
star
star
star
stare
start
starvation
stay
steadfast
steady
steal
steal
steam
steam up
steep
steep
step
step
step
sterile
stick
stick
stick
lendh
mnj
wes
skat
sker
sijai
geim
wisj
tembh
qddrom
pipjj
wsk
pinjos
tlej
strs
dherk
smitl
smaneumi
stauros
staurs
kolmos
tibhj
stdhlom
stembh
(s)stmi
sttis
sterl
steros
sweidos
stelp
dherbh
ghosdos
wes
woiks
dhmos
klep
tj
bholos
dhem
kloiwos
dhwos
cm
ghengh
ghradjai
strolis
ghaisom
spnos
steipts
405
stick
stick
stick
stick
stick
stick
stick
sticky
still
sting
stink
stir up
stir up (to)
stock
stone
stone
stone
stonework
stool
stop
stop
stop up
stork
storm
story
straighten (to)
strain
strainer
strap
strap
straw
stream
stream
stream
street
strenght
strength
strengthen
stretched
strew
strick
strike
strike
strike
strike
strike
strike
string
406
stupos
sworos
ghaisj
glnmi
kolj
limp
stigj
gloijs
dom
kulos
smerd
mendh
sew
kreumi
akmn
lpods
sksom
lur
skabhnom
stw
strigj
teur
kknj
bhros
kleutrom
storej
kem
rti
telmn
wrom
plej
bhleugsm
bhogl
srowmos
stoighos
belom
weis
dhergh
ttos
strew
dhunis
bhnmi
bhreuk
keld
plg
tund
wedhsk
strengom
string
stroll
strom
strong
strong
strong
strong
struck
study
study
stuff
stumble
stupid
stupid
stutter
subsequent
succeed
success
such
suck
suck
suck
sudden
suffer
suffer
suitor
sulphur
summer
summer heat
summit
summit
summit
sun
sunlight
superior
supplementary
support
support
support
support
sure
surface
surname
sustenance
swallow
swallow
swamp
swan
tentrom
aljai
srewtis
blowents
kreps
melos
nertos
bhts
ghlendh
stoudjom
bhkj
stem
mlks
mrs
lep
psteros
bheugh
kobom
tlis
seug
dheimi
mend
abhns
qtj
ptjai
proks
swelplos
samos
chrenss
bhroigos
kolm
okris
sawel(jos)
swel
(s)peros
wteros
kleitrom
leghtrom
bhkj
steut
pgrs
pelom
kmnm
pdhlom
gluj
qem
pwods
elr
sway
sweat
sweat
sweet
swell
swell
swell
swell
swelling
swelling
swelling
swelling
swelling
swelling
swift
swim
swindle
sword
sword
syrup
table
tablet
tablet
tail
tail
tail
tail
tail
take
take
take care
take possession
talk
talk
tame
tame
taste
taste
team
tear
tear
tear
tear off
tearing
teat
teat
technique
tell
kwj
swoidos
swoidj
dkus
bhreus
pank
salom
turgj
bhulja
cotls
keulom
panknos
papl
poun
ks
snmi
swendh
kladjos
sis
bhrwtom
spelt
klros
lois
doklom
dumbos
ers
ersbhaljom
pukos
em
labh
swergh
inumoi
glgalj
garsij
kkuros
dmmi
geustis
gusn
lws
dakru
lkesj
rd
weld
lks
dhls
tett
teksn
jek
tell
tell off
temple
temple
ten
tendon
tendril
tension (engine)
termite
terrible
thanks
that
that
that one
that, the one that
the other one
then
then
then
there
therefore
therefore
thick
thief
thigh
thigh
thigh
thin
thin
thin
thing
think
thinnen
third
thirst
this
this
this
this
thorn
thorn
thousand
thrash
threaten
threatening
three
wed
lamtom
temlom
tenjom
dek
kenklom
olgj
trkmtom
tmos
ghouros
moitmos
ei
elne eln elnod
oisos
jos (je), j, jod
lteros
dha
tom
tom-ke
idhei
ar
tori
dsus
bhr
bhem
morjods
toukn
bhlakkos
speimis
tus
weqtis
stj
kak
tritjos
tstis
ghei-ke
ghi-ke
ghod-ke
is, id
ke k kod (eke ek
ekod)
se/sos s/s tod
sqij
tn
smeighsli
studj
terc
torcs
trejes trija trsores
407
three in a go
trisns
three times
trs
threefold
tripls
thriving
spros
throat
bhugs
throat
gut
through
trntis
throw
jkj
throw
supj
throw away
cel
thrush
tsdos
thumb
polnks
thunder
tontrom
thunder
torsm
thunderbolt
meldhj
thurify
kodj
thus
s(w)eike
tick
degh
tick
rek
tie
ddmi
tile
tgl
time
daitis
time
qtus
time
tempos
time
wetos
time
before nksitjom
dawn
tip
bhsts
tip
ghrt
tire
lc
tired
cns
to
ana
to
d
to another place ljote
today
edjw
together
s
tomb
speltrom
tomorrow
krasi
tongue
dghw
tongue-tied
balbos
tool
kaplos
tooth
dentis
top
knos
torch
chks
torch
dwt
torment
cedh
torpid (to be)
tpj
tortoise
ghelus
408
torture
torture
totality
touch
touch
touch
tough
towards
towards
towards there
towards this side
towel
tower
tower
town
track
track
track
traitor
transport
transporter
trap
trap
trap
travel
travel
tread
treasure
treat
tremble
trestle
triplication
troop
trouble
trouble
trough
trousers
trout
true
trunk
trunk
trust
try
try to get
tube
tube
tuff of hair
tunic
clej
rigj
solwotts
krw
palpj
tg
raukos
anta
poti
totrd
kitrd
tergslom
tursis
mijai
dounom
ogmos
werstis
pent
prodtr
woghos
weghtr
lkj
sgneumi
segnom
ambhrmos
keluj
spmi
kusdhos
drew
trem
stoghos
trptis
twm
kdos
oghlej
aldhn
skous
perkn
wros
strps
stnos
bheidh
knjai
numi
aulos
rebhrus
wtis
ruktus
tunnel
turban
turfgrass
turkey
turmoil
turn
turn
turn
turn
turn
turn
turn
turn around
turned aside
turnip
twenty
twice
twig
twin
twisted
two
two each
type
udder
udder
ugly
ugly
ugly
ununbind
unbound
unbound
uncle
uncle
under
under
underly
understand
unexpected
unfair
union
unjustice
unknown
unmade
unmuddy
until
untouched
uppest
bolkos
wosis
smelg
tturos
tmolos
derbh
qerp
swerbh
torqej
welw
wstis
wt
witj
prperks
rpom
dwidkti
dws
lougos
jems
lords
dwou, dwu, dwou
dwsns
qoros
dh
dhros
bhoidhos
bhoidos
trpis
luw (lew)
lns
lts
wontlos
ptrujs
sup
upo
dhers
peumi
nekopns
joustos
kmjougos
jousjom
gnts
dhts
sloimis
teni
kairs
(s)upmos
upright
use
use
usual
uter
utterance
valley
valuation
value
vanish
variegated
vase
vegetable
vegetation
vehicle
veil
veil
vein
very
very well
vessel
vessel
veteran
vibrate
victim
victory
view
vigor
vigorous
vigour
village
vine
vine-leaf
violent
violet
virginal
virtue
vis--vis
viscose
vision
visitor
vital energy
vivid
voice
vomit
vow
vulture
vulture
ernos
bhreugtis
bhrgjai
nitjos
deros
wedm
klopnis
mdos
wertos
dhchnmi
pelupoikos
gheutlom
ghelwos
dhaln
weghtlom
weik
gheugh
weisn
abhroperes
bhidhs
kaukos
gerws
wibrj
wiktom
seghos
dktis
wg
snoros
woik
woikos
weitis
pmponos
twoiss
sleiwos
poughos
dekos
seqi
cobhn
dkos
setis
aiwu
tros
woqs
wmmi
wochj
bhsos
cturs
409
wade
wake up
wake up
walk
walk
wall
wall
wall
walls
walnut
wander
war
warm
warm
warmth
warn
warp
warrior
wart
was
wash
wash
wash
wasp
watcher
water
water
water
water
water
water
water
watercress
wave
wave
wave
way
way
way
way
we
we
weak
weak
weaken
weaken
weaken
weakness
410
swor
bheudh
gerj
steigh
wadh
mkesj
walnom
dhoighos
moinja
knuw
ersj
ds
chormos
cher
topnos
monej
keuk
meilts
wersm
bhm
klew
low
neic
wops
bhulkos
ps
aq
weri
wod
wod
wopj
prsneumi
crurom
tusn
weln
wd
it
pontis
tropos
weghj
sme
wejes / weje
klamrs
lnis
bhleumi
mlj
mkmi
bhelu
wealth
weapon
wear
weasel
weather
weave
weave
weave
web
webbing
wedge
wedge
weed
weed
weed
weep
weft
weigh
weight
welcome
well
well
went
went
west
wet
wet
wet
wet
wet (be)
what
wheat
wheat
wheat
wheel
wheel
wheel
wheelrim
wheelrim
whelp
whelp
when
when
when
whenever
where
where
where
opn
wedh
ges
krberos
wedhrom
krek
webh
weg
tekstlom
wikonjom
knejos
tmts
mousos
runk
sij
bhlmi
traghsm
kenk
pondos
crts
bhrew
s
ludhm
sodm
perom
molqos
oucs
wosms
rgj
ucj
qis qid
bhar
bharsein
bhreugsm
dhroghs
qeklom
rot
kantos
witus
kuwos
monds
jom
qd
qom
s(w)ei
qomde
qodhei
qoi
where (rel.)
wherefore
wherefrom
whey
which
which
whine
whip
whip
whirl
whirl
whirl
whirlpool
whisper
whisper
whistle
whistle
white
white
white
white-stained
whither
whither
who, which
whoever
whole
whore
whore
why ?
wicked
wide
wide
widely known
widow
wife
wife
wild
wild
will
will
willing
willlow
willow
win
wind
wind
wind
window
jodhei
jori
qotrd
misg
qd
qteros
ghirrij
werbos
wepj
ccots
twbhn
sner
dhwols
swer
swrswrj
sweighlj
sweisd
albhos
argis
kweidos
bhlros
qote
qotrd
qos q(i) qod
qqos
solwos
louts
skortom
qori
probhwos
plkos
urs
wklutom
wdhew
sloghs
uksr
ghwrs
reudos
weltis
welmi
wols
widhus
saliks
wink
wentos
gerg
wondhej
louks
wine
wine-cask
wing
wing
winnow
winter
winter
winterly
wintry
wipe
wipe
wire
wire
wisdom
wise
witch
with
with
withdraw
wither
without
withraw
witness
wolf
wolf
woman
woman
womb
wonder
wonderful
wood
wood
woodpecker
woodpecker
woodpiece
woodworker
wool
word
work
work
work
work
work
work with
thread
workman
world
worm
woinos
kpros
agsl
peters
neik
gheim
ghjems
gheimrns
ghimentos
mtrj
terg
chislom
weiros
widjom
gnwos
wikk
kti
kom
anj
wijsk
eu
kesd
tristis
wails
wqos
cen
morign
colbhos
smeirai
smeiros
deru
kdos
kikj
peik
skoidos
tetkn
wn
wdhom
drj
drtis
opos
wergom
wgj
a pen
drtr
dhoubnom
longhros
411
worm
worm
worm
worn
worry
worse
worship
worthy
wound
wound
wound
wound
wrap
wrap out
wrapping
wrath
wring out
wrinkle
wrist
write
yarn
yarn
yawn
year
yell
yellow
yellow
yes
yesterday
yew
yoke
you
you
young
young
young
young goat
youngster
youth
youth
412
ochis
qmis
wormis
bhoros
mrneumi
pedjs
jagj
deknos
elkos
wolnos
chend
swneumi
weip
werp
wlwen
eis
lgneumi
gorbos
dornom
skreibh
glomos
snm
ghanos
atnos
klmj
bhlwos
knakos
ji
dhghjesi
oiwos
jugm
juwes / juwe
t
jwenis
juwks
juwn
ghaidos
machos
jwt
machotis
II.2. LATE INDO-EUROPEAN ENGLISH

The Latin meaning and syntax (Synt.) further define the English meaning and
proper usage of the Late Indo-European words, while the notes show their proper
inflection. The PIH column shows the laryngeal reconstruction of the words, or the
roots behind LIE vocabulary.
Late IE
gj
gsj
gtis
pj
sntis
belos
abhns
Synt.
intr
tr
fem
inc
fem
mas
adI
abhroacnos
ad
adej
adgh
dmi
adm
ados
ghar
gherom
aghj
aghls
aghlws
ghneumi
agns
agl
glis
pref
mas
ind
tr
tr
tr
neu
neu
intr
neu
fem
adI
fem
tr
adII
fem
adI
agmn
ag
agos
ags
neu
cau
mas
mas
agr
grnom
agrqols
agros
agsl
fem
neu
mas
mas
fem
Notes
PIH
Meaning
affirm
proclaim
speech
H2ep
reach
jo
harvest
H2e - e lo a ol- apple
HHi3- h- r n
sudden
HHi3- h-r n
cf. ks
(per-)
very
H2eg(wh)-no
lamb
at
AIIIo
prepare
AIIa
H2edgh
beset
BIf
HeHi2-d- a j dry (to)
rite
desos
H2ed-os
spelt
fear
lake
H2egh
plough animal
repellent
(aghlews)
drizzle
BIVb
afflict
of rams/goats
brood
H2eg- Hli-/ ili- agile
/Hloen
rank
H2eg
push
H2egofault
HeHi2g-,
ram
HeHi3g- /
HHi2g-,
HHi3gmassacre
H2eg-r
fruit
farmer
H2egroland
wing
H3eg
(Latin)
ai
proclam
conti
apscor
segs
malum
repentnus
peragnus
ad
praepar
circumveni
sicc
ritus
ador
metu
lacus
imentum
repellens
irrorti
afflig
caprnus
prls
agilis
agmen
ag
noxa
aris
truci ati
fructus
agricola
ager
la
agts
aichesj
aidhis
aidh
adI
sta
fem
intr
aig
aigros
aik
fem
adI
tr
imneumi
aimom
ain
inumoi
aiqos
air
aisdai
aisdhom
aiskrs
neu
sta
tr
adI
fem
tr
neu
adI
ais
isosk
aissk
aitis
tr
tr
fem
fem
iw(es)i
iwesos
aiws
iwotts
aiwu
ind
mas
adII
fem
neu
jeri
jesnos
ajos
keris
keswos
akj
akjs
akm
akmn
akn
knmi
akks
ind
adII
neu
fem
mas
intr
fem
fem
mas
fem
tr
mas
akos
akris
neu
adI
akrom
neu
414
ej
H2eHio2-dh/
HoHio2-dh
H2eigeH2
H2oig-ro
H3eHi2k
pushed
feel ashamed
hearth
burn
oak
ill
AIa
meet with point
(to)
BIVb
copy
H2eimoreplication
H3eHi2; dat belong
H3eHi2
take possession
even
ryegrass
H2eisdhonour
ardour
H1eisk- / H2eisk- clear
? aidh-sk?
H2eisrespect
request
desire
jo
H3eHi2-ti /
part
H3Hi2-ti
always
period
H2eiwoeternal
jo
eternity
H2oiwu(s)/
vital energy
H2oiwi/H2oiwo-/
H2oiwHHi2eri
early
brassy
es
H2ei-os
brass
jo
maple
pile
i
H3H 2kbe sharp
H3Hi2kblade
bit
(kmenos) H2ek-mon
stone
prickle
BIVa
eat
H3Hi2kscammony
H3oHi2kes
chaff
H3(e)Hi2k-ri-, sharp
H3(e)Hi2k(e)roH3Hi2k-ropromontory
actus
pudet
aedes
ar e
robus
aeger
ic i
imitor
effigs
pertine
potior
aequus
lolium
honor
ardor
clrus
reuereor
quaer
desiderium
pars
semper
aetas
aeuus
aetas
uitlits
mane
aereus
aes
acer
aceruus
ace
acis
buccella
lapis
agna
e
acridium
acus
cer
promontorium
ksij
aksis
aksteinos
kulos
akus
al!
aljai
albhos
alchos
aldhn
aliks
lesnos
alghj
aljos
ljote
alkej
alkis
fem
mas
fem
mas
fem
excl.
intr
adI
mas
mas
fem
sta
lois
ind
tr
mas /
fem
al
alpos
lteros
altjos
alts
alujos
lum
amy
ambh
adI
adII
adII
adI
mas
neu
tr
ind
ambhagtos
mbhinom
ambhqolos
ambhrmos
ambhou
meik
amiks
met
amgh
amghs
mas
neu
mas
mas
lois
fem
mas
fem
tr
adI
mghustis
mi
fem
tr
amm
ms
amrs
mros mrei
an
ants
fem
mas
adI
mas
ind
mas /
fem
jo
H2egws-iH2
ew
H2elbhoen
(aliks)
H2el-esnoid
H2el-yo
AIIIo
ej
cf. eln
(amiks)
BIIf
et
axe
axle
broom
sting
needle
hello
stroll
white
money
trough
spelt
alder
be cold
another
to another place
protect
roe-deer
nourish
small
the other one
altjs
adult
high
garlic
H2elubeer
HemH, cf. omos love (to)
h2 t h ? >
around
*h2 t h
ambhagots
public servant
circuit
servant
travel
both
friend
friend
aunt
H2emgh
oppress
H2mghu-;
narrow
amghus
narrowness
cf. ai h HeHi2- heat
/ HHi2-nu-mi
mother
seizing
H3mH2-r
sour
cf. mi
morning
H2enH2-t(i)-
perhaps
duck
ascia
axis
genista
aculeus
acus
heus!
am ul
albus
pecnia
potrium
alica
alnus
alge
alius
ali
tueor
alcs
al
paruus
alter
adultus
altus
lius
ceruisia
am
circum
agens publicus
circuitus
seruus
iter
am
amca
amcus
amita
ang
angustus
angustiae
calefaci
mamma
apprehensi
amrus
mane
forsan
anas
415
ana
ndhes
andhos
anglos
anj
ankos
anksi
nksitjom
anmos
ann
anos
ans
anstos
ind
fem
na
mas
tr
mas
ind
neu
mas
fem
mas
fem
adII
H2eng-lo
amsus
anta
antas
ant
ntijos
ntitjos
antjs
antjom
antrom
anus
aperos
apm
apnis
apo
apqitis
pqos
apsttis
apteri
apteros
apowsentis
powoiks
apps
apros
ps
aps
mas
ind
H2emsu-
apsos
aq
ar
arj
rarj
artrom
rdej
ardis
rgtom
argis
mas
fem
ind
tr
tr
neu
fem
fem
neu
adI
416
H1enkocf. noqtis
H2enH1(e)-mo
H2enH2teH2
H1enti
ind
adI
fem
neu
neu
fem
mas
neu
fem
ind
fem
adI
fem
ind
adI
adII
mas
mas
mas
fem
fem
H2enuej
apsm
H2ep-ni
*apoHkwo-
(powoikjos)
(aps)
HeproH2e(H)pH2epseH2
limb
water
therefore
H2rH1; H1rj; arj plough
adjust
plough
heron
point
H2rgsilver
white
H2ekweH2
ej
to
maid
blind
articulation
withdraw
hook
before dawn
time before dawn
breath
granny
ring
handle
provided with
handle
cretor
towards
portico
before
antique
classical
fringe
end
cave
grandmother
shore
fastening
brook
from
revenge
backward
distance
behind
hint
absent
colony
dad
boar
water
asp
ad
uirg
caecus
rotula
remoue
ancus
anteluci
antelucnum
animus
anus
anus
ansa
anstus
cretr
uersus
antae
ante
antiquus
classicus
antiae
fnis
tugurium
anus
ripa
copula
amnis
ab
represalia
uersus
distantia
post
posterus
absens
colonia
pappa
aper
aqua
ppulus
tremula
membrum
aqua
erg
ar
a apt
artrum
ardea
punctus
argentum
albus
argrs
arguj
arjos
rmtom
armos
arom
arqos
arti
artis
artus
rus
arw
arwom
adI
tr
mas
neu
mas
neu
mas
ind
fem
mas
fem
fem
neu
s
sj
sos
astris
astus
ati
atiloiqos
atis
atlos
atnos
tms
t
atqe
tros
atts
audhos
auga
augj
ugej
augm
aug
augos
augts
aulos
auqsl
ausij
ausom
auss
fem
sta
mas
mas
mas
ind
mas
fem
adI
mas
mas
intr
ausrom
ussketi
usteros
aw
aw
awj
welj
neu
intr
adI
mas
mas
fem
prog
cau
neu
cau
neu
adI
fem
fem
tr
neu
fem
ind
fem
tr
fem
H2(e)rgr-
H2erH-moH2erom
H2rkwojo
H2erH2erH3w-o \

HeHi2-seH2
HeHi2-s-j
ej
AIIe
HHw2etH1eH2-tro
H2eugeH2
AIIIo
en
H2ewg
ugestis
HHw1lcf. ukns
ausos
H2eus-oHs-eH2
H2ew
brilliant
reason
sir
cattle
arm
reed
bow
precisely
art
joint
hazelnut
butter
field
splendidus
argu
dominus
armentum
armus
harun
arcus
a e
ars
artus
a ellna
aruna
aruum
altar
be dry
ash
hawk
guile
again
remnant
seabream
noble
year
breath
breathe
and
black
dad
sir
glance
enlarge
aument
increase
increase
development
grown
tube
pot
empty
gold
dawn
ra
are
cinis
astur
astus
re(d)
reliquiae
sparus aurata
n ilis
annus
halitus
respir
ac
ter
tata
dominus
fascis
auge
auge
augmentum
aug
auctum
auctus
conductus
aula
hauri
aurum
aurra
morning
dawn
eastern
howbeit
fountain
desire
breeze
matna
illcesc
orientlis
autem
fons
esi er
aura
417
awigsn
wij
awis
awisdhij
fem
fem
fem
tr
aw
aw
wontlos
awos
awou
awti
awtim
awtjos
badjos
bait
baktlom
blbalos
balbos
bmbalos
bat
neu
dur
mas
mas
ind
ind
ind
adI
adI
fem
baubjai
bebj
belom
blowents
bend
bendl
bew
bhsk
bhtj
bhwj
intr
intr
neu
neu
fem
mas
tr
tr
tr
tr
bhabh
bhghus
bhagj
bhag
bhagos
bhgos
bhalns
bhmn
bhm
bhmoi
bhneumi
bhnis
bhnom
bhns
bhos
fem
mas
tr
cau
mas
fem
mas
neu
fem
intr
tr
fem
neu
adI
neu
bhar
bhardh
neu
fem
418
and
adI
fem
H2ewig-sneH2
ej
(venos)
H2ewH1iH2ewi(s) +
dheH1
H2ew
H2euH2oH2ewo(u)
H2eut-
oat
grandmother
bird
feel
auna
auia
auis
senti
fountain
spend the night
uncle
grandfather
back
or
otherwise
destitute
orange
skirt
club
barbaric
tongue-tied
drum
babble
fons
pernoct
avunculus
auus
retr
aut
autem
estittus
badius
falda
baculum
barbarus
balbus
bombus
locuti sine
sensu
latr

uis
robustus
extrmum
cnodax
im u
pronunti
quati
faue
bark
bleat
strenght
strong
end
pintle
AIa
damp
pronounce
hit
bhH2w- /bhH3w be favourable
dat.
bean
ew
arm
fry
atribute
portion
bheH2gobeech
penis
speech
rumor
bhH2-moi
speak
BIVb
illuminate
sentence
lighting
hnus
bright
(bh esos) bheH2os;
light
hwos
(bhars)
wheat
beard
faba
bracchium
frig
a ic
porti
fgus
pnis
affmen
fma
for
illmin
sententia
illuminti
lucidus
lux
far
barba
bharkos
bharsein
bharsjom
bharwos
bhaskis
bhsos
bhtis
bhebhros
bhec
bhedh
bheg
bheidh
bheikos
bheiql
bheitlom
mas
fem
neu
fem
mas
mas
fem
mas
intr
intr
cau
tr
fem
fem
mas
bheld
bhelks
bhelj
bhel
bhel
bhelu
bhlun
bhem
bhendh
bhendhros
bhendos
bhenjom
bhergs
bhergh
bherk
bhermi
(bher)
bherm
bhern
bhersi
intr
fem
tr
intr
intr
neu
fem
bherw
bhesmi
bheudh
bheugh
bheug
bheur
bhwed
bhewmi
bhwonom
bhewtis
bhewtlom
bhbheimi
inc
intr
inc
perf.
tr
mas
adI
fem
tr
sta
tr
bhtis
AIa
AIb
AIa
bheiqnon IE? Item
ai.
parasu
AIa
H3bhel
(bhmenos)
AIa
(bhergos)
AIa
AIa
Bia
neu
fem
ind
tr
fem
dur
neu
fem
neu
tr
bherH2-g
cf. merk
bhHr; bher
bhristi ? cf.
testis <*tristis
AIa
Bia
AIa
AIa
AIa
liqui
BIa / BIIb
jo
bhwH2
htis hts
brooch
wheat
bread
pinetree
bundle
vulture
expression
beaver
run
require
curb
trust
fig
bee
axe
fibula
farna
pnis
pnus
fascis
ltur
expressi
f er
curr
postul
arcu
f
fcus
aps
ascia
knock
coot
enhance
fluoresce
make noise
weakness
henbane
thigh
bind
mate
melodious
hit
birch
keep
glimmer
bear
attu
fulica
prosper
superluce
strep
ilitas
hyosciamus
femur
lig
collga
melodicus
contusi
betulla
conseru
fulge
her
burden
breach
quickly
onus
fissra
cit
boil
blow
wake up
succeed
fold
knead
profit
be
reality
nature
environment
fear
feru
spir
expergiscr
eueni en
flect
commisce
compendium
sum
relits
ntura
circumiectus
time
419
bhidhs
bhidrs
bhilis
bhnmi
bhind
bhts
bhlgsm
bhldhrom
bhlaghm
bhlag
bhlaidos
bhlakkos
bhlmi
bhlwos
bhled
bhleic
bhleid
bhlmi
bhlendhos
bhleuc
bhleugsm
bhleumi
bhleus
bhgj
bhkj
bhlokos
bhlros
mas
adI
adI
tr
cau
adI
fem
neu
neu
tr
adI
adI
tr
adI
intr
intr
intr
intr
adI
intr
neu
tr
tr
sta
tr
mas
bhls
bhlosj
bhloskos
bhltis
bhghus
bhodhj
bhodhwos
bhodjs
bhodrs
bhods
bhog
bhogj
bhogjos
bhogl
bhoidhos
mas
sta
mas
fem
adI
tr
mas
adI
adI
fem
fem
intr
mas
fem
adI
bhoidos
bhoiqos
bhokos
bholghis
bholjom
bhljm
neu
mas
es
mas
neu
neu
ej
420
vessel
bitter
good
BIVa
bhiH
strike
cleave
bhiH-t
struck
flame
fan
priest
hit
clear
thin
blow
bhleH3 cf. hls yellow
AIa
boast
AIa
hit
AIa
inflate
weep
dim
AIa
flow
en
stream
BIII/AIIIu
heluj
weaken
AIa
choke
shimmer
support
flake
white-stained
hlsos
bhleH3-s-
hltjos
bhlH-ti
compartuus
bhoiH-dhH1o< hei 'time'
bheljom
hwljm
flower
bloom
scandal
flower
dick
dig
scald-crow
better
excellent
grave
guerrilla
contend
crook
stream
ugly
fiscus
asper
bonus
tun
fin
tusus
flamma
fl ellum
flmen
tun
candidus
flaccus
fl
fluus
glorior
flg
inflor
fle
sublustris
flu
flmen
ilit
suffoc
fulge
fulci
floccus
can i
macultus
fls
flore
scandalum
flos
crassus
fo i
coruus
melius
excellens
fossa
guerrilla
litig
amnis
amnis
foedus
ugly
drone
flame
bag
leaf
den
foedus
fcus
focus
follis
folium
cu le
bholos
bhols
bhondhs
bhr
bhorj
bhorcos
bhoros
bhorsos
bhosos
bhoudhej
bhoug
bhougj
bhwijs
bhragrj
bhrtr
bhrtreinos
bhratrijos
bhrg
bhreic
bhrem
bhrendh
bhren
bhresj
bhrgjai
bhreugs
bhreugsm
bhreugtis
bhreuk
bhrun
bhreus
bhrw
bhrew
bhrew
bhghos
bhrigij
bhrijj
bhij
mas
adI
fem
mas
tr
adI
mas
adI
adII
cau
fem
cau
adI
sta
mas
mas
adII
intr
tr
intr
intr
intr
tr
tr
mas
neu
fem
tr
neu
cau
fem
tr
neu
adI
intr
tr
cau
bhrkmi
bhkj
bhksnos
bhktos
bhm
bhrg
bhroigos
bhrosdhos
bhrounm
bhrounos
bhroustom
bhrwtis
tr
tr
fem
adI
tr
mas
fem
neu
adI
neu
mas
steam
noisy
crib
bhrs
thief
bore
rough
worn
proud
barefoot
AIIIo
awaken
flight
flee
bheHwiyfavourable
smell
hrtros bhreH2-ter
brother
brother's son
brotherly
AIIf
shine
AIa
fry
AIa
grunt
AIa
gush up
AIa
edge
shatter
AIVa
bhreuH-g
use
(bhrugs)
fruit
en
wheat
jo
use
AIa
strike
limit
AIa
swell
bridge
AIa
brew
(bhrewos)
well
hghhigh
chirp
crumble
hHriy hHru cut open
y
press
stuff
bhrH2g-sno
ashtree
cf. mktos
speckled
incision
bhrH1-g
break
summit
cedar
scale
brown
fragment
forehead
uapor
strepitosus
praeseps
fr
for
rudis
gestmen
superbus
planips
expergefaci
fga
fg
propitius
ole
frter
so rnus
frternus
luce
frig
frem
exu er
excell
isrump
fruor
frux
frmentum
sus
mulce
lmes
tumefaci
pons
concoqu
puteus
altus
frig
fri
inc
prem
farcio
frxinus
uarius
incisi
frang
cacumen
cedrus
squma
sp ix
frstum
frns
421
bhsts
bhtis
bhrughnos
bhugs
bhrs
fem
fem
fem
mas
fem
bhrsnmi
bhrusnj
bhrusos
bhrustm
bhrutks
bhrwtom
bhudhm
bhudhnos
bhugj
bhugos
bhuks
bhulja
bhulkos
bhm
tr
fem
mas
neu
mas
neu
neu
mas
dur
mas
adI
fem
mas
intr
bhncai
bhusj
bhsj
bhta
bhutj
bhts
bistlis
blakt
blatsj
blkj
bdus
bodhrs
bokkos
blbolj
bolkos
boukj
brenghos
brokos
bughn
bukk
cadh
cm
cclos
cedh
ct
intr
tr
intr
fem
tr
adII
fem
fem
intr
intr
mas
adI
mas
intr
mas
intr
adI
mas
mas
fem
intr
neu
adI
tr
fem
cwks
cejw
cwotos
adI
dur
mas
422
(bhugs)
(bhruvs) H3bhruH;
bhrews
BIVa
tip
bearing
bulrush
throat
eyebrow
break
cuirass
breast
particle
(bhrutks) (bhrutks)
bush
bhrwHtsyrup
en
soil
ground
flee
animal
bhukus
blunt
swelling
watcher
(aor. ab bhHu-m; bhwom was
esmi)
AIa
serve
kiss
hasten
dwelling
hit
been
gall
cockroach
chatter
bleat
drop
deaf
goat
AIVd
explode
tunnel
resound
rough
badger
eagle owl
mouthful
gwH2dh
dive
step
mundane
AIa
torment
gwH3itu-, gwH3i- life
taH2, gwH3iwot
lively
AIa
gwH3ei-w
live
animal
cuspis
portti
iuncus
guttur
brus
efring
lorca
pectus
particula
frutex
frutum
solum
fundus
fugi
bestiola
hebes
tumor
uigil
fu
fungor
oscul
percurr
mansi
quati
part. pf. esse
lis
blatta
later

gutta
surdus
caper
expl
cuniculus
person
raucus
mls
u
bucca
immerg
gradus
mun nus
cruci
uita
uuax
uu
animl
clej
cldis
cel
celom
clwonom
cemj
cen
cau
fem
tr
neu
neu
intr
fem
AIIIo
ej
AIa
cerbh
ceri
cerj
cer
cer
ceru
crurom
csneumi
cespis
cetus
ceudhos
chaisos
chedh
cheldi
chel
chend
chenmi
chentis
cher
cheros
chislom
chn
chks
chons
chormos
chornos
chrenss
neu
intr
tr
sta
neu
neu
tr
fem
mas
neu
adI
tr
neu
tr
cau
tr
fem
tr
neu
neu
tr
fem
adI
adI
mas
mas
ej
AIa
AIb
chj
ccmi
cij
cnmi
crs
cistis
cwos
cws
c
cj
cns
cnmi
cturs
ctis
intr
inc
fem
intr
adI
fem
mas
adI
fem
intr
adI
intr
mas
fem
gwelH2
g(e)uH2-lo
gwelH1-onogwj
gwnH2; gwnis
gwn
gwerH-
ew
BIVb
es
AIa
AIa
ghwH2y-so
H1ghwel
jo
es
(chkos)
chkeH1?
chnos
chrensms;
cf. cher
BIIa
gweH2
BIVa
gwH3i-wogwH3i-w-
BIVa
gwlH
torture
acorn
throw away
cavity
bath-tub
come
woman
torment
glans
a ici
cauits
lau rum
ueni
mulier
devour
mountain
finish
praise
have fever
pike
watercress
extinguish
branches
resin
rubbish
beautiful
pray
bile
desire
wound
murder
death
warm
heat
wire
deceive
torch
abundant
warm
hearth
summer heat
uor
mons
fini
lau
fe ri
ueru
berrum
exstingu
foliamen
itmen
immunditia
pulcher
rog
fel
esi er
feri
interfici
nex
calefaci
calor
flum
fall
fax
abundans
formus
fornus
aestus
be violent
go away
fold
prevail
lush
finger
life
alive
gullet
fly
tired
agonise
vulture
march
fur
a e
oule
praeuale
laetus
digitus
uita
uuus
gula
uol
lassus
praepatior
uultur
itus
423
cobhn
coinos
colbhos
cors
cosdhos
cotej
cotls
coucis
coudhros
cwij
cowijs
cwqolos
cows
adI
mas
mas
mas
mas
tr
mas
fem
adI
fem
adII
mas
and
cowstas
c(w)s
adI
crtos
cj
crts
cawenus
adI
tr
adI
mas
ccestjom
ccots
cebhos
creughos
croghos
crotsos
croughnos
cs
d
daimoi
daitis
daiwr
dakru
neu
mas
mas
adI
mas
adI
adI
fem
ind
tr
fem
mas
neu
dmos
dnus
dpnmi
dapnom
daps
dwt
dwetus
dwneumi
dawtis
d
debh
mas
mas
tr
neu
mas
fem
mas
tr
fem
ind
tr
424
AIIIo
cewos
gweH3u- /
gwH3eu(cowstajs) gwou-stH2
gwH2-u/
gweH2u/
gwreH2u;
c w us
gwrH-t
gwrH3
grH2-to
gwreH2-n
/gwreH2-w
viscose
sack
womb
big eater
rod
mention
swelling
shit
dirty
lapwing
bovine
herdsman
cow
congltnsus
saccus
uterus
cibicida
uirga
all
tumr
merda
immundus
uanellus
ounus
pstor
s
ox-stall
heavy
oule
grauis
heavy
devour
welcome
millstone
rtus
uor
grtus
mola
hovel
whirl
embryon
gwru-Hgh
sad
Adam's apple
big
sorrow
(cews)
crane
certainly
divide up
time
(daiwrs)
brother-in-law
ew
akru k-akru tear
>drakru > dakru
/ skw-akru
mate
river
BIVb
be expensive
cost of a feast
daps
banquet
torch
conflagration
BIVb
scorch
fuel
from upwards
AIa
knead
(ccets)
gurgustium
gurgues
foetus
maestus
a am malum
grossus
maestitia
grus
cert
istri u
tempus
leuir
lacrima
so lis
fluuius
carus esse
impensa dapis
daps
taeda
incendium
accen
cibus ignis
eps
dedrus
degh
deikmn
deik
deikos
deiktis
deiw
diwijos
deiwos
deiwotts
deiwots
dekj
dek
dktulos
deknos
dekos
dksteros
delj
del
demos
denk
dens
dentis
mas
fem
neu
tr
mas
fem
fem
adII
mas
fem
adI
intr
ind
mas
adI
neu
adII
tr
tr
neu
tr
tr
mas
derbh
dergh
der
intr
intr
tr
deru
deuk
deuks
deus
dew
dhtis
dhabhros
dhaln
dhanwos
dhaunos
dhchnmi
dhchitis
dhebh
dhech
dhdhjos
dhedhms
dheghom
neu
tr
and
tr
ind
fem
mas
fem
fem
adI
inc
fem
intr
dur
dheghwis
dheic
dhicodhl
dheimi
fem
tr
mas
mas
tr
allergy
tick
example
AIa
show
address
quoque diktis
indication
goddess
godly
god
eiwottjos
deity
(diwetos)
rich
be proper
dekm(t)
ten
finger
worthy
es
virtue
right
AIVc
dHl; del
calculate
split
es
building
AIa
bite
AIa
infere
jo
H1dont- / H1d tooth
tAIa
turn
AIa
get cumulated
erH e rjo
separate
rneHmi
(drewos) derH-u; doru
wood
AIa
drag
(duks)
leader
spoil
dewH2 dweH2 far
exhaustion
skillful
vegetation
pinetree
predator
BIVb
vanish
destruction
AIa
Hdhebh
abuse
AIa
burn
grandfather
decree
(dhghmos) dhghms,
earth
dheghoms
inflammation
AIa
dheigw
puncture
brooch
i
dheH 1
suck
allergia
rihipicephalus
exemplum
monstr
irecti
in icti'
dea
uus
deus
eits
ues
decet
decem
digitus
dignus
decus
dexter
calcul
a iung
ae s
a mor e
c
dens
gyr
cumul
spar
lignum
c
dux
ruin
procul
exhausti
habilis
uiridia
a is
praedator
a e
lti
a tr
ar e
auus
consultus
humus
inflammti
fig
fibula
sg
425
dhej
dhliks
dhlgs
dhljos
dhel
dhls
dhm
dhem
dhmon
dhengh
dhnom
dhnos
dherbh
tr
adI
fem
mas
intr
mas
neu
intr
fem
tr
neu
neu
inc
dherghnos
fem
sloe
dhergh
dherghos
dherghs
dherk
dhermi
dhs
dhtis
dheugh
dheuk
dheunos
dhew
dhghjesi
dhghomn
tr
adI
fem
cau
tr
mas
fem
intr
cau
neu
intr
ind
mas
strengthen
red
shit
stain
retain
duty (religious)
fact
enough (to be)
destroy
death
run
yesterday
human being
pon
flix
falx
lactans
splen e
tetta
habitus
uapor
femina
imprim
genitra terrae
faenus
functionem
incipi
prnus
spinsa
corro or
r er
excrmentum
macul
retine
sacrificti
factum
suffici
conter
fnus
curr
her
hom
dhghus
dhicsnis
dhdhmidhkj
dhingh
dheghl
dhis
dhels
dhos
dhghus
dhobos
dhochej
dhochos
fem
mas
tr
perch
end
do
perca
fnis
faci
model
debt
hunger
foundation
employee
direct
solid
make hot
day
fing
itum
fams
fun ti
famulus
directus
solidus
foue
is
dhoighos
dholos
dhombhos
dhms
dhn
dhncelos
mas
mas
mas
mas
fem
adI
wall
hollow
dove
opinion
cereal
dark
moenia
cauitas
columba
sententia
cerele
fuscus
426
tr
fem
fem
fem
mas
adI
adI
cau
mas
AIb
hliks
(dhgos)
AIb
AIb
hlus
AIa
es
AIa
(dhghos)
AIa
(dhass)
jo
AIa
AIa
es
AIb
dherH2
dhH1sdhHt-, dheHtidh(u)nH2
dhewH1
(ghdhmeno
s)
jo
BIIb / AIVb dheHi1
AVIa
dhH1melodhH1moAIIIo
(dh)ech /
(dh)och
put
productive
scythe
baby
shine
teat
condition
steam up
female
press
produce of land
interest
start
dhoncos
dhnej
dhontis
dhorj
dhoubhos
dhoubhs
dhoubnom
dhoulis
dhunis
dhragh
dhregh
dhrnos
dhrensj
dhreugh
adI
fem
mas
fem
adI
adI
neu
dhrighss
dhmos
dhnumoi
dhroghnom
dhroghs
dhs
dhstis
dhsus
dhrubhj
dhrubhtis
dhruslij
dhubs
dhugtr
dhmj
dhms
dhneumi
dhuskos
dhwer
dhwestus
dhwolnos
dhwols
dhwonos
dhworis
dhworom
dhwosos
mas
adI
intr
neu
fem
tr
fem
adI
tr
fem
tr
adI
fem
dur
mas
tr
adI
tr
fem
adI
fem
mas
fem
neu
mas
ddmi
ddjmi
didksk
digh
djej
djws
djnos
dghj
tr
tr
tr
fem
intr
mas
fem
intr
mas
tr
intr
mas
intr
sta
dark
hollow
ej
fountain
diarrhea
deaf
dhoubhus
black
world
hlis
soot
strick
AIIa
bring out
AIa
run around
roar
cry
AIa
do military
service
bundle
steady
BIVb
dherH3
jump
potter wheel
wheel
AIIh
dare
boldness
bold
dhrub(h)?
crumble
jo
drop
dismantle
dhubus
deep
(dhugtrs) dhugH2ter
daughter
smoke
dhuH1-mo
smoke
BIVb
agitate
dark
AIa
deceive
fleabane
crazy
whirlpool
sound
ej
dhweris, dhur- door
courtyard
dhwosos (masc.) demon
/dhwesos -es(neut.)
dH1(-je/o)
tie
BIIa
deiH2
conceive
learn
goat
move
(djwos) dyeH1-w
day
jn
day
dat
maintain
o scrus
ula
fons
diarhea
surdus
ter
mundus
fligo
fnis
prm
circumcurr
gemitus
rens
milit
fascis
firmus
salt
tornus
rota
au e
audacia
audax
comminu
stilla
ismont
profundus
flia
fm
fmus
agit
fuscus
efrau
pulicria
insnus
uertex
sonitus
foris
forum
diabolus
lig
concipere
sc
capra
moue
is
is
contine
427
dkus
dnghos
adI
mas
dnghot
dpedom
dpus
dsegh
dghw
fem
neu
adI
neu
fem
dsus
d
dokej
doklom
dolj
dolej
dolghos
dljom
dolos
dom
dmmi
(d)dmi
domos
adI
ind
pred
mas
tr
tr
mas
mas
mas
ind
tr
tr
fem
dmn
dmnos
dnom
fem
mas
neu
dornom
doros
dsos
dtis
dounom
dousmos
dusontos
drj
drappos
drtis
drtr
ddrj
drem
(ddrmi)
drep
dreugh
drew
drew
drisms
dristos
neu
mas
mas
fem
neu
mas
mas
intr
mas
fem
mas
intr
intr
428
cau
fem
tr
adI
mas
cp.
dlongho-,
dleH1ghijos-, dlH1ghosp.
dleH1ghistH2
o-
seghns
dnghu-H2;
dt-ghuH2 ?
AIIIo
AIIIo
dolH1dolH1-
dmH2
BIIc
deHw3
(doms, domus
dmewos)
jo
jo
AIa
AIa
AIa
sweet
long
dulcis
longus
length
building place
rough
domain
tongue
longitu
locus operum
rudis
dominium
lingua
thick
to
seem
tail
cudge
disrupt
dew
barrel
fraud
still
tame
give
house
densus
ad
uideor
cauda
ol
rump
ros
lium
dolus
dum
om
domus
landlady
landlord
doH3-no /doH3- gift
ro
wrist
rent
slave
dowry
duHno- no- town
bush
arm
work
drapery
work
workman
murmur
run
cut out
beguile
course
treat
harsh
bramble
domina
dominus
num
manicula
scissra
seruos
dos
oppidum
mus
braccium
la or
drappus
labos
operrius
murmur
curr
a scin
cipi
cursus
consusc
asper
mus
dkjai peri
dkj
dk
dkos
dksmos
dkt
dktis
dktis
dmij
dns
dtis
dts
dw
ds
dumbos
dnmi
dus
dspis
duswids
dweimi
dwenos
dwidkti
dwipods
dws
dwskos
dwsns
dwoiros
intr.
tr
tr
mas
mas
fem
fem
fem
dur
mas
fem
adI
fem
fem
mas
tr
ind
adI
adI
tr
adI
adII
adII
lois
adI
lois
adI
dwoplos
dwteros
dwou, dwu,
dwou
ch
chjos
ecnis
edhlos
edh
edjw
edmi
edqis, edqid
edqos, -q, qod
edun
egj
eghjos
adII
adII
adII
egh
eg
ei
eibh
neu
pron
ind
intr
neu
adI
mas
fem
neu
ind
tr
pron
pron
jo
drH-n
dsH2
duH2
jo
dweiros,
dweisos?
(chenos) H1eH1gwh- r n
jo
H1egw-niH1edh-lo-
(dhenos)
H1ed
fem
sta
mas
H1egh-yo /
H1ogh-i(H)no(eghns)
(mene)
egH(o)2
AIa
H1eibh
be visible
make up
see
vision
perspective
light
view
seen
fall asleep
split
split
split
ryegrass
war
tail
arrange
bad
precarious
incompetent
fear
good
twenty
biped
twice
matching
two each
fearful
manifestor
perspici
ui e
facis
prospectus
lmen
conspectus
uisus
obdormiscor
fragmentum
scissi
scissus
lolium
bellum
caudula
ha ilit
mal
precrius
inscius
time
bonus
uigint
ps
bis
pr
n
rus
double
second
two
duplus
secundus
duo
drink
drunken
fire
elder
palisade
today
eat
someone
some
pain
lack
hedgehog
pti
rius
ignis
ebulus
uallum
hodie
e
ecquis
ecqu -quae, quod
dolor
ege
er
boundary
I
that
fuck
circunscripti
eg
ut
futtu
429
eik
eimi
eis
eisskai
eisom
ek(s)
eksoqs
ekstar
tr
dur
fem
inc
neu
ksteros
kstos
ekts
ekw
ekwns
ekwos
l
eln
elkos
elks
ellus
elne eln
elnod
elm
elr
elwos
em
empis
en
anghwis
adI
adI
ind
fem
adII
mas
fem
mas
neu
adI
mas
pron
endo
endsdjom
enim
enq
enis
enk pr
enns
nsdjom
ensl
enstar
ind
neu
ind
fem
adII
tr
adI
neu
fem
neu
nteri
nternos
nterom
nteros
nteros
ents
perom
epi
pijos
ind
adI
neu
adI
adI
ind
neu
ind
adII
430
adI
neu
H1eik
H1ei
H1egh-si
(ksoqjos)
(kstaros) ek-stH2- cf.
enstar
tab
H1ekwo(alns)
es
cf. alkis
ew
tr
mas
aor. a ges
(leros)
tr
fem
ind
fem
ej
H2engwi- ; cf.
ochis
eni-H3kw-eH2
tab
AIa
(nstaros) en-stH2- cf.

ekstar
tab
tab
opi
H1eH1p-i-
have
go
wrath
be angry
ice
outside
invisible
remoteness
ha e
e
ira
irscor
gel
ex
inuisibilis
longinquits
external
outermost
excepted
mare
of horses
horse
bodkin
red-deer
wound
bad
eel
that
exterior
extimus
praeter
equa
equnus
equus
cuspis
alcs
ulcus
malus
anguilla
ille illa illud
conducted
swan
pink
take
insect
in
snake
gess
olor
rosaceus
em
insectus
inanguis
inside
furniture
and
face
certain
drive
interior
ambush
island
proximity
in
suppellex
et
facis
qu am
con c
interior
insidiae
insula
proximits
between
internal
interval
internal
intestine
inside
west
on
relation
inter
internus
interuallum
interior
intestnus
intus
occidens
insuper
a fnis
piromos
ercom
erjos
erk
ermi
ermos
ernos
er
roros
erq
ers
ersbhaljom
ersj
erw
esmi
smoi
esos
es
ss
teros
eti
tiqe
etm
t
tros
euk
eus
ew
extrd
glgalj
galnos
galnos
gang
gar
garsij
gudhj
adI
neu
mas
fac
intr
adI
adI
tr
mas
intr
fem
neu
sta
fem
dur
intr
m
neu
adI
adII
ind
ind
neu
mas
adI
tr
intr
inc
ind
intr
mas
mas
intr
ind
intr
intr
gaudhjom
ge
geig
geim
geis
geltis
gelu
gem
gemros
genesj
geng
genjos
neu
ind
sta
intr
fem
fem
neu
tr
mas
cau
fem
mas
piromos
H1ergwoH1erH1rk
H1rH1
H1rH1-moAIa
AIa
er-H3eroH1erkw
H1ers-
H1es
(senos)
etsqe
en
tens
AIa
H1esH-oH1esH2-r
eH1su- ? sus
H1eH1-tr
tros ?
euk / eHwk
H1eus
H1ew
ar ge
geH2-dheH1 /
geH2wi-dheH1 /
geH2-dhH1-sk ?
AIa
AIa
ew
AIb
placed on top
pulse
ram
share
rest
abandoned
upright
heave
eagle
shine
tail
tail
wander
land
be
be situated
housemaster
blood
good
second
even
even
soul
inside
vivid
be used
burn
get dressed
from
talk
power
gaul
pin down
indeed
talk
rejoice
joy
at least
be bitter
sprout
gravel
embryo
ice
be loaded
gemHroson-in-law
create
gum
comp. -gnH1yo- gender
supernus
erm
aris
commnic
requiesc
solus
arrectus
erig
aquila
splen e
cauda
cauda
err
terra
sum
sum
erus
sanguis
bonus
secundus
etiam
etiam
animus
interior
uiuidus
col
r
in u
ex
garri
potentia
gallus
siffil
enim
garri
gau e
gaudium
qu em
actus sum
germin
calculus
ftus
gel
grautus esse
gener
gener
gingiua
sexus
431
genm
genos
gentis
neu
neu
fem
gentlom
gentr
gentrks
gentus
genu
genus
gerc
gerg
gerj
gerls
ger
gers
gerws
ges
geulom
geustis
gew
ghbhj
ghabhlom
ghabhros
ghaidns
ghaidos
ghaisj
ghaisom
ghaisom
ghait
ghlerom
ghanos
ghansr
ghast
ghaw
neu
mas
fem
mas
neu
neu
tr
cau
intr
adI
prog
fem
mas
tr
neu
fem
intr
tr
neu
mas
adII
mas
sta
neu
neu
fem
neu
neu
mas
fem
tr
ghawd
ghebhl
ghed
gheidh
ghei-ke ghike ghod-ke
ghimentos
gheim
ind
fem
tr
tr
gheimrns
gheip
gheislos
ghelb
ghelij
adII
intr
mas
intr
intr
432
adI
neu
en
es
jo
genH1mn
genH1os
genH1ti- /
gH1tigenH1tlogenH1tor
(gntrijos) genH1triH2
genH1tuAIa
AIa
AIa
jo
AIa
es
er
AIb
AIa
birth
parent
parent
procreation
knee
maxilla
H2ger grneumi gather
wind
H1ger
wake up
old
gerH2
old (to become)
network
veteran
H2gs
wear
glowing ash
taste
resound
own
fork
goat
goatish
young goat
stick
spear
stick
hair
disgrace
yawn
goos
spearshaft
ghH2ew /
call
ghwH2e
not
head
defecate
long for
tab
this
(ghimenos) gheims, cf.

ghjems
AIa
ghweistlo- ?
AIa
germ
kin
family
germen
genus
familia
nascentia
genitor
genitrx
genitus
gen
maxilla
cog
contorque
expergiscor
senex
snsc
gerra
ueternus
ger
fauilla
gustus
reson
possi e
furca
hircus
hae nus
haedus
haere
gaesum
pilum
capillum
la s
hitus
anser
hasta
uoc
haud
caput
iunific
aue
hic haec hoc
wintry
winter
hiemlis
hiems
winterly
sob
hostage
boast
growl
hibernus
hippit
obses
glorior
grunni
ghelnom
ghel
ghelus
ghelwos
ghelwos
ghmi
ghengh
ghr
gherdh
gherghros
gherijai
gher
ghertom
ghers
ghes
ghesris
ghestos
ghtis
ghetl
gheugh
gheus
gheutis
gheutlom
ghwej
ghewos
ghi
ghighj
ghirrij
ghjj
ghjems
neu
intr
fem
neu
mas
intr
intr
mas
tr
fem
tr
tr
neu
ghlaghos
ghlastos
ghlmi
ghlendh
ghleumi
ghloidos
ghloumos
ghtns
ghtom
ghlustis
ghdhus
ghd
ghneumi
ghodos
ghoilos
gholw
mas
adI
intr
tr
intr
mas
ghrdejom
ghordhos
neu
mas
neu
fem
neu
fem
fem
tr
tr
fem
neu
fem
es
ind
intr
intr
inc
mas
adII
neu
adI
mas
tr
tr
mas
adI
fem
es
BIIb
AIa
(ghers)
AIa
ghelHw3-os/es
ghelHw3-os
gheH1
(ghsenos) cf. ghestos

cf. ghs
jo
AIa
AIa
(ghjmos)
BIIc
AIa
gheims; cf.
gheim
gh(H)-stoghlH3 ghlj
ghH3-to
AVIc
BIIIb
cf. ghelus
'testu '
cf. ghortos
lip
incise
tortoise
vegetable
green
arrive
step
hedgehog
encircle
pod
desire
lend
butter
small
hand
glove
hand
arrival
handle
veil
hear
mould
vase
hollow
space
certainly
come back
whine
gape
winter
labrum
insec
testu
olus
uiridis
perueni
ua
r
circum
siliqua
esi er
commo
butyrum
exiguus
manus
igit ulum
manus
aduentus
stua
o um r
au i
ftis
acrium
fouea
spatium
cert
re e
hirri
hi
hiems
crossbeam
blue
glimmer
study
joke
luxury
joke
golden
gold
flourishing
cancer
receive
caress
rump
joyful
caluum caput
patibulum
caeruleus
reni e
pertract
nugor
sumptus
nuga
aureus
aurum
fluorescentia
cancer
accipi
mulce
pga
alacer
bald head
barley
enclosure
hordeum
saeptum
433
ghorejai
ghornim
ghoros
ghorsej
ghortos
ghosm
cau
ind
mas
cau
mas
tr
ghstipots
ghostis
ghosdos
ghouros
ghowej
ghradjai
ghrsm
ghrsom
ghrebh
ghrdhus
ghreibh
ghreimn
ghj
ghrem
ghrendh
ghrendhos
ghrend
ghrw
ghrew
ghrew
ghromos
ghronos
ghroudos
ghrow
ghrt
ghudj
ghund
ghwer
ghwrns
ghwrs
adII
and
mas
adI
tr
dur
neu
neu
tr
mas
tr
neu
sta
intr
fem
neu
intr
ind
cau
ghwobhros
gibb
ggisai
gign
gigrs
gjew
glgjs
glabh
gladhros
glagha
glakti
glegos
mas
fem
intr
cau
adI
tr
fem
tr
adI
fem
neu
adI
434
AIIIo
AIIIo
cf. ghordhos
(aor. ab
edmi)
jo
ej
AIIIo
en
AIa
AIa
AIa
es
AIa
AIa
mas
mas
mas
fem
fem
cau
fem
adI
BIIe
AIa
encourage
pleasantly
intestine
erect
garden
ate
guest
foreigner
ghostos
starvation
terrible
pay attention
step
grass
ghreH2-so
grass
bury
hunger
ghrbh / ghr-i-bh seize
ointment
be empty
grumble
cornice
ghrona
lock
gnaw
ghreH1u
early
grind
fall into
roaring
mark
ball
pebble
tip
do harm
pour
beast
ghwerns
beastly
ghwr ghwer wild
ghwers
smith
hump
geis
happen
genH1
beget
sharp
chew
ice
plane
even
protest
milk
docile
hortor
libenter
intestna
horre
hortus

hospes
aduena
inedia
terrens
faue
gredior
grmen
herba
inhum
fames
capt
uncti
uacuus sum
frem
corona
cirrus
fren
mane
conter
ingru
fremitus
signum
pila
calculus
cuspis
amn
fun
fera
fernus
ferus
faber
gibba
acci
gign
actus
man
glacis
fo i
glaber
querla
lac
infirmus
gleibh
gleis
glkis
glembh
gleubh
glnmi
globhos
glghis
gloidos
gloijs
gloit
glokij
glomos
gls
gluj
gnj
gnmi
tr
mas
adI
cau
tr
intr
mas
fem
mas
adI
neu
intr
neu
fem
tr
tr
tr
gns
gnskai
gnts
m/f
inc
adII
gnebhis
gnebh
gneibh
gneich
gneid
gnros
gnos
(g)gnsk
(gnwa)
gnsmi
gntis
gntlom
gntr
gnts
gnoubhos
gnwos
golbhnos
gombhos
gomos
gonj
gopos
gorbos
gorgnm
gorgs
goulos
gouros
grakij
gramm
fem
tr
tr
intr
tr
adI
ad
tr
tr
fem
neu
mas
adI
mas
mas
mas
mas
tr
mas
mas
neu
adI
mas
mas
intr
fem
AIa
(gliss)
a haer
glis
callidus
incl
gl
a haer
globus
cuspis
gltinum
glutinoosus
glten
gloci
glomus
gls
glti
gign
a r
AVc
adhere
mouse
intelligent
include
peel
stick
globe
point
rubber
sticky
glue
clack
yarn
gH2lw
sister-in-law
swallow
produce (to)
knH2 cf. kanm gnaw (to)
km knm
offspring
gnH1-eH2-sk
be born
gnH1-t; comp. - born
gtfleece
pluck
raze
lean
scrape
evident
in compositine native
gneH3
know
BIe
gnsmi
agnosc
nti
signum
ntor
ntus
geniculum
nuus
acmen
dentes
onus
gener
fauces
rga
tristitia
tristis
buccale
tur i
gracill
grmiae
AIa
AIa
BIVa
gloitns
es
glsos
AIIIu
gnjs
AIa
AIa
AIa
AIa
gnH3ts
gonH1-eio/e-
recognize
knowledge
sign
knower
known
bud
wise
dart
jaws
load
produce
jaws
wrinkle
sadness
sad
oral
crimpy hair
cackle
rheum
prls
nscor
ntus
uellus
uellic
r
ntor
a r
euidens
ingenuus
nsc
435
grnom
gbeinos
neu
fem
gbj
gbh
grebhos
gred
gregs
gremjom
grendjom
gretlom
greubh
greug
greum
greut
grdhs
grbhos
grdis
groumos
grundij
grutis
gudom
gug
gup
gurnos
gusn
gut
idhei
ikj
ili
lj
sta
tr
mas
tr
mas
neu
imde
imm
nekmi
ipj
is, id
sarnom
ita
itj
itaqe
teros
itim
it
iwe
jkj
jkj
jagj
jgjus
ind
adII
tr
436
dur
intr
tr
intr
adI
fem
mas
mas
intr
fem
fem
fem
mas
tr
mas
ind
tr
neu
tr
pron
neu
ind
freq
ind
adII
ind
neu
ind
sta
tr
tr
adI
grH2-no(s)karp ?
AVIII
AIa
grcos
H2greg-
AIa
AIa
AIa
AIa
(gtenos)
(lijos)
AVIII
lm-lojaleis
BIIe
H2yk
H1lH2 redupl.
H1i-H1lH3
H1nk
tab
itH
(tenos)
H1iwe
jH2g-jo/e
jeH2g-ju-
grain
hornbeam
have wrinkle
scratch
net
scratch
herd
lap
crown
cradle
go aside
bend
scrape off
solidify
grown
oak tree
hail
crumb
grunt
curd cheese
bowels
ball
cellar
back
taste
throat
there
reach
groin
send away
grnum
carpinus
betulus
rugtus sum
charax
rte
sca
grex
gremium
corna
cnae
m uert
curu
a r
soli ific
grandis
quercus suber
gran
grmus
grunni
lac passum
intestnum
globus
pithes
dorsum
gust
guttur
i
ic i
intestnum
aman
from there
more than that
convey
oppress
this
iron
so
journey
and also
different
likewise
way
like
throw
eject
worship
pious
inde
imm
apport
opprim
is, ea, id
ferrum
ita
it
itaque
differens
item
iter
ceu
iace
iaci
uener
pius
ji
jlos
jmi
jmi
jneumi
ind
mas
intr
ind
tr
januw
jegh
jegis
jek
jekos
jlom
(j)jmi
jem
jems
jentr
fem
tr
mas
tr
adI
neu
cau
tr
neu
mas
jeq
jes
jeunis
jeus
jewesdiks
jew
jewom
jwornjom
jewos
jdros
jt
jod qid
jodhei
joinkos
jom
jomde
joqe
jori
jorkos
jrom
jrs
jos (je), j,
jod
jsneumi
jota
jota sei
jugsmtom
jwestos
jucis
judhej
jugm
jung
neu
intr.
fem
neu
adII
intr
neu
fem
neu
adI
tr
ind
rel
mas
rel
rel
ind
rel
mas
neu
mas
rel
tr
rel
ind
mas
adI
adII
tr
neu
tr
yH2
AIVb
ieH2;
iH2neumi
ej
AIb
BIIb
jeH1
(jentrs)
(-neros)
AIb
HHies-
(juss)
jo
AIa
(jwesos)
AVIa
yeHrotab
BIVb
HieHw3-s
AIIIo
H2yu-gwiH3
kwid kwismei
ieHw3-g
yes
conspiracy
pass
already
conspire
cert
coniurti
transe
iam
coniur
entrance
persecute
ice
tell
healthy
desert
expel
hold (to)
twin
cousin
inua
persequor
glacis
narr
snus
desertum
expell
contine
geminus
frter
patrulis
amitinus
liver
iecur
ferment
ferment
right way
uia recta
broth
ius
judge
iudex
help
a iuu
barley
hordeum
cereal
cerele
law
is
exuberant
laetus
desire eagerly
aue
because
quia
where (rel.)

bulrush
iuncus
when
cum
from which
unde
and
et
wherefore
quapropter
roebuck
gazella
season
tempus
conspirator
conspirtor
that, the one that is quis
begird
how
alike
beast of burden
just
eternal
command
yoke
join
cing to
qumo o
quasi
imentum
istus
igis
iu e
iugum
iung
437
jwenis
juwes / juwe
juwks
jwt
juwn
adII
pron
adII
fem
adI
kpj
kps
kptos
ksj
kstos
ktos
kwj
ka
kblos
kabn
kadh
kad
kdos
kadros
kaghl
kaghos
kaid
kaikos
kailom
kaip
kairs
kisjs
kaisrom
kaitom
kiwelos
kkab
kakkj
kaklj
kkneumi
kak
kaldj
kaldos
kaliks
tr
fem
kalgn
klis
kalkis
kalwos
kambos
kmi
kam
kampos
knmi
438
sta
adI
adI
sta
ind
mas
mas
tr
prog
neu
adII
fem
mas
cau
adI
neu
fem
adI
fem
neu
neu
neu
fem
intr
intr
tr
cau
sta
mas
mas/
fem
tab
H2iw-wH1k(jwenos); H2iw-wHen-sup.
jwistH2okHp
H3Hi2kH3-to-
(kbonos)
es
BIVb
(kaliks, kalks
kalijs)
(klgenos)
fem
adI
adI
tr
tr
mas
tr
kHwos
kH2m
BIIIa
young
you
young
youth
young
iuuenis
us
iuuenis
iuuentus
iuuenis
catch
box
captive
lack
pure
sharp
beware
certainly
colt
horse
keep
fall
trouble
saint
opening
enclosure
cut
blind
augur
onion
untouched
long hair
hair
heath
exclusive
partridge
defecate
cackle
promote
thinnen
be experienced
blister
cup
capi
capsa
captus
care
castus
catus
caue
sc
equulus
equus
praeseru
ca
cra
sanctus
caula
claustrum
cae
caecus
augurium
caepa
integer
caesaris
capillum
silua
exclusrius
perdix
cac
cacill
foue
tenuefaci
calle
callus
calix
fog
spot
heel
bald
bent
love
press tightly
land
dig
clgo
macula
calx
caluus
tortus
am
comprim
campus
fo i
kand
knkestos
kankus
kanm
tr
mas
mas
fem
kanm
kan
kantos
kaplos
kpos
kapr
kapros
kaput
karein
karkar
krkarj
karkros
karnj
karn
kros
karp
krrk
karts
kasnos
kasterlom
kastra
kastrj
kastrom
katsna
katsjai
katsj
katt
katus
kaukos
kaulis
kauns
kawd
kaw
kwon
ke k kod
(eke ek
ekod)
ke
kei
keid
keimx
keimoi
keimos
keiros
neu
intr
mas
mas
mas
fem
neu
fem
mas
tr
fem
adI
tr
fem
adI
mas
neu
neu
tr
neu
fem
intr
tr
fem
mas
mas
fem
adI
tr
tr
fem
pron
ind
ind
intr
mas
inc
neu
adI
glow
colt
kanku kk
branch
knH2 kH2m leg
knm knH2micf. gnmi
(knmenos)
song
sing
cf. witus
wheelrim
cf. skpos
tool
land estate
goat
goat
(kaputs)
head
Harkeel
(karkars)
fortification
announce
crab
AIIIa
pin down
en
limb
beloved
collect
rock
kartus
hard
grey
castle
(kastrm)
camp
prune (to)
scissors
chain
meet
gather
cat
kH2etufight
vessel
cabbage
shameful
AIIa
keH2w-d
hit
AIIb
keH2w
hit
owl
this
ki
AIa
kimesos
of here
here
go down
bug
lie
colorant
dark
can
equulus
ramulus
crus
carmen
can
cantus
instrumentum
fundus
capra
caper
caput
carna
mntra
nunti
cancer
carin
membrum
crus
carp
rps
rus
cnus
castellum
castra
castr
forfex
catna
congredior
cg
fls
pugna
collectculum
caulis
pudendus
c
c
noctua
hic hae hoc
hic
hic
escen
cmex
iace
colorans
o scrus
439
kiwijos
keiwis
kekj
kektrks
adII
and
tr
fem
kek
kkuros
kl
klj
keld
kelg
kliknom
kelmos
kel
klodhros
klom
kelos
kelots
kels
keluj
kelus
kmelom
kmeros
(k)kmi
kemj
kem
kemos
kens
kenkai
kenklom
kenk
kenkos
ken
kentom
kentrom
kep
keq
kersrom
krberos
kerdhjos
kerdh
kerdhos
kerdos
kerk
kerkos
kernos
kerns
kerom
kersn
kers
intr
adI
fem
cau
tr
fem
neu
mas
tr
mas
neu
neu
mas
intr
intr
fem
neu
fem
tr
tr
intr
adII
fem
intr
440
inc
mas
intr
mas
neu
tr
tr
neu
mas
mas
tr
mas
neu
inc
fem
mas
mas
neu
fem
tr
ej
kektriks
kektrijs
kelH1
es
(kletos)
AIa
BIIc
kelH3 klneH3-
H3Hi2keH3
AIb
(kenss)
AIa
kj
AIa
kerH-s-roAIa
es
AIa
AIa
civil
citizen
bind
scar
culis
cuis
nect
cicatrix
leap
tame
chamber
hide
strike
mystery
penthouse
helmet
push
snake
arrow
cover
boy
be high
travel
road
heaven
lotus
sharpen
hum
strain
hornless
ash
hesitate
tendon
weigh
hook
arise
rag
prick
do harm
dirty
brain
weasel
herdsman
range (to)
group
profession
grow thin
hen
excavator
frozen snow
hair
dinner
mutilate
salt
cicur
cella
cl
percell
mysterium
cnaculum
galea
impell
coluber
sagitta
coopertra
ephebus
excell
iter facere
uia
caelum
lotus
exacu
cantill
a ntor
incornis
cinis
uacill
ten
pen
hamus
oborior
pannus
centrum
infens
mancill
cerebrum
mustela
pstor
or in
grex
ars
tenuesc
gallna
pla
nix gelta
caesaris
cna
mutil
kers
neu
kerwos
kesd
ksmi
kesnus
kes
ktj
keub
keudh
keuk
keulom
keus
kwj
khkhatnos
khamos
khderos
kighrs
kikr
k keumi
kikj
kiklsk
kikls
kknj
kkus
kina
king
kintos
kippos
kirknos
kirkos
kisk
kist
kteros
kitd
kitrd
kiwos
kjj
kjj
kldis
kladjos
klagj
klmj
klambs
klmi
klamrs
klros
klrs
klstis
klaudos
mas
intr
tr
mas
tr
fem
cau
dur
neu
tr
intr
mas
mas
fem
mas
mas
intr
fem
tr
adI
fem
mas
ind
tr
adII
mas
mas
mas
fem
fem
adI
ind
ind
mas
tr
cau
mas
mas
intr
intr
adI
tr
adI
mas
adI
fem
adI
(kersens) kers , kers,

kerH1os
kerH2woke(k)Hs-mi
AIa
AIa
keusH
keH1w-
(kikrs)
BIIIb
kiklwa
kelH
kkewos
kieH2
klmH2-ro
klH1-r
klH1-dhH1-ti
head
caput
deer
withraw
restrain
garlic
comb
room
curve
hide
warp
swelling
rent
sway
laugh
hook
ivy
agitated
pea
become vigorous
woodpecker
invoke
cold
stork
muscle
from this side
gird
previous
peg
compasses
circle
biceps
basket
of this side
immediately
towards this side
colour
assort
activate
damage
sword
clang
yell
mutilated
embank
weak
tablet
loud
convocation
lame
ceruus
c
reprim
lius
pect
cubiculum
curu
a
inflect
turgentia
loc
oscill
cachinnus
hmus
hedera
agittus
cicer
uigesc
pca
inuoc
frgi us
ciconia
msculus
hinc
cing
praec ens
cippus
circinus
circus
biceps
cista
citer
cit
citr
colr
iri e
ci
cl s
gladius
clang
clam
mutilus
agger
ilis
tabella
resonus
conuocti
claudus
441
klawd
klawos
klws
klawsts
kdis
tr
mas
fem
adI
fem
kdos
kleinos
kleitis
kleitrom
kj
kj
klep
kleumi
kleum
klumtom
kleus
kleustis
kleutis
kleut
kleutrom
klew
klewos
klnmi
klisrs
kj
kneumi
mas
fem
fem
neu
sta
tr
tr
neu
neu
neu
tr
fem
fem
tr
neu
tr
neu
cau
adI
tr
tr
klg
kloiwos
klopnis
klounis
kpros
ktos
klts
kluwj
kwij
kmmi
kertos
kros
kti
ktom
knakos
kjs
knokos
knouks
ksj
kstr
knuw
kobom
intr
adI
fem
fem
mas
adI
adI
sta
tr
prog
mas
442
dhr
ind
adI
adI
mas
fem
tr
mas
fem
neu
klws
klnis?; cf.
kldos
cf. kldis
klH1
AIa
kluH
AIa
jo
AIa
klusts
quoque klutis
AIa
es
BIVb*
AIIc
(s)kel
kleuH <*k-neuHmi
klH1-g
kloinos
jo
jo
kluH-t
kmH2
knH2-ko
(kneukos)
kenstor
close
nail
key
closed
mountain-path
clau
cluus
cluis
clausus
callis
wood
maple
hut
support
be hot
name
steal
listen
hearing
reputation
obey
obedience
listening
raffle
story
wash
glory
cause to slope
gentle
divide
hear
lignum
acer
casa
firmmentum
cale
nmin
clep
au i
au tus
reputti
o oe i
oboedientia
audientia
sortior
historia
purg
gloria
clin
gentilis
iui
au i
sound
steep
valley
buttock
wine-cask
hot
famous
be named
defame
get tired
lobster
curved
with
hundred
yellow
recent
neck
nut
opinate
spokesman
walnut
success
clang
cluus
uallis
clnis
cupa
calidus
au tus
clue
ifm
fetiscor
langusta
camur
cum
centum
glaesus
recens
ceruix
nux
cense
ortor
nux
euentus
kodj
koils
kilutts
koim
koimos
koinos
koins
kois
koits
koks
koksednks
tr
adI
fem
fem
adI
mas
adII
fem
fem
fem
fem
kolignos
kolj
kolm
kolmos
kolnis
mas
tr
neu
mas
fem
kolnom
kolnos
kolsos
neu
adII
mas
klumbhos
kom
kmglom
kmjougos
komjugs
kmmoinis
kommoinitat
s
komnom
kmnm
kmopjom
kmos
kmplnos
kmsqtos
kmttis
komtrd
kmwoirjom
kmwoistis
knjai
konkej
konkh
knos
kophos
kopnos
kqros
mas
ind
neu
mas
epi
adII
fem
neu
neu
neu
mas
adII
adI
fem
ind
neu
fem
inc
cau
fem
mas
mas
mas
mas
koilus
jo
koi(H)-no
(koitews)
kokso(koksedniks -edniH2
,
koksedniys)
en
ej
komjugs
jo
AIIIo
thurify
healthy
health
agreement
lovely
foenum
akin
occupation
manner
hip
hip bone
turific
snus
ualt
pacta
crus
hay
cogntus
cra
modus
coxa
coxen x
dog
stick
summit
kolH2-mostalk
kolH-ni- kH-ni-, hill
kolH-wi, kolHwo
pile
one-eyed
nn qolsos
neck
quoniam gmc.
nn *hw incipit
dove
with
kmagdhlom
collection
union
consort
common
community
canis
a haer
culmen
calamus
collis
meeting
surname
equipment
mass
complete
perfect
patience
against
court
conscience
try
burn
shell
H3Hi2k-eH3-no- top
hoof
haven
dirt
congregti
cognmen
armmenta
globus
compltus
perfectus
patientia
contr
curia
conscientia
cnr
com r
concha
tur n
ungula
portus
immunditia
su lca
unioculis
collum
columba
cum
collecti
coniuncti
coniux
commnis
commnitas
443
korbhis
koris
korjom
korjos
korkos
kormnos
kormn
mas
fem
neu
neu
adI
mas
mas
kormos
kornks
mas
fem
kornos
krukos
mas
korwos
adI
ksolos
fem
kost
fem
koubos
mas
koup
fem
koupn
fem
kout
fem
kowos
adI
kow
neu
krmi
tr
krasi
ind
krsrn
mas
krtis
fem
kratsos
kdn
kdhn
mas
kdi / kdjom neu
kdijai
kdj
kdsus
krddhmi
prog
intr
fem
tr
kreidhrom
kreim
kreits
krek
kremj
krmi
kremom
krmusom
krenghos
krenktis
krpmi
krep
kreps
krq
neu
neu
intr
444
cau
tr
neu
neu
mas
fem
intr
intr
adI
fem
(krbhejos)
(krmenos)
(korniks,
kornijs)
basket
acarian
leather
army
mud
bleach
ermine
pain
crow
cherry tree
bag
korw-, korweH2 raven
hazel
H3osteH2
rib
joint
kp
cup
lot
cf. kotos
hut
hollow
(kwenos) kuH2-r
cavern
Bib / BIVa krH2 / kneH2 mix
tomorrow
en
bumblebee
ej
krH2tis
network
plump
kdnos
hinge
(kdhens)
carbon
(kdejs /
heart
k j
get angry
krH-d
rock
shirt
krd +
believe
dhH1/dhH3
sieve
crime
AIa
shake
AIa
weave
burn
krH1
create
beer
onion
ring
scar
crackle
AIa
precipitate
strong
border
corbis
acarus
corium
exercitus
caenum
aqua lixiuiae
mustla
erminea
dolor
cornx
cornus
saccus
raucus
corilus
costa
artus
cpa
copia
maplia
cauus
cauerna
permisce
cras
cr r
crtis
crassus
car
car
cor
stomachor
trepi
camisia
cr
cr rum
crmen
agitor
tex
crem
cre
ceruisia
caepa
anus
cictrix
crep
praecipitor
fortis
lims
krsk
krt
kret
kreug
kreuks
kreumi
kreup
kreut
krw
krig
krin
kripsnis
kripsos
kripst
kristj
kritis
kjs
kklos
knmi
knos
knu
krbhtus
krokij
kroknos
krotjj
krous
krowos
kpjos
prog
fem
tr
intr
fem
tr
inc
tr
tr
kpos
ksj
ksnos
ks
kstus
ksus
krust
krtis
kruws
kwos
ksentis
ksers
ksnuj
neu
sta
es
tr
mas
mas
fem
fem
mas
adI
fem
adI
tr
AIIh
ksnowtl
kslom
kbmi
kudj
kukulj
fem
fem
sta
intr
intr
tr
fem
adI
fem
cau
fem
fem
adI
tr
adI
neu
mas
intr
mas
tr
neu
mas
mas
AIa
AIa
(kruks)
kru-H
AIa
AIa
AIIf
kry; tab
jo
krH1
knews
tab
(kreusos)
es
krH2pjo-;
krpjokwpos ?
krts
kr(e)uH2cf. ksnuj
ksrs
ksuw ksuj
ksj ksnj
ksnowj
ksnutj
grow
chalk
cut
cry
cross
stock
get encrusted
agitate
touch
cry
sieve
mane
curly
crest
shuttle
difference
rot
slender
rot
rotten
horn
devotion
shriek
anorak
shake
leg
shelter
shoe
crsc
crta
exsec
gem
crux
posit
incrustor
permoue
commoue
clamor
crin
crnis
crispus
crista
agit
differentia
caris
gracilis
corrump
corruptus
corn
uoti
croci
peplum
agit
crs
refugium
calceus
body
be scratched
black
run
course
cart
icicle
dome
blood
curved
briar
dry
shave
corpus
carre
ter
curr
cursus
currus
crustula
cupula
cruor
curuus
sentis
siccus
a r
razor
post
lie
reprove
cockoo
noucula
columna
cu
or iurg
cucu facere
445
kukls
kl
kleks
klos
kumbh
kumb
kms
knejos
kupj
kurnos
kusdhos
kusis
ktis
kuwj
kuwos
kwos
kwimi
kwatsos
kweidos
kwn
lbjom
lkesj
lkj
lks
lnchijm
lpj
lpods
lskj
ltj
labh
lagh
lg
mas
fem
mas
mas
fem
intr
mas
mas
tr
mas
mas
mas
fem
sta
mas
adI
tr
mas
mas
mas
neu
cau
laiwos
lj
lajos
lakertos
lakus
laljo
lalu
lm
lamtom
landhom
ls
lpos
laps
latks
latom
lur
law
adII
tr
neu
mas
mas
intr
ind
fem
neu
neu
mas
mas
fem
mas
mas
fem
tr
446
mas
neu
sta
mas
sta
sta
tr
fem
intr
klks
kuH1-mo
ej
kHuti- kts
(kwnos)
(lpeds)
AIIe
(s)leH2g; cf.
lgw
ew
laesos
latkos
lH2; abl.
cockoo
hiding place
gnat
ass
pot
recline
heap
wedge
demand
foal
treasure
kiss
skin
be pregnant
whelp
powerful
acquire
cheese
white
dog
lip
tear
trap
tearing
lung
be flat
stone
fancy
be concealed
take
spade
droop
cuclus
latebra
clex
clus
catnus
accum
cumulus
cuneus
exig
pulllus
thesaurus
basium
cutis
grauidus sum
catulus
potens
acquro
caseus
candidus
canis
labrum
lacer
laci
lacerti
pulm
plnus sum
lapis
lascui
late
em
pla
languesc
left
scold
fat
forearm
lake
babble
penis
poodle
tell off
frypan
home god
cow
lamp
liquid
day
stonework
benefit
laeuus
o iurg
adeps
lacertus
lacus
later
pnis
lma
o iurgti
sartag
lr
s
lamps
latex
dies
opus saxeum
fruor
lws
lawtlom
led
legh
leghos
leghsk
leghsks
leghtrom
leghs
mas
neu
tr
sta
neu
fem
adI
mas
adI
lgneumi
leg
legs
leibs
leidmi
leigl
leig
leiljom
loimos
tr
tr
fem
mas
tr
fem
intr
neu
mas
lein
leinom
leip
leis
leit
leitos
lemb
lmi
lem
lemsos
lendh
lnis
lentos
lep
lenghmi
lergos
lsanks
les
leswos
ltis
letrom
tr
neu
fem
fem
intr
neu
tr
tr
tr
mas
fem
leubhos
ludheros
leugh
leuk
leuks
leuks
leuksm
lumi
adI
adI
intr
intr
adI
fem
neu
tr
leH2wlH1d
es
cf. lnghros;
leghus
BIVb
lgos
(libs)
AIa
(s)H2loimo-;
sloimos
AIa
AIa
litesos
AIa
Bic
fem
intr
BIe
adI
fem
tr
adI
fem
neu
leig hl
H1lei-g
lsanks
AIa
(luks)
en
BIg
team
benefit
release
lie
lay
settlement
lazy
support
light
squadra
lucrum
mitt
occu
fulcrum
s s
pger
destina
leuis
wring out
collect
law
drop
permit (to)
spoon
jump
lily
mud
gutt
leg
lx
gutta
permitt
ligula
sali
liilium
lmus
avoid
flax
lime-tree
parterre
go
seaside
hang
lH
grant
H3lem
break up
phantom
spring
weak
juniper
stutter
declare
flat
lwanks ?
slate
pick
middling
concession
CELT. *pletro- ?, leather
cf. lat. pellis
dear
H1leudh
free
lie
shine (to)
bright
light
light
leH1u
damage
uit
lnum
tilia
lra
e
litus
suspen
in ulge
a rump
phasma
fons
lnis
picea
al uti
clr
plnus
ardesia
carp
sublestus
indulgentia
corium
crus
liber
mentior
luce
lucens
lux
lmen
a flict
447
leups
lewis
ligj
likj
limp
lingh
ln
lns
linq
lipj
lipp
liprs
litj
litwos
lb
lc
lghros
lb
lodi
loghj
loghjom
loghos
loigos
loigs
loiqnom
loiqs
lois
loiss
loksos
lokss
loktos
londhom
londhwos
longhros
lords
lorg
lorgos
lostos
loudis
loughjom
lougos
loukej
louktjos
loukos
louks
louks
louksn
louksos
lousn
louts
448
mas
mas
tr
tr
sta
tr
tr
adI
tr
sta
fem
adI
mas
tr
cau
adI
fem
neu
cau
neu
mas
mas
mas
neu
adII
fem
adI
mas
adI
mas
neu
mas
mas
adI
fem
mas
mas
mas
neu
mas
cau
adI
mas
mas
fem
fem
mas
fem
fem
(lups)
AVIc
ej
AIIIo
(lusns)
leaf
sickle
bind
be allowed
stick
lick
liH linmi
oint
ointed
leave
be sticked
rheum
lipH2r
greasy
appease
rod
sip
(s)leH2g cf. lg tire
cf. leghs
light
crime
late
lay down
site
deposit
calf
H3loigopenury
lend
remaining
tablet
mild
lax
slanting
loktus
fault
land
hip
worm
twisted
footprint
club
spear
praise
oath
twig
illuminate
radiant
glade
radiance
window
moon
lynx
louse
whore
folium
falcula
lig
lict
haere
ling
lin
litus
linqu
a haere
lippa
a ipsus
lit
lituus
lam
fatig
leuis
lictus
tarde
pn
situs
positus
uitulus
lack
commo tus
reliquus
lra
mitis
salm
obliquus
culpa
regi
lumbus
lom rcus
tortus
uestigium
uirga
hasta
laus
sacramentum
rmulus
ilmin
splendidus
saltus
splendor
fenestra
lna
lynx
pedis
mertrix
low
low
lowtrom
lubhj
lubhj
lubhros
ludhm
lugj
lugj
lugns
lugtos
lukj
lukskj
lnmi
lns
lutom
lts
luw (lew)
luw ap
mdj
mglos
mgnnmos
mgnos
fem
tr
neu
tr
fem
mas
intr
sta
fem
adI
mas
sta
tr
tr
adI
neu
adI
tr
tr
sta
adI
adI
adI
mgis
mgtj
machos
machotis
mghneumi
maghos
mag
mj
mkj
makn
mkesj
makn
makrs
mamm
mn
mnj
mnnusos
mnos
maq
maqos
mreskos
margn
mari
markos
masdos
mtj
ind
tr
mas
fem
tr
mas
tr
prog
cau
mas
mas
adI
fem
ind
intr
mas
adI
fem
mas
mas
mas
neu
mas
neu
tr
lH3w
aor. a cemj
leH2; leH2ults
l(H)u-tolewH
sup.
mH1-g-n
mgistH2o- / mH1-gH2
maghuBIVb
mH2g
(makns)
makenos
meH2n
margens
ej
hair
wash
bath
like
herb
bast
went
be broken
hole
flexible
multitude
shine
light up
split
unbound
dirt
unbound
unbind
acquit
be wet
noble
magnanimous
big
coma
lau
l rum
libet (mihi)
herba
liber
i
fractus sum
rificium
flexibilis
copiae
luce
incen
rump
soltus
lutum
soltus
lu
a solu
ma e
n ilis
magnanimus
magnus
more
honour
youngster
youth
defend
field
form
prosper
pit
pouch
wall
poppy
slender
mum
so
spring
man
good
girl
boy
marsh
boundary
sea
horse
mast
designate
magis
mact
iuuenis
iuuents
fen
pratum
configur
mtr
maci
crumna
mrus
papauer
macer
mamma
etenim
mn
hom
bonus
puella
ephebus
mariscus
marg
mare
equus
mlus
sign
449
mtr
mters
mtrter
matl
mauros
bhros
gadhs
me
m
medai
medgs
mdhidjws
medhjos
medhu
medjom
mdneumi
mdodiks
fem
mas
fem
fem
adI
mas
adI
pron
ind
intr
mas
mas
adII
neu
neu
tr
epic
mdos
meic
neu
intr
meid
meidos
meilts
meinom
meit
meitrom
meiwijs
mejj
mejn
mej
mejtis
mknos
meldhj
meldh
melit
meljom
melk
melm
mel
melos
mels
melwom
membh
mmi
mmsm
mendhai
mendh
mend
mendom
tr
neu
mas
neu
sta
450
adI
intr
inc
inc
fem
mas
intr
neu
neu
tr
neu
tr
adI
tr
neu
tr
tr
neu
intr
tr
tr
neu
mtrs
meH2-ter-
cf. nebhgH2-dhH1oH1me; aton.
ew
BIVb
AIa
AIa
(meilts)
AIa
AIa
jo
mlitos
AIa
AIb
AIa
AIa
AIa
mother
solid
aunt
hammer
gloomy
storm
me
not
mH1 cgit.
ponder
gull
midday
middle
mead
acorn
meH1d / mH1d administrate
med- m - cf. doctor
regs
valuation
H1mei-gw; -gw
move
rrus
mei /meit /meid scrath out
prestige
warrior
purpose
lack
agreement
smaller
mnmi
flow
change
exchange
quoque mjtis
shift
lip
thunderbolt
pray
honey
millet
rub
article
grind
strong
cf. mljos
deceive
flour
punish
measure
memsm
meat
cogit.
be interested
stir up
suck
fault
mter
solidus
mtertera
malleus
fuscus
imber
magnificus
m
n
medeor
mergus
meri is
medius
mel
glans
a ministr
medicus
aestimti
mut
esculp
auctorits
mils
propositi
sum
contractus
minor
me
mt
mt
permutti
labrum
fulmen
precor
mel
milium
mulce
articulus
mol
robustus
mentior
farna
puni
metior
car
interest
torque
sg
mendum
menghos
meng
menis
menm
menos
mnsis
ment
mqos
merc
merg
mergh
mergis
merg
merkds
merk
mrneumi
meros
mers
merwos
mesg
mesl
mestis
mests
mt
meti
mtijai
mtis
met
metrom
adI
tr
mas
neu
neu
mas
fem
neu
tr
fem
fem
fem
cau
fem
meudos
meug
meuk
meus /
musks
mighl
mkmi
miljom
mimd
mmnsk
(memna)
mneumi
mingh
mnusi
misdhom
misg
miskej
mlj
mlks
mltm
adI
intr
tr
neu
tr
adI
tr
tr
fem
fem
adII
fem
ind
tr
fem
tr
neu
fem
dur
neu
inc
intr
cau
intr
ind
neu
fem
cau
cau
adI
neu
frequent
disguise
dace
en
intellect
es
sense
ej
meH1ns-, mH1nt- month
rod
es
meH1-Hu-os
moment
AIa
make black
fork
snare
filth
AIa
merg/mezg
sink
(merkds)
charge
cf. herk
flimmer
BIVb
worry
simple
block
insipid
AIa
communicate
blackbird
memstis ?
measure
memsts?
measured
post
in the middle
measure
meH1-tidimension
AIb
reap
mtrom 2
measure
comp.
proud
AIa
cheat
AIa
scratch
mss
muscle
AIa
AVc
cogit.
BIVb
eff. m nami
AIIIo
miksmeik/meik-skml-H2-k
mlH2-t
frequens
uesti
phoxinus
intellectus
sensus
mnsis
uirga
mmentum
nigr
furca
laqueus
situs
merg
naulus
fulge
tur
merus
incterclu
insipidus
communic
merula
mensra
mensus
mta
in me i parte
mtior
mensi
met
mensra
superbus
l
r
ms
mist
flimmer
red ochre
meet
remember
uapor
mic
minium
accurr
memini
reduce
piss
less
salary
whey
mix
weaken
stupid
flour
minu
ming
minus
slrium
srum lactis
misce
ilit
stultus
farna
451
mdhos
mdsnos
mdus
mduwij
mgj
mlns
mjos
mkmi
mnos
mldhrs
mlsk
msos
mw
mdmi
mj
mijai
mj
mkos
mkstrom
msjai
mtijai
mtis
mt
mtom
mtos
mtrj
mus
mwos
m
mdos
modos
moghjos
mogh
moghtis
moghtrom
moighos
moilos
moinijai
moinis
moinja
moisos
moitj
moitmos
moitwos
mojnos
moksi
mol
molj
moldh
moldhos
452
adI
adI
adI
tr
tr
adI
adI
intr
adI
adI
intr
mas
fem
tr
sta
omc
sta
adI
neu
neu
tr
fem
tr
neu
mas
tr
fem
adI
ind
mas
neu
adI
tr
fem
neu
mas
adI
tr
adI
neu
mas
tr
mas
adII
mas
ind
fem
fem
fem
mas
ml(H2)-dh-
permissive
softened
ml-du; tab
soft
soften
anounce
slack
false
BIIIa
weaken
melH2-; mnejs dark
lofty
mlH3
appear
slow
mH-weH2
mallow-plant
commit
remain
tower
mnH2
consider
cf. mnwos
defective
shaker
intend
put on
jo
mentis
mind
mH2t; mtH2
chew
chin
mention
wipe
(mnews)
hand
cf. mnkos
scant
but
moH3doperseverance
es
measure
pleasant
AIId
mH3gh
can
jo
might
means
pee
miH1mild
fortify
obliged
walls
sheep skin
exchange
mitimos
thanks
mutual
exchange
soon
molH1(e)H2
millstone
coast
occipital
prayer
permissiuus
molltus
mollis
molli
nunti
neruis
falsus
languesc
mulleus
excelsus
appare
lentus
malua
man
mane
mine
opnor
mancus
mixtarium
inten
mentior
mens
man
mentum
menti
a r
manus
insignificans
sed
constantia
modus
amoenus
possum
potests
remedium
uriina
coms
mni
mnis
moenia
pellis ouna
mt
grtes
mutuus
commtti
mox
mola
ltus
occipitium
prex
molein
mlestos
molgj
mlis
mlos
molp
molqos
moltlom
mond
monds
monej
mongos
monli
monos
montis
mor
mor
fem
adI
tr
fem
neu
fem
adI
neu
tr
mas
cau
fem
neu
mas
mas
fem
fem
morcs
mordj
morign
morjods
mrmoros
morom
moros
mros
tr
fem
mas
mas
neu
fem
adI
mrs
ms
mosgom
moukos
mouros
mousos
moutos
mowej
mreghms
mj
mghs
mijai
mjos
mk
mkj
mkos
mktos
mmeik
mmrj
mrnami
mtj
mtsjom
adI
mas
neu
mas
mas
fem
mas
cau
mas
sta
mas
intr
mas
ej
es
AIIIo
ej
mill
annoying
milk
mass
effort
pride
wet
molH-tlo/-to/-lo hammer
adorn
whelp
warn
neck
monHcollar
neck
hill
delay
nightmare
ed
cf. mtis
mros mros
cf. yrom
yrom
(moss)
mounos
AIIIo
sta
adI
adI
fem
H2mr-k
tr
tr
neu
-nH2moi
cf. bhktos
dark
bite
woman
thigh
panic
berry
fatality
renowned
molna
mlestus
mulge
mls
mlimen
superbia
madidus
malleus
orn
cattulus
mone
collus
monle
ceruix
mons
mora
somnus
terrorificus
o scrus
mor e
mulier
poples
horror
mrum
infortnium
n ilis
stupid
character
cerebellum
mucus
slop
weed
penis
move
skull
deserve
short
die
pubescent
carrot
be withered
disabled
speckled
ant
murmur
plunder
crush
mortar
mrus
ingenium
cerebellum
mcus
illuuis
alga
mt
moue
caluaria
mere
breuis
morior
p es
carota
marce
murcus
uarius
formca
murmur
exspoli
conter
mortrium
453
mtis
mtos
mwos
mdlom
mdns
mudstos
mugij
munk
ms
musk
muskos
msnmi
fem
adII
adII
neu
mtrom
muttij
muttis
ntis
nantis
nsis
natrks
neu
sta
adI
ind
fem
fem
fem
fem
nawgs
nws
bhudhnm
cn
dha
dhers
dhts
dhi
dwojos
n
nebhis
nebhl
nedis
nedjos
ned
neds
nedsk
negh
neghrn
nei
neic
neid
neik
neitom
neiws
nkmi
nekopns
epic
fem
neu
fem
ind
adI
adII
ind
adI
ind
fem
fem
fem
adI
tr
fem
tr
tr
mas
ind
tr
tr
tr
neu
adI
tr
mas
454
mas
intr
tr
neu
fem
mas
tr
jo
AVIa
mss
BIVa
cf.moros
muH-s-; mews
meuH;
muneH2/3-mi;
meuH2/3-s-
ej
(natriks,
natrijs)
neH2s-i
nws
neH2wH1ngw
H1ndhtab
ej
ej
AIb
Ava
AIa
en
AIa
AIa
nHed-yonHd
nHd-sk
death
dead
dead
detergent
clean
must
moo
blow out
mouse
fly
moss
secrete
mors
mortuus
mortuus
tersuum
mundus
mustus
mugi
mung
ms
musca
muscus
a
mud
mutter
speechless
unnates
courage
nose
serpent
lutum
mutti
mutus
innatis
audacia
nrs
natrix
sailor
ship
abyss
groin
then
underly
unmade
in excess
sincere
no
cloud
fog
nettle
near
link
net
bind
penetrate
kidney
not at all
wash
humiliate
winnow
rivalry
depressed
kill
unexpected
nauta
nuis
abyssus
inguen
deinde
inferior
infectus
magis etiam
sincrus
n
n es
nebula
urtca
propinquus
n
nassa
nect
penetr
rnis
nequaquam
lau
humili
ventil
inimicitia
pressus
nec
necopiinus
neks
nmtom
nem
nemos
nemots
nepts
neptis
neqe
neqid
neqis
neqom
neqos
neros
nrteros
nertos
nesros
eu
neud
neukos
new(ij)os
newj
new
nwos
mas
neu
tr
neu
epic.
mas
fem
ind
pron.
new
newotts
gnts
n
nijm
niktis
nnmi
nqos
nisdos
nitj
n teros
nitjos
jousjom
joustos
kj
kneumi
intr
fem
adI
ind
mrtijos
ntos
nkskai
adII
mas
tr
nocj
ncodos
cau
adII
ind
pron.
mas
adII
adI
adI
ind
tr
adI
adI
tr
ind
adII
(kos)
n-em
es
(nmetos)
(npotos)
jo
H2ner(o)neHs-ro
AIa
H1newn
AIa
newottjos
aor. a her
fem
tr
adII
mas
sta
adI
adI
neu
adI
tr
tr
BIIa, BIVa
H3nH2 nami
*neitab
AIIIe
BIVb
AVc
death
sanctuary
distribute
forest
enemy
grandson
grand-daughter
and not
nothing
nobody
never
someone
soldier
lower
strong
modest
without
spend
myop
new
renew
nine
ninth
nod
newness
unknown
down
lead
corn
befriend (to)
inclined
nest
shine
inferior
usual
unjustice
unfair
need
arrive
H2nk; cf.
nkskai pf.
H2eH2n(n)kH2e
= noka
mtimmortal
bending
H2n-H2nk-sk- ; find by chance
cf. kneumi
put off
nogwod(h)onaked
/nogwoto
nex
sancturium
istri u
nemus
inimcus
nepos
neptis
neque
nihil
nem
nunquam
quisquis
mils
inferus
robustus
modestus
sine
impen
myops
nouus
nou
nouem
nouenus
nnus
nu
nouits
igntus
sub
x
grnum
faue
prnus
n us
nite
inferior
usittus
iuiuria
iniustus
necesse est
perueni
immortlis
plecmentum
nanciscor
exu
n us
455
/nogwnondos
noibhos
ninos
nokej
nom
nom n
nm
mas
adII
pron
cau
ind
ind
neu
nmnj
nom
noqterins
noqtis
nosej
nun
probhwos
qijts
sers
sis
sloimis
sme
swodhros
n
numki
widis
obhi
brusj
ochis
odugjai
odj
odhrom
odj (da)
djom
ods
oghlej
oghlos
ogmos
oidj
oighai
oimos
inoikos
oinos
oinowsts
tr
neu
adII
neu
cau
fem
adI
adI
adII
mas
adII
pron
adI
ind
ind
adI
ind
fem
mas
intr
tr
neu
tr
neu
mas
cau
mas
mas
sta
intr
mas
adII
adII
adII
oisj
oisos
oitmi
oitos
oiwos
okj
fem
adII
tr
mas
fem
sta
456
ninlos
AIIIo
en
H3neHu3-mn,
H3nHu3-mn,
nmenos
jo
AIIIo
noH2u-
jo
H2nsi H2nsr
tab
ki num
cf. anghwis
H3d
es
AIIIo
H2og-mo
H3eid
H1oi-noH3iH2s-?
BIf
H3oitH3eiwo-
knot
holy
none
destroy
so
do not?
name
n us
sanctus
nullus
ele
num
nonne
nmen
name
precision
night
night
free
famine
wicked
restless
our
sword
unmuddy
we
extraordinary
now
now
ignorant
middle (in the)
flask
worm
aggravate
smell
enclosure
hate
hatred
odor
trouble
annoyance
track
be swollen
depart
march
single
one
simultaneously
made
rudder
that one
fetch
oath
yew
doubt
nmin
su tilits
nocturnus
nox
recipi
esuris
improbus
inquitus
noster
ensis
illmis
ns
rrus
nunc
nunc
ignrus
ob
obrussa
lom rcus
exulceror
ol
claustrum
i
ium
odor
inquiet
molestia
orbita
tume
proficiscor
itus
nicus
nus
in e em
tempore factus
tm
iste
appet
sacrmentum
taxus
u it
kt
kins
okris
oktu
oktowos
kpteros
fem
adI
fem
ks
adI
olej
olj
olgj
lim
oljoi olji olja
olmos
ln
lteros
ltos
oltrd
olw
omos
ms
omsos
onbhlos
onchis
onc
onc
oncl
cau
cau
fem
ind
pron
fem
fem
adI
sup.
ind
fem
adI
adI
mas
mas
mas
neu
tr
mas
ondos
onj
nerjos
neu
tr
mas
onghlos
onjos
onkj
onkos
onos
nteros
pitjos
opj
opn
pop
opos
opos esti
ops
oq
oqos
r
rj
mas
adII
adII
mas
mas
neu
adII
adII
tr
fem
fem
neu
intr
mas
tr
mas
fem
tr
harrow
ready
H3eHi2k-risummit
i oi
H1okt u
eight
eighth
H3ku-/eH3ku- + hawk
-ptero-/-petroHeH3-k-u- kus swift
cf. abhns
AIIIo
ol- / al- ?
heat
AIIIe
H3elH1
destroy
tendril
formerly
pl.
all
elm
H3olH1-neH2
elbow
further
furthest
over there
sedge
H3emH3ofirm
eH3mH2
raw
H1omH-so
shoulder
H3nbhnavel
ej
H3nghw-i
fingernail
(ncenos) h3engw
ointment
AVIII
H3engw
oint
cls
H1ongw-l cf.
coal
ecnis
ndesos
rock
H3enH2
blame
Honr -ndream
Honerionail
another
groan
hook
es
H3en-osload
second
last
choose
wealth
hoopoe
(pesos) H3ep-oswork
be necessary
pos
riches
see
H3okwoeye
edge
pray
occa
compositus
apex
octo
octuus
accipiter
rapidus
a ole
a ole
cincinnus
lim
omnes
ulmus
uln
ulterus
ultimus
ultr
ulua
firmus
cr us
umerus
umbilicus
unguis
unguen
ungu
car
saxum
culp
somnus
cluus
alius
unc
uncus
onus
secundus
ultimus
lig
substantia
upupa
opus
opportet
ops
ui e
oculus
ra
r
457
orbhis
mas
orbhjom
orbhos
ordhos
neu
adII
mas
orgj
orghis
tr
fem
orghs
ormos
oros
ors
s
tr
adI
neu
adI
neu
osbhos
osdos
osn
mas
mas
mas
oskos
sonos
ostis
fem
fem
mas
smi
stjom
oud
ougros
ousis
tr
neu
neu
adI
fem
w(ij)om
owj
owis
pgts
pgrs
neu
tr
fem
adI
adI
pra
pros
pstrom
ptj
ptr
ptera
ptjai
ptrj
ptrjos
ind
ind
neu
sta
mas
fem
tr
fem
adII
458
H3erbhi-; cf.
orghis
H3erbhopordhos ? cf.
ej
H3erg
H3erghi-; cf.
orbhis
H1orgh-
disk
orbis
inheritance
orphan
hammer
hr its
orbus
malleus
beat up
ball
contun
pila
incited
poor
es
mountain
H3eru-; H3ersi- high
(sos)
H3eHw3smouth
(Bernab)
H1eH3s(Melchert)
H3eH1s- (Vaan)
knot
H2osdobranch
(osns) H3esH3r
autumn
H3esH3en
H3es-ko- /-k
ashtr
H3es-noashtree
ej
H3estHi-;
bone
H3estH- /
H3estH BIf
H3eHw3sopen
aperture
(udesos)
land
cold
w
H3H 3s-,
ear
H3oHw3s-,
H3eHw3s-,
H3H3wsH1oH2w-yo
egg
cheer
H3ewisheep
pH1g-to
fixed
pH1g-ro pH1g- sure
no
close to
before
page
ptH1 /pH1t
lie open
(ptros) pH2-ter; tab
father
saucer
suffer
fatherland
fatherly
sollicittus
pauper
mons
altus
s
nodus
rmus
autumnus
frxinus
ornus
os
aperi
stium
terra
frigidus
auris
uum
ou
ouis
pactus
constans
iuxta
prae
pagina
pate
pater
patera
patior
patria
paternus
ptrujs
pwj
pdhlom
pagos
pags
plj
plej
plowos
palpj
pmponos
pandos
panknos
pank
pannos
ppeljos
papl
pareik
prj
park
pars
pasknis
psk
mas
sta
neu
mas
fem
tr
fem
adI
tr
mas
mas
psmi
intr
pss
pastos
pstus
pau
paukos
paulos
pw
pedjs
pedlom
pedom
pegtos
peid
peig
peik
peik
peikos
peiks
peimis
peitus
pj
pek
pektn
pekt
peku
peld
mas
adI
mas
ind
adI
adI
neu
adI II
neu
neu
neu
prog
tr
fem
tr
mas
fem
adI
mas
tr
tr
mas
tr
neu
tr
intr
mas
mas
fem
fem
intr
tr
fem
mas
tr
peH2-dhlo/tlopgos
AIIb
ej
BIe
(pwns)
peH2-sk; cf.
psmi
peH2-sk; cf.
psk at
tab
tab
tab
peH2w-rpedm ?
es
AIa
AIa
AIa
(piks)
AIa
(pektns)
AIa
(pkewos)
AIa
pelH2; cf.
uncle
fear
sustenance
region
peace
protect
straw
grey
touch
vine-leaf
bent
swelling
swell
rag
butterfly
swelling
concubine
come out
refrain from
sparrow
food
feed
patruus
paue
p ulum
pagus
pax
proteg
palea
pallidus
tang
pampinus
pandus
pannus
tumesc
pannus
ppili
papula
paelex
pre
parc
parra
p ulum
psc
heed
atten
relative
fix
pasture
a bit
little
small
fire
worse
sandal
footprint
chest
grow fat
annoy
woodpecker
adorn
magpie
pitch
quick
resin
insult
comb
comb
comb
cattle
impel
familiris
fixus
pastus
paucum
paucus
paruus
ignis
terius
sandalia
peda
pectus
pinguesc
molest
pca
orn
pcus
pix
celer
resna
insult
pect
pecten
pect
pecu
pell
459
pnama
pelk
pelnis
pel
pelom
pels
pelu
pelupoikos
plwis
pelwos
intr
fem
tr
neu
fem
ind
adI
fem
neu
pm
pend
pen
neu
tr
tr
penom
penos
penqadkta
penqdek
penqe
penqstis
penqtos
pnss
pent
peq
peqtis
peqtr
peqts
per(i), per(ti)
perij
perstnom
perkn
prknjom
pers
perom
perm
peros
prperks
perqos
pers
persn
pers
pert
perti
pruti
neu
neu
adII
ind
ind
fem
adII
mas
tr
tr
fem
mas
adI
ind
tr
neu
fem
neu
adII
ind
neu
ind
ind
fem
fem
fem
intr
fem
ind
ind
pesd
pesnis
peters
ptos
intr
mas
mas
adI
460
AIa
jo
AIb
pelH1u
es
pHwo-,
polHwo-, pHwi-
es
jo
AIa
AIa
cf. pqos
perw-r en
pers(n)eH2
AIa
jo
ptH2los
move
skin
make money
surface
rock
much
variegated
dish
dust
migr
pellis
lucror
superficis
rps
multum
varius
peluis
puluis
damage
hang
work with a
thread
mud
provision
fifty
fifteen
five
fist
fifth
sand/gravel
track
cook
cooking
cook
cooked
about
experience
religion
trout
mountain
absolute
besides
feather
farther
turned aside
oak
heel
ham
splash
pole
otherwise
last year
trimentum
pen
cum fl la or
fart
penis
wing
meager
ltum
prouisi
quinquaginta
quindecim
quinque
pugnus
quintus
saburra
in g
coqu
cocti
coctor
coctus
per
experi
religi
tructa
mons
a soltus
praeterea
plma
prorsum
perperm
quercus
calx
perna
resperg
pertica
altrinsecus
anno
praeterito
pe
pnis
la
petilus
pet
petsn
petsns
peumi
pew
pib
pigj
intr
fem
mas
tr
tr
tr
sta
pikrs
pilos
pms
(pm)prmi
pink
pinjos
pins
pperi
pipjj
pipt
piskis
pits
piwn
plabrjai
plkej
plkos
plkos
plnos
plrom
pltom
plts
plautos
pdj
pldhwis
plis
adI
mas
adI
tr
tr
neu
tr
neu
intr
tr
mas
mas
adI
intr
cau
adI
adI
adI
neu
neu
adI
adI
intr
fem
ind
plistos
pljs
plkmi
plekt
(pm)plmi
plm
plns
pltis
pletj
plts
pleud
pleumn
plew
pligh
pm
pnama
adII
adII
cau
tr
tr
neu
adI
fem
fem
adI
tr
mas
intr
fem
fem
intr
ptH1
AIa
BIIb
ej
(pepta)
ej
AIIIo
ej
plis
sup
comp
AIa
BIIb
coll.
AIa
en
AIa
BIVa
pwH
peHi3
fly
feather
bird
understand
clean
drink
be annoying
sharp
hair
fat
prH1
burn
paint
stab
crush
pepper
squeak
fall down
fish
food
fem. pwery fat
babble
advise
flat
wide
plH2-no
flat
floor
planitis
plH2-tu pltus broad
flat-footed
paddle
crowd
pleH1-is / ploH1- more
is
greatest
greater
fold
plait
plH1; cf pnmi fill
filling
plH1-n
full
filling
shoulder-blades
plH2-to
full
pleu-d
flood
lung
flow
appendix
plH2meH2
palm
pelH2 cf. pel approach (to)
a uol
penna
uolucrs
intelleg
purg
i
molestus
(esse)
picans
pilus
crassus
crem
ping
baculum
pins
piper
pipi
praecipitor
piscis
cibus
pinguis
garri
sua e
plnus
latus
plnus
conta ulti
campus
latus
plautus
plau
multit
pls
plrimus
maior
plic
plect
ple
pltra
plnus
pltra
scapulae
plnus
inun
pulm
flu
appendix
palma
appropinqu
461
pnmi
inc
BIVa
plg
plousm
ploutos
plwij
plwijom
plows
pows
tr
fem
mas
fem
neu
mas
adI
AVIc
ptwij
ptnos
fem
mas
ptom
plwaidhom
pwods
pdks
pneus
pg
pt
podjom
pods
poimks
pimn
pojej
polis
polk
polnks
poln
polpos
poltos
pondos
pnom
pontis
poqs
por
porej
porkos
porns
porsis
porsd
portj
pos(ti)
psteri
psteros
pstos
postrd
potj
poti
462
neu
mas
mas
intr
tr
tr
neu
mas
mas
mas
cau
fem
mas
intr
mas
mas
neu
neu
mas
mas
fem
cau
mas
mas
mas
ind
tr
ind
ind
adI
sup.
ind
tr
ind
plH1; plnmi
pnmi cf.
pmplmi
plH2-g
cf. plows
cf. plwijom
pelH- pH-;
polHws
ptH2wiH2
plH2t-H2no; cf.
plts
(pwedos)
(pdkos)
AIa
pH1g
ptH1 /pH1t
(pedos)
poimks
en
AIIIo
(plejos)
poH2i-mn
(t)pH-i-
(polks)
pH3l
pelHes
ej
AIIIo
cau
cf. pratis 'filix'
tab
tab
fill
ple
strike
feather
board
rain
ship
boat
grey
plang
plma
tabula
pluuia
nuis
ratis
albogiluus
earth
flatness
terra
planitis
coat
lead
swamp
paunch
breathe
nail
spread out
relief
foot
pumice
shepherd
get drunk
city
fallow
thumb
fall
scene
porridge
weight
drinking
way
cook
air
convey
pig
feather
bull
far
carry
after
afterwards
subsequent
last
backwards
hold
towards
sagum
plumbum
palus
pantex
anhel
pang
pan
podium
ps
pmex
pstor
ine ri
urbs
ueruactum
pollx
ca
pulpitus
puls
pondus
ptus
uia
coquus
aer
asport
porcus
plma
bouuculus
procul
port
post
postea
posterus
porstrmus
retr
possi e
uersus
potijai
potis
ptis
ptlom
potmos
potnj
ptr
poug
poughos
pougnos
poun
poutos
powej
pweros
powros
pri
prighesto
priloghos
prinm
priteri
prmos
pratis
inc
mas
fem
neu
mas
fem
mas
fem
adI
mas
fem
mas
cau
mas
adI
ind
ind
adII
neu
ind
sup
fem
prwos
preistos
prj
prek
preks
prem
prep
pres
pretjom
pret
prwijos
prew
pg
pij
prijs
prjs
prskos
prsmos
prtis
prts
pka
pknos
pksk
pksk
adII
adI
intr
tr
fem
tr
intr
tr
neu
tr
adI
dur
fem
tr
adI
adII
adI
sup.
fem
adI
fem
adI
fem
tr
pnmi
pnos
tr
adI
abl
ej
jo
AIIIo
prH1i
en
ej
prkos
AVIII
AIa
AVIII
AIb
es
AIa
prjesos
BIVa
prH2-mocf. porns
'plma'
acquire
master
drink
glass
span
mistress
drinker
buttocks
virginal
fist
swelling
penis
clean
boy
pure
before
at hand
present
name
along
first
fern
first
preceding
fan
aliqui a aliqu beseech
plea
press
look like
press
price
realise
previous
hover
portico
prH3
give birth
dear
foremost
*preiskw ?
ancient
first
priH-ti
pleasure
priH-to
pleased
furrow
motley
question
(bhewom
ask
kwom
prH2
sell
pH-n, perH-n past
potior
dominus
pti
pculum
ltit o
domina
ptor
pga
uirginlis
pugnus
turgentia
pnis
purg
puer
prus
prae
praest
praesens
praenmen
praeter
prmus
filix
prmus
anterior
fla ell
precor
prex
prem
uideor
prem
pretium
percipi
anterior
pullulo
porticus
pari
crus
prmus
priscus
prmus
electti
electtus
sulcus
uarius
quaesti
posc
uen
praeteritus
463
pr(d)
prbhoudhos
probhwj
probhwos
prodtr
prddmi
pri
proitis
proks
prokos
promos
proqd
proqos
prsdjom
prstrnos
prostos
prteros
ind
mas
tr
adI
adII
tr
ind
fem
mas
adI
sup
ind
adI
neu
adI
mas
adII
proti
prts
prousij
pptus
pqos
psn
psom
pstis
ptis
ptus
pruns
prsneumi
pruswa
ptelj
puj
pjs
pukos
pulg
pls
pung
ppos
prs
pusbhis
pusj
puslks
pustl
ptj
pters
putlom
pts
puwj
puwos
ind
neu
intr
464
probh-
prH3-t
(pptews)
adI
fem
neu
mas
fem
mas
tr
tr
fem
fem
inc
adI
mas
fem
adI
tr
mas
mas
mas
tr
mas
fem
sta
adI
neu
adI
tr
neu
cf. perkn
prH3sneH2
prH3ti(ptwos)
BIVb
puH
cf. pts
cf. pters
puHroH3pu-s-bhi
pusks
cf. pls
cf. pjs
es
puH
forwards
attention
prove
good
traitor
put forth
in the morning
departure
suitor
advanced
principal
near
nigh
kindness
extended
promontory
first (of two)
against
assigned
irritate
form
coloured
piece
leek
prominence
part
ford
freeze
water
frost
lime-tree
molder
righteous
tail
lock of hair
putrid
punch
child
core
groom
inflate
flea
pustule
be rotten
rotten
child
clean
reckon
pus
pr
attenti
pro
bonus
prditor
pro
mane
profecti
procus
prouectus
prmus
prope
propinquus
beneficium
extensus
tumulus
prmus a
duobus)
contr
attri tus
irrit
forma
uarius
fragmentum
porrum
prominentia
pars
portus
gel
rig
pruna
tilia
putsc
pius
cauda
crnis
puter
pung
ppus
nucleus
pu s
infl
plx
pustula
pte
puter
infans
putus
comput
ps
qddrom
neu
qtj
tr
qtrus
ind
qtrusnos
adII
qtwdkta adII
qtwdkt adII
os
qtwatnjom neu
qtwdek ind
qtwdjwijo neu
m
qtwes
adII
qtwktmt adII
os
qtwktos adII
qtwpods
adII
qtwtos
adII
qd
ind
qlis
adII
qm
ind
qqos
pron
qasjos
mas
qawtos
pron
qdnos
adI
qe
ind
qedos
mas
qedos
neu
qeis
tr
qeistis
fem
qejsk
intr
qej
tr
qejtis
fem
qeklom
neu
qek
tr
qeli
ind
qel
dur
qelos
neu
qelp
tr
qels
tr
qem
tr
qentos
adII
qerp
inc
qsai
intr
qestis
fem
qidpe
ind
qijtis
fem
qijts
adI
qnumoi
tr
qqeimi
tr
qis qid
int
kwtwH3r-
square
shake
four times
four each
forty
fortieth
four years
fourteen
four days
ktwH3r-; tab
jo
AIa
AIa
AIa
AIa
AIa
BIId
four
four hundreth
four hundred
quadruped
fourth
which
how
kweH2m
as
whoever
basket
how great
magic
(encl.)
and
angle
magic force
kwei-s/kwei-t
feel
quoque kwistis consideration
qiH1
rest
compose
quoque qjtis
collection
wheel
gaze
far (from)
w
k elH2
circulate
group
curve
furrow
swallow
holy
turn
complain
part
indeed
rest
peaceful
claim
estimate
tab
what
quadrum
quati
quater
quatern
qua rgint
qua ragsimu
s
quadriennium
quattuordecim
quadriduum
quattuor
quadrigentesi
mus
quadrigenti
qua rups
quartus
qu
qulis
quam
quisque
cista
quantus
magicus
que
angulus
magia
senti
consi erti
quisc
compn
collecti
rota
prospect
procul
uersor
caterua
incuru
sulc
uor
sacer
reuertor
queror
pars
quippe
quis
quitus
uin ic
aestim
qui quae quod
465
qisqis qidqid pron
anyone
qd
qtj
qodhei
qoi
qoina
qoinom
qoitrs,
koitrs
qolk
qolus
qom
qomde
qondhros
qori
qorjom
qoros
qos q(i) qod
qost
qot(j)os
qota
qote
qteros
qotrd
qotrd
qeumi
qrnmi
qrtm
qmis
qsnos
qtus
rbhj
rdjom
rgj
rpj
rtis
rd
rpom
rrs
rasts
raudos
raukos
rwos
dhj
dhwos
rebh
rebhj
rebh
rebhrus
when
suffer
where
where
retaliation
dirt
fair weather
quisquis
quidquid
quan
patior
u
qu
ulciscti
excrmentum
sernus
cushion
distaff
when
where
angelica
why ?
cauldron
type
who, which
cough
how many
how
whither
which
whither
wherefrom
handle
buy
bought
worm
bush
time
rage
ray
wet
snatch
reason
shave
turnip
dispersed
smooth
metal
tough
grey
grow
steep
leap
jump
shield
tube
culcita
colus
cum
unde
angelica
cr
catnus
in ols
qu quae quo
tussis
quot
ut
qu
uter
qu
unde
ger
em
emptus
uermis
arbustus
uix
ra
radium
rig
rapi
rati
r
rpum
rrus
glaber
metallum
rudis
ruus
crsc
arduus
saltus
salt
teg
conductus
466
int
tr
int
ind
fem
mas
adI
fem
fem
ind
ind
fem
ind
neu
mas
rel
fem
int
int
int
pron
ind
ind
dur
tr
adII
mas
mas
mas
intr
neu
tr
tr
fem
rac
neu
adI
adI
neu
adI
adI
intr
adI
fem
intr
tr
mas
(ew)
tab
BIIIb
kwrH qerj
kwrei-H2
(qmejs)
(qtews) cf. krwtis
rtH
(rtjos)
H(w)rH2d
es
roudho- ?
Hrdh-woAIa
recos
rd/re
regein
regjos
regnom
reg
regs
regts
reidh
reidhos
reig
reim
rim
ris
mas
ind
fem
adII
neu
tr
mas
mas
tr
adI
tr
fem
neu
fem
reiwos
rj
rek
rkneumi
rem
rmoi
rentus
rp
resg
resgtis
rsmos
mas
intr
rti
ret
retrd
reub
reudhos
reudhos
reud
neu
intr
ind
intr
adI
neu
intr
reudos
reughm
reug
reumi
adI
neu
intr
reusm
reusmnj
rew
rwesn
rewis
rewm
rew
rewos
neu
intr
ind
fem
mas
neu
inc / tr
neu
ghj
tr
tr
intr
neu
mas
intr
tr
fem
mas
H1eregwo- ; pl.
rgn
rgos
regjom
H3reg
AIa
AIa
en
rijos
<*HrH1js)
reiw
rmo- rm*HreH1-i-
brook
row
tick
BIVb
range
AIb
relax
H2rH1
reckon
property
crawl
AIa
plait
rope
H1reH1-smo / (- oar
t-smo ?)
strainer
AIb
run
back
AIa
scrape out
red (-haired)
es
H1reudhos/es redness
AIa
reu H reu cry
reudmi
wild
dough
AIa
H1reu-g
belch
rumor (to
produce)
rmen
ruminate
outdoors
ruin
Hrew
planet
hair
AIa
H3rw / rwH3
break off
(rwesos) rews, rows; cf. open land
jewos, weis
incite
AVIII
reiH2H1rH
darkness
disqueen
kingly
kingdom
direct
king
right
ride
easy
bind
crack
list
propriety
tenebrae
re(d)
regna
regius
regnum
reg
rex
rectus
equit
facilis
allig
rma
seris
rs
ruus
rm
ricinus
or in
requiesc
reor
possessi
rp
plect
restis
rmus
colum
curr
retr
a r
rfus
ru r
r
rudis
pasta
ruct
rmorem faci
rmen
rmin
fors
ruina
planta
capillum
fring
rs
sollicit
467
rigj
ijai
rikj
rnmi
kj
kslom
kl
rnmi
neumi
numi
nutis
robhos
rdh
rdhj
rd
rdos
roinos
ros
rstrom
rot
ots
roudhstos
roudos
roun
roupis
routos
row
sj
skai
ts
tkos
rudhj
rudhrs
rudhss
rudls
rugij
tr
inc
tr
tr
sta tr
neu
fem
tr
intr
tr
fem
mas
ind
tr
tr
adI
mas
mas
neu
fem
mas
mas
mas
fem
fem
mas
fem
fem
intr
fem
mas
sta
adI
adI
adI
intr
ruktus
rump
runk
rups
ruspjai
rwts
s(w)ei
s(w)eike
skesn
sksom
spij
sgij
sagom
mas
tr
tr
adI
tr
adI
neu
ind
fem
neu
tr
tr
neu
468
torture
set out
ruin
BIVa
H3ry
flush away
AIIIe
H2rk
contain
door-bar
rktla
chest
BIVa
H1erH2
divide
BIVb
H3r
move
BIVb
try to get
jo
movement
H3robhoroof
(abl./instr.)
on account of
endeavour
H(w)rH2d
tear
joyful
dam
rsos
spray
beak
rotH-eH2
wheel
et
charioteer
r(o)udh-to?
rust
crying
ruH-n rn
secret
rock
intestiones
pause
H2renvy
H1r
go
jo
farewell
H2rt-kobear
be red
H1ru-dhrored
reddish
rude
H3reuH / H3reug roar
/ H3reuk
tunic
break
AVIa
H3ruk
weed
rupus
shoddy
rummage
H3rw-to
collapsed
whenever
thus
pickaxe
stone
have taste
sH2g
seek
mantle
torment
orior
ruin
eger
arce
repagula
arcula
ui
cie
capess
mmentum
tectus
caus
conitor
r
alacer
agger
ros
rstrum
rota
auriga
r g
plrtus
secrtum
rps
intestnum
cessti
inuidia
e
a iti
ursus
ru e
ruber
rubeus
rudis
rugi
tunica
rump
runc
insincrus
rspor
rutus
s
sc
sacna
saxum
sapi
sgi
sagum
saipis
sait
saitlom
saiwos
sj
skrodhokjo
m
skrodhots
sakros
sal
mas
fem
neu
adI
sta
neu
sald
saliks
cau
fem
saleiw
salom
sals
smn
samdhos
smis
samos
snmi
fem
neu
adI
neu
mas
adI
mas
tr
sneumi
sankij
sapos
sasjom
stis
sauros
sawel(jos)
tr
tr
fem
neu
fem
adI
BIVb
se
se/sos s/s
tod
sd
sdj
sedj
sedj ambh
sedl
sedmn
sedos
segts
seghdhl
pron
pron
(sewe)
segh
seghos
seghurs
sgneumi
segnom
tr
mas
adI
tr
neu
mas
adI
neu
ind
cau
sta
sta
fem
neu
neu
fem
fem
et
fence
hair (strong)
lifetime
fierce
be furious
sacrifice
saeps
saeta
saeculum
saeuus
saeui
sacrificium
sacerdos
sacer
sal
sall
salix
(sals,
slejos)
sali
priest
holy
salt
(saliks,
salijs)
salks
salt
willow
BIVb
saliva
swell
salus
dirty
quietness
sand
quiet
sos s
summer
sH2; sH2neumi; satisfy
stij cf. westij
)
snH
perform
enact
juice
crop
satisfaction
sour
seH2w-l/n; sw- sun
n
tab
himself
tab
this
es
(segts)
sghe hl
seghe hl
AIa
BIVb
salua
salum
immundus
quis
sabulum
quitus
aestas
satisfaci
effici
sanci
succus
messis
satis
acerbus
sl
se
iste ista istud
apart
appease
be sitting
besiege
chair
settlement
residence
sowing
plough handle
s
s
se e
circumse e
sella
conditus
s s
sati
buris
hold
victory
secure
trap
trap
retine
uictoria
firmus
capi
pedica
469
seg
seik
seiq
seil
seim
seim
seinus
sjdhlom
sj
skmi
sknis
seks / sweks
sekstos
sekris
selg
seljos
selk
tr
fem
tr
intr
fem
neu
mas
neu
tr
tr
adI
ind
adII
fem
tr
adI
intr
sel
selom
slom
selw
smisemj
semli
sm
semos
sench
senj
senks
tr
neu
neu
fem
adII
tr
ind
neu
mas
intr
sta
mas
senq
sentos
seplij
speltrom
sep
sept
sptos
seqai
seqi
seq
seqos
ser
serom
sros
srpenos
serp
sesmi
sesqos
setis
inc
neu
tr
neu
tr
ind
adII
dur
ind
tr
adI
tr
neu
adI
mas
intr
470
fem
epic.
AIb
AIa
seiH-meH2
H2sei-mn
seiH-nuAVIII
sH1y
AIa
sow
club
spill
drip
band
secretion
chain
sieve
sieve
cut
calm
six
sixth
axe
shoot
pleasant
drag
AIa
HeHw3lk /
s-HHw3elk
AIb
buy
solos sol solis residence
sowing
property
half
aquam a naue bilge out
once
seed
semo- soone
sing
be old
senos; senH1,
old
senH2
sink
path
bury
tomb
provide
seven
seventh
follow
vis--vis
say
separate
connect
liquid
long-lasting
snake
crawl
sleep
sedge
visitor
smenos
(sens)
AIa
es
AIa
AIa
ser
fustis
effun
exstill
uitta
secrti
catna
clum
cl
sec
calmsus
sex
sextus
secris
ispar
amoenus
sulc
em
domicilium
sementis
possessi
medius
excupre
semel
smen
nus
can
sene
senex
merg
smita
sepeli
sepulcrum
par
septem
septimus
sequor
aduersum
c
separtus
ser
serum
srus
serpens
serp
ormi
spartum
uisittor
stjosi
seug
seut
sewj
sewe
swijos
sew
silj
sneumi
sinsteros
sin
sinus
sisd
ssermi
ssghrmi
sslwos
sis
sisqos
sts
tr
sta
prog
igenes.
adII
tr
intr
tr
adI
tr
mas
intr
intr
tr
adI
tr
adI
adI
skrs
sjewmn
sjew
sjdhl
sjts
skabhjs
skabhnom
skabh
skaiws
skalp
skand
skandsl
skpos
skatj
skat
sked
skeg
skej
skek
skel
skelos
skem
skerbh
skerd
adI
neu
tr
fem
adI
fem
neu
tr
adI
tr
dur
fem
mas
dur
inc
intr
intr
sta
intr
tr
neu
tr
tr
fem
skerd
skerj
sker
skeubh
skeud
tr
intr
inc
tr
AIa
AIa
seuH
BIVb
syH(w)
ew
BIIe
sHi1
sHi-tu cf. sis
stus
AIa
AIa
AIa
AIa
AIa
es
AIa
AIa
AIa
AIa
less
suck
boil
lessen
self
his
stir up (to)
silent (to be)
bind
propice
place
bosom
sit down
flow
smell
beneficial
sow
dry
far-reaching
clear
sjuHmn
seam
syHw
sew
syHw -(dh)leH2 sewer's awl
sewn
scabies
stool
scratch
left-handed
carve
mount
ladder
handle
gush
spring
scatter
hasten
shine
burst in
shall
evil
cover
hollow out
(s)keHr(-deH2) shit
\Hr/Hn
castrate
split
spring
escape
shoot
stius
sg
ferue
minu
sui
suus
permoue
sile
lig
i neus
sin
sinus
s
flu
olfaci
benignus
ser
siccus
sparsus
clrus
stra
su
s ula
stus
sca is
scamnus
sca
scaeuus
scalp
scan
scla
manubrium
scate
scat
dispergor
festn
luce
irrump
e e
scelus
uel
excau
merda
castr
scin
exsult
effugi
mitt
471
skeum
skeuros
skeut
skew
skidj
skij
skind
skw
skiq
skj
skneumi
skgj
sknid
skodhos
skoidos
skoirss
skoitom
tr
adI
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
neu
fem
tr
skoj
skolm
sklos
skolpos
skortom
skostrom
skotos
skouros
skous
skreibh
skreid
skrobhis
skroupos
skroutos
skubtis
skutj
sktos
slabai
slags
slak
slat
sleib
sleidh
sleig
sleim
sleimj
sleimks
sleiwos
sljs
sleub
sleug
slign
fem
fem
mas
mas
neu
neu
mas
mas
fem
tr
tr
fem
mas
mas
fem
tr
mas
intr
adI
tr
fem
472
AIa
AIa
AIa
skws
BIVb
intr
fem
mas
mas
adII
neu
intr
fem
tr
mas
adI
adI
inc
tr
mas
AIa
AIa
AIa
AIa
AIa
jo
AIa
AIa
en
cover
dark
s-kuH-t
cover
H2kwinspect (to)
decide
know
split
(s)kiHushin-bone
pod
(s)kel
split
deflect
limp
nit
harm
woodpiece
clown
skoito-s, skeito- shield
m
shade
small pillar
element
shelf
whore
canopy
shadow
nord
trousers
write
carve
pit
sherd
skeletton
omoplate
maim
skuH-to
covering
slip
slH2gslack
hit
rod
slip
glide
smooth
sleH1i-meH2
file
polish
snail
violet
sleH1i-u- sljus smooth
slip
devour
mattock
o ru
o scrus
operi
inspici
cern
sci
scin
t ia
siliqua
scin
eflect
clau ic
ouum
damnum
lignum
scurr
sctum
umbra
columella
lementum
pluteus
scortum
umbraculum
umbra
septentri
pantalnus
scri
cael
scrobis
scrpus
larua
scapulae
trunc
opermentum
labor
laxus
offen
ferula
prolabor
surrp
explan
lma
lm
cochlea
liueus
luis
prolabor
uor
lig
sijai
sloidhos
sloiwom
slougos
slgj
s
sm
smalos
inc
mas
neu
mas
tr
ind
ind
mas
smeg
smeidh
smeighsli
smeik
smeirai
smeirtlom
smeiros
smeit
smej
smeksl
smelg
smel
smemorj
smaneumi
tr
tr
neu
neu
tr
neu
adI
tr
intr
fem
fem
dur
fem
inc
smerd
smerd
smeros
smerw
smeugh
smitl
slis
sloghs
soitis
sptr
smoughos
smoughos
smudhn
smghneumi
snghj
snadh
snmi
sneighs
sneit
sneitos
snmi
fem
intr
neu
fem
intr
fem
adI
fem
fem
epi
mas
mas
intr
tr
intr
tr
intr
fem
tr
adI
tr
snm
sner
sntj
sneubh
neu
intr
fem
tr
spring
mass
plum
crowd
gulp
together
certainly
smH1-lo, smeH1- animal
lo
AIa
desire
AIa
carve
thousand
crumb
wonder
miracle
wonderful
AIa
send
AIa
smile
chin
turfgrass
AIa
burn
memory
BIVb
s-m i Hstain
smeneumi
shit
AIa
stink
es
defect
marrow
AIa
smoke
sm(i)H2stain
similar
wife
accordance
sptros
sibling
alleyway
smoke
AVId
acc. uel cgit.
contrive
BIVb
slip in
creep
cut off
Bib
snH2
swim
(snighws)
snow
AIa
curtail
scanty
(s)-nH1;
spin
sneH1-ye/oyarn
AIa
whirl
embroidery
AIa
marry
sali
massa
prunum
multit
lurc
cunctim
cert
animal
cupi
cael
mille
mca
a mror
mirculum
mrus
mitt
arri e
mentum
agrostis
ur
memoria
macul
merda
foete
mendum
medulla
fm
macula
similis
uxor
concursus
fraterculans
angustiae
fmus
machinor
irrp
rp
amput
n
nix
minu
exiguus
ne
nmen
contorque
intextus
n
473
sneudhs
snwr
si
snncheti
snogh
sstus
stj
ster
snuss
sodej
sdj
sodjom
sodm
sognos
soitos
sljai
solkos
solpos
solwos
fem
neu
ind
sta
solwotts
somej
soms
sondhos
sontej
sontis
soqjos
sormos
sorbhj
sorbhos
sorw
soujs
soukos
swij
spros
spakos
spneumi
sparos
sparwos
speik
speiksn
speimis
spekjs
spekj
spelgh
spelgis
spel
spelt
spmi
spnos
fem
tr
adII
mas
cau
adI
mas
mas
tr
fem
fem
adII
mas
fem
adI
mas
474
ind
fem
cau
mas
neu
intr
mas
mas
tr
mas
mas
pron
(snudhs) (aerea)
*sneH1w-r n -
AIIIo
(aor.ab eimi)
soiH(w)-to
selH2
s-HHw3olkosoH2-wo,
sH2-wo
solwottjos
AIIIo
somH-; sos
son-dhH1o
AIIIo
sor
swoqs
spH1-ro
BIVb
mas
mas
fem
fem
adI
fem
tr
fem
mas
intr
prog
mas
speH1
psteHn ??
smog
cable
apart
snow
snake
intelligence
think
missing
daughter-in-law
settle
soot
seat
went
rope
magic
give joy
furrow
oil
whole
turbulentia
mitra
separtim
ninguit
serpens
sensus
cgit
absente
norus
institu
flg
solium
i
retinaculum
uenficium
slor
sulcus
oleum
ttus
totality
make equal (to)
equal
protrusion
send
guilty
allied
flow
sip
rowan tree
entrails
left
juice
kiss
thriving
drop
extend
post
sparrow
head of cereal
prickle
thin
aspect
look
spleen
pole
recitate
table
extend
nipple
integrits
aequ
aequus
excrescentia
mitt
sons
socius
fluxus
sor e
sorbus
uiscus
sinister
scus
sauia
prosperus
gutta
exten
sparus
parra
spca
spna
tenuis
specis
speci
lien
asser
recit
tabula
exten
tetta
speqos
sperdh
spergh
sperj
spes
speud
spingj
spjew
spjonos
mas
tr
intr
tr
fem
tr
fem
intr
fem
spjwtos
spleid
spleigh
splighsts
spndj
sptj
spd
spoim
spoisj
spoisn
spoljom
spondej
spondh
spnos
sponsts
sport
spoud
spmi
spreig
spreud
sprew
spg
spn
spos
sqalos
sqeros
sqij
sredh
srems
srenk
srew
srewtis
srgj
srgos
sij
skij
srodhos
adI
tr
intr
mas
sta
tr
intr
fem
intr
fem
neu
tr
fem
mas
mas
fem
tr
srokn
srowmos
fem
mas
sta
intr
tr
tr
cau
mas
mas
neu
fem
intr
intr
intr
intr
fem
sta
neu
tr
tr
mas
cave
compete
hurry
scatter (to)
hope
hurry
finch
spit
foxglove
AIa
AIa
spsos
AIa
AIa
AIa
AIa
s-pH1d
AIIIo
AIa
AIa
AIa
AIIh
spH2r-g
es
sredh / sret
AIa
AIa
AIa
quoque srwtis
es
spit
split
retire
side
be bright
cut off
flutter
foam
perspire
breath
dispossession
promise
bed
stick
betrothed
basket
haste
tread
abound
accelerate
excite
burst
move away
ankle
large fish
portent
thorn
billow
fray
snore
flow
strom
be cold
cold
weed
repair
sea heaviness
beak
srowos, srewm stream
specus
cert
festn
sparg
spes
acceler
passer
spu
igitlis
purpurea
sputus
sec
sc
latus
splen e
separ
corusc
spma
spir
halitus
spolium
spon e
lectus
uirga
sponsus
sporta
coactus
calc
a un
acceler
excit
ispl
spern
talus
squalus
prodigium
spna
aestu
diffilor
sternu
flu
fluxus
frige
frgus
sarri
sarci
aests
maritim
rostrum
cursus
475
srwtom
sp
spij
swj
swos
neu
fem
tr
tr
mas
sttis
fem
sttus
stdhlom
stagnom
stag
staknom
stlos
(s)stmi
(s)stmi
ant/pri
(s)stmi ap
stm
mas
neu
neu
sta
neu
mas
intr
sta
stnj
stnom
strs
sttlom
staurej
stauros
staurs
stw
steigh
steipts
steiw
stej
stejsj
stelgh
stel
steln
stelp
stembh
stem
sterbhnjom
sterbh
sterg
sterk
sterkos
sterkos
sterl
sternom
sterns
tr
neu
adI
neu
tr
mas
adI
tr
intr
fem
fem
inc
fem
intr
tr
476
pipe
sickle
cleanse
observe
guardian
BIIa
intr
neu
intr
tr
intr
neu
intr
tr
tr
neu
neu
fem
neu
adI
sicu wk s
non er sicut
kerwos
steH2ti- / stH2ti-; standing post
sttis
position
stall
pond
remain (water)
pool
couch
steH2 ststmi stand
advantage
steH2-m /
stoH2-mo-
AIIIo
stoH2u-ro
strs
AIa
AIa
(steipts)
AIa
AIa
(stlenos) cf. tlej
AIa
AIa
cf. tem h
AIa
AIa
AIa
es
es
H2s-ter-leH2
sterH1-n/
sterH1-y
fistula
falcicula
put
seru
custs
stati
status
st ulum
lacus
remane
stagnum
solium
st
praest
be far
arrangement
ist
institti
place
place
stable
platform
set
stake
staked
stop
walk
stick
plough handle
condense
icicle
flow down
put
offshoot
stare
stamp on
stumble
dry skin
decline
love
befoul
shit
shit
star
entrails
rigid
con
locus
st ilis
catasta
instaur
adminiculum
a minicultus
tine
am ul
stps
stua
spiss
stria
flu
pn
stol
intueor
conculc
titu
pellis sicca
eca
am
coinquin
stercus
stercus
stella
intestina
rigidus
ster
strolis
steros
strps
stert
stertos
steug
steumi
steup
steut
stigj
stiprs
stlm
stltos
stltis
stlokos
stnos
sttj
stobhos
stoghos
stoighos
stoipej
stolbos
tr
adI
mas
mas
intr
mas
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
adI
neu
mas
fem
mas
mas
sta
mas
mas
mas
cau
mas
stolgos
stm
storej
stornj
stoudjom
stoup
strm
strtos
strts
streib
streid
streig
streigs
streng
strengom
strnwos
strep
streubh
streud
strew
strigj
strigj
string
stneumi
stn
stnos
mas
neu
cau
fem
neu
fem
adI
fem
dur
tr
fem
adI
intr
tr
dur
tr
intr
fem
tr
intr
tr
mas
AIa
(stpos)
AIa
AIa
H2ster-
(s)H2teu-g
AIa
AIa
ej
s-tlH2-to
(s)H2lei-t/s
AIIIo
es
AIIIo
strH2-t
AIa
AIa
(strigs)
AIa
AIa
AIa
AIa
AIa
AVIa
BIVb
streid / streig
str-w
pster
s-trH2
rob
sterile
star
trunk
snore
pinnacle
push away (to)
inform
hit
support
stick
safe
plate
side
legal suit
place
trunk
be delayed
pillar
trestle
street
densifiy
ruler (in
topography)
force
palate
straighten (to)
centre
study
oakum
lay
army
spread
line
hiss
draw
night bird
restrict
string
active
make noise
make bitter
fight
strew
stop
line
draw tight
sneeze
spread
extension
fror
sterilis
stella
stirps
stert
pinaculus
a ig
nunti
quati
sustine
instig
secrus
lamina
latus
ls
locus
truncus
moror
su lic
uara
uia
stp
uirga
uis
paltum
corrig
centrum
studium
stp
strmn
exercitus
strtus
linea
stri
string
strx
o string
corda
strnuus
strep
acer
cert
stern
strig
stria
string
sternu
stern
strtus
477
strudsm
strutjos
struwis
studj
stupj
stupos
s
sudhjom
suj
sks
sulj
snoros
sns
sup
sup
supj
(s)peri
(s)peros
(s)upmos
ss
susj
susdos
fem
mas
fem
sta
sta
mas
lois
mas
tr
mas
fem
mas
mas
ind
fem
tr
ind
adI
sup.
mas
intr
mas
stus
suwids
swlj
mas
adI
tr
swdej
swds
cau
adI
swi
swdhsk
ind
inc
swdhus
sweid
sweidos
sweighlj
sweig
sweisd
swek
swekos
swkuros
swekrs
swel
swelj
swelks
sweljos
fem
478
neu
intr
prog
intr
adI
mas
fem
fem
tr
mas
mas
pipe
ancestor
ej
heap
thrash
rigid (to be)
stick
H1su-(H)
well
beer
spill
piglet
dregs
vigorous
ew
son
under
soup
throw
tab
over
tab
superior
uppest
(suws) suH-; sews
pig
buzz
H2sus- / H2suso dry
/ H2susk(w)o-/
H2susdo/H2sousobirth
expert
swlHeH1, inc.
be swollen (to)
swlsk caus.
swolj
AIIIo
recommend
sweH2d-u-;
pleasant
sw us
so
become
accustomed
ew
custom
blaze
es
star
whistle
AIa
seesaw
AIa
whistle
AIa
smell good
fragrant
father-in-law
ew
swekrH2
mother-in-law
sunlight
devour (to)
(swlakos)
seal
relative
canna
abauus
strus
stu e
stupe
plus
en
zythum
effun
porcellus
colluuis
uiridis
flius
sub
ius
iaci
super
superior
summus
ss
susurr
siccus
partus
doctus
tume
su e
suauis
sc
susc
mos
flagr
s us
s il
oscill
siffil
fragr
fragrant
socer
socrus
aprcum
uor
phoca
familiris
swel
swelom
swelplos
swemr
swnmi
swendh
swep
swep
swerbh
swergh
swer
swrs
swerwos
swesr
swesreinos
swns
swoidj
swoidos
swlej
swombhs
swonos
swpij
swoplom
swopnjj
swopnjom
swopnos
swor
swordis
sworx
sworos
swneumi
swrswrj
tkj
tdj
tdhsk
tdhis
tagj
taismos
tj
tjots
tlej
tlis
tm
tarss
trudos
tt
tauros
tausnim
tausos
tawtos
intr
neu
neu
dur
intr
prog
dur
neu
inc
tr
intr
adI
adI
fem
mas
adII
intr
mas
fem
mas
mas
cau
neu
intr
neu
mas
fem
fem
mas
tr
intr
inc
tr
intr
fem
tr
mas
tr
mas
fem
adII
ind
mas
adI
neu
mas
ind
adI
pron
AIa
es
BIIIa
AIa
s-wndh
AIa
(swpenos)
AIa
swr-bh
AIa
AIa
swrus
er
swi j
swons ?
cog.
ej
(sworks)
BIVb
ej
tH2-dh/k/w
tajetos
tyus = ttis
cf. steln
glare
sleeper
sulphur
be followed
sound
swindle
sleep
dream
turn
take care
whisper
important
snappy
sister
sister's son
porcine
sweat
sweat
ground
fungus
noise
fall asleep
broom
dream
dream
sleep
wade
rubbish
shrew
stick
wound
whisper
silent (to be)
qualify
melt
corruption
put in order
dough
steal
burglar
stab
such
at that point
belly
slow
dad
bull
silently
silent
so much
splen e
traversa
sulpur
sectus ueni
son
crsc
ormi
somnium
gyresc
cr
susurr
srius
transpuntorius
soror
so rnus
porcnus
s
s or
solea
fungus
sonus
spi
everriculum
somni
somnium
somnus
sra
sor s
sorx
plus
uulner
susurr
tace
qualific
t sc
t s
or in
massa
fror
fr
talea
tlis
tam
uenter
tardus
pappa
taurus
silenter
silens
tantus
479
tgl
tegnom
teg
tegos
tegtom
tegs
teibhj
teknom
tek
teksl
teksn
teks
tekst
tekstlom
tekw
telmn
telp
telsus
fem
neu
tr
neu
neu
adI
fem
neu
tr
fem
fem
tr
fem
neu
intr
neu
intr
fem
tembh
tr
temesras
temlom
fem
neu
temos
tmos
tempos
ten
tend
tengh
teng
teni
tenj
tenjom
temk
tenos
tens
tentrom
tepj
tepnos
teqom
terc
tredhrom
terg
neu
mas
neu
fem
tr
tr
tr
ind
tr
neu
prog
neu
tergslom
terj
termn
ter
neu
tr
mas
tr
480
neu
sta
neu
neu
tr
neu
tr
teg hl
es
tegus
AIb
AIa
tek(s)
AIa
tHkw
tel-H2-mon-
AIa
ew
beam
cover
shrine
ceiling
dense
shin-bone
creature
receive
axe
technique
fashion
bowl
web
run away
strap
get in a space
ground
telH2o-,
telH2mn
(tlH2menos)
AIa
(s)tem-b(h); cf. spurn
stem h
pl.
darkness
temH-lo /temH- temple
no
es
obscurity
drunken
es
time
ribbon
extend
AIa
drag away
impregnate
until
AIa
extend
temple
result
es
ligament
extend
string
be warm
es
fever
passage
AIa
threaten
auger
AIa
*trigw ? cf.
wipe
gr.
towel
rub
(terns)
end
w
BIVb
trH 1;
cross
tgula
tignum
teg
aedicula
tectum
cr er
t ia
crtra
accipi
secris
ars
fabricor
testa
tla
curr
infula
locus mihi est
tellus
contemn
tenebrae
templum
o scurits
rius
tempus
taenia
ten
a strah
ting
tenus
prolong
tempus
ueni
ligmen
prtl
fnis
tepe
febris
triecti
minor
terebra
terg
mantellum
teir
terminus
transe
tneumi
terp
terptis
ters
tersai
trunos
tetkn
tett
tturos
teukm
teuk
teup
teur
teusm
teusqa
teut
tewai
tewos
tibhj
timj
titij
tkeimi
tlmi
intr
fem
fem
intr
adI
mas
fem
mas
neu
tltjos
tij
tn
adI
sta
tr
tloqai
tmmi
tpus
tj
tghus
tg
tmklos
intr
tr
adI
sta tr
adI
tr
adI
tmktos
ttos
tus
tog
toi
tkslos
toksos
adI
adI
adI
fem
ind
mas
fem
tokws
tolj
tolkos
tom
tom-ke
tomos
adI
tr
mas
ind
ind
mas
inc
tr
neu
neu
fem
tr
neu
neu
tr
intr
tr
sta
AIa
jo
quoque tptis
teren
(ttkenos)
AIa
AIa
AIa
(tesqm)
teuteH2
es
Bid
telH2; cf. tn
tnmi
enjoy oneself
enjoyment
earth
get dry
feeble
woodworker
teat
turkey
progeny
dig out
knee
stop up
lot
desert
people
observe
force
stalk
be afraid
chirp
establish
endure
patient
rest
telH2; tnmi cf raise
tlmi
speak
temH1
cut
elastic
comprehend
fat
touch
curdled milk
tnH2-u-
tk-so, tok-so,
tkwso-, tokw-so ?
oblector
electti
terra
seresc
tener
lignrius
tetta
pav
progenis
effo i
genuflector
o tr
cumulus
desertum
populus
tueor
impetus
tibia
metu
titi
con
resist
patiens
requiesc
toll
clotted
stretched
thin
garment
certainly
hatchet
juniper
loquor
sec
diffusilis
tene
o sus
tang
lacte
coagultum
concrtus
tentus
tenuis
toga
profect
bipennis
iuniperus
fugacious
call for
bran
then
then
cut
fugax
a uoc
furfur
tum
tunc
secti
481
tnmi
intr
BIIIa
tondej
tonej
tongej
tonslis
tonstr
tntenos
tontrom
topnos
toqe
torcs
tori
trkmtom
tormos
tors
torpej
torqej
torqis
torsej
torsm
tot(j)os
totrd
totrd
tough
toukn
trabhis
tragh
traghsm
trntis
trebh
tregsnos
treistis
trejes trija
trsores
trem
trenk
trep
tres
treud
treughos
treuk
trjtos
tripls
trptis
trs
trisns
tristis
tritjos
trts
tr
tr
tr
fem
adII
mas
neu
mas
ind
adI
ind
neu
mas
adI
cau
cau
fem
cau
neu
adII
ind
ind
fem
fem
fem
tr
fem
ind
sta
mas
adI
adII
AIIIo
AIIIo
AIIIo
dur
tr
tr
AIa
AIa
AIa
AVIII
AIa
482
cau
adI
tr
mas
adII
fem
ind
adII
adII
adI
(s)tenH2 /
(s)tonH2
resonate
ton
tab
shave
extend (to)
give one's opinion
fierceness
hairdresser
noise
thunder
warmth
also
threatening
therefore
tension (engine)
bolt
loud
rejoice
turn
necklace
dry
thunder
so many
towards there
from there
luck
thigh
beam
drag
weft
through
dwell
brave
sad
three
ton e
exten
opnor
tls
tonsr
strepitus
tonitrus
tepor
quoque
minax
propterea
tormentum
cn ax
penetrans
elect
torque
torqus
torre
tonitrum
tot
e
inde
fortna
perna
trabs
trah
trma
trns
ha it
au x
tristis
trs
triH-t
tremble
incite
pass
shiver
force in
miserable
cut out
sea
threefold
triplication
three times
three in a go
witness
third
rubbed
trem
incit
peram ul
trem
intr
miser
a scin
mare
triple
triplicti
ter
trn
testis
tertius
trtus
jo
AIIIo
AIIIo
ej
AIIIo
ej
AIa
trb(h)
AIa
ej
tmts
tmos
tn
troghos
trogj
trogos
tropos
trosej
troughi
trow
trow
tpj
trpis
tsdos
tsj
tstis
tstos
tsus
trudsk
trudsms
truks
t
tljom
tumj
tumls
tmolos
tund
turgj
trjs
tursis
tusjai
tusn
tustij
tustis
twakos
twenk
twer
twoiss
twbhn
twkos
twm
twtos
ucj
fem
mas
fem
mas
fem
mas
mas
intr
ind
fem
tr
sta
adI
mas
sta
fem
adI
adI
fem
adI
epi
pron
neu
sta
mas
mas
tr
sta
mas
fem
intr
fem
intr
fem
neu
tr
tr
adI
mas
mas
fem
adI
sta
oucs
adI
ud
deros
dh
neu
mas
neu
(tmtos)
wedge
termite
thorn
posterity
sow
pig
way
AIIIo
make afraid
alas
ladle
AIId
gnaw away
torpid (to be)
ugly
thrush
tsy
be thirsty
thirst
dry
dry
leprosy
annoying
(truks)
slaughterer
(tewe)
you
tuHljomultitude
be swollen
mound
turmoil
strike
swell
cheese
ej
tower
rejoice oneself
wave
cough
ej
coughing
es
armour
AIa
force
AIa
enclose
violent
(twbhnos)
whirl
boar
troop
quick
H1ugw/H1eugw/ wet (be)
H1uegw
H1ougw- /
wet
H1uogwout
uter
henos H1uH h-r n
udder
w
HeH 1 h-r n
cuneus
tarmes
spna
su ols
porca
porcus
uia
terre
uae
trua
corr
torpe
turpis
turdus
siti
sitis
siccus
siccus
leprae
molestus
interfector
t
multit
tume
tumulus
tumultus
tun
turge
caseus
turris
delector
unda
tussi
tussis
armatra
compell
amplexor
uiolentus
tur
aper
turma
uelox
me
us
ex
terus
er
483
dhros
dhs
udsqe
ughn
uksn
uksr
ululj
unksr
upelos
peres
uperi
peros
upo
upqrijom
upsdjom
upstnom
pselos
upsi
uqns
urs
usts
uta
wdr
wdris
wgjai
wnsk
wnsk
wros
adI
adI
ind
mas
and
fem
intr
fem
adI
ind
ind
adI
ind
neu
neu
neu
adI
ind
mas
adI
adI
ind
fem
mas
intr
fem
tr
mas
wrj
wadhis
wadh
wadhom
wagein
wghij
wai
wailos
wails
wakk
walgos
walnom
walm
tr
mas
intr
neu
fem
intr
ind
mas
mas
fem
adI
neu
intr
wapj
waplj
warn
wros
wstos
wtis
watjos
sta
sta
fem
mas
adI
mas
adI
484
hus
(ughns)
en
(kseros)
H2ugh-
unksn
H2wp-elo
H2u-per
upsls
cf. auksl
H1ur-u; urus
H1us-to-
w o rHo- cf.
wersmn
ej
(aor. a
chenmi)
ej
udder
immediate
on top
neck
ox
wife
howl
shadow
bad
very well
over
high
under
commission
fundament
service
high
above
owen
wide
burnt
rather
otter
leather bag
roam
desire
desire
pimple
er
imme itus
insuper
collus
bos
uxor
ulul
umbra
malus
optim
super
superus
sub
interpretium
fundamentum
seruitium
altus
supra
fornus
amplus
ustus
potius
lutra
uter
uagor
si erium
si er
uarus
set fire
caution
walk
river ford
sheath
cry
alas
humble
wolf
cow
bandy-legged
wall
died
accen
uas
u
uadum
uagna
ugi
uae
humilis
lupus
uacca
ualgus
uallum
mortus est
foggy, to be
scream
little owl
asunder-legged
empty
poet
legbent
nebulosus sum
clam
noctua
urus
unus
uats
uatius
we
webh
wdhneumi
wedh
wedh
wedhrom
wedhsk
wedm
wed
weghj
wegh
weghtis
weghtlom
weghtr
weg
weg
weidr
weidh
weidos
weiks
encl
tr
tr
tr
neu
neu
tr
neu
tr
fem
tr
fem
neu
mas
dur
tr
neu
tr
neu
mas/
fem
wiktom
fem
(w)weimi
tr
weim
neu
weip
tr
weiros
mas
weis
neu
weisn
fem
weis
sta
weitks
fem
weitis
fem
weit
cau
wiwers
fem
wejes / weje pron
wekmi
tr
wek
intr
wekss
adI
weld
tr
welks
fem
welmi
tr
weln
fem
welnos
neu
wel
tr
welp
tr
weltis
fem
wlwen
neu
welw
tr
wlwtrom
neu
wmmi
tr
or
weave
BIVb
link
wHedh / Hwedh lead
wdhenos
weapon
weather
strike
utterance
AIb
H2wed(H)
tell
way
carry
jo
leuer
vehicle
transporter
AIb
be strong
AIb
weave
wie r wei e
beast
nos
AIa
divide
es
presence
(wiks) cf. woikos
house
Hwebh
BIId
en
AIa
wss
AIa
(weitks)
ej
AIa
AIb
(weliks)
es
AIb
AIa
victim
hunt
loom
wrap
wire
weiH-s/os/es
strength
vein
flow
agnus castus
vine
arch
ferret
wei-; tab
we
desire
arch
convex
Hwl; cf. weumi tear off
wiks
bracelet
will
wn
wave
hair
see
expect
wtis
will
wrapping
H1wl-w
turn
envelope
vomit
ue
tex
lig
a c
arma
tempus
cae
locti
narr
uia
ueh
uectis
uehiculum
uector
uege
tex
bestia
ui
praesentia
domus
uictima
unor
textrnum
inuolu
fnis
uis
una
flu
uitx
utis
incuru
uiuerra
ns
esi er
flect
conuexus
uell
armilla
uol
unda
uellus
ui e
expect
uolunts
tegmen
uolu
inuolcrum
uom
485
( )wmi
wmos
wnmoi
wendh
wensnom
wenj
wen
wenos
wenseik
went
wentos
tr
adI
tr
intr
neu
fem
dur
neu
fem
suff
mas
weqtis
weqtlom
wr
werbos
werein
werg
wergom
weri
werj
(w)wermi
wern
wros
werp
wersis
wersm
wers
werstis
werstidhlom
wertmn
wertos
wertrom
wrunos
weskai
wsk
wsnmi
wesnej
wesnom
wes
wsolis
wespros
fem
neu
neu
neu
fem
sta
neu
neu
tr
tr
fem
adI
tr
mas
neu
tr
fem
neu
neu
mas
neu
mas
neu
tr
tr
tr
neu
sta
adI
mas
wes
neu
wsros
west
mas
fem
486
BIIb
H2weH1
blow
beautiful
aspire
AIa
attack
love potion
family
desire
es
love
blister
wentjos
equipped with
H2weH1-to- / wind
H2wH1entothing
expression
(wos)
door
es
H1wr-b
whip
sect
AIa
head towards
work
Hwr wr wri water
werH1
name
BIIe
find
alder
true
AIa
wrap out
male
en
cf. wros
wart
AIa
drag
track
hall
direction
value
defence
belt (for safety)
eat
squeeze
AIVa
prick
AIIIo
bargain
sale
AIb
H2wes
stay
cheap
*weevening
'exclsuum' weskw(e)ro- /
wesp(e)ro- /
wekero(wesens /
spring
wesents/)
morning
food
exhal
pulcher
appet
oppugn
uennum
familia
concupisc
amor
uensca
praeditus
uentus
rs
dictus
fors
flagellum
secta
uerg
labos
aqua
nmin
inueni
betullla
urus
uolu
ms
uerrca
uerr
trames
uestibulum
irecti
ualor
fensi
cinctus
uescor
exprim
instig
negotior
unum
mane
ulis
uesper
ur
matina
pulmentum
westij
westis
westos
westus
wsus
tr
fem
mas
mas
adI
wtmi
wetlos
wetos
wetss
tr
mas
neu
wes
wetwos
w
wibrj
wida
widj
wdhew
widhus
widjom
wigj
wijj
wijsk
wikis
wikj
wikk
wklutom
wind
wind peri
windos
winis
winkij
wink
wins
wikwos
wrs
adI
ind
cau
fem
tr
fem
fem
fem
sta
sta
inc
fem
dur
fem
adII
tr
fac
adI
fem
tr
tr
cau
adI
mas
wisj
wiskom
wsog
witj
wteros
sta
neu
fem
intr
adI
wtja
witjom
witus
wweqmi
wbhontis
wda
wdhj
fem
neu
mas
tr
mas
fem
tr
cf. wosj
jo
es
es
ej
AVIb
AVIa
dress
cloth
feast
dwelling
H1wesu-; wesu- excellent
wsu-/wosu-;
we-H1su?
*we- exclsuum forbid
calf
time
one-year creature
old
asunder
vibrate
appearance
weidmi ?
see
H1wdheweH2 widow
willlow
wi j
wisdom
be strong
weH1i
be curved
wither
chance
contend
witch
widely known
find out
investigate
apparent
cable
shackle
win
cause
diverse
wiHr-, weiHro-, man
woiHrosprout
mistletoe
club
turn around
supplementary
wHicf. kantos
AIa
H1wlb(h)o-nt(H)wlH2dh;
framework
curve
wheelrim
speak
camel
feast
rule
uesti
uestis
daps
domicilium
excellens
uet
uitulus
tempus
annucula
cretra
uetus
s
ui r
apprentia
ui e
uidua
salx
scientia
uige
uie
uisc
uicis
cert
uenfica
satis constans
comperi
inuestig
appararens
cable
uinci
uinc
caus
multifrius
uir
uire
uiscum
uirga
circume
complementr
ius
textus
curua
cantus
loquor
camlus
conuiuium
imper
487
cf. wy
weiqos
weis
wj
neu
tr
sta
wepj
weumi
sta
tr
wlew
wghis
wiqj
wn
wrom
wqos
wtis
wtus
wd
wghj
wochj
fem
fem
sta
fem
wod
wod
woghej
woghnos
woghos
wogsmis
woida
woidej
woidlos
woidws
woighos
woik
woikos
woiks
woiksl
woin
woinos
woisos
woit
wolj
wolgos
wolmos
wolos
wols
wolpis
wolnos
wolsom
wolws
wondhej
wondhos
fem
neu
cau
mas
mas
mas
tr
cau
mas
adII
fem
fem
mas
adI
fem
fem
mas
mas
fem
tr
neu
mas
mas
mas
fem
neu
neu
adI
cau
488
mas
fem
mas
fem
sta
tr
es
AIa
(H)wlH2;
cf. wl hy
BIIIb
H2welH1; cf.
wel
H1wl-neH2
H1ewgwh /
H1wegwh
liquid
beat
be fit
liquor
uer er
uale
whip
pillage
lepe
iripi
lion
basin
liquid (to be)
wool
strap
wolf
tuff of hair
impression
wave
complexed (to be)
vow
le
uallis
lique
lna
lrum
lupus
caesaris
adspectus
unda
tortus sum
uoue
water
(wdenos) wed
water
AIIIo
induce (to)
car
transport
ploughshare
know
AIIIo
orient
woH1ibasket
(woidwesos) fem: widwsy knowing
elm
vigour
cf. weiks
village
wikrs
steadfast
farm
punishment
weinom
wine
poison
hunt
choose
es
people
roll
wlos
choice
willing
ej
fox
es
H2wolH1no
wound
damage
wls
round
AIIIo
wind
wondhsos
hair
aqua
aqua
a c
uehiculum
uecti
uomer
sci
irig
u ulus
conscius
ulmus
uigor
ucus
peruicax
uilla
poena
unum
uennum
untus
lig
uulgus
spra
lecti
uolens
uulps
uulnus
pernicis
rotundus
torque
caesaris
wns
wopj
wops
woqs
worgjom
wormis
wornos
wors
wortej
wosej
wosis
wosms
wospos
waghm
wrbhis
wdhom
wdj
adI
fem
fem
fem
neu
mas
mas
mas
cau
tr
mas
adI
mas
neu
fem
neu
fem
wegis
weik
wikonjom
wein
wjai
wn
weumi
weumi apo
mas
fem
neu
wg
wgj
wgj
wgos
wij
wisdj
wnmi
wgai
wonk
wonkis
wrdks
fem
sta
tr/intr
wst
fem
wstis
wstos
wt
wtom
wughis
fem
mas
tr
neu
mas
tr
mas
tr
tr
tr
intr
tr
intr
fem
fem
fem
(weqs)
AIIIo
AIIIo
wop-seH2
cf. westij
H1ws
ei
wH1-dhH1owrH2d-iH2; cf
w iks
(wernos)
BIIIb
BIIIb
AIVa
(w iks
w ijs
AIIh
ej
empty
water
wasp
voice
cannabis
worm
colour
policeman
invert (to)
dress
turban
wet
garment
backbone
perimeter
word
root
enclosure
veil
webbing
Hwr
harn
respect
lamb
werj wneumi close
werj apo
open
wneumi apo
vigor
attack (to be in)
work
wrH-goattack
close
laugh
persecute
grumble
hand
dip
wrH2d-eiH-;
root
cf.w y
H2wrs;
rain
worsos wors
turn
row
turn
enclosure
rye
unus
aqua
uespa
uox
cannabis
uermis
color
tresuir
inuert
uesti
tiara
madidus
in mentum
spna
circumductus
uerbum
r ix
clausra
rca
ricinium
urna
uereor
uerux
clau
aperi
uigor
urge
la or
impetus
clau
r e
persequor
ringor
manus
fouea
r ix
pluuia
uersi
uersus
uert
saepimen
scale cerele
489
II.3. ETYMOLOGY FROM DESCENDANT LANGUAGES

PIE
1.Italic
1a.Latin
1b.Other 2a.West.
1b1.-Osc.
1a0.-Lat.
1b2.1a1.-Gal- Umbr.
Rom.
1b3.1a2.-Pren. Volsc.
1b4.-Pelig.
gj
gsj
gtis
pj
sntis
belos
abhns
abhro-
acnos
ad
ai
axmenta
2.Celtic
1b2.-aiu
2b.East.
3.Germanic
3a.West.
2a0.3a1.-Ger.
2b0.Ogham.
3a2.-Eng.
Gal/Brit
2a1.-O.Ir.
3a3.-Nor.
2b1.2a2.-M.Ir.
Da.
Welsh
2a3.3a5.-Du.
2b2.-Corn.
Mod.Ir.
3a6.-Low
2b3.-Bret.
2a4.-Sco.
Ger.
4.Greek
5.Ind.-Ira., 6.BaltoAn., Arm.

Slavic
3b.East.
4.1.-IonAtt.
5.1.-Skr.
4.2.-Aeol
5.2.-Ved.
4.3.-Dor
5.3. Avest.
4.4.-Boeot.
3b0.-Goth.
5.4.4.5.-Phyg.
Arm.
4.6.-Mac.
5.5.- Hitt.
4.7.-Ac5.6.- Pers.
Kyp.
4.8.-Myc.
5.4.-asem
'iuss'
6.1.- O.C.S.
6.2.- Russ.
6.3.- Lith
6.4.-Latv.
6.5.- Sr.
6.6.- Pol.
6.7.- Tch.
6.8.- Slo.
6.9.O.Pruss.
ToA.ksisam, B
aksaskau
apscor,
coep,
aptus,
cpula;
ape
(imperat.);
apud<apwod
'lig'; pnoti
5.3.'tactus'; apayeiti,
3. Pl.
'tang'
pnte
<pwantai
5.4.-unim
<pn?
'posside'
5.5.-eipmi
'em' 3. pl.
appaanzi
Abella
aball, ubull avallo
apful
apls?
ablko,
(malifera
<*ablu, 2b1.-afal
KRIMGOT
jablko
sec.
abaln 2b2, 2b3.: apel
6.3.-obulas
Vergilium)
aval
(fr.), obels
(arb.)

irl.
abje 'cit'
Opunn, t<*HHi3op
bh-,
'repentnus
' / obann,
'cit,
tobann
subit'
<*HHi3bh-
abor2b1.-afr- 3a3.-afar abrs 'u'

'mult'
'mult'
'mult'
abraba
'mult'
biabrjan
'stupre.
excitr'
agnus;
1b2.an proto- 2b1.-oen
3a2. <
(j)agn ,
agnle,
habina(f)
celt.
(pl. wyn) anian,. to
*
(j)agnc
auillus, 'agnnae' *ognos
2b2.yean <*'auillus';
agnnus
oin/oan/on gwhnjagnilo
2b3.-oan
'sicut
'agnle'
(pl. ein)
agnus
esse'
ad
az; adpud ad- (v.g.
adaz; zagn, at; atha<ad-
491

'quoad'
1b2.-ar-
adej
2b2.arsie<adio
'sanct';
arsmor<ad
mon 'ritus';
arsmatiam
<admatio'ritulem';
armamu
'ordinmini
'
adgldur 2b2.-add-; zougen

augjan
'appell') a(g) 'cum' 3a2.-t; 'monstr'
<ad-ghe
tgian
'time'
3a3.-at
ad, pl ada addas
zil, Ziel til, ga-tils
'ms'; 'correctus'; 'ftum' 'correctus'
adas
eddyl 'fs' 3a2.-til
'pertinens'
'correctus';
til 'tenus';
3a3.-til
'tenus'
adgh
dmi
adm
ados
ghar
ezzisca
'smen'
gathar
atisk <*esko
'aruum'
egis-lh
*ogan
'terribilis' (og); agis
3a2.-ege (agisis)
(i-), awe
'timor';
'timor' unagands
'audax'
gherom
aghj
ag allaid
ael 'id';
'ceruus', l eilion
'catulus' <*agliones
'equ'
aghls
lad?
'uulnus'
aeleu<aghl
owo
'dolor'
aghlws
492
eglian
agis
'aegrotre' ''
3a2.-egele aglia,
'repugnans
agl
'
'tribulti'
us-agljam
'tribulre'
aglus,
agluba
'difficile'
aglaitei
àselgeia'
2b1.-glaw,
'pluuia'
2b3.-glav
ghe; tsarti
'reptat'
5.5.-ha-at'oner' ki 'claudit'
ht'fuscti' 'siccr';
<*HHi2dj- htes/HHi2sd-; 'dsiccri';
hatnu;
'dsicc'
<*adj /
asdj ?
5.5.-hattar; TOK A, B.hatti

'siccus
'grmina'
esse'
'afflgor';
'cti';
'onus,
multitd'
ILLYR.ozero
'Achern' Oseriates
6.3.eras
ah 'bs'
5.3.-az
'forda'
5.4.-ezn
'bs'?
agha
'afflgor'; 'pruus'
aghala
'onus,
multitd' 'malum'
5.3.-ag
'pruus'
5.4.-aa 6.9.-aglo
'tenebrae' 'obscrus' 'pluuia'

'id'
ghneumi
agns
agl
glis
agmn
ag
l
agilis
agmen,
exmen
ag
agos
ags
agr
aidhis
aidh
acum
atom-aig 2b1.-agit/ 3a3.-aka
'agere' 'adigit me'
'it'
'condc'
1b2.-aitu in <*agni- 2b2-2b3.-a
'agit'
'ducti'
ekel
'damnum'
3a2.-acan,
c 'dole'
ag, agh ??
'cerua'
2b1.hair/aer
2b3.-air
pl. airou
irne 2b1.-aeron ackeran, akran 'fruit'
'prnus 'baccae',
Ecker
spinsa' eirin 'prn' 3a2.2b3.-(h)irin cern
'prn. sp.'
grnom
agrqols
agros
agsl
agts
aichesj
ael
ager
actus
aedes,
aestas,
aestus
<*aidh-stu(cf. irl. tess
*tep-stu-)
ajna-<*H 6.3.-o nis

Hig- 'pellis'
6.3.izaena
'coriceus'
'grex'
ajir
jman
jati
5.3.-azaiti
gas'culpa';
'culpa';
'innocens' ngas'innocens'
aj- 'aris'; koza (k cf.

<*HHig- aj 'capra' kost)
4.8.-a3-ki- 5.4.-ayc
(j)azno
pa-ta
<*HHig'pellis'
A B.-dh 5.6.-azak, 6.3.-o k,
'capra' azg 'capra'
o ys
<gios/gi
os
'uenti'
agoda,
jagoda
6.3.-oga
'bacca'
6.4.-uga
<H2ogeH2
3a2.-cer
akrs
jra
ekeln
aiwiski
5.5.
'repudi' 'uerecundi <*aigh-s- iskuna(hh) 'ignminia'
kos
3a2.a'
'iniuri' *ai>*au !!
'uerecundi
wan
aiwiskn
TOK B.a';
'contemn' 'repudi'
ysk
'mancill'
aed (aeda) Aedui (VN) eit 'ardor' ;

inddh; 6.7.-nisteje
<*aidhuast
dhah 'caloriferu
'ardor';
'ignis'
'sicctor'
m'
'cremium' ;
3a2.-d
vdhr'aer',
'cremium';
'sdus';
<HHi2-dhoast 'sicc'
i aka
'sdus'
'later
combustus
'
5.3.aesma
'cremium'
5.5.-ay-
493

'cale'
aig
aigros
aik
imneumi
aimom
aesculus ?
eih
3a2.-c
3a2.-col
'agittus';
inca 'dolor'
3a3.-eikja,
eikla
'torment';
ekki 'dolor'
aeger
A B.-ke- bba jag

k 'pruus' 'uenefica';
<*ke +
jedza
*aigio'morbum,
TOCH A
ra'
ekro B 6.3..-ingas
aik(a)re
'piger'
5.3.-iar igla 'acus'
i
'hasta'; <*H3H 2k'protinus'
6.3.<*H3Hi2k
i mas,
'prope'
ji mas
'hasta'
5.5.himma
ic, ici
img,
aemulus,
imitor
'infortniu
m'
'potior';

(Hes.);
'praedae'
ain
inumoi
aiqos
air
aequus
aisdai
aistan
'caue'
aisdhom
aiskrs
ais
isosk
aissk
494
sca,
scae
'lna'
<H2eiskjo-
aisusis
'sacrificiis'
esono'sacer'
aeruscre eiscurent
'arcessieri
nt'
ra /Ehre
3a2.-ar
'honor'
eiskn,
heischen
'posc'
3a2.scian,
xian
'posc'
eisca
'postulti'
aistan
'caue'
5.5.-enant
'domitus'
inti (inv)
'in/abdcit'
5.5.- pai(pe+ai)
'd'; UWupahili
'datrius'
eka 'nus'
'mala erak
6.4.-ares,
herba'
'herba'
arenes
d (p.pt
dya)
'honor'
<*aisd
5.5.-asaraiskra
, esara- 'scintilla';
jasn
6.3.ikus,
iks
d (p.pt
dya)
'honor'
<*aisd
eshati
iskati
'quaerit', 'quaer';
eshah,
iska
icchah 'desideriu
'desideriu m' 6.3.m'
ieskoti
ishma- 6.4.-ieskat
'deus
amoris'
5.3.-ishaiti
'desiderat'
icch
iska
5.4.-aic

3a2.-sce
'inuestigti
'
aitis
aeteis part es 'aetas' 2b1.-oes

is' attm <ait-to
'aetas'
'portionum'
iw(es)i
io
3a2.- ,
3a3.-, ei
iwesos
aiws
iwotts
aiwu
is, aes,
is, oes
aeuus,
longaeuus
aewum
jeri
jesnos
ajos
aes
keris
acer
keswos
akj
ace
akjs
acis
akm
akmn
'inuest.'
Aesus
2b1.-oes
2b2.huis/oys/
z
2b3.-oet,
oat, oad
aiw
5.3.-ata
<*
'multa,
'pars,
punti'
destnum'
'causa'

yu
A B.esh
'tempus, (yua ) < *aiuesi
saeculum' 'uis uitlis'
wa <*-
aiws
'tempus,
<*aiwi 'longaeuus
'
aeternits' 'tempus,
3a3.- vi mundus'
<*-i,
'uita,
aets'
TOK A.ym'spiritus,
uita'
wa <*-
aiws
<*ay- yu-;
TOK A.'tempus,
<*aiwi
wen
yu
ymaeternits' 'tempus, 'tempus, (yua ) 'spiritus,
3a3.- vi mundus' saeculum'; 5.4.-oc
uita'
<*-i,
<*H2oiu
'nn'
'uita,
(loc.) 'nn'
aets'
r, ehe,
air
5.3.-ayar
eher
(ayan)
*ajeri-ed3a2.-r,
to>
ere
3a3.-r
'ientculu
m'
r
aiz
yah
3a2.-r
'ferrum,
3a3-eir
metallum'
5.3.-ay
ahorn
3a3.-aer
2b1.-hogi
'acu';
diauc
<*d-ko
'puter'
ekka, Ecke
osla<*osl
'angulus'
a 'cs'
'cuspis'
3a2.-eggja
3a3.-egg
ham,
k s
'sine
hamm
'buccella?'
mors'
6.3.kumuo^ss
a mankamy,
495

() (a nas)
'incs'
5.5.-aku
akn
agna
knmi
akks
akos
akris
excum
'centaurion
lepton'
2b3.-eok
<eksko'matrus,
blandus'
acus
(aceris);
aceruus
(cf.
Minerua
<*Menesw
)
cer, acris,
acre;
acidus;
acerbus
<*akridhH1
o-
agana,
ahana
Ahne 'id' 'foenum'
3a2.egenu 'id'
3a3.-agn
'inescatori
um'; ja
<ahjan
'pscr'
3a3.-ag
'cladium
mariscus';
agge, ugg
'cuspis,
dens'
ascia
aksis
axis
aksteinos
496
'glans';
'esca'
a nti
anam
'cibus'
5.3.- -sa
'-uorus'
acus
osoka
'c r'
6.3.-aka
'spna',
furfur
a rostr
<*H3Hi2k- 'cuspis' 6.3-ars,
'cuspis' 5.4.-aseln atras;
'acus'
aer s
'perca flu.'
6.4.-ass
'actus'
1b1.-akrid a(i)cher
2b1.3a3.- gr
'acr' /
'uiolentus arocrion
<*akro'acriter' (uentus)' 'atrocia'
'perca
1b2.<*-ero-? 2b3.-acer- fluuilis'
peracri
uission
'opmus'
'cum
acts
digits'
aittenn
<2b1
aculeus
'cuspis'
ksij
akus
a ni'hasta'
ahir, hre ahs 'spca'

<aksn,
*ahiz 'id'
3a2.-ear
'palea'
*ahuz
3a3.-ax
'actus'
'spca'
akrom
kulos
'cs';

6.3.akmu;
mens
'lmina'
6.3.- ans
'id'
6.4.-asns
'germen'
2b1.achel,
echel
2b3.-ael
2b1.eithin
achhus,
Axt
3a2.-acus
x axe
ahsa
3a3.-oxoll
2b3.- ebil 3a2.-egle,

<*aku-lio- ails 'arista';
wel <*wolo'furca'
aqizi
gra'cuspis'
5.4.-aseln
'acus'
5.5.-hekur
<H3Hi2k
5.5.ates(s)a-
ksah
ost,
ostn
'cuspis'
6.3.-aksts,
kstinas
'id'
osla
<*osla
'cs'
osi
6.3.-as
5.5.-akus
st

(acs),
acia
<*acu-i
'cs'
al!
aljai
albhos
lea,
ambul,
alcinor
albus
afslaunan?
'fur'
Alafaterno
m, Alafis
'Albius'
2b1.albiz, elbiz
elfydd<lb
3a2.hiyo
aelbitu,
ielfetu
3a3.-elptr,
olpt
'cygnus'
6.4.-aluot,
aluotie^s
'err'
l'a
'amens'
lebed<
*olb-ed
'cygnus'
6.3.-baladis
'columba'
'adquisiti'
'lucror'
'bouium
adquisitor'
alchos
aldhn
3a2.ealdo,
3a3.-olda
aliks
alica
lesnos
alnus
alghj
alge
aljos
'hurra'
'bell
clam'
5.5.
alwanzatar
'err';
'frutilla'
'mendcus';
'alcinor',
'uit';
'confsus'
5.4.-alauni
(fluminis <*alabhn?
nmen) 'columba'
5.5.-al-pa?
'nubs'
'carduus'
6.3.akotas
'arista'
ole(le)
6.3.-aluoti
'salut'
alius, alter
Eller, Erle
3a2.-elor,
ellen,
ellern,elde
r
3a3.-jolstr
<*elustr
3a3.elgiar,
elgur
'aqua-nix'
alttram
àlteram'
aile
2b1.-eil/ail
2b2.-(e)yll
2b3.-eil
rhati
alga
'debet, 'adquisiti'
meret;
arjati
'lucrtur'
arghah
''ualor';
arjaiti
'ualt'
5.5.halkuessar
'messis'
5.6arzdan
'lucror'
ladiji,
aldiji
'phaslus'
6.3.eldij le
'sartag'
halki'grnum'
*alisa > ALB.-hal lcha
ESP aliso 'populus
6.3.alba'
elk/alksnis
6.4.lksnis
497
alja
3a2.alhs
rak ati
elkas,
ealgjan<al 'templum' 5.4.-aracel alkas

'protecti' 'nemus
goojan
'protecti'
ealh
sacrum'
'templum'
6.4.-elks
'uis';
3a3.-aluh
'idolus'
'amulettum
'potens'
'
alkis
alcs
lho, Elch
ayalos
<gmc.
<gmc.
<*olkis
<*olkis
3a2.-eolh,
elk
an-alaal
al
alim
2b1.-allt alt 'uetus'
alan
'mons'
3a2.-ald, 'crsc' 'insatibilis 'ignis';
2b2,b3old 'id'
alis
rdhnti/d
'
aot,aod
'adipsus'
dhi
'litus'
'procreat'
alpos
lpa
6.3.-alpti
'dbilis' 'paruus' 'debilitor'
5.5.'hauri'
alpanda
'flaccus' 'dbilis' ?;
alpu'specus' 'suauis'
lteros
altjos
altior,
alt(a)e
aleis
altius
'ductus'
'uetus'
alts
altus
alt/allt
2b1.-allt
<
'litus'
'cluus'
altyos
2b2.-als
'silua'
'litus'
2b3.-aot,
aod 'litus'
lujos
lium, *all <*ali
l- ,
'rdix'
lum
lukm`bulbus'
lum
alta,
al-schaf
ol
almen
'pculum'
6.3.-als
3a2.ealu()
amy
am,
mih
ammen ?
ami- (ved.
amcus (Castignan
'al,
am i,
o Cippus)
duc'
etc.),
'amre' ?
mv<Hmd? (l
'morbum'
Eichner)
ambh
ambig,
ampt; imb-, imm- 2b1.-ambi, bei bi
(cf. ambhi-tah
amput, amvannu
2b2,2b3.3a2.obhi)
5.3.-aiwito
amici; am d 'circuitu';
am-, im- ymbe, be5.4.(arc.); 1b2.-ambr;
bambolj
anceps, amboltu,
'sosps'
sollemnis aferum
'circumferr
e';
anferener
'circumfere
ndi'
ambhagto
ambactus ambaht, andbahts
s
(lat.)
be-Amt-e
2b1.3a2.ambih
amaeth
t
ljote
alkej
498
mbhinom
ambhqolo ancilla,
s
anculre
ambhrm
os
ambhou
amb,
ambae,
amb
beide,
bde
3a2.-btha
bai (m)
ubhu
ba(n)
meik
amiks
met
amgh
ang;
angustus,
angiportus
, angna
cum-ung 2b1.-(cyf- angi, engi, aggwus

'angustus' )yng, wng eng 'id' 'angustus'
2a3.2b3.3a2.-enge
cumhang enk(<eksa
ng)
cum-ung 2b1.-(cyf- angi, engi, aggwus
'angustus' )yng, wng
eng
2a3.2b3.3a2.-enge
cumhang enk(<eksa
ng)
angust,
Angst
'metus'
ith <*ti'furnus'
amghs
mghustis angustiae
mi
amm
Amma/ae
'Matr'
ms
mes
amrs
amrus
3a1, a3.amma
`(Sauer)a
mpfer
3a2.ampre;m
'oxyd.'
3a3.-apr
'actus'
mros mrei
an
ants
ana
oba
6.3.-abu
an
anas
(anitis)
anhel
1b2.an-dess
<an+ansl antentu
'ab
, antemn 'intendit'; meridino',
an
anut, Ente
3a2.-ened
(i-)
ana, an
3a2.-on
3a3.-
ana
ALB.-ame 6.3.-anta
'id et
(cf anus)
mter'
amhas o , oziti;
'metus'
ve ,
5.5.vezati 'lig'
'prs'
hamank/e
nk/ink 'lig'
a huz-k
bhd
'strict
uaginta'
5.4.-anjuk
zost
ant, antik
<*HHi2'focus'
anj, cf. 5.5.-i-nu
uz-zi; a-ari 'calefit,
stomacht
ur'
amba
TOK;
ammakki
vym
'ulna
(mensra)'
samm
'longitd'
aml-,
ambl
5.4.-aur,
TOK A
'dis' (suff.
awr
oml,
-mero- in <*awur
emalle
*siH2-) <*H1eH2m 'calidus'

r 'dis'
6.3.-an-gu
'uel'
th 'auis
oty
aquatica' 6.3.-ntis
anu
6.3.-ante,
5.3.-ana,
ant
anu
'secundum
499

anseriato
'obserutu
m'; anglar
'oscines'
etc
ndhes
ainder,
aindir
andhos
andabata
'c.
gladitr.'
ai(n)gen
'sartag'
anglos
angulus
5.6.-an
'flos'
2b1.-anner
'uitulus'
2b3.ounner 'id'
ancha,
enka f.
'ceruix';
enkel 'id'
3a2anclow,
ankle
'femur'
3a3.- okkla
'femur'
anj
ankos
ancus,
uncus,
aduncus,
unculus,
ungustus,
ancrae
cath
'hamus
piscis"
2b1.anghad
anksi
nksitjom
anmos
ann
anos
anl
anus
inne <
ininjo(i)si
'habnae'
ans
ansa,
anstus
anstos
anstus
500
ango,
angul,
angeln
3a2.-onga
'puncta'
3a3.-ankr
'colpus'
hta,
uohta
3a2.-ht,,
ht,e
animus,
anima
'
2b1.-anadl
2b3.alazn/alan
se 'id'
3.3.-s
<*ansj
'anus ling.
calce'
andh-;
5.3.-anda-
gam
og()l
'aula; 'membrum' 'angulus'
dolium'; ; a gli-/ri
'digitus'
'cubitus'
<*ank, a gu h
'pollex'
5.3.'uallis'
<*ank anguta'id'
5.4.ankiun/giu
n 'angulus'
5.4.'sentna',
hanem
5.5.'excup'
han(iya)
'excup';
hanessa'ligula'
a(n)cati
og()l
'uiet"
'barbamen
akna-,
tum'.
akta
'cubitus' 'aduncus'
a kur'aduncus' 'propago'
5.3.-aka5.5.-5.5.hink
'prostern'
anaks
jas,
6.3.'subit';
jas
anksta,
*uhtw
'cit,
ankst
'aurra'
protinus'
'mn'
*uhtiugs
(adi, adv.),
'opportnu
anksti( )
s'
(n)
5.4.-hom voniati
us-anan
'exspir'
(homoy) 'foetre'
<H2onH1mo
5.4.-anur
'habna'
4.3.-ania
<*ansia
6.3.-as;
astas
6.4.-uosa
6.3.-astas

amsus
RUN.
got-lat
a[n]suR;
anses
Ase; 3a2.- 'smide'
s 3a3.ss (Oslo
<As-lo ?)
anta
end 'antea'
and;
3a2.-enti and(a)-;
'id'
andeis
3a3.-endr,
'fnis'
enn 'id'
3a3.-ond
'uestibulu
m'
antas
ant
antae
ante,
antiquus,
ants,
antiae
tan
enhyt,
*antonoennyd
'frons';
'tempus'
ata
<anti-iti-?
'aets'
<*ant-odio?
ntijos
ntitjos
antjs
antiae
andi,
'frons, -tis'
3a3.-enni
'id"
enti, Ende
3a2.-end
antjom
anus,
anna
ano, Ahn;
Enkel
'patruus'
peros
uover /
Ufer
3a2.-fer
apm
apnis
apo
apqitis
at, anta
t, t
5.3.-aiy
5.4.-dr-and
anti; nta
'fnis'
'cluus'
5.4.-nd
5.5.-ha-anti (hanti);
hantiyai
'cr'
5.5.hantezziya
anta
antrom
anus
su
'spritus';
sura
'spritlis'
5.3.-a hu'id'; ahura
5.5.-hassu
'rex'
hassa'genitra'
amnis
ab,
1a2.aperi
apehtre
<ap'ab extr'
wery;
asporto<a
bs;
pn<pos
n; porrig
amm, m
'manus'
abann
5.4.-ayr
(g.pl.
ayric)
5.4.-han 6.3.-anta
(Hes)
5.5.- ha'socrus'
an-na-a
(hanna)
'mater,
auia'
5.4.-ap'n
'ripa'
'ndus'
Abona
2b1.-afon
2b2.-auon
2b3.-Pontaven
aba, ab
af, ab-u
3a2.-f, of
3a3.-af
ap-, pah 6.4.-ue

(fluminis
'aqua';
'aqua'
nmen)
abdah
'nubs'
5.5.-hapa 5.1.,5.3.- 6.3.-apa i
apa
? 'infera
5.5.-a-appars'
pa (apa)
'retr'
paciti-
501

pqos
apsttis
abstantia,
distantia
apteri
apteros
apowsent
is
awk <*afoc
3a3.-fugr
<*pHkwo
Abstand
aften
aftaro,
3a2.aftuma,
ftan,
aftumists
after
3a3-aptan
aper
ps
aps
apsos
aq
abwesend
4.8.-a-pe-o
apehwn,
a-pe-o-te
apehontes
; a-pe-a-sa
apehansai
(es)
?
'capra'
1a2.-apruf,
abrof
(acc. pl.)
aapas,
aapam
ebur /
Eber
3a2.-eofor
aspa,
Espe
3a2.spe, asp
cf, aptus
aqua
aha, Ache
'id'
3a2.-a
'id'; g, eg
<*aq-j
'insula'
ahva
'flmen'
ar
arj
ar
rarj
arma,
502
visthala-
'locus
recondictu 6.3.-atsts
s'
'longinquu
s'
apataram
absens
(<sum)
powoiks
apps
apros
pka-
airid <*2b1.erien
jeti; arbar? arddaf/erd <*arj
'frmen',
di
3a2.-erian,
arn
ear
'pnis'
arjan
<*arj
vivasati
'abest';
apavsa
'extincti'
TOK B:
appake
vupar
vepr
6.3.-vepris
ToAB.-p 5.1.-5.3.- 6.3.-6.4.p-/ap- pe, upe
osna
*opsna
Hes.
6.3.apu ,
epue
6.6.osa,osina/i
ka
psas- ToA.-ps
'membrum
(pl.)
q.' OSS.fcg
'collum'
5.5.happis/happessa
r
ok
TOK. ra- 6.3.-ar 'et,

'quia' emphat
quoque'
6.4.-ar 'et,
at, tunc'
5.5.-hrs- ori , ,

orati
'pnis'
6.3.-ari
aram,
6.6.-ko-

armentum,
ars, artus,
rtus
artrom
rdej
ardis
rgtom
artrum
argentum
3a3.-arta
aird
airget Argantoma
2a3.gus
airgead
2b1.arian(t)
2b2.argans/arh
ans
2b3.arc'hant
'ardea,
ibis'
argrs
argu
arjos
rmtom
2b1.-aradr
2b2.aradar
2b3.arazr/arar
ardea
argis
arguj
arathar
pf.
lam jarzy 'lig'
'satis';
ar'mihi
'rortae
decet';
radius' r
-t'coniux'
'seruus'
'uirtus' 5.3.-arnte
'fixntur';
'optumus';
arm
'uinculus' 'decenter'
5.4.-arnem
'faci';
pr.arar
5.5.-harap- ?
5.4.-arawr
<H2rH3tro
m
armentum,
arma
armos
armus
arom
harund
6.5.-roda
ali
rajatm
5.3.rzatm
5.4.-arcat'
5.5.harkant- ?
5.6.ardatam
rjuna- TOK A.5.5.-harki, rki; TOK
hargai
B rkwi
rjr-
5.5.arkuwai
airech
Arioar(i)y-,
'nobilis';
mnus
ryaka
aire
5.3.-airy
'primas'
'arius'
Ermenrch; *Armana-
5.4.-yjarm
'artus'
'id'
reiks
armar
'igum'
3a3.- 'Hermeneri 'adapt' 'decens'

jormuni
cus';
'imentum' Herminone 'uehiculum'

s
aram 3a1, a2.arms

rmramo
'furca',
arm
<*armi<*H2
'umerus'
*aramones
rHmo- 6.3.-arma
`
5.3.- rm 'a.currus'
- <*H2
rHmo5.4.armukn
'cubitus'
ALB.dalndysh
e?
503

arqos
arcus,
arquus
3a2.-earh, arhvasna
arrow
'sagitta' 'iuniperus'
3a3.- or
(orvar) 'id'
arlataf
arcults'
arti
artis
ars, iners,
sollers,
arti
artus
artus, art
art
3a3.einarr
'simp.x'
'simul'
'nunc,
dudum'
'adeptus'
rus
arw
arwom
sj
arvna
aruum;
1b2.arbor
aruus -a. arvam-en 'grnum'
um
'in aruum' <*H2rH3wens
ra
astris
astus
504
aasai 'in
r' 1b2.are 'rae'
re,
aasai 'in
n
aridus, ra r' 1b2.- 'candidus,
arde (pt. are 'rae' nbilis'
assus)
<asnos ?
rea (cum
r?)
sos
astur
(asturis)
astus,
asttus
5.4.-ard
'nunc
ipsum'
t'modus,
pactus'
rakita
'salix'
6.4.(r)cis
'iuniper.'
6.3.-art
'prope'
2b1.-erw
2b3.-eru,
ero
'sulcus'
essa, Esse
'cam.'
3a3.aRina,
arinn
essa, Esse azgo 'cinis'
<asyn
'ra'; erin
'solus';
Asche 'id'
3a2.-ash
'cinis'
tart 'prope'
'rectus';
tm 'fas;
t'tempus
bonum, t.
ann, ord'
5.3.-arta-,
rta- 'id'
5.4.-ard
(ardu)
'structra'
5.6.-arta'lex'
ALB.-arr ,
'
'nux'
orec 'nux'
'
(Hsq)
'intestna'
(Hs)
urvar
'terra
fcunda'
5.4.haravunk`
5.5.-hassi
(loc.<hass
a) 'focus'
<asdy
'sicc',
'siccus' ;
<
'cinis'
sa-h
'cinis'
5.4.azazim
<*azgh
'sicc'
asca
azgo 'cinis'
sa-h
<*asgn
'cinis'
3a2.-asce,
5.4.-a iun
sce
3a3.-sce
5.5.astayarat(t
TOK A.asatr B
osotr <*ws- a
part.
perfect
6.8.-ozditi
'maltam
torrre'

ati
atiloiqos
atis
at, atauus,
atneps
)ar
ati; atah ot-, ot 'ab'

'sed' (cf. 'inde'<atos < atos?
5.3.-aiti
6.3.-at-,
'ultra'
ata-, at5.6.-atiy
'ab'
atir kaotl k
6.3.-ats,
tas
6.4.- te
adal, edel haimli
5.3.- TOK A tl
3a2.- 'patrimoniu 'tener'
wya-
'hom'
aeele
m'
'duc' rataona's
'pater '
anam
tati 'it'
(dat. pl.);
at-ani
aith, ad ategnatus oh 'sed'

(ante 'pergntus' <at-ge
tonum) 2b3.-aznat 3a2.-ac
'rursus'
'sed'
attilus
atlos
atnos
annus, 1b1,1b2.perennis, akno-; persollemnis acni, sevakni
tms
t
atqe
tros
atts
athach
'halitus'
<atko
atque, ac
ter, trius Aadriis

'atrius'
1b2.-atru,
adro
atta
audhos
ith
-an ,
ac 'sed'
tmn,
instr.
w
<*HH 2t-,
tmn
<*HHw2et;
<*HHw2t-
dhmt,
tum,
Atem
3a2.-m,
thum
2b1.-a(c)
2b3-2b3.ha(g)
2b1.-odyn
atto
atta
2b1.-udd
al-d audahafts'f
2b3.'plena ortuntus';
ozac'h potests'; audags
'dominus'< kleinod
'betus'
udakkos 'gemma';
3a2.-d
'pertinentia
'; dan
'fortuntus'
aug
augj
ugej
augm
aug
auge
wachsen
3a2.weaxan,
wax
aukan
tharvan vtra 'ignis'

'flamen
igneus'
5.3.-tar
'ignis'
5.4.-airem
'r'
att 'mtr' tc
5.5.-at-ta- <attiks
a, atta
ALB.-agoj
iug?
'radius, 'amanescit' 'meridis'
lumen' , agume
'alba
matinlis'
jas- 'uis';
ugti
ugr'fortis'
5.5.-ukturi'durbilis'
505

augos
augur
(animtus)
, augustus
augts
augts
aulos
aluus,
alueus
auqsl
aulla, ula
ausij
hauri
ausom
aurum
auss
aurra
ausrom
3a2.-eca,
eke
'additmen
tum'
fir? (cf.
wsros)
Easter
'Pascha'
auster
aw
aut, autem
aw
Auentnus
(mons)
aue,
auidus,
aude,
awj
506
jas- 'uis'
6.3.augestis
'augmen'
ussketi
usteros
aut, auti,
athad
autem
'paucits'
1b2.-ute,
ote; uru
'ill', uraku 'ad
illam'
6.3.uktas
'altus'
6.4.-aukts
'id'
3a3.-aul,
5.4.-ul(i) ulica 'uia'
aule, jl
'uia';
ulj
'alueus'
<*ulyli
'pannle'
'angelica
'canlis' 'pregnns' 6.3.- auls;
siluestris'
5.5.aul s,
<HHw1l-
halluwaavil s
'cauus,
'fauus'
profundus'; 6.4.-ula
auli 'pipa'
'axis'
2b1.-offen 3a1, a2.ahns
(i ukh, ukh
'cupa
ofen 'id'
<ukns
schwa
5.5.petrea' 3a3.-oghn 'furnus' secundum happina
'id'
) 'furnus' 'flamma''
3a3.-ausa
5.4.-os-ki uksas,
ausas
6.9.-ausin
2b1.u h (ac.
utro
gwawr
u sam) <*ustro
2b3.vsara
<*usroF
gwere
'dis,
'matna'
'cras'
laouen
matna' 6.3.-ausr
'stella
5.3.-us 6.4.-austra
matutna'
(ac.
usham)
u rutro
<*ausrjom
<*ustro
'cras'
<*usroALB.-err
6.3.-ausr
'obscrits'
'aurra'
uccati 6.3.-a ta
5.3.ususaiti
za ustra
'mane'
6.3.austrinis
'uentus a
NE'
6.4.austrums
avar 'hic' 6.3.-aur,
odid 'rrus' ouh 'etiam,
auk
<*aw-ttos
sed'
'tamen,
aure 'ibi,
'iterum'
(=diffusus) 3a2.-ak
donec' (deuide!'
3a3.-auk
uro?)
Avara,
Avernus
con-i Avicantus
'protegit'
2b1.evyllys
avani
'flmen'
awi-liu
vati
'gratia' 'beneuolus 'postulat';
'
avas-
avuts

aurus
'uolunts'
2b3.-eoull,
youll
welj
cf. aura
ahl, aial 2b1.-awel

2b2.auhel/awel
2b3.-avel
awigsn
auna
wij
awis
awisdhij
auis
audi,
oboedi
aw
aw
wontlos
awos
awou
awti
awtim
awtjos
auus,
auunculus
au-fer,
au-fugi
tium?
'satisfacti'
'amcus' 5.3.-avaiti
'prouidet';
avah
'auxilium'
5.4.-aviun
'libid'
'tempest.'
ovs
6.3.-avi
6.4.-uzas
(pl.)
vih, vh
5.3.<*awjetos
vay(as)'aquila'
'coruus'
5.4.-haw
5.5.suwais
vis
um<aum

'plam';
os
'audi',
ud/para- 'intellectus'
avati
; aviti,
'celeber'
javiti
(F)i 'comperi'
5.5.-a-u- 'monstr'
zi 'uidet'
5.6.-kr
'clrus'
wuorag
vyati?
'ebrius'
'fatigtur'
'casa';
3a2.5.4.
wrag,
aganim,
'trium'
wrig,
awt'
'somnus' 'refugium'
weary
(kall.)
'fatigtus'
<H2outi
aue
avontir
heim aw 'auia'
5.4.-hau
uji
'neps'/a, 'auunc' 'anculus'
'auus' 'auunculus'
a
2b1.3a3.-i
5.5.-huhha
6.3.ewythr 'id.' <*H2uH2
avynas
2b2.-euitor
n2b3.eontr<awe
ntro
'de, cum, au-tagis

5.1, 5.3.- u 'd'; u
per'
'diataxis'?
ava 'ab,
(myti)
2b1.-o,
ex'
'ablu' uhou 'de,
5.1.-vara bejhati
cum'
'inferior' 'aufugi'
5.3.-aora 6.3, 6.4.'d'
au 'ab'
6.4.aumanis
'amens'
ALB.-hut
abar
2b1.-afer di, de
*aueis
507

'units'
'unus' 'dsertus' 'dsertus'

2b2.-ufer
'id'
*auberos
2b3.-euver
'id'
'tentorium'
badjos
bait
badius
baktlom
baculum,
bacillum,
imbcillus
bacc <lat. 1b2.-bach

?
<l.?
1b3.-bac'h
<l.?
blbalos
barbarus, blaesus
babae,
papae,
babaecalu
s balbus,
blaesus
bbe, bababbaba
bbe 'auia'
karti
'anus'
'loquor' 'balbti'; bbl'u,
bla?
bbati
'puer'
'balbti'
6.3.balbsyti
'garri'
bammeln
bben
'uagor'
'strepere'
6.3.
3a3.bimbalas,
'crabr'
bumba
bimbilas
'crabr';
'pulca'
bambti
'reson'
bata 'oh'
2b2.'balbti'
badus
'lunaticus'
'nug'
2b3.-bat,
bad
'hebetti';
bada,
badaoui
'sine
sensu
loqu'
6.3.-ba bti
'grunni'
(boues)
bekura
beiccithir
2b1.bh;
bekati;
'mugit'
beicchio
blken
'uox'
blek(ot)t
'mugre' 3a3.-bekri
6.4.-b,
'aris'
beku, biku
bala-,
boljj
'mair',
balyan,
balistha bolje adv.
'magis,
pls'
bend/benn 2b1.-2b3.- ? pint

'corn'
ban
'penis'
3a2.-pintle
5.5.pintanza
'cluus'
ambu
'fragrantia' 'aqua';
pfeit
'camisia'
3a2.-pd
'tapte'
balbos
bmbalos
bat
baubjai
baubor
bebj
bb,
bl, bl
belom
dbilis
<*dhabilis?
blowents
bend
bendl
bew
508
buide
'irrt'
imbu
paida
'bracca'
baby
'infans'
6.3.bksteleti
6.4.-bakstit
'fragrans'
bhsk
bhtj
fascin, inus
fatuus;
batt(u)
<gall.;
fmex?
bhwj
faue
bhabh
faba
anda-bata
'glad.
caecus';
bathu
'montam
b.'
1b2.-fons
be
'fauens', 'praestanti
foner
a'
'fauents' <bheHwiy
o-
bhagj
'cubitus'
4.2,
4.
'cubitus'
bahhan,
backen
3a2.bacan
bhv
samtsu
no v dh
'faue nbis
in proelis';
bhavya-
goveti
bob
6.3.-pup
bhu
5.3.bzu-
ba t,
ba t ?
'desider'
'edere'
bhag
bhagos
bhgos
btat
'agit'
bat
'baculum'
'lens'
bna
3a2.-ban
3a3.-baun
buog, Bug
3a2.-bg
'umerus'
3a3.-bgr
bhghus
mbhas
'pluuia'
bhikti
'snat'
fgus
bhalns
ball <*ln
'menbrum'
bhmn
affmen
bhm
bhmoi
fma
for, ftum,
faamat
buohha
3a2.-bce,
beech
bulle
'vulva',
bille 'penis'
3a2.beallucas
'testicul',
ballock
bannan
bka
'littera'
bhajati
bog
'diuidit'
'diuisi'
bhakta
bog
'prandium' 'deus'
bhakati
bogat
'uorat'
'dius'
bhikate
'uorat'
5.3.-bag(ba at)
baxta
'prandium'
5.4.-bag
'deus'
TOK..-A
bhaga
ubg,
pk
'sors,
nbg
pke;
bonu.'
'pauper'
pci
5.3.-baga-,
'thesaurus'
buzina
sa-bha
baju, bajati
509

fbula
bhneumi
'appellat';
fatium 'fri'
bn 'albus'
bhnis
bhnom
bhns
bhos
bhar
bhardh
iubar
<*dyubhs (orig.
adiect.?);
cf.
dgener,
bicorpor
far
bharwos
bhaskis
510
bn 'albus'
basc?
'ruber'; bot
.i. tene
'ignis'
<bhzdo-?
3a2.-basu,
baso
'purpura'
bear-berry
'ua urs'
barba <
farda
bart; barta
'ascia'
3a2.-beard
'barba';
barda
'ascia'
3a3.-bara
'ascia'
barc
'hasta'
2b1.-barch
'id'
barabagms
'morus'
1b1,1b2.- bairgen/ba 2b1-2b2.- 3a2.-bere' bariz-eins

far; 1b2.- irghean 2b3.-bara hordeum' 'farna'
farsio, <*barigen
3a3.-barr
fasiu
/-on
'id.'
'farrea'
3a2.-bearu
'silua'
3a3.-borr
'arbos'
fascis
basc
2b1.-baich
1a1.'collris'
'onus'
ambibasci
2b3.a
bech/beac
farrg,
farna
'narr';
basn
'fbula'
bhti,
6.5.-baju,
'appre', bhsati
ba so
fut.
'lucet';
'mic,
bhna,
arde'
bhti,
'clrus'
bhma,
'signum', bhasa 'lux';
vbhvah
'ortus
'splendens'
stellae',
5.3.
F 'lux' bmya,
bnu 'lx.'
5.4.banam
'aperi'
(aor. batsi)
'uox' 5.4.-ban
basn
'et uerbum' 'fbula'
bhn
bhs-,
bhsa ;
subhspamph.
'bene
F
lucens'
3a3.-bn
'prex'
bharkos
bharsein
bharsjom
'congregti
'; bhanati
5.4.ban<bhni
s 'uerbum'
'multre'
3a2.-baen
'rogti;
boian
'glorior' '
3a3.-bn
bnen,
bohnen
bouhhan
<bautaikna?
'signum
igneum'
3a2.bnian
'polre'
bacen
'signum'
barha
'plumae
gall
caudae'
bor
'milium
quodam'
brada
6.2.boroda;
borozda
'sulcus'
6.3.barzda
6.4.brzda
brk
'cuspis,
mystax'
brano
'farna'
bor
'picea'

h
'aquila'
'fma'
bhsos
bhtis
fti
(=uerba)
bhebhros fiber, feber
bhec
bhedh
bheg
bheidh
fd, fids
<bhideH1?
bheikos
fcus
<lingu
medit.
bheiql
bheitlom
bheld
bhelks
fulix, fulica
bibro-,
bebro-
bibar
bhsah
5.4.-bay
(bayi)
babhrh
5.3.bawrish
bibr,
bobr
6.3.bebrus,
bras
bebu,
be t
6.3.- bgu,
begti
'fugi,
time'
beta
bida
TOK
bdhate
'rogti'; 'rogti'
peti, A
'premit' 'aduersits
bitten bidjan, etc
poto
bbhatsate '
6.3.3a2.'rogre' 'honorti'
'dit'
bodetis
biddan; etymologia
ju-bdh 'repugnr'
cnow- disceptta
'genuflecte ;bda-s
gebed, <*gwedh- /
ns'
'fams'
kneo-beda bhedh /
6.4.-bads,
'genuflexi' bheidh
badus 'id'
;
3a3.- knebe 'id';
bija 'rog'
bhankti 6.3.-banga
bongid
2b1.3a3.? 'pnis'
'frangit'
dyvwng
banga
perf.
'unda'
'inflexibilis' 'battu'
babhja 6.4.-buogs
'frang'
'turma' !
bha ga
'unda'
5.4.bekanem
'frang'
beitten;
baidjan
btan
'oblig'; 'sude';
3a2.beidan
'oboedi'
bdan, 'exspect'
bid; bdan
'exspect'
,
5.4.-t'uz
beot.
5.5.-sigga,
has(s)ik
2a1.-bech 2b1.-begbia
b ela,
eg(y)r
<*bigwa,
b ela
'crbr'
bini
6.3.-bits
3a2.-bo,
bee
biail
bihal,
<*beili- ?
bihel, Beil
3a2.-bil,
bill 'ensis'
bolt(e),
6.3.-beldu,
Bolz
beldeti
'sagitta'
6.4.-belzt
3a2.-bolt
'id'
3a3.-bulta
'battu'
balka /-k
belihha,,
511

belche
bhelj
bhel
buil
'effectus,
sus'
fulix, fulica
ibell 2b1.-beleu belihha,

'fauilla'
'marta';
belche
<opi- ufel 'fauilla' 'fulica'
bhelo;
bel-tene;
Belenos
(Apollo);
Belisama
(Minerva)
bhel
bhelu
bhlun
bhem
bhendh
bhendhros
bhendos
bhenjom
512
2b2.-bal
'aegrots'
2b3.baluent
'id.'
filix, filex,
felix, filix
femur
offend,
dfend ?
; offendix,
offendime
ntum
belinuntia,
'fulica'
'grus'
'et 5.4.-a uerr'
avelum;
avelum
'uerr'
bala
bhlam
bel <
'albus'; 'splendr' 'albus'
'pallidus
equus'
sam6.3.-blas,
'fulica'
bhlayati
baltas
'prospectat 'albus'
'
6.4.-bls
balk
'pallidus'
'grus'
5.4.-bal
'pallr'
bha - 6.3.-blstu,
latrans' bila , blti
(*bhel-s-); 'loquescor'
bh at 6.4.-bilstu,
'loquitur'; bil u, bilst
bha at
'loqu'
<lnd 'id.';
bhati
'id.'
belen,
bellen
'latr'
boln
'clam';
buldern,
poltern
3a2.bylgan
'clam'
3a3.-belya
'id.'
bluwan,
balwableuen
wswei
'battu'
'malum'
3a2.-bealo bliggwan
'malum';
'battu'
blow(e)
3a3.-bol
'infortuniu
m'
bil(i)sa,
Bilme
3a2.beolone
bol
'aeger';
bolti
'aegrotre'
belen,
belena
bedr,
<*bhemr
buinne
benna
bintan
bindan badhnti, 6.3.-binda
'socer'
<bhondhy 'genus
3a2.bandhati 'pecus';
aa
uehicul'
bindan
bedras
'ligmen' bandhu
'nexus,
3a3.-binda
'familiris' 'sodlis'
armilla'
5.3.'patior'
bandayaiti
bindan bndhuh bedras
'famliris' 'cgntus' 'socius'
5.6.bandaka
binn
2b1.-ban
bhandate
2b3.-bann
'exsultat,
'canora'.
bet
clamat'
epit <eks- 2b2.-bony ban(o)

banja
5.3.-banay
bhen-t
'ascia'
'mors';
'uulnus,
n
'culter'
Bahn?
contusi'
'aegrum
3a2.-benn
faciunt'
'uulnus'

bhergs
bhergh
bherk
bhermi
(bher)
bherm
bhern
bhersi
bherw
bhesmi
bheudh
bheugh
frxinus
<*bhrH2gs
eno-;
farnus
<*bhrH2gs
n-
2b1.-berth
birihha
3a3.-biork
barhts
barg
'casa'
bergan
3a3.beorgan
3a3.bjarga
bairgan
bhrjah
5.5.parkui
beresta
6.3.br as
brego,
breti
'cr'
6.2.bereg,
ber
brecc
Briccius
brehen in brahua bhr at
<*bh ktos 2b1.-brych 3a2.augins

5.5.-pr'uarius'
'id"
bregdan
'subit'
ku-i
2b2.-brygh 'rapid <bhrows?
'prus'
'id'
moure'
fer, forda, 1b2.-fertu berim;
cymeraf, gebren
baran bhrati,
ber ,
'fr'
fertilis,
'ferit',
brath
cymryd
3a2.bhrti,
brati
fortna, fr ferest
'iudicium'; <*bhrt
beran,
'em'
'grauis' bbharti,
'feret',
cobrith
'em'
bear
bibhrti
brezda
1b3.-ferom 'auxilium'
brawd 3a3.-bera
5.3.-baraiti 'grauis'
'ferre'
'iudicium'
5.4.-berem 6.3.-beri
'stern'
bernas
'puer'
brem
bern,
5.4.-beran BU G.berna
's'
brna 's'
6.3.-burn
'bucca'
festn;
bras
2b1.-brys
5.5.-pars- brzo 'id'
cnfestim
'rapidus' 'rapidus'
'fugi'
6.3.2b3.bruzgs
bresic,
'rapidus'
brezec
bhurvi
feru,
berbaim; 2b1.-berw
'manipul' 'inquitus'
fermentum
bre ?
'feruens'
, dfrutum
<*bhriwo- 2b3.-bero,
5.4.-bark
'flamma'
beru
'acerbus'
bbhasti;
bhast
'anima';
'podex'
`
'frigidus';
'susurrns'
bdhati
buide, 2b1.-bodd biotan
biditu
buidechas 'uolunts' 'offer'

'comperit' 'vigilat'
'gratis' 2b2.-both
gibot
bunoti
'percontor' budhyat
'iussus'
'expergisci 'expergisc.'
tur'
bljudu
bodhayati 'obseru'
'expergef.' 6.3.-budti
5.3.6.3.-bund
baodah 'expergisc.'
'conscienti
a'
baoidis
'odor'
biuchen usbaugjan
bhuji y'lixiui'
'uerr'
'liber'
5.3.-baog-,
bunja-
513
bheug
fid-bocc buc 'putris'

'arcus 2b3.-amsir
ligneus';
poug
bog `
`temps
'mollis'
mou'
biogan,
biegen,
bcken,
bckeln
3a2.began;
bow
biugan;
bugjan ?
'em'
bheur
bhwed
bhewmi
fu, fi,
fufans
futrus;
'erant'
superbus, 1b2.-fust
probus
'erit'
buaid 2b1.-budd 3a3.-bti

'uictoria' 'benefic.' 'permut.'
2a3.2b3.-bud 3a5.-bte
buaidh 'bradium'
/buit
'capti'
bu 'sum'
2b1.bim, bin
bauan
byddaf 3a2.-beon, 'habit,
2b2.be; ban
col'
bethaf <*bhwon
2b3.o- 'uu'
bezaff/bez
ann
bhwonom
ban
2b1.-bun
'constans' 'regna,
<*bhouno- domina'
bhewtis
buith 'ens'
bhewtlom
bdel
'patrimoniu
m', bl
'praedium'
3a2.-bold,
botl
'domus' ;
build
bibn,
Beben
3a3.-bifa,
bifra (cf.
titran)
bhbheimi foedus -a um
bhidhs
fiscus<dhs
k; fidlia
<sl
3a3.-bia,
bide, bidne
bhidrs
bhilis
514
bil
bittar,
bitter
3a2.-biter,
bitter
3a3.-bitr
Bilicatus, bili-, bila-,
Bilicius bil; bilewiz,
bilwiz
'nomus';
Unbill
billch
baitrs
'liber'
5.4.bu em 'id'
bhujti; 6.3.-bauga
bhugnund
'flexus' ; ba gurs
bhja'tumulus'
'brachium'
5.5.-purut
'lutum'
bhvati
byti
'germin' <*bhweti, 6.3.-bti
aor. abht,
inf.
bhavitum
<*bhewHtu
m
5.3.-bavaiti
A B.-ban bhavana'domus' m 'domus,
<*bhouon nascentia,
cgitti'
bhti- , byt 'esse'

bht6.3.-bti,
'essentia' bts 'id'
bhavtram 6.3.-bkl
'natra, 'mundus' 'domicilium
secus'
'; bklas
'cuble'
6.7.-bydlo
<*dhlo- 'id'
bhyate, bojo, bojati
se
'simius' bhibhya
5.3.6.3.-bija s,
bayente,
bijtis;
byente
baile,
5.4.bails,
bk<bhya baime
ka 'timor'
'timor'
5.4.-birt
'crus'

'adaequtu
s'
3a2.bilawit
'simplex'
bhnmi
perfines
'perstringa
s'
bhind
find,
fisra
benim;
2b1.rubaid
benaff
'interficit'
'put'
*pro-bhei- 2b3.-bitat
'resecret'
etbinam
'lani'
bibdu
bzzan,
'culpbilis'
beiBen
<*bhebhid
3a2.-bite;
uts ?
bitter
ro-bth
'tusus est';
bithe <*tyos
'tusus'
bhts
bhlgsm
bhldhrom
bhlaghm
bhlag
flmen
flagrum,
flgit,
flgitium,
conflages
bhlaidos
bhlakkos
bhlmi
bhlwos
fluus,
flrus.
fuluus?
bhled
bhleic
bhleid
flg, flx,
flctum
beitan
'morde'
Messap.
blamini
3a3.blaka,
blakra,
blekja
3a2.-blt
'albimentu
m'
(raz)bt,
zabta;
;
bta 'pla'
brahmn
'nescit' ?
(Hes.)
blen,
blsan
3a2.blwan,
blow
Flaviies
bl; blr 1b2.-blawr blo, blau
'Flauiii'
'candid 'cinereus'
'id'
macultus'
3a2;-blue
'caesius'
indlaidi
uz-ar'gloriatur'
pulzit
'ebullit'
cf. platzen,
pltschern
2b1.-blif
'catapulta,
ballista';
blifaidd
'celeriter'
bled
2b1.3a2.-bloat
'rumor' bloedd 'id'
bij , bi-ti
bhinadmi,
bhedati
flaccus
fl
blaka ,
bloki
'pullull'
ALB:
bleronj
'uiridis'
bled
'pallidus'
6.3.blavas
'sobrius'
blhyj
'malus,
foedus'>
6.3.-blgas
'id' 6.4.blgs
'dbilis'
(i
longa)
'exstill'
6.3.-blvas
<gmc.
6.4.-blvs
<gmc.
6.4.blaadu,
blaazt
bliz, bliz
'prope=qu
atiens'
6.3.-blazt,
bli zt
6.4.bli^stu,
515
'ferment'
'rumorsu'
bli^du,
bli^zt et
blie^ u, du, -st
'condensor
'
bleju,
blejati
'bl' 6.4.bl ju, blet
'id.'
bljen,
blzan
'ball'
'bl' ;
plr(r)en
3a2.bltan,
bleat;
blare;
blagettan,
blgettan
'clam'
bhlendhos
gmc.
blint, blind blinds
bradhnah
bledu,
*blundaz>l
3a2.-blind 'caecus'
'ruber' blesti 'err,
at. blondus
3a3.-blindr blandan
fornic'
sik
bled
'misceor'
'farsa'
6.3.blend i,
bl sti
'dormi'
6.4.blendu,
blenst
'male
uide'
bhleuc
flu,
2b1.
flmen,
blyngu?
'obru';
fluuius,
irascor
conflgs
2b2.'ebrius';
blouhi
'bulla'
'puni'
bhleugsm
bhleumi
bhleus
bls 'falx' ;
bltati?
<*euk'splende'
bluhhen,
6.3.bliehen
blunk,
'incandsc
blukti
'
'pallesc'
3a2.blyscon,
blush
'rubsc',
blysa
'flamma'
bhgj
fulge,
Flagiui umblissiu
blecchen,
bhargas
blag
flagr, 'fulgurtor
blecken
'fulgor'
'bonus'
flamma
es'
'uidr' ;
ToB.6.3.<gsm,
blc
plketr blgnytis
fulmen
'nger'
'arde' 'incandsc
3a2.'
blcern
6.4.'lmen'
balgans
'albus'
bhuriju blozno
bhkj
fulci,
2b1.-balog
Balke,
fulcrum;
'pinnaculu
Block
'arma'
'taeda,
'carna'
sufflmen
m'
3a2.fustis'
bhlmi
516
fle

?
balca,
bealca
bhlokos
floccus
blaha
'rudis
sind'
bhlros
bhls
fls
bhlosj
bhloskos
blth
bhghus
pinguis
(cont.
*finguis et
opmus) ?
bhodhj
fodi
bhodjs
bhodrs
bhods
bhog
blth
2b1.-blawd bluomo
2b2.3a2.blodon
blstm
2b3.bleusuen
(-sm-)
blma
blosc
(bloisc)
'strepitus'
bhltis
bhodhwos
fluusa
'flrae'
fluusasias
'florlibus'
6.3.bal ien
'trabs'
2b1.-blawd bluot
2b2.'tlea,
blodon
folium
2b3.3a2.-bld,
bleusuen
blade
(-sm-)
3a3.blat<*bldi
'id'
bungo
'tuberculu
m'
3a3.-bingr,
bunga
'aceruum'
2b1.-bedd 3a2.-bed
'sepulcr'.
2b2.-beth
2b3.-bez
bodb Ateboduus 3a2.2a3.,
beadu
badhbh Boduognat 'proelium'
us
badi
'lectus'
bezzir(o), batiza,
bezzist
batista
3a2.'optimus'
bet(e)ra, gabatnan
betst
'fruor'
3a3.-betr
bta
'beneficiu
m'
bgim bgaudae
bgu
'pugn' 2b1.-bwyo 'pugn'
combg
'quati' 3a3.-bgr
'pugna' bai 'culpa' 'imped.'
blzgu, -ti
intr.,
blzginti
'resonre'
TOK A
plt, B pilta
<PT *plt
'petalum,
folium'
bah6.4.-bezs
'multum';
'crbr'
bahul'crber'
5.3.-b zah
'altitd,
profundit
s' 5.4.bazowm
'multum'
5.5.-panku
'omnis'
5.5.-pda- bodo, bosti
'fig'
'fouea,
6.3.-bed,
cuits'
besti 'id'
bhadra
'bonus';
su-bhadra
'magnificu
s' 5.3.hu-bara
'betus'
bazel
'clamans'
6.4.buozties
'stomachr
'
517

bhogj
bhogjos
bal <gl
'amnis';
bar<gr
'diarrhoea'
bal; bar
'diarrhoea'
bhogl
bhoidhos
fcus
focus
bholghis
follis
bholjom
folium
bolg
Bulga
3a2.-belly
balgs
2b1.'pantica' 'pellicula'
boly/bol,
bola
2b3.-bolc'h
'cortex'
bileoc
blat, Blatt
<*bheljo3a2.-bld
'foliculum';
bile 'arbos'
bholos
bolad, -dh
'odor'
bhols
bhondhs
bhoros
bhorsos
518
3a2.-baw
baile
'seds,
locus'
bhorcos
bha g? 'unda'
<*bheg?
'quati'
'simius'
bhljm
bhorj
bah, Bach
3a2.-becc
<bhogyo
foedus -a um
bhoidos
bhoiqos
bhokos
bhr
bah, Bach
3a2.-becc
3a3.-bekkr
3a3.-bl;
schwed.
mdartl.
bylja, blja
<*bulja
'ndiculum'
fr, -is
for, feri
3a2.-bore
borb, borp
'rudis'
borr
2b1.-bwrr parrn
2b1.-borr 'supnus'
parrunga
'superbus'
barsch
'raucus'
3a3.-abis
5.4.-boc;
bosor
'ruber'
6.8.blazna
'pulunum'
6.9.balsinis 'id'
(*bho >
*bhu
propter
Cowgill's
legem?)
3a2.bsig,
boose
3a3.-bss
bang ?
'unda'
<*bheg?
'quati'
bes
<*bhoidso'daemoniu
m' 6.3.basas
'phasma'
5.4.- bal 6.4.-buls/la

'clig'
'aer cal.'
bansts
<*bhondhs
ti
5.4.-burn
'manus,
uis'
'rificium'
5.4.-bark
'uiolentus'
6.3.-band
'pecu,
pecora'
6.4.bar^gs
'strictus,
seurus'

bhosos
bhoudhej
bhoug
be
'praestanti
a'
bhragrj
fragr
bhrtr
frter
fratrum
1b2.fratrum,
fratrom
(g.pl.)
2b1.-berth beraht,
'clrus,
berht 'id'
pulcher'
3a2.beorht,
bright
frg; 1b2.-frehtu
fertum<*fir 'coctus'
ctum
frem
bhrendh
bhren
bhresj
brthir
brhen
<bhry;
bracko,
Bracke
'canis
untor'
bratronos brthar
2b1.3a2.brawd pl brthor,
brodyr
brother
2b2.- 3a3.-brir
broder/bru
der 2b3.breur bredeur
broar
bhrt,
bratr,
bhrtr
brat
5.3.-brtar
6.3.5.4.-elbayr broterelis
bhrtreino
s
bhrtrijos
bhrg
bhrem

<*bhugiH2
bhvya'ftrus,
faciendus'
fga
bhougj
bhwijs
bhreic
5.4.-bok
bosu
'rsus'
6.3.-bsas
6.4.-bass
bar
'ndus'
3a2.-baer
'ndus'
3a3.-berr
frns
(frntis)
2b1.-brefu brummen;
bremo,
Bremse
'frnum'
3a2.bremman
brenn<bhe
rndhw
'profsi';
bebarnatar
, doeprinn;
bruinnid
braine
2b3.3a2.-brant
'arista'
brenniat
'cluus'
'id'
3a3.brandr
'acroteria
nauium et
domm'
brissid 2b3.-bresa brestan
(*bhrsteti) 'pugnre' 'rump'
'frangit';
3a2.-burst
barhts
'clrus'
bhrjat
brezg
5.5.-parkui 'aurra'
'limpidus'
6.3.5.6.brkta/ko
brzaiti
'id'
bhrjjti
6.3.<*bherg brgelas
5.6.-biri- 'ceruisia'
tan
brezg;
brjkat
'strepitus'
'tonitrus'
*bred
'sarmentu
m'
3.brstu,
brndau,
brsti
'mtr'
6.4.bruodin
'cuspis
tect'
5.5.par(iya)'frang'
6.3.braszleti
'rump'
519

brosc,
broscar
'strepitus'
bhrgjai
fruor
fruktatiuf
<*frje-, (*frgetti
frx
ns)
(frgis), 'frctus'.
fructus, 1b2.-fri(f)
frmen,
'frgs'
frniscor
brhhan, brukjan
Brauchen 'opus esse'
3a2.brcan
bhreugs
bhreugsm
bhreugtis
bhreuk
br
(bruach)
<*bhrwk
os
bhreus
br
2b1, b2,
(bronn)
b3.'pantica'
bron(n)
<bhrusn 'pectus'
bruinne
'pectus'
<bhrusnyo
brollach
<slk
'sinus'
Brua
bhrw
defrtum
bhrew
bh ghos
520
Breuci,
Breucus;
Breucoma
gos
(Brumath
in Alsacia)
bhrun
bhrew
for(c)tis,
arc.
for(c)tus
bruth 'ius,
feruor'
3a1,a2.brn
'actus'
3a3.-brn
limbus'
briustern;
Brausche
'tumor';
brust
'pectus'
3a2.brost,
breast,
brisket
brucca,
Brcke;
brgel,
Prgel
'uirga'
3a2.-brygc
3a3.-br
briuwan,
brauen;
pro 'i, f' ;
brt 'p'
3a2.browan;
bro 'i,f';
brad
'pnis'
brunno
3a2.brunna
tipra<toeksbhrewr
(tiprat)
Brigit Admageto- Berg
bri (ac.
briga
'mons';
brigh)
2b1.burg 'urbs'
brusts
'pectus'
brsiti
'acu';
brsit
'iaci'
6.3.brauki
braukia
bra kti
6.4.brucina^t
briaun
'ra,
corna'
<*bhrun
brjcho,
brjxo
'pantica'
brst
'gemma,
pampinus'
brvno
'trabs'
TRHAK.
'ius, feruor'
bruja
'fluxus'
brunna
4.4.-albiur,
albeur
'fons'
bargs
'urbs'
bairs
b hant-, f. breg 'ripa'

'mrus'
b hat
barhyati

'collis'
bryeint
'priuil
2b2-2b3.bre
3a2.barrow
'mons';
burg
3a2.beorcan,
bark
3a3.berkja
'latr'
bhrigij
frig
bhrijj
fri, refrua
faba,
friuolus,
fric
briathar
'uerbum,
causa'
<*bhreitr
bh ij
feri,
forma; for
barae,
2b1.-bar, berjan,
bara 'ra' ; baran 'ra'
bern
barrad
'quati'
'rsra'
3a2.-bered
2a2.'concussus
bairenn
', bor
'rificium'
3a3.-berja
'quatio';
bora
'rificium'
bhrkmi
bh kj
bh ksnos
bh ktos
bh m
bhrg
bhroigos
bhrosdhos
bhrounm
farci,
fartus
'mons'
'auis
quaedam'
bre,'cla
m'
brgljati
'garri'
berglz
'pca'
6.3.burgti
'antipat.
esse'
brnanti
,
'iniuriantur'
'rd';
brid
'dums'
bh nti (?) borjo, brati
'uell';
'secat';
'pugn';
bhrvati
6.3.-burti
'guttur';
'duorat' 'incantre'
'inuulsus'; 5.6.-burrad
'secat',
'barranca'; brdhaka
'culter'
'destru'
2b1.brwydr
'pugna'
barc
'impetus'
(undae)
forma
frang,
fragilis,
fragmentu
m,
suffrgins
braigid
braca
(vn.
'bracca'
braimm) 2b2.-bram
'pdit' t- 'pdus'
air-brech
'rumpere';
brc
'bracca'
2b1,
2b3,.brig
brehhan,
brechen;
prahhen,
prgen
'prem'
3a2.brekan,
break
3a3.-brikja
'erig';
brikna
'hilarits'
brot
2b2.-bros
'spna';
'id'
brostaim 2n3.-brod
'figor'
'di'
fris-brudi
'reicit'
brart
'marg'
briune,
brne
'abdmen,
uulua';
breoan
'frangere'
'auget'
5.4.-barjr
5.5.-parku-
brikan
'agglutin,
fortific'
part.
A B.brim
'rificium'
brhti
'scinditur'
braj 'rigor
membr'
'erigor';
'undult.'
bhr-m
'embry'
6.3.brak,
brakti
<gsk
6.4.brakkt,
brakstt
ALB.breth,
bredhi
'abis'
brsn ti
'scab'
6.4.bra na,
bra a
521

bhrounos
3a1, 3a2.brn
3a3.-brnn
bhroustom frstum,
frstra ?
bhrwtis
frons
(frontis)
bh sts
fastigium;
fastus -us,
fastidium
<*fastitid.?
bh tis
fors
bhrughnos
bh ugs
frmen<fru
gsmen
bhrs
frons
(frontis)
bhrsnmi
frustum
bhrusnj
bhrusos
522
cf. babhr
'testud,
rna'
bronnaim 2b1.-briw brsan

'damn'
'uulnus'
'frang'
abra (pl.
2b1.MAKED.5.3.abrait)
amrant
a bruvadbhi
'superciliu
2b2.'supercils'
m'
abrans
'superc.'
2b3.abrant
barr
Cunobarru
burst
bh sth
'extrmum,
s
'cerda'
'cuspis'
cacumen' 'superbus 3a2.-byrst
sicut canis' 3a3.-burst
2b1.-bar
2b3.-barr
breth uergobretu giburt ga-bars

b t<*bh ts
'partus'
'partus'
5.4.-bard
'portti'; 2b1.-bryd
'mols'
brth
'mens';
<*bh tubrawd
'iudicium' 'iudicium'
2b2.-brys
brognena
2b1.3a, a3.'rmrum' brwynen
brogne
2b2.'rmus'
brunnen
2b3.broennenn
5.4.-erbuc
3a3.-barki
'collum'
'pectus'
(ad
<*bhor-g) <*bhrugo
bruuad
3a2.-br
bhrh
F (bhruvh)
(gen. du.),

abrait
5.3.-brvat(nom. pl.)
bronnaim 2b1.-breu, brs(e)m(e

'damn',
brau
) 'mca'
sub.
'fragilis'
3a2.robria; br 2b2.-brew briesan<a
'quati'<bh 'fractus' usj; bruise
rusi,
brire,
bruan,
bruar
'fragmentu
m'
bruinne 2b1.-bronn brunja,

brunj
<*bhusnyo
'id'
brunna,
'lrica
- 'pectus'; <*bhrusn Brnne id' scutulta'
brasach
2b3.- 3a2.-byrne <celt.
'mgnipecti bronn,
'id'
s'
bron 'id'
br
2b1.-bru
brust
<*bhrus 'uenter,
3a2.(bronn <*- uterus'
brost,
snos) 'id'
breast
bron
'albus
equus'
brynt'ca
ndidus,
pallidus'
borshch
'ungula'
bruvi,
6.5.-brva
brjcho,
brjxo
'pantica'

bhrustm
bhrutks
frutex
bhrwtom
dfrutum
bhudhm
fundus,
profundus
bhudhnos
bhugj
broth
briezen,
'barba,
brz
capillum'
'tumor'
bruth
2b1.prut, brut
'feruor' <*- brut/brwd
<*-tis
tis
'ardor' 3a2.-prod,
2b2.brd 'ius';
bredion 3a3.-broth
'cocti'
2b3brot/broud
'ius'
bond,
bodam,
bonn
Boden
3a2.-botm,
bottom
3a3.-bytna
(vb)
fugi
3a2.-bow
biugan
budhna5.3.-bun
5.4.-bun
bhujati
bhugos
boc(c),
po(c)
boccnach
'phasma'
boc
(boekes),
Bock
3a2.bucca,
buck
3a3.bukkr,
bokkr/i
bhuks
bo, bocc
'suuis'
bolach
<*bhulk-
ALB.-but 5.4.-but' 6.3.-buks

'suuis' <*kt 'heb.' 'hebes'
biule,
ufbauljan
buri- ,
6.3.
Beule; pull 'tumefaci' (Hes)
bulibuls,bl ,
<*bulno'pga' bule 'pga'
'caput,
5.4.-boil
apex'
(gen. pl.
3a2.-byle;
bulic
pulse
multitd)
bhulj
bhulkos
bhm
bhncai
bhusj
su/bubulcu Samn> It.l

s
bifolco
fu
fungor
bus, pus
'labrum';
busc,
pusc
'osc.'
bhsj
bht
both 'casa'
Buss(erl),
bussen
3a2.-buss
3a3.-bsia
'u efflu'
buode,
Bude
bukkah
'aris'
5.3.-bza
'aris'
5.4.-buz
'agnus'
5.6.-buz
'caper'
6.3.bgstu,bg
ti
6.3.bgstu,
bgti intr.
'terre',
kaus.
baugnti
baugs
'timens'
bht 'fuit'
bhunkte
ALB.'oblecttur' bungu,
, bubhuk bunk
'fams;
'abies
bh ga- nutrituus'
'oblectm.'
5.4.-boyc
<*bhoug(w
)os 'cibus'
5.6.6.6.-buzia
bsdan 'osculum,
buccula'
bh ati
'conitor'
'celer'
6.3.-btas
'domus'
523
bhutj
fstis,
fsterna,
conft,
reft,
ftu
bhts
futrus
<*bht-,
futre
<*bhts
bistlis
blis
blakt
blatta
blatsj
bibdu
bstis
'culpbilis' 'truncus'
<*bhebhut
ws cf.
bhind;
fo-botha
<*butt
'mintu'
ro-both
<*probhts;
both 'casa'
buinne
'scaturig'
bokkos
bocc
brenghos
524
2b2.banne,
banna
'nn gutta'
2b3.banne
2b1.byddar
2b2.bothar
2b3.bouzar
boc
3a3.-bokkr
*blo ca
>UC .
6.3.- blk
<y
'cimex'
belach 2b1.-bwlch
'rups,
'Spalte'
uia'; bolg
2b3.(contam. boulc'h
tolg?)
bchna
puche,
'mare'
pochen
(=tonans)
'quati'
<*boukany
3a2.-poke
'pung'
blek(ot)t
bind
badhir-s
5.3.-bza
5.4.-buc
'agnus'
5.4.ppjam
'collabor'
5.4.-pelem
'fodi'
bulli
brong(a)id
e
byti, byt
'esse,
modus,
uiuend'
6.4.-b t
blken
bodar
2a3.bodhar
boukj
bhth
(part.
esse)
pla(d)der(e
)n
bodhrs
bolkos
blater,
blati
bdus
baus
'surdus,
mutus'
2b1.-bust
2b2.bistel/byst
el
2b3.-bestl
blkj
blbolj
3a3.-b,
booth
boz(z)an
<*bhud
3a2.batan,
beat
3a3.beysta
(forem)
'ululans'
bukkati
'latrat';
bk-kra'rugts'
P AC.mhu5.3.mrzujti 'b.
uitae'
bu ati
'reson'
6.3.bukoti;
bk ius
'balbus'

brokos
bughn
bukk
1a1.brochus,
bronchus
bb,
btio,
bteo
bucca
cadh
cm
cclos
cedh
ct
uita
cwks
uuax (cis)
cejw
uu; igis
<H2yu-gwi-
cwotos
brocc
2b1, 2b3.broch
6.6.-Brok
'nmen
flminis'
bchat
'surd
strep
6.3.baubl s
'btio';
bk ius
'balbus'
6.3.-p kti
'exclamre
'
bk-kra
'rugtus'
5.3.'clam'
bu ahin'clamor'
'ululans'
5.4.-bu,
'ululans'
bu
5.6.-bm
pfchen, puggs 'id.'

Pfoch
3a2.pohha,
pocca,
pocket
'follis,
saccus'
3a3.-poki
'id.'
ba(i)dim 2b1.-boddi
ghat
'profundit 'mergit'
'merg'
'imbuor'
s'
2b2.bedhy 'id'
2b3.beuziff 'id'
pra/ v6.3.
gman- ga^jums
5.3.-g- 'et seris'
man jagat <-nt
'profnus' 'mundus'
gandhayat
quetzen,
6.3.'contumeli e 'feri'
quetschen
gadin,
a'
'opprim,
gandhgadnti ;
<*gendhn
tund'
'olor'
intr.
o-;
3a3.5.3gend,
'inuidia' gantaykvadda 'id'
gsti
'foetor'
bith
Biturges
jvitaivot
(betho) <*- 'rges m.'
5.3.-gae 6.3..tu-; bethu 2b1.-byd
'mundus,
gyvat
(bethad) 'mundus',
opes,
6.4.-dztu
<*gwwotut bywyd
domus'
2b2.bit/bys 'id'
2b3.-bed
'id'
jvaka- (*6.3.ko suff. a gyvkas

nmine uel 'uuus'
adiect.)
biad
2b1.-bwyd
Hom.
jvati
iv, it
5.4.-keam 6.3.-gyj,
<*gwejHto 'cibus'
m 'cibus'
2b2.gti 'sn'
'uiuam'
buit/boys/b
z 2b3.boed/boue
d
beath(aidh
TOK.5.5.-LUW
ivot
e)ach
aiyye
huitumar
6.3.-
525

'capra,
ouis'
clej
cldis
cel
celom
quellen
3a2.quellian
3a3.-kvelia
glans
uol -re;
balneum
<gr.
2b1.blif<*gwl
mo?
'catapulta'
uola
quellan
'scat',
Quelle
kiol, Keule
'nuis q.'
3a2.-col
'id'
clwonom
cemj
ueni, kmbened
conj.
'conuenit',
aduenam cebnust
'unerint'
cen
quman,
queman,
qiman,
kommen
3a2.-come
ben (mna,
ban)
2b1.benyw
2b2.benen
cerbh
ceri
cerj
cer
526
kurre 'id'
3a3.-kuirr,
kyrr 'id'
grts,
grtus,
grtia
brateis
'gratiae'
'mnus'
bard
bardus
queran
'bardus' 2b1.-bardd 'suspirre'
<*gwr'bardus'
d(h)o-s
gvulis
5.4.-kelem
el j ,
5.5.-gulsel ti
'ping' 'depolor'
6.3.-glti
'pungere'
gulaelud<* e
5.4.-kalin
l d
6.3.gilndra
'anna'
glati
'defluit,

'eiectus' uanescit'
gart
5.4.nkenum;
n kc
'icit'
gla 'pila'
'pantica, 5.4.-kalum
trulla';
'carp'
'follis'
5.5.<*-neyo kueluwana
qiman
gcchati TOK A.<*gwmj, <*gw -sk; km, kum-,
jgti
B km-,
<*gwm<*gwi-gw kam-, em
sk;
5.4.
<*gwi-gw jamaiti,
jasaiti
qino, qens
jniena
<pgmc.
(gns) 6.9.-genna
*kwniz
5.4.-kin
(knoj)
5.5.-LUW
wana(tti)
5.5.-karip
6.3.
grbas 'ilia'
gir- <*g
gora
rH-i-.
6.3.-gre,
'aquil'
5.3.-gairi- giri 'id'
6.4.-gar
'silua'
qarrus
5.4.6.3.-grty
'mitis'
korusane 'deced'
m 'ruin'; TOC A
koreay
kur, B
'morior'
ikwr
5.5.'senesc'
karussiya'sile';
kariya
'sist'
grti,
giri, grti
grt
6.4.
grtdzirties
=grts
'laus'
grt-
cer
ceru
crurom
csneumi
korts
'febris'
uer
berrum
cespis
uespics
cetus
bitmen,
betulla
ceudhos
bbinre
chaisos
chedh
cheldi
chel
fel
chend
fend
chenmi
d-, of-
1b2.-berva
'uerua',
berus
'ueribus'
bi(u)rn
'hasta'
2b1, b2,
b3.-berf
krt,
Kraut?
'herba'
3a2.-krd
<*krd
qaru
'plus'
=grtus
5.3.-aibi-g
rnte 3p
5.4.kardam
'clamor'
jvarati; 6.3.- ir ti
jvara'speci'
'febris' 6.4.- re^t
'nict'
? 5.3.-grava'germin'; 'hasta'
'germen'
qist 'ruina';
jsate ugasiti a
qistjan 'inexting.' 'esuri' s?'pauor'

'ruin'
5.5.-kist
6.3.gesa ,
gsti 6.4.dzisu, dzist
gu pit 6.5.-gwozd
quispel
'brocha';
'silua'
'caesaris' 'entramad
questa,
o'
Quast
'gerra'
be(i)the 2b1.-bedw cuti, Kitt

jtu
<*betuy <*betu 'b' 'gluten'
'gumma'
`buxus'
2b2.3a2.bedewen
cwudu
'popl.'
'mastix'
2b3.3a3;bezuen
kva
'betula'
buadraim 2b1.-budr quad, Kot

ogaviti
'conturb' 'immundus 3a2.vexre'
'
cwad,
gdit
squash
'pollu'
'quati'
6.3.-geda
'dedecus'
6.3.-gasas
'lux
caelestis';
gi dras 'c'
'clrus';
6.4.-gais
'clrus'
CELTIB.- guidimm uedium ?

'desider'
(g. pl.)
2b1.
kueontiku
gweddi
'implor'
m?
'rogti'
galla
zhlici, zlici
3a3.el ti,
gildra/i
elati
'pedica'
hanmi, pf.
gonim
'nex'
'feri'
jaghna
guin
'nec'
'tund'
'uulnus'
5.5.kunatar
'nex'
hanmi, pf.
gonim
2n1.en ,
biror/biolar
bs
<*gws-to? 'mors'
kresso
527

fend
chentis
cher
'feri' 3 gwan(u)
gonaid;
'quati'
getaid
2b2.denom. a gwane 'id'
<*ghw to- 2b3.-goan; guin
'id'
<ghwoni
'uulnus';
gorim
2b1.-gori
gerwen
'calefaci';
'al'
'praepar'
fo-geir; gor 2b3.-gor
3a2.'calor, pus' 'calor' gierwan 'id'
cheros
chislom
2b1.-gor
gor
'incubti, 'stercus'
pus'
3a2.-gyre
'id'
flum
chn
fall,
falsus;
fallax
chks
fax, arc.
facs;
factus,
factia
2b1;-gi-au
'tendnes,
ligamina'
chons
chormos
formus
chornos
fornus,
furnus,
fornx
528
gorn
'ignis'
GRANNO
S
'nex'
jaghna
goniti,
'nec'
gnati
<*ghwenj
5.4.'ag'
'tund'
ganem, 6.3.-gen,
jnjem 'q.' giti 'id';
5.5.geni, gnti
kuenz, pl. 'dfend'
kunanzi;
kunatar
'nex'
gh ti
gr j ,
'calefi'
'luce'
gr ti ,
5.4.gorit,
jernum goreti 'r';
'calefi'
hraspo ar
'aests'
'ardor' 'incendium'
5.4.-jer 'et 6.3.-gras
sdum'
'uapor,
desiderium
'
5.4.-jil
i-ca ; ila
'corda,
'ueena'
monle'
6.3.-gij;
gsla 'id'
6.4.dzi(k)sla
'id'
hvrat
zl
'uiet';
'malus'
hvlati,
6.3.-;
(Hes)
hruti
vals
'errat' 'obliquuus';
5.3.pa vil-ti, zbarmna au 'nitor'
'tortus';
zrah
'fallcia'
ALB.vk

'candla'
dukem
'speci,
(Hes)?
uideor';
duk
'aspectus'
ghan- gone(je)ti
'abundanti 'densus, 'suffici'
a'
massa' 6.3.-gan
5.4.-yogn
'satis'
'dius'
'multum'
6.4.-gana
`
?
5.6.'id'
'uirg'
gani
5.3.6.3.-gorme
'calidus'; garma-;
'calor'
6.4.<*-mtia- garmapadagar^me
'id'
'furnus'
'mensis q.'
5.4.-jerm
gh grn,
'ignis' gorn 'na'
5.4.jernum
'calefi'

chrenss
ch j
1b2.-bio
uuus
bivus
'uus'
gula,
ingluuis,
gltus,
glt/t/
cnmi
uallessit ?
'perierit'
cturs
vultur,
voltu(us)
conuenti- kmbennie
s (g.)
2b1.-bys zwisila?
2b2.-bis, 'rmus,
bes
furca'
2b3.-biz 3a3.-kvistr
'rmus'
2b1, 2b2.biw 'pecu'
beo
2b1.-2b2.byw
2b3.-beo
gelim 2b1.-gwellt
kela,
'pscor' 'grmen'
Kehle
gelt-both 2b2.-gwels 3a2.-ceole
'pabulum'
2b1.guelticion
'fen.'
qius
jv-
'cibus
piscibus'
iv
6.3.-gvas
glott
'uor'; glot,
glotk
'fauces'
2b1.-2b3.blin
at-baill
2b1.quelan
'perit'
aballu
'pat'
<*eks-id'pere'
3a2.gwaln
2b2.-bal
cwelan
'pestis'
'morior';
cwellan
'nec'
cumft
jinti ; 6.3.- iguju,

jyati
iguti
'uincit'
'assequ'
jyyn
'potens'
5.3.-zint
'noct'
5.6.-adint
'sustulit'
jr'uiux,
celer'
bisi ega
'stiriae'
cj
cns
c tis
'uis';
'oblig'
cwos
3a3.-kv
3a3.-kveita
uire
cistis
cws
5.5.kururiyahh
- 'bellum
ag'; kurur
'hostlis,
hostlits';
jgti 'it'
lit. dial.
5.4.-kam gti 're'

'uad' 'st' (=a.i. ALB.-ng
aor. agm 'curr'
'i'
<*gani
bad
2b1.-bad
'moritur'
'pestis'
<*gwH2- 2b3.-bad
yeti, dob; 'torpd'
pf. at-bath;
bs (n)
cij
cnmi
ghrams'insolti,
splendor';
grsm'aests'
fur, furi,
furr
ccmi
crs
grs 'ignis';
2b1.gran
gwres
(grne) 'calor slis'
<gwhrensn
2b3. 'sl'
groez,
grouez
gln
'dbilittus'
5.4.-kelem al 'dolor'
'uer'; 'torment'; 6.3.-glti
'cuspis' kel <gwel- 'pungere';

no-/soglti
/Ho'indolescer
'uulnus' e'; giltine
5.5.-guls'mors'
'ping'
gaqums
'conut.'
gti-
529

cobhn
Quappe
'piscis q.'
3a2.-quab
'pals'
coinos
colbhos
cors
uolua
1a2.-galba
carniuorus
cosdhos
cotej
cotls
botulus
<1b
coucis
bbinre
coudhros
cwij
guia
cowijs
cwqolos
cows
530
bs
5.4.-kaw (aba,
oy) 'argilla' 'testd'
6.9.gabawo
'rna'
ban
jna-; jla'pellis"
'conductus'
grbhah
kilbur,
rebe
chilburra,
'mtrix'
'pullus
Kalb
sequ'
3a2.garbhyacilforlamb
'couternus
'agna
'
mter'; calf
5.3.garwa;
grbu
'pullus'
aja-gara- 6.3.-gara
'*capriuoru
s'
bot, bod
bottos
quast,
alb.-ghethi gvozd
'pnis'
'axis'
haste
? 'folium' 'cluus'
2b1.-both 'hasta'
6.6.'axis'
g(w)zd
quedan 'id' qian

gadati ?
3a2.- 'dcit'; un'dcit'
cwean,
qs
5.4.quoth 'inenarrbil
ko em
3a3.is'
'uoc, inuit'
kvea 'id'
5.6.- y
m, am
bl
quiti 'uulua' qius
'labrum'
3a2.'stomachu
<*gwetlos?
cwidele s; uenter';
'pustula, qiuhaft
varix' 'praegnans
3a3.-kvir,
'
kviugr
MAK
g-th ;
govno;
guvti
guditi
(Hes.) ?
'cacat', 'calumniar'
gnam
(dh)
'cacatum'
5.3.-g-qa5.4..-ku,
koy `
kaha, k
hava
'cornx'
'coruus'
3a2.-kaa
6.8.'coruus
ga^vc
frugilegus'
uanellus
gvya-,
'nouem gavycum
5.4.-kogi
bubus' 'butyrum'
buachaill
2b1.bugail
2b2-2b3.bugel
b (bou)
chuo
gu (g. *gov do
g , loc. 6.4.-guws
cowsts
c (w)s
grauis
crtos
brtus <1b
c j
uor,
uorg,
gurguli
crts
grtus
c wenus
c cestjom
c cots
gurges,
gurguli,
gurgustiu
m
c ebhos
creughos
croghos
crotsos
grossus
croughnos
c s
grus
CELTIB.poustom
bair; baire 2b1.-bryw
'gruits'
'robur,
bruth
robustus'
'pndus'
gvi)
5.3.-gus
5.4.-gov
5.5.*guwau
go h-
karus, pl.
gur>
6.3.
karjs;
gryn,
grstu,
'oner';
karjan <ud- gri ha
grti
'oner'
5.3.-gouru- 'remitt'
g;
5.4.-karem (uentus)
'possum'
6.4.-gr ts
'grauis'
girti,
tuarae
2b1.querdar,
p ro,
'esca'
breuad
Kder
gilti,
po reti
'esca';
'uermes'
'cibus
grti 6.3.-geri,
laque'
grti
'guttur' 5.3.-jarait
5.4.kèrem
'abrad';
ker, kur
'esca'
grth 6.4.-dzirts
'exsulttus'
br, bro
2b1.- 3a2.-quern kuairnus TOK B.- grvanrnvi
breuan
krwee 5.4.-erkan 6.3.-grnos
2b2.-brou
<*gwrH2wo
2b3.-breo
njo- 'lapis'
quer(e)kel
grgara;gr griva 'iuba'
<gwerw v 'collum'
a, querka
6.3.'collum' nigalgalti/j gargalioju
3a3.-kverk
'tls'
algulti
'stert'
'uorat'
brommach
< *ombhko
brn 'cra' 2b1.grust

'ringor'
*<brugnos brwyn
'cra';
'mordens
gryzo,
dolior'
grysti
'rd
6.3.gru iu,
gru ti 'id'
brge,
2b1.krage
'guttur'
brgae abalbroua
'collus'
nnou
2b2.briansen
'guttur'
2b3.Brehant
bras
2b1, b2,
b3.-bras
brn
2b1.'ringor'
brwyn
5.4.-krunk
tri-garanus chranuh
erav
(Taruos) 3a2.-cran
6.3.-grve
2b1-b3.-
531

garan
d
daimoi
fo-dlim ? arcanto- teil 'pars' ;

'seiung'
danos
eit, zt
'monetriu 'tempus'
s'
*<daitis
3a2.-d l,
td 'aestus'
daitis
daiwr
leuir
dakru
lacrima<da
cruma
dmos
dnus
dpnmi
dapnom
daps
532
dails<*dail
os 'pars';
RUNda[i]liun
'diuidre'
zt, eit
<*tidiz
3a2.-td;
tide
'aestus'
3a3.-t
'id'
zeihhur
3a2.-tcor
2a1.-dr 2b1.-deigr zahar
2a3.-der
2b2.3a2.-tar
dagrow
(pl.)
2b3.dacrlon
(dus)
dm
2b1.-dauu
<*dm
'cliens'
'comittus' 2b2.-dof
gener
2b3.-deuff
Dnuvius,
Condate
'confluens'
; Donwy
(*dnuui)
damnum
3a3.-tafn
'hostia'
daps,
damnum
tappen
'decerp'
3a2.tappen
'tund'
3a3.-tapa

dti, dyti;
dtr
'diusor';
'porti'
dtu,
'dusor';
dtrm
'distribti';
'hospiti'
dtram
'falx'
'usra';
din, dit
'dusus'
5.4.-dra
'salrium'
ALB.-dit
5.4.- ti
'dis'
(tioy)
'aets'
tagr
da
del ?
'pars'
devr5.4.-taygr
dever
6.3.dvers
ru
6.3.-aar,
5.3.-asrara
5.4.TOK A.artawsr
kr
5.5.ishahru
'populus'
'adeps
animlis'
d-na Don,Dniep
'fluxus er,Dniestr
horm. <Danapriu
(elephanti
s,
acum)' Danastius
5.3.-dnu <*apara *
'flmen, nazdyafluxus'
5.4.-tamuk
'madidus';
tamkanam
'madefi'
5.5.dame(n)k'plu'
5.4.- taun,
'impensa';
tawn
<dapni
'insm'
'festa'
dpayati TOK A.
'diuidit'
tp 'dit'
'scind'
5.4.- taun,
tawn
<dapni
'festa'

'perd'
dwt
dwetus
dwneumi
duellum
bellum,
arc.
duellum
<*dwetlo
m
dawtis
debh
dud
'incendium
'
dm 'r'; 2b1.zuschen
dud
deifio,
'r'
'incendium cynnud 'id' 3a2.-tona
' = ai.
-gr
m., tone
davathu; 'damnum'
connad, 2b3.-devi, 3a3.-dele'
condud keuneud
'id'
'cremium'
d,
dterior,
dmum,
dnique
connad,
condud
<*komdaut
o
'cremium'
dat
d
2b1.-di, y, i zdal <
1b2.2b2.-the *d-tlom
daetom
2b3.-di 'pauperts'
'delictum'
deps
<deyw
dedrus
zittaroh
3a2.-teter
degh
deikmn
deik
dega
(degaid)
'blatta
quercinea'
dc
dekum,
deicum
teitu, deitu
'dicit'
zhan
deikos
deiktis
deiw
diwijos
deiwos
zch
'forum'.
3a2.-tg,
th 'pratum'
3a3.-teigr
'fundus'
in/bi-ziht
'accusti'
3a2.-tiht
'id'
dicti
dius, diuus
deus (du)
Zecke
3a2.-ticia,
tick; tickle
'titillre'
deva
(diuae)
da
dia (d) Deuognata
2b1.-duiutit 'caput
d.'
o
3a2.Twesdg
3a3.-tivar
davathu
'inflammti
'
dun ti, 6.3.-d iuti
dvayati
'sicc'
'taeda';
'urit"
<dyw
'damnum'; doman- 'caelum' ?

'incendium' 6.4.- aut
'miser';
; d
'id'
'damnum'
'ruinant'
'incendium'
taa 'tunc' kud 'quo,

;kad , ubi', tade
yad 'cum' 'inde', jeda
5.3.-taa,
'cum'
yaa 'id' 6.3.- tad
'tunc'
5.4.-topel
6.5.
'quati' depim,-iti
'flg'
'corium'
6.6.deptac
'calc'
dadruka6.3.'erupti dedervine '

cutanea,
lepra q.'
5.4.-ti
ga-teihan
'iustitia'
dishti,
dideSTi
5.5.tekkuan
umi
de 'iustitia' 'locus' ;
di -, di
'directi'
5.3.-diti'indicti' <*dikti'indicti'
divyh
dv-s
div
5.3.-dav 6.3.-dvas
'daemoniu
m'
533
deiwotts
deiwots
deits
dues
dekj
decet,
decus,
dignus;
dsc,
doce
tiit 'decet'
dek
decem
1b2.deich n- 2b1.-deg
zehan,
desen2b2.-2b3.zehn
(duf) 'duodek
3a2.-tien,
decim'
tyn
dk tulos
deknos
dekos
dech
'optimus'
tahun
devtti
5.5.asiwant'pauper'
d ti,
'accipi'; d nti

'cense' 'honorat';
da
4.2.'sttus,
ftum'; d
'id'
4.8.-de-ko- 'uenerti';
dkat
to
<*dek(s)to 'sacer fit'
5.4.-etes
'udit'
5.6.dasm
'patrim.';
dta'adeptus'
d a
digitus,
digitulus
5.5.kalulupa
dech,
Dagoda asyti
deagh
<*dego
<*dekes'optimus'; 2b1, b2.je/odeada 'bonus'
'honorat'
dksteros
dexter
dess
Dexsiua
zeso,
tahswa
dk ia-,
<*deksiw, dak i2b1.zesawr

deheu,
5.3.deau
daina2b2.dyghow,
dyow
2b3.dehou
delj
dolus <gr. dolom,
zaln; zla
5.4.-to
'dolus'
dolud <gr.
'periculum'
'linea';
3a2.toem
talian; talk
'ordin'
'loquor';
5.5.-tallijatl
'inuoc'
'calumnia'
3a3.-tl
'delsi'
dlati,
del
dol -re;
delb<delw 2b1.-delu,
toll(e)
dolbra;
'figra'; delw 'id' 'extremum
dlyati
'artibus
dlium;
dolba(i)d 2b2.-del ram'; oll
da
cretum';
dole,
'format'
'lims';
'ferula'
dolor
fo-dlim ?
Zelt
5.4.-tal
'dele'
Seiung
'tentorium'
'impres,
uersus'
demos
denk
534
decet
6.3.-d imt
decus
zangar
'cer', zhi
'tenax',
d ati, pf.
*dk-n ; dad a
aor.
5.3.- ti i
desn
6.3.d inas
delvi
(dlvi)
'dlium';
del?
'pars'
6.3.- dyl,
dlti
6.4.-delu,
dilt

Zange
'forfex'
3a2.-tang,
th, tange
dens
dentis
dens
(dentis),
dentum (g.
pl. Var.)
derbh
dergh
der
deru
drus<drr
us ?
deuk
dc, dux;
arc. abdoucit
deuks
deus
dew
dr,
drre;
ddum,
dum
dastra
(adv.)
(H.) dmsas'diuintin 'prodigium'

es';
; dasr 'prodigisu
'senstus'
s'
5.3.-da ra
'habilis'
dt/dad 2b1.-2b3.- zand,

tunus
dntam
dant
Zahn
(ac. sing.),
2b2.-dans 3a2.-t,
dath
tooth
(gen.
sing.)
zerben, drbhti
zirben
5.3.'corbis'
3a2.druda
tearflian
'fascis'
'rot';
5.4.-torn
torfian
'funiculus,
'iaci'; turf
laqueus'
5.4.- trcak
dremm
2b3.zarga
'capi'; <derghso<drghsmo dramm
'arista'
; 'magnibus
s
'fascis' 2b2.-targe
'multitd
'litterle'
'manus' fascibus'
hominum'
3a3.-targa
'id'
2b1, 2b2,
zeran, dis-taran,
drnti
2b3.-darn verzehren; ga-taran

expldit';
'glb';
'porti' (a.i. orn 'ra' ; 'abscind'
5.3.drn-)
trennen
dardar'pellis';
5.4.-terem
3a2.-teran,
torn
dair, daur
2b1.3a2.-tro, triu 'arbos'
dru
'robur'; dr/derwe
tree
(dr )
dron<drun
n
<*derdrom 'lignum'
s 'fixus'; 2b2.-dar
drvih
'arbos'
derb
2b3.-derv'ligula'
<*dru-H2 5.4.-tarr
'certus';
enn
'quercus' 'materia'
dri
'druida'
tram 'fixus'
5.5.-taru,
dat. taruui
non to-ucc dygaf

ziohan,
tiuhan
'affer'
ziehen
3a2.-ton
dsyati
3a2.'care' ; 5.5.-tuhs
teorian
<tiuzn
'desin'
'cess'
cundrad
3&2. 'olim' drh,
<*condra
torian,
cimp.
'longaeuus dvyas
d
tire 'fatig''
' (heterocl. 'longinquu
'contractus
/)
'
s'; dt
4.3. 'nuntius'
doe
'id' ;do a
<*duio'lentus'
'egests';
5.3.-
desna
6.3.dants,
dantu (g.
pl.)
u-dorob
'aula'
dorb'i
'torquere'
derbit
'uellere'
dero,
drati
6.3.- der,
diri, drti
drevo
'lignum,
arbos'
6.3.-derv
'lign. pin'
dave,
davn
'olim';
davn
'antiquus'
535

duvaitam
'diutissime'
dra 'id';
5.4.-tevem
'dr', tew
'-ti'
5.5.-tuwa
<*dwH2yo
dhtis
dhabhros
faber,
efffiltus
dhaln
duille pompedou dill; Dill;

*dolni
la
dolde
'folia' 'quinquefol 3a2.-dile;
ium'
dyle
2b1.-dail 'anethum
'folia' graveolens
2b2.-delen
'
'folium' 3a3.-dylla
'sonchus
arvensis'
tanna 'ilex'
dhanwos
dhaunos
faunus
dhchnmi
situs ?
'paedor'
sitis
dhchitis
dhebh
dhech
gedfe ga-daban
'opportnu 'opportet'
s'
gadf 'id'
3a3.-dafna
'habilis'
foue,
febris,
fmes
ILLYR.Daun
tinaim,
tinaid
dheghwis
536
humus
af-dauis
'afflictus'
dhanu.'arcus'
5.5.-tanau 5.3.-dvaid davt
(Hes) 'premimus' 'opprim'
'noce'
daig
2b1.-deifio dac, Tag dags 'dis'
(daiged)
'adr'
'id'
fidur-dgs 'cineres'
'ignis'
2b3.-devi 3a2.-d g 'quatriduus
'crem'
'id'
'
deite, teite,
dhedhms
5.4.-darbin dobr
? 'ferrrius' 'bonus'
dh bhino-?
6.3./
dabns
dhH2bhro 'orntus'
no- ?
5.4.-dalar
'flore';
'uiridis'
'propag'
'dissip'
2b3.-tinsot
'sparsit'
dhdhjos
dheghom
3a2Dana
'tribus q'
'petruus'
'auia';
2b1.-deddf
'decrtum,
lex'
d (don)
'locus'
daig
DEGO(S)
(dega,
post.
k inmi
'dele'
k it
dabhnti
'nocet';
adbhuta
'mrus'
5.3.-dab'fall'
5.5.-tepu
'paruus';
tepnu'neglig'
dhati
eg , eti
'cremat' 6.3.-deg,
5.3.-da aiti dgti
'id'
6.4.-daglas
'crmtra'
ded;
djdja 'id'
6.3.d de/dis
'patr.'
ksam- 6.3.-z me
5.5.-tekan
TOK B.teki
'aegrots'

daiged)
'ignis'
dheic
fg, fu
1b2.-fiktu
'figit'
Deich,
Teich
'excavti'
3a2.-dc
'fossus,
canlis'
dhicodhl
dheimi
f-mina, 1b2.-feliuf, denim
f-lix,
filiu
'sg',
fellre, 'lactantes' den(a)id
flius
<dhinti
del 'tetta'
dhej
1b2.-feia
'faciat'
dhliks
flx,
fnus, oris,
fnum,
fcundus
dhlgs
dhljos
falx
2b1.-dal(a) tolch,
'stigma'
Dolch
2b2.-delc 3a2.-dalc
'monle' 'Spange'
3a3.-dalkr
'acus'
flius; fl, 1b2.-feliuf, del 'tetta,
tila 'tetta'
-re.,
filiu
delech
3a3.-dilkr
ftus, fta `lactantes' 'lacte'
'agellus'
dellrad
'splendor'
dhls
del
<*dhelos,
dnu
<*dh numi
, dinid
'sgit'
dhem
dh mon
caus.
daddjan
delg
'spna'
dhel
dhm
?
'prem'
ge-telle
'pulcher'
3a2.-deall
'praeclr.'
3a3.Mardoll,
Dellingr
3a2.-delu
<*-l
3a3.-del,
dl (dial.)
<*dhelos
2b1.-deddf
tuom
dms
<-dhm 'iudicium, 'iudicium,
'decrtum,
ms,
fama' <*lex' (cf. status' -dedhms) 3a2.-dm
'opini'
dem
timber,
'fuscus,
timmer 'o.';
ter'
dampf
'uapor'
'3a3.daam
'obscrus
et arma'
ToB.tskam ?
'mordet'
6.3.dgstu,
dgti,
degiu,
degti
6.4.-digt
'suxit'
'fmina'
dhaymi, caus. dojiti

dhyati;
dhin ti
'alit'
5.4.-diem
5.5.-tiya- , ,
cf. cf. dhn

6.3.-cf.
'grnum,
dona
(Hes.)
pecunia;'
'pnis'
<dhkya
5.3.-cf.
6.4.-cf.
dnkara duna 'id'
'formca q.'
6.3.-dalgis
'falx';
dilgs
'acerbus'
'femina'
dhr6.3.'lactans' pirmdel
5.5.-LYC
'prm
tideimi<LU parens'
W *tittaimi 6;4.-de^ls
'flius'
5.4.-delin,
'clrus'
6.4.-d ls
(d la)
<*dhls
dhman- 6.3.-dome,
'conditi'; 'et lex,
domes s
'lex, cubiculum' 'attenti'
iustitia'
5.3.dman-,
d man dhmati dmo, doti
'infl'
'obscrus' 'inflat'
5.3.6.3.dmainya dumi,
- 'turgens' dmti 'id'
5.6.-dam
'atimus'
537

dhengh
dhnom
dhnos
dherbh
daingen
dengyn
tunga
'robustus'; 'barbarus' 'stercus',
dingid, <*dangeno Dngung
fording
3a2.-dung
'premit,
'stercus,
supprimit'
geniceum,
<*dheigh?
carcer'
faenum;
faenus;
ae non
cf.
paeminsu
s
faber,
efffiltus
dherghnos fragum ?
dhergh
fortis, arc.
forctus
dherghos
dherghs
538
fortis
'potius'
dringid
'ascendit';
drimm
'sclti'
derg
fraces
(facs,
floccs)
1a1.drasica
dherk
dhermi
draigen
firmus,
frnus,
frnum,
fer, ferm
d ga
'arcus'
6.3.-degiu,
dengti
'teg';
dangus
'caelum'
TOK B.-
dhn 6.3.-dona
tno
'pnis'
'frmentu
'frmentu <*dh-k-im',
6.4.m'
(Hes) dhny- 'id duna
et dius',
'pnis'
dhanin,
dhanika
'di.'
5.3.-dnkara'formca q.'
5.6.-dna
'grnum'
verderben
5.4.6.3.-drbu,
'ruin'
derbuk
drbti
3a2.'rudis'
'labor'
deorfan
2b1.tirnpauma
drk
deren
'ramulus'
draen/drai 'cornea'
'ua'
'cornus'
n
6.3.2b3.-dran
drgnes
'Hyosciam
us'
2b1.d hati, - ,
dringo
dh k

'scl'
'tenens' (in 'tene'
comp.)
5.3.drn aiti;
dra ait
'tenet'
TOK A
trnk-, B
trenk'adhaer'
terken
6.3.-derkti
'pollu'
'pollu' -rk3a2.deork,
dark
druosana
droska
'sollicit'
'ferment.'
<dh ghsk
'3a2.'fermentu
d'
drosne/a
m'
'id'
6.3.
3a3.-dregg
drages
<*dhrghi
s 'id'
zurch
6.3.-derkti
'caca'
6.4.-drks
'eq.pictu.'
dhryati; drog ?
2b1.tarnen
emdrit
'cl'
'crus,
sadhry
'decens";
3a2.coner.'
'scamnum' 'concentror
dryd
darian,
6.3.-

'parsimoni
sus'
dhs
dhtis
tarry
'mane'
friae, arc. fsnam

fsiae; 'templum'
festus,
1b2.fnum fesnaf-e 'in
<*dhH1sno fanum'
-; fas(tus)
3a2.-d d, missads
deed
'pecctum'
;
'
der/rti
dhraka- 'fungor'
'concentrt 'recipiens' daru,
us'
5.3.darti
drayeiti
'faci'
5.4.-dadar
'quis'
dhi ya<*dhH1os 'deutus'

'deus'; 5.4.-di-k
<*dhH1s <dhses
'dea'
'd'
vsudhiti'mnificent
ia' 5.3.zrazdti
'fids'
duhti,dg
dheugh
dual
toug, taugt
daug
d ij
'sufficiens';
'id';
<*dhoughe 'dispn';
dhi
'robustus'
duan
tuht
'tile est'
'mulge' 6.3.-da g
'equipme
'crber'
'habilits"
5.3.'multum'
ntum'
3a2.-dag
handug duginti
'id';
'promulgti 'augre'
gedegan
'
'superre'
dheuk
faunus
ILLYR.3a2af-dauis 5.3.-dvaid davt
Daun
Dana
'afflictus'
(Hes) 'premimus' 'opprim'
'tribus q'
dheunos
fnus ;
dth
touwen,
diwans dhvant 6.4.-dvans,
fnestus
<*dhwtu'morior' <*dhwon
'exstinguit' dvanums
'morior';
'fnis,
3a2.o'uapor'
dhvntmors'
dian, die 'mortlis'; 'obscrus'
'id'
dauus 'mortuus
5.3sum' apadvasait
'mors'
i 'uolat'
dhvat,
dhew
de?
tou,
fut.
'mare'
Tau<daww
dhvati
<*dheui
a
5.6.
3a2.-daw
dawdan
'iuu';
3a3.'celer'
dogg(dogg
war)
dhghjesi
her, here
in-d
2b1.-doe gestaron
gistrahyh
ALB.-dje 5.6.-d,
2b2.dagis
doy/de
dg, dn
2b3.dech/deac'
h
dhghomn hom
humuns
duine
-gdonio
guma
6.3.- mu;
<*dhghm(m 1b2.- <*dhghomj 2b1.-dyn
zmogs
)on-, ar. homonus 'ohem;
ibus'
humus
dhghus
giesen
5.4.-jukn 6.3.- uvs
'piscis' (i'cyprinus'
'piscis'
'piscis'
prot.)
3a3.-gs
6.4.-zutis
'perca'
'anguilla'
dhicsnis
fnis, fni
6.3.d gsnis
'plum'
dhdhmifaci
fakad
dedor 'fit'; tuon, tun tuon; ga-
ddhti,
deti
539

dhkj
dhingh
dheghl
dh is
dh els
dh os
dhghus
dhobos
dhochej
dhochos
540
fingere,
figulus
'faciat'
fefakust
'fcerit'
1b2.feia/faia,
fakust
1b3.-faia
'faciat'
fehss conutuing
'mrs'; (con-udfifikus
ding)
'molieris' 'aedificat';
1b2.-fikla,
digen
ficlam
'firmus'
`fitillam,
libum'
dede
'posuit'
/'dedit'?
3a2.-do; des 'res

deed 'res
gesta'
gesta'
teig
'massa'
3a2.dough
daigs
'massa'
flexuntes;
dligim
2b1.dulgs
indulge?
'mere'
dylyed
'debitum'
Forsan
dliged 'lex' 'clamti';
significti
tamen dlyu, dylyu
sic dcurrit
dilgud
'dbre'
ius tene 'remissi' 2b3.-dellit
-> 'ius
<dolugi) 'dbre'
cd'
fams, ad
ru-deda
3a2.fatim,
'evanescer
demm,
fatig,
e,
dim
fatisc
tabescere'
'tenebrae'
famulus,
famel
familia
'familia'
1b2.fame ias
'id'
famulus,
famel
familia
'familia'
1b2.fame ias
'id'
daingen
'firmus,
robust.'
<*dan/den
gino-
aor. dht 6.3.-dti

5.5.-dai,
tiya- 'pno,
moue', 1
tehhi/tiyam
i
'mrus'
dhmi, de a<dhoi
deh
ghy
'oppidum' 'molde'
5.3.dazayeiti
'mnit'
5.4.dizanem
'cumul'
5.6.paridaiza
'claustrum'
, did
'oppidum'
*dlg,
dhman'seds,
famul'
daghn ti
deg:
'celer', 'consequit dog 'uis'
comp.
ur'
<*dheugh?
daghn ;
'conseque 'corrig'
ns'
6.3.-dngti
'currere'
tapfar fardammj
debel
'gravis';
an
'crassus'
tapfer
'mlific,
6.3.-dbls
'firmus'
imped'
?
Damm <dhobmo
'exuberans
'dcus'
'
tag, Tag
dags
har,ha
6.3.3a2.-dag,
(hn-as) ? dagas,
day
5.3.-asn- 'aestus,
3a3.-dagr
m?
messis'
'dirum' 6.9.-dags

dhoighos
fehss
'mrs'
dholos
dhombhos
dhms
dhn
dhncelos
dhoncos
dhnej
danea
'area'
dhontis
fons,
Fontus
dhorj
fori, foria
dhoubhos
dhoubhs
'aests'
daigs
dz
'massa'
'cumulus'
2b1.-dol Tal 'uallis'

dals
dol ;
'uallis'
3a2.-dl 'cauea, 'cubiculum'
dolu
2b3.-Dol
'idl'
uallis'
'deorsum';
;
3a3.-dalr dala 'ab';
dole 'sub'
'arcus'
dalaa 'oculus'
'sub'
tba,
(hraiwadob
Taube
)db
'rbur' (ad
3a2.-dfe,,
(sine
col.)
dove
nasle)
6.4.3a3.-dfa dumbs
dumbra
'mutus'
zeme
'nigra terra'
tuom
dms
dma
'iudicium, 'iudicium, 'cumulus'
'cgitti'
ms,
fama' PHRYG.
63.-dome,
status'
-s s
'concilium'
3a2.-dm
'attenti'
'opini'
TOK B
dhn 6.3.-dona
tno
5.3.'pnis'
'grnum' dnokara
6.4.'formca q.' duna,
5.4.-dna duone
'grnum' 'porti p.'
1b2.-dew tunkal,
5.5.6.4.-danga
'nebula'
dunkel
dankui, <*dhongu
3a2.-dank
dunkela
'pals'
tenar/er
dhnu d nis
'palma,
'plana
'area,
'pons
solea' desertum'
manus';Te
nauis'
nne
'solum'
3a2.den(n)
'cauea'
APUL;dhanyati TOK.-tsn
Ardaneae
'currit'
'fluere'
= Herdonia
5.6.(locus)
danuvatiy
'fluit'
3a2.dristt
drtan, dirt
6.3.-der-k3a3.-drta
i derkti
dub 'ter'
Dubis toup, taub daubs
5.5.dob
'fmus'
2b1.'necius'
'surdus'
duddumi 'rbur' (ad
dub/du 3a2.-daf dumbs

col.)
'caecus' 'surdus'
'ter'
'surdus'
'mutus'
6.4.2b2.3a3.-daufr (hraiwadumbra
duw/du
)db 'col.'
zeme
2b3.-du
'nigra terra'
dub 'ter'
Dubis toup, taub daubs
5.5.'fmus'
2b1.'necius'
'surdus'
duddumi
dub/du 3a2.-daf
'caecus' 'surdus'
'ter'
'surdus'
2b2.3a3.-daufr
duw/du
2b3.-du
541

dhoubnom
dhoulis
flgo
dhunis
fnis
domun dubnoreix
'mundus' 'rex m.'
dil
'desideriu
m'
dhragh
tragan
'port'
3a2.dragan,
draw
'trah'
3a3.-draga
'dc'
dhregh
dhrensj
1a1.drns, re 'clamor
cygnrum'
dhreugh
drungus
<ger.
dhrighss
dh mos
dh numoi
542
firmus
5.4.-durgn
6.3.'curr';
'tornus
dr u,,
fictilirius' drzu,
'rota'
drzt
'curr'
'cursus'
treno,
*tr d
Drohne
<trantis/
'crabr'
dhrantis
3a2.-drn
'crbr'
'crbr'
dr n 'id'
6.3.-trnas
'crbr'
dhrati
drsacht
treno,
drunjus
dr sel
'stridentia'
Drohne 'strepitus' (F) 'tonat'
'tristis'
'clang';
drcht
'crabr'
5.4;6.4.
'cantus'
3a2.-drn
drn
im
duduris
'fltus'
<*dhrenkt
dr n 'id';
'uespa,
'clang'
dora
crabr'
'strepitus'
'crabr'
drong 2b3.-drogn truhtdriugan

drug
'copiae'
'coetus';
'copia'
'milit'
'sodlis'
<ger.
drog
3a2.-dryht
6.3.'factio'
'id'
dra gas
<ger.
's.Itinr;'
gairbdrkol
driuch
'uirga'
(capil.)
'fascis
6.3.-dri kti
capilli'
'flum
extend';
dr kti
'longs
flaments'
dhra;
dhrma'uirtus, lex'
dhr
dar- , impf. 1b1.-derig
no-daired;
'cursus,
(Hes.
nom. Dir
gutta,
(Dra)
smen'
fut.
droch 'rota'
dhrnos
dragan
'dc'
dhli-,
dhl
'puluis'
dno
<*dbno
'id' 6.3.dgnas
'solum'
dlo
'armae
ostium'
dlce
'tibiae
ostium'
6.3.-dlis
'apis pipa'
TOK.-A, B
tsu'adapt'
dor it
'excau' ;
draga
'uallis';
doroga
'iter'
dhroghno
m
dhroghs
dh s
'sperma'
droch
infestus,
infest,
manifestus
dh stis
(gi)tar, gadarsan
dhr - -ti,
(gi)turran , gadars
dhr -ati,
3a2.pf.
dear(r),
dadhar a
dare
giturst
3a2.gedyrst
trre
dh sus
dhrubhj
drucht <*tu 'gutta'
Tropfen
'gutta';
triofan,
triefen
'flu' 3a2.drop
'gutta';
drapian
'destillre'
6.3.dres<ens
6.4.dros
'audx'
dh -; drz (z?)
dh 6.3.'doctus'
dr ss
5.3.daryu-,
darita
6.4.'fri';
druba a
'fragmentu
m'
'fragmentu
m'
5.5.6.3.'frang' dhuwarnai drzgas

- ??
'scrpum'
6.8.druzgati
'comprim'
dhrubhtis
dhruslij
dhubs
dhugtr
ftir
dhmj
dhms
fm
fmus;
fm;
fimus
<*dhuimos
dhneumi
suffi;
fimus,
suffimentu
m, foete,
foetidus
drullia trren 'id'; driusan

'ruinae'
trrec,
'cadere,
2b1.-dryll` traurig decadere'
'fragmentu 'tristis'
m'
3a2.drosan
'id'
domun dubnoreix tief 'id'

diups
TOK B.- 6.3.-dubs
'mundus' 'rex m.' <*deupos <*deupos 'profundit

tapre 'profundus,
domain 2b1.-dwfn 3a2.-deep, 'profundus' s maris' <*dhubrs cauus'
'profundus' 'prof.'
dive 'id' ; taupjan
'altus' 6.4.-dubj
<*dhubni- 2b2.-down
'mergor'
'profundus'
<*dhubni2b3.-doun
duxtir
Tochter
dahtar duhitrdter(Larzac);
3a2.5.4.-dustr
6.3.CELTIB.dohtor
5.5.duktertuater 3a3.-dttir
twatara
(K.1.3)
dhmyati
dhm- ;
dumacha,
toum
dym
dumhach
3a2.dhmyati
6.3.-dmai
'ts'
<*dhumuk
dmian
5.5.6.4.-d mi
otuhhui,
'nebulae'
tuhhear
donst,
dauns
dhn ti;
Dunst 'id' exhalti' 'reuoluor' dhnna-,
3a2.'furi' dhnidununga
'agitti'
'c.'
'delirament
5.4.-de
um'
'baccans' dev-im
543
dhuskos
dhwer
dhwestus
fuscus,
furuus
donn
Donnos
<*Dhwosn
os
2B1.-dwnn
'subfuscus
, aquilus'
3a3.-dni
'ignis'
dosan,
tusin
`giluus'
3a2.-dox,
dusk,
dosen,
dun
`spadix'
'ld'
fraus, -dis; frosetom

frstra ? fraudtum
'
festca
'tempests
'
dhsara'puluerulen
tus'
doss ?
'frutex' (cf.
dousmos)
3a2.dweorgedwostle
'pulicria'
dhvrati
dur
'nocet'
'stultitia'
5.5.6.3.dwarnahh padrmai?
un? 'frg' 'repens'
dhattra <
*dhvastra
,
dhustra'stramoniu
m'
dall
2b1-2b2- tol, tulisc,
dwals
'caecus' 2b3-.-dall
toll 'id'
'dmns,
clas-dall
3a2.-dull
necius'
'Dionys.'
'surdus'
'obscrus'
(H)
dhwols
'turbulentia
'
'turbid.,trist
is'
dhwonos
donnal
tnen
dhvana,
'ulultus'
'ton'
dhuna,
<*dhwon3a2.-dyne,
dhvani
no
din
dhworis
fors,
1b2.-furo, dorus;
doros,
turi, Tr
dar
dvra
dvri,
fors;
furu
indorus
duros, 3a2.-duru,
5.4.-dur-k'
forum
'forum'
'intra'
duron
dor, door
6.3.-drys
2b1, b2,
b3.-dor
dhworom
forum
1b2.-furo,
5.3.
furu
dvarm
5.4.-i durs
'fors'
5.5.-andur-za 'ib'
dhwosos fur<*dhus
dasacht
dsius dws, Tor;
dius
dhvamsati dux, dua
, furia?
'ra'
'daemon
stultus
'bestia, 'reuoluor'
'ruinat'
'anima';
bestia,
immundus, getws
fra'
dhvasrdvchat
'fur'
bellua
incubus' 'spectrus'
'ruintus' 'id'
6.3.
fimbria ??
tior, Tier
5.5.dvasi
'baccans'
antuhsas ? 'spectrus'.
<*dhwnsr
'id'; Dusel
'tempests 'hom' cf. dvesi,
iy
'hebetti,i
'
nfort.'
ToB
dv sti
onolme
3a2.'spir'
'inspirtus'
dws
'hom'
6.4.-dust
'id';dor 'id'
<*an'suspir'
dizzi, doze
onmo'dorm'
d., dyati
ddmi

5.5.-tiya
'uinculum'
'liga'
ddjmi
ddyati
dhwolnos
544
didksk
disc,
doce
digh
ziga, Ziege
3a2.-ticcen
djej
dan
'celer';
dne
'celerits'
djws
dis,
iuppiter
(iouis)
djnos
nundinae,
SCBacch.
noundinu
m
dghj
dkus
dnghos
dnghot
d pedom
indulge
dulcis
longus;
indulge ?
ives
(gen),
dive
(dat)
1b2.iupater
die
2b1.-dydd
2b2.det/dyth/g
eyth
2b3.-deiz
zo
'apparuit'; 'splendet';
dti
'clrus' 'splendr'
5.5.-tesha
'somnium'
dkati<*d
edk- 'quet';
d n ti,
d i,
d ati
'honorat'
(Gr- 5.4.-tik
Thrak)
'pelle
caprnum'
dyati
deju, die^t
'rot';
'uolat,
'sali,
'fugi';
uibrat'
tripudi'
(cont.)
'persequor'
;
'quaer'
4.2.
(pit)
F
dyuh

5.4.-tiw
'dis'
5.5.-siwatt
denus
len(gi)zin, sinteins
dna-m
dn
'spatium
Lenz<lang 'quotidi'
6.3.- dien
temporis',
at-tin
6.4.-dena
trdenus
'mnsis
'triduum'
maius'
coindelg
delgu
3a2.-tulge tulgus
'contractus 'contine'
'firm'
'firmus' 'permane
, dr'
,
2b1.-daly,
comparti dala, dal
'
'tene'
2b2.dalhen
'tentus'
2b3.delgim;
dalc'h
'possessi'
'mustum'
longo3a1.-lang
laggs; <* drgh
dlg
(nmen 3a2.-lang, tulgus
dlH1gho-;
5.3.6.3.-ilgas
hominis)
lang;
'firmus' darga
'continuus' 5.4.-drang
tulge, tylg
'firm'
5.5.daluki
3a2.drghat
dlgota
lengu,
length
3a3.-topt,
'solum'
toft, tomp
<*tumf(i)t
545
d pus
d segh
dghw
dsus
dokej
lingua<din fangvam
gua
dnec,
arc.
dnicum,
dnique,
dneque
doce
dole
dolghos
dljom
dolos
dlium
dolus < gr.
dom
dum,
nndum,
agedum
quidum,
dummodo,
quand,
dumn,
dumtaxat;
d-ni-cum,
dnec
dom,
domitus
dmmi
546
tugg
densus
doklom
dolj
dolej
tenge
2a3.teanga
2b1.-daear
'solum'
2b3.-douar
'terra'
2b1.zunga,
tafawt/tafo Zunge
d
3a2.-tunge
2b2.- 3a3.-tunga
tauot/tavas
2b3.-teod
do
du-ci 'et'
zuo, zu
2b1.-di 3a2.-t, to
<*d 'ad'
2b2.-e
<*d 'ad'
du
5.5.t p, tupoj
damputi-ezerk`
'mundus'
jihv, juh- jezyk

5.3.-hizv- <*jz k
, hiz h<z
6.3.5.4.-lezu
lezvis
(cont.
(*legh)
*legh)
5.5.dassu
(dat..ta-au-u-i)
'robustus'
da 'et, sed'
(coniuncti
)
6.3.-do
5.5.-dkki,
'uidtur' takkanzi
dal
zagel 'et
tahjan
da
'cirrus'
pnis' 'uell'; tagl
'fimbria,
3a2.- tgl, 'singulum
limbus'
tail
capillum'
2b1.-e-thyl
<*do-eksdol- 'ligit'
delt
2b3.-delt talg, Talg
5.4.'humidus' 'sebum'
telam/em/
3a2.-tallow
um 'plu';
'id'
tel 'intensa
pluuia'
*dly
dolom,
zala
talzian
dolud <gr.
'computus' 'doce'
3a2.-tl 'id
et fraus';
talk
3a2.-tl
'fraus'
do, du 'ad' duci 'et'

zuo, zu du; duda 'tunc'
2b1.-di 'ad' 3a2.-t
ginnan
6.3.-da2b2.-e
'incipere'
(perfectuu
<*d 'ad'
m)
6.4.-da 'ad'
da-iet
'inre'
damnaim 2b1.-addef temmen, ga-tamjan damayati,
'equs 'confiteor' zhmen

dmyati
lig'; fo
2b2.3a2.5.5.-dadaimim
ansav
temian,
ma-a-zi,
'patior' 'confiteor'
tame
ta-ma-air
'obligat,-

(d)dmi
domos
dmn
dmnos
dnom
d, dnum
duass
<*dovest
'dnum'
domus,
dominus
dam-liacc
'domus
lapidum';
aur-dam
'prodomus'
dominus
dnum;
dunum;
dn
duunated
'dnuit'
dn
2b1.dawn
ure'
ddti,
aor. dnam
5.4.-tam
5.5.-dahhi
'em'
zimbar, ga-timan
dmah,
Zimmer 'geziemen, 'in' dmnas
3a2.adapt'
5.3.-dami
timbar
(loc.)
3a3.-timbr
5.4.-tam
dmnas
dna5.4.- tur
dam,
dat; dan
'dnum'
6.3.-domi
'id'
dom
6.3.nmas
6.2.-dom
dan, dar
6.3.-dunis
'palma'
dornom
dorn
Dagodurn 3a3.-tarra,
<*durno-?
us ?
terra
'pugnus, 1b1.-dwrn 'extend'
manus' <*durno-?
2b3.-dorn
doros
gatara cf.
dara-,
razdor
<*gaturaz 'saccus
dra- 'disputti'
<*komcori'
'scissum' 6.4.-nudros
daras
'fissra'
'fibrae
reliquae'
dsa
'in 5.5.-zah(h)
bell'
'pugna'
dn
branodunu zn, aun
m,
'uallum'
lug(u)dunu 3a2.-tn
m
2b1.-dn
doss ?
zsach;
'frutex'
zirzsn,
zerzausen
'dispect';
zse
'caesaris'
do (doat);
d 6.3.duais
(do ) paduse
<*dousti5.3.-dao- 'manica'
5.6.-d
6.8.'umerus' pazduha
'id'
6.3.dar(i)a ,
darti
6.4.-darit
dardur2b1.-dwrd
6.3.
deirdrethar 'strepitus'
'rna,
tibia'
dardti
(Hes)
'clamat';
'crep'
dordaid
6.4.-dardet
'strepit';
'crep'
dsos
dtis
dounom
dousmos
dusontos
drj
drappos
drtis
drt r
d drj
dmus,
dmmus
547

dord 'str.'
zittarm

'trem';:
tremen
'fugi';
'oscill';
trame
'scliculum 'cursus'
'
3a2.-trem,
trym
'gradus'
3a3.-titra
<didr
'trem'
Drippia,
trabe
Drippnius 'fimbria'
'falx'
3a3.-trof,
trefr 'id'
drem
(ddrmi)
drep
dreugh
drew
6.5.drdljati
'garri'
1a2.drappus
aur-ddrach
'phasma'
triogan,
trgen;
Traum
'somnium'
3a2.bidriogan;
dream
'somnium'
3a3.draugr
'phant.'
tr(w)n, triggws
trauen;
'frtus'';
triuwi, treu triggwa
'frtus'
'indutiae'
3a2.trewe, true
3a3.triggys,
trr
d kjai peri
d kj
548
driss, dris- 2b1.-drysi

tenach 2b3.-dreis
'uepres'
drvati
'currit'
'acerbus'
drisms
dristos
Druentia
drew
drti
'currit', int.
dridrti
'pauper
est';
drapayati
'fgat'
drmati,
int.dandra
myate;
drvati
5.3.drvayadrp'uestis,
toga'
draps'titulus'
5.3.drafa'insignia'
drhyati
'machinat'
5.3.dru aiti
'menttur'
5.6.drauga'menttor'
1b2.ad-con2b3.zoraht
gatarhjan pa yati/da
terkantur darc 'ud'
derc'h
'uidens' 'agnsc,
dar a
'uideant'
(ad-cu)
'uisus' 3a2.-torht consign'
derc
erderc
3a3.'oculus' 'uidentis' Torget/torg
air-dirc
hatten
'celeber'
drjpa-ju
6.3.drpanos
'uest'
6.4.-drna
'drappus'
6.3.-Drvintas
6.5.-Drva
6.3.-drutas
'firmus'
6.9.-druwt
'cred'
druwis
'creditus'
6.4.drsme
'fissura
pellis'

d k
d kos
d ksmos
d kt
d ktis
d ktis
d mij
'oculus';
derc
derco
<*derkos (Marcellus
'oculus';
) 2b1.drech
drych
<*d k 'imag' ks
'uultus'
2b3.dremm
<*derksm
'uultus'
2b1.-drem
'uultus'
2b3.dremm <*ksm
an-dracht
'taeter'
'conspectu
s'
2b1.-2b2.zorn
2b3.-darn 'disputti'
'porti'
3a3.-torn
'id'
d tis
gatars
'destructi'
d ts
d w
1a1.dravoca
2b1.drewg
<1a1
2b3.draok,
dreok
3a2.-tord
'excrment
um'
3a3.-tor'id'
3a2.-tare
dnmi
indtiae
dus
dis-,
difficilis
zumpfo,
zumpf(e);
zapfen
'clauicula'
3a2.tppa,
tap, tip
zouwan,
tun
3a2.-do
do-, du-
drti- 'pellis'
dert
5.3.-drt 'furfur'
dr -,
raz-drt,
drtyj
DELPH.drv
'pncum' 'pagus'
'pnis'
6.3.-dirva
'ager
frmentri
us'
dsa
'in 5.5.-zah(h)
bell'
'pugna'
5.3.-dumadumna-?
'manus'
5.6.-dum,
dumb
ds
dumbos
A B.-drit
drrati,
dremlju
dryati/te dremati
(Hom) 5.4.-tartam 'obdormisc
'lentus'
or'
drn-s
drn
'caespes'
dormi
d ns
d a-
taujan ?
'faci'
zurtuz-; tuz3a2.wrjan
torbegete 'haesitre'
'difficile
empt'
'possum'
dvas'dnum,
gratia';
duvasyti
'honorat'
dus-/dur- d d,
d yati
do d
5.3.-du-, *duz-djus
du 'pluuia'
549

dspis
duswids
dweimi
dwenos
dwidk ti
dwipods
dws
cf. Inops
domme
'pauper'
<dus-opsmyodu
drus
<*dwoiros,
dweiros,
dweisos?
duenos,
bonus,
bellus,
be;
indtiae
uigintii
zouwan,
tun
3a2.-do
fiche
2b1.-ugain
2b2.ugens
2b3.-ugent
dwoiros
dwoplos
dwteros
dwou,
dwu,
dwou
ch
duo, duae
dau, d
2b1.zw, zw
dou/deu/d
,zwei
au
3a2.tw,
2b2.-dow
two
2b3.dou/daou
brius
sbrius
<*seH1oH1gwhrijo-
edhlos
ebulus
twai
<*ne
eghw
'sbrius
sum';
<*sbrius
(arm.
nawt'i)
odocos
attuh,
attah
3a2.-aduk
etar
dv , duv
5.3.-bi
5.4.-kic`
'contiguus,
coniunctus
'
duplus
ignis
550
zwir <gmc.
*tuis
zwisk
'duplus'
3a2.-twisk
'id'
zwne
3a2.twne,
twin
3a3.tvennr
bn
ch jos
ecnis
edh
durvidya
dv i
F
'dit'
5.3.'drus',
dva
5.5.<*dFieros
kuwaya'agilis'
'time'
taujan ? dvas'possum' 'dnum,
'faci'
gratia';
duvasyti
'honorat'
5.4.-k'san
F
dvi-pd
bips
(bipedis)
bis, arc.
duis
dwskos
dwsns
durpa'difficile
adeptu'
dvjni
'gemin'
6.3.-dvyna
5.4.-kul
dvu, dv
5.3.-dva
dva
6.3.-d
6.4.-divi
5.5.-ekumi
3 pl.
akuwanzi
*H1eghwm
i
/H1ghwti
ToAByoktsi
agnogn
5.5.-aknis <ungni<H1
'deus q.'
ngwni
<ind-ir. 6.3.-ugns
jel 6.3.gle
6.4.-egle
odr; odr
?

3a2.-eodor
'et domus'
edjw
edmi
hodi
<gho +
dyw; equidem
ed
edqis,
edqid
ecquis,
ecquid
edqos, q, -qod
edun
egj
edum
'edere'
ci-ni estar 2b1.-ys

'quamuis
'est'
non edat'
<edstro,
Fut. ss(*i-ed-s-),
pf. dofaid
(*de-u(p)ood-e),
Partiz.
esse
<edtio
ekkum
'idem'
eibh
eik
(g)ezzam,
essen
3a2.-etan
itan
ady,
ady <*e5.5.anisiwat

atti
jam
<imperat. 5.4.-utem (*em), 3.
*esdhi; *som+ ed sg. jast
Hom
(cf. ai.
(*est)
fut.<sub. samatti, 6.3.-du,
lat.
d iau,
cumed)
sti
5.5.-e-idmi
etwas
'ecquid'
,
edv
'paene'
6.3.vosnevs
'uix'
crae
edces
idu (idan),
pl. idain
'dolores
parts'
fitan<fitan?
'pari'
ege, egmo 'rs'

egests
(crhma)
egh
ei
'lectus';
odrina
'stabulum'
indiu
heddyw
<sind+dy <so+dyw
w
2b1.-daear
'solum'
2b3.-douar
'terra'
eg
ich
3a2.-i
5.4.-erkn 6.3.-odas
5.5.-idalu
'culex'
'malus' 6.4.-uds
<edw/
'id'
*edwn
ekordo
'solus,
simplex'
3a2.-ekla
'dfectus'
igil, Igel
3a2.-igil,
igl, l
eghjos
eg
'stabulum'
5.4.-ozni
je
6.3.-e s
5.4.-ezr
'lims'; tiezerk`<*d
s'mundus'
ahm
6.3.-e
'lims'
ik
ei; sa-ei
'qulis'
Ant-aib,
ybhati
Burgund
aib, Weter'indecens'
eiba,
Wingarteiba ??
eigan;
*aigan
,
aigana, <*ikonom
(pf.<oikei)
eigen
(aih,
'possidet';
'proprius' aigum,
var3a2.-gan; praet.II
'patrimon.'
gen, own aihta);
itar
<ikonos
aigin
'p.trius'
i 'et,
quoque'
jeb, jet
551

'propriets'
eimi
eis
ra, irscor
3a2.-oast
'festnti'
3a3.-eisa
'adorior'
eisskai
eisom
ek(s)
is 3a2.-is
3a3.-iss
ex
ehess, ass, a
1b2.-ehe
eksoqs
cf. instar
ksteros
exterus
kst os
ekts
ekw
ekwns
extimus
eln
552
2b1.-a
exsops
'caecus'
ekstar
ekwos
iddja 'iu'
eituns doeth <*- 2b1.-wyf

(set) itr itjo-; do 'sum'; wyt
(sunt)
feth
'es'
eitnes <*do+upo+
1b2.-etu
itjo- ?
'it'; st
'uenit'
'ibit'
equa
equnus
equus
echtar
'foras'
2b1.-eithr
'sed,
praeter'
2b1.-eithaf
extos 'sed'
'firmus';
'sagitta'
'uacu';
'adortus'
5.3.-ie
'domnat',
ivan
ti, mh, 6.3.-eiti
ynti;
ayate
5.5.-iti 'it'
5.6.-aitiy 'it'
6.5.-it 'i'
<eidhi
i ti,
TOK B. yati 'ciet'
aise
i ir'potentia'
'firmus';
u'sagitta'
5.3-a
(v),ama
(n)
5.3.-isu inej<niyos
'gelidus'
'pruina'
5.4.-gesu 6.3.-ynis
'gelidus',
aexa
'frgus'
iz
6.3.-i
cf. anket 5.4.ana ' 'sine
oculs'
av
6.3.-asv
vn
'equ iter
singul die'
ech
eposognat 3a2.-eoh aatundi
vah
us, epona
'ruscus' 'equitans' 5.3.-asp
2b2.-2b2.MYK.-e-pi- 5.6.-asa
ebol 2b3.qo-i
ebeult
/epikuoihi/
'equulus'
'equitantib
us'
la, Ahle
r
6.3.-la
3a2.-l,
<got.
el, eal,
6.4.- lens
awl
<got.
elit (fem.) 2b1.-elain lamb ?

5.4.-en (j)elen,
(cf. lat.
<*el-t
(fem.)
'agnus'
oln
columba,
<*eln
6.3.aesl.
lnis,lnias
iastreb),
, ellenis
6.4.-al^nis

elkos
ulcus,
ulciscor
elks
elc 'malus';
olc 'malus
<wkwos
3a2.-ill ?
'malus'
3a3.-illr
<*elhila?
'malus'
ellus
anguilla
<*angu +
illa; illa
ollus > ille lleis, ulas al; tall<to'illius' al-n, anall

1b2.-ulo, 'ultra, ib,
ulu ìllo,
inde'
illuc'
l, aal
3a2.- l,
eel
elne eln
elnod
olor,
alceedo
elae
<*elouio-
elwos
em
2b1.alarch
2b2.elerhc
iyarti, rte
etc 'moue'
(intr.)
5.4.elanim 'fi';
elanem
'scand';el
uzanem
'prom'
5.5.-hali
'trd';
elaniya
'incess'
'auis
quaedam'
SUIZ.wsselg,birchilge
3a3.alle,alfagel
; alka
Helvii, elo, elawr
Helvetii
'fluus'
em
empis
en
in, arc. en
anghwis
anguis,
anguil(l)a
en
1b2.-en
in-; ingen,
inigena
esc-ung
'anguila'
imbi, Imme
'exme.'
3a2.-imbe
'id'
essedon
in
<enisedom 3a2.-in
2b1, b2,
b3.-en
2b1.-euod
'uormes'
la ,
al ,
lakati
'famem
habre'
6.3.-lkti
'id'
6.4.-al^kt
'd'
5.5.-illuy
ankas;
ellu-essar'rificium
serpentis'
elm
elr
r as'haemorroi
des'
aru'ruber,
aureus'
5.3.aurua
'albus'
5.5.wemiya?
'inueni'
6.3.-im
'culex'
in
anka<enio on-; vu(n)kw 'uultus' 6.4.-ie5.4.-i
'serpens'
'uipera'
hi-s
u (u )
'serpens' 6.3.-angs
5.3.-azish 6.6.-w
553

5.4.-i , awj
endo
endo, indu
endsdjo
m
enim
enq
enis
enech
'uultus'
enim
enk pr
enns
nsdjom
insidiae
ensl
insula
enstar
instar
nteri
nternos
nterom
nteros
nteros
ents
554
inne
'instestna'
nm, inim
1b2.-ene,
enem
2b1.wyneb 'id'
2b3.-enep
'id'
nka-m
'uisus, oc.'; 'facis,
pl. acis'
'frons'
ienr<ony jains < i +

instr.
o
oinos 'ille' <ke-enos an na,
3a2.-geon
any
3a3.-enn,
5.4-so-in
inn
'dem'
5.5.-an-nii 'ille'
2b1.bringan,
briggan
TOCH. B
hebrwng
brahta
'affer'
prank-, AB
<*sm+pr 3a2.prnk'coe'
bringan
'aufer'
2b2.hebrenchi
at 'dux'
2b3.-hambrouc
'dc'
inne <*eninna, inni, inn(a) 'in';

nj 'interior
inne 'in' innuma.'int
pars'
imus'
indnaide
'praestolti
'
on
6.3.-as,
ans 'ille'
pr -s da
6.3.-sal;
tsala
'metus,
meandrus'
6.4.-sala
cf. ecqairw
'd',
existamai
ths flias
inter
anter
eter/eidir 2b1.-ithr
untar,
undar <
antar
tr,
1b2.-anter,
2b2.-yntre untan
*ter
5.3.-antar ,
ander
2b3.-entre, 3a2.-under
(cf.
5.4.-antar ;
etre
3a3.-und dhers)
j tro
'sub'
'iecur'
internus
tr
interulus
entrai
eter, etir, Celtib.3a3.-ir
ntratroba,
'intestna' 'intestna'
etar
entara
troba,
2b1.-ithr
5.4.
2b2.-ynter
nderk 'id'
5.5.-an-tri-ias
antastya- 6.3.- istri

intus,
inser
intestiinus
'uiscera
'intestna'
'renes'
edibilia'
6.4.-eka
3a3.-str,
'intern.'
stra 'id'

perom
iar-n 'post'
siar, aniar
'ab/in occ.'
apara'postea, ad
occidente
m'

epi
ob;
up, ob 'ad' iar n-, iar Ywerddon
3a2.iftuma,
api
6.3.-ap-,
operi<opm<epieofolsian aftuma MYC-o-pi 5.3.-aipi; api-; -pi
ueri ;
<epirom; uerionos 'blasfem'; 'ultimus';
ape 'ad'
'ad'
oportet
a-daim 'Hibernia'
eofut,
ibdalja
5.4.-ev, ew
<op-uortet
'claud'
eofot'culpa 'descensu
'et, etiam'
(cf. obhi)
(lat. obd);
'
s'
5.5.-appa
ithech
'iterum'
'periurium'
(cf.
epiorkew);
riu<epiw
eri;
ibheall<e
pi-bhel
'feruor'
pijos
p
'propitius' 'amcus'
piromos
iarum 'post
ALB.-i
eum'
prm
'superior'
ercom
eruum
orbaind
araweiz
'grn'
'cicellus'
'cicer'
erjos
aris
erk
(h)ercisc
(h <
hrs);
disertiones
2b1.-araf
'segnis,
lenis'
<eremos
2b1.-araf
'segnis,
lenis'
<eremos
ermos
ernos
erq
ers
ersbhaljo
m
ruowa,
Ruhe
3a2.-rw
'quis'
3a3.run(n)e
'rmus'
orior
irar/iolar
erc
'caelum';
suairc
'pulcher'
<*su-erkis
err
e(a)rr(ball)
'cauda'
'ab'
1b2.-erietu heirp,
'arietem'
(h)earb
ermi
er
roros
afar 'post'
2b1.-eryr
aro
ara 'aquila'
<*eriro<*h3r,
2b2.-er
arn
2b3.-erer 3a2.-earn
jarina
'lna'
6.3.-(j)ras
5.5.-ark
arti
(3
s.
arki,
'scindere'
(Hes)
pl. arkanzi, <*H1orkeHi
inf.
arkuwanzi)
5.3.-airime 6.3.-rowa
cessti' 'quiescens' 'stagnus'
6.4.-rwa
'cd'
'id'
arms ,
'desertus' armaka
'ruinae'
ra'rmus' 'fluctusus'
nti
5.5.-haran, orl
'auis'
hras
<*orilo'aquila' 6.3.-er lis
ars 'clus'
3a2.-ears
ars-bille
'clnis'
3a2.arsbelli 'id'
5.4.-or-oj
'agnus, -a'
rcati 'et TOK A

laudat'
yrk,
5.4.-erg
yarke
'cantus' 'honorti'
5.4.-or
5.5.-arras
555

ersj
err, rrrii
irre; rsen
'festn'
3a2.-rs
'cursus'
3a3.-rs
'cursus'
erw
esmi
smoi
esos
es
ss
teros
eti
tiqe
etm
t
tros
556
sum, fu
sm, est,
st estud
sent
1b2.-est,
sent
am, is
2b1.-erw ero; erda

'campus', 3a2.-earth
pl. erwi, 3a3.-j r;
erwydd
j rvi
2b2.-erw, <erwanereu
'arna'
2b3eru/ero
'sulcus'
immi
bin, ist
3a2.-am,
is, be
arzeis, r ati
6.3.-ars
arzia 'hom'
'fluit'; 'impetusu
'error'; 'impulsus' r abhs'

s(mr)
'taurus'
irasyti
'Mars'
'rabit'
5.5.arsaniya'inuide'
ara
5.4.-erkir
<*ert
(ad erkin
'caelum?)
(Hes)
ist 'est'
sti, bhut
5.4.-em 6.3.-esm
5.5.-esmi; 6.4.- smu
as-/es
ste
5.5.-e-eszi
erus
5.4.-ixan
'princeps'
5.5.-ishas
srk, srt 6.4.-asins
as(s)er,
assartum
(asnh)
; sanis,
5.4.-ariun
sanguis
5.5.-e-e<*H1sH(e)
ar
n-g- ?
(esanas)
5.5.-assu<*eH1su-?, <*oH1su-?
cterus 1b2.-etroA B.- 5.3.-atra- eter,

'secundus'
jt(e)re
'hic e
jeter
'alius'
duobus' 'quiscumq
ue'
et; etiam
1b2.-et
eti
ith- itwz i 'sed';
ati 'ultra'
'quoque, 3a2.-ed
id-weit
5.3.-aiti
ultra'
'rursus'; 'insultus'
etic 'et
edwt
quoque'
2b1.-etmet
'retunde'
etic
'dum, cch 'ad,
usque, ad' tenus'

<etskwe
<*enste?
'adhuc'
inathar
2b1.d(a)ra,,
5.4.
'intestna' permed- Ader 'id'
xvra
interedou 3a3.-r
<*sutra?
? 'ilia'
'una'
'bonus
'pantica'
animus'
tar 'celer'
THRAK.- TOK A 6.3.-trus
3a2.- dre
Athrus,
atr, 'uiolentus'
'promtus'
Ieterus,
etr ?
6.4.-atr
Iatrus
'hrs'
'celer'
'flmen

euk
uxor (nisi
usurs
to-uccuk-Hsor: 'uxres' 'intelleg'
ujn) PELIGN.- ro-uicc,
usur 'id'
do-uicc
'attulit'
<unk
eus
r, ustus
ew
ind-u, ex- 1b2.-an- fuan<upou, sub- ouihimu ownom ?

cula
'induitor'
'falda'
extrd
glgalj
galnos
gallus (uel
*kanlos?,
got. hana)
Gall
galnos
gang
Jantra'
b-hts
<*unktoPind.
'assutus'
'placidus'
3a3.-ysia
gall <ln 2b1.-gallw

3a2.'fma'
'uoc'
ceallian,
(quoque 2b3.-galu.- call 'uoc'
cygnus) 'uocti'
gal
2b1.-gallu
'audacia'
'posse'
d-gal 2b2.-gallos
'uindicti' 'potests'
2b3.gallout
'posse'
goin,
gim
'clamor'
3a2.-gecanc 'irr.'
gar
garsij
gudhj
garri,
garrulus
gir(m)
'clmor'
gire
'risus'
grith
'clamor'
gaude
<gwedh
y
gaudium
gaire
<*gauryos
'nbilis'
2b1.-gawr carron
'clamor', 'stridere'
gair
3a2.'uerbum' ceorran
2b1,2,3'rump'
garm
3a3.-kurra
'clamor' 'murmur'
u iti 'disc'
uk
'discipliina'
6.3.jnkstu/nkt
i 'suesc';
kis 'uilla'
ob-uti,

'calceor'
6.3.-a ti
'calceor'
'cant'
gargara- ? glagolati,
Instrum. gologlit;
musicle
quodam <*galso'uox'
golem
'magnus'
6.3.-gali,
galti
'posse'
gaja
'irrissi'
'enim'
gaudhjom
ge
geig
cyati
'placet';
kas'domus'
5.4.usanim
'disc,
suesc';
amusin
'uxor'
tami,
u h;
ucchti
'luce'
5.3.aorm
'calceus'
5.4.aganim
'indu'
5.4.-awd
'calceus'
5.5.unuwasha
'orntus'
'uox';
'uoc,
narr'
jrat
'tonat';
gargara
'instrum.q.'
(cf.
golgol.)
'nimis';
'nbilis'
TOK-ktk
argi
'reapse'
6.3.-grti
'clam'
6.3.d iaugios
<*gaud i
os
mih, mich; mik, uk

'et
5.5.TOK.- k(e)
dih, dich
'm, t' equidem'; ammuk,
(part.)
'm, t'
tuk 'eg,
etc.
t'
gr
5.4.-kc-u; 6.3.-g ti
557

'acerbus'
<gigrs
geim
chnan,
keimen;
chmo
'propag';
kl, Keil
'cuneus'
3a2.cnan; k
'catulus'
kis, Kies
geis
geltis
gelu
gem
gemros
genesj
geng
genjos
genm
558
(us)keinan
3a2.cild, kilei
child;
'uterus'
colt 'pullus' in-kil
'praegnans
'
PRHYG

'saxum'
6.9.i zdros
jar 'uterus'
ja hram
'pantica'
ga i-h,
gali'pullus'
glota
'turba,
familia'
(neg.)
kalt
kalds
chlad
'frigidus'; 'frigidus'
'frigus'
(Hes.)
khlen
<*gol-do-.
3a2.-calan
'frige'
cold
'frigidus';
chill
3a3.cala<golei
'id'
gem;
1b2.gemel
gefyn
3a2.5.4.m , ti
'plnus
gumia
gomia, 'uinculum' 'uinculum' cumbol,
mlem 'comprimer
sum'; 'comprim' e'
(deriu.)
kumiaf
cumul
6.3.
'grauidas'
'tumor,
gmulas
'onus'
uulnus'
'glomus'
3a3.6.4.kumla
gmstu,
'prem'
gmt
'capi'
jmtargener,
genta
5.3.zmtar
gingua
3a3.-kokkr
ji gin,
gust
'rotundus' jhijhik 'pinguis'
'pila'
'planta
6.3.'tumor
quaedam' gnga,
apud
gungul s
oleas'
'pila'
inginis
'calla
palust.'
genius
3a3.sama'coniugtu
chunni
kunjans
s'
'*aequisexi
s'
germen,
gein
jniman-,
<*genmne jnmangermnus
<*gen
gel, gel
'pruinam'
kc-anem 'acerbesc
'pung'
'
ALB.gjize?
'caseus'
5.4.-cil, 6.3.-z iju,
ciul, cel
ziet;
'propag'
d( i)u
ydti
6.4.zie^du,
ziedet

(gene),
dat.
ge(i)nim
genos
gentis
genus
-kunds
gens, nti 1b2-natine

'natine'
gentlom
3a2.(ge)cynd,
kind
'indols'
'genitus'
jnas
zet
5.4.-cin 6.3.-zntas
'natra'
jtz t 'gener'
6.3.-gents
'familiris'
jantram
'progenis' 'locus n.'
5.4.-cnawl
'parens'
janitr
5.4.-cnaul
*<-tlo jnitr
jant'cretra'
gln, glin
knio; kneo;
kniu
jnu;
<*glnos
knie
<*gnewom (gonatos) praj
<*gnnos?
3a2.-knee
'prosternt 'proster.'
3a3.-kn
5.3.- nm
us'
(ac.)
5.4.-cunr
<*gonu
5.5.-gi-enu
5.6.-zn
gi(u)n
Genaua kinni, kinn kinnus
hnu
(geno) 2b1.-gw n 3a2.-cinn,
'mentum' 'maxilla'
'bucca'
'subris.'
chin
5.3.-znugen
2b1.-g n,
'laetus
'subrisus'
genau
sum'
2b2.genau/gan
ow
2b3.-guen
'gena'
cf. greig cf. 2b1-b2- krammen
<*H jarante
(grega) b3.-gre 'id' 'rapi,
'appropinq
2gery;
'grex
capi'
uant',
'pugnus',
equrum'
3a2.ga? <*g nokrimman
'manus';
'id';
'grex'
,
crammian
grama
'accumulr
'pagus'
e'
'congregti TOK B.akart(t)e
',
'prope'
2b3.-genel
'parere'
gent r
genitor
gentrks
gentus
genitrx
genitus
genu
gen,
geniculum
genus
gena,
genunus
(dens)
gerc
cf. grex,
gremium
gerg
H2 ?
krgo
''hamus'
3a2.-crk,
crook,
crinkle 'id';
creek
'meandru
m"
'gerrae
corbis'
ALB.dhender
'procus'
TOK A.kanwem
B kenne
6.3.ndas
'maxilla'

; gursti
'pugnus'
gurtati,
gurnoti
'scab,
fodi'
gramada
'mols'
6.3.gurgulys
'crbrits';
grumulas
'grumus'
gu- ' sgr iti
'fiilum'
se
<*rrn 'contrah' grtak
'sella
6.3.currs'
gre i,
gr ti
<**gren i
559

gerj
expergisco
r
3a3.karskr,
kerskr
'uiuidus,
uiridis'
gerls
ger
gers
gerws
ges
karal, Kerl
<*gorH2lo'hom'
3a2.-ceorl,
churl
3a3.-karl
'h.
mtrus'
gerra
ger,
gestus
geulom
gal
'carb'
geustis
gew
guia?
ghbhj
habe
ghabhlom
1a1.gabalus
'plum'
560
2b1.-gyrr kerren/ehr
'pecu
en 'uerr'
agere'
3a2.cierran
'uert'
3a3.-kjarr
'arbustus'
3a3.-kos
'congeris'
kasta
'iaci'
kol, Kohle
'carb'
3a2.-col,
coal 'id'
gikewen
'nomin'
3a2.cegan
'uoc'
hafiar
gabim
2b1.'habeatur' 'prehend' gafael
hipid
'retine'
'habuit'
2b2.-havel
hipust
2b3.'habuerit'
kavout
2b2.-prehabia,
prehubia
'praebeat'
gabul
Gabalus
'furca,
'patib'
patib.'
2b1.-gafl
'fork'
geban 'd'
<*kom +
ep ? Cf.
at. cop
gibil
'hastile',
gabala
'furca'
jrate, ALB.-ngr,
caus.j- ngrhem
'obdormien
gar-ti
s'
5.3.frarisajagrayant
m p.pr
jrati ,
zreti
jryati;
'mtr'
'snx';
jrant
<*greH2ius 5.3.-zarta
'aettis
'anus';
<*- dbilits';
zrvan-,
oy'Gorgna' zrn- ?
'tempus'
5.4.-cer
'snx'
5.4.-car
'uirga,
'arbos, pnis'
stus'
5.4.-acem
5.5.-kis'fi'
jvlati 'cinis'
'ardet', TOK B.-B
jvl-,
oliye
jvl
'furnus'
'taeda,
lmen'
5.4.-hur,
krak 'ignis'
gavat
govor
'lmentor'; 'resonat' 'strepitus';
govoriti
'lmentum'
'strep'
>'loquor'
6.3.gauds
'maestus'
giban 'd';
gbhastihab
gabei
'manus,
'emere'
<kmopyo
braccium' gobz
m 'opes'
'profusus'
gabeigs
6.6.-gaba
'opulentus'
'id'
<*
kom+ep?
gabasti'plum'

2b3.-gaol
ghabhros
1b2.habina
'agnas'
ghaidns
haednus
ghaidos
haedus,
haednus
ghaisj
haere
ghaisom
ghaisom
gabor
2a3.gabhar
ghait
ghlerom
2b1.gwaew
gwayw
2b2.hochwuyu
'uen'
2b3.guugoiuou
ga; gide 2b1.'gaestus'; gwayw
getas
=ir.foga
`qui
2b2;-gew
occidit'
2b3.<ghoizd- guugoiuou
dtpl.
gaset
<*ghait-s-
ghast
ghaw
'hamus'
gr,
geisila,
Geissel
3a2.-gr,
3a3;-geirr,
geisl
3a3.-gan
hasta
3a3.-geirr
'hasta'
galar
2b1, b2.galle
'aegrots'
galar
'uitium in
`luctus,
equ,
planctus'; sax' etc.
lat.<galla?
(h)anser
ghanos
ghansr
Gabromagus
2b1.-gafr
2b2.gauar/gav
er
2b3.gaor/gavr
geizzn
gaitein
'haedulus' 'haedulus'
geiz/geizn gaits;
-'nus'
gaitein
3a2.'haedulus'
gt/gten
3a3.-gt
gae
2a3.-gaoi
gaesum;
gaest
3a2.geafel,
gafol
gis(s)
'cygnus'
'antiae
cap.'
6.3.-gait,
-a , gati
haesit;
gainti
'dele'
h as6.3.'missiile';
eid i,
hin ti
eid ia ,
'dispar' esti 'feri'
5.3.zana'arma'
5.3.-gasa
'crispus c.'
5.5.- kalla-ar
(kallar)
'malus'
<*kal??
zolok
'uulnus'
nazla
'cuura'
6.3.- al
'damnum'
'patulus' (
copul.)
hamsh
gans
gosi
3a2.-gs,
6.3.- ass
goose
hostatu,
gat
gartia
gazds
anostatu 'sarpmentu
<*gherdh ? 'cuspis'
'(in)hastt m'; triscf.
s'
gataim
3a2.-yard
'perfor'
<gherdh?
guth
gutuater got, Gott gu 'deus' hvate,
zov ,
<*ghutu-s <**ghutu'id'
pl. guda 'glorior' hvyati;
zvati
'uox'
ptr
3a2.-god, <*ghutm
puru-ht- 6.3.- aveti
561

'flmen
qudam'
ghawd
haud
gu, go,
g 'falsus'
gu-forcell
'f. testis'
gibil
gibla
Giebel 'pinaculum'
'timpanum'
gebel
'craneum'
3a2.-gafl
'cuspis'
3a2.-geat
'id'
'clus,
3a3.-gat
podex'
'rificium'
ghed
gheidh
gell
'pignus'
gellaid
'pollictur'
hic
1b2.--hont;
era-hunt
'edem'
git, Geiz
'auaritia'
gten
'aue'
3a2.gtsian
'iube'
2b1.-a(g)
'cum' <
*ad-ghe
ghimento
s
gheim
hibernus
gheimrns hibernus
gheip
gheislos
562
' 'Indra' 'incantre'

5.3.6.4.-zavt
zavaiti, 'maldcit'
zbayeiti,
zaozaomi
5.4.jaunem
'consecr'
2b1.-geu,
gau 'fals.'
geaowc/eu
og 'culpb.'
2b2.-gou
2b3.-gaou
ghebhl
ghei-ke
ghi-ke
ghod-ke
godfer
hippit
gall
geifen,
/ben, /pen
3a2.-ji/
gibe 'nug'
Congeistlu gsal,
Gislas
gisel,
mundus
2b1.Geisel
gwystl
3a2.-gsl
2b2.3a3.-gsl
guistel
2b3.goestl
TOK A.pl
hadati,
hadate
5.3.zaah'clus'
grdhyati
ido,
'auet'
dati
5.3.-. gra- 'exspect'
'iussus'
6.3.geid i
gesti'
gha, ha ne jedin
e 'ne
(particula
post
unus
'nn, sc'
negtine quidem'; m); hi 'sc'
zi
hemant
'hiems'
5.5.gimmant'id'
h man
zima
'hieme' 6.3.- ima
5.4.-jme n
5.5.gimmant
5.4.-jme n
'hiems'

'cauti'
ghelb
gelpfen,
gelfen
3a2.gielpan
gellan, -en gljan
'clam';
'saluut'
nahti-gala
3a2.giellan,
yell
3a3,.gjlna
r, gl
'labia'
ghelij
ghelnom
ghel
2b1.gylym,
geleu, gely
'culter'
<*ghelmo
ghelus
ghelwos
(h)olus,
arc. helus,
helusa
ghelwos
heluos;
fuluos ?
ghmi
gelo
'fluus'
3a2.-geolu
'id' 3a3.gulr
<ptgm.
*gula-
cingim; Cingeto-rx geggen,

cimm
2b1.-hygehen;
<*kenksm gyngu;
gang
en
cam
'gradus'
'gradus'
'gradus'
3a2.cing
2b2.-cam gongang,
(cinged)
'id'
go
'milees'
2b3.3a3.camm 'id' ganga;
gangr
(h)r (ris)
prachrabr
galbh- 'bellicsus'
'animsus'
6.3.gulbinti
pragalit-sja
'hirund' galbh'insult'
'animsus'
5,4.-jeun
'palatum'
gielde gila 'falx'

'sacerds
'nullum
cybelis'
lacte
dans';
galza
'porcus
castrtus'
gn
3a2.-gn
'e'
3a3.-g,
ghengh
ghr
gel
'lucidus,
albus';
gealach
'lna'
<*ghloHw3e
H2 /
ghlHw3eH2
'iuuenis
herba'
F
'et
florulentus'
;

Hes)
el ti
'sg'
6.4.-zele^t
'sg et
lamb'
hal- 6.3.- olis
'artrum' 'truncus,
5.4.- jlem lignum'
'ar'; jol
'plus'
5.5.-iskalla
'abscind'
el,
elv
zelije
hri-,
zelen
hrita'uiridis';
'fluus';
zlak
hraya- <*gholko'aurum';
'frons hrindis'
<ghH-i6.3.'aureus'
elvas,
5.3.-zarilias
,zairita- 6.4.-zal's
'id';
zaranya'aurum'
geen inf. jhti
(Krimgot.)
hom
'cdit;
desinit'
p.pr.
hna-m
'profectus'
5.3.'repell.'
zazmi
'cd'
'linqu'
gaggan, jmhas6.3.'inguen' 'gradus,
gaggida
engi,
gagg
planctus';
egti;
'gradus'
j gh
igsnis
framghts
'tibia';
'gradus'
'progressu
jaghnas'
'inguen'
5.3.zangam
'tibia'
(Hes.)
563

gherdh
gherghros
gurten 'id' bigardan

3a2.'cingere'
gyrdan 'id' gards
'domus'
grhgord
'domus'
'urbs'
5.3.6.3.gragardas
'cauerna
'oule'
domestica'
rdas
5.5.-gurtas 'area'
'oppidum'
ghar ati gorch
'sorgum,
'terit'
'cicer,
milium';
siliqua'
6.3.-gurs
'tostum
'fribilis';
hordeum';
grti 'fri'
'glarea,
detriitus'
gern
fahuhary
'gaude'; 'gaude'
'iube';
garns
gern
'coditisus' 'gratia';
'libenter;
gierig
'pugna'
'coditisus'
'tripuditi'
3a2.giernan,
yearn
'desider'
hrati
'em, fer'
gh t-m
furfur
<*for-for
gherijai
horior,
hortor
gher
cohors
ghertom
herest gor 'pius';

'uolet'
goire
heriam
'pits'
'arbitrium,
potestte
m',
Herentate
s `Veneris'
1b2.heriest 'id'
gert <*-t
'lacte'
gair, garait
>goirid;
gerraim
'scind';
gaire 'uitae
breuits'
ghers
'peius';
'ege'
hrasv;
hrasati
'maeror'
'dtrah'
ALB.5.3.gerrn
zaraheh 'castrtus
'minima'
equus'
5.4.-jern
TOK.-A
tsar B ar
ALB.- dor 5.5.kessar
kisri'glomus'?
? hstah
6.3.-pa'palma'; 5.3.-zast
asts
< 5.6.-dasta 'axilla'
ghsr
ghes
ghesris
ghestos
praest ?
ghtis
ghetl
gheus
564
ocuis,
ocus, agus
? 'et' <*ad
ghosti- ?
2b1.haeddel
2b3.haezl/heal
gheugh
3a3.-gyger
'raptor';
gyg
'subterran.
deus'
heus
(Hes.)
gu/ghati 6.3.-g ti
'abscondit' 'proteg
5.3.g e
guzata, m.=ger.
'id'
gyg
gh ati
'proclamat'
5.3.-gao'audi'
5.5.kusduwai

'calumni'
gheutis
gheutlom
ghwej
FAL.huti[c]ilom
fouea
'latebra'
5.4.-gavar
gawi, Gau gawi `
6.3.
'id';
'territorium' - 'territorium' gomur s
goumo, (cf. cwra) 'patens'
'Gaumen'
Gaumen
6.4.'palatum'
gmurs
'larynx'
h
-zi (part.
post
pronmen)
'nn, sc'
ghewos
ghi
ghighj
ghirrij
ghjj
ghjems
nec
(negtium,
haudt.,
negre)
hirri
hi, hisc eehianas

m
'mittendr
um'
1b2.ehiato
'misss'
hiems
gaim-red, Giamillus,
gem-rad Giamon
2b1.gaem/gae
af
2b2.-goyf
2b3.goav
ghlaghos
ghlmi
girren,
grollen
3a2.gierran
gn,
ghnen
3a2.giwian,
giowian
'posc'
fel;
(h)olus,
folus (arc.
helus(a))
heluus
1a1.giluus,
galbus,
galbinus
glass
glastum
'uiridis,
(n.
caeruleus' plantae)
2b1.-glas
'caer,vir.'
2b3.-glas
gel
glastum
'lucidus,
'Isatis
albus';
tinctoria'
gealach 2b1, b2,
'lna'
b3.-glan
glain
'mundus'
'uitrum' 2b1.-gell
glass
'giluus';
'uiridis;
glas
caeruleus' 'uiridis';
glain
'gemma'
2b3.-gell
<*ghel-no
'spadix,
grtan ?
salutor >
grssen,
greet
'hitus'
<*gheH2
gharghara- grkati
,
ghurghuraknu'aperi'
zej , zin
, zjati
6.3.- i-ju,
-ti
6.4.-.
vaties
'nix' 5.4.-jiun,
jiwn 'nix'
'hiems' <*ghim
galgo,
Galgen
3a3.-galgi
ghlastos
hotr'hostia'
galga
'plus,
crux'
5.4.-jak
'rmus'
6.3.alga(s)
'hasta'
6.4.- alga
'uirga'
glast
'splendr'
gluoen,
glhen;
gold
'aurum';
galla,
Galle 'fel';
gelo
(Gelwes)
'giluus';
Glut <-tis
3a2.-gold;
gealla,
geolo,
gloom;
gleam,
gul
'aurum'
hrizelen
'fel, <*ghel(H3)i 'uiridis';
ra'
/gholH3i,
golubj
hrita'caerul.';
'fluus'
zlato
THRAK.- 'fluus';
hraya- 'aurum';
lt'fel''
'aurum'? 'aurum'
5.3.-zari- 6.3.-geltas
,zairita'fluus';
'id';
eli,
zaranya-,
liau,
'aurum'
lti,
5.6;-zra- 'uire';
'fel'
tul s 'fel';
alvas,
565

balanus' glas; glare
3a3.glana;
goll; gall
'fel'
fogleinn .
2b1.glanz
inglennat dichlyn
'uisus';
'uestigant'
glnzen
atgleinn
'speci'
'dmonstra
3a2.t'
glenten 'id'
a2.-glo,
'nuga'
glee 'id'
3a3.-gly
'gaudium'
glizzan, glitmunjan
gleissen 'splende' 'blandus

3a2.-gltan
esse'
glumen
'iubil'
3a3.glaumr
'iubilum'
gold
gul
ghlendh
ghleumi
ghloidos
ghloumos
ghtns
ghtom
ghlustis
ghdhus
ghd
ghneumi
ghodos
ghoilos
gholw
566
pre-hend
elvas
'heluus'
gladeti,
6.3.-glendi
'quaere',
glenst
'quaerere'
6.3.gludoti
6.4.glauda^t
glamiti se
'nugor'
hranyam zlato>zlot
5.3.o
6.3.zaranim
geltas
'heluus'
6.4.-zelts
gluss
2b1.-glo
glosen,
glaggw
<*ghlustu- 'carb'
glosten
'cert,
'giluus';
'clrits'; 2b2.-glow 'luce' ; profect'
gluair
'id'
klug
'iuuenis
(*ghleuri-) 2b3.-glaou 'clrus'
herba'
'clrus';
'id'
3a2.glower
'mic';
glwan
`fulminare'
gadu ?
3a1, a2.gund
'tumor' Tonsillae
gund 'pus' 'tumor'
gataim 2b1.-gann,
'capi'
'rapi'; rogenni
geinn
'arceor'
'locum
habet'
ghdhn
gnauwen
gnoati,
'fric';
'grunni'
gnuati
3a2-gna
'repell'
;
'gracilits'
'auarus'
gnusn
3a3.-g-na
'repellens'
'gracilis'
'terg'
6.3.'spma'
gnisai
'bestiolae'
5.3.zad
zadah<*zad
gel, gaol
geil
gailjan
zelo 'uald'
'familirit
3a2.-gl
'be'
6.3.-gailas
s', amicitia
'imptsu.'
kalo, ka(h)l
5.4.-glux golova,
'caluus'
(glxoy) 'cp'

3a2.<*ghlu- 6.3.-galv
callow 'id'
ko- 'caput' 'caput'
5.4.-gari
ghrdejom hordeum
gersta
ghordhos
gart
gards
g hgrad
'circulus' 'domus'
<gh dho- 'oppidum'
3a2.-gard bigairdan ALB.-garth 'domus'

6.3.'fundus'
'cing'
5.5.-gurtas gardas
'oppidum'
<-to-?
ghorejai
ghornim
ghoros
hra, hillae
garn 'filum'
hra6.3.- arn
haru-spex;
<*ghorn
'uitta'; hir
hernia
3a3.-gorn
'una'
(p. garnar)
ghorsej
horre,
hirpus
garb
2b1.-garw 3a2.-gorst
hr at,
'continens' h yati
hircus,
'lupus'
'raucus'
'herba
hispidus
SAB.- <ghrwos
quaedam'
5.3.'r(icius)'
fircus
zarayamn
a'porcellus'
'expluman
s'
5.4.-jar
'iuba'
5.5.-gurtas
ghortos
hortus,
gort 'ager'
garth
'atrium' 'oppidum'
cohors
'claustrum'
2b3.-garz
<-dho-?
'saeptum'
ghosm
hostia,
jagdhi 6.4.-gste
hostre
'esca';
'daps'
ghas (2,
3s.)
5.3.-gah
ghstipots hosps
gospod<ostpot
ghostis
hostis
gast
gasts
gost
3a2.-giest
3a3.-gastr
ghosdos
5.5.-kst ToA.-ka t,
B.-kest
ghouros
grag
qaurjan
ghruryty
'miser' 'offendere'
'piget'
3a2.-gyrn
gaurs
'tristitia' 'afflictus'
ghowej
faue ? 1b2.-fons
goumen gaumjan
govejo,
<*bhuH ? 'fauens',
'id'
'obseru
goveti
foner
3a2.'iin,
'fauents'
geman
honor'
<*bhuH?
ghradjai
gradior
dogreinn
gritten;
gris
gr d ,
'persequor'
gritt
'gradus'
gr sti
'gradus'
'ueni'
6.3.-gridiju 'e'
ghrsm
ghrsom
grmen
gras,
gras
'uor' grsa
<grasmen
Gras;
'bucella,
Grn
morsum';
'uenter'
3a2.-gras;
grsat
grwan,
'uorat'
grow
567

'uiridsc,
crsc';
grne,
green
'uiridis'
graban
3a2.grafan
3a3.-grafa
ghrebh
ghrdhus
grfan
3a2.grapian
ghreimn
hrs
ghrem
ghrendh
ghrendhos
568
grtag *grdu-s;
ALB.g dhyati
'auidus' *grdn;
grds 'desider';
3a2.grdag-s 'uentor gardhaGreed,
'-elicus' mulierum' 'desideriu
grdig 'id'
m'
ghreibh
gh j
graban
grunda,
suggrunda
greipan
grabh-,
grab-,
g bhnti
5.3.-grab
5.5.-karp
'em,
termin'
pogrebo,
pogreti
6.3.grebju,
grebt
'fodi'
glad,
6.3.-gard
'succulent
us'
6.4.gar^ds 'id'
greb ,
greti
'rapi,
rm'
<*ghrebh
6.3.griebi,
gri bti
6.4.-gribet
'uol'
6.3.gramas
'fls lactis'
grme
'sords'
3a2, 3a3.grma
'persona'
geisini
gaidw
'egests' 'egests' 'uidua';

3a2.-gd, <*ghi-tu
gd 'id"
'care';
'uacuus';
'sine';
'cd';
'terra'
gremmen gramjan 5.3.-gram- gremt
'saeui'
'irscor'
'saeuitia' 'tonre'
Gram
6.3.'maestitia'
grumi/ti
grimm
''tn.'
'horrendus'
6.4.gremju
'murm.'
grintil
gr da
'tignus'
'lectus'
3a2.6.3.grindel 'id'
grinds
'tignum'
grenn
grennos grana,'mys grans
gran
'barba'
'barba'
tax'
(acc. pl.)
'limes'
<*ghrendh 2b1.-grann 3a2.-granu 'crnes'
grnka
no'palpebra'
'id'
'arbuscula'
2b3.<*ghron
grann

'cilium'
ghrend
frend
grunt,
Grund
3a2.grind(an)
'mol'
grund
3a3.-grotti
'mola'
3a3.griandi
'aurra',
dagen gryr
'illucescit'
2b1.-gro,
grien
'glarea'
'glarea'
2b2.-grow 3a3.-grjn
'id'
'grna'
2b3.grouanenn
'id'
ghrw
ghrew
ghrew
Gram
'maestitia'
ghronos
Granne
'arista'
3a3.-grn,
gr n
'picea,
abis' (=
acus)
grad
2b1, b3.3a2.'maxilla' grud(d) 'id' grada
'tetae'
ghroudos
ghrow
ghrt
garth
'mons'
(secus
hortus)
ghudj
ghwer
ghwrns
ghwrs
gass 2b1.-gwst
'periculum' 'morbum'
fund,
ftis,
futtilis
fernus
ferus, fera,
ferna
'ter'
'grnum'
6.3.grndu,
gresti
'ter'
5.5.-kar
'et prdem';
karuwili'antquus'
'quati';
'intactus'
'cutis'
'tang'
'succedit'
(Hom);
'repens'
ingru,
congru,
ghromos
ghund
grundu
'terra'
grchnut
a
'strepitos
cadere'
6.3.griuva
griti 'gru'
6.4.-g aut
'fconter'
5.3.-gram- grom
'strepitus" 'saeuitia' 'tonitrus'
(Hes.)
gran
'tempus'
<*ghronis
'fnis''
'mons'
(Hes)
grt
'cacumen'
<*ghrtis
3a2.-()getan
'feri,
interfici'
6.6.-grot
6.7.-hrot
6.3.- v,
ti
'morior',
fac.-da /ti
giutan
juhoti
zv rna
6.3.verien
TOK B
zver;
<*ghwrs er- 'unor' zverna
569
ghwobhros
gibb
faber
gibba,
gibbus,
gibber
ggisai
gign
gign,
nscor
gigrs
gjew
glgjs
glabh
gladhros
glacis
<glagys
(propter
acim)
1a1.gulbia
'scalprum,
runcna'
570
'cauits'
'cauus'
gulban
2b1.-gilb
<*gulbno- 'foratorium'
'cuspis,
gilbin
rostrum' 'acumine'
2b2.geluin
'rostrum'
2b3golbina
'rostrata'
glat, glatt
3a2.-gld
'alacer'
3a3.-glar
glm
clamr,
murmurti
'' <
*glaghsm
lac (lactis)
wa(f)fen
'arma'
3a2.wpen
'id' <*bhno3a3.-keiv
'perperus'
geibst,
gebti
'clinor,
decad'
kren,
5.5.-kis,
kehren
ks; ki-i-sa;
3a2.ki-ik-ki-iskrian
ta-ri
rogenar 2b1.-geni knt, knuot kns

jnati
'ntus
'nascor' 'id' 3a2.- 'generus', 'ueni'; 'prodcit';
sum', 2b3.-genel cennan

sexus'
jyate
'ntus';
gainethar
'pari'
'gign'
.'nascitur'
<
<
'familiris'
*gH1yeto
*H1yetoi
r nascitur;
gein
'nascentia'
kiuwan,
5.6.vo,
kauen
jvdan
vati
3a2.6.3.cowan,
iunos
chew
'maxilla'
3a3.-klaki
glaber
glagh
glakti
gobae <*- dat. pl.

bhts
gobedbi
(gobann 2b1.-gof,
<*-ntsnos) pl. gofein
A aru B
6.3.erwe '- vers; ver
tor'
ien
6.3.-Gabe,
Gube
'ignis' <*bhy
klaga,
Klage
'protestti
':
klagn
(actus)
garh
'can'
'puniti' ;
<*glagy grhati/te
5.3.-grzaiti
5.6.-gila
jlsa
'slcium'
5.4.-kat'n
5.5.-
elobt
glob
'piipa'
globok
'profundus'
glad-k
6.3.glods, nas
6.4-glstt
'mulce'
glegos
3a3.klkkva
'molli'
3a6.klinker
'tener'
klebn
3a2.-clifian
gleibh
gleis
gls (glris);
galrus<*g
raec.
glkis
glomus,
globus
gleubh
glb
glnmi
gls,
glten,
glis, -tis,
glitts,
gltin
globhos
globus,
Galba,
galbeus,
glba,
glb
glghis
gloidos
gloijs
gloit
gls, -tis,
glten, inis, glitts
glokij
gloci
glomos
glomus
>lat.
galea
glic(c)
'sapiens'
glembh
klug
u-glbl'o
(eff.)
gir- ,
girik
klamben
'agglutin'
; Klumpen
'agglom..'
3a2.clamb(er)'s
cal'
klioban
'scindere'
3a2.clofan
glenim
2b1.klenan,
<*gli-n-mi glynaf
chlinu
'adhaere' 'adhaer.'
3a2.'adhaesuu
2b3.clg,clay
s'
glenaff;
'arg'
'desider'
geot
3a3.-klina
'grmen' <
'lin'
*gel-t
Kalb
kalb
'uitulus';
'uitulus'
klftra
'braccia'
3a2.-calf
'sra et
uitulus'
3a3.-kleggi
'frnum'
'lingua'
gled
3a2.-clte
'glten'
'lappa';
clite 'lutum'
3a2.cl g, clay
3a3.-klg
'lutum'
'gltinsus'
. (Hes.)
glomar
'frnum'
galaktar
'id'
jlsa BU glz
'slcium' 'molli'
6.3.gl nas
'tener'
klukken
3a2.cloccian
klimmen
'string'
'glamsus'
POL;-glab,
TCEK.hloub
'truncus'
glej glek
'lutus'
6.3.-gliej,
gli ti 'lin';
glitis
'muccus'
6.3.-glbiu,
glbti
'amplector'
SE B.zglbiti
'adapt'
glog
'spna'
6.4.-glde^t
'glutinsus
fier'
*gl v; glej
'lutum'
6.4.-glievs
glyte
'muccus';
glits
'gltinsus'
.
klcati
'battu'
6.3.klukti
6.3.glomju -ti
571

3a2.climman,
climb
'scl'
'amplector'
gl m s
'lutum'
gls
gls
gluj
glti,
ingluuis
nascor,
ignuus,
(im)praegn
gnj
gnmi
cnim
gns
gnskai
gnts
ntus,
cogntus,
(-)genitus
PAEL.plign.
cnatois
'nts'
gneibh
ndor
gnros
ignrus,
narr
572
(3.
sg. ),
singulus
<*s gnos,
mali/pruig
nus
zolva
6.5.-zova
glott;
glot(k)
j-s
'ingenuus
(ad), et
prls
(nom)'
j-s
'ingenuus
(ad), et
prls
(nom)'
aicned
Cintu3a2.-kunds jt6.3.<*adgntus
heofon- 'oriundus' 'frter' 5.3.-ztantas
gen/gene 'primogenit kund
<*gen-to-tous';
'*caeligenu
'gener'
'ntra'
gntha, s'; -cund
geneta 3a3.-kundr
'flia'
'flius'
2b1.-cnaif kneifen
kniebi, 'full'
'uellus'
'fric'
bti 'fric'
2b2.-kneu
3a2.knab-,-ti
2b3.hnppan
'glub'
kreo,
'quati'
kaneo 3a3.-hnafa
'sec'
3a2.-cnf,
furrum?
knife 'id'
cniue; conegos,
(c)ntor -, kunikaz
nict, -re 'conixus'
=*conigtu
s
gneid
gnos
nuoen,
nejen
2b1.-adian
'prols'
<*atign
gnebhis
gnebh
gneich
gnu
2b1.-adian
<*gny
'prols'
'faci'
<*atign
5.4.-tal
cned
'uulnus'
<*knid
cnes
'pellis'
3a3.-knfr
(h)ngan, hneiwan;
neigen, *ga(h)nipn
nicken an <*gneib
'inclinor';
'tristis
hnaiw
esse'
'humilis'
3a2.hngan
hntan
(*<dy);
'alld'
3a3.-hniss
'urtca'
'ndor '
1b2.naratu
'narrt',
naraklum
'nntiti'
Truticnos,
Coimagni
aina-kla'singulus'
'recens
ntus'
5.5.kaniniya'subsid'
knimb,
knbti
'flectere'
<*gneib
6.4.knide^t
'prurre'
kni det
'pangere'

(g)gnsk
(gnwa)
gnu,
ignr,
ignrus,
narrre
gnsmi
ignr ?
gntis
nti
gntlom
cf. nbilis
gnt r
ntor
gnts
ntus;
nota
<*gnota,
notre,
cognitus,
agnitus
gnoubhos
gnwos
einknuadil
'insignis'
beknuodile
n 'audibile
fier'
gnth
gnobh
(g)nuus
golbhnos
gombhos
kunnan, jta-,
kannjan; ALB.-njoh jyte
<*gnsk
kann
5.4.<*gonne
ana 'em
'potest'
<*cana 'e
m
<*gnH3sky
-, aor.
caneay
ajsam, sths
5.4.caneay
5.5.kane/iss-zi
(ganeszi)
<*gnsti
pra-jtikunst
*kns
'ars';
dat.kndai 'nti,
'agniti';
urchna^t 'genus'; necessitd jt'
'agniti' kuni <gt
'necessit
d'
1b2.- itargninim, Ate-gnatus kunnan,

naratu
asa
2b1.-gwn, kennen,
'narrt', gninaim
atwaen
knnen
naraklum 'sapi', ad 2b2.3a2.'nntiti'
gnin
gon,aswo cnwan,
'agnoscit' m 2b3.know
<*gninu- gounn/gon <*knjan
n
gemma
eposognat
kund
us
3a2.-c,
2b1.kth
gnawd 3a3.-kur,
'usule'
kunnr
Knopf;kn
pfen 'lig'
3a2.knobbe,.kn
ob
Bodo3a2.-.
cnous gecnwe
1b2.-go- 3a3.-knr
gnaw
'habilis'
1b3.-gnou
'videns'
gulban,
2b1.kolbo
gulpan
gilb(in)
'uirga'
<*gulbno- 'forator., 3a3.-kolfr
'cuspis, acumine' 'acumen'
rostrum'
2b2.geluin
'rostrum'
2b3.golbina
'rostratam'
kamb,
kuns
'ntus'
znaj ,
znati
<*gn6.3.- ina ,
inti
6.4.-zint
ToA.kasst
'agnuist'
<*gnsH3s-
znati,
znat
'scre'
6.3.pa ints
'agn.'
6.4.-znuts
'gener'
jtra6.3.'intelligenti
nklas
a'
6.9.ebsentliun
s
'dsigntu
s'
jtr5.3.ntar
jnth 6.4.-pazts
'ntus'
gniubti
'amplector'
j(m)bhat
z b,
573

<gembhn
gomos
gem;
gumia
(deriu.)
1b2.gomia,
kumiaf
'grauidas'
gonj
gopos
gop, gob
<*-bb-?
gorbos
gorgnm
gorgs
'dens'
3a2.cumbol,
cumul
'tumor,
uulnus'
3a3.-kams
'glba'
3a2.cennan
<*gonjan
kiver,
Kiefer
'maxilla'
Kfer
'scarabaeu
s'
3a2.-cafl,
jowl 'id'
gtus, uola
grakij
gracill,
graculus
gramm
grmiae
grnom
grnum
gaire
grg
'gracillaati
'
grn
, 'rapi'
zob
jambhah
'dens'
'morsum, pro-zebati
dens'
'pectin'
5.3.-hm,
6.3.zmbayati ambas
'angulus'
6.4.-zobs
'dens'
gomola
'glba'
6.3.gmulas,
gumul s
'globus'
janyati
5.3.zob 'pcus',
zafar/fan
zobt
'fauces'
'ed'
6.3.- biu,
-eti 'id'
'horrendus'
garg
graen
'rudis'; 'maestitia'
grin
'repugnanti
a'
<*gragnis
goulos
gouros
574
Kamm
'pecten'
3a2.camb,
comb 'id'
3a3.kambr 'id'
'circulus'
kauern
'adesse'
3a3.-kaure
krchzen
krhhon>c
h 'reson'
3a2.cracettan
3a3.-krka
'coruus"
3a3.-kramr qrammia
'umidus, 'humidits'
nix
smirrta'
2b1.korn
gronyn 3a2.-corn
2b2.gronen
2b3.greunenn
karn
groza
'horror'
6.3.gra ju -ti
'minor'
6.3.ga ras
'uellus'
6.4.-gauri
'u.pubicus'
6.5.-guriti
se 'plect'
garjati
gra u,
'tonat'
grakati
<krag
6.3.5.4.grg d iu,
karka
girg dti
'strepitus' 'frumpere'
grme d
'gram.'
pogro o
'summerg
' 6.3.grimsti 'id'
jrn 'trtus' zrno
6.3.- rnis
'pisum'
6.4.-zirnis
'id'

g beinos
carpinus
5.5.grabna
karpina6.3.skirptas
'ulmus'
5.4.-karth
grubu
'tortus'
'tibia' !! 'dorsum,
conuuls.';
gorb
'gibba'
6.4.grumbt
'rug. fi'

'et
'alea,
scrb'
tractus'
6.4.grpsta,
grpste
'rasi'
grapsa,
'rte,
glapsa
corbis,
'fascis'
enygma' (ei- scrb,
)
GIS
g bj
gerbach
'rugsus'
krimpf,
krampf,
krumpf
'tortus'
3a3.-korpa
'ruga'
g bh
kerben
'cael'
3a2.-carve
'id'
grebhos
krebe
'corbis',
Krippe
'iparulriu
m'
3a2.-cribb
'id'
krazzn,
kratzen
3a3.-krota
'scalp'
gred
gregs
gremjom
grendjom
grex
(gregis)
gretlom
greubh
SCOTT.groban
'cacumen'
greug
gruc, grug
'ruga'
grucnach
'rugtus'
A B.-grj
;grrus,
krs()
'strigilis'
'complra';
cf.
'congreg'
graig
2b1-2b2(grega)
2b3.-gre
'grex
'id'
equrum'
grinne
'fascis'
Kranz;enze
'corb.'
3a2.-crt
'raeda'
kratto,Krt
ze 'corb.'
3a2.cradol,
cradle
Kropf
'tolls';
sich
krpfen
'flectere'
3a2.cropan,
crp 'rp'
kriochan,
kriechen
'rp'
krucka;
Krcke
'baculum'
3a2.cryce,
'tortus'
'gryphus';
'torque'
6.3.grands
'anu, ar'
6.6.greda sie
'torqur'
grathnmi
'plect';
grantha
'nodu.,
corna'
grubinti
'uacillre,
lab'
575

greum
grmus
greut
grdhs
grbhos
grdis
groumos
grundij
gruth
<*gruts ?
'lacte
putridum,
caseus'
'uetus rs'
'situs
sub ungue'
'superbus'
grandis
grabtus
1b2.'lectus' Grabovius
<Illyr.,
'quercus
Mac.
deus'
grand, inis
grundi,
grunni
grutis
gruth
gudom
gug
crutch
Krume
'mca
pnis'
3a2.crma 'id'
kroten
'prem'
3a2.crdan;
crowd
curds
'caseus'
galla
gln 'gen'
glosnthe
'linea,
norma'
gup
PR.-wosigrabis
'euonymus
'
? 5.4.-karkut
'glarea' <*gagrdo
grunzian,
grunnen
3a2.grunian,
grunt
kroten
'prem';
krot
'pressi'
3a2.crudes,
curd(es);
crowd
'glomus'
3a2.-kyte,
kite
'stomachu
s'
Kugel,
kliuwa
3a2.cy el,
cudgel;
claw
'garra'
chubisi
`tugurium'
;
Koben
'porcle'
3a2.-cofa,
cove
576
gust,
dgn
do-roigu
'lexit';
asagussim
kiosan,
kiesen
3a2.-
gudm
gula- ,
ly,
'tumor'
glugglja
'card' 4.6.-gzak 'tumor'

'talus'
6.3.-gug
'promuntor
ium'
5.3.-gufra
goba
'uultur''profundus' 'lepra'
5.4.6.3.gumbed gumbas
'boueda'
'cauit.'
gurnos
gusn
grod
'pectus'
grab
'betulla'
6.4.Grubina
grad
6.3.grodas
kiusan;
kausjan
'examin'
5.4.-kurn (
kran)
ju t
'delectat''
5.6.-
6.3.gurnas
'coxa,
ossu q.'
vu-kusiti
'gust'
gut
idhei
ikj
ili
kiosan,
choose
3a2.-codd
'saccus'
guttur
ib
1b2.-if;
ifont
'ibidem'
infig. -id-
gakusts
'proba'
iha
'hic natus' 5.3.-ida
2b1.-yd
2b2.- yz,
yth
2b3.-ez
lia, le
<gr.?
Ile; Islay Ilio-mrus

'insula 'magningui
quaedam'
nis'
2b1.-il?
'fermentu
m'
(Hes.)
lj
imde
imm
nekmi
imm
ipj
is, id
is, id; dem, eisdem
sarnom
(<aes non
possiblile
propter
longa )
ita
ita, item, iti 1b2.-itek
itj
itaqe
teros
daustar
'amcus'
5.5.-kuttar
iterum
izio,
idic/dk;
is-id-um
'dem';
1b2-ere,
erse
h. Hed;
2b1.a<(esyo, eidau, eidi
esys)
is, ita
iarn,
aiarann
eisarn
Isarnus,
sarn
Iserninus
3a2.2b1.- isrn, iron
haearn, 3a3.-sarn,
haiarn
jrn
2b2.hoern/horn
2b3.houarn
2b1.-yd, yt
jal'ity
'testicul'
iyarti, rte
etc 'moue'
(intr.)
5.4.elanim 'fi';
elanem
'scand';
eluzanem
'prm'
5.5.-hali
'trd'
5.5.-imma
a a- nes , nesti
<enkenk- 'porti'
'port'
'tul';
5.4.- hnjo- 6.3.-ne,
'mols' c 'messis' neia ,

5.5.- i-innti
ik-zi
6.4.-nesu,
'attribuit', neu, nest
inclintur
impai
'onus' 'dpressus
sum'
ay-am, id- jo 'eum';
'eum' am, iy-am
iako
5.6.-iyam 'qulis'
6.3-jis
(<ayas)
ittham, iti 6.3.-it, itin

'ita'
'rect'
itth, itthd
'hic'
itarah
'alter';
577

itaratah
'indirect'
itim
it
iwe
jkj
jkj
jagj
jgjus
jmi
jneumi
iinus
(Pl.
iinus')
1b2.-ie
'iam'
inua,
inus
2b1.-ie
'sic'
'axis,
carrus'
th<ytus
'portus'
iam
(i)lid
iawl 'laus,
'rogat,
iussus'
desiderat'
iolaf
'laud'
2b3.-iolent
'precentur'
jnuw
jegh
jegis
578
5.5.-itar
'uia'
iva
5.5.-i-waar (iwar)
TOK A.ytr

yjati;
yaj'sacer';
'sacer' ;
'sacrificium yajas'sacrificium
'
'
5.3.yazaite
yjyu-
iinus
(Pl.
iinus'),
iient
ji
jlos
jmi
iter, arc.
itiner
ceu <*keiwe
aig f. (ega) 2b1.- i

2b2.-yey,
yeyn
2b3.-ien,
yen 'frgus'
j, jeh
jai
yti 'it';
jado,
ynajachati 'e'
'uia,
(in veh.)
uehiculum' 6.3.-jju,
5.3.-yh- jti 'equit'
'crimen,
decisi'
ju 'iam, ja ju, 'iam', ja

ju
'sic';
'sic'
6.3, 6.4.3a2.-ju
jau
'iam'
) yvan
jar
'auidits, 'offensor'; 'uiolentus'
inuidia';
ytr
jarost
'uindictor' 'exasperti
'quaer';
; yt
'
'incantus'
6.8.ja^l
'crucitr' ;
5.3.-ytu 'inuidia'
'poena'; 'incantus/t
or'; y-s
'uiolentus'; 'desideriu
m'
'offend'
5.4.-janam
'molior'
jagn,
(prajagen
)yak ati
'agittur';
yah,
yahv
'inquitus>
flius'
ihilla <
6.5.-eka
*jichilla
'stiria'
3a2.gicel(a),
iceicle

jek
iocus
jekos
jlom
(j)jmi
iaci,
iace
jem
redimi,
infula ?
<*imdhl,
geminus
jems
geminus
???
jentr
ianitrcs
(!!)
jeq
iecur
(iecoris,
iecinoris)
jes
1a1.-iest
'spma'
jeunis
jeus
is
3a3.-jaki
2b1.giht
ieith/iaith 'nuntitus
'populus, .' gehan
lingua'
'nunti'
(h)cc
2b1.-iach
'snti'
'snus'
2b2.-yagh
2b3.-iac'h
-ialo-;
Nantoialo> Nanteuil
2b1.-ial
'desertum'
icht
'populus'
'snti'
ya as
'honor'
jlyj
'sterilis'
6.4.- jels
'immatrus
'
5.5.-i-ja-mi
'faci'; pija-mi
'mitt'
ymati, TOK A, B
ycchati ym-'faci,
'tenet'
effici'; A
5.3.- yam-, yom-, B
yasait 'id'
ym'assequor'
emon<*em
eban;
ibns
ymati,
noeben 'aeq.' 'aequus'
ycchati
'geminus'
3a2.-efn,
'tenet';
emnaid
even 'id'
yma'duplex'
3a3.-Ymir
'habna';
'deus
yam
Hermaphr.'
'geminus'
5.3.-yma'geminus'
yatrjetry
'cognta' 6.3.-jenter5.4.-ner
i(u)chair
ykrt
ikra
'ouae
(yakn )
'caviar'
piscis'
5.6.- jigar 6.3.-jknos
6.4.-aknas
ess
ias 'ferue' gesan,
yasati
'ferue'; 'efferut'
'cataracta' et 'clamor, jesan
erupti' 'ferment'
5.5.'feruens';
2b3.-gell 3a2.-giest,
is(sa)na-,
'leuitus'
yeast
ssana'siccus'
<*upo-ies<*HHi2-s- 'massa'
lo
ain
y ni 'locus
'occasi=l
oti';
ocus
syona<suy
aptus,
ouni
tempus
'placidus'
aptus'
5.3.yaonm
'uia'
hth
2b1.-iot, 3a3.-st ALB.-gjr
yh
juxa
'fermentu pra-yuti 6.3.-jshe
'pulsum'
iwt/uwd
'caseus'
m' ;
<*iut?
'pulsum'
'agit'
6.4.-jaut
mlat. iotta 2b2.-iot

'ammass'
'pulsum'
2b3.-iod
'papillae'
579

jewesdiks
jew
i -re
jewom
jwornjom
jewos
3a2.gocian
'salu'
(Hom.)
eorna
is (cf.
iouestd lapis niger)
jdros
jt
jod qid
jodhei
joinkos
(h)t
'inuidia'
iuncus;
iniperus
Iantumaru
s,
Adiatunnu
s 2b1.addia(n)t
'auidit.'
in<ioini-
eynholz,
Einbeerba
um
3a3.einir-
jom
jomde
joqe
jah
jori
jorkos
jrom
jrs
jos (je), j,
jod
j sneumi
jota
jota sei
jugsmto imentum
m
580
yh
5.3.yaoshindra- ?
'deus q.'
ytate
'studt'
yatns
'studium'
yad, yena
'celer'
6.3.Indraj
'flum.q.'
5.5.-ya, a;
yakku
2b1.-iwrch
2b2.-yorch
2b3.iourc'h
hornus<ho
-yrnos?
cf. ahd.
hiuru<hiu
jru
yuy ti
'uitt,
protegit'
yvah
ovin
5.3.-yava 6.3.-java
5.5.-ewa
jr
3a2.-ger
3a3.-r
jr
paryrin<
'tempus' pari-yrin
'post
annum
prmum
pariens'
5.3.-yr
'annus'
yas, y,
yad;
'uter'
yatara
4.5
'uter'
5.3.-yastay 'cincttus'
'cing'
5.5.-ish
'lig'
jara 'ver',
jar
'grnum
aesttis'
6.3.-jre
i-ze, ia-ze
poja ,jasati
'cing';
pojas
'cinctus'

jwestos
jucis
istus, P.
Fest.
iouiste
'iust'
igis
judhej
iube, iuba
<'agitans'
jugm
iugum
jung
iung
jwenis
juwes /
juwe
juwks
jwt
juwn
kpj
huisse
'decens'
ist 'urus'
2b1b2,b3.iud 'pugna'
<youdhos
2b1.-udd
'dominus'
ughaim
2b1.juch, joch
iou/iau
3a2.-juk
2b2.-ieu
3a3.-ok
2b3.-ieo,
geo
untarjauhta
'subjugu'
juk
5.3.yavaj5.4.-yave
'semper'
ud-ydhati ojmin ?
'proelium' 'turbultur'; 'miles'
ydhyati, 6.3.- jud,
ydhati
-ti
'pugnat'; 'moueor';
ydhjudra
'proelium, 'turbulentia
miles';
' 6.6.yudhm
judzi
'bellicsus' 'incit'
5.3.-yi
yeinti
'pugnant'
yug 'pr' igo (iga)
5.5.-i-u-ga- 6.3.-iungas
an, yukan
yumkti 6.3.-jungiu
ir
pl. ys, du. pl. yuvm 6.3.-ys,
2b1.-g, g
yut
du. yym du. yudu
3a3.-er
(t<dw)
5.3.6.4.-y s
yzm
5.4.-yez
5.5.-u(um-)mees
iuuencus 1b2.-iveka, oac, c iouincillus junc, jung

juggs
yuvak,
iuenga
2b1.3a2.-iung,
yuva 'iuuenca'
ieuanc
geong,
2b2.young
iouenc/yo
wynk
2b3.iaouank
iuuenta
etiu, itiu
3a2.-youth
junda
yuvatva
<tt <t
<*yuwntw
o
iuuenis, 1b2.-iouies a 'iunior';
yva(n)jun
inx; 'iuvenibus,
am
(yna ), 6.3.-junas
inior;
militibus'; 'iuuenissim
grd.
6.4.-jauns
iouiste
jovie
us'
yvyas-,
<comp.*jo
yvi awi-s
5.6.y(a)van
(yn)
kapat 'duo 6.3.-kopa
capi,
cacht
Moeniahevan,
hafjan
captus
'seruus'
coeptus
heben
'leure '
pugnt'
'ansa'
2b1.-caeth
'leu.'
haban
'seruus'
haben
'habre'
2b2.-caid 'habre'
hafts
581

f. caites
2b3.quaez
kps
kptos
ksj
kstos
ktos
kwj
captus,
captuus
care,
castus,
castrum,
castig
cacht
'serua'
casit
'oportet'
b2castrous
'fund',
castruo,
kastruvuf
catus
cess
'hasta'
*<kest
3a2.hebbian,
hebban,
heave 'id',
habban
'habre'
'captus'
haft,
behaftet
3a2.-hft
'seruus'
3a3.-hes
'penniculu
m in bouis
cauda'
-hafts
cath
'asttus'
caue (cf.
skew)
kabn
cab,
cabnus,
caballus
capall
kadh
cassis ?
cais
'amor';
miscuis
'odium'
kad
cad
kdos
antkadum
'occidione
m'
cadeis
amnud
'inimcitiae
caus'
kadros
kaghl
kaghos
582
c(i)d
caulae <
caholae,
,
'incipias',
Caballos
huota, Hut
'custodia';
huot, Hut
'petassus'
3a2.-hd
'c., p.' >hat
'p.'; hdre
'timens'
casair
caiss
'odium'
2b1.haz, hass
cawdd 'ra'
'id'
cas
3a2.-hete
<*kadsi'id'
'odium' 3a3.-hatr
2b2.-cueth
2b3.-cuez,
keuz
caddos
2b1.-cae hag 'urbs'

'saeptum,
hac
itkutiti
'machinri'
prekutiti
'ornre'
km (pro k(n) 'ad'

'forsan'
dat
6.3.--ki
commod, (imper.)
imper.,
affirm.)
kobyla
'equa'
kon,
<*kabni
6.3.kum l
'equa'
ka
caballus
sti, kosa,
ati
'falx'
'scindit'
astrm
'culter,
sca, ensis'
'appartus'
;
'praepar'
3a2.hegan
'effici'
3a3.-heyja
'id'
kblos
hatis
'odium'
sd-
ri- das
'de
<*keH2dno
forneo
s
(Lubotsky) curans'
5.3.-sdra-
adna
'excellii' 'excellens'
kaid
kaikos
clum,
kahad
cl, -re; 'capiat'
cohum,
3a3.incoh kukh(n)
s
'occupaver
int';
cehefi
'captus sit'
caed
caecus
kailom
caelum
kaip
caepa,
cpa
kairs
sincrus,
caerimonia
kis js
kaisrom
kaitom
kkab
ccb aare
cac,
cacca
kkneumi
bctum
<b-ctum (cf.
iunctum)
caelebs
kaklj
khidti
kkaras
cech 2b1.-coeg
haihs
'monophth' 'uacuus'
'monophth. 'uentus
'paetus'
occidentli
2b2.-cuic
'
s'
'luscus'
cl (a 2b1.-coilou 3a3.-heill
hails
cel
britonnic) 'auspic.'
'salus'
'snus'
'snus'
2b2.-coel
celjo, celiti
'harusp.'
'sn'
2b3.chuillioc
in Ceryna
(Hes.)
caesaris
kiwelos
kakkj
fundus' 'saeptum,
2b3.claustrum'
quae/kae
Cetobricca heida,
haii
, Kaitobrix Heide
'prtum'
'Setbal' 3a2.-h ,
2b1.-coit,
heath
coed 'silua' 3a3.-heir
2b2.cuit/coys/c
os 2b3.koat
cacill; cicirrus =
ccurri, Messius
ccht
'potests,
imperium'
<*kankt- /
*kenkt-
kacken
gackizn,
gackern
3a2.-cocc
'gallus'
behagen
'decet';
hagen
'sementle
'
3a2.-hatch
TOCH A
i k,
ecake ?
'le'
5.5.tiyessar
?
GIS
caccaim; 2b1.-cach
cacc
2b2.'cacca'
caugh
2b3.-cac'h
ksara-
kvala'solus,
nus'
'nicus'
6.3.kaivnti
'exhuaurre
'
kkubha
'gallus q.'
'cacca'
kurku a-, kokott
'perdix' kukku a- kokot m,
,'gallus' koko f
(cf. fr. coq)
akn ti 6.3.-kank,
'potest,
kkti
iuuat'; 'assequor'
akt
TOK.-A
'auxilium' kkmart,
5.3.-sa aiti kamart
583

'al'
3a3.-hgr
'decens'
hager
'tenuis'
kak
kaldj
kaldos
kaliks
kalgn
klis
kalkis
kalwos
callus,
calle
calix,
culigna
1b2.skale-ta,
scalseto 'e
pater',
scalsie 'in
pater'
columba,
clidus,
callidus,
clgo
1b2.kaleruf
(buf)
'callidos
(boves)
caluus,
calua,
caluria
Kalvies,
Kalaviis
'Calvius'
kambos
kmi
kam
584
calath,
calad
'drus'
calliomarc
us 'farfara'
2b1.-caled
'drus'
caill<kalni
'testic.'
Schale
caile
'macula'
helm
'macula
frontlis
pecuum'
camm
2a2.-cam
crus
Cambodunum
2b1.-2b2.cam
2b3.kamm
caraim Carant-us, huora
hrs
carae
2b1, b2, 'meretrix' <*hra'amcus' b3 caraf 3a2.-hre 'adulter'
car
'id'
'amcus' 3a3.-hra<*hrn
hemmen
'obst'
3a3.hemja
'retine'
'callet' 'dominium'
5.6.-saxt
'multum'
5.3.-kasu
6.3.'paruus' nukati
'defetiscor'
ka<*kra
kaliti
'dursc
(incandenti
s ferr)'
kal a-
kala ka-,
kal
'columba'; kalana-, 'excrment
kalma aum'
'n''
kalna
'macula,
sordees'; `Viburnum
'ter';
karkaopulus';
'asinus'
'albus,
kal- a
rociinus'
kal-ga
'macula'
5.4.- arma 'pals'
6.3.'mancill' 'rociinus'
kalbas,
kalvas
'albicollis'
(ti-)krva,
kurva,
klvlk ta
5.3.kaurva
'discruris'
cak
'placuit';
kma'amor';
kmyati
cru'amoenus',
nicyya
'attractuus
'
5.3.-kay,
kma
5.4.'multitd kàmel
in fest' 'exprimere'
'cmus'
6.3.kamaros
'lasciuia'
6.4.kme^t
'esuri';
krs
'expetens'
kom
'glomus'
6a3.kamoti;
kams 'id'

kampos
campus
knmi
canlis
kand
cand
silb
cf.
'tribtum; Cambioargentum'; dnum,
cimbe
Cambo'convicti'
ritum
kankus
kanm
cnim
<*knH2mi2a3.cnmh
can,
cantus
kantos
cantus
<gall.
kaplos
capus,
cappul,
concipil
hamfs
'mutilus'
kapan
kupin
'flect';
'uermis'
'fascis'
kapa a- 6.3.-kumpti
'flexi';
'acumen'; 'flector';
cpakampas
'uermis'
'arcus'
'angulus'
'flexus'
6.4.kampis
'abies
lasiocarpa'
khnati;
kh'puteus'
kh'cauits'
5.3.-kani
'fossum';
x 'id'
cndati;
candrh
'carb'
'lna'
(Hes)
*cando
possibile
in
deriutioni
bus
Cassiciate Hengst Lex Salica:
(locus) 'admissri chengisto

<*kankstk
us'
'equus
(Hes.)
3a2.castrtus
2b1.hengest
caseg
'id'
'equus'
2b2.cassec 'id'
2b3.kezeg (pl.)
gc/gag
2b1.huohili
hha
ank- ;
'rmus' cainc/cang 'aratiuncul 'artrum'
kh
ccht
au
a';
'stps,
'artrum' <*kanku
puntle'
knkestos
kanm
kan
hamf 'id'
3a2.-hf
'id'
1b2.kanetu
'canit'
<*knH2me
H2 'tibia,
cubitus'
hamma
'poples'
<*konH2m
eH2
3a2.hamm 'id'
canim, 2b1.-cathl 3a2.-hen

ctal,
'cantus'
'gallna'
forcital
2b3.'disciplna' kentel
'lecti'
ctad
2b1.-cant;
'sella
lloergant
rotunda' 'plniluniu
<kantom'
sedo-; ct 2b3.-kant
'columna' 'circulus'
(cf:.cantalo
n)
capanna, hbba,
SE B.happe
kpa
'falx'
'horreum'
s k
'surculus';
socha
'hamus'
6.3.-ak
hana
'gallus'
'mane
canens
(gallus)'
<lat.
kut
'angulus'
'ascia'
kopje
'hasta'
6.3.skplis
585

<VEN-I.ILL
kpos
kapr
kapros
kaput
caper,
capra
caput,
capillus
karein
carna
karkar
carcer
krkarj
karkros
cancer
karnj
carin
karn
kros
karp
586
'ascia'
huoba,
Hufe,
Hube
3a2.-hba
crus
carp,
carpinus
caera/caor caer-iwrch 3a2.-hfer

a 'ouis'
3a3.-hafr
cud, cuth,
houbit,
haubi
caut
Haupt
<*kapont3a2.?
hafod,
hafola
3a3.haufud
2b1.-ceri
<*carso'nucleus
fructs'
ALB:
'hortus'
kopsht
'hortus'
'id'
'ursus'
kapcchal
a
'caesaris';
kapla'craneus'
'nux',
'nucis
arbos'
karnitu
harahus
'erexit,
'circulus
locut' lapidum in
2b2.-carn sepulcr'
'sepulcrum 3a2.'
hearg
'sancturiu
m'
3a3.-hrgr
'id et agger
lapidum'
(h)ruom, hreigs carkarti;
Ruhm
'celeber' 'nuntius'
krt'fma'
*hrpjan
'fma';
3a2.-hrm, (b?) 'uoc'
krhr
hrps
'cantor'
3a3.'rumor'
herma
'nunti'
karka a- ,
3a3.-rke
<>rus?
karka- ;
ka ka a=cancer?
'lorica'
<*ka krta
caire 2b&.-cared harawn;
'puniti' 'nequitiae'
herb
(Hes.)
2b2.-caa 'amarus'
'puniti"
3a2.2b3.-carez hierwan
'd' <*kry 'contemn'
huora
hors
'meretrix' <*hra3a2.-hre 'adulter'
'id'
3a3.-hra<*hrn
corrn
2b1.-cor
herbist
'falx'
'puncta' <*karpist-
'fructus';
6.3.-apkerd iu;
kardas
'echo'
rak
<*krak
ukoriti
`contumeli
'; kor, 'a'
6.3.-krinti
'id'
6.4.karint
'deludere'
6.4.-krs
'expetens'
5.5.karpina
rp ,
reti 'cre'
krrk
cirrim
'put'
corr
'cuspis'
'autumnus'
3a2.hrfest
'segs'
carrac,
craice,
creice
(craice,
creice);
crach
'raucus'
2b1.harg
carrecc 'templum'
2b2, b3.- 3a2.-hearg
carrek
'id'
karts
kasnos
kasterlom
kastra
kastrj
kastrom
katsna
katsjai
katsj
katt
cnus
castra
cathir
'urbs'
1b1.-caer
3a2.c(h)ester
<lat.
hardus
'drus'
ka u,
6.3.-karts
k uka'acer'
'acer';
'uis'
krtu- 'uis
spiritulis'
5.3.- 5.3.xratu 'id'

'fluus'
a -
chattra<*skadtro/skottro'umbella'
castr -re
caterua,
1b2.catna kateramu,
cassis, cateraham
casa ?
o
'congreg
mini'
catulus 1b2.-katel
(katles)
'catulus'
katus
kaukos
hart
'drus',
harto
'mult'
3a2.heard;
hard
3a3.harr;har
a 'id'
2b1.haso
ceinach <*kaswo
'lepus' 3a2.-hasu
'arbor q.' 6.3.- kirpti

'cuspis'
'put'
6.4. rpet
'rd'
karkara-,
karka a'drus';
karaka'grand'
1b2.-cader
'festa'
cadla ?
'tripa'
cath
caucum;
cucullus ?
catu-rx
2b1.-cad;
cadr
'robustus'
2b2.-cas;
cadr 'id et
pulcher'
3a2.heaor
'claustrum'
3a3.hadda?
'anus'
hatele
'capra'
3a3.hana
'capella'
hadu,
hader
3a2.heau3a3.-H r,
'Mars'
ALB.astrm
thadr
'culter,
'bipennis' sca, ensis'
NUBIAN
kadis,
BERBER
kadiska
kotc
'cella,
claustrum'
vykot;
kotiti s
'pari'

skajan
tyati
kotora,
'uulnerre' 'memor ra' 'abscid'
kotera
Theudatruhatha-s
'inimcus'
5.5.-kattu;
LUW.kattawatna
llis
'accustor'
k a- 'et
6.3.situlus,
kua-s
uagna, 'icraneus'
testiculum,
6.4.penus, kau^ss 'id'
thesaurus'
587

kaulis
caulis,
caulus
cuaille
'plus'
<*kaulnio-
hohl
ushuln
'cauus';
'excau'
aushl.3a2.-hol(e)
'cauus'
kauns
kawd
kaw
hn, Hohn hauns

'uituperium 'humilis'
'
3a2.-han
'humilis'
cuad, i.
cogad
'caedere,
pugnre'
(O'Dav.
gl.)
ke k kod hi-c, ceekak

(eke ek eterus; ce- 'hanc',
ekod)
d,s-c,ill- ekk 'hoc';
c;
tun- d-k 'id'
c, nun-c; 2b2.-erek
ecce
'id'
esmi-k
'huic'
ke
cterus
cbnust
<*ce'aduenerit'
eterus,
cedo, cette
kei
cis, citer; 1b2.-ive c, OGH
citr, citr; 'citr' <
coi
citimus
*kî-uo;
imu, simo
'ad citima,
retro'
keid
keimos
588
klyam 6.3.-kulas
'ossis'
'ossis'
kuly
6.4.-ka ls
'canlis' 'cal., tibia'
5.5.kalwis(si)n
a?
'nut'
6.3.-kuns
(Hes.)
'pudor'
cd,
cdex,
caudex
houwan
3a2.hawan
3a3.h ggua
kwon
keimx
keimoi
'calamus'
cnae,
cnbula
cmex
h, her 'is';
Heute
3a2.-h,
he, hie 'is'
3a3.-hnn,
hn 'm;f''
koui
hiar, hier;
hitu/hitamum
'demum'
3a2.-hr
2b1.3a2.-hit
cwyddo,
'icere'
di-gwyddo 3a3.-hitta
'cad,
'id'
accid'
2b1.3a3.-h,
(d)argud
hi
<*are-koito 'ursrium'
'somniculu
m'
carann
'blatta'
hawi
TOK. A
5.3.-frakov ,
'fnum' ko-, kau- kuaiti
kovati
(inf.
'quatit, 6.3.-kuju,
kautsi), fut interficit'
kuti
B kowu
5.6.6.4.<*kwkutan
nukau^t
'interficiam' 'interficere' 'q., i.'
uka
cova;
(signif. ?) 'psitacus';
kujti
kauti
'murmur'
'clamat' 6.3.-ka kti
'plangor';
akti
'clam'
5.4.- artic.: s , sego
hina
'hunc'. 'hodi' -s; sa, ast

'is'
himma <*kymero
'hic'
6.3.'huic'; hita
5.5.-ki 'hic'; s;iadie
m
'nunc'
kinun
n 'id'
'nunc'
6.4.odien
'hodi'
<*ke-eno
hr
6.3.-
6.4.-e
ete
'concub' 5.5.-ki-itta, ki-it-tari
ym 6.3.-emas
'color
'caesius'
obscr'.
5.3.syma
ka 'mons
q.'

keiros
kiwijos
keiwis
kekj
car
'spdix'
cuis
kl
klj
keld
hrt
heiwa'mtrimoni frauja
um'
'dominus'
h-rt
'nuptiae';
geheuer
dofoscaid, 2b1.scehan
skhsl
pl. du
yscogi
'festn';
'malus
foscaiget 'agitre' geschehen spiritus'
<to+upo2b3.accd',
'moutur, diskogella Hengst
cdit'
'id'
'sementle
' skihtg
'timidus';
schicken
'mitt';
gesciht
'historia';
schiht
'dispositi'
cicur (uris, -um)
cella
<*keln
cl,
occul,
cella,
color,
clam,
cilium
percell,
procella,
clds
kelg
cuile 'cella'
Halle
3a2.-hall
kaila
helim;
2b1.-celu 3a1, a2.huljan;
'cellam'
cuile
helan;
hulundi
'cella',
hulis
'cauea';
culna';
Hlse,
hullistr
cuilche
helm, halla 'cortex';
'tapte'
Halle
hilms
'cassis'
claidim
2b1.holz
halts
'fodi'; claddu 'id' 'lignum' ; 'claudus'
claideb<cl
;
halz
eddyf; caill cleddyf>gl 'mutilus'
(caille)
adius
3a2.-holt
'lcus' 2b3.-claza 'lignum';
'id'; kleze
healt
'ensis'
'mutilus'
celg
2b1.-celg 3a2.-hylc
'acmen' 'cl' <ir.
'curua'
kliknom
kelmos
kel
klodhros
klom
cictrx
kektrks
kek
kkuros
ceus
'fuluus'
hr 'uetus'
3a3.-hrr
'cnus'
haltan
'tene'
3a2.healdan,
hold
cail
'tragula',
3a3.-hali
'cuspis'
eva
sir 'orbus'
'crus' 6.3.-si va
5.3.-sa 'femina';
FiO 'orbus seirys
minor'
'uiduus'
kaca'caesaris;
cict.'
'lepora'
(Hes.)
skakati,
sko iti
6.3.-kti
akura-
la
'casa'
ara,
kolt
rman
'instig'
'umbrculu 6.3.-kal,
m';
klti,
la(a)
'cubiculum'
ser
'cnus'
kolda
'tabula'
5.4.-keck
6.5.'simul' czogacsi
e 'rp'
3a1, a2.helm
celer,
celeber<d
hli
hri,
hrita
'color q.'
haldan
ag,
'psc'
rman
'umbrculu
m'
kalyati
'reor'
'agitti'
ar-;
al-
6.9.-kelian
'tra.'
589

celtair
kelos
colr
kelots
kels
ante-, ex-,
prae-cell,
-ere; collis,
culmen,
columna
keluj
kelus
coll
<kolnos
'dux'
humil,
Himmel
3a2.heofon
hemera
'bauhinia'
kmeros
(k)kmi
catus, cs
(ctis)
cath
'doctus'
cuma
'cra'
cumal
'seruus'
kemos
Camulos
2b1.caffou 'id'
3a3.-hind
kens
cinis
kenkai
cunctor
<*concitor
kly ke
'cacumen'
cln
'cumba'
celo 'frons'
6.3.-keli,
klti (tr)
k la <*ln
klti (intr)
hhan,
hangn,
hengn 'id'
3a2.-hn,
hangian,
k lias; ub.
keliuti
6.4.-cel;
celuo^t
5.5.
kammara 'nebula'
kamalaemer
'helleborus
'delphiniu
'
m,
6.3.aconitum'
kemerai
'eupatoriu
m'
i ti ( i'glarea';
-t),
yti, part.
it-;
5.3.-sani'cuspis'
camarakomr
'bos
'culex'
grunniens'
6.3.kmstu,
kmti
'rraucesc'
amnt,
'fatigor'
mati
hummen, ln
3a2.hum
kem
590
himins
hr 'cs'
3a2.- hone
'id'
3a3.-hein
'id'
kemj
pl 'iter'
cle
2b1.-cilydd
'comes' <*'id'
yos
kmelom
'cuspis'
aras- 'fls
lactis'
hulis(a),
hulst,
Hlse
'uagna'
helid
'hom';
Held
'hrs'
3a2.helith,
hle 'id,
id'
celicnon
holm
'cnculu 'insula';
m' > got.
Hgel
kelikn
'collis'
3a2.-hyll,
hill
hhan
'pend'
'ceruulus'
'puluis'
sma-
ankate
'cgitat'
5.5.-ga-anki 'pendit'
TOK. B
kentse
'oxydum'

hang
3a2.-hh(sinu); hla,
heel
kenklom
kenk
kenkos
ken
ail-cheng
'rastrum'
recens ?
<*recen(i)e
nts ?
cinim;
ciniud,
cenl
'genus'
kentom
cent
hadara,
Hadern
Hadel
'pannus'
kentrom
contus,
percontri
<gr.;
centrum<g
r.
cinteir
'calcar'
<lat.
<
lat.
2b1.-cethr
'acus'
<lat.; b2,
b3 <lat.
quoque
handa;
handugs
hantag
'modus,
'acer'
pactus'
3a3.hannarr
'habilis<ac
umintus'
kerdhjos
kerdh
'pung';
'mlum;
plus'
ka kla- 6.3.-kenkle
'os, costa' 'rotula'
6.4.cinksla 'tnd
rot.'
5.6.- ang kgot
'ungula, 6.3.-knge
pugnus'
5.5.-kaga
'dens'
v-/nan , - ti
'incipere';
kon
'initium'
kanth
'remend
uestis'
5.3.kòtànak
'uestis'
anti ?
6.3.'pax'
sts'pertica'
(minti-
; lat.
pang)
keq
krberos
hggo
Haken
3a2.-haca
, hook
kep
kersrom
cerebrum,
cervx
<*kers-vk-
cechor
'pals' >
cechair
'merda,
lutum'
cern
2b3.-kern hirni<*ker
'angulus' 'occipitum' sniyom
corbaim
'mancill'
2b1.-cordd hirti, Hirt

<dh
'caterua,
familia'
pati
TOK B.'defigit'
kapille
5.5.'morbum'
kappilahh'fur';
kapilali'hostlis'
kr
6.3.'merda' ( akn ), ik/kti
chagaa- 'cacre'
'merda'
'caput'
rah
(Hom.), ( rsnh)
5.3.-sarah
;
sr-, srv'craneus'
'corn'
5.4.-sar
'tempus'
'tumulus'
5.5.'corn'
karawar
rvarasobol
'canis
'uarius' 6.3.-krba
inferum'
rvar
'pals'
'animal
noctis'
hardeis
6.3.(s)kerd ius
591

kerdhos
2b1.-cordd herta 'id'

<dh
3a2.'caterua,
heord,
familia'
herd 'id'
kerdos
kerk
kerkos
3a3.-horr
<*hurha
'flaccidits'
cerc/cearc
kernos
cern
2b1.-cern
'angulus' 'mandibula
'
2b3.-kern
kerns
Hornung
'februrius
m.'
3a3.-hjarn
kerom
carrach ?
'grammsu
s'
kersn
kers
kers
kerwos
ceruus
kesd
cd
592
hr; hursti
'cristas'
3a2.-hr ,
hair
corr
2b1.-corr
'atrophitu 'atrophitu
s'
s'
cervx
<*kers-vk; cerebrum
<*-srom
2b3.-kern hirni<*ker
'occipitum' sniyom
'cerebrum'
2b1.-carw
2b2.carow
2b3.-karo
cet
'permissi'
airchissec
ht 'gratia,
indulgentia
'cumulus'
'cumul'
rdha'grex'
5.3.sara'indols'
reda
'grex';
rediti
'ordin'
6.9.krdan
'temp.'
'prouectus'
cerd 'ars' cerdd 'ars,

cantus'
cracents,
gracilis<*kr
kilis
harda
'grex'
hiruz
kr yati ;
krsati,kr - nouti 'toll'
'flaccus' 6.3.-karti
5.3.'snsc'
krsa- 6.4.-nuokrst 'id'
krakara-,
krkaa
carvati
'mand' renovtc
'genunus
d.'
6.3.ceruok(s)li
s 'id'
5.4.-sa n
sern
6.3.-serstu
laiks
'tempus
niulis'
kapucchal srst
a- 'c. post'
'lna'
6.3.-er s
'iuba'
5.5.-kar-,
'tonsra' kariya
'intonsus'
'caput'
rah
(Hom.), ( rsnh)
5.3.-sarah
; sr-,
srv'craneus'
'corn'
5.4.-sar
'tempus'
'tumulus'
'corn' 5.5.-harsar
(r/n) h?
karawar
'corn'
5.5.srna;
F karawar
korva
Hom <*krH2w'bs'
'corn'
6.3.sirnas;krv
e 'id'
'uia' -sad'assequor'
5.3.-siiazd,
syazd,
sizd;

'
ksmi
kesnus
kes
ktj
keub
keudh
keuk
keulom
keus
castus,
castig
cin 'lex,
regulti'
cainnenn
2b1.<*kasniina cennin
a
2b2.-kenin
2b3.kignenn
cr<ksr
3a3.'pecten'
haddr<*ko
stos
'caesaris'
pazdayeiti
'fugat'
sti
'scind'
'secat,
imperat';
str'castigtor'
5.5.- ssti
'docet'
5.4.sastem
'minor'
sast
'minti'
esnk,
'porrus'
5.5.<*kskeso kis(ai)-.
m 'stuppa', 'pect'
'cultus
comae'
eo,
esati
'pect,
abrd'
6.3.-kas
'restis'
casa
hejo
5.3.-kata
kot
<org?
'domus' 'cauerna,
5.6.-kad 'et ndus'
id'
cubitum; FAL.-cupa
2b1.-gogof huf, Hfte hups 'coxa'
kubra'taba'
cub -re; 'cubat'
'specus'
'id';
'specus'
cumb SAB.2b3.3a2.-hype
kakubh'cubitus'
ere
cumba
kougo 'id' 'coxa';
'cacumen'
'lectica'
<upokub
hoop
'anus'
cd
codal
schde
skaudakuhara
'pelleus
'pellis'
'uagna'
raip
'specus'
cassis'
3a2.'Shuhriem kuhaka
hydan
en, uitta 'latebrae' 'fallax'
'cl'
calcei'
kuh 'lna
3a3.noua'
skau
5.3.-xada
'uagna'
'cassis'
5.4.suzanem
'merg' *dhs
car
hoger,
hauhs
kucti,
kka
'curuus'
Hcker
'altus';
kucat 'pugnus';
<*kukro'gibba'
hiuhma
'flectitur';
ati
Hgel 'cumulus';
kuca
'curuor';
'tumulus', hhjan
'sinus'
k a
hh, hoch 'cumul'
kucik 'cumulus'
'altus'
'cluis'
6.3.3a2.-hah,
5.6.-k
ka kas
hight
'curuus'
tumor'
5.4.-soil
3a2.
hwylca
'cauits'
<*keulo'suppurti
'
(Hes)
hren
5.5.<*hrjan
kussaniya-
593

3a2.hyrian,
hire
kwj
cve
khkhatno cachinnnu
s
s;
cachinn
khamos
hmus
khderos
hedera
kachazzen
'ride';
3a2.ceahhetta
n
kighrs
kikr
3a2.hgian, hie
'festnre'
cicer
kkeumi
kikj
hehara,
Hher
3a2.higora,
higore
kiklsk
kikls
kknj
cicnia ,
PREN.cnea
huon,
Huhn
'gallus';
Henne
'gallna'
cch 'tetta' 2b1.-cig
'car'
2b2.-chic
2b3.-kik
cen (alpande)
'cis(alpnus);
sine'
kina
kintos
594
3a3.-hla
<*hihln'pruina'
3a5.-hal
'solum gel.'
kkus
king
po-kyva-jo
'nut'
kkhati chochotati
'ride'
'ridet'
'ridre'
5.3.6.3.-kiknti
xaxank
'id'
5.5.hahhars
chomot
'tortus'
'monle
(equ)'
khadir
'acacia
catechu'
ghrsigt,
'celer'
signt
'sali' sig
'piscis q.,
cf. salm'
5.4.-sisern 6.3.-keke
(H)
kiki-,
kikidv-
cing,
cancellus
hana
i iraslana
5.3.'pruina'
sarta- 6.3.- l, 5.4.-sard lti 'gel';
ltas 'f.',
aln 'pr.'
knja,
kanjk
'miluus'
'uis'
hina, hin
'procul'
hin 'ueni
hunc'
'crates'
1b2.shihitu
ctne Cintugnto hintana, hindana
'priimus'
s
hintar
'retroo',
'primogenit 3a2.hindar,
us'
hindan hindumists
2b1.3a3.kyntaf 'id' handan
kacat kinka , -ti

'iungit'
'equum
iung'

'hinc'
kippos
kirknos
kirkos
cippus,
scpi
circus,
circum,
circ
k k( a-)
'collii
artus'?
1b2.kurclasiu
'circulri
mnsi'
kisk
kist
kteros
3a5.-hijse,
hijs
'poplites'
cista,
cisterna
citer(ius);
citimus
kitd
cit
kitrd
citr; citra
kiwos
kjj
cie, ci,
cit,
cunctus<k
mkito,
sollicitus
kldis
clds
kladjos
klagj
klmj
klambs
klmi
clm, re
coll;
cellach
'bellum"
ki ku6.3.-kik
'lacertus' 'poples'
6.4.-cis-ka
'coxa,
lumbus'
cess
'contortus'
co (cach)
<*kiwoks
'nebula'
kjj
p(h)a
'cauda,
pnis'
hitumum,
hitamun
'demum'
hietz(t),
jetzt 'nunc'
hiu-tu
'hodie'
3a2.-hider; hidr
hither
3a2.-hiew,
hiwi
hue
'specis'
3a3.-hy
'color
pellis'
y-v- siv 'gris'

'obscrus' 6.3.-vas
5.3.'pallidus'
syva`'ater'
5.5.-kinae,
*s- ki-na-iz-zi
? 'cern'
heizan,
haitan cyvat;
heissen 'id' 'nominor'

cyuti
3a2.-htan
5.3.'agit'
'id'
<*kye-w (y)avaite
3a3.-heita
5.4.- u
'profecti'
2b1.-coll hiltia, hilta

kladivo
2b3.-koll
'pugna'
'malleus'
3a2.-hild
'id'
hlamn
krndati
'strep'
'strepit'
3a2.(h)limmen
'id'
3a2.6.3.laemp(i)klumbas
halt
'paralyticu
'claudus';li
s'
mp
'claudic'
hladan, afhlaan
klad ,
laden
'ingrau,
klasti
'grau' exagger'
6.3.-klju,
3a2.klti
hladan,
'stern';
595

load 'id'
3a3.-hlaa
klamrs
clam/clam
h
'leprsus'
clr
klros
klmati
'dbilis' 'languet'
2b1-b2.claf 'aeger'
2b3.-claff
2b1.-clawr
2b3.-kleur
klrs
klstis
klaudos
clrus
classis
claudus
klawd
claud
sliozan,
slten,
schlieBen
klawos
klws
cluis
cl (cloi) 2b3.-clou
sluzzil
'cluus' 'ferrement' Schlssel
SchloB
'castellum'
3a2.-slutil
klawsts
kdis
callis
caill 'silua' 2b1.-celli

Caledonia 'lcus'
2b2.-kelli
holz 'et
lignum'
3a2, a3.holt 'id'
clds
caill 'lcus' 2b1.-celli

<*kald 2b2.-kelli
'nemus'
holz 'et
silua'
3a2, a3.holt 'id'
Lehne,
Lein-baum
3a2.-hlyn
kdos
coll<koldo 2b1.-coll
s
2b2.-collet
'perditus' 2b3.-koll
kleinos
kleitis
kleitrom
cliath 'et
cratis'
cltellae
kj
cale
kj
cal, -re;
concilium,
nomenclt
or, classis
klep
clep
596
2b2.karitu,
karetu,
carsitu
`calato'
*kaltd
'cleperit';
niir kulupu
()
'magister
klodas
'stragulum'
6.4.-kla^ju,
kla^t 'id'
halts
'et
porti'
'rmus'
MAK.
klju
6.3.-kliv,
kliti
'serere'
CEC et
al..-klanec
-ln'angiportus
'
klada,
koloda,
,'r
mus'
kln
6.3.-klevas
3a2, 3a2.6.3.lid 'cilium'

pasklieti
3a3.-led,
'pand'
lid 'id'
clithar
(h)leitara, hleira cf.
'refugium'
leiter 'id' 'tentorium' 'scla'
3a2.hld(d)er
'scla'
2b1.-clyd
ard6.3.-il,
<kt
'autumnus'
lti
'calidus'
LID.'incalescer
Sardis
e';iltas
'annus'
u -kala- klokol
cailech calic 'id' hlwan
'gallus'
2b1.'rugre,
'gallus' 'campna'
ceiliog bore'; hell
6.3.-kalb
'inuoc' 5.5.-a-ra
2b2.'clrus';
a kal-li-i- 'lingua'
chelioc Hall 'echo'
ta
6.4.-kaluot
'appelluit' 'garri'
cluain
hlefan
hlifan
ToB.6.9.
<*klopni
klypiauklipts
'dolum'
'occultus'
'fr'

kleumi
clue,
inclitus,
gloria
frum'
Kluvatiis
ro
2b1.'Clovatius' cluinethar clywaf, pf.
1b2.'audit'
cigleu
Kluviier
<*kluni2b2.'Cluvii' /*klunu-, ro clewaf
cuala
2b3.<*kuklowa kleuout
'audu'
'audi'
'audui';
ep.
'laud'
kleum
hliuma
klumtom
kleus
cluas,
clas
'auris'
<kloust
clst
'audtus'
kleustis
kleutis
kleut
klew
clu (arc.)
klewos
kneumi
klg
kloiwos
2b1.-clir hlt(t)ar,
'clrus' lauter 'id'
<*kl-ro-s
3a2.hlt(t)or
3a3.-hlr
'mare'
hltrs
'clrus
cl (cle,
clue)
klnmi
klisrs
kj
hliumunt
hlosn
3a2.hlystan,
listen 'au.'
3a3.-hlust
'audtus'
hliozan
hlauts
3a2.- 'distribti,
hlotan heredentia'
3a3.-hljta
hliodar
'cantus'
3a2.hlodhor
kleutrom
culter;
calamits
incolumis
clang
cluus,
cln,
acclnis,
lahhn,
lachen
'ride'
3a3.hlakka
1b2.- cl 'laiuus'; 2b1.-cledd (h)linn
kletram
fo-cla
2b3.-kleiz
'cln'
'feretrum, 'boreae';
hlo
5.3.sraman
rmatar ati;
r ti'indulgenti
a'
5.3.sraoa'audiitus'
6.3.klausti
'audi'
5.3.-srtik t
'adipiscor'
k tas
'ftum'
rtra'auris'
5.3.sraoqra'canti'
'unda'
F)
2b1.claear
'abnuens'
2b2.clo(u)r
'gentilis'
2b3.klouar
sce(i)llec 2b1.-hollt
halts
'rups'
'scisi'
'claudus'
2b2.-felza
2b3.faouta
clocc
2b1.-cloch
'campna' 'campna'
ti <*k6.4.neu, pf.
sludinat
u rva; 'praeconr
karae'
'auris'
slez
'lacrimae'
<*kel
6.3.-loti
'uerrere'
rvas
slovo
slava
6.3.-lov
kal 'pars'; koljo klati
klpate
6.3.-kal
'fodi'
'decet'
'quati'
hlahjan
'ride'
hlei-duma
'laeuus'
hlaiw
klegtati,
kliknuti
6.3.-klagti
6.4.kl ga^t
ryati
sloj
'cln' 'sustinet' 'iacimentu
5.3.-srita- m' 6.3.-
597

clins
klopnis
lecticam'
klon
<*kloinos
'arduus'
cluain
klounis
clnis
kpros
calpar<li
<gr.
cilornn
'urceus'
inclutus,
inclitus
cloth
'gloria,
fma'
ktos
klts
kluwj
kwij
2v1.-cln
2b1.celwrn
'situlus'
2b3.celorn
2b1.-clyd
2b1.-clod
'laus'
k ros
k ti
k tom
centum
knakos
canicae
kjs
recens
(div.)
3a3.hlaunr
'sustentus' liej, li ti
6.4.-sleju,
slet
6.3.lamp,
lapti
'madsc'
6.4.-slap t
'id'
rni-s
6.3.5.3.shlauns
sraonish
'urna'
hlt, laut
<*klts
'intonans'
3a2.-hld
'strepitsu
s'
huolen
'fall'
3a2.hlian
cuma
'cra'
cumal
'ancilla'
cammarus
<gr.
camur
598
clue,
inclitus
calumnia,
calvor,
calvi,
cavillor,
kmmi
k ertos
'sepulcrum 'sepulcrum
'
'; hlaine
'collium'
hln,
afhln
Hummer
'camm.'
'tectus'
'boueda'
ct/cad 2b1.-cant hundert hund, pl.

2b2.-cans 3a2.-hund- hunda
2b3.-cans ra (got.
raian
'comput'
canach ? caneco- honang,
'herba
sedlon
Honig
paldis' 'aureum
'melle'
solium' ?
3a2.hunig,
honey
cain
Cintuhintana, hindumists
'pulcher';
gnatus
hintar 'postrmus
cinim
2b1.-cein
3a2.'
'scate' 'pulcher';
hindan
cano/a
cenau
3a3.'catulus' 'catulus'
handan
<*kenu; cynt 'prius'
'hinc'
ct
2b2.-kyns
5.3.-sruii 6.4.-sluvt
'incant';
'laudtor'
2b3.caffou 'id
6.3.-iltas
rut5.3.-srta5.4.-lu
? 'et'
amnt,
mati,
amyati
'labor'
kama ha'testd'
kmrati
'aduncus
est'
5.3.kamar
'cinctus'
atm
sto
5.3.-stem 6.3.-simtas
kcana4.3.'aurum,
aureum'
kani hana- n , 'nouus' 'iuuenissim

eti
us'; kanna 'incipi'
'iuuenis,
;kon
pulcher' 'initium';
5.4.-skund
c do
<*skent
'puer';
'catulus'
enk

'prmus'
'id'
2b3.-quen;
kent 'id'
cnocc/cno
2b1.genicke,
c 'collis'
cnwch
Genick
'artus' 3a2.-nook
2b3.'angulus'
cnoch
3a6.hnakki
'collus'
knokos
knouks
ksj
cense
censamur
'censtor',
censaum
'censre'
kst r
censor
keenzstur,
kenzsur
knuw
nux
kobom
'catulus'
alb. thom
'dc'
*knsmi
2b1.(h)nuz ,
cneuen
nuss
2b3.3a2.knoen hnutu, nut
cob
Vercobius, 3a2.'uictoria'
etc
gehp
'adaequtu
s'; heppen
'betus';
happen,
happy
'cedrus'
koils
cl (a 2b1.-coilou 3a3.-heill
britonnic) 'auspic.'
'salus'
2b2.-coel
'harusp.'
2b3.chuillioc
kilutts
koim
koimos
cim
koinos
cf. cuis
2b1.-cu
heim
2b2.-cuf 'domus'
2b3.-cum 3a2.-hm,
(nominib.)
home
3a3.-heimr
'mundus'
a sati
'dcantat'
amsyati
'proclamat'
;
msa'utum';
5.3.- sah'pronuntir
e'
a star-
set
'inquit'
cn (cn)
<*knus
(knuwos)
kodj
koins
hails
'snus'
haims
'pagus'
'concub'
kob
'fortna,
augurium'
kadrka y,
'fuluus'
kadit;
kadamba- accodis
'nauc.
'camnus'
cadamba' kadegis
ALB.-kem 'iuniperus'
6.3.kadag s
'id'
cel
'snus'
celjo, celiti
'sn'
6.3.-kails
kaimas
'pagus';
semja
'familia'
6.4.-sime
'familia'
5.4.-khot ceno,
6.3.- i nas
(Hsq)
cf. iva'commnis' 'propitius'
5.5.-kaina-
599

'familiris'
kois
cra, arc.
coirauit
PAL.
coisatens
'crurun
t'
1b2.kuratu
'curato'
koits
koks
heit
'modus'
3a2.-hd,
had,
heed 'id'
coxa
ushaista
'obligtoriu
m'
haidus
'modus,
ars'
coss 'ps, 2b1.-cesail hahsa,

crs';
<lat axilla hhsina
achlais,
'cauits
ascall <lat.
poplitea'
axilla
cuiln
'catulus'
kolj
kolm
kolmos
kolnis
collis
<*knis /
*kolnis /
etiam
kolHwi-?
cuilenn
'ilex uel
echium
lgre'
kolnos
coll, goll
'luscus,
caecus'
coll 'caput'
klumbhos
600
2b1.colwyn
2b2.-coloin
2b3.-kolen
giolcach
2b1.halm
'phragmit calamenno
s austrlis' u 2b2.cala
'palea'
2b3.colouenn
coll 'caput,
hull
dux'
3a2.-hyll,
<*kolnos
hill
3a3.-hvall,
hallr
kolnom
kolsos
ToA
kap ai,
ToB
kektsee
'corpus'
A B.6.3.-kl ,
klsh kale 'canis

'catulus'
femina'
<koly
'gls'
3a5.-helen
culmus
collum
ToB.kakse
'lumb'
koksednks coxendx
kolignos
ketu
'clrits,
forma,
intellectus';
ceta,
cetana
'signum'
kk f.,
kak a- 'et
latebra,
recessus'
5.3.-kaa
'axilla'
'iuncus'
hallus
'rups'
2b1.-celyn
hulis,
'id'
Hulst,
2b2.-kelin
Hallig
'id'
'quercus
2b3.ilex'
quelenn
3a2.-.
'id'
hole(g)n,
holly,
holm-oak
Hals
3a2.-heals
'
hals
kl j, klej
'gls'
6.3.-kleja
'id'
kalma-
k a-m 6.3.-kalnas
<klt
'mons',
'prominenti kalnelis
a,
'collis';
cumulus,
kalv
occipitium'
ka amb
klas
'tartrum',
klos
'palea,
calamus'
k
'fortus,
(Hes.)
unioculis'
'axis'
slama
6.2.soloma
6.4.-salms

kom
cum,
contra,
controuers
ia
ct-
2b1.cant/gan (mt-) 2b2.cans/gans

2b3.-gant
coniux
kmglom cogulum
kmjougos
ga-
cuing
'iugum'
2b1.-kyniwng
5.5.-katta
<*kmta
samja'et
societs'

komjugs
kmmoinis commnis, mnikad comman:' CELTIB.- gimeini, gamains

comoinem 'commni' dnum comaiam ? gemein
obligtum' (Cab.
3a2.Fraguas) gemne
kommoinit
ts
komnom
comono samain, samonios
samana'comitia' samhain 'nmen
<*sem+no
1b2.??
mensis'
kumne 'in 'comitium 'aestiulis'
com.';
uel fnis
(cf.
kumnahkle aetatis' gimonios)
'in
uel
conuent'
'comitilis'
kmnm
kmopjom
kmos
kmplnos compltus
comln,
sampra
conln
sa -skar-;
kmsq tos
3a3.'prodigium' - caryaskars(a)
'gigas';
'singulris'
skyrse
'spectrum'
kmttis
komtrd
kmwoirjo
m
kmwoistis
cubus
<wid+tu,
2a3.cogais
knjai
cnor
2b1.'diligenter
digon(i)
agere';
'faci,
possum';
'ancilla'
digon,
gogawn
'satis'
konkej
hungar,
hhrus
k k ati 6.3.-kekti
hunger 'id" 'fams'

'poscit'
'noce'
(Hes)
3a2.kank
kkat
hungor/er
'sitit'
'damnum'
(Hom)
'id'
a kh- 6.4.-sence
konkh
cong(u)ius
<graec.
(z-?)
a- 'cs'
knos
3a2.-hn
'milirium';
5.3.-sanihone 'cs'
'cuspis'
3a3.-hein
5.4.-san
601

'cs'
huof, Huf
3a2.-hf,
hoof
3a3.-hofn
kophos
kopnos
kqros
korbhis
koris
cuan
corbis
carbat
Carpentu
'carpentum
m,
,
Carbantia
mandibula Karbantori
(sic)'
gon
cuire Tri-, Petru- heri, Heer

'copiae,
corii
3a2.-here
plbs' 2b1.-cordd
herr;
'tribus', pl. herjann
corddau
(koir)
<*koriowes
corcach
horg
'immundus
' <*k kwoharan,
Harn
'urna'
ET OMharmo
carmn
korkos
kormnos
kormn
kormos
har(a)m,
Harm
3a2.hearm,
harm
harjis
5.6.-kra'dux'
kornks
cornx,
kornos
cornus
k rukos
corium
curach
'pellis
scaphus'
korwos
coruus,
cornx
cr
ksolos
corilus
coll
602
2b1.corwg
2b1.-collen
2b2.-colwiden
2b3.-limncollin 'tilia'
harra
'saccus"
3a3.-horr
'uestis
linea'
3a3.-skryla
'clam'
hasal
kopyto
krob,
'cista'
6.3.karbas
'aphis'
'cimex'
carius
gl.tinea;
rum. cariu
korjom
korjos
'cs'
aph5.3.-safa
6.3.krias;
kras
'bellum'
kalka'merda'
6.3.rmas
6.4.-srms
6.3.armu,
ermu
6.4.sermulis
5.3.-far
sram
ma- 'pudor' 'pudor'
5.6.-arm
'id'
ri-,
srik
'auis q.'
eremucha
6.3.-Kirnis
deus
cerasrum'
;
ermkle
'sorbus'
'corii
saccus'
ri-,
soroka
srik 6.3.-kriun
'auis q.' 'grunni'

kost
costa
koubos
koup
cpa
hups 'coxa'
koupn
kout
kowos
kow
3a2.-hyf
'exmen'
3a3.-hfr
'carna'
can
cauus,
cauea,
cauerna
Haufen;
hof 'atrium'
3a2.-heap;
hof
'templum'
ca
2b1.-cyw
'cauus'
'pullus'
cass
2b3.-keo
'cauerna' 'specus'
cauerna
krmi
krasi
krsrn
krtis
kratsos
k
k
k
k
d n
dhn
di /
djom
(h)ruoren,
rhren
'agit'
3a2.-hrr,
rear
'smicoctu
s'
crbr
crtis ,
crts
dentatae,
crti,
cartilgo
2b1.creyryn
ceirtle
'glba';
cert 'parua
rs'
hurnz,
hornaz
3a2.hyrnet(u)
hurd,
Hrde
'porticulus'
3a2.-hurth,
hyrd
crassus
cor (pl.
corda)
<*kord/*k
d
kpa6.7.-kep
'specus'
'uulua'
(Hes)
5.5.<*kp
huppar !
'fauum'
5.3.-kaofa- kup,
'gibba'
kupr
5.6.-kaufa- 'coxis'
'mons'
6.3.A B.-kjip ka pas
6.4.kupenis
'floccus
niuis'
ALB.-thel
<F
'profundus'
'cauus'
5.3.-sra- 6.4.-ava
'cauits'; 'lacna' 'cauits in
5.4.-sor
arbore'
'antrum,
'rificium'
carcer'
5.6.-srx
'id'
rti;
(i
ryati
schwa
'coquit'
secundum
)
cras
<*kwrasi
cride,
2b1.croidhe,
craidd
cro
'centre'
<*kradjo- 2b2.-cres,
<*k djocreys
2b3.-kreiz,
kreis
herza
3a2.heorte
kst 'costa' kost

?
'ossum'
va
5.3.-srm
'mne'
sren
6.3.ruonas
6.4.-sirsis
hards krtti
krutt
'fors'
'net'
'torque'
ka a6.3.'cista';
'textus'
kratas
'arduum
'gemma'
litus'
krtsnrstv
'compleetu 'firmus'
s'
harto
h dayam,
srd,
(hairtins)
hrdi
srdce,
<kerdn
5.3.
(Hom.)
zrdam <*srdko
5.4.-sirt 6.3.-irds
<*krd(instr. srtiw)
603

5.5.kir/kardi-/
karta- /kara-az
5.6.-dil
5.4.-sart- serdt'cja
num
ALB.5.5.zmrone
kartimmiya m 'ra'
tt 'ra'
krdati
6.3.
'saltat'
pakrsti
'tripuditi'
'obdormisc
or'
'rmus'
k dijai
k dj
card
k dsus
krddhmi
crd
(perf.
crdid)
kreidhrom
crbrum
kreim
kreits
crs, -re
krek
kremj
krmi
604
crem,
carb (!);
cremr,
cremia
Cers;
Cerus
manus;
procrus;
crber<kr
dhros;
ceird
2b1.Scherz
'gradus'; cerddaf 'id' 'burlesca'
fo-cerdaim go-gerdd
3a2.'iaci'
'burlesca' heorr(a)
2b3.'id'
credam 3a3.-hjarri
'uad'
'card'
cris(s) 2b1.-crys,
'capitium' gwregys
2a3.-crios 2b2.-kreis,
fochrus/as grugis
'gremium' 2b3.-krez,
gouriz
cretim
criathar
raddaddhmi
raddh
'fids'
2b1.-cruitr
3a2.2b2.hridder,
croider/kro hriddel
dar
2b3.croezr/kro
uer
cressaim 2b1.(h)rdn;
st-;
(ys)gryd, scrtan,
crith
'id'
schreiten
'tremor, 2b3.-skrija 'uad'
febris'
'trem'
3a2.hrissan;
hr
'tempests
'
hregil
'uestis'
3a2.hrgl, rail
'id'; hrol,
reel
'bobna'
1b2.coirm
korma,
herd
krematra 'ceruisia'
kourmi
'furnus'
2b1.-cwrwf 3a2.-herth
2b2.-coref,
coruf
kerri
cf. coirm,
hirso/i
'Cerer'
cuirm
Hirse
'ceruisia'
'sorgum'
res,
,
*kertso'capitium'
'textus';
'uellera'
hari
'carb'
6.3.skrie i,
skri sti
'torque'
6.4.skritulis
'rota'
krest
'ignem qt.'
6.3.-krekls
'camisia'
k ayti, kurjo, kuriti

ku ate
'fm'
karam- 6.3.-kuri,
b(h)krti
'ceruisia' 'calefaci'
rra
korm,
'satisfacti' 'corpus'
; 5.4.-serem 'cibus'
'exoltus';
cre;
6.3.-eri,
serim
rti 'al'
'flius'
'nscor'; (cf. esp.

cre,
crsc
ser 'prols' crear/criar)

5.5.kar(a)
'grnum'
kremom
krmusom
crim 'alius' craf 'alius'
krenghos
1b2.ingatro,
krenkatru
m, krikatru
`cinctum'
krenktis
krpmi
crep,
crepundia
crip, crib
'rapidus'
dcrepitus
<*-krepeto-
krq
krsk
krt
kret
kreumi
crta
hraban,
Rabe
'coruus'
3a2.-hrfn
'id'
rapp
'rapidus'
3a3.-hrapa
cr
'lapides
mr'
6.3.kermse(s
) 'a.'
kr g
'circulus';
krog,
krug
'rotundus'
6.3.krenk
'coagulor'
k pat
kropott
'lamentor'; 'grunni'
krp
6.3.-krpt
'misericord 'maculor'
ia'
5.6.-srfk
'strepitus'
krep
krkva
'fulcrum,
tegnum'
6.3.-krke
'baculus'
2b1.-pridd
2b2.pry/pr
2b3.-pri
corium;
scortum,
cortex;
curtus
<*krt/kwrt
?
herdo
'uellus' ;
skrindan
'findor'
3a2.heran
'testicul'
Gercht
'rumor'
crux
crim
2b1.-cryf
<*krpmo- 2b3.-krev
'celer'
crch
2b1.-crib
ragen
'cacumen' 'ascend'
3a2.oferhrgan
'super'
kreug
kreuks
crcht 2b1.-craith
'uulnus'
'cictrix'
2b3.creithi
'ulcera'
krep
kreps
'caepa'
3a2.hramse
'sil. a'.
hring;
Runge
'plus'
3a2.-hring;
hrung
hrukjan
'can coru'
k ntati
rtu,
'scindit',
resti;
k t
rta
'scisra'
'scisra
5.5.6.3.-kert
kariyakirsti
'teg';
'tund'
karti- 6.4.-c rtu,
'scindere' crst 'id'
kro a -*k- 6.3.-kra kti
'clamor' 'uocti'
'cn. c.'
crach 2b1;-crug (h)rukki

'cacumen' 'cippus,
cken'
tumulus', 'tergum'
2b2,3.- 3a2.-hrycg
cruc
'id'; rick
'tumulus'
cru, cr 2b1.-craw
'stabulum,
'id'
3a3.hreysi,
6.3.kriuklas
'costa'
6.4.kruknet
'crucitus
sedeere'
kryti 'teg';
krov 'tc'
605

casa'
2b2.-crow
hraun
'cumulus'
riob
'leprsus' ;
ruf
'pustula';
gerob>gro
b
3a2.-hrof
'id.'
kreup
crupellarii
'gladiatore
s'
Mons
graupios
2b1.crawen
<*kreuhan
'crusta'
2b3.krevenn
'id'
kreut
rtten,
rtteln
3a2.rudder/le
'clu'
hraem
s 'strix';
hrod
'phragmite
s'
3a3.hraustr
'subitu'
(h)riuwan
'affligere'
bereuen
'lamentor'
3a2.hrowan,
reu
2b1.-cre, 3a3.-hrka,
dychre
hrikta
'ringor';skr
ka 'clam'
3a2.-scrc
'interfector'
2b1.-gwagr
2b3.gourner
'cribrum'
krw
krig
krin
crin
kripsnis
crnis;
crista
<*kripst
kripsos
crispus
kripst
kristj
kritis
k js
k klos
k nmi
606
caris,
'quati'
(aor. pas.
ar-a-chrin
rsta
'fascis'
3a2.hrissan
karun
'pits'
s-kruiti
'rumpere'
6.3.-kru,
krti
'flig'
'rictus'
(Hes.)
skrgati
'ringor'
'separ'
krinu,
kroj,
krojt,
krinuti;
kraj
'marg'
ALB-krife;
ipr
krip
'barbae'
'uellus'
5.3.-srif
'plma'
Crix(s)us
Rispe
2b1.-crych 'pniculum
2b3.-crech ; fascis'
cressaim
6.3.-kruti
'cumul'
'grnum'
6.3.kraup'rudis'
6.4.kra pis
'scabis'
TOK A
krpi, B
krpiye
'rudis'
6.3.-krut ,
krudeti
(pas.)
af-, ushrisjan
6.9.-craysi
'calamus'
rti

carisus,
carius
k nos
k nu
corn
krbhtus
krokij
kroknos
croci;
cors,
cornx
1a1.crocina
'mastruca'
krotjj
krous
'decadit' ,
praet. do
cer
crn
'uitus'
congna(e) ,
<*korngniy
'salpinx'
o-?
2b1.-carn
'manubriu
m'
2b2.-ewincarn
2b3.-karn
crbud
creddyf,
crefydd
1b2.crin
curnco
(crna)
'cornicem' 'porcus'
'ruin'
'rumpit,
'ltum' frangit'
aor.
a art
5.3.asarta
'intactus'
irahorn
k pjos
carpisculu
m
k pos
corpus
k sj
car(r),
carre
carduus<c
arridus
ga'cammarus <*k -n-go';

<kerH2-s
crocann 1b1.-croen
'pellis'
'pellis'
croinoc
'rubeta'
crothaim
hrad, hrat
'uelox';
redan
'cern';
retten
'liber'
3a2.-rather
'potius'
shrambhat
e 'fd'
kara a- kerekorty;
'coruus'; 'coruus'
krknoti
'clam'
kruzno
'mastruca'
crs
(crris)
krowos
harn
RUN.horna
cru, cr
'stabulum,
casa'
cairem
'stor'
<*karpimo
ncr <krpes
kre i,
kresti; ata /-ti;
kret/ti
6.4.krst
5.4.-srunk (pl).
(srvanc,
sruni-c)
<krsni
2b1.-craw
'id'
2b2.-crow
2b1.-crydd
2b2.chereor
2b3.-kere,
kereour
krov,
'tectus'
krpa
'textra,
calceus'
6.3.-krp
6.4.- kurpe
(h)reef
3a2.-hrif
(diaphr.),
midriff
scharren
'rd';
harsch
'raucus'
krp
'forma'
5.3.krf,
khrpm
'forma,
corpus'
ka ati
'terit'
korsta
'mola'
6.3.-kari,
karti
'pectin,
card'
6.4.-
607
k snos
k s
k stus
k sus
krust
curr
car 'currus'
currus
1a1.carrus
crusta
carr
krtis
cruor
k wos
curuus;
cortna;
corna
<gr.?
ksentis
sentis;
sentus
seresc,
sernus
serb
'amarus'
nouacula;
saucius
*ksowkjo-?
cr
'pecten'
<*ks-r
ksnuj
ksnowtl
kslom
kbmi
608
silua?
2b1.-car 3a2.-hors
2b3.-karr
crott, cruit 2b1.-crwth

'harpa,
'uiola,
fids,
gibba'
gibba'
cr
2b1.-creu
2b2.-crow
kruws
ksers
carros
'currus'
3a2.heardhara,
heardra'id'
3a3.-harr
'thymallus'
hurren
'festn'
3a2.-horse
'equus'
hr
cor
2b1.-cor'circulus';
wynt,
cruind
crwnn 'id'
'rotundus' 2b3.-coruent 'turbo'
cron 'id'
(Hes.)
kr -
kru,krst
'id'
rn,
eren
6.3.-kras
'uirgtu.';
kirl s
thymallus'
'succursor'
(h)roso,
5.5.*krx,
'frigus';
(h)rosa
kursa/i*krt
'gelu,
'pellis'
6.3.-kru
'gelu'
crusta'
TOK.-A
'grand'
3a2.-hruse
kro
'solum'
(acc.sg.),
B kro e
'frigidus'
6.3.-krts
'sinus'
6.4.-krts
'id et collis'
kravh
krv
'car'
'car
6.3.crda'
kra jas
5.3.-xr
skarna- s-kr iti
'rotundus'; 'compendi
kar-kara'
'columna
uertebrlis'
'scarific'
k ar 'et 'dfluus'
arida terra' k r'acer'
k uti
<*kses,
'terit'
<*ksus, k tra'cs';
k ur'abrd';
'nouacula'
'nouacula' 5.3.-huxnuta'ben
actum'
Sule
sauls
'columna' 'columna' 'tignum,
postis'
3a3.sl(a), syl
'id'
serawn,
serben
'languere,
marcere',
besnoten
'pauper'
3a2.besnyian
'fror'
3a3.snggr
'breuiter
tonsurtus'
cf. eo,
esati
'pect,
abrd'
6.3.-skut,
sksti
6.4.-skuvu,
sk t
6.3.-las
'postis'
6.9.-sulis
'id'

kudj
gehiuze
'clamor'
3a2.hten, ht
'clam';
hsc -ti;
schten,
shout
'uciferr'
kukulj
cuclus
kukls
cuclus
kl
ci (cach) 2b1.-cog
<koviks
cl <*kl 2b1.-cil,
'latebra'
ysgil
'latbra'
kleks
clex
cuil
klos
clus
cl
'dorsum'
kumbh
kumb
kms
knejos
kupj
kurnos
kutsyati
'conuicior'
5.6.nikhdan
schl;
schle
'latebra'
3a3.-skjl
'id'
2b1.-cylion
'clices,
musc.'
2b2.kelionen
2b3.kelien-enn
'musca'
2b1.-cil
'dorsum'
2b2.-chil
'ceruix'
2b3.-kil
cum,
Cumba
humpe
comm
'uallis'
'crassa
'recipiens';
2b1.rs'
coim
cwm(m) 3a2.-hump
<*kumbhi'id'
'gibba'
'coxa,
2b2.media
komm
pars'
'potrium'
k ka-,
kkil-
ku do,
kuditi 'et
destru'
kukuvt
6.3.kukoti
6.4.-kkut
kuka
cf.
<*(s)klom
'corium'
kla'extrmum'
kumbhs
'olla'
'poculum'
cumulus
cuneus,
culex
cupi;
1b2.uapor<kwa cubrar
ps
'bonae'
cuil 'culex' 2b1.-cylion

'clices,
musc.'
2b2.kelionen
2b3.-kelien
'musca'
accobor
'desideri.'
<*mn 'unda'
la'plus,
tormentum
'
ka- 'acus
bestiolae'
5.3.-s-k'acus'
5.4.-slak
'plus'
afhuapjan,
kupyate
koptt
afhuapnan 'fmus'; 'irascitur' 'affmre'
'exstingu'
6.3.-kv`pas
'halitus'
6.4.-kvept
'confum.'
5.4.k'urak<het.
609

?
5.5.-krka
5.6.-kurra
kusdhos
cf. custs
<*kusdhosd-s ?
hort, Hort
huzd
'id'
'locus
3a2.-hoard thesaur'
'id'
kssen
3a2.-kiss
kusis
ktis
kuwj
cutis
2b1.-cwd ht, Haut

'scrtum' 3a2.-hd,
hide
incins;
cauus,
cauea,
cauerna,c
umulus
3a2.-hn
'iuuenis'
3a3.-hnn
'iuuenis,
cbus'
kuwos
kw os
kwimi
craid
'heroes'
quaer kvasstur
<*kwis 'quaestor'
1b2.kvestur 'id'
kwatsos
caseus
kweidos
uitrum ?
kwn
canis
(*kwnes
gen, cf.
uocre
<*wokw-)
lbjom
lkesj
610
labium,
labrum
2b1.-cyw 3a2.-hyse
'pullus'
Kauaros,
Cavarillus
2b1.-cawr
'gigas'
2b2.-caur
'id'
'uulua'
5.5.aor.
kuwass
'pyxis';
'corium'
v-yati suj 'irritus'
'turgescit' 6.3.-tis
ny- 'aceruus'
'grauesc'
'uacuus'
vra'potens'
OSS.- syjyn/suju
n
va- ; i'foetus'
u
vra-,
6.3.
raa nas,
5.3.-sra- auns
'dominus',
'habilis,
potens';
'inualidus'
4.3.ALB.-kaa 6.3.-kvi sti
'habet'
'inut'
fut
6.9.-quoi
'uol, us',
'acqur'
quits
'dsideriu
m'
hwaerian, hva
kvthati
v(s)hwoerian 'spma';
'coquit' kysnoti, 'id'
hvajan
kyseti
'spmre'
'acer fi';
kvas
'caelia'
6.4.-kusat
'feru'
weiss
vet-, svet 'lux';
3a2.-white
vitrsvitati
'illucescere
'
6.3.-vi sti
'lucre'
cu (nom)
2b1.-ci
hunds
(u)v
6.3.-u
cona (acc.
2b3.( nah)
(us)
pl.)
con/koun
5.3.-sp
(sn)
5.5.-kuwas
(kunas)
leffur,
5.5.-lip(p)-,
Lefze
lil(l)ipa(i)3a2.-lippa,
'lamb'
lepur

lkj
lks
laci,
laqueus,
laces,
delicia
lacer,
lacerina,
lacinia ,
lancin,
lnchijm
lungn
3a2.lungen,
lights
laffe
'palma'
lpj
lpods
lapis
lskj
lascui,
lrua,
lascvus;
ars?
late
ltj
1b2.vapere
'soli'
lainn
'lascvus'
<*las-ni-s
lg
laiwos
laxus,
langue,
lige,
laigen
'plum'
lacc
'dbilis'
ALB lekure,
likure
lchma
5.4.-lanjk`
lgkoje
KURD lapa 'pdis

lapk 'pdis palma'
palma'
6.3.-lpa
'id'; lopeta
'pla'
3a1, a2.lustus
lust 'id' 'desideriu

3a3.-lost,
m'
(Hes)
lyst
luog
'specus'; 'obliuiscor';
luo
'adaptti' (Hes.)
3a2.-lmr
'decepti'
'praeda'
'uolumins
um'
llain
'fodi'
'rasorium'
2b1.llac(c) 'id'
slah 'id';
link
'laeuus'
3a2.-slc,
slack
'laxus'
laeuus
lj
lmentum, lamatir
lid
edliw
ltr
'maledicen <*liyeti (*ate-lu-)
dus est' 'protestat'
lajos
lardum<ly
esdom;
laetus
lacertus,
lacca,
lcusta
lakertos
lfa
'palma'
leac< lecc 2b1.-lech

<*lepk
labh
lagh
3a2.-ll(a)
<lhil'rmus,
flagellum'
*lakre
'flect'
lecken
'podex'
3a3.-leggr
'tibia'
la ati
rtr
<ltriy
'nox'
lstit
6.3.lokns
'tener'
6.7.-lkati
'adaptat'
lbhate, 6.3.-lobis
lmbhate, 'diuitiae';
rbhate lobti 'dtor'
(perf.
lalbha)
langa- pereslega
'css <sl 'paralyticu 'defectus
s'
in text' ?
'dbilis'
5.5.6.4.-lens
<slHguso zalug(a)nu 'laxus'

- 'moror'
s
(cum
dghu
mixta)
(F)
lev
6.3.ilaivti
'deuert'
lalun
laj , lajati
'uituperu
'et ltr'
re'
6.3.-lju,
lti 'latr'
5.5.-lesi-,
'lardus' lissi- 'iecur'
<layesns
'pede
tund';
k al
leto, 'artus leteti 'uol'
crurlis' 6.3.-leki,
l kti 'id'
611

lakus
lacus,
lacna
laljo
lall
lalu
lm
lma
lmtom
landhom
ls
lr (laris)
lpos
laps
latks
latex <gr.
latom
lur
1b2.lausiae
law
lucrum
lws
lawtlom
612
loch (u-)
Pennel
locs
3a2.-lagu
2b1.-llwch 3a3.-logr,
<2a
l, l
2b3.lagen
lallen
lann
2b2.-lann
LUS.Laebo
'laribus',
aho 'lar'
leg
<*lpego'uitulus'
lassar
'flamma';
lasaid
'candet'
Lahe (dat.)
laith
'ceruisia'
lathach
'lutum'
(cf. 2b1
llaid 'id' )
laithe<lati2a2.-laa
(dat. lo,
lou)
'calx' ,
loky
5.5.-lalalalun
lla
'uituperu 'blaterti, 'serm, 'garrulus'
rumusculu blaterti' 6.3.-laluti
re'
s'
5.5.-lalu
6.3.-lom
6.7.-lam
'cauea'
randh6.9.'recipiens 'coqu',
landan
q.'
randhana- 'pulmentu
'pulmentu m' (ac.)
m'
2b1.-llo 'id' HELV.2b2.-loch, loobe,

leauh 'id'
lioba
llachar 3a3.-leiptr
'clrus'
'fulmen'
Are-late
letto
'Arles'
'lutum'
2b1.-llat 3a3.- leja
'liquor'
'lutum'
2b2.-lad
'liquor'
lat[]
laigs
Coligny
'uernlis'
A B.-lop 6.4.-lups
'pecu'
5.5.-lap- 6.3.-lope
(lpzi)
'lux'
'cande, 6.4.-lpa
cale';
'fax'
lappas 'ndens';
lappiyas 'or'
6.3.- t
upe
'locus
'gutta'
q.'
'effund'
'angustiae'
leto
'aests'
(potius
cum lat.
laetus?)
5.5.ALB.-ler
lahhura
'cumulus
MIL.-lakre saxorum'
'lapis
*leH2uroplna'
l tam,
loviti
l tram
'capt';
'spolium'
lov
'uentus'
lg, lach 2b1.-golud ln 'id'

laun
'salrium' 'regnum' 3a2.-lean 'salrium' 'spolium';

lour 'satis' llawer
'id'
(laros)
'multum' 3a3.-laun
'raptor'
folad
2b2.'id'
'substantia wuludoc
'
'dives'
F 5.5.-lahha
'exercitus' 'expediti'

led
lassus
<*lH1dtos,
ltum
legh
lectus
leghos
legasit
'posuit'
2b1.-lle
'locus'
2b2.-le 'id'
leghsk
leghsks
leghtrom
leghs
lzan,
ltan
lassen 'id' ; 'linqu';
verletzen
latjan
'feri'
'detine'
3a2.-ltan
'id';late
leuis
lgneumi
leg
leg
legs
lex
leibs
libo, re,
leidmi
ld, ldus
ligen,
liegen
3a2.-licgan
ligan
'langue'
5.5.-l'solu'
ALB loth
'fatig'
6.3.lid iu,
lidmi,
listi
'linqu'
6.4.-lai^st
'id'
5.5.- la-gale o, le ati
(Hes.); a-ri 'iacet'; 6.3.-palaknuleg s
'deici'; 'consolidti
'lectus' lak- 'cad'
'
lo esna
'lectus'
(pl. t.)
uulua
<*loghesn
o
6.9.-liscis,
'stati,
liskas
concilibul
'stati,
um'
castra'
2b3.leac'h,
lec'h
'locus'
lesc
2b1.-llesg 3a3.-loskr
'infirmus, 'languidus'
languidus'
lehtar,
lehter ',
matrix,
placenta'
3a3.-ltr
<loghtro
'lectus
animalium'
laigiu, lugu 2b1.lht(i),
leihts
,
lagh,
lgk
'minor'
llei/llai
leicht
cp.
ragh
6.3. 'celer' legvas/v
2b3.-nahu- 3a2.-loht
lei
5.3.-ragu-,
s
'nihil
6.4.-liegs
minus'
legaim 2b1.-llaith lecken

5.4.- li
'liquesc' 'madidus' 'made'
'pals'
2b3.-leiz
leck
<*lgy);
'permebili
s'
3a2.leccan 'id'
3a3.-leka
'deflu'
lchi 'id'
lkeis,
3a2.-l ce 'ueneficus'
'id'
rj-ni 'ad
normam'
5.3.-rz-an
'Africus'
'fund'
ALB.-lind 6.3.-lidmi,
'parit';
lid iu,
(Hsq)
listi;
lindet <*lin-d
lidyti
'contender
e' ; 'nascitur' 'iacere'
6.4.-last
'ldit' (Hsq)
613

leigl
lgula
leig
leiljom
loimos
lmus
lein
leinom
lnum
leip
leis
lra, dlrus
leit
ltus?
leitos
ltus, -oris
lemb
limbus
lmi
614
<*loid
2b1.-llwy
2b2.-loe/lo
2b3.-loa
log
lloi 'uitul' leichen;lei laikan
r jat <
'uibr' 5.4.-ltan
'uitulus' 2b3.-lu- h, leich,
(lalaik)
3b
'id'
Leich
laiks
(equum) 'exsultre'
'ldus' 'tripudium'
6.3.-ligyti
3a2-lcan
'err'
'tripudi'
5.5.-alil, ALB.-lule
alel 'fls'
leim <PG.
*laima3a2.-lmo
3a3.-slm
3a2.af-linnan
linati se
linnan 'cd'; bi- (Hes.)

'vanesc,
'cess'
linnan
abscondor'
3a3.-lina
'ces'
'cd'
ln, lion 2b1.-lliain

lein
lein
ln,
'rte'
2b2, b3.- 3a2, 3a3.lnen
lien
ln
6.3.-lnas
2b1.-llwyf
lipa
'ulmus'
6.3.-li pa
waganleis laistjan
lecha,
a 'orbita' 'inuestig'
lech,
lesa 'ruga';
lists
'hortus'
leisten
'acumen,
6.3.-lse
'praebe';
artif.'
'id'
list 'acum., lais 'sci';
aetif.';
laisjan
lrran 'id'; 'doce',
lernen
lubja-leis
'disc' 'uenensu
s'
ga-leian
5.3.-iriiia-' ToA letas,
morior';
lt 'abe'
irriusToB
'mortuus' laitam, lt
ler <*li-ro- 2b1.-lli, lth 'uinum

leiu
lejo lijati,
'dolium'
'fluxus,
llyr- 'id'
fruct.'
'uinum
lit 'fund'
mare'; do- dy-lly
3a2.-l fructuum' <*leitwom
6.3.-leju,
lin 'se
'effund' uinum fr.'
leti 'id'
effundere'' 2b2.-ly 'id' 3a3.-l
ietuv
*-linut
2b3.- lin 'ceruisia'
'Lituania'?
tu(i)le
'pus'
'fluxus'
<*toliyo
limpfen
rmbate, 6.3.-nu'claudus
lambate
slimpa
esse'
lamba- 'dlapsus'
3a2.-limp
'cluus'
6.4.-slps
'id'
'obliquus,
pendens'
3a2.-l
unlds
rti
'fundus'
'pauper' 'pauper'; 'indulget'; 'licitus'
3a3.-l
'diues'; rt- 'gratia' 6.3.-letas
'id'; l
et
'segnis'
'genitra
'salrium' 'grtisus' 6.4.-lets
terrae'
'ulis'
liag/liach

lem
lanius <*myo-
lemsos
lemurs
lendh
lnis
rolaimeth
2b1.lam
ar 'audet' llafasu 'id' 'claudus'
2b2.3a2.-lame
lauasos
'id'
'licet'
2b1.-llef
'uox'
2b3.-lev
'clamor'
lind
Lindomag
linde
(lenda)
us
'unda'
'Limmat' 3a3.-lind
2b1.-llyn
<air.?
'pti,
lacus'
2b3.-lenn
'lacus'
lep
laig (ego)
<*lpagi'medicus'
lenghmi
ant-lingen
'responde
'
lergg
2b1.-llyry
Lurch
'planitis, 'uestigium, 'lacertus'
semita'
semita'
?
2b2.-lergh
'id'
2b3.-lerc'h
'id'
le
lei 'saxum'
<*lH2snk(lacc)
'saxum' >
leug
'gemma'
les
leswos
ltis
letrom
ITAL
lavagna
1b2.lestar
2b1.-llestr lesan,
vesklu,
<cym.?
'uas'
lesen
veskla
2b2.-lester 3a2.-lesan
'uascula'
2b3.-lestr 3a3.-lesa
(v < *l?, cf.
'nauis' ?
vutu
'lavato',
vapere
'lapide' )
sublestus
lassig
'lassus'
3a2.-lazy
>'pger'
lethar
'gurges';
'auidus'
lemti
'saliu'
6.4.-lamt
'uituper'
len 'piger'
'tior';
6.3.-lenas
'plnus'
5.4.-elevin jlovec,
jelenec
6.3.- glius
<*lus
6.4.-paegle

lpati
lepett
'tempests
'
lentos
lsanks
lomiti
6.3.-lmti
'dcd'
lnis ,
lassus,
ltum
lergos
'sine
interrupti
ne'
2b1.-lledr
ledar,
'accus,
recs'
lisan
lasiws
'dbilis'
<*leH2esH
2-s
'saxum';
'angustiae'
MYK ra-eja!
5.5.-li(n)k
li-ik-zi
'iurat'
5.4.-oork,
lerg
5.4.-learn
(lerin)
<*lH2srnALB.-ler
'cumulus
saxrum'
*leh2uro6.3.-les,
lsti 'rostr
carpere'
TOK B.leswi
'dbilits'
6.5.-lo
'malum'
615

2b3.-lezr
Leder
3a2.-leer,
leather
3a3.-ler
leubhos
loufir 'uel'
liob, lieb
lub
3a2.- lof
ludheros
liber
PAEL.luss
2b1.-les
Leute
liudan rhati
liudi
FAL.loufir
<*lustu
'id'
'gentes'
'crsc'
'ascendit' 'gentes'
loferta
'planta' 2b2.-leys
5.4.6.3.-liut
'liberta',
'id'
eluzanem 'hom'
loifirtato
<*-dhs'liberttis'
'prm'
leugh
iogan,
liugan;
l o,
lgen;
laugnjan
lgati
leugnen
'recs'
6.3.-lgoti
3a2.'rog'
ogan, lie
leuk
rcate TOK .5.5.-luk(k)luk
leuks
cf. cius,
2b1.-am- 3a3.-log
roc-, 6.3.-la kas
'albus'
Loucios
lwg,
'flamma'
ruc'pallens'
4.8.-ro-u<*-iyos
'flamma'
5.3.6.4.-luks
ko
rao ah'id'
'clrus'
leuks
lux,
cf. lchetn
cf.
cf. liuha cf.
ruclu a <*-j
lucubrre,
'fulmen' Leucetius
'lux'
'albus' 'splendr' 'radius'
lstrre
'Mars'
6.2.-lu ,
2b1.-llug,
'id'
lluched
leuksm
lumi
gilauen 'id' lewjan
5.5.-lri6.3.3a2.'prd' 'immunditi 'infortuniu liuti(s)
a'
lwan 'id'
m'
'sistere'
luriyahh- UCR.-livyti
'humili' 'minuere'
leups
luchtar
loub,
laufs, lauf
6.3.- lub
'linter'
aub;
'tegnus'
aube
'porticus";
3a2.-laf
lewis
3a3.-l
lav
<*lewn
ligj
lig
5.5.-link
'iur'
likj
lice,
lktud,
6.4.-lkstu,
liceor,
licitud
lku, lkt;
licitor,
'lict';
salkt
pollicr
'negt.
conuen';
nuolkums
'contractus
'
limp
lippus,
bilban
bileiban
limpati, pri-lnoti;
'adeps';
lippa
'mane'
'mane'
lipyate
pri-lpljo,
'ungu' 'unguit'; pri-lpeti

repas, 6.3.-limpu,
ripras
lipti
'inmunditia' 6.4.-lipu,
lipt
'appende'
lingh
ling
ligim
2b1.-llyo
(v.n.)
616

ln
lin, lmus
lns
linq
linqu,
lqu
lipj
lipp
liprs
litj
lit < ?
litwos
lituus
l b
lamb
lc
lghros
lb
lodi
loghj
loghjom
2b3.-leat
lyati, linti
lenaid, pf. 2b3.-linom
6.3.rolil
'litra'
5.5.laista , -ti
'sequitur'
halina- 'adhaer'
as-lenaim
'argilla'
'oblin'
lenomnaib
'litrs'
*len
2b3.-linom len (dial.)
lnh
lin 'tinca'
'piscis 'adhaesus' 6.3.-li^nis
(lenomnai
'litra'
'dbilis,
adhaesuu
b 'lituuriis')
tepidus'
'id'
s'
3a3.-len,
6.9.-linis
linr 'tener'
'id'
licim/leigi
lhan, pf. leian, pf.
rikti
lich
m, leicid
lh
lai
5.4.'reliquus'
3a2.-lon,
lkànem
6.3.pf. lh
liekm<*lei
kmi, liek
leben 'id' liban 'uiu'

ToB.- pri-lplj, lipetr
lp ti
'mane'
Leber
ripr
'iecur'
'sords' TOK A.3a2.-lifer,
5.4.-leard
lyipr
live r'id'
'iecur'
'reliquiae'
6.3.-lytti
'tang'
'rog'
6.4.-litit
'mulce'
lid, lit
lius
toch. AB
'pars'; 'membrum'
litledig
'cadere,
'caelebs';
accidere'
lidn 'put'
???
3a2.- li(u)
'artus'
3a3.-lia
'flect'
laffan; leffil
lobzati
'inger';
'ligula'
'oscul';
3a2.lopa
lapian
'gulsus'
'bib'
lungar
3a2.lungor,
lungre
lobur
2b1.-llwfr
'corrupti'
'dbilis
'pusilan.'
(uel. slogw
lobaim
2b3.-loffr
sicul lit.
'putrsc' 'leprsus'
slog ?)
legen
lagjan
5.5.-lk,
lo iti
3a2.lak
lecgan, lay
'subvert,
supplant'
lige<lghy 2b1.-lle
lo e
o 'lectus,
'locus'
'lectus'
sepulcrum' 2b2.-le 'id'
617

loghos
loigos
loigs
lach
'miser'
loiqnom
loiqs
reliquus,
relicuos
lois
lra (nn
lyra)
loiss
lan 'tener'
loksos
lokss
licinus <*
lecinos?;
lmus
loktos
locht
londhom
Land;
dat.ithlaind
'areae'
londhwos
lumbus
longhros
lombrcus
lords
618
luog;
ALB.-lagje
TOK. A s -log,
'insidiae' lake,
Lage<-
<*lag
za-log
'situs'
'populti'
leke
'pignus'
3a2.-lagu,
law 'lex'
5.4.-ak` 6.3.-lig
'infortniu 'inops'
'morbum'
m';
ALB;-lig 6.4.-liga
'id'
'paucus' 'malus';
lige
'malum'
Lehen
r kas3a2.-ln,
'possessi'
loan
5.3.raexna
'substantia'
r ku- 6.3.- l kius

'infecundu 'reliquiae'
s'
leisa 'lra,
lecha
sulcus'
'cratis''
6.3.laista , -ti
'lut
adhaer'
6.9.- layso
'argilla'
lso 'leniter' . lista

6.3.-lesas
3a2.-. ls, 'paucum' 'reliquus'

'tenuis'
less
6.4.-less
'di'
lahs
lk
loso
3a2.-leax
'uermeli' 6.3.-lai,
TOK.
lis
laks 'piscis'
Lexouii,
'bliquus',
Lixouii
llechwedd
'inclinti'
lahan,
'pni'
3a2.- lan
'id'
2b1.- llan lant, Land

land
ljd
'rea,
3a2.-land
6.9.-lindan
eclesia' 3a3.-lundr
'uallis'
2b2.-laan
2b3.-lann
'stpa'
nt,
ledvje
Lende
3a2.lendenu
2b1.llyngyr
2b3.lenker-enn
5.4.-lorck
lrzen
'proclintu 'convulsi
'fallo'
s'
3a2.-bepartium in
lyrtan 'id'
posterira'
lga
lorcach,
lurcach
'claudus';
lurc 'c.

lorg
lorgos
lostos
loudis
laus
loughjom
lougos
loukej
louktjos
loukos
cetius
(Mars)
lcus, arc.
loucom;
collcre
louks
louksos
lousn
lna,
lstrre
lchetn <- Leucetius, lioht, licht liuha 'lux'

nt- 'fulmen' Loucetius
'lux'
> brit.
2b1.3a2.-lioht,
lluched
light
2b2.-lluhet
2b3.lu'hed-enn
lh 'saltus,
prat.'
3a2.-lah
'pratum'
2b1.llug; lauc, loug
llug dydd 'flamma'
'dlculum' 3a2.-leg
'id'
3a3.-ljre
< ljs
'rificium
in tect'
luan;
luisne
<*luksnijo'flamma'
lug (loga)
??
3a2.-lioxan
'luce'
luhs
3a2.-lox
2b1.ls, aus
lleuen pl. 3a2.-ls,
llau
louse
2b2.-
5.4.-olork
'suauis'
lce
(Plautus)
louks
louksn
ps'
lorg
2b1.-llwry,
'trames'
llwrw
2b2.-lergh,
lyrgh
2b3.-lerc'h
lorg
2b2.-lorch 3a3.-lurkr
2b3.lorc`henn
los(s)
2b2.-llost, 3a3.-listr
arllost
'harp'
2b3.-lost
liod , Lied liun
'cantus'
'can'
3a2.-lo awiliu 'c.
'id'
laudis'
lug(a)e,
2b1 llw
urliugi
liugan luige
<*uz-liugja aida 'nb'
'utum'
'bellum';
liuga
urlage
<*leugh
'ftu'
'connbiu
m'
3a2.-loc,
lock 'id'
3a3.-lok
'sera'
l a
'ferula'
rcyati
5.3.rao ayeiti
5.5.lukkizzi
'medulla
abitis'
<*louki-o
lk- 6.3.-la kas

'spatium, 'campus'
mundus,
gentes'
rk5.4.-lois,
loys 'lux'
5.3.rao ama5.5.lutta(i)-,
luttant
ruk luna
'lampas' 'splendens'
6.9.5.3.lauxnos
raoxna- 'stellae'
5.4.lysyj
lusanunk 'caluus'
(pl.)
6.3.-liule
619

lowen/lan
2b3.laouen
louts
lot(t)
<Germ.
low
low
l <*w,
l <*wi
lu, lau
lowtrom
lbrum,
ltrna
<*lowtrei
n
lubhj
libet
loufir 'uel'
(lubet);
prolubium
lubhj
liber (libr)
?
lubhros
liber
ludhm
lugj
lge,
lgubris
lugj
lugns
620
lucta,
luctor,
luxus;
ln,
lntus
lathar
lautro
'peluis'
'balne'
lthur
2b3.'canlis' louazr/laou
lothor
er
'alueus'
liederlich afslautjan
'negligens' 'praecipitor
3a2.-ledre
'
'miseria'
3a2.-lodda
lytt
'uagor'
lava-
5.4.5.5.-lahhu
loganam
'fund'
5.5.-lahhu
'fund'
liuben,
liufs
lubhyati
lubiti
lieben
6.3.(Hes)
3a2.liaupse
lofian,
'laus'
love
luib/luibh 2b1.-luird luppi 'uirus' lubja-leis

6.3.-luba
lubgort/lug 'horti'
3a2.-lyb 'uennum,
'lignum'
bort
2b2.uenntor'
lowarth
'hortus'

lomm
2b1.-llwm
lo(u)ft
lumpti
luplj,
'morbum'; 'ruinat'
'ndos'
'id'
lupt
<-smo;
'patior' ALB;-labe 'glub'
lommraim
'cortx'
6.3.'glub'
lubas;
lup, lupti
'glub.'
luid 3 pl.
2b1.- 3a2.-lane?

lotar
el(h)wyf
'semita'
<*ludont
'ib'
3a3.-lon
'aduena'
2b2.-yllyf
'uia
'id'
domuum'
lucht
Luxtos,
liohhan
rujti
6.3.-lu ti,
'maestus' 'frangit'
<*lugt- Lucterius
'dc';
lu ti
'copia(e)' 2b1.-llwyth arlohhan
5.3.-uruxti- 'frang' (tr.
'tribus' 'abscsus'
'fracti'
et intr.)
3a2.-to5.4.6.4.-lau^zt,
lcan
lucanem lu^zt 'id'
'dele'
<*-gs'solu'
log
cke
6.3.-lugnas
2a3.-lag
? 'planta
q.'
fo-long- 2b1.-lloer loc, Locke

rugns 6.3.-lgnas
'uie';
'support' <*lugr
'cirrus'
'fractus,
'lna' (alt.: 3a2.-locen

ruptus'
'rmus';
<*lowsr, 'sarrtus',
lat. lridus) locc 'id'

'flexi'
2b2.-loir 3a3.-lykna
'id'
'genuflecto
2b3.-loer
r'
'id'

lugtos
lukj
lukskj
lnmi
lts
luw
(lew)
luw ap
mdj
mglos
mgnn
mos
mgnos
mgis
mgtj
loscaid 2b1.-llosgo
'cremat'; 2b2.-losky
losc-<*luk- 2b3.-leski
sk
'cand'
lmen
limit(m)
<*lmen?; <lat.?;
cf. lber
tamen
<*eu,
lvfreis
lmus <*oi
'lberi'
lns
lutom
luce
lon 'aris,
merula?'
lutum,
lutre,
lutsus,
lustrum
soltus
loth <*lut
'immunditi
a'
lu, solu
absolu
3a2.lun
alynnan 'redempti'
'liber'
FINN
lunnas
<*lunos
'cruor';

ToB.lyuketr
5.4.luanem
<*luk-sk
'cand'
lunti; ToAB.-ltk
lnh
<*lH2-sk
'sectus'
ToB.5.5.-lutti
lyauto
'fenestra' hitus
(katta)luzzi <*lut
- 'lmen'
lnh
'sectus',
lunti
'secat'
ALB.-lum
'lutum'
ldara
(u
'cnae'
longa)
3a3.-lr
'aqurium'
3a2.-las,
luw
ToB.release
5.5.-l, lai- lyewetr
3a2.lun
alynnan, 'redempti'
alynian
'liber'
mdati,
'flu,
mdate
capilla
'gaude';
perd';
mtsya
<*madts? 'piscis'
5.3.'pectus'
maait;
masya
5.4.maskah
'burrus'
made;
mattus
maidim
'errumpor'
magnus
mahnt-,
ml
Maglocunu 3a3.-miok
mikils
'princeps' s
2b1'magnus'
mhi
(-gl-)
b3.-mael
(-gn-)
5.3.mazant-,
maz5.4.-mec
5.5.-meki
A B.madhesht
'-s'
mahayati
do-for
maig
5.4.
'auget'mecarem
magar
magis,
maiests
mact
6.3.liutnas
621

'augeetur'
mug
Magu-rix 3a2.-magu magus
(moga) 2b1.-meu- 'puer', fm.
'puer'
'seruus' wy 'erem.' mge,
mawi
2b2.-mowmaid
'puella'
es 'serua' 3a3.-mogr magas
2b3.'flius'
'uirg'
maouez
'mulier'
ingen
2b1.magad,
magae
maccdacht machteith
Magd
<*magot'uirg'
'puella'
akt
2b2.3a2.'epheba'; mahtheid mge,
ro'u.'
maid
macdact
2b3.'puella,
'superadult matez
serua'
a'
'serua'
machos
machotis
mag
mj
mag,
Argantoimmaig,
magus
immach 2b1.-Ma-, 'fors' fa
2b2.
- fa
mac(h)i
maistrid
2b1.<germ.
'butyrum maeddu
'lapidrius,
facit'
'uert,
structor'
pugn'
2b3.-meza
'depsit'
mtrus, Maats
maith; 2b1, 2b3.mne, <*Mts 'd maithid
mad
mnes,
Mns' 'ignoscit' 2b2.-mas
mnus,
Matta
mkj
makn
mceria,
mceris,
-erre
mkn
mahonus
makrs
macer,
mace,
maci
macis
mamm
mamma,
mamilla
622
mahhn ,
machen
'faci'
3a2.macian,
make 'id'
5.4.-makth
'lepus
iuuene'
5.5.-mai-,
miya'crsc'
mr ?
'digitus'
6.4.-ma
<*ma
'paruus'
<*5.4.ma o,
gj
macanim, mazati
'mass, macnum ? 'ungu'
pins 'compingor maslo
, coagulor' 'aruna'
'pistor'
? mn
1b1.mago
'bucca';
megin 'stomachu
mnaigte <*makn
s'
'qui
3a2.inhiant'
maga,
maw 'id'
mkesj
5.3.mahava'caelebs'
5.3.-*ha
'pugna' mazan- >
? mah
'terra'
mghneu
mi
maghos
mhen,
Mohn
3a2.-mho
magar
3a2.mger
3a3.-magr
muimme 2b1, 2b2, mamme,

'nutrix' 2b3.-mam muoma,
Muhme
5.3.-mascp.
'longus'
5.5.
maklante
'Macedoni'
5.4.-mam
5.6.mm(),
mm
mona
6.3.mkas/ ke
ris
6.4.-maks,
maci
6.4.mcu,-kt
'prem'
6.7.ma km,
ati 'i.'
mak
mama
6.3.mam,
mom

mn
mnj
mn
min
'pals'
mnos
Mann
3a2.-man
mnis,
mnus
(arc.);
immnis
maq
maqos
mreskos
'longus';
'betus'
mruig
mari
mare
muirn
(mora)
markos
marc
mlus
<d<zd
maite,
maide
'plus';
admat
'lignum'
mnuh,
mo i,
mnusah ,
<mangya
mariscus
marg
Allobroges,
brogae
2b1-2b3.bro 'ager'
Aremori-c mar, Meer
2b2, 2b3.- 3a2.-mere
mor
marka,Mar marah,
codurum
Mhre
2b1.3a2.march
mearh
2b2.(fem.
margh/mar meriha,
h
2b3.- miere)
marc'h
3a1, 3a2.mast
marka
marei
6.4.-mzu
'possum'
5.5.marsiqqa
morje
6.3.mres,mr
ios
most
'pons'
'prod'
'infracti'
'flagellum'
'id'
mtj
mt r
manna
(mans)
Maats maith <*-ti; 2b1, 2b3.*Mts 'd maithid

mad
Mns' 'ignoscit' 2b2.-mas
<*-tu?
macc2b1.dacht
machteith
2b2.-mahtheid
2b3.matez
OGHAM.2b1.maqvi:(ge map/mab
n.); macc 2b2.-mab
'flius'
2b3.-mab,
map
margn
masdos
2b1.mawn
'pals'
mnnusos
5.5.mahhan
'cum'
mter
mtres
'mtris'
1b2.matrer 'id'
mthir,
mthair
mtir
2b1.modryb
muoter
<*mt r
3a2.mdor
na-mjat
'indic'
ma,
mat
'fall'
6.3.-mju,
mti
'signum
faci'
mtrmat,
4.3.- 5.4.-mayr mater6.3.-mote
6.4.-mte
623

3a3.-mir
mters
mtrter
materis
matertera
matl
mateola
mauros
maurus
bhros
2b1.modreped
(pl.) 2b2.modereb
2b3.motrep/mo
ereb
3a2.mattock<la
t.
3a3.-meyrr
'mitis'
medgs
medeor, meddiss
midiur
meditor,
'idex' 'iudic' 3
modus, 1b2.-mers midithir; pf.
medicus
'ius'
ro-mdair
mergus
mdhidjw
s
medhjos
medius
medhu
medjom
mdneumi
mdodiks
624
medicus
(s)muryj
'gris obs'
chmra
'nbs
obs'
ambhaslak
;ambu
'odor'
'aqua'
'bonus'
m
2b1.-mi
2b2-me
medai
maty'raster'
'obscrus,
caecus'
imber
gadhs magnificus
<*mgnodhH1kome
m(d)
materj
mt k
mitan
'metior'
5.3.m
5.1, 5.3,
ALB.5.6.-m mos<m +
5.4.-mi
kwe?
masti'meditor' 'mensra'
'col' 5.3.-vmad
'medicus'
madg5.6.-m
mdhya-s
mefa 'in
midMediomitti
midjis
media' (im)medn lnum 3a2.-midd
5.4.-mj
<ugno 2b1.-mywn
'in'
mid
2b1.meto
mdhu
'hydromel'
(meda)
medd, 'hydromel'
'mel'
'hydr.'
meddw
'ebrius fi' 5.3.-madu
medb
2b3.-mez,
'mel'
'intoxictus mezo
'
mess
2b1,2b2..mast,
mats
<medtu mes (pl.) Mstung

'esca';
'testicul';
'collecti 2b3.-mez
'esca';
matjan
glandum';
'id'
mus,
'ed'
'plnus' !
maisse <Gemse
dti
'olus'
'pulmentu
3a2.-mete,
m'
meat 'car'
2b1.muo,
ga-mt
meddu mssen 'id' 'spatium 'imper';
posside, 3a2.- must habere, 'dominus'

possum'
'debe'
posse'
meddiss
5.3.-vmad
'idex'
'medicus'
PEL.-
me da
'uia'
med
'mel'
6.3.meds,
mids

.medix
mdos
meic
mz
'modus'
3a3.-mt
migr,
migrre
meid
mel
'caluus,
hebs'
meidos
mad
'honor'
meilts
us-mt
'modus
uuend'
2b1.-mail; meizan
moel
'id';meizil ,
'mutilus, meissel
caluus, 'scalprum'
glaber' 3a2.-mte
'larua ins.'
muoet
'fma'
maitan
'put'
(meid)
kameit
gemeit,
iactans,
stolidus
3a2.gemd
'superbus'
5.4.-mit
'crae,
'mens,
consilia' intelligenti
a'
'mt'
'mutilus,
incornis'
'uermis,
larua
insectus'
med
'cupper' ?
milati
'conuenti' 'conuenit';
; mela(ka)
'conueni' 'conuenti'
mles
sam-k??
'proelium'
meinom
DVENOS
meinom
man
mwyn
meinen
'desideriu 'dlectti' 'signific'
m'
3a2.mnian
gimeit
*gamais
'demens' 'mutilus'
3a2.gemd 'id'
meit
meitrom
meiwijs
mejj
mejn
mej
minus,
menvum
nimis
`minuere'
<nmeisi;
minu
me
Mini
(Etruriae)
mnus,
mnis,
moenia,
immunis
1b2.muneklu
'mnus'
m nj ,
m niti
'consider'
'hebs'
m thati
6.3.
'ferit'
apmaitinti
APRUS.'ferre'
ismaitint 6.4.-mitat
'perdere'
'dele'
mitr
memuri
'cinctus' 'ramiicus, 'corda'
cont.'
5.3.-miqra'id'
2b1.minniro;
mins;
minti,
mnj
minow
min
minnistr 'melius';
min ti 6.3.-mila
'minu' 3a2.-min 'minimus'
'minu'
'piscell'
3a3.-minnr
5.5.'dcrsc'
miejawas
'manicula'
Luw
mauwa 'IV'
da tomna Moenus
min , - ti
gloss. .i.
'Main'
'praetere'
da ti 'ut
2b1.6.6.-mijam,
eat'; Moin; mynet
mija
Minius
're';
6.7.-mjm,
(Gallaecia diminet?
mjeti
e)
myate
min, min 2b1.-mwyn mein
izmeniti
'thesaurus' 'ualr'
'falsus'
5.5.6.3.<*meino- 3a2.-mn
immiya- maina , 'id'
'misce' ti
6.4.-
625

3a3.meinn
'nocius'
mejtis
mknos
mn
meldhj
meldh
melit
meljom
melk
mel
(mellis)
mol
1b2.kumaltu
'commolit
'
melos
melior,
multus
moltam
'multam'
1b2.-motar
'multae'
melim
mili
APR.mealde
malada
6.4.-milna
't. mall.'
braviti
moljo,
'loquitur'
moliti
5.4.'precor'
maltèm
*ld>ld>l
'precor'
6.3.5.5.-ma-al- meld i/sti
ta-i, ma` 'id'
al-di
'prectur'
5.4.-melr
6.3.-mlna
m ti
'tangit,
palpat' ;
marcyati?
2b1.-cymal
mrman6.3.'cantus, 'membrum' mlmenys
'iunctra'
membrum,
2b2.-mel
5.4.'car
artus'
(pl.
marmin
lumb'
mellow)
'car'
6.4.2b3.-mell
mlmni
'lumb'
2b1.-malu molawn malan;

5.5.mleti,
'mola'
2b3.-malaf
gamalanzi
molt
malwjan
'molunt'
6.3.cf. ToA
malvinti
malyw, B
mely
6.4.-milns
'complres
'
mellaim
'fall'
melwom
626
mili-tou
'succus
mel.'
3a2.-mildaw

'damnum'
milium
mulce; re;
mulcetra, cdo
mel
membh
2b1.-min
mago
'labrum'
'fauces'
2b2.2b3.-mca
m(e)yn
2b3.-min
'fauccum'
2b1.-mellt
3a3.mjolln
'Tonitrii
malleus'
meldn,
melden
'indic'
3a2.-meld
'promulgti
'
mil
2b1.-ml
(mela/mea 2b2-2b3.la)
mel
melm
mels
miju, mt
3a2, 3a2.mlo
mebul
'uerecundi
a'
'irritus,
miser'
'blasphm
us'
bimampjan 'accus'
'irride'
'culpa'
6.4.-mls-t
malv'stultus'
ALB.-mjel

mmi
mmsm
mtior
membrum
<msr;
membrna
mr
<*m(m)sr
'porti'
mendhai
2b1.mendian mundn
mynnu 'gaude'; 'intendoo'
'uelle'
muntar, mundrei
go-fin(n)
munter 'propositu
'rog'
'alacer'
m'
2b2.3a3.mennaf 'id'
munda
2b3.'intendoo'
govyn
'rog'
mendh
mamphur,
manfur
'manubriu
m torn'
mend
mannus,
mandus
<ILLYR?
mendom
mendum
menghos
meng
manganu
m <gr;
mang<gr.
menis
maena
<gr.
menm
menos
mezzan; mitan; ml
Mal
'tempus';
'occsi' mls ''8
gallones'
mims,
mimz
Minerua,
arc.
Menerua
<*-esw
mimti;
mera
mth; m 'mensra'
tr
6.3.-m tas
'annus, t.'
ms,
m so
'pelle';
mmsm TOK B.
5.4.-mis misa (pl.)
'sra'
(msoy)
mdh
m dr
'disc' 'intellectus' 'doctus'
;
6.3.'disciplna'
5.3.madras,
'prdens'; mazd, mandrs
mazdh
'alacer,
<? 'id';
superbus'
mazdh6.4.<*mdh-t muo^stie^s
'deus q.' 'uigilre'
ALB.mund
'possum,
uinc'
mnthati,
m t ,
'tumultus'; mathnti
m sti,
'pugnus 5.3.-mant- mott

'turb' (t)
rm'
6.3.men i,
mesti (t)
Mandel(ho
lz) (t?)
'lignum
rotrium'
3a3.m ndull
'manubriu
m molae'
mandur ALB.-mes,
menn,
2b1.manzon
'tetta',
mennn mynnan
'tetta'
?
mezi,
? 'stabulum' mezat
'catulus' 'capella'
'stabulum'
2b2.-min
'pullus';
'haedus'
ment,
2b3.-menn
mezej
'cat.'
'sg'
mennar 2b1.-mann
'macula'
'locus'
mind
mann geni
'signum'
'antojo'
menicc
2b1.manag;
manags
magh- mnog
'saepe' mynych 'id' manch
'multum'
'dnum' 'multum'
2b2.3a2.mamhat 6.3.-mini
menough manig,
'offert'
'copiae'
'id'
many
maj(l)
meng
mange
6.3.'illusi,
'acmen';
'catapulta'
'pulcher';
mnga
uineae'; mangal
mengach
'rudis,
'fallx"
'augurium' ingrtus'
muniwa
mnmen
'phoxinus'
'piscis'
3a2.<drav. ?
myne,
minnow
menm(a)e
manman
mnas'animus' 'mens,
sensus';
manasvn'intelligens'
5.3.-
627

mnsis
mensis
ment
mentula
m (ms) 2b1-2b2.- mno ,

menos
mis
mnt <*mn
2b3.-miz 3a2.mna,
mna
mqos
merc
merg
mergae, rum
mergh
merges
mergis
CAT.-brac
'lutum'
merg
merg
merkds
merk
628
merx; amiricatud
mercs, '*immerct
mercr
',
amirikum
'*immercr
'
braige,
braga
'conuictus'
meirc,
2b1.meirg
merydd
'rubig'; 'dbilits';
bol
merddwfr
mergach 'paluus'
'uter
2b3.rugsus' mergidh
m
'hebesc'
manahms,
mes c
msa- <*mnsn$
5.4.-amis ko- 6.3.menuo
<*mnt,
menesis
mntha6.3.mente,
met ,
mentris
Mandel(ho
lz) (t?)
'lignum
rotrium'
3a3.m ndull
'manubriu
m molae'
Mal
ml
5.5.'occasi' 'tempus' 'longitd' mekkis
'magnus'
3a2.-mirki,
A B.morgat
mierce
mje(r)gul
'nict'
3a3-myrkr,
'obscrits' 6.3.-mrgu,
myrkvan
5.5.-ti 'id'
marwi'nigr'
mrnjata
'uarin'
'uerrunt'
(folia,
5.4.fructus) mer em
'deturb'
3a3.mre a,
meri,

'nessa'
'rte,
'funis';
funda'
6.3.'corbis'
mrka?
'rte'
6.4.-marga
'cancell'
bruoh, Bruxelles,
'pals'
bruoch
Brussel
'repugnans
'pals' <Bruocsell (Hes);
'
,
3a2.-brc,
a
brook 'id'
'fraces'
3a3.morkna
'uiesc'
mjjati
'capi';
(Hes.):
mr ti
'tangit;
capit'
mrecht 2b1.-brith morgan 'id' margins

'uarius'
'id'
3a2.'matina' <-uky
'mic'
<m ktos 2b2.-bruit mergen,
2a3.'id'
morning
breachtac 2b3.-briz
h 'id'
'id'
6.3.margti
mrknoti
'obscurr'
smerk
'occsus'
6.3.mrkiu,-ti
'nict'

mrneumi
meros
mers
merwos
mesg
mesl
mestis
mests
mt
meti
mtijai
markoci
'irrit'
PL.markotny
'ariscus'
mrcimrevo
'splende'; 'radius'
'calor
extrmum'
'forma'
marren, marzjan
m yate
6.3.merren 'molest'
'uorat; mrstu, iz'impedi'
negligit'
mrst
3a2.m 'obliuiscor';
mierran 'id'
'irrt'
mars
5.4.'immemor'
moranam
'obliuiscor'
meirb 2b1.-merw maro,

'dbilis' 'insipidus' marawr
2a3.'blandus'
meirbh
msca,
mzgar
Masche 'id'
'aranea'
3a2.-max,
6.3.mscr
mezg,
'nodus'
m gsti
'nod'
merula
2b1.amusla,
mwyalch
Amsel,
2b2.Meise
moelh<mei 3a2.salk mse, sle
2b3.moualc'h
mensi mit
2b1.-meint
TOK A.masti-h
6.3.n/m- infix.
<*mant
'id'
mem;
mstas
'magnitd
mnt()
'
'sicut, tam'
mensus
mast'plnus'
mta
methas
mth-,
mesto
'milirium'
mth
'locus'
(*mitostu-);
5.3.6.3.-mi tas
brzimita 6.4.-mets
'alta m.'
5.4.-moit`
Metapnu
mit(i).'cum' mi 'cum' (cf.
ALB.-mjet;
m 'inter
3a2.-mi
);
Metu
aquas'
barbis
> s
'inter
paldes'
mtior
to-math- (3
mezzan; mitan; ml
mtmetit
s. doMal
'tempus'; 'meditme 'mensra' 'intendere'
n',
mathi))
'occsi'
mls
'minor'
'bossellus' 'mensra'
merus (et
pisctus)
br ?
'tructa'
mtis
met
2b2.moreth
'cra'
2B3.morc'het
'id'
3a2.-mare
'herba
aurea'
2b1.-maut 3a2.-m
? <*mta
'pollex'
met,
messis,
permitis
methel
'messores'
2b1.medel
'mess.'
mti
S OV.-mt
'meditme 'mensra, 'foetus'
n'
scientia'
A B.-mat 5.3.-miti
met ,
mesti
'iaci'
629

2b2.-midil
'messor'
2b3.-midiff
'met'
2b1.-medr
'habilits'
metrom
meudos
muger
meuk
mucr
meus /
musks
ms,
musculus;
mrex
mighl
mkmi
mic,
dmic
miljom
minium
mimd
mmnsk reminiscor
(memna)
mneumi
minu,
mintus
mingh
ming,
mei
630
muad
'mundus,
superbus'
meug
mnusi
6.3.-met,
msti
'iaci'
muhhn;
mocken
3a2.micher
'fur'
m dat
6.3.'gaudet'
mudrs
5.3.'uigil'
maoan- 6.4.-mudrs
karana'id'
3a1, 3a2.ms
'muscus'
<5.4.
3a3.-mistr
'intemp.'
3a5.miggelen
'pulueris
pluere'
de-meccim 2b1.-mygr micken ?
'neglig'
'lucens' 'obseru'
di-r-mygu
'neglig'
muoz ga-mtjan,
'conuentus
'
3a2.mtan,
meet
cu-man 2b1-b2.3a2.(ga)man
'memoria'
cof
(ge)man
<*mon4.2.'memoria' 3a3.-man
2b3.cov/kou
mist
mahstus,
'merda'
'merda'
3a2.mgan
3a3.-mga
mtr
mu
'pugnus'
mu k'cunnus'
5.4.-mukn;
muk
'castoreum
'
mgh'nubs'
5.3.maha 'id'
5.4.-mg
'nebula'
5.6.-mi
palpebra'
6.3.-mti
'quati'
my
'brachium'
mga
6.3.-migl
m t
'uisi';
me tat
'somni'
6.3.miegti
'dormi'
5.5.mida/midi
'ruber'
5.4.mat im
'appropinq
uor'
minti
'unesc'
5.5.-mehur
<meiH2ur
'tempus'
m hati m -m,
5.3.ati
mazaiti 6.3.-m ,
5.4.miti
mizem

misdhom
misg
1b1.mesga
(fr.mgue)
miskej
misce
mlj
mlks
mltm
mdhos
mdsnos
mdus
mduwij
mgj
mlns
mjos
mkmi
mta /
Miete
3a2.meord /
md
medg/mea 2b1.3a3.dhg
maidd,
mysa
meidd
'serum'
2b2.-meith <*mihswn
2b3.-meid
mescaim
2b1.miskan
mysgu
(vn)
2b2.-meski
misd
<*n
m h
'mercs',
5.3.-m da
'misce'
mks
'srum'
m da
mk yati, meiti
mimik
6.3.-mi ti
'agitat';
<*meiki
mi rmras
'mixtus'
'mixtus'
ml-ti
'dbilitt'
mlith, 2b1.-blawd
blith
'farna'
'suauis' 2b2.-blot
'id'
2b3.-bleud
'id'
malcad
mulsch
un-tila- mrkhml ati
'mollis,
'dcadenti
'mollis'
malsks
'stultus' 'contice'
a'; bln
3a2.-malsc 'irratinlis' aeger, 5.4.-mek 6.3.-mlkiffemintu 'mollis'
'mollia'<
'superbus'
s
s',
mlakn
'obstintus
'stultus'
, stultus'
mlith, 2b1.-blawd
6.3.-mltai
blith
2b2.-blot
6.4.- milti
'suauis' 2b3.-bleud
milti, milde unmildjai mrdhati
'tener,
'id'
'sine
'indulget'
3a2.-mild amre' (f. mollis'
'blandus'
pl.)
m t-snblandus
'stultus' 'lmus'
mollis;
meldach 2b1.-blydd 3a2.-mild mildeis m d
mlad,
mulier <'grtus' (<*ml-d/ml'id'

'blandus' 5.4.-melk molod
yes
(<*ml-d/mldh)
*<meldui- 'iuuenis'
dh)
5.5.malisku,
milisku
'dbilis'
pr*to-in-ussmulgre
mlig
2b1.-blin
mrityati blin 'crpe'
'atriplex'
'lassus'
'tabec' 6.3.-blnis
2b3.blinion
'inertes'
malus
mallom,
maile;
2b1.-mall
5.3.6.3.-m las
'irritus,
mallud 'id' mell 'errr' 'ruintus'
mairya 'mendciu
miser'
-lsos/es
<*mlso'fallax'
m'
5.4.-me 6.4.-mlds
'blasphm 'pecctum' 'errr'

us'
malcaid
ml ati
'ptescit'
'tacre', umlkn ti
'obticre'
6.3.-
631
mnos
mulleus
mldhrs
mlsk
msos
prmellere
;
remelg;
remulcum
mw
malua
mdmi
mand
mj
mane,
mant
mijai
mine,
immine,
promine,
mons,
minor,
minx
mj
memin
mkos
mancus
mkstrom
msjai
mtijai
mentior
mtis
mens
(mentis)
632
mln ,
Mal
'macula'
mell
'mons'
mullach
'cacumen'
mall
aimne anmynedd
'patientia'
'id'
<anmeny
smlkti
'macescer
e'
mljan
mlamalna
'ter'
'scribere'
'sords'
'bacca'
<*melH2n malin- 6.3.-melas,
,
'ter,
mlynas
melH2niH2, immundus' 'caeruleus'
melH2n
6.4.-m lns
<melH2n
6.5;
izmlti
'e'
'pre'
'tardus
sum'

'paene'
mrva'cannabis'
maniyahha
'administr
'
parimama
ndhi,
maman
'permanen 'uacill'
s'
5.3.framan
'perseuer'
5.5.mimmai
'deneg'
menahhan
da
zmena+ha
nt 'contra'
2b1.- 3a2.-mna
monid,myn 'emine';
ydd
mnir
2b2.'tumulus'
meneth 'id'
2b3.menez
'mons'
do-moiniur 2b3.-guo- firmonn ga-munan mnyat
mnjo
monim 'temnere' 'meminiss 'amens
sum'
'pollicri' 3a2.-mon,
e'
man
'cogit'
manc (-g-)
mank
6.3.Mangel
'parum'
mekas
'dfectus';
5.5.'exilis''
mangn
maninkuw TOK. A,
'dsum'
ante
B.-mnk
'breues'
'ege'
maistre
mengen
mnkau
'misce'
'fing'
'intend'
6.9.mntimai
'mentmur'
toimtiu
3a2.-mind ga-mini
math 6.3.-mintis
'cgitti'
cgitti';

ana-minds
'suspectus'
mt
mtom
mtos
mtrj
mus
mwos
m
mdos
modos
moghjos
mogh
moghtis
mand
<*mtn?
mentum
madal
'intestna'
<*mth-l
mindil
'oreae'
math<mtjH2'agit,
fric,
(Hes) dele, r'
5.5.-meni
'uultus'
mant
2b1.-mant
muns
'gingua'<2 'mandibula
'bucca'
b1?
'
commentu
dermat
gi-munt. ga-munds mat- 6.3.-mitas
s
'obliui'
'reminisce
'cgitti'
ntia'
5.3.-mato
carmamn mnu, mjat
men
-mantalon
'farna,
'semita'
s 'fullones' 6.3.-mnti;
puluis'
2b1.mniava
mathru
'musgu'
manus
manim,
muntar,
2b1.munt manwus ?
5.5.
manins
muintir
manal 3a2, 3a3.- 'praest' ALB.-marr maniyahha
1b2.<*manuter 'modius'
mund
<*marn? - 'mand'
manuve 'familia' <manatlo <*mt'capi'
(l.)
2b3.malazn 'id'
mn<*mni 2b1.-dimank
'suuis' fanw; di'parum'
menb
fenwi
'monotrop 5.4.-manr
'paruus' 'diiminu'
(-nu)
us'

'paruu.'
<nw 'solus' 5.5.-minu'solus'
muot, Mut modags

5.5.-maz
3a2.-md 'rtus'
<*moH3ds'animus'
'resist'
modus
med
mta,
met
addh
<med
Maut
'pondus'; 'consilia' <*mddh
'libra';
'id'>lat.
mta
'cert'
dorumadir
3a2.-mt 'tribtum'
5.4.-mit
'fuerat
'id'
'cgitti'
emensus';
airmed
'mensra'
mg
mgs
6.3.
'familiris' 'gener' 'reluctns
megmi,
a2 3a3.megti
sum'
mag
'libenter
'gener'
habe'
6.4.-m gt
'fave'
doformaig
magan,
magan
maghah
moguti
'auget';
mugan
(mag
'posse'
'machina' 'potentia'
mochtae,
(mag
'possum' ) TOK A.5.4po-mogati
mochtide
'possum')
mahts
mokats marthank 'iuure'
'potens'
3a2.mg 'potentia' 'potens' 'auxilium,
6.3.'possum'; remedium' mgulas
meaht
5.6.'innumerus
'potentia'
magus
'
'magus'
maht,
mahts
mot,
macht
mo
3a2.meaht,
633

might
moghtrom
moighos
moilos
moinijai
moinis
moinja
3a2.-mehs
mtis
tuidmen
'fixus'
<*todmina
t; m(i)de
'ceruix'
<*meidyo
moisos
moitj
mt
moitmos
mtuus
mojnos
mnus eris
moksi
mol
molj
634
mox
mola
3a2.-(ge)mre
'limes,
territorium'
3a3.landamri
'id'
3a3.-meiss
'corbis'
missi-; in-maidjan
missi
'altrinsecu
s'
3a2.mum
'dnum'
3a2.maims
mum <*moitmos
'thesaurus, 'dnum'
dnum,
gemma'
SDPIC.meitims;
meitimm
'monument
um
grtificti
nis'
moitwos
mith,
2b1.meth;
mwyn;
mn
mul
'suauis, 'modestus'
plaanus' ; di-ful
m(i)th
'audax'
'madidus, mwydo
uber'
'mitig'
2b2.-muin,
moin
2b3.-moan
'gracilis'
moenia,
mni,
arch.
moeni,
mrus, a.
moiros
mell
Malea
'tumulus';
Insula
mala
2b3.-mell
'palpebra' 'condylus,
cumulus'
min ti
'aptat,
fundat,
struit'
mir ?
'pax'
<*moiro6.4.-met
'mni
me mech,
'aris' 'uter'
5.3.6.3.maamaas
'id'
'follis'
'ulciscti'
<*meit-ti
6.4.-mie^ti,
mie^tus
'mtti'
min, min mwyn<*m

mein
'thesaurus' eino'falsus'
'pretium, 3a2.-mn
ualor'
'id'
mo, mos-
mhaTOK.
5.4.-mz
mi o
myasmir ?
'oblectme
'pax'
ntum'
<*moiromiy dha- mil
sdh'misericord
'oblti' ia'
6.3.5.3.melas ;
myazda- at-metet
'obl.'
'mitig'
5.5.6.4.-ml
mu/miau
'amor'
mithuna
'par'
'ulciscti'
5.3.<*meit-ti
miwa,
miwana, ara 'id'
6.3.manas
6.4.-mains
*o>u
ALB.-mal
'pre' <**molHje
H2 'mons'
6.3.lgmala
'ripa'
6.4.-mala
6.5;izmlti

'pare'
moldh
moldhos
molein
mlestos
molgj
mlis
mullach
'tumulus'
<Ptocelt.
*muldko-
molna,
molnus
mulge
mls,
mlior,
molestus
mlos
molp
2b3.-meil
3a2.<*mely mylen, mill
<lat.
mond
monds
monej
milgen
milhma
'pecudibus 'nubs'
frmen
macer'
monli
mandag
'alacer,
gaudens'
mone
manen,
mahnen
3a2.mann,
manian
mong
'crnes'
monle
malleus,
marculus
mundus?
(cf.
mdns)
mongos
mrdhan
'excelsus'; 'caput'
'propg'; 5.3.- ka mraTokA

'tectus'
malto
'prmum'
6.9.malunis
bligim<mli 2b1.-blith milchu, miluks 'lac' mr i,

mlizu
gim
Milch
mrjati, 6.3.-mlzu
mlicht,
3a2.mrjti
blicht 'lac'
meolcian,
'purgat'
milk
muoan, af-mauis
mj-u, -at
mhen
'fessus' 'molmentu
'fatig'
m, pugna' ;
muodi,
6.3.-pri-si
mde
muoleti
'litig' ;
'fessus'
'defetiscor'
(cf.
3a2.-me
) 'uix'
'id'
molad 2b1.-mawl,
moli
'can,
2b3.-meuli
cantus'
molqos
moltlom
molda
3a5.meldke
<muldik
muinl
'collus'
<moniklo
2b1.- 3a3.-makki
mwng 'ubi crnes
2b3.-pl. crescunt'
mogou
3a4.manke
'crnis'
2b1.mwnwgl
2b2.meneth
2b3.-
molok
'lac'
molokita
'pals'
6.3.malkas
'sorpti'
6.4.- mlks
'pti'
mlat,
mlot
ma ati, mandagma ayati 'urbnus,
bellus'
mnyati
'honorat';
mnati
'monet';
mnyt
'montur'
6.3.-imanti
ma- 'et
gemma'
<*monHi-
monisto
635
monos
monle
montis
mor
mora
mor
morcs
mordj
morign
monid/me
nez
formnae 2b1.-mwn
<upermon 'collus,
yo
monle' ;
'umerus' gor-fynydd
'scla'
morjods
2b1.morddwyd
2b2.morboit
'femur'
2b3.morzat/rzed
mrmoros
formid
morom
mrum
vocal.?
2b1.morwyn,
merch
2b2.moroin
2b3.moren
marzus
'nuptiae'
'metus';
'stix'
2b1.mr-,
merwydde mrbere,<l
n
at?
mrs
ms
636
mr, mr iantumaru
mri
s
3a2.-mre
2b1.-mawr 3a3.-mrr
2b2.-2b3.meur
mrus
ms
(mris);
mrsus
mout, Mut
'animus'
3a2.-md
'animus'
3a3.- mr
'ra'
mrya6.3.'iuuenis, 'iuuenis,
merga,
puer';
puer'
mart
5.6.-mrak
'puella'
'diana'
'id'
6.4.-mrga

muriot
moros
mros
mora
'uenefica'
mrdati, - TOK. A,
'clep' yati 'ter' B.-mrtk
'rd''
5.4.-mart
'horrendus' 'pugna'
murten
'marce';
smerzan
'dole'
3a2-smart
'pungens'
muirn
mny
5.3.manaor
<*moneutr
o-
maraim 2b2.-2b3.'mane'
mar
'uacillti'
mor(Nacht)ma
(r)gain
hr
'lamia,
3a2regna
(night)mar
terrris'
e
morde
martus;
uirg??
'monle'
mana
'crnis'
mers
5.4.6.3.-mras
mor(eni),
<lat.?
mori
mramor
'ftum,
'mors'
'pestis'
infortniu
6.3.-mras
m, mors'
'id'
'celeber
propter
arcum'
moths 'ra'
mrmotrjo,
motriti
'spectre';
smejo, meti
'aude'
6.3.-
mosgom
moukos
mouros
mar(a)g,
mar(a)k,
Mark
'medullae'
3a2.mearg 'id'
muria ?
mr
'lutum';
mn 'rna'
<*mouno-
mousos
moutos
mowej
mos,
Moos;
Moor 'et
pals'
mt /
mutt, nis,
mutnium;
mtniatus
moue
mreghms
m j
m ghs
m ijai
mere
breuis;
braccium
<gr.
morior
moth
1b2.comohota
'commota'
hemdsmauen
'manica
camisiae'
2b1.bragen
br(e)ithel 'cerebrum'
signif.?
3a2.broegen,
brain 'id'
ro-smerta
'praeparan
s'
murg,
murgi
3a2.myrge,
merry
'betus'
mast ka;
majjn,
majj,
majjas
'medullae'
5.3.mazga-
mata ,
matti
'uide'
6.4.-matu,
mast
'senti'
mozg
'cerbrum';
mo dan
'medullae'
6.3.smgenes,
'cerbrum'
5.4.-mr
mur,
'pals,
murva
'flu';
? immunditia 'caesps'
6.3.'10.000' ' <*muri-?
mrur
muras
<*murur
'lutus'
'sedimentu 6.4.-ma rs
m'; -moyn 'caes.'
'immersus'
5.4.mch
mamur <*musos
<*memusro
6.3.mutnti
'core'
'super'
mvati
6.3.kmamuju,
mtamuti
'amre
'addc
mtus'
(anum in
5.3.-ava- digitum'
mivmahi
5.3.
mrzu'uertebra
ceruiclis'
'partem
accipi'
'parca'
>braccium
'mortuus
est'
TOK B.mrkwace
'sra'
marati,
mr ,
mrate,
mr ti
mriyte
6.3.5.3.mrtu,
miryeite
mirti
5.4.6.4.meranim mirstu, mirt
637
m jos
martus
m k
mor(a)ha,
Mhre
3a2.-more,
moru
m kj
marce
m kos
murcus,
murcidus
m ktos
m meik
m mrj
formca
murmur;
murmur
mrnami
m tj
m tsjom
m tis
m tos
638
brn
mercasius
<*mrkno- 'pals'
'putridus' bracem
mraich,
'genus
braich
farris'
'malta' 2b1.-braen
'putr.'
2b3.breyn/brei
n
morgen
'dbilis'
3a2.mearg
'botulus'
3a3.-morr
` 'bot.'
muirn
'rumor,
strepitus'
murmurn,
murmeln,
murren
3a2.murc(n)ian
marnaid
'tradit'
mortrium,
mortum,
morbus
mors
(mortis)
mortuus
5.5.-me-irta 'mortuus
est'
mrya'iuuenis, 'iuuenis,
puer'
puer'
5.6.-mrak
'id'
morkv,
(Hes.)
morkva
<ger.?
meirb 2b1.-merw mur(u)wi

'mortuus' 'dbilis';
'mrbe
meirle
brad 'id' 'blandus'
'furtum'
3a2.mrath
mearo 'id'
'traditi'
3a3.-merja
'quati'
marcyati
'botulus
'ruinat'
sanguinis' mark'mors'
mrx
'ruina'
5.4.-mor
<-rky
'tener'
vamr marmara'rumor'
murmura'ignis
crepitans'
5.4.mrmram
i m ti
'pugn'
'clepit';
m ti
'conuincit'
mrti,
'ruin';
mrati
'furtat'
'ruina';
5;5.
'marmor' marriattari
'disoluitur'
'pugn'
m ti
morokv
'pals'
6.3.-mirktti 'imbtus
sum'
6.3.-pasmerkti
'ruin'
*mrmrati
6.3.murmti,
marmti
moromradi
'rdere'
s-mrt
6.3.-mirts
mord 'nex' maurr

m tmrtv
(Hesichyu 'mortuus, 6.3.-mirtji
3a2.-mor,
'nex'
moror <*- <*m -tro-m s) 'hom'
mors';
dien
tro- 'nex'
mrtah
'dis
(Hom.)
3a3.-mor
'hom' morturum
'id'
5.3.'
mrta-;
maa-,

marta- 'h.'
5.4.-mard
'hom'
5.6.martiya
'hom'
m wos
mortuus
<*m wos +
*m tos
marb
mdlom
mundus <
mdns
muad
'mundus,
superbus';
mn 'urna'
mdns
mudstos
muzzan
'purg';
smuz,
Schmutz
'immunditi
a'
3a2.smotten,
smoteren
'mancill'
mrtv
<*m wos +
*m tos
mudir- myjo, myti

'made'
'nubs'
'lau'
m
dat
6.3.'sg''
mudyti
'gaudet'
'umidus' 5.5.-mutai 'aliquem
'purg'
balne'
(lut uel 6.7.-mdlo
urn)
mustus,
mustum
<umidus
mugij
mugi
munk
mung
<*munkn
?, mcus,
mcor,
mgil
ms
ms
(mris)
musk
musca
muskos
muscus
mossach 1b1.-mws
ND. <ds
'immundus
'id'
mussig
'macula'
'
2b3.-mous 'immundus
'id'
'
muckazze
'mussit'
n; mucken
'susurr'
2b1.-mign mocht
mucheln,
mka-

'pals'
'mollis'
mcheln
mdei
'nasus';
<*mkino;
'moho 'placidits'
odre'
'mgil'
3a2.-meek
'blandus'
mugen
'nebulor'
ms
3a2.-ms,
mouse
msnmi
mtrom
2b1.-marw
2b2.marow
2b3.-maro,
marf
mothar
'dmtum,
pals'
3a3.-musk
'mcor,
parua
pluuia,
puluis'
chromsido
(Lex
Salica)
'cadaueris
raptus'
modder
'lutum'
3a2.mother
'faeces';
musljk
'impudcus'
mjati,
m jati
munkti, smy oi se
mucti,
'rp'
mucti
mukljiv
'liberat'
'dus'
5.3.6.3.framuxti
munk
'liber' 'abstrge'
; mukls, ains
'paldsus'
ms-,
my
m -,
m a5.4.-mukn
5.4.-mun mucha,
<*musy
mica
6.3.-mus
muzga
'pals';
mozg'tem
pus dus'
'oculs
operi';
!
<*H2meu
'uert'
m ati,
mu ti
'clepit'
5.5.munnaimtra'urna'
5.3.-mra
'immundit.'
5.4.-mtàr
639

mud;
smod
'immunditi
a'
muttij
muttis
ntis
mutti
innatis,
nats
nantis
nris,
nsis,
nsus
natrks
natrix
nws
a(n)-
nit
'pugna'
nsis
nawgs
e(n)- i(n)-
mutiln
'murmur'
3a2.muteren,
mutter 'id'
3a3.mula 'id'
unntan
'puppis'
dhers
nau, n
(noe)
nausum
3a3.-nr
3a3.kkvinn
'tumor'
LUS.-inde inde- 'per' ande 'per-'
'et'
(intens.)
(int.)
'ind-reth
2b1.'cgitti' an(ne)'dispositi'
inferus;
infimus,
infernus,
infr
dhts
dhi
dwojos
n
640
ande'magis'
n, ne
'tergum'
ns s/du
nos
(nas ) du 6.3.-nsis
5.3.6.4.-nss
narha
<*nsis
5.6.nham
inguen
dha
un-
nathir 2b1.-neidr natara,

nadrs,
(nathrach) 2b2.-nader
atter g.pl. nadr
2b3.3a2.natrolion/a n ddre
er
bhudhn
m
c n
genende
ana'nauus';
nanjan
Ferdinand 'aude'
3a2.nan
'aude'
nasa
3a2.-nosu,
nose
3a3.-nasar
nvig-re,
-ium
nuis
'obscrus'
2b1.-ni
nvja5.3.navza nuh (ac.

nvam)
5.4.-naw
5.6.-nv
abudhn
'infundtus
'
5.4.andund-k'
'glandula'
und 'tenus' 'ib,
dhi
ALB.-n,
ibdem' 'super, ad' nd 'in'
untar,
undar < adhara'contemn'
untan
*ter
3a2.-under (cf. nteri)
3a3.-und
'sub'
adhi
'super'
na
nebhis
2b2.-ny
2b3.-ne
nem (es-), 2b1.-nef
neamh; 'caelum'
nl ?, ac.
pl. nulu
<*nebhlo-?
'nbs'
nebula,
nimbus
eptnus?
nebhl
nedis
nedjos
ned
neds
nedsk
nenaid, 2b3.-linad
neantg
<*ni-nati-?
nect
ndus,
nd,
nassa
nect (ad
plect)
1a2.nefrns
n, arc. nei nei 'nn'
neic
noegeum
<*noigio
neik
neitom
2b3.naska
<nedhsk
nioro,
Niere
3a3.-nyra
3a3.-n
'nn'
6.6.-na
6.3.nter ,
notre
nhus
'congener'
naddhs
'connexus'
nhyati;
nhus
'ucnus,
congener'
naddhs
'connexus'
5.3.naska'collecti
textuum'
nhyati
k uv-nzo 'confodi'; 'stips'

znot;
no
'hasta' <*nghsu-?
'culter'
ness
<neg^hs-;
'uulnus'
nei
neid
nascim `
nbhas- nebo, -ese

'nebula'
'caelum'
5.3.6.3.nabahdebesis
'caelum'
5.5.-nepii
'caelum'
(nebisas)
5.6.-nem
'dor'
<*d-ik
nazza,
nezzila
3a2.netele,
nettle
nessimas nessam 2b1.-nesaf

1b1.'proximus'
2b2.nesimei
nessa
'proxime'
2b3.-nesa
nessimas nascim 2b1.-nes, nesten; nati 'rte'
1b1.<ndsk-; nessaf 'id' nezzi,,
nesimei arnenas 2b2.-nes Netz 'id';
'proxime' 'nectam'; 'propior'
nestiln
naidm
2b3.-nes, 'lemnisct
'nexus'; nessaf 'id';
us'
nessa,
nasca
3a2.-net
nessam
'apt'
'id'
'propior,
proximus'
negh
neghrn
nebul
'nebula'
3a2.-nifol
'id'
nei 'nn'
5.3.-na- ni 'neque'
i 'et
ni-kto
nullus'
'nullus'
n nkti,
nnjmi
nihhus
'monstrum
aquaticum'
neizzen ga-naitjan nndati
6.3.
'torment' naiteins 'offensi' 5.3.-nad- nedeti
3a2.'sacrilegiu
(nism) 'contemn'
ntan 'id'
m'
5.4.6.4.-nst
anicanem 'id'; nadus
'maledic' 'odium'
cruth2b1.6.3.-niek
necht
nithio;
ti
'rber
gwenith
6.4.-niekat
frmen' 2b3.-niza;
(cf. 2b1,
gwiniz
b3)
nth <ntu- 2b1.-nwyd

Neid
nei
nigim
'lau'
641

'pugna'
'passi'
neiws
nkmi
nekopns necopnus
neks
nex,
nequlia,
nec,
noce,
pernicis,
noxa
nmtom
nem
nummus ?
nemos
nemus
nemots
nepts
neps
neptis
neptis
neqe
neque,
nec
neqid
nec
quidquam
neqis
neqom
neqos
642
'inuidia'
'inuidia'
3a2.-n
3a2.*naiw '
neowol,
'
nol,
'prnus'
(cf. lat.
procul)
'uallis'
nva
<*niw
'depressi'
6.3.-nivoti
'torment'
6.4.-ni vt
'humili'
c (ca)
2b1.na (y)ati
'cadauer'; 'perditur' ;
<*kus angheu/an
2a3.-ag
gau
nas2b2.'infortniu
ankow
m'
2b3.5.3.ankou
nasyeiti
<*kewes
'uanescit'
nemed
nemhton nemida
namas
2b1.-nant
'honrti'
'id'
5.3.nemata
'gigs'
nem, neim
3a1, 3a2.- niman
6.3.
'dnum'
niman 'id';
'em' 'consider'
nmas
nehmen <*n+em? ;
'domus'
(a1)
cf. 6.4..6.4.-nams
'lex',
3a3.-nma nemt/jemt
'id';
'id'
numa
'leglis'
<*n+em?
'graumen'
nemed nemhton
3a2.nmas
'sancturiu 'santuariu nimidas
'inclinti,
m'
m'; nanto 'sacra
reuerentia'
'ualle'
silvrum'
; nmati
2b1.-nant
'inclintur'
'id'
5.3.nmaiti 'id'
nma
2b1, 2b2,
nma
5.3.ALB.'ulcisctio nemanh
(nmat) 2b3.-nam 'rapti'
name
'damnum'
'scelus' 'maledicti'
niae
2b1.-nai nefo, nevo
npt6.3.(Hom)
(niath)
2b2.-noi 3a2.-nefa
nepotis
'suboles'
2b3.-ni pl.
nied
necht
Neptacus
nit
napt
(Hom)
2b1.-nith
'suboles'
2b2.-noit
2b3.nith/niz
2b1.-na(c)
nih
naca
ALB.-nuk
2b2-b3.'nn'
na(g)
(ni)
na(ka /cid)
hvashun
cit
'nem'
5.5.ULkuisk/ku
idki
nech
(neich)
nepon
(nepi)
6.3.-

neros
nerisus,
er
nrteros
2b1.-neb
nerum ner 'ursus'; Esu-nertus Nerthus
'uirum,
so-nirt
;
proc.'
'snus,
ner; hy1b2.-nerf
fors'
nerth
'proceres,
'fortis'
princ';
nertrak 'a
sinistr'
1b2.-nertru
'sinistr'
nordrni,
nrdlich
3a2.norerra
'+sep.'
nertos
nert 'uis'
nesros
nr
eu
ne, an,
inu
ohne
3a2.-no
Nuado
donti, nuzzen,
niutan
(Nuadat)
denti ntzen 'd' 'atting';
'pisctor' 'pisctr'
3a2.nuta
2b1.-Nudd nyttian 'pisctor' ;
'id'
'fruor'
un-nuts
'inutilits'
neud
neukos
nuscitisu
s,
luscnus
new(ij)os
nouus
newj
nou
new
nwos
new
Nertobriga
2b1-2b2.nerth
2b3.-nerz
nouem
nu, nut,
nmen
nekurs
nr(a)nrav
'hom' (n) 'hom' 'ms'
snra- 6.3.-nras
'iuuenis' 'uolunts';
5.3.-nar(a) norti
5.4.-air
'uelle'
(arn)
nraka

'infera, 'cauits' ;
'inferus'
hads'
,
TOK B.-
or 'sub' '
'
6.3.-neri,
nrti 'cad'
n t6.9.'heros'
nertien
'ra'
5.5.nahsaras
'reverens'
'necesitts'
6.3.-naud
'prouectus'
, naudoti
'tor'
6.4.nu^da
'pecunia'
6.3.-niukti
'nebulr'
6.4.apnaukties
'id'
nvanov,
5.3.-nava-
5.5.-nwas 6.3.-na jas
6.9.-nauns
nae, noe, Neuiodunu niuwi <*- niujis <*nue, nuie

m
yoyo2b1.- 3a2.-newe
newydd
<*-yo2b2.nowyth
2b3.nouuid
niuwn, ana-niujan
5.5.niwn
newahhum
3a2.'nouu'
niwian
ni
2b1.-2b2.- 3a2.-nigun
niun
F
nva
devet (nt
naw
<ww
5.4.-inn
a XC)
2b3.-nao 3a3.-niio
6.3.-devyn
6.4.-devii
nid
2b1.nvat,
ponryj
'ntum
adnau
nuti
(*neu-ro-)
'reuertitur'; 'inclintus'
facit'; ate-
643

no 'fid';
aithne
'depositum
'
newotts
gnts
nudti
nouits
igntus
arneut-sa,
inneut-sa
'exspect'
<nsed;
arneigdet
'rogant'
2a0.-netta,
niott(a)
2a1.-n,
na, niath
/oth,
niad/od,
niath
<*neits/*nij
ots 'hrs'
nijm
nitj
nite
<*nits;
nitor -ris;
rende
<*neiid(h)os
(cf. ridus
arde)
jousjom
joustos
kj
644
'iuu'
an
'desponde
' 3a2,
3a3.-ann
'id', praet.
3a2.-e
3a2.-nihol
(cf. lat.
procul)
ndus
ajnta-
nyati,
<*niHHeH2 netum
'uictoria'; 5.3.-nayeiti
5.5.
'uinc' ni/neya
nqos
nteros
nitjos
TOK B.akntsa
'amens'
ni, nitarm
niz
5.3.-n,
nitnam
'uallis'
5.4.-ni
nidar
3a2.-nithar
3a3.-nidhr
niktis
nnmi
nisdos
6.3.nirkyti
'dprim'
net
2b1.-nyth
nest
2a3.-nead
2b2.3a2.-nest
neid/neith
2b3.-neiz
nab 'uis 2b1.-nwyd 3a2.-n,
uitlis'
'passi'
nth
<neibhos
<neito 'disputti'
?;
3a3.-n
nob
'irrsus'
'sanctus';
nam<nei
m
'splendor,
pulchritd
'
Nitiobroges
cen
2b1.'necessits anghen/an
'
gen
2b2-3.anken
nei
'invidia'
3a2.nijis
nias 'familiris'
'homines'
3a3.-nir
'fam.'
ntha'protector,
protecti';
nthate
'rogat'
nc 'retr' nic,
nyacni ati
'subt'
'pronum
esse'
n 6.3.-lzdas
'residentia'
5.4.-nist
nla 'ter
caeruleus';
nayana,
netra
'oculus'
5.6.-naiba
'pulcher,
bonus'
ntya-
5.5.'necessits hienkan
'
'mors'

kneumi
mrtijos
immortlis
n tos
nkskai
'ang'
2b1.-diginah,
ganah, a n ti,
6.3.anc
genug ganahan 'talris'; n ati, pf. prankti
'effugi' 'satis'; nah 'sufficit' ; 'continuus'; nm a, 'praetere'

rank,
? 'prop'
ganhs n a 6.4.-nku,
cyfranc
3a2.'satis' ; 'amplore <*h2eh2no( nki, nkt,
<*kom-ro- geneah
nhv ?
n)ke
praet.
hastae'
anko- 'id'
'satis' ;
'prope'
5.3.nca
nh, nah,
anaoiti
'ueni'
'cuspide
nigh ? 'id'
5.4.actus'
(ge)ngan
hasanem,
?
praet. hasi
'appropinq
u'
3a3.(g)ngr 'id'
a-m ta
nanto
nmati TOK A, B.'uallis'
'inclintur',
nm2b1.-nant
nat'plic'
'uallis'
'plictum'
2b2.-nans
5.3.'id'
nmaiti 'id'
ro-icc
Selvaginah,
ganah,
n ati,
6.3.'attingit';
nectes genug 'id' ganahan
nk ati
nksta,
sub. -ss 'Proprietr 3a2.'sufficit'
'assequitur nkia,
<*nkse/oi'
geneah 'id' ganhs
' , aor.
nokti
; pf. -naic 2b1.-di3a3.'satis'
na ;
'mtr'
do-icc
anc
(g)ngr 'id'
5.3.-'uenit'
'effugi'
nasaiti
pr. du-uicc
rank,
5.5.-ni-ik-zi
<*onkist
cyfranc
(nikzi)
con-icc <*kom-ro'erigitur'
'inuenit' anko- 'id'
con-icc'potest'
comracc
'conti'
nocht 2b1.noid/n nackt

naqas
nagn<Hes
oeth
3a2manal 5.5.-neku2b2.-noyth nacod,
2b3.-noaz naked
manza
(*o > u
3a3.propter
nkkvir,
Cowgill's
nakuer
legem)
ro-icc
'attingit';
sub. -ss
<*nkse/o; pf. naic
do-icc
'uenit'
pr. du-uicc
<*onkist
con-icc
'inuenit'
con-icc'potest'
comracc
'conti'
nanci;
nanciscor,
na(n)ctus
sum;
nanctor
'nactus
erit' (LXIIT)
nocj
ncodos
ndus
ndos
ndus
noibhos
naidm
'nexus'
noib
ninos
nullus
nokej
noce,
nex,
nequlia,
pernicis
c 'mors'
num
no- (part
nom
nti 'rte'
3a1, 3a2.nn
2b1.angeu 'id'
2b2.ancow 'id'
2b3.negein
'nec'
5.6.-naiba
'pulcher,
bonus'
na yati,
na ati 'id';
'cadauer';
nasu

'cadauer'
5.3.nasyeiti
'pere'
5.5.-na
645

uacua)
nom n
nm
nmen
nmnj
nomin
nom
numerus
noqterins nocturnus
noqtis
nox
(noctis)
nosej
nun
probhwos
qijts
inquitus
sers
noster
sis
ensis
sloimis
sme
646
ainm n<*m /
*men
'tunc'
2b1.-anu
pl enuein
2b2.hanow
2b3.-hano
namo,
Name
3a2.nama,
name
namo
nm
im
5.4.-anun <*m/*
5.5.men
laman6.9.emnes,
emmens
namnan, namnjan
nennen <*nomnjo/ <*H3nH3m
j
3a2.-nefna
e
ns
2b1.-naws
5.5.nuoma
<*nomso-? 'gntis'?
lammar 'usufrucus,
'consuetd 2b3.-neuz
'mensura beneficium
'
? 'id'
quaedam
'
temporis'
in-nocht
2b1.naht,
nahts
nkti-s
not,
'hac nocte' henoeth

nacht
5.5.-nekuz
(*o > u
2b2.-nos 3a2.-naht,
propter 'nocturnus' 6.3.-nakts
2b3.-noz
night
Cowgill's , nekuzzi
3a3.-natt,
legem) 'uesperasc
nott
it'
gi-nesan, ganisan
nsat
TOK -A
'reuertor' 'concilitur' na ugenesen
'saluus
'sn';
fier'
satyau 'amcus'
'reuersi'
nerren,
nasjan
'Iuutres'
nhren
'salu'
'al, cr' ga-nists 'templum'
3a2.'snti'
nerian
'secrus'
'pteg'
genesan
'superuu'
;
nne,
2b1.nt, ot
naus
ToA.-nut-, no da
naunae
newyn 3a2.-nad, <*noutiToB naut- 'necessits
<*nwenjo- 2b2.-nown ned, need 'necessits
'pere'
' nav
2b3.';
'cadauer'
naoun
naus
<*nwis
'cadauer',
6.3.-nvyti
nawis
'mact';
<*nowis
nwe
'mortuus'
'ltum'
5.3.-ata'tristis'
2b3.-hon
unser
unsar
3a2.-our
syati
<*H2nsr
'iacit'
/H2nsor
astram
'missle'
PAL.haran
'sca'
uns
uns
asmn
<*uswe <*uswe 4.2. 5.3.ahma

3a2.-us
4.3.- 5.5.-anz

swodhros
n
numki
nunc
<numke;
num;
etiamnum;
n-per; nudis
nunc
widis
obhi
brusj
ochis
ainb
(ainfed);
nodiu
<*newidw
s 'infans'
ob- (cf.
epi), ob
portum
(XIIT)
obrussa
<gr.
anguis
odugjai
odj
odor,
odefaci,
ol(e)faci,
ole
odhrom
odj (da) di, odium
djom
ods
oghlej
oghlos
ogmos
oidj
3a1.-a2, nu (n?);
a3.-n
nah
3a1.-nn; 'adhuc'
noch
*nu-kwe
'adhuc'
aemidus
n, n,
nnm;
ntana
5.3.-n(m),
nram
5.5.-kinun
<* 5.5.-kinun
kymeron
unwizzi <*- unwits;
Hom.
avidy
diounwiti
5.5.-awiti
'ignorantia' <*-dio- <*newids;
'le'
3a2.- 'ignorantia' 'Hads'

unwita
bi 'ad,
abhi 'ad'
circum'
5.4.-abiy
(cf. ambh)
nyne; n
'sed'
6.3.-n,
nna
6.4.-nu
ob, b
'circum'
huprushi
'turrium'
esc-ung 2b1.-euod
hi-s
u (u )
'serpens'
'anguila' 'uormes'
'serpens' 6.3.-angs
'uipera' 5.3.-azish 6.6.-w

2b3.rogedou
5.4.-auz,
'orgiis'
awj
atochta
5.5.'malum' 'furere' hatugatar
(Crim)
'terror'
ALB.-am
3a3.6.3.
os<dso
'odor'
od iu,
'odor'
osti
'odor'
6.4.-uo u,
uost
etar
ostrimon
odr
'marg,
'stabulum, 'lectus'
uallum'
claustrum' odrina
3a2.-supti'stabulum'
'uallum'
5.4.-ateam
3a2.-atol
'drus'
<*H3d
3a3.-atall
-hatuka
'id'
'drus'
3a2.eglian, ail
jma'metus'
eiz 'tumor'
indra- edro, jadro
'robustus': 'sinus;
Indra 'deus ulum,
'tumidipedi pluuiae';
nuis';
s'
indu ? jad 'virus'
'gutta'
<oidos,
5.4.jedro
aitnum<oid 'celer,
numi;
robustus';
aitumn
jadro
'tumor'; ait 'nucleus,
'maxilla'
testic.'
647
oighai
oimos
inoikos
oinos
nicus
nus,
oinos
einac
3a2.-nga
3a3.-einga
in, oen
2b1-2b2.un
2b3.-unan
ains
oisj
3a2, a3.-r
<*air
propter
FI air
tor; oisi ttiuf<*<*oitsi ins 'sus'
(Duenos)
oitos
oiwos
oeth
ua
2b1.eid, Eid
'periuria' 3a2.-a,
anutonou/
anudon 3a3.-eir
iva-, o ivo- 2b1- iwa, we,

ywen
Eibe; go
2b2.-hivin 3a2.-w; h,
2b3.-ivin
oh
3a3.-yr
okj
kt
kins
okris
oktu
648
ahta
'attenti';
achten
'consider'
3a2.-eaht
'existimti
'
occa
ocris,
1b2.-ukar,
mediocris
ocar
oct
nam
'eum'
in 'nus,
alius'
oinow sts niuersus,

arc.
oinuors(ei)
(BACC)
oisos
oitmi
ainaha
6.8. jditi
'uexre'
6.3.aindinti
'excit'
5.5.-egdu, 6.3.-eig
'uestigium'igdu- 'crus' 'cursus'

<*eigh
ma
6.3.- eisme
inok
2b1.ocet/aged
2b3.-oged
ochair
ocht
egida
cf.
6.9.ainawrst
'semel,
pariter
cum'
5.5.-hissaoje
'tm
6.3.currs'
elekstis,
ena
'talis' esa-h 'iste'
Luw.<*H3eits- hizza(i)
'feram' <*H3eits
ais
5.5.-hai
'cred'
'confid,
cred'
'uoue'
eta 'uarius,
iva
rber,
6.3.-iev
uulps'
6.4.-i va
5.4.aigi<iwiy
'unum'
5.5.e(y)a(n)- ?
aha
'sensus, 'dubium';
intell.';
'dubit'
ahjan
'arbitror';
ahma
'spiritus';
ahaks
'columba'
2b1.-ochr
2b1.-wyth aht, acht
2b2.-eath 3a2.eahta,
2b3.-eiz
eight
ahtau
a ra , a u osm
5.3.-ata
6.3.5.4.-ut`,
atuoni

3a3.-tta
oktowos
kpteros
ks
olej
olj
cior
'uelocior';
accipiter,
acipedius,
aquila <H
Hi3kuH2wi-l;
adole,
adolesc,
altre
abole
2b1.-dioc
'piger'
2b2.-dioc
'piger'
2b3.-'diek'
lentus'
alad ?
'uaritus' >
2a2.-aladh
'tructa'
1b2.-ondu,
holtu
'prosternito
'
olgj
lim
oljoi olji
olja
olmos
ln
lteros
lt os
oltrd
olw
uth
cuptvan ,
iastreb;
suff. lat.
columba,
palumbs,
gr.
octuus
accipiter
ulmus
ulna
uls; ultr, ltiumam

ultra;
'ultimam'
ulterius; 1b2.-ulo,
ultimus,
ulu 'ill,
olle; oll;
illuc'
ollc, lim
ulua, alga
3a3.-ala
'ardre'
aljan ?
'auidus'
(cf. alacer
?)
5.3.-su-
altam
'carb'
5.5.<* hallanna-,
'dele'; hallanniya
'calc,
<*H3elH1u pavi'
'fnestus'
5.5.loza
alkista(n)- 'pampinus'
'rmus'

'ann
praeterit'
(arc.)
uile
2b1.al(l) 'id' pl. alls 'omnis'
5.4.-olj
(h)oll<*(s)o
alle
<*ol-nolno3a2.-eal(l)
2b2, 2b3.'id'
holl
lem
Limo-, elmboum ,
lim <
LemoUlme
germ.
3a2.-elm
uile (uilen), 2b1.-elin

elina
aleina
ratnilanita
(dat. pl.
'ulna'
3a2.5.3.<*olnita
uilneib) 2b2.-elin eln(boga)

arna,
'maxilla'
<*eH3l<*oln<*oln
<*olen
lakt,
frrni2b3.-ilin 3a3.-alen
5.4.-uln
lkot
(Hes)
<*olno6.3.<*H3l- <ln
5.5.-haliya alkne,
'genufl.'
olektis
oll 'amplus'
all 'omnis' alls 'omnis'
par-ri
lani
ind-oll
3a2.-eall ala-mans
'terti 'ann/aest
'ultra'
'omnis' 'german'
praeterit
ate
old- 'quam'
3a3.-alann' (cf. praeterits'
oll-athair
for
olitana,
'Dagdae'
'Wodan'
olitinata)
3a3.-ulka
rj a-h 6.3.-lksna
'ronna,
'lubricus, <*olgsn ?
situs'
adhaesuu 'lma'
649

omos
emis
(emsig)
'strnuus'
3a3.-ama
'pestis'
ms
om
2b1.-of 'id';
'crdus';
efydd
3a3.-ma
um(a)e
'aes'
'erysipelas'
'rudus'
omsos
(h)umerus 1b2.-onse
onbhlos
umbilicus
Umbr ?
ams
imlecan
naba,
nabalo
inga, ingen 2b1.nagal,
<*ghwn eguin/ewin Nagel
2a3.-ionga 2b2.-euuin 3a2.-ngl,
2b3.-iuin
nail
3a3l.-nagl
onchis
unguis
onc
unguen 1b2.-umen imb (imbe) 2b1.'berri

ymenyn
unguen'
2b2.amen-en
2b3.aman(n)
ungu 1b2.-umtu
'unguito'
onc
nakhah,
noguti
nakhm
6.3.-ngas
(*o > u
propter <*naghuk
m?
Cowgill's
5.5.legem)
sanku(wa)i
jyam
6.9.'grassa
anctan,
sacrifici'
ancte
'butyrum'
ancho
'butyr
unguen'
oncl
ondos
ond, onn
(uinde)
on
anamou,
'uerecundi anaf 'id'
a'; anim 2b3.-anaff
'mendum' 'mendum'
onj
ungula
nagal,
Nagel
andar
3a2.-other
3a3.annarr
onjos
onkj
650
unc, -re
ong 'uf''
2b1.-och
Unke
anakti
5.4.aucanem
gra- gl,
5.4.-acul, <*onglis
acowl 6.3.-angls
5.6.-angit
dri-
5.3.
nadnt
'uituperns
'
5.5.hanna'iudic'
5.4.-anurj
ALB.
<*H3nrio- a^derre
nghrih
nerjos
onghlos
s'
mah
'tormentu 'uiolentus'
mti
m'
F 'confirmat'
myati
'nocet'
5.3.-ama'potentia'
amyan
'damnum'
m'crdus' 'crdus'
5.4.-hum
'crud(lis)'
msah
5.4.-us,
ows
5.5.anassa
'dorsum' ?
nbhih 6.4.-naba
anthar
anya-;
6.3.ntara- at(a)ras
5.3.-anya-, 6.5.-wutory
ainya6.7.-ter
5.6.-aniya
ja u, ja ati

ennach
'coru.'
onkos
onos
'gemitus'
'rna'
'suspir'
onus
(oneris)
nteros
ander3a2.-er
pitjos
aften
aftaro,
3a2.aftuma,
ftan,
aftumists
after
3a3-aptan
opj
opn
pop
opos
upupa
wituhopfo,
Wiedeh.
3a2.widohoppa
uoben
'exerce';
3a2.-efnan
'faci';
3a3.-efna
'faci'
opus, upsannam somme ?

oper, 'operanda Opulentus;
ops,
m';
domme
omnis<*op upsatuh 'pauper'
-nis;
sent 'fact <dus-opofficium<*
sunt';
smyo-);
opdhkyo upsed
m
'fcit',
upsens
'fcrunt';
2b2.-osatu
'facit'
enech
'uultus'
2b3.-enep
'id'
za-(j)ap
'suppositu
s';
ne-vzapn
'necopnus'
pnas
'alimentum
5.3.';
afnahvant
'diues'
5.5.happinatt
'opulentus'
6.4.puppukis
6.6.-hupek
apas
'alimentum 5.3.-pas
'
5.5.happar
'transacti'

oculus
SO B.wutory
6.3.ataras
5.5.
'postea' appizzi(ya)
praedotion ufteis
t -t<p'optt';
(Festos) 1b2.-upetu
'praeoptan optt',
t';
opeter
opnor,
lct'
opti,
opt;
necopnus
opulentus
<*opunent
us?
opos esti
ops
oq
oqos
anar
nah
'tormentu
5.5.m'
an(n)iya
'effici'
ntara-,
(du.)
(ac.
Sing.)
'uultus'
ksate
6.6.'aspicit'
obaczy
ksi
oko
(aksnh), (ocese),
ks;
ochi
nkam,
6.3.-ak
prtkam
'uultus'
5.3.-ai
(du.)
5.4.-akn
(akan), pl.
651

r
ra; rea?
or?
rj
urust
'ruerit'
orbhis
orbis,
orbita
1b2.-urfeta
'orbita'
orbhjom
orbhos
ordhos
orgj
orghis
orbus
orpe,
Orbius, arbi, erbi,
orb(b)e, orbaniacus Erbe
orbae; 2b1.-Urb- 3a2.-ierfe
com-arbus gen/urien
'id'
'heredits'
comOrbogeno Arbeit
arpe/arbae
s
'labr'
'hrs' ;
2b1.3a3.-arfi,
erbaid
Urbagen,
arfa
'committit' Urbgen,
Urien
ord
2b1.-2b2.ord
2b3.-horz
orcaid
orge
>oirggid
'occide'
'necat'; Orgetorx;
orcun
2b1.-orn
<*orgen;
'nex
orn 'nex';
2b3.orgiat
treorgam
'caesar'
'for'
3a3.-argr
'molltus'
arms
3a2.-earm
'miser'
ormos
ors
652
arbha
arbja
<*orbhjo'paulus'
'hrdits';
5.4.-orb
arbeis
(orboy)
<*orbho5.5.-harp
itis 'labr'
'permt'
5.4.-urn
<*rdh
'testiculus'
<H3orghi-
uirgge,
uirge
'testiculus'
(*orghi)
orghs
oros
arbja;
RUNarija
'exsequiae'
a -k`
re, rt 6.3.-ras
F
'procul' 'aer'; i ro
Hom.
5.5-arha
'extra'
'terminus';
(asp.
explicanda arahziya/z
ena(nt)
*ser
'foraneus'
commixt);
?
5.5.-ariya'orculum
consultr'
5.5.-harp tok A, B

'permt'
yerpe
(Hsq).
CELTIB.eniorosei
'tripudi'
TOK A.5.4.arkmn-, B
harkanem
erkau
'tund, 'necropolis'
frang'
5.5.hark(iya)
'pere',
caus.
harkanu,
harnink
5.3.-rzi 6.3.-ar s
'oua,
'lascuus',
scrotum'
er ilas
()
'mas'
5.4.-orji-k
'oua'
5.5.-arkiorj 'mas' 6.3.-ar s
'ardens'
5.4.-olormim
'misereor'
5.5.arma(n),
irma(n)
'morbum'
'mons'
rab
'seruus'
r v5.5.-aru;
harsi
s (ris),
cram,
aurga,
reae,
sculum
osbhos
osdos
osn
odb
2b1.-oddf
ast
3a2.-st
anna
orna ?
<*esorny
'hordeum'
ar(e)m,
asans
Ernte
'segs,
3a2.-asna aests';
'salrius'; asneis
earn
'operrius'
asc
3a2.-sc
ornus
huinnius 2b1-2b2.2a3.onn-en
fuinnseog 2b3.-ounnen
asna,
2b1.easna, assen 'id'
esna 2b2.-asow;
<*astonyo- esel 'id'
'costa'; 2b3.-ezel
asil
'id'
'membrum'
oskos
sonos
ostis
os (ossis),
ossum,
ossua
smi
stium
stjom
stium
uafer?,
au[c]tumn
us ?
ar; cht
'frigor'
(<ougtu-)
ousis
auris <*H3
Hw3s-
au, (aue)
w(ij)om
uum
6.3.sta(s)
'bucca
flminis'
5.4.-ost
5.5.hasdur
5.4.-ashun jesen,
<*op5.5.-zena, sen
hr;
zenant ? 'autumnus'
6.9.assanis
5.4.-hac'i ALB.-ah
'hasta';
'fagus'
6.3.-osis
6.4.-uo^sis
oud
ougros
asts
'pinguis
pnis';
harsar
'caput'
s- (ss)
5.3.-h5.5.-ais
(issas
<*i +
HHwsos)
oer
Su-ausia
og
2b1.ei
(pl.ugai) wy<wiyo 3a3.-egg
2a3.-ubh m 2b2.-
sthi
(asthnh)
5.3.-ast5.4.oskr<*osth
wer ?
5.5.hasti
5.5.has(s), haas-zi
sthah
usta
'labrum'
'bucca'
5.3.ustina
aost(r)a
'labium'
'labra'
5.4.-getin
5.5.-utne,
udne
oman
6.3.-uti
'frigor'
frigsc'
(<oumn) (*augsketi
5.3.-aota;
?);
aodar 6.4.-a ksts
'frigor'
'frigidus'
aus
5.3.uxo
w
(ausins) <*H3oH 3s ui<H3H3w (uese)
-,
s 2 5.4.- 6.3.-auss
<*H3eHw3s
unkn
-,
<*usonko
(Hom.) m 5.5.ehur
<*HeHw
5.3.-apajce
vaya-?
'castrtus'
653

(uibhe)
owj
owis
ou, -re
ouis
1b1.-uuef,
oui
pgts
pgrs
pactus
pignus oris
pra
pros
pstrom
ptj
ptr
pter
ptjai
ptrj
ptrjos
ptrujs
pwj
654
oi
uy/oy
2b3.-ui pl.
Uiou
2b1.- ewig ouwi, ou
2b2.-euhic
3a2.'cerua'
owu,
owe,
ewe;
owestre
'id'
5.4.-ju
<*(y)yo-
awei
'grex';
awistr
'oule'
vi-, avika- ovinu

, avik
'aries'
5.4.-hoviw ovca
'pastr'
'capra'
5.5.-hawi- 6.3.-avis
LYC.-xaw
pajr'solidus'
3a1, 3a2.fara
pur
fora 'antea' 'antea'
'antea'
2b1.-para
'antea'
arsaid,
Frist
pur ;
'pridem';
arsid
'terminus'
pura
'vetus'
3a2-first
'uetus' sthita'primus'
'praestans'
; 'purgav- 'dux'
5.3.-par
passer
pttra- 'et
la'
pate,
pat[t?]
2a4.- 2b1.-etem, fuodar,
faa
5.3.6.3.-pet s
pand,
patet', aitheamh edau 'id'
Fuder
'uallum' paana 'umerus'
'amplus'
patera patensns
'fnis'
'onus'
'patera'
`panderent
3a2.5.5.'
fm,
pattar, dat.
fathom
paddani
'fnis';
'tabula (?)'
for
'onus'
pater
pater, dat.
athir
Ateronius
fater
fadar
5.1, 53.paterei
3a2.-fder
pitr1b2.3a3.-fair
5.4.-hair,
iupater
hayr
patera
5.5.(Lyc.)
GIpattar
patior
patria
aithre
'paternits'
patrius,
aithre
fetiro,
pit vya
patruus;
fatirro,
5.3.-.
proprius<p
fatureo,
tiryaropatrius
Vetter
patruus
fetiro,
pt vya<*ptrus; 5.3.-tirya
fatirro,
fatureo,
5.4.'uitricus'
Vetter
yauray
3a2.'uitricus'
fdera

paue,
urfrian
pjuju,
paui,
'concund'
pjuti
put,
3a2.'sec';
depuuere,
fyran 'id'
pjklas
pudet
'secr.'
6.4.-p a t
'met'

pdhlom
pbulum
pagos
pagus
pags
plj
palatium
plej
palea
fah, Fach
'dominium'
3a2.-fc
'interuallu
m'
LUS.trebopala
'protector
pag'
(Cabeo
das
fraguas)
plowos
palpj
palpo(r),
palpit,
palpebrae
fuolen,
fehlen
3a2.flan, feel
3a3.fimbul-,
'pipula
metall'
pmponos
pandos
panknos
pank
pandus,
pand -
playati
palvah
'liuidus'
'agit'
parusa
'turb'
bimba'puer'
pnus,
pncum,
pantex
pannus
ppeljos
ppili nis
vvalter,
(Fei)falter
3a2.ffoldara
papl
papula,
papilla
buoben
'tetae'
3a2.pappe,
pap 'id'
pareik
an-art ?
'pannus
ln'
a(i)rech
prj
Parcae
(=uenefica
e)
pre
park
parc
airc
fano,
Fahne
3a2.-fana
pleva
6.3.-pelai
bubulja
'gutta'
6.3.bamba
'umbilicus'
pampa ,
pampti
'tumesc'
3a3.fattr<fanta
pannos
5.3.-pqravant'protector'
fana
'textus'
'tex'
po iti se
'inflri'
pogvica
`globulus'
*pepelk
,
*popelk
6.3.papelu k
pippala 6.3.-papas
'ficus'
'papilla'
pipluh
'macula
corporis'
5.3.pairik
5.6.-park

(Hes.)
655

'angustia';
aircur
'pressi'
pars
pasknis
psk
parra
pasc,
pbulum
<pdhlom,
pnis
psmi
pre
pss
pricida <
pso-kaida
pastos
pstus
pau
paukos
paulos
pw
pedjs
pedlom
pedom
pegtos
656
1b2.parfam,
parfa
`parram'
2b2.frau<spr
2b3.-frao
sperk,
sperch,
Sperling
3a3spearwa,
sparrow
sparwa
ain-chess
2b1.fuotar,Futt
'pnis pawr<pro er;fuoten
corbis'; 'pbulum';
3a2.s(a)id pori 2b3.- for;
'crscit'
peuriff
fdan
'pasc' 3a3.- fr;
fa,
fdjan
5.4.TOK.-A
hauran<p ps-, B
psk'ed et -tro 'grex'
UV pad- 'proteg'
bib';
du *peH2
'sine cib'
pastus
paulus
<spar- ?
ALB.- 5.4.-hayim
pash 'ud 'uide'
5.5.-pahs'proteg'
fest
3a2.- fst
3a3.-fastr
paucus,
paul(l)us,
paruus
'sturnus'
fao, f;
3a2.-fa,
few
3a3.-fr
fawai
pas ,
pasti
'psc'
pastya
'residentia'
5.4.-hast
'fixus'
pastva
<*two'grex'
pastvina
'pastus'
'pullus'
folo,
fula,
5.4.-ul A B.-pel,
ful(n),
'pullus'
'capra' pl <pl
Fllen
<pulos;
'equa'
3a2.-fola
am-ul
'id' <pulyo'sterilis'
aasa
r .i. tiene
ur
fiur, Feuer, fn *pun
5.4.-hur 6.7.-pyr(i)
purasia 'in O'Clery (Botorrita

funko,
(funins) u longa) (hroy); hn- 'fauilla'
r
Glossar.
A 10)
Funke
oc 'furnus' TOK.-A
igniri'
Hapax; 2b1.-ur-ael 'scintella'
(*pn-)
por,
1b2.-pir, Abrm de 'asbestnu 3a2.-fr,
5.5.puwr,
ac.
r na
m' <air.?
fire
pahhuwar,
pwr
purome
Caldae
3a3.-furr,
dt.
fyrr
pahhu(e)ni
peius
3a2.-bad
5.6.-bad
patalla
'soccus'
peda
perum
ed
3a3.-toft
pad
6.3.-pd
'solum';
(Festus)
'solum' 'spatium';
'pauimentu
'locus,
'passus';
'uestigium'
ined<*enip
m'
'pauim.' uestigium, pdas
; oppidum
edopassus'
'solea'
'locus'
5.4.-het
'uestigium'
5.5.-peda'locus'
pectus
ucht
pk a
pach(a)

<*pogtus
(ochta)
dat. pl.
ochtaib
peid
peig
piget,
piger
peik
pca
peik
ping<*pin
g / pinkn
?
peikos
peiks
feizzit, fett
(part.p.)
3a2.fted, fat
feihhan
'maleficent
ia'; fhida,
Fehde
'inimicit.'
3a2.-fcen
'falsi'; fah,
foe
'inimicus'
3a3.-feikn
'runa'
speh(t),
Specht
feeh
filufaihs
3a2.-fh
'uarius'
'uarius'
peico
'pcum'
pix
peimis
im
peitus
ptuta,
pnus
<peitsnos
pj
paene,
pne;
paenitet;
pnria;
patior (a
partic.
ptos);
paeminsu
s,
pminsus
th
'sebum';
iath
'pratum'
v(g), vhe
? 'pals'
fimmelen,fi
mmeren
3a2.fimble,
fumble
'palp'
3a3.-fimr;
or-fimi
'uerbrum
eloquentia'
(fons)
'uarius'
'umerus, 'axilla, ing.'

la';
6.3.-paksis
pk as
'angulus
'latus'
domii'
ptva
6.4.- psa,
'ueruex'
pse
'arbusttu
m'
p una'maleficus';
pi c'daemoniu
m'
pika
pimti
pisu
'ornat',
'scrb'
pinkte
pstr
'pingit',
'uarius'
pah
6.3.'form, col.' pasinti
5.3.-pas 'fuligine
'idem' mancillre'
5.6.-ni-pith
'scrb'
pkl,
pcl
'pnus'
ptudru
'arbos
quaed'
ALB.
oishe<pits
y 'id'
fin
faian
pyati
'disse';fia 'puni'; 'damnum' 'insultat';
nt, Feind fijan 'd' 'caecus';

pyu,
'inimcus'
pyaru
fion 'd'
'caecus' 'insultans';
ppa
'malum';
pman
'aegrots
pellis'
5.3.pman 'id'
5.4.-
657

hivand
'aeger'
pek
il?
fahs
ga-fahrian
pak -man- 6.3.-poiu
'amoenus'
'caesaris' 'praepar'; 'pect'; 'cesaris' (*pki),
3a2.-fair
fagrs
5.3.poti
'uellus'
'idoneus' 'idoneus'
pana'orn'
3a3.-fr
'cilium' pe, pti
'agnus'
5.4.-asr 'dispect'
'uellus'
pektn
pekt
pect,
1b2.3a1, a2.5.6.
pecten
petenata
fehtan 'id',
pam
'pectinata
3a2.'lna'
'pecten'
m'
feohtan
<*pkten-
'plect'
peku
pecu,
1b2.fihu <*fexu
faihu 4.8.-po-ku- p u, 6.3.-pekus
pecus
pequo
'patrimoniu te-ro (c.
p us
(k!)
'pecua'
m'
gonu, doru 5.4.-asr
lat. genu) <*pokur
peld
pell;
1b2.adella
el(h)wyf
falzan
polos
'prope',
pili;
arpeltu
'uisitat;
'eam'
'colloc';
'rea'
appell - 'appellito'
adall
Filz
re
'uisitti';
3a2.-felt
'appropinq
doaidlea
'textus'
u'
'uenit'
pelk
olca 'terra
felga 't. ungifolgan
ueruact'
ueru.'
'inflexus'
>f. ouche,
3a2.-fealg,
e.huelga
fallow
pelnis
pellis,
fel, Fell
rts-fill pa a(la),
pelena
palea,
3a2.-fell,
'lepra'
plka
'tapete'
'solea'
palear
film
'textus'
palla
pel
fli, feil 'ad
plen,
'uendere';
unum'
poln
3a3.-falr
'praeda'
'unum'
'id' <plyo
6.3.-pelnas
'salr.'
pelom
palam
WestALB.phlakam pol 'solum',
falen, Ostshpall
'tabula et pole 'ager',
falen, Feld
'aperi'
fructus'
pol
'ager'
5.4.- h <*polos
3a3.-fjol
(h)
'patens,
'tabula'
'ager'
cauus'
pels
all
GALL.- felis, Fels
ps
Palas de
<pel iH2
Rei
pelu
pls,
(h)il 'mult'
filu
filu
pur6.3.-pilus
fem.
plres
3a3.-fj l<*pH1u-, 'insuper'
<*polH1uiafem. prv*<pH1uiH2
pelupoikos
filu-faihs
cf.
puru-p a
plwis
peluis
plavi
popel
'situlus
'asser';
'cinis'
lactis'; plik 'olla'
pr
'cassis';
'situlus
lactis',
pelwos
puluis
ulvos
palvah
'pollen'
(ueris);
'puluis'
'uersae
658

puls (ltis);
pollen
paeminsu
s,
pminsus
(uerbum
rs'
singulre)
pm
pmn'erupti
cutanea
quaedam'
5.3.pman'scabis'
pend
pen
cf. pend,
3a1.-3a2.- spinnan
5.4.pno, peti
pende;
spinnan <*spenwo 'labor'
hanum
'tend'
sponte
'ne'
nom
'tex'
6.3.-pin,
pnti
'plect'
penom
enach; en
anom
fenna,
fani
ILLYR.pa ka6.3.'aqua'
'paldem'
fenn ;
Pannonia.
paniabde
en-glas 2b1.-enfhti,
'amanita
'aqusum
wyn
feucht
muscaria'
lacte';
'lactsum
'dus'
6.4.-pane
icne
butyrum' 3a2.- fenn;
'fertilisans'
'salm'
fht 'id'
penos
penus,
fenea
6.3.- pen,
pents
'puls'
penti
'al';
p nas
'aliment.'
pac t
penqadk t quinqugin
coco
a
t
5.4.-yisun<
*hingisun
penqdek quindecim
finfzehan fimftahun paca
da at
5.4.-hngetasn
penqe
quinque pomperias
cic
pimpetos
fimf
fimf
paca
pet
'quincuriae
'quintus'
3a2.-ff
5.3.-paca 6.3.-penki
'
pempe- 3a3.-fimm
doula
2b1.pymp/pum
p
2b2.ppymp
2b3.-pemp
penqstis
bissi ega 2b1.-bys
fst
pest
'stria'
'digitus' 3a3.-fyst;
2b2.-bis, il-kuistir
bes
'digit
2b3.-bis,
pedis'
bizou
pakthpenqtos
quintus
*pontos
fimfto,
fimftapet
finfto
5.3.6.3.3a2.-fifto
puxa- (cf. pektas
3a3.4)
fim(m)ti
pnss
p s
,
'puluis,
'arna'
arna'
5.3.p snu'arna'
5.5.passila-
659

'glarea'
pent
peq
coqu
peqtis
cocti
peqt r
coctor
peqts
coctus
'*coctrx'
popna
'coquna'
2b1.poeth
per(i),
per(ti)
per<per/pe
per,
ri
pert<perti
perij
experior,
pertus,
comperi,
perculum
perstno
m
perkn
per s
perom
perom
'sine'
perm
peros
perum
'sine'
prperks perperm,
perperus
660
ir-, er-
eri-;
fir-, ver2b1,2,3.- 3a2.-fyrera(i)re
aren fr, Gefahr
'custodia' 'exploratr 'periculum'
es'
;
firina
'infracti'
iress, amires(s)
fair
fairina
'culpa'
pcmi
paktt
5.4.-hac 6.9.-pectis
'pnis'
<*poqtipaktr-
pot
<*pokw-to
'sudor'

pri
pre 'ante'
5.3.-pairi 6.3.-per
5.4.-pairy
5.4.-p'jor
'experimen
tum'
pakt-
5.4.amparist
'irreligios'
5.6.-parast
'sacerds'
forhana
'tructa'
Parjnya
Hercynia 3a2.-firgen farguni
silva;
'cacumen 'mons'
<*perwr 'Tempest
, siluestre'
'lims' s'; prvata
Querquern
<*prwnto
'id 5.5.peru,
peruna
'rups'
paramfern
'ulterior' 'ultimus,
'longinquu
s, procul'
optimus'
(adi, adu)
param 'et
postea,
tamen,
tantum'
TOK B
parparuwa
5.3.'plmae' parna5.5.partawar
'la'
ire<peryo
par
'ultra';
'ultra'
'procul'
'faci' 5.5.-par
'ultra,
foras'
parac
'impertinen
s'
Hercynia
forha
parkatii
earc, orc
'salm'
prknjom
perqos
2b1.-pobi
2b2.pobaz
2b3.-pobet
'coctus'
quercus
Perun
'Tonitrus'
6.3..perkinas
'id'
6.3.sparnas
'la'
6.4.sprns 'id'

perun

silva;
'picea'
Querquern 3a2.-furh,
fir
pers
perna<sn;
perns
fersana,
Ferse
3a2.fersna
persn
pers
pert
3a3.-fors,
foss
'cataracta'
pertica
perti
1b1, b2.pert 'per'
pruti
nn-urid
àb anno
priore'
pesd
ped,
pdex,
pdis
pesnis
pnis<pes
nis
peters
accipiter
ptos
pet
petsn
petilus; fr.
petit
pet
penna,
pet
vert
3a3.-fjor
'ficus
sacra'
fairsna
'talus'
'fulmen'
6.3.perknas
'tonitrus'
pr i'talus'
5.3.pna- 'id'
5.5.parina
'lumbus'
p at,
rach
pr at'puluis';
'gutta'
prst
pr ant-,
'spma'
p at
6.3.'uarius' pursla(s)
5.3.'id'; purkti
paruya 'sternu'
'aquae q.'
5.5.pappar
5.4.-ort
6.7.'propag' 'uinea'
prska
pered
par-t
5.4.-heru
2b1.firt,
ferzan<per prdat<p bzdet;
rech<prd furt<perd
d
rdeti
perdet
z
k
3a2. 5.3.-r 6.3-bezd,
feortan
aiti
bezdti;
'terribilis'
3a3.-freta
bzdas
podex' ;
prd u,
prst
6.4.-pirdu,
pirst
fasel,
psaspsti
visel
5.5.'copulre'
pesn/pisen
'uir'
eithre
fed(e)rah ,
patar-,

<*pet(e)rfedarapatruyo'uolans' ;
'cauda';
cf.pttrae(i)tte
5.4.- tìr
'plma'
5.5.'patens' pittalwa(nt)
n
2b1.-edn, fedara
ptami
6.3.-ptit
<*pet(s)no eterin 'id'

'cad'
'auet'
-, ethait
2b2.FUT.
fut.
pati yti
<*petont- (h)ethen
'auis'
2b3.-etn5.5.
coihaam
piddai'uol'
ette<pety 2b1.-edn,
, n (auis)
eterin
2b2.(h)ethen
fedara
'uol'
ptami
'cad'
5.5.-pittar
(pittanas)
6.3.-ptit
'auet'
661
petsns
peumi
put
pew
prus,
putus,
nepus
<*nept-s;
purg
bib
pib
pigj
pikrs
pilos
pms
pilus,
pla<pils
2b3.-etncoihaam
2b1.-edn,
eterin
2b2.(h)ethen
2b3.-etncoihaam
r 'uiridis'
2b1.-ir
ibim
2b1.-yfed
(v.n.)
2b2.-eve
2b3.-eva
<*petesn
s,
<*petesn
s
fowen
'cern'
<*fawjan =
ai.
pavyati
bitter
filz 'feltrum'
3a2.-felt
'id'
baitrs
opmus
(pm)prmi exprtus
(Plaut.)
pink
pinjos
pins
pperi
pipjj
witufina,
vine
'aceruum
lign'
pipt
pet
piskis
piscis
662
pins,
plum
piper
pipi, pp, pipatio
ppil,
'clamor
ppulum plorantis'
5.5.
kappuwai
'quaer,
?
cnor'
'ingnrans' TOK
putk
6.4.-plat
'arbitror' 'signif.'?
punti,

pvate
'prg';
pavtra
'cribrum'
pibati
pijo, piti
6.3.-pakas
'stultus';
pktas
'malus',
piklas
'diab.'
6.4.-pikuls
'diab.'
plst
'penniculu
'penniculu
s'
m'
'adeps'
5.5.parai/pari
'confl'
pnka pn,
'tabella'
'stirps'
pixati
'calce ici'
pisenica
'frmentu
m'
6
3.-paisyti
'trtrat
pippal
pppak 6.3.-pypti
'auis
'siffil'
'auicellus'
quaedam'
ptami
'cad'
'uol',
'uolit';
'la'
piepen
n (auis) 2b1.-edn,
gefa
eterin
'casus'
2b2.3a2.(h)ethen geftan
2b3.-etn'cas'
coihaam
asc > iasc
fisc, fisch
3a2.-fisc,
fish
pinSTi
fisks
piskr,

'gobi'

pits
piwn
plabrjai
plkej
plkos
plkos
plnos
place,
placidus,
plc ;
plancus?
placenta
<
plaga -g-
lecc?
2b1.-llech vlage,
'discus 2b3.-lec'h flach; fluoh
saxeus'
'id'
3a2.-floh;
cf. lpods
flk-fted
-g3a3.-fl
plnus
Mediolnum
3a3.-flana
'err'
2b1.-llawr
Flur
'uestibulu
m'
3a2.-floor
plrom
pltom
plts
plautos
lr
planta
plautus;
plaud
plis
plistos
pljs
plkmi
'superfici
s';
'placenta';
'mare';
'latus'
'errbundu
s'
'err'
plic
6.3.plkanas
6.4.ploku,
plakt
'pauiculor'
polonna
'altipl.'
6.3.-plnas
'tenuis'
6.4.-plns
p thh;
plete
prathimn 'umerus'
<*pletH2m 6.3.-plnas
'rs plna'
on'tenuis'
'planitd'
5.3.prqu
5.5.-palhi
6.3.'rectandulu
pla ksta
s'
'palma'
1b2.-preplotatu
'prosternit
'
'made';
'uuor'
fledirn,
flattern
'uolit'
plbs,
plbs
pls
<*ploH1is;
cf. plsima
pitus
pita
5.3.-pitu 6.3.-pi ts
pvan-, f.

pvar
lethan; leth LitanoFladen;

? 'latus,
briga
vluoder
dimidium' 2b1.-llydan 'piscis
2b2.-2b3.- plnus'
ledan
3a2.flounder,
flr; flat
pdj
pldhwis
hith
2b1-b2.-yd
(grnum)
'id'
2b3.-(e)ys
'id'
riu (renn) '
'terra'
(Ptol.)
labraid 2b1.-llafar
3a2.'loquitur'; 'serm', flappen,
rel.
llafaru
flap
labrathar; 2b2.-lauar, 'quati,
amlabar
lauaraf
garri'
'mutus' 2b3.-lavar
'id'
6.3.pelde^t
'n'
pledina^t
'ls
plaud'
la
3a3.-fleire,
fleiri
<*pleH1iso
n-
3a3.-flestr,
fleistr
altain
2b1.- 3a4.-folde'rasrium' elinn/ellyn
kniv
2b3.-altin 'nouacula
falthan
5.3.frataprasna
''plexus'
5.3.rzat
663

'ferula'
plekt
plect
(pm)plmi
plnus
plm
plns
plminre
plnus;
polle ?
pltis
pletj
com-plti
plts
(com)pltu
s
plew
pnama
664
flehtan
flahta
3a2.'fascis
fleohtan capillrum'
1b2.plener
'plns'
ln; ln 2b1.-llawn fol, foll,

'numerus, 2b2.-luen,
voll
pars'; u(i)le leun, len 3a2.-full
'omnes' 2b3.-leun
fulls
fliozan
'flu'
3a2.flotan,
fliotan
flauts ?
'glorisus'
flautjan
'superbi'
foluathar
'uolat';
loan, ln
'adeps';
ld
'impetus';
ess-comlu'proficisc';
lath 'cit';
lam
'dominus'
KONBOU flouwen,
TO/COMP flewen
LUTUM
'lou';
2b1.-llyw
floum
'dominus' 'colluuis'
2b2.-loe
3a2.'id'
.flwan
2b3.-levier 'obru'
'id'
3a3.-fla
'id'
sliss 'latus'
palma
lm
'manus'
<*plm
appell, re
adella
'uisitat';
doaidlea
<do+ad
'uenit,
accdit,
2b1.-llaw
folma
<*plm 3a2.-folm
2b2.lof/lef, luef
el(h)wyf
'eam'
fldus
'fluxus'
pleto,
plesti;
plot
'uallum'
pparti,
pryt,
prnah
prn-s,
pra5.3.-frna'implti'
5.4.-li
(liog)
prt
5.5.
paltana
'umerus'
5.4.-li
(liog)
(cont.
)
pulm
pluit, pluor,
perploure
ln
'plnus,
ln
'numerus'
im-ladi
'exagitat';
for-ladi
'uersat'
pligh
pm
o franm
'aure
armatr'
leithe
'umerus'
pleud
pleumn
retractilis'
pln
6.3.-plnas
6.4.-pilns
plete
'umerus'
ALB.-plot
6.3.pldau,
plsti
6.4.plau^st
pluta
<plouty
6.3.pla iai
kloman
'dexter
pulm'
(k...m
<p...m)
(F)
plvate plov , pluti
'nauig'
'ntat';
'nat' ;
pravate
plov
'dius';
'saltat';
'nuis'
plut 6.3.-pluju,
'lau'
'obrtus'; plviau,
pluti
pluti 'lau'
'lauti';
'alis' TOK A, B.'nauigbilis

5.3.plu'
usfravnte 'uolre'
'ascendunt
'
5.4.luanam
'lau'
plhat
'inguen' 'moutur'
pnh
4.3.5.3.
prn
5.5.-palhi'amplus'
(i schwa
sec.) 'et se
incitre';
'prope'

pnmi
ple
plg
plang
plousm
plma
ploutos
pluteus
plwij
plwijom
plows
pows
palle,
pallidus,
pallor,
pullus
ptwij
ptnos
tangit'
ln(a)im,
comalnur,
comallaim
fllen
3a3.-fill
fullnan
'ple'
p ti.
6.3.-pil,
p ti
plti
5.4.-lnum; 'fund'
heum
'effund'
<*pelnumi
fluohhon faiflkum
6.3.-plak
'maledic'; 'tutudre'
vlackern
'uolit'
3a3.flcan
'id';flaw
vls, Vlies
6.3.'lng'
pluskos
3a2.-flos,
'lng'
fleece
6.4.pluskas 'et
pannus'
3a3.-fleyr
6.3.'fastigium'
pla tas
'fustis
examinis'
6.4.-pluts
'uallus
muri'
l(a)
2b1.-llyw
3a3.-fley
'ps'; lu <- 'id et -tor'
j
2b2.-loe 'id
'gubernum et -tor'
, cauda'
TOK B.plavplov
plewe
liath
2b1.-llwyd
falo
palith
plavu
<*pleito'pallidus'
(fem.
'albus'
3a2.-fealo,
plikn) 6.3.-palvas
falu 'id'
5.4.-alikh
'cnae'
5.6.-pr
p thiv
Letha
Letauia 3a2.-fold ?
2b1.-Litau, 'stbulum'
'terra'
Llydau
5.3.'Brittania'
prdhw
lethan,
LitanoFladen
'arbr
leathan
briga
'planitis
platanacea
'amplus' 2b1.-llydan
et
'
2b2.-2b3.- placenta'
ledan
ptom
palla,
pallium
plwaidho
m
laide
pwods
pals -dis
pdks
pantex,
pantica
lt, ot
'perpendic
ulum'
3a2.-lad
fel(a)wa,
Felber
'salix'
pa a'uestis'
(Hes)
'rig'
palval-
6.3.-plke
6.4.-pelce,
plcis
5.5.panduha
665

pneus
pg
pt
podjom
pods
pang,
prupukid
px,
èx
pgina, antepacto
plus <ksl;
?'
prpg 1b2.-pasa
'caus';
pacri'propitius,
plctus'
pand
pat[t?]
<*ptn ?; 'patet',
pate
patensns
'panderent'
podium
ps
(pedis)
poimks
pimn
fnehan
'respir',
fnsten
ànhelare'
3a2.fneosan
'strn.';
3a3.-fnysa
'resuffl'
ge
2b1.-aelod faahan,
'membrum 'membrum' fangen,
, columna';
Fach
il 'grtus'
3a2.-fc
'interuall'
3a3.fgiligr
'grtus';
u(i)de 'iter'
1b2.- peri, s<*pd-su 2b1.-is
persi
'sub'
'inferior'
'pede'
poln
666
polle,
pollx
fhan
fuoz
3a2.-ft
3a3.-ftr
ftus
ftar
'canna',
Futter
(uestis)
3a2.-for,
fdor
'uagna'
3a3.-fr
'uestment
um'
fdr
'capsa'
pojej
polis
polk
polnks
fuolan,
fhlen
'senti'
3a2.flan, fl
'id'
3a3.-felma
'palp'
fallan,
pajrh
6.8.-pz
'cluus' 'corpulentu 'iunctra,

s'
uallum'
(i
schwa
secundum
),
5.1, 5.3.
pad
ALB.5.4.-otk
prposh
'pdes'
'sub'
5.5.pata;peda
n 'locus'
pti
<poH2-iu-, 'protegit';
go-p
'grex';
'pstor';
'pstor' pyu, pla

'custs' ;
n -p-ti'tresuir'
,nrpa 'rex';
ptra
'recipiens'
5.3.-piti
'id'; rnap
'protecti
crris'
pyyati
ph
(purh),
pram
5.6.plidan
'sgi'
6.1.-pod
'sub'
poj , pojiti
6.3.-pils
'oppidum'
palc;
palam
'quaer';
bez-palij
'sine
digits'
5.4.-pùl 6.3.-polu,

fallen
3a2.-fallan
polpos
pulpitum
poltos
puls (ltis);
puluis cf.;
pulmentu
m
pondos
pnom
pontis
poqs
por
porej
porkos
porns
porsis
porsd
portj
pos(ti)
psteri
psteros
pons
littiu (litten) 2b1.-lith

<*ptn 'pulmentu
'pulmentu
m'
m'
1b2.-puni,
n
poni 'lac' 'pculum'
it(t)
(<pthni-)
'locus'
spelta,
Spelt
3a2.spelta
<*phloplti
'ruina' 6.4.-polu,
pult
parpa
'domus'
plalapolba
'puls';
'farna
'ador'
'pulm. q.' quaedam'
3a, a2.. finan

findan 'id' 'inueni'
3a3.-finna
'id'
pnam
pthas
'locus'
panth-s
'uia'
5.4.-hwn
'portus'
p t 'iter'
*pontis
'pistor'
port
ferien, farjan 'iter
pparti
na-perjo
fahren 'iter faci' 'perfor'; 'dcit'

'perfor';
faci'
5.3.- pero
3a2.-fara
'uadum' prayeit 'plma'
'id'
5.4.-hord
'ambultu
m'
porcus,
1b2.orc; Innsi- Orcades
farah;
prase (porcnus,
porca,
ork
Ferkel
etedim porculus
purca
'porculus'
nt)
porcs';
3a2.-fearh
6.3.paras;
parien
'porcnus';
par lis
'porculus'
farn 'filix'
parpero
3a2.-fearn,
5.3.6.3.fern 'id'
parna- sparnas
'la'
farro (m)
p thuka
verse (f)
5.4.-orth
porr
ar <*pari
prya'ante'
'fnis,
finlis'
5.4.-ar 'ad';
araj
'initium';ar
ajin
'prmus'
post,
1b1.-pst,
pa c(t)
poz-d
postea
post
5.4.-st
'tarde'
1b2.-post,
'ad'
6.3.-pas
pus
posterus
pastork
'adfilitus'
6.3.pstaras
coquus
667

6.4.pastars
pst os
postrd
potj
poti
potijai
potis
ptis
ptlom
potior,
possum;
hosps
pti
pculum
potmos
potnj
pt r
ptor
poug
pga
poughos
pougnos
pung,
pugnus,
pugl,
pugn
poun
poutos
fad
'crassus'
l ? inf.
'bibere'
aitheamh 2b1.-atem
'filum'
fochen 'fl'
3a3.-fjk
'niuea
tem.'
g, nomen
ge
ochtach<p
uktk
'picea,
plum'
powros
pri
668
patih
gospod
5.3.-paitis 'dominus'
5.5.-pat 6.3.-patis
'quoque'
(dial.)
6.4.-pats
'ipse'
pt6.8..-pi^t
6.9..-pot
'recessus
'bibere'
maris'
tamen
'dsideriu
m'
fiuhta,Ficht
e 'picea'
3a2.fiuhtia<fiuh
tjn
fowen,
voewen
'cern'
prae,
air<pri
praeter; preiuatud` 'oriens';
prehend< prvt, rem<pris
prae-;
re'
mi 'ante'
prior<*priy 1b2.-pre ar <*pari
s-;
'pre';
'ante'
'pugn';
'picea'
patn
ptar-,
ptr-
patni
6.4.-pauga
'caput,
pulunu';p
ga 'rafaga'
6.7.-pouhy
'simplex'
6.3.-pus
'pnus'
uth ? 'uter'
puer
an
'spma'
praeptium
'un p.'
powej
pweros
faden
'filum'
3a2.fm,
fathom
3a3.-famr
brfas
'procus'
hundafas
(-fadis)
'centuri'
paiti
5.6.-patiy
APR.6.3.-puns
pounian 'protubera
'pga'
nt.
arborea'
puppu a- potka<*pt
'clus' 'infecti
ka
bucclis' 6.3.-pu i,
p sti
'tumesc'
pavyati
<

Are3a1, a2.- fri-sahts
pare 'ibi' pri<prei
morica, furi <pri 'exemplum

5.4.-erc' 'ad, ante'
Are'ante' >vor, , imag'
(eriu)
'6.3.brigium,
before
<*preiskw- pri <prei
abrit. Areu 'ueterior, 'ante'
clt <pri
flmen'
6.4.-

prmus<pri pre-pa
smos 'priusquam
(Herentas) '; pretra
; prdem, 'prores';
prscus;
preve
prstinus, 'singulrite
pruus
r'
prighesto
priloghos
prinm
priteri
prmos
prandium
<*prmediom
<*p mpratis
prwos
pre(k)a
'anterior'
(*preiti)
raith
ratis
2b3.radenn
(coll.)
frum
fromm
'probus'
3a2.-forma
farn,
Farnkraut
3a2.-fearn,
fern
fruma
<*
?
fr
frauja
'dominus', 'dominus' 'prnus';
<pr
f.
wry
frouwa<pr
wn
3a2.-fra,
f. fra;
forwost/est
'prmus'
'incend'
pruus,
prnus;
prra<pr
wry
preistos
prj
prek
prec,
posc,
procus,
precs
frgn
fraihnan
preks
prex,
precor,
posc,
procus
2b1.-rheg fragen
'maledicti' 'inqur'
frahnan
'inqur'
prem
prep
pres
richt
'forma'
prem,
pressii,
2b1.-rith
furben
'purg'
6.3.prmas
parna pporot<
'folium, poportyo
plma' 'filix'; pero
5.3.'plma'
parna 'id'
6.3.peprtis,
sparnas
'la'
6.4.paparde
prvaprv;
<prwos; prav
pravan
'rectus'
'prpensus
6.3.' 5.3.- primas<*p
paurvarmos
'prior'
TOK B.prwe e
pari'exhal,
flabell'
prejet,
pret
'sd'
para
'uapor'
p cchti
prositi
prt
6.3.'processus' praa , 5.4.ti; pirti
harcanem 'manum
5.4.-harsn
pet.'
'pacta' 6.5.-prsiti
'idem'
pr ;
pra na
'quaesti'
5.3.f()ras'id'
'conspicuu
s sum'
5.4.erewim
'pare',
eres (-ps-)
'facis'
TOK B.- ALB.-pres
p t-,
pru, prat,
prm
'put', aor. p tan
peret ;
669

prlum
<*preslom
(cf.
et )
pretjom
pret
prwijos
prew
p g
p ij
prijs
prjs
prskos
prsmos
670
'retine'
preva; me 'pugna'
per ,
prt 'm 5.3.-prt-, prati
piget'; pan 'id' 'quati,
pritem
5.4.-hari
lau';
'affligor'
'quat'
prj ,
(harkanem preti
?)
'contender
e'
6.3.-peri,
perti 'q, l'
rthaigid
fruot
frajan,
prant,
'intelligens' fr 'intell.'
prsti
3a2.-frd
frai
'susc';
'id'
'intellectus'
prtas
'intellecti'
6.4.protu,
prast
'intell.'
Frosch
prvat prgnut,
'rana' ; fr
'saltat';
prgat
'alacer'
plava'salt';
3a2.'rna'
pryt
frogga 'id'
'rapidus
<prugsk;
gradus'
fr, froh
3a3.-frauki
pergula
prag
'limen'
6.3.prgas
'canna
piscaatoris
'
pari,
1b2.2b1.-erthyl verse,
p thuka- za-prtk
'praebe' 'uitulus; 'ouum sine
reperi, Propartie
'abortus'
Frse
pars,
Properti'
'uitulus'
'uaticintu pulmentu cortice'
imper
3a2.m cum
6.3.m est'
Parca<pri
ferarr,
risso' peri,pert
ka
farrow,
5.4.-ort
i 'al'
heahfore,
'uitulus'
'uitulus'
heifer
proprius,
riar
rhydd
fr 'liber';
frijn
prnti
prejo
<* 'gaudet';
proprtim,
*pryar
'lber'
friunt,
'am';
'faue';
proprissit
'delicia'
Freund
frijonds <*preH2i- pryate
prijatel
us
'proprium
'amcus'; 'amcus';
'amat';
'amcus'
fcerit'
3a2.-fro, freis acc. 'blandus'
priy-s 6.3.prieks
fri; frond,
frijana 4.8.-pa-ra- 'crus' 'gaudium'
we (pl.) 5.3.-fryafriend
3a3.-frijls
'lber'
priscus
5.4.-erc'
(eriu)
<*preiskwu 'ueterior,
flmen'
prmus
rem 'ante'
<prismos
(Herentas)

prtis
prts
p k
p knos
proprtim
3a2.'admissri
us'
frd/frhen
gest
porca,
1b2.rica> fr.
furuh,
porcultu porculeta
raie
Furche
m
2b1.-rhych 3a2.-furh
2b3.-rec 3a3.-for
'cannle'
pulcher?<
2a3.-earc 2b1.-erch
perkros
'ruber'
p ksk
p ksk
posc,
precor,
procus,
prex,
postul
p nmi
pr, par
(re),
compar
(re)
p nos
perendi ?
pr(d)
1b2pe(r)sklu
supplicti
ne'
pestlm,
peeslm
'templum'
parsest
'par est'
pr,
1b1, 1b2.prronus, pro-, pruprdest
prbhoudh
os
2b1.archaf
2b2.arghaf
2b3.archas
'petiit'
probus
prodt r
proditor
pr na- 6.3.-pra'sinus,
paras
pracipitium 'sepulcrum
'
'
pr nip cch
5.4.-harc
prcchti
6.3.5.3.-pr praa , -ti
saiti
5.3.6.3.-perk,
pairyante pirkti 'em'

p.
'aequntur'
; pra
'meretrix' 'culpa'
firni
<perniyo'uetus,
doctus'
3a2.-fyrn,
firn 'uet.'
3a3.-forn
<*p n-;
fyrnd
'aets'
2b1.-ry- fir-, ver-;
2b3.-ro-, fr, for <p
ru-, ra-
robud
2b1.'admoniti' rhybudd
'cauti'
probhwj
probhwos
forscn
'inuestig'
3a2.frignan
ren(a)id
'uendit';
ern(a)id
'concedit';
ni rir 'non
uendidit'
ro-
prtiprt5.3.-frita,
frna, fria
(Hes)
forsca
arco
fromm
<*mo'pius'
3a2.-fram
'strnuus'
3a3.-framr
'id'
farneis
'antiquus'
<*perno-;
af fairnin
jera
'praeterit
annn'
pur6.3.'anterior'
prnai
5.6.'ann
paranam praeterit'
'anterius' 6.4.- prns
'ann
praeterit'
fra-, fair-;
pr, pra-;
faur <p 'duos ante prapra

5.3.-fr,
annos';
fra
'pr et 'pr'
prabodha
'conscienti
a'
prabhu'potens'
pro 'per'
6.3.-para,
pro 'id'
probudt
'expergefa
ci'
prav,

<*prwos

'uenditor'
6.3.pardav jas
'id'
671

pr ddmi
pri
proitis
fruo, frh
freidi <*fraii-ja'apostata'
proks
procus
prokos
reciprocus,
procers
(<>
paupers),
arc. gpl.
procum
promos
proqd
proqos
prsdjom subsidium,
praesidium
prstrnos
prostos
proti
prts
prousij
p sn
672
ross
2b1.-rhos
'parmus'
2b3.-collis
rath
<*prtm
(cf.p tis)
'id'
rhad
'grtia,
fauor'
2b3.Ratlouuen
richt
'forma'
2b1.-rith
pruter pan
'prius
quam'
pretium
porti
prruri,
prna<sn
p ptus
p qos
fram 'ultra' fram 'ultra'

3a2.-from
'ab'
2b1.-rhag
'ante'
2b3.-rak'ante'
prop,
propinquu
s
procus
'piscis q.'
erc 'et
salm',
bs'; orc
<*porkos
'et uum'
rann
forhana
'tructa'
3a3.fjorsungr
'trachinus
drac'
/
2b1.-rhan
2b2.-ran
2b3.rannou
'partimonia
prtar
prti-
5.4.-p'esay
fem harsn
'protinus'
2b1.(y)rhawg
'ad longum
futrum'
2b3.-araok
'prdem'
1b2.promom
prteros
'nmen
hominis'
prok
'reliquus'
pro-st
'simplex'
prk (rar.
prok
pranc-)
'relictus'
'antea,
olim'
prasda
'grta'
prastrna prostorno
prastha-s
'altiplaniti
s'
prataram
'futuure'
5.3.-fratara
'anterior'
prati;
protiv
pratya
6.4.-pret
'compens
'ante'
tus'
prt-,
'uticintu prtm'
'grtificti
,
praemium'
pl ati
ALB:
'cremat'
Prush
'prna'
5.4.'conspicuu erewim
s sum'
'pare',
eres (-ps-)
'facis'
p ni'falc';
'nigellus';
'ter fit'
prtm
'praebe' 'praemium'
'vaticintu
m est'

'
p som
p stis
p tis
pars
(partis),
porti
p tus
portus
pruns
porrus,
porrum
postis
pruna <
*prusun
prsneumi
prusw
ptelj
pruna
tilia
puj
ps
(pris),
pte
othar
'morbum';
othrach
'cumulus
merdae';
othar-lige
'sepulcrum
'
pjs
pukos
pulg
pls
p - h-m prst
'postis' 'summum' 'digitus'

5.3.-par-ti 6.3.-pirtas
'tergum'
'id'
prtm
'vaticintu 'praemium'
m est' 5.5.-parta/-i
Augustofurt
farjan 'iter
pparti
ritum
fahren 'iter faci'
2b1.-rhyd
faci'
2b2.-rid 3a3.-fjorr
2b3.-rit
friosan, frius 'gelu,

pru v
frost
frigus'
'pruna'
3a2.frosan;
frost
3a3.frisa, frr
Pruso, 3a3.-frysa,
pru ti pryskat
Prusonius frustan
6.3.pra sti
'uultum
laure'
pru v
5.4.-tèli
'ulmus'
'ulmus'
<gr.
pyati 6.3.-puv,
fl, faul
fuls
'ptridus'; 'ptridus' 'sanies' 5.3.-puyeiti
pti
vut
5.4.-hu
6.4.-p t
'cunnus'
'sanguis 'ptescere'
3a2.-fl 'id'
suppurtu , caus
3a3.s'
p det
fauskr
'lignum
ptrid.' fu
'cunnus'
fuhs
fah
pcchapuch
'uulps'
'uulps'
'plummen
3a2.-fox
';
puistyj
'densus'
6.3.pausts
'capillum
animle'
pula,
pulaka
'hirsuti';
pulast
'simplex
piltus'
3a, a2.-fl fls 'puter'

PASHTO.- 6.3.-pliai
>faul 'id'
pl 'turbor
'ps'
3a3.-full
oculrum'
'id'
First
'crista'
3a2.-fyrst,
fierst 'id'
ulcha, ulfota; Ulaid

'usteriense
s'<ulut
673

pung
pung,
pugnus,
pugilis,
pugn
ppos
ppus
ochtach
<puktk
'picea'
prs
pusbhis
pusj
puslks
pustl
ptj
pters
putlom
pts
puwj
puwos
qddrom
qtj
674
fiuhta,
3a2.fiuhtia
<fiuhtjn
3a2.-fyrs,
furze
'Agropyron
repens'
pbs,
publicus;
impbs,
impbis,
impber
pustula
3a3.-fysa
*fausian
'infl'
plx <*sl
floh<*plou
k
3a2.-fleah,
flea
puter,
pte
putus,
putillus,
pus(s)us,
pusillus>p
ullus
putus
put
othar
'morbum';
othrach
'cumulus
merdae';
othar-lige
'sepulcrum
'
6.3.pupela
'papula'
6.4.-pups
'pectus
feminnus'
pyro
'spelta'
6.3.-prai
'frumen
hiemle'
pumn
<opusy
(ac.
'nb' pum sa
m, gen.
pu )
'hom'
5.5.hapusa'cuspis,
pnis'
psyati, napytiti
'infl'
pu ti, se 'inflr'
p ati 'al' 6.3.-psl
p pa'bulla'
'flos'
6.4.-pslis
'id'
pliblcha
<*blusy 5.4.-lu, low 6.3, 6.4.<*plusoblus
puclo
PEL.puclois
'puers'
cith
'acus,
furfur'
<kwti
'frmen'
6.3.-pus
putr 'flius' pta 'auis'

5.3, 5.4.- 6.3.-puttis
puqra 'id' 'auicella'
6.4.-putns
'id'
pt?
5.5.'ingnrans' kappuwai
pya-
ps
(pris);
puter
quati
'pugnus';
'pugn';
hotzen
3a2.hdenian
'stern';
'furfur'
6.3.kutintis
'plumor';
kunt,

atkutu,
ksti
'quiesc'
qtrus
quater
qtrusnos
qtw dk quadrgint
ta
qtw dk
t os
qtw atnjo
m
qtw dek quattuorde
cim
qtw djwij
om
qtw es
quattuor
cethorcho
viorzhan
fidwrtahu
n
cethir
petuar[ios]
'quartus'
2b1.pedwar
2b2.peswar
2b3.-peuar
vier
3a2.fower
fidwr
qasjos
qwtos
qdnos
qe
qedos
qedos
tuspad
kol,
'quam
kolik
magnus'
'quantum'
6.3.-kl(ei)
'qua tenus'
5.4.-kàn(i)
'quantum,
et sicut
comp.
quam'
kak
quam , 1b2.-panta
quantus 'quanta'
qqos
cach
2b1.-pob
2b2.-pup
2b3.-pep
qulum,
quallus
que
triquetrus
catvrah
etyre
5.3.6.3.-ketur
Hom
(i awr 6.4.- etr
schwa 5.4.- ork
secundum
)
qtw k t
mt os
qtw k to
s
qtw pods quadrups
qtw tos
quartus
qd
qlis
qulis
qm
cath
5.3.aru
-ch (noch,
sech)
(h)wezzen, gahvatjan
wetzen 'id'; 'exacu'
3a2.hvtjan
hwettan,
'minor'
wet (id)
ko,
kol
ca
c dati,
cdyati
?? 'impellit'
kti
'gloria';
'animus, 'mirculum
'
desiderium
'gloritus' ' kav
675
qeis
adc
pissiumi
<*kwiset
'uide'
'uidet'; ciall 2b1.-pwyll
'intellectus,
'id'
sensus' 2b3.-poell
<*kweisl
'id'
qeistis
qejsk
quisc
can ? 'di'
(h)wla
'tempus'
3a2.-hl,
while
qej
qejtis
qeklom
3a2.hweohl,
wheel
3a3.-hjl
qek
qeli
qel
qelos
qelp
676
'clrus,
sapiens'
(d);
udra- 'IV
plebs'
5.3.-Sudroi
'Aracosin
'
(=glorit?)
ctti
st,
'intellectus'
est
(c tati,
'honor';
cktati)
t , isti
5.3.- isti- 'comput,
'id' <*kweit
leg'
2b1-2b22b3.-pell
col,
inquilnus
dofoichell
'transit,
uenit'
<*to+upo+
kweln-
3a3.-hvel
cland
'puer'
hveila
'hora'
cttist
'intellectus' 'honor'
cirapokoj
'longus,
'quis'
procul' 6.1.-pociti
5.4.-han- 'mane'
g im
<*s -q
5.6.iytish
'confort'
cin ti,
in
'faci'
cyati
'ord';
kyainiti
'compositi
'corpus"
'ordin,
'
5.3.dispn''
ayeiti, koj, kojty

'factor'
invaiti 'machinor'
(
'leg
)
cern.';
ka 'stru.'
cakr-m
koleco,
5.3.-caxrakolo
(nn
'corbis'
5.5.-kaluti
red.)
'fl'
'circulus' 6.3.-kklas
k ate,
poko o
'indicium' ca e<kwe- 'monstr'
kwk-ti
ca su
'oculus'
crati
6.8.- len
'circulat'
6.9.-kelan
'moueor'
kars- 'ar'
<*kwel-s
(h)welben, hvilftrjm
wlben 'sepulcrum 'sinus';
3a2.'
heofon-
kla-m
elovek
'familia'
'hom'
kr eljad
'gentes' 'domestic'

hwealf
'marg,
lmes,
sulcus'
qels
qem
qentos
qerp
repns ?
(cf. uerp)
qsai
queror,
questus;
tranquillus
<*trntikw
esls ?
qestis
qidpe
qijtis
quis
qijts
quitus
qnumoi
qqeimi
kar ati
'arat'
5.5.karaiti
'sulcat'
5.5.-guls,
gul-as-zi
'insculpit'
3a3.cmati,
hvma
camati

5.4.-kìmk` 'faux,
guttur'
5.6.- am
'cibus'
3a2.-hsl
hunsl
5.3.svet
'sacrament 'hostia,
spnta6.3.um'
uictima'
(cp. span- vetas
yah,
spnita-)
5.5.-kunna
'rectus,
dexter'
carr
2b1.-parr hwerfan, hvarban
'uenbulu 'uenbulu werben; 'spatiri' 'pugnta';
m'
m'
wirvil,
'columna
Wirbel
cum
2a2.tabells'
hweorfan
3a3.hverfa
3a2.vsiti
6.3.hwsan
'spirat'
virkti
'id'
t-kr- 'siffilre'
3a3.'siffilti'
hvsa
'spir'
cuit
2b1, b2.ast,
<*kwesdis,
peth

cuid
2b3.-pez
6.3.-kedeti
'expld'
5.3.-iti-,
iyti-
'gaudium'
5.4.-hangist
5.3.-yta- TOK B.-

, tate
'gaudens'
'dius'
cin (cinad)
Hom
<*kwinuts
'culpa'
cin (cinad)
cik ti,
aj , ajati
'obseru';
<*kwinuts
cinti
'exspect'
'culpa'
'afflictor'; 'animaduer
t',
cyati
'honos';
'cr'
'neglig'
cra'explortor'
677

qis qid
quis, quid
qisqis
qidqid
quisquis,
quidquid
q d
qoi
quand 1b2.-panupei
'quandqu
e'
qtj
qodhei
cid
<*qdhsk
;
'patientia,
dolor'
css(a)id;<
*kwt-tcssad
'patientia'
ub <
puf
cubei, arc.
cubi, cube;
unde,
alicubi,
necubi
qu
1b2.-pu-e
/-o
co qu
mod
1b2.-cw,
cwd
qoitrs,
koitrs
qolk
qolus
qom
qomde
qondhros
qori
caenum,
cnre
obscnus,
in-, conquinre,
ancunulent
ae
678
kuha
5.2.-k
5.5.kuwabi
k 'ub'
(<?)
6.3.-kad,
kad
6.3.ken i,
kesti;
pakant
'patientia'
6.4.-ceu
cest
kude
3a2.-whin
'genista'
3a3.-hvein
'agrpstis'
culcita
colus
cum,
pn
quom,
1b2.quand pon(n)e,
unde, arc.
cunde
combrtu
m
cuin
cuinneog
coire
cortumi
<kworotom
1b2.pan(n)
wann
3a2;-when
hvan
'axis'
krc5.3.-km
ko-gda
'qu mod' 6.9.-kan
cr, quor.
quir-quir
'ubicumqu
e'
qorjom
qoros
to
6.3.-ku
'ub'
apa-citih
cena
'represalia 'represalia 'pretium'

e' 5.3.- 6.3.-kaina
e'
kana;
'pretium'
citha
'expiati'
6.4.-svni^t
'inquinr'
qoin
qoinom
cid
5.5.-kwis
kim cid
'aliquid'
5.4.-in5.5.-kuis
(as) kuis
kad
5.3.-kad
Wannebob
bell
3a3.huonn
hwr 'ub' hvar 'ub'
<r 'id'
3a2.-hwr
'ub'
2b1.-pair 3a3.-huerr
2b2-2b3.per
6.3.vedrai
'planta q.'
kr-hi
'quand '
5.4.-ur
'ub'
car-s,
cara
kara'factra'
6.3.-kur
'ub'

H1os
qos q(i)
qod
5.5.kwera'rea'
qu, quis
cia 'quis'
2b1.-pwy
2b2.-pyw
2b3.-piou
casachtac 2b1.-pas,
h
peswch
2b2.-pz
2b3.-pas
2b1.-pet
qost
qot(j)os
qota
quot
hvas
3a2.hwsta
ut, ut, utei,

puz
us-piam, - 1b2.-puz-e
quam, uti<*ts
nam, -que
qote
qteros
hva
uter, utra, um
3a2.hw
er
3a2.whither
qotrd
qotrd
q eumi
aar
hvadre
hvaro
petiro-pert creth<kwer 2b1.'quater'

tis
prydydd
'potica';
'pota'
cuirim? peri 'faci,
'pn'
caus'
cruth
pryd
'forma'
'forma,
tempus'
crenim 2b1.-prynu
(v.n.)
2b2.prenne,
perna
2b3.-prena
crth
prid <-to
'empti' 'pretium,
oppignert
i'
cruim
2b1.-pryf
qrnmi
qrtm
q mis
q snos
petiropert
'quater'
rbhj
rabi, -ere
rdjom
rgj
rig
cruth
'forma,
modus'
recht 'fria'
(cf.
*<pet)
'robur'
3a2.rabbian
regan,
regen
rign
'pluuia'
katar,
katama
karmi 6.3.-kuriu,
'indicium, sa k t kurti 'faci,
monstrum'; 'semel'
stru,
<F
5.3.incend';
keriu,
'monstrum' krnaoiti
'facit'
kereti
'incant'
2b1.-pryd
'fr., temp.'
2b2.-prit
'tempus'
2b3.-pred
kti
5.3.- aiti
5.5.kuwatta
katham
5.5.-kuwat
'm'
crann <*- 2b1-2b2.- 3a2.-hyrst

sn 'arbos'
pren
'arbuscula
2b3.-prenn
e'
q tus
krnmi
krayh
'acquistti
'
krt-
ukrijen (no subst. to)
krmih 6.3.-kirmis
5.6.-kirm
chvrost
<chvorst
'rmus'
6.3.-kirmis
sa-krt
'semel'
rbhate;
rbhas'uiolentia'
ALB.-rrjeth rkia, rkti
'scat, flu' `leuiter
679
rpj
rtis
rd
rapi, -ere
rd, rd,
radula,
rastrum,
rallum,
rmentum
rpom
rpum,
rpna
rrs
rrus
rasts
raudos
'pluit'
3&2.regen; rain
'id'
3a3.-raki
'humidits'
rikr
'humidus'
refsen
'castig'
3a2.repsan,
respan 'id'
recht
<*reptu'ra'
2b1.rhathu;
rhathell
'radula'
rzi
'subtiilis'
ratze,
atte 'ms'
3a2.-rtt
'ms'
ruoba,
pe<by
3a3.-rfa
'cauda
equ'
aruzzi, Erz
3a2-arut
rwos
ruus
rm, rm
'fulig'
3a2.-rmig
'flginsus
'
dhj
arbor,
arbos
680
rapas6.3.- ap
'mutilits'
rpti
'Harpia'
raphit- 6.4.-r ples
'uulnerrtu 'forfex'
s'
5.5.arpuwai'infaustus
esse'
(Hes)
rdati
5.5.
ardala
'secris'
'radens
secris'
6.3.ropiena
'rpna'
rt
r dk
'desertus' 'exclusu' 'rr'; oriti
rma,
'separ'
armak- 6.3.-arda ,
ruinae'
-ti 'id'
raudus,
rdus,
roudus
(Festus)
raucus (cf.
rn)
raukos
pluerei';
roke 'leuis
pluuia'
rohon
'rgre';
rh?
3a2.-ryn
<*rhjan
'rd'
A B.5.6.-ri ruda,
arnts
'cuprum'
'chalybs,
adamans'
rk - `?
rykajo,
rykati
'rugire'
6.3.-rkti
'rd'
6.4.-rucu,
rkt 'id'
rm'ter'; rm
'nox'
ALB.-rit 5.4.-ordi rast ; rod

TOK.-orto
'flius'
'partus,
'supra' 5.5.-ardu- gens';
'progntus' roditi,
KURDra dati
rzang
'parere',
'color
ran
obsc.
'mane'
intemperi (orqros)
arb.'
BUL.-
dhwos
arduus; aret nn *urrrum
rebh
ard 'altus, Arduenna

magnus' 2b1.-hardd
'pulcher'
rebaigim
'ld'; reb,
rebrad
'ldus'
rebhj
rebh
rebhrus
riobhar
'cribrum'
recos
rd/re
dorch
'obscrus'
<*doregyo-
regein
re (resu,
reici,
respici)
regna
regjos
regnom
regnum
reg
reg
regs
rex
regts
reidh
rectus
3a3.rugr
ALB.-rit
'cresc'
reben
'mour'
hirn-ireba
'craneus';
rippa
'costa';
3a2.-ribb
'costa'
3a3.-rif
rhefr
rippa
'rectum'
'costa';
2b3.-reor 3a2.-ribb
'costa'
3a3.-rif
3a3.-rkkr
vrdhati
'erectus'
'crescit'
*Hwrdh- rdhv-s
4.3.*wrHdh
wo- 5.3.rdva'altus'
5.6.-raftan
're'
'tectus'
rn
'spatium'
reraig
2b1.-rhiain
'uirg'
rebro
'costa'
rjas'inferum' 5.4.-erek
rgain
<*rgn
rebro
'costa'
riqis
ra da se
'sol oritur'
6.3.-rasma
'producti'
rast ,
rast
<*ordh-t
'cresc'
TOK A
orto
'sursum'
TOK B.erke t
'niger'
5.5.-arha
(kisai'destru')
rj
regu
'tend'
recchen, uf-rakjan
recken
'in altum
'extendere' extendere'
3a2.reccan 'id'
r (rg)
reiks <
,
celt. r
rigomagus
, caturix
2b1.-rhi
recht
2b1.raihts
<*regtu- cymreith/r
'lex'
haith
2b3.-reiz
'ord,
disp.'
rdid, parauerd
rtan
radid;
us 'eq 3a2.-rdan
rad
add.' rda 3a3.-rdha
'equitit' 'currus'
2b1.rhwyddhau
jyati
'firmus est'
5.5.harg(a)nu
'palma'
rj- (nom.
sg. r ),
rjan-
6.3.-ried ti
'uolu';
raidt
'instig'
681
reidhos
reig
reim
rim
ris
reiwos
rj
rek
rkneumi
rem
rmoi
682
'festn';
gorwydd
'equus'
rid
2b1.bereit
ga-raidjan TOK A.- 6.3.-raid
<*reidhi- rhwydd
'aptus' 'adaptre';
ritk- 'gign' 'aptus':
'facilis,
<*reidhi- 3a2.-rde, *ga-rai-s
B ritk
6.4.-raids
plnus,
'facilis'
ready
'aptus'
'sn' 'promptus,
suauis' 2b3.-rouez 3a3.-greir
aptus';
'thin-sown' 'aptus';
riedt
reii
'concinnr
adminiculu
e,
m
adaptre'
corrigia <
ad-riug,
2b1.ricken ; ric
gal.
con-riug; modrwy 'ligatra'
fo-riug
'anus';
'sist';
rhwym
rach,
'uinc.'
cuimrech 2b3.-rum
'uinculum'
'id'
rma
ro <*riwo3a2.-rw,
6.3.-riev
'linea'
rw, row
'rups';
'linea'
rave
'linea'
6.4.-riewa
rm
2b1.-rhif
rm
'numerus' <*rm
<*rmom
<*rm
3a2.-rm
rs, reus 1b2.-re2b1.-rei ?

r , ry ;
per 'pro
regnum
ray-;
r', dat.
rvnt
abl. ri
'dius'
5.3-raya
i.s.ravant
ruus
riathor 2b1.-reatir
rde
rya-s
reka
'torrens' 'torrentum' 'amnis'
'flmen' <*roik; roi
3a2.-r
'exmen'
'torrens'
rd, r-,
rejen <*r
6.3.-iri,
imbr3a2.rti
<*rrwan
<*r
ricinus
lik
6.3.-rke
<*lak 'id' 'ricinus'
5.4.-o(r)jil ` 6.4.- rce
'pediculus' 'mrsus'
rechnen
rahnjan
racayati
rok
'id'
'calcul'
'praeparat' 'opportunit
ga-rhsns,
s'
ragin
reko, reti
'consilium'
'dic'
raknoti,
ra iti 'uelle'
re
'accsti'
fo-rimramf,
rimis
rmat 6.3.-remi,
dpn
Rand
'quis' 'tranquill', 'quiescit,
remti
comp. oblecttur'; 'fulci';
rinde ?
'lims,
'recipiens'
contenti'
ratrmas
3a2.-rand
'libd';
'quis'
'sctum'
rti- 'quis' 6.4.-rms
'pudcus'
reor, rati;
rm
2b1.-rhaid rmen
rathj
ratu'habilits',

(pr)porti:
porti =pr
rati; rtus
rentus
rp
rp
resg
restis
resgtis
rsmos
rti
ret
retrd
reub
reudhos
reudhos
reud
reudos
rebo, reba,
repa
'vinea'
rusch(e)
'iuncus'
3a2.resc(e),
risc(e),
rysc(e) 'id'
rmus,
rm,
tri/septeresmom
rte
rota,
birota,
rotundus
rme ;
imram 'iter'
rubus,
rbidus,
rubta
rfus,
ruber
robb?
animal?
rudis,
rdus,
rullus
rg,
ruct
ruodar
3a3.-ra
rethim; 2b1.-tyred rado, rato

rath 'rota'; (*to-rete) 'rapidus'
doairret
'ueni!';
3a2.-rd
'superat' guo-redaf
'id'
'succurr'
2b3.redont
'currunt'
ruad
Anderoudos
2b1.-rhudd
2b2.rud/ruth
2b3.-ruz
rupfen
raupjan
3a2.repan, rip
3a3.-rauth- rauds
r
'
potior'
'ueredictu
m'; aram,
lam 'satis'
rtna 'et
gemma,
thesaurus,
dnum'
6.3.-repliti
6.4.-rpt
rjju'corda'
rozga
'rmus'
6.3.-rezg,
rksti
rekstis
'corbis'
6.4.-re t
6.3.-irklas
<*tlo-
rtha
'currus'
5.3.-raa
'id'
6.3.-retis
rit, rsti
'rot'
rohita
rd
6.3.ra das
rbur,
rbus
rd
reughm
reug
'numerus'; 'necessit.' 'cnor'

'calculus'
do-rmu 2b2.-reys,
3a2.(< lat.?)
'numer'
res
rmon 'id'
2b3.-red
(<lat.?)
rt (rto) >
rud 'rs'
rad 'ruina' 2b1.rhuddi

on
'residuum,
furfur'
riozan
'flre'
3a2.rotan
rzzen
'dcad'
3a2.rotian, rot
'id'
roum,
Rahm
'crma'
3a2.-ram
3a3.-rjmi
itruchen.ro
can;
rudti,
6.8.-ruditi
rditi 'flt' 'dplor'
6.3.rudmi 'id'
udr'Apoll'
5.3.rao(g)na'burrum'
5.6.r(g)an 'id'
5.4.-orcam rygajo se
5.6.--rg
6.3.rjugmi,ra
683
reumi
reusm
reusmnj
rew
rmor,
rauus,
rauis,
raui,
raucus
rmen,
rma,-mis,
rmre,
rminre
rs
rwesn
rewis
rewm
rew
(/d/ob)ru, rutus;
rtrum;
rutellum;
rutbulum
rewos
rs
ghj
rigj
684
rouhhan,
ugi
rauchen
'id'
3a2.rocettan;
rocan
'fm'
rn
2b1.-rhin
rienen
rna
ru-ti,
rovo, ruti
'secrtum' 'secrtum' 'lamentor' 'secrtum' 'murmur' ruvti, 'murmur'
3a2.-rn
ravati
'id'; ron
'murmurat'
'lamentus'
3a3.-rymja
rmor
2b1.rmantharhumen
'rminti'
'pantica'
r <*rewi/*rew-y
re, ri
'planitis'
rm,
Raum
'spatium'
3a2,a3.rm 'id'
rm
'spatium'
rms
'amplus'
r 'lna';
reo dorcha
'obscra
nox'
rn 'crnis'; 2b1.riomo,
raimneac rhawn
Riemen
h
'crnis'
'cinctus'
<*roumni- 2b2.-ruen 3a2.-rug
k'crnis'
'drappus'
'capillum 2b3.-reun
3a3.longum'
'crnis'
rogg(r)
'caesaris'
ram
3a2.-rwi
riurjan
'rtrum';
'asp. pelle' 'uiesc'; 'erump;
ramar
3a3.-ryja
riurs
'terram
'effossi'
'ous 'peremptr
fodiens'
tonde'
ius'
ravn
<orvn
'plnum';
rovesnyk
'coaetneu
s'
ravi 'sl'
5.4.-arew
'id'
r man-,
l man
'capillum'
rvate,
rudh,
rvi am,
r ruvat
'frang'
5.5.ar(u)wai
'prostern'
ryjo, ryti
'fodi';
rv ,

'abrump'
6.3.-ruju,
ruti
'abscind,
runc'
rgha
'tripudi' 'uiolentia' ;
ghyti
'conciet'
5.5.-rki
'cpulat'

? 'extend'
jrzat'
'inquitus
esse'
6.3.-ar s
'lascs'
roe, ri
2a2.-roen>
raon
*rovesno-,
*rovesy?
ar(a)g
'piger,
molestus'
3a2.-earg
'id'
ringid ;
2b1.-dir- reichen
riag
rwyn, cyf- 'extend'
'tormentu rwynein
3a2.m'
'tormentu rc(e)an,
ri -aus, ytis
'oblongor'

m'
ijai
rikj
rnmi
kj
kslom
kl
rnmi
neumi
numi
nutis
robhos
rdh
rdhj
orior
reach
nti
5.4.-yarnem
5.5.-arta
'stat'
likhmi
'scab'
2b1.rhe 'linea'
'rump'
rhwygo
2b3.roegaff
irrt,
ran 'mare'
nos rennen 'id' rinnan riti,
vyrin ti
'irrit'
prort
' hnus' 3a2,.rinna 'currere'
rvati
n, run
arce,
trbrigil, riegel
5.4.raka
'defend' argelum 'sepulcrum
arca,
arakavm
'repagulum
arcnus àedificare'
'
'impedi' ' 6.3.3a2.-rail
(cf.
raknti
cense'claud'
consul)
5.5.har(k)'tene'
rigil, riegel
5.4.-argel
6.3.'repagulum
'impedime rktas
'
ntum'
'cluis'
3a2.-rail
arcula
5.4.-arkl
cf. bhajate
ra; cf.
ern(a)id ?
'am';
dlig
'dnat'
5.5.-arha,
tamen fut.
'amor' erha 'ra'
ebra
orior
rnti
5.4.-ari
'sta'
5.5.-arnu-,
arai-; arta
'stat';
arriya
'suscit'
cf. rs cf. 1b2.-rerti ?

per 'pro
'dnat' cf.
r', dat.
r , ry
abl. ri
ray'opes';
rvnt
'dius'
5.3-rnu
'dn'; cf.
raya 'opes'
5.4.-arnum
'em'
LYD.-arlili
'proprius'
5.6.-rdiy
radi
no-ridiu,
2b1.reden;
rdjan;
rdhn ti,
raditi,
no-rdim; adrawd;
rtan
gardan
rdhyati
'curor'
imm-rdim amraud
'consl.'
'curor'
'efficit,
'meditor'
'mens'
3a2.concinnat'
rdan
5.3.-raiti
'legere'
'parat'
rixa ?
685

rd
rd (wr-),
rostrum
rdos
roinos
3a3.-ra
ruozit
'suscitat'
3a2.wrtan
'fodi'
3a2.-rt
'cmis'
3a3.-r
task'animo
r'
2b3.-run rein, Rain
'collis'
3a3.-rein
'limes'
2b1.rhathu,
rhathell
'lma'
ren 'iter,
callis,
continu
montes'
rota
ots
roth
Rost
3a2.-rost,
rust
roudos
roun
rpes -is
<*rpi-;
rupex -icis
<*rupik-
rz
rn
2b1.-rhin
rna
'secrtum' 'secrtum' 3a2.-rn
3a3.-rufinn
'saetsus,
dispectint
us'; rauf
'rificium'
routos
sj
686
rna
eirgg, eirg
'i'; dorega
3a2.-eart
<*H1eH1or
rad
'libens'
6.3.-rds
'id'
rsarosa
'succus' 6.3.-rasa
5.5. 'arsiyaflu'
'flu'
ALB.-resh
'ninguit'
rthas 6.3.-rtas
'currus'
5.3.-raq
arati
'seruus';
sarthi?
'auriga'
lo a- 6.3.-rstas
'rufus'
6.4.-ru^sa
<*rdhs
rda6.3.-raud
3a2.rada,
read
ruowa,
Ruhe
3a2.-rw
'quis'
3a2.eorsian
'maluolus
sum'
row
skai
rad
ara, ac.
araid
roudhstos
roupis
2b1.-rhod
2b3.-ros
vred
'uulnus'
ros
rstrom
rot
vardva'mitis'
avradanta
'mitigtis'
ALB.ardhur
*rpa6.3.-rupis
'rificium' 'rps',
raupa
'uariola,
morbillum'
6.5.- r pa
'rificium'
5.4.-rt
6.3.-rowa
'stagnus'
6.4.-rwa
'id'

r y TOK A rse,
'imprecti 'malitia'
B rser
,
5.4.-her
'odium'
maledicti,
5.5.contumelia arsaniya
'
'inuide'
LUV.-hrt
'iurmentu
m'
cchti
5.5.-r-,

/terga
'ueniet'
ts
tkos
ursus
rudhj
rube
rudhrs
ruber,
rfus,
rbus
(dial.)
rudhss
russus
rudls
rugij
rugi
ruktus
rump;
rps
(6.3.rupis);
rpex
runk
runc,
runc,
runcina,
rga
rpex
rad
ruspjai
rspor, -r
rwts
rutus; rta
ksa-s
5.3.-ars
5.4.-arj
5.5.hartagga
rudeti s
'rubesc'
6.3. ra sti;
raudti
rudhir-; rudru, ridru

cf. arua
6.3.5.3.-cf.
ra das
aurua
<*H1eru; cf. raocah- rus ,
cf. / ruk
sk. r v
6.3.-rsvas
'rubidus';
ra svas
inrauhtjan
r et
'irscor' 'rgtus';
'hinnre'
6.4.-rkts
'asper'
'rugiens'
*rukka > it.

rocca
'castula'
rauths
rucht
'rugtus'
rucht
'porcus'
arhi
'perueni';
ri
'peruenit'
Deae
Artioni
2b1.-arth
(ir)rtn,
errten
'rubesc'
3a3.rodan,
redden
rucht
rump
rups
art
e 'es'
<*H1orgh3a3.-aru un- 'ueni'
(3 pl.)
3a2.-ryn
<*rhjan;
roc
'saeuus'
rhuch(en)
2b1.rhwgn
'fricti,
scapti'
rocko,
Rock 'id'
3a2.-rock
'id'
roubn bi-raubn
'clep'
'clep';
3a2.raupjan
rofan 'decerpere
'scindere'; , capere'
rubbish
3a3.-rjfa,
rifa
rh ?
'fodi'
'raucus'
3a2.-rh

'id'
gi-rspit
gl. zu
inhorruit
(aper),
rus/rs/
riuspern/ln,
ruspern
'in coll
rdere'
lumpti, rup 'cra'

caus.
6.3.-rpeti
rpayati
'cur'
lucati;
rk - ?
'raucus'
6.3.rauki,
ra kti
'rg'
6.3.-rups
'solox'
ruth
'fractus'
zart, rla
687

s(w)ei
s(w)eike
skesn
sacna
sksom
saxum
spij
sapi
sgij
sgi;
sga ?,
signum
<*seHgno
m
(Lubotsky)
sagom
saipis
sait
saeps,
saeptum,
saepe,
saepi
saeta
saitlom
saeculum
saiwos
sj
skrodhokj
om
skrodhots
sakros
sal
sald
688
sei
scian
'culter'
sipus
saer/saor 2b1.-saer
'sciens'
'artifex'
<*spr
(*spwos),
saeuus,
saeui
sacer,
sakoro
sacerds, 'sacra'
sagmen sacrasias
sal
1b2.-salu
sald
2b1.ysgen
saigim,
2b1.saigid
haeddu
sarugud 'assequor'
<sakro- sayrhaed,
sag
sarhad
'offensi'
'off.'
3a2.segisna
sahs
'culter'
saf, sapf,
Saft
'succus';
3a2.-sp
'succus'
suohhen,
suchen
3a2.scan,
seek
3a3.-skja
skjan
socha
'culter?'
5.3.-vipa
'venensu
s'
5.4.-ham
'succus'
5.5.ak(k)-,
ek(k)'sci,
peri';
sagai-?
'men'
seito/a
Saite 'id'
3a2.-sda
'corda'
3a3.-seir
'id'
s tuset 'rte'
'nexus' 6.3.-satas,
5.3.-hatu- si tas
'saeptum 'uinculum'
aquae' 6.4.-sate
5.5.'monle'
ishiyani
'capillum'
2a2.-garDeae
sle
Setlocenia
e
2b1.hoedledd
2b3.hoazl/hoal
seth
hoed
sehr
sair 'dolor' 5.5.-sawar 6.4.-sievs,
'drus'
'aegrots, 'damnum' 'multum'
'ra'
svs 'acer'
afflicti'
sehren
'luguber'
sethar
'uulner'
F
'labor'
3a2.-sr
'dolorsus'
salann 2b1.-halen
<*saleino2b2.haloin
2b3.holenn
saill
2b1.-hallt salzan
<*saldi
'salsus' 3a2.-seal'sals
/sieltan
car,
sebum'
salt
5.5.-aklai
'ritus, ms,
lex'
5.4.-al,
sol
altkh
6.4.-sls
'salsus'
<*salu(cf. bsl.)
sladk
'dulcis'
6.3.-salds
'id'

saliks
salix
saleiw
salua
salom
salum
sals
smn
samdhos
sabulum
smis
samos
snmi
sail
2b1.sal(a)ha,
(sailech) helyg-en 3a2.-sealh
sal, sa(i)le 2b1.-halog
salo
'immunditi
'id'
'turbidus';
a';
2b3.sal
salach haloc, 'id' (salwes)
'immundus
'im.tia'
'
3a2.-salu
'turbidus'
sal, s(i)le Salla>ang. 3a2.'mare'
Hail
seolo
'mare'
salach; sal 2b2.salo
'immunditi halou,
a'
stercora
sm
semfti,
'quis';
sanft
sim
'suuis'
'tranquillus
<*samtiyo'
3a2.soft(e)'id'
sam(b)t,
sant
3a2.-sand
3a3.-sandr
sam,
2b1-2b2.- sumar,
samrad <
haf
Sommer
*samo-roto 2b3.-hav
3a2.sumor,
summer
satis,
1b2.sith
satius;
sanes ? <*sti-)
sati -re, abl. 'sns' 'satis';
satiets,
sithech
satis,
'satitus'
satur;
snus ?
sneumi
sat 'id' gasjan;

3a2.*s(s),
gesdan; dat sa
sad 'id'
'satis' ;
3a3.-sar
sas
'satitus'
con-su
2b1.'expugnat' cynyddu
'capere,
expugnre'
sankij
sanci,
sanctus
sapos
sapa; sap-
3a2.-saht
'pax'
3a3.-saett
'concilium'
2b1.-syb- saf, Saft
sra-, slavo-o ije

sla- 'gris' 'oculus
caeruleus'
solovj
'isabel.
color'
6.9.-salus
'amnis'
5.5.-salpa
'merda
'spadix
canis'
equus'
sman
(Pind.) 'slcium,
'mansutu conciliti';
santva- 'id
s'
et mtis'
,
;
'fmus'
'ter'

'dis' NON
cf. arm.
awr
<*awur
<*H1eH2m
r
babhasti
'conterit';
bhasma
'cinis'
sam
'annus',
tempus,
dis
5.3.-ham
5.4.-am
'annus';
amarn
<*smH2er
m
aor.
a-si-n-v-, st (y!!)
sinvan 6.3.-stinti;
(Hom), 'insatibilis
stis
Hes
'
'satis';
sts
<*saj-; 5.4.-at-ok
'plnus,
'satitus'
adultus'; 6.4.-sts
'satis';
ha ,
<*stis
ha oy, yag
'satis'
'satitus'
<*sadio/sawo
sanoti
'uincit' ;
sanam
'interfici';
'uc';
sanema
'arma'
'uincmus'
5.5.-sanh
'quaer'
5.5.-aklai'ritus, ms,
lex'
5.3.-v-
689

pnus,
spnus
wydd
3a2.-sp,
'spnus'
sap
sasjom
stis
sasiam
'asia'
2b1.-haidd
'id'
2b3.-heiz
'id'
satis,
satius
sith
*s(s),
dat sa
sauros
sl
<*sH2wl
se
se/sos
s/s tod
se
ip-se; sapsa; sum,
sam, ss,
ss
sd
sd, solu,
sedc;
sedulus
sil<sli ? 2b1.-haul 3a3.-sl

'oculus' <*seH2wl
2b2.-heul,
houl
2b3.-heol
exo 'hic'
-so;
so-sin; so- 3a2.-se,
impu<imb
sio
she
+su
2b3.-ho-n 3a3.-s
(*sns);
'noster';
s 'illa'
ho-z
'vester'
sd
sedj
sede
sedj
ambh
circumsed
e,
obside
sella
immsaid
sds
<*sedeH1?
sd 'pax'
sedmn
sedos
segts
seghdhl
segh
690
seurus
sauil
si-k
sa, s; s
'illa'
TOK. syr, syrj

srma
'caseus,
'morbus acerbus,
oculris' hmidus'
6.3.-sras
'saltus'
svar,
slnce
srya- <*sH2ulnik
<*suH2liyoo5.3.-hvar 6.3, 6.4.(hwng)
sule
F
se

sa/sah,s;
e-sa;a-sau
5.3.ha/h,h;
aeSa,hu
sdj
sedl
3a1.-sr,
sauer
3a2.-sr,
sour
3a3.-srr
swel(jos)
pa
'uenens
succ'
5.4.-ham
<*pm
'succus,
sapor'

sasy-m
'terra' 'et fructus,

'herbans' smen,
grnum'
5.3.hahya'frmentri
us'
6.3.-stis
5.4.-k'e sveni(je)
'absoltus' 'extr'
<pron.
*swe
sten
'plac'
1b2.sersitu
'sedet'
<*epi+sed'obsidium'
sez
sedlon
sezzal,
Sessel
sitls
2b1.sawdd
'subsideor'
2b1.haeddel
2b3.haezl, hael
Segomro sigi, sigu
s,
'uictoria';
Segodnu sigirn
6.3.s d iu,
s d ti
pr -s da
'insidiae';
Hes.
5.4.-et
sdas
5.3.-hadi'palatium'
'buris'
sigis
'uictoria'
'habe',
shate
'dominat'
shas-
sedl

m,
'uinc';
Segobriga 3a2.-sige,
2b1.-hy
sigor
'fortis',
'uictoria'
haeddel
''
2b3.haezl,healf
seghos
seghurs
sgneumi
segnom
seg
'firmus'
seurus
1a1.sagum
suanem<s
2b1.- Schnrsen
ognohoenyn
kel
'retinacula' 'pedica' 'laqueus'
, sn
<segno'pedica'
seges,
Seia
seik
sca
seiq
sicc,
siccus
seil
segeticion
'prolis'
2b1.-heu,
hau
VEN.-Silis,
Silarus;
HISP.-Sil
silid
seigel
'tignum'
3a2.-sgol
'uirga'
Sequana
shan,
seihen
'cl';
seich
'micti'
3a2.siolo
'mare'
3a2.-sma
'laq, fun.'
3a2.-smi
'funis'
seim
sim
'catna'
seim
2b1.-hufen 3a1, 3a2.'crma

seim
*soimeno- 'mucilagu
m, melle'
sn
senawa,
'catna,
Sehne
monl'
'funis'
3a2.-sinu
'id'
seinus
sjdhlom
sj
skmi
simila
sec,
secris,
'potests,
'excellens'; uictoria'
'retine', sahurah
'potens'
5.3.MYK sahaz=sah
ekoto?
as-
shuri'potens'
5.5.sakuriya'capere'
sjati
segnoti
'pend',
'capere'
annect 6.3.-sgti
5.6.'id'
frhajam
ipf.1s.
TOK.-A
ktlyi B
aktlye 'tlis' -*yo?
s 'talea'
s cat,
'humidits' sicti
5.3.-hak-,
hin aiti
s ,
scati
'ming'
6.3.-sile
'salua'
smn(ta),
'cinctus';
sm
'flagell' 'marg'
5.5.-ishai
'lig'
'sanguis'
sithlad/sol 2b1.-hidl, 3a3.-sld

*sl
thughadh 'cribrum'
'id'
'cribrum' >
2b3.-sizl,
karel.
sil 'id'
siekla

sithlad/sol 2b1.-hidl, 3a3.-sld
*sl
thughadh 'cribrum'
'id'
'cribrum' > <*kieH2?
2b3.-sizl,
karel.
sil 'id'
siekla
2b2.- tescaid<to- 2b1.sega

prusekatu eks-sk; hesg(en)
'sec';
5.3.-hinu- 6.3.-sena
'uinculum' 'marg,
mrus'
6.4.pasainis
'monl.'
pro-seati
6.3.-setas
'cribrum'
pro-seati
6.3.-sijju,
-ti
sek 6.3.i-skti
691

saxum, 'prsect'
sacna, ; aseeta
signum 'nn secta'
sknis
sgnis
seks /
sweks
sex
sekstos
sextus
sekris
selg
secris
seljos
selk
sel
selom
slom
selw
692
seche,
seiche
'pellis'
'carex'
segisna,
2b2.Sense
heschen
'falx' ;
'canna,
Segel
arund'
'ulum'
2b3-hesk 3a2.-secg
<sek-sk 'ensis', sail
'id'
2b1.sechs
chwech, 3a2.-siex,
chwe
six
2b2.whegh,
whe
2b3.c`houec`h
<swex
sessed
2b1.sehsto,
chweched; sehto
selg/sealg
'uenor'
'inhum',
iskti
'scalp';
sekyra
'secris'
sahs
'silenter'
'silens';
'minus,
minim'
sahsta
2b1.-in
helcha
'uennd'
2b2.helhwur
'uenaator'
2b3.-emolc`h
'uenor'
est,
5.3.-xva
5.4.-vech 6.3.-e
a h-,
6.3. tas
sekyra
s jti'soluit'
sulc,
sulcus
consulere,
consilium
??
solum,
solea
selah
'phoca'
3a2.-sulh
3a2.-seolh
'ph.'
;
5.4.-heg To slk;
'tardus,
'trah'
;
piger'
<*HeHw3lk
HHwlA B.-helq,
heq 'trah'
<*(s)olkei
selb
Luguselua sellen
saljan
slati
'proprits' 2b1.-helw 'uend' 'sacrific' 'praeda'

'mittere'
to-selb
'id'
3a2.-sellan
sala
sl
'conseru'
'fideicomis
'oblti'
sus'
s l
saliws
selo
'domus, 'hospitia'
<sedlo-?
domicilium'
'pagus,
ager'
6.3.-sal
'insula';
sl 'ager'
sl 'smen' 2b1.-hil
6.3.'progenis'
pas l s
'sati'
selb
Lugu2a3.selua
sealbh,
helw

seilbh
smisemj
smisentna
semli
simul, arc.
semol
sm
smen
semos
semper,
simtu,
semel,
singul
<s gnoi,
simplx
sench
sing (to)
senj
senks
sene
senex
senq
speltrom
sep
sept
1b2.sumel
simble(s),
simblum
'semper'
smo
<*smn
siml
emith
2b1.sin-hun sin-teins
'tanquam, hanter
'coiux'
'quotidi';
quasi' < 'dimidium'
3a2.sums
*semiti
hefyd
sinhwan 'qudam'
'quoque' 'id'; some
2b2.'nnnullus'
hanner 'id'
2b3.hanter 'id'
2b1.de(h)ongl
'explic'
sen
singan,
singen
3a2.singan
3a3.syngua
senogntu
s
2b1.2b2.-2b3.hen
6.3.-smti
siggwan
'can';
sangws
'cantus,
musica'
sineigs,
sinista
'senissimu
s'
sigqan
sinkan,
sinken,
seicht
'dus'
3a2.sincan
3a3.skkva
st 'uia' 2b1.-hynt 3a2.-sth ainamma
<*sentus 2b3.-hent 'iter, uices' sina
'uia'
'semel'
sandjan
'mitt'
sentos
seplij
smidoes-sim
'effund'
amal 'sicut'
seme
6.3.semenys
sam- 6.3.-s nas
'omnis,
TOK A.
ecquis ',
s
'nullus';
sak t
'qudam'
'semel' ;
'alicunde';
smiti;
sahsra
'alter'
'mille'
Myc. e-me 5.3.-hama
'omnis';
ha-krt;
haza ra
5.4.amn(ain)
'omnis'
'uox , samghai
augurium'; (PRAKR)
'dc,
'nmen
affer'
iouis'
6.3.-sen ju
sana- 6.3.-s nas
5.3.-hana- 6.4.-sens
5.4.-hin
'cecidit'
5.4.ankanim
'cad,
dminu'
sepeli
TOK A.sont
saparyati
'uenertur'
sepeli,
sepultum
septem
(aor
'par';
??
'arma';
'coqu'
secht n- 2b1.-saith
2b2.-seyth
sibun
3a2.-
sibun
spati
'colit' ;
saparyti
'venertur'
5.3.-haf(sustine)
5.4.-ep'em
'coqu'
sapt
sedm<*s
5.3.-hapta eptmtos
693

2b3.-seiz
spt os
seqai
seqi
seq
septimus
sequor
inquam,
inquit
secus
ser
ser,
seris,
sors
serum
sros
srpenos
serp
sesmi
srus;
srius?
serpens
satelles <
etrusc.
za-la?
s tjosi
stius
seug
sg
694
sehan,
saihvan
sehen 'id' 'uidre'
3a2.-seon,
see 'id'
3a3.-sja
'id'
scl
Ate-spatus sagen
'narrti'
2b1.3a2.cosc
chwethl,
secgan
'correcti'
hepp
3a3.aithesc
'inquit'
seg(g)ja
'responsu 2b3.-quem' in- hezl cosb
cho-sig
'pniti'
'quid
significat'
sech
2b1.-heb
'praeter,
'sine'
trans'
2b2.-heb
<*sekw/se
'id'
k wo
2b3.-heb
'id'
aserum sreth<srt
3a3.-srwi
'linea'
'monle'
saptam,s
apttha
5.3.haptaqa
5.4.haftum
5.5.-ipta.
scate; 6.3.-sek,
s akti
skti
'comit'
5.5.-sakui
'oculus'
'dc'
sarwa
'arma'
seisc
2b1.-hesg 3a3.-sef
'iuncus'
2b2.sescenn heschen
'pals'
'canna'
stig 'uxor'
2b1.sugno
(v.n.)
2b3.-
skm, secen<*se
sc, sci
ken ,
'iuxta'
sec<*seki
5.3.-ha , 'praeter'
'ab'
sar'fluidus'
sr 'longus' 2b1.-2b2.2b3.-hir
sgim
6.3.-sakti,
sakti
serp
sesqos
setis
sechur,
sechithir;
rosc
'oculus'
<proskwo
m; cosc
'facis'
<*in-kom-s
6.3.septitas.
seqos
serom
seofon
3a3.-siau
sechtm-ad sextameto
3a2.s
seofoa
sd Seit
seius
'post'
<seH1-i-tu
3a2.-sth,
'tard'
3a2.scan
<'reptle'
sarp
srpati
sasti
5.3.-hah
5.5.-ses-
A B.gjarpn
'sodlis';
Hom.
'id'
str ?
'uxor'
'uis'
6.3.-sv tis
'hosps'!

sunaff/sun
a
seut
siodan,
sieden
3a2.soan,
seethe
sewj
virsmen;
sumen
'perdere'
sewe
swijos
sew
silj
sod
'uoluit'
sile
3a2.slnes
'silnti.'
hvayan
u ,
'coquunt'
utt
5.5.-suttati 'nug'
'tumesc'
6.3.?
siau i/sti
'uentil'
'sin,
permitt'
2b1.-huan
<*sowon
? 'sl'
ana-silan
suvti,
sauti,
savati 'id'
5.3.-hav'id'
5.5.-i'incit'
sneumi
sinsteros
saus
'animal
hostile'
sinister cf. ? nertru

'sinistr
<uirlire'
sin
sin, pn,
situs
sinus
sinus
sisd
sd < sisd, sede
1b2.sersitu
'sedet',
zeref
`sedens',
andersesu
st
ìntersideri
t'
sa(i)did,
fut. seiss
(*sed-s-ti);
suidigur
'loc'
2b1.sedddu
syti,
6.3.-si ti
sinti,
6.4.-set
sinti
5.3.-h(y)5.5.-iiya-,
ii
cf;
sniyn
'tilius'
5.3.-cf;
vairyastra
'laeuus',
vriyn
'potius'

va-syati
6.3.F 'consistit' tsainus
'tranquillus' avasna- 'negligens'

'terminus'
(cf.
) suvti
5.3.-hra'id'
5.5.-zeya
'coqu'
ALB.-gji
<*sinos
sizzu;
sitan
sdati,
se do,
caus.
<*sitjan;
stsi,
sedeti
sezzen,
caus.
6.3.'uendere'; cau.sdy
setzen
satjan
ati
*sdmi,
(i
<*sodej
<*sodej
sed iu
schwa
3a2.-sittiu,
secundum 5.3.-hiaiti
sit
,
) 'statu'
3a3.-sit
nia hasti,
niayeiti
5.4.-nstim
<*nisdy?;
hecanim
<*-ds5.5.-sisd-
695

ssermi
serum
'quiesc'
ssarti,
'pulsus' srati 'flu'
sar'fluidus'
5.5.-sesar
'col'
jghrti,
ghrti
'odor'
sirid 'errat, Sarmus

sagit'
'flmen'
2b1.-herw
<*seruo'error'
ssghrmi
sslwos
sis
sisqos
ser, su
1b2.sati,
semenies
smen
sl
2b1.-sil, hil s(j)en,
saian
'smen'
'prols'
swen
praet.
saithe haidd heiz 3a2.saiso;
'exmen' 'barley'
swan manases
haid
3a3.-srr, 'humnits
'examen'
saurr
'
'smen'
cf. siccus
sesc
2b1.-hysb
'siccus,
f. hesb
ster.'
2b3.-hesp,
2a3.hesk
seasg
sith- aeq.
sto 'lax'
sithithir
3a2.-sd
'longus'
'amplus'
3a3.-skrr
<*skeiro-
sts
skrs
sjewmn
su,
sbula
siula
<*sewlo'sbula'
sjdhl
sbula
siula
sjts
stus
3a2.-sod
<*siuts <
*sjts
'crumna'
skabhjs
skabhnom scamnum,
696
TOK.-A
krm,
kor 'nasus'
sasy-m
seti
'smen'; 6.3.-sju,
syaka
sti
'missle'
5.5.-sai'dispar';
sehur
'urna'
sicti
'fund'
5.3.-hisku
'siccus'
skeirs
Saum
seam
3a3.saumr
sjew
6.3.-apsirti
'circume'
siujan
'umbrculu
m q.'
iryj
6.6.szczery
syman'neruus'; 'uinculum';
stra'cantus'
'flum,
aphorismu
s'
5.5.sum(m)an
za(n)
'corda'
syth
'stus'
svyati
'suit'
5.5.-suwl
'flum'
stram
'flum'
syth
skabhnti,
iti,
6.3.-siuti;
sd em,
silas,
.siola'flum'
'cuspis';
'pedica'
6.3.-silas,
siola-;
'flum';
saiklis
'fibula'
6.7.-sidlo
zasht,
shila
6.4.-s ts
<*sjtos

scabellum
skabh
scab,
scabis,
scaber
skaiws
scaeuus
skalp
skand
skandsl
skpos
skatj
skat
sked
scalp,
sculp
scand,
scla
<*skand(t/
s)l
chwith
'sinistera'
3a,a2.skaft
'hasta'
3a3.-skapt
'id'
scat,
scate
scatn,
2b1.Schad(e)
scadn ysgadan
'alosa
'harengus' 'harengus' pseurohar
engus'
3a2.sceadd 'id'
3a2.scateren,
scatter,
shatter
scindula,
scandula
caesius;
caelum<ka
idlom,
kaitslom?
kpth
6.3.sklempi
skndati
'pedica,
'sali'
offensi'
scendim 2b1.-cy'sali'
chwynnaf
'initi'
scpus,
scpa,
scpi
skeg
skej
ciotach
skambhh
'fulcrum'
schepfen, skaban 5.4.-kfa, skobl
schaffen; 'tondre'; 'scalprum'; kva

'runcina''
skaft
gaskapjan
'scabit' 6.4.-skabrs
'schaft'
'crere' 'incussi'; (skap)
'scaber'
3a2.'lancea'
scafan,
scaban;
scieppan
'cr.';
gesceap,
shape
'forma'
3a2.sceacan,
shake
'agit'
3a3.-skaka
'id'
heit
haidus
'modus'; 'modus,
heitar
ars'
'clrum'
(caelum)
3a2.-hd,
had
3a3.-heidr
'honos';
heid(r)
'clrum
(caelum)
'sceptrum'
kopje
'hasta'
6.4.- ps
'id'
6.3.skastu,
skasti
skhadat
skod

'scindit'
'paruus';
(i schwa
dryj
secundum 5.4.-ert
'frag.
lign'
'profsus'
)
6.3.skederv
'fragmentu
m'; kedeti
'expld'
khajati
'remouet'
khja'turba'
ketu
6.3.'clrits'; skaidrus,
ceta,
skaistas
cetana
'clrus'
'signum';
6.4.citra
skaidrs
'conspicuu 'clrus'
s';
5.3.- iqra'conspicuu
s'
697

skek
skel
culpa ?
<*klp
skelos
scelus
skem
camisia
<gall.
skerbh
scrobis
skerd
mscerda,
sscerda,
ouicerda,
bocerda
scn
2b1.gi-scehan
'terror'
ysgogi
'accid'
scuchim 'moue'
'proficiscor 2b3.'
diskogella
'turb'
scal
'debe' ;
Schuld
<*skuli
'dbitum'
3a2.-sceal,
gescola,
shall
3a3.-skal
skerd
skerj
698
car,
corium,
cortex,
scortum,
carneis
'partis'
kersnu
'cna'
skal
(praetpraes)
6.3.-skeli,
-ti 'dbe,
culpbilis
esse';
sklti
'dbitor
fier';
kaltas
'dbitor',
kalt ,
skol
'dbitus'
6.9.skellants 'tor',
skallinsnan
chalam
scelah <*'tortus,
lha-'tortus'
'fraus'
improbus'
3a2.5.4.-sel
sceolh 'id'
'claudus' 'tortus'
3a3.skjalgr
<*skelk'id'
caimmse 2b1.-hefys hemidi, skaman ?

muly<lat.
<gmc?
Hemd
'pudet'
'camisia'
2b2.-hevis 'camisia'
gmc? 3a2.-homa
'tegumn'
cer(b)aim
scarph,
erb
'put'
scharf
'morsum;
cerb
'raucus'
fisra'
'acerbus'
'3a2.6.3.-skirbti
sceorpan
'acer fi'
'rd'
6.4.-skrabt
'excau'
sceirdim
scharn
TOK.-B
chrntti,
srat
'spu'
<*skorno-; krtk chardayati 'cacre'
hart, Harz 'cac'; A
'spu';
<*ker(H);
'mastiche' krtkl, B
kardama skared
3a2.krkklle
'lutum, 'repugnans
scearn;
'pals'
situs'
'
hart
5.3.-sairya 6.3.-arwai
3a3.-skarn
5.5.6.4.-srni
akkar
(akna)
5.6.sargn,
sargn
ALB.scerdid
scurz, kurz
oskrd
'alium' hurdhe,'ali
'abscabit'
'breuis'
'lig'
3a2.-scort
um'
6.3.-skersti
, short
'mactre'
scar(a)im 2b1.-ysgar sceran,

krka
'separ' 'separ'; Scheren
'crusta'
scu(i)rim gwa-sgar
3a2;6.3.-skiri,
'disiung' 'disperg' scieran
skrti

cna
sker
skeubh
skeud
skeum
skeuros
obscrus
skeut
cutis,
cunnus<ku
tnos
skew
caue (cf.
kwy)
1b2.-karu
'porti';
esna
cnam'
3a3.-skera
6.4.- irt
kirti 'iacit' skor 'cit'

scern
(i
'gaudre',
6.3.schwa
scher(e)n
sker s,
secundum
'festn'
sker lis
);
schrecken
'locusta'
'terre'
'uermis
3a2.saltans'
secgescre
'cicada
locusta'
scioban, af-skiuban
skubo,
schieben 'repudi'
skubati
3a2.'euell'
scofan
6.3.-skbti
'abmoue'
'festn'
3a3.skopa
'curr'
sciozan,
skaut
c dati,
is-kydati
schiessen; 'proiectus' 'terms
cdyati
6.3.dentis'
schutten,
'impellit' skudrs,
(Hes.) 5.4.- ust skaudrs
schtzen
'proteg'
'promptus' 'celer'
sc,
skuggwa
skauti,
6.4.scuwo 'speculum' 'cilium'
skunti, skumstu
'umbra'
skunti 'obscurri,
'pellis'
skugina,
4.3.tristis fier'
Scheune
iu<skewo
'mapalium'
s 'tectus'
scm
'spma';
schummer
'occas'
3a2.-sci
'nubs';
scuwa
'umbra'
carn
scr
skhs
6.3.-skra
'calceus'
'tectus'
'corium'
skra,
k valas
sciura
'pelle ou'
'mapal.'
6.4.- ula,
scuoh
skura
'calceus'
'cortex'
3a2.-skr
'calceus'
skunti,
2b1.-kwd ht<hdi
ktat
'scrtum';
Haut
skun ti,
'operre'
eskit,
hodo,
'tegit,
skotati
'usque ad operit'
esgit,esgid Hode
'slor'
pelle'
<pedskt 'testic.'
<kunt
'calceus'
hutte
6.3.-kut s
F
2b2.-eskit, 'mapal.'
'bursa';
'nus';
esgis
3a2.kiutas
hodma
'cortex'
'obscrits'
kutef
hren 'id' hausjan (-s- kav- ,
udo
`'cautens'
scouwn, 'audre'
) 'audi'
vts,
'mirabilia'
699
skidj
skij
skind
scind
scith
'uomitus'
skw
skiq
siliqua
skj
silex<*skil
eks ;
culter
skneumi
coluber
<klodhros
; calx
scoiltim
'scind';
sce(i)llec
'rups'
skgj
sknid
lens ?
skodhos
scth
'fessus';
escid
'infatigbili
s'
skoidos
skoirss
700
sned
scurra
schauen <*H2kH2ow
doctus' 6.3.-kavt
'percipi' 5.3.- v 'dubit'
'spect';
sj
shn
hwian
'gloria' 'prouideor';
'pulcher' 'spect';
kh
3a2.us-skaws 'spectator' 'numen'
heran, 'senstus';
5.4.hear; show skauns
cucanem
'monstr'; 'perspicuu
'monstr'
scenc
s'
'pulcher'
chyti
?
'diud'
'possum' 5.5.-skk
2b1.sczan,
chinatti
chwydu scheien
'assula' 'glb'
'vomit'
3a2.2b2.- sctan, shit
hweza
'i.'
2b3.3a3.-skta
c`houeda
'cac'
scina
5.4.-siwn
c vj,
'columna' 'columna'
<*skinn
c vka
3a2.-scinu
6.3.-saiva
'aiv'
skolka
'ostrea'
iskalla(i)2b1.-hollt
3a2.skalja
skala
'fodi'
'scisi'
scielian
'tilia';
'scind'
'rps'
2b2.-felza 3a3.-skilja; skildus
2b3.skil
'titulus';
faouta 'diferentia' hallus?
'rps'
schilhen
klka
'crus'
'strabus
'poples'
esse'
6.3.'uermis'
3a2.kulks,
scielfan,
kulkns
'rot'
shelve
'coxa';
'membrum'
'abruptus
kulns
esse'
'calx'
hinkan
khajati
'claudic' 'claudicat'
'claudic';
skank,
skthiSchenkel
'sura'
'sura';
5.3.-haxti-)
schenken
'sura'
'd'!
2b1.-nedd 3a2.-hnitu
gnda
2b3.6.3.-glnda
nezenn
<*gnnda?
2b1.scadn, skajan,
5.4.'incolumis' xatàrem
esgud
schaden
sk
'agilis'
'id'
'damn'
'deleoo'
3a2.skaian 'id'
sct, Scheit
3a2.-scd
<*-d?
scern
'diuertimen
tum'

3a3.-skjarr
'timidus'
skoitom
sctum
<*skoito-
skoj
skolm
sklos
skolpos
skortom
skostrom
skotos
skouros
caurus,
crus
skous
skreibh
skreid
skrobhis
scrb
scath
<*skeito-
2b1.ysgwyd
2b3.skoed
sct, Scheit
'lignum'
3a2.-scd
'id'
3a3.-sk ALB.-h,
'simulti' hie, (h)ona 'umbrsus'

TOK B.- ;
skiyo
'tentorium'
tit
chy5.3.asaya'nullam
umbram
iaciens'
5.6.sya
6.3.-sejs,
seja
<*key
scalm
6.3.'scalmus'
'nauis'
klmas
3a3.-sk lm
'truncus'
'cuspis,
SORB.'ensis'
siliqua'
om
3a1, 3a2.- ALB.-hele
kal
kol
'plus' 'particula' <*kolos
scla
'ueru'
'lanx';
'plus'
skola
6.3.-kulas
'diuisi'
'id'
scelifa
6.3.-klpa
'plus'
'tegumen
'tignum
membran
currs
sum'
niulis';
3a2.klpa
scielfe,
'stapia'
shelf
3a3.-skj lf
'scamnum'
chattra
'umbella'
scth
2b1.-(cyskadus
chattra
'obscurits' 'umbella'
)ysgaud
2b2.scod/skz
2b3.skeud
skr,
skra
5.4.-curt
sever
Schauer
windis
'frigus'
6.3.'frigus' 'turbulentia
idure,
3a2.-scr,
'
iaur s
scor 'id'
2b1.-cwthr
hose
ko ha'uensica, 'abdomen,
'anus; 3a2.-hosa
follis'
rectum'
'uagna'
recipiens'
<*kuzdhro
krabelen,
reb
'scab'
kerban
'mca'
'scab'
6.4.
3a2.grpsta
ceorfan,
'scobis'
'raster'
carve 'id.'
scrissid
schrssen,
dis'putat'
-reien
skreitan
3a2.'discind'
hrtan,
write
701

skroupos
skroutos
scrpus, eus,
scrpulus um
scrtum,
scrtillus,
scrtor
skubtis
cf. cubitus
skutj
scutillus ?
sktos
slabai
lab -re;
labor /is;
labium;
labrum;
limbus
slags
laxus
<*(s)lH2gs
o-
3a3.rep
skroflig ?
<skrep
'raucus,
6.6.iniquus'
skorupa
2b1.scrtan
and6.9.'deplet'
ysgrud
'scind'
hruskan
scrundos
(Hes.)
3a3.'scrutor'
'ferfex'
hrja
'populor,
deple'
ND.-schuft
upti-,
ALB.-sup
(bouis)
5.3.-supti
scothaid
hudele
6.3.-skut,
'canna'
'pannus'
skusti
2b1.-eskit
'pelle,
'calceus'
corium'
2b2.-eskit,
esgis 'id'
<*pedskt
o
er(sch)laff slpan,
sl b
en
saizlp
'dbilis'
'uagina,
3a2.-lappo 'dormi'
6.3.bulla'
'harapus'
slobst,
slbti
'langesc'
6.4.-slbt
lacc
2b1.-llacc
slah
lak n
6.4.
(express. < Angl. 3a2.-slc,
'tener,
lens
'lepus'
gg)
slack
suuis,
(=cum
3a3.-slakr
blandus'
laxs
slak
slach(d)ai
m; slacc;
slacaire
'offensor'
slat
slat
sleib
sleidh
702
2b1.latta
(ys)lath
3a2.2b3.-laz laeththa
2b1.-llym ? slfan
'actus'
3a2.2b3.slpan, slip
lemm?'filo'
<bsm
slten
3a2.-sldan
lumbrcus
< *londhrko- ?
slet,
slaod
'uiscosits'
lma, lm;
sligim, foslhhan,
slahts
sligim
schleichen 'glaber,
'lin',
'sigils
leuis'
adslig
uad'
'allicit'
schleicht
sliachtad
'leuis'
'planifacti'
3a2.-sliht,
slige
slight 'id'
'pecten'
slemun 2b1.-llyfn
slmen
sleig
sleim
slahan,
slahan;
schlagen slauhts
3a2.'trucidti'
slahan,
slay
auribus)
s k'hasta,
sagitta'
5.3.har aya'mitt'
'lbricus'
srdhati
'errat'
'cs'
cf.
sle /edt
'sequor'
6.3.sldau,
slsti
sliz
'ltum'
slzkij
lbricus
slzk
'i
o ',

cf. luis
'suuis'
2b3.gurlimun
'delinit'
sleimj
sleimks
slm,
Schleim
'pituita'
sleiwos
liiuor
sljs
sleub
luis
lbricus
sleug
slign
lig, -nis
sijai
sali,
salt,
salebra,
salax
sloidhos
sloiwom
slougos
sl gj
l 'colos'
smalos
Liuo,
Schlehe
uius
'prnus'
2b1.-lliw 3a2.-slh,
2b2.-liu
sloe 'id'
2b3.-liou
sliiofan;
Schlucht
3a2.sluupan
slucim, 2b1.-llyncu schlchen,
sloigim; llewa
schlucken
lungu, 3 'pulmenta' 3a3.-slka
loingid
*lugam
'est, bibit,
2b3.consumit'
lonka;
roluncas
'dit'
sliucht
3a2.'uestigium,
slicc<slikja
secti,
- 'malleus'
proles'
saltraid 1b1.-satru
'conculcat' 'conculct.'
1b3.sautrein
'conc.'
'suuis'
slimk ;
sliny
'muccus'
6.3.sli kas;
sli nas
'salua'
nl <*llsliva
'ltus'
?
'prnum'
<(s)loiHts 5.5.-sulai-,
cf. suliya<*plouHt- 'plumbum'
sliupan
lurco(r),
lurc, -nis
2b1, b2,
b3.-mil
sluga
'seruus'
'coniux'
nam <
mn ?
ml
v-sleplj
6.3.-tsala
'pals';
salpas
'meandrus'
'fauces'
slurken.
slurc
'fauces'
samonios
? 'nmen
mensis'
malus<'par mallom/ud
uus'
'malus'
lkas
6.3.-pala kis
'pantica
uitul'
sluag
Catu-slugi
'copiae'
2b1.llu,
teg-lach
telu
'familia' 2b2.-luu,
teilu
sm
'limre'
mla;
small 'p.'
3a2.sml,
small
3a5.-maal
'uitulus'
smals
'paruus'
smso-sed
'cum'
'uicnus'
5.3, 5.4- 6.3.-sam-,
ham 'cum' sa 'cum'

sma
5.5.-ma'sed'
5.4.-mal
mal
'ouis'
'paruus'
703

smeg
smeidh
smeighsli
mille
smeik
mca
smeirai
smeirtlom
smeiros
smeit
smej
smeksl
mitt;
cosmittere
(Fest.)
mror;
mrus;
cmis,
cosmis
mad
'gloria'
modit
'gloritur'
mla
<*smksl/
mantsl/m
agsl;
maxilla
smech/sm(
e)ig
smelg
smel
smemorj memoria,
memor
704
smach
6.3.-mgti
'gustu.,
'uolupe';
odor'
smaguriat
3a2.i 'pic.'
smakin
'sapi'
smid, aiza-smia
5.5.6.3.'lig'; summittant smails
Schmied
'aeris
3a2.-smi faber''
- 'ascia'
'cuspis'
'culter'
sahsra-m
5.3.haza ra
smhi
'paruus'
'paruus'
3a2.smalc
'mintus'
5.3.hamista
'subditus'
paitimini
ti 'ualedicit'
smyat, - smejo,
3a2.-smile
3a3.-mila
ati
smijati se
smra- 6.3.-smeju,
'subridens' smit; n.
smada,
smaidt
3a2.-mer
ma ru6.3.'labrum'
'barba'
smakr
5.4.6.4.mauruk 'id' smakrs
5.5.zama(n)ku
r <*smokur 'barba'
smle,
6.3.-smlga
Schmiele
6.8.-smlza
'aira
'aira
caespitsa
caespitsa
'
'
3a3.smele,
smile
3a2.prysmalty
smo(u)lder
6.3.-smilkti
smel(l)
'fmre'
'odor'
sml,
sml,
smal
'cinis;
ignis'
mertaid Ro-smerta mornn marnan smarati 6.3.-merti
'cr'; 'reminiscit 'crat'
'instruit'
2b1.'cur'
'cur'
airm(m)ert armerth
3a2.ur'
6.5.-mriti
'cra'
'prohibiti' 'praeparti mimorian,
5.3.'crat'
'
ge-mimor,
maraiti
'testis' ?
'commenta
murnan 'id'
'parca'
t'
5.4.mormork
'cra'

smneumi
smerd
smerd
macula
<sm-tl
merda
smeros
smerw
medullae ?
smeugh
smir
(smera)
mch
'fmus'
smitl
tamen
macula
<smtl
s lis
similis
samail
simtu
emith
'tanquam,
quasi' <
*semiti
s loghs
s oitis
s ptr
smoughos
smoughos
smudhn
smghneu
mi
smuainim;
smuained:
'cgitti'
smzan, bi-smeitan
5.4.-mic
sm d
schmeien
'lin'
'immunditi 'fuscus',
'unguere';
'id'
a'
'unguentu <*smidyo
m'
smerdt
'foete'
'foetentes'
6.3.smirdti
'id'
6.4.smir^de^t
'id'
murayl marka;
'obscrus' 'obscrus' marju, -t
'calumni'
6.3.-mora
'mucor'
Smerius, smero 'ol.' smarr

6.3.'oleum'
Smertulus smirwen 'oleum';
smarsas
2b1.-mr schmieren smarna 'unguentu

'oleum'
2b3.'ungu'
'stercus'
m'
ml<moell
3a2.e
smeoru 'id'
5.4.-mux
2b2.-mwg
3a2.6.3.'suffoc' 'fmus'
'ignis'
smocan
smugti
2b2.-mok
'suffoc'
2b3.moug,
mog
meil, Mal
6.3.-mi les
'mancill'
3a2.-ml
'fermentu
m'
6.4.-meles
'id'
2b1.-hafal
'aequus' ;
2b2.-haval
2b3.haval
sulog
'coniux'
<s -log
2b1.-hefyd
smiti
'quoque'
'conuenti,
congressu
s'
5.3.3a3.- samfera
hamapitar
gamaudja 5.6.-m
n 'memor' 'uerbum'; 'querella'
6.3.
ufarmaude 'loquor'
maud i,
i 'obliui'
maud ia ,
ma sti
'affligor'
5.4.-mxim; mknuti
smiegen,
'penus'
schmiegen
mxem
sja
'ntor'
'immerg'; 'transre'
3a2.mux
6.6.smgan
'tinctra', mug(a)
rp
'angiportus
705

3a3.smjga
snghj
snadh
snmi
sneighs
sneit
sneitos
snmi
snm
snahhan
3a2.snake
'serpens'
snad-;
2b1.snatta,
snass
naddu; Schnatta
'amputti' nedim
'uulnus,
'ascia'
incisi'
2b3.-ezeff 3a3.-naddr
, eze 'id'
'cuspis'
snmi
n
1b2.-snata snid; 2b1.-nawf
'umecta'
snm
2b3.'balneor'
'ntti'
neuvi
5.5.-sanh
(v.n.)
'lau'
nix, ninguit
snechte; 2b1.-nyf
sno
snaiws
snigid
3a2.-snw,
'ninguit'
snow
snid
sndan,
sneian
'curtus'
schneiden
'put,
3a2.met'
snan 'id'
snaighim
ne
nmen
sner
706
najan,
nen,
nwen
'su' ;
snuor,
Schnur
'funis'
3a2.snood
'uitta'
narwa
Narbe
'cicatrix' ;
snuor
'catella'
3a2.-naru,
narrow
'strictus'
snth(e)
2b1.3a2.'flum';
ysnoden
snood
snithe,
'uitta'
'uitta'
snthe <*- 2b2.-snod
tyos
'id' <3a2
'textus'
sntj
sneubh
sn- snid
2b1.'torquet, nyddu,nod
cruciat';
wydd
snm <*2b2.mo- 'nre, nethe;
torqure, notuid 'id'
tormentum 2b3.';
nezaff;
snthad nadoez 'id'
'acus'
snthe
'flum'
snm <*mo- 'nre,
torqure,
tormentum
'
nb
nla
'acus'
'ne' snyati
'inuolutat,
'flum'
uestit';
snva
'nexus,
neruus'
'
6.7.smeknouti
'ddc'
6.3.(s)munk,
(s)mkti
'uadere'
6.3.-snake
'cochlea'
sneg
6.3.sni gas
snit
'truncus,
rmus'
nt 'flum'
6.3.-ntis
'rs
textrinae'
6.4.-snju,
snt; nts
'rs
textrinae'
snrj
'corbis'
(Hes) >
'cista'
n tyati
'tripudiat'
nert(o)
'piscis q.'
6.3.-nyr,
nrti; neri,
nrti
'infibr'
6.4.-snte
'stragulum'
snubiti

'pacta,
procus'
(Hes.)
sneudhs
nbs,
obnbilre
2b1.-nudd
<*snoudho
- 'nebula'
snwr
neruus
sniumi
'rapidus'
3a2.snome
'id' 3a3.sna /era
'lig'
sain
o-han, a- suntar,
'uari';
han 'ab, sondern
sanas(<sa separtim'
3a2.nista)
2a2.sundor
'secrtus'
hanys 3a3.-sundr
'swcrt'
si
snncheti
snogh
sstus
stj
ster
snuss
sine, s,
sd
ninguit
sundr
'proprius'
sanutar
svene
'abiect' 'abiect'; 'praeter,
(<ster) sanutara-,
sine'
sanutya
'inconspicu
us' 5.3.hanar
'abiect'
5.5.-sanna
'cl',
sanezzi
'dulcis'
sensus
suidigud
'sessi'
sdj
side
sodjom
solium
sodm
cd <kesd
sin, -nnes
''sensus'
<*sent-no-;
sinnan
'meditor'
sodej
sognos
soitos
norus,
nora
snura
3a2.-snoru
3a3.-snor
sezzen,
setzen
3a3.-setia
2b1.3a2-3a3.huddygl
st
2b3.-huzel
suiden, for- 2b1.-sedd

ud
gor-sedd
'scamnum' 'thronus'
(upo-pro)
2b1-2b3hud
2b2.-hus,
3a2.-siden
'magus'
3a3.-sei
5.3.snaoa
sniwan,
sniumjan
'festn'
3a2.snome
'id'
snigid
'pluit'
senti,
sensus,
sententia
'copul'
snvan5.3.snvar
5.4.-neard
snovo,
snujo
'ordior'
6.3.snaujis
'laque.'
5.5.instanza(n
)- 'anima'
set
'intelligens'
6.3.-sintti
'cgit'
satjan
snu
snuxa
5.4.-nu
(nuoy)
sdyati ( saditi
'uendere' Brugm.) <*sdej- (

5.3.-nipropter
ayeiti Winter)
6.3.sod iai
6.4.sudr ji
6.7.-sze
<*sdio
'uia' -sad-, ut- choditi 're'

sad5.3.pazdayeiti
'deturbat'
s tuset 'rte'
'cantus' 'uinculum'
sitce
'funis'
707

sljai
slor
solkos
sulcus,
sulc
hudol
sln
'snus'
(tamen
cum hitt.
salli
<so/elH2i
'magnus'
compartu
r' - cf.
solwos)
solwotts
somej
soms
sondhos
sontej
sontis
sons,
insons
soqjos
socius,
pedisequu
s
sormos
708
5.4.'faue'
ala 'em
'alacer' <slH2-sk-y
<ssl 'quaer'
wos
'fauens'
sarph
TOK A
'butyrum' slyp B
salype
(Hes)
srvaTOK A
<*sol
H
salu
2-wo
<*solH2-wo
5.3.'compltus'
haurva , solme
5.4.-olj, orj 'complt'
5.5.-salli
'magnus'
LUV.salhitti'augmen'
sarvtat(i)
5.3.haurvatt
3a3.samjan
*samayti
semja 'conformr
'aequat,
'concordr
e'
conformat'
e'
suide
amit, samit sama
sman-,
sam
*som-de
'cunctus' 'cunctus'
sman'ipse,
'hc'
3a2.'commnis' solus,
same,
5.3.-hma- nus'
seem
'idem, ipse'
Sinter
6.5.-sdra
'excrment
'stalactta'
'stalactta'
um'
st 'uia'; 2b1.-hynt senten, sandjan;

5.3.-hant6.3.stig 'uxor' 2b2.senden
sins
'assequor' siun i,
eunhinsic 3a2.-send 'occasi'
5.4.-
si sti
'iustus'
sandjan
ntànam 6.4.-stu,
2b3.-hent
'mitt'
'uad'
stt
'uia'
sand,
sunjis,
satySnde
sunjeins
'urum'
'culpa'
'urum'
5.3.-haiya3a2.'id
s,sooth,
5.6.sin
haiya- 'id'
3a3.5.5.sannr,
asanzasannr
'urum'
3a2.-secg
skh,
3a3.-seggr
sakhi
'amcus'
Sarmus
sarma'pulsus'
'flmen'
salba
<*solp
3a2.-salf
<*solp
saluus
<sH2-wo,
arc. sollus,
salbris,
sollers,
sollemnis;
sals *Hut>*uHt
sls
'bonus'
solpos
solwos
slig ,
selig 'id'
3a2.-sl
'betus'
3a3.-sll
'id'
salavs
'saluus',
sullus
'omnes'
1b2.saluvom,
salvom,
sal(u)uom
'id'
salbon
'ungere'

sorbhj
sorbe
sorbhos
sorbus
srub
'fauccum'
sur(p)feln,
schlrfen
3a3.-sarf
'rutilus
rutilus
(ichth)'
sorw
soujs
1b1.-aswy
soukos
scus
swij
spros
prosperus
2b3.sun<soukn
o-
spakos
sachilli
'saudaria'
sim
<*spimi'exilis,
macer'
spneumi
sparos
sparwos
speik
sparus,
sparum,
paries
<'baculum
cellae
parra
cuspis<cur
ispids?
spca,
spna
FR.
ardoise
(cf. lat.
paries)
1b2.parfa(m)
'id'
spanan
3a2.spanan
3a3.-spd,
'tenuis'
sper;
Speer
'hasta'
3a2.-spere
'id'
3a3;-spjor
'id'
2b2.-frau
sparo,
sparwa
'coruus' Sperling
2b3.-frao
3a2.'id'
spearwa
spiz,
Spie;
speihha;
spiil, Speil
3a2.-spitu;
spca,
spca,
spire
3a3.-spita
'uor'
5.4.-arbi *serbjo,
'potu',
*srbati
praes. arb6.3.enam
srebi,
sr bti
6.4.strebju,
strbt
srasorobalina
'nucleus
'ribes'
arboris'
sorga
'rutilus'
6.3.serbetas
'id'
6.4.-sa^rts
'rubidi
uultus'
5.5.'intestnum'sarhuwant
- 'intestna,
foetus'
savyuj
5.3.haoya
TOK B.sok
<*swokw sekwe <swokwos
'ps'
6.3.-sakai,
svekas
<*swokwos
'resna'
sphir
'crassus'
'g.
6.3.pluuiae'
spakas
'dc';
'gestus' ;

'tenuis'
podpro,
'piscis
preti
quidam'
'fulcit'
upr
'sublica'
(Hes)
'macula,
scopulum'
spina
'dorsum'
6.4.-spina
'hasta'
709

speiksn
speimis
spekjs
spekj
spelgh
seim
speci,
specis,
specus,
auspex
lien
1b2.speture
'spectr',
speturie
'spectriae
'
spehn,
sphen;
spaahi
'formidus'
3a3.-sp
'uaticin.'
selg
spelgis
spel
spnos
speqos
sperdh
710
2b3.-felc'h
2b1.- 3a2.-spelc,
fflochen
spilc
'assula'
3a3.<*splokitn spjalkir
spel
spill
'narrti'; 'fbula'
gotspelln
'euangeliz
re';
Beispiel
3a2.-spell
'id',
gospel<g
dspell
spilda
'tabula
scribend'
appell re
spelt
spmi
3a3.-spiki
'parra'
spatium;
sps,
prosperus;
spissus<s
pidto
2b1.spwan
spdiza
ffysgyaw 'proliferre' 'postea';
'festn'
; gispto
2b2.-fesky spuoten
'tarde'
'id' spidsk 'consequor
'
3a2.spuon
'adipiscor';
spd, spd
'celeritas'
sine 'tetta'
(b tr
phne)
spanvarc
'porcellus'
3a3.-speni
'tetta'
spurt 'id' spards

3a2.-spyrd
'uia
'id'; sprint cursoria'
(s)p yati
5.3.spasyeiti
5.4.spasem
'exspect'
plh
'intestna'
5.4.
pàican
5.4.-pèlk
'minti'
slezena
6.3.bluzns
5.4.-ara- 6.3.-pelt
spel
'uituperre'
'adagium, pal'as (pl.)
fbula' 'uituperium
'
phlakam
'sctum' 'tabula,
titulus'
5.5.-LUW
palahsa
'sctum'
5.6.ispar,sipar
'titulus'
sphyate
spejo,

'auget'; speti 'bene
sphta
ueni';
'extensus'; 'magnus' speh
sphira
'studium',
'palmus';
'crassus'
speiti
5.5.- ipi 'festn';

'copios
spor
'specus' cumedit' 'abundans'
(cf. kowos)
6.4.-sp t
'patrimoniu
m'; spks
'uis'
stna
6.3.
'pectus
spen s
fem.'
5.4.-stin
'id'
5.6.pistn 'id'
sprdhat, predajo
'sali' sprdhti 'uib, sal'
5.3.6.3.sprd- sprind s
'auidits' 'interuallu
spergh
springan
'sali'
3a2.springan
'id'
3a3.srpinga 'id'
sprt
'dispersi'
sperj
spes
speud
spioz,
Spie
'hasta'
3a3.-fysa
'ag'
spingj
fincho,
Fink
3a2.-finch
3a3.-pink
3a1, a2.- speiwan
spwan
3a3.-spyja
spu
spjonos
spionia
(pergula?)
spjwtos
sptus
sion (dig.
Purp.)
spleigh
sliasa(i)t
'tbia'
lingid ?,
praet.
leblang
'sali'
sliasa(i)t 2b1.-ystlys
'tbia'
sliss/slios
'latus'
less
flinkern,
<plndtu
flunkern
splende
spex
'studium'
A B.-.
6.3.'festn';
pun ?
spusti
'- <pudn
'prem';
nti'
'labos'
spaud
5.4.-phoit 'pressi'
'anxiets'
'pipi'
sliss/slios
'latus,
fragmentu
m'
spndj
5.4.sp em;
pàratem
'et
remoue'
hvati
5a3.spma
'salua'
5.4.t`kànem
pljujo,
pljvati
6.3.spiuju,
spiuti
styth
6.4.spla ts
'tusstus'
6.3.-pltes
'micae';
plivina
'liber,
cortex'
2b1.fionou
'rosrum'
2b2.foeonnenn
'lig.'
spleid
splighsts
'smen'
sps
spjew
5.4.m'
sprdem
'uad'
5.5.ispart(iya)
'id'
sprhyati ,
'inuidet'
5.3.- - 'abscond'
sprzat
'commtus
est'
flins, 'silx'
3a2.-split,
flint 'id';
splinter
i plhate
'crra
'ambulat'
separ,
decor e'
i plhat
'crra
'moutur'
separ,
decor e'
sphuli ga
6.3.'cinis'
'scintilla' splnd iu
711
sptj
spolium;
spelta
<gmc
'lux';
lainnech iko
'fulgurans'
alta(i)n
'culter'
spd
spoim
spma
spoisj
spr,
sprculum
spoisn
spoljom
spolium
spondej
sponde
spondh
spnos
sponda
sponsts
sport
5.4.- p'ail
(p'ailic)
'fulgor'
2b1.-ffun
visen,
<spoin
visten
'respirti' 'siffilre'
(uentus);
fispern,
fispeln
sonn
'stps'
ffonn
'uirga'
'spra';
'spartus'
sporta
<etr.< gr.?
sprew
2b1.-ffreuo spriu,
'scat';
Spreu
ffraw
'foenum'
spliai
5.4.6.3.pàrem,
spartas
pàrim
'fimbria'
'amplector'
'flore'
3a3.sprikja
'extend'
2b1.-ffrwst
'festnti'
6.3.spstu,
spsti
'illumin'
6.4.spuo s
'clrus'
phnapena
6.3.-spine
'lineae
spums.
maris'
picchr
piskati
'tibia'
'siffilre'
6.3.pysketi
'pd'
spha ati
'scindit'
5.5.
ipand
'sacrificre'
5.4.-pùnd
'cuneae'; 'recipiens'
<*phondho
-
Spaten
3a2.-spn,
spada
3a3.spnn
'ligniculum'
spreud
(s)pha ati; ras-platiti;

sphu a- pol 'latus,
'patens';
media
pa
pars'
'actus' 6.3.-splis
'lma'
spandate
'funda';
'quatit'
'vehemens
'
feim, Feim
3a2.-faam,
foam
spoud
sp mi
spreig
712
'forfex'
'obru'
allaw
spaltan,
'rd'
spalten
<altmu 3a2.-spil
2b3.-altin, 'runa'
aotenn
'ferula,
culter'
Spat
'convulsi,
tumor'
6.4spulguot
'fulgur'
spraut
'cit'
6.4.sprsts
<*sprusts
<dt
'impulsus'
?
6.3.spria nas
'sublmis'

'uiuidus'
sp g
sparg
arg 'gutta'
2b1.sprehhan
eira/eiry
'loquor'
'nix';
3a2.ffraeth
sprecan,
(*spregh- speak 'id'
to-) 'celer'
2b2.irch/er 'id'
2b3.-erc'h
'id'
sp n
spern
seir (di
pherid)
'talus'
2b1.-ffr
3a2.'tibiculum' spurnan,
2b2.-fer
spurn
'crus' 'contemner
e'
2b1.-ffr
'tibiculum'
2b2.-fer
'crus'
hwal,Walle
r,Weller
3a2.hwl,
whale
3a3.-hvalr
3a3.-skars
sp os
sqalos
seir (di
pherid)
'talus'
squalus
sqeros
sqij
sc (pl.
sciad)
'spnus'
sredh
fretus?
srems
srenk
srew
fimbria
2b1.ysbyddad(
en)
2b2.spethes'ba
cca' 2b3.speza
srithit
2b1.-stret stredan,
<*s t-t gl.'latex' > streden,
streyth
strudeln
'flmen'
srennim
sruaimm 2b3.-strum
'flmen'
'copia
(lactis)'
srewtis
srgj
srgos
s ij
s kij
sruth
(srotha)
frgus
sarri,
sarculum
sarci
sarcina
2b1.-ffrwd
2b2.-frot
2b3.-froud
stroum
'fluxus'
3a2.stram
3a3.straumr
6.4.sprautie^s
'merg'
sphrjati,
perga
'ser' sphrjyati 'polln
'displd'; 'expld' flris' 6.3. parjnya- sprga, 'nimbus'

ti
'plnus
'expld'
sum'
6.4.-spragt
'id.';
spirg(t)s
'rectus,
snus'
sphurmi
spiri,
'palpit'
'calc'
sprti
5.5.'talus'
isparnu sphurmi
'palpit'
'calc'
'talus'
- carya*kwer-r?
'mrus'
6.3.-skju
'aests
maritim'
sramsate strsno
srvati;
struja
srava'fluxus';
'fluxus' ostrov'ins
5.3.ula'
raonam 6.3.-sravi,
'flminum' sravti
5.5.arsarsur(a)
'fx'
sarsite
'sarct'
APR.-kalis
'uallum'
sr 'falx,
plus'
5.5.-arnin-k-
713
srodhos
srokn
srn
'nasus'
'supple,
'sacrment resarci'
um'
s kvan-,
srkva
'angulus
oris'
srut'rhytion' 'fluentum'
5.4.-a u
(inst.
a uou)
'canlis'
2b1.-ffroen
'narna'
2b3.-froan
srowmos
srwtom
s p
s pij
sarpi,
sarpmentu
m
sarf, mhd.
sarph
'actus'
s wj
seru
s wos
seruus
sttis
stati
statf
sttus
status
1b2.statita
'statta'
stdhlom
stagnom
stag
stagnum
staknom
stagnum
stlos
714
serevkid
'auspici,
iussu'
1b2.-seritu
'seruat'
2b1.-herw
<*serwom
'grassti'
stat
stas
3a2.-stede
2b1.stado, staa 'ripa'
ystawd
Gestade
'fascis' 'id' 3a2.2b3.-steut stath 'id'
<stt' 'id'
stn
2b1.ystaen,
taen
'aspersi'
2b2.-stean
2b3.-stean
<lat.?;
staer
<stagr
'flmen'
stahel,
Stahl 'id'
3a2.-steel
'chalybs'
2b1.-cystal stuol 'sella'
stls
ìtem'
3a2.-stl 'thronus"
'falx';
'rapi'
serp
'falx'
6.3.-sirpis
'id'
5.3.-haraiti chranjo/niti
?
'her" 'custodit'
'iun' pasuhaur 'conseru'
v
6.3.-srg'c.gregisr'
mi -g
5.3.'hr";
pasu 'iun';
haurv
?
'canis
*wer?
gregis'
*ser(w)?
Lyd sareta
*serto
'protector';
serli
'auctorits'
; saroka
'protecti'
sthti
6.3.-stats
'erectus'
'dflu'
'gutta'
stol
'thronus;

<*kom-sta- 'sella'
lo3a3.-stll
(s)stmi
st
abst,
dist
stm
stmen
staurej
stauros
staurs
sto (part.)
Abstand
1b2.sessam
stahmei `<*si-st'statini'; mu- 'stre'
stahmito
'stattum';
destina;
destin
strs
sttlom
2b1.gwastad
'plnum'
<upstato
2b2.goustad
ti hati
(s)stmi
ant/pri
(s)stmi
ap
stnj
stnom
-tau 'sum';
-sissiur, sissedar
'st' ; foss
'seruus'
fossad
'firmus'
sella ->
mensa'
6.3.pastlai
'repositoriu
m'
stati
obstculu
m
instaur,
restaur
stri
'celeber'
3a2.-str
'potens'
3a3.-strr
'magnus'
2b1.stadal,
cystadl
Stadel
'aequiuale 'pithes'
ns';
3a2.distadl
staol
'inualidus'
str(e),
Steuer
'guberncu
lum'
3a2.-stor,
str 'id'
3a3.-staurr
'plus'
str
<*stros
'crassus,
firmus'
visthala'locus
recondictu
s'
sthman- stamk
stma,
dat. stmin <*steH2- 'positi,
'sublica'
'fundament 'trma'
uis'
6.3.
um, rs' <*stoH stomu, 2
es
'tignum'
<*steH2'sttra';
stomas
sthnam
stan
'miser' 5.3.-stna 6.3.-stnas
'id'
sthirstar
'firmus'
'uetus'
6.3.-stras
'densus,
crassus'
6.3.stkl s
'textrna'
6.4.-staklis
'pinculum'
'plus,
crux'
stavar-s,
stavri'ndus'
6.4.-st rs
<*stros
sthvar- ,
sthvira'amplus,
compactus
, firmus' ;
sthr-,
sthl'crassus'
5.3.-stra
'latus,
715

fortis' 5.4.stvar
'crassus'
stw
steigh
steipts
steiw
stej
stejsj
stelgh
stel
steln
stelp
stembh
stem
716
stan
stjan
staviti
'obst' <*stwjan
'loc'
3a2.'dispn':
6.3.-stviu,
stwian,
-eti 'st'
stow
'retine'
stighnti
tagu; 2b1.- taith stgan,
steigan
stign
techt 'iire'
'iter' ; steigen 'id' 'ascend';
'linea' 'ascendit' 'ueni';
mor-dwy
3a2.- staiga 'uia'
stgna
'naulum'
stgan
'uia'
2b3.-tiz 3a3.-stga
6.4.-stagt
'festnaati
'uadere';
'
stegtis
'festn'
stips,
1b2.stiif, steif
stibhi6.3.'calc' 'fasciculum stimp
stipulor steplatu,
'erectus'
stp;
stiplato
3a2.-stiif,
'
stpti
obstpus 'stipult'
stiff 'id'
5.4.'coagulor'
stipem
6.4.-stipt
'comprim' 'erigor'
stua,
tvrstimulus,
'acer'
stilus
5.3.stara'cacumen'
stria, stlla
stein
stains
styyat
stna
'lapis'; stier 'lapis'

'adeps'; 5.3.-st(y)- 'mrus'
'rigidus'
'cumulus' 6.3.-stngti;
3a2.-stn
styrst,
'gutta'
'id'
st rti
'rige
oculs'
2b3.-staot stallen
`mictioo'
'ming"
<*stalto-? 3a2.-stale
'gutta'
'id'
sthla-m,
stolidus,
stellen;
stultus,
Stelle;
'columna' sthal
stol;
Stall
'tumulus'
locus, arc.
3a2.5.4.stlocos;
stellan;
stelcanem
lic <*ensteall
'effici''
stlokd;
'stbulum'
stelunk
3a3.-stallr
'rmus,
'ra'
truncus'
stol
3a2.-stela
5.4.-steln
sellaim 2b1.-syllu
6.3.-stilbti
'renidens'
'aspici'; (v.n.) 'id'
sell
2b2.-sylly
'oculus,
'id'
aspectus,
2b3.iris'
sellout 'id'
stammeln stamms
6.3.'balbuti' 'balbus'
stumi, 3a2.iko.
mti
stammer
6.4.stuomitie^

s
sterbhnjom
srebann
'pellis'
sterbh
ussarb
'mors'
2b1.-serfyll sterben;
'cadcus' strif, stref
'rigidus,
firmus';
streben
'intend'
3a2.starve
(fame)
serc 'amor' 2b1.-serch 'id'
<sterk ?
sterg
sterk
sterkos
sterkos
sterl
stercus;
-rg- troia
stella
sternom
sterns
cf.
constern,
a.
stornn
'rige' ?,
sued.
sturna
'detinre'
ster
strolis
sterilis
steros
stlla
2b1.-trwnc Dreck
troeth 'id' 'merda' (g)
2b3.-troaz 3a2.-reax
'urna'
'caries'
3a3.rekkr
ser
Dirona,
Sirona
2b1.-seren
2b2.steren
2b3.steren
2b1.-sarn
'stratum'
stern
stirna
'frons'
(Hes.),
'corium'
(Hes.);
'id'
strbnut
; ustrabiti
'recrere'
strego,
streti
'seru';
stra ,
stro
'uigil'
5.5.-is-tar- teri,
ak-zi <-rkti
terti
6.3.-tra ;
'fraces un'
teri,
terti
'mancillre'
inst. pl.
st bhi ;
tra , tar
5.4.-ast,
(aste)
5.5.hasterz(a)
5.5.istarna;
istarniya'centrlis'
'solidus'
starr,
strrisch
'contumax'
; sturni
'stupor'
3a2.stierne
'serius'
serb
2b1.-herw 3a1, 3a2.- stilan (r/l
<*sterw 'illeglits' stelan cf. hehlen)

'spolium'
stero
stair
'aris'
sterke
'uitulus'
3a2.-stierc
'uit.'
ser
Sirona
sterno
starn
2b1.-seren 2b1.
2b2, 2b3.- steorra
sterenn
2b2.-
star(vaccae)
5.4.-sterj,
sterd
BULG.sterica
'Gelte'.
inst. pl.
st bhi ;
tra , tar
5.4.-ast,
717

strps
stirps
stert
stertos
serrach
'pullus'
steorra
sterban ?
'morior'
(aste)
'flor
umbillicus'
2b1.-serth
sterz
'erectus, 'cauda' <obscnus';
do
tarddu 3a3.-stirr
'exe'
'erectus';
stor
'culmus';st
ertr 'caud'
tagaim 2b3.-stuc'h stochern
'asci
'cuspis'
'pung';
quati' <*stoukk
Stock
stag
'stirps';
'ascia';
stucki,
staic
Stck
'cacmen'
'fragmentu
m'
steug
'terreot'
5.5.-hatuk,
ha-tu-uk-zi
<*Hteugti
'terribilis
esse'
steumi
steup
stupe,
stuprum
stupendus;
titubre ?
2b1.stobarn
ystum 'obstupre'
'curua,
forma'
2b3.stumm 'id'
steut
stigj
nstg,
1b2.tiugstingu
anstintu
<*tigu-)
(ad
'distinguito' 'ultimus'
ungu),
nstingu,
distingu,
stiprs
stlm
stltos
718
studen ,
sttzen
3a3.-styja
sticken,
stiks
stechen; 'puncta'
stih,
Stachel 'id'
3a2;stician;
stice
3a2.-stikill
'puncta'
stf, steif
'erectus'
3a2.-stf
'id'
ltus, latus
(er), later,
leth ?
'latus,
stirpti
'orior,
crsc'
tujti,
tujti,
tunkti
'quatit'
ttati se
'proper';
6.3.stngis
'hebes
culter'
stuti,
'promittit' stvate 'id'
5.3.-staoiti
'laud'
5.4.-t'ovem
'incant'
5.5.isduwa
'publicor'
pra6.4.-stupe,
'quati'; stumpti,
stups
t
pati,
'fragmentu
'maiestus
tupti, m ligneum'
us'
(cf.
tmpati,
Stumpf)
'raucus' tumpti
LUW.dp(a)i
6.4.-stute,
stuta
'uirga'
tjat 6.3.-sting,
'pung',
'actus
stgti
est'.
'mane'
'puncti'
tjyati (c.) 6.4.-stigt
t jas'immerg'
'candor';
tigm'acer'
5.3.-ta a'actus';
tigra'puncta'
5.5.-tekan
'lig'
5.4.-stuar 6.3.-stiprs
<*stiw-ar 'robustus'
'solidus,
ingens'
ta a- 'ripa'
steljo
5.4.-lain
stlati
stltis
lmina;
stlta/stlatt
a
Latium?
dimidium'
ls (ltis) ;
stltibus
iudicnds
(st?)
liuss
'repulsi';
ni erlissaigther
'nunquam
fastiditur'
stlokos
st nos
tamun;
2b1.stam,
samaigim cysefin
Stamm
'locus'
<*kentu- 3a2.-stem
stamno
'prmus'
stunden
'protl'
sab;
stam,
semmor
Stamm
'trifolium'
'stirps'
3a2.-stefn,
stemm
'tempus' ;
staff
3a3.stefna
'quodam
tempus'
sttj
stobhos
stoghos
stoighos
stoipej
stolbos
leid, Leid
'damnum'
3a2.-l,
loath
'odium'
<*H2loito-
stlembus
'lentus,
grausus'
'scelestus'
'delinqu'
'trulla'
<stlto-in; 'extend';
ara-stal
stelja
<*stno
'tectus'
'tectus' ; 6.3.-tltas
5.5.'pons'
istalk(iya) 6.4.-slju,
'paui'
slt
'cumul';
tilts 'pons'
r jati
'adflictor',
cau.
re yati
<*H2lei-s
5.3.iriiieiti 'id'
TOK.-A
tm,
stm
'arbor'
5.5.istantai
stafs
stabhnti, stebel
'pergul'; stabhn ti, 'propg'
'littera'
stambhat
6.3.'tenax';
'sustine'; stembras
stambhan
'id'
'ua';
am
6.4.'plumbta' 'pedica'
stuobrs
5.3.'conductus'
stmbana
'sustentus'
5.5.istap(p)
'claud'
5.6.-sitabr,
istabr
'robustus'
stanga;
usstagg
5.5.oste
stengil,
'prome!' 'propositus istagga(i)
'toga';
'; 'arcus'
Stengel
stegt
'arista';
'culmus';
'appropinq
stungen
uor'
'cuspis'
'pung'
6.3.3a2.-staeg
stngiu
'transenna'
'molior'
; stingan
'pung'
2b1.steiga,
staiga
ALB.stga
'linea'
mordwy
Steig
shtek,
6.4.-stiga
'nauigti
shteg-u
in mare'
'metus'
Stolpe;
stolb;
stelpen
stlp
'sistere
'columna,
sanguinem
turris'
'
6.3.3a2.stulpas 'id'
stulpe
6.4.-stlps
719

stolgos
tolg; ta(i)lc
'robustus'
stm
storej
stolkeren
'stolzieren'
3a2.-stalk
'propg';
stealc
'erectus'
stm- ?
'tonans'
5.3.staman'fauces'
5.5.istaman(a)
'auris'
istomid
'trifocalium
' 2b1.-safn
'bucca'
2b2.stefenic
'pal'
2b3.staffn/stao
cf.
constern,
aaa.
stornn
sterren,
starren
'rigesc,
rige'
andstarran
'anim
demiss
esse'
strmen
strts
strtus
trt (troit)
'greges'
streib
streid
stride
streig
string
(ensem),
striga,
stria<gy,
strigilis
streigs
strx;
striga
strangul
<gr.
strengom
720
srath
'platea,
ripa'
srab
strife,
Streife
3a2.-stripe
strik;
strhhan
'uirgre'
3a2.strica;
strcan
striks
'stria'
(g)
'secis
latertus'
'strx'
sreng ;
srengim
'dc';
srincne
'cord
umbiliclis'
Strang;
streng
'robustus'
3a2.strang;
string
'funis';
strain
'tend'

'anntor'
5.5.istarna-,
istarni-
st-p-a-,
stup'cannabis',
'caesaris'
'densific'
trat
st t- prostrt, -a
5.3.'prostr.'
starta- 6.3.-strta
'praespe'
6.4.-stirta
<strt
stpa,
stuppa
<gr.?
strm
strtos
streng
'sustine'
stornj
stoudjom
stoup
6.3.-stelgti
'oculs
figere';
stalgs
'obstntus'
'strictus'
'scind';
streg
'koura'
6.9.-strigli
'ustilag'
6.4.-stringt
'aridus
fier'

strnwos
strep
2b1.-trin
starr
and'uis'
'mlimentu 'rigidus
starran
m,
(oculu)' 'langue'
proelium'
3a2.starian
'aspicere'
3a2.rft
'ls'3a3.-refa
'id'
strbn
'amarus'
'horresc'
struppe
'truncus'
strnuus
strep,
stert
streubh
streud
strew
strigj
trot > troid 2b1.-trythu strz,

'pugna' 'turgesc' Strau
trythyll 'resistentia
'lascuus' , pugna'
3a2.-strt
'tur., pug.'
3a3.strutte
'intend'
stru,
1b2.2b3.straujan
strx,
strusla,
strouis 3a2.-strew
strctum; strucla,
'stravi';
strus,
struhcla
mod.
strux
'*struem,
streuein
struiculam'
'sternere'
strig,
3a3.-strika
obstrigill
'detine'
strigj
string
string
st neumi
sternu
sreod
st n
stern,
stru,
strtus,
strmen
sernim;
srath
'strues';
cossair
'lectus'
stric, Strick
'funis'
st nos
strudsm
strutjos
Strau
'rmus'
3a2.rotu/e,
throat
sruith 'lr'
2b1.strutiu
6.3.stru(m)ps
'rsus'
6.4.strupulis
'necius,
truncus'
ostruiti ?
'dele'
CROAT.strovaliti
6.3.string,
strgti
6.6.zastr/ustrzac
2b1.5.4.
(ys)trew
prngam,
2b3.p rn em
streuyaff
2b1.-sarn
straujan st ti,
'strta'
st ti
ystrad
'uallis
2b3.-strad
'fundum'
2b1.-sarn
stirna,
strn-s
'pectus'
'et pauim.' Stirn 'frons'
strma
startsja
'molior'
strmo
'firmus,
arduus'
'iuncus'
<*trusom
strana
'latus,
locus'
trst
'conductus'
6.3.-triai
'id'
6.3.-trums
'tumor'
'patruus'
721

'antiquam'
struwis
strus,
strux
studj
stupj
stupos
suj
sks
zythum<gr
.
sauia
<*souia
sucula
sulj
snoros
sns
sup
sup
supj
722
str, Stroh
'palea'
3a2.straw, 'id'
3a1, 3a2.stubbe
'truncus'
sudhjom
1b2.strusla,
strucla,
struhcla
'*struem,
struiculam'
6.3.-strjus
'senex'
sip,
dissip,
obsip,
insipere
'plus'
TOK.-A
top, tow
'plus'
'cls
ligneus'
6.3.stbura'col.
uertebrlis'
su-, so- Su-carus Su-gambri

susdrav
<sugwiys su-bhga- 'snus'
;so3a3.'ben
scl(a)e
ssvort
'betus'
6.3.vivens'
'euangeliu
'terrimus'
5.3.-husdrus
m'
'animsus'
6.7.-zbo
'betus'
5.5.sessar
sou 'sauia'
'pluit'; sunti
6.3.-sul
'premit
'savia';
TOKprl'
swase,
5.5.swese
suhha-;
heu'pluuia'
socc sil 2b1.-hwch sugge

skar'porcus 2b3.-hoch 3a2.-sugu,
'porcus'
maris'
suga
5.6.-xk
sol,
bi-sauljan
sra6.3.-sul
'ltum';
suhlen 'id' 'macul'
'ebrians
'sauia'
3a2.-sylian
pti.'
'purg'
'id.'
5.3.-hur
'caseus q.'
so2b1.-hysnranirt<*suner nerth
tosuth
hog-en sunu, sohn sunus snh
syn
'foetus,
'puella' 3a2.-sunu,
6.3.-sns
fructus,
<*suk
son
prls,
3a3.-sunr,
nscentia'
sonr
sf;sfan, supn
spass-o -ati,
saufen 'id' 'suffoc'
Iter. sysati
3a2.'sorbe'
span 'id'
<*sup-s-.
3a3.-spa
'bib'
3a2.svap svepiti se
geswpe
'scopae'
agitri';
'sords'
spo, suti;
3a3.-sfl
sypati
'scopae';
agit',
svf 'pilum'
rasypati;

sunoti
èffundere'
(s)peri
super, rus, -rior,

supr,
suprmus,
superne,
summus
(s)peros superus
(s)upmos
ss
1b2.super;
subra
'supra'
ufar
upri
5.3.-upairi
5.4.ver(oy)
ufar
'supr'
para-
2b1.-hwch s, swn
sdus
<*susdos
suth
'foetus,
prols'
su
insolesc
swdej
swds
suuis
swi
sadb
svai, suae
's'
1b2.-sve,
sue 's'
swdhsk
swdhus susc<s
wdhsk,
sodlis,
arc.
suodales
pl.
sweid
sdus
(sderis);
consder,
dsder
sbil,
sffil
skarh
5.3.-h-
ssn,
sausen
suwids
swlj
sweig
obaro,
obere
3a2.-yferra
<*uperiz
ss
stus
sweidos
sweighlj
1b1.-gor-, ubari, ubiri

gwar, ber
1b2.-gor- 3a2.-over
1b3.-gour- 3a3.-yfir
1b1.supruis
'supers'
1b2.superne
susj
susdos
for(-)
svinija
sysati
sr; srn
gmc. ka;
sux
'sicc' <*H2sous <*ausy; yati 'siccat' <*H2sous
3a2.-sar,
s
5.3.-haos s; suiti
(cf. ai.
sr; sere
'exarescer
'sicc'
sk mae'
6.3.'tenuis')
sa sas
stu'praegnto
'
2b1-syw
suvid
schwellen
5.5.-sulletr.
/sullss3a2.-swell
'insolesc'
tr.
Suadu- 3a2.-swte
svdswti
'dulcis';
genus 3a3.-soetr
5.3.
v
<sweH d- x radra
CELTIB.sua
swaswe
situ, Sitte
3a2.-sidu
sidus
swigln
'populus'

F
swdan
'arde'
3a2.-svitol
'clrus'
swegln;
swegala
'tibia'
swhhn
svadh
5.3.-x
6.3.anasvid ti,
'splende,
svsti
flagr' 'splende';
svids
'splendens'
6.4.-svst
'illcesc'
toch. A
svigt'
723

'err, fall'
3a2.swcian 'id'
sweisd
stim,
2b1.sidim 'fl' chwythu
2a3.(v.n.)
sididh
2b2.whythe
2b3.c`houeza
1b1.chweg
'amoenu'
chwaeth
'gustus'
1b2.-whek
'id'
1b3.c'houek;
'id'
swek
swekos
swkuros
socer
swekrs
socrus
swel
swelj
swelks
sweljos
swel
swelom
swelplos
724
sulpur
hvinan;
whistle
swehhan
ben, mal
suecke/ia
'odores';
3a2.sweccan
swcc
'fragrantia'
2b1.swehur
chwegrwn swgur
2b2.'cogntus'
hwigeren
2b1.swigarswaihro
chwegr
3a2.sweger

3a2.-swol
'calor'
3a2.ALB.-sill ,
swillan
gjell ?
<*swelgan,
'esca'
swill,
swallow
seilchide
sleh
'chondricht
'cochlea';
'phoca
hys'
selige
uitulna'
'testd'
3a2.seolh, seal
'id'
3a3.-svilar
'leuires'
schwelen,
swelzan
'r et
torment'
3a2.swelan
swelli,
mhd.
swelle
'tabula'
3a2.-syll,
selma,
sealma
'tabula'
swebal
wweku; 'err'
waike 6.3.-svagti
'mendaciu
'id'
m'
k v ati, zvizdati,
k vdati
svistati
(ks
expresuu
m)
'susurrat'
v urah
6.3.5.3.sh shuras
xvasur
va rs
5.4.skesur
ALB.-diell 6.3.-svlis
'sl'
'febris'
5.3.-xvar'uor'
5.4.-k'alc'
'fams'
<swl-sk.ALB.-lig
'coluber'
svat,
svojak
6.3.svinis
'leuir'
swiltan 'lux, svrati ; 6.3.-svil,
'morior';
calos';
svargsvlti
swultawair
'caelum'
6.4.'splendor'
ja
svelme
'moritrus'
'uapor,
ardor'
6.3.-solas
'scamnum'
'scamnum
; sle
remigi';
'potrium'
(Hom.)
swibls

swemr
swnmi
son,
sonus
swendh
to-senn'persequor'
; tofunn
'persecti
'
senim,
hanes
senn,
'historia'
sephainn (<rumor?)
'sonre
instrument
um'; sanas
'susurr'
a-sennad
'denique,
postrem'
<*dhno?
swep
spi,
insomnis;
somnus,
somnium
swep
sopor
san
swergh
susurr,
(ab)surdus
, sorx
swrs
srius
<*seH1ro ?
swerwos
swesr
swesreino
s
soror
sbrnus
3a2.swinsian
'sonre
instr.';
swinn
'musica';
swan
'cygnus'
swintan,
schwinden
'uanesc'
3a2.swindan
2b1,b2,b3. antswebbe
-hun;
n,
2b1.- entsweben
anhunedd
3a2.'insomnia' swefian
3a3.-sofa
swumsl
'lacus'
svamb-?
'pondus
non
sustinens'
svnati; 6.4.-sant,
svanah
sent
'sonus' 'fremitre'
5.3.-xanataxradrensti'
vandhya
'carb';
'sterilis'
'anthriscus'
swerbh
swer
3a2.-swefl
3a1, a2.swimman
'n'; sund
'fretum'
siur
svpiti,
svpate;
svapna;
svapnya
5.3.-x'ap-;
x'afna
5.4.-k'un
(k'noy)
5.5.suppariya
5.5.suppariya
'somni'
5.5.war(a)p
'lau'
uvedati
'marce',
spati,
Iter. sypati,
usnoti;
sn;snij
e
6.3.spnas
6.4.-sapnis
chwerfu suuerban af-, bisvrab

'turbit'; 'exterg' swairban
'prurtus'
chwyrn
3a2.'exterg'
3a4.'celeriter' swerban
svarpst
'id'
'tartrum'
serg
sorga
sargan;
ALB.srk ati
sraga
'agrots'
'cra'
sarga 'id' dergjem '5.5.'aegrots'
3a2.-sorg
ot' TOK istarningai 6.3.-sirgti
'id'
A srk, B ? 'morbum' 'aegrot'
sark
'morbum'
2b1.swarm
'mus' svrati
svirati
chwyrnu 'examen'
'siffil'
3a2.6.3.-surm
swearm 'id'
'tibia'
svri;
swrs
5.5.svars
schwer 'uenerand
suwaru'grauis';
'grauis'
us'
'grauis'
sverti
3a2.'pens'
swaer 'id'
2b1.swistar
svsarsestra
chwaer
5.4.-khoyr 6.3.-seser2b2.(Hes.)
huir/hoer,
hor
2b3.c'hoar
svasrya- sestrin
5.4.-k'eri 'sorrius'
725

'auunculus'
swns
sunus
swoidj
sd -re
swoidos
sdor
<*swoids-
swlej
solea
swombhs
swonos
sonus
swpij
swoplom
swopnjj
swopnjom
swopnos
somnus
swor
sra,
surus,
surculus
swordis
sorde,
sords,
sordid.,
susum
sworx
sworx
sworos
sw neumi
726
schwein
swein
'id'
'porcus'
3a2.-swine
'id'

swizzen
<*swidj
3a2.-sweat
2b1.sweiz
<*sweidos/
chwys<*s 3a2.-swt
es
widso
2b2.-whys
fol. i. bond,
(Hes.)
pl. solaig,
soilgib
swamp
'porsus'
'spongea';
Sumpf
'pals'
3a2.swamm
'fungus';
swamp
'pal.'
son
swan
'cygnus'
3a2.geswpe
'uersra'
3a3.-sfl
suan
2b1.-b2.- 3a2.-swefn
b3.-hun
(voc e)
3a3.-svefn
swir
'sublica'
'sublica'
3a2.swier/ior
'id';
swera/ora
'collus'
sorb
swarz,
swarts
'macula' ?
schzarz 'id' 'ter'
3a2.sweart 'id'
'mus'
serb
2b1.sweran
'amrus' chwerw 'id' 'dole';
2b2.swert
wherow
'ensis'
'id'
3a2.2b3.sweord,
c`houero sword 'id'
6.3.seserenas
svin,
6.4.-sivens
svdyati, 6.4.-svstu,
sv dat
svst
svdah
5.3.xvada-
svan-
svap
svpna-s
svru'surus'
susol
<*sus- ?
6.4.susuris
'sorx'
5.3.- x ara- chvryj

'uulnus'
'aeger'

'id'
swrswrj
tkj
tace
tdj
tdhsk
tdhis
tagj
1b2.tasetur
'tacit';
taez
'tacitus'
tadait
'censeat'
tbs,
tbum,
tbe
tachtaid? 2b1.-tagu
'suffocat'
'id'
2b3.-taga
'id'
dagn
3a2.thagn
'decens'
tm 'mors'
2b1.tawdd,
toddi
'liqufacti'
2b3.- teuzi
'regel,
fund'
douwen,
tauen
'regel'
3a2.awian,
thaw
.Tamss
>Thames
3a3.-a
'regel'
tax -re
taismos
ahan
'tace';
ahains
silentium'
tis2b1.-toes
renn/tis 2b3.-toaz
theismo,
deismo
3a2.thosma
'lev'
5.4.'fund,
tànam
regel'
'imbu'
TOK A
6.3. aor t i (pl.), patogus
B t
'comfortabi
'praetor' lis' 6.8.t iti
'consolr'
'farrag'
SAMN.- tid<*ttis
tai?osktod
'fur'
(tayosktod
) 'clepito'
'irritus'
tjots
(s)tatod
SAMN.- tid<*ttis
'clepit' tai?osktod
'fr'
(Duenos) (tayosktod
) 'clepit'
VOL.atahus
(fut?)
'frugi,
irritus';
i
'ege',
egests'
4.8.-ta-tiqo-we-u
tlej
talea, tlla
'uirg';
'germin'
tj
tlis
tlis
tm
tam,
tamquam,
tandem
e-tanto
'tanta',
1b2.-e-
thuo, duo
'ibi'
3a2.-th
tajo, tajet
'fund,
regel'
styat
'clam';
styu,
tyu, stena
'fur'
5.5.tajezzi,
tajazzi
'clepit'
styat
'clam';
styu,
tyu, stena
'fr'
5.5.tajezzi,
tajazzi
'clepit'
'fur';
taj 'clam'
tajo, tajiti
'cl'
tat 'fur'
'fr';
taj 'clam'
tajo, tajiti
'cl'
tat 'fr'
6.3.a(t)tlas
'terms'
talkas
'adultus'
toli, tol
'tam uetus'
toliko
'tam'
6.3.-. tlei
'etenus'
'ita 'ibi, 5.3.- tm , dial.
factum'
tunc'
'tunc'
,
727

tantu
'tanta'
tarss
trudos
tt
tauros
'ibi'
tardus
tata
2b1.-tad
2b2.-tat
taurom
3a3.jazi
'gigans'
inna tuai
'silentia'
2a2.-t
twtos
tantus
tgl
tegnom
tignum
teg, toga
tegos
tegtom
tegs
tectum
teibhj
tbia
728
tta,
tetka
6.3.-t tis,
tete
tur
tausos
teknom
'paulus'
tarunah'
iuuenis'
tat- `
tarb
Taruos
2a3.-tarbh 2b1.-tarw
2b2.-tarow
2b3.-taro,
tarv
tausnim
teg

6.3.-nuo
tm 'inde'
'palma
pedis'
tarr
2b1.-tor(r),
'uenter',
torrog
torrach 2b3.-tar/tor
'pregnans'
taurus
'id'
2b1.-taw
3a3.'tac'
thyster
2b3.-tao 'silentisus
'silentium'
'
e-tanto
'tanta'
1b2.-etantu
'tanta'
stehho,
hleirastach
stakeins
'plum'
'inserti
3a2.-staca tentae'
tuigiur
2b1-2b2to 'tectus'
tech
Tegerno(tige<tge
mali
sa)
2b1.-tig,
'domus'
ty 'id'
2b2.-ti 'id'
2b3.-boutig 'boule'
tiug
dah
'tectum'
dah
'tectum'
3a2.-c
3a3.-ak
<*togom
2b2.-tew
dicchi,
2b3.-teo dicki, Dick
3a2.icce,
thick
tib/taobh 2b1.-2b2.'latus'
2b3.-tu
thegan,
degen 'id'
3a2.-
tsnm
'silenter'
t yati
tut
'gaudet' 'exstingu'
tsnm
'silenter'
5.5.-duk-,
duka'gaude'
tuhus(s)iya
'meditor'

e-tvant
5.3.-a(Hom.),
tavant
5.4.-tàkn
sto r
'plum';
'plum'
tàkalal
6.3.'capitello, stgaras
architrave' 'hasta'
6.4.stga,stg
s
sthagati 6.3.-stegiu

stegti
stog
'horreum'
'tectum,
6.3.-stgas
domus,
'tectum'
capsula'
6.3.-stibis
tkman'prols'
tek
teksl
teksn
teks
techtaim 2b1.-teg
'habe'; 'pulcher';
tig
annheg
'foedus'; 'foedus'
toich
2b3.-tizaff
'naturle' 'accipi';
tex, testa,
subtlis,
subtmen
tekst
testa
tekstlom
tla
tekw
telm n
telsus
tellus,
meditulliu
m
<*tolHujo-?;
tabula
<taldhl?
tenk, tkti
'suffici'
tl 'secris'
dehsala
5.2.tesati; ,
'secris',
tksati,

'gener';
tht, Docht
tsti
'tex'
'mycha'
<*ttkti 6.3.-tasti
'lignrius'; 'fabricat';
'secat';
<- 5.3.-tashat takis
ksn 'ars' 5.4.'rte'
tekhem
'tex'
5.5.takk(e)s
'compon'
5.3.-tta-,
tata
5.4.-t'el
'flum'
techid Vo-tepo-rix diu, diuwa ius<tokw

tkti
tek
'fugit' (pf. 2b1.-go- 'seruus,
s
'festntur'; 'cursus'
tich);
dep
serua';
'seruus'
takt, tku, 6.3.-tek, ateog
'recursus'
Dirne (cf. takv):
takv
ti
'rog
2b3.3a2.f. iwi;col.
'pernix';
(recurr)'; tec'het
owu,
wisa;
5.3.-ta aiti
intech n. 'fugere' owe(n) widuwairn
'currit'
'iter'
a 'orbus'
5.5.<*enitekwo
watku?
m,
'sali'
5.6.-txtan
'currere'
tailm
2b1.-telm
<*telH2mo
(telma) 'laqueus'
n- 'lorum'
'funda, 2b3.-talm
laqueus'
tella, talla
telp
thegan,
thane
'puer,
seruus,
hrs'
dicken
'rog'
3a2.thiggian
'implor'
3a2.-tigga
'mendic'
'funda'
talam
2b1, b2,
<*tel-mon- b3.-tal
(talman)
'frons'
'solum'
dil, dilo,
Diele 'id'
3a2.-ille
'tabula'
3a3.-il(i)
'id'
talpa, talp tlpa, tolp

'seds' 'multitd'
6.3.-telp,
tilpti
6.4.- telpu,
tlpt
talatlo <*telo'tabula', 'superfici 'solum'

cf.
s'
6.3.'tolerans' talimaptalas
'pauiment.' 'lectus';
; trth- tltas 'pons'
'uadum'
tlu
'palatum'
5.4.- tàl
729

tembh
cf.
(con)temn
, pf.
contemps
stampfon
'calc'
3a2.stamp 'id'
temesras
tenebrae
demar,
Dmmeru
ng
temlom
temos
templum
tenebrae,
temere
tmos
tmulentus
,
abstmius
tempus,
tempt,
temperre,
antemn,
templum,
contempl
r
tempos
temel; 2b3.-teffal demar,

teim,
Dmmeru
temen
ng
'obscrus'
3a2.thimm
3a3.-taam
3a3.ambr
`'crassus'
ten
taeinia
<gr.
tend
tend
3a2.indan
'turgesc,
irascor'
tengh
tm, nis
<tenghsm-
dhsala
'tm'
teng
tingu<g
(ctam.
ungu)
tenus;
protinus,
ditinus
tend,
1b2.-ententu
intendit',
ustentu
thunkn
teni
tenj
730
tan (tain)
'tempus'
'regi'
cf.
cf.
'conculc', stabhnti,
(-p-)
stabhnti
6.3.-cf.
'firmus'
'continet' stambras
'propag,
calamus'
tamisr 6.4.-timsa,
tumsa
tamas-; tma; tem

tamasrh, <temntamisr 6.3.-tamsa
5.3.6.4.tmahtim(s)a,
5.6.- tr
tumsa
<tam-sra
tam 'anim tamiti
linqu' 'tormentr
e'
5.4.- tàmb
top
'tapte" 'sella equ' 'crassus'

<iran. 5.6.-tb-a tepst
'torque,
'dens
ne'
vestr.'
6.3.tempti
'tend';
tmpa
'tend -n'
tamprs
'elasticus'
6.4.- tina
(dim <*
'nessa'
)
tandat
'dfetiscitu
r'
5.6.tanan
'ne,
torque'
5.3.-qang- rast g ,
'arcu,
rast ti
curu'
'distrah',
tegost
'grauis';
te a
'litigium'
6.3.-tings
'piger'
den(n)en, uf-anjan
dehnen
<*3a2.toneyo/e
enian,
ntan , tn
'praesens'
tan ti
(med.) 5.3.-pairitanava
'teneam'
6.3.dabartnis
'praesens'
6.3.-tnstu,
tnti
'tumesc'
6.4.-tinu,

ostendit'
tenjom
tempus oris
temk
tenos
tens
tepe
tepnos
teqom
atinsan
'di'
tt/tead
2b1.-tant
(pl.
tannau)
tefrm t (n.p tit)

3a2'sacrificium 'calidus';
efian
' 1b2.- tess<tepst
'resiffilre'
tefra
u 'calor'
3a3.-teva
'carnes
'id'
cremanda
s'
ten, tene,
Tenoteine, tine 2b1.-tn
'ignis'
2b2.-tn
2b3.tan(et-)
intech 'uia'
<*enitek
om
toruus<*tor
gws
tredhrom terebra
tergslom
terj
tarathar
tnas-
6.3.-tnas
'tumor'
tamsayati 6.3.-tesi,
'agitat,
t sti
obtendit'; 'oblong'
vtasti- 'id'
5.3.-vitasti'tensi'
tntra-,
teneto,
tntu-s
tonoto
6.3.-tiklas
'rete'
tpati
tepl
5.3.-tapaiti 'calidus'
5.5.-tepsu
'siccus'
5.3.-tafnu-,
tafnah-
tek
'cursus'
tarjayati
trebog
'alarma'
2b1.tarater/tara
dr
2b2.-tardar
2b3.tarazr/tarar
dork
'carna'
3a2.urruc
`cumba'
tuirenn
'triticum'
tact'aknuty
tankti 'prodesse'
'condensat 6.3.-tnkus
'
'crber'
5.5.6.8.-tek
tame(n)k- 'prosperit
'adiung'
s'
'metus'
terg,
1b2.mantlum mantrahkl
u,
mandraclo
mantle'
ter
dinsan
'tend'
terc
terg
ti^t 'plect'
tenus, oris,
tls<tonsl
s,
tnsillae;
prtlum,
prtlre;
tnsa
tentrom
tepj
ennan
tinne, tinge
3a2.-unwang
con-tci
teithi
ding,
gaaih, pt.
'condensat 'qulittes' dingen gediegen>
';
'congregr gedeihen
tcht
'.
'prosper'
'densus'
3a2.-ing,
eihs
thing
(*tnkos),
3a3.-ing pl. eihsa
'causa,
'tempus'
iudicium,
rs';etter
'densus'
drescan,
dreschen
'id'
riskan
arko
'rificium'
5.4.-tùrc
(t`rcoy)
'mla,
maxilla' ;
aracem
'pstus'
5.5.tattarai-;
tariya
''defetiscor'
tiru
731

termn
ter
termen, teremnatte druimm 2b2.-drum dremil

terminus ns (p3p) (drommo) ? Dorsum 'repagulum
1b2.<drum?
'
termnome
3a3.(lc)
romr
VEN.'angulus'
termo
intrre,
extrbunt,
trmes
(me)
terp
durfan
(darf)
'egre';
darba
'necessits
'
3a2.earf 'id'
3a3.-urft
'id'
arban
(arf
<*torp-)
'egre';
rafstjan
'slor'
arban
'ege';
arbs
'necessits
'
t pt-, t pt
durft 'id?' arfts
'explti' 'satisfacti'
3a3.-urft <*t pt
'id?'
'necessits
'
terptis
ters
tersai
trunos
terra
term
tir
<*terso- 'territorium'
tart 'sitis'
torre,
terra,
tostus<tors
itos
tener,
SAB.
terms, terenum
tardus
'molle'
dorrn, gaairsan
derren,
drren
'torre'
3a3.arihs
yrma
'pulchrum'
<*ormaz
(Hes.)
terc
'rrus,
paucus'
tetkn
tett
tturos
tetta
turtur;
tetrinni, re,
tetrissit, re
tethra
'coruus'
teukm
teuk
732
diehter
'neps'
toll, toll
trman
'puncta
'lims'
uerus'
'rificium' sutrman
'ben
trduc'
5.5.-tarma
'cun.,acus'
trati,
'extrmum' tirti,
'penetrans' tryati
trvati
'praedomin
at'
5.5.tarra'possum';
tarhui
'fortis'
trpyati,
6.3.trpti,
tarpst,
t mpti,
tarpti
tarpati
'crsc';
'satitur', trpinat
cau.
'mendre'
tarpyati
5.3.-qrafa
'id'
2b1.-twll
5.4.t a amim,
t aramim
'uiesc'
trua5.2.tauruna'iuuenis'
6.3.tarnas
'seruus'
tk a 5.3.-taan
zitze, tutta
5.5.-tita
'tetta'
tittir-,
tetrevi
'fasinus'
'urogallus'; tittir-,
tittri6.3.
'perdix' t tervinas
'auis
'id'
quaedam' 5.4.-tatrak
'auis q.' 6.4.-teteris
'a.q.'
tokm
'subols';
tkman
'progenis'
5.6.-taum
'genus'
istknoti
'malleus,

'cauits'
<tukslo-
teup
teur
obtro,
retr
teusm
teusqa
tesqua
teut
tewai
tueor
tewos
*toue=far
ci
tmentum;
ttus
<*twetos
=compact.
tibhj
timj
titij
tibia
time
tkeimi
sin, situs
formen'
2b3.-toull
'rificium'
dofta,
ducht
'sds
remigi;
diob, Dieb
'fur'
3a2.doft;thiof.
thief
3a3.-ori
'multitd,
massa'
taimm 2b1.-tom thschund
'collis'
e 'M'
3a2.thousand
dost
'stercus'
<'uacuti
'
3a2-ost
'id'
touto;
tuath Teutomatu 3a2.-od
touticum
s,
'publicum'
totatigenus
1b2.-tota
2b1-2b3.'urbs'
tud
2b2.-tus
cumtth 2b1.-tu
gethau
'protecti' 'operi' tut 'disciplina,
*kom-ud- 'ueneficus' obseruanti
twitus
2b3.a'
tas-cert, tuec<*tuo
a2.ta(i)th c 'puluin geede
'septentri tegumen' 'fauens'
nlis'
3a3.-yr
'id'
taoib
scalprum'
'uentilti'
iubj
'clam'
'crbriter'
èffodere'
3a2.tukstet
'forem
battere'
6.3.-tpi,
t pti
6.4.- tupt
'cumulus'
sundi
<*tsk t
'M'
iuda
TOK- tyseta 'M'

tumane/tm
6.3.m
tkstantis
'M'
tucch(y)- tt>
'unus'
tcij
5.3.'uacuus'
taoayeiti
'uacuat'
6.4.-taut
iu

'bonum'; 'bendicit'
iujan
'benedic'
tavs-,
tyju, tyti
'corpus';
tavti 'pinguesc'
'uiget'
'liber'
5.3.-tavah5.4.'saluus';
T tunuvant'potens'
i ibha
6.3.
'Parra
tilvkas,
jacana'
titilvkas,
'auis qd.'
6.4.-ttet
'can';
titilbis,
titilbte
'a.q.'
k ti,
'constru' k iynti 'id'
4.8.-ki-ti-
733

je-si
'uiuunt'
tlmi
toll, -ere;
tul, tetul;
tulam
'feram'
tltjos
tij
tn
tol <*tol 2b1.-tlawd doln,

'uolunts', 'pauper'
dulten,
tlith'
2b3.-talm dulden
dbilis' <*- 'funda'
'patior';
tjos; tailm cf. Geduld
'funda'
'patientia'
3a2.olian 'id'
tlith
tlawd
'tener'
'pauper'
tu(i)lid,
con-tu(i)li
'dormit';
cotlud
'somnus'
toll
tlenaid
<*tnti
'ripit';
tloqai
loquor
tmmi
aestum;
(con)temn
? ns
<*(s)temb(
h)n;
contumlia
atluchur
'gratias
ag'
dotluchur;
'rog'
tamnaid
t pus
tj
tene
tghus
tg
tmklos
734
tang,
tactus
tnth
'inuidia'
doln,
dulten,
dulden
'patior';
Geduld
'patientia'
3a2.olian 'id'
5.3.-ait
'uuit'
ulan
5.4.-tòum telenok
'resist'
'sin,
'uitulus'
permitt' 6.3.-iz-tilt
'patior';
'patiens';
'miser';
'resist'
ulan
'resist'
'et
fini';
'lbra'
'oriens'
tlk,
tolk
'explicti'
tnu
'quati'
6.3.-tin,
tnti
'dfric'
3a3.- mb
'pantica,
neruus
arcs'
donn
3a2.unian
3a3.-ungr
'grauis'
tacken
3a2.accian
'plaud'
3a3.takam
3a3.-l
'lacte
butyr'
tlejo, -leti
'decad';
toliti
'plac'.
6.3.-tylti,
tlti 'tace';
tyls '-itus'
tulayati; TOK A B.tul 'lbra' tl, praet.
5.4.-tòum A cacl,
'sin,
cla.
permitt'
5.4.- tàmb
t p
'pantica; 'obtsus,
sella'
crassus'
6.3.tamprs ;
tmpa
'fnis'
tanti
'extendit'
TOCH.-A 5.4.-tànjr tegost

tnk-,
(tànju)
'pondus'
tank6.4.-tànjr
'obst'
(tànju)
tekan
tjk
TOK B.<*dedg- ? 'subit' ce <*tke
(i schwa
<*tedg<*tetH2g- secundum
)
(cf. lat.
bibit ai.
pibati)
takr-m
'butyrum'
5.6.-talxna

'lacte
amarum'
tmktos
ttos
tus
tentus
tenuis
tog
toga
toi
tkslos
toksos
tolkos
tnmi
tondej
dann,
denn
3a2.anne,
nne,
onne
5.6.- tax
'arcus,
sagitta'
takv'rapidus'
TOK
6.4.cake
teksnis
'flmen'
'seruus'
5.5.-talliya-
tolk
'mortrium'
; tlk ,
tl ti,
'quati'
6.3.-tlkti
'mansues
esse'
(abl. A B.-ta-n; 6.3.-tu
Hom.);
'nunc'
'protinus'
5.3.-tm
'nunc'
autumnus
<*automH-ino-;
contumlia
ton,
tonitrus
tonde
ius
'seruus'
tesla
<*teksl
2b1.-talch
'fragm.'
2b2.-talch
'furfures'
tum, tunc,
topper
tat
tan-s
'arcus'
deo 'id'
3a2.o(w) 'id'
3s2.-yle
'rtor'
3a3.-ulr
'doctus'
ula
'uersus';
ulja
'murmur'
t a
'pluuia'
6.3.-tnkus
'crber'
taxus
tolj
tom-ke
tomos
'tenuis'
'longus'
tan(a)e 2b1.-tenau dunni

<*tanawio- 2b2.3a2.tanow
thynne
2b3.tanao,
tano
tugae
to 'tectus'
'tegmen';
tuige
'strmen'
<-y
t
tl
dehsala
<*teksl
tokws
tom
tcht
2b1.-teithi dhte, dicht
'densus'; 'qulittes' 3a3.-ttr
tchte
2b3.'proximus,
'decrus',
toket
densus'
tocad
'ftum'
'fortna'
teinnid,
sthnen
'grunni'
3a2.stenan 'id'
2b1.-tam
stunz
stnati,
stenati
stanyati 'grunni'
'fremit 6.3.-sten,
'gem'
stniti
735

tennaid; 'morsus'
tonn, tond
'pelle
tonej
tongej
tonslis
tonst r
tntenos
tontrom
tonge,
tongiti
torcs
tori
tangind
'sententia'
tintinnre
tonitrus
topnos
toqe
den(n)en,
dehnen
3a2.enian,
ennan
denchen,
denken
3a2.yncan,
think
3a3.ekkja
'intelleg'
Tanaros
ten 'ignis'
cf.
correlat.
'quoque'
tnyati
agkjan,
hta
'meditor';
ekkr
'grtus';
*agks
'grtias'
ALB:
tange
'resentmen
t' :
TOCH. A
tunk-,
tankw
donar
3a2.unor,
thunder
doch
au(h)
'oppid' 'quam, uel,
3a2.potius'
though
'tamen'
correlat.
cur<*kwor
dar
3a2.-r,
there
ar 'ib'
torqis
torqus
torsej
torre
torsm
tot(j)os
tiot
trochal 2b1.-torri drehen;

'catapulta' 'rump'
drhsil
2b3.-terryff 'lignrius'
'id'
3a2.rstan
mun-torc
mwndorch
drren,
derren
tar-hi 'tunc'
trtorotrit
'penetrans' 'penetrans' 'garri'
6.3.'clamem' 5.5.-tar'dc'
tari,tarti
'dc'
tarktrak
'fsus'
'fsus'
'cinctus'
'directus' tarkyati
'cgitat'
5.5.tarku(wai)
'tripudi'
torm<rsm Taranis
n 'strepit.' 2b1,b2,b3.
torann
-taran 'id'
'tonitrus'
torque,
tormentum
, tormina,
nastorquiu
m
t tn
tan,
stanayitn5.6.tundar
5.3.-fafnah
'calos'
5.5.-takku (-
'si'
<*gwe,
*ghwe,
*ge-ye ?)
5.5.-tarma'card'
'cluus'
Darm
'intestnum'
3a2.earm 'id'
3a3.-armr
'id'
tors
736
2b1-b2b3.-tan
trkmtom
tormos
torpej
torqej
uf-anjan
<*toneyo/e
gaairsan
<
*totyoi
tar yati

totrd
ul-tr
totrd
tough
traghsm
trntis
trebh
trah,
traha,
trgum,
trgula,
trma
<traghsm
trejes trija
trsores
tristis
trs
trem
trem
trenk
truncus,
trunc;
drungus
<gall.
ttr 'ib'
'fortna'
'inflig'
dioh
3a2.thoh,
thigh
trg 'litus'; vertragus

drigil
traig 'ps' 'pernix
'seruus'
trgcanis'
3a2.-rg
'recd' 2b1.-trai 'tempus';
'recessus'; r gan
troed 'ps' 'id'; thrall
2b2.'id'
truit/trys
2b3.-troad
ragjan
'curr'
durh
3a2.-durh
<t(e)rkwe
arh
LUS.trebopala
'protector
pag'
(Cabeo
das
fraguas)
trn comp. 2b1.-tren
rece,
tressa
roht 'uis,
tress
impetus'
'pugna'
3a3.-rekr
'audacia'
drsti,
rste 'id'
3a2.-rste
'audax'
tr, f. toir 2b1-2b2drei
2b3.-tri, f. 3a2.-re,
tair, teir
three
3a2.thrimman
'curam
habre'
3a6.-dram
'strepitus'
tricim
trincos
dringan,
'linqu' 'gladiator dringen 'id'
dthracht?
q.'
3a2.'desider' 2b1.-trengi ringan
arp
'ager'
'aedificium'
trem
'turris'
6.3. trob
'domus'
trgat
'tang'
6.3.treksne
'impetus'
traans<tr 2b2.-traf, tar<teres 2b1.-traws

ntis
trahaf
(tairse 2b2.-tres,
'trans eam,
trus
tairsiu 2b3.-treuz
'trans es'
trabs,
trbm triub, treb 2b1.-tref
trabs,
'domum' 'residentia' 2b3.-treb
taberna
tremnu
taberncu
l.'
tregsnos
treistis
hidre
ar
tocad
TOGITAC
'fortna'
C
2b1.tynghet
'fort.'
2b3.toket
'ftum'
tn 'podex' 2b1.-tin
2b2.-tyn
toukn
trabhis
tragh
3a2.der,
thither
'huc''
tirah
'procul'
5.3.-tar,
tar 'latere'
reis, ac.
rins
ramstei
'locusta'
<*trems-
reihan
'premere'
tryas, f.
tisr
trije
6.3.-trys
trem ,
tremtity
6.3.-trmti
'expell'
6.4.-tremt
'id'
raxta trutt
nam (part.) 'quati'
6.3.-trekti
'quati'
737

drong
'multitd'
trep
tres
treud
trd,
trdis
draben,
trapen
3a2.rafian
'trott'
3a3.-trav
'pressa nix'
trotaid
2b1.-driozan, usriutan
'ligat'
cythru verdriesse 'molestus
<*truzd- d 'tormentr n 'molest' esse'
+d
e'
3a2.-()rotan
'fatig'
trg, truag 2b1, b3.tru
treuk
2b1.trychu
<*truks;
trwch
'abscissus'
trjtos
triplus
trs
trisns
ter, terr
trn
trts
trtus
termes
t mos
tarmes,
termes
-itis
738
'ter'
'pannus'
6.3.trkstu, au, -ti

6.4.tr kstu
'rump'
'triplus'
3a2.threefold
<*-t
driror
rennr
'triplex'
fo-thr
testis, 1b2.triss >

iculum,
trstus;
tress
testimoniu trstaamen 'tertius';
m;
tud
tre(i)sse
testament
'triduum'
um
tertius
6.4.trecu/ekt
'id'
t pr-,
trepet
'uert';
t pla6.3.-
'uehemens
trepseti
'calc'!
';
'calc'
trpat
'uia'
'repuditur'
5.5.-teripp
'ar'
tru do,
truditi
'torment'
trilis 'crnis,
spra'
t mts
t n
drauche
'pedica'
3a2.-rh
''aqurium
trath
(trethan)
'mare'
<*triaton-
tripls
trptis
tritjos
3a3.ryngja
trepidus,
trepit,
turpis
treughos
tristis
'letum,
fnis'
2b1.trydydd
thridja
'tridens'
tr
tri- h'ter
condicion
tum'
t tya-s
trith
'deebilis'
6.3.trntas;
trntis
'fricti'
6.4.-trts
5.5.-tarma
2b1.cynrhonyn
2b2, b3.contronen
2b3.-toroc
<*trko
dorn
arnus
3a2.-orn
tra-m
'herba'
trn;
strn
'calamus'

troghos
trogj
trogos
troia
trogaid ?
'ebrius'
drec,
Dreck
'merda'
3a2.-reax
'caris'
tropos
trosej
terre
troughi
1b2.tarrach
tursitu, 'tremendus
tursiandu
'
trg, truag 2b1, 2b3.'miser' tru 'miser'
trow
trow
torpe
t rpis
t sdos
turdus
t sj
t stis
3a3.throstr
arsjan
durst,
arstei
Durst
'sitiens'
3a2- urst (fem.)
tart
torrus
trudsk
trudsms
truks
Nd.drumpel,
dorpel
'limen'
rs
'fimbria'
2b1.-taraw drawen,
<*toraw drohen 'id'
'quati' 3a2.-ran
2b3.'minor'
toreusit
'attruit'
<*torw-
t pj
t stos
t sus
'cursus'
trog 'puer' 2b1-2b22b3.-tro

'coagulum'
trux,
truculentus
, trucid
(Hes.)
'fermentu
m un'
'trottoir' (
copul.)
trop
trsati
'trepe'
'ter';
'carre'
6.3.-tris
6.4.-trist
6.3.truni, -eti
'putref,'
u-trpeti
6.2.toropt
'urge'
6.3.-tirpti
'rige'
durri
arsus
'tabs'
3a2.-yrre,
trosc
trwsg(l)
rstfell rts-fill 'ter'
<*tr ds-ko 'raucus'
2b3.trousk
'pellicula
dermatitis'
tromm 2b1- trwm

drz,
'grauis'
'id'
Verdru
'molestia'
3a2.-rat
'minti'
tr (troch)
'capite
anqustus'
tur
trg
'passus,
posterits'
drozd
<*trosdos
6.3.strazdas
t yati
trezv
'sbrius'
trov , truti
'uor' 6.3.trunti
'marce,
corrumpor'
trudno
'difficile' ;
trud
'mlimentu
m'
739

t
tljom
tumj
tume,
tumulus
tomm
'tumulus'
tumls
tmolos
tund
turgj
trjs
tursis
thu
2b1.-tom
'id'
twf 'uis'
tyfu
'crsc'
dmo,
Daumen
'id'
3a2.thumb
'pollex'
3a3.-umi
tund,
stude,
tussis
do-tuit
'cadit'
cystudd
'dolor'
2v3.arstud
'cuspis'
stzan,
stoen
3a2.sttan
turge <*
turigos?
tiurr
turm < qq.

medit.
tusjai
tusn
tonn
tnne
tustij
tustis
twakos
twenk
twer
740
tv
5.5.-tulija- 6.3.-tlas
'congregti 'multi'; tl
'
'massa'
6.9.-tlan
'mult'
6.3.-tumti
'tumulus'
'pinguesc'
tm(s)tas
'aceruus'
tumultus
turris
(mediter.)
dwingan,
zwingen
3a2.winglian
3a3.vinga, aa
Turnomagus,
stautan
tumala-,
6.3..tumula- tm(s)tas
TOK A 'cumulus,
tm , B
turma'
t(u)mane
'10.000'
tudti
tur- 'fors, tvarog

<*tri-o
potens'
'lac
5.3.-tiri- coagultu
'caseus q.'
m'
ILL;LYD-Tursa
boudorgis /Turra
tsyate
5.5.-dussk
6.3.-tvina ,
tvnti
'tumere
aqua'
6.4.-tvans,
tvana
'uapor'
tvac(as-)
'pellis'
5.5.tuekkas
'corpus,
ipse'
tvanakti
6.3.
'contrah'
tvank'oner'
(cf. fr.
'calens,
<twnky
contraigna premens',
nt)
tv nkti
<ksn
5.3.'turgre
'creber';
aqua'
? wazjaiti
<*tuanzh
ati<ghsk
'obligtur'
tvoriti
'corda';
'cre,

Turncum
'-altus'
2b3.-tornaod
'falaria'
'trem'
twoiss
tw bhn
turba,
turb, -re,
turb, -inis
tw kos
tw m
turma
tw tos
trua, trulla,
truella,
amptru,
ucj
oucs
ud
deros
'sirna'
ue,
uesc;
dus
<*ougwio, me
<*ughsm
y /
ougwimj
?
sque
uterus;
uenter ?
faci'
tvarg
'caseus'
6.3.-tveri,
tvrti
6.4.-turu,
tur t
tve - ;
tv ati
'excittur'
5.3upqwayei
ti 'timet'
2b1.-twrf 3a3.-orp
5.5.
'id'
'multitd tarup(p)'turba'
hominum' 'congreg'
torc 'aper' 2b1.-twrch
'car' tv tar
(gen. tuirc, 'aper'
4.2, 4.3.- 'cretor'
acc. pl. 2b2.-torch
'id'
5.3.turcu)
'id'
qbrsa,
2b3.rs
tourc'h 'id'
'porcellus';
rsaiti
'scindit,
format';
qbrstar
'cretor'
turm
'uertig',
Sturm
'tempests
' 3a2.rymm
'turma';
storm 'id'
dweran
twar'celeriter
'festn'
gyr';
stren
`turbare'
fal 'urna'
3a2.-wake
uk ti
'uuor'
'sillati'
'mectat'
3a3.-v kr
5.3.<*wogws
uxyeiti
'dus'
'id' 5.4.oyc
<*ougwo'dus'
uss-, oss(ud/upo?)
aus
ut 'extr';
ud, ut vz- (vs-)
'aper';
'extr';auB tana
'sursum';
'ad-'
en, uz
uttara
6.3, 6.4.
3a2.-ut, or'altius';
uz 'ad'
'posterus'; uttama
, ur 'altissimus'
'postumus'
5.3.-us,
; 'ira'
uz<uds
<udgwru;
ingew(n)t
udram
6.3.
, -ende,
5.3.-udaravdaras
(Hes)
Eingeweid
6.4.-
741

dh
e
ter, iuter,
Euter
3a2.-der,
ieder
3a3..-ju(g)r
<*eud-
ber
<*H1eu/<*H1ou-
ve^ders
dhar,
v me
<dhmen
<*H1ou(H) dhas
(dhnas) 6.3.-drudh
<*H1uHdh
ju, -ti
'grauida
esse'
huda(ak)
'rectus' 'celer(iter)'
dhros
dhs
udsqe
sque
ugh n
uksn
uksr
ululj
unksr
upelos
oss
2b1.-ych ohso 'bos' ahsus ,
'ceruus'
'bos'
3a2.-oxa
auhsa
2a3.-2a4.- 2b2.-ohan
os
(pl) 'bos'
2b3.ouhen,
oc'hen
ulul,
ulucus
'latr'
ilach
'clamoor';
2a2.-ulach
'id'
lka
'buf'
umbra
fel
2b1.-gorau
'optimus'
uperi
s-uper 1b2.-super for-; ferr 2b1-gor;
<*uper- lo / guell 'id'
uper-so 2b2.-gor;
'potius'
guel 'id'
2b3.-guor;
gwell 'id'
peros
s-uperus supruis
chtar
2b1.-uthr
'supers' <ouptro 'excellens'
s,
uas<oupsu
upo
s-ub
sup
fo2b1-2b2.1b2.-sub-,
gwosu-,
2b3.-gou
upqrijom
2b1.-gobr
'salrium'
2b2.-gober
'id'
2b3.-bopr
'id'
upsdjom subsidium
fothae >
fth
bel
3a2.-yfel
ubils
obar, ubiri
3a2.-ofer
3a3.-yfir
uuf
3a2.-ufe
3a3.-of
huwappa-;
huwap(p)'uex'
ufar
iup 'ad
supera'
uf
5.1, 5.3.upa
upakriy
'beneficiu
m'
6.3.ul(l)ti
'salut'
6.3.-nkna
kanas
'turbidus'
peres
742
ucc
'deorsum,
sursum'
5.3.-usca
'super'
u niha5.3.-vaj'fodic'
5.5.-huek
'dcoll'
uk
5.3.uxan-
upri
5.5.-(sar)
upzi 'sl
oritur'

upstnom
pselos
upsi
foss
'seruus'
susque,
sustine
dagouassus
2b1-2b3.gwas
2b2.-guas
uasal
Uxe(l)lodu
num
2b1.-uchel
2b2.-huhel
2b3.-uc
hel, huel
s, uas 2b1.-uch,
wwch
2b2.-ugh
2b3.-uch
vysok
'altus'
usts
uta
ustus
wdr
lutra
CELTIB.uta 'et' ?
uter
uagor,
uagus
coin
(canes)
fodorne
(pl.)
otre
fn
'cauits'
<wgn /nos
wnsk
wnsk
wros
vysok
'altus'
uqns
urs
wdris
wgjai
upasthna
m
'seruitd'
uarus
ferbb (fem)
ottar, Otter
3a2.-otor
ur5.5.-ura'magnus'
u
uta 'secus,
an'
udrah
vydra
'serpens 5.3.-udr 6.3.-dra

aquae'
2b1.guoin,
gwaun
'uallis,
pratum'
2b2.-goen,
goon,
'pals'
2b3.-geun,
'pals'
wunsc,
Wunsch
3a3.-sk
<*wunskwunscen,
wnschen
3a2.weleras
'labra'
wrj
wadhis
uas (uadis,
pl.
uadium)
wadh
ud,
uadum
wetti;
wadi;
wetten wadjabk
3a2.s 'littera
wedd;
fignorlis'
weddian
'uxorem
uehere'
watan
3a2.waden
wch
<*w()nskvchati
<*w()nskToB.-yoro; 6.3.-vras,
weru
vris
<*wr?
5.5.-ur,
vrj,
war
vr ti
'accend'
'coq'
6.3.-vrti,
vrdu 'id'
6.3.uadoti
'uadem
dat'
743

wadhom
wagein
wghij
wai
uagna
ugi,
ugor
uae
wailos
wails
wakk
uacca
walgos
ualgus
walnom
uallus,
uallum
walm
wapj
vapor
waplj
vapul
warn
wros
wstos
744
urus,
uricus,
ura,
`(prae)uric
uastus,
unus
5.5.-wak- 6.3.- v iu,

'rump'; 'morde'
v ti
'operi';
'parauentu
6.4.-v u,
s'
vst
vagnu6.3.'strepitus' 'tonus',
vgrauti
vagvan
'strepitus'
vagvan'strepens'
5.5.-uwai- 6.3.-va
fe
2b1.-gwae w a2.-w
wai
a3.-wei
'afflicti'
gwael
3a3.-vl
wl
vyati/e ex 6.3.-vjes
'miser'
'necess' 'necessits
tenutur', 'damnans'
'
abhi-vta- 6.4.-vaj
aeger'
'dbilis'
(vtasiccus'),
vy'lassus'
fel, faol
5.4.-gayl,
kayl
va ,
v it
walkan
vlgati
'pultre'
'saltat,
3a2.torqutur'
wealcan
'uolu'
fl <*wl-;
2b1.felmae
gwawl
'saepes'
2b3.goalenn
'uirga'
5.5.-LUW 6.3.-velys
3a2.-wael
'in proeli
(Hes) u(wa)lant 'mortu';
mortu'
'mortuus' TOK A-wl
'morior'
vpayati
'exhal'
wuoffen,
wpjan
5.3.vpiti
weffen
'clam,
ufyeimi
'uoc';
3a2.uoc'
'inuoc'
wablju,
wpan
wabiti
'fle'
'uoc'
3a3.-pa
OGH.bran
TOK.
vorna
a 'coruus'
wraun'a
'coruus'
'coruus' 6.3-varna
2b2.- fs; fsach

vacetum, 'desertus'
uasetom
'vititum',
uas
'vitium';
wuosti
'desertus'
3a2.-wsti
'id'
5.5.wastai- ?
'labs',
pecctum

antervakaz
e,
anderuaco
se
'intermissi
'
wtis
utes
watjos
uatx,
uatius,
urus,
uascus<ua
tskos
we
-ue, ceu,
neu, nue,
seu, siue
webh
wdhneum
i
wedh
wedh
wedhrom
fith
no 'aut'
ouateis
gwawd
'carmen'
2b3.-nou
'aut'
wuot
wds
'amentia'; 'possessus
wtten;
'
3a2.-w
'cantus';
wdan
'baccanre
'
3a3.Oinn; r
'posia'
wado
'sra,
suffrago',
Wade
3a3.-vovi
'musculat
ra'
5.1, 5.3.v 5.1.eva

'mod',
evam 'ita'
ubhnti,
weban
3a2.umbhti,
wefan,
unbdhi;
webbian
rna3a3.-vefa,
vbhis
vefja
'aranea'
5.3.ubdana
'textus'
5.5.-hbiki
'ulum'
5.6.-bfad
'texit'
wetan
gawidan
vi-vadh
a3.-ydd ?
'clitella';
'habna' <
vadhra*udhet
'cori uitta'
fedan
2b1.'iunctra'
gwedd
fedil
'iugum';
'iugum'
arwest
coibdelach 'fids,
'congenr.'
uitta'
fedim
2b1.-ar- widem(e),
(uxorem), weddu, cy- Wittum
praet. weddu; dy- 3a2.docoid/
veddio we(o)t(u)m
dodechud 'nb'
a, wituma
/ tuidched
'dos'
<*
to(d)ko
mwdhfodb
'spolium,
exuuiae'
<wodhwos
wetar,
wetter
F
'an'
vhate<v 6.3.-ved
'dos';
dhate
'ux. dc';
vadhh
veno
'dos'
'nb';
s 'norus'
5.3.'sine dte'
vdayeiti
<*nH2wed(h)- 5.5.uwate/peh
ute
vadhTOK A
'letlis'
wac, B
weta
(Hesq.) 5.3.-vadar'pugna'
vedr,
vedro
745

3a2.wedar
3a3.-ver
wedhsk
fisc2b1.'prem'; gwascu 'id'

fodb
2b3.gwask
'spolium,
a 'id'
exuuiae'
<wodhwos
wedm
wed
adft, in
ft, indft
weghj
uia
wegh
ueh,
uectus,
ulox
<ueghslok
s
weghtis
uectis
vi,
amvan(n)
ud
1b2.-vea,
via (abl.)
2b1.gweith
'uices'
2b2.gweth
2b3.-gwez
'bonum
tempus'
vadhati
6.3.(Hes.); 'contund'; vedeg
vadh'ascia'
'quati';
'letlis' 6.4.-vedga
5.3.'ascia'
'tremitus'
vdya'retir';
vada'cuneus'
vdati
vada
'uocuit'; 'loquitur' 'calumnia',
'uox'; vandate
vaditi
F 'laudat' 'calumnir
5.5.e'
'can'
watarmah
6.3.h- 'mand' vadin,
vadinti
'uoc'
weg
wigs
TOK A
wkm (pl.
wknant),
B yakne <
*w'kne
wagon ga-wigan vhati
vezu
'currus'; 5.3.-vazaiti 6.3.-vez
'moue'
'cie'
(F)
3a2.
wagian 'id'
'concussor
terrae'
gewihte
'pondus'
3a2.-wiht
'lanx,
pondus'
weghtlom uehiculum
weght r
uector
weg
uege
weg
ulum<ue
gslom
wakan
'crsc'
weidh
weidos
746
duid
figim 'tex' 2b1.-gwe

'rte'
2b2.-guiat
'uela'
2b3.-guea
weidr
3a3.-vitnir
'animal'
wsan
'euit';
weiso,Wei
se 'orbus'
1b2.-vetu
fad
'honor',
adv.
'coram'
2b1.gwydd
'praes'
2b3.-a
goez
'apert'
vahtravolhar
<*vazdhar
5.3.vaxtarvajati
5.5.huitar
'cretra'
vidhyati
v das vid 'uisi'

'apprentia 'scientia' 6.3.-vidas
'; <
'facis'
*widesa ?
weiks
wiktom
uictima
(w)weimi
inut -re
weim
1b2.eveietu
'electum'
<*ekueigtum?
umen
weip
weiros
weis
fiam
'catna'
ND.wm(e)
'cintra'
2b1.ziweibian biwaibjan
gwisgi<uip 'disperg';
skmo? wb 'mulier'
'agittus'
3a2.wfan
'uesti';
wifel, wifer
'columna';
wf 'mulier'
3a3.-vfa
'teg'; vf
'mulier'
fiar
2b1.-gwyr 3a2.-wr
'hamtus' 'tortus'
2b3.-gwar,
goar
us, ures;
ui?,
uia?
amvan(n)
ud
1b2.-vea,
via?
weisn
weis
una
weitks
weitis
uie, utis
weit
whi 'id';
weihs
Weihnacht 'sanctus'
en
3a2.-wh-
2b1.weisant
gwyar
'arteriae'
'sanguist'
3a2.<*ueisaro- weasan
'conductus'
fith
'ligmentu
m, corda'
vda 'salix'
vi
5.3.-vs-
vs (i
nouta)
6.3.vi pati
'dominus'
vinkti,
vivkti,
vevekti
'separ'
5.3.-avavak- 'id'
'e,
v ti
intend' 'persequitu
r'
'persequor' vnati
'reuersus 'anhelat'
in proeli' 5.3.-vviti
, vayeiti 'id'
v man
vepate
'tremit';
viptha
'columna'
5.3.-vip'iaci'
povin ti
'subici'
vojna
'bellum'
6.3.-vej,
vti
6.3.-atvipti
'pendere
(fragmenta
)'
6.4.-viepe
'copertra'
(pl. vayasvoj
<*wsnes) 'uitlits,
'mils';
'et
iuuents' ; vojna
musculus'
v ti
'bellum';
'u' ; 'persequitu vina 'culpa'
'e,
r'
intend' udayati<s
d 'affirmat'
5.5.-huya'curr'
v ati
F
'salix'
vetash
'arundo'
5.3.vaitish
'salix'
5.6.-bd
'salix'
vetvi(je),
v tv
6.3.-vtis
vej
'uertor'
747

wiwers
wejes /
weje
uuerra
us,
uestrum,
ubis
iora radh
?
2b1.gwiwer
<lat.
eihhurno,
Eichhorn
3a2;-cweorna
wir;
3a2.-we
3a3.-vr
feccaid
'flectit'
Matres
Vocallineh
ae;
-
2b1.gwaeth
<*wk-to
'peius'
2b2.gweth 'id'
2b3.-goaz
'id'
3a2.-wh
'tortus,
flexus';
wh
'malum'
3a3.-v
'angulus,
damnum'
1b4.-uus
wekmi
wek
wekss
weld
conuexus,
subuexus;
uacill ?
uell
2b1.gwellaif
'forfices'
2b2.gwillihim
'id'
welks
uol
weln
uallis ?
welp
uoltus,
uultus
748
1b2.-veltu
'uelle'
uelor
wiljan
2b1.- 3a2.-wltan wulus

gweled
; wlatian
'gloria,
2b3.'quaer, magnificen
guelet
sgi'
tia' wlits
'uisus'
''forma'
wulrs
'ualor'
A B.-val
*<wn
v ti,
vrnt
rm53.varmi-
vlna,
voln
6.3.-vilns
<*wni6.4.-vilna
5.4.-gel
<*welno-,
*welso'pulchritd
'
VENT.Voltinos,
Voltiomno
s,
uolmen
3a2.-will
wella ,
welle
fl 'est,
voici'
<uele
OGH;velitas
'uisus'
5.4.varvarah
uolup(e),
uolupts;
lepe
weltis
wlw en
vyvirka
6.3.vaiver ,
vovere
weis
TOK.-wes vaym,
vy (ac.)
vah
6.9.-wans
5.3.-vaem,
(ac.)
vo
5.5.-ws
vacati,
'uoluntriu viva i
s'
5.5.-wek;
wewakk;
uwekir
'uolure'
un-whs
vcati;
<impeccb
vakrilis
'convexus';
<*wonko
vak
'pantica,
maeandru
m'
5.3.-vata'flexus'
5.4.gangur 'id'
<unkuro
wilwan
'capere,
(Hes.)
rapere'
fail, foil
(falach)
'anus'
welmi
welnos
wel
ILLYR.Voltius,
Voltisa
a
'tegmen'
6.3.-vilts
'sps'
5.4.gelumn
'torsi'

welw
uolu
fillim
3a2.wallow
walwjan
wehen
3a2.wwan
waan
waw
winnan
'pugn';
gewinnen
'uinc'
winn,
winna
'passi'
wlwtrom inuolcrum
wmmi
()wmi
uom
uannus;
uatillus
wmos
w nmoi
vimpi
<*wmokw
is
2b1.gwymp
unor
wendh
wensnom
wenj
wen
wenos
wenseik
went
2b1.ymwan
'pugn'
2b3.gwane
'forre'
gwa^n
'puncti'
uenus,
uenustus,
unor
Venus
(fem.)
u(n)sca
wunta,
wunds
uunde 'uulnertus
'uulnus'
'
3a2.wund,
wound
fine
2b3.wini
'familia' coguenou 'amcus'
fingalach ìndigena' 3a2.-wine
'parricida'
'id'
coibnius
3a3.'familiarit
winr<weni
s'
s
Venusia
(Apulia)
fine
<wenj
'familia';
coibnius,
coibnes
(coibnis)
'familirit
s, affinit.'
3a3.-vinr
'amcus'
wan(a)st,
wenist
'pantica'
winja
'pstus,
cibus'
vlati,
valith
5.5.-hul(a) vartra'toga'
vmit
vti,
vejo,
(Hom.);
vyati;
vejet
'uentsus' vy 'id' 6.3.-vejas

'uentus'
5a3.''; viti;vyu
'uentus'
5.5.huwant 'id'
vma-
vnati, uniti 'uelle'

van ti
TOK A
'uincit,
wai,
desiderat'
wn5.3.-vanaiti 'delicia'
'capit'
5.5.wen(t)'futtuere'
5.4.vandem
'dele'
vnati,
uniti
van ti;
'ben',
vanas- unjii, uneji
'lasciuia'
'potius'
5.3.-vanaiti
'unor'
5.5.uen(t)'futtuere'
vast-;
'stomachu vani hs
'rectum'
ruminantis'
--vn
-vat
(putravn) (vinovat
'culpbilis')
749

wentos
weqtis
weqtlom
wr
werbos
fet, ac. fit 2b1.-gwynt

wint
'siffilrium'
2b2.3a2.-wind
gwyns
2b3.gwent
ni-wiht
'nihil'
3a2.-wikt,
wight
'cretra'
foccul
2b1.'uerbum' gwaethl
'disputti'
uestibulum
veru
3a1, 3a2,
<werstidhl 'portam'
3a3.-wer
om
1b2.'saeptum
verofeìn
aquae'
portam'
uerbera,
uerbero,
verbna
werein
werg
foirenn
'facti'
uerg,
uermina
wergom
weri
werj
750
uentus
rnor,
rntor
1b2.gwrym hrimpfan,
'fimbria, rmpfen
limbus'
'uultum
contorq.';
werfen
'iaci'
3a2.weorpan,
warp
2b3.- 3a2.-wrd
guerin
'grex'
'factines'
2b1.gwraint ?
'uerms'
wahts
vtah
vnt'siffilti'
5.5.huwantes
5.5.-uttar
<uktr
veti
vaktram
's'
vara-,
vora
vala- 'saepment
'spatium, um'; zavor
circumscri 'transitus
pti'
clausus'
5.3.-vala'id'
warpan
5.5.vrba
<wrbnos hurpasta(n 'rmussali
'iaci'
'Rhamnus';
)-,
cis'
hurpusta6.3.-vir
bas
'uirga'
'folium'
'uirga'
6.4.-virbs
'distorque
'baculum'
';
vrndam verenca
'leu'; 'multitud' 'corda' ;
3a2.
'biga'
weorn, 6.3.-virve
'pend' wearn
'id' 'corda';
5.5.-hurai virtene 'fila'
? 'orn'
TOK A.v kti,
vrigo,
wrknt,
vrjati
vrsti
B.'rotat,
'iaci'
yerkwanto uertit';
6.3.abhi-vlag- regtis
? 'rti 'contorque
capt'
or'
5.5.-hurki rangts
'festntus'
frawarhts
5.3.
'peccatum' 'faci'; vrzyeiti
wrius
'grex'
birenkit,
verrenkt
'tortus'
3a2.wrincle
'ruga';
wrencan
'torque,
manipul'
vergowerc,
bretus
werah
1b1.3a2.
gwreith
weorc,
'factur'
work
1b3.-guerg 3a3.-verkr
èfficax'
geir
2b1.-gwer 3a3.-vari A B.-hur-
vr, vri
TOK.-A
'sebum'
'sebum'
'fluxus; d 'pals' 'sparg'; 5.3.vr- wr, war

<gwer?
aqua', r
5.4.-gay
'parua
? 'hauri'; <ueriopluuia';
'pals'
*
aurr
5.5.'torrens' hurnai'aqua,
madidus'
'madefaci
'
, fut.
5.5.
weriye/a-;

hurt ?
'maledc'
(w)wermi
wraton 'iter
<*e-wefacere'
wr(H1)-e/o
far
wern
fern 'et
mlum'
wros
urus
werp
repns ?
(cf.
kwerp);
ueprs?,
uerpa?
<*wrpr-
wersis
uerrs
frass, fross
'pluuia' <
wrost
wersm
uerca,
uarus,
uarix,
uarulus
fern
2b1, 2b2,
werra,
'bonus' 2b3.-gwell Werre,
ferr 'potius' <werlo-?
Warze
uide uperi 'potius' 3a2.-wearr
uide uperi
wers
uerr
werstis
uestgium
werstidhlo
m
wertmn
fr
2b1.gwernen
'id'
2b2.-guern
'mlum'
2b3.gwern 'id'
Co-vrus wr, wahr;
2b1.-gwir
wra
2b2.-goyr <wr
2b3.-gwir 'pactus'
3a2.-wer
'id'
worf
'manubriu
m'
3a2.wrappen,
wrap
'inuolu'
reineo
3a2.wrne
'lascuus'
werran,
verwirren?
'conturb'
3a3.-vorr
'remigtus'
obr sti
<*wr-t
s-r sti
'conuenre'
6.3.-suresti
'capere'
<*wr-t
ALB.-verr 5.4.-geran
'Ppulus
`trabs,
alba'
tignum'
5.5.-warrivera
'seruitium,
?
<wr
satisfacti' 'subsidium' 'fids'
??,
(iunctra)
???
vrpasvrpu,
'su';
'artificium, vrpsti
acumen'
'rapi'
6.3.'acus';
verpi,
'impetus';
verpti 'ne'
'hunc'
var - 6.3.-veris
'rs' 'pluuia'
'uitulus'
v n- 6.4.-versis
'uirlis'
'id'
vr abh'taurus'
vraa'testiculus'
5.3.varna'uirlis'
5.5.-wa-ara-a 'pl'?
var mn vrch.
'tumulus' 'promunt.' verch ''id'
'caelum' vr yas- 6.3.-virs

'altior',
'cacum.'
vr i ha 6.4.-vrsus
'summus' 'superus'
5.5.vreti
uara-,
'tribul';
uarvroch 'id'
'met,
6.4.tribul'
varsms
'fruminis
aceruus'
751

wertos
2b1.Wert
gwerth; 3a2.-worth
gwerthe
'uendere'
wertrom
2b1.gwerthyr
'oppidum'
wrunos
uescor
wsk
uannus;
uatillum
wsnmi
wesnej
wesnom
unum,
uend,
une
<unum+e
;
vlis
<*ues(o)-li-
wes
wsolis
wespros
752
ulis
uesper
umbra
<*unksr
6.3.-vert ;
vrtas
'pretisus'
6.9.-werts
<3a?
vartra-
3a2.A B.-varr
vora
wearn
<*uorn 'saepment
'resistentia'
'sepulcrum
um'
3a3.'
dfensi
fess, feiss 2b1.-gwest

wist
waila
nu
<uest
'festa' `pulmentu wisan
vvas
'cibus' 2b3.-banm';
'oblector'
'uoruit'
fiach
ves 'festa' wastel>gt frawisan
vst
'coruus'
eau
'uor'
'uortine'
ban-[f]ess
3a2.5.3.-vastra
'nuptiae'
wesan
'fauces'
'dapem
5.5.-uei,
habere';
uea
wist 'id'
'pastus'
3a3.-vist
'id'
fisc
2b1.vhat
gwasgu
2b3.gwasgu
fennaid
ort 'spca,
ALB.-usht nivsita6.3.'mulcat'
locus'
'arista' 'interfectus usns 'id'
3a2.-ord
'
6.4.-una
'cuspis'
'spna'
vasn- veno 'ds'

'pretium' 'pretium'
vasnayati
'em' 'negotitur'
5.4.-gin
'pretium'
5.5.uaniya'uend';
uaa'em'
fod
wisan
aor.
vasati
'pernoctat'
5.4.-goy
(cf.
'exsistit'
subsum,
5.5.-huiszi
'uuit'
foss
'permanen
tia'
ksap- 'nox' v era

2b1.-ucher
2b2.5.3.'here'
gurthuher
6.3.'obscrus' xapar/xa
pan
vkaras
5.4.-gier 'uesper';
'nox'
nkn
<*uoikero- 'umbra'
5.5.6.4.ispantvakars
ferenn;
feronn,
ferann
'aruum'
weskai
wairs

wes
ur
errach
2b1.3a3.-ur
guiannuin,
gwaeanhw
yn
<*westein
o- 2b2.guaintoin
fir 'aurra 2b1., oriens'
gwawr
(cf.
'aurora'
auss)
2b3.gwerelaou
enn 'stella
matinae'
wsros
west
westij
westis
uesti,
uestis
wasjan
uestis
wasti
westos
westus
wsus
wtmi
wetlos
wetos
wetss
vasant-s
5.4.garown
<*wesont
vasar'mane'
vsars
'matutnus'
vste
'uesttur' 'uesttur'
(Herod.); 5.4.-z-gest
(F) 'uestis'
5.5.wastanzi
'uestiuntur'
5.4.-z-gest
*<westu(Hes)
feis, fess 2b1.-gwest 3a3.-uist

ban-fheiss 2b3.-ban- 'cibus'
'nuptiae' ves 'daps'
Vesta
vst
'ante
uoratine
m'
3a1, 3a2.wists 'urbs' vstuTOK.-A
wist
'modus, MYC.- wa
wa t, ost
'habitus'
pactus'
-tu
foss
gwesti
'quies'
'domus'
<upowostu; i
foss 'dom'

1b2.- f <*wosu; Bello/Sego Wisuiusiza ?
Vesune
fu
-uesus
'melius' ; (gen pl.)
'diuitiiae'
'Vesonae' 'dignus'; 2b1.-gwiw,
iusila ?
feb
gwych
'laxmentu
<wesw 2b3.-gwiou
m'
'excellentia 'laetus'
' febtu
(febtad)
'subst.'
uet
guetid
'dcit';
di-wedaf
'dc'
uitulus
Viteliu
'italia';
'annucula
1b2.-vitluf
cretra'
'uituls'
uetus
Viteliu
feis
2b2.-2b3.widar
wirus
'annus';
<*wetwos, 'italia';
<*wetsi
guis 'id'
'aris';
'uitulus'
ueternus, 1b2.-vitluf
'sus'
Widder
'biennlis';
uitulus,
'uituls'
italia
'uitulus'
ueternus
MESSAP.vastei
(dat.)
feis
<*wetsi
'sus'
2b1.-gwys
'id'
2b2.-guis
'id'
2b3.-guis,
ALB.-vitsh
'uitulus'
vsu-h
'bonus'
vesel
'alacer'
6.4.-v s ls
'snus'
vatsa(ra) vetch
'annus';
'uetus'
uatsaka
6.3.'uitulus'
u tuas
5.5.-vitt,
'uetus'
wettant
'annus'
vats-,
vatsak'et uitulus'
753

gwes 'id'
wetwos
wibrj
uetus
<*wetwos;
uetustus
uitium,
uituper,
uitilg
uibr,
vbix,
vipex,
vimex
femm?
2b1.'cauda' <* gwynmon
ngw n ?
2b3.gwemon
'id.'
wid
widj
uide
wdhew
uidua
widhus
widjom
wigj
uige
wijj
uie, uitus,
uitta s,
utex
wijsk
754
visc,
1b2.vrseto
weif
'nexus';
weifen
'oscil' ;
wimpel
'vlum'
3a2.wpian
'abter';
wimpel
(find-)fad
2b1.'capillum' gwedd
ro2b1.-gwyr
fitir<wid
2b2.-gor
'scit' (orig. 2b3.-goar
3 pl.)
fedb
2b1.gweddw
2b2.guedeu
fid (fedo) Uiducasse
'arbor'
s
<fiodh
2b1.gwydd
'arbor';
syb-wydd
'pnus'
2b2.guiden;
sibuit
2b3.-gwez
airde
2n1.<*[p]ari- arwydd 'id'
vidiom
'signum'
vetch
'uetus'
6.3.u tuas
'uetus'
F(F) vi; v va
vs
'omnis'
'omnis'
'aequus' 5.3.-v; 6.3.-vsas
vispa
'omnis'
6.3.-viss
'id'
weipan
6.3.-v bur'coron',
iu, -ti
wipja
'oscilre'
'corna'
6.4.-viebt,
viebties
'reuertor'
3a2.widow
witu, wito
'lignum'
3a2.-widu,
wudu
3a3.- vir
(viar)
'silua,
arbor,
lignum'
vid
'scientia'
wait/witun, vetti; vda wem
inf. witan pl.
'nu'
<*weidmi;
vidr
vede
'noure'
6.3.5.4.-gitem vizdmi
<*weidmi
widuw
vidhv vdova<v
'ephebus' 5.3.-vidava dova
(gi)wizzi;
unwiti
vidy
wizz (f.)
<*-dio- <*widesa ? 5.3.-viya
3a2.- 'ignorantia'
(gi)witt
wahhn 'id' wakan

3a3.-vakr
'uigil'
'uigilans'
fith 'fibra' gwden
waddjus 'salix' vyyati
viti; vit
'vinculum,
'uallum'
5.3.-vaiti 'res torta in
ligamen
5.5.-reh- modum
funis'
6.3.-vej,
vti ;
vti, vyts
'rmussali
cis'
feugud
wesel,
6.3.-vsti

vitus
wikis
wikj
wikk
'marcor';
fo
'vitus'
<*ui-uo-
uicis,
uicem
uictima (cf.
wiktoma)
wklutom
wind
rofinnadar
wind peri
airde
2b1.'signum' arwydd 'id'
find 'albus' uindobona (PN)
2b1.-gwyn
2b2.-guyn
2b3.gwenn
windos
winis
uinci,
uincia
wink
uinc
wins
urs (r ad
ms?)
wisj

'fibra'
3a2.-winewincla
'serpens
riprius'
wining
'ligatra'
winkij
wikwos
wrs
2b3.gounn
verwest'
6.4.-viett,
3a2.vtt
wesann,
wisnian
vci- 'dolus' 6.3.-vkstu,
weichen waihsta
'uir';
'angulus' F <*mutti vkt 'plecor'
'cd' (cf.
weigen
6.8.-vegati
'd.
brazo a
oscil';
'oscil'
torcer')
Geweih
'cornua'
wehsal
'mutti'
3a2.-wcan
'uir' wicu
'hebdomas
'
wicker
'sortilegus'
3a2.wicca,
witch
vindti
5.4.gtanem
pari-vindti
1b2.previ latu
'praevincul
t'
vincter
fichid
2b1.-guith wgan
<*wkyeti 'proelium' 3a2.-et
'pugnat'
gewegan
uir, virg
1b2.fer
2b1.-gwr Werwolf
, uirtus,
u(e)iro 2a3.-2a4.2b2.'id'
cria<*ko 'mancipia';
fear
gur/gour 3a2.-wer;
m-wirueiro
2b3.-gour, werewolf
pequo
uurgost 'lycanthrop
os'
uire,
wsa
uiridis
'gemma
Wiese
'pratum'
3a2.-wse
weihan;
wigana
'pugnae'
(dat.)
venc
'corna'
vi-vykti
'amplectitu
r'
vek 'uis'
6.3.-vi kas
'id'
v
war
viv i,
ati 'ag'
vr-;
6.3.-vras
virap - 6.4.-wi^rs
5.3.-vra- ;
pasu vra
6.3.-vesti
'aug'
veisls,
visls
'uber' ;
755
wiskom
uiscum
wsog
uirga;
uirg;
uiscus, eris
witj
wteros
cf. ulba,
uulua ?
wd
756
widar,
wider
'contra'
3a2.-wi,
with 'cum;
contra'
wira
'contra'
fled
cf. uale
(i
longa)
vtara-,
vtara5.3.vtarm
'perperam'
vitt
'grassor'
vtor
'alter,
secundus'
part. vt- vil <*wHi6.3.-vyt

'rmus,
gerra'
6.4.-vte
uitus
wbhontis
veisl 'pr.'
6.4.-vaisla
'prols'
vinja
'cerisia'
ve k- 6.3.-vizg,
'laqueus,
vizgti
ndus
'trem' ,
currens'
viski,
viskti 'id'
fthe, fthe
<*witjo(tech fithe)
'textus'
voc, -re
weiqos
weis
wisc,
Wisch
'penniculu
m'
3a3.-viska
'scopae'
vtricus ?
wweqmi
wdhj
uit
wtj
witjom
witus
'propg
3a3.-vsir
'germen'
wichsila
cf.
follnathir,
follnadar
<*(Hw)lne-H
'imperat'
flesc
'uirga'
v tv
'rmulus'
6.9.witwan
'salix'
'dx'
vkti,
6.9.giwahanen
<*e-uevvakti wacktwei
,
uk-om 'loquitur', 'allicere';
erwhnen
aor.
enwackm
'mone'
avocat
ai
<wokwny
5.4.'applellm
go em
us'
'clam'
5.5.-uek-,
uk'conir'
3a2.ulbandus cf. lba- ? velb d,
'barrus'
olfend
'uulua'
velib d
3a3.5.5.verbljud
ulfalde
huwalpant- <got.
Vlido-rx
5.5.'uol';
2b1.huldalai
gwledd
'desideriu 'gratiam
facere'
m'
waltan,
giwalt 'id'
3a2.geweald
'id' 3a3.vald
'potests'
waldan
wlizjan
vlado,
vlasti
6.3.-vldu,
veldti
6.4.-vldt
ls
'lignum,
silua'
leskov

'styraceus'
wj
wepj
weumi
uale,
vale
aequiualen 'vale(ns)'
s
ualaemom
, valaimas
òptimus'
uell,
uulnus,
uolnus
wlew
wghis
uallis
wiqj
lique,
liquidus
wn
lna,
uellus,
uillus
wrom
lrum,
lrica,
lrips
wqos
lupus
wtis
wtus
uultus
fal-n-, fol- Vlatos 'id'

n2b1.follnathir, gwlad,
follnadar
'terra' ;
<*(Hw)l- guletic,gwl
ne-H
edig 'id'
'imper' 2b2.-gulat,
flaith
gulas 'id'
'auctorits' 2b3.-gloat,
; flaithem
glat
dominus' 'patrimoniu
<*ulatjom
m'
os; Conall
<*komwal-
5.5.walliyatar
'laus';
annawali,
annauli'aequiuale
ns'
fuil
2b1.-gweli (ver)letzen wilwan
5.5.valka
'dele';
'sanguis' <*uolso-?) 'uulner' 'capere,
ualhmi
'bellum'
<*woli-;
'uulnus'
3a3.rapere'
'capior' 'oppugn', 6.3.-v les
fuili
2b2.-goly valkyria
hull-,
'cadauer,
'uulnera'
'id'
'furia'
<*(F), hulliya- 'id' spiritus'
2b3.*(F?
golyow 'id'
'uulnus'
F 5.5.-(wa)- ToB-luwo
lwa-lla'animl'
5.5.-uellu-
folc
Wolke
'currens'
6.3.pavalga
'salsa'
6.4.-val^gs
'humidus'
fliuch
2b1.6.3.-wa'lks
'madidus' gulip/gwlib
'madidus'
2b2.-glibor
wa'lka
'humor'
'pals'
2b3.gloeb/gleb
olann 2b1.-gwlan Wolle

wulla
rn
vlna
2b2.-gluan 3a2.gelmn 6.3.-vlnos

2b3.-gloan wull(e),
'pannus'
(pl.)
wool wil5.5.6.4.-vilna
mod 'colus'
hulana
5.4.-lar
'habna',
'corda,
monle'
(Hes.)
v ka-, fem. vlk
wulf
wulfs
3a2.-wulf, RUN.v k
6.3.-vilkas
wolf
wulafa
5.3.6.4.-vlks
3a3.-ulfr,
vhrkafem.ylgr
folt
2b1.-gwallt Wald
wileis
vla-,
volod
<*wolto- 2b2.-gols 'pratum'; 'saeuus' vra'capillum';
2b3.-guolt
wild
'iuba'
vlas,
3a2.-weald
5.3.volos
'id'
varsa<*lko
<*wolko- 6.3.-vltis
3a3.-vollr
'id'
5.6.-gurs 'paniculum
<*-ko
avenae'
wuldor
wulus
'gloria'
'gloria,
magnificen
tia'
olc 'malus'
(dat. uilc,
acc. pl.
ulcu)
757

wd
wghj
wochj
wod
wod
winchan,
winken
'oscill'
3a2.wincian,
winch
'inuolu'
uoue
woghnos
ueh
woghos
wogsmis
woida
umis, eris,
umer
ud
woidej
woidlos
woidw s
woighos
758
udulus
v gati 6.3-vngiu,
'claudus vngti 'uit'
est'
vght'promulg' 'sacerds'
1b2.uufetes
'uts';
uufru
'utvum';
uofione
'de
utrum'.
hat
'promulgat'
5.3.-aoxta
'dxit'
5.4.-gog,
gogces
'dc(as)'
wazzar wat dat.

avat
voda
3a2;pl.
'puteus'
6.3.
wter
watnam.
*awntos vandu, 3a3.-vatn Wintrus
udn(i) l.,
es
'hiems'
(udn ) 6.4.-avuts
samudra
'fons'
'mare'
5.3.-aoa'fons'
5.5.-wa-atar (wtar)
wegan,
vhyati
voziti
wiegen 'id'
'port'
3a2.wegan
'moue'
fn
couinnus
wagan
'waggon' 2b1.-gwain 3a3.-uagn
vahavoz <
'carrus' 'dcens'
voz
5.3.-vza- <*wogh'id et
'carrus'
uolans'
waganso;
6.3.-vgis
wecki
'cuneus,
Wecken
malleus'
(Hes.)
'cuneus'
6.9.3a2.-wecg,
wagnis
wedge
'uom.'
v da
rofitir
2b1.-gwyr
weiz,
wait,
v d
wizzums witum
vidm 6.9.-waisei
3a2.-wt,
5.4.-gitem
'scis'
witon
fidid
vedayati
'mittit'
'indicat'
cf. veda
'uieor'; 'scopae,
fascis'
fadu
weitws
vids,
'testis'
'testis'
vidvn
5.3.-vidu
3a2.-wice,
KURD.-viz vjaz
witch
ALB.-vidh
6.3.vinkna
unda (cf. 1b2.-utur, u(i)sce

APR
abl.une <*udeskiowundan n., *udni.
odar
unds
'spdix'
'aqua')
Auentiinus
?
woghej

woik
woikos
fch
<*woikos
'ra,
inimicitia'
vcus
weihs
woiks
2b1.weigar <gwych
kr
'splendens 'superbus'
, excellens' 3a3.-vgr
'capax
pugnand'
woiksl
woin
woinos
uindex
unum
woisos
vrus
(F)
fi
2b1.-gwit
'pulmentu
m'
wolj
uulgus
wolmos
wols
(bene-,
male-)
uolus
wolpis
uulps
weida,
Weide
'pastus,
uentus'
3a2.-w
'uentus,
iter'
wellen,
whlen
3a3.-velja
waljan
2b1.-gwala
'satis'
2b3.gwalch 'ets'
flmae,
felmae
'saepes'
wolos
5.6.-vith
6.3.-vikus
'celer',
veikls
'agilis',
vikrs
'alacer'
woit
wolgos
F
ALB.-vise
(pl.)
v k
'uigor,
saeculum'
walm
'feruor'
3a2.wielm,
wylm 'id'
wala
3a3.-val
2b1, 2b2,
wela,
wala
2b3.-gwell wola, wohl 'ben'
<*wel-? 'id' 3a2.- <*wel- ?
'potius'
well 'id'
5.4.-gini
5.5.wiyanavi 5.3.-vi-,
viavt'pulmentu
m, dlicia'
vna 'culpa'
vino
TOK.-A
ws, B
was
varyati volj , voliti

'dsider'
vrgah
'turma'
'et
mortrium'
:
'uermis'
rm'unda'
5.3.armi
'unda'
5.4.-gil
<*ul
vra-,
vara
var'lector,
lectus,
bellus'
lop lis
5.3.<*wleipsoraopis; ?
6.3.urupis
lpe
<lupi
<ulop;
'canis'
vilpi s
5.4.-alues 'fels fera'
(aluesu) 6.4-lupsa
5.5.<ulopek?
ulip(pa)na
'lupus'
5.6.-rps;
gurpak,
759
wolnos
uulnus,
uolnus
flann
2b1.-gweli
'ruber, <*uolso-?
sanguinole 2b2.-goly
ntus'
fell 'dolus' 2b1.-guall
faill; fall 'defectus'
'negligenti 2b3.-gwall
a'
'mal'
wolsom
wolws
ualua
(=tortilis)
<*uelu
wondhej
3a3.-valr
1b2.-preuendu
'aduertit',
aha-uendu
auertit';
wondhos
wns
find (gen
pl.
finnnae);
fs
<wendhso
unus;
uac,
uoc?
wintan,
winden,
wenden,
wandern
3a2.windan
wintbrwa,
Wimper
'palpebra'
5.4.- gat
'dld'; 'clam'; go 'subrp'
'fur'
6.3.-vlti,
'fallax'
vlbinti
'fall'
6.4.-vilt 'id'
valobl,
<*aiwesi- 'cauerna'; ;
wolos
cakra- val 'unda'
'tremulus'
vla6.3.'circulus'
v ls
6.4.-apl;
vls
significti
?
wandjan;
vandhra- TOK.-A, B
inwinds
'sella
wnt'currus';
'contrrius' currs' 'circumteg
5.4.-gind
'
'anus'
<wiwondh
os;
'dispexus.'
vos, os
'barba
AP-wanso
'p. barba'
3a2, 3a2.wans
n6.3.-vas
wan 'id' 'deficiens' 'inops'; 'dficiens' kariai 'om
3a3.-wanr
5.3.-na incompltu

'id'
'id'
m'
'unus'
5.4.-unain
'uacs'
5.6.-vang
'inops'
2b2.vacetum,
uasetom
'vititum',
uas
'vitium';
antervakaz
e,
anderuaco
se
'intermissi
'
wopj
wops
uespa
foich<lat.
fcus
woqs
uox (ucis)
foccul
'uerbum'
faimm<s
mn
'strepitus'
760
gurba
'fels'
5.6.(F) valna,
(F) vlna
uxantia<up
'Aurel';
trubia<trn
s-w
2b1.wafsa
gwychi,
3a2.gwchi
waefs,
2b2.-guhi- waeps
en 2b3.guohi
'fucos'
Vepolitano giwahanen
s
'uoc'
'ampliruulti 3a3.-uttr
s' 2b1.- 'indicium'
gwaethel mun 'uox'
gweb
'uultus'
vp 'aqua, osa<vosa
lacus' 6.3.-vaps,
5.5.-uappu vapsva
'ripa'
5.3.vapa<wp
vaw aka- a 'mare'
`skorpion' 6.3.- pe
'flmen'
F
vacas,
vacana
5.3.'uocti'
vaxs;vak 'dx'
,uxta 'lq'
5.4.gocem
'uoc'
TOK A
wak,
wek

5.6.-uek,
uk
'coniurtus
'
worgjom
wormis
uermis
1a1.brigantes
wornos
uarius,
uarire
Vorgium
werih,
Carhaix
Werg
2b1.-cy- 'stuppa'
warch
2b3.coarcholio
n>koarc'h
frige pl. gwraint pl. 3a1, 3a2.- warms
friget; 'uermes in wurm
gorm<gmc pelle'
3a3.-ormr
wosis
wosms
1b2.vestikatu
'libt'
uespill
w aghm
w dhom
vrmje
'insectus'
6.3.varmas
'id'
varna
wosej
wrbhis
wors
wortej
wospos
fracc
'spna'
urbs (arc.
urps);
urbem
condere
uerbum
1b2.fordat
uerfale
(signif.?)
'templum'
frawarten
fravartyati vratiti s
'corrumper wardjan
'uoltat' 'inuoluere
e'
'corrumper
se'
e'
werian
wasjan ALB.-vesh vsyati
3a2.5.5.werian
wassija-,
'ger
wessijaindtui '
'et teg'
3a2.-wase
usnisa
'textus'
5.5.-huesa
3a3.'fusus'
wasask
'inuoluor'
wasem
vas

'pals'
'oleum'
u ra 'bs'
wasal
'plia';
5.3.waso
vanhu-tt
'specus'
'sanguis' ;
3a2.-ws,
ustr
ze
'camellus'
'humidits'
?
5.5.'legmen' vaspaLUVvaspant'induens'?
6.3.-r as
'extrmum,
'spna';
cuspis,
furca'
'spna
dorslis'
warpa dai'circumscr
b'
wort
ward
(Hes.)
(F)
(F)
vratavru, vrati
'sententia' 'uoue'
5.3.-urvta rot,
'affirmti' 'utum'
5.5.-weriya vra <wor
'uoc';
kyos
761
w dj
rdix,
rmus
<dhm ?;
radius ?
w egis
w eik
w ikonjo
m
w ein
fraig
'mrus'
warts
reisan
'uertor,iter
f.'; Rist
'arcus
pedis'
3a2.-wry
'obliquus'
wrist 'artus
p., manus'
wron
'operi'
3a3.- rx
'nodus'
(i
schwa
secundum
),
vraj
'uallum'
'incld' 5.3.-varz'incld'
urvisyeiti 6.3.-ri,
'tortus' <*vri yati rti 'lig'
rkte
'torquitur'
'fascis'
'cista'
rias
'paralyticu
s'
6.4.-rieu
rist 'id'
<
*uorsei
'ming'
rna
uereor
w n
uerux
ren
<germ.
762
wurz ,
Wurzel
3a2.-wyrt
'herba'
ach-vre
'paris
plexa'
rca,
rcinium
w jai
w eumi
frn
2b1.<w dno cf. gwraidd
radamnos
PALAIC.- 'medicus'
wrti
6.3.'uocat'
vardas
'nmen'
<*wordhos
6.9.-wirds
operi,
veru
aperi;
'portam'
uestibulum 1b2.<werstidhl verofe 'in
om;
portam'
uruum,
uru?
c(a)ir
'rectus'
<*komuerios);
faire?
'uigilantia'
1b2.cywair
'rectus'
we(h)ren
'caue';
warnen;
warten
giwar
'cautus'
3a2.-wr
'id'
3a3.-varr
'id'
warjan
'proteg';
war(s)
'protector'
<wors;
warai
'cauti';
daraward
s 'ianitor'
'defend';
'uigil';
'uigilia';
4.8..-wowo
'obseruto
rium'
A B.shur;
shure
'ming'
vr ti
vru, vrt
'tegit,
'obseru'
cauet'
vrtra'sctum''
vrtra'oppositi';
vartr
'protector'
Vrua5.5.weritema
'metus'
uran5.3.-barra
<*varnak
5.4.-garn
4.8.we(r)wesij
eja
'lanifica'
api-vrti (za)/vro,
vreti
'dfend' 'operit'
apa-vroti 'operre';
'aperit'
ot-voriti
'aperre'
6.3. veriu, vrti;
atvrti 'id';
vartai;
'porta'

w eumi
apo
w g
w gj
aperi
urge
rehhan
wrikan
'puni'; 'persequor'
ache 'ra'
3a2.wrecan 'id'
w gj
wirken
3a2.wirkian,
work
w gos
w ij
w isdj
ferg/fearg
'ira'
ride
uergobretus
2b1.gwery
'impiger'
2b3.-grerg
'efficax'
3a2.wraestan
3a3-reista
uie'
ringor
w onk
branca
<gall.
'ungula' (fr.
branche)
w onkis
w rdks
w st
frass, arc.
fross
w stis
uersi
w stos
uersus
vrjati?
'graditur'
vrag
'inimcus'
6.3.vrgas
'seruos'
6.4.-vrgs
'id'
rj
'magnus
uigor,
succus'
vrdate
'eum
pudet, e
pudr est'
5.5.-hurna
'unor'
'celeriter'
'pernix'
frac, frag;
tuargbais
A. a fraca
'A mans
sustulit'
frg 'cauit.,
cf.
3a3.-vr
latbra' worgjom 'angulus,
feirc
'cannabis' cuspis'
'protuber
ntia'
ot-voriti
'aperre'
6.3.-atvrti
waurkjan,
5.3.warkei 'faci' vrzyeiti
'laborat'
'ra'
w nmi
w gai
apa-vroti
'aperit'
variti
'curr'
6.3.-varti
'id'
regnoti
'hiscere'
rog
'ridiculum'
roka, ruk
'manus'
6.3.-rank
'id'
var ,
'rs' var - 'et

vr, annus'
5.5.-wa-ara-a 'pl'?
v ttisvrst
'rotti, 'coaeuus,
indols,
par'
acti,
6.8.-vr^st
dispositi, 'seris,
modus
indols'
conversan
d', forma
rythmica'
v tt- 'rs, verst <*-

acti,
'seris,
763
w t
w tom
w ughis
764
uert,
1b2.fri(th)
2b1.uersus,
kuvetu,
'uersus' gwrth/wrth
uortex,
covertu
fertas
'per'
uertex 'conuertit ' 'uenbulu gwerthyd
; trahvorfi
m'
'fusus'
'transuers adbart
2b2.-orth
'
'aduersriu 2b3.-ouz
s'
fertae
'tumulus
sepulcrlis'
<*wertom
2a2.-fert
'id'
werdan,
werden
'fi '
3a2.weoran
waran
wurt, wort
'fundus'
3a2.weor,
wor
'claustrum'
A B.vath
rocko,
Roggen
3a2.-ryge,
rye
3a3.-rugr
modus aets, 1,07

conuersan km' 6.3.d, forma varstas
rythmica' 'metus
artr'
vrtati(-te), vrteti se
vavartti pf. 'reuertor'
vavrta 6.3.-ver i,
5.5.versti
hurtalliya 6.4.-veru,
'mixtra'
verst
wrto,
vrata,
wart(t)o vorta 'id'
'hortus, 6.3.-vartai
silua'
'porta'
6.4.-vrti
'porta'
<*wortom
r ,
ro
6.3.- rug s
6.4.-ruzdi
APPENDIX III: IN-DEPTH ANALYSIS

III.1. ROOT NOUNS
1
gwou
leuk
wq
nu
kwon
mns
mah
pod
(accent position verified)
Nom.
pat
ga
ruk
vak
nu
sva
Voc.
Acc.
pa am
gau
gam
ruk
rucam
vk
vacam
nau
nvam
van
svanam
Ins.
Dat.
Abl.
Gen.
Loc.
pa a
pad
pa
pa a
padi
gv
gve
g
g
gavi
ruc
ruce
ruca
ruca
ruci
vc
vce
vc
vc
vci
nava
nve
nvh
nvh
nvi
n
une
na
na
uni
gvau
gvau
gvau
rucau
rucau
rucau
vcau
vcau
vcau
nvau
nvau
nvau
vnau
vnau
vnau
Nom.
Voc.
Acc.
masa
mse
msa
msa
msi
Ins.
pa
hym
go hym
rug hym
Dat.
Abl.
Gen.
Loc.
pa hym
pa hym
pa o
pa o
go hym
go hym
gavo
gavo
rug hym
rug hym
ruco
ruco
vg hym nau hym va hym m hym |

m hym
vg hym nau hym va hym m hym
vg hym nau hym va hym m hym
vco
nvo
uno
mso
vco
nvo
uno
mso
padh
pa hi
pa hya
pa hya
pa m
patsu
gavas
gva
g
g hi
go hya
go hya
gavm
gou
ruca
ruca
ruca
rug hi
rug hya
rug hya
rucm
ruku
vca
vca
vca
vg hi
vg hya
vg hya
vcm
vku
navah
nva
nva
naubhh
nau hya
nau hya
nvm
nauu
vna
vna
una
v hi
va hya
va hya
unm
vasu
masah
m hh
m hya
m hya
msm
msu
Nom.
Voc.
Acc.
Ins.
Dat.
Abl.
Gen.
Loc.
ps
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Voc.
lux
uox
nuis
canis
mensis
pedis
bouis
lcis
ucis
nuis
canis
mensis
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
nom. sg.
acc. sg.
gen. sg.
dat.-loc.
sg.
acc. pl.
gen. pl.
patas/patis
patan
patas
pati
*guwau-
ptu < *p -ms

patn < *p -m.
dat-loc. pat <*p s

pl.
8
suH
9
ms
10
djeuH
11
judh
12
kerd
13
weik
14
dheghom
Nom.
suh
mut
yu
yut
vi
km, kh
Voc.
Acc.
suh
suvam
mut
muam
yut
yudham
vi
viam
km
km
Ins.
Dat.
suv
suvai | suve
mu
mue
Abl.
suv | suva
mua
Gen.
suv | suva
mua
Loc.
suvi | suvm
mui
ya
dy'aam |
divam
iva
dyave |
div
y |
iv
y |
iv
dyvi | div
har i su hart
Nom.
suvau
muau
Voc.
Acc.
suvau
suvau
muau
muau
yvau |
divau
766
yvau |
yu ha
yudhe
h
h
vi
vie
ksama, jm
k
yu ha
hr ah
via
yu ha
hr ah
via
yudhi
vii
jms,
kms
jms,
kms
kmi
yudhau
viau
ksama
yudhau
yudhau
viau
viau
ksama
ksama
Appendix III: In-Depth Analysis
divau
Ins.
Dat.
Abl.
s hym
s hym
s hym
mu hym
mu hym
mu hym
Gen.
Loc.
suvo
suvo
muo
muo
Nom.
suva
mua
Voc.
suva
Acc.
Ins.
suva
s hi
yu
yu
yu
hym h
hym h
hym h
yu ho
yu ho
hym vi hym
hym vi hym
hym vi hym
h o
h o
vio
vio
yu ha
via
kmas
mua
yva |
iva
iva
yu ha
via
kmas
mua
mu hi
iva
y hi
yu ha
yu hi
via
vi hi
ksas
Dat.
s hya
mu hya
Abl.
s hya
mu hya
Gen. snm | suvm mum
Loc.
su
musu
h a
h h
yu hya yu hya h hya

yu hya yu hya h hya
ivm
yu hm
h m
yuu
yutsu
hts
vi hya
vi hya
vim
visu
ksasu
ss
suis
ms
mris
is
diei/Iouis
nox
noctis
cor
cordis
ucus
uic
humus
hum
Nom.
<
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Voc.
<
<
ka-ra-az
(karts)
tekan n.,
gen.
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
nom.
sg.
acc.
sg.
gen.
sg.
iwaz
ne-ku-uz
(nekuz)
iwatta nekuz
kar-di-a
taknas
767
dat.loc. sg.
acc. pl.
gen.
pl.
datloc. pl.
15
rg
16
ap
Nom.
Voc.
rat
rat
Acc.
Ins.
Dat.
Abl.
Gen.
rjam
rj
rje
rja
rja
Loc.
rji
Nom.
Voc.
Acc.
Ins.
Dat.
Abl.
Gen.
Loc.
rjau
rjau
rjau
r hym
r hym
r hym
rjo
rjo
Nom.
Voc.
Acc.
Ins.
Dat.
Abl.
Gen.
Loc.
rja
rja
rja
r hi
r hya
r hya
rjm
rsu
pa
pa
apa
a hi
a hya
a hya
apm
apsu
rex
rgis
rs
rris
768
17
sneich
18
j(e)uHs
19
neuk
yus
nix
nivis
is
iris
nux
nucis
20
gheim
21
op
hima-, heman
apnas-
hiems
hiemis
ops
opis
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Voc.
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
nom. sg. kessar ghesr
gim(a)-
happar
acc. sg. kieran ghsrom

gen. sg. ki a ra ghesrs ghsrs
dat.-loc. ki a r (ghesri / ghsri)
sg.
acc. pl.
gen. pl.
dat-loc.
pl.
769
III.2. PRONOUNS
III.2.1. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
IE
(sol)woi
qqos
Lat.
Gk.
Skt.
visva, sarva
pratieka
omnes
quisque
qisqis
quisquis
qulbt
quvis
quviscumque
qiskomqe,
qisimmoqe
quiscumque
qjespejoi
quidam
kacit
ka cana
kopi
yah ka cit
yo yah
yadanga
katipaya
qis, edqis
(cf. rus. edv)
ecquis, aliquis, quis,

quispiam,
aliquisquam
qudam
dem (osc. ekkum)
enis
soms
se epse, epe,
s(w)el (e)pe
neqis
lteros,
nteros
aljos*, onjos
(cf.
ipse; arc. sapsa,
sumpse
nullus, nec quisquam
alter
alius
Eng.
all
every one
Ger.
alle, jeder
jeder
anyone
jeder
Goth.
alls
ainhvarjizuh
ainhvaaruh
certain
the same
himself
hvazuh
hvarjizuh
jeder der, wer auch sahvazuh saei
immer
etliche
jemand,
hvas, hvashun
irgendeiner, etwas
ein gewisser
sums
der selbe
sama
selbst
silba
none, nobody
niemand, keiner
(ni) hvashun
the other one

someone else
der andere
anderer
aljis*
whoever
some
someone
*from aljos cf. lat. alibi, gr. , got. alja, etc
770
anyatama
eka cana
eka (aequus),
sama, sah eva
atman, svayam
Hitt.
hmantkuissa
kuis kuis, kuisas kuis,
kuis imma, kuis

imma kuis, kuisas imma (kuis)
kuis ki
na kah
eni, uni, anni,

asi
apsila (cf. hit.
kinun lat. nunc)
UL kuiski
anyatara
(kuis)....kuis
anya, itara, apara
tamai-
Gael.
u(i)le
cach, cch (gal.
papon)
duine ar bith
Russ.
, - 'what,
which
cib duine
nech, nach, duine -,

-, ee
irithe
an canna;

fessin, fadessin
,
>fin
n aon duine
(gal. nepon)
an ceann eile
,
()
aile, aill, eile
III.2.2. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

IE
Lat.
is (anaf.)
(e)ke, ghei-(ke),
se, ete
hic<ghe-i-ke
oise, iste, ene

el-ne
iste <is-te
ille, ollus <elne/ol-nos
<oihos (tal)
Eng.
he
this
----that, yonder
Ger.
er, der
dieser hier
----dieser da, jener
is, se
Gk.
Goth.
is
hi-, sa(h)
----jains
Skt.
sah, esah
ay-am, id-am, (gen.
asya -air. a + len) <*
e/ei; esah (cf. lat.
equidem)
enam (enclit.)
a-sau, u-
Gael.
(h)
sin
----(s)ut
Hitt.
ap
k, eda (def)
----ap
Russ.
, .(ant)
----
771
III.2.3. PERSONAL PRONOUNS

SINGULAR
IE TON. AT.
N eg, egm
LAT
ego
OSCUMB
deest
m
A mewom; me
deest
(arc.md)
PTOCEL
OIr I
OIr D Welsh I Welsh D CORN
mi,
me,
m,
myvi,
----mesme ? meisse
myvy,
mivi
-----
my,
me
me
*me, *m -----
mi, vi,
vyvi,
vivi
-vy, ma, m-,

f(f)
-me, m-, ff
-m-
-----
deest
*mewe,
*mene,
*meme
mui,
mo
meu
muisse (len)
D meghei; moi mih
deest
*me,
*m,
*moi
-----
-m-
L mei, moi
deest
-----
-----
----- -----
mi, my,
vy
ow,
(ecl.); - ov; -m
m
vy,
mi, vi,
ma, vyvi,
m-,
vivi
f(f)
---------
I mojo
-----
-----
-----
-----
----- -----
-----
Ab med
-----
N t
mehe
tiium,
ti
mene; mo,
mei
tewom;
t(w)e
tui; adj.
tewe; t(w)o,
touos,
t(w)ei
tuus
tebhei;
D
t(w)oi
me
t(w)ei,
t(w)oi
I t(w)ojo
Ab ted
772
tib
-----
tuvai
'tuae',
tuua,
tua,
touer,
tuer
ti
-----
deest
(cf. 3
sueso,
seso)
-----
deest
----t,
*t, tustu
tussu
tiu,
tiom,
*tu
tio, teio
tfei, tf,
tefe
BRET
*towe <
*tewe
-----
----- --------ti, tydi,

--------tidi
di, dy,
de,
-t----dydi,
dydy
ma, va;
-m
-me, m-, ff
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
ty, te
te
-te, -de; -z-,

ta, th-,
-t
-s
do
teu
(len)
dy
the; - da
(len); - th, -t, - (len), -z
th (len) d
(len)
di, dy,
de,
dydi,
dydy
-te, -de; -z-,

ta, th-,
-t
-s
*t(w)oi
-----
-t-
-----
-----
-----
----- -----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
----- -----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
----- -----
-----
-----
-----

GMC
GOT
*eka (cf.
ik
vn. .e.go)
*mike (cf.
vn.
mik
mego)
*mn
meina
ON
OE
ek
ic
mik
OHG
LIT
ih
PRUS
SLAV
as
az
mec, m mih
mane
mien <*men me^
mn
mn
mn
mans
*miza
mis
mr
mir
..
..
..
..
..
mais(e)
mene
mennei,
mni(e), man
mi'nje'; mi
mim <instr.
manyje
----mi'nje'
..
..
..
..
..
manimi
-----
mnojo^
..
..
..
..
..
-----
-----
d, du
tu
*eke
uk
ik
e(c)
dih
tave
*n
eina
dn
tavs
----to, tou,
thou, tu
tien, tin
<*ten
twais(e)
*eza
us
dir
tvi(e), tau
tebbei, tebbe tebje'; ti
..
..
..
..
..
tavyje
-----
tebje'
..
..
..
..
..
tavimi
-----
tobojo^
..
..
..
..
..
-----
-----
-----
GK
SKR
ARM
es
is
ahm
im
AV
azm
n , uk
(m)
*mekwe
mma, me
mhya,
imdz <*imij
mhyam,
<*emegh
me
is
myi
mana
mabya,
mabyah
(mai)
-----
inew
deest
inn, indzn mt
du
<*twe
k'ez
tweso
k'o
tvm
mat
tvm, tm
(tard.) (t)
i <*m
tva, te
tava (tai)
te^
tebe
ALB
HITT
u:k (arc.),
un
ammuk
ammuk; mua, mue
mu
im <I + em amml
ammuk; mu
=dat.
..
ammdaz
A tu,
t(u)we
ti <*t
zik
tuk; -tta, ttu
m (v)
tbhya,
tabya,
tbhyam, te tabyah (tai)
k'ez
tvyi, tv
----v
k'ew
tvy
(tardiiuum)
k'n, k'ezn tvt
at
<*twoi k'ez
my
TOCH
ty
adi. y-t, ac.

ten-t
tul
tuk; -tta, ttu
=dat.
..
tudaz
773
PLURAL
TON. AT.
wejes,
N
nsm
LAT
ns
nns
A <*nosms, ns
nsm; nos
nserm;
G
nos
nsmi,
nosbhos
juwes,
jusm
us
wns
<*wosms,
A
us
jusm;
wos
wesrm;
G
wos
jusmi,
D wosbhos;
wos
jusm,
L
wosi
I wosbhis
Ab jusmd
774
PTOCEL
OIr I
OIr D Welsh I
snisni,
*(s)ns
snni,
<*(s)ns;
----sisni,
*snsns
sinni, sn
Welsh
D
ni, nini -----
CORN
ny
BRET
ni, ny
-----
ny, ny
-n-, -m, ny; -n-, ----n(n)
gan-, genan, agan,
einym, an, yn; agen; -n,
einom -n
-gan, gen
ny, ny
-n-, -m, ny, -n-, ----n(n)
gan-, gen-------------
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
----*sws
<sws;
swsws
-----
-----
--------chwi,
chwich ----wi
-----
-----
why, wy
hui, huy,
c'houi
*sns
*aterom
<*nsero
nostrum,
desunt m /so
-
nsme
nbis
<*nosbh
is (cf.
L nsm, nosi pubs
<*pusbh
I nosbhis -)
Ab nsmd
D
O-U
*sns
-----
athar, r
<*ns-r- ar nm
-----
-----
FAL
us
PAELI
GN.*sws
uus
-nn-
-nn-
sib, sissi,
----si
-----
sethar,
uostrum, uestra *(s)wesro sethar-
'uestra' m
si, sar,
fathar
-b-
-----
-ch-, ch
far n-, einwch, awch,

for n-, einywc ych; bar n- h
ch
ni, -n-, on-, hon-;mp

hon, hor,
hol; -n, on
ni, -n-, on-, hon-;mp
-----
-huy, why,-s-,
hu, -uy. -gas-; -u; -oz-, ges-; ugh
ch
(h)oz,
as, agas,
(h)ouz,
ages; ho; -oz, gas, ges
ouz
-huy, why,-s-,
hu, -uy. -gas-; -u; -oz-, ges-; ugh
ch
-----
-b-
-----
-ch-, ch
ubis
<*wosbh desunt
----is
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
*sws

GMC
GOT
ON
OE
OHG
LIT
PRUS
SLAV
my
<*wes
*weys
weis
vr
wir
mes <*wes mes <*wes
*uns
uns(is)
oss
s(ic)
unsih
mus
mans<*nans
<nns; *n
ny
*unser
unsera
vr
ser, re unsr
ms
nuson, nusan
*-sn.-
nas
<*nssm
*uns
uns(is)
oss
uns
mums
nomans
*nmns
nam; ny
..
..
..
..
..
mumyse
nas
..
..
..
..
..
mumis
nami
..
..
..
..
..
-----
-----
*ys
jus
g, ge
ir
js
*(w)izwiz
izwis
yr
ow
iu
jus
*izwer
izwara
y(u)ar
ower
iuwr
js
*(w)izwiz
izwis
yr
ow(ic)
iuwih
jums
..
..
..
..
..
jumyse
vam ;
ny
vas
..
..
..
..
..
jumis
vami
..
..
..
..
..
-----
-----
GK
<nsme + es
eol. <nsme
ARM
SKR
AV
ios <js
wans<*vans
<vns; *v
ioson, iosn
<*-sniomans <
*jmns
TOCH
vy
vas
ALB
mek' <*wes vaym
vayam
wes
na <*nos
mez
ahma
-m, -m
ne <*ns
mer
mez
-----
mez
-----
mewk'
-----
mnj
duk'
dzez
dzer
dzez
-----
dzez
-----
dzewk'
-----
dznj
(nah)
nas
asmbhyam ahmabya
, asm, nas (nah)
vy
HITT
ws (arc.);
anzs
anzs; nnas
ne <*ns
anzl
ne <*ns
anzs; nnas
-----
=dat.
deest
..
asmt
ahmat
anzdaz
yym
yam
asm
vas
vas
(vh)
(vah)
mabhya,
yumbhya
yumabya
m, vas
(vah)
yum
yumt
ju < *u
-m, -m
sums
sums; smas
sumenzan
(arc.),
suml
sums; smas
-----
=dat.
m
mat,
yumat
..
sumdaz
775
III.3. WORD FORMATION: COMMON PIE LENGTHENINGS

AND SUFFIXES
IE
------
Latin
uox
rex
lex
lux
grex
ms
pes
nux
trabs
nix
Old Irish
r
b 'bos'
ko
kamb
'pecten'
procus
coquus
-us
genu(nus)
dens
pecus/pecu
domus
-jom/j ingenium
officium
nos/no
m
776
hospitium
gremium
prolubium
repudium
uaticinium
principium
dolium
feria
reliquiae
dnum
East Gmc.
ms
-os
-s
West
Gmc.
gin (geno)
kinnus
haidus
faihu
cride 'cor'
stig
<-y
'mulier'
snaiws
'nix'
Greek
Indian
vc 'uox'
rt
gu/go
ruk
ap 'aqua'
oka
'uerbum' 'splendor'
jambha 'dens'
'dens'
'cur
sus'
'currus'
'seca var 'sequitor'
ns'
'rot ok
'splendens'
a'
ghan
'reliquiae' 'occisor'
hanu
ket
pa
dru
dma
vairya
'uirilits'
'sapi saujanya
'probits'
entia'
sthnam
'somnus' 'locus'
Slavic
mysi (ac.)
sneg 'nix'
zob 'dens'
tok
dom
stoletie
'saeculum'
dolia 'pars'

somnus
regnum
-n
lna
habna
-njom
pruina
ruina
somnium
blad(a)in
<y 'ans'
svapnah
'sopnus'
'olla'
snnam
'instrument 'ntus'
um'
<ks dnam
n 'candla' 'dnum'
varna 'color'
(uarius)
arambhanam
'initium'
rodanam
asanam
anusthnam
adhyayanam
snam
adhynam
abhidhnam
indhanam
krnam
tdanam
grathanam
patanam
danam
darshanam
svadanam
tsen
'pretium'
'pniti'
luna 'id.'
'uolupts'
svpn(i)ya
sunie
dominium
prvnya
patrimonium
matrimoniu
m
triennium
krtsnya
'totlits'
krpanya
'miseria'
somnium
scrutinium
lenocinium
ricinium
znamenie
'importanti
a'
znaenie
'significti'
obiavlenie
'nuntiti'
prepodavan
ie
tenie
'lecti'
cobranie
'collecti'
exercitium
tjom/tj
seruitium
nanie
'scientia'
upranenie
'exercitium'
cozarenie
antastya'intestna'
777

initium
praeputium
tristitia
indutiae
-twom
pacatvam
'quique
elementa'
gurutvam
'gruits'
-men
nmen
agmen
flmen<gsm
flmen<gsm
lmen<ksm
pulm
mon/m
n
augmentum
mntom
excrmentum
-on
tmn
nefrns
778
ainm
lekarstvo
'medicmen
tum'
gosteprimst
va
'hospitlits
'
stroitelstvo
'constructi
'
proizvodstv
o
'producti'
znakomstvo
'scientia'
breme
'nm nman
'nmen'
'tempus'
en'
'onu bhrma/bhr
man
s'
preman
isme
(s+mn)
'terminus' 'affectioo'
'numerus'
F ashman
'saxum'
'halitus'
bharman
'onus'
'plga'
tarman
'honor'
brhman
'ferr
e'
brahman
dharma
'port
us'
'scius'
'pulm'
hliumant
rmatam
'reputti'
'reputti'
taksan
'tignrius'
'mas uksn
'

pecten
-mos
gluten
rmus<tsm
fmus
-m
flamma<gsm
glma
plma
prlum
los/lom
/l
candla
fidlia
-kos/k pertica
parca
-ro
stuprum
-er
leuir
super
-t
iuuenta
-tt(i)
deits/dvnit
s
acrits
firmits
yvan
(F)
'aris'
kma
'calamus'
drum
'uentus'
dhm
'mortrium'
trm
<ks
m 'cuspis'
pr nika
sainika
bhiksuka
balaka
karabhaka
maryaka
abhisoka
'la'
'dlti'
'leuir'
'pute
us'
F'ad
eps'
'ter
'
'dis'
'adeps'
'super'
F' krtajnat
totlits'
'uta' devat
rjut
gurut
sarvat
aristtti
ayaksmtti
gbhttti
jyesthtti
devtti
vastti
statti
779

commnits
-ti
mens
pars
mors
ars
-tu
portus
-tt
saltus
iuuents
senects
sals
uirts
-to
-tor/tr genitor
-in
780
otiu
'iuuents'
gamaindai
dksatti
ths
gemeind gamainths
mtti
e
managdut
hais
mati
'ntra'
krti
'uinculum'
'obl bhakti
ectamentu
m'
'gras bati
us'
drsti
'dilti'
'm vipatti
ouimentum
'
bhrti
pankti
furt
'urbs' av. prtu-
'pons'
gntus
mikidus
'magnitd
'
sentu
'senects'
bethu 'uita'
ontu 'nts'
slntu 'sals'
cttu
'sanctits'
nemarbtu
'immortlits
'
janitr
gntr
krtr
drstr
dhaatr
raksitr
bddha
bhvin
gradanin
'ciuis, hom
urbnus'
-dhrom crbrum
-trom artrum
rostrum
lstrum
tartrum
-dhlom stbulum
pbulum
-tlom
poculum
situlum
-os- (n) onus
slab 'mons'
opus
-os- (m) aurr(a)
aurr-a
calor
tepor
honor
-estu
<ed+tu
/esti
<ed+ti
inruccus
'opulentia'
puspadhrin krestianin
'hom
rusticus'
medhavin
anglianin
'anglensis'
ku alin
parianin
'parisiensis'
ksayin
'ar
trum'
'far
etra'
'lec
tus'
'lauabum'
'olla
'
mntra
shrotra
anas 'onus'
'gloria'
apas 'opus'
'nubs'
shravas
'inferus'
candramas
tejas
chandas
tapas
nabhas
payas
manas
ya as
raksas
rajas
vaksas
vayas
vasas
vedhas
iras
saras
usa 'auroora'
'aurra'
'pudicitia'
cveest
'frescor'
781
astu<ad
+tu
/
asti<ad
+ti
comlinso
'plnitd'
thius
'acerbits'
diuitius
'simplicits'
cosmuilius
'similitd'
cuibdius
'harmonia'
erdarcus
'pulchritd'
faitigus
'cauti'
inderbus
'incertitd'
cutrummus
'equalits'
mrlus
'moralitas'
comarbus
'heredits'
coibnius
'familirits'
flaithemnas
'dominium'
airechas
'nbilits'
clachas
muntaras
'familirits'
remthechtas
'antepositi'
anamchairte
s
'directi
spiritulis'
lnamnas
'matrimoniu
m'
testas
'testimonium
'
mechas
'opportunits
'
coitchennas
'generlits'
782
thiudinass
us
'regnum'
glupost
'stultitia'
gudjin
assus
'sacerdotiu
m'
polnost
'plnitd'
podrobnost
'indicti'
grust
'tristitia'
gordost
molodost
'iuuents'
starost
'senects'
iarost
'exasperti
'
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING

This work is mainly a compilation of scholar knowledge, the output of two
centuries of thorough research in comparative linguistics. It is highly
recommended to consult other books on IE linguistics to learn Proto-IndoEuropean. Google books at <http://books.google.com/> is a great tool to read
some parts of any of these works and decide whether it is interesting to buy them or
not.
For this specific book we have used (among other, less important references) the
following works (recommended further reading in boldface):
o Adrados, Francisco R., Bernab, Alberto, Mendoza, Julia. Manual de lingstica
indoeuropea I, Ediciones Clsicas, 1995.
indoeuropea II, Ediciones Clsicas, 1996.
indoeuropea III, Ediciones Clsicas, 1998.
o Baldi, Philips. The Foundations of Latin, Mouton de Gruyter, 2002.
o Bauer, Brigitte. Archaic Syntax in Indo-European: The Spread of Transitivity in Latin
and French, Mouton de Gruyter, 2000.
o Anthony, David W. The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from
the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton University Press, 2007.
o Beekes, Robert S. P. Comparative Indo-European
Introduction, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.
Linguistics:
An
o Benveniste, mile. Le vocabulaire des institutions indo-europennes. Paris: Les

Editions de Minuit, 1969.
o Bryce, Trevor. The Kingdom of the Hittites. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
o Buck, Carl Darling. Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1933.
o Cheung, Johnny: Etymological dictionary of the Iranian verb. Brill, 2007.
o Clackson, James. Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge
University Press, 2007.
o Cooper, Robert L. Language planning and social change. Cambridge: Cambridge
o Crpin, Andr. Problmes de grammaire historique. Presses Universitaires de France,
1978.
o Derksen, Rick: Etymological dictionary of the Slavic inherited lexicon. Brill,

2008.
o Fortson,
Benjamin
W.
Indo-European
language
and
culture:
an
introduction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2004.

o Ganesh Gadre, Vasant. Estructuras gramaticales de hindi y espaol. Madrid: CSIC,
1996.
o Gterbock, Hans G., Hoffner, Harry A. The Hittite Dictionary, fascicle 1, volume 3.
Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1980.
o Gvozdanovic, Jadranka. Indo-European Numerals. Mouton de Gruyter, 1991.
o Jasanoff, Jay H. Hittite and the Indo-European verb. Oxford University Press, 2005.
o Kerns, J. Alexander. A sketch of the Indo-European finite verb. Brill, 1972.
o Kloekhorst, Alwin. Etymological dictionary of the Hittite inherited lexicon. Brill, 2008.
o Krahe, Hans. Lingstica indoeuropea. Madrid: CSIC, 1953.
o Kortlandt, Frederik Herman Henri: Italo-Celtic origins and prehistoric development of
the Irish language. Rodopi, 2007.
o Lazzeroni, Romano. La cultura indoeuropea. Bari: Gius, Laterza & Figli, 1998.
o Lehmann, W. P. Theoretical Bases of Indo-european Linguistics. London: Routledge.
o Lehmann, W.P. Proto-Indo-European Phonology. Austin: University of Texas Press and
Linguistic Society of America, 1952
o Lehmann, W.P. A Reader in Nineteenth-Century Historical Indo-European Linguistics.
Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1967
o Lehmann, W. P. Proto-Indo-European Syntax. Austin: University of Texas
Press, 1974
o Lehmann, W., Zgusta, L. Schleichers tale after a century. In Festschrift for Oswald
Szemernyi on the Occasion of his 65th Birthday. Amsterdam: B. Brogyanyi, 1979. p.
45566
o Lindemann, F.O. Introduction to the Laryngeal Theory, Oslo: Norwegian University
Press, 1987.
o Lubotsky, Alexander, Sound law and analogy: papers in honor of Robert S.P. Beekes
on the occasion of his 60th birthday, Rodopi, 1997.
784
Bibliography and Further Reading
o Mallory, J.P., Adams, D.Q. The Oxford Introduction to Proto-IndoEuropean and the Proto-Indo-European World. Oxford University Press,
USA, 2006 (Reprinted 2007).
o Mallory, J.P., Adams, D.Q. Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Routledge, 1997.
o Martnez, Javier, de Vaan, Michiel. Introduccin al avstico. Madrid: Ediciones Clsicas,
2001.
o Matasovi, Ranko: Etymological dictionary of proto-Celtic. Brill, 2009.
o Mayrhofer, Manfred. Indogermanische Grammatik, i/2: Lautlehre, Heidelberg: Winter,
1986.
o Masson, Emilia. Les douze dieux de limmortalit. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1989.
o Meid, W. Archeologie und Sprachwissenschaft.
Sprachwissenschaft der Universitt.
Innsbruck:
Institut
fr
o Meier-Brgger, Michael, Fritz, Matthias, Mayrhofer, Manfred. IndoEuropean Linguistics. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2003.
o Miller, Gary. Latin suffixal derivatives in English and their Indo-European ancestry.
USA: Oxford University Press, 2006.
o Monier-Williams, Sir Monier, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Etymologically and
Philologically arranged, Oxford University Press, 1899.
o Penney, J.H.W., Indo-European Perspectives, Studies In Honour of Anna Morpurgo
Davies, Oxford University Press, 2004.
o Ramat, Anna Giacalone, Ramat, Paolo. Le lingue indoeuropee. Bologna: Il Mulino, 1993.
o Renfrew, Colin. Archaeology and language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins.
London: Jonathan Cape, 1987.
o Ringe, Donald, et al. A History of English: Volume I: From Proto-Indo-European to
Proto-Germanic. USA: Oxford University Press, 2006.
o Roberts, Edward A., Pastor, Brbara. Diccionario etimolgico indoeuropeo de la lengua
espaola. Madrid: Alianza, 1996.
o Renfrew, Colin. Arqueologa y Lenguaje: La cuestin de los orgenes indoeuropeos.
Barcelona: Crtica, 1990
o Rix, Helmut, (ed.) Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben: Die Wurzeln und
ihre Primrstammbildungen, Second Edition. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig
Reichert Verlag 2001.
o Snchez Salor, E. Semntica y sintaxis. La oracin compuesta latina. Cceres:
Universidad de Extremadura, 1993.
o Shields, K. A history of Indo-European Verb Morphology. Amsterdam: Benjamins,
1992.
785
o Sihler, Andrew L. New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 1995.
o Szemernyi, Oswald. Einfhrung in die Vergleichende
Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1989.
Sprachenwissenschaft.
o Szemernyi, Oswald. Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford

o Tovar, Antonio. Antiguo Eslavo Eclesistico. Madrid: Universidad Complutense, 1987.
o Tucker, T.G., Etymological Dictionary of Latin, Ares Publishers, 1976
o de Vaan, Michiel, de Vaan,Michiel Arnoud Cor: Etymological dictionary of Latin and the
other Italic languages. Brill, 2008.
o Villar, F. Los indoeuropeos y los orgenes de Europa. Madrid: Gredos, 1991.
o Wackernagel, Jacob, Langslow, David: Lectures on syntax: with special reference to
Greek, Latin, and Germanic. Oxford University Press, 2009.
o Watkins, Calvert, The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, 2nd ed.,
Houghton Mifflin Co., 2000.
o Watkins, Calvert, How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics. Oxford
University Press, USA, 2001.
o West, M.L. Indo-European Poetry and Myth. Oxford University Press, 2009.
o Whitney, William Dwight. Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass (reprint), 1924.
ONLINE RESOURCES
o Indo-European resources and dictionary-translator at <http://indo-european.info/>,
managed by the Indo-European Language Association.
o Indo-European Language Association: <http://dnghu.org/> and language resources
at <http://indo-european.eu/>.
o The
Linguistics
Research
Center
(LRC),
University
of
Texas,
at
<http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/> offers online books, lessons, texts, etc. on

Proto-Indo-European and early Indo-European dialects.
o The
Indo-European
Etymological
Dictionary
(IEED)
at
<http://www.indo-
european.nl>, managed by the Department of Comparative Indo-European Linguistics

at Leiden University, with some etymological dictionaries of Indo-European dialects.
o The Tower of Babel project at <http://starling.rinet.ru>, a lexicon project oriented to
Indo-European, Eurasiatic, Nostratic and other language families, with free software
and PDFs for download.
786
Bibliography and Further Reading
o Frederik Kortlandts personal website offers some of his publications online at

<http://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/>.
o The Thesaurus Indogermanischer Text- und Sprachmaterialien (TITUS), at
<http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/>.
o The Digital Library Perseus Hopper at <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/>.
WIKIPEDIA
Wikipedia, the Free Online Encyclopaedia, and Wiktionary, are excellent sources of
common knowledge. We want to thank to all contributors and to their founders. Even
though the appropriate policy is to reference each work and their authors, it is impossible to
trace back each excerpt to its origin. These are the articles whose excerpts are identifiable in
this work especially referring to IE dialects , in order of appearance:
Indo-European languages <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languages>
Kurgan hypothesis <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis>
Haplogroup R1a <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_R1a_(Y-DNA) >
Indo-Uralic: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Uralic_languages>
Old European Hydronymy: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_European_hydronymy>
Germanic languages: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_languages>
Romance languages: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance_languages>
Italic languages: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italic_languages>
Celtic languages: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_languages>
Proto-Celtic: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language>
Italo-Celtic: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italo-Celtic>
Slavic languages: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_languages>
Baltic languages: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_languages>
Balto-Slavic languages <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languages>
Messapian language: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messapian_language>
Venetic language: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venetic_language>
Liburnian language: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liburnian_language>
Lusitanian language: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lusitanian_language>
Greek language: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language>
Proto-Greek language: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Greek_language>
Armenian language: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_language>
Indo-Iranians: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Iranians>
Proto-Indo-Iranian: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language>
Phrygian language: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrygian_language>
Ancient Macedonian: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_language>
Anatolian languages: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolian_languages>
Hittite language: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hittite_language>
Luwian language: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luwian_language>
787
PIE phonology: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology>

PIE verb: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_verb>
IMAGES AND MAPS

This is a list of Wikipedia or Wikimedia users, whose images have been used. Links are to
their personal sites or to the image in particular, depending on their expressed preferences
or to ours, if not available. Reference is usually only to the latest contributor (or derivative
image), unless the core work was clearly done before him/her. In order of appearance of
their images:
Malene Thyssen: <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Malene>
Mirzali Zazaolu <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Writing_systems_worldwide.png>
Brianski: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IE_countries.svg>
Dbachmann: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Dbachmann>
Crates: <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Crates>
Cadenas2008: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:R1bmap.JPG>
Briangotts: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Briangotts>
Hayden120: <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Hayden120>
ZyMOS: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:ZyMOS>
Ewan ar Born: <http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilisateur:Ewan_ar_Born>
Fabrice Philibert-Caillat:
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ddicace_de_Segomaros_(inscription_gallogrecque).png>
Therexbanner: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slavic_World.png>
Slovenski Volk: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Slovenski_Volk>
MapMaster: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:MapMaster>
Alcides Pinto: <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iberia_Late_Bronze.svg>
Fut.Perf. at Sunrise: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Future_Perfect_at_Sunrise>
Marsyas: <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Marsyas>
Ivanchay/Infocan:<http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%
D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA:Ivanchay>
Ivaca Flavius: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Scooter20>
Megistias: <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Megistias>
Javier Fernandez-Vina: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Javierfv1212>
Hendrik Tammen: <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Enricopedia>
788
BIOGRAPHY
Carlos Quiles (Badajoz, 1981), awarded best Cumulative Grade
Point Average (CGPA) in the four-year Baccalaureate (1995-1999),
second in the Extraordinary Baccalaureate Awards of Extremadura
(1999), studied the Bachelor of Laws (LLB), Bachelor of Economics
(BEc), and Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) degrees at the
Carlos III University of Madrid (1999-2005). He studied an intensive
English language proficiency level course (2000) in Cambridge, and
was awarded a scholarship for the best CGPA of the Faculty of Social
and Juridical Sciences (2001) to study in the Middlebury College
German School intensive immersion program (Advanced Grammar, Modern Literature,
Culture and Society). He spent an academic year (2001-2002) at the Humboldt University
of Berlin, studying BEc and BBA, as well as DSH-Oberstufenkurs, and courses in French
(French Law, History and Culture studies).
He worked as trainee for a Law and Financial Services firm (2005). He published some
conventional proposals and dictionaries on Astur-Leonese and Galician-Portuguese dialects,
designed dozens of websites, worked as foreign language teacher, and as database and web
administrator (2004-2006). He finished the LLB and BBA degrees in Catalan at the Open
University of Catalonia, while studying the Licentiate degree in Medicine and Surgery at the
University of Extremadura (2007-2010), obtaining it within half the time planned for the
European 6-year model. He is member of Spanish Bar and Medical Professional
Associations. He speaks English, French, German, and Russian, understands Arabic.
Fernando Lpez-Menchero (Madrid, 1975), studied Civil
Engineering (1993-1999) in the Escuela Tcnica Superior de
Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos de Madrid
(ETSICCP), in the Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chausses
(ENPC), and in the Technical University of Munich, obtaining
the double degree from ETSICCP (cum laude) and ENPC. He
pursued studies in Latin, Greek, Indo-European Languages,
culture from the Classics and Archaeology (2000-2005),
obtaining
the
degree
in
Classical
Studies
from
the
Complutense University of Madrid (UCM). He obtained the

MSc. in Public Administration (2008-2009) from the
Instituto Universitario de Investigacin Ortega y Gasset (attached to the UCM).
Most of his professional career has been involved in the road sector in the Spanish
Ministry of Fomento, where he works as a head of service. He has also been a member of
the concession team in the international company Acciona (1999-2000) and a collaborator
at the Professional Association of Civil Engineers (2000-2001). He has worked in Germany
(1997-1998), France (2005-2006), Luxemburg (2006), Belgium (2008) and Poland (2011)
in the framework of different international programmes. He is presently participating in the
VII Bellevue Programme (2010-2011) of the Robert Bosch Foundation in Warsaw. He also
loves programming, especially in Fortran and Visualbasic.
He speaks French with bilingual proficiency, speaks German, English, and Italian, and is
now making enormous progress in Polish. He has been a successful candidate at the
EPSO/AD/142/08/OPT1 competition as a linguistic administrator with main language
Spanish, and thus holds a laureate for consideration by any European Institution via EPSO.
790

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A GRAMMAR OF

Language and Culture

Phonology & Morphology

Texts & Dictionary

Version 5.00 (April 2011)

INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION

Printed in the European Union

A GRAMMAR OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN

3. WORDS AND THEIR FORMS.............................................................153

5.3. ADJECTIVE SPECIALISATION .................................................................................. 194

A GRAMMAR OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN

7.3. THE CONJUGATIONS ............................................................................................. 231

9.2.8. Genitive ....................................................................................................... 297

A GRAMMAR OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN

APPENDIX I: INDO-EUROPEAN IN USE...............................................357

A GRAMMAR OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN

We try to fill the void that GamkrelidzeIvanov and AdradosBernabMendoza

A GRAMMAR OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN

Badajoz, April 2011

GUIDE TO THE READER

NP: noun phrase

A GRAMMAR OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN

v.i.: vide infra see below

denotes a reconstructed form, not preserved in any written documents

= epenthetic or auxiliary vowel

(conventionally, the symbol under the vocalic

resonants is placed before it in these cases)

Citation: parenthetical referencing of author-date is used for frequently cited books

A GRAMMAR OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN

The guidelines that should be followed, as summarised by Beekes (1995):

See what information is generated by internal reconstruction.

2. Collect all material that is relevant to the problem.

5. The question of how deviant forms should be evaluated is a difficult one to

2. Verification and Disproof. Theories are only hypotheses, verified by more or

A GRAMMAR OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN

THE THREE-DORSAL THEORY

A GRAMMAR OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN

Arguments in favour of only two series of velars include:

2. The reconstructed palatovelars and plain velars appear mostly in complementary

3. There is residual evidence of various sorts in satem languages of a former

4. The palatovelar hypothesis would support an evolution kj k of centum dialects,

A GRAMMAR OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN

In Slavic, three stages are found,

PIE *kwe, *kwi (to, elobek)

PIE *kwoi*koi*ke gives ts (as Sla. tsen)

9. In most attested languages which present aspirates as a result of the so-called

A GRAMMAR OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN

A GRAMMAR OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN

THE LOSS OF LARYNGEALS

pre-LIE post-LIE NWIE PGk PII

PIH pre-LIE post-LIE NWIE PGk

*Ch1C *Ch2C *Ch3C

*h2C- *h3C- *VHV *CRHC

*H(H) *H(H)*H(H) *VHV

A GRAMMAR OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN

A GRAMMAR OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN

Some individual finds seem to support a different treatment of laryngeals in certain

m PII a earlier than the loss of laryngeal (or glottal stop) in

A GRAMMAR OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN

PIE kwe, kwi (to, elobek)

PIE kwoikoi*ke gives ts (as Sla. tsen)

Ch1C Ch2C *Ch3C

h2C- h3C- VHV CRHC

H(H) H(H)H(H) VHV

differentiation between the types bhre/o- and tud/o-.