Chapter 1

COMPLEX ANALYSIS
Jean-Fu Kiang
Department of Electrical Engineering and
Graduate Institute of Communication Engineering
National Taiwan University
Taipei, Taiwan, ROC

Abstract

In this Chapter, fundamental concepts and theories of complex functions

are reviewed, and skills of complex analysis are practiced.

Keywords: Riemann sheet, branch, branch point, branch cut, singularity, pole, zero,
limit, continuity, analyticity, Cauchy-Riemann equations, harmonic function, elementary function, analytic continuation, contour integral, M L
theorem, Greens theorem, Cauchys theorem, Cauchys integral formula, Taylor series, geometric series, convergence test, Taylors theorem,
Laurent theorem, residue theorem, improper integral, principal value,
Kramers-Kr
onig relation, Landau damping, inverse Laplace transform,
conformal mapping, boundary-value problem, potential, streamline, bilinear transformation, Schwarz-Christoffel transformation, Poisson integral formula.

1.

Basic Operations

A complex number z is represented as z = x + iy with real part x and

imaginary part y. Both x and y are real numbers and are independent
of each other, i = 1 is an imaginary unit to mark the imaginary part.
The complex conjugate of z is defined as z = xiy, which has the same
real part as z, and imaginary part of opposite sign to z. Hence, the real
and imaginary parts of z can be retrieved as x = Re(z) = (z + z )/2 and
y = Im(z) = (z z )/(2i), respectively.
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 . Two complex numbers are equal
if and only if both their real and imaginary parts are equal. In other
words, z1 = z2 if and only if x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 . The operation of
addition(subtraction) is performed by adding(subtracting) the real part

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

and imaginary part, respectively, of the two operands, namely, z1 z2 =

(x1 x2 ) + i(y1 y2 ).
Since a complex number is consisted of two independent parts, the
multiplication of two complex numbers renders four items as z1 z2 =
x1 x2 + x1 iy2 + iy1x2 + iy1iy2 = (x1 x2 y1 y2 ) + i(x1y2 + y1 x2). The
division of z1 by z2 is facilitated by multiplying both the numerator and
the denominator with z2 to make a real denominator, namely,
z1
z1 z2
(x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) + i(y1x2 x1y2 )
=
=

z2
z2 z2
(x22 + y22 )
The operations of addition and multiplication follow the commutative rule that the operation outcome is independent of the order of
the operands, namely, z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 and z1 z2 = z2 z1. They also
satisfy the associative rule that when three operands are operated in
two steps, the outcome is independent of the order of steps, namely,
z1 + (z2 + z3 ) = (z1 + z2 ) + z3 and z1 (z2 z3) = (z1z2 )z3 . The distributive
rule is defined between the two operations as z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 .

Figure 1.1.

A complex number viewed as coordinates or position vector.

Geometrical Interpretation. The real and the imaginary parts can

be marked as the x and y coordinates, respectively, of a point P on the
two-dimensional Cartesian plane as shown in Fig.1.1. A two-dimensional
vector V can be defined by setting the origin as the starting point, and
point P as the ending point. Then, the complex number z = x + iy, the
coordinates (x, y), and the vector V = OP = x
x+ yy, are commensurate.
In other words, the basic operations and rules defined for the complex
numbers are also observed by the Cartesian coordinates and the twodimensional vectors.
Some properties of complex numbers can be appreciated from the
geometrical point of view. For example, the modulus or absolute value

Complex Analysis



of z, |z|, is equivalent to the length of the vector, OP , or the distance

from O to P .
The triangle inequalities |z1 + z2 | |z1| + |z2| and |z1 + z2 | |z1 | |z2|
can be interpreted geometrically as: the sum of the lengths of any two
sides of a triangle is larger than that of the third side, the difference of
the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is less than that of the third
side.
A complex number can be expressed
in the polar form as z = r(cos +
p
i sin ) = r6 , where r = |z| = x2 + y 2 is the magnitude or modulus of
z, and = arg(z) = tan1 (y/x) is the argument of z. Note that there
are an infinite number of arguments for the same z, which are related to
a uniquely defined principal argument Arg(z) by arg(z) = Arg(z) + 2n,
where n is any integer and < Arg(z) .
The multiplication of z1 and z2 can thus be succinctly expressed as
z1 z2 = r1r2 [cos(1 + 2 ) + i sin(1 + 2 )], and the division of z1 by z2 as
z1 /z2 = (r1/r2)[cos(1 2 ) + i sin(1 2 )] if z2 6= 0. By induction, we
have z n = rn (cos n + sin n). By setting |z| = r = 1, the de Moivres
formula, (cos + i sin )n = cos n + i sin n, is recovered.
Define the nth root of z as w = z 1/n if z 6= 0, or equivalently, wn =
z. Let w = (cos + i sin ) and z = r(cos + i sin ), the definition
implies that n (cos n + i sin n) = r(cos + i sin ), or = r1/n , =
( + 2k)/n with k = 0, 1, 2, , n 1. These n distinctive roots can
be expressed as wk = r1/n [cos(/n + 2k/n) + i sin(/n + 2k/n)] with
k = 0, 1, 2, , n 1, among which w0 is called the principal root of z.

2.

Analytic Functions

Figure 1.2.

Neighborhood of z0 .

Point Set. As shown in Fig.1.2, the -neighborhood of z0 = x0 + iy0

is defined as an open disk of radius , centerd at z0 . It is symbolized
as N (z0) = {z| |z z0 | < }. A point z0 is an interior point of a set
S if and only if there exists a neighborhood N (z0 ) that belongs in S.

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

A set S is open if and only if every z in S is an interior point. The set

S = {z| 1 < |z z0 | < 2} is called an open annulus.
A point zb is called the boundary point of S if every N (zb ) contains
at least one point in S and at least one point not in S. The boundary
of S contains all the boundary points of S.
An open set S is called connected if any pair of points, z1 and z2 , in
S can be connected by a polygonal contour that lies entirely in S. A set
S is called a domain if and only if S is an open connected set.
A function w = f (z) is a rule of mapping a complex number in a set D
on the z-plane into another complex number in a set R in the w-plane.
The set D is called the domain of f , and the set R = {w| w = f (z), z
D} is called the range of f .

Figure 1.3.

Neighborhoods used to demonstrate limit.

Limit. Assume function f (z) is defined in N (z0 ), except possibly

at z0 itself. This function is said to have a limit at z0 , lim f (z) = L,
zz0

if and only if that for any infinitesimal  > 0, there exists another infinitesimal > 0 such that |f (z) L| <  whenever 0 < |z z0 | < . As
demonstrated in Fig.1.3, for all N (L) = {w| |w L| < }, there exists
an N (z0 ) = {z| 0 < |z z0 | < } such that w = f (z) falls in N (L)
whenever z falls in N (z0 ).
If lim f (z) = L1 and lim g(z) = L2, then lim [f (z) + g(z)] = L1 + L2 ,
zz0

zz0

zz0

lim f (z)g(z) = L1 L2 , and lim f (z)/g(z) = L1 /L2 if L2 6= 0.

zz0

zz0

Continuity. Function f (z) is continuous at z0 if lim f (z) = f (z0),

zz0

namely, the limit of the function at z0 is the same as the value of f (z)
at z0 . Note that as taking the limit of a function, the argument z never
reaches z0 although it can be as close as desired to z0 .

Complex Analysis

If two functions f (z) and g(z) are continuous at z0 , then f (z) + g(z)
and f (z)g(z) are continuous at z0 , and f (z)/g(z) is continuous at z0 if
g(z0) 6= 0.
Derivative. The differential of a complex number z is defined as
z = x + iy. Assume function f (z) is defined in N (z0 ). The
derivative of f (z) exists at z0 and is expressed as f 0 (z0 ) if and only if
f 0 (z0) = lim [f (z0 + z) f (z0)]/z is the same with arbitrary choices
z0

of x and y. The function f (z) is differentiable at z0 if f 0 (z0) exists.

If f (z) and g(z) are differentiable at z and c is a constant, then the
same rules of differentiation as in real variables apply, namely,
dc/dz = 0,
[cf (z)]0 = cf 0(z),
[f (z) + g(z)]0 = f 0(z) + g 0(z)
[f (z)g(z)]0 = f 0(z)g(z) + f (z)g 0(z)
[f (z)/g(z)]0 = [g(z)f 0(z) f (z)g 0(z)]/g 2(z)
(d/dz)f [g(z)] = f 0 [g(z)]g 0(z)
Analyticity. Function f (z) is analytic at z0 if and only if f (z) is
differentiable at z0 and at every point of N (z0 ). The function f (z) is
analytic in a domain D if and only if f (z) is analytic at every point in
D.
Note that analyticity at a point is a property prevailing over its neighborhood, while differentiability is a property which is required only at
that point. For example, f (z) = |z|2 is differentiable at z = 0, but
nowhere else is differentiable. By definition, it is nowhere analytic. Take
another example, f (z) = z 2 is differentiable everywhere in the z-plane,
hence is also analytic everywhere. Function f (z) is called an entire function if and only if it is analytic over the whole z-plane.

3.

Cauchy-Riemann Equations

Function f (z) can be explicitly decomposed into real and imaginary

parts as f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), where both u(x, y) and v(x, y) are
real functions of x and y. If f (z) is differentiable at z, the derivative of
f (z) defined as f 0 (z) = lim [f (z + z) f (z)]/z exists for arbitrary
z0

z. Firstly, let y = 0, then z = x, and f10 (z) = u(x, y)/x +

iv(x, y)/x. Next, let x = 0, then z = iy, and f20 (z) = iu(x, y)/y+
v(x, y)/y. Since f10 (z) = f20 (z) by definition, we have
u
v
=
,
x
y

u
v
=
y
x

(1.1)

These are called the Cauchy-Riemann equations, which are the necessary
conditions of the analyticity of f (z) at z.

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

Next, to prove that (1.1) are also the sufficient conditions of the analyticity of f (z) at z, assume that the Cauchy-Riemann equations hold
at all points in D, for example, at z0 = (x0 , y0), then
f (z0 + z) f (z0 ) = [u(x0 + x, y0 + y) u(x0, y0)]
+i [v(x0 + x, y0 + y) v(x0, y0 )]
h

' ux(x0 , y0)x + uy (x0, y0)y + uxx (x0 , y0)(x)2

+2uxy (x0, y0)xy + uyy (x0 , y0)(y)2

+i vx (x0, y0 )x + vy (x0, y0)y + vxx (x0, y0 )(x)2

+2vxy (x0, y0)xy + vyy (x0 , y0)(y)2

' [ux (x0, y0) + ivx (x0, y0 )] (x + iy)

(1.2)

where is the first derivative of with respect to with = u, v,

= x, y, and is the second derivative. The second approximation
is obtained by imposing the Cauchy-Riemann equations and neglecting
the second-order terms when x and y are sufficiently small. Eq.(1.2)
implies that f 0 (z0 ) = lim [f (z0 + z) f (z0 )]/z exists at every point
z0

in D. Thus, f (z) is analytic in D. The Cauchy-Riemann equations are

often used to check the analyticity of a complex function.
Harmonic Functions. Function (x, y) is called a harmonic function in D if the derivatives of (x, y) up to the second order is continuous
and (x, y) satisfies the Laplace equation
2
2
+
x2 y 2

(x, y) = 0

An analytic function f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) satisfies the CauchyRiemann equations. Thus, we have
2u

=
2
x
x

u
x

=
x

v
y

=
y

v
x

u
=

y
y

2u
y 2

By definition, u(x, y) is a harmonic function, and v(x, y) can be proven

to be a harmonic function in a similar way. Since u(x, y) and v(x, y) constitute an analytic function in D, they are called the conjugate harmonic
function of each other.

4.

Elementary Functions

Exponential Function. The complex exponential function is defined in the same way as its real counterpart. By definition, ez = ex+iy =

Complex Analysis

ex eiy = ex (cos y + i sin y). Since ez is analytic for all z, it is an entire

function.
When y = 0, ez is reduced to the real exponential function ex . Such
an extension of domain from the real axis to the whole complex plane
is called analytic continuation, which is commonly practiced as long as
the definition is consistent with the original one when z is reduced to x.
Function ez is periodic with a complex period of 2i, namely, ez+2ni =
z
e e2ni = ez for all z. Thus, the z-plane can be divided into horizontal strips Sn = {z = x + iy| (2n 1) < y (2n + 1)} with
n = 0, 1, 2, . Each Sn is called a branch of ez , and the functional
values over Sn are replica of those in the other branches. The strip
S0 = {z = x + iy| < y } is called the principal branch of ez .
Logarithmic Function. The logarithmic function w = ln z can be
defined in terms of the exponential function as ew = z. Let w = u + iv,
then z = rei = ew = eu+iv = eu eiv . By comparison, we have u = ln r =
loge |z|, v = = 0 + 2n, where = arg(z), < 0 = Arg(z)
, n = 0, 1, 2, . In short, ln z = ln |z| + i[Arg(z) + 2n] with
n = 0, 1, 2, . The principal branch of ln z is defined as Ln z =
ln |z| + iArg(z).
If a point is rotated counterclockwise in the z-plane along a circle
centered at the origin, it will return to where it starts. The value of
z remains the same, but the argument of z is incremented by 2, and
ln z is incremented by i2. It can be understood as if the point sweeps
across a branch cut and moves into another branch or another Riemann
sheet. The definition of the principal branch with < Arg(z)
implies that the branch cut is chosen at Arg(z) = . The branch cut
can be arbitrarily chosen for convenience. However, its position should
be fixed throughout the whole derivation to maintain consistency. The
end points of a branch cut is called the branch points.
Note that Ln z is not continuous across the branch cut, Arg(z) approaches when z approaches the branch cut from the upper half-plane,
and Arg(z) approaches when z approaches the branch cut from the
lower half-plane, hence a discontinuity exists across the branch cut.
Other than the branch cut, Ln z is analytic in D = {z| z 6= 0, <
Arg(z) < }.
The complex power z with z 6= 0 and complex can be manipulated
as z = e ln z which has an infinite number of branches. The principal
branch can similarly be denoted as eLn z .
Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions. The complex trigonometric functions can be extended from one of the definitions of real

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

trigonometric functions as
eiz eiz
eiz + eiz
sin z
,
cos z =
,
tan z =
2i
2
cos z
1
1
1
cot z =
,
sec z =
,
csc z =
tan z
cos z
sin z
Likewise, the complex hyperbolic functions can be extended from their
real counterparts as
sin z =

ez ez
ez + ez
sinh z
,
cosh z =
,
tanh z =
2
2
cosh z
1
1
1
coth z =
,
sech z =
,
csch z =
tanh z
cosh z
sinh z
The same differential rules for the real functions apply as
sinh z =

d
d
sin z = cos z,
cos z = sin z
dz
dz
d
d
tan z = sec2 z,
cot z = csc2 z
dz
dz
d
d
sec z = sec z tan z,
csc z = csc z cot z
dz
dz
d
d
sinh z = cosh z,
cosh z = sinh z
dz
dz
The inverse trigonometric functions can be defined in terms of the
complex trigonometric functions. For example, the inverse sinusoidal
function w = sin1 z is equivalent to z = sin w. Thus, we have z =
sin w = (eiw eiw )/(2i), or e2iw 2izeiw 1 = 0. The solutions are
eiw = iz 1 z 2 = iz + (1 z 2 )1/2. Note that is the principal
value of 1/2.
By differentiating both sides of z = sin w with respect to z, we have
1 = (d sin w/dw)(dw/dz) = cos w(dw/dz), or dw/dz = 1/ cos w = (1
z 2 )1/2.

5.

Contour Integrals

The parametric representation of a curve in the z-plane is C = {z| z(t) =

x(t) + iy(t), a t b} with t as the parameter. Curve C is a smooth
curve if x0(t) and y 0 (t) are continuous on a t b. Curve C is piecewise smooth if C can be decomposed into pieces of smooth curves Cj as
C=

n
X

Cj . Curve C is called a simple curve if C does not cross itself.

j=1

Curve C is a closed curve if its starting point and ending point are the
same.

Complex Analysis

Figure 1.4.

Partition of a contour in the z-plane.

A contour is defined as a piecewise smooth curve. Given a contour

C = {z | z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a t b }, and f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is
a complex function defined at all points on C. Fig.1.4 shows that the
contour C is partitioned into many infinitesimal curves as C =

n
X

Cj

j=1

with a = t0 < t1 < < tn = b. Let the value of z at tk be zk = z(tk )

with k = 0, 1, 2, , n, and zk = zk zk1 with k = 1, 2, , n.
The
Z mean-value theorem states that a zk on Ck can be found such
that f (z)dz = f (
zk )zk where zk = z(tk ) with tk1
tk tk . Define
Ck

the norm of a partition as ||P || = |zk |max . The integral of a complex

function f (z) along the contour C can thus be calculated as
Z

f (z)dz = lim
||P ||0

n
X

f (
zk )zk

(1.3)

k=1

Expressing f (z) as u(x, y) + iv(x, y), then the contour integral in (1.3)
can be calculated as
Z

n
X

f (z)dz = lim
||P ||0

= lim
||P ||0

Z
C

n
X

(uk + ivk )(xk + iyk )

k=1

[(uk xk vk yk ) + i(vk xk + uk yk )]

k=1

(udx vdy) + i

(vdx + udy)

(1.4)

which is the sum of two contour integrals of real functions. Furthermore,

if both x and y are expressed in terms of the parameter t, namely,

10

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

dx = x0 (t)dt and dy = y 0 (t)dt, then (1.4) can be reduced to

Z

f (z)dz =

f [z(t)]z 0(t)dt

u(x(t), y(t))x0(t) v(x(t), y(t))y 0(t) dt

+i

v(x(t), y(t))x0(t) + u(x(t), y(t))y 0(t) dt

q The differential path length can be expressed as ds =

(dx)2 + (dy)2 =

[x0 (t)]2 + [y 0 (t)]2 dt = |z 0(t)| dt = |dz|, The total length of C can thus

be expressed as L =

|z 0 (t)|dt.

M L Inequality. If C is a smooth curve with total length L, f (z) is

continuous on C and has a maximum value of M on C, we have


n
n
n
X
 X
X


f (
zk )zk 
|f (
zk )| |zk | M
|zk |



k=1

k=1

n
X

k=1

Lk = M L

k=1



Z




In other words,  f (z)dz  =


C



n


X


f (
zk )zk  M L, which is re lim
||P ||0

k=1

ferred to as the M L inequality.

Greens Theorem. Let domain D be simply connected, C is a
simple closed contour in D, R is the region enclosed by C, u(x, y) and
v(x, y) are functions whose first derivatives are continuous in D. The
Greens theorem relates the contour integral of u(x, y) and v(x, y) with
the surface integral of their derivatives as
I

[u(x, y)dx + v(x, y)dy] =

ZZ 

v u
dxdy

x y

(1.5)

y) =
By analog, consider a two-dimensional electric field distribution E(x,
x
u(x, y) + yv(x, y). The Stokes theorem states that
I
C

d
E
s=

ZZ

d
E
a

where C is a closed contour on the xy-plane encircling a region R. The

expansion gives the same results as (1.5).

11

Complex Analysis

6.

Cauchys Theorem

The Cauchys theorem states that if f (z) is analytic in a simply

connected
domain D, and C is any simple closed contour in D, then
I
f (z)dz = 0.

The proof is straightforward. Since f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic, the Cauchy-Riemann equations imply that u/x = v/y and
u/y = v/x. The contour integral thus is reduced to
I

f (z)dz =

(u + iv)(dx + idy) =

ZZ 

(udx vdy) + i

v u

dxdy + i

x y

ZZ 

(vdx + udy)

u v
dxdy = 0

x y

where the Greens theorem is applied to transform the contour integrals

into surface integrals.

Figure 1.5.

Close contours in domain D with two holes.

Contour Deformation. If f (z) is analytic in a domain D which has

a hole as shown in Fig.1.5. Assume C and C1 are simple closed contours
such that C1 encloses the hole and is interior to C. A new contour K
can be defined by connecting C and C1 with two line segments AB and
BA. Hence, f (z) is analytic on and within contour K, which implies
that
I
K

f (z)dz =

AB

C1

BA

f (z)dz = 0

12

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

Since the integrals along AB and BA, respectively, cancel each other,
we have
I

f (z)dz =

f (z)dz =

C1

f (z)dz

C1

This implies that the contour of integration can be deformed arbitrarily

as long as it stays in the domain D.
In case the domain D contains multiple holes as shown in Fig.1.5, the
contour C encloses all the holes, while contour Ck encloses the kth hole.
Pairs of overlapping line segments are placed to link all the Ck contours
to C to form a closed contour K which encloses no holes, and f (z) is
analytic on and within the contour K. By using the same argument, we
have
I

f (z)dz =

n I
X

f (z)dz

k=1C
k

This implies that a closed contour can be deformed arbitrarily into a

number of closed contours, with each one enclosing a hole.

Figure 1.6.

Contours with the same starting and ending points.

Fig.1.6 shows two separate contours, C1 and C2 , both are drawn from
z0 to z1 . A closed contour K can be defined as the concatenation of C1
and C2 . Assume there is no hole within K, thus no hole is encountered
when contour C1 is deformed into C2 . Then, the Cauchys theorem
implies that
I
K

or

Z
C1

f (z)dz =

C1

f (z)dz =

f (z)dz +

Z
C2

f (z)dz =

Z
C1

f (z)dz

f (z)dz = 0

C2

f (z)dz. This implies that the contour integral depends

C2

only on the end points, and the contour of integration can be deformed
arbitrarily as long as it does not cross any hole.

13

Complex Analysis

Existence of Antiderivative. The rules of contour integration are

similar to those of one-dimensional integration of real functions. For
example,
F (z) =
Z

f (z)dz is the antiderivative of f (z)

if and only if F 0 (z) = f (z) for all z in D

f (z)dz =

f (z)dz = F (z1 ) F (z0 )

z0

z1

f (z)dz =

Zb

F 0 [z(t)]z 0(t)dt =

d
F [z(t)]dt
dt

= F [z(t)]|t=b
t=a = F [z(b)] F [z(a)] = F (z1 ) F (z0 )
where z = z0 at t = a and z = z1 at t = b.
Assume f (z) is analytic in D,
Z let z0 be a fixed point in D, and z be
z

any point in D. Define F (z) =

f (s)ds, then

z0

F (z + z) F (z) =

z+z

f (s)ds

z0

f (s)ds =
z0

z+z

f (s)ds
z

and
F (z + z) F (z)
1
f (z) =
z
z

z+z

[f (s) f (z)] ds (1.6)

z

Since f (z) is analytic at z, it is also continuous at z. Thus, for any  > 0,

there exists a > 0 such that |f (s) f (z)| <  whenever |s z| < .
Choosing z such that |z| < , (1.6) can be reduced to


 F (z + z) F (z)


f (z) =

z

1
<
|z| = 
|z|
Thus, we have F 0 (z) = lim

z0

7.


 Z
 1  


 z  

z+z
z




[f (s) f (z)] ds


F (z + z) F (z)
= f (z) for all z in D.
z

Cauchys Integral Formula

If f (z) is analytic in a simply connected domain D, C is a simple closed

I
f (z)
1
contour in D, z0 is any point within C, then f (z0 ) =
dz,
2i z z0
C

which is the Cauchys integral formula.

14

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

f (z)
is analytic in D except at z = z0 .
z z0
Let C1 = {z | |z z0 | = r } be a circle within C, then the contour of
integration C can be deformed to C1 . Thus, we have
Since f (z) is analytic in D,

I
C

f (z)
dz =
z z0

= f (z0)

C1

I
C1

f (z)
dz =
z z0

dz
+
z z0

I
C1

I
C1

f (z0) + f (z) f (z0)

dz
z z0

f (z) f (z0 )
dz = 2if (z0)
z z0

The last step can be proved as follows. Since f (z) is analytic at z0 ,

it is continuous at z0 . For any  > 0, there exists a > 0 such that
|f (z) f (z0)| <  whenever |z z0 | < . The radius of C1 is chosen to
be /2, namely, |z z0 | = /2. Thus, |[f(z)
f (z
z0 )| /(/2)
0 )]/(z


I


f
(z)

f
(z
)


0
for z on C1 , hence 
dz 
2
= 2 which
z z0
/2
2
C1
can beI arbitrarily small. On C1 , z = z0 + (/2)ei , dz = i(/2)ei d,
dz
hence
= 2i.
z z0
C1

The Cauchys integral formula can be extended to the derivatives of

any analytic function. Let f (z) be analytic in a simply connected domain
D, C is a simple closed contour in D, z0 is any point interior to C, then
f (n) (z0) =

n!
2i

I
C

f (z)
dz
(z z0 )n+1

(1.7)

To prove by induction, first check the case with n = 1 as follows.

1
[f (z0 + z) f (z0 )]
z0 z

I
I
1 1
f (z)
f (z)
= lim
dz
dz
z0 z 2i
z (z0 + z)
z z0

f 0 (z0) = lim

1
=
lim
2i z0
1
=
2i

I
C

1
f (z)
z

z z0 z z z0



dz

f (z)
dz
(z z0 )2

1
+
lim z
2i z0

I
C

f (z)
dz
(z z0 z)(z z0 )2

(1.8)

15

Complex Analysis

where the identity [1/(z z0 z) 1/(z z0 )]/z = 1/(z z0 )2 +

z/[(zz0 z)(zz0)2] has been used. Since f (z) is analytic in D, it is
continuous and bounded on C, namely, |f (z)| M for all z on C. Let
be the shortest distance of |z z0 | among all zs on C, then |z z0 | ,
1/|z z0 |2 1/ 2, |f (z)|/|z z0 |2 M/ 2 for all z on C. Choose
|z| /2, then |z z0 z| ||z z0 | |z|| |z| /2,
1/|z z0 z| 2/ for all z on C, hence




  
I


f
(z)
M
z
 |z| 2
dz
L


2
(z z0 z)(z z0 )

2


C

|z|
=
3
where L is the length of C, and  can be arbitrarily small if z approaches zero faster than 3. Thus, the last term in (1.8) approaches
zero, and
= 2M L

f 0 (z0) =

1!
2i

I
C

f (z)
dz
(z z0 )1+1

The cases with n 2 can be proved in the same way.

If f (z) is analytic at z0, its nth derivative can be obtained from (1.7),
which implies that an analytic function possesses derivatives of any order.
Liouvilles Theorem. Let the contour of integration C in (1.7) be a
circle with radius R and length L = 2R, namely, C = {z| |z z0| = R}.
Assume |f (z)| M for z on C, then




I


n!
f (z)
(n)


|f (z0 )| = 
dz
(z z0 )n+1 
 2i
C


I




f (z)
M
n! 
n!
n!M

=
dz 
(2R) = n

n+1
n+1
2  (z z0)
2 R
R

C

which is named the Cauchy inequality.

If f (z) is a bounded entire function with |f (z)| M for all z, the
Cauchy inequality implies that |f 0 (z0)| M/R. Let R approach infinity,
then |f 0(z0 )| approaches zero for all z0 , which implies that f (z) is a
constant. In other words, the only bounded entire function is a constant.

8.

Taylor Series

Complex Sequence. A complex sequence is a set of complex numbers zn s arranged in order with integer index n, denoted as {zn }. This

16

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

sequence converges to a complex number L, expressed as zn L or

lim zn = L, if and only if for any given infinitesimal  > 0, there exists
n
a positive integer N such that |zn L| <  for n > N . The sequence {zn }
diverges if it does not converge. The sequence can be decomposed into
two real sequences {xn } and {yn } where zn = xn + iyn . Let L = a + ib,
then zn L implies that xn a and yn b.
Complex Series. The nth partial sum of a given complex sequence
{zn } is defined as Sn =

n
X

zk . If the limit of the nth partial sum as

k=1

n exists, it is called the series of the sequence {zn }, denoted as

S = lim Sn =
n

zk . The nth partial sum diverges if it does not

k=1

converge.
Geometric Series. If the sequence {zn } is consisted of consecutive
powers of a given complex number, namely, zn = z n1 , then its associated series is called a geometric series. The nth partial sum of the
geometric sequence can be calculated as Sn = (1 z n )/(1 z), and will
converge to 1/(1 z) if |z| < 1.
Note that if the sequence {zn } converges to a nonzero number c, the
nth partial sum, with n greater than a threshold N , will be incremented
by c whenever n is incremented by one. Thus, the series will diverge.
A series

zk is called absolutely convergent if the series formed of

k=1

the absolute value of the original sequence converges, namely,

|zk |

k=1

converges. It is obvious that the original series converges if it is absolutely convergent, but not vice versa.
Convergence Tests. Ratio test and root test are two alternative
techniques to check the convergence of a sequence. In the ratiotest, the

 zn+1 
=
limit of two consequent terms in a sequence is calculated as lim 
n
zn 
L. In the root test, the nth root of the nth term is calculated as
lim

q
n

|zn | = L. In either test, the series

zk is absolutely conver-

k=1

gent if L < 1, is divergent if L > 1, and is inconclusive if L = 1.

Power Series. Let z0 , a0 , a1 , , ak , be given complex numbers.
The summation
center at z0 .

k=0

ak (z z0 )k is called a power series in (z z0 ), with

17

Complex Analysis

By applying the ratio

power series is absolutely convergent if
 test, the




a
n+1 

 an+1 
(z

z
)
a
 n+1

0
n+1 


=
lim 
|z z0 | < 1. Denote lim 
 = lim
n 
n
an (z z0 )n  n  an 
an 
L, then the power series is absolutely convergent in the domain |z z0 | <
R = 1/L. The number R is thus called the radius of convergence.
Similarly, byq
applying the rootq
test, the power series is absolutely
q conn
n
n
vergent if lim
|an ||z z0| = |an | |z z0 | < 1. Denote lim n |an | =
n
n
L, then the power series is absolutely convergent in the domain |z z0 | <
R = 1/L.
In either test, the power series diverges in the domain |z z0 | > R.
The power series is either divergent or convergent at different points on
the circle |z z0 | = R.
Taylors Theorem. Consider a function f (z) which is analytic in
domain D, and z0 is a point in D. The function f (z) has a unique Taylor

X
f (k) (z0)
series representation f (z) =
(zz0 )k with |zz0 | < R, where
k!
k=0
R is the radius of convergence. Let C = {s| |s z0 | = R} be the circle
with center z0 and radius R, which lies entirely within D. Assume that
z is a fixed point inside C and s is a variable point on C. First, expand
the fractional term 1/(s z) as


1
z z0
1
1
1
=
=
sz
(s z0 ) (z z0 )
(s z0 )
s z0

1




z z0 k X
(z z0 )k
1 X
=
=
s z0 k=0 s z0
(s z0 )k+1
k=0

Next, substitute this expansion into the Cauchys integral formula to

have
f (z) =

1
2i

f (s)
1
ds =
sz
2i

X
k=0

1
2i

I
C

I
C

f (s)

X
(z z0 )k
k=0

(s z0)k+1

ds

X
f (s)
f (k) (z0)
k

ds
(z

z
)
=
(z z0 )k
0
(s z0 )k+1
k!
k=0

Thus, we obtain the Taylor series of f (z) as f (z) =

ak (z z0 )k with

k=0

the coefficients ak = f (k)(z0 )/k!. The Taylor series is valid in |zz0 | < R
in which f (z) is analytic.
Note that the radius of convergence R can be determined either by
applying the convergence test to the Taylor series or by directly letting

18

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

R = |zs z0 | where zs is the closest singularity of f (z) from z0 . Since

the power series expansion of a function is unique, any power series
expression of f (z) in |z z0 | < R must be the Taylor series of f (z)
about z0 .
A given function f (z) may possess different series forms in different
domains. For example, consider the function 1/(1 z) which has a
1
singularity at z = 1. When expanded about z = 0, we have
=
1z

z k , which is valid in |z 0| < 1. Note that the distance between the

k=0

singularity and the center is unity. When expanded about z = 2i, we

have
1
1
1
=
=
1z
(1 2i) (z 2i)
(1 2i) [1 (z 2i)/(1 2i)]



k
X
1 X z 2i
(z 2i)k
=
=
1 2i k=0 1 2i
(1 2i)k+1
k=0

which is valid in |z 2i| < 5. Note that the distance between the
singularity and the center is 5.

Figure 1.7.

9.

Expansion of 1/(1 z) in different domains.

Laurent Series

If f (z) is not analytic at z0 but is analytic in the -neighborhood of

z0 , N (z0 ), then z0 is called an isolated singularity of f (z). If f (z) is not
analytic at z0 , and every N (z0 ) contains at least one singularity other
than z0 , then z0 ia called a nonisolated singularity of f (z).

19

Complex Analysis

Laurents Theorem. If z0 is an isolated singularity of f (z), then a

Laurent series expansion of f (z) about z0 exists and has the form
f (z) =

X
ak
+
ak (z z0 )k
k
(z

z
)
0
k=1
k=0

By applying the convergence test, the first part on the right-hand side
converges in |1/(z z0 )| < R or |z z0| > 1/R = R1, and the second
part on the right-hand side converges in |z z0 | < R2. Thus, the overall
series converges in an annular domain R1 < |z z0 | < R2.
I
f (z)
1
The Laurent coefficients of f (z) at z0 are ak =
dz
2i (z z0 )k+1
C

with k = 0, 1, 2, , where C is any simple closed contour that lies

entirely within D and encloses z0 .

Figure 1.8.

Contours enclosing a hole in domain D.

Fig.1.8 shows two circles Ci = {s| |s z0 | = ri}, centered at z0 with

R1 < r1 < r2 < R2 . A closed contour K is defined by linking C1 and C2
with two overlapping lines. Then, f (z) is analytic on and within K. Let
z be a point in D, and s be a point on C1 or C2 . The Cauchys integral
formula gives
f (z) =

1
2i

I
K

f (s)
1
ds =
sz
2i

I
C2

f (s)
1
ds
sz
2i

f (s)
ds
sz

C1

Note that the contributions over the two overlapping lines cancel each
other.
Since |(z z0 )/(s z0 )| < 1 on C2 , 1/(s z) can be expanded as
1
1
1
=
=
sz
(s z0) (z z0 )
(s z0 ) [1 (z z0 )/(s z0 )]

20

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering




z z0 k X
(z z0 )k
1 X
=
s z0 k=0 s z0
(s z0 )k+1
k=0

=
Thus, we have
1
2i

f (s)
1
ds =
sz
2i

C2

where ak =

#
I "X

(z z0)k

(s z0 )k+1
k=0

C2

1
2i

f (s)ds =

ak (z z0 )k

k=0

f (s)
ds with k = 0, 1, 2, .
(s z0 )k+1

C2

Since |(s z0)/(z z0 )| < 1 on C1 , 1/(s z) can be expanded as

1
1
1
=
=
sz
(s z0 ) (z z0 )
(z z0 ) [1 (s z0 )/(z z0 )]
=

X


1
z z0

k=0

s z0
z z0

k

X
(s z0 )k
k=0

(z z0)k+1

X
(s z0 )m1
m=1

(z z0 )m

Thus, we have
I

2i

f (s)
1
ds =
sz
2i

C1

C1

1
2i

I
C1

m=1

am (z z0 )m =

m=1

where ak =

#
I "X

(s z0 )m1

(z z0 )m

f (s)ds

ak (z z0 )k

k=1

f (s)
ds with k = 1, 2, .
(s z0 )k+1

Combining both contributions on C1 and C2 , we have

f (z) =

ak (z z0 )k

k=

where ak =

1
2i

I
C

f (s)
ds with k = 0, 1, 2, . Note that both
(s z0 )k+1

C1 and C2 are deformed to the same contour C without crossing z0 .

In the Laurent series expansion of f (z), the part that contains the

X
ak
singularity at z0 ,
, is called the principal part of f (z) at
(z z0 )k
k=1

21

Complex Analysis

z0 . The point zo is called a removable singularity if ak = 0 for k > 0.

It is called a pole of order n if an 6= 0 and ak = 0 for k > n. It is
called a simple pole if the order n is equal to one. It is called an essential
singularity if ak 6= 0 for k > 0.
Zero. The point z0 is called the zero of f (z) if f (z0 ) = 0. It is called
an nth-order zero of f (z) if f (z0 ) = f 0 (z0 ) = = f (n1) (z0) = 0 but
f (n) (z0) 6= 0. In this case, f (z) can be factored as (z z0 )n g(z) with
g(z0) 6= 0.
The point z0 is called an isolated zero if f (z0 ) = 0 but f (z) 6= 0 for
all z in N (z0). By definition, 1/f (z) has an isolated singularity at z0 .
If both f (z) and g(z) are analytic at z0 , f (z) has an nth-order zero
at z0 , and g(z0) 6= 0, then g(z)/f (z) has a pole of order n at z0 .

10.

Residue Theorem

The residue of f (z) at z0 is defined as Res[f (z), z0] = a1 [f (z), z0]

which is the coefficient of the (z z0 )1 term in the Laurent series
expansion of f (z) about z0.
If f (z) has a pole of order n at z0 , then the Laurent series expansion
of f (z) about z0 has the form
an
a1
f (z) =
++
+ a0 + a1 (z z0 ) +
(z z0 )n
z z0
with 0 < |z z0 | < R. The coefficient a1 can be obtained by first
multiplying f (z) by (z z0)n to have
g(z) = (z z0 )n f (z) = an +
+a1 (z z0)n1 + a0 (z z0 )n + a1 (z z0 )n+1 +
Then, take the (n 1)st derivative to have
dn1
g(z) = (n 1)!a1 + n!a0(z z0 ) +
dz n1
Next, take the limit of z z0 to have
lim

zz0

dn1
g(z) = (n 1)!a1 = (n 1)!Res[f (z), z0]
dz n1

In summary, the residue can be calculated as

Res[f (z), z0] =

dn1
1
[(z z0 )n f (z)]
lim
(n 1)! zz0 dz n1

In the special case that f (z) has a simple pole at z0 , the residue can
be calculated as lim (z z0 )f (z). If f (z) = g(z)/h(z) where both g(z)
zz0

22

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

and h(z) are analytic at z0 , g(z0) 6= 0, and h(z) has a simple zero at z0 ,
then
Res[f (z), z0] = lim (z z0 )
zz0

= lim g(z)
zz0

Figure 1.9.

g(z)
h(z)

h(z) h(z0 )
z z0

1

g(z0)
h0 (z0 )

Closed contour that encloses n poles.

As shown in Fig.1.9, D is a simply connected domain, C is a simple

closed contour lying entirely within D, f (z) is analytic in D except at
n isolated singularities z1 , z2 , . . . , zn within C. Define Ck = {z| |z
zk | = rk }, a circle centered at zk with radius rk , where k = 1, 2, , n.
Two overlapping lines are defined to link two adjacent circles to form a
simple closed coutour K which encloses no singularities. Since f (z) is
analytic on and within K, the contour integration along K is zero. The
integrations along two overlapping lines cancel each other. Hence, we
have
I
K

f (z)dz =

n I
X

+
f (z)dz = 0
k=1C
k

Since f (z) can be expanded as a Laurent series about zk , we have

I

f (z)dz =

Ck n=

Ck

X
n=

an (z zk ) dz =

X
n=

an

(z zk )n dz

Ck

an 2in,1 = 2ia1 = 2iRes[f (z), zk ]

23

Complex Analysis

Thus, it is proved that

I

f (z)dz = 2i

Res[f (z), zk ]

k=1

11.

n
X

Improper Integrals

Consider a definite integral with unbounded interval as

f (x)dx.

Such an integral can render different values or diverge if the upper and
lower bounds are approached at different rates, for example,
Z

f (x)dx = lim

r r

f (x)dx + lim

R 0

f (x)dx

The Cauchy principal value is defined by assuming that the upper and
the lower bounds approach infinity at the same rate, namely,
PV

f (x)dx = lim

R R

f (x)dx

The concept of principal value may also be extended to define definite integrals with singularities lying along the integration path. For
example, let f (x) = P (x)/Q(x) be a rational function of x where both
P (x) and Q(x) are polynomial functions of x with real coefficients, and
Q(x) 6= 0 for all real x. Let zk with 1 k n be poles of f (z) in the
upper half-plane as shown in Fig.1.10. The original integration path is
L : R < x < R. A semicircle CR : z = Rei with 0 can be
attached to L to form a closed contour C. The radius R is chosen large
enough to enclose all the poles of f (z), namely, |zk | < R with 1 k n.

Figure 1.10. Contours defined to evaluate improper integrals, (a) all poles lie in the
upper half-plane, (b) some poles appear on the real axis.

24

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

By applying the residue theorem, we have

Z

f (z)dz +

f (z)dz =

f (z)dz = 2i

R
CR

n
X

Res[f (z), zk ](1.9)

k=1

Impose the additional condition that deg[Q(z)] deg[z 2 P (z)], which

renders |P (z)/Q(z)| M/|z 2 | = M/R2 for z on CR . The M L inequality
implies that


Z





 f (z)dz  =


CR






Z

Z





P (z)  M 
M


dz  2  dz  =





R 
R
CR Q(z) 

CR

which vanishes as R approaches infinity. Thus, (1.9) is reduced to

PV

f (x)dx = 2i

n
X

Res[f (z), zk ]

k=1

Next, consider the case that f (z) = P (z)/Q(z) possesses simple poles
x` with 1 ` m, on the real axis in additional to the poles in the upper
half-plane,
Z zk with 1 k n. Referring to Fig.1.10(b), the principal

value of

f (x)dx is defined as

PV

f (x)dx = lim

(Z

x1 1

+
R

m1
X Z x`+1 `+1
`=1

f (x)dx

xm +m

x` +`

(1.10)
where the limit is understood as R and ` 0 with 1 ` m.
A closed contour is formed which consists of the same semicircle CR as
in the previous case and m small semicircles C` s with 1 ` m. By
imposing the condition that deg[Q(z)] deg[z 2 P (z)], the integration
along CR vanishes as R approaches infinity. In the neighborhood of x` ,
f (z) can be approximated as g` (z)/(z x` ) with g` (z) being analytic.
Assuming z = x` +` ei with varying from to 0, the integration along
C` can be reduced to
Z

f (z)dz =

C`

g` (x` + ` ei )
i` ei d
` ei

which approaches ig` (x` ) as ` approaches zero. Note that g` (x` ) =

Res[f (z), x`] by the definition of residue. Thus, (1.10) is reduced to
Z

n
X

1X
PV
f (x)dx = 2i
Res[f (z), zk ] +
Res[f (z), x`]
2 `=1

k=1

25

Complex Analysis

Kramers-Kr
onig Relation. Consider a linear, temporally dispersive medium, the electric flux density caused by the field induced polarization satisfies the causality condition, and can be expressed as an
integral equation

+
D(t)
= 0 E(t)

+ 0
= 0 E(t)

)
d 0 e (t )E(

)
d e ( )E(t

where
Z e is the susceptibility. By
Z applying the Fourier transforms D(t) =
it
it

d D()e
and E(t)
d E()e
, we have D()
= ()E()


with () = 0 1 +

d e ( )ei .

The Jordans lemma states that if lim Rf (Rei ) = 0 with 0 < < ,
then lim

dsf (s) = 0, where CR is a semicircle of radius R in the

CR

upper half s-plane.

Figure 1.11.

Contour of integration in the s plane.

(s) 
over the closed contour
s
C as shown in Fig.1.11, where  is the value of (s) on CR . Since there
I
(s) 
are no singularities inside the contour C,
ds = 0. Since the
s
Consider the integration of f (s) =

function f (s) satisfies the Jordans lemma, the integration of f (s) over
CR vanishes. Hence, the integration over the closed contour C reduces

26

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

to
PV

(s) 
ds +
s

(s) 
ds = 0
s

Let s = +ei with changing from Z to 0, the second term is reduced

(s) 

to i[()  ]. Thus, we have PV

ds = i[()  ],
s

which can be separated into the imaginary and the real parts, respectively,
Z

00 (s)
ds
s
Z 0
 (s) 
1
00
 () = PV
ds

0 ()  =

1
PV

where (s) = 0 (s) + j00(s). This pair are also referred to as the Hilbert
transform and the inverse Hilbert transform, respectively.
Landau Damping. Consider an ensemble of non-interacting electrons immersed in a neutralized ion background and are only allowed to
move in the z direction. Let the trajectory of an electron be z = z0 + vt,
where the initial position z0 is uniformly distributed in a uniform plasma,
and v follows
ra distribution f (v) such as Maxwell-Boltzmann distribum mv2 /2T
tion f (v) =
, where is the Boltzmann constant, and
e
2T
T is the temperature in Kelvin.
If an electric field E(z, t) = E0 cos(t kz) is turned on at t = 0, the
trajectory of the electron is modified as
z = z0 + vt + z1 + z2 +

(1.11)

where we assume z1 E0 , z2 E02, and z2  z1 . The initial conditions

at t = 0 are z = z0 and z = v. Thus, the initial conditions for z1 and z2
are z1 = z1 = 0 and z2 = z2 = 0, respectively. The electron follows the
equation of motion
m
z = eE0 cos(t kz)

(1.12)

Substituting (1.11) into (1.12), we have

m(
z1 + z2 ) = eE0 cos[( kv)t kz0 ]
eE0 kz1 sin[( kv)t kz0 ] + O(E03)
The solutions are


cos kz0 cos[( kv)t kz0 ]
eE0
z1 =
+ t sin kz0
m( kv)
kv

27

Complex Analysis

eE0kz1
sin[( kv)t kz0 ]
m
The temporal rate of kinetic energy can be calculated as
z2 =

(1.13)

d
d 1 2
(KE) =
mz = mz z
dt
dt 2
= mv
z1 + mz1 z1 + mv
z2 + O(E03)

(1.14)

Substituting (1.13) into (1.14), then taking the ensemble average over
z0 , we have


d
(KE)
dt

e2 E02
2m

z0

sin[( kv)t]
kvt

cos[( kv)t]
2
( kv)
kv
(1.15)

Next, calculate the ensemble average of (1.15) over v. When t is large,

both sin[( kv)t] and cos[( kv)t] change rapidly with v except near
kv = 0, around which the velocity distribution can be approximated
kv 0
as f (v) ' f (/k)
f (/k). The average over v of the first term
k
in (1.15) can be approximated as
PV

sin[( kv)t]
f (v)dv
( kv)2

Z
sin[( kv)t]
' f (/k)PV
dv
( kv)2

sin[( kv)t]
f 0 (/k)PV
dv
k
kv

(1.16)

The first term in (1.16) vanishes by symmetry. With the contour shown
in Fig.1.12, the second term in (1.16) is calculated as
PV

sin[( kv)t]
dv = ImPV
kv

= Im

Z
ei(kv)t
C

kv

ei(kv)t
dv
kv

dv = Im

ei(kv)t
dv = /k
kv

when k > 0. The result will be /k when k < 0 by following the same
procedure. The average over v of the second term in (1.15) is zero by
the same approach.
In summary, the average temporal rate of kinetic energy is


d
(KE)
dt


z0 ,v

e2E02 0
f (/k)
2mk|k|

28

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

The electrons gain energy from the wave if f 0 (/k) < 0. This phenomenon is called Landau damping.

Figure 1.12.

12.

Contour of integration in the v plane.

Inverse Laplace Transform

Figure 1.13. Contour defined to evaluate inverse Laplace transform which (a) excludes singularities, (b) encloses singularities.

The Laplace transform of a unilateral function f (t) defined over t 0

is
F (s) = Lf (t) =

est f (t)dt

Symbolically, f (t) can be recovered by applying the inverse Laplace

transform as u(t)f (t) = L1 F (s), where a unit step function u(t) is
multiplied to emphasize the fact that f (t) is defined only over t 0.

29

Complex Analysis

The Laplace transform of ezt can be calculated as

Lezt =

est ezt dt =

e(sz)t dt = lim

R 0

e(sz)t dt

1 e(sz)R
1
= lim
=
R
sz
sz
provided that Re(sz) > 0. By definition, it is claimed that L1

1
sz

ezt .
Computational Procedure. Let F (z) be the Laplace transform
of f (t), which is analytic in the domain D1 = {z| Re(z) > a}, and
lim |F (z)| = 0. An integration path along z = a is chosen as shown in
|z|

Fig.1.13(a) to evaluate the inverse Laplace transform. Define a closed

contour C1 which consists of the straight line extending from a iR to
a+iR and a semicircle CR centered at a+i0 with radius R. By applying
the Cauchys integral formula, we have
2iF (s) =

I
C1

F (z)

dz =
zs

a+iR

+
aiR

F (z)
dz

zs

CR

where s lies within C1 . The minus sign is due to the integration along
C1 in the clockwise sense. The integration along CR vanishes due to
the assumption that lim |F (z)| = 0. Thus, by taking the limit that
|z|

R , we have
F (s) =

1
2i

a+i
ai

F (z)
dz
sz

(1.17)

Substituting (1.17) into the definition of the inverse Laplace transform, we have
u(t)f (t) = L
1
=
2i

F (s) = L

a+i
ai

1
2i

F (z) L1

a+i
ai

1
sz

F (z)
dz
sz



dz =

1
2i

a+i

F (z)ezt dz

ai

which provides a procedure to compute the inverse Laplace transform.

Residue Technique. Let F (z) be analytic over the entire complex
plane except at a finite number of poles zk with 1 k n, distributed
in D2 = {z| Re(z) < a}, and |zF (z)| M for |z| R. Define a closed
contour C2 as shown in Fig.1.13(b), which consists of the integration

30

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

0 centered at a + i0 with
path from a iR to a + iR and a semicircle CR
radius R.
By applying the residue theorem, the contour integration of F (z)ezt

along C2 is equal to

n
X

Res[F (z)ezt , zk ]. Since |zF (z)| M for |z| R,

k=1

0
the integration of F (z)ezt along CR
vanishes. Thus, we have

1
u(t)f (t) =
2i

a+i

F (z)ezt dz =

ai

n
X

Res[F (z)ezt , zk ]

k=1

=
Waves in Polarizable Medium. Consider a plane wave E
ikzit
x
E 0 e
incident from free space in z < 0 to a polarizable half-space
in z > 0. The polarizable medium can be characterized by its polarizap2
where p , 0 , and are the plasma
tion density P = 2
0 E,
0 2 i
frequency, resonant frequency, and dissipation coefficient, respectively,
of the medium. The polarization density is related to the electric field
where 0 is the permittivity of free space, and r is
by P = (r 1)0 E,
the relative permittivity of the medium. Thus, the relative permittivity
can be expressed as
r () = 1 +

p2
02 2 i

This expression can be generalized from the real axis to the complex
s domain by analytic continuation, with the substitution of s = i.
Thus, we have
p2
r (s) = 1 + 2
s + s + 02

(1.18)

Without loss of generality, assume that the wave polarization is not

changed at incidence. Normalize the amplitude of the incident plane
wave such that the field at z = 0+ equals eit when t > 0, and equals
zero when t < 0. Thus, the boundary condition of the wave function
f (z, t) can be expressed as
f (0+, t) =

1
2i

a+i
ai

est
ds
s + i

where a > 0.
The wave function f (z, t) satisfies the wave equation
2f
r 2 f

=0
z 2
c2 t2

31

Complex Analysis

where
c is the speed of light in free space. The elementary wave function
es(t r z/c) satisfies the wave equation, hence the superposition
1
f (z, t) =
2i

a+i
ai

es(t r z/c)
ds
s + i

(1.19)

satisfies the wave equation and the boundary condition at z = 0+.

If r is a constant, the integral in (1.19) becomes ei(t r z/c) when

t r z/c > 0, and equals zero when t r z/c < 0. In general, r is

a function of s as shown in (1.18). Thus, (1.19) can be rephrased as

Z a+i s[t r (s)z/c]

1
e
f (z, t) =
ds
(1.20)
2i ai
s + i
where
q

r (s) =

Figure 1.14.

s2 + s + 02 + p2
s2 + s + 02

(1.21)

Contour deformation to calculate the wave form.

Note that r (s) approaches 1 as s approaches i. If t z/c < 0,

append a semicircle of infinite radius to the right of the integration path
to form a closed contour. Since all the singularities are excluded from
the closed contour, f (z, t) = 0, which implies that the speed of the wave
front does not exceed the speed of light in free space.
If t z/c > 0, append a semicircle of infinite radius to the left of
the integration path to form a closed contour. The singularities inside
the contour
include the pole at s = i and the branch cuts associated
p
with r (s). By setting r (s) = and r (s) = 0, respectively, the

32

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

branch points of

r (s) are determined as a = /2 i 02 (/2)2

q

and b = /2 i 02 + p2 (/2)2, respectively. Two branch cuts

are defined by linking a+ to b+ , and a to b , respectively. The closed
contour can thus be deformed to C0 , C1 , and C2 as shown in Fig.1.14.
Eqn.(1.20) can now be decomposed into two parts, f0 (z, t) contributed
from C0 and f12 (z, t) contributed from C1 and C2 . Explicitly,



i[t r (i)z/c] 
f0 (z, t) = e
= ez ein(/c)zit

s=i

Z
s[t r (s)z/c]
e
1
f12 (z, t) =
ds
2i
s + i
C1 +C2

where r (i) = n + i/(/c), n is the refractive index, is the

attenuation constant. The forced response f0 (z, t) is calculated by using
the residue theorem, which has the same frequency as the incident wave,
and propagates at c/n, the speed of light in the dielectric medium.
The function f12 (z, t) is a free response which decays with time. Note
that at t = z/c, f12(z, t) exhibits a nonzero value, the early part of this
wave propagates at the speed of light in free space, and is called the
precursor.

13.

Conformal Mapping

Figure 1.15.

Mapping from z-plane to w-plane.

A complex function w = f (z) can be viewed as a mapping or transformation from the z-plane to the w-plane. As shown in Fig.1.15, curve
C is mapped to C 0 , and domain D is mapped to D0 . Consider w = ez
with D = {z = x + iy|0 y } as shown in Fig.1.16. A vertical line
z = a + it with fixed a and 0 t is mapped to w = ea eit with
|w| = ea and Arg(w) = t, which is a semicircle centered at the origin. A
horizontal line z = t + ib with fixed b and < t < is mapped to
w = et eib with |w| = et and Arg(w) = b, which is a radial line emanating
from the origin.

33

Complex Analysis

Fig.1.17 shows the mapping of w = 1/z. Let z = x+iy and w = u+iv,

we have u = x/(x2 + y 2 ) and v = y/(x2 + y 2), or x = u/(u2 + v 2 ) and
y = v/(u2 + v 2). A vertical line x = a in the z-plane is mapped to
a circle [u 1/(2a)]2 + v 2 = 1/(2a)2 in the w-plane. A horizontal line
y = b in the z-plane is mapped to a circle u2 + [v + 1/(2b)]2 = 1/(2b)2
in the w-plane. Similaraly, a vertical or a horizontal line in the w-plane
is mapped to a circle in the z-plane.

Figure 1.16.

Mapping of w = ez .

Figure 1.17.

Mapping of w = 1/z.

Elementary Mappings. The function w = z + z0 represents a

translation of z by an offset z0 . The function w = ei0 z represents a
rotation of z by an angle 0 . The function w = rz with real r represents
a magnification of z by a factor r. Consider the power function w = z
with positive real . Let z = rei , then w = r ei , the amplitude is
magnified to the th power, and the angle is expanded by fold.
These mappings can be combined to form more complicated mappings. For example, w = (1 + i) + z/2 maps a unit circle in the z-plane
into a circle with radius 1/2 and centered at 1 + i in the w-plane. Take
another example, w = ez/4 can be decomposed into = ez and w = 1/4
in sequence. The former maps the strip D = {z = x + iy|0 y }

34

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

into the upper half -plane, and the latter maps the upper half -plane
into the sectoral domain D0 = {w|0 Arg(w) /4} in the w-plane.

Figure 1.18.

Angle-preserving mapping from z-plane to w-plane.

Angle-Preserving Mapping. Fig.1.18 shows two curves C1 and C2

in the z-plane, intersecting at z0, and the angle between the tangents
to C1 and C2 at z0 is . The function w = f (z) maps C1 and C2 into
C10 and C20 , respectively, in the w-plane, intersecting at w0 = f (z0), and
the angle between the tangents to C10 and C20 at w0 is . The function
w = f (z) is called conformal at z0 if = , namely, the magnitude and
sense of the intersecting angles are the same in both planes.
The tangent to C1 at z0 has the argument of lim Arg(z z0 ), the corzz0

responding tangent to C10 at w0 has the argument of lim Arg(w w0),

zz0

which can be expressed as

lim Arg{[f (z) f (z0 )]/(z z0 )} + lim Arg(z z0 )

zz0

zz0

= Arg[f 0 (z0)] + lim Arg(z z0 )

zz0

Let the argument of the tangent to C10 (C20 ) at w0 be 1 (2), the associated argument of the tangent to C1 (C2 ) at z0 be 1 (2 ), we have
1 1 = Arg[f 0(z0 )] = 2 2 . Note that Arg[f 0 (z0)] can be uniquely
defined if f 0 (z0) 6= 0. Thus, = 2 1 = 2 1 = , implying that
the intersecting angle is preserved.
Fig.1.19 shows the mapping of applying w = sin z to a vertical strip
D = {z = x+iy|/2 x /2}. A vertical line z = a+it with <
t < is mapped to w = u + iv = sin(a + it) = sin a cosh t + i cos a sinh t,



2
u 2
v
or

= 1, which is a hyperbola. A horizontal line

sin a
cos a
z = t + ib with /2 t /2 is mapped to w = u + iv = sin(t +

2 
2
u
v
ib) = sin t cosh b + i cos t sinh b, or
+
= 1, which is
cosh b
sinh b
an ellipse.

35

Complex Analysis

Any of the horizontal lines is orthogonal to any of the vertical lines.

Thus, any of the mapped hyperbolas is orthogonal to any of the mapped
ellipses due to the conformal mapping, except at A0 and D0 where hyperbola and ellipse collapse to line segments with intersecting angle of
180. Notice that f 0 (z) = cos z are nonzero in D except at z = /2.

Figure 1.19.

Conformal mapping by w = sin z.

Boundary-Value Problem. Assume

! that p(x, y) is the solution
2
2
to the Laplaces equation
+
p(x, y) = 0 in domain D, with
x2 y 2
fixed value p = V0 at the boundary C. If the geometry of D is not
amenable to direct problem-solving techniques, a proper conformal mapping w = f (z) may be considered to transform D to a more regular shape
D0 in the w-plane for solution.
Let w = u + iv. If P (u, v) is a harmonic function in D0, constitute
P
P
i
= U (u, v) + iV (u, v)
u
v
Since U/u = V /v and U/v = V /u, namely, U and V satisfy
the Cauchy-Riemann equations, hence g(w) is analytic. There exists an
antiderivative G(w) = P (u, v) + iQ(u, v) such that
g(w) =

P
P
(P + iQ) =
i
u
u
v
By definition, G0(w) = g(w). Hence, there exists Q(u, v) such that
G(u, v) = P (u, v) + iQ(u, v) is analytic in D0 .
Let h(z) = G(f (z)) = P (f (z)) + iQ(f (z)), then h(z) is analytic in
D, and both p(x, y) = P (f (z)) and q(x, y) = Q(f (z)) are harmonic
functions in D.
Instead of solving the Laplaces equation in D directly, a harmonic
function P (u, v) in D0 satisfying the mapped bounday condition on C 0 is
G0 (w) =

36

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

pursued first. The function p(x, y) = P (f (z)) will automatically satisfy

the original equation and the original boundary condition.

Figure 1.20.

Conformal mapping by w = sin z.

2
2
Consider the Laplaces equation
+
p(x, y) = 0 in the dox2 y 2
mains shwon in Fig.1.20. The boundary conditions require that p = 1
over the contour OAB and p = 0 over the contour OEF . By applying
the mapping w = sin z, domain D in the z-plane is mapped into domain
D0 in the w-plane, and the points O, A, B, E, and F are mapped to O0 ,
A0 , B 0 , E 0, and F 0 , respectively.
! The corresponding Laplaces equation
2
2

in the w-plane is
+
P (u, v) = 0, and the associated boundu2 v 2
ary condidtions are P (u < 0, v = 0) = 1 and P (u > 0, v = 0) = 0. The
imaginary part of the analytic function Lnw/ = (loge |w| + iArgw) /
is a harmonic function which satisfies the required boundary conditions.
Thus, we obtain the solution P (u, v) = Argw/, and its functional form
in domain D is
1
p(x, y) = P (f (z)) = P (sin z) = Arg(sin z)



1
1
1 cos x sinh y
= Arg(sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y) = tan

sin x cosh y

14.

Potential and Streamline Functions

y) = x
A two-dimensional vector field E(x,
u(x, y) + yv(x, y) can be
expressed in a domain D in the z-plane as E(z) = u(x, y)+iv(x, y). If the
= u/x + v/y = 0
field is divergence free and curl free, namely, E

and E = z(v/x u/y) = 0, we have u/x = v/y and

u/y = v/x, which are the Cauchy-Riemann equations satisfied by
the analytic function F (z) = u(x, y) iv(x, y). On the other hand, if
F (z) is analytic in domain D, then E(z) = F (z) depicts a vector field
which is divergence free and curl free.

37

Complex Analysis

Let G(z) = (x, y) i(x, y) be the antiderivative of F (z), namely,

F (z) = u(x, y) iv(x, y) = G0(z) =
=

(x, y)
(x, y)
i
x
x

(x, y)
(x, y)
+i
x
y

Thus, we have u(x, y) = (x, y)/x and v(x, y) = (x, y)/y, or

y) = (x, y). Hence, (x, y) is called the potential function of
E(x,

E(x, y) or F (z). The curve (x, y) = c with c a real constant is called

an equipotential curve.
The field lines of E(z) can be described as
dx
= u(x, y),
dt

dy
= v(x, y)
dt

(1.22)

as if a charged particle were driven by the electric field to move along a

specific field line. Eq.(1.22) implies that dx/dy = u/v or vdx udy = 0.
Since /x = /y = v and /y = /x = u, vdx udy = 0
can be reduced to (/x)dx + (/y)dy = d = 0. In other words,
the designated field line can be represented as a streamline = s with
s a real constant. The function (x, y) is called the streamline function
of E(z).
For example, consider an infinitely long line charge with charge density of ` (coul/m), which lies across the z-plane perpendicularly at
z0 . The electric field can be derived from the electric Gauss law as
` (z z0 )
`
E(z) =
. The conjugate function F (z) = E (z) =
2
2o |z z0 |
2o (z z0)
is analytic in the z-plane except at z0. The antiderivative of F (z) is
G(z) =

`
`
Ln(z z0 ) =
[loge |z z0| + iArg(z z0 )]
2o
2o

of which the real part is the potential function and the imaginary part
is the streamline function as shown in Fig.1.21(a).
If two line charges of opposite polarity lie across the z-plane perpendicularly at z0 and z0 , respectively. The analytic function conjugate
`
`
to the electric field is F (z) =

, and its an2o (z z0) 2o(z + z0 )

tiderivative is


 z z0 
`
 + i[Arg(z z0) Arg(z + z0 )]
G(z) =
loge 
2o
z + z0 

of which the potential function and the streamline function are shown
in Fig.1.21(b). The equipotential curves are circles with center at a line

38

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

Figure 1.21. Equipotential lines (dashed) and streamlines (solid) of electric field: (a)
of a line charge, (b) of two line charges with opposite polarity, (c) inside a coaxial
cable, and (d) inside a rectangular trough.

through z0 and z0 , the streamlines are another set of circles with center
at the y axis.
Next, consider the coaxial cable shown in Fig.1.21(c), where the inner
conductor is kept at potential V0 while the outer conductor is grounded.
log (|z|/b)
The potential satisfying these boundary conditions is (z) = V0 e
.
loge (a/b)
V0
z
The associated electric field is E(z) =
, and its comloge (a/b) |z|2

39

Complex Analysis

V0
1
. The antiderivative of F (z) is
loge (a/b) z
V0
V0
Lnz =
[loge |z| + iArg(z)], of which the imagG(z) =
loge (a/b)
loge (a/b)
inary part is the streamline function.
Finally, consider the boundary-value problem shown in Fig.1.21(d).
The side walls at x = 0, x = a, and y = 0 are grounded, while the
top wall at y = b is kept at a constant potential V0 . By applying the
superposition technique, the potential inside the trough can be expressed
as
plex conjugate is F (z) =

(z) =

X
2V0 1 cos n
n=1

n
n
sin
x sinh
y
n sinh(nb/a)
a
a

The streamline function (z) can be derived by substituting the potential function into the Cauchy-Riemann equations, /x = /y
and /y = /x, to have
(z) =

X
2V0 1 cos n
n=1

15.

n sinh(nb/a)

cos

n
n
x cosh
y
a
a

Bilinear Transformation

A bilinear transformation has the functional form of

w = T (z) =

az + b
cz + d

where a, b, c, and d are complex constants. Note that T (z) has a simple
pole at z = d/c and a simple zero at z = b/a.
If c = 0, T (z) is reduced to a linear form w = Az + B, which
can be viewed as the combined mappings of rotation and amplification
A, followed
by 
a translation

  B. If c 6= 0, T (z) can be rephrased as
bc ad
1
a
w=
+
, which can be viewed as the combined
c
cz + d
c
mappings of rotation, amplification, translation, and inversion.
Consider a circle K in the z-plane, (x2 + y 2 ) + x + y + = 0 where
, , , and are real coefficients. If = 0, K is reduced to a straight
line, which can be viewed as a circle with infinite radius. The equation
of K can be rephrased as
2

|z| +

z + z
2

z z
+
2i

+ =0

40

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

Under the inversion mapping w = 1/z, K is mapped to K 0 in the w-plane

as


w + w
|w| +
2
2

w w

2i

+ =0

which is a circle if 6= 0, and is a straight line if = 0.

In summary, an inversion will map a circle or a straight line in the
z-plane onto a circle or a straight line in the w-plane, an vice versa. If
K is a circle passing through the pole of w = 1/z at z = 0, then = 0,
and K 0 is a straight line. If K is a straight line, then = 0, and K 0
becomes a circle passing through w = 0 which can be viewed as a zero
of w = 1/z.
A bilinear transformation w = T (z) will also map a circle or a straight
line in the z-plane onto a circle or a straight line in the w-plane since it
is a combination of rotation, amplification, translation, and inversion. It
can be proved that if K is a circle passing through the pole of T (z), then
K 0 becomes a straight line. If K is a straight line, then K 0 becomes a
circle passing through w = 0 which corresponds to the zero of w = T (z).
Triples-to-Triples Approach. Since three distinct points uniquely
determine a circle, we may constitute a bilinear transformation by specifying the mapping between three chosen points in the z-plane and three
associated points in the w-plane. Note that the transformation thus
constituted is not unique.
Define
= T (z) =

(z z1)(z2 z3 )
,
(z z3)(z2 z1 )

= S(w) =

(w w1)(w2 w3 )
(w w3)(w2 w1 )

It is observed that z = z1 , z = z2, and z = z3 are mapped to 1 = 0,

2 = 1, and 3 = , respectively. By the mapping w = S 1 (), 1 = 0,
2 = 1, and 3 = are mapped to w = w1, w = w2, and w = w3,
respectively. By applying the mappings = T (z) and w = S 1 ()
in sequence, we have the transformation between the z-plane and the
w-plane as w = S 1 (T (z)) or S(w) = T (z), namely,
(w w1)(w2 w3 )
(z z1 )(z2 z3 )
=
(w w3)(w2 w1 )
(z z3 )(z2 z1 )
Note that z = z1 , z = z2 , and z = z3 are mapped to w = w1, w = w2,
and w = w3, respectively.
!
2
2
Consider the Laplaces equation
+
p(x, y) = 0 in domain
x2 y 2
D of the z-plane with the boundary conditions that p = 1 over circle

41

Complex Analysis

Figure 1.22.

Conformal mapping by triples-to-triples approach.

K1 and p = 0 over circle K2 as shown in Fig.1.22. The more desirable

domain is shown as D0 of the w-plane. By arbitrarily mapping z = i,
z = 1, and z = 1 to w = 0, w = 1, and w = , respectively, we have
(w 0)(1 )
(z i)(1 1)
z i
=
, or w = (1 i)
. The Laplaces
(w )(1 0)
(z 1)(1 i)
z1
!
2
2
equation is transformed to
+
P (u, v) = 0 in D0 of the wu2 v 2
plane, with the boundary conditions that P = 1 over the straight line
K10 and P = 0 over the straight line K20 . The imaginary part of the
analytic function w satisfies the required boundary conditions, namely,
P = v is the solution in the w-plane. The solution in the z-plane can
thus be derived as
p(x, y) = Im{w = T (z)} =

1 x2 y 2
(x 1)2 + y 2

The equipotential curve p(x, y) = c with constant c is a circle with the

explicit form of


16.

c
1+c

2

+ y2 =

1
1+c

2

Schwarz-Christoffel Transformation

The Schwarz-Christoffel formula specifies a conformal mapping from

the upper half plane to a bounded or unbounded polygonal region. Consider the transformation w = (z x1 ) with 0 < < 2 as shown in
Fig.1.23. Two colinear line segments za x1 and x1 zb in the z-plane are
mapped to two line segments wa w1 and w1wb , respectively, with an interior angle of . A differential in the w-plane is related to a differential

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Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

Figure 1.23.

Conformal mapping by w = (z x1 ) .

in the z-plane by dw = (z x1)1 dz. Hence, their arguments are

related by Arg(dw) = ( 1)Arg(z x1) + Arg(dz). The directional
change in the w-plane as z is moved from za via x1 to zb can be calculated as Arg(dwb) Arg(dwa) = ( 1)[Arg(zb x1 ) Arg(za x1 )] +
[Arg(dzb) Arg(dza)] = ( 1)(0 ) = (1 ), or the interior angle
is .
n
Y
dw
By induction, a function of the form
(z xk )k 1 will
=A
dz
k=1
map the real axis in the z-plane to a polygon in the w-plane, where
x1 < x2 < < xn are n distinct points along the real axis in the
z-plane, and 0 < k < 2. Since the sum of all the directional changes as
a point is moved along a polygon is equal to 2, the {k } must satisfy
(1 1 ) + + (1 n ) = 2 or 1 + + n = n 2. Thus, only
n 1 out of these {k } can be chosen independently.
The mapping function can then be determined by integrating dw/dz =
f 0 (z)

over z to have f (z) = A

Z Y
n

(z xk )k 1 dz + B, where A and

k=1

B are constants to be determined by the mapping of specific points.

Sometimes, xn may be chosen at , and the product contains only the
terms with 1 k n 1. Note that the transformation from the real
axis in the z-plane is not uniquely determined, one may map different
sets of {xk } to the same set of {wk }.
Consider the mapping shown in Fig.1.24 in which z1 = 1 and z2 = 1
are mapped to w1 = i and w2 = i, respectively. Both of the two interior
angles are /2, hence 1 = 2 = 1/2, and f 0 (z) = A(z+1)1/2 (z1)1/2 .
The mapping function can then be integrated as
f (z) = A

dz
+ B = Ai
(z 2 1)1/2

dz
+ B = Ai sin1 z + B
(1 z 2 )1/2

By imposing f (1) = i and f (1) = i, we have A = 2/ and B = 0.

Hence, the required mapping function is w = (2i/) sin1 z.
Next, consider the mapping shown in Fig.1.25 in which z1 = 1 and
z2 = 0 are mapped to w1 = i and w2 = , respectively. The two

43

Complex Analysis

Figure 1.24.

Figure 1.25.
line.

Conformal mapping from real axis to half a rectilinear strip.

Conformal mapping from real axis to the real axis plus a semi-infinite

interior angles are 2 and 0, respectively, or 1 = 2, 2 = 0. Hence,

f 0 (z) = A(z + 1)z 1 . The mapping function can be integrated as
f (z) = A

z+1
dz + B = A(z + Lnz) + B
z

By imposing f (1) = i and f (0) = , we have A = B = 1. Hence,

the required mapping function is w = (z + 1) + Lnz.

17.

Poisson Integral Formula

Consider the solution to Laplaces equation in the upper half plane

with boundary condition specified in Fig.1.26(a). It is observed that
p(x, y) = (pi/)[Arg(z b)Arg(z a)] is the solution since Arg(z )is
the imaginary part of the analytic function Ln(z), and p(x, y) satisfies
the boundary condition over the real axis.

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Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

Figure 1.26. Harmonic function in the upper half plane: (a) step boundary condition,
(b) piecewise constant boundary condition.

Next, consider the boundary condition specified in Fig.1.26(b). The

solution can be obtained by extending the previous case to be
p(x, y) =

n
X
pk
k=1

[Arg(z xk ) Arg(z xk1 )]

n Z
1 X xk
d
=
pk Arg(z t)dt
k=1 xk1 dt

n Z
1 X xk
pk y
=
dt
k=1 xk1 (x t)2 + y 2

(1.23)

where Arg(z t) = tan1 [y/(x t)].

A continuous function p(x, 0) specified over the real axis can be approximated by piecewise constants over infinitesimal intervals. Thus, the
solution (1.23) can be extended to the case where a continuous boundary
condition is specified over the real axis as
p(x, y) =

p(t, 0)
dt
(x t)2 + y 2

Complex Analysis

45

References
[1] D. G. Zill and P. D. Shanahan, A First Course in Complex Analysis
with Applications, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2003.
[2] A. D. Wunsch, Complex Variables with Applications, 3rd ed., Pearson Education, 2005.
[3] J. A. Stratton, Electromagnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill, 1941.