Participants in The Syria-Iraq Civil War AI PDF

ANONINTEL
INTELLIGENCE REPORT
Participants in the Syria/Iraq Civil War
Patcpats te Sya/Ia C Wa
by ANONINTEL
Contents
1
Syrian Civil War
1.1
Bacgoud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1
Assad goeet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2
Deogapcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3
Soco-ecoocs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4
Hua gts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Couse of eets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1
Potests, c upsg, ad defectos (Jauay 2011
Juy 2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2
Potests ad aed sugecy (Juy 2011
Octobe 2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3
Escaato (Noebe 2011
Mac 2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4
Cease e attept (Ap 2012
May 2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.5
Reeed gtg (Jue 2012
Juy 2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.6
Battes of Daascus ad Aeppo (Juy 2012
1.2.7
Rebe o eses (Noebe 2012
1.2.8
Goeet ad Hezboa o eses (Ap 2013
1.2.9
Cotued gtg (Juy 2013
1.2
Octobe 2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ap 2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jue 2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Octobe 2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.10 Goeet ad Hezboa o eses (Octobe 2013
Decebe 2013) . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.11 Fgtg betee ISIL ad ote ebe goups (Jauay 2014
1.3
1.4
Mac 2014) . . . . . . . .
1.2.12 Cotued goeet ad Hezboa o ese (Mac 2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.13 Cotued gtg (Mac 2014
May 2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.14 Pesdeta eecto (Jue 2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.15 ISIL o ese ad cotued gtg (Jue 2014
August 2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.16 ISIL o eses ad U.S. astes (August 2014
peset) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Weapoy ad tactcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1
Ceca eapos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2
Custe bobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3
Scud sse attacs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.4
Sucde bobgs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.5
Bae bobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.6
Iposed ota bobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.7
Teobac ad ceday eapos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Begeets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
1.4.1
Sya goeet ad a ated pates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2
Opposto pates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3
Sya Kuds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.4
Isac State of Ia ad te Leat (ISIL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.5
Repotg, cesog ad popagada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.6
Iteatoa eacto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.7
Huataa ep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
1.8
Foeg oeet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
1.9
Ipact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.9.1
Deats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.9.2
Iess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.9.3
Refugees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.9.4
Hua gts oatos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.9.5
Teats agast Sya sects, otes ad aoty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.9.6
Ecooy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.9.7
Ce ae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.9.8
Cutua etage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.10 Spoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.11 See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.12 Refeeces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.13 Fute eadg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
1.14 Extea s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
Military of ISIL
25
2.1
Coad stuctue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
2.2
Toops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
2.2.1
Toops Ia ad Sya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
2.2.2
Foeg gtes Ia ad Sya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.2.3
Aegace to ISIL fo goups outsde Ia ad Sya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
Weapos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.3.1
Coetoa eapos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.3.2
Acaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.3.3
No-coetoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
Eupet tabe of cooy used eapos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.4.1
Ifaty eapos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.4.2
Veces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.5
See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.6
Refeeces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.3
2.4
Islamic Front (Syria)
31
3.1
Hstoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
3.1.1
31
Foudg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
3.1.2
Bacgoud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
3.1.3
Late eets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
3.2
Obectes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
3.3
O ca Goas ad Gudg Pcpes of te Isac Fot ad Its Aes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
3.4
See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
3.5
Refeeces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
3.6
Extea s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
Free Syrian Army
35
4.1
35
Hstoy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1
Bacgoud of desetos
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
4.1.2
Foato FSA, Juy 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
4.1.3
August Decebe 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
4.1.4
Jauay 2012, g-aed o ces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
4.1.5
Mac Jue 2012, uo t HMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
4.1.6
Juy Decebe 2012, eaeg, eogazato
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
4.1.7
2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
4.1.8
2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
4.2
Stategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
4.3
Weapos
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
4.4
Locato
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
4.5
Coad stuctue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
4.5.1
Head coad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
4.5.2
Regoa coad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
4.5.3
Fed uts
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
4.6
Wa Ces Aegatos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
4.7
Ras ad aes ts a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
4.8
Coucatos
42
4.9
Iteatoa suppot
4.9.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
Foeg cobatats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
4.10 Reatos t te potca opposto
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.10.1 Natoa Coato of Sya Reoutoay ad Opposto Foces
43
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
4.11 See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
4.12 Refeeces
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
4.13 Extea s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
Syrian Revolutionary Command Council
50
5.1
Co ct t te coato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
5.2
Cuety a ated goups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
5.3
Foey a ated goups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
5.4
Refeeces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
CONTENTS
Supporters of the Religion Front
52
6.1
See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
6.2
Refeeces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
6.3
Extea s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
Muhajirin wa-Ansar Alliance
53
7.1
See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
7.2
Refeeces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
Peoples Protection Units
54
8.1
Lbeato of T Koe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
8.2
Foeg outees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
8.3
Te YPJ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
8.4
See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
8.5
Refeeces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
8.6
Extea s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
Jabhat al-Akrad
57
9.1
See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
9.2
Refeeces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
10 Peshmerga
10.1 Hstoy
58
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
10.3.1 Sa as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
10.3.2 At-ta eapoy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
10.3.3 Mota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
10.3.4 Ma-potabe a-defece syste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
10.4 Veces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
10.4.1 Aoued eces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
10.4.2 Logstcs ad utty eces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
10.4.3 Atey
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
10.4.4 At-acaft gu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
10.4.5 Hecoptes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
10.5 See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
10.6 Refeeces
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
10.7 Fute eadg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
10.8 Extea s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
10.2 Stuctue
10.3 Eupet
11 Kurdistan Workers Party
63
11.1 Hstoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
11.2 Ideoogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
CONTENTS
11.3 Ogazato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
11.3.1 Tag caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
11.3.2 Potca epesetato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
11.3.3 Aeged dug ta cg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
11.3.4 Aeged s t Tus tegece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
11.4 Acttes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
11.4.1 1978 1984 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
11.4.2 1984 1999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
11.4.3 1999 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
11.4.4 2013 cease e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
11.4.5 2014 acto agast Isac State ad eeed gtg Tuey . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
11.5 Tactcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
11.5.1 Recutg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
11.5.2 Weapos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
11.6 Resouces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
11.6.1 Fudg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
11.6.2 Hua esouces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
11.6.3 Iteatoa suppot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
11.7 Desgato as a teost goup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
11.8 See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
11.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
11.10Refeeces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
11.11Fute eadg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
11.12Extea s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
12 Syrian Armed Forces
77
12.1 Hstoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
12.1.1 Post Secod Wod Wa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
12.1.2 Occupato of Lebao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
12.1.3 Ote egageets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
12.1.4 Modesato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
12.1.5 Sya c a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
12.2 Stuctue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
12.2.1 Sya Ay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
12.2.2 Sya Nay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
12.2.3 Sya A Foce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
12.2.4 Sya A Defece Foce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
12.2.5 Paatay foces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
12.3 Weapos, ufos ad ogasato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
12.3.1 Weapos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
12.3.2 Ufos (1987) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
12.3.3 Tactcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
CONTENTS
12.3.4 Ra Isga (1987) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
12.3.5 Aads ad decoatos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
12.4 See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
12.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
12.6 Refeeces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
12.7 Fute eadg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
12.8 Extea s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
13 National Defence Force (Syria)
84
13.1 Foato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
13.2 Roe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
13.2.1 Woe s Secto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
13.2.2 Expadg oe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
13.3 Tag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
13.4 Suspected Iaa coecto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
13.5 Lootg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
13.6 See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
13.7 Refeeces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
13.8 Extea s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
14 Iran
86
14.1 Etyoogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
14.2 Hstoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
14.2.1 Eay stoy Ia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
14.2.2 Cassca Ea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
14.2.3 Mdde Ages (652 1501) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
14.2.4 Dyastes (1501 1979) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
14.2.5 Afte te Iaa Reouto (1979 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
14.3 Geogapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
14.3.1 Cate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
14.3.2 Faua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
14.3.3 Regos, poces ad ctes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
14.4 Goeet ad potcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
14.4.1 La . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
14.4.2 Foeg eatos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
14.4.3 Mtay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
14.5 Ecooy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
14.5.1 Tous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
14.5.2 Eegy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
14.5.3 Educato ad scece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
14.6 Deogapcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

14.6.1 Laguages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
CONTENTS
14.6.2 Etc goups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

14.6.3 Rego . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
14.7 Cutue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
14.7.1 At . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
14.7.2 Actectue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
14.7.3 Lteatue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
14.7.4 Posopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
14.7.5 Mytoogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
14.7.6 Obseaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
14.7.7 Teate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
14.7.8 Musc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
14.7.9 Cea ad aato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
14.7.10 Cuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
14.7.11 Spots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
14.8 See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
14.9 Bbogapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
14.10Refeeces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
14.11Extea s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
15 Hezbollah
117
15.1 Hstoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

15.1.1 1980s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
15.1.2 Afte 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
15.1.3 Isac Jad Ogazato (IJO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
15.2 Ideoogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
15.2.1 Te Hezboa afesto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
15.2.2 Popagada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
15.2.3 Atttudes, stateets, ad actos coceg Isae ad Zos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
15.2.4 Atttudes ad actos coceg Jes ad Judas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
15.3 Ogazato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
15.3.1 Fudg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
15.4 Soca seces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
15.5 Potca acttes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
15.5.1 Meda opeatos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
15.6 Mtay acttes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
15.6.1 Lebaese Resstace Bgades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
15.6.2 Aeged sucde ad teo attacs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
15.6.3 Co ct t Isae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
15.6.4 Assassato of Ra c Ha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
15.6.5 Ioeet te Sya C Wa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
15.6.6 Ioeet Iaa-ed teeto Ia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
15.6.7 Ote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
CONTENTS
15.7 Aed stegt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
15.8 Tagetg pocy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
15.9 Attacs o Hezboa eades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
15.10Foeg eatos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
15.10.1 Pubc opo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
15.10.2 Desgato as a teost ogazato o esstace oeet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
15.10.3 Ves of foeg egsatos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
15.11See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
15.12Refeeces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
15.13Fute eadg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
15.14Extea s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
15.14.1 O ca stes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
15.14.2 UN esoutos egadg Hezboa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
15.14.3 Ote s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
16 Ba'ath Brigades
143
16.1 See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

16.2 Refeeces
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
17 Liwa Abu al-Fadhal al-Abbas
144
17.1 See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

17.2 Refeeces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
18 Asa'ib Ahl al-Haq
145
18.1 Hstoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

18.2 Hada a-Kaa Bgades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
18.3 2014 Ia eectos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
18.4 Stegt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
18.5 Fudg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
18.6 Ogasatoa stuctue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
18.7 See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
18.8 Refeeces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
18.9 Extea s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
18.9.1 O ca ste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
19 Jaysh al-Muwahhideen
148
19.1 See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

19.2 Refeeces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
20 Syrian Resistance
149
20.1 Hstoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

20.2 See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
20.3 Refeeces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
CONTENTS
20.4 Extea s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

21 Arab Nationalist Guard
150
21.1 Ideoogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

21.2 See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
21.3 Refeeces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
22 Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine General Command
151
22.1 Bacgoud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

22.2 Hstoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
22.2.1 Foato
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
22.2.2 1970s ad 1980s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

22.2.3 1990s ad 2000s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
22.2.4 Sya C Wa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
22.3 Iteatoa eatos of PFLP-GC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
22.3.1 Sya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
22.3.2 Lebao
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
22.3.3 Desgatos of PFLP-GC as a teost ogazato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

22.4 See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
22.5 Refeeces
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
22.6 Extea s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

22.7 Fute eadg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
22.8 Text ad age souces, cotbutos, ad ceses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
22.8.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
22.8.2 Iages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
22.8.3 Cotet cese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Chapter 1
Syrian Civil War

Wa Sya edects ee. Fo ote as Sya, of totue state psos.[76]
see Sya Wa (dsabguato).
Te seety of te uataa dsaste Sya as
bee outed by te UN ad ay teatoa oga) , zatos. Moe ta 6.5 o Syas ae bee dsTe Syrian Civil War (Aabc
aso o as te Syrian Revolution, s a ogog paced, oe ta 3 o Syas ae ed te couty
aed co ct tag pace Sya. Te uest bega to coutes suc as Lebao, Joda, Tuey, Egypt, ad
te eay spg of 2011 t te cotext of Aab Ia ad becoe efugees, ad os oe ae bee
Spg potests, t atode potests agast Pes- eft poo g codtos t sotages of food ad
det Basa a-Assad's goeet, ose foces e- dg ate. [77] At te ed of August 2014, 35,000
spoded t oet cacdos. Te co ct gaduay efugees ee aatg egstato, e estates of
oped fo popua potests to a aed ebeo af- seea uded tousad oe ee ot cuded ofte ots of tay seges.[59]
ca gues as tey ee uegsteed.[78]
Te aed opposto cossts of aous goups tat
ee foed dug te couse of te co ct, pay te Fee Sya Ay, c as te st to tae up 1.1 Background
as 2011, ad te Isac Fot foed 2013. I
2013, Hezboa eteed te a suppot of te Sya Ma atce Mode stoy of Sya
ay.[60][61] I te east, te Isac State of Ia ad te
Leat (ISIL), a adst tat goup ogatg fo
Ia, ade ey apd tay gas bot Sya ad
Ia, eetuay co ctg t te ote ebes. I Juy 1.1.1 Assad government
2014, ISIL cotoed a td of Sya s tetoy ad ost
of ts o ad gas poducto, tus estabsg tsef as te Ma atce A-Assad fay
ao opposto foce.[62]
By Juy 2013, te Sya goeet as coto
of appoxatey 30 40% of te couty s tetoy ad
60% of te Sya popuato.[63] A Uted Natos epot ate 2012 descbed te co ct as beg oety
sectaa atue", betee osty Aate goeet foces, tas ad ote Sa goups[64] gtg
agey agast Su-doated ebe goups,[65][66] atoug bot opposto ad goeet foces ae deed t.[67][68] Due to foeg oeet ts co ct as
bee caed a poxy a.[69]
Sya becae a depedet epubc 1946, atoug

deocatc ue as eded by a coup Mac 1949, fooed by to oe coups tat sae yea.[79][80] A popua
upsg agast tay ue 1954 sa te ay tasfe poe to cas fo 1958 to 1961 a bef uo
t Egypt epaced Sya s paaetay syste t a
gy cetazed pesdeta ege.[81] Te Ba'at Sya Regoa Bac goeet cae to poe 1963
afte a successfu coup d'tat. I 1966, aote coup oete te tadtoa eades of te paty, Mce A a
ad Saa a-D a-Bta.[82] Geea Hafez a-Assad, te
Mste of Defese, sezed poe a "coecte eouto" Noebe 1970, becog Pe Mste. I
Mac 1971, Assad decaed sef Pesdet, a posto tat e ed ut s deat 2000. Sce te, te
secua Sya Regoa Bac as eaed te doat potca autoty at s tuay a sge-paty
state Sya Sya ctzes ay oy appoe te Pesdet by efeedu ad ut te goeet-cotoed
ut-paty 2012 paaetay eecto coud ot ote
As of Ap 2014 te deat to ad se aboe

190,000.[70] Iteatoa ogazatos ae accused
foces o a sdes of seee ua gts oatos, t
ay assaces occug.[71][72] Ceca eapos
ae bee used ay tes dug te co ct as
e.[73][74] Goeet foces ae epotedy esposbe fo te aoty of ca casuates, ofte toug
bobgs.[75] I addto, tes of tousads of potestes
ad actsts ae bee psoed ad tee ae epots
2
ut-paty eectos fo te egsatue.[83]
Basa a-Assad, te Pesdet of Sya ad Asa aAssad, s fe o s a Bts-bo ad Btseducated Su Mus,[84] tay sped opes fo
deocatc ad state efos ad a "Daascus Spg"
of tese soca ad potca debate too pace betee
Juy 2000 ad August 2001.[85] Te peod as caactezed by te eegece of ueous potca fous o
saos, ee goups of e-ded peope et pate ouses to debate potca ad soca ssues. Potca actsts suc as Rad Sef, Hata a-Mae, Kaa
a-Laba, Ryad a-Tu ad Aef Daa ee potat obzg te oeet.[86] Te ost faous of
te fous ee te Rad Sef Fou ad te Jaa aAtass Fou. Te Daascus Spg agey eded August 2001 t te aest ad psoet of te eadg actsts o ad caed fo deocatc eectos ad
a capag of c dsobedece.[87] Fo 2001 ee efosts Paaet ad begu to ctcze te egacy
of stagato sce te ue of foe Pesdet Hafez
a-Assad Basa a-Assad as taed about efo but
caed out ey tte, ad e as faed to dee o
posed efos sce 2000, aaysts say.[88]
1.1.2 Demographics
Ma atce Deogapcs of Sya
CHAPTER 1. SYRIAN CIVIL WAR

Su Muss,[93] a egous goup tat aes up about
74% pecet of Sya s popuato (cuse of te Kuds oty of 14% ad Tus oty of 1-3% te
eag ae Aates 12%, Csta 10%, Duse 3%,
Isa S'a 2%). Etc oty Sya Kuds ae
aso potested ad copaed oe etc dscato ad dea of te cutua ad aguage gts.[94][95]
Assad s youge bote Mae a-Assad coads te
ay's ete Fout Aoued Dso, ad s bote-a, Assef Saat, as te deputy ste of defese ut te atte s assassato te 18 Juy 2012
Daascus bobg.
1.1.3 Socio-economics
Dscotet agast te goeet as stogest
Sya s pooe aeas, pedoaty aog coseate
Sus.[96] Tese cuded ctes t g poety ates,
suc as Daaa ad Hos, ua aeas t ad by a dougt
eay 2011, ad te pooe dstcts of age ctes.
Soco-ecooc euaty ceased sg caty afte
fee aet poces ee tated by Hafez a-Assad
s ate yeas, ad acceeated afte Basa a-Assad
cae to poe. Wt a epass o te sece secto,
tese poces bee ted a oty of te ato s popuato, osty peope o ad coectos t te goeet, ad ebes of te Su ecat cass of
Daascus ad Aeppo.[96] By 2011, Sya as facg a
deteoato te atoa stadad of g ad steep
ses te pces of coodtes.[97] Te couty aso
faced patcuay g yout uepoyet ates.[98]
1.1.4 Human rights

Ma atce Hua gts Sya
Te state of ua gts Sya as og bee te subect of as ctcs fo goba ogazatos.[99] Te
couty as ude eegecy ue fo 1963 ut 2011,
bag pubc gategs of oe ta e peope,[100]
ad e ectey gatg secuty foces seepg poEto-egous coposto of peope of Sya (% of
es of aest ad deteto.[101] Basa a-Assad s dey
22,538,256)[89][90]
egaded as ag bee usuccessfu peetg
deocatc cage, t a 2010 epot fo Hua
Su (54%)
Aate (16%)
Rgts Watc statg tat e ad faed to substatay
poe te state of ua gts sce tag poe, aKud-Su (12%)
toug soe o aspects ad see poeet.[102]
Csta (11%)
Duze (4%)
I Decebe 2010, ass at-goeet potests beIsae (2%)
ga Tusa ad ate spead acoss ote pats of te
Tue-Su, Ccassa-Su, ad otes (1%)
Aab od, cudg Sya. By Febuay 2011, eouTe Assad fay coes fo te oty Aate egous goup, a o soot of S'te Isa tat copses a estated 12 pecet of te tota Sya
popuato.[91] It as ataed tgt coto o Sya s
secuty seces,[92] geeatg esetet aog soe
tos occued Tusa ad Egypt, e Lbya bega

to expeece ts o c a. Nueous ote Aab
coutes aso faced potests, t soe atteptg to
ca te asses by ag cocessos ad goeeta cages. Te upsgs Tusa ad Egypt ae supposed to ae sped te d-Mac 2011 potests
1.2. COURSE OF EVENTS
1.2.5 Renewed ghting (June 2012 July

2012)
Rgts of fee expesso, assocato ad asseby ee
Sya.[103]
stcty cotoed Sya ee befoe te upsg.[104]

Te autotes aass ad pso ua gts actsts ad ote ctcs of te goeet, o ae ofte de tey detaed ad totued poo pso
codtos.[104] Woe ad etc otes ae faced
dscato te pubc secto.[104] Tousads of
Sya Kuds ee deed ctzesp 1962 ad te
descedats cotued to be abeed as foeges .[105]
A ube of ots 2004 popted ceased teso
Sya s Kuds aeas,[106][107] ad tee ae bee occasoa cases betee Kuds potestes ad secuty
foces ee sce.
1.2
Course of events
Ma atce Tee of te Sya C Wa (May

August 2012)
1.2.6 Battles of Damascus and Aleppo

(July 2012 October 2012)
Ma atces Tee of te Sya C Wa
(May August 2012), Tee of te Sya C Wa
(Septebe Decebe 2012), Batte of Daascus
(2012), Batte of Aeppo (2012 peset) ad Rf Das o ese (August Octobe 2012)
Ma atce Sya C Wa Couse of eets
1.2.1 Protests, civil uprising, and defec- 1.2.7 Rebel o ensives (November 2012
April 2013)
tions (January 2011 July 2011)
Ma atce C upsg pase of te Sya C Wa Ma atces Tee of te Sya C Wa
(Septebe Decebe 2012) ad Tee of te
Sya C Wa (Jauay Ap 2013)
Fute foato Batte of Aeppo (2012 peset),
1.2.2 Protests and armed insurgency (July Rf Das o ese (Noebe 2012 Febuay
2013), 2012 Haa o ese, Daascus o ese
2011 October 2011)
(2013), Batte of Sadade ad Batte of Raa
Ma atces Tee of te Sya C Wa (May
August 2011) ad Tee of te Sya C Wa
(Septebe Decebe 2011)
See aso Lst of Sya defectos
1.2.8 Government and Hezbollah o ensives (April 2013 June 2013)
1.2.3 Escalation (November 2011 March

Ma atces Tee of te Sya C Wa
2012)
(Jauay Ap 2013) ad Tee of te Sya C
Wa (fo May 2013)
Ma atces Tee of te Sya C Wa Fute foato A-Qusay o ese ad Batte of
(Septebe Decebe 2011) ad Tee of te a-Qusay (2013)
Sya C Wa (Jauay Ap 2012)
See aso Sege of Hos, 2012 Hos o ese ad
Batte of Idb (2012)
1.2.9 Continued ghting (July 2013 October 2013)

1.2.4 Cease re attempt (April 2012 May
2012)
Ma atce Tee of te Sya C Wa (fo

Ma atces Ko Aa peace pa fo Sya, Tee May 2013)
of te Sya C Wa (Jauay Ap 2012) ad Fute foato 2013 Sya Kuds Isast
Tee of te Sya C Wa (May August 2012)
co ct ad 2013 Gouta attacs
1.2.10 Government and Hezbollah o en- 1.3 Weaponry and tactics

sives (October 2013 December
See aso Eupet of te Sya Ay ad Lst of
2013)
tay eupet used by Sya opposto foces
Fute foato Aeppo o ese (Octobe

Decebe 2013) ad Batte of Qaaou
1.3.1 Chemical weapons

1.2.11 Fighting between ISIL and other Ma atces Sya ad eapos of ass destucto ad
rebel groups (January 2014 Use of ceca eapos te Sya c a
See aso Sya ceca eapos poga
March 2014)
A UN fact- dg sso as euested by ebe
Ma atce Sya opposto Isac State of Ia

ad te Leat co ct
1.2.12 Continued government and Hezbollah o ensive (March 2014)

Cotued goeet ad Hezboa o ese (Mac
2014))
1.2.13 Continued ghting (March 2014 Map of the August 2013 Ghouta chemical attacks.
May 2014)
states to estgate 16 aeged ceca eapos attacs.
See of te ae bee estgated (e ee dopped
fo ac of su cet o cedbe foato ) ad
Cotued gtg (Mac 2014 May 2014)
fou cases te UN spectos co ed use of sa gas.
Te epots, oee, dd ot bae ay paty of usg ceca eapos.[108] May coutes, cudg te
Uted States ad te Euopea Uo ae accused te
1.2.14 Presidential election (June 2014)
Sya goeet of coductg seea ceca attacs, te ost seous of te beg te 2013 Gouta
Ma atce Sya pesdeta eecto, 2014
attacs. Foog ts cdet ad teatoa pessue, te destucto of Sya s ceca eapos bega.
Ceca eapos estgatos cocuded t a g
1.2.15 ISIL o ensive and continued ght- degee of co dece tat coe gas as used as a
eapo agast tee Sya ages 2014, a ectg
ing (June 2014 August 2014)
betee 350 ad 500 peope ad g 13. Te epot by

Ma atce Sya C Wa Couse of eets ISIL a fact- dg sso fo te Ogasato fo te Poo ese ad cotued gtg (Jue 2014 August bto of Ceca Weapos dd t bae ete sde
but sad bobs ee pobaby dopped fo ecopte.
2014)
See aso Tee of Isac State of Ia ad te [109]
Leat eets 2014
1.3.2 Cluster bombs

1.2.16 ISIL o ensives and U.S. airstrikes Te Sya ay bega usg custe bobs Septebe
2012. Stee Goose, decto of te As dso at Hu(August 2014 present)
a Rgts Watc sad Sya s expadg ts eetess

Ma atces Tee of te Sya C Wa (August use of custe utos, a baed eapo, ad cas
2014 peset) ad Aeca-ed teeto Sya
ae payg te pce t te es ad bs, Te ta to s oy te begg because custe utos
1.4. BELLIGERENTS
ofte eae uexpoded bobets tat ad a og 1.3.6 Improvised mortar bombs

aftead. [110]
SOHR estated tat ebe foces, usg posed ota bobs ade of coog gas castes, caused 311
ca deats by accuate bobg secod af of
1.3.3 Scud missile attacks
2014.[127]
I Decebe 2012, te Sya goeet bega usg Scud sses o ebe-ed tos, pay tagetg Aeppo.[111] O 19 Febuay, fou Scud sses
ee ed, tee aded Aeppo cty ad oe o Te
Rfaat to, Aeppo goeoate. Betee Decebe
ad Febuay, at east 40 Scud sse adgs ee
epoted.[112] Atogete, Scud sses ed 141 peope te ot of Febuay.[113] Te Uted States codeed te Scud sse attacs.[114] O 1 Mac, a Scud
sse aded Ia. It s beeed tat te teto
as to t te De Ezzo goeoate.[115] O 29 Mac,
a Scud sse aded o Heta, Aeppo, g 20 ad
ug 50.[116] O 28 Ap, a Scud sse aded o
Te Rfaat, g fou, to of te oe ad to
of te cde, SOHR epoted.[117] O 3 Jue, a suface to suface sse, ot co ed as a Scud, t te
age of Kaf Haa aoud dgt g 26 peope cudg sx oe ad egt cde accodg to
SOHR.[118]
1.3.4 Suicide bombings

Fute foato Lst of bobgs dug te Sya
C Wa
1.3.7 Thermobaric
weapons
and
incendiary
Teobac eapos, aso o as fue-a bobs,

ae bee used by te goeet sde dug te Sya
c a. Sce 2012, ebes ae sad tat te Sya A
Foce (goeet foces) s usg teobac eapos
agast esdeta aeas occuped by te ebe gtes,
suc as dug te Batte of Aeppo ad aso Kaf
Bata.[128][129] A pae of Uted Natos ua gts
estgatos epoted tat te Sya goeet used
teobac bobs agast te stategc to of Qusay
Mac 2013.[130] I August 2013, te BBC epoted
o te use of apa-e ceday bobs o a scoo
ote Sya.[131]
1.4 Belligerents
Ma atce Lst of aed goups te Sya C
Wa
1.4.1 Syrian government and a liated

parties
Rebe sucde bobgs bega Decebe 2011 te ANusa Fot as caed esposbty fo 57 out of 70 Syrian Army
sa attacs toug Ap 2013.[61][119] Te bobgs
ae caed ueous ca casuates. It as bee Ma atce Sya Ay
epoted tat sucde bobgs ae ead to a dop Befoe te upsg ad a boe out, te foce of
suppot fo soe ebe goups.[120] Oe patcua sucde
bobg a ay Aate aea of Hos eft 47 cde ed o 1 Octobe 2014.[121]
Sce ate 2014, foces oya to Assad ae foed a
atydo-seeg patoo , dubbg tesees te
coados of te Mouta Battao .[122][123]
1.3.5 Barrel bombs

Ma atce Bae bob
A bae bob s a type of posed expose dece
used by te Sya A Foce. Typcay, a bae s ed
t a age aout of TNT, ad possby sape (suc
as as) ad o, ad dopped fo a ecopte. Te esutg detoato ca be deastatg.[124][125][126]
Two destroyed Syrian Army tanks in Azaz, August 2012
te Sya Aab Ay as estated at 325,000 egua toops, of c 220,000 ee 'ay toops ad te

est te ay, a foce ad a defeses. Tee ee
6
aso appoxatey 280,000 300,000 esests. Sce
Jue 2011, defectos of sodes ae bee epoted. By
Juy 2012, te Sya Obseatoy fo Hua Rgts estated tat tes of tousads of sodes ae defected,
ad a Tus o ca estated tat 60,000 sodes ae
defected. Accodg to Weste expets, tese defectos ae ot as yet deceased te stegt of te Sya
tay, sce te defectg sodes ee ay Sus
tout access to ta coad ad coto te ay.
National Defense Force
Ma atce Natoa Defese Foce (Sya)
Te Sya NDF as foed out of po-goeet
tas. Tey ecee te saaes, ad te tay eupet fo te goeet,[132][133] ad ubes aoud 100,000.[134][135] Te foce acts a faty oe, decty gtg agast ebes o te goud
ad ug coute-sugecy opeatos coodato t te ay, c podes te ogstca ad
atey suppot. Te foce as a 500-stog oe s
g caed "Lionesses of National Defense" c opeates cecpots.[136] NDF sodes ae aoed to tae
oot fo batte eds, c ca te be sod fo exta
oey.[132]
Shabiha
Ma atce Saba
Te Shabiha ae uo ca po-goeet tas
da agey fo Assad s Aate oty goup.
Sce te upsg, te Sya goeet as feuety
used shabiha to bea up potests ad efoce as
este egbooods.[137] As te potests escaated to
a aed co ct, te opposto stated usg te te
shabiha to descbe ay ca Assad suppote tag
pat te goeet s cacdo o te upsg.[138]
Te opposto baes te shabiha fo te ay oet
excesses cotted agast at-goeet potestes
ad opposto sypatzes,[138] as e as ootg ad
destucto.[139][140] I Decebe 2012, te shabiha
ee desgated a teost ogazato by te Uted
States.[141]

o ca ta o as te Jays a-Sa'b, aegedy
t ep fo Ia ad Hezboa. As t te shabiha,
te ast aoty of Jays a-Sa'b ebes ae Aate
ad S'te outees.[146][147]
Hezbollah
Ma atce Hezboa
Geea Secetay Hassa Nasaa deed Hezboa
ad bee gtg o beaf of te Sya goeet,
statg a 12 Octobe 2012 speec tat gt fo te
stat te Sya opposto as bee teg te eda tat
Hezboa set 3,000 gtes to Sya, c e ae
deed .[148] Hoee, accodg to te Lebaese Daily
Star espape, Nasaa sad te sae speec tat
Hezboa gtes eped te Sya goeet eta
coto of soe 23 stategcay ocated ages [ Sya]
abted by Stes of Lebaese ctzesp . Nasaa
sad tat Hezboa gtes ae ded Sya dog te
adst dutes .[149] I 2012, Hezboa gtes cossed
te bode fo Lebao ad too oe egt ages
te A-Qusay Dstct of Sya.[150] Te foe secetay
geea of Hezboa, Se Sub a-Tufay, co ed
Febuay 2013 tat Hezboa as gtg fo te Sya ay.[151]
O 12 May, Hezboa, t te Sya ay, attepted
to etae pat of Qusay.[152] By te ed of te day, 60
pecet of te cty, cudg te ucpa o ce budg, ee ude po-Assad foces.[152] I Lebao, tee
ae bee a ecet cease te fueas of Hezboa gtes ad Sya ebes ae seed Hezboacotoed aeas. [152] As of 14 May, Hezboa gtes
ee epoted to be gtg aogsde te Sya ay,
patcuay te Hos Goeoate.[153] Hassa Nasaa as caed o Stes ad Hezboa to potect te
se of Sayda Zeab.[153] Pesdet Basa a-Assad
deed May 2013 tat tee ee foeg gtes, Aab
o otese, gtg fo te goeet Sya.[154]
O 25 May, Nasaa aouced tat Hezboa as

gtg te Sya agast Isac extests ad
pedged tat s goup ot ao Sya tats
to coto aeas tat bode Lebao .[155] He co ed
tat Hezboa as gtg te stategc Sya to
of Qusay o te sae sde as Assad's foces.[60] I te
teesed addess, e sad, If Sya fas te ads of
Basse a-Assad s epoted to ae ceated te shabiha Aeca, Isae ad te ta s, te peope of ou ego
te 1980s fo goeet use tes of css.[142] go to a da peod. [60] Accodg to depedet
Shabiha ae bee descbed as a otoous Aa- aaysts, by te begg of 2014, appoxatey 500
te paatay, o ae accused of actg as uo - Hezboa gtes ad ded te Sya co ct.[156]
ca efoces fo Assad s ege"[143] gue oya to
Assad ,[144] ad, accodg to te Qata-based Aab Cete fo Reseac ad Pocy Studes, se-ca gags Iran
copsed of tugs cose to te ege .[144] Despte te
goup s age as a Aate ta, soe shabiha ope- Ma atce Iaa suppot fo Sya te Sya C
atg Aeppo ae bee epoted to be Sus.[145] I Wa
2012, te Assad goeet ceated a oe ogazed
1.4. BELLIGERENTS
Sce te stat of te c a, Ia as expessed ts suppot fo te Sya goeet ad as poded t t
aca, tecca, ad tay suppot, cudg tag ad soe cobat toops.[157] Ia ad Sya ae cose
stategc aes. Ia sees te sua of te Sya goeet as beg cuca to ts egoa teests.[158][159]
Ia s supee eade, A Kaee, as epoted
Septebe 2011 to be ocay fao of te Sya
goeet.[160] I te c upsg pase of te Sya c a, Ia poded Sya t tecca suppot based o Ia s capabtes deeoped foog te
2009 2010 Iaa eecto potests.[160] As te upsg
deeoped to te Sya c a, tee ee ceasg
epots of Iaa tay suppot, ad of Iaa tag of NDF (Natoa Defece Foces) bot Sya, ad
Ia.[161]
Iaa secuty ad tegece seces ae adsg ad
assstg te Sya tay to pesee Basa a-Assad s
od o poe.[158] Tose e ots cude tag, tecca suppot, cobat toops.[157][158] By Decebe 2013
Ia as tougt to ae appoxatey 10,000 opeates Sya.[159] Lebaese Hezboa gtes baced by
Tea as tae dect cobat oes sce 2012.[159][162]
I te sue of 2013, Ia ad Hezboa poded potat batte ed suppot fo Assad, aog t to ae
adaces o te opposto.[162] I 2014, cocdg t
te peace tas at Geea II, Ia as stepped up suppot fo Sya Pesdet Assad.[159][162] Sya Mste of Face ad Ecooy aouced tat te Iaa goeet as ge oe ta 15 bo doas
to Sya.[163] Iaa Reoutoay Guads Cops Quds
Foce coade Qase Suea s cage of Sya Pesdet Assad s secuty potfoo ad as oesee
te ag ad tag of tousads of po-goeet
S'te gtes.[164][165]
1.4.2 Opposition parties
Coalition members in Doh. In center, president al-Khatib, along

with VPs Seif and Atassi, as well as all SNC chairmen Ghalioun,
Sieda and Sabra.
Hizb ut-Tahrir
Ma atce Hzb ut-Ta
Foed 1953 at Jeusae, Hzb ut-Ta soo

expaded ts o fo te eestabset of Isac
Capate Sya. Hzb ut-Ta ebes ee pesecuted Sya fo te 1950s ad up to te Sya
Upsg of 2011 c tey payed a oe of gtg
ad suppotg te eouto ad gudg ebes to ute
ude a Isac Ubea ad a cea Isac potca
ageda ad so.
Syrian National Council
Ma atce Sya Natoa Couc
Foed o 23 August 2011, te Natoa Couc s a
coato of at-goeet goups, based Tuey.
Te Natoa Couc sees te ed of Basa a-Assad s
ue ad te estabset of a ode, c, deocatc
state. SNC as s t te Fee Sya Ay. I
Noebe 2012, te couc ageed to ufy t seea ote opposto goups to fo te Sya Natoa
Coato. Te SNC as 22 out of 60 seats of te Sya
Natoa Coato.[166]
Syrian National Coalition
Ma atce Natoa Coato fo Sya Reoutoay ad Opposto Foces
O 11 Noebe 2012 Doa, te Natoa Couc ad
ote opposto foces uted as te Natoa Coato
fo Sya Reoutoay ad Opposto Foces.[167] Te
foog day, t as ecogzed as te egtate goeet of Sya by ueous Pesa Guf states. Deegates
to te Coato s eadesp couc ae to cude oe
ad epesetates of egous ad etc otes, cudg Aates. Te tay couc epotedy
cude te Fee Sya Ay.[168] Te a as of te
Natoa Coato ae epacg te Basa a-Assad goeet ad ts sybos ad pas of suppot , dsatg te secuty seces , ufyg ad suppotg
te Fee Sya Ay, efusg daogue ad egotato
t te a-Assad goeet, ad odg accoutabe
tose esposbe fo g Syas, destoyg [Sya],
ad dspacg [Syas]".[169]
Free Syrian Army Ma atce Fee Sya Ay
Te foato of te Fee Sya Ay (FSA) as aouced o 29 Juy 2011 by a goup of defectg Sya
Ay o ces. I a deo, te e caed upo Sya
sodes ad o ces to defect to te as, ad sad te
pupose of te Fee Sya Ay as to defed ca
potestes fo oece by te state, ad to bg ts
[Sya] ege do .[170]
May Sya sodes subseuety deseted to o te
FSA.[171] By Decebe 2011, te estated ube of

te Leat (ISIL), sad August 2014 tat ay of te
FSA ebes o ad bee taed by Uted States
ad Tus ad Aab tay o ces ee o actuay og IS.[175] O te cotay to te ISIL coade s cas, by Septebe 2014 te Fee Sya Ay
as og a aace ad a coo fot t Kuds
tas cudg te YPG to gt ISIS.[176][177]
Islamic Front
Ma atce Isac Fot (Sya)
Free Syrian Army ghters being transported by pick up truck
sodes o ad defected to te FSA as agg fo

1,000 to oe 25,000.[172] Te FSA fuctos oe as
a ubea ogazato ta a tadtoa tay ca
of coad, ad as st eaduateed Tuey,
but oed ts coad eaduates to ote Sya
Septebe 2012.
Te Islamic Front (Aabc , al-Jabhat alIslmiyyah) s a ege of see ebe goups oed
te Sya c a[13] tat as aouced o 22 Noebe 2013.[178] Te goup as betee 40,000[179] ad
60,000 gtes. A aoyous spoesa fo te goup
as stated tat t ot ae tes t te Sya Natoa Coato,[180] toug a ebe of te potca
bueau of te goup, Aad Musa, as stated tat e
opes fo ecogto fo te Sya Natoa Couc
coopeato fo at e suggested te Sya peope
at. Tey at a eouto ad ot potcs ad foeg agedas. [181] Te goup s dey see as baced
ad aed by Saud Aaba.[182][183][184]
Mujahideen
Fute foato Foeg ebe gtes te Sya
C Wa
FSA soldiers plan during the Battle of Aleppo (October 2012).
I Mac 2012, to epotes of The New York Times

tessed a FSA attac t a oadsde bob ad AK47 es o a cou of aoed Sya tas Saab
Idb Goeoate, ad eaed tat FSA ad a stoc of
abe, taed sodes ad ex-o ces, ogazed to soe
extet, but ee tout te eapos to put up a eastc
gt.[173]
I Ap 2013, te US aouced t oud tasfe 123
o oeta ad to Sya ebes toug defected
geea Sa Idss, eade of te FSA.[174]
I May 2013, Sa Idss, te FSA eade, acoedged tat te ebes ee bady fageted ad aced
te tay s eeded to toppe te goeet of
Pesdet Basa a-Assad. Idss sad e as og
o a coutyde coad stuctue, but tat a ac of
atea suppot as utg tat e ot. No t s ey
potat fo te to be u ed. But ufyg te a
ae to o e a egua ay s st d cut , Idss
sad. He acoedged coo opeatos t Isast
goup Aa as-Sa but deed ay coopeato t
Isast goup a-Nusa Fot.[174]
I Septebe 2013, US Secetay of State Jo Key

stated tat extest goups ae up 15 25% of ebe
foces.[185] Accodg to Caes Lste, about 12% of
ebes ae pat of goups ed to a-Qaeda, 18% beog to Aa as-Sa, ad 9% beog to Suou aSa Bgade.[186][187] Tese ubes cotast t a epot by Jae s Ifoato Goup, a defece outet, cag aost af of a ebes beg a ated to Isast
goups.[188] Foeg gtes ae oed te co ct
opposto to Assad. We ost of te ae adsts,
soe dduas, suc as Mad a-Haat, ae oed
to suppot te Sya opposto.[189]
Te ICSR estates tat 2,000 5,500 foeg gtes
ae goe to Sya sce te begg of te potests,
about 7 11 pecet of o cae fo Euope. It s
aso estated tat te ube of foeg gtes does
ot exceed 10 pecet of te opposto aed foces.[190]
Aote estate puts te ube of foeg ads at
15,000 by eay 2014[191] ), Te Euopea Cosso
expessed coces tat soe of te gtes gt use
te ss obtaed Sya to cot acts of teos
bac Euope te futue.[192]
I Octobe 2012, aous Ia egous goups o te

Abu Yusaf, a coade of te Isac State of Ia ad co ct Sya o bot sdes. Radca Sus fo Ia,
1.4. BELLIGERENTS
Islamic campaign in support of Syrian opposition
a factoes, ad dspayg egous toeace.[200]

a-Nusa as bee accused of steatg egous ad
etc otes sce ts foato.[201] Te estated
apoe of a-Nusa Fot s appoxatey 6,000
10,000 peope, cudg ay foeg gtes.[202] Hoee, eay 2014, te estated foces dopped to
5,000 6,000 gtes, as a-Nusa ost gtes cobat
ad defectos to ISIL.[203] O 10 Mac 2014, aNusa eeased 13 Csta us captued fo Maouua, Daascus, excage fo te eease of 150 oe
fo te Sya goeet s psos. Te us epoted
tat tey ee teated e by a-Nusa dug te captty, addg tat tey ee gg us eeytg e
ased fo ad tat o oe boteed us .[204]
1.4.3 Syrian Kurds
ae taeed to Sya to gt agast Pesdet Basa aAssad ad te Sya goeet.[193] Aso, Stes fo Ma atces 2012 Sya Kudsta co ct ad Sya
Ia, Bab Poce ad Dyaa Poce, ae taeed Kudsta
to Daascus fo Tea, o fo te Ste Isac oy Kuds osty Su Muss, t a sa octy of Naaf, Ia to potect Sayyda Zeab, a potat osue ad se of Sa Isa Daascus.[193]
I Septebe 2013, eades of 13 poefu ebe bgades
eected Sya Natoa Coato ad caed Saa a
te soe souce of egsato . I a stateet tey decaed tat te coato ad te putate goeet
eaded by Aad Toe does ot epeset o ecogze
us . Aog te sgatoy ebe goups ee A-Nusa
Fot, Aa as-Sa ad A-Taeed.[194] I Noebe 2013, see Isast goups cobed to fo te
Isac Fot.
al-Nusra Front Ma atce a-Nusa Fot
Kurds showing their support for the PYD in Afrin during the conict
ty of Yezds epeseted 10% of Sya s popuato

at te stat of te upsg 2011. Tey ad suffeed fo decades of dscato ad egect, beg deped of basc c, cutua, ecooc, ad soca gts.[205]7 We potests bega, Assad s goeet ay gated ctzesp to a estated 200,000
stateess Kuds, a e ot to ty ad eutaze poteta Kuds opposto.[206] Ts cocesso, cobed
t Tus edoseet of te opposto ad Kuds
ude-epesetato te Sya Natoa Couc, as
esuted Kuds patcpatg te c a sae
ubes ta te Sya Aab Su coutepats.[206]
Coseuety, oece ad state epesso Kuds
aeas as bee ess seee.[206] I tes of a post-Assad
a degee of autooy
Te eatosp betee te a-Nusa Fot ad te - Sya, Kuds epotedy dese
[207]
t
a
decetazed
state.
dgeous Sya opposto s tese, ee toug te
a-Nusa Fot as fougt aogsde te FSA se- Sce te outset of te c a, ost Kuds potca
ea battes, ad soe FSA gtes defected to te a- pates ogased tesees to te Natoa CoodaNusa Fot.[198] Te Muadee s stct egous es to Cottee fo Deocatc Cage (NCC), odg
ad gess to pose saa a dstubed ay a oe odeate stace egadg te Assad goeet.
Syas.[199] Soe ebe coades ae accused fo- Hoee, Octobe 2011, a but te Deocatc Uo
eg adsts of steag te eouto , obbg Sy- Paty (PYD) eft te NCC to fo te o ubea
Te a-Nusa Fot, beg oe of te ost e ecte

adst goups Sya, s ofte cosdeed to be te ost
aggesse ad oet pat of te opposto.[195] Beg
esposbe fo oe 50 sucde bobgs, cudg seea deady exposos Daascus 2011 ad 2012, t
s ecogzed as a teost ogazato by Sya goeet ad as desgated as suc by Uted States Decebe 2012.[61] I Ap 2013, te eade of te Isac
state of Ia eeased a audo stateet aoucg tat
a-Nusa Fot s ts bac Sya.[196] Te eade of
a-Nusa, Abu Moaad a-Goa, sad tat te goup
ot ege t te Isac State of Ia, but st
ata aegace to Aya a-Zaa, te eade of
a-Qaeda.[197]
10
ogasato, te Kuds Natoa Couc.
aggesso pact.
Te Sya Kuds Peope s Potecto Uts (YPG),

st eteed te Sya C Wa as a begeet Juy
2012, by captug a to, Koba, tat ut te as
ude coto of te Sya goeet (see Sya Kudsta capag (2012 peset)).
1.5 Reporting, censoring and propaganda
Soe coust aed goups fo Tuey oed a

aogsde t YPG. Maxst Lest Coust Paty
(Tuey) set soe aed uts to Sege of Koba ad
Ia Sa to gt agast ISIS.[208] Tose goups do
ot ae te o tay uts, tey gt ude YPG
uts. Maxst Lest Coust Paty (Tuey) ,
Coust Paty of Tuey/Maxst Lest ad MLSPB set gtes to Sya.
Ma atce Repotg, cesog ad popagada

te Sya C Wa
Repotg o ts a s d cut ad dageous ouasts ae beg attaced, detaed, ad epotedy totued,

t oe oe uded epotedy ed aeady by Octobe 2012. Tecca factes (teet, teepoe etc.)
ae beg sabotaged by te Sya goeet. Bot sdes
Te co ct betee te Kuds Peope s Potecto ts a ty to dsuafy te oppoet by fag
Uts (YPG) ad Isast goups suc as a-Nusa Fot o dcatg te t egate abes ad tes ( teae escaated sce a goup of Kuds expeed Isasts osts , popagada , based , US cospacy , 'Sya
fo te bode to of Ras a-A.[209]
ege'), o by pesetg fase o-e edece.[216]
1.4.4 Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant 1.6

(ISIL)
Ma atce Isac State of Ia ad te Leat
International reaction
Ma atce Iteatoa eactos to te Sya C

Wa
Te Aab League, Euopea Uo, te Uted
Te Isac State of Ia ad te Leat ade apd tay gas Note Sya statg Ap 2013 ad
as of d 2014 cotos age pats of tat ego, ee
te Sya Obseatoy fo Hua Rgts descbes t as
te stogest goup .[210] It as posed stct Saa a
oe ad tat t cotos. Te goup as, ut 2014, afated t a-Qaeda, ed by te Ia gte Abu Ba
a-Bagdad, ad as a estated 7,000 gtes Sya,
cudg ay o-Syas. It as bee pased as ess
coupt ta ote ta goups, ad ctczed fo abusg ua gts[211] ad fo ot toeatg o-Isast
ta goups, foeg ouasts o ad oes, ose
ebes t as expeed, psoed.[212] o executed.
Accodg to Mcae Wess, ISIL as ot bee tageted Esther Brimmer (U.S.) speaks at a United Nations Human Rights
by te Sya goeet t ute te sae gusto as Council urgent debate on Syria, February 2012
ote ebe factos.[164]
I sue 2014 te ISIL cotoed a td of Sya. It
estabsed tsef as te doat foce of Sya opposto, defeatg Jabat a-Nusa De Ezzo poce
ad cag coto oe ost of Sya s o ad gas
poducto.[62]
Te Sya goeet dd ot beg to gt ISIL ut Jue 2014 despte ts ag a pesece Sya sce
Ap 2013, accodg to Kuds o cas.[213]
ISIL as ecuted oe ta 6,300 gtes Juy 2014
aoe.[214] I Septebe 2014, epotedy soe Sya
ebes ad ISIL sged a o-aggesso ageeet
a subub of Daascus, ctg abty to dea t bot
ISIL ad te Sya ay s attacs at oce.[215] Soe Sya ebes ae, oee, deced te es o te o-
Natos,[217] ad ay Weste goeets ucy

codeed te Sya goeet s oet espose to
te potests, ad expessed suppot fo te potestes
gt to execse fee speec.[218] Itay, ay Mdde
Easte goeets expessed suppot fo Assad, but as
te deat to outed tey stced appoac, ctczg oece fo bot goeet ad potestes. Bot
te Aab League ad te Ogasato of Isac Coopeato suspeded Sya s ebesp. Russa ad Ca
etoed Weste-dafted Uted Natos Secuty Couc
esoutos 2011 ad 2012, c oud ae teateed te Sya goeet t tageted sactos f
t cotued tay actos agast potestos.[219] Te
Uted Natos pepaed a teatoa peace cofeece Geea o 22 Jauay 2014, c bot te
1.8. FOREIGN INVOLVEMENT
11
Sya goeet ad opposto ae posed to pa- ad 800 toes of ou day to Sya.[225] Isae as potcpate.
ded teatet to 750 Syas a ed ospta ocated
te Goa Hegts. Rebes say tat 250 of te gtes eceed edca teatet tee.[226] O 26 Ap
2013, a uataa cooy, sped by Gaza Fota,
1.7 Humanitarian help
depated fo Tuey to Sya. Caed Hayat ( Lfe ),
t s set to dee ad tes to IDPs sde Sya ad
Ma atce Huataa ad dug te Sya c
efugees egbog coutes Tuey, Lebao, Joa
da, Ia, ad Egypt. Sya efugees ae up oe uate of Lebao s popuato, osty cosstg of oe
Te teatoa uataa espose to te coad cde.[227]
ct Sya s coodated by te Uted Natos OfTe Wod Heat Ogazato as epoted tat 35%
ce fo te Coodato of Huataa A as (UNof te couty s osptas ae out of sece ad, depedOCHA) accodace t Geea Asseby Resoug upo te ego, up to 70% of eat cae pofessoto 46/182.[220] Te pay faeo fo ts cooas ae ed. Cases of daoea ad epatts A ae
dato s te Sya Huataa Assstace Respose
ceased by oe ta tofod sce te begg of
Pa (SHARP) c appeaed fo USD 1.41 bo to
2013. Due to gtg, te oa accato pogas
eet te uataa eeds of Syas a ected by te
caot be udetae. Te dspaced efugees ay aso
[221]
O ca Uted Natos data o te uaco ct.
pose a s to coutes to c tey ae ed.[228]
taa stuato ad espose s aaabe at ttp//sya.
uoca.og/ a o ca ebste aaged by UNOCHA
Sya (Aa). UNICEF s aso og aogsde tese
ogazatos to pode accatos ad cae pacages
1.8 Foreign involvement
to tose eed. It as auced a accato capag
to eadcate poo fo te ego, as 17 cases ae coe
Ma atces Foeg oeet te Sya C
up sce te a boe oe tee yeas ago.
Wa ad Foeg ebe gtes te Sya C Wa
Bot te Sya goeet ad te opposto ae eceed suppot, tay ad dpoatcay, fo foeg coutes eadg te co ct to ofte be descbed
as a poxy a. Te ao pates suppotg te Sya
Goeet ae Ia ad Hezboa. Bot of tese ae
oed te a potcay ad ogstcay by podg tay eupet, tag ad batte toops. Te
Sya goeet as aso eceed as fo Russa
ad SIGINT suppot decty fo GRU,[229] addto
to sg cat potca suppot fo Russa.[230]
US non-lethal aid to Syrian opposition forces, May 2013
Faca foato o te espose to te SHARP, as

e as assstace to efugees ad fo coss-bode opeatos, ca be foud o UNOCHA s Faca Tacg
Sece. As at 18 Septebe 2013, te top te doos
to Sya ee Uted States, Euopea Cosso,
Kuat, Uted Kgdo, Geay, Caada, Japa,
Austaa, Saud Aaba, ad Dea.[222] USAID ad
ote goeet ageces US deeed eay 385
o of ad tes to Sya 2012 ad 2013. Te
Uted States s podg food ad, edca suppes,
eegecy ad basc eat cae, sete ateas, cea
ate, ygee educato ad suppes, ad ote eef suppes.[223] Isac Reef as stoced 30 osptas ad set udeds of tousads of edca ad food
paces.[224]
Ote coutes te ego ae aso cotbuted aous ees of ad. Ia as bee expotg betee 500
Te a Sya opposto body te Sya coato

ecees potca, ogstc ad tay suppot fo te
Uted States, Bta ad Face.[231][232][233] Soe Sya ebes get tag fo te CIA at bases Qata,
Joda ad Saud Aaba.[234][235][236] Te Sya coato aso ecees ogstc ad potca suppot fo Su
states, ost otaby Tuey, Qata ad Saud Aaba a
te tee ao suppotg states oee ae ot cotbuted ay toops fo dect oeet te a,
toug Tuey as oed bode cdets t te
Sya Ay. Te Financial Times ad The Independent epoted tat Qata ad fuded te Sya ebeo
by as uc as 3 bo.[237][238] It epoted tat Qata
as o eg efugee pacages of about 50,000 a yea
to defectos ad fay.[238] Saud Aaba as eeged
as te a goup to ace ad a te ebes.[239] Accodg to cofessos of a captued FSA coade,
te opposto aso eceed o tay suppot fo
Isae.[240] Isae tay doctos teat ouded ebes
o appea fo ad.
12
Fec teeso Face 24 epoted tat te Isac

State Ia ad te Leat, t peaps 3,000 foeg
adsts aog ts as,[241] ecees pate doatos
fo te Guf states. [242] Te ao Sya Kuds opposto goup, te PYD, as epoted to get ogstc ad
tag suppot fo Ia Kudsta.
O 21 August 2014, to days afte U.S. potoouast Jaes Foey as beeaded, te U.S. tay adtted
a coet escue attept og dozes of U.S. Speca
Opeatos foces ad bee ade to escue Aecas
ad ote foeges ed capte Sya by ISIL tats. Te escue attept s te st o U.S. tay goud acto sde Sya. Te esutat gu gt
esuted oe U.S. sode beg ued. Te escue
as usuccessfu as te captes ee ot te ocato
tageted.
O 11 Septebe 2014 Cogess expessed suppot to
ge Pesdet Obaa te 500 o e ats to
a ad ta odeate Sya ebes. Te uesto of
ete te pesdet as autoty to cotue astes
beyod te 60-day do gated by te Wa Poes
Resouto eaed uesoed.[243]
O 12 Septebe, US Secetay of State Jo Key
et Tus eades to secue bacg fo U.S.-ed acto agast ISIL, but Aaa soed euctace to pay a
fote oe. Key stated tat t as ot appopate
fo Ia to o tas o cofotg ISIL.[244]
Te pas eeaed Septebe aso oe Ia tagetg ISIL. U.S. apaes ae auced 158 stes
Ia oe te past e ees e epaszg a eatey ao set of tagets. Te Petago s pess secetay, Jo Kby, sad te a capag Ia, c
bega 8 Aug., ete a oe aggesse pase.[245]
1.9
Impact
gues, pe opposto actst goups, agg fo

123,805 ad 191,369.[42][246][247][248] O 2 Jauay 2013,
te Uted Natos stated tat 60,000 ad bee ed
sce te c a bega, t UN Hg Cossoe
fo Hua Rgts Na Pay sayg Te ube of casuates s uc ge ta e expected, ad s tuy
socg. [249] Fou ots ate, te UN s updated gue fo te deat to ad eaced 80,000.[250] O 13 Jue,
te UN eeased a updated gue of peope ed sce
gtg bega, te gue beg exacty 92,901, fo up to
te ed of Ap 2013. Na Pay, UN g cossoe fo ua gts, stated tat Ts s ost ey
a u casuaty gue. Te ea to as guessed to
be oe 100,000.[251][252] Soe aeas of te couty ae
bee a ected dspopotoatey by te a by soe estates, as ay as a td of a deats ae occued
te cty of Hos.[253]
Oe pobe as bee deteg te ube of
aed cobatats o ae ded, due to soe souces
coutg ebe gtes o ee ot goeet defectos as cas.[254] At east af of tose co ed
ed ae bee estated to be cobatats fo bot
sdes, cudg 52,290 goeet gtes ad 29,080
ebes, t a addtoa 50,000 uco ed cobatat
deats.[42] I addto, UNICEF epoted tat oe 500
cde ad bee ed by eay Febuay 2012,[255] ad
aote 400 cde ae bee epotedy aested ad
totued Sya psos[256] bot of tese cas ae
bee cotested by te Sya goeet. Addtoay,
oe 600 detaees ad potca psoes ae o to
ae ded ude totue.[257] I d-Octobe 2012, te
opposto actst goup SOHR epoted te ube of
cde ed te co ct ad se to 2,300,[258] ad
Mac 2013, opposto souces stated tat oe 5,000
cde ad bee ed.[246] I Jauay 2014, a epot
as eeased detag te systeatc g of oe ta
11,000 detaees of te Sya goeet.[259]
O 20 August 2014, a e U.N. study cocudes at east
191,369 peope ae ded Sya co ct.[260]
1.9.1 Deaths
Ma atce Casuates of te Sya C Wa
Estates of deats te co ct ay dey, t 1.9.2
Total deaths over the course of the con ict in Syria (18 March
2011 18 October 2013)
Illness
Oce-ae fectous dseases ae spead ebe ed

aeas, pay a ectg cde, bougt o by te coapse of satato ad deteoatg g codtos.
Tese cude eases, typod, epatts, dysetey,
tubecuoss, dptea, oopg coug, esaass,
(a ds gug paastc s dsease). Of patcua coce s te cotagous ad cppg Pooyets c
as of ate 2013 doctos ad teatoa pubc eat
ageces epot oe ta 90 cases of. Ctcs of te goeet copa tat t as bougt o te spead of dsease by cuttg o accato, satato ad safe-ate
seces to aeas cosdeed potcay usypatetc
ee befoe te upsg.[261]
13
1.9. IMPACT
1.9.3 Refugees
Ma atce Refugees of te Sya C Wa
Te oece Sya as caused os to ee te
as Sya goeet ad ts suppotes egt cases,

ad te opposto oe.[272][273]
Syria s civil war victims
By ate Noebe 2013, accodg to te EuoMedteaea Hua Rgts Neto (EMHRN) epot
etted Voece agast Woe, Beedg Woud
te Sya Co ct , appoxatey 6,000 oe ae
oes. I August 2012, te Uted Natos sad oe bee aped (cudg gag-ape) sce te stat of te
ta oe o peope ee teay dspaced,[262] co ct - t gues ey to be uc ge ge tat
ad, Septebe 2013, te UN epoted tat oe ta ost cases go uepoted.[274][275][276]
6.5 o Syas ad bee dspaced, of o 2 [277]
Sya goo eeg to egbog coutes, 1 3 of tose Accodg to tee teatoa ayes,
eet
o
cas
coud
face
a
ces
cages
te
efugees (about 667,000 peope) seeg safety ty
[263]
gt
of
a
uge
cace
of
edece
sugged
out
of
te
Lebao (oay 4.8 o popuato).
Otes
11,000
couty
sog
te
systeatc
g
of
about
ae ed to Joda, Tuey, ad Ia. Tuey as accepted +1.000.000 (2014) Sya efugees, af of o detaees. Most of te cts ee youg e ad ay
ae spead aoud a ctes ad doze caps paced ude copses ee eacated, boodstaed ad boe sgs of
te dect autoty of te Tus Goeet. Satete totue. Soe ad o eyes otes soed sgs of sta[278]
Expets say ts edece s
ages co ed tat te st Sya caps appeaed guato o eectocuto.
oe
detaed
ad
o
a
fa
age
scae ta aytg ese
Tuey Juy 2011, soty afte te tos of De[264]
tat
as
yet
eeged
fo
te
34-ot
css.[279][280]
I Septebe
aa, Hos, ad Haa ee beseged.
2014, te UN stated tat te ube of Sya efugees O 30 Jauay 2014, Hua Rgts Watc eeased a ead exceeded 3 o.[265] Accodg to te Jeusae pot detag, betee Jue 2012 ad Juy 2013, goeCete fo Pubc A as, Sus ae eag fo Lebao et foces azg to te goud see at-goeet
ad udeg Hzbua s status. Te eeg Sya dstcts te ctes of Daascus ad Haa, euatg to
efugees as caused te Joda s Paeste teat to be a aea te sze of 200 footba eds. Wtesses spoe
dsed due to te osaugt of e efugees Jo- of exposes ad budozes beg used to oc do
[281]
Satete agey as poded as pat of
da. Addtoay, te West Ba s udegog e- budgs.
te
epot
ad
te
destucto as caactezed as coecgato pessues c cetay be coped Gaza
[266]
te
puset
agast
esdets of ebe-ed aeas.[282]
Gee Catoc Patac
f egato s aoed.
Gegoos III Laa cas oe ta 450,000 Sya UN epoted aso tat "siege warfare is employed in a
Cstas ae bee dspaced by te co ct.[267]
context of egregious human rights and international humanitarian law violations. The warring parties do not
fear being held accountable for their acts. Aed foces
1.9.4 Human rights violations
of bot sdes of te co ct boced access of uataa cooys, co scated food, cut o ate suppes
Ma atce Hua gts oatos dug te Sya ad tageted faes og te eds. Te epot
C Wa
poted to fou paces beseged by te goeet foces
Muadaya, Daaya, Yaou cap ad Od Cty of
Accodg to aous ua gts ogazatos ad Hos, as e as to aeas ude sege of ebe goups
Uted Natos, ua gts oatos ae bee co- Aeppo ad Haa.[283][284] I Yaou Cap 20,000
tted by bot te goeet ad te ebes, t esdets ae facg deat by staato due to bocade
te 'ast aoty of te abuses ag bee cot- by te Sya goeet foces ad gtg betee te
ted by te Sya goeet'.[268][269][270][271] Te U.N. ay ad Jabat a-Nusa, c peets food dstbucosso estgatg ua gts abuses Sya to by UNRWA.[283][285] Te UN fute stated tat goco s at east 9 tetoa ass gs te pe- eet seges ae eft oe ta 250,000 subected to
od 2012 to d-Juy 2013, detfyg te pepetato eetess seg ad bobadet. Tey ae deed
Syrian refugees in Lebanon living in cramped quarters (6 August
2012).
14
uataa ad, food ad suc basc ecesstes as ed- 1.9.6 Economy

ca cae, ad ust coose betee suede ad staato, te ebes of te UN Cosso of Iuy By Juy 2013, te Sya ecooy ad su 45 pecet
sad.[286]
sce te stat of te co ct. Uepoyet ceased
ISIL foces ae bee accused by UN of usg pubc exe- efod, te aue of te Sya cuecy deceased to
pe-a aue, ad te pubc secto ost USD
cutos, aputatos ad asgs a capag to st oe-sxt ts[292][293]
By te ed of 2013, te UN est15
bo.
fea. Forces of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levated
tota
ecooc
daage of te Sya c a at
ant have committed torture, murder, acts tantamount to
[294]
143
bo.
enforced disappearance and forced displacement as part
of attacks on the civilian population in Aleppo and Raqqa
provinces, amounting to crimes against humanity , sad te
1.9.7
epot fo 27 August 2014.[287]
Crime wave
Efoced dsappeaaces ad abtay detetos ae

aso bee a featue sce te Sya upsg bega.[288]
1.9.5 Threats against Syrian sects, minorities and majority

Ma atce Sectaas ad otes te Sya
C Wa
Te successe goeets of Hafez ad Basa aDoctors and medical sta treating injured rebel ghters and civilians in Aleppo
As te co ct as expaded acoss Sya, ay ctes

ae bee egufed a ae of ce as gtg caused
te dstegato of uc of te ca state, ad ay
poce statos stopped fuctog. Rates of teey ceased, t cas ootg ouses ad stoes. Rates
of dappgs ceased as e. Rebe gtes ee
sgted steag cas ad destoyg a Aeppo estauat
c Sya sodes ad eate.[295]
By Juy 2012, te ua gts goup Woe Ude
Sege ad docueted oe 100 cases of ape ad sexua
assaut dug te co ct, t ay of tese ces beeed to be pepetated by te Saba ad ote pogoeet tas. Vcts cuded e, oe, ad
Map of Syria s ethno-religious composition in 1976
cde, t about 80% of te o cts beg
[296]
Assad ae bee cosey assocated t te couty s - oe ad gs.
oty Aate egous goup,[289] a o soot of Sa, Ca etos ae bee used by bot te goeeeas te aoty of te popuato, ad ost of te et ad te opposto dug te co ct. Facg opposto, s Su. Due to eay oeet te teatoa sactos, te Sya goeet eed o
Sya foces ad te po-ta, Aates stated to be ca ogazatos to sugge goods ad oey
teateed ad attaced by doaty Su ebe gt- ad out of te couty. Te ecooc dotu caused
g goups e te A-Nusa Fot ad te FSA sce De- by te co ct ad sactos aso ed to oe ages fo
cebe 2012 (see Sectaas ad otes te Sy- Saba ebes. I espose, soe Saba ea C WaAates). Fo te ote sde, su aso bes bega steag ca popetes, ad egagg
s teateed due to asse g by Sya foces ad dappgs.[137]
os of te ae tae efugee Sya egbog Rebe foces soetes eed o ca etos to
coutes sce begg of 2012.
obta eapos ad suppes. Bac aet eapo
May Sya Cstas epoted to ae ed afte tey
ee tageted by te at-goeet ebes.[290][291]
(See Sectaas ad otes te Sya C
WaCstas.)
pces Sya s egbog coutes ae sg caty

ceased sce te stat of te co ct. To geeate fuds
to pucase as, soe ebe goups ae tued toads
extoto, steag, ad dappg.[137]
15
1.11. SEE ALSO
1.9.8 Cultural heritage

Ma atce Lst of etage stes daaged dug
Sya c a
Te c a as caused sg cat daage to Sya s cutua etage, cudg Wod Hetage Stes. Destucto of atutes as bee caused by seg, ay etecet, ad ootg at aous tes, useus, ad
ouets.[297] A goup caed Sya Acaeoogca
Hetage Ude Teat s otog ad ecodg te
destucto a attept to ceate a st of etage stes
daaged dug te a ad ga goba suppot fo te
potecto ad peseato of Sya acaeoogy ad
actectue.[298]
UNESCO sted a sx Sya s Wod Hetage stes as edageed but dect assesset of daage s ot possbe.
It s o tat te Od Cty of Aeppo as eay daaged dug battes beg fougt t te dstct, e
Paya ad Cac des Ceaes su eed o daage.
Iega dggg s cosdeed a gae dage, ad udeds
of Sya atutes, cudg soe fo Paya, appeaed Lebao. Tee aceoogca useus ae
o to ae bee ooted Raa soe atfacts see
to ae bee destoyed by foeg Isasts due to egous obectos.[299]
Te a as poduced ts o patcua ato. A ate
Sue 2013 exbto Lodo at te P21 Gaey
as abe to so soe of ts o.[300]
1.11 See also

Sya Css of 1957
Lst of c as
Lst of ode co cts te Mdde East
Lst of ogog tay co cts
Lst of as by deat to
Lst of as og Sya
Lst of as og Ia
Bae bob
1.12 References
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2012.
1.10
Spillover
Ma atce Spoe fo te Sya C Wa
[6] U.S. eapos eacg Sya ebes . Washington Post.

Septebe 11, 2013.
[7] Hoade co s Fec deey of as to Sya
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[8] Seoc, Rut. Lbya s e ues o e eapos to Sy-
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Wt poous bodes t ost of ts egbos, te gtg as sped oe te, causg feas of a egoa
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16
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1.14 External links

Interviews
Fox Nes excuse tee t Sya Pesdet
Basa A-Assad Fox Nes, 18 Septebe 2013
Itee t Basa Assad 'I te Ed, a Le Is a
Le' De Spege, 7 Octobe 2013
Pesdet Basa a-Assad s tee t Agece
Face Pesse AFP 20-01-2014 20 Jauay 2014
A dscusso of te causes of te c a at te
United Nations University for Peace.
Fst ee boadcast tee t Jabat a Nusa
foude Abu Moaed a-Joua
Supranational government bodies
1.13
Further reading
FAO Sya css
Hebusc, Rayod (2012).

Sya Human rights bodies
Fo 'Autotaa Upgadg' to Reou Te ICRC Sya, Iteatoa Cottee of te
to?". International A airs 88 (1) 95 113.
do10.1111/.1468-2346.2012.01059.x.
Red Coss
24
Media
Sya Co ct at BBC News
Sya upsg A yea tuo at The Washington Post
Sya Puse coected es ad coetay at Al
Monitor
Latest Sya deeopets at NOW Lebanon
Sya coected es ad coetay at The
Guardian
Sya coected es ad coetay at The New
York Times
Sya es, a te atest ad beag Sya es at
The Daily Telegraph
Sya coected coeage at Al Jazeera English
Te batte fo Sya (docuetay s). Souces
TV es a footage (deo docuetay + Egs subttes Te batte fo Sya o YouTube, ofca deo docuetay ad te o ca text of te
).VGTRK
Hzb ut-Ta Sya Meda O ce
Sya day (docuetay s). Souces TV
es a footage (deo docuetay + Egs subttes Sya day o YouTube), o ca deo docuetay of te .VGTRK
Chapter 2
Military of ISIL
Te Military of the ISIL, s te ae descbg te
gtg foces of te ebe goup Isac State of Ia ad
te Leat (ISIL). Te tota foce sze as bee estated
fo tes of tousads to oe to uded tousad.
Te foces ge ucy dug 2014. Te ISIL tay,
cudg goups copoated to t 2014, opey opeates ad cotos tetoy Ia, Sya, ad oe cty
Easte Lbya. It aso as ade bode cases ad cusos to Lebao, Ia, ad Joda. ISIL ed goups
opeate Agea ad Pasta.[5]
Ay Geea ad Abu A a-Aba (Deputy Leade

Sya) as aso a Ia Ay Mao Geea, bot ude
te Sadda Husse goeet. Cece bo gte
Abu Oa a-Ssa s a poet gue te ISIL
tay ad t as bee specuated tat e ay ae becoe te tay cef fo te Isac State of Ia ad
te Leat foog te deat of Abu Abdu-Raa aBa a-Aba Mosu Jue 2014.[18] Repots dcate tat te tay s ogazed to bgades suc as
a feae ut tased t pocg egous as[19] ad
sode stog goup tat defected to ISIL Juy
Te tay s based o obe foot tat uts us- a 1,000
[20]
Accodg to batte epots ISIL ofte opeates
2014.
g gt eces suc as gu eupped pc-up tucs
sa
obe
gtg uts.
(teccas), otobes ad buses fo fast adaces.
Tey aso use atey, tas ad aoed eces cap- Te goup aso opeates outsde aeas t agey cotos
tued fo te Ia ad Sya Aes. It s aeged tat usg a ce stuctue. A ISIL ed seo tat
te ISIL tay ad gaed coto of 3 acaft fo coade Sa tod Reutes Tey [ISIL] teac us
te Sya Ay ad ae yg te oe Sya, atoug o to cay out opeatos. We coucate toug
to of tese ee epotedy sot do by Sya.
te teet, ... tey teac us o to ceate secet ces,
ISIL as a og stoy of usg tuc ad ca bobs, cosstg of e peope. Oy oe peso as cotact
sucde bobes, ad IEDs. Tey ae aso depoyed t ote ces. Tey ae teacg us o to attac sececa eapos Ia ad Sya Kudsta. Te- cuty foces, te eeet of supse. Tey tod us to
o tactcs cude geocde, ass executos cudg pat bobs te at 12 ous so tat te a patg
te dece as eoug te to escape fo te to e s
beeadgs, ad psycoogca opeatos toug sops[21]
tcated popagada. A sg cat ube of ISIL gtes .
ae fo outsde Ia ad Sya.
2.1
Command structure
2.2 Troops
2.2.1 Troops in Iraq and Syria
See aso Lst of Isac State of Ia ad te Leat

ebes
I Jue 2014, ISIL ad at east 4,000 gtes Ia,[22]
ad te CIA estated Septebe 2014 tat t ad
Accodg to te Isttute fo te Study of Wa, ISIL s 20,000 31,500 gtes Ia ad Sya.[23] Te Sya
2013 aua epot eeas a etcs-de tay Obseatoy fo Hua Rgts estates tat te foce
coad, c s a stog dcato of a u ed, ubes aoud 80,000 100,000 tota (up to 50,000
coeet eadesp stuctue tat coads fo te Sya ad 30,000 Ia).[24][25] By Noebe 2014, a
top do .[16] Mdde East Fou's Aye Jaad A- Kuds eade stated tat ISIL s tay ad ceased
Ta sad, Tey ae gy sed uba guea to 200,000 gtes.[7]
afae e te e Ia Ay spy acs tactca I addto to outees ad adsts, ISIL s o fo
copetece. [17]
focg ote ebe goups ad coscptg dduas to
Ltte s o about te tay coad stuctue subt to ad gt fo ISIL. May epots say toops ad
of ISIL. Souces dcate tat Abu Mus a-Tua eupet oe betee aous pats of Ia, Sya ad
(Deputy Leade Ia Ked Acto) as a Ia Lebao as tactca eeds ase.
25
26
CHAPTER 2. MILITARY OF ISIL
2.2.2 Foreign ghters in Iraq and Syria
Uted States 100[29]
See aso Foeg ebe gtes te Sya C Wa
Dea 100[48]
Paeste 70 80[49]
Tee ae ay foeg gtes ISIL s as. I Jue
Austaa 70[50]
2014, The Economist epoted tat ISIS ay ae up
to 6,000 gtes Ia ad 3,000 5,000 Sya,
Isae 40 50(A of te ae Muss)[51]
cudg peaps 3,000 foeges eay a tousad ae
epoted to a fo Cecya ad peaps 500 o so
Spa 40[52]
[26]
oe fo Face, Bta ad eseee Euope .
Iead 25 30[53]
Cece eade Abu Oa a-Ssa, fo exape, as
ade coade of te ote secto of ISIL Sya
Potuga 12[54]
2013.[27][28] Accodg to The New York Times,
Septebe 2014 tee ee oe ta 2,000 Euopeas
Japa 9[55]
ad 100 Aecas aog ISIL s foeg gtes.[29]
As of d-Septebe 2014, aoud 1,000 Tus ad
oed ISIL,[30] ad as of Octobe 2014, 2,400 3,000 2.2.3 Allegiance to ISIL from groups outTusas ad oed te goup.[31] A ISIL desete
side Iraq and Syria
aeged tat foeg ecuts ee teated t ess espect ta Aabc-speag Muss by ISIL coaPeous ebesp o oge usg te ae
des ad ee paced sucde uts f tey aced oteJud

a-Kafa (Agea) ad pedgg aegace
se usefu ss.[32] Tee ae a estated 15,000 fo
to ISIL[56]
eay 70 coutes ISIL s as. Accodg to a UN
epot.[33]
ISIL Dea foed fo te Sua Couc

of Isac Yout (Lbya)[57][58]
Number of nationals ghting with ISIL
Note Lst does ot cude gtes fo Ia ad Sya.
[34]
ISIL Sa foed fo ebesp of

Asa Bat a-Mads (Egypt, Gaza)[57][59][60]
Udet ed tats Saud Aaba ad Yee

desgated as poces of ISIL[56]
Saud Aaba 7,000
Tusa 2,400 5,000[31][34]
Uted Kgdo 2,000[35]
Russa Fedeato 1,000
Tuey 1,000[30]
Face 500[36]
Geay 550[37]
Seba 350 [38]
Bosa ad Hezegoa 300[39][40]
2.3 Weapons
Ca 300[41]
2.3.1 Conventional weapons
Begu250 400
Kosoo 100 200
Sede 150[44]
Noay 140[45]
Caada 130[46]
Abaa 100+ [47]
Mtats of te goup Free Sunnis of Baalbek

Brigade (Lebao) pedgg aegace to ISIL[59]
[42]
Mtats of te goup Sons of the Call for Tawhid

and Jihad (Joda) pedgg aegace to ISIL[13]
[43]
Mtats of te goups Judaa,[61] Tehreeke-Khilafat, ad Jamaat al-Ahrar[59] (Pasta)

pedgg aegace to ISIL
Mtats of te goup Abu Sayyaf (Pppes,
Maaysa)[62] pedgg aegace to ISIL[59]
Te ost coo eapos used agast US ad ote

Coato foces dug te Ia sugecy ee tose
tae fo Sadda Husse s eapo stocpes aoud
te couty, tese cuded AKM aat assaut es, PK ace gus ad RPG-7s.[63] ISIL as bee
abe to stegte ts tay capabty by captug
age uattes ad aetes of eapoy dug te
Sya C Wa ad Post-US Ia sugecy. Tese
eapos sezues ae poed te goup s capacty
2.4. EQUIPMENT TABLE OF COMMONLY USED WEAPONS
27
to cay out successfu subseuet opeatos ad ob- sucde bobes, ad IEDs.

ta oe eupet.[64] Weapoy tat ISIL as epotedy captued ad epoyed cude SA-7[65] ad
Stge[66] suface-to-a sses, M79 Osa, HJ-8[67] ad 2.4 Equipment table of commonly
AT-4 Spgot[65] at-ta eapos, Type 59 ed gus[67]
used weapons
ad M198 otzes,[68] Huees, T-54/55, T-72, ad
[69]
[67]
M1 Abas
a batte tas,
M1117 aoued
cas,[70] tuc-outed DSK gus,[65] ZU-23-2 at- 2.4.1 Infantry weapons
acaft gus,[71][72] BM-21 Gad utpe ocet auces,[64] ad at east oe Scud sse.[73]
Assault Ri es
ISIL sot do a Ia ecopte Octobe 2014, ad
ca to ae sot do seea ote ecoptes Sniper Ri es
2014. Obsees fea tat tey ae adaced sufaceto-a sse systes suc as te Cese-ade FN-6, Machine gun
c ae tougt to ae bee poded to Sya ebes
by Qata ad/o Saud Aaba ad pucased o captued Pistols
by ISIL.[74]
Explosives, anti-tank weapons, and anti-aircraft
launchers
2.3.2 Aircraft
2.4.2 Vehicles
We ISIL captued Mosu Apot Jue 2014, t

sezed a ube of UH-60 Baca ecoptes ad Logistics and utility vehicles
cago paes tat ee statoed tee.[75][76] Accodg
to Pete Beauot of The Guardian, t seeed uey Tanks and armored ghting vehicles
tat ISIL oud be abe to depoy te.[77]
Artillery
ISIL aso captued gte acaft Sya. Te Sya Obseatoy fo Hua Rgts epoted Octobe
Aircraft
2014 tat foe Ia pots ee tag ISIL tats to y captued Sya ets. Wtesses epoted tat
MG-21 ad MG-23 ets ee yg oe a-Jaa - 2.5 See also
tay apot, but te US Ceta Coad sad t as
ot aae of gts by ISIL-opeated acaft Sya
Lst of aed goups te Sya C Wa
o eseee.[78] O 21 Octobe, te Sya A Foce
Hua gts oatos dug te Sya C Wa
caed tat t ad sot do to of tese acaft oe
a-Jaa a base e tey ee adg.[79]
2.3.3 Non-conventional
ISIL captued ucea ateas fo Mosu Uesty
Juy 2014. I a ette to UN Secetay-Geea Ba
K-oo, Ia s UN Abassado Moaed A Aa
sad tat te ateas ad bee ept at te uesty ad
ca be used aufactug eapos of ass destucto . Nucea expets egaded te teat as sg cat. Iteatoa Atoc Eegy Agecy spoesoa
G Tudo sad tat te sezed ateas ee o gade
ad oud ot peset a sg cat safety, secuty o ucea pofeato s .[80][81]
Repots suggest ISIL captued Sadda ea ceca
eapos fo a Ia tay base[82] ad as depoyed coe gas based ceca eapos agast Ia
Goeet foces, Sya Goeet ad Sya Opposto Foces,[83] ad udet ed ceca eapos
agast Kuds Koba, Sya.
ISIL as a og stoy of usg tuc ad ca bobs,
2.6 References
[1] ISIS Pocas 'Capate of Sa' Cas fo Attacg
Isae s Eat - Jes & Isae Nes Ageee.co .
Algemeiner.com. Reteed 23 Decebe 2014.
[2] IS cas esposbty fo Gaza s Fec Cutua Cete bast, epots . Middle East Eye. 8 Octobe 2014. Reteed 9 Octobe 2014.
[3] Isac State foed attept to dap Sya ebe
eade Tuey . Telegraph.co.uk. 19 Octobe 2014.
[4] Ia Says It s Ude Attac by ISIS . The Daily Beast. 9
Octobe 2014. Reteed 13 Octobe 2014.
[5] Pasta Taba spte goup os aegace to Isac State . Reuters. 18 Noebe 2014. Reteed 19
Noebe 2014.
[6] Lbya cty decaes tsef pat of Isac State
capate . CP24. Reteed 23 Decebe 2014.
28
[7] Isac State as 200,000
eade . 16 Noebe 2014.

gtes cas Kuds
[26] To Aab coutes fa apat . The Economist (14 Jue

2014). Reteed 18 Juy 2014.
[8] Isac State foatos copse up to 70,000 gue

Cef of Russa s Geea Sta . Russian News Agency
TASS . 10 Decebe 2014.
[27] Te Sya ebe goups pug foeg gtes . BBC

Nes. 24 Decebe 2013. Reteed 24 Decebe 2013.
[9] Patc Kgsey. Egypt faces e teat a-Qadaed goup Asa Beyt a-Mads . the Guardian. Reteed 23 Decebe 2014.
[10] State Ifoato Seces Iteo Msty aayzes
Asa Bayt a-Mads stateet oe assassato attept . Reteed 23 Decebe 2014.
[11] Pau Cucsa, Nc Robetso, T Lste ad Joaa
Kaadse, CNN (18 Noebe 2014). ISIS coes to
Lbya . CNN. Reteed 23 Decebe 2014.
[12] Reutes. Agea s a-Qaeda defectos o IS goup .
[13] ttp//odates.co/
oca-adst-goup-pedges-aegace-to-sac-state
[14]
[15] Mtay S ad Teost Tecue Fue Success of
ISIS . New York Times. 27 August 2014. Reteed 21
Octobe 2014.
[16] Bge, Aex (22 May 2014). ISIS Aua Repots Reea
a Metcs-De Mtay Coad . Isttute fo te
Study of Wa. Reteed 6 Juy 2014.
[17] Vc, Ka Bae, Ay (11 Jue 2014). Extests
Ia Cotue Mac Toad Bagdad . Time. Reteed
23 Jue 2014.
[18] McCa, E (2 Juy 2014).
Rsg Sta of ISIS
Has Cece Bacgoud ad Fece Reputato . NBC
Nes. Reteed 15 August 2014.
[28] Cece gte eeges as face of Ia tat goup .

Fox Nes. Assocated Pess. 2 Juy 2014.
[29] Scdt, Mcae S. (15 Septebe 2014). U.S. Puses
Bac Agast Wags Tat ISIS Pas to Ete Fo
Mexco . The New York Times. Reteed 16 Septebe
2014.
[30] Yegsu, Ceya (15 Septebe 2014). ISIS Das a
Steady Stea of Recuts Fo Tuey . The New York
Times.
[31] Kpatc, Dad D. (21 Octobe 2014). Ne Feedos Tusa De Suppot fo ISIS . New York Times.
[32] Det ag a bettat a-Raa oe atd ffa
g . Nyheter Vrlden ( Seds) (Dages Nyete).
23 Septebe 2014. Reteed 25 Septebe 2014.
[33] ttp//au.btes.co/atces/571503/20141103/
ss-u-epot-aaetz-capate-secuty-couc.t
.VKe3PdXC_
[34] Sauds ost ey to o ISIS, 10% of goup s gtes
ae oe . Middle East Monitor. 20 Octobe 2014. Reteed 3 Jauay 2015.
[35] 2,000 Bts Jads Fgtg Wt ISIS, Says Mus
MP . Breitbart. 23 Noebe 2014. Reteed 3 Jauay
2015.
[36] Euopea adsts fo ISIS bgades Sya . Al Monitor. 9 Ap 2014. Reteed 3 Jauay 2015.
[37] 550 Geas o ISIL teost goup Ia, Sya
Gea ste . Press TV. 22 Noebe 2014. Reteed 3 Jauay 2015.
[19] ttp//.es.co.au/od/dde-east/
[38] Jauay 2015 |obaasgt|date17 Septebe
s-aasa-bgade-eet-te-oe-sac-state-use-to-ds-out-buta-puset/
2014
stoy-f81f-1227098787913
[20] 1,000-stog Sya ebe bgade defects to Isac State
epot . Reteed 23 Decebe 2014.
[21] sta . Isac State sad to be coacg Sa tats .
www.timesofisrael.com. Tes of Isae. Reteed 23
Noebe 2014.
[22] Les, Jessca (12 Jue 2014). Te Teost Ay
Macg o Bagdad . The Wall Street Journal. Reteed 23 Jue 2014.(subscpto eued) Accessbe
a Googe.
[39] U osc ISIL-a aaz se oo 300 daaa BH (

Coata). De Noe TV. 14 August 2014. Reteed
10 Jauay 2015.
[40] U osc ISIL-a aaz se oo 300 daaa BH .
Veernji list ( Coata). 14 August 2014. Reteed
10 Jauay 2015.
[41] 300 Cese ae gtg aogsde ISIS Ia, Sya .
The New York Post. 15 Decebe 2014. Reteed 3 Jauay 2015.
[42] Wy So May Jadsts Coe Fo Begu . Business
Insider. 22 Octobe 2014. Reteed 3 Jauay 2015.
[23] IS as 20,000 31,500 gtes Ia ad Sya CIA .

Yaoo! Nes. 12 Septebe 2014. Reteed 12
Septebe 2014.
[43]
[24] Isac State 'as 50,000 gtes Sya'". A Jazeea.

19 August 2014. Reteed 19 August 2014.
[44] Sede says up to 150 peope eft couty to o ISIS .

CTV News. 22 Octobe 2014. Reteed 3 Jauay 2015.
[25] ISIS as 100,000 gtes, gog fast

se . RT. Reteed 2 Octobe 2014.
[45] PST udeestate ube of teo gtes fo Noay , The Local, 02 Dec 2014
Ia got ad-
2.6. REFERENCES
[46] Caadas ae oed ISIS to gt ad de Sya .
CNN. 10 Septebe 2014. Reteed 3 Jauay 2015.
[47]
[48] Moe Scadaas og Iss . The Local Dk. 24
Septebe 2014. Reteed 3 Jauay 2015.
[49] A-Jazeea. Te Lodo-based Iteatoa Cete fo
te Study of Radcasato estates tat ust 120 peope
fo Isae ad te Paesta tetoes ae o gtg
Sya ad Ia. , Isaes Ae Jog ISIS . Vocativ. 7
Noebe 2014. Reteed 3 Jauay 2015. Accodg
to Isae secuty sece estates, tee ae o 40 to
50 Aab-Isaes gtg Sya ad Ia, ost of te
as pat of ISIS. Tat s ot a uge ube, ge tat tee
ae 1.3 o Muss g Isae. "
[50] ISIS Usg Foeg Fgtes As Fote Cao Fodde I Sya Ad Ia Austaa . International Business
Times. 9 Decebe 2014. Reteed 3 Jauay 2015.
[51] Isaes Ae Jog ISIS . Vocativ. 7 Noebe 2014.
[52] Tety Pecet Of Spaads Jog ISIS Ae Woe .
Breitbart. 31 Decebe 2014. Reteed 3 Jauay 2015.
[53] Ne study says Iead as te secod gest pe capta
adst ate . TheJournal.ie. 5 Septebe 2014. Reteed 9 Jauay 2015.
[54] Exste 12 adstas potugueses o Iaue e Sa .
The Daily Star Lebanon. 2 Septebe 2014. Reteed
10 Jauay 2015.
[55] Ne Japaese sad to ae oed ISIS . The Daily Star
Lebanon. 26 Septebe 2014. Reteed 3 Jauay 2015.
29
[64] Not Just Ia Te Isac State Is Aso o te Mac
Sya . The Hu ngton Post. 7 August 2014. Reteed 11
August 2014.
[65] Gbbos-Ne , Toas (18 Jue 2014). ISIS popagada
deos so te eapos, ss Ia . The Washington Post. Reteed 11 August 2014.
[66] US-ade Stge sses ae ey fae to ISIS
ads, o cas say . Fox Nes Cae. 16 Jue 2014.
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[67] Jeey Bede (9 Juy 2014). As ISIS Routs Te Ia
Ay, Hee s A Loo At Wat Te Jadsts Hae I
Te Asea . Business Insider. Reteed 11 August
2014.
[68] Poteo, Mtce (14 Juy 2014). Ia ay eas
o defese as extet of Jue debace becoes ceae .
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[69] Cesea J. Cate To Coe Babaa Sta (9 August
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[70] ISIS Hods Paade Wt Captued US Mtay Veces .
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[71] Tga, Ade Scogo, Je (12 Jue 2014). Ho
dd 800 ISIS gtes out 2 Ia dsos?". Military
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[72] State of eegecy ISIS tats oeu Ia cty of
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[73] Iss eade cas o Muss to 'bud Isac state'". BBC
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[74] Sepe, K Sctt, Ec (26 Octobe 2014). Msses

of ISIS May Pose Pe fo Aces . The New York
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Times.
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t-cas-ad-cacet-te-sac-state-expads-ts-epe
[75] A Qaeda Mtats Captue US Bac Ha Hecoptes
I Ia . Zeo Hedge. 10 Jue 2014. Reteed 14 Jue
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be 2014). Isac State Expadg to Not Afca .
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[58] ISIS coes to Lbya . CNN. 18 Noebe 2014. Reteed 20 Noebe 2014.
[76] Lae, E Dette, Jae De Vsse, Naette (11 Jue

2014). Ia s Teosts Ae Becog a Fu-Bo
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copaed t te Ia ay ad te Kuds pesega?". The Guardian. Reteed 14 Jue 2014.
[60] Egypta tat goup pedges oyaty to Isac State

audo cp . Reutes. 10 Noebe 2014. Reteed 11
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[78] Isac State tag pots to y tee ets Sya

oto . Reutes. 17 Octobe 2014. Reteed 17 Octobe 2014.
[61] Taba spte goup Pasta os aegace to

ISIS . al-akhbar. 18 Noebe 2014. Reteed 19
Noebe 2014.
[79] Sya says soots do to of tee Isac State ets .

Reutes. 22 Octobe 2014. Reteed 22 Octobe 2014.
[62] Pateo Easue II (17 Septebe 2014). Pppes

codes, os to 'tat' ISIS . Rappe. Reteed 19
Septebe 2014.
[63] Isgt Ito Ho Isugets Fougt Ia . The New
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[80] Coe, Aa (10 Juy 2014). Lo-Gade Nucea Matea Is Sezed by Rebes Ia, U.N. Says . The New
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30
[82] Does ISIL/ISIS Pose Ceca Teat?

Gee Coss .
[83] A Jazeea ad ageces. Ias say ISIL used coe

gas attacs . Reteed 6 Noebe 2014.
[84] Te Gog ISIS Asea, Pt. 1 . therightplanet.com.
[85] Tasato Weapos ad utos dopped by Aeca paes ad aded te aeas cotoed by te Isac State . YouTube. Reteed 6 Noebe 2014.
[86] K Sepe Ad Ec Sctt (26 Octobe 2014).
Msses of ISIS May Pose Pe fo Aces Ia .
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[87] Isac State uses US-ade at-ta sse ea
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us-ade_at.ppxzz3NOd3W00
[88] Ia css UN 'depoes tats captue of ctes . 12
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[89] Iss decaes capate Ia ad Sya . 30 Jue 2014.
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[90] Ia css Iss adsts 'seze Sadda Husse s ceca eapos stocpe' e . 19 Jue 2014. Reteed 3
Juy 2014.
[91] ISIS Attac ad captue US Huees . 17 Jue 2014.
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[92] ISIS ods tay paade Mosu .
Noebe 2014.
Reteed 6
[93] Iss s Weapo Ietoy Gos . Daily Sabah. 7 August

2014.
[94] ISIL captues 52 U.S. ade otzes . The Washington
Times. 2014-07-15. Reteed 2014-09-13.
[95] MEI Edto s Bog Te Fgt fo Saaa dd ISIS Use
a Hecopte?". Mdde East Isttute Edto s Bog.
[96] BBC Nes Isac State 'tag pots to y gte
ets ". BBC Nes.
[97] Iss Sya Nes Ia Pots 'Tag Iss Fgtes to Fy
Captued Paes . International Business Times UK.
[98] No ISIS as does?". CNN. 24 August 2014.
[99] Footage Fo a ISIS Doe . NYTimes.com Video.
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[100] I bzae e deo, Isac State ostage ges tou of
Kobae . Washington Post.
[101] ISIS We Nabbed a Iaa Doe . The Daily Beast.
[102]
"
"
"
.""
"
Syrian
Observatory for Human Rights. Reteed 28 Noebe
2014.
Chapter 3
Islamic Front (Syria)

Not to be cofused t Isac Coato (Sya).
Hos-based La a-Ha (foey pat of Sya

Isac Fot)[20]
Te Islamic Front (Aabc , al-Jabhat al Idb-based Suou a-Sa (foey pat of te

Islmiyyah) s a ege of see ebe goups oed
Sya Isac Lbeato Fot)[20]
te Sya c a[3] tat as aouced o 22 Noebe 2013.[13] A aoyous spoesa fo te goup
Daascus-based Jays a-Isa[19] (foey pat of
as stated tat t ot ae tes t te Sya NaSya Isac Lbeato Fot)[20]
[14]
toug a ebe of te potca
toa Coato,
Asa a-Sa (foey pat of te Sya Isac
bueau of te goup, Aad Musa, as stated tat e
Fot)[20]
opes fo ecogto fo te Sya Natoa Couc
coopeato fo at e suggested te Sya peope
Kuds Isac Fot
at. Tey at a eouto ad ot potcs ad fo[15]
Te goup s dey see as baced ad
eg agedas.
aed by Saud Aaba.[16][17][18]
Te Sya Isac Fot teeted tat t ad dsbaded
ad ts copoet goups oud eeby opeate ude te
Isac Fot.[21] Not a goups te Sya Isac Lbeato Fot oed te Isac Fot, atoug ay of
3.1 History
te ey eades of te SILF dd. Te Sya Isac Lbeato Fot aouced ts dssouto o 26 Noebe
3.1.1 Founding
2013.[22]
Te eadesp of te Isac Fot at te te of
ts foudg as aouced as Sua Couc Leade
Aed Abu Issa (Suou a-Sa), Deputy Sua Couc Leade Abu Oa Heta (La a-Tad), Geea
Secetay Se Abu Rateb (La a-Ha), Saa Ofce Abu-Abbas a-Sa (Aa as-Sa), Potca
O ce Hassa Abboud (Aa as-Sa) ad Mtay
O ce Zaa Aous (Jays a-Isa)[23]
Video released on 22 November 2013 showing the formation of

the Islamic Front. Ahmed Abu Issa (center) speaking
O 22 Noebe 2013, see Isast goups ageed to a

pact tat oud dssoe te goups dduay ad ead
to te foato of te Isac Fot. Te goups ee
Aeppo s agest opposto gtg foce A-Tad
Bgade[19] (foey pat of te Sya Isac Lbeato Fot)
Saa st Aa as-Sa[19] (foey pat of te
Sya Isac Fot)[20]
A La a-Tad ebe sad te od aes dsappea ad te goups o et [sic] to te e

ege. Tee be o suc tg as La a-Tad.
Te ead of te goup s Cosutate Couc, Aad Essa
a-Se, sad te goup sougt a paadg sft te
aed ebeo by cosg as ad obsg te
to becoe te ea ateate to te dyg ege. He
added tat te goup oud coopeate t at t caed
oya gtes te couty, cudg te Fee Sya Ay (FSA).[15] Hoee o 3 Decebe 2013 tey
tde fo te coad of te FSA ad ctczed
ts eadesp.[24] O 6 Decebe 2013, gtes fo
te Isac Fot sezed seea FSA bases ad depots
at te Bab a-Haa cossg.[24] Ts caused co ct betee te to goups tat asted ut ate Decebe
2013.[24]
31
32
CHAPTER 3. ISLAMIC FRONT (SYRIA)
3.1.2 Background
of edg te c a.[32] Oe ebe of te potca

asseby of te goup as stated tat te Isac Fot
Te ege fooed te deat of La a-Tad s - coud accept Sya as a deocacy, as og as saa s
tay eade, Abdu Qade Sae, fo ouds a ee ea- soeeg .[33]
e foog a a ste Aeppo, ee e as eetg ote eades.[1] A goup ebe, Ad Fsto, sad
te ege pag as te os fo see ots
3.3 O cial Goals and Guiding
Fsto stated tat Oe of te ao obstaces e faced
Principles of the Islamic Front
as te ust fo poe by soe eades. But eetuay
eeyoe ade cocessos ode to ae ts poect
and Its Allies
appe. Accodg to , te pay caege as a
ac of oey ad eapos.[15] It as bee estated by
Caes Lste of IHS Jae s tat te tota aout of gt- Reoutoay foces ae fuy aae of te gaty of te
cuet stuato ou bessed eouto s gog toug,
es te Isac Fot as ay ube up to 45,000.[3]
ad te pusut of ufyg e ots ad og foces
t a coo faeo tat sees te teests of
te Sya peope, tese foces co te cotet
3.1.3 Later events
to te foog
I Decebe 2013, te Isac Fot sezed te FSA
eaduates, aog t ey suppy aeouses
Ate, as e as te eaby bode cossg t Tuey
at Bab a-Haa. FSA Cef-of-Sta Bgade Geea
Sa Ids ed a Tuey to Doa, Qata, dug te
assaut.[25] Hoee, te FSA deed tat Ids ad eft
Sya, ad sad tat te Isac Fot as ased to ep te
FSA gt agast te Isac State of Ia ad te Leat.[26] Te FSA co ed o 13 Decebe 2013 tat
te Isac Fot ad obtaed ace gus ad auto tat ee ot supposed to be te possesso of
te Isasts.[27] Late tat ot, oee, te Isac
Fot ad te Fee Sya Ay ecoced.[28]
1. Te cotos ad ts of eoutoay o ae deed fo ou autetc ego, aodg fudaetas ad adcas.

2. Te Sya eouto s utate potca goa s to
oeto te cuet ege t a ts sybos ad
foudatos ad to bg te to ustce fa tas,
tout acts of egeace o etaato.
3. Te ege tat cots teos agast ou peope toug egua ad egua foces, aog t a
te pates suppotg te suc as te eceaes fo
Ia, Ia, ad Hezboa, ad a tose o cay out
aggesso agast ou peope ad ex-coucate te
(apostasy), suc as ISIS, ae tay tagets fo te eoBy eay 2014, te Isac Fot ad codeed te ac- uto. Mtay actos be ted to Sya tetoy.
tos of te Isac State of Ia ad te Leat ad
soe factos t te aace attaced t.[29] Seea 4. Oetog te ege s a coaboate etepse
Isac Fot bgades, cudg Suou a-Sa ad by d eet eoutoay foces. Based o te aaeAa as-Sa, deeoped tea dsos o o to ess of tese foces of te egoa ad teatoa do ee ete to cofot te Isac State of Ia ad esos of te Sya css, e ecoe te oppotuty
te Leat.[30] O 9 Septebe 2014, Hassa Abboud, to coucate ad coopeate t egoa ad teate Isac Fot s potca eade, ad Abu Abduae toa pates to so sodaty t te Sya peope
a-Sae, te ead of te Isac Fot s Saa Couc, a ay tat sees te teests of te eouto.
ee ed aog t ay ote seo Aa as-Sa 5. Te peseato of Sya tetoa tegty ad te
coades, a ISIL-stgated sucde bob attac peeto, by a attaabe eas, of ay poect aed
o a g-ee eetg te Idb poce.[4][31]
at ddg tese tetoes s a o-egotabe eoutoay pcpe.
6. Ou eoutoay foces, te tay opeatos,
ey o Sya eeets oy ad beee tat te tay
ad potca decsos soud be etey Sya, eectg
Te Isac Fot eeased ts cate o te Iteet ay type of a ato t foeg ettes.
ate Noebe 2013, outg ts as ad obectes, 7. Te Sya peope a to estabs a state of a, feeatoug te docuet aoded podg a cea so do, ad ustce, tout ay sot of pessue o dctaof te futue.[32] Te Isac Fot s cate eects te tosp.
cocepts of epesetate deocacy ad secuas, stead seeg to estabs a Isac state ued by a 8. Te Sya eouto s a eouto based o oas
Mas-as-Sua ad peetg saa. It aco- ad aues ose obecte s to obta feedo, ustce,
edges te etc ad egous otes tat e Sya, ad secuty fo a sectos of Sya socety, t ts de aso ecog te foeg gtes o ae oed ese ut-etc ad ut-sect soca fabc.
te at-Assad foces ad eectg o-tay eas 9. Te Sya eouto s cotted to te espect of
3.2
Objectives
33
3.5. REFERENCES
ua gts c s aso ecouaged by ou autetc
ego.
[9] Feedo, Hua Rgts, Rue of La Te Goas ad

Gudg Pcpes of te Isac Fot ad Its Aes .
Democratic Revolution, Syrian Style. 17 May 2014. Reteed 17 May 2014.
10. Reoutoay foces stogy code te ege s

tagetg of cas ad ecug use of eapos of
ass destucto (WMD) agast te ca popuato. [10] Aeppo secod ee of bacout aed at tg bae bobs . Te Day Sta. 26 Ap 2014. Reteed 22
Reoutoay foces ste to eep cas out of te
May 2014.
cce of oece ad ae y cotted toads tat
ed. Tese foces ee used suc eapos te past [11] Cases eeed betee Isast goups ea Sya s
ad eteate at te sae te te absece of ay WMD
Hasaa . ARA Nes. 18 Mac 2014. Reteed 9
te possesso.
Noebe 2014.
11. A tat s ecoeed by te ege s te afu pop- [12] Sya ebes ute ad auc e eot, agast ety of te Sya peope ad t be used ad adadsts . AFP. 4 Jauay 2014. Reteed 28 Ap 2014.
steed by eoutoay foces ode to fu te peope s deads fo bgg do te ege. Vey e [13] Sx Isast factos ute agest Sya ebe ege .
Reutes. 22 Noebe 2013. Reteed 22 Noebe
ca upo a ote eoutoay foces o Sya te2013.
toy to sg ts coeat ode to be oe ad ou
stugge to toppe te ege.
[14] Sees of Sya Mus ebe bgades say tey'e ued ude ae of te 'Isac Fot'". Edmonton JourTs coeat sged by
nal. Assocated Pess. 22 Noebe 2013. Reteed 22
Noebe 2013.
Aad a-Sa Isac Uo
[15] Atass, Basa (22 Noebe 2013). Mao Sya ebe

goups o foces . A Jazeea Egs. Reteed 7 Decebe 2013.
Ay of Muaedee
Sa Lego
[16] Sya FSA fades sado of Saud-baced opposto

fot, A-Moto, 11 Decebe 2013
Aeat A-Fua
Isac Fot[9]
3.4
[17] Sya s Saud Jadst Pobe, Daily Beast, 16 Decebe

2013
[18] A-Qaeda ad ISIS Te Reucato of Abu Ba aBagdad, Al Akhbar, 4 Febuay 2014
See also
3.5
[20] A Poe Moe by Sya s Rebe Foces . Isttute fo te

Study of Wa. 22 Noebe 2013. Reteed 5 Decebe
2013.
References
[1] Sya Isast ebe factos ege Spoesa . AFP.

22 Noebe 2013. Reteed 22 Noebe 2013.
[2] Mcae Wess (8 Jauay 2014). Has saa t te fa
Sya?". NOW Nes. Reteed 10 Jauay 2014.
[3] Leadg Sya ebe goups fo e Isac Fot .
BBC. 22 Noebe 2013. Reteed 22 Noebe 2013.
[4] Sya ebe eade ed sucde bast . Al Jazeera English. 9 Septebe 2014. Reteed 9 Septebe 2014.
[5] Rcad Ha (9 Jauay 2014).
goups . Reutes.
[19] Isasts foge Sya s ebe aace . MSN NZ. 23

Noebe 2013. Reteed 22 Noebe 2013.
Factbox Sya s ebe
[6] ttp//.foegpocy.co/atces/2014/03/04/
sac_fot_ss_sya
[21] Sya Isac Fot o Ttte . Reteed 28 Noebe 2013.

[22] Stateet of te Isac Fot fo te beato of
Sya . Sya Isac Lbeato Fot. Reteed 4 Decebe 2013.
[23] Say Heo to te Isac Fot . Caege Edoet
fo Iteatoa Peace. 22 Noebe 2013. Reteed
19 May 2014.
[24] Dzadosz, Aexade Afaasea, Dasa (7 Decebe
Sya Isasts seze Weste-baced ebe
2013).
bases otog goup . Reutes. Reteed 12 Decebe 2013.
[7] Aeppo Sya s Stagad?". National Interest. 22 Ap

2014. Reteed 22 May 2014.
[25] Top U.S.-baced Coade Sya Ru Out, U.S.

O cas Say . The Wall Street Journal. 12 Decebe
2013.
[8] Te Leat Fot Ca Aeppo s Rebes Ute?".

Caege Edoet fo Iteatoa Peace. 26 Decebe 2014. Reteed 26 Decebe 2014.
[26] Sya ebes dey epots top coade foced to

ee . Reutes. 12 Decebe 2013. Reteed 12 Decebe 2013.
34
CHAPTER 3. ISLAMIC FRONT (SYRIA)
[27] Vogad, Cassada (13 Decebe 2013). Sya ebes

Isac tats abbed ou eapos . Assocated Pess.
[28] Dc, Ma (17 Decebe 2014). FSA aace puses
bac agast Isac Fot . Day Sta. Reteed 8 Jauay 2014.
[29] Lud, Ao (8 Jauay 2014). Pusg Bac Agast te
Isac State of Ia ad te Leat Te Isac Fot .
Caege Edoet fo Iteatoa Peace. Reteed
8 Jauay 2014.
[30] Hassa Hassa (4 Mac 2014). Fot to Bac . Foeg
Pocy. Reteed 5 Mac 2014.
[31] Sya s Aa a-Sa Leadesp Wped Out Bobg . Carnegie Endowment of International Peace. 9
Septebe 2014. Reteed 10 Septebe 2014.
[32] Ne ebe aace ats Sya as 'Isac State'". AFP
es agecy. 26 Noebe 2013. Reteed 16 Decebe 2014.
[33] Assad destoyed Sya ad apuated te popuato
Rebe eade . ARA Nes. Reteed 21 May 2014.
3.6
External links
Isac Fot o Ttte (Aabc)
Chapter 4
Free Syrian Army

Not to be cofused t Sya Ay.
Te Free Syrian Army (Aabc , alJaysh as-Sr al- urr, FSA) s a goup of defected Sya
Aed Foces o ces ad sodes,[14][15] fouded dug
te Sya upsg o c a o 29 Juy 2011[16] by
e[15] o see defected Sya o ces.[16][17] Te goup
de ed a [Sya] secuty foces attacg cas as
te eees,[16][17] ad sad ts goa to be to bg do
te syste [16] o to bg ts ege do .[15]
O 23 Septebe 2011, te Fee Sya Ay eged
t te Fee O ces Moeet (Aabc
, arakat a - ubb al-A rr) Weste obsees
e The Wall Street Journal cosdeed te FSA sce
te te a tay defectos goup.[18][19][20] 90 pecet of te FSA cossts of Su Muss,[21] but a sa
oty ae (Sa) Aates[21] ad soe Duze fougt
FSA uts,[22] soe FSA uts ae ed by Duze.[23]
As fo fute etc otes, a Paesta ebe coade te Yaou ecae soute Daascus
2012 cosdeed s ebe bgade to be pat of FSA.[24]
Te FSA coodated t te Sya Natoa Couc statg Decebe 2011,[25] ad suppoted te
Natoa Coato fo Sya Reoutoay ad Opposto Foces afte te coato s Noebe 2012
ceato.[26] Betee Juy 2012 ad Juy 2013, dscpe ad gtg eaeed FSA, e adst
goups eteed ote Sya ad becae oe e ecte
ta FSA.[27] I Ap 2013, te US posed 123 o ad to ebes, to be fueed toug te te eade
of te FSA, Sa Idss.[28] Sce Febuay 2014, AbduIa a-Bas s te appoted Cef of Sta ad eade of
te FSA.[2] A coato of odeate Mus ebe goups
gtg ude te Supee Mtay Couc of Sya,
c cudes te FSA, o 25 Septebe 2014 aed
t a pedoaty Csta coato caed Syac
Mtay Couc, to ute te gt agast te Assad
goeet ad te Isac State of Ia ad te Leat
(ISIL).[10]
sout (Daaa ad Houa), te east (Day a-Za, Abu

Kaa), ad te Daascus aea, t te agest cocetato of foces, e battaos o oe, Hos,
Haa ad suoudg aeas.[30][31] By Noebe 2014,
a gog coato of 58 US-baced goups, te Soute Fot of te Fee Sya Ay, as gag tetoy
sout of Daascus soute Sya.[32][33] Te FSA s
acte pocets of Aeppo[34] ad s tag pat te
ogog defese of Koba.[35]
4.1 History
See aso Fee Sya Ay opeatos ad Ctes ad
tos dug te Sya c a
4.1.1 Background of desertions

Te st defectos fo te Sya ay dug te
Sya upsg ay ae occued ed of Ap 2011
e te ay as set to Daaa to ue ogog
potests. Tee ee epots tat soe uts efused to
e o potestes ad ad spt fo te ay.[36] Vdeo
footage soed cas epg defectg sodes o
ad bee sot fo efusg odes.[37]
Defectos, accodg to ue ed epots, cotued
tougout te spg as te goeet used eta foce
to cap do o potestes ad ay sege to potestg ctes acoss te couty, suc as Bayas, Haa,
Taaa, ad De ez-Zo, ad tee ee epots of sodes o efused to e o cas ad ee suay
executed by te ay.[38]
I Octobe 2011, Aeca tegece souces gae estates of 10,000 Sya desetes.[39]
Weste souces Decebe 2011 aga gae estates

of 10,000 Sya desetes, dcated tat af te Sya
ay coscpts ad ot epoted to ay duty te ast
At te outset of te c a, te FSA opeated tougtee ca-ups, ad tat oe-ee o ces ee desetout Sya, bot uba aeas ad te coutysde,[29]
g age ubes soe cases, oe uts ad de te otest (Idb, Aeppo), te ceta ego
seted en masse.[40] A aoyousy speag U.S. o (Hos, Haa, A-Rasta), te coast aoud Lataa, te
ca oee estated Decebe 2011 1,000 to 3,500
35
36
CHAPTER 4. FREE SYRIAN ARMY
defectos tota.[41]
Fee Sya Ay, t te goas of potectg uaed

O 7 Jauay 2012, Cooe Afeef Maoud Suea potestes ad epg to bg do ts ege , a
Rad a-Asaad spoe aogof te Sya A Foce ogstcs dso defected fo deo o te Iteet ee[16][50]
sde
seea
ote
defectos.
Basa A Assad s ege aog t at east fty of s
e. He aouced s goup s defecto o e tee- A-Asaad expaed tat te Fee Ay s foato eso ad odeed s e to potect potestes te cty suted fo te defectg sodes sese of atoastc
of Haa. Cooe Suea a stateet decaed We duty, oyaty to te peope, te eed fo decse acto
ae fo te ay ad e ae defected because te go- to stop goeet gs, ad te ay s esposbty
eet s g ca potestes. Te Sya ay at- to potect uaed peope. He poceeded to aouce
taced Haa t eay eapos, a ads ad eay e te foato of te Fee Sya Ay, ad ts teto
fo tas We as te Aab League obsees to coe to o ad ad t te peope ad t deost aeas a ected by a ads ad attacs so you ca see statos to acee feedo ad dgty, bg te gote daage t you o eyes, ad e as you to sed eet ( te ege"/"te syste ) do, potect te
soeoe to ucoe te tee ceetees Haa ed eouto ad te couty s esouces, ad stad te
t oe ta 460 copses. [42] A opposto bogge face of te esposbe tay ace tat potects
o 16 Jauay aouced Geea Moua ac Haze te syste .[15][50]
te cty of Qusay Hos poce to ae defected to Asaad caed o te o ces ad e of te Sya ay
te opposto.[43]
to defect fo te ay, stop potg te es at te
Aoud 18 Febuay 2012, Geea Fayez Ao of te
Sya a foce, o as fo te Bab A dstct
Hos ad of Tue og, defected to Tuey. Aote tegece geea fo te Sya ay aso defected at ts te to Tuey. Hs ae as ot dscosed
due to secuty easos, opposto foces sad.[44] 22
Febuay, a bgade geea defected Idb t 200
of s sodes.[45] I Mac, Geea Ada Fazat fo
te cty of Rasta ad to ote geeas defected.[46][47]
Tus goeet souces epoted tat sae ot
a suge desetos t 20,000 desetos te past
ot aoe bgg te tota ube of desetes fo
te Sya ay to oe 60,000 sodes.[48]
peope s cests, o te fee ay, ad fo a atoa

ay tat ca potect te eouto ad a sectos of
te Sya peope t a te sects. He sad tat te
Sya ay "[epesets] gags tat potect te ege ,
ad decaed tat as of o, te secuty foces tat
cas ad besege ctes be teated as egtate
tagets. We taget te a pats of te Sya
tetoes tout excepto. [50]
4.1.3 AugustDecember 2011
Sce te Sya sue of 2011 tee as a steady o

of defectos to te Fee Sya Ay, docueted
By Juy 2012, tee ee oe 100,000 defectos fo te defecto deos.[51][52] Opeatos of FSA ee odest
aed foces epoted, accodg to actst ad eda foog ts foato ate Juy 2011, but gaduay
souces.[49]
expaded. As deseted goeet sodes ad o aoed eces ad oy gt eapoy ad utos,
FSA August Octobe 2011 osty abused secuty
4.1.2 Formation FSA, July 2011
foces ad te state s Saba (gost) ta, ad attaced
tucs ad buses bgg secuty efoceets by
patg bobs o t t-ad-u attacs, but sedo
cofoted ote egua ay sodes.[21]
O 23 Septebe 2011, te Fee Sya Ay eged
t te Fee O ces Moeet (Aabc
, arakat a - ubb al-A rr) Weste obsees
e The Wall Street Journal cosdeed te FSA sce
te te a tay defectos goup.[18][19][20]
By Octobe 2011, te FSA oud stat to ecee tay suppot fo Tuey, o aoed te ebe ay
to opeate ts coad ad eaduates fo te couty s soute Hatay poce cose to te Sya bode,
ad ts ed coad fo sde Sya.[53] I a e ot
to eae te po-Assad foces, te Fee Ay eeased
a stateet d-Noebe c aouced tat a
Colonel Riad al-Asaad and others announcing the FSA s formatepoay tay couc ad bee foed.[54] I Detion in an online video statement.
cebe 2001, te FSA coodated t te Sya NaO 29 Juy 2011, Cooe Rad a-Asaad ad a goup toa Couc.[25] Dug te 2011/2012 Sya te,
of ufoed o ces aouced te foato of te te FSA cotued to aouce te foato of e
37
4.1. HISTORY
ay uts, pubcy decag to Basa a-Assad tat
you d us eeyee at a tes, ad you
see tat c you do ot expect, ut e e-estabs
te gts ad feedo of ou peope. [55]
at a ge te.[62] O 24 Mac 2012, te Fee Sya Ay uted t te Hge Mtay Couc. Te

goups ageed to put te d eeces bed te, ad
a stateet sad Fst, e decded to ute a te
tay coucs ad battaos ad a te aed battaos sde te couty ude oe u ed eadesp of te
Fee Sya Ay ad to foo te odes of te coade of te FSA, Co. Rad a-Asaad. [63]
I May 2012, te ead of te Uted Natos, Ba Koo, sad tat te Fee Sya Ay cotoed sgfcat pats of soe ctes.[64] By Jue 2012, CNN estated te [Sya] opposto foces (c s ot te
sae as te FSA ) to ae go to 40,000 e.[65]
4.1.6 JulyDecember 2012, weakening, reorganization
The FSA operates throughout Syria, both in urban areas and in

the countryside.
4.1.4 January 2012, high-ranked o cers

O 6 Jauay 2012, Geea Mustafa a-Se of te
Sya Ay defected fo te goeet foces to o
te FSA.[57] Geea Mustafa a-Se tod Reutes tat
up to 20,000 sodes tota ad deseted te ay sce
te begg of te co ct, ad tat te FSA ad tae
coto of age sates of ad. He sad a tee o 12 Jauay 2012 If e get 25,000 to 30,000
desetes outg guea afae sa goups of
sx o see t s eoug to exaust te ay a yea
to a yea-ad-a-af, ee f tey ae aed oy t
ocet-popeed geades ad gt eapos , ad aso
etoed tat te aoty of ay desetes ad goe
to be t te faes, ate ta o te ebeo.[58]
O 29 Jauay, tee ee epots of a e oud of gag defectos afte te Sya Ay as depoyed
to gt te Daascus sububs, soe of te og
FSA. At east to geeas ad udeds of sodes t
te eapos defected at ts te.[59][60][61]
4.1.5 MarchJune 2012, union with HMC

I Mac 2012, to epotes of The New York Times tessed a FSA attac t a oadsde bob ad AK-47
es o a cou of aoed Sya tas Saab
Idb Goeoate, ad eaed tat FSA ad a stoc of
abe, taed sodes ad ex-o ces, ogazed to soe
exted, but ee tout te eapos to put up a eastc gt. FSA gtes caed to o ad coto te
bac oads te coutysde, but aso adtted tat o
oe e fo ceta ee te Sya Ay oud be
An FSA ghter engaged in a re ght in Aleppo
Betee Juy 2012 ad Juy 2013, -dscpe ad

gtg eaeed te FSA.[27] Meae, adst
goups eteed ote Sya ad becae oe e ecte ta FSA.[27] Te FSA Septebe 2012 oed
ts coad eaduates fo soute Tuey to ebecotoed tetoy of ote Sya.[66]
Afte te ceato of te Natoa Coato fo Sya
Reoutoay ad Opposto Foces Noebe 2012,
te FSA suppoted tat coato.[26] O 7 Decebe
2012, about 260 to 550 coades ad epesetates of te Sya aed opposto et Ataya ad
eected a e 30-peso tay couc fo te FSA.
Cooe Rad a-Asaad, o as ot peset at te eetg, etaed s foa oe as Coade--Cef but
ost e ecte poe to Bgade Geea Sa Ids, o
as eected as te e Cef of Sta of te FSA ad effecte eade. Secuty o cas fo te Uted States,
Uted Kgdo, Face, te Guf Coopeato Couc ad Joda ee peset at te eetg.[3][4][67] About
to-tds of tose eected to te e coad ee
dduas assocated t te Mus Boteood
Sya. A-Nusa Fot ad Aa as-Sa ee ot ted to te eetg.[3] Toso Reutes stated tat te
e Cef of Sta Ge. Sa Ids s ot deoogca ,
e to of s e deputy coades, Abdebasset
38
Ta fo Idb Goeoate ad Abdeade Sae fo
Aeppo Goeoate ae Isast.[4] The Hu ngton Post
stated tat te FSA coad "[appeaed] to at to sdee extest goups tat ae bee payg a bgge oe
ecet ots ad tat tee oud be a tota of e
deputy coades assocated t e d eet egos
of Sya.[3]
4.1.7 2013

be 2013 tat, cotast t a-Nusa Fot, te goups
aged t FSA ee becog ceasgy coupt.[70]
11 Decebe 2013, U.S o cas sad tat FSA s Geea
Ids as de out of s eaduates ote Sya
by te Isac Fot ad as exe Doa, Qata.[71]
Bot Ids ad ote FSA spoese deed ts,[72] ad
t 24 ous te U.S. tde ts stoy, sayg t ad
sce eaed tat Ids ad bee Tuey tougout te
cuso of Isac Fot.[73]
4.1.8 2014
I Ap 2013, te US aouced t oud tasfe 123

o oeta ad to Sya ebes toug te I Febuay 2014, Cooe Qasse Saadedde of te
Supee Mtay Coad ed by defected geea FSA aouced tat Cef of Sta Ids ad bee eSa Idss, te te Cef of Sta of FSA.[28]
paced t Bgade Geea Abdu-Ia a-Bas, due
FSA as Ap May 2013 osg gtes to Isast to te paayss t te tay coad tese past
ogasato A-Nusa Fot c as eegg as te ots. [2]
best-eupped, aced ad otated at-Assad foce. Abu Yusaf, a g-ee coade of Isac State of
FSA coade Basa sad tat te ast fe ots Ia ad te Leat (ISIL), sad August 2014, tat
3,000 FSA gtes ad goe oe to a-Nusa, ay ay of te FSA ebes o ad bee taed by
because FSA acs eapos ad auto. Aote Uted States ad Tus ad Aab tay o ces
FSA coade sad tat aso te Isac docte of a- ee o actuay og ISIL. I te East of Sya,
Nusa attacts FSA gtes. A Weste dpoate payed tee s o Fee Sya Ay ay oge. A Fee Sya
do suggestos as tat Nusa oud be ceae, bette Ay peope [tee] ae oed te Isac State, e
ad stoge gtes ae og fo oe goup to a- sad.[74]
ote , but you ca t say tat Nusa as geea oe
O 12 Septebe 2014, subub Haa a-Asad ust 4
oetu ta otes, e ataed.[68]
sout of te cete of Daascus, odeate ad IsI May 2013, Sa Idss, te FSA eade, sad tat ast ebe goups ae sged a o-aggesso ageete ebes ee bady fageted ad aced te - et t ISIL, epoted te Sya Obseatoy fo
tay s eeded to toppe te goeet of Pesdet Hua Rgts. Uspec ed ote souces teefoe
Basa a-Assad. Idss sad e as og o a cou- ueabe ae sad to ae caed tat te sgg otyde coad stuctue, but tat a ac of atea ISIL goups beoged to te FSA.[75]
suppot auto ad eapos, fue fo te cas ad
oey fo ogstcs ad saaes as utg tat e ot. A coato of odeate Mus ebe goups gtg uTe battes ae ot so spe o, Idss sad. No de te Supee Mtay Couc of Sya, c t s ey potat fo te to be u ed. But ufyg cudes te FSA, o 25 Septebe 2014 at a eetg
te a ae to o e a egua ay s st d - Tuey factated by te U.S. House Foeg A as
cut. He deed ay coopeato t A-Nusa Fot but Cottee ad te Wasgto-based Sya Eegecy
acoedged coo opeatos t aote Isast Tas Foce, sged a ageeet t a pedoaty
Csta coato caed te Syac Mtay Couc, to
goup Aa as-Sa.[28]
ute te gt agast te Assad goeet ad te
Te got of a-Nusa Fot ad ote Isast goups, Isac State of Ia ad te Leat (ISIL).[10]
te st af of 2013, dsusoed tousads of FSA e
o fet tat te o eouto agast te goeet
as bee stoe fo te.[69] I aeas of Hos poce,
4.2 Strategy
gtg betee FSA ad te Sya ay ad tuay
ceased.[69]
Te Fee Sya Ay as to be te tay g of
O 11 Juy 2013, a FSA o ce as assassated by a te Sya peope s opposto to te ege ,[76] ad t
adst goup, ot of Lataa.[27] Md-August 2013, a as to bg do te goeet by aed opeatos,
deegato of FSA et t a o ca of Pesdet As- ecouagg ay defectos ad by cayg out aed
sad, to suggest tas betee goeet ad FSA about acto.[50] As te Sya ay s gy ogazed ad
a Sya souto to te a.[69] Te goeet ac- e-aed, te Fee Sya Ay as adopted gueacepted ts poposa fo a daogue t te Sya stye tactcs te coutysde ad ctes. Te FSA s
oead . Sx ees ate, see ebe-ed aeas of tay stategy s focused o a dspesed coutyde
Aeppo, c epoyees coud etu to o, ad go- guea capag t a tactca focus o aed aceet sttutos ad scoos coud eope.[69]
to te capta of Daascus. Te capag s ot
Locas ea te Tus bode copaed Noe- eat to od tetoy, but ate, to spead goeet
39
4.3. WEAPONS
4.3 Weapons
See aso Lst of tay eupet used by Sya opposto foces
Te Fee Sya Ay s ay aed t AK-47s,
FSA soldiers plan during the Battle of Aleppo (October 2012).
foces ad te ogstcs cas t battes fo uba

cetes, to cause attto te secuty foces, to degade oae, ad to destabze Daascus, te cete of
FSA soldiers cleaning their AK-47s during the Battle of Aleppo
goeet.[77]
(October 2012).
Te Fee Sya Ay s aed actos focus o te goeet s cobat adatages, c cude te abty to
out coodated opeatos o a age scae, te abty
to oe ts foces at , ad te abty to epoy eay
epoe.[78] To coute tese adatages, te FSA as
outed attacs o te goeet s coad ad coto ad ogstca fastuctue. A sabotage capag
as begu Sya, t epots of attacs o d eet goeet assets. Te FSA as outed attacs
o secuty sece coad cetes, ad posts foato o Sya soca eda stes about bocg oads,
attacg ogstcs eces, cuttg coaxa coucatos cabes secg a eds, destoyg teecoucatos toes, sabotagg goeet eces by sugag fue tas, ad attacg aays ad ppees.[79][80]
Te Fee Sya Ay o te oca ee egages ad
abuses te state s saba ta[21] ad cofots te
ay dug c t ecouages defectos.[81] Soe
ebes of te Fee Sya Ay ae stated tat te
ogazato does ot ae te esouces to occupy ad
tae coto of tetoes, ad stead ees pay
o t ad u attacs to popt te Sya ay to
tdag.[82] Te FSA aso uses posed expose deces to attac tay cooys of buses, tucs
ad tas tat ae taspotg suppes ad secuty efoceets ad egages attac ad eteat opeatos
o goeet cecpots.[21][83] I egbooods opposed to te goeet, te FSA as acted as a defese foce, guadg steets e potests tae pace
ad attacg te tas, o as saba, c ae
a tega pat of te goeet s e ots to suppess
dsset.[84] I De ez-Zo, A-Rasta, Abu Kaa ad
ote ctes te Fee Sya Ay, oee, egaged
steet battes tat aged fo days t o patcua sde
gag te adatage.[21] Te FSA as aso sougt teatoa ep bgg do te Assad goeet. It
as ased te teatoa couty fo as ad te
peetato of a o y zoe ad aa bocade of
Sya[20]
DSKs ad RPG-7s.[85] As defectg sodes ac a

coe, desetg sodes ae to abado te aoued
eces. Sodes defect cayg oy te ay ssued gt as ad de ctes, sububs o te coe
of te coutysde.[21] Besdes AK-47s, soe FSA sodes aso ae M16s, Stey AUGs, FN FALs, SVDs
ad sotgus,[86] G3 Batte R es,[87] ad PK ace
gus.[88] Potos ae sufaced of soe ebes usg saaged StG 44 assaut es.[89] Te FSA as a fe eay
eapos captued fo te Sya goeet. I Febuay 2012, deo footage as posted oe sog a
captued goeet ta, beg used Hos by FSA
foces. Te ta caed Sya opposto ags ad as
see g t aed e ca cotes tag coe
bed t.[90] A FSA spoesa as sad tat te ogazato eceed tee tas fo a goup of 100 desetes
fo te Sya ay.[61] Te FSA as aso epotedy
acued a ube of at-acaft sses.[91]
Te Fee Sya Ay as ecety begu aufactug
ts o otas ad ocets.[92]
Rads o goeet cecpots ad as depots
ae caed out to suppy te FSA t uc of ts
auto ad e as. Te FSA aso pucases
eapos o te Sya bac aet c s supped by
as sugges fo egbog coutes ad coupt
oyast foces seg goeet as. Tee ae bee
epots tat oe as depots ae bee o eed fo sae,
atoug tese o es ee efused because of feas of a
poteta tap.[93][94] FSA gtes ae aso soetes abe
to pucase eapos decty fo ay suppy bases,
poded tat tey ae eoug oey to satsfy te goeet toops guadg te. It s aso epoted tat te
FSA pucases uc of ts eay eapoy fo Ia
as sugges.[95]
Co. Rad Asaad as ased te teatoa couty
to suppy te FSA t as to aeate te ogazato s suppy ssues.[96][97] We ay atos ae bee
40
estat to pode Sya t as out of feas of escaatg te co ct,[98] te ogazato does appea to be
eceg soe outsde as spets. I Ap 2012,
te Lebaese Nay tecepted a Sea Leoe-egsteed
esse cayg a age ube of as ad auto beeed to be dested fo te Fee Sya Ay.
Soe of te as ee abeed as Lbya.[99] Saud Aaba as supped te Fee Sya Ay t eapos fo
Coata.[100]
ate 2011, te FSA estabsed coto oe a ube of

tos ad ages acoss Idb poce.[105][106] Late
Jauay 2012, te Fee Sya Ay succeeded tag
coto of te to of Zabada Daascus poce,
foog tese cases t te egua toops. O
21 Jauay, te FSA tepoay captued te to of
Doua, ea Daascus.[107] Te Fee Sya Ay aso
fo tee ots cotoed aoud to-tds of Hos,
Sya s td agest cty, accodg to Sya tay ofces sde te cty.[108] I Jauay, soe Daascus
I Jue 2013, ebes epoted to ae eceed 250
sububs fe ude pata opposto coto. Fo ex9M113 Kous at-ta sses t a age of 4
[101]
I August 2013, ape, te to of Saba, a easte subub of Daoetes ad accuacy of 90%.
ascus fe ude opposto coto fo a ee ut te
ebes captued a goeet eapos depot ad sezed
MILAN at-ta sses, oe Kous sses, ad FSA as foced to tactcay eteat to te oca popuato afte sustaed eay bobadet by te Sya
BM-21 Gad ocets.[102]
Ay.[109][110] I ate Febuay, te cty of Idb as ude opposto coto, t opposto ags yg te
cty cete.[111]
4.4
Location
I May, Uted Natos otos co ed eda epots tat age aeas of Sya s coutysde ad poca
ctes ee ude de facto FSA o obody s coto.[112]
Te Fee Sya Ay as stated tat t oy as pata
coto oe ts ed aeas, ad tat a ead to ead batte t te Sya ay as uabe ost cases to od
te tetoy. Te FSA s goa as of te as to oose
goeet coto oe aeas, ate ta to pose
coto of ts o.[113]
4.5 Command structure

4.5.1 Head command
Current military situation in the Syrian Civil War.

Controlled by the Syrian Arab Republic
Controlled by Kurdish forces
Controlled by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
Controlled by al-Nusra
Controlled by other rebels
Disputed areas
(For a more detailed map, see Cities and towns during the Syrian
Civil War)
Te Fee Sya Ay opeates tougout Sya, bot

uba aeas ad te coutysde. Foces ae acte
te otest (Idb, Aeppo), te ceta ego (Hos,
Haa, ad Rasta), te sout (Daaa ad Houa), te
east (Day a-Za, Abu Kaa), ad te Daascus aea.
Te agest cocetato of tese foces appeas to be
te ceta ego (Hos, Haa, ad suoudg aeas),
t e o oe battaos acte tee.[30]
Po to Septebe 2012, te Fee Sya Ay opeated ts coad ad eaduates fo Tuey s soute Hatay poce cose to te Sya bode t ed
coades opeatg sde Sya.[97][114] I Septebe
2012, te FSA aouced tat t ad oed ts eaduates to Idb Goeoate sde Sya,[115] c as ate
[71]
Te FSA uses guea afae tactcs e t gts ad oeu by te Isac Fot Decebe 2013.
does ot a to occupy tea oce a gt s oe, o- Te FSA s foa eade s ts Coade--Cef
ee, by ate 2011 age sates of aea Sya ad fae Cooe Rad a-Asaad oee, te ay s e ecte
ude pata coto of te Fee Sya Ay.[103][104] I tay eade s ts Cef of Sta Bgade Geea
4.6. WAR CRIMES ALLEGATIONS

Abdu-Ia a-Bas. Beeat Geea a-Bas tee
ae e deputy cef of sta s o ae cage of e
d eet egos of Sya. To of tese deputy cefs of
sta ae Abdebasset Ta fo Idb Goeoate ad
Abdeade Sae fo Aeppo Goeoate.[3][4]
4.5.2 Regional command

Te Fee Sya Ay as ed uts ocated acoss te
couty. Te ed uts ae ude te dect coad
of e egoa coades c ae based te
poces of Hos, Haa, Idb, De a-Zo, Daascus,
Aeppo ad Lataa. Te egoa coades cude
Cooe Qas Saad a-D o dects tay opeatos Hos poce ad Cooe Kaed a-Habous
o dects tay opeatos te capta. Te egoa coades ae ude te dect opeatoa coad of Cooe Rad Asaad ad od cofeece cas aost day.[118][119][120] Fo tea coucato ad
opeatos, te FSA appeas to ae a extese teet based coucato eto tat state secuty as
ted to peetate.[121][122]
4.5.3 Field units
41
ad cag o te to at tese uafu pactces.[131]
Te Uted Natos-sposoed "Idepedet Iteatoa Cosso of Iuy o te Sya Aab Repubc" as docueted a ces Sya sce te stat
of te c a. It sad tat ebes ad cotted a
ces, but tat tey dd ot eac te gaty, feuecy
ad scae of tose by state foces.[132][133] Soe FSAaged goups ae aso bee ctczed fo te aeged
a ato t Isasts.
Te FSA as bee accused of suay executg ueous psoes o t cas ae goeet sodes
o saba,[134] ad peope o t cas ae foes. A ebe coade Daascus sad tat oe te
ots s ut ad executed peaps 150 peope tat te
tay couc ad foud to be foes. He expaed If a a s accused of beg a foe, e
s udged by te tay couc. Te e s ete executed o eeased .[135] Nad Houy, a Mdde East eseace fo Hua Rgts Watc agued tat Itetoay g ayoe, ee a saba, oce e s outsde of
cobat s a a ce, egadess of o obe te peso ay ae bee .[136] O 10 August 2012, a epot dcated tat Hua Rgts Watc as estgatg ebe
foces fo suc gs. Te FSA, fo ts pat, stated tat
tey oud put tose gtes tat ad coducted te uafu gs o ta.[137]
Te Fee Sya Ay as adopted te co guato ad

tactcs of a guea foce. A typca ed ut suc as
te Te Kaa Matys Bgade ubes betee 300
to 400 gtes spt to cobat uts of sx to 10 e.
Eac a te ut s aed t a gt eapo, suc
as a AK-47, ad te cobat ut as a oe s eupped
t a RPG auce ad a gt ace gu.
Wtesses ae aso epoted ebes coductg 'ta by

gae' c a aeged goeet sode as ge
a oc ta ext to a pe-ade gae ad executed
o te spot by ebes of te FSA A b a-Aas
bgade. Oe ebe sad We too gt to s gae
ad, afte eag te tesses stateets, e sot
dead .[138][139]
Fee Sya Ay uts specaze d eet tass.

Uts cose to te bodes ae oed t ogstcs ad
te taspot of ued sodes out of te couty ad
aso t te taspot edca eupet, atea suppes ad eapos to te couty.[126] Ote uts suc
as te Faou Bgades c ae based te cty of
Hos ae oed potectg cas ad fedg
o te Sya ay. Te Faou Bgade s oe of te
oe acte FSA battao uts. It s ed by Leuteat
Abdu-Razza Tass, te epe of foe Defese Mste Mustafa Tass.[117] Leuteat Tass as oe of te
st defectos ad s oe of te ey gues te Sya upsg. Hs ut of 500 2,000 sodes as egaged
te Sya ay Hos ad aded Sya cecpots
ad coad cetes.[80][127][128] As of Jauay 2012,
te ay ad aoud 37 aed battao uts, 17 23 of
c appeaed to be egaged cobat.[129][130]
Te Daoud Battao, opeatg te Jaba-a-Zaya

aea, as epotedy used captued sodes poxy
bobgs. Ts oed tyg te captued sode to
a ca oaded t exposes ad focg to de to
a Ay cecpot, ee te exposes oud be eotey detoated.[135][140][141]
Te UN oted soe cedbe aegatos tat ebe foces,
cudg te FSA, ee ecutg cde as sodes,
despte stated FSA pocy of ot ecutg ayoe ude
te age of 17.[142] Oe ebe coade sad tat s 16yea-od so ad ded gtg goeet toops.[143]
I a deo upoaded to te Iteet eay August, a

FSA epesetate aouced tat, espose to teatoa coces, FSA uts oud foo te Geea
Coeto s gudees fo te teatet of psoes
ad oud guaatee ts captes food, edca atteto ad odg aeas aay fo cobat zoes. He
aso ted Red Coss oes to spect te deteto
factes.[135] O 8 August, FSA coades dstbuted
4.6 War Crimes Allegations
a 11-pot code of coduct sged by scoes of bgade
coades ad ebe eades. It states tat a gtes
O 20 Mac 2012, Hua Rgts Watc ssues a ope
ust espect ua gts ou toeat egous pette to te opposto (cudg te FSA), accusg
cpes ad teatoa ua gts a te sae ute of cayg out dappgs, totue ad executos,
42
a gts tat e ae stuggg fo today .[144][145]

Te foog s a tee of aeged a ces by FSAaged goups
O 22 May 2012, a FSA bgade dapped 11
Lebaese pgs cog fo Ia.[146] Fou of
te ee ed a aste by te Sya A
Foce ad te est ee eeased uaed.[147]
O 20 Juy 2012, Ia s deputy teo ste,
Ada a-Assad, sad tat Ia bode guads ad
tessed te FSA tae coto of a bode post,
deta a Sya Ay euteat cooe, ad te
cut o s as ad egs befoe executg 22 Sya
sodes.[148]
O 21 Juy 2012, Tus tuc des sad tat tey
ad te tucs stoe by ebes of te FSA e
t captued a bode post. Tey sad tat soe of
te tucs ee but ad otes sod bac to te
des afte te goods ee ooted.[149]
Te Uted Natos epot o a ces states
tat te FSA s executo of e Aate sodes
Lataa, post-Juy 2012 as a a ce. Te epot
states, I ts stace, te FSA pepetated te a
ce of executo tout due pocess. [133]
(HRW) co ed te autetcty of te footage,

ad stated tat Te utato of te bodes of eees s a a ce . Te ebe as Abu Saa,
a coade of te Idepedet Oa a-Faou
Bgade . Te BBC caed t a o soot of te
FSA s Faou Bgades, e HRW sad t s ot
o ete te Bgade s pat of te FSA.
Te cdet as codeed by te FSA s Cef of
Sta ad te Sya Natoa Coato sad tat Abu
Saa oud be put o ta.[160][161] Abu Saa
sad te utato as eege. He sad e foud a
deo o te sode s cepoe c te sode
sexuay abuses a oa ad e to daugtes,[162]
aog t ote deos of Assad oyasts apg,
totug, dsebeg ad g peope, cudg cde.[163]
4.7 Rivals and allies in this war

I May 2013, Sa Idss, te te FSA eade, acoedged coo opeatos t Isast goup Aa asSa but deed ay coopeato t Isast goup aNusa Fot.[28]
A eade of a Saa st-adst oeet Joda as

pooted s e, Juy 2013 Ammon News (a
oe Jodaa pate es agecy, e-sted te
O 13 August 2012, a sees of tee deos suAab od), tat ecocabe d eeces exst betee
faced sog executos of psoes, appaety
te as of FSA ad tose of ote Su tas gtg
by ebe foces, Aeppo poce. I oe deo,
Sya agast Assad.[164]
sx posta oes ee beg to o te a
posta budg A-Bab to te deats, pupot- Dug 2013, t te Sya at-Assad opposto as
edy by FSA gtes. Te gue caed tey a oe, FSA o ot FSA, aaces betee te depedety opeatg ebe bgades ee costaty cagg
ee saba.[150][151][152][153]
ay FSA bgades a oe 2013 to te Isac Fot.
O 9 Septebe 2012 te FSA expoded a ca
bob ea a-Hayat Hospta ad te Ceta Hospta Aeppo. Accodg to Sya state eda,
4.8 Communications
at east 30 peope ee ed[154] ad oe ta 64
ouded.[155] Te FSA caed tat te Ay ad
occuped te ospta budgs ad ee usg te Coucato sde te battao ut s caed out by
ae tae.[165] Te FSA battao uts o cosey
as a base.[156]
t te oca popuato ad defectos typcay o
O 10 Septebe 2012 te FSA s Has of Sya uts fo te ego o to tat tey coe.[122] Te
bgade executed oe ta 20 Sya sodes cap- FSA s cosey teed t ad oc actst ettued Haao tay base.[157]
os ad t os cosey t te ca foed oca coucs.[166][167] Aoud ey popuato cetes, suc
O 2 Noebe 2012 te FSA s a-Sdd Batta- as Daascus, Aeppo, Daaa ad Haa, te FSA opeo dapped ad executed poet Sya ac- ates tay coucs tat coodate opeatos te
to Moaed Rafe. It caed e as a ebe aea.[168][169]
of te saba ad as cayg a gu ad tay
Te ay s coad ad coto s execsed toug a
ID.[158][159]
aety of eas, cudg obe poes, oce oe
I May 2013, a deo as posted o te teet IP, ea, coues ad soca eda.[30] I Noebe
sog a ebe cuttg ogas fo te dead body 2011, te ay spet 2-o to poe couof a Sya sode ad puttg oe s out, as cato s betee opposto gtes Sya.[93]
f e s tag a bte out of t . He caed ebes to Te Basa a-Assad goeet captued a ube of
foo s exape ad teoze te Aate sect, sopstcated coucatos deces fo opposto
c osty bacs Assad. Huas Rgts Watc gtes, cudg Tuaya obe satete poes, ey
43
4.10. RELATIONS WITH THE POLITICAL OPPOSITION

g ad uta-g feuecy (VHF/UHF) deces, ad
Iasat obe coucato satete systes.[30] I
Febuay 2012, Qata ad supped te ay t 3,000
satete poes.[170] Te Uted States as aso poded
coucato eupet to ep ceate a oe stuctued ay.[171][172][173]
4.9
International support
Te Lbya Natoa Tastoa Couc aouced

Noebe 2011 tat t ad bee tas t te Sya
Natoa Couc ad as cosdeg suppyg eapos
ad outee gtes of te Natoa Lbeato Ay
to te Fee Sya Ay, ad tat teatoa teeto ay oy be ees aay. Accodg to peope t
s to te Natoa Couc, te Lbyas ee o eg
oey, eapos ad tag foces oya to te Sya
Natoa Couc.[186] At te ed of te ot, t as epoted tat at east 600 gtes of te Natoa Lbeato
Ay fo Lbya ad bee dspatced to suppot te Fee
Sya Ay ad ad eteed Sya toug Tuey.[187]
Pe Mste of Tuey Recep Tayyp Edoa as
bee tyg to cutate a faoabe eatosp t
atee goeet oud tae te pace of Assad. [188]
I Febuay 2012, Bts foeg secetay Wa
Hague sad tat Bta as pepaed to sed adaced
coucatos eupet to te FSA to ep te
coodate te foces, but dd ot eto suppyg
eapos.[189] A ee ate te Saud Gazette epoted
tat te Guf Coopeato Couc as tg of ecogsg te Fee Sya Ay as te soe ad egtate
epesetate of te Sya peope , ctg a uaed
Baa o ca o euested aoyty.[190]
By te ed of Febuay 2012, tee as extese ta by
Guf States of ag te Fee Sya Ay. Te FSA
eadesp, oee, epoted Mac tat t ad ot
yet eceed ay fuds, eapos, o eupet fo ay
goeet despte ecet pedges to ep suppot te
aed stugge. I a tee t te Wa Steet Joua, FSA eade Rad Asaad sad tat Tee s o pactca suppot fo te teatoa couty, ad tat
It s bee a ta. [191] Te Fee Sya Ay fo o
paed o eyg o tsef ad ads o as depots,
oee, t st oped fo outsde as suppot.[121]
O 1 Mac, Kuat s paaet decaed suppot fo te
FSA.[192] By d-May, t as epoted accodg to opposto actsts ad foeg o cas tat te FSA ad
stated to ecee sg cat aca suppot fo te
Pesa Guf atos fo te pucase of as.[193]
4.9.1 Foreign combatants

Te ube of foeg Su tats acte t te
FSA s ad to assess. I ate May 2012, based o
tees t FSA gtes, t as epoted tat 300
Lebaese ad oed te FSA. Te pesece of Ageas, Tusas, Jodaas ad gtes fo Saud Aaba as aso co ed.[195][196] A eade of te FSA tod
a AFP coespodet tat e Lbya cobatats ae
bee ed cases t te Sya Ay. Te sae
eade, e deyg te pesece of ay foeg gtes, sad tat tee ae fe of d eet atoates. Pete Hag, fo te Iteatoa Css Goup, tod te
AFP tat te popoto of foeg gtes s cuety
ey sa, but gt go afte Saud Aaba ad Qata
aouced te suppot fo ag te ebes.[197]
Coata Geea Mao Ke co ed tat tee
ae betee 80 ad 100 Coat eceaes betee te
ages of 40 ad 60 epg te Fee Sya Ay. Tey
ae eteas fo te Coata Wa of Idepedece
(1991 95) o Bosa Wa (1992 95), but aso fougt
as eceaes Ia Wa (2003 11), Lbya C
Wa, Tusa eouto ad Egypta eouto. Ke
stated tat soe ae seg as secuty, stuctos e
otes ae g. He aso stated tat tey ae ey e
taed ad tat tey ae te oe o pobaby
ate ta be ed . Ke stated tat te payet
s up to 2,000 US a day due to c foeg doatos .
He aso added tat te aoty of te outees cog
fo te Baas to ep te FSA ae Sebs ad ctzes
of Bosa ad Hezegoa.[198][199][200] Souces cose to
te Begade tay cces co ed tat te foe
ebes of te Kosoo Lbeato Ay ae aso adg te FSA. Tey ae osty stuctos o ta te
ebes osty fo te uba ad te guea afae.[201]
A st epoted deat of a ebe of te Kosoo Lbeato Ay as aouced o 13 Noebe. Naa
Deo, a foe ebe of te KLA as ed ea
Sya-Tus bode.[202]
Tee ae dozes of Kuat's outees eteg fo
Tuey tat ae gtg as of te FSA. Te outees ae ge Sya IDs as a pecautoay easue case tey ae aested, befoe tey ae aed
ad set to gt d eet ocatos acoss te toubed
couty.[203]
4.10 Relations with the political

opposition
I Juy 2012, a o-goeeta ogazato based

Wasgto DC, caed Sya Suppot Goup, eceed
ceaace fo te U.S. Teasuy Depatet to fud te See aso Sya opposto
Fee Sya Ay.[194]
44
4.10.1 National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces

Te Fee Sya ay suppots te Natoa Coato fo
Sya Reoutoay ad Opposto Foces, a coato
of Sya opposto goups ceated Noebe 2012
tat cudes ay SNC ebes ts couc.[26]
Syrian National Council
[6] Jabat a-Nusa, IS cas Daaa . Al Monitor. 16 Decebe 2014. Reteed 20 Decebe 2014.
[7] Sya sugets attac goeet-ed to ea Isae . Reuters. 20 Noebe 2014. Reteed 23 Noebe 2014.
[8] Factbox Sya s ebe goups . Reutes. 9 Jauay 2014.
[9] FSA ad YPG coopeate agast ISIL tats Sya s
Te Abyad . ARA Nes. 12 May 2014. Reteed 17
May 2014.
At te begg of Decebe 2011, te Fee Sya

Ay ageed to coodate ts acttes t te Sya [10] Boste, Scott G , De (26 Septebe 2014).
Natoa Couc (SNC).[25] O 6 Febuay 2012, Rad
Sya ebe goups ute to gt ISIS . CNN. Reteed
1 Octobe 2014.
a-Asaad oced s coce about te SNC s ac of potca ad atea suppot fo te FSA, ad stated tat
[11] Los Agees Tes (28 Noebe 2014). Isac State,
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a A Nusa Fot eac stegte gp o Sya . la[204]
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I ate Febuay 2012, te Sya Natoa Couc estabsed a tay bueau to oesee tay opeatos. Ts tate as et t ctcs by Fee
Sya Ay eades o sad tat tey ad ot bee
foed.[205] Defected Geea Mustafa a-Se ceated a sa dscod te ay e e estabsed
a a goup caed te Hge Mtay Reoutoay
Couc c as eected by te FSA eadesp ad
ed uts.[126] Eae te Mus Boteood ad aso
ted to coopt te FSA but te eadesp eected te
attept.[205] Cooe A Kud, te deputy eade of te
FSA, dsssed te tea dsputes ad sad tat despte
dsageeets, te opposto eaed uted agast
te goeet ad te ca fo as.[205]
4.11
See also
Sya Isac Lbeato Fot

4.12
References
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[166] Mousa Lada Sya Te ege s sag eeets
2012.
of dua poe eege. Maxst (2012-1-29)
[147] Masou says dapped Lebaese pgs safe, ebes
say fou dead . The Daily Star. 6 August 2012. Reteed [167] Sya Dssdets Stat to Ca Cao Hoe. Wgt, Nate.
Foreign Policy (2012-01-20). Reteed o 2012-03-24.
18 August 2012.
[148] Saata Made (2012-02-02). Sya ebes tae bo- [168] Fee Sya Ay Fos Daascus Mtay Couc. Isae Natoa Nes. Reteed o 2012-03-24.
de as UN bd boced . Headsu.co.au. Austaa
Assocated Pess. Reteed 2013-08-31.
[169] Wte, Je ey (23 Mac 2012). Te Tdes of Batte
Sya . The Washington Institute. Reteed 25 Mac
[149] Tus tuc des accuse ebe gtes of ootg,
2012.
AFP, Juy 21, 2012
[150] Upoa as footage sos Sya ebe atoctes . [170] Repot US ad aes 'cosdeg pas fo tay ad
to Sya ebes . Fox Nes. 8 Febuay 2012. Reteed
Abc.et.au. 2012-08-14. Reteed 2013-09-01.
9 Febuay 2012.
[151] Sya deo sad to so ebes tog bodes o
oof . Latesbogs.ates.co. 2012-08-12. Re- [171] Q&A N Rose o Sya s aed opposto . A
Jazeea Egs. Reteed 2013-08-31.
teed 2013-09-01.
[152] Vdeo Appeas to Potay Has Tactcs By Sya [172] U.S. ad to Sya opposto cudes specazed coucatos eupet Bogs . CNN. 2 Ap 2012. ReRebes . A-oto.co. Reteed 2013-09-01.
teed 2013-08-31.
[153] Fee Sya Ay accused of butaty . A Jazeea. Re[173] Cs Huges (2012-08-03). CIA set to ep Sya
teed 2013-09-01.
ebes gt Basa a-Assad by US Pesdet Baac
[154] Moue, Basse Kee, Geg (10 Septebe 2012).
Obaa . Daily Mirror. Reteed 2013-08-31.
Sya Css Aeppo Ca Bob Bast Ks At Least 30 .
[174] Tousads of Sya Ay defectos o tas .
Hu ngton Post. Reteed 11 Septebe 2012.
World tribune. 27 Septebe 2011. Reteed 5 Octobe
[155] Ca bob s 27, ouds 64 Aeppo . The Daily
2011.
Star. 10 Septebe 2012. Reteed 10 Septebe 2012.
,
[175] 28 2 Idb
[156] Sya co ct Aeppo ca bob 's 17'". BBC. 10
. YouTube (2012-02-28). Reteed o 2012Septebe 2012. Reteed 10 Septebe 2012.
03-24.
[157] Suay executos oesado cases Aeppo . [176]
The Daily Star. 11 Septebe 2012. Reteed 11
Septebe 2012.
24.
27 2 2012 .YouTube. Reteed o 2012-03-
[158] Dc, Ma (5 Noebe 2012). Bab a-Haa acto [177] Moutede, Pee (14 Octobe 2011). "'Fee Sya
udeed fo aeged po-ege actty . The Daily Star.
Ay' poses gog teat to Assad . Face 24. ReReteed 13 Noebe 2012.
teed 16 Octobe 2011.
[159] Aea, Atu (12 Noebe 2012). Tepd espose to [178]
U.S. oe . The Hindu (Cea, Ida). Reteed 13
.
Noebe 2012.
03-24.
YouTube (2012-02-28). Reteed o 2012-
49

[179]
25 Febuay [199] Baas paec Assada u stotu ats booa ( Coata). Vdpota.ba. 17 August 2012.
[180] Sya Reots|Docuetg te Sya upsg. Syaeots.odpess.co. Reteed o 2012-03-24.
[200] Pot Asada se boe ats paec ( Coata).
Tpota.. 16 August 2012. Reteed 18 August 2012.
[181]
YouTube (2012-01-03). Reteed o [201] K, Des (17 August 2012). Od Oue do Aepa
.
2012-03-24.
to e se u ou?". Slobodna Dalmacija ( Coata).
[182]
YouTube. Reteed o 2012-03-24.
.
[202] Ppad OVK sa ss pobueca ( Seba). Rado Teeso of Seba. 13 Noebe 2012.
[183] Lebao es
NOW Lebao -Assad s gog
eae. NOW Lebao (2011-10-03). Reteed o
2012-03-24.
[203] Fgtes fo Kuat og Sya ebes Kud e
SNC eade . Kuwait Times. Reteed 10 Septebe
[184]
2012.
YouTube. Reteed o 2012-03-24.
.
2012. YouTube. Reteed o 2012-03-24.
[185] Seto, Tacey (Jue 7, 2012). Isde Sya Wo As [204] Cacs te Sya opposto as Assad auces o ese . Tabeer.
te Rebes?". PBS. Reteed 2013-08-31.
[186] Seoc, Rut (27 Noebe 2011). Lbya to a sy- [205] Dsos, ac of as udescoe eaess of Fee Sya Ay. The National (2010-05-25). Reteed o
a ebes . The Sydney Morning Herald (Msata). Asso2012-03-24.
cated Pess. Reteed 27 Noebe 2011.
[187] Lbya gtes o fee Sya ay foces. A Baaba
(2011-11-29). Reteed o 2012-03-24.
[188] Epato, Lasa (Noebe 15, 2012). Sya ad Tuey
A Copex Reatosp . PBS NEWSHOUR. Reteed
15 Noebe 2012.
[189] Sya Feedo, We' ep ebes oeto Sya udees Hague s ag to dctato Assad oe escaato
oece Sya. Syafeedos.tub.co (201202-07). Reteed o 2012-03-24.
[190] GCC to ecogze Fee Sya Ay. Saudi Gazette. Reteed o 2012-03-24.
[191] Maas, Nou. (2012-03-03) Sya Rebes See As
Ad Repots of Executos. Wall Street Journal. Reteed o 2012-03-24.
[192] Kuat paaet says suppots Sya s ebe ay .
Reutes. 2012-03-01.
[193] DeYoug, Kae Sy, Lz (16 May 2012). Sya ebes
get ux of as t guf egbos oey, U.S. coodato . The Washington Post.
[194] US Autozes Faca Suppot to Fee Sya Ay .
LB Ya Lba. 2012-07-28. Reteed 2013-08-31.
[195] Lebaese o te Fee Sya Ay s stugge . Daysta.co.b. Reteed 2013-08-31.
[196] Lebaese gte tas e geeato of ads fo
Sya . Gufes.co. 2012-06-02. Reteed 2013-0831.
[197] Foeg tats gtg Sya batte eds . Agece
Face-Pesse. 7 Mac 2012. Reteed 2 Ap 2012.
[198] Jade-Toas, Saa (16 August 2012). Mao
Ke, pedsed uduge Hats geeas zbo Assada u stotu ats booa . Slobodna Dalmacija ( Coata). Reteed 18 August 2012.
4.13 External links

Fee Sya Ay ebste (Aabc)
Fee Sya Ay o Ttte (Aabc)
Oga deo decaato of foato o YouTube
(Aabc)
Hoday, Josep (Mac 2012). Sya s Aed
Opposto 3 (MIDDLE EAST SECURITY REPORT). Isttute fo te Study of Wa.
Hoday, Josep (Jue 2012). Sya s Matug
Isugecy 5 (MIDDLE EAST SECURITY REPORT). Isttute fo te Study of Wa.
O'Bagy, Ezabet (Mac 2013). Te Fee Sya
Ay 9 (MIDDLE EAST SECURITY REPORT).
Isttute fo te Study of Wa.
Sya C Wa Oee
Chapter 5
Syrian Revolutionary Command Council

Te Syrian Revolutionary Command Council
(Aabc , Majlis Qiydat athThawra as-Sriyya) s a aace of 72 factos[3]
oed te Sya C Wa tat as foed o 3
of August 2014.[1] Te a of te couc s to cease
te coodato ad uty betee te d eet goups,
t te couc paed to be dded to egoa fots
tat be ead by coucs ade up of epesetates
fo te d eet factos, sa to o te Fee
Sya Ay as stuctued.[4] Te sgatoes epeset
bot secuasts ad Isasts oee te poet
adca Isast goup A-Nusa Fot ad soe of ts
aes ee excuded.[5] Itay Aa as-Sa as
aso excuded, oee te goup dd o te aace
at a ate date.[6] Te goup aouced ts cate o
4 Octobe 2014.[7] It ed ts st foa eetg
Gazatep, Tuey o 29 Noebe 2014.[3]
eouto .[3]
I eay Decebe 2014, te Hazz Moeet tde
ts a ato fo te Sya Reoutoay Coad
Couc as a esut of te tesos betee odeate ad
Isast factos Sya.[8] Te Hazz Moeet ad
te Sya Reoutoaes Fot ad bee outed Idb
poce by Jabat a-Nusa ad ts aes Noebe.[9]
5.2 Currently a liated groups

Fee Sya Ay
Sya Reoutoaes Fot
Seds of te Reouto Couc
101st Dso
5.1
Jabat Ha a-Muataa
Con ict within the coalition
Hepes Bgades[10]
Eay o te coato s exstece, tesos exsted be Kgts of Justce Bgade

tee odeate ebes ad te Isast copatots.
Jabat a-Nusa stoed te bases of te Asa Bgades
13t Dso
Idb ad te Ha Fot Haa o 28 Noebe as
Facos of a-Gab[1]
te Sya Reoutoay Coad Couc as odg ts st foa eetg Tuey. Atoug Jabat a-Nusa as excuded fo te coato, ay of Isac Fot
ts aes ot oy ee cuded but ee assged execute postos.Te cose eatosp betee Isast
La a-Ha
goups ad Jabat a-Nusa as deostated as te to
Suou a-Sa
outed goups, bot of c ee eceg U.S. suppot
toug a coet CIA poga, ee foced to deeed
Jays a-Isa[10]
te eapos to Aa as-Sa as pat of te suede to Jabat a-Nusa.
Aa as-Sa[6]
Iedatey foog te st foa eetg of te Sy A-Tad Bgade[11]
a Reoutoay Coad Couc, Co. Muaad
Haa expessed septcs toad te Octobe docuOte goups
et o c te e goup s based, sayg t as
tte to esue a Isast goeet afte Assad
Ay of Muaedee
s topped. Co. Haa as uoted as sayg Te
coeat tsef does't eto te dea of fee eectos
Aad a-Sa Isac Uo
ad ost of te goups epeseted te execute of Haaat Nou a-D a-Ze
ce do t beee te oga deocatc aues of te
50
5.4. REFERENCES
Sa Lego[10]
a-Jaba a-Suyya -Ta[1]
Autetcty ad Deeopet Fot[11]
5.3
Formerly a liated groups
Fee Sya Ay
Hazz Moeet
5.4
References
[1] Tasato te Foato of te Sya Reoutoay

Coad Couc . Goa s Na. 3 August 2014. Reteed 13 Octobe 2014.
[2] PT Coad Couc Pesdet s Qas Abdua
Se, Potca eade s Moaed Aous, Mtay
eade s Lt. Ge. Ha A. . Ttte. 29 Noebe
2014. Reteed 8 Decebe 2014.
[3] Aaadee, Mousab (29 Noebe 2014). Isasts
coe out o top e e ot to ufy Sya ebe
goups . McCatcy DC. Reteed 4 Jauay 2015.
[4] Ne aace coud sga ed of Isac Fot . As-Sa r.
4 August 2014. Reteed 13 Octobe 2014.
[5] Opposto baces stegte adsts by sug
odeate Isasts . The National (Abu Dhabi). 5 August 2014. Reteed 13 Octobe 2014.
[6] Sya s Aa a-Sa Leadesp Wped Out Bobg . Carnegie Endowment of International Peace. 9
Septebe 2014. Reteed 13 Octobe 2014.
[7]
"
"
"
YouTube. 4 Octobe 2014. Reteed 13
..
Octobe 2014.
[8] Ne Sya opposto goupg fas to etce ao

ebe factos . Reuters. 2 Decebe 2014. Reteed
4 Jauay 2015.
[9] Nusa Fot adaces Sya s Idb . A Jazeea ad
ageces. 2 Noebe 2014. Reteed 4 Jauay 2015.
[10] EXCLUSIVE 18 Sya eoutoay factos adacg toad a Oe Ay poect . The Arab Chronicle. 3
August 2014. Aced fo te oga o 26 August
2014. Reteed 1 Decebe 2014.
[11] Te Reoutoay Coad Couc Rebe Uty
Sya?". Carnegie Endowment of International Peace. 1
Decebe 2014. Reteed 1 Decebe 2014.
51
Chapter 6
Supporters of the Religion Front

Te Supporters of the Religion Front[2] (Aabc
, Jabhat Ansar al-Deen) s a adst aace
tat aouced tsef o 25 Juy 2014 dug te Sya
C Wa.[1] Te aace cotas tee ote goups
Haaat Sa a-Isa, Jas a-Muaee a-Asa
ad Haaat Fa Sa a-Isaya t as decaed tat s
ot a ated t ay ote pates .[1] Te Gee Battao soe aegace to Jas a-Muaee a-Asa
aoud Octobe of 2014.[3] Te aace as attepted to
ata eutaty te co ct betee ISIL ad ote
goups.[2]
[6] Cece coade fos 'Ay of Egats,' tegates Sya goups . Log Wa Joua. 28 Mac
2013. Reteed 26 Juy 2014.
6.3 External links
Te goups oed te coato ae dese ebesps Haaat Fa Sa a-Isaya s osty Syas fo te Aeppo aea,[4] e Haaat Sa aIsa as foed aoud a coe of Moocca gtes,[5]
te Gee Battao ay ad gtes fo Saud
Aaba[5] ad Jas a-Muaee a-Asa as foed
by Cece ad ote Russa-speag gtes.[6]
6.1
See also
6.2
References
[1] Sya Update Juy 17 - 25, 2014 . Isttute fo te Study

of Wa Sya Updates. 25 Juy 2014. Reteed 26 Juy
2014.
[2] Jabat Asa a-D Aayss ad Itee . Sya
Coet. 23 Octobe 2014. Reteed 23 Octobe 2014.
[3] Vdeo Saud Facto Seas Aegace To Jas aMuaee a-Asa E . Fo Cecya To Sya.
4 Octobe 2014. Reteed 14 Octobe 2014.
[4] Sya s Saa Isugets te Rse of te Sya Isac
Fot . Seds Isttute fo Iteatoa A as. Mac
[5] Te Sya ebe goups pug foeg gtes .
BBC. 24 Decebe 2013. Reteed 26 Juy 2014.
52
Suppotes of te Rego Fot o Ttte (Aabc)

Suppotes of te Rego YouTube Cae (Aabc)
Chapter 7
Muhajirin wa-Ansar Alliance

Not to be cofused t Jas a-Muaee a-Asa
o Muae ad Asa Bgade.
Te Muhajirin wa-Ansar Alliance (Aabc
, Aace of Egats ad Hepes) s
a aace of Saa goups tat ae bee acte dug
te Sya c a.[1] Te goups oed ae Jud aAsa, Laa a-Ua, te Oa Bgade ad te Ha
Bgade Idb.[1]
7.1
See also
7.2
References
[1] Te Ote Sya Peace Pocess . Caege Edoet

fo Iteatoa Peace. 27 Jauay 2014. Reteed 25
Ap 2014.
[2] Te e face of te Sya ebeo . Te Aab Coce. Aced fo te oga o 26 Mac 2014. Reteed 2 Decebe 2014.
53
Chapter 8
Peoples Protection Units

out goeet secuty foces fo te cty of Koba
(Ay a-Aab) ad too oe Auda ad Ef.[8][9][14]
As of Decebe 2012, te YPG cossts of egt
bgades. Soe of tese bgades opeate Ef,
Qas, Koba ad See Kaye.[15]
Co ct as go betee te YPG ad Isasts afte
tey expeed a goup of adsts fo te Sya bode
to of Ras a-A.[16]
I 2014, te YPG coaboated t te Fee Sya
Ay ode to gt agast te Isac State of Ia
ad te Leat A-Raa Goeoate.[17] Te YPG
Te Peoples Protection Units (Kuds Yeey as aso foed a opeatos oo t utpe FSA
[18]
3]
Paasta Ge Aabc [
Wihdat factos caed Eupates Vocao.
Himayah ash-Sha'ab), cooy o as te YPG,
s te atoa ay of Sya Kudsta.[4] Te goup
as tae a defese posto, gtg agast ay goup 8.1 Liberation of Til Koer
tat as te teto of bgg te Sya C Wa to
Kuds abted aeas.[4][5]
Peope s Defese Uts (YPG) gtes too coto of
Te goup as fouded by te Kuds Deocatc Uo te T Koe cty Weste Kudsta, foog seee
Paty (PYD) ad te Kuds Supee Cottee afte cases t a-Qaeda-ed aed goups.
te 2004 Qas cases, but t as ot acte ut te
Sya C Wa.[4] As of te sgg of te Ab Agee- T Koe, o te bode t te cty of Musu Ia,
et by PYD ad Kuds Natoa Couc (KNC) te as bee escued foog te Tbespy "ad T Eo
Aed Wg cae ude te coad of te Kuds Matys opeatos YPG auced o 23 Octobe.
supee Cottee, toug eaty t s aost excu- Cases betee YPG ad te ISIL (Isac State of Ia
sey st te aed g of te foe[6] ad s e- ad te Leat) tats te cty asted t eay osposbe fo atag ode ad potectg te es g o Suday. YPG gtes ceaed te cty of te aed
of esdets Kuds egbouoods.[7][8][9]
goups ad aso sezed te e tas, d eet ds of
Te YPG s coposed of e ad oe fo co- sses ad eapos.
utes acoss te Kuds ego of Sya. Te YPG Foog te to eoutoay opeatos, YPG gtes
cosdes tsef a deocatc peope s ay ad coducts too te coto of see ages ad tee aets, ad
tea eectos as a etod of appotg o ces.[10] aso sezed te aed goups ay eaduates T
Toug pedoaty Kuds, te goup as attacted Koe, sce 23 Octobe.
ceasg ubes of Aabs, cudg gtes defectg fo te astea opposto[11] as e as o- To ages, a eaduates ad T Koe bode gate
cas fo xed o Aab ages YPG-cotoed te- (Ayauba) ee aso tae by YPG gtes te ao
toy o see te goup as te best guaato of e- o ese tey auced o te gt of 24 Octobe.
goa secuty[12] a ube of o-Kuds Cstas PYD (Deocatc Uo Paty) eade Sae Mus o
aso gt YPG as, ad te ta as cose tes to spoe to St TV o Satuday sad tat te YPG success
te Assya/Syac Sutoo ad Syac Mtay Couc. T Koe as te ctoy of te ete Kudsta .
Tey ae o fo te age ube of oe gt- Mus eaed tat te deeopets T Koe
es.[13]
oud aso ead to cages te potca ad ecooc
Map showing de facto cantons of Western Kurdistan (Rojava),
controlled by the People s Protection Units in February 2014
I ate Juy 2012, te Peope s Potecto Uts pused stuato West Kudsta, ad sad ts success as ce54
55
8.5. REFERENCES
ated a ateate agast te e ots ad tetos to
od te ete West Kudsta tetoy ude ebago.
[2] W te Isac State ast toug 2015?". Today s Zaa. Reteed 4 Jauay 2015.
PYD eade oted tat te T Koe bode gate as a

e ateate fo tade agast ebago.[19]
[3]
8.2
[4] God, Day (31 Octobe 2010). Meet te YPG, te

Kuds Mta Tat Does't Wat Hep fo Ayoe .
Vice. Reteed 9 Octobe 2014.
Foreign volunteers
As of Noebe 2014, tee ae at east 10 U.S. outees o ae fougt aogsde te YPG.[20] Joda
Matso seed as a fatya te U.S. Ay.[21]
Jeey Woodad seed bot Ia ad Afgasta.[22]
Ba Wso, aote U.S. Ay etea,[23] s ocated
Ras a-Ay.[22]
Oe Gee ctze ad dozes of o Kuds Tus ae
aso oed te as of YPG. At east to Tus outees ae bee ed acto.[20]
."
teed 9 Octobe 2014.
"
Haa Nes. Re-
[5] YPG Coade Kuds Ae Bua Agast Isac

Extes Sya . Ruda. 22 Juy 2013. Reteed 9
Octobe 2014.
[6] a Wgebug, Wad (5 Ap 2013). Co ct Ites es Sya s Kuds Aea . Syria Pulse (A Moto). Reteed 9 Octobe 2014.
[7] Te batte fo coto Sya . Day Nes Egypt. 21
Juy 2014. Reteed 9 Octobe 2014.
O 21 Octobe 2014, YPG auced te Te Los Of [8] Lbeated Kuds Ctes Sya Moe to Next Pase .
Roaa Faceboo page as a ecutet cete fo foeg
Ruda. 25 Juy 2012. Reteed 9 Octobe 2014.
outees.[24][25] Oe Aeca outee ecuted ts
ay as sce deseted te YPG afte cag ISIS put [9] Kuds usce exg . Jerusalem Post. 14 Noebe
a bouty o s ead e ade te foog cas egadg s te t te YPG It s exteey dageous [10] A Rae Gpse to Kuds Aed Foces Sya .
tat tey'e tag ayoe t o tay expeece,
Ruda.
o age eueets, o pysca estctos ... Tey ae
ust tag peope tee, gg te a gu sayg ey [11] Mesegue, Dad (9 Febuay 2013). Aabs o Kuds ta Aeppo . Fat Nes. Reteed 9 Octobe
good uc buddy .[26]
2014.
8.3
The YPJ
[12] St, Haa Lucda (23 Decebe 2013). Te Boy

o Ge up to Betay s Vage . Asharq Al-Awsat.
Reteed 9 Octobe 2014.
Te YPJ (Woe s Potecto Uts) s te feae [13] A Nusa attacs YPG s oe gtes Seeaye .
bgade of te YPG, ad as set up 2012. Te KuFat Nes. 16 Juy 2013. Reteed 9 Octobe 2014.
ds eda says tat YPJ toops ae becoe ta te
[14] Kuds Ge Utatu to Sya Secuty Foces .
batte agast I.S. Koba.[27]
Ruda. 21 Juy 2012. Reteed 9 Octobe 2014.
8.4
See also
Jabat a-Aad
Pesega
PKK
PJAK
Sutoo
Sege of Koba
8.5
References
[1] PYD Aouces Supse Ite Goeet Sya s

Kuds Regos . Ruda. 13 Noebe 2013. Reteed 9 Octobe 2014.
[15] Te Kuds Potecto Uts Hae Foed a Ne

Bgade te A Bab Rego . Sceta Huaa. 4 Decebe 2012. Reteed 18 Decebe 2013.
[16] Kuds expe adsts fo aspot Sya to
NGO . Al Ahram. 17 Juy 2013. Reteed 9 Octobe
2014.
[17] FSA ad YPG coopeate agast ISIL tats Sya s
Te Abyad . ARA Nes. 12 May 2014. Reteed 9 Octobe 2014.
[18] YPG ad FSA fo a ot tay cabe to cobat
ISIS Sya . ARA Nes. 12 Septebe 2014. Reteed 9 Octobe 2014.
[19] YPG taes coto of T Koe . FatNes. 27 Octobe
[20] Weste coades o Kuds, Aabs, secuasts,
Yezds, ad Syac Cstas agast Isac State .
Masabe. 29 Octobe 2014. Reteed 15 Noebe
2014.
56
CHAPTER 8. PEOPLE S PROTECTION UNITS
[21] Excuse Aeca expas y e s gtg ISIL .

USA Today. 7 Octobe 2014. Reteed 23 Octobe
2014.
[22] Te US outees o gt t Sya s Kuds . BBC.
23 Octobe 2014. Reteed 23 Octobe 2014.
[23] A Doced Fate-of-To fo Oo Is Fgtg te Isac State Sya . BBC. 23 Octobe 2014. Reteed
23 Octobe 2014.
[24] Te Los of Roaa . BBC. Reteed 15 Noebe
2014.
[25] Koba Kuds Use Faceboo To Recut Foeg Fgtes I Stugge Agast IS . BBC. 13 Noebe 2014.
[26] Hedge, Catee (1 Jauay 2015). US et says gtg Sya as as easy as buyg apae tcet to Ma . Fox Nes. Reteed 12 Jauay 2015.
[27] Kuds Woe Tug Koba to a Lg 'He' fo
Isac State . teesu. 14 Octobe 2014. Reteed 2
Decebe 2014.
8.6
External links
Los of Roaa
Chapter 9
Jabhat al-Akrad
Jabhat al-Akrad (Aabc ) , aso o
as te Kurdish Front Brigade (Aabc
Liwa' Jabhat al-'Akrad l-Nusrah
Shabn al-Sr, Kurdish Front Brigade to Protect the
Syrian People, Kuds Eya Kuda
) , s a pedoaty Kuds aed facto patcpatg te Sya c a.
9.2 References
Te goup as ogay foed as a bgade of te

Fee Sya Ay by Kuds ad Aab defectos fo
te Sya Ay. It as aso ataed cose tes to
te PKK-ed Deocatc Uo Paty (PYD) sce ts
foudg, cudg tay coodato t ts aed
g, te Peope s Potecto Uts (YPG). Jabat aAad opeates Kuds ad etcay-xed aeas
Sya s Aeppo ad Raa poces, ay outsde of
te uas-autooous Kuds ecaes Kud Dag,
Jaza, ad te Koba Cato c ae cotoed by
te YPG. Tese aeas cude te coutysde ot ad
east of Aeppo cty, Aeppo cty tsef, te aea of Ta
Abyad ote Raa poce, ad Raa cty tsef.
Jabat a-Aad as expeed fo te FSA Aeppo Mtay Couc o 16 August 2013 due to aeged PKK
a atos[8] ad despead cases ote Sya
betee pedoaty Su Aab ebe goups ed by
uts a ated to a-Qada ad Kuds ta ed by
te YPG.
I eay 2014, foog seea ots of actty, Jabat a-Aad e-eeged to coaboate t te Fee Sya Ay ad ote ebe factos attacs o te Isac
State of Ia ad te Leat (ISIL). O 28 Febuay, ISIL
tde fo te stategc bode to of Azaz, c
as te tae by Jabat a-Aad, te Note Sto
Bgade ad A-Tad Bgade.[4] Te facto ad 10
ote goups ae teateed to eae Aeppo ad Raa
goeoates f tey ae ot aded by ote ebes.[7]
9.1
See also

57
[1] Cogu, Mutu (11 August 2013). Kuds Coade Jad Goups Sya Hae Haced FSA . Ruda
Egs. Reteed 16 May 2014.
[2] YPG ad FSA fo a ot tay cabe to cobat
ISIS Sya . ARA Nes. 12 Septebe 2014. Reteed 11 Septebe 2014.
[3] Sya ebes stugge fo coto oe ISIL-ed Raa .
ARA Nes. 13 May 2014. Reteed 16 May 2014.
[4] a Wgebug, Wad (27 Mac 2014). Sya
Kuds, ebes d coo eey ISIS . Al Monitor.
Reteed 16 May 2014.
[5] Aye Jaad A-Ta - Key Updates o Abuaa (Abu Kaa)". Bo Moses Bog. 29 Ap 2014.
Reteed 22 May 2014.
[6] A-Aad Fot defeats ISIL Aeppo . ARA Nes.
24 Jue 2014. Reteed 24 Jue 2014.
[7] Rebes dead ep as gtg ages agast ISIS Gouta . Te Day Sta. 3 Juy 2014. Reteed 9 Juy 2014.
[8] a Wgebug, Wad (16 August 2013). FSA Reoes Jabat a-Aad Fo Couc . Transnational
Middle-East Observer. Reteed 16 May 2014.
Chapter 10
Peshmerga
Peshmerga (Kuds Pmerge, Kuds
poucato [p ] teay oe o cofots
deat ) ae te agey posed tay foces of Ia
Kudsta.[4][5] Te oea foa ead of te pesega s te Pesdet of Ia Kudsta. Te pesega foce tsef s agey dded ad cotoed sepaatey by te Deocatc Paty of Kudsta ad Patotc
Uo of Kudsta, atoug bot pedge aegace to
te Kudsta Regoa Goeet. E ots ae ude
ay to gate te ete foce ude te Msty of Pesega A as.[6] Pesega foces ae esposbe fo defedg te ad, peope ad sttutos of te Kudsta
Rego.[7]
As te Ia Ay s fobdde by a fo eteg Ia Kudsta,[8][9] te pesega aoe aog
t ote uds secuty subsdaes, ae esposbe
fo te eatey accopsed secuty of te Kuds
Rego.[10][11][12] Tese subsdaes cude Asays (ofca tegece agecy), Parastin u Zanyar (assstg
tegece agecy) ad te Zeaa (tay poce).
I 2003 dug te Ia Wa te pesega ae sad to
ae payed a ey oe te sso to captue Sadda
Husse.[13][14] I 2004 pesega foces captued aQaeda ey gue Hassa Gu o gae up te detty
of Osaa B Lade s essege, c eetuay ed
to Opeato Neptue Spea ad te deat of Osaa B
Lade.[15][16]
Barzani was the primary political and millitary leader of the KurFoog a uexpected age-scae ISIS o ese
agast Ia Kudsta August 2014, pesega ad
ote uds foces fo egboug coutes ae
bee at a a-out-a agast ISIS bot Ia ad Sya.
As of Jauay 2015 aoud 800 pesega ae bee
ed.[17]
dish cause, until his death in 1979
cetuy by te ate uds te Iba Aad.[19]

Hstocay pesega ae exsted oy as a guea
ogazatos, but ude te sef-decaed Repubc of
Maabad (1946-1947), pesega becae te o ca
ay of te epubc ed by Mustafa Baza.[20][21] Afte te fa of te epubc ad te executo of ead
of state, Qaz Muaad, pesega foces eeeged
10.1 History
as guea ogazatos tat oud go o to gt gt
te Ia ad Ia goeets fo te eag of te
Ma atce Hstoy of Pesega
[22]
Te uds ao tadto of ebeo as exsted cetuy.
fo tousads of yeas aog t aspatos fo depe- I Ia, ost of tese pesega ee ed by Mustafa
dece, ad eay uds aos fougt agast pesa Baza of te Kudsta Deocatc Paty.[21] I 1975
epes, te ottoa epe ad te bts epe.[18] te pesega ee defeated te Secod Ia-Kuds
Hoee te te tsef, as oy coed te d 20't Wa. Jaa Taaba, a eadg ebe of te KDP, eft
58
10.2. STRUCTURE
te sae yea to to etaze te esstace ad fouded
te Patotc Uo of Kudsta.[23] Ts eet ceated
te basee fo te potca dscotet betee te KDP
ad PUK, tat to ts day ddes pesega foces ad
uc of uds socety Ia Kudsta.
Afte Mustafa Baza s deat, s so Masoud Baza
too s posto.[21] As teso ceased betee KDP
ad PUK, ost pesega fougt to eep a ego ude te o paty s coto, e aso gtg o Ia
Ay cusos. Foog te Fst Pesa Guf Wa,
Ia Kudsta fe to a state of c a betee te
to ao Kuds pates, te KDP ad te PUK, ad
pesega foces ee used to gt eac ote. Te c
a o cay eded Septebe 1998, e Baza
ad Taaba sged te Wasgto Ageeet estabsg a foa peace teaty.[24] I te ageeet, te
pates ageed to sae eeue, sae poe, dey te use
of ote Ia to te PKK, ad ot ao Ia toops
to te Kuds egos. By te, aoud 5.000 uds
ad bee ed fo bot sdes, ad ay oe ee
ected fo beg o te og sde.[25] I te yeas afte, teso eaed g, but bot pates oed toads eac ote ad 2003 tey bot too pat te
oetog of te Sadda ege as pat of te Ia
Wa. Tey eaed o good tes, fog at s o
Ia Kudsta. Ue ote ta foces, te pesega ee ee pobted by Ia a.[26]
10.2
Structure
59
te ay up to 250.000.[27] Tese foces ae ogazed to
36 tay bgades, cotoed sepaatey t tte to
o te-coodato, by te KDP, PUK ad Msty of
Pesega A as.[28]
Te pesega foce, e uc of Ia Kudsta, s
pagued by feuet aegatos of coupto, patsasp, epots ad faud.[29][30][31][32][33][34] Tese aegatos cude gg g-ag tay postos
oy to feo case ad/o paty ebes, gtg
fo potca pates ate ta te uds peope as a
oe, ad te use of gost sodes to ga pesega
bee ts ad saay. Muc of ts s due to te fact tat
pesega foces ae st uo cay dded aog te
a paty es, atoug t aguaby ess teso ta
dug te Kuds C Wa. Pesega t tes to
te Kudsta Deocatc Paty ae esposbe fo te
Dou Goeoate ad Ab Goeoate, e tose
t tes to te Patotc Uo of Kudsta oesee te
secuty Suayaya Goeoate.[35] Foog te
Jue 2014 ISIS aso of Ia ad te eteat of Ia
Ay, te KRG ed te od ad too cotoe of aost a dsputed aeas.[36] Tese aeas ae sce aso
bee dded betee KDP ad PUK pesega.
As a esut of te spt atue of te pesega foce,
tee s ot a ceta coad cete cage of te
ete foce, ad pesega uts stead foo sepaate
tay eaces depedg o potca aegace.[37]
E ots ae sce bee ade to ze patsasp, cudg te bag of patsa ags fo te
batte ed.[38] A potca efo s aso cuety udeay to pace te ete foce ude te sge coad of
te egoa goeet.[6] As of Jauay 2015, 12 out of
te 36 bgades ae epotedy bee put ude te cotoe of te KRG, t te eag 70% of pesega
foces st cotoed by te egos to a pates.[39]
Due to te ted fudg ad te ast sze of te pesega foces, te KRG as og paed to geaty dosze ts foces fo age ubes of o-uaty foces
to a sae but uc oe e ecte ad e-taed
foce.[40][41] Coseuety 2009 te KRG ad Bagdad egaged dscussos about copoatg pats of
te pesega foces to te Ia Ay, at oud
be te 15't ad 16't Ia Ay dsos.[42][43] Hoee afte ceasg teso betee Eb ad Bagdad
egadg te dsputed aeas, te tasfe as agey put
o ce. Soe pesega ee aeady tasfeed but
epotedy deseted aga, ad tee ae aegatos tat
foe pesega foces ea oya to te KRG ate
ta te Ia ca of coad.[44][45]
We te aoty of te pesega foces ae Muss,
tee ae aso Csta ad Yezd uts gtg ude
te decto of pesega foces.[46][47]
Atoug aost etey ade up of e, pesega

foces ae bee o to cude sa ubes of
oe sce ts foato, ad cuety ae 600
Te exact sze of pesega foces s uo as tee
oe te as.[48] Tese feae pesega ae
ae d eet estates agg fo as fe as 80.000 a
Peshmerga special unit near the Syrian border on June 23, 2014
60
CHAPTER 10. PESHMERGA
so fa bee efused acces to te fote, ad ae osty 10.3.1

used ogstcs ad aageet postos.[49]
Small arms
10.3.2 Anti-tank weaponry

10.3.3 Mortar
10.3.4 Man-portable air-defence system
10.3
Equipment
10.4 Vehicles
10.4.1 Armoured vehicles
10.4.2 Logistics and utility vehicles
10.4.3 Artillery
10.4.4 Anti-aircraft gun
10.4.5 Helicopters
10.5 See also

Jas
Peshmerga on a T-55-Tank outside Kirkuk in June 2014
10.6 References
[1] Po e Wo ae te Pesega? BBC Nes. Reteed
19 Decebe 2014.
Te pesega asea s ted ad co ed by estctos sce te Kuds Rego s ot a depedet

state. Due to dsputes betee te KRG ad te Ia
goeet, as o fo Bagdad to Ia Kudsta
as bee aost oexstet, as Bagdad feas uds
aspatos fo depedece.[50][51] Pesega foces stead agey ey o od as captued fo te od Ia
Ay dug te 2003 U.S. Iaso of Ia, c
pesega foces ee acte. Befoe tat, soe eapos
ee aso captued dug te 1991 Ia upsgs.[52]
Foog te eteat of te e Ia Ay dug te
Jue 2014 ISIS o ese, pesega foces epotedy
aga aaged to get od o soe eapos eft bed
by te Ia Ay.[53] Sce August 2014, pesega
foces ae aso captued soe eapos fo ISIS.[54]
[2] ttp//.ates.co/od/ddeeast/
a-fg-a-pesega-tag-20141009-stoy.t
page1
[3] ttp//u.eutes.co/atce/2014/08/13/
u-a-secuty-pesega-dUKKBN0GD1N820140813
[4] Fo te Kuds p ( )befoe ad merg
deat .
[5] May Kuds say tat a Kuds g to gt fo te
gts ae Pesega.
[6] ttp//uda.et/egs/udsta/250820142
[7] ttp//ope.g.og/about-e.pp?z8&3
Afte te ISIS o ese of August 2014, utpe go- [8] ttp//es.xuaet.co/egs/od/2012-07/28/c_

131745233.t
eets decded to a te pesega t soe
gt eapoy suc as gt as, gt gogges ad
auto.[55][56][57] Hoee Kuds o cas ad [9] ttp//eee.og/aboutudsta
pesega ae stessed tat at tey eed te ost s
[10] ttp//od.te.co/2012/12/31/
eay eapos suc as tas, aoued eces ad edestato-udsta-s-ts-autooous-a-ego-a-buddg-toust-ot
coptes. Tey aso stess tat Bagdad s bocg ee
gt eapoy fo eacg te KRG, epaszg te [11] ttp//.stpes.co/es/dde-east/
eed fo eapos to be set decty to te KRG ad ot
ae-teost-attac--peacefu-uds-ego-of-a-s-6-1.
244095
toug Bagdad.[58][59][60][61]
61
10.6. REFERENCES
[12] ttp//.teatatc.co/
teatoa/ace/2013/03/
te-a-a-as-a-good-dea-f-you-as-te-uds/
274196/
[36] ttp//eefeb.t/epot/a/
adst-de-aos-a-uds-tae-dsputed-aeas
[37] ttp//ebaoe.co/1409MLN/14091314STR.asp
[38] ttp//egs.safaa.co/dex.pp/potcs/
[13] ttp//.aaa.co/
10849-baza-peets-ftg-patsa-fags--fgtg-fots-except-fouds-pesega-ca-be-a-gae-cage--a-ad-sya-6802
[14] ttp//.s.co.au/atces/2003/12/15/
1071336860245.t
[39] ttp//.a-oto.co/puse/ogas/2015/01/
a-uds-pesega-dso-sac-state.t
[15] Abde, Mac. Ho te CIA eay caugt B Lade s

ta .
[40] ttps//boos.googe.d/boos?dS6oP3Y9ZM3sC&
pgPA129&pgPA129&d15%27t+ad+16%27t+
dso+pesega&souceb&otsc0IHY4ASX&
sgUWDppeBU7S4a3Le9dMc_7Ae&
da&saX&euxWzVMWRCuNygO94CAB&
ed0CCQ6AEAgoepage&
15't%20ad%2016't%20dso%20pesega&ffase
[16] ttp//.ocat.co/usa/at-sec/
coa-doe-stage-saga-a-aeda-tpe-aget/
[17] ttp//.daysaba.co/potcs/2014/12/10/
pesega-deat-to-eaces-727--a-sya
[18] ttp//dgoe.b.fsu.edu/cg/ecotet.cg?atce
3203&cotextetd
[41] ttp//.eud.et/sas/atces/sc2011/1/
state4537.t
[21] ttp//.gspa.og/goeet/pofes/
egs-pesdet/
[42] ttps//boos.googe.d/boos?dKgEo276J_0C&pg
PA309&pgPA309&dPesega%09Poected+
Resdua+Foce&souceb&otsMPM_oAI2pT&
sgccoaVcyLp3PIE-WHME&da&
saX&eMRKzVLTIIyPA9IKQCg&ed
0CCQQ6AEAAoepage&Pesega%
09Poected%20Resdua%20Foce&ffase
[22] Meseas, Susa. Kudsta I te Sado of Hstoy .

Uesty of Ccago Pess, 2008
[43] Capa, Des. Secuty Foces of Kudsta Regoa

Goeet, Us Ay Wa Coege. 2009, page. 112.
[23] ttps//.pceto.edu/{acaey/te/100/
docs/Patotc_Uo_of_Kudsta.t
[44] ttp//.uyetdayes.co/
1000-uds-sodes-deset-fo-a-ay.aspx?
pageID238&ID48701&
[19] Ne Statesa . Reteed 23 Octobe 2014.

[20] ttp//udstatbue.co/2011/
aabad-fst-depedet-uds-epubc/
[24] ttp//.as.og/atces/?d3000
[25] ttp//.ates.co/ates/Mdde_East/
LB20A02.t
[26] ttp//.bbc.co/es/
od-dde-east-28738975
[27] ttp//.teguada.co/od/2014/u/12/
o-batte-eady-ss-a-ay-pesega
[28] ttp//.esop.de/
esop-te-desastous-coad-o-coad-stuctue/
[45] ttps//boos.googe.d/boos?dLzFaaWCudQC&
pgPA425&pgPA425&dpesega+a+
ay+aegatos&souceb&otsfDbx1-O&sg
sdbbgg7AZJC29g9GMcVK6o&da&saX&e
1RyzVLdL8_yO6-YHIBg&ed0CD8Q6AEBA
oepage&pesega%20a%20ay%
20aegatos&ffase
[46] ttp//.eutes.co/atce/2014/12/21/
us-deast-css-a-sa-dUSKBN0JZ0QO20141221
[29] ttp//.s.co/atces/
[48] ttp//.teegap.co.u/es/
u-s-aes-tag-uds-o-usg-sopstcated-eapoy-agast-sac-state-1411339625
odes/sac-state/11216064/
Meet-te-Kuds-oe-fgtg-te-Isac-State.
[30] ttp//.aazeea.co/pogaes/sdea/2008/
t
03/2008525185811788617.t
[31] ttp//udstatbue.co/2014/
g-godfates-2006-secet-cabe-o-eas/
[32] ttp//tgaces.og/stes/defaut/fes/esouces/
ep/5/NIMEP_Isgts_2011_48-64.pdf
[50] ttp//.foxes.co/od/2015/01/03/
a-pesega-despeate-fo-us-as--fgt-agast-ss/
[51] ttp//.d.de/as-fo-uds-pesega-to-affect-tay-baace/
a-17853077
[33] ttp//.tedteacoecto.co/a-es/
pesdecy-of-te-poce-ees-ts-ca-to-coet-te-pesega-ay-atoa
[52] ttp//.a-oto.co/puse/ogas/2013/06/
a-ass-g-fo-pe-sadda-eapos.t
[34] ttp//eud.et/sas/atces/sc2014/3/state7820.
t
[53] ttp//.teatoa.ae/od/dde-east/
[35] Capa, Des. Secuty Foces of Kudsta Regoa
as-s-eteats-a-uds-ga-e-auto
page1
Goeet, Us Ay Wa Coege. 2009, page. 3.
62
CHAPTER 10. PESHMERGA
[54] ttp//es.atoapost.co/2014/10/03/
[76] Fec Gat 53T2 20 Me F2 gus deeed to Kuuds-foces-captued-a-ss-base-afte-a-to-day-sege-but-te-ss-fgtes-sde-soeo-spped-aay/
dsta . www.europe1.fr. Reteed 23 Octobe 2014.
[55] Ncoas Watt. UK pepaes to suppy as decty to
Kuds foces gtg Iss . the Guardian. Reteed 23
Octobe 2014.
[56] See este states o US to a Ia Kudsta
Petago . Reteed 23 Octobe 2014.
[57] ttp//.teguada.co/od/2014/aug/11/
us-a-pesega-a-udsta-ss
[58] ttp//.asgtotes.co/es/2014/o/21/
a-uds-us-e-eed-eay-eapos-defeat-sa/
[77] Type 63 Sef-Popeed At-Acaft Gu Syste .

www.fas.org. Reteed 4 August 2014.
[78] Soute Kudsta ay .
[79] uyet - Kuds autoty buyg 16 US-but ecoptes fo Saud . Huyetdayes.co. 200607-19. Reteed 2014-08-18.
[80] Cotact to Buy 16 Hecoptes Sged by Kudsta R.
Got. - Meda oto . Eud.et. Reteed 2014-0818.
[81] By IWPR - Ia Pess Moto. Cotact to Buy 16 He[59] ttp//.asgtopost.

coptes Sged - Isttute fo Wa ad Peace Repotg
co/od/atoa-secuty/
as-uds-appea-fo-e-us-as-to-cobat-sac-state/ - P224 . Ip.et. Reteed 2014-08-18.
2014/11/12/d2a0fe28-6aa6-11e4-9fb4-a622dae742a2_
stoy.t
10.7 Further reading
[60] ttp//ota.co/aces/2014/09/10/
uds-to-us-ge-us-te-eay-eapos-e-eed-to-fgt-ss/
[61] ttp//.eutes.co/atce/2014/11/19/
us-deast-css-baza-dUSKCN0J30ON20141119
[62] ISIS-teo Noda . August 2014. Reteed 201409-08.
Capa, Des P., Leuteat Cooe USA, Security Forces of the Kurdistan Regional Government,
Costa Mesa, Cafoa Mazda Pubses, 2011.
ISSN 0026-3141 Reeed by Mcae M. Gute
Middle East A airs, Vo. 65, No. 3, Sue
2011.
[63] ttp//.uta./
e-zoz-posao--ada-aco-osc-podae-ouze--opeu-edu-700-ua-ua-/
1219539/
10.8 External links
[64] ttp//.bg.de/esouce/esouce/
MzEzNTM4MUzMzMyMUzMTM1MzMyZTM2MzEzMDMMzAzMDMMzAzMDY4N2E2OTcyNEzNMN2EyMDIMAyMD
Meda eated to Kuds Pesega at Weda
2014-08-31%2520Pape_Utest%25C3%
Coos
25BCtzug_E5_fa.pdf
[65] U.S. Depatet of Defese, Measug Stabty ad
Secuty Ia (Jue 2007) p. 30, 39
[66] ttp//.aasdfesa.t/2014/09/
ecco-a-sta-dee-poce-a-taae-a-cud
[67]
[68] Pesega use HJ-8 . 18 Decebe 2014.
[69] Ia
Deutscad scct Kude Pazeabeaete . Spiegel Online ( Gea). 31 August
2014. Reteed 31 August 2014.
[70] Pesega Foces Recut Csta Fgtes, says Loca
O ca . Rudaw. Reteed 23 Octobe 2014.
[71] Mdde East Mtay Baace
[72] Ia s T-72s Payet Receed . Defesedustyday.co. 2005-11-14. Reteed 2014-08-18.
[73] sex a3fa pu . YouTube. Reteed 23 Octobe 2014.
[74] Gea efeece . 2014-08-31. Reteed 2014-0818.
[75] Hodacz, Gzegoz. Ia aed foces get aoued
eces . Jane s Defence Weekly
Chapter 11
Kurdistan Workers Party

Fo te ezye soetes abbeated as PKK , see sted as a teost ogazato teatoay by sePospobuoase.
ea states ad ogazatos, cudg te Not Atatc
Teaty Ogasato (NATO), te Uted States, ad te
Euopea Uo.[18]
Te Kurdistan Workers Party,[b 1][b 2] cooy efeed to by ts Kuds acoy, PKK (Patya Kae
Kudsta)[18] s a Kuds teost ogazato c
fo 1984 to 2013 fougt a aed stugge agast te 11.1 History
Tus state fo cutua ad potca gts ad sefdeteato fo te Kuds Tuey,[12] o copse Ma atce Hstoy of te Kudsta Woes Paty
betee 10% ad 25% of te popuato ad ae bee I te eay 1970s, te ogazato s coe goup as
subected to o ca epesso fo decades.[19] Te goup
as fouded 1978 te age of Fs (ea Lce)
by a goup of adca Kuds studets ed by Abdua
caa.[20] Te PKK s deoogy as ogay a fuso of
eoutoay socas ad Kuds atoas, seeg
te foudato of a depedet, Maxst Lest state
te ego o as Kudsta.
Hoee, sce s captue ad psoet 1999,
te eade of te PKK, Abdua caa, as abadoed
Maxs-Les,[21] eadg te paty to adopt s e
potca patfo of Deocatc Cofedeas ( ueced stogy by te betaa socast posopy of
couas) e ceasg ts o ca cas fo te estabset of a fuy depedet couty. I May 2007,
foe ebes of te PKK eped fo te KCK, a
ubea ogasato of Kuds fo Tuey, Ia, Ia
ad Sya. O 20 Mac 2005,[22] caa descbed te
eed fo a deocatc cofedeas ad et o to say
Te deocatc cofedeas of Kudsta s
ot a State syste, t s te deocatc syste
of a peope tout a State... It taes ts poe
fo te peope ad adopts to eac sef su cecy eey ed cudg ecooy.
15 February 2003, PKK supporters at the protest in London.
ade up agey of studets ed by Abdua caa

("Apo") Aaa. Te goup soo oed ts focus
to te age Kuds popuato sout-east Tuey.
A eetg o 25 Noebe 1978, a tea ouse ea
Dyaba s cosdeed te foudg eetg.[24] O 27
Noebe 1978, te goup adopted te ae Kurdistan
Workers Party. Espousg a adca eft, Maxst deoogy, te goup too pat oet co cts t gtg ettes as a pat of te potca caos Tuey
at te te. I 1979, as a act of "popagada of te
deed, te goup ted to assassate te Kuds tba
eade Meet Cea Buca. Tey caed tat e expoted te peasats, ad coaboated t Tuey. Ts
aed a peod of tese uba afae aog ote
adca potca eeets.
I 2013, te PKK accepted a cease e ageeet ad bega soy tdag ts gtes to te Kudsta Rego of ote Ia as pat of te so-caed "souto
pocess" betee te Tus state ad te ogdsefacsed Kuds oty.
Te 1980 Tus coup d'tat pused te ogazato to

aote stage, t ebes (suc as Sae Casz, oe
of te co-foudes[24] ) dog a te, beg subect to
capta puset, o eeg to Sya. O 10 Noebe 1980, te PKK bobed te Tus Cosuate
Te ae 'PKK' s usuay used tecageaby fo Stasboug, Face a ot opeato t te Aea
caed as te begte ae of ts aed g, te Peoples Defence adca goup ASALA, c tey
[25]
g
of
a
futfu
coaboato.
Force (HPG), c as foey caed te Kurdistan National Liberty Army (ARGK).[23] Te PKK s Statg 1984, te PKK tasfoed to a paa63
64
CHAPTER 11. KURDISTAN WORKERS PARTY
tay goup, usg tag caps ocated Face.

It auced attacs ad bobgs agast goeeta staatos, te tay, ad aous sttutos
of te state
soe of c ee coected to te
Souteaste Aatoa Poect. Te PKK becae ess
cetazed, tag up opeatos a aety of Euopea ad Mdde Easte coutes, especay Geay
ad Face. Te PKK as attaced ca ad tay
tagets aous coutes, suc as Tuey, Face, Begu ad Ia.[26][27][28]
Begg t te d-1990s, te ogazato ost te
uppe ad ts opeatos as a coseuece of a cage
of tactcs by Tuey ad Sya s steady abadoet of
suppot fo te goup. I te d-1990s, t aso bega
a sees of 15 sucde bobgs, 11 of c ee caed out by oe. I te ate 1990s, Tuey ceased
te pessue ad te udecaed a betee Tuey ad
Sya eded ope Sya suppot.[29] I 1999, caa as
captued, posecuted ad seteced to deat, but ts as
ate couted to fe psoet as pat of te goeet s seeg Euopea Uo ebesp.[30]
Wt educed secuty coces, te Tus paaet
bega a cotoed pocess of dsatg te ega coto, usg te te oazato o appoceet,
depedg o te sdes of te ssue. It patay eaxed
te bas o boadcastg ad pubsg te Kuds
aguage atoug sg cat baes eaed.[31] At
te sae te, te PKK as bacsted ay coutes. O 2 Ap 2004, te Couc of te Euopea
Uo added te PKK to ts st of teost ogazatos.
Late tat yea, te US Teasuy oed to feeze assets
of baces of te ogazato. Te PKK et toug
a sees of cages, ad 2003 t eded te uatea
tuce decaed e Ocaa as captued.[32]
Fag used by te KADEK (2002 2003)
Fag used by te Koga-Ge(KGK) (2003 2005)

Sce Post-aso Ia, 2003 peset, Tuey aeges
tat Massoud Baza, pesdet of te Kudsta Regoa Goeet, ad te US-ed coato foces ae
ot doe eoug to cobat t te PKK ad dsodge t
fo ts base te Ia outas.[33][34]
11.2 Ideology
Te ogazato ogated te 1970s fo te adca eft ad de ts eades, ebes fo ote exstg eftst goups, ay De-Ge.[35]127 Te ogazato tay peseted tsef as pat of te odde coust eouto. Te ogazato s as ad
obectes ae eoed oe te toads te goa of
atoa autooy, ad at Ocaa dubs Deocatc
Cofedeas .[21]
Dug te 1980s te oeet cuded ad coopeated
t ote etc goups, cudg etc Tus, o
ee foog te adca eft.[35]127 Te ogazato
tay aed to estabs a fuy depedet Kudsta
coeg ad Tuey, Sya, Ia ad Ia.[35]129
Foe ag of te Kudsta Woes Paty

(1978 1995)
Secod ag of te Kudsta Woes Paty

(1995 2002)
I 1999, foog te captue of Ocaa, te ogazato aouced a peace tate, ad spoe oe ofte
about cutua o gustc gts.[36] Hoee, te goup
eouced ts sef-posed cease- e 2004.[18] Besdes
te acttes dected toads Tuey, o 17 Juy 2005,
oe of te cef executes Hasa ze as udeed
Austa. Hasa ze ated to eae te ogazato, ad te PKK s dey tougt to be esposbe.
I Dyaba, o 6 Juy 2005, Het Fda, te foe foude of te ega bac te Peope s Deocatc
Paty (HADEP), as aso udeed. Het Fda ad
ted to fo a ateate, o-oet Kuds potca
paty caed te Patotc Deocatc Paty (PWD) t
Osa Ocaa, te bote of Abua Ocaa. At east
65
11.3. ORGANIZATION
3 ote pesos oed t te PWD ee aso ed. ted. Te foog ads esuted aests ad sezue
Te PKK s dey tougt to be esposbe fo tese of ateas Te Hague, Rotteda, Edoe ad
gs aso.[37]
Capee aa de IJsse.[45] Tee as aote tag
cap Begu, edece tat te ogazato uses
tag caps Euope fo potca ad deoogca
tag.[46]
11.3 Organization
Te PKK as utpe eads aous West Euopea
coutes.[38] Hoee, Abdua caa as te ucaeged eade of te ogazato. Afte te captue of
caa, autotes duced to pubcy pead fo a
cease e.[39] Toug seg fe psoet, caa
s st cosdeed te ooay eade ad gue-ead of
te ogazato.[40]
Muat Kaaya as te coto of te ogazato
pactce, atoug udegoe ueous co cts betee
Ce Bay. Ce Bay besde Abdua caa, Kese Yd Ocaa, ad Ha Kaae as oe of te
coe eades. Ce Bay s tay ss ad eadesp ee ctczed by Abdua caa dug s 1999
ta. Te ogazato appoted Docto Baoz, te
o de guee of Fea Husey, a Sya Kud,
cage of te oeet s tay opeatos sgfyg
te og-stadg sodaty aog Kuds fo a pats
of Kudsta.[41]
11.3.1 Training camps

Te st tag cap as estabsed 1982
Beaa Vaey (c as te ude Sya coto),
t te suppot of te Paeste Lbeato Ogazato ad Sya.[42][43] Ts a cap oed to ot
Ia 1998, ude tese pessue, afte Sya expeed Ocaa ad sut do a caps estabsed
te ego.[43] At te te, Not Ia as expeecg acuu of coto afte Opeato Pode Cofot.
Istead of a sge tag cap c coud be easy
destoyed, te ogazato ceated ay sa caps.
Dug ts peod te ogazato set up a fuy fuctog ecae t tag caps, stoage factes, ad
ecoassace ad coucatos cetes.
I 2007, te ogazato as beeed to ae caps
stug out toug te outas tat stadde te bode betee Tuey ad Ia, cudg Sat, Hafta, Kaas ad Zap.[44] Te ogazato deeoped to types of caps. Te bode caps ee
used as foad bases fo c tats tate to
Tuey. Te uts depoyed tee ae gy obe ad
te caps ae oy a fastuctue.[44] Te ote
caps, te Qad Moutas, ae oe deeoped
fastuctue cudg a ed ospta, eectcty geeatos ad a age popoto of te PKK s eta ad
o-eta suppes.[44]
11.3.2 Political representation

Te ogazato ad sypatze pates te Gad
Natoa Asseby of Tuey begg eay
1990s.
Te estabset of dect s to te
ogazato as bee a uesto.
I seuece
HEP/DEP/HADEP/DEHAP/DTP ad te atest Peace
ad Deocacy Paty (BDP) ae bee accused of sypatzg t te PKK, sce tey ae efused to bad
t as a teost goup. As of Jue 2007 epot by te
Euopea Uo Isttute fo Secuty Studes stated tat
It s a obous secet tat DTP s coected to PKK
a ay ad PKK s a teost goup. [47]
Potca ogazatos estabsed Tuey ae baed
fo popagatg o suppotg sepaats. Seea potca pates suppotg Kuds gts ae bee baed
o ts petext. Te costtutoa cout caed to
d dect s betee te HEP/DEP/HADEP ad te
PKK. IN 2008 te DTP-paty as posecuted by te costtutoa cout.
Kuds potca Abde Fat cas tat
Deocatc Socety Paty (DTP) as fouded by PKK,
ad tat 80 pecet of Kuds do ot ote fo ts paty.[48]
Hoee, seo DTP eades ata tat tey suppot
a u ed Tuey t a deocatc faeo. Ayse
Tuu pubsed a atce Radikal May 2007 as
te co-pesdet of DTP, to poe tat ca.[49]
Seea paaetaas ad ote eected epesetates ae bee aed fo speag Kuds, cayg Kuds coos o otese pootg sepaats ,
ost faous aog te beg Leya Zaa.[50]
11.3.3 Alleged drug tra cking
O 14 Octobe 2009, te U.S. Depatet of te Teasuy s O ce of Foeg Assets Coto (OFAC) tageted
te seo eadesp of te PKK, desgatg as sgfcat foeg acotcs ta ces, Muat Kaaya, te
ead of te PKK, ad g-ag ebes A Rza
Atu ad Zbey Ayda.[51] O 20 Ap 2011, te U.S.
Depatet of te Teasuy aouced te desgato of
PKK foudes Ce Bay ad Dua Kaa ad ote
g-ag ebes as Specay Desgated Nacotcs
Ta ces (SDNT) pusuat to te Foeg Nacotcs
Kgp Desgato Act (Kgp Act). Pusuat to te
Tee ae aso tag caps ote coutes te o- Kgp Act, te desgato feezes ay assets te degazato s tag cap ea Edoe te Nete- sgees ay ae ude U.S. usdcto ad pobts
ads, as e-dde te oods, but as dsa- U.S. pesos fo coductg aca o coeca
66
tasactos t tese dduas.[52]
De-So, ad Hezboa, t te goa of po tg fo

[57]
Hoee, accodg to Kuds actsts a tese ae a- te a.
egatos used by te US adstato ode to de- A tess to te tas test ed tat Geea Leet Eegtate PKK assstg Tuey as a ao ay. O te sz, foe ead of JITEM, ad ad feuet cotact t
cotay, ay actsts ca tat te Tus te- PKK coade Ce Bay.[58]
gece sece (MIT) as bee oed dug ta c- Accodg to o ca gues, eay 2000 PKK ebes
g te bode t Ia say to te Iaa tebecae itiraf ( cofessos ) afte te aest. Soe
gece. Soe cases e te Susuu scada case s oe ee pesuaded o coeced to pay a acte oe te
of te cases of dug ta cg by g Tus o cas co ct, patcuay ude te decto of te Tus
tat te Tus MIT as dde ts detas.
Gedaee's uo ca JTEM ut.
Accodg to eseac coducted by ouast Aza Macus, te PKK dd ey substatay o suppot fo Kuds sugges te ego to fud tesees. A ube of tese ee tacty o to ae bee patcpatg
teatoa dug ta cg ee befoe te 1980s,
ad soe dd deed ed up cotbutg oey to te
PKK tougout te couse of te co ct, ete fo
deoogca o ecooc easos. I Euope, a fe PKK
suppotes epotedy used te uece ad coectos to se dugs o te sde, ad eded up cotbutg soe of te oey ade bac to te ogasato,
ad paty actsts sot o fuds ee ofte ot estat
to see doatos fo Kuds o to be oed
te acotcs tade. But toug t as tue tat te PKK
ay ot ae bee ey coceed t te souces of doatos (ge te uc oe pessg eed to buy suppes), t does ot see tat te PKK, as a ogasato,
decty poduced o taded acotcs. [53]
Te Fedea O ce fo te Potecto of te Costtuto,
Geay s doestc secuty agecy, ecoed ts dg
ts 2011 Aua Repot o te Potecto of te Costtuto, statg tat despte te US desgato, tee
as o edece tat te ogasatoa stuctues of te
PKK ae decty oed dug ta cg , at east
Geay.[54]
11.4 Activities
Dug ts estabset te d-1970s, ad oet
cases couty-de, te ogazato used cassc teos etods, suc as te faed assassato of
Meet Cea Buca as a popagada-of-te-deed.[35]
Afte te 1980 tay coup, te ogazato deeoped to a paatay ogazato usg esouces t
acued Beaa aey pat of ex-Sya-cotoed
Lebao. Afte 1984, PKK bega to use Maost teoy
of peope s a.[59][60] Tee ae tee pases ts teoy. Te tat base dug te ta yeas as cog
fo d eet souces, so te st to pases ee dffused to eac ote.
11.4.1 19781984
I te st pase (1978 1984), te PKK ted to ga te

suppot of te Kuds popuato. It attaced te acey of goeet ad dstbuted popagada te
ego. PKK tactcs ee based o abus, sabotage,
ots, potests, ad deostatos agast te Tus
goeet. PKK as aso bee accused of oet attacs o ddua cas o esdeta aeas (Kuds
11.3.4 Alleged links with Turkish intelli- ad o-Kuds ae), o efused to co-opeate t te
PKK o ee suspected of coaboatg t te Tus
gence
autotes. Dug tese yeas, te PKK fougt a tuf
a agast ote pedoaty Kuds ogasatos
See aso Egeeo tas
Tuey. Te PKK e ectey used te pso foce
to ga appea aog te popuato.[61][62] I te oe
Dug te cotoesa Egeeo tas Tuey, aTuey, ts peod as caactezed by oet cases
egatos ae bee ade tat te PKK s ed to eec cuated te 1980 tay coup.
ets of te Tus tegece couty.
Dug ts te, te ogazato agued tat ts oa Tayya, auto ad ebe of te ug AK Paty,
et actos ee expaed by te eed to defed Kuds
caed tat caa as eeased 1972 afte ust tee
te cotext of at t cosdeed as te asse cuots deteto o te tate of te Natoa Itetua suppesso of Kuds detty (cudg te 1983
gece Ogazato, ad tat s 1979 escape to Sya as
Tus Laguage Act Ba) ad cutua gts caed out
aded by eeets MIT.[55] caa as adtted aby ote goeets of te ego.[63]
g use of oey ge by te MIT to te PKK, c
e says as poded as pat of MIT e ots to coto
.[56]
11.4.2 19841999
Foe poce speca foces ebe Aya a aeged tat te state, usg te cadeste Egeeo et- I te secod pase (1984 1999), c fooed te eo, couded t tat goups suc as te PKK, tu of ca ue 1983, escaatg attacs ee ade
11.4. ACTIVITIES
o te goeet s tay ad ta sttutos a oe
te couty. Te obecte as to destabse Tus
autoty toug a og, o-testy cofotato. I
addto to ssg t Tus tay ad poce
foces ad oca age guads, te PKK as coducted
sucde bobg o goeet ad poce staatos,
as e as at oca toust stes.[64] Kdappg ad assassato agast goeet o cas ad Kuds tba
eades o ee aed as puppets of te state ee
pefoed as e. Wdespead sabotages ee cotued fo te st stage. PKK aso caed out dappgs of Weste tousts, pay Istabu but aso
at d eet esots. Its actos ae tae pace ay
Tuey ad agast Tus tagets ote coutes,
atoug t as o occasos co-opeated t ote Kuds atoast paatay goups egbog states,
suc as Ia ad Ia.[65] PKK as aso attaced Tus dpoatc ad coeca factes acoss Weste
Euope. I e ect, te Tus state as ed a sees of
coute-sugecy opeatos agast te PKK, accopaed by potca easues, statg t a expct deucato of sepaats te 1982 Costtuto, ad
cudg pocaato of te state of eegecy aous PKK-cotoed tetoes statg 1983 (e
te tay eused potca coto to te cas).
Ts sees of adstate efos agast teos cuded 1985 te ceato of age guad syste by te
te pe ste Tugut za o s of pata Kuds
descet.
PKK ebes Sede cae to co ct t te
Seds goeet, ad 1986 PKK becae te st
a suspect fo te assassato of Oof Pae. Te
ega estgato of tese suspcos ed to te Ebbe
Casso a a.
67
e ect, afte te captue of caa, acttes of te ogazato ee eaced peous ees. At te sae te,
te PKK cotued to eay ecut e ebes ad
susta ts gtg foce.
I Ap 2002 at ts 8t Paty Cogess, te PKK
caged ts ae to te Kurdistan Freedom and Democracy Congress (KADEK) ad pocaed a cotet
to ooet acttes suppot of Kuds gts. A
PKK/KADEK spoesa stated tat ts aed g,
Te Peope s Defese Foce, oud ot dsbad o suede ts eapos fo easos of sef-defese, oee.
Ts stateet by te PKK/KADEK aog t oud
ot ay do ts as udescoes tat te ogazato
ataed ts capabty to cay out aed opeatos.
PKK/KADEK estabsed a e ug couc Ap,
ts ebesp tuay detca to te PKK s Pesdeta Couc. Te PKK/KADEK dd ot coduct a
aed attac 2002 oee, te goup peodcay ssued eed teats tat t esue oece f te codtos of ts psoed eade ae ot poed, ad t
cotued ts tay tag ad pag.
I ate 2003, te goup sougt to egee aote potca face-ft, eag te goup Kongra-Gel (KGK) ad
badsg ts peacefu tetos, e cotug to
cot attacs ad efuse dsaaet. Te ogazato as sad to be oed dug ta cg ad acts of
teos Tuey, ad t feuety caged ts ae.
I Jauay 2004 te US Goeet aouced tat Kudsta Woes Paty ad ts aases, te Kudsta Feedo ad Deocacy Cogess ad te Kudsta Peope s Cogess, ee teost ogazatos tat ee desgated as suc ude US a. Te Coato Posoa Autoty, coato foces ad Ia secuty foces
oud teat te PKK/KADEK/Koga-Ge as teosts.
Atoug Koga-Ge cuded soe foe tats,
te goup ecet yeas ad deeoped a potca patfo tat eouced teos. Koga-Ge caed o te
cease- e at te stat of Jue 2004, sayg Tus secuty foces ad efused to espect te tuce. Tus secuty foces ee ceasgy oed cases t Kuds sepaatst gtes. Aaa caed tat about 2,000
Kuds gtes ad cossed to Tuey fo deouts
outaous ote Ia eay Jue 2004.
I te ate 1980s ad eay 1990s, a e ot to ceased suppot fo te Kuds peasaty, te PKK ateed ts eftst secua deoogy to bette accoodate
ad accept Isac beefs. Te goup aso abadoed ts
peous stategy of attacg Kuds cas, focusg
stead o goeet ad toust tagets.[66] I ts capag, te ogazato as bee accused of cayg out
atoctes agast bot Tus ad Kuds cas ad
ts actos ae bee ctcsed by ua gts goups
suc as Aesty Iteatoa ad Hua Rgts Watc.
Actos of te Tus state te past ae aso bee We te gt agast te Tus secuty foces betee 2004 ad 2010 faed to acee ay sg cat
ctcsed by tese sae goups.
tay pogess, te PKK ad ts acay ogazaA a, ts o-testy co ct as asted oe ta
tos cotued to eoy substata suppot aog te
30 yeas.
Kuds of Tuey. I 2005 te oga ae of te ogasato PKK as estoed. Tuey s stugge agast
te Koga-Ge/PKK as aed by ceased oece
11.4.3 19992012
acoss Tuey 2005. I te Souteast, Tus secuty foces ee acte te stugge agast te KogaTe td pase (1999 2012), afte te captue of Ge/PKK. Tee ee bobgs ad attepted bobcaa, accodg to Maost teoy of peope s a gs esot aeas este Tuey ad Istabu, soe
cas tat coetoa gtg soud be estabsed to of c esuted ca casuates. A Kuds sepseze ctes, oeto te goeet ad tae coto aatst goup cag tsef te Kuds Feedo Facos
of te couty. Ts stage as ee bee aceed. I
68
(TAK), dey beeed to be a ated t te KogaGe/PKK, caed esposbty fo ay of tese attacs. I 2006 aoe, te PKK caed oe 500 cts. I Octobe 2006, te KGK/PKK decaed a uatea cease- e tat soed te testy ad pace of ts
attacs, but attacs cotued espose to Tus secuty foces sg cat coutesugecy ad couteteos opeatos, especay te souteast. O 21
Octobe 2011 Iaa foeg ste A Aba Sae
aouced Ia oud co-opeate t Tuey soe
tay opeatos agast te PKK.[67]

ca be used to a Ia s secuty ad stabty. [74] Te
pospect of aed Kuds foces ote Ia teates to cease tesos betee te ego ad Bagdad o ae aeady at odds oe ceta o poducg
tetoy. PKK spoesa Aet Dez sougt to ease
coces statg te pa oud boost deocacy. Te
[peace] pocess s ot aed agast ayoe, e sad ad
tee s o eed fo coces tat te stugge tae o
aote foat ad pose a teat to otes. [74]
It s estated tat betee 1,500 ad 2,000 PKK gtes esde Tuey. Te tdaa pocess s expected
to tae seea ots ee f Ia does ot teee
to ty to stop t.[74] O 14 May, te st goups of 13
ae ad feae gtes eteed Ia s Heo aea ea
te Meta outa afte eag Tuey. Tey caed
t te Kaaso assaut es, gt ace gus
ad ocet-popeed geade auces befoe a ecog ceeoy.[75]
2012 as te ost oet yea te aed co ct betee te Tus State ad PKK sce 1999. At east
541 dduas ost te es as a esut of te cases
cudg 316 tats. I cotast, 152 dduas ost
te es 2009 e te Tus goeet tated
egotatos t te PKK eadesp.[68] Te faue of
ts egotatos cotbuted to oece tat ee patcuay tes ed 2012. Te PKK ecouaged by te O 29 Juy, te PKK ssued a utatu sayg tat
sg poe of te Sya Kuds ceased ts attacs te peace dea oud fa f efos ee ot begu to
te sae yea.
be peeted t a ot.[76] I Octobe, Ce
Dug te Sya c a, te Kuds Sya ae estab- Bay aed tat uess Tuey esued te peace posed coto oe te o ego t te ep of te cess, te PKK oud esue opeatos agast t. He
Tus Kudsta Woes Paty as e as t suppot aso accused Tuey of agg a poxy a agast Kuds
fo te Kudsta Regoa Goeet Ib, ude dug te Sya c a by suppotg ote ebes o
Pesdet Massoud Baza.[69]
ee gtg te.[77]
Ia Kudsta Pesdet Masoud Baza baced te tate sayg, aogsde Edoga Ts s a stoc st
11.4.4 2013 cease re
fo e ... We a o t oud ae bee possbe to
spea ee 15 o 20 yeas ago. Pe Mste Tayyp EI ate 2012, te Tus goeet bega secet tas doga as tae a ey bae step toads peace. I at
t caa fo a cease e.[70] To factate tas, goe- y Kuds ad Tus botes to suppot te peace
et o cas tastted ettes betee caa a pocess. [78]
to PKK eades ote Ia.[71] O 21 Mac 2013,
a cease e as aouced.[72] O 25 Ap, t as aouced tat te PKK oud eae Tuey. Coade 11.4.5 2014 action against Islamic State
Muat Kaaya eaed As pat of ogog pepaaand renewed ghting in Turkey
tos, te tdaa beg o May 8, 2013. Ou
foces use te gt to etaate te eet of a at- Te PKK egaged Isac State (IS) foces Sya
tac, opeato o bobg agast ou tdag gue- d-Juy 2014[79] as pat of te Sya C Wa.
a foces ad te tdaa edatey stop. [73] I August te PKK egaged IS Note Ia ad
Te se-autooous Kuds ego of Ia ecoed pessued te Goeet of Tuey to tae a stad
te dea of efugees fo ts ote egbo.[74] Te agast IS.[80][81] PKK foces eped tes of tousads
BDP ed eetgs acoss te ego to expa te ped- of Yazds escape a ecced Mout Sa. [82] I
g tdaa to coceed ctzes. Te 8t of May Septebe 2014, dug te Sege of Kobae, te PKK
s a day e bot atcpate ad fea, expaed paty egaged t Isac State foces Sya, c esuted
eade Pa Yaz. We do't tust te goeet at co cts t Tus o te bode ad a ed to a
a. May peope ee ae afad tat oce te gue- cease- e tat ad bee pace oe a yea.[83]
as ae goe, te Tus tay cac do o us A ube of Tus Kuds aed age-scae steet
aga. [72]
potests, deadg tat te goeet Aaa tae
Te tdaa bega as paed t goups of gtes
cossg te bode fo souteaste Tuey to ote
Ia.[70] Ia eadesp Bagdad, oee, decaed
tat t oud ot accept aed goups to ts tetoy.
Te Ia goeet ecoes ay potca ad peacefu setteet , ead a o ca stateet. "[But] t does
ot accept te ety of aed goups to ts tetoes tat
oe focefu acto to cobat IS ad to eabe Kuds tats aeady egaged agast IS to oe feey
oe ad esuppy. Tese potests cuded a PKK ca
fo ts suppotes to tu out.[84] Cases betee poce
ad potestes ed at east 31 peope. Te Tus goeet cotued to estct PKK-assocated gtes
oeet acoss ts bodes, aestg 260 Peope s Po-
69
11.6. RESOURCES
tecto Uts gtes o ee og bac to Tuey.
O 14 Octobe, Tus A Foce gte-bobes attaced PKK postos te cty of Dagca, Haa
Poce.[85]
tos. Te pobe of ogazato s eapos ad te estgato of Bacate epoyees ee coected.[92]
Te ogazato as bee usg es.[93] Use of tese

es as ed to ca deats, pat due to accdeTus tay stateets caed tat te bobgs ta tggeg by ca tucs ad buses ate ta te
ee espose to PKK attacs o a Tus tay teded tay aoued eces.[93]
outpost te aea. Te Fat es agecy, c A
Jazeea descbes as cose to te PKK , caed tat
Tus foces ad bee seg te PKK postos fo 11.6 Resources
days befoead ad tat te PKK acto ad tsef bee
etaato fo tose atey stes.[86]
11.6.1 Funding
11.5
Tactics
Te aeas c te goup opeates ae geeay

outaous ua aeas ad dese uba aeas. Te
outaous tea o es a adatage to ebes of
te PKK by aog te to de a eto of caes
ad ag tay a opeatos, especay ecopte
use, azadous fo te Tus Aed Foces.
11.5.1 Recruiting
Pates ad cocets ae ogazed by bac goups.[94]

Addtoay, t s beeed tat te PKK eas oey
toug te sae of aous pubcatos, as e as eceg eeues fo egtate busesses oed by te
ogazato, ad fo potecto acets fo Kudsoed busesses Weste Euope.[95] Besdes a ate ogazatos, tee ae sypatze ogazatos
suc as te Cofedeato of Kuds Assocatos Euope (KON-KURD, eaduateed Busses) ad te
Iteatoa Kuds Busesse Uo (KAR-SAZ,
Rotteda) c costaty excages foato ad
pefo egtate o se-egtate coeca acttes ad doatos.
Te PKK s deoogy cas to suppot euaty of gede. At ts estabset, t cuded a sa ube of

feae gtes. Oe te, oee, ts ube as ceased sg caty ad by te eay 1990s, 30 pecet
of ts 17,000 aed gtg foces ee oe.[87] I
uc of ua Tuey, ae-doated tba stuctues,
ad coseate Mus os ae coopace. Te
ogazato ceased ts ube of ebes toug
te ecutet of oe fo d eet soca stuctues
ad eoets, suc as oe fo faes tat gated to seea Euopea coutes afte 1960 as guest
oes (Gea Gastarbeiter).[87] It as epoted by a
Tus uesty tat 88% of te subects caed tat
euaty as a ey obecte.[88] I 2007, appoxatey
1,100 of 4,500 5,000 tota ebes ee oe.[87]
A epot by INTERPOL pubsed 1992 states tat

te PKK, aog t eay 178 Kuds ogazatos
ee suspected of ega dug tade oeet. Aso
INTERPOL s cef acotcs o ce Iba Hussa Rz
stated tat te PKK as aso eay oed dug
ta cg[96] Mebes of te PKK ae bee desgated acotcs ta ces by te U.S. Depatet of te
Teasuy.[51]
Fou ebes of te ogazato, o aded tesees oe to autotes afte escapg fo caps

ote Ia, caed tey ad see to U.S. aoed
eces dee eapos, c as dey epoted ad
fute stoed suspcos about U.S. pocy Ia.[90] US
eoy deed tese cas.[91] Te as ee caed to
be pat of Bacate Wodde as suggg aega-
tat ude Tus as cudg 262 tats fo

te ogazato as foud tat 54% of te ebes ae
aged 14 to 25, 34% 26 to 37 ad 12% 38 to 58. Uesty gaduates ae up 11% of te ebes, g scoo
gaduates 16%, secoday scoo gaduates 13%, pay scoo gaduates 39%, teate o-gaduates 12%
ad teates 9%.[98]
11.6.2 Human resources
Dug ts gest pot te eay 1990s te tat

ebesp as aoud 17,000. Afte te captue of
caa ts ube dastcay deceased. Te ebesp ceased fo 3,000 to oe ta 7,000 afte te
2003 aso of Ia. I 2008, accodg to foa11.5.2 Weapons
to poded by te Itegece Resouce Poga of
te Fedeato of Aeca Scetsts te stegt of te
I Juy 2007, te eapos captued betee 1984 ad ogazato tes of ua esouces cossts of ap2007 fo te PKK opeates ad te ogs pubsed poxatey 4,000 to 5,000 tats of o 3,000 to
by te Tus Geea Sta dcates tat te opeates 3,500 ae ocated ote Ia.[97]
deeted soe of te sea ubes fo te eapos. A study caed out by te Coute-Teos ad OpTe tota ube of eapos ad te ogs fo taceabe eatos Depatet of Dectoate Geea fo Secuty
oes ee[89]
oe a sape of es about peope cocted of beg a
70
11.6.3 International support

1999. Te PKK as bee sted as a teost ogasato sce 2001. I 2008 te Uted Kgdo detaed ebes of te PKK ad sezed te
assets of te PKK s epesetate Bta, Sea Bozu, aas D. Hsey . Hs assets ea
foze.[110]
At te egt of ts capag, te ogazato eceed

suppot fo ay coutes. Accodg to Tuey,
coutes te PKK as peousy/cuety eceed suppot fo cude Geece,[99][100] Ia,[101] Ia,[102]
Russa[103] ad Sya.[101] Te ee of suppot ge as
caged tougout ts peod.
Support of various European states Despte Busses
desgato of te goup as a teost ogazato,
te EU cotues to pet te boadcastg of te
Syria Fo eay 1979 to 1999 Sya ad poded auogazato s etos o te Hot Bd 3 satete
abe safe aes to PKK te ego of Beaa Vaoed by te Fec copay Eutesat. MEDYA
ey. Hoee, afte te udecaed a betee
TV
stated tasssos fo studos Begu
Tuey ad Sya, Sya paced estctos o PKK
a
a
satete up fo Face. MEDYA TV s actty o ts so. Tuey as expectg poste
cese
as eoed by te Fec autotes. A fe
deeopets ts coopeato t Sya te
ees
ate Ro TV bega tasssos fo Deog te, but ee dug te couse of 2005, tee
a.
It as aso bee agued tat te Neteads
ee PKK opeates of Sya atoaty opeatg
ad
Begu
ae suppoted te PKK by aog
[94][104]
Tuey.
ts tag caps to fucto te especte tetoes. O 22 Noebe 1998, Haoe s cIran Ia poded PKK t suppes te fo of
a poce epoted tat tee cde ad bee
eapos ad fuds. Hoee, Ia ate sted PKK
taed by te PKK fo guea afae caps
as a teost ogazato afte Paty fo a Fee Lfe
te Neteads ad Begu.[111] Afte te deat
Kudsta used Ia s suppy of esouces to te
of Teo a Gog, t ceasg atteto o doPKK bega to be used o ts o so.
estc secuty coces, te Dutc poce aded
te 'PKK paatay cap' te Dutc age of
Lepde ad aested 29 peope Noebe 2004,
Greece Reted Gee L.T. Geea Dts Mata as
but
a ee soo eeased.[112] Dea aos Kuad eted Gee Nay Ada Atos Naxds satete teeso statos (suc as ROJ-TV),
as ad sted te ogazato s Masu Koaz
c Tuey cas as s t te PKK, to opbase cap Beaa Vaey Octobe 1988 aog
eate
Dea ad boadcast to Tuey.[113]
t paaetaas fo te Paeec Socast Moeet (PASOK).[105] At te te t as epoted tat te geea ad assued esposbty Vaous PKK eades, cudg Hd Yac, Rza Atu,
fo tag. Gees aso dspatced as toug Zubey Ayda, ad A Hayda Kayta a ed Eute Repubc of Cypus.[105] I Decebe 1993, ope ad oed feey. Te fee oeet as aceed
Gee Euopea a as ste Teodoos Paga- by stog tes t ueta pesos. Daee Mtteos as uoted as sayg e ust be suppote of ad, te fe of te foe Pesdet of Face, ad
te Kuds peope to be fee .[106] Geece deced acte coectos dug te 90s t eeets of te
to o Geay ad Face ad te eee ote ogazato s eadesp tat foced a dogade e[114]
Afte abog
ebes at te EU to ba te ogazato.[106] Du- atosps betee te to states.
[107]
fo soe te, Austa aaged a gt to Ia fo
g te 1990s, Geece supped te ebes.
A Rza Atu, a suspected ey gue t a Itepo
aest aat o s ae.. Tus foeg ste
Republic of Cyprus Suppot of te Repubc of Cypus
Abdua G suoed te Austa abassado ad
as aeged e Abdua caa as caugt
codeed Austa s acto.[115] O 30 Septebe 1995,
t a Cypot passpot ude te ae of Maos
e caa as Sya, Daascus tated cotact
Lazaos, a atoast epote.
t g-ag Gea CDU MP Hec Lue
ad Gea tegece o cas.
Soviet Union and Russia [108] Accodg to te foe
Te Cef of te Tus Geea Sta dug 2007, GeKGB-FSB o ce Aexade Lteo, o as
ea Ya a Byat, stated tat ee toug te teaposoed 2006, PKK s eade Abdua caa
toa stugge ad bee dscussed o eey patfo ad
as taed by KGB-FSB.[109] As of 2008, Russa
ee toug ogazatos suc as te UN, NATO, ad
s st ot aog te states tat st PKK as a teoEU ade stateets of seous cotet, to ts day
st goup despte tese Tus pessue.
te ecessay easues ad ot bee tae.[116] Accodg to Byat "this conduct on one side has encourUnited Kingdom MED TV boadcast fo e yeas aged the terrorists, on the other side it assisted in widening
te UK, ut ts cese as eoed by te egua- their activities.[116] " Sedat Lae, of te Tus t
tos te Idepedet Teeso Cosso (ITC) ta ISRO, says tat US suppot of te PKK udees
71
11.8. SEE ALSO

te US Wa o Teos.[117] Seyou Hes caed
tat te U.S. suppoted PEJAK, te Iaa bac of
te PKK.[118] Te ead of te PKK s tat a, Muat
Kaaya, caed tat Ia attepted to ecut te PKK
to attac coato foces, addg tat Kuds gueas
ad auced a cadeste a ot-este Ia, abusg Iaa toops.[119]
11.7
Kazasta,[142] Kygyzsta,[143] te Neteads,[144]

Ne Zeaad,[145] Spa,[146] ad Sya.[147]
Notaby, te goeet of Stzead as expcty eected Tus deads to bacst te PKK,[148] toug
t as tae ts o easues to oto ad estct te
goup s acttes o Sss so, cudg bag te coecto of fuds fo te goup Noebe 2008.[149]
Designation as a terrorist 11.8 See also

group
Kuds Tus co ct
Te PKK as bee paced o te teos bacsts

of Tuey ad a ube of aed goeets ad
ogasatos.[120]
Pesega
Te tay aace NATO as decaed te PKK to be a

teost goup[121] Tuey as bee a ebe of NATO
sce 1952, ad eds te goup s secod-agest aed
cotget. Cosey ted to NATO,[122] te Euopea
Uo c Tuey aspes to o o cay sts te
PKK as ag bee oed teost acts ad poscbes t as pat of ts Coo Foeg ad Secuty Pocy.[123] Fst desgated 2002, te PKK as odeed
to be eoed fo te EU teo st o 3 Ap 2008 by
te Euopea Cout of Fst Istace o te gouds tat
te EU faed to ge a pope ust cato fo stg t
te st pace.[124] Hoee, EU o cas dsssed te
ug, statg tat te PKK oud ea o te st egadess of te ega decso.[125] Most Euopea Uo
ebe states ae ot dduay sted te PKK as a
teost goup.
Te Uted Natos oy bacsts a-Qaeda, te Taba,

ad a ated goups ad dduas, pusuat to UNSCR
1267.[126] As suc, te PKK as ee bee desgated
as a teost ogasato by te UN, toug tee out of
e peaet ebes of te Uted Natos Secuty
Couc teat t as suc o a ddua bass. Te PKK
s desgated as a Foeg Teost Ogazato by te
US State Depatet[18][127] ad as a Poscbed Goup
by te UK Hoe O ce.[128] Addtoay, Face posecutes Kuds-Fec actsts ad bas ogasatos
coected to te PKK o teos-eated cages,[129]
ag sted te goup as a teost ogasato sce
1993.[130] Hoee, Fec couts ofte efuse to extadte captued dduas accused of PKK coectos to
Tuey due to teccates Fec a, fustatg
Tus autotes.[131] O te ote ad, Russa as
og goed Tus pessue to ba te PKK,[132] ad
te goup s aso ot cuded te o ca teo bacst of Ca (PRC).[133]
Bacboads
11.9 Notes
[1] Kua Kuds Partiya Karkern Kurdistan o Kurdistan Soa Kuds
,
tast. Part Karkeran Kurdistan Tus
Krdistan i Partisi
[2] Ko betee 2002 ad 2003 as te Freedom and
Democracy Congress of Kurdistan (Kuds Kongreya
Azad Demokrasiya Kurdistan, KADEK), ad betee
2003 ad 2005 as te Kurdistan Peoples Congress
(Kuds Kongreya Gel Kurdistan, Kongra-Gel o
KGK)
[3] PKC autoatc e, Daguo Spe R e, Ab,
Hece & Koc G3, M16 e, Hece & Koc PSG1
(G-1), Mause
11.10 References
[1] The Kurdish Nationalist Movement in the 1990s: Its Impact
on Turkey and the ... - Google. Boos.googe.o.
1995-08-17. Reteed 2014-08-14.
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deocacy | Joost Jogede . Acadea.edu. Reteed
2014-08-14.
[3] Jogede, Joost. Retg Potcs ad Deocacy
te Mdde East (PDF). Reteed 8 Septebe 2013.
Te foog ote ddua coutes ae sted o

otese abeed te PKK a o ca capacty as a
teost ogasato
[4] Sue Totas (1970-01-01).

Waes of Fes
Tuey Keast, Isast ad Kuds Woe s
Moeets a Ea of Gobazato | sue totas .
Acadea.edu. Reteed 2014-08-14.
Austa,[136]
Azebaa,[137]
Austaa,[134][135]
[138]
[139]
[140]
Caada,
Geay,
Ia,
Japa,[141]
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A Heec
[104] Caabes, Masso (30 Mac 1998).
BBC News. 2014-10-07. Reteed 2014-10-14.
Hae . Time. Reteed 22 Octobe 2007.
[85] Tus ets bob Kuds PKK ebes ea Ia . BBC
[105] Gute, Mcae M. The Kurds and the Future of Turkey,
News. 2014-10-14. Reteed 2014-10-14.
page 110
[86] Tuey bobs Kuds PKK tagets sout .
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Al
[106] Gute, Mcae M. The Kurds and the Future of Turkey,

page 111
[87] A zca, Nat PKK Recutet of Feae Opea[107] Ocaa Gees supped Kuds ebes . BBC News. 2
tes at te Waybac Mace (aced Septebe 15,
2007), Global Terrorism Analysis, Jaesto Foudato, Voue 4, Issue 28, 11 Septebe 2007.
[108] Coe, Sate E (2001).
Te Kuds Questo Tus Potcs .
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[88] Heps ad ocua . Hrriyet ( Tus)
do10.1016/S0030-4387(00)00056-9.
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[109] Te ogato of te acts of teos Lodo as
[89] " te PKK' saa stes . Hrriyet ( Tus).
stadg ea Toy Ba . Chechen Press. 11 May 2007.
Reteed 19 Juy 2007.
Aced fo te oga o 19 May 2007. Reteed 29
Jue 2008.
[90] Ozbag, Dde (23 Juy 2008). I sa o TV tat PKK
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PKK ebes caps Kad Mouta. Ho do you
espod?". Ask the Ambassador Archives. Ebassy of te [111] GobaMac epot o Begu
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12 Noebe 2004. Reteed 22 Juy 2008.
[91] US eoy dees PKK cas . Turkish Daily News. 4
Juy 2007. Reteed 23 Juy 2008.
[113] Dea, aga? No t s baed fo ostg Kuds
TV stato. . Christian Science Monitor. 21 Ap 2006.
[92] "Bacate adts epoyees egay sod eapos,
Reteed 22 Febuay 2008.
Tehran Times, 23 Septebe 2007.
[114] Oso, Robet W (1996). The Kurdish Nationalist Movement in the 1990s: Its Impact on Turkey and the Mid[94] Kudsta Woe s Paty (PKK)". Counter-Terrorism
dle East. Uesty Pess of Ketucy. p. 122. ISBN
Studies.
Iteatoa Pocy Isttute fo Coute0-8131-1999-5. ...Pesdet Mttead s, adttedy esTeos (ICT). Aced fo te oga o 30 Jue
taged fe Daee. So bad ad tes [Face-Tuey]
bee at oe stage tat foa eatos ad bee dogaded to te ee of charge d'a aires.
[95] Teos Facg of ts acttes . Repubc of
Tuey, Msty of Foeg A as. Reteed 10 Juy [115] Austuya test uaa Ia'a gded . Hrriyet (
Tus). Reteed 18 Juy 2007.
2008.
[93] Tuey, Lade Moto, 2006.
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75
[116] PKK'ya yad ede NATO yes Aupa ee a . [131] Deta , Sea (6 Octobe 2011). Tuey ad Face
Hrriyet ( Tus). 22 May 2007.
to oty gt teos . Hyet Day Nes. Reteed 5 Febuay 2014.
[117] Lace, Sedat (14 May 2006). Te West ad Teos
PKK as a Peged Teost Ogazato . Journal of [132] Bace, Ada (2012). A Audt of Poe Tuey s
Turkish Weekly. Iteatoa Stategc Reseac OgaLeeage te Post Soet Space . Black Sea Discussion
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Studes (EDAM). Reteed 5 Febuay 2014.
[118] Hes, Seyou (26 Noebe 2007). Te Next Act .
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sx ots, Isae ad te Uted States ae aso bee
of te Peope s Repubc of Ca te Uted States
og togete suppot of a Kuds esstace goup
of Aeca. 15 Decebe 2003. Reteed 5 Febuay
o as te Paty fo Fee Lfe Kudsta.
2014.
[119] McEoy, Dae (10 Septebe 2007). Kuds gue- [134] Austaa decaes PKK teost ogazato . People
as auc cadeste a Ia . Daily Telegraph
Daily. 16 Decebe 2005. Reteed 10 Decebe 2012.
(Lodo). Reteed 22 Febuay 2008.
[135] Kudsta Woes Paty . Australian National Security.
[120] Tuey spy agecy dees oe Pas Kuds ude,
Austaa Goeet. Reteed 1 Septebe 2007.
auces pobe . Rado Face Iteatoae. 16 Jasted Austaa (as a teost ogazato) o 17 Deuay 2014. Reteed 5 Febuay 2014.
cebe 2005
[121] NATO cef decaes PKK teost goup . Xinhua. 20 [136] Wate, Csta. Terrorism as a challenge for national
Decebe 2005.
and international law. ISBN 3-540-21225-6. Reteed
14 Noebe 2011.
[122] Te Euopea Uo s Heade Goa Cuet Status .
Cete fo Defese Ifoato Mtay Refo Poect. [137] Azebaa o cay ecogzes PKK as teost oga23 May 2002. Aced fo te oga o 2012-03-09.
zato Aye PHOTOS . Nes.Az. 28 Juy 2011.
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[123] Couc Decso 2011/70/CFSP of 31 Jauay 2011 up- [138] Cuety sted ettes, Pubc Safety Caada
datg te st of pesos, goups ad ettes subect to
Atces 2, 3 ad 4 of Coo Posto 2001/931/CFSP [139] ARBEITERPARTEI KURDISTANS (PKK), VOLKSKONGRESS KURDISTANS (KONGRA GEL),
o te appcato of spec c easues to cobat teSTRUKTUREN, ZIELE, AKTIVITTEN (PDF) (
os O ca Joua L 028 , 02/02/2011 P. 0057
Gea).
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[140] Hae, Safa (31 Juy 2004). Edoga Bac Hoe Fo
Hs Tea Vst Epty Hads . Ia Pess Sece. Re[124] Judget of te Cout of Fst Istace (Seet Cateed 21 Noebe 2013.
be) of 3 Ap 2008. Case T-229/02 Osa Ocaa actg o beaf of Kudsta Woes Paty (PKK) Couc of te Euopea Uo . Euopea Cout of Fst I- [141] Ipeetato of te Measues cudg te Feezg
of Assets agast Teosts ad te Le . Msty of
stace. 3 Ap 2008. Reteed 5 Febuay 2014.
Foeg A as of Japa. 5 Juy 2002. Reteed 21
Noebe 2013.
[125] Scobeg, Wa Robet Woodad (ed.) (3 Ap
2008). EU as og to cude PKK o teo st .
[142] Kazasta Updates Lst Of Baed Teost Goups .
Reutes (UK). Reteed 5 Febuay 2014.
Rado Fee Euope/Rado Lbety. Kazasta Today,
Itefax-Kazasta. 12 Octobe 2006. Reteed 5
[126] Gogett, Caa (Ap 2006). Lstg ad De-stg of
Febuay 2014.
Teost Ogazatos te Cases of te Uted Natos
ad te Uted States of Aeca . HD Cete fo Hu[143] Le Kgzsta a cou PKK coe ue ogasato
ataa Daogue. Reteed 5 Febuay 2014.
teoste ( Fec). Azebaa Pess Agecy. 12 Jue
2008. Reteed 5 Febuay 2014.
[127] Foeg Teost Ogazatos Lst . Uted States Depatet of State. 23 Octobe 2002. Aced fo te
oga o 15 Febuay 2008. Reteed 23 Febuay [144] Feda, J. DUTCH COUNTERTERRORISM EFFORTS . STATE FOR S/CT, TTIC EUR, EUR/UBI,
2008. USSD Foeg Teost Ogazato
INL JUSTICE FOR OIA. Reteed 14 Noebe 2011.
[128] Poscbed teost goups . Te Hoe O ce of UK.
[145] Stateet of Case to Ree te Desgato of Patya
Kaee Kudsta [PKK] as a Teost Etty . Ne
Zeaad Poce. 11 Febuay 2013. Reteed 21 Noe[129] Patterns of Global Terrorism 1993. DIANE Pubsg
be 2013.
Copay. Reteed 14 Noebe 2011.
[130] Le Roux, Gae (17 Octobe 2012). Les Kudes de [146] Spa aests sx Kuds suspected of acg PKK .
Face ctes d'u aagae etue aec e PKK
Expatca. AFP. 12 Febuay 2013. Reteed 5 Febu?" ( Fec). Face 24. Reteed 5 Febuay 2014.
ay 2014.
76
[147] Mutes of te Ageeet . Sya Tut. Reteed 8

Mac 2013.
[148] Nct t de Fge zege ( Gea). St. Gae
Tagbatt. 7 Octobe 2006. Aced fo te oga o
2007-09-29. Reteed 5 Febuay 2014.
[149] Budesat t PKK a de Lee ( Gea).
Bee Zetug. 5 Noebe 2008. Reteed 5 Febuay 2014.
11.11
Further reading
caa, Abdua. Interviews and Speeches [about

P.K.K.'s Kurdish cause]. Lodo Pubsed oty
by Kudsta Sodaty Cottee ad Kudsta
Ifoato Cete, 1991. 46 p. Wtout ISBN
11.12
External links
O ca ebste
Chapter 12
Syrian Armed Forces

Te Syrian Armed Forces (Aabc
) ae te tay foces of Sya. Tey cosst of

te Sya Aab Ay, Sya Aab Nay, Sya Aab
A Foce, Sya Aab A Defese Foce, ad seea
paatay foces. Accodg to te Sya costtuto,
te Pesdet of Sya s te Coade--Cef of te
Aed Foces.
Te tay s a coscpted foce aes see te
tay upo eacg te age of 18.[2] Sce te Sya
C Wa te ested ebes of te Sya tay
ae dopped by oe af fo a pe-c a gue of
325,000 to 150,000 Decebe 2014, due to casuates,
desetos ad daft dodgg.[1]
Toops, Fec o ces ed te top posts, but as Sya

depedece appoaced, te as beo ao ee
gaduay ed by Sya o ces o ad gaduated
fo te Hos Mtay Acadey, c ad bee estabsed by te Fec dug te 1930s. I 1938, te
Toupes Spcaes ubeed aoud 10,000 e ad 306
o ces (of o 88 ee Fec, ay te ge
as). A aoty of te Sya toops ee of ua
bacgoud ad oty etc og, ay Aas,
Duzes, Kuds, ad Ccassas. By te ed of 1945, te
ay ubeed about 5,000 ad te gedaee soe
3,500. I Ap 1946, te ast Fec o ces ee foced
to eae Sya due to sustaed esstace o eses te
Leate Foces te becae te egua aed foces
of te ey depedet state ad ge apdy to about
12,000 by te te of te 1948 AabIsae Wa, te st
of fou AabIsae as betee 1948 ad 1986.[5]
Befoe te stat of te Sya C Wa, te obgatoy

tay sece peod as beg deceased oe te.
I 2005, t as educed fo to ad a af yeas to to
yeas, 2008 to 21 ots ad 2011 to yea ad a
af.[3] Sce te Sya C Wa te Assad ege as
esoted to ceasgy despeate seepg aest ca- 12.1.1 Post Second World War
pags ad e eguatos, t ee ctzes o ae
copeted adatoy coscpto beg caed up fo e- Te Sya Aed Foces fougt te 1948 Aab-Isae
see duty.[1]
Wa (agast Isae), ad ee oed a ube of
tay coups. Betee 1948 ad 1967, a sees of tay coups destoyed te stabty of te goeet ad
ay eag pofessoas t te aed foces.
12.1 History
I Mac 1949, te cef of sta , Geea Hus aZa', staed sef as pesdet. To oe Te Fec Madate outee foce, c oud ate tay dctatos fooed by Decebe 1949. Geea Adb
becoe te Sya ay, as estabsed 1920 t te Ssa te ed poe ut deposed te 1954 Syteat of SyaAab atoas d. Atoug te a coup d'etat. Fute coups fooed, eac atteded by
ut s o ces ee ogay a Fec, t as, e ect, a puge of te o ce cops to eoe suppotes of te
te st dgeous ode Sya ay. I 1925, ts oses fo te foce.[6]
foce as expaded ad desgated as te Speca Toops I 1963, te Mtay Cottee of te Sya Regoa
of te Leat (Toupes Spcaes du Leat). I 1941, Coad of te Aab Socast Ba'at Paty spet ost
dug Wod Wa II, te Ay of te Leat patcpated of ts te pag to tae poe toug a coetoa
a fute esstace to te Bts ad Fee Fec a- tay coup. Fo te ey begg, te Mtay
so tat ousted te Vcy Fec fo Sya dug te Cottee e t ad to captue a-Ksa ad Qataa,
Sya Lebao Capag. Afte te Aes taeoe, te to tay caps, seze coto of te 70t Aoued
ay cae ude te coto of te Fee Fec ad as Bgade at a-Ksa, te Mtay Acadey te cty of
desgated te Leate Foces (Toupes du Leat).[4] Hos ad te Daascus ado stato. We te cospFec Madate autotes ataed a gedaee to
poce Sya s ast ua aeas. Ts paatay foce
as used to cobat cas ad potca foes of te
Madate goeet. As t te Leate Speca
atos of te Mtay Cottee ee a youg, te a

as ot out of eac te sttg ege ad bee soy
dstegatg ad te tadtoa ete ad ost e ecte
potca poe oe te couty.[7] A sa goup of -
77
78
tay o ces, cudg Hafez a-Assad, soo sezed coto te Mac 1963 Sya coup d'etat. Foog te
coup, Geea A a-Ha z dscaged ay ag
Su o ces, teeby, Statfo says, 'podg opegs
fo udeds of Aates to top-te tay postos
dug te 1963-1965 peod o te gouds of beg opposed to Aab uty. Ts easue tpped te baace
fao of Aate o ces o staged a coup 1966 ad
fo te st te paced Daascus te ads of te
Aates.'[8]
CHAPTER 12. SYRIAN ARMED FORCES

foce ubeed 20,000 stegt (te 6t agest cotget) ad te oeet as ust ed doestcay
as a e ot to defed Saud Aaba. Sya s ta oeet Opeato Deset Sed aso oed to te
Aed Opeato Deset Sto as Sya foces dd patcpate epg dsodge ad de Ia foces out of
Kuat Cty. Tota osses sustaed ee 2 dead ad 1
ouded. Tee ee dcatos te Sya goeet
ad bee pepaed to doube ts foce to 40,000.[10]
Te Aed Foces ee oed te 1967 Sx Day

12.1.4
Wa (agast Isae). Sce 1967, ost of te Goa
Hegts tetoy of souteste Sya as bee ude Isae occupato. Tey te fougt te ate 1960s Wa
of Attto (agast Isae), ad te 1970 Bac Septebe aso of Joda. Dug te Yo Kppu Wa of
1973 te Sya Ay auced a aso of Isae tat
as oy aoy epused. Sce 1973 te cease- e
e as bee espected by bot sdes, t ey fe cdets ut te Sya upsg of 2011 bega.
Sya as ted to Lebao by tat couty s pesdet
1976, to teee o te sde of te Lebaese goeet agast a ebeo of PLO ad Lebaese foces.
Te Aab Deteet Foce ogay cossted of a Sya coe t patcpato by soe ote Aab League
states. Hoee te ote states tde te foces
te ate 1970s.
Modernisation
Part of a Syrian SA-6 site built near the Beirut-Damascus highway, and overlooking the Bekaa Valley, in early 1982.
I ecet yeas Sya as eed o Russa as pucases

to obta ode eapos. Pucases ae cuded atta ad a defece systes. I eay Septebe 2008,
te Sya goeet odeed MG-29SMT gtes,[11]
Pats S1E a-defece systes, Isade tactca sse systes, Ya-130 acaft, ad to Au-1650 subaes fo Russa. Russa s Foeg Mste Sege
12.1.2 Occupation of Lebanon
Lao asseted tat te sae oud't upset te baace
of poe te Mdde East ad ee e t ..Sya foces, st teccay o as te Aab Deteteatoa a.
et Foce, geed Lebao tougout te Lebaese
c a (1975 1990). Eetuay te Syas bougt Russa as to tu te Russa aa base Tatus to
ost of te ato ude te coto, as pat of a poe- a peaet aa base. Isae ad te Uted States
stugge t Isae, c occuped aeas of soute oppose fute as saes to Sya due to feas tat te
Lebao 1978. Foog te ed of te Lebaese c eapos coud fa ude te coto of Ia o Hezboa
a 1990, te Sya occupato of Lebao cotued gtes Lebao.[12]
ut 2005, e tey ee foced out by despead pubc potest ad teatoa pessue, foog te ude of Ra a-Ha. About 20,000 Sya sodes ee 12.1.5 Syrian civil war
depoyed Lebao ut 27 Ap 2005, e te ast of
Sya s toops eft te couty.[2] Sya foces ae bee
accused of oeet tat ude, as e as cotued eddg Lebaese a as, ad a teatoa estgato to te Ha g ad seea subseuet
bob attacs as bee auced by te UN.
12.1.3 Other engagements

Egageets sce 1979 ae cuded te Isac upsg Sya (1979 82), otaby cudg te Haa
Massace, te 1982 Lebao Wa (agast Isae), ad te
dspatc of te 9t Aoued Dso to Saud Aaba
1990 91, aead of te Guf Wa agast Ia. Te A Syrian soldier manning a checkpoint near Damascus
9t Aoued Dso seed as te Aab Jot Foces
Coad Not esee ad sa tte acto.[9] Sya s Sce te Sya c a bega, te Aed Foces ae
79
12.2. STRUCTURE
bee set to gt te sugets. As te upsg pogessed to c a, ay sodes bega to defect
fo te Sya Aed Foces ad cae togete ude
te bae of te Fee Sya Ay.[13] I Mac 2012,
te Sya goeet ssued e tae estctos fo
tay-aged aes. Ude te e estctos, epoted
by oca Sya es outets, a aes betee 18 ad 42
ee baed fo taeg outsde te couty.[14] I a
ate Jue 2012 tee ge by te FSA s Alsharq Al
Awsat e caed Rad a-Asaad sad tat about 20-30
Sya o ces defected to Tuey eac day.[15]
O 18 Juy 2012 Sya Defece Mste Daoud Raa, foe defece ste Hasa Tua, ad te
pesdet s bote--a Geea Assef Saat ee
ed by a bob attac Daascus.[17][18] Te Sya
tegece cef Hsa Betya, ad Head of te 4t
Ay Dso Mae A Assad bote to Pesdet Assad ee aso ued te sae exposo.[19]
Sce te stat of te Sya c a, ua gts
goups say tat te aoty of abuses ae bee cotted by te Sya goeet s foces, ad UN estgatos ae cocuded tat te goeet s abuses ae te
geatest bot gaty ad scae.[20][21] Te baces of
te Sya Aed Foces tat ae cotted a ces
cude at east te Sya Aab Ay,[22][23] Sya Aab
A Foce[24] ad te Sya Mtay Itegece.[25]
Hoee te Sya autotes dey tese accusatos
[26][27]
ad ca tat egua aed goups t foeg suppot[28][29] ae bed te atoctes, cudg A
Qaeda ed Isugets.[30][31]
12.2
Structure
Wt ts eaduates Daascus, te Sya tay

cossts of a, goud, ad ay foces. Acte pesoe
ee estated as 295,000 2011, t a addtoa
314,000 esees. Paatay foces ee estated at
108,000 2011.[32]
Te aoty of te Sya tay ae Su, but ost
of te tay eadesp ae Aates. Aates ae
up 12 pecet of te Sya popuato but ae estated
to ae up 70 pecet of te caee sodes te Sya
Ay.[8][33] Of te 200,000 o so caee sodes te
Sya Ay, 140,000 ae Aates.[34] A sa baace s see te o ce cops ee soe 80 pecet
of te o ces ae Aates. Te tay s ost ete dsos, te Repubca Guad ad te 4t Mecazed
Dso, c ae coaded by Basa s bote, ae
excusey Aate. Most of Sya s 300,000 coscpts
ad a foce pots ae, oee, Su.[8][35]
A Syrian soldier aims a Type 56 assault ri e from his position in

a foxhole during a repower demonstration, part of Operation
Desert Shield. The soldier is wearing a Soviet-made Model ShMS
nuclear-biological-chemical warfare mask.
sece, ad as suc cotoed te seo-ost posts

te aed foces, ad ad te ost apoe, appoxatey 80 pecet of te cobed seces. I 1987,
Sa ote tat te ao deeopet foce ogasato as te estabset of a addtoa dsoa
faeo based o te speca foces ad te ogasato of goud foatos to to cops.[36] I 2010,
te Iteatoa Isttute fo Stategc Studes estated
ay eguas at 220,000, t a addtoa 280,000 esees. Tat gue as ucaged te 2011 edto of
te Military Balance,[32] but te 2013 edto, te
dst of te a, te IISS estated tat ay stegt
as 110,000.
Te ay s acte apoe seed tee a-as
ay cops, egt aoued dsos (t oe depedet aoued bgade), tee ecazed dsos,
oe aoued-speca foces dso, ad te depedet aboe-speca foces bgades.[37] Te ay ad
eee dsoa foatos epoted 2011, t a fa
te ube of aoued dsos epoted fo te
2010 edto fo egt to see.[32] Te depedet
aoued bgade ad bee epaced by a depedet
ta eget. Hoee addto to te 14t Speca Foces Dso, te 15t Speca Foces Dso as
bee det ed by Hua Rgts Watc 2011.[38]
Te foe Defese copaes ee eged to te
Sya Ay as te 4t Aoued Dso ad te
Repubca Guad. Te 4t Aoued Dso becae oe of te Assad goeet s ost tusted secuty
foces.
12.2.2 Syrian Navy
I 1950, te Sya Nay as estabsed foog te

pocueet of a fe aa caft fo Face. Te ta pesoe cossted of sodes o ad bee set to
I 1987, Josua Sa of te Lbay of Cogess ote Fec acadees of aa tag.[39] I 1985, te ay
tat te Sya Aab Ay as te doat tay cossted of appoxatey 4,000 egua ad 2,500 e-
12.2.1 Syrian Army
80
see o ces ad e. Te ay s ude te ay s 12.3 Weapons, uniforms

Lataa egoa coad. Te eet as based te
ganisation
pots of Lataa, Bayas, Mat a Bayda, ad Tatus.
Aog te 41 esse eet ee 2 fgates, 22 sse attac caft (cudg 10 adaced Osa II sse boats), 2 See aso Eupet of te Sya Ay
subae cases, 4 e afae esses, 8 guboats, 6
pato caft, 4 sse coettes (o ode), 3 adg caft
(o ode), 1 topedo ecoey esse ad, as pat of ts
coasta defece syste, Sepa soe-to-sea sses t 12.3.1 Weapons
a age of 300 oetes.
and or-
12.2.3 Syrian Air Force

Te Sya Aab A Foce s te Aato bac of te
Sya Aed Foces. It as estabsed 1948, ad
sa cobat 1948, 1967, 1973 ad 1982 agast Isae. It as see cobat agast tat goups o Sya
so 2011-2012 dug te Sya c a. Pesety,
tee ae at east 15 Sya Afoce bases tougout te
couty.
12.2.4 Syrian Air Defence Force

I 1987, accodg to te Lbay of Cogess Couty
Studes, te A Defece Coad, t te Ay
Coad, but aso coposed of A Foce pesoe,
ubeed appoxatey 60,000.[36] I 1987, uts cuded tety a defece bgades (t appoxatey
ety- e SAM battees) ad to a defece egets.
Te A Defece Coad ad coad access to tecepto acaft ad ada factes. A defeces cuded SA-5 og-age SAM battees aoud Daascus ad Aeppo, t addtoa SA-6 ad SA-8 obe
SAM uts depoyed aog Sya s sde of te Lebaese
bode ad easte Lebao.
At soe ate pot te, te A Defece Coad A Syrian military policeman during the Persian Gulf War.
as upgaded to a sepaate Sya A Defese Foce.
og te pcpa
Te beaup of te Soet Uo
souce of tag, atea, ad cedt fo te Sya
12.2.5 Paramilitary forces
foces ay ae soed Sya s abty to acue ode tay eupet. It as a asea of suface-toSee: List of armed groups in the Syrian Civil War#Syrian suface sses. I te eay 1990s, Scud-C sses t
government and allies for more information on current a 500-oete age ee pocued fo Not Koea,
paramilitaries due to the ongoing Syrian civil war.
ad Scud-D, t a age of up to 700 oetes, s aegedy beg deeoped by Sya t te ep of Not
As-Sa'a - a coado foce
Koea ad Ia, accodg to Eya Zsse.[40]
Sya eceed sg cat aca ad fo Pesa Guf
Aab states as a esut of ts patcpato te Pesa
Guf Wa, t a szabe poto of tese fuds eaaed
fo tay spedg. I 2005, Russa fogae Sya of
tee-fouts, o about 9.8 bo, of ts 13.4 bo
Paeste Lbeato Ay - a Paesta Auxay, Soet-ea debt. Russa ote o te debt ode to eostesby etued to Paeste Autoty coto.
e as saes t Sya.[41] As of 2011, as cotacts
t Russa, Sya s a as suppe, ee ot at
Repubca Guad - sce eged to te ay.
east 4 bo.[42][43][44][45] Sya as coducted eseac
Stugge Copaes - status uo
ad poduced eapos of ass destucto.[46]
Defese Copaes - sce eged to te Sya
Aab Ay as te 4t Aoued dso ad te
Repubca Guad as e as te 14t Aboe Dso copsg 5 Speca Foces egets.
81
12.4. SEE ALSO
12.3.2 Uniforms (1987)

I 1987, accodg to a Lbay of Cogess Couty
Study o Sya, sece ufos fo Sya tay o ces geeay fooed te Bts Ay stye, atoug
ay cobat cotg fooed te ode Bts ode.
Eac ufo ad to coats a og oe fo dess ad
a sot acet fo foa ea. Ay o ce ufos
ee a sue, oe te. Ceta Ay ad
A Defese Foce pesoe (.e., coados ad paatoops) ay ae o caou age ufos. A foce
o ces ad to ufos fo eac seaso a a ad
a gt gay fo sue ad a da bue ad a gt gay
te. Naa o ces oe te sue ad ay
bue te e oe as ea te tadtoa be
bottos ad te bouse. Te ufo fo aa cef
petty o ces as a buttoed acet, sa to tat o
by Aeca cef petty o ces. O ces ad a aety
of eadgea, cudg a sece cap, gaso cap, ad
beet (e sue ad oo te). Te coo of
te beet aed by seaso ad accodg to te o ce s
ut.[47]
Sya Coado ad Paatoop ufos cosst of
zad o oodad-patteed caou age fatgues aog
t cobat boots, eets ad buetpoof ests. Headgea cossted of a ed o oage beet.
by te coade cef ad te ste of defece.

Nay o ce a sga ee god stpes o o te
oe seee. Te gest-ag o ce Sya s ay
s te euaet of euteat geea. Ay ad a foce
a fo aat o ces ee dcated by god stas o
a oe gee sed o o te uppe eft a. Loe
ocossoed as ee dcated by upgt ad eted ceos o o te uppe eft a.[47]
12.3.5 Awards and decorations

Atoug soe tety- e odes ad edas ee autozed, geeay oy seo o ces ad aat ofces ea eda bbos. Te foog ee soe
potat Sya aads Ode of Uayyads, Meda
of Mtay Hoo, te Wa Meda, Meda fo Couage,
Yau Meda, Wouded Acto Meda, ad Meda
of 8 Mac 1963.[47]
12.4 See also

Hua gts oatos dug te Sya c
aSya aed ad secuty foces
Te Sya tay podes NBC ufos to sodes

ode to ea e ecte a eoet e ected by
boogca o ceca agets. Ts ufo cossted of
a Russa-ade Mode SMS-41 as sa to tose 12.5 Notes
ade te Deset Sto co ct.[48] Peous odes of
te SMS used a ose, e te poed SS-41 Ts atce copoates pubc doa atea fo
used a caste-stye Respato.[49][50]
ebstes o docuets of te Lbay of Cogess Couty Studes.
12.3.3 Tactics
Despte sg by eay af sce te begg
of te c a 2011, te Sya tay as becoe uc oe exbe ad capabe, especay atguea afae.[51] Its modus operandi stced fo a
tadtoa Soet-odeed coetoa tay to a
foce of sae goups gtg cose-uates guea
cobat t a ceasg oe of uo o ces.[51]
12.3.4 Rank Insignia (1987)
[1] Sya ceasg e ots to bud up tay afte substata oses . Sout Ca Mog Post. Decebe 29,
2014. Reteed Decebe 29, 2014.
[2] Sya - Oee . GlobalSecurity.org.
[3] Sya educes copusoy tay sece by tee
ots . China Daily. Xua Nes Agecy. 20 Mac
2011. Aced fo te oga o 3 May 2011. Reteed 6 Octobe 2012.
[4] Josua Sa (1987). A Country Study, Syria. Lbay of
Cogess. p. 190. Reteed 21 Juy 2011.
Ma atce Mtay as of Sya
[5] Josua Sa (1987). Development of the Syrian Military.

Lbay of Cogess. Reteed 21 Juy 2011.
I 1987, accodg to a Lbay of Cogess Couty

Study o Sya, te a sga of Sya cossoed
o ces ee detca fo bot te ay ad a foce.
Tese ee god o a bgt gee soude boad fo te
ay ad god o a bgt bue boad fo te a foce.
O ce as ee stadad, atoug te gest s te
euaet of euteat geea, a a ed 1986 oy
[6] Poac 2002, p. 457 458.

[7] Seae 1990, p. 72.
[8] Baa, Rea (5 May 2011). Mag Sese of te Sya
Css . Statfo. Reteed 9 May 2011.
[9] Scazopf 1993, p. 467 469.
82
[10] AFTER THE WAR Sya Pas to Doube Guf Foce

(Ne Yo Tes) ttp//.ytes.co/1991/03/27/
od/afte-te-a-sya-pas-to-doube-guf-foce.
t
[11] Katz, Yaao (3 Septebe 2009). "'Russa co s
MG et sae to Sya'". The Jerusalem Post.
[12] Russa defeds as saes to Sya . United Press International. 29 Septebe 2008.
[13] 40 Sya tay o ces defect t eapos . AAa. 24 Jue 2012. Reteed 24 Jue 2012.
[14] Dad Edes (27 Mac 2012). As Sya s a ages,
Assad bas tay-age e fo eag . The Christian
Science Monitor. Reteed 24 Jue 2012.

:
( Hebe). Te
[15]
A Maa. 26 Jue 2012. Reteed 26 Jue 2012.
[16] Sya, Westa. Assad s ay stetced but st see
stog . Te Day Sta. Reteed 23 Septebe 2014.
[17] Dae McEoy (18 Juy 2012). Assad s bote--a
ad top Sya o cas ed Daascus sucde bob .
Daily Telegraph. Lodo. Reteed 18 Juy 2012.
[30] UN cef says A Qaeda bed Sya bobgs . RT.

19 Decebe 2013.
[31] A-Qada-ed goup accused of totue aeas of
Sya t cotos . Te Guada. May 18, 2012.
[32] IISS 2011, p. 330.
[33] Bacgoud Note Sya . US State Depatet. Reteed 14 Septebe 2011.
[34] Masa, T (7 May 2011). Wy Sya s Rege Is
St Hodg Out . Sky News. Reteed 9 May 2011.
[35] Sya s tay at does Assad ae?". Reutes. 6
Ap 2011. Reteed 5 May 2011.
[36] Sa, Josua (Ap 1987). "[ttp//ceb2.oc.go/
cg-b/uey/?fd/cstdy@fed%28DOCID+sy0120%
29 Capte 5 Natoa Secuty Ay . I Coeo,
Toas. A Country Study: Syria. Fedea Reseac
Dso, Lbay of Cogess.
[37] IISS 2010, p. 272 273.
[38] By A Meas Necessay!". Hua Rgts Watc. 16
Decebe 2011. p. 12.
[39] Sya Aab Nay . Global Security.
[18] Gauca Mezzo oe (18 Juy 2012). Sya C Wa

Assad Bote--La Assef Saat Ked Daascus Sucde Bobg . International Business Times. Reteed 18 Juy 2012.
[40] Sya s ebace of WMD by Eya Zsse, Globe and

Mail, 28 Septebe 2004 ( eads oy to abstact pucase ecessay fo fu atce)
[19] To Sya ebe goups ca Daascus attac .

Reutes. 18 Juy 2012. Reteed 18 Juy 2012.
[41] Wetz, Rcad (2010). Global security watch--Russia: A

reference handbook. Sata Babaa, Caf. Paege Secuty Iteatoa. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-313-35434-2.
[20] UPDATE 4-Sya got foces, ebes cottg a

ces -U.N. . Reutes. Reteed 17 Decebe 2012.
[21] Feds of Sya ust use te uece to stop cyce of
epesso ad oece . Aesty Iteatoa. 5 Juy
2012. Reteed 19 Jauay 2013.
[22] Wy te Sya ege s g babes . CNN.co.
Reteed 2013-09-03.
[23] Sya sege of Hos s geocda, say tapped esdets .
The Guardian. 7 Febuay 2012.
[42] SIPRI As Tasfes Database . Stoco Iteatoa Peace Reseac Isttute. Reteed 8 Septebe
2011.
[43] Aos, Hoad (26 August 2011). Nes Aayss Russa Daages Iage Aab Spg . The Moscow Times.
[44] Russa defece dusty ad as tade facts ad gues . Cete fo Aayss of Stateges ad Tecooges.
pp 15. Reteed 8 Septebe 2011.
[24] Sya Despte Deas, Moe Custe Bob Attacs .

HRW.og. 23 Octobe 2012.
Assad Ouste
[45] Meye, Hey (7 Septebe 2011).
Bd May Ueas Caos Mdeast, Russa Says .
Bloomberg. Reteed 8 Septebe 2011.
[25] Totue Acpeago Abtay Aests, Totue ad Efoced Dsappeaaces Sya s Udegoud Psos
sce Mac 2011 . Hua Rgts Watc. Juy 2012.
Reteed 3 Juy 2012.
[46] Sya ot ext o st, says Bta . Sydney Morning Herald. Ap 14, 2003.
[26] A-Assad dees esposbty fo Sya cacdo .

CNN. Decebe 7, 2011.
[27] Sya goeet dees oeet Houa assace . RT. May 28, 2012.
[28] Excuse Obaa autozes secet U.S. suppot fo Sya ebes . Reutes. Aug 1, 2012.
[29] Saud Aaba pas to fud Sya ebe ay .
Guada. 22 Jue 2012.
Te
[47] Josua Sa (1987). Uniforms and Rank Insignia. Lbay

of Cogess. Reteed 21 Juy 2011.
[48] Godo Rotta (27 May 1993). Armies of the Gulf War.
Ospey Pubsg. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-85532-277-6.
Reteed 20 Mac 2013.
[49] Soet SCHMS Respato o YouTube
[50] My Russa SCHMS gas as t ose o YouTube
[51] Sya ay adapts to guea a . Te Day Sta. 22
Octobe 2014. Reteed 22 Octobe 2014.
12.6
References
Iteatoa Isttute fo Stategc Studes (2011).

The Military Balance 2011. Routedge. ISBN 9781-85743-606-8.
Iteatoa Isttute fo Stategc Studes (2010).
The Military Balance 2010. Routedge. ISBN 9781-85743-557-3.
Poac, Keet (2002). Arabs at War: Military
E ectiveness, 1948-1991. Uesty of Nebasa
Pess. ISBN 978-0-8032-3733-9.
Scazopf, Noa (1993). It Doesn't Take a
Hero : The Autobiography of General H. Norman
Schwarzkopf. Bata Boos. ISBN 978-0-55356338-2.
Seae, Patc (1990). Asad of Syria: The Struggle
for the Middle East. Uesty of Cafoa Pess.
ISBN 978-0-520-06976-3.
12.7
Further reading
Aed Foces te Mdde East Potcs ad Stategy edted by Bay Rub ad Toas A. Keaey.
Lodo ad Potad, OR Fa Cass, 2002. ISBN
0714652555 0714682454. Sya capte by Eya
Zsse.
12.8
External links
Cete fo Stategc ad Iteatoa Studes,

Mdde East Mtay Baace
Sya s Ay ad Aed Foces po es of peope ad sttutos poded by te Arab Decision
poect
Aayss of te sya ay a foce ad a defece
teats case of o- y zoe
83
Chapter 13
National Defence Force (Syria)

Te National Defence Force (NDF Aabc
so, ay of te ebes ae da fo Sya
Quwat ad-Dif al-Watan ) s bac of Sya otes, suc as Aates, Cstas, Duzes,[9] ad
[11]
Aed Foces, foed afte sue 2012[5] as a pat- Aeas. Accodg to te Washington Post ad te
te outee esee copoet of te Sya tay, Wall Street Journal, te ceato of te goup as bee
ogazed by te Sya goeet dug te Sya successfu, as t ad payed a cuca oe pog
te tay stuato fo te goeet foces Sya
C Wa.[6]
fo te 2012 sue, e ay aaysts pedcted te
dofa of Assad ad s goeet.[4][12]
13.1
Formation
Te foce s epoted to be 60,000-stog as of Jue

2013 ad s set to go to 100,000 (eaced August
2013).[4][13]
By te begg of 2013, Assad too steps to foaze ad pofessoaze udeds of Popua Cottee Uts osty opeate te oca aeas, atoug etas ude a e goup dubbed te Natoa Defece bes ca aso coose to tae pat ay opeatos.[9][14]
Otes ae caed tat te NDF does ost of te
Foces.[5][7][8]
gtg because NDF ebes, as ocas, ae a stog
Te goa as to fo a e ecte, ocay based,
oedge of te ego.[14]
gy otated foce out of po-goeet tas. Te NDF, cotast t te Saba foces,
ecees saaes ad tay eupet fo te
goeet.[9][10] Ia as cotbuted to estabsg ts
13.2.1 Womens Section
e ogazato, c gateed togete exstg egboood tas to a fuctog eacy ad poTe foce as a 500-stog oe s g caed
ded te t bette eupet ad tag.[5]
"Lionesses of National Defence", c opeates
Youg ad uepoyed e o te NDF, c soe cecpots.[15] Tey ae ay depoyed te Hos
see as oe attacte ta te Sya Ay, cosdeed aea.
by ay of te to be tated by ebes, oestetced
ad udefuded. A ube of ecuts say tey oed Te oe ae taed to use Kaasos, eay ate goup because ebes of te faes ad bee ce gus ad geades, ad taugt to sto ad coto
[16]
ed by ebe goups. I soe Aate ages aost cecpots.
eey tay age ae as oed te Natoa Defece
Foce.[4]
Ue te Sya Ay, NDF sodes ae aoed to tae

13.2.2 Expanding role
oot fo batte eds, c ca te be sod o fo exta
oey.[9]
Stuggg t eabty ad ssues t defectos, ofces of te SAA ceasgy pefe te pat-te outee esees of te NDF, o tey egad as oe ot13.2 Role
ated ad oya, oe egua ay coscpts to coduct
faty opeatos. Recety tey'e bee used as supTe foce acts a faty oe, decty gtg agast pot faty to adacg aoed uts.
ebes o te goud ad ug coute-sugecy opA o ce Hos, o ased ot to be det ed, sad
eatos coodato t te ay c podes
te ay as ceasgy payg a ogstca ad decte ogstca ad atey suppot.
te oe, e NDF gtes act as cobatats o te
Te NDF s poected as a secua foce. Fo tat ea- goud.[2]
84
85
13.3
Training
[7] Mcae Wess (18 May 2013). Rse of te Mtas

Sya . Real Clear World.
Te peod of tag ca ay fo 2 ees to a ot

depedg o ete a ddua s beg taed fo
basc cobat, spg, o tegece.[9]
[8] Lud, Ao (2013-08-27).

Te No-State Mtat
Ladscape Sya . CTC Sete. Reteed 2013-0828.
13.4
[9] Isgt Batteed by a, Sya ay ceates ts o epaceet . Reuters. Ap 21, 2013. Reteed May 29,
2013.
Suspected Iranian connection
[10] Mcae Wess (17 May 2013).
Rse of te tas .
Te Uted States goeet as sad tat Sya s ay,

NOW.
Ia, s epg bud te goup o te ode of ts o
Bas ta, t soe ebes epotedy beg set [11] Raca Ab Hada (8 Febuay 2014). Aeas
Sya, Afte te Co ct . A Aba. Reteed 13
fo tag Ia.[17]
Febuay 2014.
13.5
Looting
A ebe of te NDF as stated tat We ae dect odes to coect atee e at ... Ou coades te
us 'Te popetes of you eees ae afuy yous.'
Ad te tey tae atee tey at as e. [18] Cas Assad ege ed pats of Sya ae copaed
of suc abuses, t oe statg I aeas ude goeet coto, tee s o u ed ceta coad. Tey
ae ued by a custe of a a-stye gags, c cude
te NDF.[19] Te NDF as ooted bot po-ege ad
opposto aeas, aegedy efeg to te atte type of
ootg as te Su aet , as Sus ae see as a
coo taget po-opposto tetoy tat te Assad
goeet as ecaptued.[19]
13.6
See also
13.7
References
[1] Jo Pe (2012-12-11).
Sya - Natoa Defece
Foces (NDF)". Gobasecuty.og. Reteed 2014-0628.
[2] Isgt Batteed by a, Sya ay ceates ts o epaceet . Reutes. Reteed 2014-06-28.
[3] ISIS Ia o ese coud tgge Hezboa to gap eft
Sya Day Sta, 16 Jue 2014
[4] Sya s Aate Foce Tued Tde fo Assad . Wa
Steet Joua. 26 August 2013. Reteed 2 Septebe
2013.
[5] Iaa Stategy Sya, Isttute fo te Study of Wa,
Execute Suay + Fu epot, May 2013
[6] SYRIA UPDATE THE FALL OF AL-QUSAYR . Institute for the Study of War. Reteed Ju 7, 2013.
[12] Sy, Lz (May 12, 2013). Assad foces gag goud

Sya . Reteed May 29, 2013.
[13] Sya s c a Te ege dgs . The Economist.
15 Jue 2013.
[14] Gass, Caes (5 Decebe 2013). Sya O te Way
to Geocde?".
[15] Ada He ez (28 Noebe 2013). Usg Woe to
W Sya . A-Moto (Ey). Reteed 28 Noebe 2013.
[16] Sy, Lz (2013-01-25). Te a-feae tas of Sya .
Te Wasgto Post. Reteed 2014-06-28.
[17] ttp//.ytes.co/2013/03/13/od/ddeeast/
sgs-of-sta-o-syas-tay-bud.t?
pageateda&_0
[18] Azz, Gat Abde (Octobe 13, 2014). Jog Assad s
Resee Foces, Fo Te Moey . Wodcuc. Reteed Octobe 13, 2014. We ae dect odes to coect atee e at, e says. Ou coades te
us 'Te popetes of you eees ae afuy yous.'
Ad te tey tae atee tey at as e.
[19] Sab, La. Sya Assad oyasts coceed by se of
paataes . BBC Nes. Reteed 1 Octobe 2014.
13.8 External links

Docuetay Natoa Defese Pess TV docuetay o Veo
Docuetay Secet Teates Pess TV docuetay o Veo
Chapter 14
Iran
Pesa edects ee. Fo ote uses, see Pesa
(dsabguato).
Ts atce s about te ode ato. Fo ote uses,
see Ia (dsabguato).
coueed t by 651 AD.[21] Ia teeafte payed a ta oe te subseuet Isac Gode Age, poducg ueous ueta scetsts, scoas, atsts, ad
tes. Te eegece 1501 of te Safad dyasty,
c pooted te Tee scoo of tougt as te ofca ego, aed oe of te ost potat tug pots Iaa ad Mus stoy.[5][22][23] It aso
cuated to tesos, c 1514 ed to te Batte
of Cada. Statg 1736 ude Nade Sa, Ia
oud oce aga eac g poece, eacg ts
geatest tetoa extet sce te Sassad Epe, ad
be y possessg at as aguaby te ost poefu
epe te od.[24] Te Pesa Costtutoa Reouto of 1906 estabsed te ato s st paaet,
c opeated t a costtutoa oacy. Foog a coup d'tat stgated by te UK ad te US
1953, Ia gaduay becae autocatc. Gog dsset
agast foeg uece ad potca epesso cuated te Iaa Reouto, c ed to te estabset of a Isac epubc o 1 Ap 1979.[16][25]
Iran ( //[10] o /a/[11] Pesa [ ]

( )), aso o as Persia (/p / o /p /),[11][12]
o cay te Islamic Republic of Iran, s a couty
Weste Asa.[13][14][15] It s bodeed to te otest
by Aea ad Azebaa, t Kazasta ad Russa
acoss te Caspa Sea to te oteast by Tuesta
to te east by Afgasta ad Pasta to te sout by
te Pesa Guf ad te Guf of Oa ad to te est
by Tuey ad Ia. Copsg a ad aea of 1,648,195
2 (636,372 s ), t s te secod-agest ato te
Mdde East ad te 18t-agest te od t 78.4
o abtats, Ia s te od s 17t ost popuous ato.[13][16] It s te oy couty tat as bot a
Caspa Sea ad Ida Ocea coaste. Ia as bee
of geostategc potace because of ts ceta ocato
Tea s te capta ad agest cty, seg as te cu Euasa ad Weste Asa ad te Stat of Houz.
tua, coeca, ad dusta cete of te ato.
Ia s oe to oe of te od s odest
Ia s a ao egoa ad dde poe,[26][27] exetczatos,[17][18] begg t te foato of
g cosdeabe uece teatoa eegy secute Poto-Eate ad Eate gdo 3200 2800
ty ad te od ecooy toug ts age esees of
BC. Te Iaa Medes u ed te couty to te st
foss fues, c cude te agest atua gas suppy
of ay epes 625 BC, afte c t becae te
te od ad te fout-agest poe petoeu edoat cutua ad potca poe te ego.[3]
sees.[28][29] It osts Asa s fout-agest ube of UNIa eaced te pace of ts poe dug te
ESCO Wod Hetage Stes.[30]
Acaeed Epe (Fst Pesa Epe) fouded
by Cyus te Geat 550 BC, c at ts geatest Ia s a foudg ebe of te UN, NAM, OIC
extet copsed ao potos of te acet od, ad OPEC. Its uue potca syste, based o te
stetcg fo pats of te Baas (Bugaa-Paoa) 1979 costtuto, cobes eeets of a paaetay
ad Tace-Macedoa te est, to te Idus Vaey deocacy t a egous teocacy u by te couty s
te east, ag t te agest epe te od ad yet cegy, ee te Supee Leade eds sg cat see.[19] Te epe coapsed 330 BC foog te uece. A utcutua ato copsg ueous etcouests of Aexade te Geat. Te aea eetuay c ad gustc goups, ost abtats ae S'tes,
egaed uece ude te Pata Epe ad ose te Iaa a s ts cuecy, ad Pesa s te o ca
to poece oce oe afte te estabset of aguage.[31]
te Sasaa dyasty (Neo-Pesa epe) 224 AD,
ude c Ia aga becae oe of te eadg
poes te od aog t te Byzate Epe fo 14.1 Etymology
te ext fou cetues.[20]
Macaes ad Zooastas ee agey epaced Ma atce Nae of Ia
afte Rasdu Muss aded Pesa 633 AD, ad
86
14.2. HISTORY
87
Te ae of Ia ( ) s te Mode Pesa deate fo te Poto-Iaa te Aryn, eag Lad

of te Ayas", st attested Zooastas's Aesta
tadto.[32][33][34][35] Te te rn s foud to efe
to Ia a 3d-cetuy Sassad scpto, ad te
Pata scpto tat accopaes t uses te Pata
te ay efeece to Iranians.[36]
stoc stes acoss te Iaa pateau potg to te

exstece of acet cutues ad uba setteets
te fout eu BC.[53][55][56] Dug te Boze
age Ia as oe to seea csatos suc as Ea,
Joft ad Zayade Rud csatos. Ea, te ost
poet of tese csatos deeoped te soutest of Ia aogsde tose Mesopotaa. Te de fout eu BCE
Hstocay Ia as bee efeed to as Pesa o s- eopet of tg Ea
paaeed tat Sue.[57] Te Eate gdo coa (La Perse, Persien, Perzi, etc.) by te Weste
od, ay due to te tgs of Gee stoas o tued ts exstece ut te eegece of te Meda
ad Acaeed Epes.
caed Ia Persis ( ), eag ad of te Pesas.
As te ost extese ad cose teacto te Acet
Gees ee ad t ay outsde as tat t te Pesas, te teato becae coed foee, ee og 14.2.2 Classical Era
afte te Pesa ue Acet Geece ad beyod ad
eded ad ote dyastes ee o ug te egos. I
1935 Rez S euested tat te teatoa couty efe to te couty as Ia. Opposto to te ae
cage ed to te eesa of te decso, ad 1959
bot aes ee to be used tecageaby.[37] Today
bot Pesa ad Ia ae used tecageaby cutua cotexts oee, Ia s te ae used o cay
potca cotexts.[38]
Te stoca ad cutua de usage of "Ia" s ot estcted to te ode state pope.[39][40][41] Isa[42]
o Iza (Geate Ia)[43] coespoded to tetoes of Iaa cutua o gustc zoes. Besdes
ode Ia, t cuded potos of te Caucasus,
Mesopotaa, Easte Aaba, te Ida subcotet
ad Ceta Asa.
14.2
History
Ma atce Hstoy of Ia
14.2.1 Early history in Iran

Fute foato Acaeoogca stes Ia, PotoEate, Joft cutue, Tepe Sa ad Sa-e Sute
Te eaest acaeoogca atfacts Ia, e tose excaated at te Kasafud ad Ga Pa stes, attest to
a ua pesece Ia sce te Loe Paeotc
ea.[44] Neadeta atfacts datg bac to te Mdde
Paeotc peod ae bee foud ay te Zagos
ego at stes suc as Waas ad Yafte Cae.[45][46]
Eay agcutua coutes suc as Coga Goa
10,000 BC[47][48] bega to ous Ia aog t setteets suc as Coga Bout 8000 BC,[49][50] as e
as Susa ad Coga Ms deeopg ad aoud te
Zagos ego.[51][52][53]
Ruins of the Achaemenid palace of Persepolis, now a UNESCO

World Heritage Site[58]
Modern impression of Achaemenid cylinder seal, 5th century BC.
Te eegece of Susa as a cty s deteed by C14 A winged solar disc legitimises the Persian king who subdues two
datg as eay as 4395 BC.[54] Tee ae dozes of pe- rampant Mesopotamian lamassu gures.
88
CHAPTER 14. IRAN
Ma atces Meda Epe, Acaeed Epe,

Seeucd Epe, Pata Epe ad Sassad Epe
Dug te secod eu BCE, Poto-Iaa tbes
aed Ia fo te Euasa steppes,[59] ag
te ate settes of te couty.[60][61] As tese tbes
dspesed to te de aea of Geate Ia ad beyod, te boudaes of ode Ia ee doated
by te Pesa, Pata, ad Meda tbes. Fo te
ate 10t to ate 7t cetues BC, tese Iaa peopes, togete t te pre Iranian gdos, fe ude
te doato of te Assya Epe, based ote Mesopotaa.[62] Ude g Cyaxaes, te Medes
ad Pesas eteed to a aace t Nabopoassa
of Babyo, as e as te Scytas, Ceas, ad
Aaeas, ad togete tey attaced te Assya Epe. Te c a aaged Assya Epe betee
616 BC ad 605 BC, tus feeg te especte peopes
fo tee cetues of Assya ue.[62] Te u cato
of te Meda tbes ude a sge ue 728 BC ed to
te ceato of a Meda epe c, by 612 BC, cotoed te oe of Ia as e as easte Aatoa.[63]
I 550 BC, Cyus te Geat fo te state of Asa too
oe te Meda epe, ad fouded te Acaeed
epe by ufyg ote cty states. Te couest of
Meda as a esut of at s caed te Pesa eot
te bouaa as tay tggeed by te actos of
te Meda ue Astyages ad ucy spead to ote
poces as tey aed t te Pesas. Late couests ude Cyus ad s successos expaded te epe to cude Lyda, Babyo, Egypt, ad te ads to te
est of te Idus ad Oxus es. At ts geatest extet,
te epe cuded te ode tetoes of Ia, Ia,
Kuat, Sya, Joda, Isae, Paeste, Lebao, a sg cat popuato cetes of acet Egypt as fa est
as Lbya, Tuey, Tace ad Macedoa, uc of te
Bac Sea coasta egos, Aea, Geoga, Azebaa,
uc of Ceta Asa, Afgasta, ote Saud Aaba, Pasta, ad pats of Oa ad te UAE, ag t
te st od epe.[64] Co ct o te este bodes
bega t te faous Geco-Pesa Was c cotued toug te st af of te 5t cetuy BC ad
eded t te Pesa tdaa fo a of te Euopea tetoes.[65] Te epe ad a cetased, bueaucatc adstato ude te Epeo ad a age
pofessoa ay ad c seces, spg sa deeopets ate epes.[66]
Achaemenid Empire around the time of Darius the Great and

Xerxes.
te Acaeeds, t te capta at Ctespo, ad ee

aogsde te Byzates te to ost doat poes
te od fo eay fou cetues.[68] Most of te peod of te Pata ad Sassad Epes ee oesadoed by te Roa-Pesa Was, c aged o te
este bodes fo oe 700 yeas. Tese as exausted
bot Roas ad Sassads, c aguaby ed to te defeat of bot at te ads of te adg Mus Aabs.
14.2.3 Middle Ages (6521501)

Ma atces Aab couest of Ia ad Medea Ia
Te pooged Byzate-Pesa as, as e as soca

co ct t te Epe opeed te ay fo a Aab aso of Ia te 7t cetuy.[69][70] Gudesapu as
te ost potat edca cete of te acet od
at te te of te Isac couest.[71] Itay defeated
by te Aab Rasdu Capate, Ia ate cae ude
te ue of te successos te Aab Uayad ad Aab
Abbasd Capates. Te pocess of coeso of Iaas to Isa c fooed as pooged ad gadua. Ude te e Aab ete of te Rasdu ad ate
Uayad Capates Iaas, bot Mus (aa)
ad o-Mus (D), ee dscated agast,
beg excuded fo goeet ad tay, ad ag to pay a speca tax.[72][73] I 750 te Abbasds succeeded oetog te Uayad Capate, ay
due to te suppot fo dssats ed Iaa aa.[74]
Te aa foed te aoty of te ebe ay, c
as ed by te Iaa geea Abu Mus.[75][76][77]
Afte to cetues of Aab ue se-depedet ad
depedet Iaa gdos (suc as te Tads,
Sa ads, Saads ad Buyds) bega to appea o
I 334 BC, Aexade te Geat aded te Acaeed
te fges of te decg Abbasd Capate. By te
Epe, defeatg te ast Acaeed Epeo Daus
Saad ea te 9t ad 10t cetues Ia s e ots
III at te Batte of Issus 333 BC. Foog te peto ega ts depedece ad bee e sod ed.[78]
atue deat of Aexade, Ia cae ude te coto of Heestc Seeucd Epe. I te dde of te Te aa of te Abbasd Caps sa a ea of
2d cetuy BC, te Pata Epe ose to becoe te Pesa cutue ad uece, ad a oe aay fo Aaa poe Ia ad cotued as a feuda oacy bc cutue. Te oe of te od Aab astocacy as
[79]
fo eay e cetues ut 224 AD, e t as suc- soy epaced by a Pesa bueaucacy.
[67]
ceeded by te Sassad Epe. Te Sassads estab- Te bossog Pesa teatue, posopy, edce,
sed a epe ougy t te fotes aceed by ad at becae ao eeets te fog of a Mus-
89
14.2. HISTORY
gaed sg cat potca poe. I 999, age pats

of Ia cae be y ude te ue of te Gazad
dyasty, ose ues ee of Mau Tu og,
ad oge subseuety ude te Tus Seu ad
Kaeza Epes. Tese Tus ad bee fuy
Pesased ad ad adopted Pesa odes of adstato ad uesp.[83]
Te esut of te adopto ad patoage of Pesa cutue by Tus ues as te deeopet of a dstct
Tuo-Pesa tadto.
I 1219 21 te Kaeza Epe su eed a deastatg aso by Gegs Ka's Mogo ay. Accodg to Stee R. Wad, "Mogo oece ad depedatos ed up to tee-fouts of te popuato of
te Iaa Pateau, possby 10 to 15 o peope.
Soe stoas ae estated tat Ia s popuato dd
ot aga eac ts pe-Mogo ees ut te d-20t
cetuy. [84] Foog te factue of te Mogo Epe 1256 Huagu Ka, Gegs Ka s gadso, estabsed te Iaate dyasty Ia. I 1370 yet aote coueo, Tu, cooy o as Taeae
te West, fooed Huagu's exape, estabsg te
Tud Dyasty c asted fo aote 156 yeas. I
1387, Tu odeed te copete assace of Isfaa,
epotedy g 70,000 ctzes.[85] Huagu, Tu ad
te successos soo cae to adopt te ays ad custos
of te Pesas, coosg to suoud tesees t a
cutue tat as dstctey Pesa.[86]
Persian miniature depicting Timur's campaign in India
14.2.4 Dynasties (15011979)
czato dug te Isac Gode Age.[80][81]

Te Isac Gode Age eaced ts pea te 10t
ad 11t cetues, dug c Pesa as te a
teate of scet c actty.[71] Afte te 10t cetuy,
Pesa, aogsde Aabc, as used fo scet c, posopca, stoca, ateatca, usca, ad edca
os, as potat Iaa tes suc as Nas a-D
a-Tus, Acea, Qotb a-D Saz, Nase Kusa
ad Bu ade cotbutos to Pesa scet c tg.
Te cutua ea tat bega te Abbasd peod ed
to a esufacg of Iaa atoa detty, ad so eae attepts of Aabzato ee succeeded Ia. Te
Iaa Suubya oeet becae a catayst fo Iaas to ega te depedece te eatos t te
Aab ades.[82] Te ost otabe e ect of te oeet as te cotuato of te Pesa aguage attested to te epc poet Fedos, o egaded as te ost
potat gue Pesa teatue.
Te 10t cetuy sa a ass gato of Tuc tbes
fo Ceta Asa to te Iaa pateau.[83] Tuc
tbese ee st used te Abbasd ay as saeaos (Maus), epacg Pesa ad Aab eeets t te ay.[75] As a esut te Maus Shah Ismail I, the founder of the Safavid Dynasty (15011736)
90
CHAPTER 14. IRAN
Ma atces Safad Dyasty, Afsad Dyasty, Zad egeoy oe a of te Caucasus, ote ao pats of
West Asa, Ceta Asa ad pats of Sout Asa, ad
Dyasty, Qaa Dyasty ad Paa Dyasty
be y possessg at as aguaby te ost poefu
[24]
At te stat of te 1500s, Sa Isa I estabsed te epe te od.
Safad Dyasty este Pesa ad Azebaa.[83] He

subseuety exteded s autoty oe a of Pesa,
ad estabsed tettet Pesa egeoy oe ast
eaby egos c oud ast fo ay cetues oads. Isa stgated a foced coeso fo Su
to S'a Isa.[87] Te ay betee Safad Pesa ad
te Ottoa Epe ed to ueous Ottoa Pesa
Was.[84] Te Safad ea peaed te eg of te bat sode, statesa ad adstato Sa Abbas I
(1587 1629),[23][84] supassg te Ottoa ac as
stegt, ad ag te epe a eadg ub Weste Euasa fo te sceces ad ats. Te Safad ea
aso sa te stat of te ceato of e ayes Pesa
socety, coposed of udeds of tousads of etc
Geogas, Ccassas, Aeas, ad ote peopes of
te Caucasus. Foog a so dece te ate 1600s
ad eay 1700s by tea stfe, oya tgues, cotuous as betee te ad te Ottoa ac as,
ad foeg tefeece (ost otaby by te Russas)
te Safad dyasty as eded by Pastu ebes o beseged Isfaa ad defeated Sota Hose 1722.
I 1738-39, e aded Ida ad saced De, bgg geat oot bac to Pesa. Nade Sa s assassato spaed a bef peod of c a ad tuo, afte
c Ka Ka cae to poe 1750, bgg a
peod of eate peace ad pospety.[84]
Aote c a esued afte Ka Ka s deat
1779, out of c Aga Muaad Ka eeged ctoous, foudg te Qaa Dyasty 1794. I 1795,
foog te dsobedece of te Geoga subects
ad te aace t te Russas, te Qaas saced
ad aaged Tbs, ad doe te Russas out of te
ete Caucasus, eestabsg Pesa suzeaty oe
te ego. Hoee Pesa coto as sot-ed ad
te Russo-Pesa Wa (1804 13) ad te Russo-Pesa
Wa (1826 28) esuted age tetoa osses fo Pea
but substata gas fo te Russa Epe c too
oe te Caucasus (ode Dagesta, Geoga, Aea
ad Azebaa) as a esut of te teates of Gusta ad
Tuecay. Apat fo Aga Moaad Ka ue,
Qaa ue s caactesed as a cetuy of sue.[83]
Aoud 1.5 o peope, o 20 25% of Pesa s popuato, ded as a esut of te Geat Pesa Fae of
1870 1871.[89]
Wst esstg e ots to be coosed, Ia ost ads
te 1800s as a esut of Russa ad Bts epebudg, o as 'Te Geat Gae', osg uc of
ts tetoy te Russo-Pesa ad te Ago-Pesa
Was. A sees of potests too pace espose to te
sae of cocessos to foeges by Nasse a-D Sa
ad Moza a ad-D Sa betee 1872 ad 1905, te
ast of c esuted te Iaa Costtutoa Reouto ad estabset of Ia s st atoa paaet 1906, c as abosed 1908. Te stugge
cotued ut 1911, e Moaad A as defeated
ad foced to abdcate. O te petext of estog ode, te Russas occuped ote Ia 1911. Dug
Wod Wa I, te Bts occuped uc of este Ia,
ot fuy tdag ut 1921.
I 1921, Reza Ka, Pe Mste of Ia ad foe geea of te Pesa Cossac Bgade, oete
te Qaa Dyasty ad becae Sa. I 1941 e as
foced to abdcate faou of s so, Moaad Reza
Paa, afte Ia cae ude Bts ad Russa occupato foog te Ago-Soet aso tat estabsed te Pesa Codo ad oud ast ut 1946.
Nadir Shah was the founder of the Afsharid dynasty.[88]
I 1729, a Iaa Koasa cefta ad tay geus, Nade Sa, successfuy doe out, te coueed
te Pastu ades.
Dug Nade Sa s eg, Ia eaced ts geatest extet sce te Sassaa Epe, eestabsg Pesa
I 1951 Moaad Mosaddeg as eected pe ste. He becae eoousy popua Ia afte e

atoazed Ia s petoeu dusty ad o esees.
He as deposed te 1953 Iaa coup d'tat, a
Ago-Aeca coet opeato tat aed te st
te te US ad oeto a foeg goeet dug
te Cod Wa.[90]
14.2. HISTORY
91
te ctc of te Sa s Wte Reouto ad pubcy
deouced te goeet. Koe as aested ad
psoed fo 18 ots. Afte s eease 1964,
Koe pubcy ctczed te Uted States goeet. Te Sa set to exe. He et st to
Tuey, te to Ia ad ay to Face.
Due to te 1973 spe o pces Ia s ecooy as
ooded t foeg cuecy c caused ato.
By 1974 Ia s ecooy as expeecg doube dgt
ato ad despte ay age poects to odeze
te couty coupto as apat ad caused age
aouts of aste. By 1975 ad 1976 a ecooc ecesso ed to ceased uepoyet, especay aog
os of youg e o ad gated to Ia s ctes
oog fo costucto obs dug te boo yeas of
te eay 1970s. By 1977 ay of tese e opposed
te sa s ege ad bega to ogaze ad o potests
agast t.[91]
14.2.5 After the Iranian Revolution (1979

)
Mohammad Mosaddegh, democracy advocate and deposed
Prime Minister of Iran
Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and the Imperial Family, Coronation of the Shah of Iran in 1967.
Afte te coup, te Sa becae ceasgy autocatc.

Abtay aests ad totue by s secet poce,
SAVAK, ee used to cus a fos of potca opposto. Ayatoa Ruoa Koe becae a ac-
See aso Iaa Reouto ad Hstoy of te Isac

Repubc of Ia
Te Iaa Reouto, ate o as te Isac
Ayatollah Khomeini returns to Iran after 14 years exile on 1

February 1979.
Reouto,[92][93][94] bega Jauay 1978 t te st

ao deostatos agast te Sa.[95] Afte a yea of
stes ad deostatos paayzed te couty ad ts
ecooy te Sa ed te couty ad Ayatoa Ruo-
92
CHAPTER 14. IRAN
a Koe etued fo exe to Tea Febuay edated by te UN. Te tota Iaa casuates te
1979.[96] A e goeet as foed ad Ap a ee estated to be 123,220 160,000 KIA, 60,711
1979 Ia o cay becae a Isac Repubc, afte MIA ad 11,000-16,000 cas ed.[101][102]
ts estabset as suppoted a efeedu.[16][25]
A secod efeedu Decebe 1979 appoed a
teocatc costtuto.[97]
Aost edatey atode upsgs agast te
e ege bega Iaa Kudsta, Kuzesta,
Baocsta ad ote aeas. Oe te ext seea yeas
tese upsgs ee subdued a oet ae by te
e Isac goeet. Te e goeet et
about pugg tsef of te o-Isast potca opposto (e.g. atoug bot atoasts ad Maxsts ad
tay oed t Isasts to oeto te Sa,
tes of tousads ee executed by te Isac ege
aftead).[98]
O Mac 8, 1979, cocdg t Iteatoa
Woe s Day, ay Iaa oe deostated
agast peceed eductos to te status ad gts
of oe, especay t egad to fay a ad
adatoy eg.[99] Te Iaa Cutua Reouto
bega 1980 ad uestes ee cosed by te teocatc ege.
Iranian soldiers in Khorramshahr during the Iran-Iraq War.
O 4 Noebe 1979, a goup of Iaa studets sezed

te U.S. ebassay ad too 52 US ctzes ad ebassy
pesoe ostage[100] afte te US efused to etu te
foe Sa to Ia to face ta ad executo. Attepts
by te Jy Cate adstato to egotate fo te
eease of te ostages ad a faed escue attept eped
foce Cate out of o ce ad bougt Road Reaga to
poe. O Jy Cate s a day o ce te ast
ostages ee ay set fee as a esut of te Ages
Accods.
O 22 Septebe 1980 te Ia ay aded Iaa
Kuzesta, pecptatg te Ia Ia Wa. Atoug
Sadda Husse s foces ade seea eay adaces,
by 1982 te Iaa foces successfuy aaged to de
te Ia ay bac to Ia. Despte eceg age
aouts of foeg aca ad tay ad, a of Sadda s subseuet o eses ee to bac. Te a
cotued ut 1988, e Koe accepted a tuce
Silent demonstration during the 200910 Iranian election

protests.
Foog te Ia Ia Wa, Pesdet Aba Hase

Rafsaa ad s adstato (1989-1997) cocetated o a pagatc po-busess pocy of ebudg ad stegteg te ecooy tout ag ay
daatc bea t te deoogy of te eouto.
Rafsaa as succeeded by te odeate efost
Moaad Kata ose goeet (1997-2005) attepted, usuccessfuy, to ae te couty oe fee
ad deocatc.[103]
Te 2005 pesdeta eecto bougt te coseate popust caddate, Maoud Aadead, to
poe.[104] Dug te 2009 Iaa pesdeta eecto te Iteo Msty aouced cubet pesdet Aadead ad o 62.63% of te ote,
e M-Hosse Mousa ad coe secod pace
t 33.75%.[105][106] Aegatos of age eguates ad faud pooed te 2009 2010 Iaa eecto
potests bot t Ia ad ao ctes outsde te
couty.[107]
Hassa Roua as eected as Pesdet of Ia o
15 Jue 2013, defeatg Moaad Bage Gabaf
ad fou ote caddates.[108][109] Te eectoa ctoy
of e Iaa Pesdet Hassa Roua as poed
Ia s eatos t ote coutes.[110]
14.3 Geography
Ma atce Geogapy of Ia
See aso Agcutue Ia ad Wdfe of Ia
Ia s te egteet agest couty te od, t
a aea of 1,648,195 2 (636,372 s ).[29] Its aea
ougy euas tat of te Uted Kgdo, Face,
Spa, ad Geay cobed, o soeat oe ta
te US state of Aasa.[111] Ia es betee attudes
24 ad 40 N, ad ogtudes 44 ad 64 E. Its bodes
ae t Azebaa (611 (380 )) (t AzebaaNaxca excae (179 (111 ) ))[112] ad Aea
93
14.3. GEOGRAPHY
Te ote pat of Ia s coeed by dese a foests

caed Soa o te Juges of Ia. Te easte pat
cossts osty of deset bass suc as te Dast-e Ka,
Ia s agest deset, te ot-ceta poto of te
couty, ad te Dast-e Lut, te east, as e as soe
sat aes. Ts s because te outa ages ae too
g fo a couds to eac tese egos.
Te oy age pas ae foud aog te coast of te
Caspa Sea ad at te ote ed of te Pesa
Guf, ee Ia bodes te out of te Aad e.
Sae, dscotuous pas ae foud aog te eag coast of te Pesa Guf, te Stat of Houz ad
te Guf of Oa.
Aea e of Mout Daaad
Topography of Iran
Naaestag
Badab-e Sut
(35 (22 )) to te ot-est te Caspa Sea to te

ot Tuesta (992 (616 )) to te ot-east
Pasta (909 (565 )) ad Afgasta (936
(582 )) to te east Tuey (499 (310 )) ad Ia
(1,458 (906 )) to te est ad ay te ates of
te Pesa Guf ad te Guf of Oa to te sout.
Lato Juge Ga
Haaz Re Ao
Bada-e Aza
Maaab Deset
Zayadeud ad Kaoo Bdge oe t Isfaa
Cty
Lut Deset
Aad pea
Sepddast Loesta Poce
14.3.1 Climate
See aso Eoet of Ia
Ia s cate ages fo ad o sead, to subtopca
Mount Damavand, Iran s highest point, is located in Amol

County, Mazanderan.
Ia cossts of te Iaa Pateau t te excepto of

te coasts of te Caspa Sea ad Kuzesta Poce. It
s oe of te od s ost outaous coutes, ts adscape doated by ugged outa ages tat sepaate
aous bass o pateaux fo oe aote. Te popuous este pat s te ost outaous, t ages
suc as te Caucasus, Zagos ad Aboz Moutas te
ast cotas Ia s gest pot, Mout Daaad at
5,610 (18,406 ft), c s aso te gest outa
Climate map of Iran (Kppen-Geiger)
o te Euasa adass est of te Hdu Kus.[113]
94
aog te Caspa coast ad te ote foests. O te
ote edge of te couty (te Caspa coasta pa)
tepeatues aey fa beo feezg ad te aea eas ud fo te est of te yea. Sue tepeatues aey exceed 29 C (84.2 F).[114][115] Aua pecptato s 680 (26.8 ) te easte pat of te
pa ad oe ta 1,700 (66.9 ) te este
pat. Uted Natos Resdet Coodato fo Ia Gay
Les as sad tat Wate scacty poses te ost seee
ua secuty caege Ia today .[116]
CHAPTER 14. IRAN
14.3.3 Regions, provinces and cities

Ma atces Regos of Ia, Poces of Ia ad
Coutes of Ia
See aso Lst of Iaa ctes by popuato
To te est, setteets te Zagos bas expeece

oe tepeatues, seee tes t beo zeo aeage day tepeatues ad eay sofa. Te easte
ad ceta bass ae ad, t ess ta 200 (7.9 )
of a, ad ae occasoa desets.[115] Aeage sue
tepeatues exceed 38 C (100.4 F). Te coasta pas
of te Pesa Guf ad Guf of Oa soute Ia
ae d tes, ad ey ud ad ot sues. Te
aua pecptato ages fo 135 to 355 (5.3 to
14.0 ).[115]
14.3.2 Fauna
See aso Wdfe Ia
Ia s dfe s coposed of seea aa speces -
Aboz
Adab
Buse
Caaaa
ad Bata
Isfaa
Fas
The Persian Leopard is an endangered species living primarily in Ga
Goesta
Iran.
Haada
cudg beas, gazees, d pgs, oes, acas, pa- Hoozga
tes, Euasa Lyx, ad foxes.
Ia
Doestc aas cude, seep, goats, catte, oses, Kea
ate bu ao, doeys, ad caes. Te peasat, pa- Keasa
Kuzesta
tdge, sto, eages ad faco ae aso ate to Ia.
Oe of te ost faous ebes of Iaa dfe
s te ctcay edageed Asatc ceeta, aso o
as te Iaa Ceeta, ose ubes ee geaty educed afte te Iaa Reouto.
Today tee ae ogog e ots to cease ts popuato
ad toduce t bac Ida. Ia ad ost a ts Asatc
Lo ad te o extct Caspa Tges by te eae
pat of te 20t cetuy.[117]
Koguye ad
Boye-Aad
Kudsta
Lusta
Maaz
Mazadaa
14.4. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

Qaz
Qo
Raza
Koasa
Sea
Ssta ad
Baucesta
Tea
Yazd
Zaa
Not
Koasa
Sout
Koasa
West
Azebaa
East
Azebaa
Caspian Sea
Persian Gulf
Turkmenistan
Afghanistan
Pakistan
Azerbaijan
Armenia
T
u
r
k
e
y
Iraq
Kuwait
Saudi Arabia
95
be uba.[120] Most tea gats ae setted ea te
ctes of Tea, Isfaa, Aaz, ad Qo. Te sted
popuatos ae fo te 2006/07 (1385 AP) cesus.[121]
Tea, t a popuato of 7,705,036, s te agest cty
Ia ad s te capta. Tea, e ay bg ctes, suffes fo seee a pouto. It s te ub of te couty s
coucato ad taspot eto.
Masad, t a popuato of 2,410,800, s te secod
agest Iaa cty ad te cete of te Raza Koasa
Poce. Masad s oe of te oest Sa ctes te
od as t s te ste of te Ia Reza se. It s te
cete of tous Ia, ad betee 15 ad 20 o
pgs go to te Ia Reza's se eey yea.[122][123]
Aote ao Iaa cty s Isfaa (popuato
1,583,609), c s te capta of Isfaa Poce. Te
Nas-e Jaa Suae Isfaa as bee desgated by
UNESCO as a Wod Hetage Ste. Te cty cotas a
de aety of Isac actectua stes agg fo
te 11t to te 19t cetuy. Te got of te sububa
aea aoud te cty as tued Isfaa to Ia s secod
ost popuous etopota aea (3,430,353).[124]
Te fout ao cty of Ia s Tabz (popuato
1,378,935), te capta of te East Azebaa Poce.
It s aso te secod dusta cty of Ia afte Tea.
Tabz ad bee te secod agest cty Ia ut te
ate 1960s ad oe of ts foe captas ad esdece of
te co pce ude te Qaa dyasty. Te cty as
poe exteey ueta te couty s ecet stoy.
Te ft ao cty s Kaa (popuato 1,377,450), ocated Aboz Poce ad stuated 20 est of
Tea, at te foot of te Aboz outas oee, te
cty s ceasgy becog a exteso of etopota Tea.
Te sxt ao Iaa cty s Saz (popuato
1,214,808) t s te capta of Fas Poce. Te Eate
czato to te est geaty ueced te aea, c
soo cae to be o as Pess. Te acet Pesas
ee peset te ego fo about te 9t cetuy
BC, ad becae ues of a age epe ude te
Acaeed dyasty te 6t cetuy BC. Te us
of Pesepos ad Pasagadae, to of te fou captas of
te Acaeed Epe, ae ocated o ea Saz.
Pesepos as te ceeoa capta of te Acaeed
Epe ad s stuated 70 oetes (43 ) oteast of
ode Saz. UNESCO decaed te ctade of Pesepos a Wod Hetage Ste 1979.
Ia s dded to e egos t tty oe poces

(ostn),[118] eac goeed by a appoted goeo (
, ostd). Te poces ae dded 14.4 Government and politics
to coutes (shahrestn), ad subdded to dstcts
(bakhsh) ad sub-dstcts (dehestn).
Ma atce Potcs of Ia
Ia as oe of te gest uba got ates te Te potca syste of te Isac Repubc s based o
od. Fo 1950 to 2002, te uba popoto of te te 1979 Costtuto, ad copses seea tcatey
popuato ceased fo 27% to 60%.[119] Te Uted coected goeg bodes. Te Leade of te ReoNatos pedcts tat by 2030, 80% of te popuato uto ( Supee Leade ) s esposbe fo deeato
96
CHAPTER 14. IRAN

Mas of Ia copses 290 ebes eected fo fouyea tes.[132] Te Mas dafts egsato, at es teatoa teates, ad appoes te atoa budget. A
Mas caddates ad a egsato fo te asseby
ust be appoed by te Guada Couc.[133]
Ali Khamenei, Supreme leader of Iran, talking with former

Brazilian president Luiz Incio Lula da Silva
ELECTORATE
ELECTED INSTITUTIONS
APPOINTED BY
ELECTED INSTITUTIONS
UNELECTED INSTITUTIONS
PARLIAMENT
GUARDIAN COUNCIL
PRESIDENT
CABINET
ARMED FORCES
ASSEMBLY OF EXPERTS
SUPREME LEADER
EXPEDIENCY COUNCIL
Directly elected
Appointed or approved
HEAD OF JUDICIARY
Vets candidates
Iran s syncretic political system combines elements of a modern

Islamic theocracy with democracy.
Te Guada Couc copses tee usts cudg sx appoted by te Supee Leade. Te otes ae
eected by te Paaet fo aog te usts oated by te Head of te Judcay.[134][135] Te Couc tepets te costtuto ad ay eto Paaet.
If a a s deeed copatbe t te costtuto o
Saa (Isac a), t s efeed bac to Paaet fo
eso.[128] Te Expedecy Couc as te autoty to
edate dsputes betee Paaet ad te Guada
Couc, ad sees as a adsoy body to te Supee
Leade, ag t oe of te ost poefu goeg
bodes te couty.[136] Loca cty coucs ae eected
by pubc ote to fou-yea tes a ctes ad ages
of Ia.
14.4.1 Law
Ma atces Judca syste of Ia ad Meda of Ia
Te Supee Leade appots te ead of Ia s u-
ad supeso of te geea poces of te Isac Repubc of Ia.[126] Te Supee Leade s Coade-Cef of te aed foces, cotos te tay tegece ad secuty opeatos ad as soe poe to decae a o peace.[126] Te eads of te udcay, state
ado ad teeso etos, te coades of te poce ad tay foces ad sx of te tee ebes
of te Guada Couc ae appoted by te Supee
Leade.[126] Te Asseby of Expets eects ad ds- The current building of The Iranian Parliament
sses te Supee Leade o te bass of ua catos
ad popua estee.[127]
dcay, o tu appots te ead of te Supee
[137]
Tee ae seAfte te Supee Leade, te Costtuto de es te Cout ad te cef pubc posecuto.
[126][128]
ea
types
of
couts
cudg
pubc
couts
tat dea t
Pesdet of Ia as te gest state autoty.
c
ad
ca
cases,
ad
eoutoay
couts c
Te Pesdet s eected by uesa su age fo a
dea
t
ceta
categoes
of
o
eses,
cudg
ces
te of fou yeas ad ca oy be e-eected fo oe
[128]
atoa
secuty.
Te
decsos
of
te
eoutoagast
te.
Pesdeta caddates ust be appoed by
[137]
Te Spete Guada Couc po to ug ode to esue ay couts ae a ad caot be appeaed.
[129]
ca
Ceca
Cout
ades
ces
aegedy
cotted
te aegace to te deas of te Isac eouto.
by cecs, atoug t as aso tae o cases og
Te Pesdet s esposbe fo te peetato of ay peope. Te Speca Ceca Cout fuctos depete Costtuto ad fo te execse of execute poes, dety of te egua udca faeo ad s accoutexcept fo attes decty eated to te Supee Leade, abe oy to te Supee Leade. Te Cout s ugs ae
o as te a say a attes.[126] Te Pesdet apa ad caot be appeaed.[137] Te Asseby of Expots ad supeses te Couc of Mstes, cood- pets, c eets fo oe ee auay, copses 86
ates goeet decsos, ad seects goeet po- tuous ad eaed cecs eected by adut su age
ces to be paced befoe te egsatue.[130] Egt Vce- fo egt-yea tes. As t te pesdeta ad paaPesdets see ude te Pesdet, as e as a cabet etay eectos, te Guada Couc detees caof tety to stes, o ust a be appoed by te ddates egbty.[137] Te Asseby eects te Supee
egsatue.[131]
Leade ad as te costtutoa autoty to eoe te
Te egsatue of Ia (o Egs as te Isac Supee Leade fo poe at ay te.[137] It as ot
Cosutate Asseby) s a ucaea body.[132] Te caeged ay of te Supee Leade s decsos.[137]
97
14.4. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

Te state-oed Teecoucato Copay of Ia
ades teecoucatos. Te eda of Ia s a xtue of pate ad state-oed, but boos ad oes
ust be appoed by te Te sty of Esaad befoe
beg eeased to te pubc. Ia ogay eceed access to te teet 1993, ad t as becoe eoousy
popua aog te Iaa yout.
(c Ia does ot o cay ecogze).[145] Ia s aso

a ebe of dozes of teatoa ogazatos cudg te G-15, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, IDA, IDB, IFC,
ILO, IMF, Iteatoa Mate Ogazato, Itepo,
OIC, OPEC,[146] te Uted Natos, WHO, ad cuety as obsee status at te Wod Tade Ogazato.
Sce 2005, Ia s ucea poga as becoe te subect of coteto t te teatoa couty.

14.4.2 Foreign relations
May coutes ae expessed coce tat Ia s ucea
poga coud det ca ucea tecoogy
Ma atce Foeg eatos of Ia
to
a
eapos poga. Ts as ed te UN Secuty
Te Iaa goeet s o cay stated goa s to esCouc to pose sactos agast Ia c as fute soated Ia potcay, ecoocay ad socay
fo te est of te goba couty. Foog te
depatue of Iaa Pesdet Maoud Aadead
fo poe te 2013 Geea Ageeet as sged ad
poded fo a tepoay ftg of soe sactos but
as of Septebe 2014 a copeese ageeet s st
beg egotated.
14.4.3 Military
Ma atces Aed Foces of te Isac Repubc of
Ia ad Defese dusty of Ia
Iranian President Hassan Rouhani meeting with Russian See aso Mtay stoy of Ia ad Lst of tay
President Vladimir Putin. Iran and Russia are strategic eupet aufactued Ia
allies,[138][139][140] and form an axis in the Caucasus alongside
Te Isac Repubc of Ia as to types of aed
Armenia.
Iranian FM Zarif shakes hand with John Kerry during the

Iranian nuclear talks. There is no formal diplomatic relationship between Iran and the USA.
tabs a e od ode based o od peace, goba

coecte secuty ad ustce[141][142] atoug te cuet Supee Leade of Ia, A Kaee, ad stated
tat tese tes soud be udestood te cotext of te
Sa Isac beef syste.[143] Ia s foeg eatos ae
based o to stategc pcpes eatg outsde ueces te ego ad pusug extese dpoatc
cotacts t deeopg ad o-aged coutes.
As of 2009 Ia ataed fu dpoatc eatos t
99 coutes odde[144] but ot te U.S. o Isae
Fotros (UCAV) is considered the largest in Iran s arsenal of unmanned aerial vehicles. Iran has made several UAVs indigenously
foces te egua foces Isac Repubc of Ia Ay,

Isac Repubc of Ia A Foce, Isac Repubc of
Ia Nay ad te Reoutoay Guads, totag about
545,000 acte toops. Ia aso as aoud 350,000 Resee Foce totag aoud 900,000 taed toops.[147]
Ia as a paatay, outee ta foce t te
IRGC, caed te Bas, c cudes about 90,000 fute, acte-duty ufoed ebes. Up to 11 o
e ad oe ae ebes of te Bas o coud potetay be caed up fo sece GobaSecuty.og estates Ia coud obze up to oe o e . Ts
oud be aog te agest toop obzatos te
98
od.[148] I 2007, Ia s tay spedg epeseted
2.6% of te GDP o 102 pe capta, te oest gue
of te Pesa Guf atos.[149] Ia s tay docte
s based o deteece.[150]
Sce te Iaa Reouto, to oecoe foeg ebago, Ia as deeoped ts o tay dusty,
poduced ts o tas, aoed pesoe caes,
guded sses, subaes, tay esses, guded
sse destoye, ada systes, ecoptes ad gte
paes.[151][152][153] I ecet yeas, o ca aouceets ae ggted te deeopet of eapos suc
as te Hoot, Kosa, Zeza, Fate-110, Saab-3 ad
Se sses, ad a aety of uaed aea eces
(UAVs).[154] Te Fa-3 (MIRV) s cuety Ia s ost
adaced bastc sse, t s a ud fue sse t
a udscosed age c as deeoped ad poduced
doestcay.
CHAPTER 14. IRAN

Ba.[156] I te eay 21st cetuy te sece secto cotbuted te agest pecetage of te GDP, fooed by
dusty (g ad aufactug) ad agcutue.[157]
Te Ceta Ba of te Isac Repubc of Ia s
esposbe fo deeopg ad atag te Iaa
a, c sees as te couty s cuecy. Te goeet does't ecogze tade uos ote ta te
Isac Labou Coucs, c ae subect to te appoa of epoyes ad te secuty seces.[158] Te
u age Jue 2013 as 487 o as a
ot (134).[159] Uepoyet as eaed aboe
10% sce 1997, ad te uepoyet ate fo oe
s aost doube tat of te e.[159]
I 2006, about 45% of te goeet s budget cae

fo o ad atua gas eeues, ad 31% cae fo
taxes ad fees.[160] As of 2007, Ia ad eaed 70
bo foeg excage esees osty (80%) fo
cude o expots.[161] Iaa budget de cts ae bee
a coc pobe, osty due to age-scae state subsdes, tat cude foodstu s ad especay gasoe, to14.5 Economy
tag oe ta 84 bo 2008 fo te eegy secto aoe.[162][163] I 2010, te ecooc efo pa as
Ma atce Ecooy of Ia
appoed by paaet to cut subsdes gaduay ad eSee aso Iaa subsdy efo pa, Tea Stoc Ex- pace te t tageted soca assstace. Te obecte
cage, Taspot Ia ad Coucatos Ia
s to oe toads fee aet pces a 5-yea peod
Ia s ecooy s a xtue of ceta pag, state ad cease poductty ad soca ustce.[164]
Te adstato cotues to foo te aet efo
pas of te peous oe ad dcated tat t desfy Ia s o-eat ecooy. Ia as aso deeoped
a botecoogy, aotecoogy, ad paaceutcas
dusty.[165] Hoee, atoazed dustes suc as te
boyads ae ofte bee aaged bady, ag te
e ecte ad ucopette t yeas. Cuety, te
goeet s tyg to patze tese dustes, ad, despte successes, tee ae st seea pobes to be oecoe, suc as te aggg coupto te pubc secto
ad ac of copetteess. I 2010, Ia as aed
69, out of 139 atos, te Goba Copetteess Repot.[166]
Ia as eadg aufactug dustes te eds of
ca-aufactue ad taspotato, costucto ateas, oe appaces, food ad agcutua goods, aaets, paaceutcas, foato tecoogy, poe
ad petocecas te Mdde East.[167]
Ecooc sactos agast Ia, suc as te ebago
agast Iaa cude o, ae a ected te ecooy.[168]
Sactos ae ed to a steep fa te aue of te a,
ad as of Ap 2013 oe US doa s ot 36,000 a,
copaed t 16,000 eay 2012.[169]
Central Bank of Iran
14.5.1 Tourism
oesp of o ad ote age etepses, age

agcutue, ad sa-scae pate tadg ad sece
etues.[155] I 2011 GDP as 482.4 bo (1.003 Ma atce Tous Ia
to at PPP), o 13,200 at PPP pe capta.[29] Ia s
aed as a uppe-dde coe ecooy by te Wod Atoug tous deced sg caty dug te a
99
14.5. ECONOMY
t Ia, t as subseuety ecoeed.
About
1,659,000 foeg tousts sted Ia 2004 ad 2.3
o 2009 osty fo Asa coutes, cudg te epubcs of Ceta Asa, e about 10%
cae fo te Euopea Uo ad Not Aeca.[170][171][172]
o esees t a estated 153,600,000,000

baes.[178][179] It s OPEC's 2d agest o expote ad
s a eegy supepoe.[180][181] I 2005, Ia spet
US4 bo o fue pots, because of cotabad ad
e cet doestc use.[182] O dusty output aeaged
4 o baes pe day (640,000 3 /d) 2005, coTe ost popua toust destatos ae Isfaa, paed t te pea of sx o baes pe day eaced
Masad ad Saz.[173] I te eay 2000s te dus- 1974. I te eay yeas of te 2000s (decade), dusty fastuctue as ceasgy e cet because of
ty faced seous tatos fastuctue, coutecoogca ags. Fe expoatoy es ee ded
[174]
catos, dusty stadads ad pesoe tag.
2005.
Te aoty of te 300,000 toust sas gated 2003
ee obtaed by Asa Muss, o pesuaby - I 2004, a age sae of atua gas esees Ia ee
teded to st potat pgage stes Masad ad utapped. Te addto of e ydoeectc statos ad
Qo.[172] Seea ogazed tous fo Geay, Face te steag of coetoa coa ad o- ed staad ote Euopea coutes coe to Ia auay to tos ceased staed capacty to 33,000 egaatts.
st acaeoogca stes ad ouets. I 2003 Ia Of tat aout, about 75% as based o atua gas,
aed 68t tous eeues odde.[175] Accod- 18% o o, ad 7% o ydoeectc poe. I 2004,
g to UNESCO ad te deputy ead of eseac fo Ia Ia opeed ts st d-poeed ad geotea pats,
Tae ad Tous Ogazato (ITTO), Ia s ated ad te st soa tea pat s to coe oe 2009.
aog te 10 ost toustc coutes te od .[175] Ia s te td couty te od to ae deeoped
Doestc tous Ia s oe of te agest te GTL tecoogy.[183]
od.[171][176][177] Wea adetsg, ustabe egoa Deogapc teds ad tes ed dustazato ae
codtos, a poo pubc age soe pats of te caused eectc poe dead to go by 8% pe yea.
od, ad absece of e cet pag scees te Te goeet s goa of 53,000 egaatts of staed
tous secto ae a deed te got of tous.
capacty by 2010 s to be eaced by bgg o e
e gas- ed pats ad by addg ydoeectc, ad ucea poe geeatg capacty. Ia s st ucea poe
14.5.2 Energy
pat at Buse et oe 2011. It s te secod
Nucea Poe Pat tat ee but te Mdde East
Ma atces Eegy Ia, Petoeu dusty Ia, afte Metsao Nucea Poe Pat Aea.[184][185]
Nucea poga of Ia ad Foeg dect estet
Ia
Ia as te agest poed gas esees te od, 14.5.3 Education and science
An 18th century Persian astrolabe

Iran holds 10% of the world s proven oil reserves and 15% of its
gas. It is OPEC's second largest exporter and the world s fourth
oil producer.
Ma atces Educato Ia, Hge educato

Ia ad Scece ad tecoogy Ia
t 33.6 to cubc etes.[28] It aso as fout Educato Ia s gy cetazed. K-12 educato s
100
CHAPTER 14. IRAN
supesed by te Msty of Educato ad ge educato s ude supeso of Msty of Scece ad

Tecoogy. Te adut teacy ate 2008 as 85.0%,
up fo 36.5% 1976.[186]
Te eueet to ete to ge educato s to ae
a g scoo dpoa ad pass te atoa uesty etace exaato, Iaa Uesty Etace Exa
(Konkur), c s te euaet of te US SAT exas. May studets do a 1-2 yea pe-uesty couse
o as Peeshdaneshgahe, c s te euaet of
GCE A-ees ad Iteatoa Baccaaueate. Te copeto of te pe-uesty couse eas studets te
Pe-Uesty Cet cate.[187] Ia s te oy couty
te Mdde East t a g scoo couse euaet to
te A-ees, SAT ad Iteatoa Baccaaueate.
Hge educato s sactoed by d eet ees of
dpoas Fogh-e-Diplom o Krdni afte 2 yeas of
ge educato, Krshensi (aso o ude te ae
cece ) s deeed afte 4 yeas of ge educato
(Baceo s degee). Krshensi-ye Arshad s deeed
afte 2 oe yeas of study (Maste s degee). Afte
c, aote exa aos te caddate to pusue a
doctoa poga (PD).[188]
Accodg to te Weboetcs Rag of Wod Ue- Sa r (rocket). Iran is the 9th country to put a domestically built
stes, te top-ag uestes te couty ae te satellite into orbit and the sixth to send animals in space.
Uesty of Tea (468t odde), te Tea Uesty of Medca Sceces (612t) ad Fedos Ut couty te od capabe of bot poducg a
esty of Masad (815t).[189]
satete ad sedg t to space fo a doestcay
Ia as ceased ts pubcato output eay tefod ade auce.[201]
fo 1996 toug 2004, ad as bee aed st
tes of output got ate fooed by Ca.[190] Ac- Te Iaa ucea poga as auced te 1950s.
exa uocodg to SCIago, Ia coud a fout te od Ia s te seet couty to poduce uau[202][203]
de
ad
cotos
te
ete
ucea
fue
cyce.
tes of eseac output by 2018, f te cuet ted
pessts.[191]
Iaa scetsts outsde Ia ae aso ade soe ao
I 2009, a SUSE Lux-based HPC syste ade by te cotbutos to scece. I 1960, A Jaa co-eted
ad fuzzy set teoy as toduced by
Aeospace Reseac Isttute of Ia (ARI) as auced te st gas ase
[204]
Lot
Zade.
Iaa
cadoogst, Tofy Mussad t 32 coes ad o us 96 coes. Its pefoace as
[192]
eted
ad
deeoped
te
st at ca cadac pup, te
pegged at 192 GFLOPS.
Soea 2 Robot, c as
at
ca
eat.
Futeg eseac ad
pecuso
of
te
desged by egees at Uesty of Tea, as uHbA1c
as
dscoeed by Saue
teatet
of
dabetes,
eed 2010. Te Isttute of Eectca ad Eectocs
Raba.
Iaa
pyscs
s
especay
stog stg
Egees (IEEE) as paced te ae of Suea aog
teoy,
t
ay
papes
beg
pubsed
Ia.[205]
te e poet obots of te od afte aayzg ts
Iaa-Aeca stg teost Kaa Vafa poposed
pefoace.[193]
te Vafa-Wtte teoe togete t Edad Wtte.
I te boedca sceces, Ia s Isttute of Boce- I August 2014, Maya Mzaa becae te ststy ad Bopyscs s a UNESCO ca boogy.[194] ee oa, as e as te st-ee Iaa, to ecee te
I ate 2006, Iaa scetsts successfuy coed a seep Feds Meda, te gest pze ateatcs. Mzaby soatc ce ucea tasfe, at te Rouya eseac a as aaded fo e dyacs ad geoety of
cete Tea.[195] Accodg to a study by Dad Mo- Rea sufaces ad te odu spaces .[206]
so ad A Kadeosse (Haad-MIT ad Cabdge), ste ce eseac Ia s aogst te top
10 te od.[196] Ia as 15t te od
14.6 Demographics
aotecooges.[197][198][199]
Ia paced ts doestcay but satete, Od to obt o te 30t aesay of te Iaa Reouto, o Ma atces Deogapcs of Ia ad Iaa peopes
2 Febuay 2009,[200] toug Sa ocet, becog te See aso Heatcae Ia
Ia s a dese couty, cosstg of ay d eet e-
101
14.6. DEMOGRAPHICS
Geographic distribution of the modern Iranian languages:

Persian (green), Pashto (purple) and Kurdish (turquoise), as well
as smaller communities of other Iranian languages
Population of Iran
Ia cude Aea, Geoga, ad Neo-Aaac.

gous ad etc goups tat ae u ed toug a saed Ccassa as aso oce dey used by te age Ccassa oty, but due to assato oe te ay
Pesa aguage ad cutue.[208]
yeas o szabe ube of Ccassas spea te aIa s popuato ge apdy dug te atte af of te guage ayoe.[219][220][221][222]
20t cetuy, ceasg fo about 19 o 1956 to
aoud 75 o by 2009.[209][210] Hoee, Ia s bt
ate as dopped sg caty ecet yeas, eadg to 14.6.2 Ethnic groups
a popuato got ate ecoded fo Juy 2012 of
about 1.29 pecet.[211] Studes poect tat Ia s ate of Ma atce Etctes Ia
got cotue to so ut t stabzes aboe 105 Te exact etc coposto of Ia s uo, as
o by 2050.[212][213]
Ia osts oe of te agest efugee popuatos te
od, t oe ta oe o efugees, osty fo
Afgasta ad Ia.[214] Sce 2006, Iaa o cas
ae bee og t te UNHCR ad Afga o cas
fo te epatato.[215] Accodg to estates, about
e o Iaa ctzes ae egated to ote coutes, osty sce te Iaa Reouto 1979.[216][217]
Accodg to te Iaa Costtuto, te goeet s
eued to pode eey ctze of te couty t access to soca secuty tat coes eteet, uepoyet, od age, dsabty, accdets, caates, eat ad
edca teatet ad cae seces. Ts s coeed by
tax eeues ad coe deed fo pubc cotbutos. Accodg to te Wod Heat Ogazato, Ia
aed 58 atoa eat etcs ad 93 te oea
pefoace of ts eatcae syste 2000.[218]
14.6.1 Languages
Ma atce Laguages of Ia
Te aoty of te popuato speas te Pesa aguage, c s aso te o ca aguage of te couty,
as e as ote Iaa aguages o daects. Tuc aguages ad daects, ost potaty Azebaa aguage, ae spoe d eet aeas Ia. I souteste ad soute Ia, te Lu aguage ad La
aguage ae spoe. I Kudsta Poce ad eaby
aea s Kuds s dey spoe. I Kuzesta, ay
dstct Pesa daects ae spoe. Aabc s aso
spoe Kuzesta. Notabe oty aguages
Iran s ethnoreligious distribution
tee s o o ca data. Te CIA Wod Factboo as

estated tat Pesas costtute 61% of te popuato, Azebaas at 16%, Kuds 10%, Lus 6%, Aabs
2%, Baocs 2%, Tues ad Tuc tbes 2%, ad
otes 1% (suc as Aeas, Geogas, Ccassas,
ad Assyas).[29] It foud Pesa to be st aguage
of 53% of te popuato, Aze ad ote Tuc daect beg spoe by 18%, Kuds by 10%, Ga ad
Mazadaa by 7%, Lu by 6%, Baoc by 2%, Aabc
by 2%, ad ote aguages at 2%.[29]
Te Lbay of Cogess ssued sgty d eet est-
102
CHAPTER 14. IRAN
ates Pesas 65%, Azebaas 16%, Kuds 7%, Lus

6%, Aabs 2%, Bauc 2%, Tues 1%, Tuc tba
goups suc as te Qasa 1%, ad o-Iaa, oTuc goups suc as Aeas, Geogas, Assyas,
ad Ccassas ess ta 1%. It deteed tat Pesa
s aguage of at east 65% of te Ia popuato ad aso
as te secod aguage fo ost of te eag 35%
Iaas.[223]
seed seats te Iaa Paaet. But te Ba'

Fat, c s sad to be te agest egous oty
Ia,[230] s ot o cay ecogzed, ad as bee pesecuted dug ts exstece Ia sce te 19t cetuy.
Sce te 1979 Reouto, te pesecuto of Baas as
ceased t executos, te dea of c gts ad
betes, ad te dea of access to ge educato ad
epoyet.[231][232][233]
14.6.3 Religion
Te goeet as ot eeased statstcs egadg

egosty. Hoee, te egous gues te
daspoa ae ge, otaby aog Iaa Aecas.[234][235]
Ma atce Rego Ia
Hstocay, Zooastas as te doat ego

Ia, patcuay dug te Acaeed, Pata
ad Sassad epes. Ts caged afte te fa of
14.7 Culture
te Sassad Epe by te Mus Couest of Ia,
e Zooastas as gaduay epaced t Isa,
spec cay by foced coesos.
Ma atces Cutue of Ia ad Pesa ytoogy
Today, ego Ia s doated by te Tee As te st setece of poet Iaoogst Rcad
Sa bac of Isa, c s te o ca state ego ad to c about 90% to 95%[224][225] of Iaas o cay ae. About 4% to 8% of Iaas ae
Su Muss, ay Kuds ad Baocs. Te eag 2% ae o-Mus egous otes, cudg Baas, Madeas, Hdus, Yezds, Yasas,
Zooastas, Jes, ad Cstas.[29]
Safavid painting kept at the Shah Abbas Caravanserai in Isfahan
Neso Fye's atest boo o Pesa eads Ia s pze

possesso as bee ts cutue. [236]
A Zoroastrian re temple in Yazd
Pesa cutue as og bee a pedoat cutue of

te ego, t Pesa cosdeed te aguage of teectuas dug uc of te 2d eu, ad te
aguage of ego ad te popuace befoe tat.
Zooastas ae te odest egous couty of te ato, t a og stoy cotug up to te peset day. Te Sassad ea as a potat ad ueta stoca peod Ia as Iaa cutue ueced Ca,
Judas aso as a og stoy Ia, datg bac to te Ida ad Roa czato cosdeaby,[237] ad so Acaeed Couest of Babyoa. Atoug ay eft ueced as fa as Weste Euope ad Afca.[238]
te ae of te estabset of te State of Isae ad
te 1979 Reouto, aoud 8,756 Jes ea Ia, Ts uece payed a poet oe te foato of bot Asatc ad Euopea edea at.[239]
accodg to te atest cesus.[227]
Ts uece caed foad to te Isac od.
Aoud 250,000 Cstas esde Ia.[228] Most ae Muc of at ate becae o as Isac eag,
of Aea bacgoud, but tee s a szabe oty suc as poogy, teatue, uspudece, posopy,
of Assyas as e.[229]
edce, actectue ad te sceces ee based
Zooastas, Judas, Cstaty ad Su Isa o soe of te pactses tae fo te Sassad
ae o cay ecogzed by te goeet, ad ae e- Pesas.[240][241][242]
103
14.7. CULTURE
14.7.1 Art
Ma atces Iaa at ad Pesa capet
Iaa at as oe of te cest at etages
aut ad doe costucto a geus fo decoato t a feedo ad success ot aed ay ote

actectue .[248]
Pesas ee aog te st to use ateatcs,
geoety, ad astooy actectue ad aso ae
extaoday ss ag asse does c
ca be see feuety te stuctue of bazaas ad
osues. Ts geaty sped te actectue of Ia s
egbos as e. Te a budg types of cassca
Iaa actectue ae te osue ad te paace. Besdes beg oe to a age ube of at ouses ad gaees, Ia aso ods oe of te agest ad ost auabe
ee coectos te od. Ia as seet aog
coutes te od t te ost aceoogca actectua us ad attactos fo atuty as ecogzed
by UNESCO.[249] Fftee of UNESCO s Wod Hetage
Stes ae ceatos of Iaa actectue.
Ceiling of the Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque in Isfahan
od stoy ad ecopasses ay dscpes cudg actectue, patg, eag, pottey, cagapy,

etaog ad stoeasoy. Tee s aso a ey bat Iaa ode ad cotepoay at scee. Te
ode at oeet Ia ad ts geess te
ate 1940s ad eay 1950s. Te 1949 opeg of te
Apadana gallery Tea by Maoud Jaadpou ad
ote coeagues, ad te eegece of atsts e Macos
Ggoa te 1950s, sgaed a cotet to te ceato of a fo of ode at gouded Ia.[243]
Capet-eag s udoubtedy oe of te ost dstgused afestatos of Pesa cutue ad at, ad
dates bac to acet Pesa ad te Boze Age. Ia
s te od s agest poduce ad expote of adade capets, poducg tee uates of te od s tota output ad ag a sae of 30% of od s expot
aets.[244][245]
14.7.2 Architecture
Ma atces Iaa actectue ad Pesa gade
Te us of Pesepos
Sapou Xast Caste Koaabad Cty
Te doe of Sotaye
Aad Sa Qaa's Pao Naaa Paace
Copex
Etace gate to te Sa Mosue Isfaa Cty
Ea Gade
Nas o Mo Mosue
Bag-e Fedos Tas
Te Lbety (Azad) Toe Tea Cty
Qase Batouse
14.7.3 Literature
Ma atce Pesa teatue
Pesa teatue s oe of te od s odest teatues.
Accodg to Pesa stoa ad acaeoogst Atu

Pope, te supee Iaa at, te pope eag
of te od, as aays bee ts actectue. Te
supeacy of actectue appes to bot pe-ad postIsac peods.[246] Te stoy of actectue of Ia
goes bac to seet eu BC. Ts at as bee
copeted by aous ssues, patcuay te tuas.
Iaa actectue geeay dspays geat aety, bot
stuctua ad aestetc, deeopg gaduay ad coeety out of eae tadtos ad expeece. Wtout
sudde oatos, ad despte te epeated taua of
asos ad cutua socs, t as aceed a dduaty dstct fo tat of ote Mus coutes .[247] Tomb of Hafez in Shiraz City
Its paaout tues ae seea a aed feeg
fo fo ad scae stuctua eteess, especay It dates bac to te poety of Aesta, about 1000 yeas
104
CHAPTER 14. IRAN
The Fravarti symbol from Persepolis
toay aso states, Zaatusta s posopy eteed to

uece Weste tadto toug Judas, ad teefoe o Mdde Patos.
Nima Yooshij, father of modern Persian poetry
BC. Tese poes c ee a pat of te oa tadtos

of acet Ia, ee oay tasfeed, ad ate ceated
pats of te Aesta s boo dug te Sassad ea. Its
souces ae bee t stoca Pesa ee te Pesa aguage as stocay bee te atoa aguage.
Pesa teatue sped Goete, Rap Wado Eeso, ad ay otes, ad t as bee ofte dubbed as a
ost oty aguage to see as a codut fo poety. Daects of Pesa ae spoadcay spoe tougout te
ego fo Ca to Sya to Russa, toug ay
te Iaa Pateau.[250][251]
Tougout Iaa stoy ad due to eaabe potca ad soca cages suc as te Aab ad Mogo asos of Pesa, a de spectu of scoos of tougts
soed a aety of es o posopca uestos extedg fo Od Iaa ad ay Zooastaseated tadtos, to scoos appeag te ate peIsac ea suc as Maces ad Mazdas as e
as aous post-Isac scoos.
Iaa posopy afte te Mus couest of Pesa,
s caactezed by d eet teactos t te Od
Iaa posopy, te Gee posopy ad t te
deeopet of Isac posopy. Te Iuato
Scoo ad te Tascedet Posopy ae egaded as
to of te a posopca tadtos of tat ea Pesa.
Poety s used ay Pesa cassca os, ete

fo teatue, scece, o etapyscs. Pesa teatue as bee cosdeed by suc tes as Goete as 14.7.5 Mythology
oe of te fou a bodes of od teatue.[252]
Ma atces Iaa ytoogy ad Iaa fooe
Te Pesa aguage as poduced a ube of faous
poets oee, oy a fe poets as Ru ad Oa
Kayy ae sufaced aog este popua eade- Pesa ytoogy ae tadtoa taes ad stoes of asp, ee toug te es of Hafez, Saad, Nza,[253] cet og, a og extaoday o supeatua
Atta, Saa, Nas Kusa ad Ja ae cosdeed by begs. Da fo te egeday past of Ia, tey eect te atttudes of te socety to c tey st beay Iaas to be ust as ueta.
oged - atttudes toads te cofotato of good ad
e, te actos of te gods, yazats (esse gods), ad te
expots of eoes ad fabuous ceatues.
14.7.4 Philosophy
Ma atce Iaa posopy
Iaa posopy ca be taced bac as fa as to Od
Iaa posopca tadtos ad tougts c ogated acet Ido-Iaa oots ad ee cosdeaby ueced by Zaatusta's teacgs. Accodg to
te Oxfod Dctoay of Posopy, te cooogy of
te subect ad scece of posopy stats t te IdoIaas, datg ts eet to 1500 BC. Te Oxfod dc-
Myts pay a cuca pat Iaa cutue ad ou udestadg of te s ceased e e cosde te

t te cotext of Iaa stoy. Fo ts pupose e
ust goe ode potca boudaes ad oo at stoca deeopets te Geate Ia, a ast aea coeg te Caucasus, ad Ceta Asa, beyod te fotes of peset-day Ia. Te geogapy of ts ego,
t ts g outa ages, pays a sg cat oe
ay of te ytoogca stoes. Te secod e-
105
14.7. CULTURE
of spg Ia. Noouz as egsteed o te

st of Mastepeces of te Oa ad Itagbe Hetage of Huaty[255] ad descbed as te Persian New
Year[256][257][258][259] by te Uted Natos Educatoa,
Scet c ad Cutua Ogazato (UNESCO) 2009.
Rustam Inscription (A historical depiction of Rustam, the Iranian

mythical hero.)
Ote otabe Pesa atoa festas cude

Wedesday Lgt (A peude to Noouz), Szda
Be Da (Leag te ouse o te tteet day of
Faad.), Bt of Mta (Logest gt of te yea
o te ee of te Wte Sostce.), Tega (Cocdg
t te d sue festas.), Meega (A festa
to oo te Yazata) ad Sepadaazga (24 Febuay,
dedcated to oe, ad e oud ae te bea
pesets .).
u BC s usuay egaded as te age of gato because of te eegece este Ia of a e fo of 14.7.7 Theater

Iaa pottey, sa to eae aes of ot-easte
Ia, suggestg te aa of te Acet Iaa peoMa atces Pesa teate ad Pesa dace
pes. Ts pottey, gt gey to bac coou, appeaed
Teate bacgoud Pesa goes bac to atuty
aoud 1400 BC. It s caed Eay Gey Wae o Io I,
te atte ae dcatg te begg of te Io Age
ts aea.[254]
Te ceta coecto of Pesa ytoogy s te
Shahnameh of Fedos, tte oe a tousad yeas
ago. Fedos s o das eay, t attbuto, o
te stoes ad caactes of Mazdas ad Zooastas, ot oy fo te Avesta, but fo ate texts suc as
te Bundahishn ad te Denkard as e as ay otes.
14.7.6 Observances
See aso Iaa caeda ad Lst of festas Ia
Te Iaa Ne Yea, Nouz, s a acet taTehran City Theater
(641 1000 BC).

Te st tato of teate ad peoea of actg
peope of te ad coud be taced ceeoa teates to gofy egeday ad atoa eoes ad uate te eey e Soug Sas o Mog Kos
(Megaou), ad aso daces ad teate aatos,
usca stoy of ytoogca ad oe stoes tat ae
bee epoted by Heodotos ad Gezepo.
A Haft Sin Table
Tee ee ay daatc pefoace ats popua befoe te adet of cea Pesa. A fe exapes cude Kaye Sab Baz (Puppety), Saye-baz (Sado
pay), Rouoz (Coca acts) ad Ta'ze (S' aty
pays).
Rosta ad Soab puppet opea s a exape of te

dto ceebated o 21 Mac to a te begg ost otabe pefoace ode day Ia.
106
14.7.8 Music
CHAPTER 14. IRAN
14.7.9 Cinema and animation
Ma atces Cea of Ia ad Hstoy of Iaa aMa atce Musc of Ia

ato
Iaa usc, as edeced by te aceoogca ecods Te eaest exapes of sua epesetatos Iaa
Taq-e Bostan carving, from 6th century Sassanian Iran.
of Ea, te ost acet cutue souteste Ia,

dates bac tousads of yeas. I acet Ia uscas Abbas Kiarostami, a well-known Iranian director, at the Venice
ed socay espectabe postos. Te Eates ad te Film Festival
Aceeas cetay ade use of uscas.
stoy ay be taced bac to te bas-eefs Pesepos
Te stoy of usca pefoace Sassad Ia s (c. 500 BC). Pesepos as te tua cete of te aoee bette docueted ta eae peods. Ts cet gdo of Acaeeds ad te gues at Peses specay oe edet te cotext of Zooasta
pos ea boud by te ues of gaa ad sytax
tua.[260]
of sua aguage.[263] Dug te Sasaa eg, Iaa
By te te of Xuso Paz te Sassad oya cout sua ats eaced a pace. A bas-eef fo ts peas te ost of poet uscas suc as Rat, od Ta e Bosta depcts a copex utg scee.
Basad, Nasa, Azad, Saas, ad Babad.
Sa os fo te peod ae bee foud to aLe tat of ost of te od s cutues, te usc tcuate oeets ad actos a gy sopstcated
of Pesa as depeded o oa/aua tassso ad ae. It s ee possbe to see a pogeto of te cea cose-up oe of tese os of at, c sos a
eag.[261]
ouded d pg escapg fo te utg goud.[264]
Pesa Sypoc Musc as aso a og stoy. I
fact Opea ogated fo Pesa, uc befoe ts I te eay 20t cetuy, e yea-od dusty of ceegece Euope. Iaas tadtoay pefoed ea cae to Ia. Te st Iaa ae as Mza
Tazieh, c ay espects esebes te Euopea Eba Ka (Aas Bas), te o ca potogape
Opea.[262] Ia s a ocesta cude Natoa O- of Moza a a D Sa of Qaa. He obtaed a caea ad ed te Sa s st to Euope, upo te Sa s
cesta, Tea Sypoy Ocesta ad Natos Oodes.
cesta.
(Saaf Bas) opeed te
Today, te usca cutue of Pesa, e dstct, s I 1904, Mza Eba Ka[265]
st
oe
teate
Tea.
Afte , seea otcosey eated to ote usca systes of te West ad
es
e
Russ
Ka,
Ades
Ka,
ad A Va ted
Ceta Asa. It as aso a tes to te usc cutues of
to
estabs
e
oe
teates
Tea.
Ut te eay
te Ida subcotet, to a ceta degee ee to tose
1930s,
tee
ee
tte
oe
ta
15
teates
Tea
of Afca, ad te peod afte 1850 patcuay, to
[264]
ad
11
ote
poces.
tat of Euope. Its stoy ca be taced to soe extet
toug tese eatosps.
Te st set Iaa as ade by Pofesso Oaes

Soe of te Iaa tadtoa usc stuets - Oaa 1930, ad te st souded oe, Lor Girl, as
cude Ta, Dota, Seta, Kaace, Hap, Babat, ade by Abd o Hosse Sepata 1932.
Satou, Tabu, Qau, Dap, Do, Topa (Gobet Te 1960s as a sg cat decade fo Iaa cea,
du), ad Ney.
t 25 coeca s poduced auay o aeage
107
14.7. CULTURE
tougout te eay 60s, ceasg to 65 by te ed
of te decade. Te aoty of poducto focused o
eodaa ad tes. Wt te sceeg of te s
Kaiser ad The Cow, dected by Masoud Ka ad
Daus Meu espectey 1969, ateate s
estabsed te status te dusty. Attepts to
ogaze a festa tat ad begu 1954 t
te faeo of te Goza Festa, boe futs te
fo of te Sepas Festa 1969. Te edeaos aso
esuted te foato of te Tea Wod Festa
1973.
ages depctg a Pesa Deset Ibex upg up to eat

te eaes of a tee.[270][271]
Te at of aato, as pactced ode day Ia,
stated te 1950s. Afte fou decades of aato poducto Ia ad tee-decade expeece of
Kaoo Isttute, Tea Iteatoa Aato Festa (TIAF) as estabsed Febuay 1999. Eey to
yeas, patcpats fo oe ta 70 coutes aoud
te od atted ts eet c ods te bggest atoa aato aet Tea.[272][273]
Afte te Reouto of 1979, as te e goeet posed e as ad stadads, a e age Iaa c- 14.7.10 Cuisine
ea eeged, statg t Viva... by Koso Sa ad
fooed by ay ote Iaa dectos o eeged Ma atce Iaa cuse
te ast fe decades, suc as Abbas Kaosta ad Jafa Te cuse of Ia s dese, t eac poce feaPaa. Kaosta, o soe ctcs egad as oe of te
fe geat dectos te stoy of Iaa cea,[266]
pated Ia y o te ap of od cea e e
o te Pae d'O fo Taste of Cherry 1997. Te
cotuous pesece of Iaa s pestgous teatoa festas, suc as te Caes F Festa,
te Vece F Festa, ad te Be F Festa,
attacted od atteto to Iaa astepeces.[267] I
2006, sx Iaa s, of sx d eet styes, epeseted
Iaa cea at te Be F Festa. Ctcs cosdeed ts a eaabe eet te stoy of Iaa
cea.[268][269]
Asga Faad, a e-o Iaa decto, as eceed a Gode Gobe Aad ad a Acadey Aad fo
Best Foeg Laguage F, aog ay ote aads,
ad e as aed as oe of te 100 Most I ueta Peope te od by Te Magaze 2012.
Fe of ote e-o Iaa dectos cude Kuu Sabz with herbs, topped with barberries and walnuts.
Mose Maabaf, Mad Mad, Baa Beyza,
Baa Gobad, Rasa Ba-E'tead, A tug dses, as e as cuay tadtos ad styes,
dstct to te egos. Te a Pesa cuses ae
Nade, A Hata ad Reza Ma.
cobatos of ce t eat, cce o s ad soe
Ceapeope te Iaa daspoa, suc as Soe oo, egetabes, uts, ad ebs. Hebs ae feuety
Agdasoo, Naza Boad, S Nesat, Saa used aog t futs suc as pus, poegaates,
Sa, Nada Bo, Ada Pasda, A Mo, Baa uce, pues, apcots, ad ass.
Sooe, A Taa, Catee Be, Nas Pedad,
Dayus Soof, ad Rose Mae-Yoa ae aso pop- Iaas aso usuay eat pa yogut (Pesa ,m )
t uc ad de t s a stape of te det Ia. To
ua.
acee a baaced taste, caactestc aougs suc
as sa o, ded es, cao, ad pasey ae xed
decatey ad used soe speca dses. Oos ad
gac ae oay used te pepaato of te accopayg couse, but ae aso seed sepaatey dug
Reproduction of world s oldest example of animation which be- eas, ete a o pced fo. Iaa cuse as
longs to late half of 3rd millennium BC, found in Burnt City, aso geaty sped ts egbos.
Iran.
Ia s aso faous fo ts caa.[274]
Te odest ecods of aato Ia dates bac to ate

af of 3d eu BC. A eate gobet dscoeed 14.7.11 Sports
at te ste of te 5,200-yea-od But Cty souteaste Ia, depcts at coud possby be te od s odest Ma atce Spot Ia
exape of aato. Te atfact beas e seueta Wt to tds of Ia s popuato ude te age of
108
CHAPTER 14. IRAN

Natoa Tea aed fout 2014 FIVB Voeyba
Wod League, aed sx 2014 FIVB Voeyba Me s
Wod Caposp ad te best esut a Asa ato
ee aceed.[282]
Spotspeope te Iaa daspoa, suc as Aaae
Reza, Ade Agass, Lea Vaz, Ada Ge,
Aeco Esadaa, Yu Das, Beag Safa, Pat
Baboua, Ada Ge, Sa Daa ad Io Se
ae aso popua.[283]
Football is among the favorite sports in Iran.
25, ay spots ae pactsed Ia, bot tadtoa ad

ode.
14.8 See also

Oute of Ia
Idex of Ia-eated atces
[275]
Ia s te btpace of poo,
(Nas- Jaa Suae
Isfaa s a poo ed c as but by g
Abbas I te 17t cetuy.) ad Vazes-e Paaa. Feestye estg as bee tadtoay egaded
as Ia s atoa spot. Iaa estg, o as
ost Pesa, as bee pactced sce acet tes
tougout Ia. Ia s atoa estg tea ae bee
Oypc ad od capo. Aog te ost popua spots Ia s footba t te atoa tea ag
o te Asa Cup o tee occasos. Basetba s aso
ey popua Ia ee te atoa tea o tee
of te ast fou Asa Caposps.[276] I 1974, Ia
becae te st couty West Asa to ost te Asa
Gaes.
Supee Leade of Ia
14.9 Bibliography
Iran: A Country Study. 2008, Wasgto, D.C.
Lbay of Cogess, 354 pp.
14.10 References
[1] Jeoe Tepea (2010). State-Religion Relationships
and Human Rights Law: Towards a Right to Religiously
Neutral Governance. BRILL. pp. 87 . ISBN 90-0418148-2. Te o ca otto of Ia s Takbir ( God s
te Geatest o God s Geat ). Tasteato Alahu
Akbar. As efeed to at. 18 of te costtuto of Ia
(1979). Te de facto otto oee s Idepedece,
feedo, te Isac Repubc.
[2] Etoogue. Ia . Etoogue. Reteed 21 Jue 2013.
[3] Ecycopda Btaca. Ecycopda Btaca Ecycopeda Atce Meda acet ego, Ia . Btaca.co. Reteed 25 August 2010.
Skiers at the Dizin ski resort.
Ia s oe to seea uue sg esots.[277] 13 s

esots opeate Ia,[278] te ost faous beg Toca,
Dz, ad Sesa. A ae t oe to tee ous
taeg te of Tea. Toca esot s te od s
ft-gest s esot (3,730 o 12,238 ft at ts gest stato). Beg a outaous couty, Ia s a
eue fo g, oc cbg,[279] ad outa cbg.[280][281]
Aog te ost popua atetes te couty s
Hosse Rezazade ad Bedad Sa. Voeyba t s
Ia s secod ost popua spot ecet yeas. Me s
[4] Aeza Sapu Sabaz (2005), Te Hstoy of te Idea

of Ia , Vesta Cuts ed., Bt of te Pesa Epe, IB Taus, Lodo, p. 108 Say te coapse
of Sassaa Easa AD 650 dd ot ed Iaas
atoa dea. Te ae 'Ia' dsappeaed fo o ca
ecods of te Sa ads, Saads, Buyds, Saus ad
te successo. But oe uo cay used te ae Ia,
Easa, ad sa atoa desgatos, patcuay
Maae-e Ia o Iaa ads , c exacty tasated te od Aesta te Ayaa Daua. O te
ote ad, e te Safads (ot Reza Sa, as s popuay assued) eed a atoa state o cay o as
Ia, bueaucatc usage te Ottoa epe ad ee
Ia tsef coud st efe to t by ote descpte ad
tadtoa appeatos .
109
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116
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[283] Atopoogy of te Mdde East ad Not Afca, - Page
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14.11
External links
Te e-o ce of te Supee Leade of Ia

Te Pesdet of Ia
Ia.
Ia ety at The World Factbook
Ia eb esouces poded by GoPubs at te
Uesty of Cooado Boude Lbaes
Ia at DMOZ
Weda Atas of Ia
Videos
Ia Weey poga tat expoes Ia s past,
peset ad futue t excuse epots. (PessTV)
Coodates 32N 53E / 32N 53E
Chapter 15
Hezbollah
Fo ote uses, see Hezboa (dsabguato).
Isae te 2006 Lebao Wa.
Hezbollah (poouced / zb/

Aabc

izbu 'llh, teay Paty of Aa" o Paty
of God") aso tasteated Hizbullah, Hizballah, etc.[11] s a S'a Isast tat goup ad
potca paty based Lebao.[12][13][14] Hezboa s
paatay g s te Jad Couc.[15][16] Afte te
deat of Abbas a-Musa 1992, te ogasato as
bee eaded by Hassa Nasaa, ts Secetay-Geea.
Te Uted States,[17] Face,[18] te Guf Coopeato
Couc,[19] Uted Kgdo,[20] Austaa,[21] Ne
Zeaad,[22] Caada,[23] te Neteads,[24][25][26][27]
te Euopea Uo[28] ad Isae[29] cassfy Hezboa
as a teost ogazato, oe o pat.
Afte te 2006 2008 Lebaese potca potests[43] ad

cases,[44] a atoa uty goeet as foed
2008, gg Hezboa ad ts opposto aes coto of
eee of tty cabets seats e ectey eto poe.[14]
I August 2008, Lebao s e Cabet uaousy appoed a daft pocy stateet c secues Hezboa s exstece as a aed ogazato ad guaatees
ts gt to beate o ecoe occuped ads".[45] Sce
2012, Hezboa as eped te Sya goeet dug te Sya c a ts gt agast te Sya opposto, c Hezboa as descbed as a Zost pot
ad a Waab-Zost cospacy to destoy ts aace
t Assad agast Isae.[46][47] Oce see as a esstace
oeet tougout uc of te Aab od,[12] ts
age upo c te goup s egtacy ested as bee
seeey daaged due to te sectaa atue of te Sya
C Wa c t as becoe eboed.[31][48][49]
[9][10]
Hezboa as coceed by Mus cecs ad fuded

by Ia foog te Isae aso of Lebao 1982,
ad as pay foed to o e esstace to te Isae occupato.[3] Its eades ee fooes of Ayatoa
Koe, ad ts foces ee taed ad ogazed
by a cotget of 1,500 Iaa Reoutoay Guads 15.1 History
tat aed fo Ia t pesso fo te Sya goeet.[30] Afte te 1982 aso, Isae oc- Ma atce Hstoy of Hezboa
cuped a stp of sout Lebao, c as cotoed by
a ta suppoted by Isae, te Sout Lebao Ay.
Hezboa aged a guea capag agast te t
te coapse of te SLA, Isae tde o May 24, 15.1.1 1980s
2000.
Hezboa as go to a ogazato t seats te Ma atces Lebaese c a ad Sout Lebao
Lebaese goeet, a ado ad a satete teeso- co ct (1982 2000)
stato, pogas fo soca deeopet ad agescae tay depoyet of gtes beyod Lebao s Hezboa eeged Sout Lebao dug a cosobodes.[31][32][33] Te ogazato as bee caed a dato of Sa tas as a a to te ode Aa
"state t a state".[34] Hezboa s pat of te Mac Moeet. Hezboa payed a sg cat oe te
8 Aace t Lebao, opposto to te Mac Lebaese c a, opposg Aeca foces 1982
14 Aace. Hezboa atas stog suppot aog 83 ad opposg Aa ad Sya dug te 1985 88
Lebao s S'a popuato,[35] e Sus ae ds- Wa of te Caps. Hoee, Hezboa s eay pageed t te goup s ageda.[36][37] Foog te ed ay focus as edg Isae's 18-yea-og occupato
of te Isae occupato of Sout Lebao 2000, ts of soute Lebao[3] foog Isae s 1982 aso
tay stegt ge sg caty,[38][39] suc tat ts ad sege of Beut.[50] We te Sa popuato of
paatay g s cosdeed oe poefu ta te soute Lebao eazed tat Isae ad o teto
Lebaese Ay.[40][41] Hezboa ecees tay ta- of eag, tey ebeed. Aa, te a Lebaese Sa
g, eapos, ad aca suppot fo Ia, ad pot- potca goup, tated guea afae. I 2006, foca suppot fo Sya.[42] Hezboa aso fougt agast e Isae pe ste Eud Baa stated, We
117
118
CHAPTER 15. HEZBOLLAH
t ed as eey a teepoe ogazato, [61][62] ad[63]

ose ae as used by tose oed to dsguse te
tue detty. [64][65][66][67][68] Hezboa epotedy aso
used aote ae, Isac Resstace (al-Muqawama
[69]
Hezboa aged a asyetc a usg sucde at- al-Islamiyya), fo attacs agast Isae.
tacs agast te Isae Defese Foces (IDF) ad Isae A 2003 Aeca cout decso foud IJO as te ae
tagets outsde of Lebao.[52] Hezboa s eputed to used by Hezboa fo ts attacs Lebao, pats of
ae bee aog te st Isac esstace goups te Mdde East ad Euope.[70] Te US,[71] Isae[72] ad
te Mdde East to use te tactcs of sucde bobg, as- Caada[73] cosde te aes Isac Jad Ogazasassato, ad captug foeg sodes,[30] as e as to , Ogazato of te Oppessed o Eat ad te
udes[53] ad acgs.[54] Hezboa aso epoyed Reoutoay Justce Ogazato to be syoyous
oe coetoa tay tactcs ad eapoy, otaby t Hezboa.
Katyusa ocets ad ote sses.[53][55] At te ed of
te Lebaese C Wa 1990, despte te Taf Ageeet asg fo te dsbadg of a Lebaese ad o- 15.2 Ideology
Lebaese tas, Sya, c cotoed Lebao at
tat te, aoed Hezboa to ata te asea ad
Ma atce Ideoogy of Hezboa
coto Sa aeas aog te bode t Isae.[56]
e eteed Lebao ... tee as o Hezboa. We
ee accepted t pefued ce ad oes by te
Sa te sout. It as ou pesece tee tat ceated
Hezboa .[51]
15.1.2 After 1990

I te 1990s, Hezboa tasfoed fo a eoutoay
goup to a potca oe, a pocess c s descbed
as te Lebaosato of Hezboa. Ue ts ucoposg eoutoay stace te 1980s, Hezboa
coeyed a eet stace toads te Lebaese state.[57]
I 1992 Hezboa decded to patcpate eectos, ad
A Kaee, supee eade of Ia, edosed t. Foe Hezboa secetay geea, Sub a-Tufay, cotested ts decso, c ed to a scs Hezboa. Hezboa o a tee seats c ee o ts
eectoa st. At te ed of tat yea, Hezboa bega
to egage daog t Lebaese Cstas. Hezboa egads cutua, potca, ad egous feedos
Lebao as sact ed, atoug t does ot exted tese
aues to goups o ae eatos t Isae.[58]
I 1997 Hezboa foed te ut-cofessoa
Lebaese Bgades to Fgtg te Isae Occupato
a attept to ee atoa ad secua esstace
agast Isae, teeby ag te Lebaosato of
esstace.[59]
Te deoogy of Hezboa as bee suazed as S'

adcas.[74][75][76] Hezboa as agey foed t
te ad of te Ayatoa Koe's fooes te eay
1980s ode to spead Isac eouto[77] ad foos
a dstct eso of Isac S'a deoogy (Valiyat alfaqih o Guadasp of te Isac Justs) deeoped
by Ayatoa Ruoa Koe, eade of te Isac
Reouto Ia.[12][72] Atoug Hezboa ogay
aed to tasfo Lebao to a foa Fa Isac
epubc, ts goa as bee abadoed fao of a oe
cuse appoac.[3]
15.2.1 The Hezbollah manifesto

O Febuay 16, 1985, Se Iba a-A ssued
Hezboa s afesto. Tasated excepts fo Hezboa s oga 1985 afesto ead
We ae te sos of te ua (Mus
couty) ...
... We ae a ua ed to te Muss
of te oe od by te sod docta ad
egous coecto of Isa, ose essage
God ated to be fu ed by te Sea of te
Popets, .e., Popet Muaad. ... As fo
ou cutue, t s based o te Hoy Qua, te
Sua ad te ega ugs of te fa o s
ou souce of tato ...[78]
Te Lebaese Daily Star espape epoted o Ap 14,

2014 tat tee Hezboa ebes ad bee aested
Taad. Te foato as obtaed fo a specast
Ta tegece ebste tat det ed a Ta ctze, Y.
Ayyad, descbed as a Hezboa ebe og out of
a ut East Asa, e te to Lebaese atoas tat
ee aested, D. Faat ad B. Basou, ee cosdeed
suspects. [60]
Hezboa foos te Isac S'a teoogy deeoped
by Iaa eade Ayatoa Ruoa Koe.[79]
15.1.3 Islamic Jihad Organization (IJO)
15.2.2 Propaganda
Wete te Isac Jad Ogazato (IJO) as a nom

de guerre used by Hezboa o a sepaate ogazato, Tee ae seea YouTube caes tat suppot Hezbos dsputed. Accodg to ceta souces, IJO as de- a suc as te Eectoc Resstace
119
15.3. ORGANIZATION
A exape of a Hezboa ad Basa A Assad Popagada Vdeo upoaded to YouTube by a suppote
15.2.3 Attitudes, statements, and actions

concerning Israel and Zionism
See aso Hezboa foeg eatos, Isac Resstace
Suppot Ogazato, Lebao ostage css ad
Hezboa aed stegt
Fo te cepto of Hezboa to te peset,[78][80] te
eato of te State of Isae as bee oe of Hezboa s pay goas. Soe tasatos of Hezboa s
1985 Aabc-aguage afesto state tat ou stugge
ed oy e ts etty [Isae] s obteated .[78]
Accodg to Hezboa s Deputy-Geea, Na' Qas,
te stugge agast Isae s a coe beef of Hezboa ad
te ceta atoae of Hezboa s exstece.[81]
Hezboa says tat ts cotued osttes agast Isae ae ust ed as ecpoca to Isae opeatos agast
Lebao ad as etaato fo at tey ca s Isae s
occupato of Lebaese tetoy.[82][83][84] Isae tde fo Lebao 2000, ad te tdaa as
e ed by te Uted Natos as beg accodace
t esouto 425 of Mac 19, 1978, oee Lebao
cosdes te Sebaa fas a 26- (10-) pece of
ad captued by Isae fo Sya te 1967 a ad
cosdeed by te UN to be Sya tetoy occuped
by Isae to be Lebaese tetoy.[85][86] Addtoay,
Hezboa cas tat tee Lebaese psoes ae beg
ed Isae.[87] Fay, Hezboa cosde Isae to be
a egtate state. Fo tese easos, tey ustfy te
actos as acts of defese ad.[88]
ad coady eees. Le te Haas popagada fo oy a, tat of Hezboa as eed o te edess cato of Jes as 'eees of ad,' 'cospatoa, obstate,
ad coceted' adesaes fu of 'satac pas
to esae te Aabs. It fuses tadtoa Isac at-Judas t Weste cospacy
yts, Td Wodst at-Zos, ad Iaa Ste cotept fo Jes as 'tuay pue' ad coupt des. Se Fadaa
typcay ssts ... tat Jes s to udee
o obteate Isa ad Aab cutua detty
ode to adace te ecooc ad potca
doato. [91]
Co ctg epots say A-Maa, te Hezboa-oed
ad opeated teeso stato, accused ete Isae o
Jes of debeatey speadg HIV ad ote dseases to
Aabs tougout te Mdde East.[92][93][94] A-Maa
as ctczed te West fo ag at-Setc popagada te fo of a teeso daa depctg a
Jes od doato cospacy.[95][96][97] Te goup
as bee accused by Aeca aaysts of egagg
Hoocaust dea.[98][99][100]
I Noebe 2009, Hezboa pessued a pate
Egs-aguage scoo to dop eadg excepts fo
The Diary of Anne Frank, a boo of te tgs fo te
day ept by te Jes cd Ae Fa e se as
dg t e fay dug te Naz occupato of
te Neteads.[101][102] Ts as afte Hezboa s AMaa teeso cae copaed, asg o og
Lebao oud ea a ope aea fo te Zost aso of educato?"[102]
15.3 Organization
15.2.4 Attitudes and actions concerning

Jews and Judaism
At te begg ay Hezboa eades ae ataed tat te oeet as ot a ogazato,
Ma atce Ideoogy of Hezboa Atttudes, statefo ts ebes cay o cads ad bea o spec c
ets, ad actos coceg Jes ad Judas
esposbtes, [103] ad tat te oeet does ot
ae a ceay de ed ogazatoa stuctue. [104]
Hezboa o cas say tat te goup dstguses be- Noadays, as Hezboa scoa Magus Rastop etee Judas ad Zos. Hoee, aous at- pots, Hezboa does deed ae a foa goeSetc stateets ae bee attbuted to te.[89] g stuctue, ad eepg t te pcpe of
Aa Saad-Goayeb, a Lebaese potca aayst, a- Guadasp of te Isac Justs (velayat-e faqih), t
gues tat atoug Zos as ueced Hezboa s cocetate[s] ... a autoty ad poes ts eat-Judas, t s ot cotget upo t because gous eades, ose decsos te o fo te uaa
Hezboa s ated of Jes s oe egousy otated do te ete couty.
ta potcay otated.[90] Robet S. Wstc, a stoa specazg te study of at-Sets, descbed
Te supee decso-ag bodes of
Hezboa s deoogy coceg Jes
te Hezboa ee dded betee te Mas
Te at-Sets of Hezboa eades
ad spoese cobes te age of seegy cbe Jes poe ... ad cug
t te cotept oay eseed fo ea
a-Sua (Cosutate Asseby) c as

eaded by 12 seo ceca ebes t esposbty fo tactca decsos ad supeso of oea Hzbaa actty tougout Lebao, ad te Mas a-Sua a-Kaa
120

I 2010, Ia s paaetay speae A Laa sad,
Ia taes pde Lebao s Isac esstace oeet fo ts steadfast Isac stace. Hezboa utues te oga deas of Isac Jad. He aso stead
caged te West t ag accused Ia t suppot
of teos ad sad, Te ea teosts ae tose o
pode te Zost ege t tay eupet to
bob te peope. [109]
15.3.1 Funding
Ma atce Fudg of Hezboa
See aso Opeato Soescee
Organizational chart of Hezbollah, by Ahmad Nizar Hamzeh.
(te Decdg Asseby), eaded by Se

Muaad Husse Fadaa ad coposed
of eee ote cecs t esposbty fo
a stategc attes. Wt te Mas aSua, tee exsted see specazed cottees deag t deoogca, aca, tay ad potca, udca, foatoa ad
soca a as. I tu, te Mas a-Sua ad
tese see cottees ee epcated eac
of Hzbaa s tee a opeatoa aeas (te
Beaa, Beut, ad te Sout).[105]
Sce te Supee Leade of Ia s te utate ceca
autoty, Hezboa s eades ae appeaed to fo
gudace ad dectes cases e Hezboa s coecte eadesp [as] too dded oe ssues ad fa[ed]
to eac a cosesus. [105] Afte te deat of Ia s st
Supee Leade, Koe, Hezboa s goeg bodes deeoped a oe depedet oe ad appeaed to
Ia ess ofte.[105] Sce te Secod Lebao Wa, oee, Ia as estuctued Hezboa to t te poe
of Hassa Nasaa, ad ested bos of doas eabtatg Hezboa.[106][107]
Hezboa says tat te a souce of ts coe coes

fo doatos by Muss.[110] Hezboa ecees substata aouts of aca, tag, eapos, exposes, potca, dpoatc, ad ogazatoa ad fo
Ia ad Sya.[56][71][111] Accodg to epots eeased
Febuay 2010, Hezboa eceed 400 o fo
Ia.[111][112][113][114] Te US estates tat Ia as bee
gg Hezboa about US60 100 o pe yea
aca assstace.[115] Ote estates ae as g as
200-o auay.[110]
Hezboa as eed aso o fudg fo te S'te
Lebaese Daspoa West Afca, te Uted States
ad, ost potaty, te Tpe Fote, o tbode aea, aog te ucto of Paaguay, Ageta, ad Baz.[116] U.S. a efoceet o cas
ae det ed a ega uto-doa cgaettesuggg fud asg opeato[117] ad a dug suggg opeato.[118][119][120] Hoee, Nasaa as epeatedy deed ay s betee te Sout Aeca dug tade ad Hezboa, cag suc accusatos
popagada ad attepts " to daage te age of
Hezboa .[121][122]
Mebes of te Veezuea goeet ae bee accused of podg aca ad to Hezboa by te

Uted States Depatet of te Teasuy.[123] Accodg to te testoy of a foe Assstat Secetay of
State fo Weste Hespee A as, Roge Noega,
Hugo Cez's goeet gae dspesabe suppot
to Ia ad Hezboa te Weste Hespee.[124] I
a atce by te coseate t ta Aeca Etepse Isttute, Noega expaed o to tesses aeged tat Gaz Atef Nasseedde, a Veezuea dpoat Sya, as a opeate of Hezboa o used
Stuctuay, Hezboa does ot dstgus betee ts Veezuea ettes to aude oey fo Hezboa t
potca/soca acttes t Lebao ad ts - Pesdet Ncoas Maduo's pesoa appoa.[125]
tay/jihad acttes agast Isae. Hezboa as a sge eadesp, accodg to Na Qasse, Hezboa s
secod coad. A potca, soca ad ad
o s ted to te decsos of ts eadesp ... Te 15.4 Social services
sae eadesp tat dects te paaetay ad goeet o aso eads ad actos te stugge Ma atce Hezboa soca seces
agast Isae. [108]
121
15.5. POLITICAL ACTIVITIES

Hezboa ogazes a extese soca deeopet poga ad us osptas, es seces, educatoa factes, ad ecouageet of Na ut a.[112][126] Oe of
ts estabsed sttutos, Jad A Ba s Recostucto Capag, s esposbe fo ueous ecooc
ad fastuctue deeopet poects Lebao.[127]
Hezboa as set up a Maty s Isttute (A-Sad Soca Assocato), c guaatees to pode g ad
educato expeses fo te faes of gtes o de
batte.[114] A IRIN es epot of te UN O ce fo
te Coodato of Huataa A as oted
Hezboa ot oy as aed ad potca gs t aso boasts a extese soca deeopet poga. Hezboa cuety opeates at east fou osptas, tee ccs,
tee scoos ad to agcutua cetes tat
pode faes t tecca assstace ad
tag. It aso as a eoeta depatet ad a extese soca assstace poga. Medca cae s aso ceape ta
ost of te couty s pate osptas ad fee
fo Hezboa ebes. [112]
Lebanon s majority Shi'a areas as of July 2006, where Hezbollah

is most prominent.
Accodg to CNN, Hezboa dd eeytg tat a goeet soud do, fo coectg te gabage to ug osptas ad epag scoos. [128] I Juy 2006,
dug te a t Isae, e tee as o ug
ate Beut, Hezboa as aagg suppes aoud
te cty. Lebaese Stes see Hezboa as a potca
oeet ad a soca sece pode as uc as t s
a ta. [128] Hezboa aso eads ts guea ebes o ae bee ouded batte by tag te to
Hezboa-u auseet pas.[129]
15.5
Political activities
December 10, 2006 anti-government rally in Beirut
Ma atce Hezboa potca acttes

Hezboa aogsde t Aa s oe of to ao
potca pates Lebao tat epeset te Ste
Muss.[130] Ue Aa, ose suppot s pedoaty te Sout of te couty, Hezboa atas
boad based suppot a tee aeas of Lebao t a
aoty Sa Mus popuato te Sout, Beut
ad ts suoudg aea, ad te ote Beaa aey ad H ego.[131] It ods 14 of te 128 seats
te Paaet of Lebao ad s a ebe of te
Resstace ad Deeopet Boc. Accodg to Dae
L. Bya, t s te ost poefu sge potca oeet Lebao. [132] Hezboa, aog t te Aa
Moeet, epesets ost of Lebaese S'a. Hoee, ue Aa, Hezboa as ot dsaed. Hezboa patcpates te Paaet of Lebao.
staucy opposed to te Mac 14 Aace.[133] O

Decebe 1, 2006, tese goups bega te 2006 2008
Lebaese potca potests, a sees of potests ad st-s
opposto to te goeet of Pe Mste Fouad
Soa.[43]
O May 7, 2008, Lebao's 17-ot og potca css

spaed out of coto. Te gtg as spaed by a goeet oe to sut do Hezboa s teecoucato eto ad eoe Beut Apot's secuty cef
oe aeged tes to Hezboa. Hezboa eade Hassa
Nasaa sad te goeet s decso to decae te
goup s tay teecoucatos eto ega as
a decaato of a o te ogazato, ad deaded
tat te goeet eoe t.[134] Hezboa-ed opposHezboa as bee oe of te a pates of Mac to gtes sezed coto of seea West Beut eg8 Aace sce Mac 2005. Atoug Hezboa booods fo Futue Moeet tae oya to te
ad oed te e goeet 2005, t eaed baced goeet, steet battes tat eft 11 dead
122
ad 30 ouded. Te opposto-sezed aeas ee te
aded oe to te Lebaese Ay.[44] Te ay aso
pedged to esoe te dspute ad as eesed te decsos of te goeet by ettg Hezboa pesee
ts teecos eto ad e-statg te apot s secuty
cef.[135] At te ed, a Lebaese eades eaced cosesus oe Doa Ageeet o May 21, 2008, to ed te
18-ot potca feud tat expoded to gtg ad
eay doe te couty to a e c a.[136] O te bass of ts ageeet, Hezboa ad ts opposto aes
ee e ectey gated eto poe Lebao s paaet. At te ed of te co cts, Natoa uty goeet as foed by Fouad Soa o Juy 11, 2008 ad
Hezboa as oe ste ad cotos eee of tty
seats te cabet.[14]

te to peces ad de te out of Lebao, te Goa
ad Paeste, c I oe ey deay. [153]
15.6 Military activities

Ma atce Hezboa tay acttes
Hezboa as a tay bac o as te Jad

Couc,[15] oe copoet of c s Al-Muqawama
al-Islamiyya ( Te Isac Resstace ), ad s te possbe sposo of a ube of esse-o tat goups,
soe of c ay be tte oe ta fots fo Hezboa tsef, cudg te Ogazato of te Oppessed,
Hezboa cuety sts te opposto Mac 8 a- te Reoutoay Justce Ogazato, te Ogazato
ace. Hoee, tey tde fo te goeet ct- of Rgt Agast Wog, ad Fooes of te Popet
g abty to dscuss ssues oe te Speca Tbua fo Muaad.[71]
Lebao.
Uted Natos Secuty Couc Resouto 1559 caed
fo te dsaaet of ta[154] t te Taf ageeet at te ed of te Lebaese c a. Hezbo15.5.1 Media operations
a deouced, ad potested agast, te esouto.[155]
Te 2006 tay co ct t Isae as ceased
Hezboa opeates a satete teeso stato, Ate cotoesy. Faue to dsa eas a oato
Maa TV ( te Lgtouse ), ad a ado stato,
of te esouto ad ageeet as e as subseuet
a-Nou ( te Lgt ).[137] A-Maa boadcasts fo
Uted Natos Secuty Couc Resouto 1701.[156]
Beut, Lebao.[137] Hezboa auced te stato
Sce te bot Isae ad Hezboa ae asseted tat
1991[138] t te ep of Iaa fuds.[139] Ate ogazato as gaed tay stegt.[39] A
Maa, te sef-pocaed Stato of te Resstace,
Lebaese pubc opo po tae August 2006 sos
(qanat al-muqawama) s a ey paye at Hezbotat ost of te Sa dd ot beee tat Hezboa
a cas ts "psycoogca afae agast te Zost esoud
dsa afte te 2006 Lebao a, e te
ey"[139][140] ad a tega pat of Hezboa s pa to
aoty
of Su, Duze ad Cstas beeed tat
spead ts essage to te ete Aab od.[139] I addtey soud.[157] Te Lebaese cabet, ude pesdet
to, Hezboa as a eey pubcato, Al Ahd, c
Mce Suea ad Pe Mste Fouad Soa,
as estabsed 1984.[141] It s te oy eda outet
gudees state tat Hezboa eoys te gt to bec s opey a ated t te ogazato.[141]
ate occuped ads. [158] I 2009, a Hezboa coaHezboa s teeso stato A-Maa as poga- de (speag o codto of aoyty) sad, "[W]e
g desged to spe sucde attacs Gaza, te West ae fa oe ocets ad sses [o] ta e dd
Ba, ad Ia.[56][138][142] A-Maa s tassso 2006. [159]
Face s pobted due to pooto of Hoocaust dea, a ca o ese Face.[143][144][145] Te Uted
States sts A-Maa teeso eto as a teost 15.6.1 Lebanese Resistance Brigades
ogazato.[146]
A-Maa as desgated as a "Specay Desgated
Goba Teost etty, ad baed by te Uted States
Decebe 2004.[147] It as aso bee baed by
Face, Spa ad Geay.[148][149][150]
Mateas aed at stg pcpes of atoas
ad Isa cde ae a aspect of Hezboa s eda opeatos.[151] Te Hezboa Ceta Iteet Bueau eeased a deo gae 2003 etted Special Force
ad a seue 2007 c payes ae eaded t
pots ad eapos fo g Isaes.[152] I 2012, AMaa aed a teeso speca pasg a 8-yea-od
boy o ased oey fo Hezboa ad sad We
I go up, I be a coust esstace ao t
Hezboa, gtg te Uted States ad Isae, I tea
Te Lebanese Resistance Brigades (Aabc Saraya

al-Lubnaniyya al-Moukawama), aso o as te
Lebanese Brigades to Resist the Israeli Occupation,
ee foed by Hezboa 1997 as a utfat (Csta, Duze, Su ad Sa) outee foce to cobat
te Isae occupato of Soute Lebao. Wt te Isae tdaa fo Lebao 2000, te ogazato
as dsbaded.[161]
I 2009, te Resstace Bgades ee eactated,

ay copsg Su suppotes fo te soute
cty of Sdo. Its stegt as educed ate 2013 fo
500 to 200 250 due to esdets copats about soe
gtes of te goup exacebatg tesos t te oca
couty.[162]
15.6. MILITARY ACTIVITIES
15.6.2 Alleged suicide and terror attacks
123
Te 1994 AC Fgt 901 attac, g 21,
Paaa.[172] Hezboa caed esposbty.[171]
Te 1994 Lodo Isae Ebassy attac, ug
29, te Uted Kgdo.[173]
Te 1996 Koba Toes bobg, g 19 US
secee.[174]
Podg dect assstace to a Qaeda, cudg
tag ad exposes, ocestatg te 1998
Uted States ebassy bobgs.[175]
I 2002, Sgapoe accused Hezboa of ecutg
Sgapoeas a faed 1990s pot to attac U.S.
ad Isae sps te Sgapoe Stats.[176]
Te Jauay 15, 2008, bobg of a U.S. Ebassy
ece Beut.[177]
A smoke cloud rises from the bombed American barracks at

Beirut International Airport, where over 200 U.S. marines were
killed
Betee 1982 ad 1986, tee ee 36 sucde attacs

Lebao dected agast Aeca, Fec ad Isaes
foces by 41 dduas, g 659.[52] Hezboa dees
oeet tese attacs, toug t as bee accused
of soe o a of tese attacs[163][164][165]
I 2009, a Hezboa pot Egypt as ucoeed,

ee Egypta autotes aested 49 e fo pag attacs agast Isae ad Egypta tagets
te Sa Pesua.[178][179]
Te 2012 Bugas bus bobg, g 6,
Bugaa.[180]
Tag Sa sugets agast US toops dug
te Ia Wa.[181]
Te 1982 1983 Tye eaduates bobgs

Te Ap 1983 U.S. Ebassy bobg (by te 15.6.3 Con ict with Israel
Isac Jad Ogazato),[166]
South Lebanon con ict
Te 1983 Beut baacs bobg (by te Isac
Jad Ogazato), tat ed 241 U.S. aes, Ma atce Sout Lebao co ct (1982 2000)
58 Fec paatoopes ad 6 cas at te US ad
Fec baacs Beut[167]
Hezboa as bee oed seea cases of aed
Te 1983 Kuat bobgs coaboato t te co ct t Isae
Ia Daa Paty.[168]
Dug te 1982 2000 Sout Lebao co ct,
Te 1984 Uted States ebassy aex bobg,
Hezboa aged a guea capag agast Isae
g 24.[169]
foces occupyg Soute Lebao. I 1982, te
Paeste Lbeato Ogazato (PLO) as based
A spate of attacs o IDF toops ad SLA ta Soute Lebao ad as g Katyusa oce soute Lebao.[52]
ets to ote Isae fo Lebao. Isae Hacg of TWA Fgt 847 1985,[167]
aded Lebao to ect te PLO, ad Hezboa be[170]
cae a aed ogazato to expe te Isaes.[56]
Te Lebao ostage css fo 1982 to 1992.
Hezboa s stegt as eaced by te dspatcg of oe tousad to to tousad ebes
Sce 1990, teo acts ad attepts of c Hezboa
of te Iaa Reoutoay Guads ad te as bee baed cude te foog bobgs ad ataca bacg of Ia.[182][183][184] Iaa cetacs agast cas ad dpoats
cs, ost otaby Fzoa Maaat supesed ts
actty.[185] It becae te a potco-tay
Te 1992 Isae Ebassy attac Bueos Aes,
foce aog te Sa couty Lebao ad
g 29, Ageta.[167] Hezboa opeates
te a a of at becae o ate as te
[171]
boasted of oeet.
Isac Resstace Lebao. Wt te coapse
Te 1994 AMIA bobg of a Jes cutua ceof te SLA, ad te apd adace of Hezboa
te, g 85, Ageta.[167] Hezboa caed
foces, Isae tde o May 24, 2000 sx ees
esposbty.[171]
befoe te aouced Juy 7 date. [54] Hezboa
124

ed a ctoy paade, ad ts popuaty Lebao 2006 Lebanon War
ose.[186] Isae tde accodace t 1978 s
Uted Natos Secuty Couc Resouto 425.[85] Ma atce 2006 Lebao Wa
Hezboa ad ay aaysts cosdeed ts a c- Te 2006 Lebao Wa as a 34-day tay co ct
toy fo te oeet, ad sce te ts popuaty
as bee boosted Lebao.[186]
O Juy 25, 1993, foog Hezboa s g

of see Isae sodes soute Lebao, Isae auced Opeato Accoutabty (o
Lebao as te See Day Wa), dug c te
IDF caed out te eaest atey ad a attacs o tagets soute Lebao sce 1982.
Te a of te opeato as to eadcate te teat
posed by Hezboa ad to foce te ca popuato ot to Beut so as to put pessue o
te Lebaese Goeet to esta Hezboa.[187]
Te gtg eded e a utte udestadg as ageed to by te ag pates. Appaety, te 1993 udestadg poded tat Hezboa cobatats oud ot e ocets at ote Isae, e Isae oud ot attac cas o ca tagets Lebao.[188]
I Ap 1996, afte cotued Hezboa ocet attacs o Isae cas,[189] te Isae aed foces
auced Opeato Gapes of Wat, c as
teded to pe out Hezboa s base soute
Lebao. Oe 100 Lebaese efugees ee ed
by te seg of a UN base at Qaa, at te Isae tay sad as a stae.[190] Fay, foog seea days of egotatos, te to sdes sged
te Gapes of Wat Udestadgs o Ap 26,
1996. A cease- e as ageed upo betee Isae
ad Hezboa, c oud be e ecte o Ap
27, 1996.[191] Bot sdes ageed tat cas soud
ot be tageted, c eat tat Hezboa oud
be aoed to cotue ts tay acttes agast
IDF foces sde Lebao.[191]
2000 Hezbollah cross-border raid

Ma atce 2000 Hezboa coss-bode ad
O Octobe 7, 2000, tee Isae sodes Ad Ata, Sta Sgt. Beya Aaa, ad Sta Sgt. Oa
Saadee ee abducted by Hezboa e patog te Isae sde of te Isae-Lebaese bode.[192]
Te sodes ee ed ete dug te attac o ts
edate afteat.[193] Isae Defese Mste Sau
Mofaz as, oee, sad tat Hezboa abducted te
sodes ad te ed te.[194] Te bodes of te
sa sodes ee excaged fo Lebaese psoes
2004.[195]
Hezbollah posters in the aftermath of the 2006 Lebanon War
Lebao ad ote Isae. Te pcpa pates

ee Hezboa paatay foces ad te Isae tay. Te co ct as pecptated by a coss-bode ad
by Hezboa dug c tey dapped ad ed Isae sodes. Te co ct bega o Juy 12, 2006 e
Hezboa tats ed ocets at Isae bode tos
as a deso fo a at-ta sse attac o to aoed Huees patog te Isae sde of te bode
fece, g tee, ug to, ad sezg to Isae
sodes.[196]
Isae espoded t astes ad atey e o
tagets Lebao tat daaged Lebaese fastuctue, cudg Beut s Ra c Ha Iteatoa Apot
(c Isae sad tat Hezboa used to pot eapos
ad suppes),[197] a a ad aa bocade,[198] ad a
goud aso of soute Lebao. Hezboa te
auced oe ocets to ote Isae ad egaged
te Isae Defese Foces (IDF) guea afae fo
adeed postos.[199] Te a cotued ut August
14, 2006. Hezboa as esposbe fo tousads of
Katyusa ocet attacs agast Isae ca tos ad
ctes ote Isae,[200] c Hezboa sad ee
etaato fo Isae s g of cas ad tagetg Lebaese fastuctue.[201] Te co ct s beeed
125
15.6. MILITARY ACTIVITIES
to ae ed 1,191 1,300 Lebaese ctzes cudg Bugaa, te Bugaa goeet o cay accused te
cobatats[202][203][204][205][206][207] ad 165 Isaes - Lebaese-tat oeet Hezboa of cottg
cudg sodes.[208]
te attac.[213] Fe Isae ctzes, te Bugaa bus
de, ad te bobe ee ed. Te bob expoded
as te Isae tousts boaded a bus fo te apot to
2010 gas eld claims
te ote.
I 2010, Hezboa caed tat te Dat ad Taa gas
ed, dscoeed by Nobe Eegy ougy 50 es (80
) est of Hafa Isae excuse ecooc zoe,
beog to Lebao, ad aed Isae agast extactg
gas fo te. Seo o cas fo Hezboa aed
tat tey oud ot estate to use eapos to defed
Lebao s atua esouces. Fgues te Mac 14
Foces stated espose tat Hezbua as pesetg
aote excuse to od o to ts as. Lebaese MP
Atoe Zaa sad tat te ssue s aote te te
edess st of excuses eat to ustfy te cotued exstece of Hezbua s asea.[209]
2011 attack in Istanbul
I Juy 2011, Itaa espape Corierre della Sera epoted, based o Aeca ad Tus souces,[210] tat
Hezboa as bed a bobg Istabu May 2011
tat ouded egt Tus cas. Te epot sad
tat te attac as a assassato attept o te Isae cosu to Tuey, Mose Kc. Tus tegece souces deed te epot ad sad Isae s te
abt of ceatg dsfoato capags usg d eet papes. [210]
Tseta Tsetao, Bugaa s teo ste, epoted

tat te to suspects esposbe ee ebes of te
tat g of Hezboa e sad te suspected teosts eteed Bugaa o Jue 28 ad eaed ut Juy
18. Isae ad aeady peousy suspected Hezboa fo
te attac. Isae Pe Mste Bea Netayau
caed te epot fute cooboato of at e ae
aeady o, tat Hezboa ad ts Iaa patos ae
ocestatg a odde capag of teo tat s spag coutes ad cotets. [214] Netayau sad tat
te attac Bugaa as ust oe of ay tat Hezboa
ad Ia ae paed ad caed out, cudg attacs
Taad, Keya, Tuey, Ida, Azebaa, Cypus
ad Geoga.[213]
Jo Bea, Decto of te Ceta Itegece
Agecy, as sad tat Bugaa s estgato exposes
Hezboa fo at t s a teost goup tat s g to
ecessy attac ocet e, oe ad cde, ad
tat poses a ea ad gog teat ot oy to Euope,
but to te est of te od. [215] Te esut of te Bugaa estgato coes at a te e Isae as bee
pettog te Euopea Uo to o te Uted States
desgatg Hezboa as a teost ogazato.[215]
2012 planned attack in Cyprus
15.6.4 Assassination of Ra c Hariri
Ma atce 2012 Cypus teost pot
Ma atce Assassato of Ra c Ha
I Juy 2012, a Lebaese a as detaed by Cypus

poce o possbe cages eatg to teos as
fo pag attacs agast Isae tousts. Accodg
to secuty o cas, te a as pag attacs fo
Hezboa Cypus ad adtted ts afte uestog. Te poce ee aeted about te a due to a
uget essage fo Isae tegece. Te Lebaese
a as possesso of potogaps of Isae tagets
ad ad foato o Isae aes yg bac ad
fot fo Cypus, ad paed to bo up a pae o
tou bus.[211] Isae Pe Mste Bea Netayau
stated tat Ia asssted te Lebaese a t pag
te attacs.[212]
O Febuay 14, 2005, foe Lebaese Pe Mste Ra c Ha as ed, aog t 21 otes, e

s otocade as stuc by a oadsde bob Beut.
He ad bee PM dug 1992 1998 ad 2000 2004. I
2009, te Uted Natos speca tbua estgatg
te ude of Ha epotedy foud edece g
Hezboa to te ude.[216]
I August 2010, espose to ot cato tat te UN

tbua oud dct soe Hezboa ebes, Hassa
Nasaa sad Isae as oog fo a ay to assassate
Ha as eay as 1993 ode to ceate potca caos
tat oud foce Sya to tda fo Lebao, ad to
pepetuate a at-Sya atospee [ Lebao] te
ae of te assassato. He et o to say tat 1996
Hezboa appeeded a aget og fo Isae by te
2012 Burgas attack
ae of Aed Nasaa o eato to Hassa Nasaa o aegedy cotacted Ha s secuty deta ad
Ma atce 2012 Bugas bus bobg
tod te tat e ad sod poof tat Hezboa as pag to tae s fe. Ha te cotacted Hezboa ad
Foog a estgato to te 2012 Bugas bus adsed te of te stuato.[217] Saad Ha espoded
bobg teost attac agast Isae ctzes tat te UN soud estgate tese cas.[218]
126
O Jue 30, 2011, te Speca Tbua fo Lebao, estabsed to estgate te deat of Ha, ssued aest
aats agast fou seo ebes of Hezboa, cudg Mustafa Bad A D.[219] O Juy 3, Hassa Nasaa eected te dctet ad deouced te tbua
as a pot agast te paty, og tat te aed pesos
oud ot be aested ude ay ccustaces.[220]
15.6.5 Involvement in the Syrian Civil War

Fute foato
Lebao
Sya C Wa spoe
Hezboa as og bee a ay of te Ba'at goeet of Sya, ed by te A-Assad fay. Hezboa as

eped te Sya goeet dug te Sya c a
ts gt agast te Sya opposto, c Hezboa as descbed as a zost pot to destoy ts aace
t a-Assad agast Isae.[47] Geee Abdo oped
tat Hezboa s suppot fo a-Assad te Sya a
as tasfoed t fo a goup t suppot aog
te Su fo defeatg Isae a batte 2006 to a
stcty Sa paatay foce .[221]
I August 2012, te Uted States sactoed Hezboa
fo ts aeged oe te a.[222] Geea Secetay Nasaa deed Hezboa ad bee gtg o beaf of
te Sya goeet, statg a Octobe 12, 2012,
speec tat gt fo te stat te Sya opposto as
bee teg te eda tat Hzbua set 3,000 gtes
to Sya, c e ae deed .[223] Hoee, accodg
to te Lebaese Daily Star espape, Nasaa sad
te sae speec tat Hezboa gtes eped te Sya
goeet eta coto of soe 23 stategcay ocated ages [ Sya] abted by Stes of Lebaese
ctzesp . Nasaa sad tat Hezboa gtes ae
ded Sya dog te adst dutes .[224]
I 2012, Hezboa gtes cossed te bode fo
Lebao ad too oe egt ages te A-Qusay
Dstct of Sya.[225] O Febuay 16 17, 2013, Sya opposto goups caed tat Hezboa, baced by
te Sya tay, attaced tee egbog Su ages cotoed by te Fee Sya Ay (FSA). A FSA
spoesa sad, Hezboa s aso s te st of ts
d tes of ogasato, pag ad coodato
t te Sya ege s a foce . Hezboa sad tee
Lebaese Stes, actg sef-defese , ee ed
te cases t te FSA.[225][226] Lebaese secuty
souces sad tat te tee ee Hezboa ebes.[227]
I espose, te FSA aegedy attaced to Hezboa postos o Febuay 21 oe Sya ad oe
Lebao. Fe days ate, t sad t destoyed a cooy cayg Hezboa gtes ad Sya o ces to Lebao,
g a te passeges.[228]
ca eapos as aso daaged. A sa attac o

eapos dested fo Hezboa occued May of te
sae yea.
Te eades of te Mac 14 aace ad ote poet Lebaese gues caed o Hezboa to ed ts oeet Sya ad sad t s puttg Lebao at
s.[229] Sub a-Tufay, Hezboa s foe eade, sad
Hezboa soud ot be defedg te ca ege
tat s ts o peope ad tat as ee ed a sot
defese of te Paestas . He sad tose Hezboa gtes o ae g cde ad teozg peope ad destoyg ouses Sya go to e .[230]
Te Cosutate Gateg, a goup of Sa ad Su
eades Baabe-Hee, aso caed o Hezboa ot
to tefee Sya. Tey sad, Opeg a fot
agast te Sya peope ad daggg Lebao to a
t te Sya peope s ey dageous ad ae
a egate pact o te eatos betee te to .[227]
Wad Jubatt, eade of te Pogesse Socast Paty,
aso caed o Hezboa to ed ts oeet[229] ad
caed tat Hezboa s gtg sde Sya t odes fo Ia .[231] Egypta Pesdet Moaed Mos
codeed Hezboa by sayg, We stad agast
Hezboa ts aggesso agast te Sya peope.
Tee s o space o pace fo Hezboa Sya .[232]
Accodg to at east oe souce, Sya goeet suppot fo Hezboa as bee eaeed dug te Sya
c a.[233][234] Suppot fo Hezboa aog te Sya pubc as eaeed sce te oeet of Hezboa ad Ia poppg up te Assad ege dug te
c a.[235]
Accodg to te U.S., te Assad oyast ta o
as a-Jays a-Sa'b as ceated ad s ataed by
Hezboa ad Ia s Isac Reoutoay Guad CopsQods Foce, bot of o pode t t oey,
eapos, tag ad adce.[236]
O May 12, 2013, Hezboa t te Sya ay attepted to etae pat of Qusay.[237] I Lebao, tee
as bee a ecet cease te fueas of Hezboa gtes ad Sya ebes ae seed Hezboacotoed aeas. [237]
O May 25, 2013, Nasaa aouced tat Hezboa s
gtg te Sya C Wa agast Isac extests
ad pedged tat s goup ot ao Sya tats
to coto aeas tat bode Lebao .[238] He co ed
tat Hezboa as gtg te stategc Sya to of
A-Qusay o te sae sde as Assad's foces.[238] I te
teesed addess, e sad, If Sya fas te ads of
Aeca, Isae ad te ta s, te peope of ou ego
go to a da peod. [238]
O May 26, 2013, to ocets t a Hezboa aea of

Beut ug e peope st aote to ocets
caused popety daage to budgs te a-Hee
I Jauay 2013, a eapos cooy cayg SA-17 at- dstct of Beut. Sya ebes ae bee baed fo
acaft sses to Hezboa as destoyed aegedy by te attac as tey ad posed to attac Hezboa tate Isae A Foce. A eaby eseac cete fo ce- gets Lebao etaato fo te epg te Sya
127
15.7. ARMED STRENGTH

ay patcuay te bode to of A-Qusay. Sya ebes ae aso seed a-Hee peousy.[239][240]
It as epoted tat Hezboa s possesso of Scud

sses tat ee poded to te by Sya.[253] Te e[254]
O May 28, 2013, Fee Sya Ay Geea Sa Ids pots ee deed by Sya.
gae Hezboa 24 ous to tda fo Sya o Accodg to aous epots, Hezboa s aed t
e ay ode FSA uts to attac Hezboa tagets at-ta guded sses, aey, te Russa-ade ATLebao.[241][242]
3 Sagge, AT-4 Spgot, AT-5 Spade, AT-13 Saxo2 'Mets-M',
14 Spgga 'Koet' Iaa-ade
I eay Jue, Hezboa as o cotted gtes
Ra'ad
(eso
of
AT-3 Sagge), Tosa (eso of ATto te batte Aeppo, soe 2,000, epotedy puttg
Toopa
(eso of BGM-71 TOW) ad
5
Spade),
sta o te ogasato. Ts as esuted Hezboa
Euopea-ade
MILAN
sses. Tese eapos ae
toducg a cage to ts otato pocy fo ts gtes
bee
used
agast
IDF
sodes,
causg ay of te
fo 7 days gtg fooed by 7 days eae, Hezboa
[255]
2006
Lebao
Wa.
A sa udeats
dug
te
as ceased t to 20 days gtg ad fooed by 7 days
M47 Dago)
be
of
Saege-2s
(Iaa-ade
eso
of
[243]
eae fo ts gtes.
ee aso used te a.[256]
Fo a defese, Hezboa as at-acaft eapos
15.6.6 Involvement in Iranian-led inter- tat cude te ZU-23 atey ad te a-potabe,

vention in Iraq
soude- ed SA-7 ad SA-18 suface-to-a sse
(SAM).[257] Oe of te ost e ecte eapos depoyed

Begg Juy 2014, Hezboa set a udscosed by Hezboa as bee te C-802 at-sp sse.[258]
ube of tecca adses ad tegece aaysts
I Ap 2010, U.S. Secetay of Defese Robet Gates
to Bagdad suppot of te Iaa-ed teeto
caed tat te Hezboa as fa oe sses ad
Ia. Soty teeafte, Hezboa coade Iba
ocets ta te aoty of coutes, ad sad tat Sya
[244]
a-Ha as epoted ed acto ea Mosu.
ad Ia ae podg eapos to te ogazato. Isae aso cas tat Sya s podg te ogazato
t tese eapos. Sya as deed suppyg tese
15.6.7 Other
eapos ad es tese cas as a Isae excuse fo
[259]
Leaed cabes fo Aeca dpoats
I 2010, Abas ad Hezboa ebes ee oed a attac.
suggest
tat
te
Uted States as bee tyg usuccess a steet batte c as peceed to be oe pag
fuy
to
peet
Sya fo suppyg as to Hezbossues, bot goups ate et to fo a ot copesato
a
Lebao
,
ad tat Hezboa as aassed a uge
fud fo te cts of te co ct.[245] Hezboa as
stocpe
(of
as)
sce ts 2006 a t Isae" te
accused of tatg Sout Aeca ad ag tes t
as
ee
descbed
as ceasgy sopstcated. [260]
Lat Aeca dug cates.[246]
Gates added tat Hezboa s possby aed t ceca o boogca eapos, as e as 65-e (105 )
at-sp sses tat coud teate U.S. sps.[261]
15.7
Armed strength
Hezboa does ot eea ts aed stegt. Mustafa

Aa, secuty decto at te Duba-based Guf Reseac
Cete, estated tat Hezboa s aed g copses
1,000 fu-te Hezboa ebes, aog t a fute 6,000 10,000 outees.[247] Accodg to te Iaa Fas Nes Agecy, Hezboa as up to 65,000
gtes.[248] It s ofte descbed as oe tay poefu ta te Lebaese Ay.[249][250][251] Isae coade Gu Zu caed Hzboa by fa te geatest
guea goup te od .[252]
Hezboa possesses te Katyusa-122 ocet, c as
a age of 29 (18 ) ad caes a 15-g (33-b)
aead. Hezboa aso possesses about 100 og-age
sses. Tey cude te Iaa-ade Fa-3 ad Fa5, te atte t a age of 75 (47 ), eabg t
to ste te Isae pot of Hafa, ad te Zeza-1, t
a estated 150 (93 ) age, c ca eac Te
A. Fa-3 sses ae a age of 40 (25 ) ad a
45-g (99-b) aead, ad Fa-5 sses, c exted
to 72 (45 ), aso od 45-g (99-b) aeads.[247]
As of 2010, te Isae goeet beeed Hezboa

ad a asea of oe ta 15,000 og-age ocets
statoed o ts bode t Lebao. Soe of tese
sses ee sad to be capabe of peetatg ctes as
fa aay as Eat.[262] Te IDF as accused Hezboa of
stog tese ocets beeat osptas, scoos, ad ca oes.[262] Te Isae Abassado to Uted States
Mcae Oe expessed deep coce t te eeato.
Te Sya-Iaa baced Hzbua poses
a ey seous teat to Isae ... Hzbua today o as fou tes as ay ocets as t
ad dug te 2006 Lebao a. Tese ocets ae oge-age. Eey cty Isae s
t age gt o, cudg Eat.[262]
As of Juy 2012, Hezboa as epoted to ae up to
50,000 sses oe ta tee tes te 13,000 t epotedy ed e t bega aucg ocets at Isae
sx yeas ago, eadg to te Secod Lebao Wa. [263]
128
Hezboa as aso used does agast Isae, by peetat- 15.9 Attacks on Hezbollah leaders
g a defese systes, a epot e ed by Nasaa,
o added, Ts s oy pat of ou capabtes .[264][265] Hezboa as aso bee te taget of bob attacs ad
Isae tay o cas ad aaysts ae aso da at- dappgs. Tese cude
teto to te expeece ad eapoy te goup oud
ae gaed fo te oeet of tousads of ts
I te 1985 Beut ca bobg, Hezboa eade
gtes te Sya C Wa. Ts d of expeMoaad Husse Fadaa as tageted, but te
ece caot be bougt, sad Gab Sbo, decto of te
assassato attept faed.
tay ad stategc a as poga at te Isttute fo
O Juy 28, 1989, Isae coados dNatoa Secuty Studes at Te A Uesty. It s a
apped Se Abdu Ka Obed, te eade
addtoa facto tat e ae to dea t. Tee s
of Hezboa.[275] Ts acto ed to te adopto
o epaceet fo expeece, ad t s ot to be sco ed
[266]
of UN Secuty Couc esouto 638, c
at.
codeed a ostage tags by a sdes.
I 1992, Isae ecoptes attaced a otocade
soute Lebao, g te Hezboa eade
Abbas a-Musa, s fe, so, ad fou otes.[54]
15.8
Targeting policy
Afte te Septebe 11, 2001 attacs, Hezboa codeed A Qaeda fo tagetg te ca Wod Tade
Cete, but eaed set o te attac o Te Petago.[30][267] Hezboa aso deouced te assaces
Agea by Aed Isac Goup, A-Gaa'a aIsayya attacs o tousts Egypt,[268] ad te ude
of Nc Beg.[269]
Atoug Hezboa as deouced ceta attacs o
cas, soe peope accuse te ogazato of te
bobg of a Agete syagogue 1994. Agete
posecuto Abeto Nsa, Maceo Matez Bugos,
ad te sta of soe 45 peope [270] sad tat Hezboa ad te cotacts Ia ee esposbe fo te
1994 bobg of a Jes cutua cete Ageta,
c "[e]gty- e peope ee ed ad oe ta
200 otes ued. [271] I Jue 2002, soty afte te
Isae goeet auced Opeato Defese Sed,
Nasaa gae a speec c e defeded ad pased
sucde bobgs of Isae tagets by ebes of Paesta goups fo ceatg a deteece ad euazg
fea. Nasaa stated tat occuped Paeste, tee
s o d eece betee a sode ad a ca, fo tey
ae a ades, occupes ad usupes of te ad. [30]
O Febuay 12, 2008, Iad Muge as ed

by a ca bob Daascus, Sya.[276]
O Decebe 3, 2013, seo tay coade Hassa a-Las as sot outsde s oe, to
es (tee oetes) soutest of Beut. He
ded a fe ous ate o Decebe 4.[277]
15.10 Foreign relations

Ma atce Hezboa foeg eatos
Hezboa as cose eatos t Ia.[278] It aso as

tes t te eadesp Sya, spec cay t Pesdet Hafez a-Assad (ut s deat 2000) ad s
so ad successo Basa a-Assad.[279] Atoug Hezboa ad Haas ae ot ogazatoay ed, Hezboa podes tay tag as e as aca ad
oa suppot to te Su Paesta goup.[280] Futeoe, Hezboa s a stog suppote of te ogog A-Asa Itfada.[30] Aeca ad Isae couteteos o cas ca tat Hezboa as (o ad) s
to A Qaeda, atoug Hezboa s eades dey tese
aegatos.[281][282][283] Aso, soe a-Qaeda eades, e
Abu Musab a-Zaa[284] ad Waab cecs, cosde
Hezboa to be apostate.[285] But Uted States tegece o cas specuate tat tee as bee cotact beI August 2012, te Uted States State Depatet s tee Hezboa ad o-ee a-Qaeda gues o ed
coute-teos coodato Dae Bea aed Afgasta fo Lebao.[286]
tat Hezboa ay attac Euope at ay te tout ay
ag. Bea sad, Hezboa atas a pesece Euope ad ts ecet acttes deostate tat 15.10.1 Public opinion
t s ot costaed by coces about coatea daage
o potca faout tat coud esut fo coductg op- Accodg to Mce Saaa, Lebao s ste of eatos tee ... We assess tat Hezboa coud attac foato, Hezboa s see as a egtate esstace oEuope o eseee at ay te t tte o o ag gazato tat as defeded ts ad agast a Isae ocad tat Hezboa as stepped up teost capags cupyg foce ad as cosstety stood up to te Isae
ay.[30]
aoud te od. [272][273][274]
129
15.10. FOREIGN RELATIONS

Accodg to a suey eeased by te Beut Cete fo
Reseac ad Ifoato o Juy 26 dug te 2006
Lebao Wa, 87 pecet of Lebaese suppot Hezboa s etaatoy attacs o ote Isae ,[287] a se
of 29 pecetage pots fo a sa po coducted
Febuay. Moe stg, oee, as te ee of
suppot fo Hezboa s esstace fo o-Ste coutes. Egty pecet of Cstas poed suppoted
Hezboa, aog t 80 pecet of Duze ad 89 pecet
of Sus.[288]
I a po of Lebaese aduts tae 2004, 6% of espodets gae uua ed suppot to te stateet Hezboa soud be dsaed . 41% epoted uua ed
dsageeet.[289] A po of Gaza Stp ad West Ba
esdets dcated tat 79.6% ad a ey good e
of Hezboa, ad ost of te eade ad a good
e .[290] Pos of Jodaa aduts Decebe 2005
ad Jue 2006 soed tat 63.9% ad 63.3%, espectey, cosdeed Hezboa to be a egtate esstace
ogazato.[291] I te Decebe 2005 po, oy 6% of
Jodaa aduts cosdeed Hezboa to be teost.[292]
acts ae bee descbed as teost attacs. Tougout ost of te Aab ad Mus ods, Hezboa s
efeed to as a esstace oeet, egaged atoa defese.[12][298][299] Ee t Lebao, Hezboa s status s cotetous.
I May 2013, Face ad Geay eeased stateets
tat t o ote Euopea coutes cag fo a
EU-bacstg of Hezboa as a teo goup.[300]
Coutes ad ogazatos beo ae o cay sted
Hezboa at east soe pat as a teost ogazato.
In the Western World

I 1999, Hezboa as paced o te US State Depatet st of Foeg Teost Ogazatos. Afte
Hezboa s codeato of te Septebe 11, 2001 attacs o te USA, t as eoed fo te st, but t as
ate etued.[308]
O Mac 10, 2005, te Euopea Paaet passed a

o-bdg esouto ecogzg cea edece of
teost acttes by Hezboa [309] ad ugg te EU
Couc to bad Hezboa a teost ogazato ad
EU goeets to pace Hezboa o te teost
bacsts, as te boc dd t te Paesta Haas
goup 2003.[309] Te Couc as euctat to do
so because Face ad Spa feaed tat suc a oe
coud fute daage te pospects fo Mdde East peace
tas.[309] I 2012, Bts Foeg Mste Wa
Hague uged te Euopea Uo to pace Hezboa s
tay g o ts st of teost ogazatos. [310]
Te Uted States aso uged te EU to cassfy Hezboa
as a teost ogazato.[25] I gt of dgs pcatg Hezoa te bus bobg Bugas, Bugaa
2012, tee as eeed dscusso t te Euopea Uo to abe Hezboa s tay g as a teI 2010, a suey of Muss Lebao soed tat
ost goup.[311] O Juy 22, 2013, te Euopea Uo
94% of Lebaese Sa suppoted Hezboa, e 84%
ageed to bacst Hezboa s tay g oe coof te Su Muss ed a ufaoabe opo of te
ces about ts gog oe te Sya co ct.[312]
[294]
goup.
I te dst of te 2006 co ct betee Hezboa ad
Soe pubc opo as stated to tu agast HezboIsae, Russa s goeet deced to cude Hezboa fo te suppot of Sya Pesdet Assad s attacs
a a ey eeased st of teost ogazatos, t
o te opposto oeet Sya.[295] Cods
Yu Sapuo, te ead of at-teos fo te Fedea
Cao souted out agast Ia ad Hezboa, at a pubSecuty Sece of te Russa Fedeato, sayg tat
c speec by Haas Pesdet Isa Haya Febutey st oy ogazatos c epeset te geatest
ay 2012, e Haas caged ts suppot to te Sya
teat to te secuty of ou couty .[313] Po to te eopposto.[296]
ease of te st, Russa Defese Mste Sege Iao
caed o Hezboa to stop esotg to ay teost
[314]
15.10.2 Designation as a terrorist organi- etods, cudg attacg egbog states.
A Juy 2006 USA Today/Gaup po foud tat 83% of
te 1,005 Aecas poed baed Hezboa, at east
pat, fo te 2006 Lebao Wa, copaed to 66%
o baed Isae to soe degee. Addtoay, 76%
dsappoed of te tay acto Hezboa too Isae, copaed to 38% o dsappoed of Isae s tay acto Lebao.[293] A po August 2006 by
ABC Nes ad te Washington Post foud tat 68% of
te 1,002 Aecas poed baed Hezboa, at east
pat, fo te ca casuates Lebao dug te
2006 Lebao Wa, copaed to 31% o baed Isae
to soe degee.[293] Aote August 2006 po by CNN
soed tat 69% of te 1,047 Aecas poed beeed
tat Hezboa s ufedy toads, o a eey of, te
Uted States.[293]
zation or resistance movement
Hezboa s status as a egtate potca paty, a teost goup, a esstace oeet, o soe cobato
teeof s a cotetous ssue.[297] Seea Weste coutes o cay cassfy Hezboa o ts extea secuty
g as a teost ogazato, ad soe of te oet
Te Quatet s fout ebe, te Uted Natos, does

ot ata suc a st,[315] oee, te Uted Natos as ade epeated cas fo Hezboa to dsa ad
accused te goup of destabzg te ego ad causg a to Lebaese cas.[316][317][318][319] Hua
gts ogazatos Aesty Iteatoa ad Hua
Rgts Watc ae accused Hezboa of cottg a
130
ces agast Isae cas.[320][321][322][323]
a teost goup ad accused te of suppotg te

[337][338]
O 10 Ap, 2013, Baa bacAgete posecutos od Hezboa ad te a- potestes.
sted
Hezboa
as
a teost goup, beg te st Aab
ca suppotes Ia esposbe fo te 1994 AMIA
[339]
state
ts
egad.
Bobg of a Jes cutua cete, descbed by te
Assocated Pess as te ost teost attac o A- Dug te 2011 Sya upsg Hezboa s as oced
gete so, c "[e]gty- e peope ee ed suppot fo Sya Pesdet Basa Assad's goeet,
ad oe ta 200 otes ued. [271][324] Dug te c as popted ctcs fo at-goeet SyIsae occupato of soute Lebao, Fec Pe as. As Hezboa suppoted ote oeets te
Mste Loe Josp codeed attacs by Hezbo- cotext of te Aab Spg, at-goeet Syas
a gtes o Isae foces sout Lebao, sayg ae stated tat tey fee betayed by a doube statey ee teos ad ot acts of esstace. Face dad aegedy apped by te oeet. We ducodes Hezboa s attacs, ad a types of teo- g te sue of 2011 te oece Sya escast attacs c ay be caed out agast sodes, o ated fute, Hezboa aoded tag about Sya s
possby Isae s ca popuato. [325] Itaa Foeg upsg.[331] Foog Hezboa s ad Assad ege s
Mste Masso D'Aea d eetated te gs of ctoy Qusa, at-Hezboa edtoas bega eguHezboa Apat fo te e-o teost acay appeag te Aabc eda ad at-Hezboa
ttes, tey aso ae potca stadg ad ae socay ga t as bee see soute Lebao.[340]
egaged. [326] Gea o cas dcate tat tey oud
ey suppot a desgato of Hezboa as a teost
ogazato.[327] Te Neteads egad Hezboa as In Lebanon
teost dscussg t as suc o ca epots of te
geea tegece ad secuty sece[328] ad o - I a tee dug te 2006 Lebao Wa, teca ases by te Mste of Foeg A as.[329] O Pesdet Ee Laoud stated Hezboa eoys utost
Juy 22, 2013, te Euopea Uo decaed te tay pestge Lebao, because t feed ou couty ... ee
[341]
Foogs of Hezboa as a teost ogazato e ectey toug t s ey sa, t stads up to Isae.
[330]
g te 2006 Wa, ote Lebaese cudg ebes of
bacstg te etty.
te goeet ee esetfu of te age daage sustaed by te couty ad sa Hezboa s actos as uust ed dageous adetus ate ta egtate
In the Arab and Muslim world
esstace. Tey accused Hezboa of actg o beaf
[342]
A o ca of te Futue MoeI 2006, Hezboa as egaded as a egtate ess- of Ia ad Sya.
pat
of
te
Mac
14 Aace, aed tat Hezboet,
tace oeet tougout ost of te Aab ad Musa
as
a
te
caactestcs
of a teost paty , ad
[12]
Te dctets fo te Ha g ,
od.
tat
Hezboa
s
og
Lebao
toad te Iaa Iste Assocated Pess epoted August 2011, da[343]
ac
syste
of
goeet.
ages te goup s cossoe appea te Mdeast s sectaa ddes. [331] Futeoe, ost of te Su Aab
od sees Hezboa as a aget of Iaa uece,
ad teefoe, oud e to see te poe Lebao
dsed.[332] Egypt, Joda, ad Saud Aaba ae
codeed Hezboa s actos, sayg tat te Aabs
ad Muss ca't a od to ao a esposbe ad
adetuous ogazato e Hezboa to dag te ego to a ad cag t dageous adetus ,[333]
Afte a aeged 2009 Hezboa pot Egypt, te
Egypta ege of Hos Mubaa o cay cass ed
Hezboa as a teost goup.[334] Foog te 2012
Pesdeta eectos te e goeet ecogzed
Hezboa as a ea potca ad tay foce
Lebao. Te Egypta abassado to Lebao, Asaf
Hady, stated tat Resstace te sese of defedg Lebaese tetoy ... Tat s te pay oe. We
... t tat as a esstace oeet tey ae doe
a good ob to eep o defedg Lebaese tetoy ad
tyg to ega ad occuped by Isae s ega ad
egtate. [335][336]
I August 2008, Lebao s cabet copeted a pocy

stateet c ecogzed te gt of Lebao s peope, ay, ad esstace to beate te Isae-occuped
Sebaa Fas, Kafa Suba Hs, ad te Lebaese secto of Gaa age, ad defed te couty usg a
ega ad possbe eas. [45]
Geba Tue, a ate coseate Otodox Csta edto of a-Naa, efeed to Hezboa as a Iaa pot ad sad tey ae otg to do t Aab czato. Tue beeed tat Hezboa s eouto s cosetc, coceag a sste og-te stategy to Isacze Lebao ad ead t to a uous a t Isae.[30]
Tue as ed a ca bob 2005, but te pottes
ae ot bee det ed.[344]
We Hezboa as suppoted popua upsgs

Egypt, Yee, Baa ad Tusa Hezboa pubcy
sded t Ia ad Sya te o oet epessos
of dsset. I August 2010, 800 peope deostated
Beut agast Sya Pesdet Basa Assad, ad poce ee caed to cota te sae po-Sya aDug te Baa upsg, Baa foeg s- es tat fooed. Deostatos ee soutg, Sya
te Kad b Aad A Kafa abeed Hezboa ats feedo, Ayoe o s s peope s a u-
131
15.12. REFERENCES
dee ad a coad, ad te peope at a ed to te
ege. [345]
Hstoy of Lebao
Scholarly views
Isae-Lebaese co ct
Soe Aeca ad Isae acadecs specazg a

de aety of te soca sceces beee tat Hezboa s a exape of a Isac teost ogazato.
Te Aecas cude, Lebaese-bo teos scoa
Wad Paes ad stoa Ma LeVe.[346][347] Isae
stoas tat ae efeed to Hezboa as a Isac
teost ogazato cude Aaa Sea, Robet S.
Wstc, ad Eya Zsse.[348][349][350] Iaa scoa
Saa Kata, Sgapoea scoa Roa Guaata,
Austaa scoa Neeu Gaba, ad Noega scoa
Toe Bgo ae a efeed to Hezboa usg sa
tes.[281][351][352][353]
15.10.3 Views of foreign legislators

J. Gesa Baett bougt up egsato te U.S.
House of Repesetates c, aog ote tgs, efeed to Hezboa as a teost ogazato. Cogess
ebes To Latos, J Saxto, Tad McCotte,
Cs Says, Caes Boustay, Acee Hastgs, ad
Robet Wexe efeed to Hezboa as a teost ogazato te speeces suppotg te egsato.[354]
Soty befoe a speec by Ia Pe Mste Nou
a-Ma, U.S. Cogessa Des Hastet sad, He
[Ma] deouces teos, ad I ae to tae at
s od. Hezboa s a teost ogazato. [355]
I 2011, a bpatsa goup of ebes of Cogess toduced te Hezboa At-Teos Act. Te act esues tat o Aeca ad to Lebao ete te
ads of Hezboa. O te day of te act s toducto, Cogessa Dae Issa sad, Hezboa s a teost goup ad a cace o Lebao. Te Hezboa At-Teos Act sugcay tagets ts cace ad
stegte te posto of Lebaese o oppose
Hezboa. [356]
I a Sy Nes tee dug te 2006 Lebao a,
foe Bts MP Geoge Gaoay sad tat Hezboa
s ot a teost ogazato .[357]
Foe Sss ebe of paaet, Jea Zege, o
as faced ctcs fo sdg t cous dctatos suc
as Gada , sad 2006 I efuse to descbe Hezboa as a teost goup. It s a atoa oeet of
esstace. [358]
15.11
See also
2008 co ct Lebao
Foeg eatos of Lebao
Hstoy of teos
Jad Costucto
Potcs of Lebao
Hezboa A-Heaz
Meeta useu
15.12 References
[1] Hezboa ate abadoed ts goa of a Iaa-stye
Isac state, ad s o atoast ad Isac
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sty. 2007. Jauay 21, 2011.
[335] Kas, Ro (Decebe 30, 2012). Eoy Egypt to tgte [353] Bgo, Toe. Root Causes of Terrorism. Psycoogy
eatos t Hezboa . Ynetnews. Reteed Ap 25,
Pess. Jauay 21, 2011.
2013.
[354] Cogess. Congressional Record, V. 151, Pt. 4 .... Go[336] Was, Laue (Decebe 29, 2012). Ne Egypt
eet Ptg O ce. Mac 11 to Ap 6, 2005. Jaas up to Hezboa abassado . The Daily Star
uay 23, 2011.
(Lebanon). Reteed Ap 25, 2013.
[337] Spage, Toty (Mac 25, 2011). Baa co- [355] Wesa, Joata (Juy 27, 2006). Ia Pe Mste Pesses fo Moe Ad . Washington Post. Reteed
pas oe Hezboa coets o potests . Jerusalem
Septebe 4, 2013.
Post. Reteed Noebe 22, 2011.
[338] Ka, Gabe (Mac 31, 2011). Baa Hzbua a [356] Reps. Bea, Issa, Boustay, Raa Itoduce Bpatsa Legsato to Mae Ceta No Taxpaye Fuds BeTeost Goup . Arutz Sheva. Reteed Ap 1, 2011.
e t Hezboa . Te Uted States House of Repeseta[339] "'Baa st Aab state to bacst Hezboa'".
tes. Jue 16, 2011. Aced fo te oga o Jue
Jerusalem Post. Ap 10, 2013. Reteed Ap 10, 2013.
20, 2011.
[340] Kas, Ro (Jue 8, 2013). Hezboa s a 'cace,' say
[357] Geoge Gaoay, Aa Bottg. Getting a word in (TV)
Aab eda . Ynetnews. Reteed Jue 9, 2013.
(Nes). Sy Nes. Eet occus at 359 404. Reteed
Jauay 22, 2011. But tey'e ot a teost ogazato.
[341] SPIEGEL Itee t Lebaese Pesdet Ee Laoud 'Hezboa Feed Ou Couty'. Der Spiegel. Juy
[358] Bea Weta (August 14, 2013). Stzead
25, 2006.
oates Hezboa adocate fo UN Hua Rgts
[342] Ita, Faysa (2007). Hzbua ad Lebaese NatoaCouc . Jerusalem Post. Reteed August 14, 2013.
s . Bologna Center Journal of International A airs 10.
[343] Aouc Hezboa ua es as a teost goup. YaLba. May 23, 2011
[344] Hut, Nao (Juy 22, 2011). FEATURE I Lebao,
Mudeed Jouasts Aso Desee Justce . Iteatoa
Pess Isttute. Reteed Septebe 4, 2013.
[345] Spage, Toty. Sya upsg sts od dsos
egbog Lebao . Jerusalem Post. Reteed
Noebe 22, 2011.

Books
Josep Aaga (2006). The Shifts in Hizbullah s Ideology: Religious Ideology, Political Ideology. Asteda Uesty Pess. ISBN 90-5356-910-3.
142
To Daz, Babaa Nea (2005). Lightning Out 15.14.2 UN resolutions regarding Hezbolof Lebanon: Hezbollah Terrorists on American Soil.
lah
Pesdo Pess. ISBN 0-345-47568-2.
UN Pess Reease SC/8181 UN, Septebe 2, 2004
Aad Nza Haze (2004). In The Path Of
Lebao Cose Secuty Couc ote bacs fee
Hizbullah. Syacuse Uesty Pess. ISBN 0eectos, uges foeg toop puout UN, Septe8156-3053-0.
be 2, 2004
Judt Pae Ha (2006). Hezbollah: The Changing Face of Terrorism. I.B. Taus. ISBN 1-8451115.14.3 Other links
024-2.
Haa Jabe (1997). Hezbollah. Couba Uesty
Pess. ISBN 0-231-10834-6.
A Josc (2004). Beacon of Hatred: Inside
Hizballahs Al-Manar Television. Wasgto Isttute fo Nea East Pocy. ISBN 0-944029-88-4.
Augustus Rcad Noto (2000). Hizballah of
Lebanon: Extremist Ideals vs. Mundane Politics.
Couc o Foeg Reatos.
Augustus Rcad Noto (2007). Hezbollah: A
Short History. Pceto Uesty Pess. ISBN
978-0-691-13124-5.
Qasse, Na (2005). Hizbullah: The Story from
Within. Sa Boos. ISBN 978-0-86356-517-5.
Magus Rastop (1996). Hizb'Allah in Lebanon:
The Politics of the Western Hostage Crisis. St. Mat s Pess. ISBN 0-312-16491-2.
Aa Saad-Goayeb (2001). Hizbullah: Politics
and Religion. Puto Pess. ISBN 0-7453-1793-6.
Jaa Saa (2005). Fadlallah: The Making of a
Radical Shi'ite Leader. Sa Boos. ISBN 0-86356596-4.
Articles
Nataa Ateaa (Jue 2, 2006). Isde Lebaese
Hezboa ta . Bts Boadcastg Copoato. Reteed Juy 24, 2009.
15.14
External links
15.14.1 O cial sites

Isac Resstace Lebao
Pose Fo te Resstace Moeet Suppot
Hzbua te Paty of God
ca ebstes ad docuets
Lst of s to o -
Is Hezboa Cofotg a Css of Popua Legtacy? D. Ec Lob, Co Cete fo Mdde East

Studes, Mac 2014
Hezboa Facg Teo toug Ca Etepse, Testoy of Matte Lett, Heag of
te Cottee o Hoead Secuty ad Goeeta A as, Uted States Seate
Hzbua s to epubcs by Moaed Be Jeou, Al-Ahram, Febuay 15 21, 2007
Isde Hezboa, sot docuetay ad extese
foato fo Frontline/World o PBS.
Hzbua te 'Paty of God' fact e at Yetes
Chapter 16
Ba'ath Brigades
Te Ba'ath Brigades (Aabc Kat'ib alBath), aso o as te Ba'ath Battalions, ae a outee ta ade up of Sya Ba'at Paty ebes, aost etey Su Muss, oya to te Sya Goeet.[4] It as set up Aeppo ude te
coad of Ha Ha, te cuet Assstat Regoa
Secetay, afte ebes too ost of te easte af of
Aeppo sue 2012. Itay, te Ba'at Bgades
ee used to guad goeet budgs ad ote ey
staatos te cty, but te oe as expaded as
te stegt as go fo 5,000 ebes Noebe 2012 to 7,000 Decebe 2013.[1][5] Uts sce
ae aso foed Lataa ad Tatus. At te ed of
2013, te Bgades bega depoyg Daascus, tased
t ag cecpots ad coductg gt ogstca opeatos .[3] Tey speaeaded te assaut o te
Od Cty of Aeppo eay 2014.[4]
16.1
See also
Aab Socast Ba'at Paty Sya Rego

16.2
References
[1] Ao Lud (13 Jauay 2014). Te Baat Battaos

Moe Ito Daascus . Caege Edoet fo Iteatoa Peace. Reteed 15 Jauay 2014.
[2] Vetea Baat ebes estabs po-Assad ta to
gt opposto
[3] ( Aabc). A Aba. 30

Decebe 2013. Reteed 14 Jauay 2014.
[4] Edad Da (14 Mac 2014). Po-ege Su gtes Aeppo defy sectaa aate . A Moto. Reteed 20 Mac 2014.
[5] Edad Da (20 Noebe 2013). Sya Baat ta

coade goes ags-to-ces . Al Monitor. Reteed 7
Jauay 2014.
143
Chapter 17
Liwa Abu al-Fadhal al-Abbas

Liwa Abu al-Fadl al-Abbas eag Brigade of Abu
al-Fadl al-Abbas, aso o as te al-Abbas brigade
(Arabic: , o Kata'ib al-Abbas) s a ay Sa
Sya tat goup c opeates tougout Sya. It
s aed afte te cae of A-Abbas b A. Te
goup ose poece eacto to te desecato
of aous ses, etage stes ad pace of osp
by ebes dug te Sya c a ad subseuety
coaboated t te Sya Ay. Its oe s agey
defese ate ta o ese, agey paces of teest Sya, suc as te Sayyda Ruayya Mosue,
A-Nuta Mosue ad Sayyda Zayab Mosue, Hu
b Ad Mosue, Uayyad Mosue, Geat Mosue of
Aeppo, Nab Habee Mosue, Bab a-Sag, Uas aQa Mosue, Paya, Ka des Ceaes, Acet
Cty of Bosa, ad te suoudg aeas.[3] I May ad
Jue 2013, Reutes epoted a spt ad deeoped betee a-Abbas bgade foces oe aces ad eadesp c eupted to a gubatte. May o-Sya
ebes subseuety foed a d eet bgade.[4]
O 19 May 2014, gtes fo te Nou a-D aZa Bgade caed to ae too oe te a-Abbas
Bgade s egoa eaduates Aeppo.[5] As ISIS
ade sg cat gas Ia d 2014, te goup as
foced to etu oe to defed te fateg S'te ed
goeet Bagdad.[6]
17.1
See also
17.2
References
[1] Sya a des Su-Sa scs as foeg ads

o gt fo ses . Te Guada. 4 Jue 2013. Reteed 18 Septebe 2013.
[2] Sa ta ae to defed ses . CNN. 2 Juy 2014.
[3] NGO Fece cases Daascus dstct . AFP. 19
[4] Ia S'tes oc to Assad s sde as sectaa spt
des . Reutes. 19 Jue 2013. Reteed 18 Septebe
144
2014.
[5]
[6] Hezboa dspacg Ia Ste gtes Sya . Ya
Lba. 14 Jue 2014. Reteed 18 Septebe 2014.
Chapter 18
Asa'ib Ahl al-Haq

Asa'ib Ahl al-Haq (AAH Aabc
Aayib Ahl al-Haq, League of te Rgteous ) aso
o as te Khazali Network s a Ia S'a Isast
paatay goup opeatg Ia ad Sya. It s
o as Ia s agest "Speca Goup", te Aecas
te fo Ia-baced Sa paataes Ia. Accodg to a Mac 2014 epot by The Guardian espape, Asa'b A a-Ha s cotoed by Ia ad opeates ude te patoage of Geea Qasse Suea
of Ia s Quds Foce.[3] Te goup as caed esposbty fo oe 6,000 attacs o Aeca, coato, ad
Ia foces.[4]
18.1
History
Qas a-Kaza spt fo Mutada a-Sad's Mad

Ay afte S'a upsg 2004 to ceate s o Kaza eto. We te Mad Ay sged a cease- e
t te goeet ad te Aecas ad te gtg stopped, Qas a-Kaza's facto cotued gtg, dug te batte Kaza as aeady ssug s
o odes to tae tout Mutada a-Sad s appoa. Te goup s eadesp c cudes Qas Kaza, Abd a-Had a-Daa (a potca Mutada aSad s Sad Moeet) ad Aa a-Kab, oee,
ecoced t Mutada a-Sad d-2005. I Juy
2006 Asa'b A a-Ha as fouded ad becae oe of
te Speca Goups c opeated oe depedety
fo te est of te Mad Ay. It becae a copetey depedet ogasato afte te Mad Ay s
dsbadg afte te 2008 S'a upsg.[5] I Noebe 2008 e Sad ceated a e goup to succeed te
Mad Ay, aed te Posed Day Bgade, e ased
Asa'b A a-Ha (ad ote Speca Goups) to o,
oee tey deced.[6]
o ces at Kabaa, ed oe sode, te abducted ad

ed fou oe Aeca sodes. Afte te ad, te
U.S. tay auced a cacdo o te goup ad
te ad s asted Aza a-Dua as ed
Bagdad, e uc of te goup s eadesp cudg te botes Qas ad Lat a-Kaza ad Lebaese
Hezboa ebe A Musa Dadu o as Kaza s
adso as cage of te eatos t Hezboa.
Afte tese aests 2007, Aa a-Kab o ad bee
te tay coade of te Mad Ay ut May
2007, ed te ogasato.[5] I 2008 ay of te goups
gtes ad eades ed to Ia afte te Ia Ay as
aoed to e-tae coto of Sad Cty ad te Mad
Ay as dsbaded. Hee ost gtes ee e-taed
e tactcs. It esuted a ao u te goup s
actty fo May to Juy 2008.[5]
I Febuay 2010 te goup dapped DoD ca Issa
T. Sao a atuazed Aeca fo Ia. Te st
g-po e dappg of a foege Ia sce te
dappg of Bts IT expet Pete Mooe ad s fou
bodyguads (c as aso doe by Asa'b A a-Ha).
Te goup deaded eease of a te gtes beg psoed by te Ia autotes ad US tay etu
fo s eease.[8] I Pete Mooe s case, s fou bodyguads ee ed but Mooe sef as eeased e
te goup s eade Qas a-Kaza as eeased Jauay
2010.[9] Po to Qaza s eease, secuty foces ad aeady eeased oe 100 of te goup s ebes cudg
Lat a-Kaza.[10] Sao as eeased Mac 2010
etu fo te eease of 4 of te gtes, beg ed
Ia custody.[11] I tota 450 ebes of te goup ae
bee aded oe fo US to Ia custody sce te dappg of Pete Mooe, oe 250 of c ae bee
eeased by te Ia autotes.[12]
O Juy 21, 2010 Geea Ray Odeo sad Ia as suppotg tee Ste extest goups Ia tat ad bee
atteptg to attac US bases. Oe of te goups as
Te goup as caed esposbty fo oe 6,000 atAsa'b A a-Ha ad te ote to ee te Posed
[4]
tacs Ia cudg te Octobe 10, 2006 attac o
Day Bgade ad Ketab Hezboa.[13]
Cap Faco, te assassato of te Aeca tay coade Naaf, te May 6, 2006 dog of I Decebe 2010 t as epoted tat otoous S'a
a Bts Lyx ecopte ad te Octobe 3, 2007 at- ta coades suc as Abu Deaa ad Mustafa atac o te Pos abassado.[7] Te ost o at- Seba ee etug fo Ia to o t Asa'b
tac oee, s te Jauay 20, 2007 Kabaa poca A a-Ha.[14] Iaa Gad Ayatoa Kaze a-Hae
eaduates ad ee tey tated te U.S. Ay s as det ed as te goup s sptua eade.[15]
145
146
CHAPTER 18. ASA'IB AHL AL-HAQ
O Fday, August 10, 2012, Asa'b A a-Ha ta

e stoed a Su osue Bagdad s A-A aTaya dstct, coetg t to a S'a osue ad
bag Sus fo eteg t.[16]
ay ed at te Idusta Stadu easte Bagdad

g at east 37 peope ad oudg scoes otes, accodg to Ia poce sad. Te Sa goup ogazes
ad paed to aouce at te ay te aes of ts caI August ad Septebe 2012, Asa'b A a-Ha stated ddates fo te paaetay eecto. Te A-Saduu
a poste capag c tey dstbuted oe 20,000 Boc eded up g ust oe seat out of 328 seats
postes of Ia s Supee Leade Ayatoa Sayyd A te Ia Paaet.
Kaee tougout Ia. A seo o ca Bagdad s
oca goeet sad ucpa oes ee afad to
tae te postes do fea of etbuto by Asa'b A 18.4 Strength
a-Ha tae.[17]
Te goup eaed te espect of te Sa-doated Ia Te goup s stegt as estated at soe 3,000 gtes Mac 2007.[1] I Juy 2011, oee, o cas
goeet fo soe of te actos Lebao.[18]
estated tee ee ess ta 1,000 Asa'b A a-Ha
tae eft Ia. Te goup s aeged to ecee
soe 5 o ot of cas ad eapos eey ot
18.2 Haidar al-Karar Brigades
fo Ia.[2] I Jauay 2012, foog te Aeca
tdaa fo Ia Decebe 2011, Qas a-Kaza
Te goup s Sya bac s caed te Haidar al-Karar decaed te Uted States as defeated ad tat o
Brigades ad s ed by Aa a-Kab, o s Asa'b A te goup as pepaed to dsa ad o te potca
a-Ha s tay eade ad s statoed Aeppo.[19]
pocess.[22]
Accodg to a 2014 epot by te Guada o Asa'b A
a-Ha s teeto te Sya c a Hezboa
aso cas ts despead teeto Sya o te sde 18.5 Funding
of Assad s defece of te [Sayyda Zaab] se.
So too does Kata'b Hezboa, aote Iaa-baced
Te Ogasato s aeged to ecee tag ad
Ia poxy, ose ebes ae ofte bued aogsde
eapos fo Ia's Reoutoay Guads' Quds Foce
Asa'b A a-Ha gtes. Bot Ia goups gt acoss
as e as Iaa-baced Lebaese goup Hezboa. By
Sya ude te bae of Abu a-Fad a-Abbas, c
Mac 2007, Ia as podg te eto betee
as bee at te aguad of attacs agast te aost ex750,000 ad 3 o as ad aca suppot
cusey Su opposto acoss Sya.
eac ot. Abu Mustafa a-Seba, a foe Bad
Tey, aog t te Iaa Reoutoay Guads, ae Bgades ebe o a a potat suggg etepg tu te tde faou of te Assad ege, c o o as te Seba Neto payed a ey oe
ate 2012 as osg coto of Daascus to ebe suppyg te goup. Te goup as aso supped
goups o ee dg seous cacs te ege s by a suggg eto eaded by Aad Saad ae codo. Te cae a stategc decso by a te Gaa[23] a foe Mad Ay coade, osty
Sa goups to defed Assad atee te cost, sad a e- acte Maysa Goeoate.[24]
goa abassado peousy based te Sya capta.
You coud see te tuaoud Assad aost edatey. Ee s speeces, t as e 'e ca do ts.'" 18.6 Organisational structure
Estates of te ubes of Sa gtes Sya age
betee 8,000 ad 15,000. Watee te tue gue, te As of 2006 Asa'b A a-Ha ad at east fou ao opoeet of age ubes of Ias s ot te secet t eatoa baces[5]
as te eay ots of Sya s c a, c s o
beg fougt aog a sectaa faute. [20]
Te Ia a-A Bgade Resposbe fo Southern Iraq (Ia s 9 S'a goeoates Bab, aBasa, D Qa, a-Kabaa, Maysa, a-Mutaa,
18.3 2014 Iraq elections
a Naaf, a-Qadsyya ad Wast Goeoates)
Ma atce A-Sadou Boc
Te ogazato ad caddates ug te 2014
Ia paaetay eecto[21] ude te bae of ASadou Boc. Hoee a eectoa eetg of estated 100,000 suppotes of A-Sadou as aed by
oece as a sees of bobs expoded at te capag
Te Ia a-Kaze Bgade
Resposbe fo
West-Baghdad (ay te S'a Kadya ad A
Rasd dstcts but aso soe o actty te
xed Ka dstct ad te ay Su Masou
dstct)
Te Ia a-Had Bgade Resposbe fo EastBaghdad (ay te S'a Taa, Nssa ad
147
Kaada dstcts but t soe o actty [14] I Ia, Ia s Speca Goups to ous . UPI. 23 Decebe 2010. Reteed 25 Ap 2014.
te xed Rusafa dstct ad te ay Su
Adaya dstct)
[15] Regous Aegaces aog Po-Iaa Speca Goups

Ia . Reteed 17 Noebe 2014.
Te Ia a-Asa Bgade Resposbe fo Central Iraq (ay acte te S'a aeas Soute [16] ."
"
Dyaa, Saaa Cty ( Saa ad-D Goeoate)
Iraq News Network. Posted ad eteed o 10 August
ad soe S'a ecaes Naa ad Keu Go2012
eoates)
Te Hada a-Kaa Bgades - Resposbe
fo Sya, ay Soute Daascus ad West
Aeppo.[19]
18.7
See also
[1] Fox Nes Isugets Wo Ked Fe GIs Baze Kabaa Attac Captued
[2] US o cas ae 3 Ia tas aed by Ia to
Yas . Reteed 17 Noebe 2014.
[3] Cotoed by Ia, te deady ta ecutg Ia s e
to de Sya, Te Guada, 12 Mac 2014
[4] ""Te Isugecy, Opeato Ne Da, O ca Webste of te Uted States Foce-Ia . Reteed 17
Noebe 2014.
[5] Asab A a Ha ad te Kaza Speca Goups Neto
te efog of te S-
[7] Te Peope of Rgteousess Ia s S a Isugets Issue Deads fo Hostages . The Jamestown Foundation.
[8] Ia tats post deo of dapped US ctze .
PessTV. 6 Febuay 2010. Reteed 25 Ap 2014.
[9] Mat Cuo (3 Jauay 2010).
Cec feed
oe expected to popt adoe of dapped Bto s
body . Te Guada. Reteed 25 Ap 2014.
Ia poce deta
[10] B Roggo (1 Octobe 2009).
Hezboa Bgades eade . Te Log Wa Joua. Reteed 25 Ap 2014.
[11] Jue Watso (12 August 2010). Sa Dego a ecouts
Ia dappg . UT Sa Dego. Reteed 25 Ap
2014.
[12] Wasgto Post U.S. faue to eutaze Ste ta
Ia teates to sa puout
[13]
[20] Cotoed by Ia, te deady ta ecutg Ia s e

to de Sya, Te Guada, 12 Mac 2014
[21] Dozes ed as basts t Ia po ay . A Jazeea
Egs. 25 Ap 2014. Reteed 25 Ap 2014.
References
[6] Ia s Posed Day Bgade

te Mta
[18] Daaga, Bozou (27 May 2014). Mdde East Tee

atos, oe co ct . ft.co. Reteed 29 May 2014.
[19] Oa a-Ja a (29 Octobe 2013). Ia Stes o
Sya a . A-Moto. Reteed 25 Ap 2014.
18.8
[17] Yaoo Nes Ia ayatoa s poste boy fo uece

Ia, Septebe 25, 2012
[22] Ia S te ta says U.S. as faed, pedges to ay

do as ae of Su bobgs, Jauay 5, 2012
[23] Ia s Had Poe I uece Ia .
Noebe 2014.
Reteed 17
[24] Ne Yo Tes Te Stugge Fo Ia
18.9 External links

18.9.1 O cial site
Auaa Isac Resstace Moeet
Chapter 19
Jaysh al-Muwahhideen
Te Jaysh al-Muwahhideen o Jaysh Abu Ibrahim
(Aabc ) s a Duze tat goup Sya.
Te ae eas "Army of Monotheists" o "Army of
Unitarians". Te goup ay opeates te Suayda,
Deaa, Daascus ad ote egos ee te Duze ae
cocetated ad aouced te foato te begg of 2013. Te eadesp descbes te goup as
Unitarian Druze egagg defese ad, but as aso
bee descbed as suppotes of Basa a-Assad ad s
ege. It opeates agey Jaba a-Aab o Mouta
of te Aabs, aso o as Jaba ad-Duze, a outaous aea of Suayda goeoate as e as te Jaba
a-Se aea Daascus goeoate, aeas pay
abted by Duze. Te goup as set up espose
to attacs o Duze cas. Te goup coeoates
at-cooa gues suc as Suta a-Atas, o as a
poet Aab Duze cefta.[1] [3][2]
19.1
See also
19.2
References
[1] Aye A-Ta (13 Noebe 2013). Te Duze

Mtas of Soute Sya . Reteed 26 Decebe
2013.
[2] Aye Jaad (19 Septebe 2014). Suayda Vage
Mtas . Reteed 6 Octobe 2014.
[3] Aye Jaad (15 Noebe 2013). Moe O Te
Duze Mtas Soute Sya . Reteed 6 Octobe
2014.
148
Chapter 20
Syrian Resistance
Not to be cofused t Sya opposto.
[2] a-Ta, Aye Jaad. A Case Study of Te Sya Resstace, a Po-Assad Mta Foce . Syria Comment. Reteed 24 Septebe 2013.
Te Syrian Resistance (Muqwamat al-Sriyah Aabc

o TSR, foey o as te Popular
Front for the Liberation of the Liwa of Iskandarun
(
), s a pogoeet Sya aed goup opeatg Notest
Sya, cag a Maxst Lest deoogy.[2]
[4] Ma Ua, a a t a og stoy of teos . Todayszaa.co. 14 May 2013. Reteed 11 Decebe

2013.
20.1
[5] Goup tes to ecut Hatay Aes to Assad ay .

Today s Zaa. 3 Septebe 2012. Reteed 28 Ap
2014.
History
Te oeet s ed by Ma Ua, a Tus Aate o as Sya ctzesp.[4] Accodg to Today s

Zaman, Ua as te eade of a cadeste suget
ce Hatay Poce caed te Tus Peopes Lbeato Paty-Fot Acilciler ( Te Uget Oes ). Zaman fute aeged tat Ua s goup as sougt to agtate Hatay s szabe Aate popuato to cofotato
t te Tus autotes ad as aso ecuted oca
Aates to gt Sya o beaf of te goeet.[5]
Toug te goup opey espouses a boady-cuse
patfo of Sya atoas addto to secua efts, t as bee caed tat ts pay focus s te
defece of te Aate ad Tee S a egous otes te couty.[2] Te Sya Resstace as bee
accused by te Sya opposto of beg a sectaa
Aate ta, ad of ag caed out bobgs
Tuey ad attacs o ages Sya.[6][7] Hoee,
Se Mua a a-Gaza, a ebe of te Isac
Aa Couc, cas t as a cuse atoa e.[8]
20.2
[3] Abaya, Ayd. Ma Ua, a a t a og stoy

of teos . Today s Zaman. Reteed 3 August 2013.
[6] Rse of te tas . No.eda.e. 17 May 2013.

[7] Jos Lads, Sya Coet, May 13,2013
[8] Sya Secuas Taes a Bacseat Lataa . A
Aba Egs. 11 May 2013. Reteed 11 Decebe
2013.
20.4 External links
See also
20.3
References
[1] Lud, Ao (23 Juy 2013). Gags of Lataa Te Mta cato of te Assad Rege . Sya Coet. Reteed 24 Juy 2013.
149
Sya Resstace o ca ebste

Sya Resstace o Faceboo (Aabc)
THKP-C Acilciler bog
Chapter 21
Arab Nationalist Guard

Te Arab Nationalist Guard (Aabc
) s a secua outee ta foce opeatg
Sya. Te goup espouses a Aab atoast deoogy,
gateg aay fo ay sectaa, etc, o egous
extes. Te Aab Natoast Guad s ebesp
cudes atoasts fo a aety of Aab coutes, cudg Egypt, Ia, Lebao, Paeste, Tusa, Sya
ad Yee.[1][2] Soe of te tae ad fougt
peousy te Lbya C Wa ad te Ia Wa.[1]
21.1
Ideology
Te goup s deoogy,[3] fas e t pa-Aab deas,

as e as t at-Zos ad at-cooas. Te
Aab Natoast Guad as a ts o afesto, ee
t s stated tat te uts aes ae sped fo Aab
o Not Afca potcas ad atys o ae ed
secuast ad Aab atoast oeets o ee ed
by Isasts.
Ote o-Aab gues tat stad cude ate Pesdet
of Veezuea, Hugo Cez.
21.2
See also
21.3
References
[1] Raa Hab (5 May 2014). Aab atoasts tae up

as te batte fo Sya . A-Aba. Reteed 6
May 2014.
[2] Jaad A-Ta (1 Jauay 2014). Te Aab Natoast Guad A Po-Assad Mta . Ayeaad.og. Reteed 24 Febuay 2014.
[3] Moses, Bo. Te Aab Natoast Guad A PoAssad Mta . Brown Moses Blog. Reteed 24 Juy
2014.
150
Chapter 22
Popular Front for the Liberation of

Palestine General Command
Not to be cofused t Popua Fot fo te Lbeato eouto to te asses te caps.
of Paeste.
Te Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine
General Command (
) o PFLP-GC s a sa
Paesta atoast tat ogasato based
Sya. It as fouded 1968 by Aed Jb afte spttg fo te Popua Fot fo te Lbeato of Paeste
(PFLP). I te 1970s ad 1980s t as oed te
Paesta sugecy Sout Lebao ad auced
a ube of attacs agast Isae sodes ad cas cudg te A scoo bus assace (1970),
te bobg of Sssa Fgt 330 (1970), te Kyat
Soa assace (1974) ad te Ngt of te Gdes
(1987). Sce te ate 1980s t as bee agey acte,
but dug te Sya C Wa t fougt o te sde of
te Sya goeet.[1]
22.2 History
22.2.1 Formation
Te PFLP-GC as fouded 1968 as a Sya-baced

spte goup fo te Popua Fot fo te Lbeato of Paeste (PFLP). It as - ad st s - eaded
by Secetay-Geea Aed Jb, aso o by te
kunya Abu Jad (ot to be cofused t Ka aWaz, te ead of Fata s aed g o used te sae
nom de guerre), a foe tay o ce te Sya
Ay o ad bee oe of te PFLP s eay eades. Te
PFLP-GC decaed tat ts pay focus oud be tay, ot potca, copag tat te PFLP ad bee
deotg too uc te ad esouces to Maxst posTe goup as a paatay g caed te Jad Jb opzg.
Bgades.[2]
Atoug te goup as tay a ebe of te
Paeste Lbeato Ogazato (PLO), t aays opposed Yasse Aafat ad opposes ay potca setteet
t Isae fo ts easo, t as ee patcpated
22.1 Background
te peace pocess. Te PFLP-GC eft te PLO 1974
to o te Reectost Fot, potestg at tey sa as
Jb oed t Geoge Habas 1967 as oe o
te
PLO s oe toads a accoodato t Isae
ess a eua pate te PFLP eadesp. We e
te Aafat-baced Te Pot Poga of te Paesta
ucy ted of te goup s ac of ed tate, e as
teefoe st abe to eae e etag a sg cat e- Natoa Couc (PNC). Ue ost of te ogazatae of s peous suppotes. Oe of s ost ated tos oed te Reectost Fot, te PFLP-GC
eees t te goup, Naf Haate, uteto- ee esued ts oe t te PLO.
ay poded t te petext We Jb ested
t Habas oe y te Popua Fot as so depedet o teoetca dscusso ate ta aed stugge,
Haate ted to uece te PFLP te decto of
a deoogy as eftst as possbe.
Fo te stat, te PFLP-GC as oe cocetated o

eas ta eds. Tey ee depeded o a potca patfo ost of te ecuts ee youg, exed, poo, teate, ad agy. Te Geea Coad posed a
gu eey ad, ad te eas to te te o aJb decded tat Haate s teozg as ca g te ate ate ta ead ad pase tose of otes as te
PFLP ad poducg a ogazato of potet te- bette o exes dd uestes Euope.
ectuas, ad decaed as suc e e foed te Ge- Jb st used o dscpe to eep s gtes oya
ea Coad. Habas, e stated, ad becoe a puppet ad pofessoa, ad te Geea Coad s sugets
to te pofessos of te exe, te ete aog te efugees ee as a esut fo decades cosdeed te best taed of
o ee e-educated ad eaty, yet peaced cass ay of te Paesta guea goups. Wat ay ae
151
152
CHAPTER 22. POPULAR FRONT FOR THE LIBERATION OF PALESTINE GENERAL COMMAND
eped Jb as Haate s o 1969 defecto fo

te PFLP to fo te Popua Deocatc Fot fo te
Lbeato of Paeste (PDFLP, ate tout te Popua ), afte Habas ted to copesate fo soe of te
pobes tat ad caused Jb s ext.
22.2.2 1970s and 1980s
Te PFLP-GC as ot bee oed ao attacs o

Isae tagets sce te eay 1990s, but t epotedy coopeated t te Hezboa gueas Sout Lebao.
Suppotes of te Lbya cocted of te Locebe
bobg ae suggested te PFLP-GC as fact
esposbe.[7]
22.2.3 1990s and 2000s
Ma atces Paesta sugecy Sout Lebao

Foog te se of Haas te 1987-91 Fst Itfada
ad 1982-2000 Sout Lebao co ct
aog Paestas g te West Ba ad Gaza
Fute foato Ngt of te Gdes
Stp, Jb foud a abe ay esstg te ted stated
by Fata eade Yasse Aafat toad a egotated setI te 1970s ad 1980s, te goup caed out a ube teet to te Isae-Paesta co ct. By tat te,
of attacs o Isae sodes ad cas, ad gaed o- te Reectost Fot as coposed pay of efttoety fo usg spectacua eas. Afte 1969 Habas st goups, aog te te PFLP, DFLP, Geea Cocoud o oge ca tat e as te ead of te tue o- ad, PLF, ad ueous ote sa factos. Hogazato, as a tee of te goup s oga tuate ee, te ebes of tese PLO goups ee ted
ee o sepaate. Neeteess, due to te PFLP s spec- te abty to cofot Fata, c ee ost ts
tacua successes, cudg te Daso s Fed ac- supeacy t te ubea ogazato. Te oy
gs (Septebe 1970), Lod Apot Massace (1971), goup tat aged uteupted attto agast Aafat
ad coodato t te Fata-baced Bac Septeas te Fata Reoutoay Couc ed by aec
be goup te Muc Oypc gs (Septebe 5
ade Sab a-Baa (bette o as Abu Nda),
6, 1972), Habas cotued to be te st aog euas o as eed by ote Paesta ogazatos as ot
aog te Reectost Fot, te goups tat efused ay
so uc a guea as a pue ca t o ge goa
peaet setteet a faeo ote ta tay ta deposg te odeates at te ead of te PLO.
ctoy.
Toug ay Paestas st ee opposed to coFo 1970-73, te goup tageted a ube of acaft posg o te pcpe of defeatg Isae by aed
typcay ag ebes seduce sge youg oe stugge, te exstg goups coud ot cae te dead pose te a fe of adetue ad oe - ofte ses, as ay of te ee ed by te ete aog te
e gettg te addcted to dugs - befoe asg te
exe popuato, o ee detaced fo te eaty of
to cay soe cas ad a ysteous pacage oto a gt
te efugee caps, be tey te West Ba ad Gaza,
to Te A. We te gs assued tey ee epg Lebao, Sya, o Joda. May eades of Paesta
te boyfeds pass dugs, tey ee uogy ca- goups ed uxuous accoodatos tougout te
yg exposes.[3]
Easte Boc, Euope, o aous Aab states, especay
O Febuay 21, 1970, te goup used ts st baoetc Sya, Ia, ad Lbya. Jb uuey ssted o g
tgges to detoate to - gt aes eay suta- a specay desged secuty bue te Lebao
eousy. A Sssa gt to Te A tat fe Aagau outas, a y tea tat as oe attued to te
Cato, g 41, ad a Austa Aes gt fo age of a guea eade ta Aafat s asos TuFafut to Te A, c actuay faed to destoy te s.
acaft, c ade a eegecy adg.[3] Te PFLPWt te eegece of Haas ad te Isac Jad
GC as aso esposbe fo te A scoo bus astougout te 1980s, Jb poed oe abe to cope
sace 1970 ad te Kyat Soa assace 1974.
ta Habas ad s ote aes te Reectost Fot.
Jb focused o cag out a stae of te PLO ecut- Ts as eabed by a facto tat ad otg to do t
et Lebaese efugee caps. We Fata absobed s abtes o beefs We Habas as a Gee Otoeoous casuates te 1982 Lebao Wa, te Ge- dox ad Haate a Gee Catoc Csta, Jb as
ea Coad succeeded sug, ad at te ed e- a Mus.
taed ost of ts peous apoe.
Tougout te 1980s te Geea Coad actey coI oe of ts ost faous attacs, a PFLP-GC guea
aded a otozed ag gde (appaety supped by
Lbya)[4] ea a Isae ay cap ea Kyat Seoa
Note Isae o 25 Noebe 1987. He succeeded
to sx sodes ad ouded seea otes, befoe
beg sot dead sef.[5] Te acto as bee see by
soe as podg te catayst fo te eupto of te Fst
Itfada.[6]
opeated t te ascet Hezboa paatay goup

(ade osty of Sa Muss) dedcated to aed stugge agast Isae, as e as t Sya ad Ia, bot
of o fud ad a Haas ad te Paesta Isac Jad. I te d-1990s, Jb ed cofeeces
t tese goups Tea ad Daascus ode to
acee tgte coodato of acttes, toug s ogazato eaed sa ad ts o actos ee oe
153
22.3. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS OF PFLP-GC

coceed t adg Hezboa ad aceg a Isae
tdaa fo soute Lebao. Te Isaes ee
fogot Jb s spectacua expots, especay te Ngt of
te Hag Gdes, ad used a aety of opeatos to ty
ad , oe successfuy, atoug s so ad e
Jad Aed Jb as assassated by a ca bob o
May 20, 2002, t te detty of te assasss uo.
Due to tese acttes, te Geea Coad s egaded
as te ost ad-e of te od suget goups, ad cuety essts te Oso Accods fo ts bases Sya ad
Lebao.
22.2.4 Syrian Civil War
et foces stood by ad atced as te PFLP-GC fougt

te ebes, tout epg te Paestas.[15] Aed
Jb epotedy ed Daascus fo te Medteaea
cty of Tatous.[16][17] Paesta eft-g goups
cudg te Popua Fot fo te Lbeato of Paeste (PFLP), te bggest Paesta eftst goup
beated Jb ad te PFLP-GC.[18] Oe PFLP o ca sad Eeyoe os te tue sze of PFLP-GC.
Tey ae ot epesetate of te Paestas . Aote
sad tat Jb does ot ee beog to te Paesta
Left. He s cose to te extest gt-g goups
ta to eoutoay eftst oes .[18] O 18 Decebe,
te Paesta Natoa Couc (PNC) deouced Jb,
sayg t oud expe oe s oe te co ct.[9]
At te begg of te Sya C Wa 2011, te

PFLP-GC as a ay of te Ba'at Paty goeet 22.3
of Sya. Te PFLP-GC as based Yaou Cap
a dstct of Daascus tat s oe to te bggest
couty of Paesta efugees Sya.[8] Seea
ebes of te PFLP-GC s ceta cottee opposed 22.3.1
ts aace t te Assad goeet ad esged
potest.[9] Dug te a, t eped te Sya Ay to
22.3.2
gt te Sya ebes ad aoud Yaou.
At te begg of te a, tesos aose Yaou
betee te PFLP-GC ad at-goeet Paesta
esdets. O 5 Jue 2011, a ube of Yaou esdets ee sot dead e potestg at te Isae bode. Aegedy ageed by te PFLP-GC s efusa to tae
pat te potests, tousads of oues but-do ts
eaduates Yaou. PFLP-GC ebes opeede o te cod, g 14 Paestas ad oudg
43.[10][11]
May PFLP-GC gtes epotedy defected to te

ebes. Oe PFLP-GC coade sad I fet tat e
becae sodes fo te Assad ege, ot guads fo te
caps, so I decded to defect . He caed tat goe-
relations
of
Syria
Lebanon
Its oe Lebao afte Sya eft te couty 2005

(see Ceda Reouto) s uceta, ad t as bee oed a ube of cases t Lebaese secuty
foces. I ate Octobe 2005, te Lebaese Ay suouded caps of te PFLP-GC a tese stado , afte Lebaese autotes caed tat te PFLP-GC as
eceg Sya as acoss te bode. Te goup as
coe ude ece ctcs t Lebao, accused of
actg o Sya s beaf to st up uest.[19]
O 3 August 2012, 21 cas ee ed e te

Sya Ay seed Yaou.[12] Paesta pes- 22.3.3
det Maoud Abbas codeed te Sya Ay fo
seg te cap ad cded te PFLP-GC fo daggg
Paestas to te co ct.[8]
O 5 Decebe 2012, gtg eupted Yaou betee te Sya Ay ad PFLP-GC o oe sde, ad
Sya ebes o te ote. Te ebes cuded te Fee
Sya Ay (FSA) ad a goup ade up of Paestas, caed La a-Asfa o Sto Bgade. By 17 Decebe, te ebes ad o coto of Yaou.[13] Afteads, Goeet ad ebe epesetates ageed
tat a aed goups soud tda fo Yaou ad
eae t as a euta zoe. Te ageeet aso sad tat te
PFLP-GC soud be dsated ad ts eapos suedeed. Hoee, a spoesa fo te po-ebe Paeste Refugee Cap Neto sad, te peetato
of te tuce as bee pobeatc because of tettet goeet seg of Yaou ad cases o ts
outsts.[14]
International
PFLP-GC
Designations of PFLP-GC as a terrorist organization
22.4 See also

Jb Ageeet
22.5 References
[1] Sya ebes tae oe Paesta cap Daascus .
[2] PFLP-GC dded o Sya stace . Ma'a Nes
Agecy, 9 August 2012. Reteed 26 Febuay 2013.
[3] Katz, Saue M. (2002). Relentless Pursuit: The DSS and
the manhunt for the al-Qaeda terrorists.
[4] Sposog Teos
(Septebe 2002)
[5]
Sya ad te PFLP-GC
154
[6] De e Opposto de PLO ud de besetzte Gebete

[7] Te Gea Coecto, Eeso & Du y, Ne Yo
Tes Magaze, Mac 11, 1990
[8]
Coecto of PFLP-GC postes
[9] Aad Jb to be expeed fo te PLO . Al Akhbar

(Lebanon), 18 Decebe 2012.
[10] Repot 14 Paestas ed Sya cap . Ma'a
Nes Agecy, 8 Jue 2011. Reteed 26 Febuay 2013.
[11] Mass sootg epoted Yaou Paesta efugee
cap Sya - deo . Te Eectoc Itfada, 6 Jue
2011. Reteed 26 Febuay 2013.
[12] At east 21 ed seg o Yaou Paesta
efugee cap Sya NGO . A Aabya, 3 August
2012.
[13] "'Captug Yaou cap aote Sya ebe ga'".
[14] Sya gt o 'oety sectaa,' U.N. says . CNN, 20
Decebe 2012.
[15] A Sya Aste Ks Paesta Refugees ad Costs
Assad Suppot
[16] Paesta facto eade Jb eaes Daascus ebes .
Reuters. Reteed 17 Noebe 2014.
[17] Aed Jb eaes Daascus afte cases Yaou
Paesta cap
[18] PFLP o Defese Gaza Oe Tes to Assad . AMoto, 27 Decebe 2012.
[19] Te Day Sta - Potcs - Outage afte PFLP-GC gue soot to
[20] About te stg pocess .
2014.
Reteed 17 Noebe
[21] ttps//.go.u/goeet/upoads/syste/
upoads/attacet_data/fe/324603/20140627-Lst_
of_Poscbed_ogasatos_WEBSITE_fa.pdf
[22] Foeg Teost Ogazatos . U.S. Department of
State. Reteed 17 Noebe 2014.
22.6
Te Iteatoa Deso of PFLP-GC Actty

by Dad Ta. Te Ja ee Cete fo Stategc Studes. JCSS Poect o Lo Itesty Wafae & Te
Jeusae Post INTER Iteatoa Teos
1989 (pp. 61 77) Te-A, 1990
External links
PFLP-GC o ca ste
Teos Resouces. Popua Fot fo te Lbeato of Paeste-Geea Coad (PFLP-GC)
(U.S. Nay) Souce Couty Repots o Teos, 2004. Uted States Depatet of State, Ap
2005.
Popua Fot fo te Lbeato of Paeste - Geea Coad (PFLP-GC) (ICT)

Katz, Saue M.Israel versus Jibril: The Thirty-year
War Against a Master Terrorist. Ne Yo Paago
House, 1993.
22.8. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
22.8
155
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Jea.uus, Gaus Caudus Neo, Saes, Abd.aa, Bbb23, AoeBOT, Moocs, Wedtooftoday, Fepe P, FeeSuy,
Metaead94, Matte.Das, 1exec1, J1138, Cptoo, JaceBot, OpeFutue, A ua, Jo3sap, Koedged87, Gayes,
Es214, Kaas, Ae, Mateascetst, Mopauoco, Vaeyofda, Ctato bot, Bgtgas, Lt1126, Patypus2012, JoeJoso2, Doe, AtuBot, LHepa, Xbot, Teota, Aua89, Wstefucs, 4tety42o, MaeBeeeMoste, Joxxx9, Jsapo, Kta, NedeadeFW, GoucoBot, Ades ag, Rcad.deca, Hatedead, JosXF, Maxasgt, GogeCustesSabe, Cotsfa, Bado5485, Ma Scebece, Sayese, Spes531, Ra, Te W gost, MatsPoety, GayBot, Eugee-egato, WebCteBOT, Joau008, PascaMceSI, Hstoyoe4, Wps, Toe, T3po7e5, Teepfubot, HgFygFs, Gee Cadao,
Cad o, Edgas2007, StoePopet, Ooc, FescoBot, Su141st,
, CaptaFugu, LuceBOT, Tobby72, Lota o
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I oe Isac, Caotte Ayae, Baeytedoc, Lgtatgt, To1234555, Nystup, Mecaftfa14, Soesseat ad Aoyous 993
Military of ISIL Source: ttp//e.peda.og//Mtay%20of%20ISIL?odd642951152 Contributors: Bgte, Nc-D, Kaegaad, Oca1 9904, Magoadts, AdpsT, Toubo, Asaa, Sfa00 IMG, Gee93, Aayay, Legacypac, EastTN, Yobot,
AoeBOT, Aoteco, I dea of oses, GegKaye, Mobgeo, Tecopat, Geysa09, Cateu, Dad O. Joso,
BG19bot, Bosstope, Hazaxx, Aga81, Ko-ta u, Has59, Aoca, Gaztu, LgtadDa2000, Mogs, Abdes2008, Faza,
Supesaye312, Facoet8, Soage, NeCaoso, RabM26, Abutus te tee, Weegee12, Fedeebot, Ecato, ReasteTea,
Actect2014, Feo, Mosse, Atfabbas8, Koyata, LodHeo1, SafaSue5, Ld29, Waa86, Saeed aaee, Sta72, StaMa87, Abu Musa Ibaee, RB9776, ZaaZee, Peped007, K d ad Aoyous 39
Islamic Front (Syria) Source: ttp//e.peda.og//Isac%20Fot%20(Sya)?odd642583782 Contributors: Nug, Supe401, BD2412, Ees, Jpg1966, Stefa2, Cydebot, Matte Pocto, Magoadts, Lse, Aayay, Rooes, Laas, Yobot,
Agae, AoeBOT, Wedtooftoday, LHepa, Cotsfa, Lota o Rctofe, HCPUNXKID, Sope99, ItNe, GogBatty,
Speed s, Weet, EoGaf, , Dad O. Joso, 3bduea, MPegu20, FutueToae, Gaztu, CsGuate, DyaLacey,
LgtadDa2000, KaMetz,
, N4y6, Ruby Muay, NgtSadeAEB, Moz u, Haba911, Paa2014, Ayut15, Actect2014, Muste128, Nua Tact, Sta72, StaMa87, Husa ad Aoyous 29
157
Free Syrian Army Source: ttp//e.peda.og//Fee%20Sya%20Ay?odd642703645 Contributors: Te Aoe, Ubuty, Boud, KAMKAZOW, Tpbadbuy, AoMoos, Beacat, Wode a, Kee Kocacc, No3d, Me Rosoft, Dscospste, Bede235, QuateLat1968, Redad, Geadseds11, Axea89, Tabetop, BD2412, Dad Ley, Rs, Gy do, Guax,
Waeegt, Gaus Coeus, Euba, Wgt94, SFGats, Pet Ko, Ktetsubu ao, Kudzu1, Szz, Rose2100, Cs
te spee, Ottaaset, Cattus, Jpg1966, Hbea, Ees, Kaza, KostasG, Stefa2, Cao Sacez, Meco, Kpat, Seb,
Kotze, Deo, Dg, Jesse Vao, Fuyfaofdoo, Cydebot, We2009, Meo25, Meoy, Tdet13, DubBOT, Casbe,
Ts!bot, Katoo, Nc Nube, Wdboy211, Neua, Supezoa, Cedea, Spece, Deadbeef, Epee ece, PKgt, Magoadts, Bogao, JaesBWatso, Bucsot06, Paza, CoosDee, KTo288, As, Ltte Pofesso, Oeg, Coebetus, Toubo, LoCoc, Cba, Motaca, Asaa, Eatabuet, Ooe Baa Saa, Nosgeecooe, Daoo, A Aee so,
AOe, FuMo, Ifesto, Joaozzo, Wtcaut, EoGuy, U5K0, Nceguyedc, Joza91, Su Ceato, Coa, Aayay, Legacypac, D9ax, Mae12329, 7, Aexade Tede, XLBot, MystBot, Addbot, Soe e o te Iteet, Dooad, Laas, Aba,
MuZee, Lucas-bot, Yobot, EsotSK, Daespece2, AoeBOT, J1138, Es214,
, Kaas, Mateascetst,
Cauc-, LHepa, Xbot, Teota, Wstefucs, 4tety42o, GoucoBot, Cotsfa, Aauy, CaCaaty, Spes531, MatsPoety, Beaysf, FescoBot, Su141st, Tobby72, Lota o Rctofe, Mdasa, HCPUNXKID, Bo yase, Gfte72, Sope99,
Yota, LtteW, Joesey95, Supee Decousess, Jusses2, SasatoX, Cas, Geg Padatsag, Mouat14, Reape Etea, EaB, MyMooboaccout, Tbotc, Ba-decee, Obsda Sou, Tecopat, RsBot, Sao guao, EausBot, Jo
of Readg, WtaBot, Supe48pau, Detec, GogBatty, Usa, Sp33dyp, ZoBot, Iegtate Baste, Boye , Tago Oado, Hazad-SJ, Geysa09, Mcatte, Wga47, EoGaf, Mayu, Huady618, CuspastoBot, Kst, HadsoeFea,
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SadSaSog, Cess0Mate, Yaubsa12, Vtoo, TstaBogad, Bgade93, DyaLacey, Has 2580, HL1KM RI10, MAust390,
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, T t122, Sya Aab Ay, Mettte00,
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Beo, Paceaue55, Eta1012, WU2013, Baaasode, Lsaypes, Absaao777, Tago303, Roga Do, Pedoe, Ha307,
Etoscato, Bb, Aabeg, Roa Laso, Lesse Catogapes, Podaebba, UcappgCoe64, Jaccba, Myassa2000, Mosty
oe, SpetsazRue12, Apaae2000, Caca5645, Abutus te tee, Haba911, Nsadosa, Mobot, Ayut15, LbDutc, Actect2014, Nua Tact, Had Spso, Itefastae, Adc as, Mc010, Peappepucas, Juacad, Sta72, SEA ARMY
ad Aoyous 327
Syrian Revolutionary Command Council Source: ttp//e.peda.og//Sya%20Reoutoay%20Coad%20Couc?
odd642891075 Contributors: Dsp13, Sfa00 IMG, Yobot, AoeBOT, Kaadez25, Dad O. Joso, MPegu20, Gaztu,
KaMetz, Actect2014, Da J Lopez ad Aoyous 1
Supporters of the Religion Front Source: ttp//e.peda.og//Suppotes%20of%20te%20Rego%20Fot?odd
642553328 Contributors: Cydebot, AoeBOT, Teota, Tappst te o, GegKaye, SpoBot, Dad O. Joso, MPegu20,
Gaztu, Caes Esse, KaMetz, WaoofSs, -Jafa277- ad Aoyous 2
Muhajirin wa-Ansar Alliance Source: ttp//e.peda.og//Mua%20a-Asa%20Aace?odd636398317 Contributors: Dad O. Joso ad Gaztu
Peoples Protection Units Source: ttp//e.peda.og//Peope's%20Potecto%20Uts?odd642692117 Contributors: Fed
Baude, Soa, Quota, Geadseds11, Stefaooe, Toy1, Atu Rub, Cattus, Jpg1966, Hbea, Cydebot, We2009, Teoucou, Neua, Asaz, Boyaedsue, J.edeso, Daoo, Keasa, Codespoety, YSSYguy, Coa, XLBot, Addbot,
, EsotSK, Agae, AoeBOT, Es214, Teota, Opaedsta, Cotsfa, Lota o Rctofe, HCPUNXKID,
Na Fad, Dege Eatfast, C4K3, EausBot, Loo2See1, Detec, Aotz, ZoBot, Geysa09, Huady618, Cateu, Dad O.
Joso, Peace ad, Guest2625, BG19bot, Goada, Kaas, MPegu20, K2243, Vtagetay, BattyBot, DaafsBot, Te
Iuse Ma, DyaLacey, , LgtadDa2000, Caes Esse, Mogs,
, Ludsugecy, Robosye, Napy65, UcappgCoe64, Ayut15, SatLa, Psecoesacuso, LbDutc, Nua Tact, Sueye, LbCoIt, Saeed aaee, 4ea312 ad
Aoyous 34
Jabhat al-Akrad Source: ttp//e.peda.og//Jabat%20a-Aad?odd638094252 Contributors: Toy1, Huo, Saoa, Cydebot, Teoucou, Legacypac, Lota o Rctofe, HCPUNXKID, Weet, Ad Oete, Dad O. Joso, BG19bot, DyaLacey,
Caes Esse, EegeeF, Aa2014 ad Aoyous 4
Peshmerga Source: ttp//e.peda.og//Pesega?odd643015939 Contributors: Syst, Aoesteee, Teesa ott,
Popsace, Vased use 5zau3s04, WspeToMe, Stesy, Nug, Supe401, Adbs, Sap Daes, Vaaa, Bobbe,
Adycp, Paeda, Sa Hocea, Kaoe, Kee Kocacc, Rc Faboug, Psyyz, Leados, StaatUK, Ma1, Bede235,
QuateLat1968, Koss, Jag123, Ga edata, Atoy Appeyad, Lua Jao, Pete McGey, Gazo, Geadseds11, FacsTyes, Wooootty, Lapsed Pac st, MG, , Toussat, BD2412, Rs, CaJW, Guc, Joda Ede, Jesey De, Bgte,
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Ts!bot, Bobbeead, Katoo, Mutt Lue, La D, Abay NY, Cyofe, VoABot II, Fazade, Bucsot06, D.Kudsta, Exedoe, DeHexe, Basta, MatBot, Aat, Juasdous, R''B, CoosDee, KTo288, Gug, Lzae, NgtFaco90909,
ATousadYoug, Ia.toso, BoeSpee, Daebat, Assass3577, WateBge, Tatge, KCDC, Wa3pxx, KyeTastc, Vased use 39948282, Ady Macbas, Loez, Ldtet, Adyp, AotaBOT, JsBot, LeaeSeaes, PDFbot, Aebetz, Ceepu 222, Boet, He46, Keasa, Boate, SeBot, WeeSpeCeues, Iyacadz, Petebuce01, KPH2293, Gaa, OKBot, Facs doayde, Npsoaoata, Aosd, Cagesea, Cadsata, IageReoaBot, CueBot, Ubutteed Pasp, Sgt.
bede, Nceguyedc, Ct, DagoBot, PxeBot, MosRob, Muades, K c ca, Nabeezy, Ioaes Aosus, Taabeg, WsD, Sy, CeazySut, IaAazo, Aexus08, WDao, MystBot, Zguez, Nabucadessa, Addbot, Roadue-oe, Edee, Dooad,
Hoe, Capta Obous ad s ce- gtg dog, Lgtbot, Lapad123, Adeuas, Lucas-bot, Mauato, Yobot, Guy1890,
158
WDW Megaapto, AoeBOT, Pao o toppo, Uc1313, Es214, Ctato bot, Xbot, CaSEAL, 7aeed7, Sc32977, Ep, HaesP,
, Cotsfa, Ma Scebece, Mtt, Locobot, Mau Lop, Na Fad, Mazo, I, Acedet, Ctato bot
1, Aa Qad, Dege Eatfast, KRG-Edto, Joesey95, Kaa a, Aasse, NotyNot, Haao, Lote, Mattgg, Juyaay, Bectz,
Geuot, Acbsto, Beyod My Ke, Bap Euba, Koa95, Mac1988, ZxxZxxZ, Soud, , RoNes18, STEVENJ0HNS 1,
Geysa09, XxDestyxX, MALLUS, Sasa, IR393ANDRICA, CueBot NG, Cateu, Aosus, Ra ea, Kasaft, Guest2625,
BG19bot, Kud, Ua, K2243, Isa, Ncoad84, DPL bot, Pesege, Has59, Rado1991, HaHagaa1948, Jafa
Saeed, Rado500, CsGuate, KudWao, Uo K, Toas.Lu, Caes Esse, Mogs, Kaza09, JasoF, Wy, Wo uas,
TeDu123, Rabaasa, Ioo Wadee, B14709, WCS100, AcdSo, Payaya, Wfa115, Gesacg, Tsua, Nguye QuocTug, Bodeguyate, Kaa97, Royacoute, CogtoEgoSu14, Mobot, Bos Neaus, Fedeebot, Mopaye, LbDutc,
Dae.bad, J ataa, Pazepapfpoy, Bea 145, TeScoa2006, Abd asou1234, Zg ustfa, BobNes, Patpesega, Sa.st777, Babubbs, KudsPesega, Psedo17, TootoKRD, Efoceco, Mozad655, Sso01 ad Aoyous
332
Kurdistan Workers Party Source: ttp//e.peda.og//Kudsta%20Woes'%20Paty?odd643128234 Contributors: AxeBodt, Matte Woodcaft, Guppe, Ed Poo, JeLuF, Gaft, Edad, D, Boud, TeuSpaas, Lyc, Lfta, (, KAMKAZOW, Docu,
Agea, Jdfoeste, Vcto Gsbes, Keubo, GCaty, Geg, Guaa, T, WspeToMe, Seet, SEWco, Topbaaa, Secetodo, SoofRage, Rddey, Beacat, Robbot, Pgsoteg, CsO, Koat, TR, Og, Cauc, PBP, Adb, Wode a, Webaste,
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Fedeebot, Jo11227, LbDutc, Efgtte, Je.est.u.aute, Luxebugst, SeoKud, Lase Pe ta, Jaaaaas, Wte eage
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Syrian Armed Forces Source: ttp//e.peda.og//Sya%20Aed%20Foces?odd641854350 Contributors: Ma, Jag,
Boso, Zeo0000, Nug, Roa, PatuX, Bead, Ka Dca, D6, Rc Faboug, Guaabot, AaddSE, Vdtas, Cdaeso, Ga edata, SVg, Axea89, Wooootty, Magabud, Ttoses, Cedus-Lba, Stefaooe, Rs, Hbeateas,
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Aa.fou, Toto9041, Spguts, Ate, Raabbas, Meco, FauseBot, Otubea, Cydebot, We2009, DubBOT, Ads90,
Bust, Ts!bot, Nc Nube, Neua, Supezoa, DAJ, PKgt, Bucsot06, Pbe, D, BCat, Ge, Raoudue47,
Gaseadstee, Aaxa, CoosDee, Noo64, Yodebot, Sae bgd, Tatge, Fatteod, Degod, VooBot, Toubo, AotaBOT, Asabbag, Soeguy1221, SteatEXE, Daoo, SeBot, WeeSpeCeues, Becaed, Jaedb, Mataus, M aaga0,
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ZoBot, ButAet, Iegtate Baste, Baseesube, Geysa09, SpoBot, Te Atue Pe, L1A1 FAL, LZ6387, CueBot NG,
Masogacga, Cateu, Dad O. Joso, Waaaa, Ts, Aogae13, Pua, Hepfu Pxe Bot, Guest2625, Loecase sgabot, BG19bot, Ceado, Oueda, HIDECCHI001, MPegu20, Mase1984, Sa Hous, K2243, CtatoCeaeBot,
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LgtadDa2000, Mogs, Maecat-bot, Fosty, Gapu, Popco1101, Aza, CSBab14, Gobbeygoo, SoaPobeda, Haseeb
Aed Ma 786, S15081997, LogFTW, Haba911, StudesWod, Mobot, Lugutea, Actect2014, Maoud Aad,
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-- Ap, Ed Poo, Ade Eges, Fese, Scpus, Day, Fedbaude, Ree, SoP, Be-Z, Dbug, Zoe, Mb, Oe, Leadod, Steetgo, Sp , Edad, Boud, Mcae Hady, Modste, BaHase, Mec, Ta, Mc, Ixfd64, Aeza Hase, Zau,
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N8200p, Teps, Popuus, Re, JoeM, Ed g2s, Td, Joy, F, Fasadb, Cuye, Cs, Joee, Focea, Dad.Moaux,
Facs2000, Outets, JogeGG, J, Robbot, Vado, RcH, Dae Aett, CsO, RedWof, Atea, Koey, Stepa Scuz,
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Hezbollah Source: ttp//e.peda.og//Hezboa?odd642545139 Contributors: Kpas, Ma, Zuda, Gaet Oe,
DaKeset, RK, Sse, Toby Bates, SoP, Zoe, Gaft, Caebet, Iss, Moteaas, Modeac, Hepaestos, Steetgo, Moo, Fecefoot, Edad, Bdesa, Patc, JoOes, Rab, Eat, Fed Baude, Dope sJust, Lfta, MatHape, Gabbe,
Sa Facs, Ixfd64, IZAK, Sase, Deu, Tp , Roabop, Aoesteee, Jeeee, J'axs, Teesa ott, Soyes, Noteuse, Agea, JWScdt, S Pau, Sto, Cad, Bg o, Ades, Jag, Kasu, Eecat, GCaty, , Jo K, Geg, Mx, Bob O'Bob,
W, Feedeceea, Ube, Ada Bsop, RcK, Redd, Dysposa, Jeeso, Redbu, WspeToMe, DJ Cayot, Hauut, Vacoueguy, Tpbadbuy, Dopup, Jae Neso, Maxus Rex, Mad, Moe, Jc, Teps, LMB, Zeo0000, Re, Pau-L, Jeca,
Boodsedde, AoMoos, Weta, Dad.Moaux, Fay McWate, H, Rddey, Robbot, Sade123, CsO, Fed, Beg, Aaseeda, Cocoateboy, Nug, N, Cs Roy, M, Tosatsa, Acadec Caege, Roto, Gdob, Huus sapes, Habutt,
Hada, Roozbe, Fuebotte, OeVoce, Apaxe0, PBP, Pego, Dadcao, Aa Leftg, MaGoZa, Jacopae, Vas, Jy, Mpote,
Euopee, Coac Caaes, Hegg, Nat Kause, Dood, To aso, Feepaade, MatKgt, HaggCue, Wfed Dese,
Zgge, Eeyg, Fea, Mcae Deoe, FeoousMo, Vaaa, DO'Ne, Beta , Guaaco, Ceeayoz, FYGuY, Gzoepatz,
Bobbe, Edcos, Waa, MSTCo, Geo spea, Jaes Cppe, Ruy Lopez, Bact, Sog Ma, Soaaa, Quade, Jaccs,
Atadus, Mustafaa, Eetype, PeaetE, Joss, Mzaac, OeBace, Mat Wsse, Ctae, Coadate, Totebacades.t,
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PFHLa, EuoTo, Toty Use, Sa Hocea, McoGypcs, Doug Dae, Rag, Gscsoyu, Expat, Zga, Kee Kocacc, JaaTeo, No3d, Waa Waa, Hobat, Babe sc, Me Rosoft, Kga86, Ta bu s da yu, Jayg, Feaofutue, AeFeeHappy,
Gcapt, Meto, Lus, Rc Faboug, Guaabot, NeuoExMaca, Hydox, FT2, Feestyefappe, W ut, EasAucad,
Syt, Dce, Ec Sao, LeeHute, Dbaca, JPX7, Ma1, Bede235, ESog, Metauas, TeaFost, Lace6Ws, Masfod,
Geog66, Doo, M. Bo, E C, Se, Cafza, Koege, Te bea, RoyBoy, T-bob, MPS, Tuesso, Kopas, WCtyMe,
Boteba, Vae, Kguse, Too, See, Cdaeso, Ada, Adg175, Pao, TePoect, Sudge, Peace, Masoo, Jo
Fade, Peae, Isputo, Nsaa, Geg123456, Kgsda, Ncfase, Scsse, Ta, OeGuy, Hoeycae, Soeposta, Eead,
Seuc, Babaobu, Adep, Rcy81682, Mcede, Ade Gay, Pouya, Mbeya@ao.co, SVg, Mac Das, Yocey,
Xapa9966, Mao, Bootstoots, AtoyWS, Maaocecos, Abstat, Iceof34, BayaTee, Suuea, HeD, E Moey, Addoua, Cout Ibs, Geadseds11, Guy Motag, Zees, Redes, Recuy, Baxtos, Mcae, Vuz, Dsas, Facoa, Taabotu, FacsTyes, Nuo Taaes, Duod, Bya Fod, Setca, GaecWzad, Reout, OeX, Wooootty, Mato, PatGaace,
Daude, Te Ba, ESau, Foe use 2, ^deo, JeeyA, Ato, Lapsed Pac st, Ste, Tce e, GegoB, STP, Eteaseepe, Noetca, Joe137, Xog Cao, 790, Souscef, Cedus-Lba, Lface, Stefaooe, Pfastad, MSoeoe, DadPa tt,
0pea, Asoo, Gaa87, Cs Wee, Seueca, Cucua, BD2412, Kbda71, NubKace, DePep, Eectood, Edso,
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G, Ia Ptcfod, Aabaa, Musca Lgust, Cazycoputes, Paadoxc, Vso, Jo Z, AI, Eceeda, Euto, Nu, VK,
Atx20, Oea, Apacp, Attae, Le A-Huy, Ade, Butos, Cobot, Jesey De, 334a, Bgte, Cactus.a, Dgtae,
Geo, Tousee aat, Dogees00, YuBot, Nocado, Waeegt, Jsosy, Kaed, Aagstoe, Geotox, Scepte, Noatteto,
Pete G Wee, RussBot, Aado, Haca 3Guy, Za obue05, Spette, Case, Csty747, Se Key, Gaus Coeus, Wt,
Cuado19, Rtcy, B-Co, NaW, Aoe, Ecyde, Joco, Jessesauus, W af, Pagasta, Cdbod, Heacus, Acad, Wes, PASteLoD, Hoceg, Tseye, Saso, Lexco, Isguy, Nc, Aao Beea, Rbaea, Aetode, RcadMates,
Saeabbas, Doss, GHcoo, Waas1987, Msza13, Eeso, Toy1, Joodoo, Caze 88, Aao Scuz, Xopaty, RoCa, Ceeota,
BOT-Supezeocoo, Geogesegoupe, Rae, Eeysu, Bota47, Adcao, Sea, GOER, Nu, Nc123, Wgt94, Ms2ge, Aaa, Saa, Rast8, Jey, Wae, W55, Bdustce, Iaapate, Yaoo, Teda, Spodoocs, De Adstado Ipeo,
Netapt, JoaeB, Peya, Bupo, Aas Food, Fa, Jaafa, MatUK, Jaada, Dae575, AeGod, Tsaoa ee, Deobaba, A
a, Idagazt, Kugfuada, Toas Bobeg, Laye2b, Huda, Tyotc, Acostc, Peeteeee, Ese, Jade Kgt, DVD
R W, Ada8, Bay Wes, Lu, Puat, Sadaapaus, Itagbe, Ree, Ioe85, SacBot, YeoMoey, Scopoa, Ze,
Sae, Roge Daes, Fedeast51, Estoy Au, Cataoggee, Cdogsos, FaeBob, Podego, IeseHypecube, KoedgeOfSef, Jo McW, Maog, Oae, Deatbaa, Dasta1st, Od Mseu, AdyZ, Jace Kedysz, Ae, Daed, Iaue godste,
Gaodous, Vaze, Dedot, Esbot, Toasess, Agetba, Fyaste, Aep, KtteKub, Ktetsubu ao, Aazosy, Betdet,
Jp1187, M stoe, Xaos ux, Dysexc agostc, Fus Rosads, Ga, Ootsae, Has, Betacoad, Aeede, NoMoo, Atoyse, Cs te spee, Pece, Buebot, Kuy, CKA3KA, AdeRT, JosNas, Jpg1966, Rt2, Va, SB Joy, Dae
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Feddy123, Td1060, We Guy, Sao128, Spp, Koo, J17, Gab S., Escottf, Booe, Sada, Geoge, MtayTaget,
Fuy Moey, McaeBgto, Sa1, Sado1, Mustaba, RadoP, Topsc, A.R., Toto9041, Zeo Gaty, Ladego,
ILe2BeAoyous, Kedc7, Fata00, Saaua, Ees, Ja u, Va-bot, Potguy, FacescoMazzucote, Ocofucus,
Moaseou, MBJ, Raabbas, Eya, Bugas00, AgebageIV, Roy096, Bazoo, Hayboyes, AAA765, Mogado, Set, Kuu, Kaza,
Dado, Sse, Apooouso, ADae, Sa Kada, Scetzze, BuDoBabyo, Vctoa15, Lege, CPMcE, Yaba, CeozocEa, S Ncoas de Msy-Popgto, Cpo, C1sta, Sadoy, JosuaZ, Poou, Ma Soa o Sta, Jo eo , Mtso Be,
Catsta, Seotace, Nes, Sote, Itzse, Te Ma Questo, Macyox, CyoCAG, Bess ss, Sa, Madso, Staeste,
MTN, Kbyte, Matp23, Gadpafootsode, M Stepe, Abdua Geea, Meco, Supedatayo, Mets501, Dc ye, Abe.Foa,
AdutS, Wop, Jayze68, Gabex, Ryuog, So Rpa, Quau, Ge Pepce, MTSbot, AaJa, Ccdaes65, Sfaa, Pea47,
Jac Waug, No t, TuaX, Jaes estgto, Roy, C17H19NO3, Neas2020, Noexstat Use, HeoAyog, Idescet,
JMK, Dpayas, Caboate, Josep Sos Austaa, Soeofdeat, Saoa, MUA, AcoMed, J D, Mdtee, Jua Gobado, Iad
ae, Dp462090, Hubestudet, CaptaR, Rya4, Adabsage1, Bottes, Daste, Taebot2, Atoo911, Suce, Dae5127,
Ousoebea, Te Lette J, TSocast, Rox2, JFoget, Booteg42, Faes S, Wad, Joy Zoo, CRGeatouse, CdObot, Daboyte,
Patcou, Bdes, Mattb, T. Auas, Wafuz, S Vcous, Bobfobocey, Va esg, Cb, TaaS, SupaStaG, Ceedee, KyaVxe, Odecaos, Fabb, GHe, MessedRobot, Jsaye, Cs eze, Joes Fee4Me, Otubea, Bf91, M21, Moussazed,
WeggeBot, Moesc, Itcy01ca, Sadyegoay, Ma ag, Fodadoxfaud, Fexboy, Daosta, Deuteu, Ms5392, Poopp, Badseed, Tegtyu, Cydebot, Kaae, Godsue, Ede, Staap22, HReseace, HubeGod, IdyLaStee, Catee Mos,
Soeteas, Jua Medez, Sea, Syegy, Sa.aa, Reted use 0002, M, Taebot4, Scoa2010, Beda, Dougee, Tototo, Robeta F., DubBOT, Asee, BaSaab, Wabo, Ge ee, Kozuc, GagstaEB, Rob Hood 1212, Maee, Tucete,
CJ Kg, Ocopese8, JodyB, Dae Ose, Aateyya, Faa00, Geto, Nsda, Et, Ads90, Totdog, FacoGG, BetacoadBot, CeoEsteado, Joeses, Cdstc, Ts!bot, Sb8721, Lod Ha, Cocspot, Btba, Coeaca, Neess 961,
Hoopo, LactoseTI, Utus, Dae, Ucaootup, Sepet-A, MeedtPae, Kae, SocedUse, CycaMe, Sopaosob781,
Mgod, Fuxbot, Pp, Ugat, Aussetge, Nada1, Jo254, Tap Te c, Bobbeead, Pss, Jaes086, Toetgod2000, Yasc,
Ada2288, MCa, Hcobb, Kaae Aaga, Pppe, Jues1236, Dges, CaotteWebb, Matte Pocto, Bobby Loe, Abdusa,
Saout, McaeMaggs, G-Dett, Vseood4, Joefast, Met sto, KaatoaKate, AtVadaBot, Dado , Yoata, Fedayee, Lua
Sat, Maou, Opeo, Sta, MsDag, Just Cg, Maotz, Poog, BeTebay, Sooe, Vc226, TVces, Tops,
Tayesf, NSH001, Tgeoo, Yas121, LbLod, Daac, Axxae, Moutebao, St, Gdo01, Dgog, Capta caada, DTAD,
Kea2, Stepezu, Mya, R4ge, Toetoe, Rauodac, Saua Teooga, HazoHatto, JADbot, Xee, SyEat, JHyas@est.co, Leoy65X, Caadaa, Husod, Tgt, Cooto, Acageus, A Dao, Azueoe, EZe, MER-C, BdEage, Epee ece, Aouso, Aaya1, Leadete, Saaba, Fetccos, Itso, Eax0, Dpoo2002, Adoc, 1916dc, Yaudd, Pat
te Cat, Hect, Hasaz, Ceo, East718, Wayud, AJ-, ^da^, Vxys, Pocoog, Queestguy, Ba.obso, Rya4314, Josep
Cada Ratzge, Ebattedseap, Saguas, Destoyezboa, BGazes, CodFuzo84, Jeusaeose, Hug.gase, Labae,
Yae Gua, Zedu, Sefe, Meepes, FaeeIGey, Fbc13, TeGReefe, Tebze, Sacest, Abu a, Ec, Magoadts, Teso e, Dpexseee, Atezyy, Accessbe, Pedo, D.M, Bogao, Baza!, VoABot II, Fecagdue, BobbyBoudes69, Jostoec, PceofRoaa, NetofRod, BobbyBoudes22, Aaos, Bugeot42, Bbby Bdes, Cype056E, Dpd es, Rabas,
Joycoug, M, Kadoso, Faye, Atotsgt, Jaaa, Spas1122, Lg.Nut, Azaet, Hae, Pexo, Baboy755, H a82,
Joexsyd, Aa, Iustge, Mac123, Aboutu, Tugste, Mapette526, Caogueo, R u, Fabctap, R AexadeBoye, Jaaobou,
164
Au, WteSads, A17, Fotz, Kpe ey, Maoc292, Exedoe, Nes, Peste Jo, Couta, W-g, Basta, Steg63, PaxVobscu, Wao, Jooacdoes, Ctoesue, Mac33c, AHNazza, Jeo, MatBot, Sp0, Gaseadstee, Adesco, Laduba, Rettetast, R''B, CoosDee, Steeg75, Wt89, Lac Sou, W Raa, Bet O, Wodedxo, Paao
of te Wzads, Kedoaoe, PaesteReebeed, Ta, Ao740, Nubo3, NgtFaco90909, Daa, PWdaod, Itepoe, MBe, Joe5555, A Nobody, Uagate Useae, Baaa, Red spee, Booboo75, Jcycogto, It Is Me Hee, Hoe
sps., Gb1291, Pussa Poet ga., Cs Cap, Pastcup, Dago, Duas2000, SJP, Asey eedy3, MKoto, Geo ey Masa,
Haazad, AuPta, KyeTastc, Weeedoe, Tusa atoa, Pefo, Mceoeucsb, DMCe, Ady Macbas, Yo Yo Ha
Ha, WLRoss, Te Bea, GaaHady, CadaDa, Ebago, Aad031, Boed coege studet, Ma Sabazz, Aoyous,
SLCTu, Haesoft, Rays, GQ yboy, Nbude, SQUADRONLEADER, BoogaLoue, I'Do, Cba, I dude2002, TXKBoT,
Wa3ad7, Coodoey, Fyte35, K, Asaa, Ay24, GDoato, Dca1, A Stoute, DadYo71, Qxz, Espet Moo, Maxo
Deco, Stee J. Adeso, Ladaa, Kste07734, Kedecd, Rpdat767, Ceepu 222, StT, Wazzo07, Kooess 04, Ta,
CoseateOpo, Kataa2005, Nosgeecooe, Sue1981, Roy737-800, Ada.J.W.C., Sytebot, Stagee, Feea, Keasa, Assface1952, Edo, Mf107, AebogoBot, Aadusse, Soos, Moou, Jud, Spose, Bg bote s aays atcg,
ExBot, A Aee so, De-ctoy, Moeybues, Lyefo, SeBot, DesetEage73, Aes07, OVes, Caopee1, YoaBot, Scaa, N-HH, Ee pus, Moo934, NB-NB, Hetz1888, Mbz1, Socceguy12093, Ueseato, Haste X, Daboodz, Axoe2, Faod,
Lucasbfbot, Pete coe, JabbaTeBot, Vased use s3oo3fse35y, Rabbeu, K..., FuMo, Poya, Te E Spata, Jbea, Husy, Asad, Maa Caoa, 0Aege, Aspects, Yoe Feades, Lgtouse, Ceebau, Re, WacoJaco, Fatep,
Kuoo (eaed), Wedayd, Cuyeatba38, Kaydzdas, JoSaye, Myusa, Spazue, Sea.oyad, DRTbg, A.oy2, Mube45, Aduz, Habest, Mataus, Jf92, CueBot, Cetauod, PpepBot, Tpse77, Joeboetesco, Pastspo, Pau K., WadeSage, Faaax, CasuaObsee'48, Nceguyedc, Da2513, Soa-Wd, Lsdfsb, Becee, Fastabbas, Supegodza2090, Sus85, Re o stpy, PxeBot, Basebabae23, TeGeeEdto, Cetayea, Staytueo, Nabeezy, JaeS93, Yoaa, Taasp, Fasbd, Royaate1, Jopsac, ScebeBe, Poy, BOTaate, Netae , Coo1084, Da Secest, Ezou, MeoBot, Duseat,
Oasu, Tasy, Maz640, Heua, Just Maco, Rosyouds, DuZBoT, A.. g, Bugepot, Dect acto, Hexeb, Iteetedt, IAMTust, Masoyt, Adogea, Leey, Foutaed, Dodad, Zguez, Addbot, Fa of Feedo, C6541, Essua,
RaceEefed2, Doube335, Ae Caesa, Roag Se, Ode ad ... e ode, Jaesto28, Zappa123, Caty R. W., Ded,
Gbuc, Otapaz, Asoa, Laas, LFA-Bot, Abua, Nasuaa, AgadaUbat, Lgtbot, Tudabuggy, LebaoIsCoo, Jabe,
Wfa12345, Kuts, Lucas-bot, Yobot, Nota, MS-Saat, Puttyscoo, PuAo, W Roxo, AoeBOT, Estedout, FeeSuy, RaEage, Cptoo, Uc1313, Keec1, Maudas, Mateascetst, Ctato bot, Euopo, 206209yc, DayAse,
LHepa, Apos54, Obesacsebot, Xbot, Fazausse, Wstefucs, Tosuce, Obaac, Joaeas, J04, GoucoBot, No Moe
M Nce Guy, Asf1979, Sayese, Euu12, Peeat atbucus, CHJL, Jaapeos do exst, Cyfa, MeLBot, Hosa12, Adzaaass, Joau008, Pezbo, Hstoyoe4, Pot Spoe, RgtCoLeftCoast, Ooc, FescoBot, Rubeesco, MDude, Oetoog,
Kupedu, Izzede, HCPUNXKID, Kassab, AdesHeutJa, Ge 3pc2005, Caos, Hoopeag, VOBO, Joesey95, Loyast Caos, Supee Decousess, Stead, RedBot, Jutsuguy, Dagot, Jaue, Pates, Bodace, TobeBot, TeWaOfAt,
, Lote, GegKaye, Kooboce, , , Bdoo, IRISZOOM, Tbotc, Mobgeo, RsBot, DexDo, Aco,
EausBot, Jo of Readg, 478z, Nc Ftzpatc, Detec, ZaLate, 8dgts, Sp33dyp, Byooga, Nade ec, HeW,
Lateg, Redae, Too Foseca, AesJetzt, Bayes99, H3Bot, Geysa09, Jadaad, Soeoe65, Poxyao, Kuag, HazadBot, TeTesAeACagg, Nbaa s a oe, Battesae1, Dad O. Joso, NPz1, RJFF, MtsosGeece, Spe-Puc-Ga, Ds77,
Lysozy, Mod. Tou Had, Secodat of Oage, Not Atatcst Usoa, Hepfu Pxe Bot, Oa te 1st, BG19bot, Moaed
CJ, Seatz, Watcacae, NaFaa, FutueToae, Jeacey, Te Agtey D, Dae2012, ITeReouto2, CAWye, SpdExD, As11282001, BattyBot, D999, Rey Hutey,
, Pce.aabbas, CsGuate, Padao, Jeto B, SNAAAAKE!!,
Soupaadox, Egey, Baboo43, 23 edto, Stu, DyaLacey, Jabotto48, Radatoott, Dexbot, Mcae A Beo , Caes Esse,
Mogs, 8HGasa, Jaca5, Eeytg Is Nubes, Paae, IPoud80, RSK68, Vad apa, Sotagsbate, Ccessa, Sepss II,
SpesC, SudooSepu, MessaLod, D3L74, LdaSato, CSBab14, Uppe a 65, Babycae Bossos, So edo, Pecso123,
Pssyoeyeed247, Kea1992, Bacedgag, AbustBot, IatGeebeg, Mcae Zee, D Eaetts, UcappgCoe64, SILtedaup, Heo, L'Yfabuseea, Wgugt93, Kuased, DocuetEo, Esost, Mobot, Estet, AtueReade, Sayyedfaaz11,
Sucu, LbDutc, Actect2014, ASufLea, Mosse, Meaus, Nua Tact, WCoecta, Adc as, Ns1, Mc010,
StaTeMa87, Syate123, Absoute98, Dedds Rues, Haae.M., Baatasaa ad Aoyous 1256
Ba'ath Brigades Source: ttp//e.peda.og//Ba'at%20Bgades?odd634785833 Contributors: AoMoos, Magoadts,
Yobot, Cotsfa, Lota o Rctofe, HCPUNXKID, Tust Is A You Need, Mac1988, BG19bot, MPegu20, Zyzzzzzy, DyaLacey, LgtadDa2000, Aa, Haba911, Mobot ad LbDutc
Liwa Abu al-Fadhal al-Abbas Source: ttp//e.peda.og//La%20Abu%20a-Fada%20a-Abbas?odd642545154 Contributors: Peto, Stefaooe, BD2412, Bgte, C.Fed, Cydebot, Fadesga, XLBot, Mateascetst, Teota, Cotsfa,
HCPUNXKID, Weet, Dad O. Joso, Not Atatcst Usoa, BG19bot, MPegu20, Buo Russe, KgQaa, Pug6666,
Gaztu, DyaLacey, Ncoaseoso, D3L74, SoaPobeda, Kaeupces, LbDutc, Totoo,
75 ad Aoyous 12
Asa'ib Ahl al-Haq Source: ttp//e.peda.og//Asa'b%20A%20a-Ha?odd642545105 Contributors: KAMKAZOW,
Rc Faboug, Madaax, Macus Cyo, Cs te spee, Cydebot, CoosDee, Specate, Keasa, Wedayd,
EoGuy, SaueTeGost, Bago, ScebeBe, Daa booe, Addbot, Tae, Agae, LHepa, Asf1979, Pezbo, FescoBot,
HCPUNXKID, GegKaye, EausBot, Jo of Readg, Weet, Iegtate Baste, Cateu, Dad O. Joso, Hepfu Pxe Bot,
MPegu20, Gaztu, Otsoo, DyaLacey, Caes Esse, Sa sode, Ncoaseoso, D3L74, Cacedado, Bad Dye, Haba911, AtueReade, Gode appes of te su, Yace ad Aoyous 22
Jaysh al-Muwahhideen Source: ttp//e.peda.og//Jays%20a-Muadee?odd639310220 Contributors: Metaead94,
HCPUNXKID, IRISZOOM, Usa, Weet, Cateu, Dad O. Joso, Not Atatcst Usoa, DyaLacey, Daeduze, SoaPobeda, Mattaat ad Aoyous 2
Syrian Resistance Source: ttp//e.peda.og//Sya%20Resstace?odd642105463 Contributors: Stefaooe, Cydebot,
R''B, CoosDee, FuMo, Yobot, AoeBOT, Sayese, Lota o Rctofe, HCPUNXKID, Mac1988, Dad O. Joso, Not Atatcst Usoa, MPegu20, Gaztu, DyaLacey, LgtadDa2000, Caes Esse, Ludsugecy, Roga Do,
Matxe Aexade, SoaPobeda, Szeszte, ALHSouse, MaostCoade, Aa2014, Ayut15, LbDutc, Tepta Vaad, StaMa87 ad Aoyous 6
Arab Nationalist Guard Source:
ttp//e.peda.og//Aab%20Natoast%20Guad?odd632751379 Contributors:
KAMKAZOW, Gay123, BD2412, Soa-Wd, HCPUNXKID, Mac1988, Weet, BG19bot, DyaLacey, Caes Esse, LogFTW
ad Aoyous 1
165
Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine General Command Source: ttp//e.peda.og//Popua%20Fot%20fo%
20te%20Lbeato%20of%20Paeste%20%E2%80%93%20Geea%20Coad?odd640027029 Contributors: Guppe, Zeo
Gate, Cadode, TUF-KAT, GCaty, Eteaepeo, Ube, WspeToMe, Rddey, ScucyTeCat, Huus sapes, Jos
Mat, Beta , Waa, Soa, Neutaty, Jayg, Feaofutue, E C, Rys, Vdtas, Pao, Dae, Seuc, AzaTot, Ftz Saafed, Cout Ibs, Geata, Wooootty, Bueoose, Stefaooe, Desceda, Kbda71, Rs, TJe, Ncoas1981, Ia Ptcfod, Guc, Euto, Txuspe, Deoda, Ceeota, Vaao, Jac Upad, SacBot, Jo McW, Ae, AdeRT,
Costaz, Te , Fusta, Beadadoses, Sa1, Kedc7, G, Jxb311, Soeofdeat, Patcou, Ceedee, Tegtyu, Cydebot, Beeopo5685, CDacco, Ts!bot, Fag.adsa, Fuxbot, Matte Pocto, Katous1978, HazoHatto, Aouso, KostabeBot,
Jay942942, Jeepday, Mufa, Mceoeucsb, WpedaIRAN, AotaBOT, Asaa, Boadbot, BotKug, A Aee so, Tpb, Daecy,
Meaus, PpepBot, Te Tg Tat Soud Not Be, Soa-Wd, Nude, Nabeezy, MeoBot, Tasy, DuZBoT, NoCa100, Good
Ofactoy, Jaad, Kbdabot, Addbot, Laas, Ty7, Lgtbot, Moseazepu, Yobot, Ptbotgouou, TaBOT-zee, AoeBOT,
AtuBot, Obesacsebot, Xbot, J04, Asf1979, Pezbo, HCPUNXKID, MastBot, Mcopuse, Da-bot, IRISZOOM, EausBot, Jo of Readg, 478z, Geysa09, EoGaf, Cateu, Dad O. Joso, Jda, Ts, Baeydots, Mostapaosta00,
EscEscEsc, MPegu20, Wotute, DossM1988, Gaztu, CsGuate, Egey, DyaLacey, Caes Esse, Co eeWtMaets, Ludsugecy, LbDutc, ECoadateVz ad Aoyous 42
22.8.2 Images
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ef'//coos.eda.og//dex.pp?tteCategoyFes_ceated_by_te_Uted_States_Mae_Cops_t_o_
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166
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at u.peda
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File:Climate_maps_of_Iran_(Kppen-Geiger).png Source:
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aps_of_Ia_%28K%C3%B6ppe-Gege%29.pg License:
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sc'//upoad.eda.og/peda/coos/tub/3/32/Wod_Koppe_Map.pg/50px-Wod_Koppe_Map.pg'
dt'50'
egt'33' scset'//upoad.eda.og/peda/coos/tub/3/32/Wod_Koppe_Map.pg/75px-Wod_Koppe_Map.pg
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167
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ANONINTEL

Participants in the Syria/Iraq Civil War

Syrian Civil War

Potests, c upsg, ad defectos (Jauay 2011

Potests ad aed sugecy (Juy 2011

Escaato (Noebe 2011

Cease e attept (Ap 2012

Reeed gtg (Jue 2012

Battes of Daascus ad Aeppo (Juy 2012

Rebe o eses (Noebe 2012

Goeet ad Hezboa o eses (Ap 2013

Cotued gtg (Juy 2013

1.2.10 Goeet ad Hezboa o eses (Octobe 2013

1.2.11 Fgtg betee ISIL ad ote ebe goups (Jauay 2014

1.2.12 Cotued goeet ad Hezboa o ese (Mac 2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.13 Cotued gtg (Mac 2014

1.2.14 Pesdeta eecto (Jue 2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.15 ISIL o ese ad cotued gtg (Jue 2014

1.2.16 ISIL o eses ad U.S. astes (August 2014

Scud sse attacs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Iposed ota bobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Teobac ad ceday eapos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sya goeet ad a ated pates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Isac State of Ia ad te Leat (ISIL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Repotg, cesog ad popagada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Hua gts oatos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Teats agast Sya sects, otes ad aoty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.11 See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.13 Fute eadg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Foeg gtes Ia ad Sya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Aegace to ISIL fo goups outsde Ia ad Sya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Eupet tabe of cooy used eapos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Islamic Front (Syria)

O ca Goas ad Gudg Pcpes of te Isac Fot ad Its Aes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Free Syrian Army

Foato FSA, Juy 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

August Decebe 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Jauay 2012, g-aed o ces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mac Jue 2012, uo t HMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Juy Decebe 2012, eaeg, eogazato

4.10 Reatos t te potca opposto

4.10.1 Natoa Coato of Sya Reoutoay ad Opposto Foces

4.11 See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Syrian Revolutionary Command Council

Cuety a ated goups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Foey a ated goups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Muhajirin wa-Ansar Alliance

Peoples Protection Units

10.3.2 At-ta eapoy

10.3.4 Ma-potabe a-defece syste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.4.1 Aoued eces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.4.2 Logstcs ad utty eces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.5 See aso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.7 Fute eadg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11 Kurdistan Workers Party

11.3.1 Tag caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.3.2 Potca epesetato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .