ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEMS SCHOOL LEADERS IMPLEMENT TO

FACILITATE EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION IN URBAN

SCHOOLS:A CASE STUDY

by

Sharon K. Marsh

_______________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the

FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2008

Copyright 2008

Sharon K. Marsh

3324972
Copyright 2008 by
Marsh, Sharon K.
All rights reserved

2008

3324972

DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my three beautiful godchildren:
Isaac Gregory Edwards, Holly Sunshine Edwards and Alyssa Natalia Roegler
Herrera;
May your teachers serve you well!

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The past three years, culminating with this dissertation, would not have been
possible without the unwavering belief in my ability, and the support and
encouragement I have received from my colleagues, professors, fellow classmates,
friends and family.
I would like to first thank my colleagues in Pasadena Unified School District.
Your unfaltering support, good advice and willingness to listen and discuss
educational issues with me over the years have contributed to my success throughout
this process. I especially wish to thank my Longfellow Family for giving me an
environment in which I could grow both professionally and personally. The
foundation in good teaching I received in your presence will be with me always.
Additionally, your continued belief that ALL children can and will learn, inspires me
daily.
Time spent at USC has been the best educational experience I could ask for
thanks to the high-quality of the professors, courses offered and fellow doctoral
candidates. I would like to pay gratitude to my professors; from whom I have
learned a great deal. I would also like to thank my fellow doctoral candidates, with a
special shout-out to the Tuesday Night cohort. Id especially like to thank Drs.
Stowe and Rousseau who have continually guided me through this process with
support, advice and encouragement and sometimes a little tough love.
I am extremely lucky to have a group of girlfriends, stretching up the West
Coast who have been behind me 100% in this endeavor. First, thank you to my
iii

Southern Cal girls, my family away from home, whom have supported me and
encouraged me through good and bad times, and who have been there to pick me up
when times have been tough and celebrate when success has come every step of the
way. Thank you too, to my sisters in life up north; your presence in my life has
contributed to who I am today and for that I am forever grateful. Id especially like
to thank my girl Qiana, I could not have done this without you. Your honesty,
loyalty and ability to listen without judgment have made an impact on my life larger
than you may ever know. Most of all, thank you for continuing to remind me that
there was a light at the end of this tunnel and that we would get to the end.
Finally, I would like to thank my family. The most valuable lessons Ive
learned in life have been from you. Thank you for believing in me, encouraging me,
and supporting me in reaching my dreams. I love you~

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION: . ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii
LIST OF FIGURES: . vi
ABSTRACT . vii
CHAPTER ONE: Overview of the Study . 1
CHAPTER TWO: Review of the Literature 17
CHAPTER THREE: Methodology . 58
CHAPTER FOUR: Findings .. 73
CHAPTER FIVE: Summary and Implications 133
REFERENCES 146
APPENDICES: 153

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1. Graphic Representation of Theoretical Framework .... 62
Figure 3.2. Relationship of Interview Questions to Research Questions 66
Figure 3.3. Graphic Representation of the Data Collection Process ... 71
Figure 4.1. Student Enrollment; Ethnicity .. 77
Figure 4.2. Student Enrollment: Other Significant Classifications . 78
Figure 4.3. Interviews . 80
Figure 4.4. Academic Performance Index 1999-2007 83
Figure 4.5. API for Significant Subgroups 2004-2007 84
Figure 4.6. Percent of Students at Proficient and Above in English
Language Arts by Subgroup . 85
Figure 4.7. Percent of Students at Proficient and Above in Mathematics
by Subgroup 86
Figure 4.8. CELDT Performance Levels 2004-2007 . 88

vi

ABSTRACT
Urban schools have long been associated with low student achievement; large
populations of students and color and those living in poverty have often been to
blame. However, despite these historical trends, some studies have shown that urban
schools have been successful with their student populations. This study sought to
identify the perceived systems and structures in place in urban schools that facilitate
effective classroom instruction school-wide and have led to increased academic
performance in students of color living in poverty. A comprehensive literature
review discovered that it is a combination of systems working together to support,
encourage, maintain and ensure effective classroom instruction. Systems found in
the literature review included those for accountability, those that support curriculum
and teaching, those that encourage the use of data and assessment and those that
accommodate for change and promote sustainability. A qualitative case study of a
successful urban school revealed perceived systems in place in the school matched
those found in literature review. Additionally, a system that provides opportunities
for parent and community involvement was found to be a factor in the success of the
school.

vii

CHAPTER ONE
Introduction to Study
Our nations schools have long been touted as the road to equality, where
opportunities have their beginning. However, the equality that has been promised by
the Declaration of Independence has never become a reality for many of our nations
citizens. Assertions that education is uniformly available for all, is more false now
than ever before (Nieto, 2003). Inequity in resources, teachers, and expectations for
learning has led to depressing conditions in many urban schools (Darling-Hammond,
2002, 2004; Haycock, 2003). For many students, mostly those of color living in
poverty, the promise of the American Dream will always be just that, a dream. It
has been reported that nearly one-third of all public school students fail to graduate
with their class, many of whom are students of color (African American, Hispanic
and Native American) and those living in poverty (Weaver, 2007).
An education, which is more now more important than ever, leads to
increased opportunities for success. In this era of knowledge, information, and
technology, a high school diploma is essential for anyone wanting financial security.
Chapter One provides a brief background of inequities existing in public schools
today. These inequities create the vast achievement gap between students of color
living in poverty and their white and Asian peers. Following the background is the
statement of the problem, purpose of the study and significance of the study. These
three sections provide a rational for the study. Chapter One concludes with

limitations and delimitations of the study, definition of terms used and an overview
of the dissertation.
Background of the Problem
Over fifty years ago Brown v. Board of Education set the stage for our
country to legally desegregate its schools. This decision ruled that the very notion of
separate but equal was in and of itself inherently unequal. Progress made to integrate
our nations public schools over the last century has been lost in the past two
decades. Today a connection between racial separation and the concentration of
poverty for children is easily apparent in public schools (Kozol, 2006). A segregated
inner-city school is six times more likely to have large concentrations of students
living in poverty than a largely white school population (Kozol, 2006; EdSource,
2003). The re-segregation of schools is a trend that has escalated slowly over the
past 20 years (Kozol, 2006; Nieto, 2003). African American students saw the largest
regression the 1990s. Now Hispanic students are the most segregated of all ethnic
groups (Nieto, 2003).
High poverty urban schools with large concentrations of students of color are
linked with low student achievement (National Partnership for Teaching in At-Risk
Schools, 2005; Johnson, 2002; Kozol, 2006). The National Assessment of
Educational Progress (NAEP) indicated a narrowing in the achievement gap between
students of color and their White and Asian peers in the 1970s and 80s, however this
trend reversed in the 1990s when the gap between diverse groups widened (Johnson,
2002). Since the start of the new millennium the academic achievement gap between
2

students of color and their white and Asian peers has narrowed. However, the
differences are still staggering (NAEP 2007).
In 1983, A Nation at Risk reported that the American educational system had
fallen into a state of mediocrity. The authors noted that American students
academic progress and Americans expectations of that progress were far behind
those of their peers from other countries. This document called for higher
expectations and a more rigorous curriculum. Years later A Nation Still at Risk
(1998) reported the same data; we were failing to educate many of our students.
Particular attention was paid to issues of power and civil rights. Those without power
were being denied an inalienable right, education.
In reaction to these reports, standards based reforms prevailed in education.
However, these reforms alone did not close the achievement gap. The
reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Schools Act (ESEA) in 2001 put
into place a comprehensive federal accountability system. And while, this system
has not closed the achievement gap, it has focused the publics attention on the vast
differences in educational attainment of those of color, living in poverty and their
white, more affluent peers.
In response to this achievement gap, No Child Left Behind (2001), the
reauthorized version of ESEA, called for schools and districts to meet Adequate
Yearly Progress (AYP) in raising proficiency rates for all subgroups. While this new
law has made a difference in the educational attainment for many students of color,
those living in poverty, and those with diverse learning needs, a gap in achievement
3

still exists between these groups and their white peers (Johnson 2002; Kozol, 2006;
National Partnership for Teaching in At-Risk Schools, 2005; NAEP 2007).
Although this gap exists, research based structural and systemic practices
have facilitated high student performance in some high poverty urban schools
(Izumi, 2000; Education Trust, 1999). Studies have contributed to the knowledge
base of practices that have led to academic success for students of color and those
living in poverty (Duke, 2002; Reeves, 2005). Successful systems within structures
have been identified through research. School structures are institutional
mechanisms, policies, or procedures that are put in place by federal state or district
policy and legislation. They are widely accepted as the official structure of schools.
Typically, these are not subject to change at the local school site. Organizational
systems can be defined as the coordinated and coherent use of resources (time,
personnel, students, parents, funds, facilities, etc.) at the school site that ensure
school vision, mission and goals are met.

Examples of these include strong internal

systems of accountability, curriculum and teaching, assessment and data, change,

sustainability and leadership (Duke, D. 2006; Edsource 2005; & Izumi, L. 2002).
These systems have created pockets of achievement in places where few before have
existed. The responsibility for establishing and implementing effective systems
within the structure of the school lies heavily with the school site administrator.
Effective leadership is a common characteristic of high performing, high
poverty urban schools. School site administrators must not act only as the manager,
but as the instructional leaders of the school site as the role of principals has become
4

a multi-faceted position. No longer is the principal only the school manager, he or

she now provides the professional guidance necessary for teachers and helps them
implement research based instructional practices that support achievement for all
students.
The organizational systems that successful leaders have created in some
schools have had a positive impact on school climate and teaching which has
affected student achievement as evidenced by studies like No Excuses (Carter, 2000)
and They Have Overcome (Izumi, 2002). These studies have indicated that
implementing a rigorous curriculum aligned to standards, allowing for collaboration
among teachers, and providing high-quality professional development, are among
other successful systems. A combination of these systems implemented school-wide
by school leaders, creates pathways that promote effective instructional practices.
Effective instructional practices ensure students in all classrooms are receiving the
best, most high quality instruction possible.
For many years a common thought was that schools, let alone individual
teachers could not make a difference in the education of students who are less
advantaged. In 1966, what became known as the Coleman Report purported that
regardless of what schools did, they could not make up for the disadvantages
suffered by students living in poverty and those coming from families with low
levels of education. Recent research has countered this notion (Marzano, 2003).
Marzano (2003) identified a list of factors in schools that influenced student
achievement. These included variables at the school, teacher, student, and parent
5

levels. The factor found to have the most influence on student achievement is the
opportunities for learning provided to the student. Opportunities for learning are a
combination of a viable curriculum and time spent on instruction. The responsibility
of implementation of curriculum and time spent on instruction rests primarily on the
shoulders of the classroom teacher.
Another study conducted by Sanders and Rivers (1996) supports the
influence that individual teachers have on student achievement. They found that
these teacher-effects appeared to be cumulative, and for each year the opportunities
for learning are compromised, the gap widens. For instance, the Tennessee students
Sanders and Rivers (1996) studied who had three highly effective teachers
consecutively scored significantly higher than those who had three consecutively
ineffective teachers.
Teacher effectiveness is greatly improved when successful systems have been
put into place by strong, instructional leaders. If leaders insist on consistent schoolwide implementation of effective classroom instructional practices, high student
performance in high poverty urban schools with large concentrations of students of
color can become a reality (Carter, 2000; Haberman, 1999). Success that has been
demonstrated by a handful of schools, (Reeves, 2005; Izumi, 2002; Education Trust,
1999) is often referred to as beating the odds or having overcome. In fact, these
schools have implemented successful structures that led to achievement for their
entire student population. Systems they have implemented include those for
accountability, those that support curriculum and teaching, those that use assessment
6

and data and those who adapt to change and create sustainability. It is here where
expectations are not based on the exceptions, but on the belief that all students have
the potential to accomplish great academic success.
Statement of the Problem
Public schools in the United States have produced varying degrees of student
achievement levels throughout the past century. Gaps in student achievement
continue to exist between income levels, race and ethnicity. Large percentages of
low-income students of color, African-American, Latino, and Native American, are
on the low end of the achievement continuum, while their Asian and white peers
appear on the higher end (Johnson, 2002; National Partnership for Teaching in AtRisk Schools, 2005; Kozol, 2006).
Schools with large concentrations of students living in poverty and a majority
of students of color have been associated with low student achievement. Reasons for
this range from low expectations for certain groups of students to inequitable
distributions of resources, both social and capital, that are available to schools with
large concentrations of students of color living in poverty (EdTrust, 2004).
Additionally, studies indicated urban schools with populations that are designated as
those most at-risk, have a larger share of under-qualified and ill prepared teachers
(Darling-Hammond 2004; Haycock, 2003).
To improve the quality of the educational functions, research has shown there
are systemic practices that have been proven to raise student performance (Izumi,
2000; Duke, 2002; Reeves, 2005; Marzano, 2003). What is still not known is which
7

of these organizational systems enable teachers to deliver effective classroom

instruction. It is also not known which organizational structures and systems have
the most impact on instructional practices resulting in high student achievement in
schools with high concentrations of students of color and high poverty levels.
Additionally, what must be known is why the success of some high poverty urban
schools has not been reciprocated in other high-poverty urban schools.
Studies have also indicated that leadership is a key ingredient to the success
of these schools (e.g., No Excuses, 2000; Reeves, 2005; Izumi, 2002;). However,
what still needs to be known is how leadership creates and sustains implementation
of effective classroom instruction school-wide.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this case study is to examine the organizational systems that
school leaders have created within the structure of their district and site that have led
to the school-wide implementation of effective classroom instruction in highpoverty, urban schools with large populations of students of color. While research
has identified some common characteristics successful urban schools share, the
question remains regarding how these practices can be implemented on a grander
scale. To affect change in more than just a handful of public schools, the findings of
this study can be replicated in other schools with similar characteristics.
Research Questions
This study searched for answers to the following questions:
What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of color?
8

What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with large
concentrations of students of color?
How are the organizational systems and structures implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
How is the construct of race reflected in the schools structures and systems?

Significance of the Study

This study looks closely at the combination of systems high-poverty schools
have implemented. This research will contribute to the existing knowledge base of
best practices in urban schools, with the unique look at which systems implemented
by schools have created the most success for their students of color. Results from
this study can be used by urban schools as a guide for school reform.
This study adds to the limited literature base linking successful leadership to
effective classroom instruction. This link contributes to the ongoing search for
what works, especially as it pertains to closing the achievement gap between
students of color and those living in poverty and their white peers. While many
studies have been conducted that have contributed to the knowledge base about what
facilitates student learning, very few have focused on the relationship between
leadership and classroom instruction.

Limitations
Limitations that affect the internal validity of this study include:
Length of the case study: the study was conducted over a short period of
time, not providing an in depth longitudinal analysis. Although questions posed to
participants did address past practices, the length of the study cannot provide the
reader with true longitudinal data.
Small sampling size: Not all stakeholders at the school site participated in
the study limiting the number of opinions represented in case study.
Responses: The researcher could not control for the number of responses
provided by the participants nor the candor of their responses. Additionally, the
researcher cannot control the truthfulness of the responses the school received from
families regarding their eligibility for free and reduced lunch, which affects the
reported Title I (socioeconomically disadvantaged) population.
Analysis of Data: The researcher made every attempt to eliminate any
preconceived biases and values brought to the study, although these still exist as a
limitation.
Delimitations
Delimitations which affect the external validity of the study were determined
by a group of seven doctoral candidates and include:
Limited sample size: One school was selected for an in-depth case-study,
limiting the generalizability of this study to similar schools.

10

Strict criteria: The set criteria which was determined included 60% students
of color. Students of color for this study are defined as African Americans, Hispanic
and Native Americans. This further limits the generalizability of this study.
Assumptions
The use of effective instruments developed and used by all members of the
thematic group in response to our research questions and the respondents, assumes
appropriate data collection. Assumptions made include the accurate reporting and
analysis of data. Candor of participant responses was also assumed. All schools
studied met specific selection criteria assuming similarities of the units of study
across the thematic group.
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following terms were defined below:
Academic Performance Index (API): The numeric indicator of a schools
performance level which can range from 200-1000, on the California Standards Test
(California Department of Education, 2007).
Accountability: The notion that people (e.g., students or teachers) or an
organization (e.g., a school, school district, or state department of education) should
be held responsible for improving student achievement and should be rewarded or
sanctioned for their success or lack of success in doing so (EdSource, 2007).
Achievement Gap: A consistent difference in scores on student achievement
tests between certain groups of children and children in other groups (EdSource,
2007).
11

Achievement Test: A test to measure a students knowledge and skills.

Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP): Adequate yearly progress is a set of
annual academic performance benchmarks that states, school districts, schools, and
subpopulations of students are supposed to achieve if the state receives federal
funding under Title I, Part A of the federal No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). In
California, the measures include: (1) specified percentages of students scoring
"proficient" or "advanced" on California Standards Tests in English language arts
and math; (2) participation of at least 95% of students on those tests; (3) specified
Academic Performance Index scores or gains; and (4) for high schools, a specified
graduation rate or improvement in the rate (EdSource, 2007).
Assessment: Another name for a test, it may be written or oral, formal or
informal. Depending on the type of assessment, results can be used for a variety of
reasons. There are several types of assessments: criterion, formative, summative,
progress monitoring, and curriculum embedded.
Content Standards: Standards that describe what students should know and
be able to do in core academic subjects at each grade level. New K12 academic
content standards were adopted by California in 1997. (EdSource, 2007).
Disaggregated Data: The presentation of data broken into segments, for
example test scores for students from various ethnic groups instead of in the
aggregate, for the entire student population. (EdSource, 2007).
Equity: The belief that state governments have an obligation to equalize
students access to educational opportunities and thus life chances (EdSource, 2007).
12

Free/Reduced Price Meals: A federal program to provide food for students

from low-income families. The number of students participating in the National
School Lunch Program is increasingly being used as a way to measure the poverty
level of a school or district population. The number of children in this program can
affect schools or districts eligibility for grants or other funding aimed at helping
lower-income families (EdSource, 2007).
High Concentration: At least 60% of the student population
High Performing: A trajectory of growth on Californias API system within
a five year period of time with a minimum of two deciles growth on Californias
state accountability system. All subgroups must exhibit the same amount of growth.
High Poverty: 75% of the students being on free and reduced lunch.
Highly Qualified Teacher: According to the No Child Left Behind Act
(NCLB), a teacher who has obtained full state teacher certification or has passed the
state teacher licensing examination and holds a license to teach in the state; holds a
minimum of a bachelor's degree; and has demonstrated subject area competence in
each of the academic subjects in which the teacher teaches (EdSource, 2007).
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP): This is a national test
that is given to specific grade levels in specific subjects every other year. A small
sample of student representatives of the state are tested (EdSource, 2007).
Opportunity To Learn (OTL): The standards that measure the extent to
which key educational resourcessuch as experienced teachers, adequate materials,

13

rigorous courses, and safe, clean, uncrowded facilitiesare provided at a school site
(EdSource, 2007).
Organizational Structures: Institutional mechanisms, policies, or procedures
put in place by federal state or district policy and legislation. They are widely
accepted as the official structure of schools; not subject to change at the local school
site. Examples of these include funding mechanisms (federal, state, district),
personnel policies (hiring, evaluation, credentialing, etc.), instructional time, Class
size, and program regulations, i.e., special education, bilingual education.
Organizational Systems: Coordinated and coherent use of resources (time,
personnel, students, parents, funds, facilities, etc.) at the school site to ensure that
school visions, missions, and goals are met. These include systems for professional
development, teacher collaboration, parent involvement policies, use of instructional
time, and school budgets.
Performance Standards: Standards that describe how well or at what level
students should be expected to master the content standards. For example, while
content standards may say that all 8th graders should learn Algebra I, performance
standards would say what level of mastery of Algebra I is necessary for promotion to
the next grade (EdSource, 2007).
Professional Development: Programs that allow teachers or administrators to
acquire the knowledge and skills they need to perform their jobs successfully and
effectively (EdSource, 2007).

14

Proficiency: Mastery or ability to do something at grade-level (EdSource,

2007).
Scientifically Based Research: Research that involves the application of
rigorous, systemic, and objective procedures to obtain reliable and valid knowledge
relevant to educational activities and programs (EdSource, 2007).
Standards: Degrees or levels of achievement (EdSource, 2007).
Standards-Based Reform: A shift in education policy and school reform
toward reaching consensus on and establishing standards for what students need to
know and be able to do at each grade or developmental level (EdSource, 2007).
Students of Color: People who historically were disenfranchised (AfricanAmerican, Hispanic, Indigenous People).
Title I: A federal program that provided funds for economically
disadvantaged students. Funding is based on the number of low-income children in a
school, generally those eligible for the free/reduced price meals program.
(EdSource, 2007).
Urban: Area with a dense population and high concentrations of students of
color.
Organization of Study
This dissertation is organized into five chapters; Chapter One gives an
overview of the study. Also included in Chapter One is the statement of the
problem, purpose, significance of the study, limitations and delimitations of the
study. Chapter One concludes with a glossary of relevant terms. Chapter Two
15

provides a comprehensive review of the literature and research on barriers to

academic success for students of color living in poverty and systems in successful
urban schools. Chapter Three gives a detailed look at the research methodology used
to conduct this study. Chapter Four delineates a detailed analysis of the findings.
The study concludes with Chapter Five, which provides implications and
recommendations that can be drawn from this study.

16

CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
The movement to reform education in the United States has focused largely
on our nations urban schools. In urban settings, our national resolve to strengthen
the educational system faces no tougher challenge; every problem becomes more
pronounced and every solution gets tougher to implement (MDRC for The Council
of Great City Schools, 2002). Research and literature consistently show that
unsolved problems create barriers to success for students (Darling-Hammond, 2004;
National Assessment of Educational Progress; Johnson, 2002). The majority of these
students living in inner cities are mostly students of color living in poverty. In 1983,
A Nation at Risk examined American schools. The ensuing report was not good
confirming that we were failing as a nation in our quest to prepare all our citizens for
a life of prosperity, security, and civility; a quality of life that can only be attained
through quality education.
Historically, organizational systems in urban schools, with large populations
of minority students and those living in poverty have resulted in low student
achievement. Recent data and research have continued to illustrate that we have
created two educational systems that have educated only some students well, while
the rest, mostly poor and those of color have struggled or dropped out completely
(Johnson, 2002; National Partnership for Teaching in At Risk Schools, 2005; A
Nation Still at Risk, 1998). In the decades before and since the publication of A
17

Nation at Risk, generations of young people have fallen into a void (Kozol, 2006).
The vast majority of these are students who attend our nations public schools in
urban cities.
Gaps in student achievement continue to exist among income levels, race and
ethnicities. Large percentages of low-income students of color, African-American,
Latino, and Native American, are on the low end of the achievement continuum,
while their Asian and white peers appear on the higher end (Johnson, 2002; National
Partnership for Teaching in At-Risk Schools, 2005; Kozol, 2006). Social
inequalities in America are perpetuated by this lack of achievement and it must be
closed for our nation to truly prosper. Educators, and society as a whole must begin
to look at schools where the achievement gap has begun to close, identify unique
trends and common characteristics these institutions share and look for methods of
transference.
Studies have been done that attribute the success of many of these schools to
various factors. Key factors identified in studies include, among others, the use of
standards to drive student performance, providing time for collaboration, using data
to make instructional decisions and providing quality professional development
among them (Duke, D. 2006; Edsource 2005; & Izumi, L. 2002) . A combination of
these factors and others has continued to permeate research in this area. One
consistent theme that continues to emerge within research is effective leadership (No
Excuses, 2000; Haberman, 1999).

18

Many studies point to the role leadership plays in the success of schools
(Carter, 2000; Izumi, 2002; Reeves, 2005). A leaders ability to implement a
successful combination of systems, such as accountability and use of data have
contributed to the research in effective schooling. One such way to support
educators is a committed instructional leader. Instructional leadership can be
described by a blend of supervision, staff and curriculum development (Blas &
Blas, 2004). This form of leadership relies heavily on building systems of
professional development and learning communities for teachers in such a way that it
impacts classroom instruction to promote student performance. The role of the
school leader has changed dramatically throughout the years. A detailed look at the
role of the school site administrator will be taken later in this review.
The following sections provide a brief history of public education in the
United States. The historical overview includes important documents, such as A
Nation at Risk and A Nation Still at Risk. These reports heightened the American
publics awareness of the inequities in schools and created a contextual framework
within which public schools function. What followed were the large-scale reform
movements of standards and No Child Left Behind, a federal accountability system.
These reforms together have not yet created equity for our nations students.
Statistics to demonstrate this vast gap in educational attainment between
students of color living in poverty and their white peers follow. Brief discussions of
existing research that provides explanations for the American achievement gap
conclude the historical overview. This literature review continues with a look at
19

what research points to as successful organizational structures and systems

implemented in urban schools that generate high-performance in students of color.
A focus on the impact of leadership and how the implementation of these systems
within school structures facilitate effective classroom instruction resulting in high
student achievement concludes this chapter.
Historical Overview
A Nation at Risk
In 1981, Secretary of Education T. H. Bell created the bi-partisan National
Commission on Excellence in Education. His intent was to create a sense of
urgency among Americans regarding the state of education in the nation. Under his
direction, this Commission examined the quality of education in the United States;
from this examination a report was created and given both to Secretary Bell and the
nation. The picture this report presented was bleak. The report indicated that
American schools were falling short of their designated duty to educate all students
to their highest potential; stating that the nation had resorted to a level of
mediocrity that threatened our future as a strong and productive nation. Their
analysis pointed to frightening trends. For example, American students were lagging
far behind their peers in other industrialized nations, like England. Other alarming
information pointed to the nations functional illiteracy rates, which indicated that 23
million Americans suffered from illiteracy. Even more troublesome was the fact that
nearly 40% of the minority population fell into this category (A Nation at Risk,
1983).
20

Included were notable deficiencies in expectations for students. Specifically,

in regards to the amount of homework given to high school seniors, time spent on
special sciences, high school diploma requirements with respect to foreign languages
and the lack of rigor on minimum competency exams. The involvement of
inexperienced teachers in writing textbooks resulted in watered down content, so as
to accommodate for the low expectations teachers had of their students.
The report pointed to several alarming facts. First, the amount of time
American students spend on school work compared to other nations was
considerably less and second, ineffective use of time was prevalent. Third, schools
were not spending enough time in helping students develop the self-regulatory skills
necessary to promote learning. Finally, findings revealed worrisome trends with
regard to the Nations teaching force. Teacher preparation courses didnt focus
attention in specific content area, which lead to teachers being ill-prepared to teach
many subjects. Severe shortages of teachers for specialized subjects and populations
existed.
For Americans, specifically those of color living in poverty, hope for a
quality education was just that, a hope. Despite the intentions of educators and
policymakers, our schools were still failing large populations of students. Definitive
recommendations provided by the Commission on ways of implementing more
rigorous content, higher expectations, improved use of time, and teacher quality gave
our nation a road map to follow. Fifteen years later, our nation was still at risk.

21

A Nation Still at Risk

The picture that A Nation at Risk painted predicted a risky outcome for our
country: an outcome that could potentially lead to negative economic and social
consequences for the United States. By 1998, when A Nation at Risk was written,
the country had deflected the predicted danger of economic decline and
technological inferiority. The nations educational system, however was not yet
adequately meeting the needs of many populations of American students. Although
this report differed from its predecessor; it specifically identified students of color
who are economically disadvantaged as the most underserved population.
In 1996, 13 percent of all African-Americans aged 16-24 were not in school
and did not hold a high school diploma (A Nation Still at Risk, 1998). An alarming
17 percent of first generation Hispanic students had dropped out of high school, and
44 percent of Hispanic immigrants (A Nation Still at Risk, 1998). The drop-out rates
indicated that the United States was the only country whose children fell further
behind the longer they stayed in school.
In the midst of a prosperous economy, a dual system of education had been
recreated in our schools: A familiar system, one that the country had seen before and
made several attempts to eradicate. This system was separate and unequal, and
worked well for only specific populations of American students (A Nation Still at
Risk, 1998). In this dual system poor and minority students overwhelmingly
attended less than adequate schools. These students were also those who held the

22

least amount of power to modify or change their current realities (A Nation Still at
Risk, 1998).
The report described concerns that indicated there was a gulf between the
educational haves and have-nots. Affluent parents of children living in suburbs of
cities held the power to make choices that created better educational opportunities
for their children. Others less fortunate were left to suffer in schools that were not
meeting their educational needs. The authors of A Nation Still at Risk (1998)
suggested that those who have the power to really change the educational system did
not really want change. Not change that would really matter. A sense of delusion
and indifference, issues of power, civil rights, and extenuating classroom factors
caused great concern. Equalizing educational opportunities presented a new civil
rights movement. Children whose parents had the power within the system, ended
up with an excellent education. The report argues that if education is a right, why
would some have to beg for a quality one? A right is something inalienably
received; this report made clear that this indeed was not the case when it came to
education (A Nation Still at Risk, 1998).
The nation has had a long-standing history of providing unequal educational
opportunities for its citizens long before any of these reports existed. Formal
education for many groups of minorities was often illegal and provided on a
limited basis. For example, in the southern slave states formal education of African
Americans posed a threat to their owners. For this reason formal education of
slaves was made illegal (Weinberg, 1977). African Americans in the northern states
23

had options for formal education, but this was considered a privilege, not a right
(DeBois, 1935). For Hispanics, their rights to education were largely encroached by
the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in the 1800s. While education was not illegal,
whites were given precedence for schooling and therefore segregation became
common practice. Decades of unequal educational opportunities followed.
Brown vs. the Board of Education (1954) called for the desegregation of
public schools. Since the time of this court ruling, our nation has continually
struggled to provide equal and equitable educational opportunities for students of
color. A Nation at Risk (1983) and A Nation Still at Risk (1998) illuminated the miseducation of countless American youth that continued to occur.
In an attempt to standardize student outcomes by the late 1990s, many states
had either adopted national or state content standards. These standards were
intended as a way to ensure that students attained the same educational outcome
regardless of their ethnicity, language, or socioeconomic status. The means to attain
standards were not available to all populations.
Standards Based Reforms
By the late 1990s, standards-based educational reform was referred to as the
educational fix-all. Standardizing learning objectives would likely standardize
learning outcomes. Under the Clinton administration states were expected to
establish challenging content and performance standards and find ways of
implementing and monitoring students progress towards meeting them (Fuhrman,
Goertz, & Duffy, 2003). Theoretically, instituting content standards around what
24

students should learn would create equal educational opportunities for all students,
regardless of race or socioeconomic status.
Increased funding for Title I schools during this time was intended as a
catalyst to help these schools increase the numbers of low-income minority students
meeting standards. Title I, enacted in 1965 as a part of the Elementary and
Secondary Educational Act (ESEA), provided additional funding for schools with
large percentages of students on free and reduced lunch.

Yet only a handful of

schools created successful learning environments for their students through their use
of Title I funding (Education Trust, 1999). Increasing only standards for student
learning did not lessen the achievement gap.
Standards based reform posed some problems for states. Choosing the right
standards for the right grade at the right time proved to be challenging. Additionally,
standards did not provide the necessary pedagogy required for teachers to help
students reach them (Kirst, M. 1994). There was concern that standards lacked a
clear prescription for how students were to reach them (OShea, 2005). Standards
that are too general, or dont build on each other systematically in way that gives a
roadmap for accomplishment, hold very little merit.
Standards did not raise expectations for school systems, leaders, or teachers.
Raising standards for students requires raising standards for all parts of the
educational system. A stronger system of accountability for everyone involved
would provide the type of instruction and environment all students need for learning
to occur (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Reeves, 2005). With standards only for student
25

learning, and none for how school systems should provide this learning, students
living in urban areas suffered most. Urban schools hold the majority of teachers who
are under qualified, unknowledgeable and untrained to deal with the complexities
with which their students come to school (Darling-Hammond, 2004; National
Partnership for Teaching in At-Risk Schools, 2005; Haycock, 2003; The Education
Trust, 2004 ).
Requiring students be held to common, high academic standards for
performance, also requires schools and those people who work in them, be held
accountable (Elmore, 2002; Darling-Hammond, 2004; Reeves, 2005). The critical
piece missing from standards-based reform was accountability.
No Child Left Behind
When standards alone did not close the achievement gap, measures of
accountability had to be instituted, thus, No Child Left Behind (NCLB), the
reauthorized version of the Elementary and Secondary Schools Act (ESEA) was
signed into law on January 8, 2002. This bipartisan supported piece of legislation
was built on four common-sense pillars; accountability for results, an emphasis on
doing what works based on scientific research, expanded parental options, and
expanded local control and flexibility.
Increased accountability mandates required by NCLB, ask that states develop
learning benchmarks to measure progress for all students. Test results must then be
disaggregated in order to show that all populations of students are achieving and that
the gap between the educational haves and have-nots is closing. Requiring annual
26

testing towards proficiency rates in benchmarked areas, NCLB also allows for
schools, districts, and states to make determinations regarding curriculum and
instruction based on identified needs.
Implementing programs and curricula based on scientific research is another
one of the requirements under NCLB. Using researched-based methods, what we
know works, to teach children skills in all content areas, specifically reading and
mathematics, student achievement and performance will increase. Special grants
funded under NCLB provide additional resources for states, schools, and districts to
provide professional development, materials and other support in core areas. One
such program is the Reading First program, which is an initiative to support the
instruction of literacy in kindergarten through third grade. Monies from this grant
can be used to fund literacy coaches and specialists whose designated role is to
support effective instruction in the classroom. Money can also be used to pay for
additional instructional materials for classrooms.
Opinions regarding the implementation of NCLB range from those in favor of
the rigorous targets and measures to those vehemently opposed to testing and
accountability. One popular belief is that comprehensive accountability systems are
disadvantageous for schools serving large populations of students of color living in
poverty (Reeves, 2005). Opponents state targets are too high and unattainable,
especially for urban schools (Reeves, 2005) where many will fail to meet targets set
forth by this mandate; relegating them to state takeovers and other dire
consequences. On the other side of this argument, lies the belief that this
27

comprehensive accountability system will in fact allow documentation and

celebration of successes the students in these schools achieve (Reeves, 2005).
Disaggregating data will provide evidence of what works and show us how to create
more schools within which students of color and those living in poverty can succeed.
NCLB (2001) has reformed education, requiring standards for learning,
setting goals for student achievement and instituting strict consequences for failure to
attain set goals. However, despite the increased accountability for states, districts,
and schools, achievement gaps have not closed entirely and continue to exist
between our nations students of color living in poverty and their white peers.
The Achievement Gap
In its most recent report, Beating the Odds VII, the Council of Great City
Schools (2007) reported that the majority of the districts in the councils coalition
had narrowed the gap in reading achievement for students of color and their white
peers in both the fourth and eighth grades. Despite this narrowing of the gap, urban
school achievement in reading is still below the state averages (Council of Great City
Schools, 2007).
Each year the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) reports
our nations advancement in reading and math achievement. The statistics provided
can be disaggregated by race, gender, economic status, and language proficiency.
Additionally, data can be viewed by state, and ranked in a variety of ways. In 2005
NAEP reported that 58% of black fourth graders and 54% of Hispanic fourth graders
scored at or below basic on the national reading assessment. Compared to 24% of
28

white fourth graders, students of color are twice as likely to fail to reach proficiency
standards in reading each year.
Statistics also illustrate the achievement gap that exists between students of
color living in poverty and their more affluent peers. In the 1999 National
Assessment of Educational Progress, it was reported that Black and Hispanic 12th
graders performed at the same level in both reading and math as white eighth graders
(Johnson, 2002). Graduation rates for Hispanics and blacks are approximately 55
percent, compared to 78 percent of white students (Greene, 2002). Nearly half of
young adults who were raised in affluent families have graduated from college by the
age of 24, compared to only 7 percent of those who graduate that come from lowincome families (Johnson, 2002). Furthermore, 34 percent of white adults attain
either a 2 or 4 year degree by the age of 25, compared to only 20 percent of black
adults and 15 percent of Hispanic (Johnson, 2002).
Measurable gaps related to equity do not manifest themselves as test scores.
Examples of these inequities include overrepresentation of students of color in
certain groups, for example special education programs and suspension rates, and a
technology divide (Johnson, 2002; Schott Foundation, 2004). Many schools that are
serving predominantly affluent populations use technology to create web-sites and
multimedia presentations. Those that cater to a more diverse population with lower
socioeconomic levels use technology primarily for drill and kill practice. This
technology divide creates huge discrepancies between the technological skills of our
nations students, the skills needed to be successful in the American workforce
29

paving the way for some, while simultaneously putting up road blocks for others
further perpetuates social inequalities existing in todays society.
Strong evidence exists to support the notion that students who are born into
poverty enter kindergarten already far behind than their more fortunate peers
(Borman, 2003). In their landmark case study, Hart and Risley (1995) found that
students living in poverty knew far fewer words than their affluent counterparts by
the age of four. Their varying knowledge base does not create pathways of success
for them in schools where Eurocentric views and pedagogies prevail. Research
consistently links success in reading to vocabulary (Pressley, 2002; Beck, McKeown
& Kucan, 2002). Limited vocabularies often lead to reading difficulties, without
proper instruction from an effective teacher many students living in poverty never
have the opportunity for reading success and a literate future.
Disproportion exists in the largest amounts in the urban cities. It is here
where countless students of color living in poverty have had unequal access to
qualified teachers, facilities and materials (Darling-Hammond, 2004; Haycock,
2003). The cultures and languages of many of these students have been
underrepresented and not valued in the curriculum. Little information about AfricanAmerican, Latino, and Native American history has been included in the majority of
history books and literature used in schools (Gay, 2004). This creates a cultural
dissonance between home and school for the majority of these students contributing
to the gap in achievement (Delpit, 1995).

30

Countless explanations, reasons, excuses exist in the literature to explain this

vast gap in achievement. Among them is racism; racism which fosters beliefs about
students ability levels and capacity for learning. These beliefs create low
expectations of students of color and those living poverty. Furthermore, many
students of color living in poverty come from dire home situations, which people
believe inhibits success in schools, perpetuating the cycle of low expectations and
beliefs about capabilities. Limited use and knowledge of culturally relevant
pedagogy creates learning environments that are not conducive for students of color
living in poverty to thrive academically, further contributing to the cycle of low
expectations. In the following section, these notions and others will be discussed.
Explanations for the Achievement Gap
Many explanations exist in research and theory to explain this vast
achievement gap. The majority of explanations have their roots firmly planted in the
construct of race, and stem from prejudices and stereotypes that have long plagued
our country. These explanations range from low expectations to beliefs about ability
levels and the capacity to learn. A common belief is that students from
disadvantaged backgrounds and those of color are inherently unable to learn complex
concepts. These students have been continually denied high expectations, financial
resources, and the best teachers (Darling-Hammond, 2002, 2004; Haycock, 2003).
In order to begin looking at ways of closing the achievement gap, we must have a
deep understanding of what has contributed to this perpetuating condition of low
performance in students of color and those living poverty.
31

The disparity in the educational achievement of students of color and those

living in poverty relative to their peers has been the single most important challenge
that has plagued the public school system in the United States. Initially, education in
this country did not exist in any way for those other than the majority. It was
decades before women, those of color and lower social status were able to receive
public schooling, and even then for specialized reasons, such as for jobs in the labor
or textile industries. It was not until 1954, with the Brown v. Board of Education
decision that our schools were legally integrated. Yet, in the years following this
landmark decision, integration was slow, and even halted in some areas of our
country. In many places integration never fully took effect. Today the resegregation of schools has played a large role in maintaining the achievement gap.
This re-segregation of traditionally marginalized populations has created
inequalities not only in an educational system, but in the society as a whole. The
Brown v. Board of Education decision of 1954 made it illegal to segregate schools on
the basis of race. Desegregation, which never fully reached its potential, has in the
past 20 years all but reversed entirely. In the 1990s African Americans witnessed the
largest backward movement toward segregation, although now Latinos are the most
segregated population (Nieto, 2003; Orfield, Frankenberg & Lee, 2003; Kozol,
2006). In the United States the average white student attends a school that is
majority white, less than 15% of white students attend a school where at least three
races are represented by at least 10% (Orfield, Frankenberg & Lee, 2003). This

32

would not matter so much if racial segregation was not linked to unequal educational
opportunities.
For example, segregated schools receive fewer resources, both human and
financial, than those serving white populations. It is largely these students who are
taught by teachers with less experience and preparation than those that serve large
populations of white students (Nieto, 2003, Haycock, 2003; Darling-Hammond,
2004; The Education Trust, 2004; National Partnership for Teaching in At-Risk
Schools, 2005). Teachers in these schools are also much more likely to be teaching
out of their field, a situation that would not be acceptable in a more affluent school
(Nieto, 2003).
Researchers, Ladson-Billings and Tate (1995) have called for a critical race
theory of education; acknowledging that political and social systems in our nation
are based on property rights, not human rights. The theory asserts the relationship
between ethnicity and poverty in our country presents an opportunity for
understanding how property rights have contributed to increasing numbers of people
of color being denied access to higher learning opportunities. The opportunities
associated with advanced learning are closely related to higher paying jobs and
financial power. Many of the academic problems exhibited by students of color
could be ameliorated if they were taught the language of power, or provided with the
social capital necessary to be successful in our economic and power driven society
(Delpit, 1995).

33

The consequences of this achievement gap are more severe for certain
populations within this subgroup, for instance African American males. Research
indicates that African American boys are victims of persistent, systematic, levels of
poor performance and behavior problems in school (Heward & Cavanaugh, 2001).
The possible loss of these human resources this would incur on society is staggering.
Students of color are no longer the minority. Their mis-education will likely create a
large burden for our society. The gap in educational achievement will most certainly
hinder many African American males from becoming valuable and contributing
members of their communities.
Broader cultural perspectives are needed in todays urban public schools.
Low student achievement coupled with low expectations prevails, causing grave
concern for the nation. Ten percent of all public school students living below the
poverty line attend school in one of five large urban school districts (The Education
Trust, 2004). In California alone 40% of the lowest performing schools were in the
ten largest urban most districts in the state (EdSource, 2003). Until we can find ways
to eradicate the poor conditions and inequitable learning opportunities that dominate
our urban schools, social injustices in our nation will prevail.
One explanation that has come out of the research is that many of these
students are taught by white, female teachers (Nieto, 2003). Many of these teachers
have subconsciously created classroom environments with behavioral expectations
contradicting the life experiences their students are familiar with most. LadsonBillings (1994, 2001) reminds us that most teachers have had little to no experience
34

with cultures different from their own. Often viewing the diversity of the students
they teach as a deficit they need to compensate for and overcome (Ferguson,
Kozleski, & Smith, 2001). Research has consistently shown that low expectations of
students of color and those living in poverty prevail, contributing to the achievement
gap (Bamburg, 1994). Researchers have also contended that teachers expectations
of students of color and those living in poverty have evolved due to the theory of
deficit thinking, (Ford et al, 2002; Gallimore, R. & Goldenburg, C. 2001) which
perceives differences in language, experience, and culture as deficits, rather than
assets. As a result, weaknesses in academics are considered to be deficits that may
or may not be fulfilled by schooling.
A childs cultural context plays a large role in how they organize information,
communicate and perceive their physical and social environments (ERS, 2004).
Without some knowledge of childrens lives outside of the classroom, it is difficult
to identify strengths (Delpit, 1995), which could be capitalized on in classroom
settings. Urban schools must draw on the strengths of their student populations, and
its diversity and look for ways within which inspiration can be cultivated into actions
that support learning amongst these students (Nieto, 1996).
This type of culturally responsive pedagogy is founded on the belief that
students backgrounds are assets, rather than deficits, and should be used to deliver
appropriate instruction (Nieto, 2003). This type of multicultural education, as
defined by Sonja Nieto (1994) is anti-racist and tightly related to student learning.

35

Equal access to resources and a commitment to social justice go hand-in-hand with

this type of instruction.
Other studies have indicated that the attitudes and demeanors of students of
color are often misinterpreted by their white middle-class teachers. They are often
viewed as defiant, aggressive, and intimidating, (Majors, Tyler, Peden, & Hall, 1994;
Slaughter-Defoe & Richards, 1994). The result for many is the feeling of being
misunderstood and wrongly judged because of how they look and act. This can
translate into lost instructional time for these students and contribute to the
achievement gap.
Some blame the condition of poverty for the low achievement of students.
Poverty rates for students of color are higher than those of white and Asian descent.
In a recent study on poverty in the state of California (Public Policy Institute of
California, 2006), it was found that the poverty rate for Latinos and African
Americans is about 20%. This is more than twice that for whites (8%) and Asians
(10%). Poverty rates are also high among Native Americans and other immigrant
families from Southeast Asian countries, like Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos.
Additionally, urban Los Angeles County has one the highest poverty rates in the
state, at 16% of its population living below the poverty line. Whether race is
indicative of poverty, or the other way around, it is evident that a large majority of
students of color live below the poverty line. Paired with the fact that the majority of
urban schools, where the enrollment is predominantly students of color, are failing,
poverty cannot be overlooked as a factor of the achievement gap.
36

Elmore (1996) asserts that the task of all educators should be to engage in
activities that challenge their beliefs. For true change to occur, educators must
challenge the fundamental assumptions, practices, and relationships existing within
the organization and society, in ways that will lead to improved student learning
outcomes (Elmore, 1996). Educators must meet the challenge of taking a deeper
look into beliefs that act as inhibitors of the learning schools are tasked to facilitate
for students of color living in poverty. To do this, educational institutions must
renovate their culture of practice from one that believes that barriers to learning
reside in students to one that expects schools to jointly take responsibility for
ensuring students learn (Hollins, 2006).
Research has demonstrated how district and school leaders can foster this
type of environment and culture in their districts and schools. Leaders of diverse
schools must mobilize their school community to openly and honestly have
conversations about their values and beliefs (Scheurich & Skrla, 2003; Singleton &
Linton, 2006). Additionally they must use data appropriately to determine inequities
to improve student learning. Promoting purposeful and collaborative systems in
schools and classroom is an essential characteristic of equitable and excellent schools
(Scheurich & Skrla, 2003). The following section provides a deeper look at how
leaders facilitate an environment such as the one described.
Organizational Structures & Systems
Without a doubt, there have been many measures put into place as ways to
ensure that all students are successful and that none are left behind, including
37

standards and federal and state measures of accountability. Yet large achievement
gaps still exist. It can be argued that this is due to disparate opportunities for
learning amongst ethnic and socioeconomic groups. Despite the large disparities that
exist among marginalized populations and their white peers, some districts, and in
some cases individual schools have beaten the odds or overcome (Izumi, 2002;
Duke, 2006; Reeves, 2005). These exemplary urban schools have successfully
implemented school systems within their organizational structures that have resulted
in high student performance.
In July of 1966, the Coleman report as it came to be known, purported that
regardless of the strategies and practices schools employed, they could not make up
for inadequacies in their students backgrounds. Making a difference in the lives of
students through education had essentially become a lost cause. Since the
publication of this report countless studies have been conducted on the effect of
schools, leaders, and individual teachers that contradict the findings of the Coleman
report (Marzno, 2003; Izumi, 2002; Duke, 2006; Reeves, 2005). Changing
instructional practices is at the center of improving opportunities for learning and
academic outcomes for underserved and underperforming students (Schmoker,
2006).
Regardless of staggering statistics demonstrating an obvious achievement
gap, a handful of studies have proven that organizations can implement systems
within their structures that lead to academic success for students of color living in
poverty (Izumi, 2002; Reeves, 2005, Fermanich et al, 2006). Despite historical
38

trends, research-based structural and systemic practices can and have contributed to
student performance in high poverty urban schools. Many schools and districts have
successfully implemented organizational systems within their structures that have
promoted opportunities for learning for all students (Reeves, 2005; The Education
Trust, 1999; Izumi, 2002; Fermanich et al, 2006).
Specific school organizational systems have had a positive impact on
classroom instruction in high performing urban schools. A common set of these
systems can be derived from the research and literature that currently exist. Among
these are systems for accountability, curriculum and teaching, assessment and data,
and change and sustainability. Systems like these can facilitate several features that
have been proven through research to support learning for all student populations.
These features include, among others, a strong focus on student achievement, data
driven decisions, a rigorous standards aligned curriculum, quality professional
development to increase teacher effectiveness, and increased instructional time in the
core content areas of reading and math (Reeves, 2005; The Education Trust, 1999;
Izumi, 2002; Fermanich et al, 2006; Duke, 2006).
Historically urban schools have been synonymous with low academic
achievement for students. Urban schools have many rich and unique contextual
features that do not exist in other school systems (Ferguson, Kozleski, & Smith,
2001). However effective leadership and implementation of successful
organizational structures and systems, within these rich and challenging contexts is
necessary for student achievement to occur. The following sections provide a
39

synthesis of the research and literature that has been established in regards to these
successful structures and systems.
Accountability
To close the achievement gap, urban schools must have a clear and
comprehensive plan for accountability (Scheurich & Skrla, 2003). When done
effectively, accountability is not just about complying with a federal or state mandate
rather it is in response to a moral imperative (Reeves, 2005). Accountability is the
key to sustained reform in education.
In Accountability in Action, author Douglas Reeves (2005) provides a clear
outline for creating an effective system of accountability. An effective
accountability system must be able to answer a minimum of four questions. The four
questions include: (a) are students achieving identified performance standards? (b)
is the school performing at expected levels? (c) what interventions are being
provided for struggling students? (d) how effective is the education that is being
provided? To be useful, effective accountability systems must provide information
that is grounded in clear standards known to all. Additionally it must have both
qualitative and quantitative indicators to measure outcomes.

The information

gained from these measures must be used to make decisions about how to improve
teaching, learning, and leadership.
Research has shown that stated differently, the culture of the school must be
one in which all stakeholders have the same high expectations and belief that their
student population can learn. Many schools have failed in achieving a successful
40

system of internal accountability because they do not share a common set of core
beliefs and values. For schools attempting to have a successful system of internal
accountability, there must be a common agreement and coherence around
expectations for student learning (Elmore, nd). Teachers and schools of children in
poverty often subscribe to a blame the victim mentality (Haberman, 1999).
Schools such as these could improve their student achievement by adopting an
assumption of accountability. Assuming accountability guarantees responsibility
for student learning lies with the school and its teachers. Others have failed because
no plans to provide support for when goals and targets are not met or incorporated
(Elmore, nd).
A successful accountability system incorporates components that provide
support for teachers when student learning goals are not met (Elmore, nd; Reeves,
2005). It provides appropriate and responsive feedback to teachers about their
instruction (Reeves, 2005; Schmoker, 2006). Holding individual teachers or schools
accountable for their performance depends on having knowledgeable people around
to provide appropriate support when necessary. The majority of ineffective teachers
possess the potential to be effective if they are able to work within a system that
provides opportunities for collaboration with colleagues to garner support
(Schmoker, 2006). Systems that allow for collaboration and support must also have
mechanisms in place that hold teachers accountable for utilizing these systems to
improve their instruction. The responsibility of implementing these systems lies
primarily with the school leader.
41

A comprehensive system of internal accountability must be in place before

systems described in the following sections can be maximized to their full potential
for improving teaching, and consequently student learning. Lyman & Villanis
(2004) research in leadership of high-performing, high-poverty schools has identified
strategies principals have implemented in their schools that have led to success.
Among these is creating a consistent instructional program and holding teachers
accountable (Lyman & Villani, 2004). Creating consistency requires a deep
understanding of purposes and procedures of research based instructional strategies.
Leaders must have a deep understanding of their expectations for teachers, just as
teachers do of their students, before truly holding them accountable. Holding
teachers accountable for student learning requires that there are identifiable standards
for learning, viable tools to utilize and opportunities for professional learning. These
can best be described as pieces of a system for curriculum and teaching.
Curriculum and Teaching.
Research consistently links the quality of teaching and rigor of curriculum to
learning outcomes for students (Marzano, 2003; Lyman & Villani, 2004; Education
Trust, 2004; Chall, 2000; Schmoker, 2006). Mortimore and Sammons (1987)
established that teaching has six to ten times as much impact on student learning than
all other factors. In his meta-analysis of over 30 years of research, Marzano (2003)
found that effective instruction and a guaranteed, viable curriculum consistently
show up in research as the most influential factors for student learning. Clear and
common expectations of student learning must be preceded by clear and common
42

expectations for teachers teaching. Effective teaching begins with a purpose, or a

focus. Research demonstrates that above all else, high performing schools have a
focus on student learning (Reeves, 2005). Schools in urban cities, lack a focus on
student learning resulting in low student academic achievement.
An environment with a focus on student achievement can be described as one
in which improvement and success can be seen (Reeves, 2005). In this environment,
learning and academic achievement is the number one priority. Here, the focus is on
the achievement of all students, not just some (Fermanich et al, 2006). Goals and
objectives are clear, high expectations prevail, and opportunities for learning and
improvement are abundant. Having high expectations of all students, setting
challenging learning goals, and finding ways to help students be successful in
meeting those goals are essentials in this type of school setting and for improving
student performance (Marzano, 2003; Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001;
Scheurich & Skrla, 2003).
A focus on student learning must include a common set of established
learning outcomes students will achieve. These common learning outcomes are
commonly referred to as standards (EdSource, 2007). Implemented appropriately,
standards offer a framework for teaching and learning. Darling-Hammond in The
Right to Learn (2002) identified several principles that effective schools use in their
organizational structure. One principle used in effective schools identified in her
research is high and universal academic standards for all students. Without standards
content that is taught has the potential to vary to many degrees.
43

The use of standards to drive instructional and curricular decisions has had a
significant and positive impact on the performance of students in high poverty
schools (Education Trust, 1999). Studies have indicated that a rigorous curriculum
aligned to state standards have produced high levels of student achievement for all
students (Fermanich, 2006). In seven of the eight schools profiled in They Have
Overcome; High Poverty, High-performing Schools in California (Izumi, 2002),
standards are used to drive instruction. Using standards to drive instruction provides
a consistent and common, essential road map for teachers to follow; the destination
for all students is the same.
Curriculum must be aligned to the standards, and research-based in
accordance to NCLB. Marzanos research (2003) lists a guaranteed and viable
curriculum under essential school level factors. He describes a guaranteed and
viable curriculum as a combination of opportunities for learning and time.
Opportunities for learning have the strongest relationship to student achievement of
all school level factors identified by Marzano (2003). First introduced in the
literature over 30 years ago by the International Association of Evaluation of
Educational Achievement (Wilkins, 1997), students opportunities for learning are
manifested in the curriculum with which they are taught. This curriculum must be
standards based.
Curriculum can be looked at in three levels; the intended curriculum, the
implemented curriculum, and the attained curriculum (Marzano, 2003). Intended
curriculum is content that has been laid out by the state standards. Implemented
44

curriculum is how content is delivered by individual teachers. Attained curriculum

is what is actually learned by the students. Inconsistencies between the intended
curriculum and the implemented curriculum (Doyle, 1992; Stodlosky, 1989) create
discrepancies and facilitate achievement gaps among subgroups. When you consider
that researchers have found many teachers in inner-city schools are those with the
least amount of training and credentials (Darling-Hammond, 2004; Haycock, 2003)
this presents problems for many urban students. A requirement for a school that has
a focus on student learning is effective teaching. A prerequisite to effective teaching
is credentials and more importantly, the training that accompanies them.
Marzanos (2003) meta-analysis of over thirty years worth of literature also
concluded that most researchers agree the impact of an individual teacher is far
greater than that of a school. Many urban schools have yet to focus their efforts on
improving instruction for the sake of student learning. Other researchers have agreed
with Marzanos findings. Its about the teaching (Schmoker, 2006; Ed Trust, 2004;
Stronge, 2006). Student success, no matter background, ethnicity or socioeconomic
status, largely depends on the effectiveness of an individual teacher. Curriculum and
standards, regardless of well they are designed, are only as effective as the people
who implement them (Stronge, 2006). Effective teachers are those who utilize
research-based instructional strategies, classroom management practices and
curricular design in a fluent, seamless fashion (Marzano, 2003). Additionally,
high quality instruction involves teachers identifying specific learning objectives in
mind for each lesson or series of lessons (Moats, 2007). Furthermore, instruction
45

must be adapted accordingly to fit the needs of students (Moats, 2007). In other
words, teachers must employ instructional strategies such as preteaching, reteaching,
and providing additional practice and examples. The quality, rigor, and
relentlessness of instruction are crucial to the learning outcomes for all students.
Associated with quality teaching, and a standards aligned curriculum is
effective systems for sustained professional development and collaboration (Lyman
& Villani, 2004). It is these systems that encourage and support quality teaching.
Effective systems of professional development are based on data and identified
needs. They provide choice and differentiate their approaches to meet the needs of
the varying participants. Additionally, effective systems of professional
development for teachers are ongoing, providing follow-up for new strategies that
have been learned as a result. Lastly, effective systems for professional development
offer opportunities for school leaders to build on their knowledge. It is largely
ineffective to educate classroom teachers on effective instruction unless their
administrators, and others involved in the learning opportunities of students, have
been exposed to the same knowledge and concepts as they (Learning First Alliance,
2000). Without knowledge of effective teaching and programs, school
administrators will find it difficult to hold teachers accountable; a necessary system
in urban schools.
Because learning is a dynamic process, and occurs within a social construct,
professional development opportunities are maximized when collaboration amongst
colleagues happens regularly. Systems for collaboration allow for authentic
46

interactions. Authentic interactions can be characterized by behaviors such as:

openly sharing failures and mistakes, demonstrating respect for each other, and
constructive analysis and critiques of practices and procedures (Marzano, 2003).
Systems of collaboration should include opportunities for both grade level and cross
grade level articulation.
As previously noted a comprehensive system of accountability must precede
a system for effective curriculum and teaching. To hold individuals and schools
accountable for meeting specified learning goals, progress must be monitored along
the way. Without the use of assessment and data it is impossible to make purposeful
decisions about modifications and changes needing to occur in instructional
practices.
Assessment and Data
Successful schools are using data to make decisions about instruction (The
Education Trust, 1999; Izumi, 2002; Fermanich et al, 2006; Duke, 2006). Instruction
can improve when educators can look at teaching practices and student data in an
objective manner (Bray, 2003). Data provides valuable information about student
learning and teaching practices. This information provides a goal, which is the
beginning step to constructing learning for all students.
Schools must regularly assess students progress towards meeting standards.
In order to know if learning goals have been met, progress must be monitored and
appropriate instructional modifications implemented to improve student learning

47

(Marzano, 2003; Johnson, 2002). For the data to be truly reliable, assessments must
be aligned to what is being taught and be connected directly to instruction.
In her book, Using Data to Close the Achievement Gap: How to Measure
Equity in Our Schools, Ruth Johnson (2002) asserts that in order for schools to
utilize data best they must set up systems within their structures that allow teachers
and administrators to look at both short and long-term outcomes. Using data
effectively is not an isolated process. Just as with a system for curriculum and
teaching, collaboration is an essential component to looking at data. Isolation among
educators masks results that are starkly different (Schmoker, 2006). This allows
those who are not producing student achievement to go by unnoticed and remain
stagnate in their profession. Learning is a dynamic process, and does not occur in
isolation. Educators can and should learn from one another the practices producing
results for their students.
Educators need to be knowledgeable about how to look at data in order for
data use to be valuable. Many schools look at data, but looking alone does not
increase student performance. Knowing how to look at data and what to do with the
information the data provides is essential. Setting goals and targets is also an
essential part of any data protocol. Professional development can be designed to
support the use of data and should be a part of any school improvement plan. As a
part of this professional development teachers and administrators should be
encouraged to be objective and nonjudgmental (Bray, 2003).

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Effective use of data requires that it is disaggregated to identify specific

populations of students failing to meet proficiency rates and standards. Data review
such as this also promotes conversations about beliefs; beliefs about expectations and
which students can learn. This data review also facilitates conversations about
instructional practices. This is why systems for collaboration are necessary;
conversations require more than one person.
Identifying other indicators of student performance is another tactic in use at
successful schools (Johnson, 2002). A comprehensive assessment and data systems
incorporates more than just test scores. Data refers to classroom observations,
behavioral and academic referrals, and student demographic information. Using
alternative measures of performance, such as the ones mentioned here, provides a
broader picture from which to make determinations regarding employee
assignments, student placement, and any professional development that might be
necessary. Without multiple measures of data put to use, creating a plan for
improvement or refinement of current practices is a difficult, if not an impossible
task. Data provides educators with the information necessary to determine changes
that need to be made in order to provide more effective instruction to students.
Change and Sustainability
One phenomenon educators can count on occurring is change (Marzano,
Waters & McNulty, 2005). Systems in schools that accommodate for and facilitate
change are essential, for without these, schools and the people in them, stagnate and

49

maintain. As is the case with many urban schools, maintaining low performance
from students and teachers alike is the status quo.
In these situations especially, systems for change are necessary. Low
expectations, underlying beliefs and inconsistent instructional practices rarely lead to
success for the student populations of urban schools. Changing behaviors often
precedes changing beliefs. To change behaviors a school must create a community
where new and changed beliefs are practical, expressed, and nurtured (Gladwell,
2000). For systems of change to work, schools must increase the number of
purposeful interactions between and among individuals for collaboration (Fullen,
2003). From these purposeful interactions comes conversations, and from
conversations, change has a platform from which to occur.
School Leadership that Works by Marzano, Waters, & McNulty (2005)
distinguishes between two types of change, first and second order change. First
order change deals with incremental change, or the next obvious steps to take.
Second order change alters the system in fundamental ways, or can be characterized
as deep change. Important to know about first and second order change, is that
they are characterized by perceptions. One single change implemented within a
system can be perceived as both a first or second order change. Where change has
been the most successful, implementers have recognized varying perceptions and put
into place differentiated support to assist various stakeholders within the
organization in their transition (Waters & Marzano, 2006).

50

Change is the one constant in education, systems for sustaining successful

reforms and programs that have occurred due to change must also be in place in
successful schools. Sustaining practices that are attaining outcomes for students of
color and those living in poverty is essential. Sustainability can be defined as the
ability of a school staff to preserve the core beliefs and values, or culture, of their
program (Century & Levy, 2002). Adapting successful programs over time to
current situations to maintain increased or improved outcomes is fundamental to the
notion of sustainability.
Fullen identifies eight elements of sustainability (2005). The first is that
public service must have a moral purpose. As educators, our moral purpose is clear,
educating all of Americas youth. Second, a commitment to change must be made to
extend to contexts at all levels. Building capacity laterally through the use of
networks is the third element of sustainability identified by Fullen (2005). For
sustainability to be successful, the fourth element identified is intelligent
accountability and vertical responsibility. Deep learning is the fifth element of
sustainability. Fullens definition of sustainability requires continuous
improvement, adaptation, and collective problem solving in the face of complex
challenges that keep arising (p. 22). Without deep learning, continuous
improvement, adaptation, and collective problem solving is difficult to attain.
A dual commitment to short-and long-term goals is the sixth element Fullen
(2005) identifies as necessary to sustainability. Progress must be measured towards
long-term goals through the use of short-term targets. Sustainability must also have
51

a cyclical energy, which is the seventh element. Sustaining any program that works
must be reoccurring and ongoing. The eighth and final element of sustainability is
leadership. Sustainability requires a network of leaders, who are trained to think in
larger terms and who act in such a way to affect all parts of the system.
Implementing systems for sustainability ensure the continued success of high
performing urban schools. Schools that have sustained successful reforms share
common characteristics. Studies indicated that sustaining successful school reforms
involves school-level teams, formative data systems, and feedback from staff and
other stakeholders (Payne, 2007). These include a commitment of shared
stakeholders and continuity of leadership (Datnow, 2005).
Leadership
Out of the research, one theme remains consistent and continuous; that is the
notion of strong leadership (Carter, 2000; Duke, 2006; Fermanich et al, 2006; Izumi,
2002). A strong, effective leader is one who understands the complexities of running
a successful school and sets the tone for achievement. As the research has
demonstrated, a combination of organizational systems, such as those for
accountability, curriculum and teaching, assessment and data and change and
sustainability, create successful learning environments for students of color living in
poverty. It is the responsibility of the school leader to ensure the successful
implementation of these systems.
Some studies have found no identifiable effect leadership has on student
achievement (Witizers, Bosker & Kruger in Marzano, Waters & McNulty, 2005).
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However, in their meta-analysis of over 70 studies, all conducted in the last 35 years,
on leadership, Marzano, Waters & McNulty (2005) found that specific behaviors of
leadership have had significant and proven effects on student achievement. The
effective operation of a school, a leaders primary responsibility, increases the
chances of academic success for all students.
Specific behaviors or responsibilities of a school leader, as identified by
Marzano, Waters, & McNulty (2005) include those of change agent, establishing and
maintaining the culture of the school, provider of intellectual stimulation and
effective communicator. The responsibility that was found to have the largest effect
is situational awareness. This responsibility is defined as the school leaders ability
to detect and acknowledge details and undercurrents pertaining to the operation of
the school. Situational awareness can also dictate a leaders course of action for any
given circumstance. The ability of leaders to respond to situations in their school
through multiple perspectives is essential (Bolman and Deal, 2003).
Another leadership responsibility Marzano, Waters & McNulty (2005)
identified is flexibility. Flexibility refers to the leaders ability to adapt their
leadership behavior to the needs of the current situation. Reframing Organizations,
by Bolman and Deal (2003) identifies four frames of leadership, asserting that
organizational leaders often operate from one or more of these various perspectives,
or frames. Leadership perspectives or frames they identify include structural,
political, human resource, and symbolic. Following set rules and procedures,
identifying job related tasks and attaching them to specific roles within the
53

organization are characteristics of the structural frame. The human resources frame
focuses on empowering individuals within organization by recognizing strengths and
contributions of individuals, here relationships play a key role. Within the political
frame, power and competition reign. Conflict facilitates change and organizational
politics are evident. Culture, meaning, and rituals are central concepts of the
symbolic frame. These four frames offer different perspectives from which a leader
can respond to any given situation (Bolman & Deal, 2003). Just as effective teachers
must pull from a variety of instructional strategies to reach all students, effective
leaders of urban schools should be equipped to respond to various situations from a
variety of angles.
Recently the notion of instructional leadership has taken precedence in
theories of educational leadership (Blas & Blas, 2004; Marzano, Waters &
McNulty, 2005). An instructional leader is one who actively supports teachers in
daily instruction. Under the notion of nested learning communities, schools are
learning organizations which, under the principals leadership and guidance,
continuously improve together in order to increase their capacity to teach children
(Fink & Resnick, 2001). School leaders cannot do this without knowledge of
curriculum, instruction and assessment, another responsibility of leaders as found by
Marzano, Waters and McNulty (2005). Leading teachers and schools through this
learning process of improvement requires depth of knowledge in current researchbased curriculum, effective instructional practices and use of data and assessment.
Coupled with this responsibility is the ability to determine the needs of teachers, as a
54

whole and as individuals and determine which appropriate strategies are needed to
meet the varying needs of their faculty (Fink & Resnick, 2001). In meeting the
professional learning needs of teachers, the school administrator must not forget,
ultimately it is their responsibility to also ensure that learning needs of all students
are being met as well.
Leadership for Equity and Excellence, by Scheurich and Skrla (2003)
describes three characteristic leaders must possess to effectively build school
environments where equity and excellence exist. The first is an unwavering belief
that it is possible for all children to learn, regardless of their race, or socioeconomic
levels. Without this belief, convincing others that this scenario is possible is
fruitless. A strong ethical and moral code is the second characteristic that
educational leaders must possess. The leaders must understand that it is our moral
imperative to eradicate the social injustices and inequalities that have plagued our
nation. Third, leaders must have a strong and unwavering commitment to the goal of
equitable and excellent education for all. In urban schools the notion of equity and
excellence for all students is especially important.
The organizational systems successful leaders have created in some urban
schools have had a positive impact on teaching and learning as evidenced by studies
like No Excuses (Carter, 2000) and They Have Overcome (Izumi, 2002). These
studies have indicated that implementing a rigorous curriculum aligned to standards,
that allow for collaboration among teachers, and that providing high-quality
professional development, are among other successful systems. When a combination
55

of these systems are implemented school-wide by school leaders, pathways for

learning are paved for all students, including those of color living in poverty.
Conclusion
Without a doubt, the research tells us some things about what systems need to
be in place within school organizational structures for the academic achievement of
students of color and those living in poverty (Marzano, 2003; Reeves, 2005; The
Education Trust, 1999; Izumi, 2002; Fermanich et al, 2006). Systems for
accountability, curriculum and teaching, assessment and data, change and
sustainability and opportunities for community and parent involvement must all be
present. Additionally, research continually points to leadership as the role that
implements these systems. What is missing from current research however is how
leadership, through the implementation of these systems, can ensure effective
classroom instruction school-wide and the direct impact of these systems on
classroom practices.

There is limited research on how leaders address the

construct of race within their schools and how they promote effective instruction for
all students. Additionally, how leaders acknowledge and affect the construct of race
within their schools and promote effective instruction for all students has been
addressed minimally in research. Lastly, missing too is a recipe for transference to
other urban schools, who havent seen the success of the cases that currently exist.
Current research offers a starting point for further research of my own.
Knowledge of which combination of systems in schools contribute to the success of
students of color and those living in poverty gives a strong basis for beginning
56

research on how school leaders implement systems within their schools to promote
effective classroom instruction school-wide.

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CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This study focused on identifying the successful structures and systems that
have been implemented in high poverty urban schools resulting in high student
performance in students of color living in poverty. The study examined a Southern
California urban school site whose Academic Performance Index (API) scores have
shown consistent growth over a period of three to five years. In particular this study
looked at specific leadership practices that cultivate school-wide effective classroom
instruction.
Due to the nature of this study and the desired outcome of a comprehensive
narrative description a qualitative research design was chosen. Specifically, the use
of a case study was selected as the most appropriate method of qualitative research.
A qualitative case study can be described as an intensive, holistic narrative of a
single unit of study (Merriam, 1998). Qualitative research is an especially powerful
tool to develop grounded theory, or theory derived from a researchers observations
and interviews (Patton, 2002). A case study design was used to gain an in-depth
understanding of the structures and systems within a particular school. The interest
of the researcher lied primarily on processes, not the products, or outcomes, within
the context of the school site selected for study.
The research questions that guided this study were developed collaboratively
by a group of doctoral candidates at the University of Southern California.
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Throughout the spring and summer of 2007 these students were guided through this
process by Drs. Sylvia Rousseau and Kathy Stowe. Based on comprehensive
literature reviews of successful practices in high poverty urban schools, the group
identified its focus on successful systems implemented within school structures put
in place that raised the academic performance of students of color living in poverty.
The research questions driving this study were as follows:
Research Questions
What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of color?
What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with large
concentrations of students of color?
How are the organizational systems and structures implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
How is the construct of race reflected in the schools structures and systems?
Theoretical Framework
Most often in educational qualitative case studies, research is rooted in
concepts, models and theories that have been developed through comprehensive
reviews of the literature (Merriam, 1998).
An overall theoretical framework was adopted by the group to guide our
studies. The socio-cultural theory of learning provides strong basis for our research.
Knowledge students bring to school is derived from cultural orientations they
develop through their family and community experiences (Packer, M.J. &
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Goicoechea, J. 2000). This prior knowledge plays a large role in the cognitive
schemas students have developed upon which all new concepts are attached.
Historical and current sociopolitical and socioeconomic factors at work in our
society have resulted in large numbers of students of color who are also those living
in poverty. The cultural orientations they bring to school are often very different
from those of the educators who are responsible for their academic learning, often
creating a sense of cognitive dissonance (Delpit, 1995). This reality has continually
impacted the opportunities for learning students of color living in poverty have been
provided
Recognizing that historically students of color and those living in poverty are
denied proper access to opportunities for learning, a comprehensive review of the
literature also revealed that recently there have been a number of studies on highpoverty urban schools that are also high performing (Izumi, 2002; Reeves, 2005;
EdSource, 2005). These studies, along with other research on what works in schools
provided additional theoretical framework for our first and third research questions.
Multiple school-based factors need to be in place in a systematic way for students of
color and those living in poverty to have successful academic experiences. This
assertion that effective schools can have a positive impact on learning for all students
has been developed from the research of Marzano (2003), Schmoker (2005) and
others. Rather than one or two isolated strategies, a comprehensive set of factors
intertwined to work together provides successful learning environments for students
of color living in poverty.
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A combination of Critical Race and Social Capitol theories provide an

additional theoretical framework for question four. Critical Race Theory asserts that
property rights surpass human rights in societys economic and social ladders.
Human rights have been often ignored in favor of rights issued on the basis of
property. Those with power and property keep it, those without stay without,
resulting in situations that have created racial and social injustices for our countrys
people of color. Social Capitol theory solidifies this conceptual framework. Those
with social networks, often those with power and property also enjoy connections;
those without do not.
The thematic group worked together to create a graphic to represent our
theoretical framework. The visual that was created demonstrates that both historical
and contemporary societal and educational influences impact what happens in
schools. When this impact creates effective structures and systems in urban schools,
high academic achievement for students of color living in poverty can occur.

61

Figure 3.1. Graphic Representation of Theoretical Framework

Historical,
societal and
educational
influences

Contemporary,
societal and
educational
influences

High academic
achievement in
high poverty
schools with
large
concentrations of
students of color

Effective school
site systemic
and structural
influences

Selection of Sample
Our thematic group set forth to find a high-performing, high-poverty urban
school with large concentrations of students of color, as defined by our study.
Specific criteria were identified to guide our search and selection process.

Three to five years of consistent growth on Californias Academic

Performance Index

One to two deciles growth on Statewide API Ranking

62

75% of student population identified as Socioeconomically

Disadvantaged

60% students of color (African American, Hispanic, Native American)

Located in an urban school district

Initially an internet search for schools in Southern California began on sites

such as the California Department of Education, Schools Moving Up, and Great
Schools web pages. Additionally, the Title I Achieving schools list for the state of
California was referenced. An in depth analysis was conducted of targeted schools
to ensure they met criteria. Those found not meeting criteria were eliminated. From
a short list of schools that met criteria, researchers set forth to identify the particular
school they were interested in studying. In particular this researcher was looking for
a school site where consistent leadership (five years or more) had been in place.
A school was identified as meeting criteria and selected by the researcher.
The researcher then made direct phone contact with the schools site administrator.
At this time an inquiry was made about the possibility of using her school as part of
this study. Additionally, the researcher wanted to develop an initial relationship with
the site administrator. At the time of initial contact the administrator gave her
consent to allow the case study to take place. Researcher and administrator
discussed the purpose of the study and methodology that would be used. At the
conclusion of the initial contact, the researcher provided a timeline for further
communication the site administrator should expect.

63

Sample and Population

Redondo Elementary is located in Park City School District, in a large, urban
southern California city. With approximately 23,000 students enrolled in
kindergarten through sixth grade in its 23 schools, Park City School District (PCSD)
is the largest elementary district in its area. Serving an ethnically diverse population
largely living below the poverty line, PCSDs boundaries encompass 22 square
miles. Redondo Elementarys student population reflects that of the district within
which it resides. A year-round single-track school serves approximately 650
students. The population is predominately Hispanic (90%), the second largest
percentage of students are white, non-Hispanic (5%). The remaining 5% are other
students of color, including American Indian, Asian and Filipino. A majority of the
student population is identified as socioeconomically disadvantaged (85%). Sixtysix percent of the student population is identified English Learners, or Limited
English Proficient (LEP). Redondos API score in 2007 was 748, in 1999, the first
year API scores were used, it scored 440. In 1999 it was ranked a 1, this past year,
in the March 2007 rankings, it ranked a 4 with a Similar Schools rating of an 8.
Methodology
This study employed a qualitative research methodology through the use of a
case study. A case study can be described as an in-depth look into a social unit. The
social unit being examined in this study is a successful, high poverty urban school.
This case study utilizes thick description, a complete, literal description (Merriam,
1998) of the unit being studied. The purpose of using the case study method was to
64

obtain enough information about the school of study to provide explanations for the
schools success. Additionally, a thorough description makes possible replication of
successful strategies implemented within the school of study. Finally, the utilization
of case study design allowed the researcher to examine the data and relate it both to
the literature and the theoretical frameworks.
The study looked for themes in the descriptions. Themes that describe the
structures and systems implemented within the school that have created academic
success for students of color living in poverty. The case study design also allowed
for the researcher to analyze collected data for patterns and variations of themes
emerging from the data collected. This study involved the triangulation of
interviews, observations and artifacts collected throughout its duration.
Triangulation and thorough analysis of the data give this study increased accuracy
and lend credibility to the findings (Patton, 2002). Participants of the study included
the school site administrator, teachers and classified staff. In addition the researcher
sought to include parents in the interview process, but was only able to interview the
schools community liaison who was a parent prior to her obtaining employment at
the school. Interviewees were determined based on the desire to attain a broad
picture derived from the multiple perspectives of the schools various stakeholders.
Throughout the summer of 2007, the team of doctoral students worked
together to develop instrumentation documents. Instrumentation documents
included open-ended interview questions and the observation protocol. Careful
consideration was taken to determine interview questions that would provide
65

researchers with information relevant and useful to our study. A series of seven
interview questions were developed. Each question addresses one or more of the
research questions. Subgroups then revised the interview questions for four different
categories of participants. Categories of participants included administrators,
teachers, classified personnel or parents. Interview questions were field tested for
comprehensibility and reliability

Figure 3.2: Relationship of Interview Questions to Research Questions

Interview Questions

Research Question 1

Research Question 2
Research Question 3
Research Question 4

X
X

X
X

Sampling for this study was purposeful. Specific participants were chosen
based on membership in one of four categories. Categories of participants were as
follows:
Administrators (Principal and Assistant Principal)
Classified Staff
Parents
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Teachers (two categories):

Out-of-classroom resource teachers and Grade Level Chairs
Classroom teachers
Novice (four years or less)
Experienced (Five or more years)
Four different categories of participants were chosen to provide a broad
perspective of systems within the school. From administrators, researchers heard of
systems they themselves implemented within the school. Literature reviews revealed
that in order to ascertain the depth of the systems implemented school-wide, it was
necessary to interview a broad category of stakeholders. The perspectives of the
other participants (teachers, classified staff and parents) were solicited so that
determinations could be made about depth of the systems implementation.
The thematic group also identified specific settings within the school for
observations. Selected settings chosen were individual classrooms, a professional
development meeting, a school leadership team meeting and the physical
environment. Subgroups were then tasked with developing observation protocol for
each setting. The thematic group provided feedback on observation protocols that
would be used with each of the different categories of participants until consensus
was reached. When consensus was reached, four Observation Guides were
adopted to be used by researchers before, during and after observations. The
Classroom Observation Guide included, but was not limited to, specific evidence

67

related to the research questions researchers could observe. It was determined that
researchers would look for evidence falling into the following categories:
Instructional Practices
Visuals/Symbols Displayed
Physical Class Environment
For the three other selected observed environments, guiding questions were
formulated to focus researchers in their observations. All questions were determined
to provide relevant information to the study and answers to research questions.
Additionally, the thematic group identified a list of artifacts for collection.
Artifacts were chosen based on their ability to demonstrate evidence of structures
and systems within the school and answers for one or more of our research questions.
Data Collection
Interviews
The seven interview questions were designed to gather open-ended and
descriptive data. Questions were designed to gather the perspectives of various
stakeholders within the school community. The design of the questions solicited
descriptions in the form of opinions and dialogue regarding systems that are
implemented school-wide that contribute to the academic success of students of color
living in poverty.
Participants were selected randomly and purposefully. Some teachers were
selected to participate based on their leadership positions amongst the staff. Grade
level chairs and out of the classroom teachers fell into this category. An equal
68

number of experienced (five or more years) and novice (four or less years) teachers
were randomly selected to participate. Parents and classified staff were randomly
chosen to participate in the study. Potential participants were contacted by letter.
They were informed of the purpose of study, the process by which they had been
selected, and the use of the data being collected. Once participants gave their
consent to participate, they were interviewed separately in a quiet area of the school,
such as a classroom or an office. With permission of the participants, interviews
were tape-recorded to be transcribed. Interviews were semi-structured. Structured
interviews in qualitative research do not allow for the researcher to fully access
participants views and opinions (Merriam, 1998). The interviewer then asked
follow-up, probing questions to ensure for a thick and rich description. Interviews
lasted approximately 40 minutes each.
Observations
Prior to classroom observations, all teachers at the school were briefed of the
purpose of the observations. Intent of observer and the observation itself was not
evaluative and this was important to make clear to participants. A total of eighteen
classroom observations took place. Observations lasted anywhere between five to
thirty minutes each. Observations were conducted by the researcher.
Observations of the schools physical environment were conducted. A
physical environment checklist was developed by the thematic group to pinpoint
aspects of the physical environment we determined relevant to our study. The
researcher conducted a school walk to gain perspective of the overall school
69

environment, which helped paint a picture of what creates a successful learning

environment for students of color. Researcher also sat in on a professional
development session for viewpoints on systems in place to support learning for all at
the school site. Reflective questions for the researcher to consider before and after
sitting in on the meetings were developed by the group. These questions were
designed to help focus observations of these meetings and to provide us guidelines
for narrative note -taking.
Documentation and Artifacts
Basic school demographic information and documentation was gathered from
internet searches of the school, district, and state and national data. Various school
artifacts were collected and analyzed. The school site plan and State Accountability
Report Card (SARC) were consulted for relevant information. School policies,
procedures, handbooks, organizational chart, and agendas and minutes from
meetings and staff development were collected and examined. Weekly bulletins and
other communication to staff were gathered to inspect. School budget, calendar,
mission and vision statements were also included in the artifacts collection and
analysis.
Data Analysis
Data analysis involves making sense out of text and image data (Cresswell,
2003). Data analysis is an ongoing process with several steps. The first step
involved organizing and preparing the data for analysis. The researcher first had
interviews transcribed, reviewed field notes and sorted and coded data to discern
70

similar patterns, topics and themes. The second step involved reading through all
data to gain a general sense and garner thoughts on collected data. The third step
involved identifying the themes related to systems implemented school-wide that
have contributed to the successful learning environments for students of color living
in poverty. Data was taken from interviews, artifacts and observations and
triangulated to add validity to the study.

Figure 3.3: Graphic Representation of the Data Collection Process

Ethical Considerations
Prior to conducting any research, the researcher enrolled in the universitys
course on the protection of human research subjects. This course provided the
prospective researcher with an overview and history of the ethical principles
71

involved in conducting research with human subjects. The researcher adhered to all
university policies regarding conducting research with human subjects. Prior to any
actual research being conducted, methodology was approved by the IRB board of the
University of Southern California. During research every effort by the researcher
was made to remain objective and free of bias. Participation of the members of the
school community was strictly voluntary and consent was obtained from each.
Tapes and transcripts of the interviews were destroyed as were all observation notes
and documentation. To ensure the privacy and confidentiality of the participants a
pseudonym was used for the school and the district within which it is located.

72

CHAPTER FOUR
FINDINGS
Introduction
This chapter reports the findings of a case study that examined an urban
elementary school in Southern California with consistent, demonstrated growth in
student performance. This study sought to identify the perceived systems and
structures in place in urban schools that cultivate effective classroom instruction
school-wide; producing high student performance in students of color living in
poverty. The study was designed to investigate the following four research
questions:
Research Questions
What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of color?
What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with large
concentrations of students of color?
How are the organizational systems and structures implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
How is the construct of race reflected in the schools structures and systems?
Traditionally, high poverty urban schools with large concentrations of
students of color have been linked with low student achievement (National
Partnership for Teaching in At-Risk Schools, 2005; Johnson, 2002; Kozol, 2006).
The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) indicated a narrowing in
73

the achievement gap between students of color and their white and Asian peers in the
1970s and 80s, however this trend reversed in the 1990s when the gap between
diverse groups widened (Johnson, 2002). Despite large disparities that exist among
traditionally marginalized populations and their white peers, some districts, and in
some cases individual schools have beaten the odds or overcome (Izumi, 2002;
Duke, 2006; Reeves, 2005). Evidence exists that demonstrates exemplary urban
schools have successfully implemented school systems within their organizational
structures that have resulted in high student performance.
This study sought to discover what those systems are, and how they are
implemented to have a positive impact on classroom instruction school-wide. The
school examined for this case study was chosen based on the following criteria:

Three to five years of consistent growth on Californias Academic

Performance Index

One to two deciles growth on Statewide API Ranking

75% of student population identified as Socioeconomically

Disadvantaged

60% students of color (African American, Hispanic, Native American)

In addition, this researcher sought to find a school that has had consistent leadership,
with a site administrator who had been there for at least five years.
Theoretical Framework
As with most case studies, this study was grounded in a set of theoretical
frameworks which guided the findings of Chapter Four. First, the socio-cultural
74

theory of learning provided this research with a strong base. Asserting that learning
is a social and cultural endeavor and does not occur in isolation; learning is a result
of interactions with others. New learning is added to knowledge that has been
previously constructed. When experiences in schools are relevant to and connected
to what students have already learned, learning in schools is likely to be more
successful. A combination of the Critical Race and Social Capital Theories provided
an additional foundation for research conducted to address data collection for
Question Four. Power is associated with property, property with wealth and wealth
with connections. Those with power typically have both wealth and connections to
acquire more, people of color have not historically been associated with either power
or wealth, which has limited their access to both social and financial capital.
Yet despite historical and contemporary influences that have negatively
impacted the academic achievement of students of color, some urban schools have
had success with their student populations, mostly students of color living in poverty.
A final theoretical framework this research is grounded in comes from the works on
effective schools by Marzano, et al (2003) and studies of high-performing urban
schools (Izumi, 2002; Reeves, 2005; EdSource, 2005). This research suggests that a
comprehensive, combination of systems that work together cohesively have created
successful learning environments in schools. This study sought to identify the
combination of specific systems in place in an urban school that were perceived to
promote effective classroom instruction, and consequently improve learning for all
students.
75

The School
The school selected, Redondo Elementary, is located in Park City School
District (PCSD), an urban elementary school district in Southern California
consisting of 23 elementary schools. Steady growth in API, from 440 in 1999 to 748
in 2007, Redondo has consistently increased their numbers of students at proficient
and above (CDE, 2007). Redondos 2007 API Score of 748 was 21 points higher
than the state average and 52 points higher than Park City School Districts average
API. Their rate of growth in API from 2006 to 2007 is six points higher than the
LEA and 13 points higher than the states. Additionally, with an initial state ranking
of 1, Redondo has improved their state rank score to 4, with a Similar Schools
Rank of 8 in 2007 (CDE, 2007).
Redondo Elementary, located in the central, downtown area of the city is a
single track K-6 school with an enrollment of 650 students. With a previous
enrollment of 883 students, the school lost much of their student population this past
year due to re-organization of PCSDs boundaries. Much of their previous school
population is now at a nearby school, within walking distance. Losing a significant
amount of their population opened up spaces for new students, now within the
schools boundaries, to attend. Redondos new student enrollment is now a mix of
previous students, as well as students new to the school. To gain an accurate picture
of where they are with their current (2008-2009) population, the school asked the
district to recalculate their API score, minus the students they lost and plus those
they gained. Redondos new student populations API is 707.
76

Student enrollment is predominately Hispanic (90%), the second largest

percentage of students are white, non-Hispanic (5%). The remaining 5% are other
students of color, including American Indian, Asian and Filipino. A majority of the
student population is identified as socioeconomically disadvantaged (85%). Sixtysix percent of the student population is identified English Learners, or Limited
English Proficient (LEP). Only grades 1 and 2 participate in Californias Class Size
Reduction Program. In these classes the student- teacher ratios are 20:1. In all other
grades the student-teacher ratios are 30:1.

Figure 4.1. Student Enrollment: Ethnicity

77

Figure 4.2. Student Enrollment: Other Significant Classifications

Redondos certificated staff consists of 28 classroom teachers, 3 learning

coaches, one RSP teacher and one CELDT coordinator. The school has two fulltime administrators, a principal and an assistant principal. All classroom teachers are
fully-credentialed and Highly Qualified as per NCLB. Additionally the school
employs a part-time school psychologist, a part-time school nurse and a speech and
language therapist.
Redondos certificated staff ranges in experience levels. The average number
of years of teaching experience at the school is nine. The ethnicity of teachers does
not mirror that of the student population. Approximately 39% of the teaching staff is
Hispanic, while 58% is White and less than one percent Filipino.
Redondo employs 25 classified employees. This consists of three
kindergarten instructional assistants, one office manager, two office clerks, three

78

custodians, two part-time community liaisons, one attendance clerk, two food service
workers, eight noon yard supervisors, a part time health-clerk, a library media
assistant and a technology assistant.
Redondo Elementary School, a 2007-2008 Honorable Mention for the Title I
Achieving Award, provides educational opportunities and settings to meet the needs
of its varying population. The school has three Special Day Classrooms on campus;
all three new to the Redondo Elementary community this school year which began
August 2007. In addition, Redondo has one Gifted and Talented Education (GATE)
cluster at both the 5th/6th grade and 3rd/4th grade levels. Newcomers, with limited
English receive additional instruction in the English language. Redondo also
provides comprehensive intervention programs to designated student populations
during and after-school. Students participate in intervention programs based on their
performance on the CST, benchmark assessments and their English language
proficiency.
Data Collection
Multiple pieces of data were collected for this case study over the course of a
four month period in the fall of 2007 and winter of 2008. Much of the data gathered
before and after the school visits were accumulated via the internet. Websites such
the California Department of Education (www.cde.ca.gov), and both the school and
district sites were accessed. Other websites with information about California
schools, i.e. greatschools.com and Just4thekids.org were also consulted for
information pertinent to the study.
79

Data in the form of observations and interviews was collected over a three
day school visitation in November of 2007. A total of ten formal interviews took
place over the course of the three days. Interviewees provided a broad perspective of
stakeholders in the school. They consisted of four classroom teachers (two novices
and two experienced), one instructional coach, two community liaisons, including
one who was also a parent, one office assistant, the assistant principal and the
principal.

Figure 4.3. Interviews

# of
Interviewees
# of Years
at the site
Grade Level
(Teachers)

Administrators

Instructional
Coaches

Experienced
Teachers
(5+ Years)

Novice
Teachers
(4- Years)

Classified

Parents
(Former)

8 (P), 9 (AP)

20

6, 8

4, 4

4, 30, 10

6th, 3rd

3rd/4th,
5th/6th

In addition to the interviews, the researcher observed classroom instruction

and environment directly in 18 of the schools 27 classrooms. Observations lasted
between five to 30 minutes each. In all but one case, those teachers interviewed
were also observed. In addition the researcher observed an all staff professional
development session, one kindergarten lesson study, one fifth and sixth grade level
meeting and an Action Learning Walk for parents. The schools physical
80

environment and grounds were observed for evidence of the systems implemented in
the school that support effective classroom instruction.
Findings in this chapter are organized into two sections. The first section
provides a summary and analysis of the findings for each research question. This
section reports on the evidence gathered that addresses each research question.

The

final section of this chapter, Discussion of Emergent Themes details the themes
that surfaced from the analysis the research conducted.
Summary & Analysis of Findings
First Research Question: Trends & Patterns of performance among Students of
Color
What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of color?
The socio-cultural theory of learning provided a basis for research conducted
to answer Question one. Learning is a social and cultural endeavor, rooted in and
built upon previous experiences. Many students of color, especially those living in
poverty have often not had experiences that prepare them to be successful in schools.
However when schools are able to make learning relevant and build connections for
students, learning can occur. Therefore, identifying trends and patterns of
performance among students of color provided this research with evidence that
learning has occurred for this population.
To demonstrate the trends and patterns of performance among students of
color various types of data were collected. Data collected and analyzed for trends
and patterns includes standardized testing data:
81

Academic Performance Index (API) scores

Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) indicators

Other data analyzed included:

California English Language Development Test (CELDT) results

Gifted and Talented Education (GATE) data

Special Education data

Data on suspensions and expulsions rates

Truancy rates

A summary of the various test scores and additional data is provided first.
The following data section is an analysis of the trends and patterns and their
implications for students of color.
Academic Performance Index (API). The schools API scores have risen
steadily since 1999. With the exception of 2004, when their API score decreased by
9 points, Redondo has improved their score in each of the past nine school years.
2004. Their largest increase was between the 2004 and 2005 school years. API
scores calculated include all student subgroups. Figure 4.4 demonstrates Redondos
steady growth in API.

82

Figure 4.4. Academic Performance Index 1999-2007

Individual subgroup API scores were next analyzed. This study defined
students of color as African American, Hispanic or Latino and American Indian.
Redondos population of students of color is majority Hispanic/Latino (non-White).
API scores are reported only for significant subgroups, or those student
populations over 50. Redondos only numerically significant ethnic subgroup is its
Hispanic subgroup. API scores for other groups of students of color are not
available. Included in this analysis were the API scores for all Redondos
numerically significant subgroups; Hispanic/Latino (non-White), English Learners
and Economically Disadvantaged.
As previously noted, Redondo saw its largest gain between the academic
years 2004 and 2005. From 2004 to 2005 all students gained 68 points, Hispanic
students 70 points and Economically Disadvantaged 72 points. Although not as
large, gains were made in subsequent years. From 2005 to 2006 all students gained
34 points, Hispanic students 31 points, English Learners 34 points and Economically
Disadvantaged 31 points. From 2006-2007 all students gained 19 points, Hispanic
83

students 24 points, English Learners 24 points and Economically Disadvantaged 22

points. Figure 4.5 illustrates the growth API for Redondos only numerically
significant ethic subgroup and the two additional numerically significant subgroups;
English Learners and Economically Disadvantaged.

Figure 4.5. API for Significant Subgroups 2004-2007

Year

2007

2004

2005

2006

2007

2004

2005

2006

2007

2004

2005

2006

2007

ECONOMICALLY
DISADVANTAGED

2006

ENGLISH LEARNERS

2005

HISPANIC

2004

ALL STUDENTS

#Included

637

589

564

557

578

525

492

499

NA

438

429

431

560

526

487

477

API

627

695

729

748

614

684

715

739

NA

670

704

730

612

684

715

737

Redondos 2007 API, 748 was higher than both the state and Local Education
Agency (LEA) averages. Their growth of 19 points from the year before was also
significantly higher than the average growth seen across the state (6 points) and their
LEA (13 points).
With a new population, due to new boundaries being redrawn within the
district attendance area, Redondos newly recalculated API of 707 takes the school
back to where they were almost two years ago. Although this is a stated
disappointment to the staff, as they have worked very hard to get their students to
proficient, they view this as a new challenge. Growth they have experienced in their

84

API the past four years provides a strong case for the success again. Great gains
have been accomplished before, and history often repeats itself.
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP). The researcher accessed AYP data dating
back to 2004 to demonstrate trends and patterns among the students of color at
Redondo Elementary. In 2007, 2006 and 2005 Redondo successfully met all AYP
criteria, including both the participation rate and the percent proficient criteria.
Failing to meet AYP in 2004, Redondo met 16 of the 17 criteria. The English
Learner population was unsuccessful in meeting targeted percent proficient rates,
missing the percent required by two points.
Since the small decrease in 2004 Redondo has slowly, but steadily increased
their proficiency rates for all sub-groups. Figures 4.6 and 4.7 demonstrate the
growth in proficiency rates for all students and for Redondos numerically significant
sub-groups in English Language Arts (ELA) and Mathematics.

Figure 4.6. Percent of Students at Proficient and Above in English Language Arts by
Subgroup 2004-2007

33.5

2007

31.4

2006

27.6

2005

13.8

2004

33.6

2007

27.7

2006

24.2

2005

10.4

2004

35.3

2007

30.9

2006

28.1

2005

14.6

2004

% at or
Above
Proficient

36.8

2007

ECONOMICALLY
DISADVANTAGED

33.7

2006

ENGLISH LEARNERS

30.3

2005

HISPANIC

17.4

Year

ALL STUDENTS
2004

ELA

Met AYP

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

85

Figure 4.7. Percent of Students at Proficient and Above in Mathematics by

Subgroup 2004-2007

40

45.9

2007

35

2006

24.3

2005

45.2

2004

38.9

2007

33.4

2006

21

2005

46.7

2004

40.2

2007

35.6

2006

23.8

2005

% at or
Above
Proficient

47.9

2004

ECONOMICALLY
DISADVANTAGED

43.3

2007

ENGLISH LEARNERS

37.2

2006

HISPANIC

26.8

Year

2005

ALL STUDENTS

2004

MATH

Met AYP

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

In English Language Arts, the average rate of growth over four years for all
students at or above proficient was 6.47%. The Hispanic and Economically
Disadvantaged subgroups posted higher average rates of growth at 6.9% and 6.57%,
respectively. English Learners demonstrated the highest rate of growth over four
years in English Language Arts with an average rate of growth of 7.73%.
In Mathematics, the average rate of growth over four years for all students at
or above proficient was 7.1%. All subgroups posted higher average rates of growth.
The Hispanic population demonstrated a 7.63% average rate of growth. English
Learners posted the second highest average rate of growth at 8.07%. At 8.40%, the
Economically Disadvantaged sub-group demonstrated the largest gains in
percentages of students at or above proficient in math.
Non-numerically significant subgroups demonstrated inconsistent proficiency
levels in the four years examined. The African American subgroup in 2007 (n=13)
86

posted proficiency rates of 30.8% in ELA and 23.1% in math. In 2006 (n=16), the
only other year proficiency percentages are available for this subgroup, 31.3% of
these students were at or above proficient in ELA and 43.8% in math.
The white subgroup also showed inconsistent proficiency rates. In 2007
(n=17) this population demonstrated proficiency rates in ELA and math of 41.2%
and 47.1%, respectively. Both percentage rates decreased from the previous year
when this population (n=23) posted significantly higher rates of proficiency in both
ELA, 60.4% and math, 73.9%. In 2005, the white subgroups (n=28) proficiency
rates declined again, with of 46.4% in ELA and 39.3% in Math. With the largest
number of students in past five years (n=35), 2004 demonstrated inconsistent
proficiency rates. In this year the subgroup posted proficiency rates of 38.7% in
ELA and 48.3% in math.
Redondo has been moving sufficient numbers of students into the proficient
and above category and has met AYP criteria in the majority of the past several
years. While their numerically significant subgroups, Hispanic, Economically
Disadvantaged, and English Learners, have been steadily increasing their numbers at
proficient and above, their non-numerically subgroups, most notably their AfricanAmerican students have had inconsistent results. AYP criteria this year increases to
approximately34%. Meaning 34% of each of the numerically significant populations
at Redondo must be at proficient or above. With a new population, the percentage of
students the school has at proficient and above does not meet or exceed the 34%.

87

However, as with the API scores, this setback is viewed as a challenge; one that has
been embraced and will be tackled with the same diligence as in the past.
California English Language Development Test. Redondos English Learner
population is 66%. Ninety-eight percent of these students are Spanish speaking and
of Hispanic origin, falling into this studys definition of students of color.
Therefore, reporting Redondos English Learners progress on the California English
Language Development Test (CELDT) is necessary to include within the context of
Research Question Number One.
For consistency purposes, CELDT scores from 2003-2004 to the 2006-2007
school years were examined. The number of students tested in 2003 (n=510) was
lower than the number tested in 2004 (n=552). The number tested in 2005 was lower
than the previous year (n=493), but higher than the following year. In 2006 the
number of students tested was 476. Performance levels over the four years studied
varied as much as the numbers of students tested. Figure 4.8 demonstrates the
various performance levels over the four years.

Figure 4.8. CELDT Performance Levels 2004-2007

Advanced

Early Advanced

Intermediate

Early Intermediate

Beginning

2003-2004

2.0%

10.0%

49.0%

32.0%

8.0%

2004-2005

9.0%

32.0%

43.0%

11.0%

4.0%

2005-2006

4.0%

29.0%

50.0%

15.0%

3.0%

2006-2007

4.0%

29.0%

45.0%

17.0%

6.0%

2007-2008

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Despite the inconsistencies in CELDT performance levels over the years, one
trend stands out; the majority of the students classified as English Learners at
Redondo have tested into the Intermediate Performance band. This trend is not
unique to this school, California districts and schools are struggling to find ways to
move EL students into the Early Advanced and Advanced performance bands.
Although, for Redondo, despite the large percentages of ELs remaining in the
Intermediate band, as API and AYP scores demonstrate, this population is
continuing move out of Below Basic and Far Below Basic categories. Despite
making gains on standardized testing, Redondo recognizes the work they have to do
in moving their English Learners towards proficiency in English. Their Site Plan for
Student Achievement addresses this need with strategies, such as after-school
interventions specifically designed to improve the English language development of
these students and the implementation of instructional strategies that increase the
comprehensibility of curriculum for EL students.
Gifted and Talented Education (GATE). Redondo Elementary schools
GATE population is representative of the LEA, Park City School District. Six point
five percent of the districts total enrollment is identified as GATE. Sixty-five
percent of the total GATE population in the district is Hispanic, 2% are African
American compared to 12% white. Eight percent (n=49) of the schools total
enrollment is identified as GATE. Seventy-five percent of the total GATE
population at Redondo is Hispanic, 24% white and 1% other.

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GATE students at Redondo are clustered in two classes at the third and fourth
grade levels and one at the fifth and sixth grade levels. Per the schools Single Plan
for Student Achievement they are given the opportunity to participate in the
Districts GATE program located on the schools campus. Fifth and sixth grade
GATE students were observed involved in creating their own biospheres and
learning about the elements necessary for sustaining life. The diverse needs of these
students are addressed in their own Individualized Learning Plan (ILP) that is
designed specially for them, by their classroom teacher. Other students who have
been identified GATE, but whom are not placed in the program also have ILPs
written to address their specific needs.
Special Education. Redondos Special Education population did not see
much change from 2003 to 2007. Enrollment was between 105 and 120, varying
only by a maximum if 15 students. The largest percentage of Special Education
students each year are Hispanic. The second largest population of Special Education
students each year is white. A total of six African American students were identified
as eligible for Special Education over the four years. The disabilities students at
Redondo have been diagnosed with fall into one of two categories; Specific Learning
Disability or Speech or Language Impairment, the majority falling into the latter.
When district boundaries were redrawn in the summer of 2007 and Redondo
received three new Special Day Classes their Special Education enrollment
increased. Forty-six students are enrolled in Redondos three Special Day Classes.
The largest percentage of this enrollment is Hispanic (85%). The second largest
90

representation of students is white (10%). Five percent of the Special Day Class
enrollment is considered other.
Suspensions and Expulsions. Redondo has had relatively low rates of
suspensions and no expulsions since the 2003-2004 school year. In the 2003-2004
school year, a total of 11 students were suspended. In the 2005-2006 school year,
that number rose to a total of 20 suspensions. In the 2006-2007 the number went
back down to a total of 11. Redondos number of suspensions is low when
compared to an average of 31 for the 2006-2007 school year in their LEA. Data is
not available that indicates the ethnicity of these students who were suspended.
Truancy Rates. Truancy rates at Redondo in the 2006-2007 school year were
higher than the county average, but lower than the LEA and California state average.
Redondos truancy rate was 23.1% compared to an LEA average of 33.51% and a
state average of 28.31%. In the 2005-2006 school year Redondos truancy rate was
26.65%, higher than following year, but still lower than the LEA average of 38.68%.
Both the LEA and the school posted higher truancy rates this year (2005-2006) than
the county, 19.55% and the state, 24.61%. The truancy rate for the school in the
2004-2005 was its lowest in the years studied. The rate of truancy was 13.81%,
significantly lower than the LEA (18.78%), the county (22.73%) and the state
(22.56%).

91

Analysis of Findings for Research Question #1

The following conclusions have been drawn from the above data:

Academic progress is a priority at Redondo. Consistent increases in both API

and AYP since the 2003-2004 school year indicate a school-wide focus on
improved student performance.

Redondo is making academic progress with all of their numerically

significant subgroups. The average rate of growth in API for all numerically
significant subgroups in both ELA & Math are higher than the average rate of
growth in API for all students is similar to.

The instructional program at Redondo is meeting the needs of the population

there more effectively than other schools in both the district and the state.
Their 2007 API of 748 is higher than the state average of 729. API is
significantly higher than the LEA average API of 696.

Rate of growth in API from 2006 to 2007 was 19 points. This growth rate is
more than double the average rate of growth of the state (6 points). Average
rate of growth in their LEA was 13, six points less than the school. These
differences indicate that Redondo is moving more students out of the two
lowest bands at a higher rate than that of both their LEA and the schools
across the state.

Each year more students in Redondos numerically significant subgroups are

becoming proficient in grade level standards. The percentages of students at

92

proficient or above in all significant subgroups has increased continually

since the 2003-2004 school year.

Non-numerically significant subgroups are not demonstrating the same

consistent increases of the numerically significant subgroups. Their rates of
growth in proficiency levels varied over the years examined, exhibiting no
distinguishable patterns or trends. African-American students consistently
had the lowest percentages of students who have met proficiency rates. The
conclusion could be drawn that the needs of these learners, although there are
only a few, are not adequately being met.

Although English Learners are posting higher average rates of growth in

students at proficient and above than all students combined and the other
subgroups, the largest percentages of Redondos English Learners have
remained in the Intermediate performance band on the CELDT over the four
academic years examined. Redondo has targeted instruction for this
particular subgroup which could account for the consistent growth in
numbers of these students reaching levels of proficiency.

Redondos Special Education population is representative of their overall

population with majority Hispanic students. Overrepresentation of students
of color, specifically African-American males, in special education is often
the norm. Redondo does not follow this pattern as the majority of their
special education reflects the schools enrollment.

93

While school personnel was not asked about the low rates of suspensions and
expulsions, the researcher can conclude from observations and artifact
collection, that procedures and expectations in place at the school play a large
role in contributing to the limited number of behavior problems occurring.

A variety of data has provided a description of the trends and patterns of

performance among the students of color at Redondo. The African-American
population, albeit small, has not made the same consistent gains as other students of
color at Redondo. Redondo has worked very hard to increase the proficiency of their
English Learner population, and has demonstrated growth with this subgroup.
Although they are not making gains with all of their students of color, they are
making gains with the majority. This description overwhelmingly leads this
researcher to the conclusion that the academic needs of the students of color at
Redondo are effectively being met. Academic performance levels have steadily
increased over the past five years; demonstrating the instruction at Redondo is
adequately meeting the needs of the majority of their student population.
Second Research Question: Structures and Systems
What are the organizational structures & systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with large
concentrations of students of color?
A wide-ranging literature review conducted prior to school selection and data
collection revealed that successful schools have a comprehensive set of systems
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working together within the organizational structures of the school to create a

flourishing learning environment for all students (Marzano, 2003; Schmoker, 2006;
Izumi, 2002; Reeves, 2005; EdSource, 2005). Structures, as defined by this study,
are the organizational mechanisms that schools function within and are
unchangeable. Examples of organizational structures are class size, budgets, and
hiring procedures. Systems are defined as the way resources, both human and
financial are used within the structures. This studys theoretical framework based on
the work of Marzano (2003) and Schmoker (2005) among others, stresses the
effectiveness of these systems when working together. The study sought to identify
which combinations of systems were perceived to be in place in high performing
urban schools where student learning has occurred.
Overview of Perceived Systems
Systems revealed in a large scale literature review included systems for
accountability, systems that support curriculum and teaching, encourage the use of
assessment and data, and allow for change and sustainability. The intent of the
second research question was to identify the perceived systems in place within the
schools structures that have contributed to the schools high student performance.
Through observations, interviews, and artifact collection the researcher sought to
identify perceived systems implemented by the school leader that have contributed to
the schools academic success. Each of the systems identified through research were
evident during the period of data collection.

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Redondos vision for student success reads:

The Redondo Elementary School community is committed to
providing innovative and high quality instruction in a safe, positive
environment conducive to academic learning and personal growth.
To achieve this, Redondo School is committed to provide:
differentiated instruction to ensure the needs of all students are being
met; standards-based instruction by setting high expectations for all
students in a focused standards-based environment; research driven
practices enabling all stakeholders to be life-long learners seeking
new challenges and professional growth opportunities; and
collaboration by encouraging an educational partnership with
students, teachers, and parents working together to achieve a common
goal.
This studys combined theoretical framework of socio-cultural learning
theory, Critical Race Theory and the Social Capital theory, and research on effective
schools (Marzano, 2003; Schmoker, 2006) claims historical and contemporary
societal and educational influences impact what happens in schools. These
influences have resulted in large numbers of students of color living in poverty
attending urban schools failing academically. However, when schools implement a
specific combination of systems within their structures, high academic achievement
for students of color living in poverty can occur. The perceived systems evident in
the school studied support their vision and provide roadways to achieving the
academic success the school expects from all its students.
I think all of our actions are very strategic and when you combine all of
those strategic actions together, you create success for students, Jackie Green,
principal of Redondo Elementary stated about the success of her school. Mrs.
Greens philosophy is strategy. Each perceived system implemented in her school is

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planned and executed strategically with a clear focus on student achievement. When
she was assigned to take the lead at Redondo- eight years ago, the school was at best
low performing, at worst in a state of disarray. Systems she has put in place at the
site have led to great gains on the schools API score and statewide rank.
Based on interviews, observations and artifact/document collection, six
subsections within the second research question were identified. Subsections were
identified by the perceived type of system demonstrated by evidence gathered from
the interviews, observations and artifact/document collection. The perceived
systems are organized in the following order: Accountability, Curriculum and
Teaching, Data and Assessment, Change and Sustainability and Opportunities for
Parent and Community Involvement.
Accountability
Research has demonstrated that closing the achievement gap is dependent on
accountability (Reeves, 2005; Schmoker, 2006). Urban schools must have a clear
and comprehensive plan for accountability (Scheurich & Skrla, 2003). When done
effectively, accountability is not just about complying with a federal or state mandate
rather it is in response to a moral imperative (Reeves, 2005). To have a successful
system of internal accountability there must be a common agreement and coherence
around expectations for student learning (Elmore, nd).
As a part of a system for accountability, common expectations for both adults
and students on campus were apparent throughout the data collection process. The
new assistant principal, new to the position but in her sixth year at the school, had
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this to say about expectations: Mrs. Green has always set common expectations for
everybody and everything is always introduced together. When new things are
introduced they are modeled. Modeling ensures there are no questions about
expectations for practice. Additionally, there is always a plan for implementation
that everyone is expected to follow. So whatever it might be, whether it be a new
training, whether it might be a new strategy, we were always held accountable in the
same manner. One teacher stated that in having a common vision, basically
theres no room for interpretation.
Any system of accountability requires that a school leader inspects what they
expect with classroom visitations. During the school day, Mrs. Green was rarely
found in her office behind her desk. She was in classrooms constantly. Regular
classroom visits are a part of her system for accountability.
The school has instituted what they call Essential Agreements, a set of
common criteria for instruction and learning environment that are developed and
written collaboratively by each grade level. Essential Agreements based on best
practices, detail expectations for daily instruction and room environment. All
classrooms must have common elements, such as the school-wide expectations for
student behavior, writing rubrics and thinking maps. Grade levels met to
collaboratively determine how they were going to implement the Essential
Agreements within their grade level for consistency. Visits to the third grade
classrooms proved it difficult to tell one from the other. The learning environment in
each was similar. Writing was on the back wall, Focus Wall on the south wall, the
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Redondo Expectations right inside the door. Also included in the Essential
Agreements as was determined by the school is the expectation that current
standards are posted on the board and visible to all students.
A practice described during an informal visit with the principal yielded a
strategy used for accountability while building capacity. When visiting classrooms,
Mrs. Green usually has a camera in hand. She snaps photos of teachers
implementing newly learned strategies or using best practices. In her regular Friday
email she includes weekly updates and a synopsis of what she has seen. She often
attaches the pictures shes taken that week in order for teachers to see for themselves
what she sees when she is visiting classrooms.
One teacher stated that good communication has contributed to the
success of the school. Redondo Public is a folder on the schools network server.
The folder is regularly updated and includes information, such as the schools
detailed expectations for learning environment, teacher behavior, dismissal
procedures, playground procedures, safety procedures, and monthly calendars. In
addition to this type of information, grade levels have individual folders within the
Redondo Public where they can store meeting agendas and minutes, common
lesson plans, instructional tools and their grade levels Essential Agreements.
Access to this information is readily and easily available to all staff members. If the
principal has a memo she wants everyone to see, she puts it in Redondo Public
where it is easily accessible to all. This type of system supports the larger system of
accountability and leaves little room for excuses or miscommunication.
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Curriculum and Teaching

In addition to systems supporting accountability, research also revealed that
systems to support curriculum and teaching must be in place, and work cooperatively
with those for accountability, for schools to successfully meet the needs of all
students. The quality of teaching and rigor of curriculum has been consistently
linked to positive learning outcomes for students (Marzano, 2003; Lyman & Villani,
2004; Education Trust, 2004; Chall, 2000; Schmoker, 2006). Mortimore and
Sammons (1987) have established that teaching has six to ten times as much impact
on student learning than all other factors. At Redondo many systems were perceived
to be in place to support the teaching and consequently the learning that lead to high
academic achievement for each student on their campus.
Redondos first line of defense when it comes to intervention is initial good
teaching. When asked how she holds her teachers accountable for effective
instruction, Mrs. Greens response is a simple, Thats my job, isnt it? When she
and her former assistant principal first started out seven years ago they worked
together to train the staff on the Direct Instruction model of teaching. They taught
the Direct Instruction model through the use of the model, engaging in the I do, we
do, we do, we do, you do mode of instruction. During that year they both
conducted numerous demonstration lessons and professional development sessions
dedicated to the teaching and learning of the Direct Instruction model. They have
found through the use of this model of instruction, success. Interviewees contributed
much of their success to the Direct Instruction model. Observations of classroom
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instruction indicated teachers have continued to utilize this model of instruction,

although training occurred several years ago.
Interviews revealed that staff at Redondo has also been trained in interactive
teaching strategies, to ensure maximum student engagement. As many of the
teachers at Redondo have been there for some time, a majority of them went through
the initial training. However, as the learning cycle is never complete, Mrs. Green
and her leadership staff of coaches are regularly revisiting both the Direct Instruction
model and the interactive teaching strategies. Instructional support is always
available for teachers if assistance is desired or required. Instructional support is
provided on an as needed basis from one of the schools three instructional coaches,
the assistant principal or the principal. Support is made available in a variety of
ways. Support can be provided in planning for instruction or in delivering
instruction. The leadership team at Redondo is available for conferencing and
providing demonstration lessons if necessary. Instructional coaches also assist
teachers in determining when instructional modifications are necessary and provide
resources when needed. These coaches are also regularly available to cover classes
so that classroom teachers can visit their colleagues for instructional ideas.
Supporting the teaching at Redondo was observed to be a priority.
Collaboration and professional development are taken seriously. Mrs. Green said
We do not meet to just to meet. If we are meeting we are working together to refine
instructional practices. The 2007-2008 schedule of meetings posted on Redondo
Public delineates the schedule for the year. Per the district schedule, Tuesdays are
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staff meeting days. At Redondo, the first Tuesday of the month is a Leadership
Team meeting, second Tuesday is an all staff meeting, generally training and the
third Tuesday is designated for grade level collaboration. In addition the staff
development days set aside by the district, the principal provides an added four days
of release time to teachers throughout the year designated for grade level planning
and collaboration. On these days, one of the three instructional coaches is assigned
to facilitate the grade level planning. Per the collaboration planning day memo, also
located in Redondo Public, grade levels must establish norms and take minutes of
their meeting. These minutes are then made available to the rest of the staff via
Redondo Public so if new information is generated it can be shared, thus
supporting and encouraging best practices replicated in other grade levels.
During the visit to Redondo, two collaborative sessions were observed. The
first observation was of a Kindergarten grade level release day designated for a
lesson study. Teachers were observed planning for future phonemic awareness
lessons, as phonemic awareness had been determined an area for growth as per the
most recent Theme Skills curriculum embedded assessment. Helping to facilitate the
meeting was the schools Reading First Coach and a district curriculum specialist
assigned to the school site. Teachers and instructional coaches were observed
working together to locate opportunities in Teachers Editions where phonemic
awareness activities are taught. They then discussed how they could consistently
incorporate these opportunities into their morning routines. Additional opportunities
to build phonemic awareness with students were also identified. The following day
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during classroom observations, it was observed that implementation of the phonemic

awareness activities identified the day before had occurred, as was evident in the
posted morning routines.
The second collaborative meeting observed was a fifth/sixth grade level
meeting. The meeting was facilitated by two of the three instructional coaches. The
observed objective of this meeting was to determine how classroom teachers would
implement recently acquired English Language Development strategies. Two of the
grade levels teachers had attended training at UCLA entitled Bridges to
Understanding. This training focused on effective instructional strategies for
increasing the comprehensibility of academic tasks for English Learners. During the
meeting effective teaching strategies were discussed and then demonstrated for those
who were unable to attend the training. For example, teachers demonstrated for their
colleagues the use of write-arounds for their colleagues. This is a collaborative
activity that provides practice for English Learners in extending sentences or creating
stories through descriptions. The group had not come to consensus on which
strategies to implement while the researcher was in attendance.
During the time at the school, the researcher was also permitted to attend an
all staff meeting. As previously noted, the principal at Redondo spends little time on
disseminating information she can distribute via a memo or an email. Therefore the
majority of the time spent together as a staff is for professional development. The
training that took place on the day of observation focused on questioning techniques,
specifically using Blooms Taxonomy to generate higher level thinking questions.
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Grade levels teachers sat together and discussed the ways in which they would
implement this questioning strategy. After this brainstorming, grade levels were then
asked to share their implementation ideas with the rest of the staff. To provide
accessibility for the entire staff implementation ideas were recorded, turned in and
posted on Redondo Public. At the conclusion of the meeting, Mrs. Green asked
her staff if anything was needed from her to ensure the successful implementation of
these new questioning techniques. Mrs. Green did get a few responses, mostly for
materials.
Standards were observed to be the focus of all collaborative meetings and
professional development trainings attended by the researcher. Interviewees
consistently spoke of being standards driven; the California state standards are
Redondos curriculum. Teachers at Redondo spoke of ensuring students know what
is expected of them at their grade level as a result of any given lesson. Spoken of
many times throughout the interviews, both formal and informal was a training
called Standards Unwrapped. Participating in this training two years ago
provided the staff a deeper look at each standard. During interviews teachers
indicated this training made it clearer for them exactly what they were responsible
for teaching. They looked carefully at the standards that would make the greatest
impact on their students education. The training took them through exercises in
unwrapping standards in meaningful ways to make them more comprehensible for
students. This training resulted in teachers more efficiently and effectively crafting
standards-based instructional experiences and relevant assessments; evident in the
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academic progress the school on the whole has made. Grade levels focus deep
instruction around one Standards Based Question (SBQ) per month. Teachers
thoroughly and explicitly provide instruction in the standard identified. SBQs,
posted in classrooms, were evident during observations and referred to in interviews
as an important component of instruction.
Instructional support for implementing curriculum and effective teaching was
evident at Redondo. Systems to facilitate this support provided differentiated
support to teachers, opportunities for collaboration and professional learning for the
entire staff at Redondo. Systems to support curriculum and teaching were observed
working together methodically with those for accountability to ensure that all
students received effective instruction.
Data and Assessment
Research has demonstrated that successful schools use data to make decisions
about instruction (The Education Trust, 1999; Izumi, 2002; Fermanich et al, 2006;
Duke, 2006). Instruction is improved when educators can look at teaching practices
and student data in an objective manner (Bray, 2003). Data provides valuable
information about student learning and teaching practices. To inform decisions
about the opportunities for learning provided at the site, Redondo Elementary School
uses a multitude of assessments that generate a large array of data. At Redondo data
is used to make decisions about instructional modifications, professional
development opportunities, as well as conclusions about individual students needs.
Assessments used at Redondo include the Standardized Testing and Reporting
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(STAR) data, which includes the California Standards Test (CST) and the California
English Language Development Test (CELDT). The key to the effective use of data
at Redondo is up-to-date information. What happened last May, I dont need
anymore, Principal Green stated in her interview. This mindset dictates the use of
other assessments.
A list of assessments used at the site can be found in the school plan,
assessments used include:

OARS Theme Skills Test

Six Theme Skills Tests writing assessments

Houghton Mifflin Leveled Reading passages

Qualitative Spelling Inventory, the Basic Phonics Skills Test (BPST)

Scholastic Reading Inventory (SRI)

Math Trimester Test

Kindergarten mid- and end-of-year assessments

Benchmark Tests
This large variety of assessments ensures the staff that Redondo can derive

the most accurate picture possible of both instruction and of students academic
progress and individual needs. To organize the data they accumulate, they, like the
other schools in their district use the SMART System. An on-line database that
houses, organizes and displays student and teacher data in various ways.
Information about students is available at the click of a button. A district-assigned

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data analysis expert in their district is readily available to assist the staff in using the
variety of assessments.
Looking at data alone does support teaching or student achievement. The use
of data requires more than just being able to look at data. Effective data use requires
conversations around both student performance and teaching; conversations are best
had when they are objective and nonjudgmental (Bray, 2003). Objective
conversations such as these are much easier to have and more effective when
centered on data and it is only then that true change to occur.
Using both collaborative planning days provided by the district and principal
and often their own time, teachers at Redondo engage in regular data conferences.
Interviews revealed that data conferences are centered on the science of teaching.
Strategies that have been successful and those that have not are discussed. Teachers
also look closely at individual children, with the belief that all students in the grade
level belong to them. Principal, Mrs. Green said the following, My coaches pull the
information for a whole entire grade level and then we have data conferences and
they talk about specific children because the attitude has to be that when my teachers
sit down, they own all 92 sixth graders. All of them. Not just 30 kids. Attitudes
like this are prevalent throughout the school. One teacher stated about their grade
level planning, First thing, at the beginning of the year, when we had our planning
days, (we look at) where the kids are and what they need to focus on. These types
of collaborative conversations around data and instruction have helped the school
maintain their focus on student performance.
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Change and Sustainability

One phenomenon educators can count on occurring is change (Marzano,
Waters & McNulty, 2005). Systems in schools that accommodate for and facilitate
change are essential, for without these schools and the people in them, stagnate and
maintain. Mrs. Green and her staff recognize this. Systems for both change and
sustainability of best practices were evident at Redondo Elementary.
A new and different student population at the beginning of the 2007-2008
school year tested the schools systems for change. The staff at Redondo accepted
this change as a new challenge; they had worked hard before and would continue to
do so. To assist all staff and incoming new students with the change that was
occurring, Orientation sessions for families were scheduled in the summer of 2007.
These sessions offered new families opportunities to get to know the staff, the school
and most importantly, what the expectations were for their learning and behavior.
They offered teachers an opportunity to get to know students and families.
Orientation sessions allowed for a smoother transition for all involved.
When things arent working, or could be working more effectively,
opportunities for learning are sought after actively. The principal and teachers alike
spoke of how they have visited other schools in southern California districts when
data indicated success. When it was discovered that a school across town had
performed extremely well in sixth grade math, Mrs. Green sent her sixth grade team
there to find out what strategies they were implementing that created the success.
The same situation occurred with her kindergarten team.
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Multiple teachers spoke of the research that they as a staff read on a

consistent basis to not only sustain practices they are currently using, but to also
make changes to researched-based strategies, when necessary. We still get
research, you know, placed in boxes, stated one teacher. Many teachers talked of
the book Results Now by Schmoker, which the staff read last school year. Teachers
regularly observe each other. Through meaningful conversations, conversations
about instruction and teaching, they sometimes discover they need additional
practice at implementing specific strategies. They use each other, and their
instructional coaches as models from which they can learn how to deliver their
instruction better. If they want to observe a colleague, theres always someone to
relieve you a grade sixth teacher said.
When things are working, recognition is the key to sustaining the best
practices at Redondo. When research is placed in the boxes of the staff at Redondo,
it is not always for new learning. Often, it is meant to validate what they are already
doing. With her Friday emails Mrs. Green includes pictures of teachers using best
practices. Teachers enjoy being recognized on these Friday communiqus. Principal
Green relies heavily on recognition, There needs to be constant recognitionyou
need to sustain that, and the only way youre going to get those kind of best practices
going everywhere is to keep, first of all, talking about it and expecting it and putting
it in every Friday email and, then visiting it. She believes in bringing out the best in
everybody, and recognizing the strengths each member of the staff brings to the

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table, valuing and validating each teachers unique importance and contribution to
the team.
Another technique implemented that contributes to the sustainability of best
practices is distributed leadership. Multiple opportunities to get involved in decision
making at the school exist. One example of this is the monthly leadership meetings.
These meetings are open to anyone who would like to attend, although only grade
levels chairs have the responsibility to attend. By providing these opportunities for
stakeholders in the school to get involved, Mrs. Green promotes the sustainability of
best practices.
Opportunities for Parent and Community Involvement
An additional system in place at Redondo not identified in the literature
review conducted for this study, that has contributed to their success, is one that
provides opportunities for community and parent involvement. Parents are large
piece of the collaborative model at Redondo. Each person interviewed attributed
much of their success to a supportive relationship between school and home. One of
the community liaisons, first a parent at the site, attributes the schools success to the
fact that they form a cooperative triangle; administrators, teachers, and parents.
Redondos strategy for providing opportunities for parent involvement is varied,
providing parents with many different ways in which to get involved.
Redondo categorizes their parent involvement into to three types: Academic
Classes, Workshops/Parenting Classes, and Working Activities and Meetings.
Academic Classes include such things as the monthly Family Fridays, Action
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Learning Walks, bimonthly Math Festivals, Newcomer Workshops, Path to Success

Workshops, and trips to local state colleges and universities. Workshops/Parenting
Classes include the Kinder Orientations, Community Awareness Workshops and
Finance Workshops. Such things as PTA, SSC, and DAC Meetings are included in
the Working Activities and Meetings categories. Other opportunities included in this
category are Volunteer Day, Picture Day and PTA Sales.
With such a vast variety of ways in which parents can get involved, Redondo
enjoys consistent and heavy attendance at their Academic Classes,
Workshops/Parenting Classes, and Working Activities and Meetings. In 2006-2007
school year their Parent Involvement General Report indicates that they had a total
of 1,349 parents attend one or more of the events. The report also shows that the
parents logged 21,669 hours of involvement over the course of the year. In the first
trimester of the 2007 school year 1,023 parents at Redondo had logged 3,991 hours
of involvement at the school.
Systems Working Together
The framework that ties these perceived systems for accountability,
curriculum and teaching, assessment and data, change and sustainability and
opportunities for parent involvement together is Redondos Single Plan for Student
Achievement (SPSA). The SPSA, which is rewritten every three years, but revised
to reflect the changing needs of the school each summer, is much more than a
document. Reading the SPSA is a kin to walking the halls of the school. The plan
demonstrates the school leaders philosophy of strategy. Each of the schools three
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identified goals has many actions listed that the school implements to achieve their
targets. These actions, like the systems in school, work intricately together to create
academic success for the students at Redondo.

The schools vision to provide high

quality instruction in a safe, positive environment that is conducive to the academic

learning and personal growth for all students, has been made a reality due to the
strategic plan designed around a set of systems that support effective instruction
school-wide for all kids.
A comprehensive literature review revealed that a combination of systems
working cohesively together create effective environments in which learning for all
students can occur (Marzano, 2003). These systems perceived to be in place within
the schools structures match those found in the research conducted prior to the case
study. Additionally, one other system not identified in the literature review, that for
parent involvement, works together with the others. These systems combined have
contributed to the high-academic performance of the schools population of students
of color. These systems were observed to work together cohesively in a way that
creates and maintains an environment conducive to learning.
Third Research Question: How Systems and Structures Are Implemented
How are the organizational systems and structures implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
Our success is based on our strategic plan for analyzing student data and
creating a program for each child that fits their individual needs reads a statement
from the Desk of Principal Green on the schools website. The schools success in
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obtaining and maintaining improvement in their students academic achievement is

due in large part to the strategic plan that leader has implanted at the site. Research
supports the notion that instruction is the most important factor that contributes to
student learning (Schmoker, 2006). Evidence collected through observations,
interviews, and artifacts/documents support the conclusion that Mrs. Green and her
staff believe this to be true. Each of the perceived systems described in the previous
section contribute to school-wide implementation of effective instructional
techniques.
Accountability and Curriculum and Teaching
Teachers at Redondo were not observed sitting behind their desk while the
students worked independently. In each classroom visited, teachers were observed
actively engaged in direct instruction and students actively participating in their
learning. One factor this can be attributed to is the large amount time Mrs. Green
and her assistant principal spent on teaching, modeling, and expecting the use of
Direct Instruction several years ago. In her interview Mrs. Green said, So, we did a
lot of work on just what this direct instruction looked like and then we followed it up
with lots of observations.

In my frequent visits to the classroom, this is what Im

looking for. There are no secrets around here. Mrs. Green and her staff regularly
revisit this instructional model to ensure they are delivering instruction in the most
effective way possible. During the interviews, Direct Instruction was cited by
three of the four teachers questioned as a key ingredient to effective teaching. As
part of the larger systems for both accountability and curriculum and teaching, use of
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this method of instruction is expected, inspected, and supported. Coaches, and

administrators if necessary, are used as instructional support for teachers who might
need assistance planning for and implementing this particular type of pedagogy.
Student engagement is also expected, inspected and supported. Direct
Instruction was number one on Mrs. Greens list for implementation. Number two
was student engagement strategies. After being trained and supported first in the
direct instruction model, teachers were next trained on interactive teaching strategies
that support student engagement. Teachers were observed implementing interactive
engagement techniques in which they have trained. To stay current and avoid
becoming stagnant, Mrs. Green regularly revisits this packet of Interactive Teaching
Strategies.
One of the five school-wide expectations for student behavior is to be an
active learner. Students are not only taught this expectation, but they are shown
what it looks like to be an active learner. Many models of active learning are
provided so that for them too, there is no room for interpretation of expectations. It
is evident that students know, and can articulate what is expected of them. During an
interview, one teacher recalled an instance the day before where one of her students
didnt show up for his after-school activity. When she asked the other students
where he was, she was informed that he hadnt been an active learner that day and he
lost the privilege of attending the activity.
During classroom observations it was evident that students were actively
engaged in their own learning. It was rare to see one individual student called upon,
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most often, choral or group responses were the norm in almost every classroom.
When asked about effective teaching, seven of the eleven interviewees stated that
effective teaching requires the regular implementation of interactive engagement
strategies. It was evident from interviews, observations of both classroom and
professional development sessions that the use of interactive engagement strategies
is taken very seriously.
Regular weekly emails promote the use of effective classroom instruction.
As previously noted part of her regular communication and system for
accountability, Mrs. Green snaps photos of teachers using these interactive teaching
strategies and sends them out in a Friday email. Serving two purposes, Friday
emails, not only sustain best practices by recognizing them, they also encourage
others use and implementation of best practices. Mrs. Green believes that if you are
going to be a classroom, then you had better do one of two things; say something
positive or provide a suggestion. Just to walk through a room is not good enough.
If you dont follow-up and say something positive or give a suggestion-then what
was the point of you being there? she stated in her interview. This type of
expectation and follow-through, contributes to her teachers using effective
instruction.
Data and Assessment and Change and Sustainability
Teachers rely heavily on the use of assessments and data to drive their
instruction. They use the collaborative planning days they get four times a year to
look at data and make decisions about how they are teaching. As mentioned
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previously, notes from these grade level meetings are shared with the entire staff. If
practices implemented have been determined successful others can benefit from the
work accomplished by their colleagues. There is never a question about what is
going on at a particular grade level, there is always access to find out. This access
and transparency of practices promote the use of effective instruction school-wide as
it makes apparent what everyone is doing to promote student academic success.
Data is shared regularly and often a focus of the dialogue at grade level
meetings. Objectives at both grade level meetings observed had been determined by
a need identified through data. Instructional coaches facilitate these data
conferences. Using data to drive decisions about grade level objectives provides a
platform for discussions that revolve around teaching techniques and strategies.
When areas of strengths or weaknesses have been identified, grade levels discuss the
classroom instruction that could be contributing the either the students successes or
failures. They take seriously their role in creating meaningful learning experiences
for their students and regularly make changes in their techniques to accommodate for
what trends they notice in their data. Supporting effective classroom instruction, this
use of data focuses their work in the areas they see as needs for improvement.
Teachers also used data with students to promote change. Effective teaching
involves getting students active in their own learning. Previously discussed was the
idea that students active learning is an expectation at Redondo. All Students have
an Academic Goals and Progress Recording Sheet. This recording sheet includes
CST and CELDT information. Students lexile scores, reading levels and theme
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skills test results are also included. All items recorded indicate a learning goal. This
sheet is referred to often and students are continually aware of the academic progress
they are, or are not making. These reports support the students involvement in their
own learning and teach them how to be meta-cognitive and self-regulatory, skills
often forgotten about in the daily demands of teaching standards. When students
arent making progress, the discussion first starts with Why?, and then What can I
do about this?; promoting the use of effective instructional techniques.
Promoting Effective Classroom Instruction
Based on the evidence gathered through interviews, observations and
artifact/document collection the perceived systems for accountability, curriculum and
teaching, data and assessment, and change and sustainability, are used to support the
school-wide implementation of effective classroom instruction. Training and
support provided to teachers for implementing best practices, the continuous cycle
sharing of these practices, the regular use of data and the involvement of the students
in their own learning all contribute to effective classroom instruction evident schoolwide. Theoretical framework rooted in the socio-cultural theory of learning, asserts
that learning does not take place in isolation. Providing opportunities for
collaborative learning for adults is an integral piece of the systems working together
to promote effective classroom instruction. Learning best occurs in a social setting,
and in this sort of collaborative professional learning community ineffective teaching
is difficult to hide.

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Fourth Research Question: Construct of Race

How is the construct of race reflected in the schools structures and systems?
The socio-cultural theory of learning provided a strong basis for this research.
Knowledge students bring to school is derived from cultural orientations they
develop through their family and community experiences (Packer, M.J. &
Goicoechea, J. 2000). Cognitive schemas students develop from experiences within
their culture play a large role in the acquisition of new learning as all new concepts
learned are attached to these previously constructed webs of information. The
cultural orientations students of color living in poverty bring to school are often very
different from those of the educators who are responsible for their academic learning,
often creating a sense of cognitive dissonance (Delpit, 1995). Evidence gathered
suggested that the staff at Redondo recognize that culture plays an important role in
how students receive information. This recognition was demonstrated by the variety
of instructional techniques observed and in their answers to questions asked during
the interviews. Teachers used strategies commonly referred to as culturally
responsive. They were observed making connections for students and providing
them with various opportunities to demonstrate their understanding.
Respect for All Cultures and Children
If you respect children, theyre going to respect you and theyre going to
respect each other, stated the schools assistant principal. Having respect for all
children involves recognizing their home culture, their unique qualities as
individuals, and having the same high expectations for each. When teachers were
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asked about how they create and maintain a climate that engages all students and
respects their culture, each interviewee indicated that getting to know your students,
who they are and where they come from, then building on and incorporating those
experiences in the classroom is essential. Correlating strongly with this studys
theoretical framework, the socio-cultural theory, the staff at Redondo has a clear idea
of the population they serve and work very hard to ensure each and every student
succeeds, through recognizing their students prior knowledge and the strengths each
brings.
Interviewees spoke of getting to know students as an important way to
provide appropriate and relevant instruction. home visits, learning who the
parents are, knowing them by name, lets us in on a little bit about what our kids are
all about, stated one teacher. As noted earlier in this chapter, parent involvement is
a key ingredient to the success of this school. With all the opportunities for parent
involvement, it is difficult for families to stay uninvolved, which helps the staff stay
closely connected to their students.
Academic Language
Two of the teachers interviewed stated that providing students the
opportunity to acquire academic language, or the language of text, plays an
important role in ensuring that all students have opportunities to be successful in
schools. Without exposure to and knowledge of language used in books and school,
typically marginalized populations of students are denied opportunities to higher
education. Teachers also provide many opportunities for their English Learners and
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the limited English-only speaking students to express themselves orally and practice
using the academic language they have acquired. It is not enough to just to expose
them, they must be provided opportunities to articulate their ideas, one teacher
stated. There must be A lot of talking, and engaging in conversation.
High Expectations
One phrase was a constant in interviews and observed in action while at
Redondo: high expectations. Teachers at Redondo have high expectations for every
one of their students. We have to work really hard for them and most important
thing-we believe in them. We believe they can do it. Thats the focus one teacher
stated. Opportunities for students to be successful are abundant. When children fail,
it is not their fault, nor their failure. Teachers hold themselves accountable for the
successes and the failures of their students. Interviewees also spoke of how they are
continually using data to identify places where instructional modifications may be
necessary. Teachers look at children and ask themselves, what do these kids need to
know to be successful at their grade level? Then they go about making sure they are
providing whatever is needed for all children to be successful.
College is not a dream; it is a plan for the future! read a bulletin board in
the parent/volunteer room. Having high expectations and aspirations for their
students, the Redondo staff works hard to provide opportunities for students and
parents to prepare and learn about college. Staff take students on a once a year trip
to a local college or university to give them an idea of what being on a college
campus is like. The staff at Redondo works hard to teach children and parents alike
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the importance of a good education and working hard. They provide classes for
parents showing them what path their students will take based on where they are
now. If they appear to be in jeopardy of not making it into the classes that will
prepare them for college, Redondo staff works to provide academic support to
families to ensure their children are on a path towards success.
Success with All Students
While the construct of race was not reflected in observations, interviews or
artifacts/documents, evidence pointed strongly towards a culture of respect,
academic language and high expectations for all as playing large roles in the schools
environment and their success with their population students of color.
Discussion of Emergent Themes
Guided by a combination of theoretical frameworks, this case study of a
successful urban school revealed three themes.
I. Relationships play a key role in the daily operation of the school. Data
collected revealed that the collaborative nature of the school and the
relationships amongst staff, students and family played a key role in the
success of the school. Parent involvement is an integral part of the
collaborative model at Redondo.
II. Recognition plays a key role in building human capacity. Redondo
recognizes the successes of students and teachers alike. This recognition
contributes to the accomplishments of the people in the school, both students
and adults.
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III. Procedures play a large role in the story of success at Redondo. Common,
consistent, clear and communicated expectations for both teaching and
learning have contributed positively to the overall climate of learning and
successes at Redondo.
Theme I: Relationships & Collaboration
Earlier in the school year at a district principals meeting, school leaders were
asked to identify three core values they felt their school embodied. Redondos
Leadership team identified the following three core values:
-Relationships, Excellence and Passion
Strong evidence existed that supported relationships as an emergent theme.
The theme at Redondo this year was borrowed from the popular Disney movie High
School Musical; Were All In This Together paints an accurate portrayal of the
school culture at Redondo.
Collaboration and just working together, we have really good relationships
as a staff and I think that is really the drive that has us working so well together, one
teacher expressed in her interview. We want each other to succeed, it is for the
kids, you know? she continued. In describing the climate of the school, one of the
community liaisons used the term togetherness. She went on to say that the
members of the school community support each other, not just with situations around
the school, but also when tragedy strikes at home. This is the Redondo Family she
concluded, It is a very special school. Very Special.

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As the school was visited during the month of November, the staff at
Redondo was engaging in their annual, Tom the Turkey activity. This event
occurs during the week preceding Thanksgiving and involves the staff in recognizing
one another. Each staff member, certificated and classified, randomly selects
another and creates a personalized turkey expressing what they are thankful for about
their colleague. These are then posted in the staff lounge, on Tom the Turkey for
everyone to view. Many of the turkeys were decorated to reflect the personality of
the person they intended for, indicative of the depth to which the staff knew each
other.
The staff was also observed engaged in an activity entitled Guess Who? In
this activity, also posted in the staff lounge, staff members brought in baby pictures
of themselves and provided clues for colleagues to make a guess about who is who.
Activities such as Tom the Turkey and Guess Who? encouraged staff relations,
and increased the interactions among the staff while simultaneously encouraging
relationships built on more than a common working environment.
Redondo does not rely solely on collaboration among the staff. Building
relationships and working in cooperation with parents has played an integral part in
the success of the school. The importance of building strong relationships between
home and school was evident in data collected through interviews, observations and
artifacts/documents. A community liaison stated, We are working with the parents,
that is the team work. We have to be together. I mean administrators, parents and
teachers- to gather the highest hopeswe are the triangle.
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To support building effective relationships with parents, Redondo offers a

variety of opportunities for parent involvement to occur. Family Fridays are themebased days in which families are encouraged to join their children in school and
participate in academic activities around a theme such as Disney Day. Redondo also
provides Academic Classes, as they are called. These Academic Classes include the
Action Learning Walks, where parents learn how teachers deliver standards-based
instruction and how they can support their students mastery of these standards.
Included in the Action Learning Walks are opportunities for parents to observe in
classrooms while their students are being taught and support the learning as it is
occurring. Parents are also offered opportunities to learn how to support their
children throughout their years in school through a class called Path to Success. In
this annual class parents are presented information on how to help their children
succeed through the middle grade years, on through high school and then finally
college. The presentation offers various scenarios for parents, which highlight the
importance academic success in elementary school has on their future.
When something happens here, everybody is ready to bring a solution. One
problem, three solutions, these statements, as one interviewee suggested, accurately
described the school culture. Relationships and collaboration play a central role in
the daily operations of Redondo.
Theme II: Building Capacity &Recognition
Mrs. Green views her role as principal as that of cheerleader. My role is
crucial. If Im not the cheerleader, if Im not in there observing lessons, whats the
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point? she stated. She does not consider herself a school operations manager; she
has others to count the money and all that stuff. She sees her role as that of
instructional leader; Ive got to be in classrooms helping teachers learn how to
teach. Building capacity in her teachers and recognizing them for their successes is
a priority and a large part of the schools recent successes.
Interviews revealed that Redondo has provided their teachers with a variety
of professional development and leadership opportunities which have built their
capacity. For example, the Leadership Team, which meets once a month on a
designated Tuesday, involves administration, coaches, and grade level chairs. In her
interview however, one teacher spoke of the popularity of these meetings. Although
only grade level chairs are members of the team, often many others attend as this
opportunity gives all teachers a chance to be involved in the decision making of the
school. Attendance is encouraged. Additionally, several teachers spoke of the
Professional Learning Communities training attended by an entire grade level two
years ago. Mrs. Green sent only one grade level with the expectation they would
then return to train the remaining staff. Two years later, each member of the staff
interviewed spoke of Redondo as a professional learning community. None of the
teachers interviewed were in the grade level sent to the training. This demonstrated
the effectiveness of the training and depth of implementation that occurred as a result
of training by colleagues.
Also spoken of in interviews, was the recent Bridges to Understanding
training attended by some members of the staff. A previous section demonstrated
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the follow-up this training received at Redondo. Staff members were observed
implementing strategies from this training in their classrooms as well as a grade level
meeting where strategies learned were shared. Building capacity at Redondo occurs
regularly.
Recognizing the teaching staff for their accomplishments, no matter how
small, creates a cycle of success at Redondo. Mrs. Green views recognition as the
key to sustaining best practices, There needs to be constant recognition. Each time
Mrs. Green visits a classroom, she has something positive to say, even if only I
enjoyed being in your classroom today. Her regular Friday emails display
observations of weekly best practices. Additionally, each year a certificated and a
classified staff member are chosen as Redondos Employees of the Year. Redondos
Employees of the Year have names posted on the school website. Lastly, each time
there is an opportunity to nominate a staff member for a district or state distinction,
Mrs. Green takes advantage of opportunity. Paraphrasing Mrs. Greens words, staff
recognition not only keeps best practices alive, it contributes to the overall positive
culture at the school.
Students are also routinely recognized for their academic successes. A
majority of the staff interviewed spoke of student recognition as a factor in
promoting the academic success of the student population. We recognize students
all the time and not just students, but families, Mrs. Green states, Student
recognition doesnt happen once a month. It happens throughout the week,

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throughout the day, all the time. Even in the classroom through positive
reinforcement.
Student recognition was observed during the time spent at the school.
Bulletin boards in the hallways at Redondo are dedicated to student recognition.
One holds a banner that reads Believe, Achieve, Succeed. Clustered around the
banner were pictures of all the students who scored at proficient and advanced on
their California Standards Test (CST). Pictures of the Band Jumpers, students who
jumped a band, no matter if it was from Far Below Basic to Below Basic were also
hanging in the hallways. At an assembly earlier in the year, all students who jumped
a band were recognized and received a rubber wrist band, a popular accessory of the
moment. Another bulletin board held the Wall of Fame for the top readers in the
schools Readers for Life program. Students who get 100% on the regular, allschool timed math tests are also recognized on the Math Festival bulletin board.
Academic success is not all that is rewarded. Attendance is also recognized.
Each consecutive day classes have 100% attendance, it counts towards a class reward
they could receive. Pictures of classes who had achieved 15 days in a row of 100%
attendance were posted on the Attendance board. By providing this recognition,
children at Redondo learn that hard work and dedication are important.
Recognition and building capacity are central to building the successes of the
people, students, teachers, and parents a like, at Redondo. Listed as one of the 21
responsibilities of a school leader in School Leadership that Works (Marzano,
Waters & McNulty, 2005) is recognizing both individual and collective
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accomplishments. Mrs. Green takes this role very seriously. She also encourages
everyone at her school to get involved in recognizing students and families, creating
a supportive and strong culture built on the accomplishments of the individuals
working within school.
Theme III: School-wide Procedures
In response to an interview question about the student discipline policy, one
community liaison stated that the school really does not have many problems with
discipline. She spoke of how clear expectations for both behavior and learning
contribute to the schools success. Everything just seems to work like the clock,
she stated.

From walking in line, to morning and dismissal routines, throwing trash

away to pushing in your chair, there is a procedure for everything at Redondo. From
the desk of the principal document reads:
Redondo is a structured school environment where importance is placed on
following the Redondo Expectations, a list of five basic behavior expectations that
every child must follow. We believe that we must promote academic excellence, as
well as social growth, and responsible decision-making.
These expectations are:

Follow directions the first time.

Keep your hands, feet, and objects to yourself.

Use appropriate language and tone of voice.

Be kind to yourself and others.

Be an active learner.
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Common expectations that everyone one must follow is only a small part of
the system of accountability for both teachers and students. As mentioned earlier in
this study in both the literature review and this chapter, a successful internal system
for accountability has its roots in common, consistent expectations for student
behavior and learning (Elmore, nd).
On Redondo Public is a folder which holds Redondos School-wide
Expectations; different from rules, which are defined as a function to discourage
behaviors, expectations are defined as a strong belief that something will happen.
Mrs. Green prefers to refer to rules, as expectations; acknowledging that these things
will happen. School-wide expectations include procedures for the use of restroom,
pencils (as a rule no mechanical pencils are allowed school-wide), trash disposal and
transitions in the classroom.
Mrs. Green has created a Teachers Expectations Policy Contract which
can be found on Redondo Public. Each year teachers are expected to develop a
plan to teach and adhere to the five school-wide expectations listed above. Included
in this plan must be rewards and consequences, for individuals, teams and the whole
class. Teachers must also indicate how they will keep track of behavior, both
positive and negative. They must also delineate their plan for parent communication,
which at a minimum must occur every two weeks, per the contract. Lastly there is a
list of twelve procedures they must initial they have established in their classroom.
Procedures include those previously mentioned, and in addition include procedures
for entering and exiting the classroom, distribution of materials, and drinking water.
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A specific policy for the use of water bottles is to be established by each grade level.
To demonstrate they have established routines, teachers must provide a copy of their
daily and weekly schedules with their contract at the beginning of each school year.
In particular, there were two procedures observed by the researcher, prior to
the knowledge of the extended school-wide expectations. Upon dismissal, it was
observed that a teacher was giving high-fives to all her students. In observing the
school yard, it was quickly noticed that not just one, but all the teachers standing on
the school yard were giving their students high-fives at the end of the day. First
thing the following morning, students were observed entering their classrooms
getting a handshake from their teacher. Teachers at Redondo are expected to
connect with each student every day, two times a day: in the morning and at
dismissal. These procedures in particular contribute the positive relationships
between teachers and students, as mentioned in a previous section.
In observing the campus for three days one thing stood out: the physical
environment of the school. The campus was spotless. There was not one piece of
trash on the playground in the pergola, the hallways, or the restrooms. Due to the
fidelity of implementation of the procedures established by the leadership at the
school site, the school does appear to run like clockwork, as described by the
community liaison in her interview.
Although Redondos student population has changed, and many of the
students who had spent their entire school lifetime at Redondo had moved and many
new students had arrived, this researcher could not identify the students new to the
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school. All students, regardless of whether or not they were new, appeared to be
well aware of the expectations set forth at the school.
The role of procedures and routines in student achievement is critical.
Research has demonstrated that when procedures ad routines have been established
early on in the school year, it frees teachers up to devote their time to teaching and
learning in content areas (Wong and Wong, 2002). Additionally, routines and
procedures take the guess work out of learning for students. School can be a
complex environment and when students know exactly what to expect and what is
expected of them, it is likely fewer opportunities for disruptions will occur (Kaser,
nd). Having established routines and procedures has contributed to the student
success at Redondo.
Conclusion
Chapter Four provided answers to the four research questions guiding this
study. Data collected to identify trends in performance for students of color revealed
that the majority of the students of color at Redondo are making academic progress.
This indicating that the school is effectively meeting the needs of the populations
they serve. Systems perceived to be in place, match those found in the
comprehensive literature review conducted prior to the case study. Perceived
systems include those for accountability, those that support curriculum and teaching,
those that encourage the use of data and assessment, and those that accommodate for
change and promote sustainability. An additional system not identified in the

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literature review, yet found to be a contributing factor to the success of the school,
was opportunities for parent and community involvement.
These identified systems were perceived to facilitate effective classroom
instruction school-wide providing answers to research Question Three. Perceived
systems were observed to work together cohesively to support, encourage and
maintain effective classroom instruction school-wide. Question four sought to
discover how the construct of race was reflected within the schools structures and
systems. While race was not found to be reflected within the structures and systems,
respect for culture, use of academic language and high expectations for all students
were identified as strategies for promoting learning for all students.
The fifth and final chapter of this study provides a brief overview of the
problem identified suggesting the necessity of this study as well as the significance
of the study. Major findings and their significance follow an overview of the study.
The study concludes with implications for policy and practice and recommendations
for future research.

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CHAPTER FIVE
Summary & Implications
Introduction
Historically, urban schools with large concentrations of students of color and
those living in poverty have been associated with low academic achievement
(National Partnership for Teaching in At-Risk Schools, 2005; Johnson, 2002; Kozol,
2006). Although the achievement gap between students of color and their white and
Asian peers has narrowed, the difference in the academic achievement among these
subgroups is still staggering (NAEP 2007). Despite efforts to close the achievement,
such as standards-based instruction and the No Child Left Behind legislation, many
students of color and those living in poverty continue to be left behind.
Research has provided explanations for this achievement gap. Some research
has demonstrated that schools in urban areas, where concentrations of students of
color living in poverty are high, often lack human and financial resources (EdTrust,
2004). Schools in urban areas are also often filled with the least prepared and illtrained teachers (Darling-Hammond 2004; Haycock, 2003; Nieto, 2003; National
Partnership for Teaching in At-Risk Schools, 2005). Other explanations stem from
low expectations to beliefs about ability levels and the capacity to learn. A common
belief is that students from disadvantaged backgrounds and those of color are
inherently unable to learn complex concepts. The history, culture, and contributions
of people of color are seldom found in textbooks and curriculum. Furthermore,
teachers often disregard, minimize, and misrepresent this history and culture;
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creating a sense of irrelevance and unimportance in students of color (Delpit, 1995;

Gay 2000; Hale, 2001).

Moreover, the culture of most schools operates under that

of the dominant European society and follows middle class norms. For students of
color living in poverty the environment at school is very different from that at home,
creating a sense cultural dissonance for many (Delpit, 1995).
Despite the historical and societal factors that have contributed to the low
performance plaguing urban schools, research has shown that specific systemic
practices put in place can and do lead to increased academic performance for
students of color living in poverty (Izumi, 2000; Duke, 2002; Reeves, 2005;
Marzano, 2003). What could not be found in the research was the specific
combination of systems that lead to improving classroom instruction; a number
one factor of academic achievement. It was also not known which structures and
systems had the most impact on improving the instructional practices for students of
color and those living in poverty. Lastly, a handful of urban schools have been
successful in closing the achievement gap. However, why their success has not been
replicated in other urban schools remains an unanswered question.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine which organizational systems
school leaders have implemented within the structure of their district and school site
that have led to the school-wide implementation of effective classroom instruction in
high-poverty, urban schools with large populations of students of color. There has
been little connection made between leadership and its impact on effective classroom
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instruction. Therefore, this study looked at school site leadership as an important

factor in improving student performance and sought to provide an example for
principals of schools with similar characteristics to follow on the road to improving
the instructional practices at their school sites.
Research Questions
This study searched for answers to the following questions:
What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of color?
What are the organizational structures & systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with large
concentrations of students of color?
How are the organizational systems and structures implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
How is the construct of race reflected in the schools structures and systems?
Methodology
Due to the desired outcome of a comprehensive narrative description, a
qualitative case study was chosen as the most appropriate form of research. Most
often in educational qualitative case studies, research is rooted in concepts, models
and theories that have been developed through comprehensive reviews of the
literature (Merriam, 1998); therefore an overall theoretical framework was adopted
for this study. The theoretical framework adopted was the socio-cultural theory of
learning. This theory asserts that learning is not accomplished in isolation and takes
place in social settings. The knowledge that students bring to school is derived from
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cultural orientations they develop through their family and community experiences
(Packer, M.J. & Goicoechea, J. 2000). Therefore, prior knowledge students bring
with them to schools must be acknowledged and built upon to maximize learning.
New information must be able to attach to existing schemata to make meaning.
The cultural orientations that students of color living in poverty bring to
school are often very different from those of the educators who are responsible for
their academic learning, often creating a sense of cognitive dissonance (Delpit,
1995). When students are unable to make connections between new learning and
what they already know, understanding does not occur. Historical and current
sociopolitical and socioeconomic factors at work in our society have resulted in large
numbers of students of color who are also those living in poverty; compounding the
effects of the cultural conflicts experienced by many of the students attending our
nations urban schools.
However, a comprehensive literature review revealed that despite this, some
urban schools have been successful. Reasons for this success are grounded in the
specific instructional practices that have been cultivated and encouraged in these
sites; this provided an additional theoretical framework for this study. It is not one
or two systems working within a school to create successful learning environments,
but rather it is a comprehensive set of systems. These systems work together
cohesively within the schools firm structures to support effective classroom
instruction.

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The selected school site, Redondo Elementary is located in a large,

elementary district in Southern California. The school is a single track, year-round
school that serves approximately 650 students. The majority (90%) of Redondos
student population is Hispanic. Redondos API scores have increased continually
since 1999, with only one drop of nine points between the 1999 and 2007 years.
This year, due to the boundaries in the district being redrawn, Redondo lost some of
their student enrollment, and consequently gained students from other schools. To
gain a clearer picture of where they started the year, the principal had the district
assessment office recalculate the API to reflect the losses and the gains. The
schools recalculated API was 707; 41 points lower than where they were with their
previous population.
Data was collected for this case study over a three-month period of time. A
variety of data was collected to ensure the validity of the findings. Artifacts and
documents were gathered from both the internet and the schools shared folder while
the researcher visited the school. Interviews and observations were conducted
during a three-day visit in mid November of 2007. Once data was collected, data
was coded, triangulated and analyzed for answers to the four research questions and
for themes.
Major Findings
Research Question One
What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of color?

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Redondo Elementary school is making gains with the majority of their

students of color. Redondo has a predominantly Hispanic population and a large
English Learner population. Redondos English Learners, a numerically significant
population, have increased in numbers of students at proficient and above as
measured by the CST. Redondos two other numerically significant subgroups
Economically Disadvantaged and Hispanic have also made significant gains in the
numbers of students at proficient and above. Other students of color in nonnumerically significant subgroups, specifically, their small African-American
population have not been making progress in increasing the numbers of their
students at proficient and above. Instead, the numbers of African-American students
at proficient and above was inconsistent in the years analyzed.
Data collected for this research question showed that the trends and patterns
of performance among students of color reflect increases for the majority.
Improvements in student performance such as this, point toward the notion that the
classroom instruction at Redondo is meeting the needs of the majority of the student
population. This research provided an example for other urban schools with similar
demographics. Identified trends and patterns of performance among the students of
color at Redondo Elementary School provided evidence that indicated academic
success can occur on large scales in urban school settings.

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Research Question Two

What are the organizational structures & systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with large
concentrations of students of color?
Perceived systems in place within the schools structures at Redondo,
matched those found in research through the literature review. Perceived systems in
place within the schools structures were those that promote accountability, those
that support curriculum and teaching, those that encourage the use of data and
assessment, and those that allow for change and sustainability. In addition, a system
that provided opportunities for parent and community involvement was also
perceived. Data collected indicated that perceived systems worked together
cohesively, as a part of the strategic plan of the school leader. Data collected to
answer Research Question One pointed conclusively towards increased numbers of
students of color reaching levels of proficiency. Therefore, it can be concluded that
the implementation of the systems has led to increased student achievement.
Data collected to provide answers to research question number two illustrated
the combination of systems implemented that were perceived to contribute to the
academic success of the students at the school. As data collected to answer
Question One provided actual evidence of student statistics reflecting the success of
the students of color at Redondo, data collected to answer research Question Two
provided possible answers to why this success with students has occurred. This

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research sets an example for other urban schools to follow in constructing systems
that support student learning.
Research Question Three
How are the organizational systems and structures implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
Data collected to answer Research Question Three pointed towards strong
leadership being a key element to the implementation of the systems, and their effect
on classroom instruction. As the instructional leader, the principals number one
priority is student learning, and she understands that the number one factor
contributing to student learning is effective instruction. Therefore, each of the
perceived systems implemented promoted, ensured, supported and maintained
effective instruction. For example, the system for sustainability relied heavily on
recognizing the use of best practices among the teaching staff. Recognition was also
a part of the system for accountability; recognizing the use of best practices
encouraged the implementation of best practices by others. Furthermore,
recognizing the use and implementation of best practices, also encouraged
collaboration and supported the learning opportunities for the teaching staff.
Data collected to answer research Question Two provided answers about
which combination of systems working together were perceived to contribute to the
academic success of their students. Data collected for research Question Three
revealed how this combination of systems was implemented to support effective
classroom instruction school-wide. Answers to Question Three revealed the
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importance of instructional leadership to the success of the implementation of

systems in supporting effective classroom instruction school-wide. Setting yet
another example of what works for urban school leaders and districts a like.
Research Question Four
How is the construct of race reflected in the schools structures and systems?
While the construct of race was not reflected in the schools structures and
systems, respect for culture, the use and teaching of academic language and high
expectations for all students were evident. The staff at Redondo understands the
importance of respecting and validating the home cultures of their student
population. Getting to know students and their families is of high importance.
Teaching students the academic language needed to be successful in schools, is a
priority at Redondo. Above all else, the teachers and staff had high expectations for
all students; teaching them that college is not a dream; but a plan for the future that
all can and will achieve.
Although the construct of race was not reflected in the schools structures and
systems, results of this study pertaining to research Question Four support the
necessity of respecting the culture of students of color. The notion that high
expectations for all students, regardless of ethnicity or economic background, works
to promote learning for all students; this was demonstrated by the academic success
Redondo has had with their student population.

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Emergent Themes
Emergent themes guided by the theoretical framework set forth by this study
were relationships and collaboration, recognition and building capacity and lastly,
the implementation of procedures. Relationships and collaboration, not just among
the staff, but within the entire school community which includes students and
families seemed to play a central role in the effectiveness of the school. Recognizing
the hard work and achievement of both the staff and the students at Redondo
contributes to sustaining best practices and promoting student achievement. Lastly,
evidence collected indicated the implementation of procedures school-wide
supported the academic achievement at Redondo.
Leadership
In particular, this study sought to identify an example of school leadership
that has made a positive difference in an urban school. The principal of Redondo has
been in her position for the past seven years. With the trajectory of growth in scores
the school has seen the past seven years, it is difficult to deny the impact
instructional leadership has had on the school. Mrs. Green has provided other
schools with similar demographics as an example of what can happen in urban
schools. A strategic plan, implemented systematically, with accountability and
adequate support can improve instructional practices in schools.
Implications for Policy and Practice
The purpose of the study was to identify the specific systems school leaders
put in place in schools that facilitate effective classroom instruction. Identifying
142

these best practices has provided other urban school leaders with an example what
works in urban schools. This study revealed the following implications for both
policy and practice in urban schools.
For the school studied, it is recommended that time be invested in identifying
ways to increase the performance of their small African-American population. The
success they have had with other subgroups can be replicated with this small group
of students to ensure for equity among all subgroups.
This study highlights the importance of strong instructional leadership in
urban schools. District leadership can reference this study as an example of what can
occur in urban schools if leadership is strong and instructional in nature.
Implementing systems for accountability, curriculum and teaching, data and
assessment, change and sustainability and opportunities for parent and community
involvement has demonstrated improved academic performance in urban schools.
Systems revealed through research provide a roadmap for urban schools to improve
instruction.
Recommendations for Future Research
In addition to providing implications for policy and practice this study
revealed opportunities for future research. Future research in the following areas
could provide additional insight into the success of the urban school studied, as well
as contribute to the growing body of research on sustainability.
As the student population of Redondo changed from 2007 to 2008, a
quantitative study looking at the trends and patterns among the students of color in
143

the summer of 2008. If a study such as this on trends and patterns indicated an
increase from the current years recalculated API of 707, original findings from this
study would be validated.
At the conclusion of the 2008 school year the current principal will retire. A
follow-up case study in the spring of 2009 could seek to identify the depth at which
current perceived systems have been implemented. Research such as this could
provide valuable insight into the study of sustainability.
When the boundaries for the schools enrollment changed, a significant
percentage of Redondos student moved to a newly built school approximately three
blocks away. It is recommended that a Quantitative Cohort study be conducted on
these students to measure their progress at the new school vs. their progress at
Redondo. This study could also demonstrate the transferability and application of
learning that occurred while the students were attending Redondo.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to identify the specific combination of systems
that work together within urban schools to support effective instruction. Systems
identified, through the literature review and case study reveal similar findings.
Findings supported the implementation of systems for accountability, curriculum and
teaching, those that encourage the use of data and assessment and those that allow
for change and promote sustainability. Additionally this study supported the
importance of instructional leadership. Strong, consistent leadership at Redondo has
been the driving force behind changes that have occurred in the school over the past
144

seven years. By providing an example for other urban schools to follow to improve
student performance, this study demonstrates that success for students of color living
in poverty can occur when systems implemented in the school promote, support,
ensure and maintain effective classroom instruction school-wide. This study
contributes to a growing body of research about successful urban schools. Research
has demonstrated and examples have been set that prove all children can learn and
reach academic success; there are no more excuses.

145

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APPENDIX A
Interview Questions For Administrators
1.

Describe the practices and policies at your school site that you believe
contribute to your high student performance.
a. Has your school encountered any obstacles in maintaining these
practices and policies? If so, how did the school overcome them
or maintain them?
b. Which are the three most effective things you have done over the
last 3-5 years to improve student performance

2. How do you create and maintain a climate in the school that engages all
students and respects cultural diversity?
3. Describe how expectations for meeting academic achievement goals are
made clear for teachers/students/parents?
a. How do you monitor student progress?
b. What assessment tools do you use?
4. How are the needs of students of color addressed in the School-wide Plan?
5. How would you describe effective teaching at your site?
a. In what ways do teachers differentiate instruction in order to meet
the needs of all students?
b. What is your role in helping teachers provide effective
instruction?
6. Describe how your school uses data to guide instruction.
a. What evidence do you look for, besides assessment scores, that
demonstrate high student performance?
b. What is your role as the school leader in guiding the use of data to
improve the school climate and classroom instruction?
7.

Describe your school wide discipline policy and how does it impact
students?
a. Does your discipline policy help students adopt behavior that
contributes to their learning?

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APPENDIX B
Interview Questions For Teachers
1. Describe the practices and policies at your school site that you believe contribute
to your high student performance.
a. Has your school encountered any obstacles in maintaining these
policies and practices? If so, how did the school overcome them
or maintain them?
b. Which are the three most effective things you have done over the
last 3-5 years to improve student performance?
2. What role do teachers play in maintaining a climate that engages all students and
respects cultural diversity?
3. Describe how expectations for meeting academic achievement goals are made
clear for teachers/students/parents.
a. How do you monitor student progress
b. What assessment tools do you use?
4. How familiar are you with the School Plan?
a. How are the needs of students of color addressed in the SchoolWide Plan?
b. How have you modified your instructional practices to reflect the
school-wide plan for students of color?
5. How would you describe effective teaching at your site?
a. In what ways do teachers differentiate instruction in order to meet
the needs of all students, including students of color?
6. Describe how your school uses data to guide instruction.
a. What evidence do you look for, besides assessment scores that
demonstrate high student performance?
7. Describe your school wide discipline policy and how it impacts students?

154

APPENDIX C
Interview Questions For Classified
1. Describe the practices and policies at your school site that you believe
contribute to your high student performance.
a. Has your school encountered any obstacles in maintaining these
policies and practices? If so, how did the school overcome them
or maintain them?
b. Which are the three most effective things you (school or the
person) have done over the last 3-5 years to improve student
performance?
2. How would you describe the school climate here?
a. In what ways does the school engage (involve) all students and
respect cultural diversity?
b. What do you see as your role in promoting this climate?
3.

What are the expectations for meeting academic goals here?

a. Do you know how the students here are doing academically?
b. What indicators let you know how they are doing?

4. How are the needs of students of color being met at your school?
a. What is in place to support these students?
b. What is in place to support the staff?
5. How would you describe an effective teacher at your site?
6. How do you see teachers and administrators using data?
a. Do you know when testing will occur?
b. How do the students react to testing?
c. How do teachers react?
d. Is it known throughout the school what is done with the data?
How is it made known?
7. Describe your school wide discipline policy and how it impacts students?
a. What happens when a student breaks a rule or makes a bad
choice?
b. Does the discipline policy help students engage in behavior that
contributes to their academic success?

155

APPENDIX D
Interview Questions For Parents
1.

What is the school doing to help all students succeed?

2.

How would you describe the atmosphere at the school?

3. How do you know what your child needs to learn?

a. How does the school communicate that information to you?
4.

How does the school address the needs of all sub-groups of students?

5. How do you describe a good or effective teacher?

6. What are some of the ways the school lets you know your child is doing?
7. Describe the schools discipline policy.
a. How does it support the learning of all students?
b. Do you consider the discipline policies fair to all children? Can
you give an example of its fairness?

156

APPENDIX E
Classroom Observation Guide
Research Question # 1, 2, 3, and 4: Is there a range or variety of instructional
practices /strategies used? Are they appropriate for the content and students?
Examples of instructional practices/strategies?
Cooperative grouping
Use of time
Differentiated instruction
Feedback to students
Culturally relevant and responsive
Research Question #2: What visuals, symbols and other items are posted in the
classroom?
Examples of items:
School wide discipline policy
Images of people of color
Classroom library
School vision
Research Question # 2: Physical Class Environment
Example of things to observe:
Seating arrangement
Teacher student interaction student
Discipline
Student work posted
Feedback/rubric
Standard based
Student Engagement

157

APPENDIX F
Professional Development Observation Guiding Questions
Research Questions # 1, 2, 3, and 4:
Does collaboration occur during and after professional development?
Is there engagement among the staff?
What types of data are being used? How is data used?
Is professional development is aligned to the vision?
How are students discussed among teachers and other staff?
Is the professional development geared toward teaching to standards mastery
or performance?
Is the professional development practical and adaptable?
Are the expectations clear for implementation of the professional
development?
How are teachers held accountable for the professional development
provided?
Is an evaluation tool used for the professional development?

158

APPENDIX G
Leadership Team Meeting Guiding Questions
Research Questions # 1,2, 3, & 4
To what extent was the meeting focused on the implementation of the team's
plan?
Does the staff analyze student achievement data in order to take informed
actions?
Did (or does) the staff discuss and plan for diversity-sensitive learning
environments?
How are/is the roles/work distributed among members of the leadership
team?
Structure: information or strategic planning?
Operational or instructional meeting?

159

APPENDIX H
Physical Environment Observation Guide
Physical Setting: To allow readers to visualize the setting, the researcher will record
the following observations during each visit:
School grounds
Wall postings
Samples of students work
School calendar for academic year
Visual of school goals / mission / vision
Symbolic representations (drug free zone, anti-violence, college
paraphernalia, culturally relevant items)
Cleanliness (trashy, odor, graffiti, insects)
Classroom specific
Wall postings
Samples of students work
Classroom calendar
Classroom schedule
Classroom rules or expectations
Culturally relevant items
Location of classroom (bungalow, main building, isolated, included)
Cleanliness (trashy, odor, graffiti, insects)
Classroom spacing (proximity of students desks to one another and teacher)
Social Climate/Environment: During each visit, the researcher will record elements
of human interactions.
School-wide environment
Adult-Adult and Adult-student interactions (use of greetings, use of names,
friendliness, smiles, affect)
Group dynamics (how students organize themselves; by gender, ethnicity,
age)
Classroom climate
Structure, order, rigidity of classroom environment; is teacher in control of
class, students out of their seats, loud talking, on task
Group dynamics (how students organize themselves; by gender, ethnicity,
age, or teacher assignment)

160