SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES, CHAPTER 3

Minimal Pair Practice

1. / bot / 14. / rot /
2. / plet / 15. / plat /
4. / fred / 9. / frid /
6. / r n / 13. / rin /
1. / bot / 7. / bon /
3. / rid / 9. / frid /
8. / b rz / 12. / b rd /
12. / b rd / 16. / w rd /
3. / rid / 13. / rin /
10. / plad / 15. / plat /
5. / drap / 11. / krap /

/b/ and /r/

/e/ and /a/
/e/ and /i/
/ / and /i/
/t/ and /n/
/f/ and //
/z/ and /d/
/b/ and /w/
/d/ and /n/
/d/ and /t/
/d/ and /k/

place, manner of articulation

frontness, height, tenseness
height
tenseness
manner of articulation, voicing
manner and place of articulation, voicing
manner of articulation
manner of articulation
manner of articulation
voicing
place of articulation, voicing

Contrastive and Non-Contrastive Sounds

The solutions provided below are just some examples of the many possibilities. Answers will vary
tremendously from person to person.
/p/ /t/ /pap/ pop /tap/ top
/d/ /s/ /d p/ dip /s p/ sip
/p/ /b/ /pap/ pop /bap/ bop

/m/ /n/ /mit/ meet

/k/ //

/k l/ kill / l/ gill

/w/ /y/ /wt/ wet

/yt/ yet

/s/ /s/ /s p/ sip /s p/ ship

/f/ /s/ /flap/ flop

/slap/ slop

/c/ /s/ /c p/ chip /s p/ ship

/ / /f/ / n/ thin

/f n/ fin

/i/ / / /cip/ cheap /c p/ chip

/e/ /o/ /et/ gate

/ot/ goat

/u/ /a/ /sut/ shoot /sat/ shot

// / / /kd/ could

Relevant Linguistics Practice Solutions 11

/nit/ neat

/k d/ kid

Practice with Natural Classes

Note that only COMPLETE classes are indicated here.
1. /m, n, / : this is the natural class of nasal consonants
2. /p, t, k, v/ : this is not a complete natural class
3. /v,
, z, z/ : this is the natural class of voiced fricatives
4. /k, , / : this is the natural class of velar consonants
5. /s, z, c, j
, r, y/ : this is the natural class of palatal consonants
6. /p, b, m, w/ : this is the natural class of bilabial consonants
7. /p, t, k, f, , s, s, h, c/ : this is the natural class of voiceless consonants
8. /u, , o, / : this is the natural class of rounded vowels
9. /i, e, u, o, / : this is the natural class of tense vowels
10. /, a/ : this is the natural class of low vowels
11. / , u, / : this is not a complete natural class
12. /i, , e, , / : this is the natural class of front vowels
Determining Distribution
[salapye]
[rlbn]
[j
zne]
[syl]
[j
lo]

election
to hang
to cheat
ballot
lawsuit

[skyl]
[kazku]
[ yl]
[kzki]
[szse]

fraud
to vote
to whine
to confuse
court

[j
z ne]
[kazki]
[salabye]
[rlpn]
[s sno]

chad
to count
butterfly
handicap
judge

[p] and [b]

a) overlapping
b) [salapye] and [salabye]
c) N/A
[u] and [i]
a) overlapping
b) [kazeku] and [kazeki]
c) N/A
[y] and [j ]
a) complementary
b) N/A
c) position in word ([j
] is word initial only)

[r] and [l]

a) complementary
b) N/A
c) position in word ([r] is word initial only)
[o] and [
]
a) complementary
b) N/A
c) position in word ([o] is word final only)

[k] and []

a) overlapping
b) [syl] and [skyl]
c) N/A
[e] and []
a) complementary
b)N/A
c) position in word ([e] is word final only)

[s] and []

a) overlapping
b) [syl] and [ yl]
c) N/A
[] and [a]
a) overlapping
b) [kzki] and [kazki]
c) N/A

[z] and [z ]

a) complementary
b) N/A
c) following sound (frontness of vowel)

Relevant Linguistics Practice Solutions 12

English Phonology Practice

paddock
/pdk/

[pDk]

catty
/kti/ [kDi]

simply
/s mpli/ [s mpli]

fatality
/fetlti / [fetlDi]

attuned
/tund/

speaker
/spik/ [spik]

[tund]

tatter
/tt/ [tD]

tutor
/tut/ [tuD]

accomplish
/kampls/

plumber
/plm/ [plm]

[kampls]

splitter
/spl t/ [spl D] 

tactics
/tktks/ [tktks]

skateboard
/sketbrd/ [sketbrd]

outrageous
/awtrej
s/ [awtrej
s]

kitty
/k ti/ [k Di]

spittoon
/sptun/ [sptun]

skittish
/sk ts/ [sk Ds]

retainer
/riten/ [riten]

fantastic
/fntstk/ [fntstk]

metallic
/mtlk/ [mtlk]

* Note that for some of these words, the order in which the rules are applied affects the surface level
transcription; to be consistent, in these solutions vowel rules are always applied before consonant rules,
but this does not mean that every speaker of English does this when speaking. In fact, for many
speakers, just the opposite might be true.

Relevant Linguistics Practice Solutions 13

English Phonology Problems

[Adapted from Department of Linguistics (1994), p. 115]
Diphthongs
1. [ byt ]
2. [ taym ]
3. [ bay ]
4. [ rayd ]
5. [ nayn ]
6. [ fayl ]
7. [ ryt ]
8. [ byk ]

9. [ fyt ]
10. [ tay ]
11. [ typ ]
12. [ rys ]
13. [ rayz ]
14. [ fay ]
15. [ lyf ]
16. [ bayd ]

bite
time
buy
ride
ninth
file
write
bike

fight
tie
type
rice
rise
fire
life
bide

Are there any minimal pairs with respect to [ay] and [y]?
Although 1 and 8 constitute a minimal pair, there are no minimal pairs with respect to the two
sounds in question.
Describe the environment in which each sound appears.
according to the data. both sounds appear word internally, so word position wont help us, but if
we look at the surrounding sounds, we see that [y] only appears before voiceless consonants.
[ay] appears before all other sounds (including ).
Are the sounds in complementary or overlapping distribution?
our description of the distributions above indicates that the sounds are in complementary
distribution.
Are the sounds allophones of the same phoneme, or are they of different phonemes?
sounds that are in complementary distribution are allophones of the same phoneme.
If they are allophones of the same phoneme, what determines which allophone is used, and which
allophone is the basic form (the one we should name the phoneme after)?
the sound that immediately follows the phoneme determines which allophone is used. If there is a
voiceless consonant immediately following, then [y] is used. In every other case, [ay] is used.
Because [ay] appears in more environments (both preceding voiced consonants and preceding ),
we will call [ay] the basic form and name the phoneme /ay/.
Based on your analysis of the data, which of the following words is/are phonologically possible in this
dialect of English?
[kraym] yes

[myl] no

[wayl] yes

[brayb] yes

[kwayt] no

Relevant Linguistics Practice Solutions 14

[sblaym] yes

[m] [n] [m] and [n]

1. [ tim ]
2. [ tn ]
3. [ s n t k ]
4. [ n m ]
5. [ nayn ]
6. [ tin ]
7. [ mnd ]
8. [ nayn ]
9. [ tns ]

10. [ mf iyt ]

11. [ ntn m ]
12. [ mf biyn ]
13. [ tn ]
14. [ mpl ]
15. [ mft k ]
16. [ l mf ]
17. [ maym ]
18. [ tndm ]

team
tenth
synthetic
anthem
ninth
teen
mend
nine
tense

amphitheater
antonym
amphibian
ten
ample
emphatic
lymph
mime
tandem

1. There is only minimal pair with respect to these sounds in this data. That pair is 1 and 6 (minimal
pairs such as 6 and 13 are irrelevant in this analysis).
2-3.
[m] and [n]: because we saw a minimal pair with respect to these two sounds (1 and 6), they have
overlapping environments and we can conclude that they are allophones of two different phonemes
[n] and [n]: we see [n] in all three word position, while [n] only appears word internally. Because
there is some overlap in this regard, we need to look at surrounding sounds. An examination of the
following sound indicates that [n] only appears before [ ], while [n] never does. We have
complementary distribution and two allophones of the same phoneme. This is a rule of assimilation in
which /n/ becomes dentalized before the interdental [ ].
[m] and [m] : we see [m] in all three word position, while [m] only appears word internally.
Because there is some overlap in this regard, we need to look at surrounding sounds. An examination
of the following sound indicates that [m] only appears before [f], while [m] never does. We have
complementary distribution and two allophones of the same phoneme. This is a rule of assimilation in
which /n/ becomes dentalized before the labiodental [f].
[f lm ] no

[nu] no

[pnt] yes

[tmpt] yes

[svn ] yes

[kmftbl] no

[mn s] yes

Relevant Linguistics Practice Solutions 15

[n rks] no

[t] and [D] (alveolar flap) and [] (glottal stop) in American English
[sp t]
[l Dl]
[an]
[p stl]

spit
little
gotten
pistol

[r n]
[p ns]
[kt]
[at]

written
pittance
curt
got

[m nz]
[bDl]
[fD]
[kn]

mittens
battle
fatter
curtain

[st k]
[l t]
[fn]
[bt]

stick
lit
fatten
bat

1. Are there any minimal pairs in this data? If so, what are they, and what do they tell you?
there are no minimal pairs in this data
2. Based on this data, describe the relationship between each pair of sounds. For each pair, decide a) if
the sounds are contrastive or non-contrastive, b) if the sounds are in complementary or overlapping
distribution, and c) if the sounds are allophones of the same phoneme, or different phonemes.
[t] and [D]
a) non-contrastive
b) complementary distribution
c) allophones of the same phoneme
[t] and []
a) non-contrastive
b) complementary distribution
c) allophones of the same phoneme
[] and [D]
a) non-contrastive
b) complementary distribution
c) allophones of the same phoneme
3. Write as many rules as necessary to describe whatever allophonic variation there is.
/t/ becomes [] intervocalically when the following vowel is unstressed and that following vowels
syllable ends in [n]
/t/ becomes [D] intervocalically when the following vowel is unstressed in all other cases
4. Based on this data, which of the following transcriptions is/are possible in English?
[ran] yes [sm Dn] no

[stn] no [lel] no [plsD] no

Relevant Linguistics Practice Solutions 16

[liD] yes

Spanish Phonology Problems

[izla]
[riezo]
[eski]
[sinko]
[dezde]
[espalda]
[hablas]

island
risk
ski
five
since
back
you speak

[rasko]
[resto]
[fuersa]
[vamos]
[mizmo]
[fiskal]
[sabes]

I scratch
remainder
force
we go
same
fiscal
you know

Are there any minimal pairs with respect to [s] and [z]?
no, there are not
Describe the environment in which each sound appears.
[s] appears both word initially and finally, while [z] never does (it is always word internally).
However, because [s] also appears word internally (overlap with [z]), we need to look at
surrounding sounds. [z] appears only before voiced consonants, while [s] appears before all other
sounds (including ), but never before voiced consonants.
Are the sounds in complementary or overlapping distribution?
Because of the distribution described above, we can conclude that these sounds are in
complementary distribution.
Are the sounds allophones of the same phoneme, or are they of different phonemes?
Complementary distribution means allophones of the same phoneme.
If they are allophones of the same phoneme, what determines which allophone is used, and which
allophone is the basic form (the one we should name the phoneme after)?
The sound immediately following the phoneme determines the form that the phoneme takes.
Because [z] only appears in one environment - before voiced consonants - while [s] appears in
more than one environment - before voiceless consonants, vowels and - we will call [s] the basic
form and name the phoneme /s/.
[azul] no

[pezkado] no

[servesa] yes

[raznar] yes

Relevant Linguistics Practice Solutions 17

[nariz] no

[rason] yes

Spanish (continued)
[Adapted from Cowan & Rakusan (1998), pp. 3233]
1. [ seun ]
2. [ mao]
3. [ near]
4. [ ao ]
5. [ aresivo ]

according to
mango
to refuse
I make/do
aggresive

6. [ rieo ]
7. [ alan ]
8. [ ustar ]
9. [ mia ]
10. [ ario ]

Greek
gallant
to please
crumb
bitter

Are there any minimal pairs with respect to [] and []?
no, there are not
Describe the environment in which each sound appears.
[] always appears word internally between two vowels in the data. [g] appears both word initially
and word internally, sometimes after vowels (#5), and sometimes after consonants (#2), sometimes
before vowels (#7), sometimes before consonants (#6).
Are the sounds in complementary or overlapping distribution?
Based on the above description, they are in complementary distribution, because while [] always
appears between two vowelsintervocalically [g] never does. In many dialects of Spanish, this
phenomenon can be observed with respect to all voiced stops - they are softened between two
vowels (a kind of assimilation).
Are the sounds allophones of the same phoneme, or are they of different phonemes?
If we cant find a minimal pair with respect to them, they cant be different phonemes. Also, the fact
that theyre in complementary distribution leads us to conclude that theyre allophones of the same
phoneme.
If they are allophones of the same phoneme, what determines which allophone is used, and which
allophone is the basic form (the one we should name the phoneme after)?
The surrounding sounds determine it; in this case, its a combination of both the preceding and
following sounds that conditions the allophonic variation. Because [] is only used in one specific
environment intervocalically the basic form is [].
Based on your analysis of the data, which of the following words is/are phonologically possible in this
dialect of Spanish?
[neasion] no

[realar] no

[mao] yes

[wapo] no

Relevant Linguistics Practice Solutions 18

[ato] yes

[soa] no

Additional Phonology Problems

Italian
[Adapted from Department of Linguistics (1994), p. 111 and Cowan & Rakusan (1998), p. 66]
1. [ tinta ]
2. [ mandate]
3. [ dansa]
4. [ nero ]
5. [ j
nte ]
6. [ parlano ]

dye
you (pl) send
dance
black
people
they speak

7. [ tio ]
8. [ teo ]
9. [ fuo ]
10. [ byaka ]
11. [ ake ]
12. [ fao ]

I dye
I keep
mushroom
white
also
mud

1. Yes, but the only minimal pairs are 7 and 8 and 9 and 12, and the difference is in the first vowel
sound. All we can conclude from these minimal pairs is that [i] and [e] , as well as [u] and [a], are
contrastive and represent distinct phonemes in Italian. This, however, does not help us answer the
question about [n] and [].
2. The only environment in which we see [] is before [] and [k]. [] and [k] represent the natural
class of velar stops. This makes sense because [] is also produced in the velar area. [n] is used before
vowels as well as before [t], [d] and [s], all of which are alveolar consonants. Again, this consonant
environment makes sense because [n] is also produced in the alveolar region.
3. Because [] only appears before velar stops and [n] never does, but appears before vowels and
alveolar consonants, we can determine that the two sounds are in complementary distribution.
4. We know that they are in complementary distribution. [n] and [], therefore, are allophones of one
phoneme.
5. /n/ becomes [] before velar stops (this is a rule of assimilation)
The relationship between these sounds is different in English. They are both phonemes in English and
are thus contrastive (compare the minimal pairs fan [fn] and fang [f]). An Italian speaker
trying to learn would have to learn an entirely new concept (a new phoneme), which would be very
difficult. An English speaker trying to learn Italian might have an accent as a result of this difference,
but he or she would not have comprehension problems as a result of it. Its always harder to learn a
new distinction than it is to ignore a familiar one.
[tnda] yes

[sapone] yes

[portovao] no

[trovano] yes

Relevant Linguistics Practice Solutions 19

[buoo] no

Korean
[Adapted from the Department of Linguistics (1994), p. 114 and Kaplan (1995), p. 63]

1. [ si ]
2. [ misin ]
3. [ sinmum ]
4. [ taksasikye ]
5. [ silsu ]
6. [ osip ]
7. [ casin ]
8. [ pasik ]
9. [ kansik ]
10. [ sik ]

11. [ sal ]
12. [ casal ]
13. [ kasu ]
14. [ sanmun ]
15. [ kasl ]
16. [ csonyn ]
17. [ miso ]
18. [ susek ]
19. [ tapsa ]
20. [ soj
a ]

poem
superstition
newspaper
table check
mistake
fifty
self
method
snack
clock

flesh
suicide
singer
prose
hypothesis
adolescents
smile
search
exploration
director

1. A quick look at the phonetic data reveals that there are no minimal pairs. Chances are, then, that
we will find complementary distribution, and that the sounds are allophones of the same
phoneme. Now we need to determine the environment that determines which variant
(allophone) of the phoneme is used.
2. Both [s] and [s] are used word initially and word internally, so position in the word wont help
us. Both sounds are used after [a] so looking at the preceding sound wont help us. Following
[s], however, in every instance is the high, front, tense vowel [i]. This is about as specific a
natural class as youll find - the natural class of high, front, tense vowels. [s], on the other
hand, is used before all other vowels in the data.
3. This, then, is complementary distribution
4. .and we can say that [s] and [s] are allophones of the same phoneme. Because [s] appears in
more environments, we can conclude that it is the basic form of the phoneme.
5. The rule, therefore, is:
/s/ becomes [s] before [i] (this rule is difficult to categorize in terms of its type)
6. In English, these sounds are separate phonemes (compare [s p] and [s p]), so a native speaker
of Korean attempting to learn English would have to learn a new reality. Because such a speaker
cannot hear the difference between these two sounds, learning to use them as separate sounds
would be very difficult. An English speaker learning to speak Korean, however, would not
have to learn a new reality.
[kasi] yes

[so] yes

[sipsan] no

[sk] yes

[sinho] yes

Relevant Linguistics Practice Solutions 20

[masi] no

Egaugnal
1. [ sifta ]
2. [ davla ]
3. [ pavi ]
4. [ pofki ]
5. [ mifsi ]

sign
message
ugly
embarrass
laugh

6. [ koviki ]
7. [ luvdami ]
8. [ valafpo ]
9. [ wakinuv ]
10. [ pifcov ]

joke
insane
travesty
controversy
inform

1. There are no minimal pairs in this data.

3-5. [v] is used in all word positions, initially, internally and finally, while [f] appears only word
internally. Because there is some overlap in this regard, we cant conclude too much based on
position in the word right now. Our attention then turns to the surrounding sounds. Both [f] and
[v] are preceded by a variety of vowels, and there is a great deal of overlap. For example, both [f]
and [v] are preceded by [a] (see 2, 3 and 7). Also, both [f] and [v] are preceded by [o] (see 4 and
5). This overlap tells us that the preceding sound does not determine which allophone is used. We
must next look at the immediately following sound. [f] is followed [t] (1), [k] (4), [s] (5), [c] (10)
and [p] (7). When [v] is followed by some sound (remember, it appears word finally in 8), it is
followed by [i] (3,5), [l] (2) and [d] (6). [i], [l] and [d] certainly do not form a natural class
because there is nothing that they all have in common. [t], [k], [s], [c] and [p], on the other hand,
all share one characteristic - they are all voiceless consonants. This makes sense because [f] is also
voiceless (in fact, the only difference between [f] and [v] is voicing). We can conclude, then, that
this is a rule of assimilation and that [v] become devoiced when it is followed by voiceless
consonant. The rule is:
/v/ becomes [f] before voiceless consonants (a rule of assimilation)
6. The relationship between these sounds is different in English. They are both phonemes in English
and are thus contrastive (compare the minimal pair fan [fn] and van [vn]). An Egaugnal
speaker trying to learn would have to learn an entirely new concept (a new phoneme), which would
be very difficult. An English speaker trying to learn Egaugnal might have an accent as a result of
this difference, but he or she would not have comprehension problems as a result of it. Its always
harder to learn a new distinction than it is to ignore a familiar one.
[vivda] yes [fofo] no [dfto] yes [mivi] yes [wfsa] yes [lovo] yes

Relevant Linguistics Practice Solutions 21

Sindhi (a language spoken in southern Asia)

[pnu] leaf
[vju] opportunity
[seki] suspicious

[tru] bottom
[kto] sour
[bju] run

[dru] door
[j
j
u]
judge
[pnu] snake hood

Compare the sounds [p] and [p] in Sindhi.

Are they in overlapping or complementary distribution?
Both appear in the exact same environment in the minimal pair [pnu] and [pnu]. This means that
they are in overlapping distribution.
Are they contrastive or non-contrastive?
The minimal pair noted above means they must be contrastive.
Are the allophones of the same phoneme or are they different phonemes?
Because theyre contrastive, they must be different phonemes.
How does this differ from their relationship in English?
In English, these sounds are non-contrastive (they are allophones of the same phoneme).
Would this difference create more problems for an English speaker trying to learn Sindhi, or a Sindhi
speaker trying to learn English? Explain your answer.
The English speaker would have more trouble learning Sindhi because he or she would have to
learn an entirely new phoneme (/p/). Anytime a person tries to learn a second language that has
concepts that dont exist in his or her first language, problems will arise.

Relevant Linguistics Practice Solutions 22

Practice with Phonotactics

[Adapted from Hudson (2000), p. 237]

Note that there is room for discussion here. Also, obviously, even if everyone agrees on the
possibilities, they are likely to use different examples to prove the same possibilities.
any
p
b f v
t
d s k

h
s
c
j

l
r
m n
vowel

p
b
f
v

t
d
s
z
s
z
c
j

k

h
l
r
m
n

y
w

1
4
8
12
14
17
18
21
24
32
33

2
5
9

25

26

58

27

3
6
10

39
40
41
46
49
51
52
53
55

57
7
11
13
16

19
22

20
23
31

35

36

42
47

43
48

29

30

37

38

44
50

54

56
57

1. pick /p k/

2.

please /pliz/

3.

pray

/pre/

4. boat /bot/

5.

bloat

/blot/

6.

brick

/br k/

7. beauty /byuti/

8.

feet

/fit/

9.

fleet

/flit/

10. free /fri/

11.

few /fyu/

12.

vie

/vay/

13. view /vyu/

14.

thick

15.

through / ru/

/ k/

Relevant Linguistics Practice Solutions 23

15

28

34

45

16. thwack / wk/

17.

though /
o/

18.

tee

/ti/

19. tree /tri/

20.

twine

21.

do

/du/

22. drew /dru/

23.

dwindle /dw ndl/

23.

say

/se/

25. spay /spe/

26.

svelte

/svlt/

27.

scoot

/skut/

28. sleep /slip/

29.

smock /smak/

30.

snake /snek/

31. sway /swe/

32.

zoo /zu/

33.

shoe

/su/

34. schtick ? /st k/

35.

schlock ? /slak/

36.

shrill

/sr l/

37. scmuck ? /smk/

38.

schnapps /snaps/

39.

chew

/cu/

40. jet /j
t/

41.

coat

/kot/

42.

clue

/klu/

43. cret /kret/

44.

cute

/kyut/

45.

quick /kw k/

46. go /o/

47.

glue

/lu/

48.

grew

/ru/

49. hoe /ho/

50.

hue

/hyu/

51.

loose

/lus/

52. rock /rak/

53.

moon /mun/

54.

muse

/myuz/

55. you /yu/

56.

we

57.

putrid /pyutrd/

58. stew /stu/

59. more?

/twayn/

/wi/

60. more?

The grid has 480 combinations of onsets. Of these 480 combinations, how many does English allow?
58
What is the percentage of allowable onsets? 12%
Trends
What kinds of sounds are most often the first consonant of an onset cluster in English?
voiceless consonants, fricatives, stops
kinds of sounds are most often the second consonant of an onset cluster in English?
liquids, glides
Contrastive Analysis
Analyze the onset of the first syllable of each of the following foreign language words and decide if its
structure is allowable in English. The words have been written phonetically.
Language
French
Swahili
Russian

Word
[z]
[ombe]
[zdaniy]

Meaning
I (pronoun)
cow
building

OK?
no
no
no

Language
Russian
Lango
German

Relevant Linguistics Practice Solutions 24

Word
[nyt]
[lyt]
[knol]

Meaning
no
hot
knuckle

OK?
no
no
no