Contents ix 7.3. Methods of Groundwater Control 236 74 Field Pumping Tests 239 78 Design of Predrainage Systems 241 7.8 Managing Groundwater Control 244 7.7 Disputes over Groundwater Control 245 78 Cost of Groundwater Control 245, 7.9 Undesirable Side-Etfects of Dewatering 246 7.10 Permanent Dewatering Systems 246 7.11 Ground Freezing 247 8 COMPACTED FILL Jack W. Hilf 8.1 Introduction 249 82 Soil Compaction 249 83 Compaction Equipment 273 84 Control of Compaction 294 85 Miscellaneous Problems in Compaction 309 9 SOIL STABILIZATION AND GROUTING Hans F. Winterkorn and Sibel Pamukcu 9.1 Introduction 317 9.2 Principle of Soil Stabilization 317 8.3 Methods of Soil Stabilization 318 9.4 Stabilization of Soils with Granular Skeleton 319 9. Chemical Stabilization 324 988 Cement Stabilization 328 9.7 Lime Stabilization 337 98 Ash and Slag Stabilization 344 89 Bituminous Stabilization 346 9.10 Thermal and Electrokinetic Stabilization 349 9.11 Construction 351 912. Grouting Principles 353 9.13 Grouting Techniques 354 8.14 Planning of the Grouting Project 358 9.15 The Grouting Process 363 9.18 Control of Grouts and Grouting Operations 368 9.17 Examples of Applications of Grouting 369 10 STABILITY OF EARTH SLOPES Hsai-Yang Fang and George K. Mikroudis 10.1 Introduction 379 10.2. Factors Affecting Slope Stability Analysis 379 103 Factor of Safety 380 10.4 Slope Stability Analysis Procedure: Limit Equilibrium Methods 381 105. Slope Stability Analysis Procedure: Limit Analysis Methods 395 106 Methods Considering Seismic Effects 399 10.7. Slope Stability in Soils Presenting Special Problems 404 10.8 Computer-Aided and Expert Systems for Slope Stability Analysis 406 11 LANDSLIDES Bengt B. Broms and Kai S. Wong 41.4 Introduction 410 11.2. Causes of Landslides 411 11.3. Consequences of Landslides 415,x Contents Slope Movements Preceding Landslides 416 Classification 417 Investigations for Landslides 425 417 Analysis of Landslides 427 14.8 Instrumentation 432 11.9 Methods of Correcting Landslides 435 + t t 12 RETAINING STRUCTURES AND EXCAVATIONS Thomas D. Dismuke 121, Introduction 447 12.2 Restrained Retaining Structures 447 123. Gravity Structures 478 124 Cantilever Retaining Walls 503 125 Special Structures 504 126 Sheet Piling and H-Piles 607 13. PILE FOUNDATIONS Bengt H. Fellenius 181 Invoduction and Background 511 132 Aspects for General Consideration 512 193. The Shaft Resistance 513 134 Toe Resistance 516 135. Gapacity Determined from In-Situ Field Testing 817 136 Installation Considerations 617 137 Residual Compression 517 138 The Neutral Plane 518 138 Capacity of a Pile Group 520 1310 Summary of Design Procedure for Capacity and Strength 520 1&1 Settlement of Pile Foundations $21 18.12. Static Testing of Piles 524 13.13. Pile Dynamics 529 18.14 Horizontally Loaded Piles 631 1315. Seismic Design of Lateral Pile Behavior 533 18.18 Design Example 533. 14 DRILLED SHAFT FOUNDATIONS. Fred H. Kulhawy 144 Introduction 537 142 General Behavior Patterns 537 143 Axial Compression Capacity 538 144 —Drained Axial Compression Capacity 539 148 —Undrained Axial Compression Capacity 545 146 Axial Uplift Capacity 548 147 Belled Shatts 549 148 Compression and Uplift Displacements 549 14.9 Other Site and Loading Conditions 650 14.10 Closing Comments on Design 551 14.11 Pertinent Standards and Specifications $51 15 FOUNDATION VIBRATIONS George Gazetas 15.1 Introduction $83 16.2 Machine Foundation Vibrations: Statement of the Problem 553Coments xi 153 Soll Moduli and Damping—Field and Laboratory Testing Procedures 855 154 Harmonic Vibration of Block Foundations: Definition and Use of Impedances (Dynamic “Springs” and Dashpots") 64 15.5 Computing Dynamic impedances: Tables and Charts for Dynamic “Springs” and “Dashpots” 569 16 EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS ON SOIL-FOUNDATION SYSTEMS Part I: Prior to 1975 H. Bolton Seed 16.1 Introduction 594 16.2. Influence of Soil Conditions on Shaking Intensity and Associated Structural Damage 597 16.3. Influence of Soil Conditions on Ground Settlement 614 16.4 Influence of Soil Conditions on Liquefaction Potential 614 16.5 Influence of Soil Conditions on Landslides 619 Part I!: From 1975 to 1989 Ronald C. Chaney and Sibel Pamukcu 166 Introduction 623 16.7 _ Influence of Soil Conditions on Ground Settlement 624 168 Influence of Soil Conditions on Liquefaction Potential 628 16.9 _ Influence of Soil Conditions on Landslides 635 16.10 Behavior of Clays and Silts During Cyclic Loading 653 16.11 Remedy of Earthquake Damage on Soll-Foundation Systems 661 17 FOUNDATION PROBLEMS IN EARTHQUAKE REGIONS. Leonardo Zeevaort 17.1. Introduction 673 17.2 Irrotational Seismic Waves 673 17.3. Sheat Seismic Waves 675 17.4 Case History 677 18 OFFSHORE STRUCTURE FOUNDATIONS, Ronald C. Chaney and Kenneth R. Demars 18.1 Introduction 679 182 Loading on Foundations 684 183 Pile Structures in Marine Environment 684 184 Gravity Platforms 702 185 Anchor Uplift Capacity 742 186 Pipelines 716 187 Jack-Up Platforms 723 188 Hydraulic Filed Islands 727 19 FOUNDATIONS IN COLD REGIONS Arvind Phukan 19.1 Introduction 735 19.2 Frozen Soils: Phases and Temperature Profile 736 193 Design Approach 737 19.4 Design Considerations 738 195 Shallow Foundations 742 196 Pile Foundations 745Contents 20 GEOTECHNICS OF HAZARDOUS WASTE CONTROL SYSTEMS. Joffrey C. Evans 20.1 Introduction 750 20.2. Soil-Waste Interactions 750 203. Permeability and Compatibility Testing 752 20.4 Hazardous Waste Control Systems 760 205 Covers and Liners 762 206 Vertical Barrier Systems and Cutoff Walls 765 20.7 General Guidance 775 21_ REINFORCED EARTH F. Schlosser and M. Bastick 21.1. Introduction 778 21.2 Principle and Advantages of Reinforced Earth 778 21.3. History and Development 779 21.4 Behavior of Reinforced Earth 780 21.5 Design Methods 786 21.6 Material Specifications 790 21.7 Effects of Water and Dynamic Loading 791 21.8 Applications 792 22 GEOSYNTHETICS IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING Robert M. Koerner 22.1 Introduction 798 222 Geotextiles 798 223 Geogrids 800 224 Geonets 802 225 Geomembranes 804 226 Geocomposites 810 23. DEEP COMPACTION OF GRANULAR SOILS Bengt B. Broms 23.1 Intioduction 814 232 Vibration Methods 815 233 Displacement Methods 821 23.4 Loading Methods 827 235 Control Methods 828 23.6 Cost Comparisons 829 24 STABILIZATION OF SOIL WITH LIME COLUMNS, Bengt B. Broms 24.1 Introduction 833 242 Principle of the Lime Column Method 837 24.3 Applications of the Lime Column Method 847 24.4 Laboratory and Field Investigations 850 24.8 Control Methods 852 246 Schedule for Design and Construction 853, 25 DURABILITY AND PROTECTION OF FOUNDATIONS Thomas D. Dismuke 25.1 Introduction 856 25.2. Facility Function and Feilure Criteria 857Contents 25.3 Properties of Construction Materials, Soil, and Water 857 254 Site Data 861 25.5 Behavior of Materials in Soil and Water 863 25.6 Evaluation of Site Data 864 25.7 Protection of Foundations 885 26 GROUND ANCHORS AND SOIL NAILS IN RETAINING STRUCTURES an Juran and Vietor Elias 26.1 Intioduction 868 26.2 Principles, Historical Development, and Fields of Application 868 263 Technology, Construction Process, and Structural Elements 871 26.4 Soil-Inclusion Interaction: Pull-Out Capacity Estimates 877 26.5 Application Criteria: Advantages and Limitations 883 26.6 Feasibility Evaluation 884 26.7 Short- and Long-Term Performance of Anchors and Nails 884 26.8 Durability Considerations 889 269 Design of Anchored Walls and Nailed Soil-Retaining Structures 890 26.10 Technological Development and Research Needs 902 APPENDIX 907 INDEX 911PREFACE More than ten years have passed since the first edition was published, During that period there have been a substantial numberof changes in geotechnical engineering, especialy inthe applications of foundation enginecring ‘As the world population inreases, more land is needed and many soil deposits previously deemed unsuitable for residential housing or other construction projects are now being used Such areas include problematie soil regions, mining subsidence areas, and sanitary landfills “To overeome the problems associated with these natural oF man-made soil deposits, new and improved methods of analysis, design, and implementation ae needed in foundation construction. AAs society develops and living standards ris, tll buildings, transportation facilities, and industrial complexes are increasingly being built. Because ofthe heavy design loads and the complicated environments, the traditional design concepts, construction materials, methods, land equipment also need improvement. Further, recent energy and material shortages have caused additional burdens on the engineering profession and brought about the need to seek alternative or cost-saving methods for foundation design and construction, Rapid and extensive developments in techniques of foundation analysis and design continue to occur. Some of the major developments that have already significantly influenced the instruction and design practice in the foundation engineering profession include the extensive work on computer-aided design techniques for analyzing the stress distribution of so foundation-structure systems, a new understanding ofthe behavior and strength of soil under various loads, and improved understanding ofthe response of various types of superstructures to time-dependent loading and to foundation structures. New knowledge of the interaction between foundations and their environments, suchas erosion, subsidenes hazardous and Toxic ‘wastes, and earthquakes has also been developed The sccond edition attempts to update the material in view of the developments cited above. The applications will also be expanded to cover such subjects as landills, cold regions, and offshore foundations, and foundation techniques which include ceinforeed earth, nails/anchors, and geosynthetics. In the framework of the second edition, the authors present concisely the base principles and material parameters pertinent to each subject and illustrate with practical examples the engineering application ofthese principles within the limitations set bythe material parameters The original style and philosophy of the individual authors has been retained as much as possiie. The primary purpose of this handbook is to serve the practicing engineer. It can also be used as a textbook in applied geotechnical engineering. With the updating of some chapters and the addition of new chapters, this book will also be useful in conjunction with design in other areas, such as offshore/nearshore structures, hazardous waste control systems, transportation facilities, and structural engineering, to name just few ‘The editor expresses his thanks 10 all those who have generously given advice and encouragement in the preparation of this handbook. Thanks are also due to Ms, Eleanor "Nothelfer for her general aid in preparing the manuscript. Hsai-Yang FangLIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Bastick, M. Terre Armée International, Paris, France Broms, Bengt B. Professor of Civil Engineering, Nanyang Technological Institute, Singapore Chaney, Ronald C, Professor and Director, Fred Telonicher Marine Laboratory, Humboldt State University, Trinidad, CA Chen, Wai-Fah Professor and Head, Structural Engineering Department, School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN Clough, G. W. Professor and Head, Department of Civil Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA Jemars, Kennath R. Associate Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT Dismuke, Thomas D. Senior Consultant, Bethlehem Steel Corporation, Bethlehem, PA Duncan, J. M. University Distinguished Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA Elias, Victor ¥. Elias and Associates, P. A. Consulting Engineers Evans, Jeffrey C. Associate Professor of Civil Engineering, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA Fang, Hs 19. Professor and Director, Geotechnical Engineering Division, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA Follenius, BengtH. Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada Gazetas, George Professor of Soil Mechanics, National Technical University of Greece, ‘Athens, Greece and State University of New York, Buffalo, NY Hilf, Jack W. Consulting Engineer, Aurora, CO Holtz, Robert D. Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA Juran, Han Professor and Head, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Brooklyn Polytechnic University, NY Koerner, Robert M. Bowman Professor of Civil Engineering and Director, Geosynthetic Research Institute, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA Kulhawy, FredH. Professor of Geotechnical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY Lowe, John Ill Consulting Engineer, Yonkers, NY McCarron, William ©. Senior Research Engineer, Amoco Production Co., Tulsa, OK Mikroudis, George K. President, AVANSE Lid,, Athens, Greece Pamukeu, Sibel Assistant Professor of Civil Engincering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA Phukan, Arvind Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Alaska at Anchorage, ‘Anchorage, AL Powers, J.Patrick Consultant, AQUON Ground Water Engineering, Hackettstown, NJ ‘Schlosser, F. Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussees, Paris, France Seed, H. Bolton Professor of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA Winterkorn, Hans F. Professor of Civil Engineering and Geophysies—Emeritus, Princeton iniversity, NJ Wong, Kai $. Associate Professor, Nanyang Technological Insitute, Singapore Zaccheo, Philip F. Consultant, Ebasco Serviees Inc, New York, NY Zeovaert, Leonardo Professor of Civil Engineering, Emeritus, Universidad Nacional ‘Auténoma de México, México, D.F.1 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATIONS AND SAMPLING JOHN LOWE It Consulting Engineer 1.1. INTRODUCTION ‘The proper design of civil engineering structures requires adequate knowledge of subsurface conditions at the sites of the structures and, when structures are to consist of earth or rockfill materials, of subsurface conditions at possible sources of ‘construction materials. The structures may be divided into three categories, 1. Structures for which the basic problem is the interaction of the structure and the surrounding ground. Such structures include foundations, retaining walls, bulkheads, tunnel linings, and buried pipes. The main point of interest is the load-deflection characteristics of the interface. 2. Structures constructed of earth such as highway fll, earth ‘and rockfill dams, bases and subbases for pavements, and backfill hind retaining walls. Besides the interaction of the ‘earth structure with the adjacent ground, properties of the ‘construction materials are required for determining the action of the earth structue itself. 3. Structures of natural earth and rock as natural slopes and ‘cut slopes. In this case, Knowledge of the properties of the natural materials is required In order to perform this design work properly, the engineer must have a good understanding of the problems encountered in making subsurface explorations and of the various tools available to make subsurface explorations. Specialists in soil and rock engineering and or geology ace requited for planning, conducting, and supervising the programs of subsurface explorations. ‘The types of subsurface information required for design include, but are not limited to, the following: 1. Areal extent, depth, and thickness of each identifiable soil stratum, within a limited depth dependent on the size and nature of the structure, together with a description of the soll including its degree of density ifcohesionless and degree ‘of stiffness if cohesive. 2. Depth to top of rock and the character ofthe rock, including ‘such items as lithology; areal extent, depth, and thickness ‘ofeach stratum; strike, dip, and spacing of joints and bedding planes; presence of fault and shear zones; and state of weathering or decomposition. 3. Location of groundwater and the presence and magnitude of artesian pressures 4. Engineering properties of the soil and/or rock in sita such as permeability, compressibility, and shear strength. ‘The procedures for obtaining subsurface information may be divided into the two broad categories of indirect and direct PHILIP F, ZACCHEO Staff Consultant, Ebasco Services Incorporated methods. Indirect methods include: aerial photography and topographic map interpretation, and the use of ‘existing geological reports, maps, and soil surveys. Direct methods comprise the following 1. Geologic field reconnaissance, including the examination of in situ materials im natural and man-made exposures such as river banks, escarpments, highway and railway cus, (quarries, and existing shafts and tunnels. 2, Soundings and probings 3. Borings, test pits, trenches, shafts, and adits from which representative disturbed and/or undisturbed samples ofthe in situ materials may be obtained 4. Simple field tess, such as the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and the static cone penetration test, whose results have been correlated with engineering properties on a seneral basis. 5, Fick tests such as the vane shear dilatometer and pressure- meter tests, seepage and waterpressure tests, plate bearing tests, the CBR test, and pile loed tests, wherein the enginecring properties ofthe in situ materials are measured directly. 1t is the purpose of this chapter to present essential information forthe complete range of subsurlace explorations. Included are descriptions of the planning of an exploration program; indirect methods of exploration: drilling equipment and techniques; sampling equipment and techniques eld test procedures; and suggestion for reporting subsurface exploration information. A list of references i given at the end ofthe chapter. 1.2. PLANNING AN EXPLORATION PROGRAM. 1.2.1 Purpose of Explorations and Phased Execution ‘The basic purpose of an exploration program is to provide the engineer with a knowledge of the subsurface conditions at the site of an engineering project. Normally, the explorations provide information required for the safe and economical design. of a project and inform the construction engineer about the materials and conditions he will encounter inthe field. At times, the explorations may be used to obtain information for the analysis of the failure of an engineering structure. ‘Explorations are normally accomplished ina phased sequence as follows: 1. Reconnaissance investigations 2. Explorations for preliminary design 3. Explorations for detailed design 4. Explorations during construction