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Conversion in Late Antiquity and The Early Middle Ages PDF
Conversion in Late Antiquity and The Early Middle Ages PDF
Conversion in Late Antiquity and The Early Middle Ages PDF
EDITED BY
KENNETH MILLS
AND
ANTHONY GRAFTON
-m
u niversity
of Rochester Press
A Publication of the
Shelby Cullom Davis Center for Historical Studies
Princeton U niversity
Directors
Lawrence Stone (1974-1988)
Natalie Zemon Davis (1988-1994)
William Chester Jordan (1994-1999)
Anthony T. Grafton (1999- )
HA publication of the Shelby Cullom Davis Center for Historical Studies, Princeton University."
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-5846-125-5 (alk. paper)
1.
Conversion-Christianity-History-To 1500-Congresses.
Kenneth, 1964-
H. Grafton, Anthony.
ct001
1. Mills,
IU. Series.
I /T200'~b
234 110
CONTENTS
Acknowledgments
i ntroductitm
vu
ix
1.
2.
6I
ERIC RE BILLARD
127
H.
SMITH
VI
CONTENTS
Notes on Contributors
Index
273
27 I
224
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This book began from a set of papers presented at a symposium on conversion in late antiquity at Princeton's Davis Center for Historical Studies in
the fall semester of 1999, and it' gathered a complementary essay Oulia M.
H. Smith's) the following spring. Thus the editors wish first to thank the
organizers, Susanna Elm and Peter Brown, and the contributors to the
symposium, as weIl as the many participants'in,discussions both on that day
and throughout the Davis Center's concentration upon the theme of conversion between 1999 and 2001. We are also grateful to Kari Hoover for
facilitating the Center's events and to Timothy Madigan and Molly Cort at
the U niversity of Rochester Press for their interest and for shepherding the
project into print. And finally we thank Gavin Lewis, who has copy-edited
each of the contributions with sensitivity and skill.
Vll
INTRODUCTION
KENNETH
MILLS AND
ANTHONY GRAFTON
Religious conversion, though much evoked in late antique and early medieval times and written about ever since, was not often publicly observable.
While conversion was commonly represented by ancient and early medieval
writers as a singular and personally momentous mental event, gradual and
incomplete social processes lurk behind their words. Susanna Elm, a contributor to this volume, contends that in describing the shift of affiliation
that was religious conversion, ancient authors allowed apparently competing vocabularies of change to merge. In their understanding, a measured
process of illumination is joined by images of impression and inscription,
with the latter conceptual pair capturing neatly the role of texts and exegesis in these thinkers' spiritual and intellectuallives. Complete conversionstrictly defined and lived--is a chimera, something to be imagined,
constituted, preached, and pleaded for. Time and again, officially prescribed
Christianity comes uJ? against the limits of its ability to steer converts and
dictate the terms of their belief and practice.
This book is one of two collections of essays on religious conversion
drawn from the activities of the Shelby Cullom Davis Center for Historical
Studies at Princeton University between 1999 and 2001. Both collections
focus upon conversion to, within, and around forms of Western Christianity.
While the other volume treats cases of religious conversion across a broad
temporal and geographie expanse, this one concentrates upon late antique
and early medieval Europe, long one of this theme's most celebrated playing
fields. All but one of the book's essays Qulia Smith's, which was presented
before the Davis Center seminar as an individual paper in the spring of
2000) began as contributions to a memorable symposium organized by
Susanna Elm and Peter Brown in the autumn of 1999. 1
The essays follow a basically chronological sequence, but with an eye also
to preparing the reader for the thematic pairings and comparisons proposed
by Neil McLynn's concluding discussion. Thus Susanna Elm's study of three
orations on baptism by Gregory of Nazianzus in the late fourth century as
clues towards an ancient understanding of religious conversion accompanies
1X
INTRODUCTION
NOTES
I. The full tide of the Davis Center's two-year theme was "Conversion:
Sacred and Profane." The other collection of essays is Kenneth Mills and
Anthony Grafton , eds., Conversion: Old Worlds and New (Rochester, N.Y,
23)
I
INSCRIPTIONS AND CONVERSIONS
GREGORY OF NAZIANZUS ON BAPTISM
SUSANNA
(Gr. 38-4)
ELM
lt is today that we must write in you and impress you (wJrw(}fjvar) towards per/ection. Let us
enter . . . give me the tablets (JrAaICaq)
0/ your heart,
)lou with God's fingers a new Decalogue. 1 write in you the synopsis (enlv't'o,uov)
0/ salvation.
This paper will focus on three orations on baptism by the late fourthcentury C.E. Cappadocian "Church Father" Gregory of Nazianzus to argue
three interrelated points. First, contrary to "modern" notions of conversion,
which are frequently shaped by a narrow concept of it as a "flash of illumination" signaling the moment of intense personal rejection of a previously
held belief in favor of another one (or at least the narrative representation of
such an intense personal experience),l many ancient authors told a very
different story when describing a shift in religious affiliation. Ancient authors who wrote personal accounts of such a shift, like Gregory of Nazianzus or Augustine, did, of course, employ the terminology of illumination.
However, their illumination language carried a different meaning than that
implied by many of their post-Enlightenment interpreters. 2 The ancient
authors used the terminology of illumination to describe a process, which
resulted over time in something one might characterize as "conversion"; the
possibility of salvation through continuous adherence to a new "religious"
VlSlOn.
SEEING AND
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AND
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SEEING AND
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38-4
o new
{/(I attest before God and the elected angels that you will be baptized with this faith." If one has
written in you something other than my sernlOn has set out, come here, so what has been written in
you will be modified. I am not without talent to write that into you; I write what has been
written into me.
"Write it on the memory tab/ets of your mind (aV IlVr,JlOal v 8iMolQ fjJpevmv)."
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for Gregory the model event through which the underlying Platonic structure is personalized and transcended.
As mentioned above, Gregory's concept of baptism as the actualization of
the Incarnation was highly controversial, not least because it was an innovation. But before plunging more deeply into Gregory's texts describing
baptism and illumination, and before attempting to reconstruct some of the
context that apparently prompted hirn to "divulge as much ab out our mysteries as is not forbidden to the ears of the many" (Or. 4-45), let me step
back to discuss briefly notions of "conversion" and "inscriptions" and their
relevance to Gregory's orations on baptism.
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INSCRIPTIONS
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general structure remained the same. Equally to the point, a clean slate was
preferable, but a palimpsest could also do; a modified writing was as effective as one that had been carved into a completely new surface.
A second kind of inscriptions placed on public buildings, including statues and temples, proclaimed both the virtues of the donor as weIl as that of
the city, deity, or community in whose honor the building was erected.
Such inscriptions heralded the ways in which a public person represented
her social status within a community. Shrines and temples carried, furthermore, personal inscriptions honoring the divinity, begging for eures, and
thanking the divinity for favors rendered; wealthy persons might even write
entire odes to a god on stone slabs affixed to shrines (or the walls of their
own house).30 An entire class of inscriptions publicized rrespasses. against
the gods and begged for forgiveness. Such "confession" inscriptions list
cases of perjury; stealing from the sanctuary and its estate; masturbating
while on the premises; visiting the temple in rags or in astate of defilement, and so on. They also "confess" failure to "write down" (Ka'ta'Ypa~Elv)
or enroll slaves into the sanctuary's roster, that is, to actually deliver to the
sanctuary, and hence to the god, a slave dedicated/recruited to his service as
hierodottlos. 31
Writings to the gods were also inscribed on other, less durable materials.
Papyrus slips (libelli) and lead, wooden, and wax tablets were inscribed with
oaths, curses, and countercurses (tabttlae defixionttm)J magie formulae, and
pleas to the god, whereby the act of writing itself was part of the ritual and
its powerY The sanctuaries, of course, wrote back: long inscriptions list, for
example, how one ought to approach the shrines, what one was expected to
do there, and how much the sanctuary's services would cost. 33
Another type of private inscriptions on buildings, particularly on baths
and gymnasia, were graffiti, doing much the same then as today: Glaukos
was here; Lucius loves Aurelia; x proposes to do y to a certain slave boy;
prostitute so and so is fabulous; the tavern of x stinks; may the Gods curse
z; long live the gladiator Maximus. 34
However, walls of buildings also displayed the official acts of the city and
the empire. Special walls displayed imperial letters as weIl as imperial
edicts, both of which had, by the fourth century, the force of law. In relatively rare cases such laws were engraved in bronze. The inscription of
official documents into bronze tablets (MA:tOl, cr't1lAat, in aes incisa) and their
display were of fundamental imperial and religious significance. 35 Rather
than providing the master copy of special laws, as scholars have long assumed, it is now clear that the primary function of bronze tablets was their
visual-religious impact. Polished and gleaming, affixed to temple walls,
bronze tables suggested the eternity (aes perennittm) both of the laws and the
10
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I I
inscription into one social place could oe instantly modified, with consequences affecting himself, subsequent generations, and the entire hierarchical construct of later Roman society. Citizenship could be granted, obligations
removed, infamy eradicated, and, of course, the reverse could also take
place.
Thus, it is not surprising that the publication of "imperial writings"
(UO"tA1K<l ypaflflu-ra) executed in "celestialletters,"42 whether written in stone
or bronze, or-as was usually the case-on less durable materials, such as
wax or wooden tablets, or papyrus, and sealed with the imperial seal, was an
awe-inspiring act. "A king sent out his order to a city. What did the people
in the city do? They rose to their feet, uncovered their heads and read it in
awe, fear, trembling, and trepidation."43 Another description from John
Chrysostom paints a similar scene: "A profound silence reigns when those
letters are read. There is not the slightest noise; everyone listens most
attentively to the orders contained in them. Whoever makes the slightest
noise, thereby interrupting the reading, runs the greatest danger."44 Again,
just as the bronze tablets embodied the presence of Rome, so, too, did the
imperial letters and edicts. Embraced and kissed upon their arrival,45 they
embodied the emperor's sacred person. When his edicts were thus proclaimed, it was the emperor who spoke, lectured, responded, exhorted,
ordered, and alte red, and who was present in person. To interrupt such a
proclamation, to modify or destroy such a writing, was to do harm to the
imperial person, a near unthinkable act of sacrilege. 46
Which does not me an that such things did not happen. An uprising or
stasis frequently began with the tearing down of imperial acts, and less
dramatic acts of registering discontent were the norm. 47 Aside from writings directed to the emperor containing petitions, questions, and the like
(libelli), citizens also "posted" their opinions about emperors (and each other) in the form of pamphlets (libelli /amosi, programmata), lampoons, and
posters on the same surfaces that carried imperial letters and edicts. Such
programmata "pasted up on walls" chastised the beaten emperor Jovian upon
his return from a disastrous Persian campaign in 363; accused emperors of
being usurpers; slandered widows; or informed the citizens of Damascus, by
order of the emperor, that some of their prostitutes were Christian. 48
Also illuminating in our context are the exchanges between the emperor
Julian and some of his subjects. A self-declared philosopher king, Julian
chose to chastise his subjects through elaborate speeches and philosophical
treatises, posted onto pillars (stelai) just like his imperial letters and edicts
and of no less momentous impact. 49 One of these letters prohibited teachers
who were Christian to instruct students in the time-honored subjects and
methods' of classical paideia. 50 One of those affected by this law was Gregory
I2
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its correction reifying the social order. 56 The more advanced the student, the
stronger the formative power of written and recited words. Once a student
advanced to higher education under a rhetor, he took on the speaking role
of his father, the paterfamilias, in sets of exercises called "declamations."57
Such an assumption of an adult persona lfictio personae, 1tP0O"co1to1totla) was
more than "theater." In taking on his father's role, the son became, through
mimesis, the father. Moreover, through his writings and his speech, he gave
voice to all those who were dependent on his father and thus had to seek
advocacy through his voice. 58 By being a paterfamilias, that is, his father, the
son refracted as through a prism the community of all those who depended
on hirn and whose well-being was determined by his prowess as writer and
speaker in competition with others. Thus, the son was trained- to speak in
the voice and with the emotions of his father as weH as that of his father's
dependents. He learned to speak as them and for them through the "representation of character" (~e01tot"ta) of a woman (not a person under the law);59
of a soldier who had deserted; of a prostitute who wanted to be a priestess;
of a freedman seeking to marry a person above his status, etc. Thus, through
such performative acts of speech, the son not only spoke in his master's
voice while also acting the master, he gave at the same time voice (through
the master's voice and it alone) to his (father's) subordinates.
Most members of the elite governing the later Roman empire had received such declamatory training in advocacy. Underscoring the necessity
for such training were notions of the powerful efficacy of the spoken and
written word. Both were tremendously formative acts, reifying at the same
time the authority and the transformative powers of the person performing
them, be he the governor or the teacher (paidaggos). Thus, to have a voicel
word was the equivalent of existing as a social being; without voice/word
there was no social existence. But before returning to a discussion of Gregory of Nazianzus's use of the vocabulary of inscription in light of the
above, one further context needs to be mentioned, which linked the philosophical-pedagogic aspects of "writing" directly with the cosmological realm:
astrology.
Fundamental to most ancient concepts of astrology was the notion that
the stars were alive, divine (or at least part of a sphere just beneath that of
the gods), and of the same essence (ether) as the human soul, which they
guided according to divine precepts. 60 Therefore, so a central tenet, the fate
of each individual was determined by the precise location of the stars at the
moment of birth, so that individuals required as a consequence interpretation and guidance through the wisdom of astrologers. Such implicitly fatalistic interpretations of the relationship between the stars and human destiny
also found their opponents, most notably among the followers of Carneades,
I4
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who argued instead that astral figuration did not predestine human fate.
The stars did not produce (poiein) human fate; they were merely its indicators (semaiein); thus, the human soul retained free will and hence moral
judgment. 61 Such antifatalistic arguments did not have to deny the value of
astrology, however. Plotinus, for example, conceded that astrologers could
read the stars. This was so because according to Plotinus "the stars were like
letters which are written in each instance into the sky, or rather letters
written once for all time which move; . . . they also have the power to
signify."62 Origen argued likewise. For hirn, too, the stars were letters,
written into a heavenly book. 63 Yet while those capable of reading these
letters and hence the human fate they indicated correctly were human for
Plotinus, Origen accorded that faculty solely to God. In both cases, the
comparison of the stars to heavenly letters was a new element. In Origen's
case, the comparison was all the more relevant for our subject, because of
long-standing Jewish-Christian notions according to which good as well as
evil deeds were recorded into a heavenly book of "deeds" or "works." Good
deeds could, so Paul in Col. 2: I 2- I 5, erase bad ones as if a debt (XEtPOypa<j>ov)
had been canceled. Those whose debts of bad deeds had been erased through
good works would be inscribed into the roster of heavenly citizenship. For
many ancient authors, baptism was the equivalent of such an enrollment
because it erased prior debt by concluding a new contract. 64 Ir rewrote the
heavenly letters and their notations; that is, it changed what the stars
signified. With this, it is time to address Gregory and his writings on
baptism in greater detail.
I ncarnation
"Christ is born, give praise, Christ has come from the heavens, go out to
meet hirn, Christ is on earth, lift yourselves upward"-thus Gregory's opening, and the theme of Oration 38. The divine had become human, the
Word flesh, and this event required the most exalted celebration. Such a
celebration could not replicate the "material feast" as performed by "the
Greeks." Instead, the celebration of the Word required words, and naturally,
the most appropriately festive words were those of Gregory (Or. 38-4-6).
Since the sermon was about the Logos it was according to Gregory about
God. Indeed, most of the remainder of Oration 38 is devoted, first, to
Gregory's interpretation of the nature of the divinity (theologia) , and, secondly and in even greater detail, to the interaction of the divine with its
INSCRIPTIONS
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15
opposite, the cosmos and man (oikonomia). The unfolding and expansion of
the divine and, most importantly, the mystery of its mixture with things
"entirely alien to its nature" (Or. 38.10) occupy the lion's share of Oration
38. Thus, Gregory opens the entire cycle of his three orations on the Nativity, Illumination, and Baptism with his exposition and exegesis of Plato's
cosmology through Genesis and Luke's account of the Nativity.65
Gregory begins by stating that "God is," i.e., that "he possesses being
without beginning and end, like an ocean of being" (Or. 38.7).66 God is
timeless, "without limit and hence difficult to contemplate." This aspect of
the divine alone is easy to grasp for humans, namely that God is timeless
and limitless. However, while this may lead one to believe that God's
nature is therefore simple (a1tA:ilc;) this is not so. According to Gregory,
neither simplicity nor composition completely comprise the nature of the
divine; rather by "saying God, I intend to say Father, Son and Holy Spirit"
(Or. 38.8-9). While the divinity does not extend beyond those three to form
more divine persons, it is neither constricted into a monad nor a construct
of subordinate beings. Instead, it is an infinite cohesion of three limitless
beings (e.g., Or. 39.11; 40-41). However, this cohesion, despite the fact that
the Son has taken his origin from the Father, must not be understood as a
sequence of time or cause. The Son as weIl as the Spirit have "proceeded"
from the Father (E.K1tOpe:UeO"Sm) in seamless expansion. 67 Such a "procession"
leaves the divine "nature" unchanged. All that changed in the resulting
formation of the Son and the Spirit were their properties (iOio'tT\'teC;). Thus,
the Father is the beginning of two other beings, but they are not inferior or
different in nature. The nature of all three remains one and the same, even
if there are three different hypostaseis (Or. 39.11).
Having made that point-which he elaborates further in each of the two
subsequent sermons-Gregory focuses on the manner in which this supreme divinity, God, created the universe (Or. 38.9). Not content to contemplate itself the supreme Good, in an act of divine euergetism, expanded
itself. "Thus the second splendors were created, of service to the first." The
creation of the intelligible universe (1C00"110<; VOT\'to<;) led to that of the sensible one, in part because God wanted "to show not only his own nature, but
also his capacity to create a nature utterly alien to his own" (Or. 38.10). This
moment, according to Gregory, was the first instance of a great fusion of
two incommensurable entities: the mysterious commingling of intelligible
and sensible elements, which led to the creation of the sensible world and
First Man, the "initiate into the visible world." This "visible world" was a
second universe, itself a mixture of invisible and visible natures (Or. 38.11).
At this juncture Gregory commences his exegesis of Genesis, entirely
within the structure of the Platonic cosmology employed so far. "This being
16
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Illumination
Gregory's "terminology of light" was fundamental to his entire eosmologieal eonstruet, going baek to his first orations eomposed in 362/363.70 Aeeordingly, "God is the supreme light inaeeessible and unknowable; not
eomprised by the spirit and not expressed by the word. lt [the light} eontemplates and eomprehends itself' (Gr. 40.5).71 God is the first light, the
angels the seeond, and man the third, aeeording to an eeonomy repeated in
all three sermons. Indeed, "light" (<\lcOe;) , illumination, is Gregory's fundamental metaphor in explieating Genesis and Exodus: "The first eommandment given to the first man was also light .... The written law was a <\lcOe;
'tU7tlKOV Kat enJf.!f.!E'tpWV, providing an illusion (O"Kwypa<\lcOv; lit. "painting in
shadows") of the truth and the mystery of the light" (Gr. 40.6). But even
though this divine light is in essenee inaeeessible-sinee it is God-it
nonetheless does not elude man entirely beeause of his original partieipation
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17
in it. 72 In fact, humans are linked to the divine through light, and this link
between man and God (OIlOtrocrtC; 8EOO) finds expression in the sun, indicating the manner in which man may return to the divine splendor. 73 Provided
the human soul is properly purified, it, to~, may be illuminated. Illumination therefore requires purification. The higher the degree of purification
the greater that of illumination and the doser the link between man and
the divine. The logical consequence was therefore, according to Gregory,
that illumination is purification and vice versa. They are synonymous. But
Gregory took yet a further step. Illumination (<j>oo'tt0"1l0C;) is not only purification, it is also baptism (also <j>oo'tt 0"110 C; , a traditional word denoting baptism).74 Illumination, purification, and baptism were mutual preconditions
as weH as synonyms. 75 God demands purity but also is purity; he demands illumination and is illumination. 76 Likewise, baptism both demands purification and
illumination (<j>OrttO"Il0C;) and is also both. All three are necessary first conditions
to contemplate the divine; but all three also make such contemplation possible
through their potential to restore man to his original dignity.77
Baptism
Christians, in Gregory's opinion, thus had many reasons to celebrate baptism. It represented their passage from darkness to light, from ignorance to
the knowledge of truth, from paganism to Christianity (Or. 39.3-6), and
was as such a journey between two utterly incommensurable states of being.
More to the point, baptism actualized in each individual the two great
moments of fusion-especially, however, the second great mingling of two
incommensurables, namely the Incarnation. And, like the Incarnation, a
historie event of timeless consequence, baptism, to~, was a moment and a
process, illumination and purification, initiating and manifesting man's
restoration to his original nature, namely his salvation.
Oration 40 begins by resuming the theme with which Oration 39 ended:
it restates the central identity of illumination, purification, and baptism
(Or. 40.5-7). Now, however, Gregory proceeds "to philosophize" about how,
when and by whom baptism, now properly introduced (and hopefully understood), should be administered and who should receive it. None of these
issues are obvious, not least because "Christ, who gave this gift, is called by
multiple and various names, and so is his gift, baptism" (Or. 40-4).78 Historically, so Gregory, there were five types of baptism, reflecting the history of
salvation (Or. 39.17). Moses had baptized, but only figuratively (-rU1ttKooc;): in
water, by guiding his people through the Red Sea. J ohn the Baptist had also
baptized, but no longer "in the Jewish manner," solely in water. He had
already adduced a spiritual baptism by demanding metanoia, a "change of
18
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heart and mind," or penitence. Jesus, then, baptized purely in the SpUlt;
"that was perfection." Christ hirns elf received the fourth baptism: the baptism of blood, the baptism of the martyrs. Gregory, "being human and,
therefore, a changeable being of unstable nature," had received baptism in
the fifth manner, namely the baptism "of tears, but it is even harder" (ar.
39.17-18). "I accept this baptism with an open heart, I venerate hirn who
gave it to me, I transmit it to others" (ar. 38.18).
This "baptism of tears" was the baptism for the rest of mankind, and it
is the one Gregory will now transmit to his catechumens. Accordingly, he
devotes the remainder of his-very long-Oration 40 to the precise mechanism according to which this "transmission" ought to unfold. Following
Jesus' example, baptism should be administered around the age of thirty,
while one is in the fullness of reason yet has time to lead a life of continuing
purification (ar. 40.29). Therefore, one "should not postpone baptism too
close to death. What kind of dignity is exhibited by a baptism where the
priest has to fight with the physicians and the lawyers at the bedside?" (ar.
4.11).79 Child baptism is permitted, but only if death seems imminent.
Marking the child with the seal of baptism will be its "greatest and most
beautiful talisman (tjroAaK-nlPtoV)" (ar. 4.17, 28).
Of equal significance as the time of baptism were Gregory's following
points. Baptism-Gregory stressed this at least seven times in Oration 40
alone-was not a rite reserved for the elite. lt was also intended and necessary for the poor. 80 Baptism did not require the attendance of family, friends,
and retinue. Nor should one ins ist on being baptized by a metropolitan
bishop, or, failing hirn, at the very least a pneumatikosJ abishop who was not
married (ar. 4.25, 26). Other bishops and priests could also baptize.
This was the case because in baptism "all the old xapaK'tiipe~ (letters or
external markers] disappear. Christ will have been imposed on all in one
form (Ilt~ Iloptjrt\ (ar. 40.27). How did such an erasure and reimpression
occur in practice? In this context, Gregory likened baptism to rebirth. 81
Resorting to Platonic as well as scriptural notions, Gregory identified three
types of the "elect," namely slaves, mercenaries, and sons, allegorically represented by matter, sense, and intellectllogos (ar. 4.2, 13). Hence, all three
aspects are present in each human being, and all three must be therefore be
re born, that is, purified. Thus, the entire process of baptism required three
stages: one of purification (exorcism and washing); one where that which
had been purified was now "prepared" and protected through anointing and
sealing; and one in which the new "faith" was written onto the surface thus
cleansed and prepared. Expressed through this tripartite preparation was the
dual nature of baptism as purification and illumination-essentially, as stated
above, a single act. Thus, exorcism and washing purified while anointing,
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20
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Why did Gregory feel it necessary to elaborate to such an extent on baptismin three sermons, one of which, Oration 40 in its present form as revised for
publication, is Gregory's second longest oration?83 Why reveal these mysteries
to such a degree to uninitiated ears (Or. 40-45)? The reasons are clear.
Gregory's interpretation of baptism was neither the only, nor necessarily the
most widely favored one in Constantinople at the time; in fact, he appears
to have represented the minority opinion. As his own sermons make clear,
there were other ways in which Platonic cosmology could be reinterpreted,
other emphases placed on divine essence and activity, resulting in seemingly
similar but structurally very different ac counts of cosmology, fusion, and
baptism (Or. 4.22, 44; 39.18-19). And these competing interpretations of
all aspects of baptism and its cosmological implications enjoyed great favor,
especially among those who counted and whose favor Gregory, too, had to
win, namely the members of the Constantinopolitan elite. 84
As Gregory hirnself implied, baptism itself, the rite that marked the
"belonging to Christ," was an intensely elite event. Of course, one had to be
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2 I
baptized in the presence of one's full retinue by the person who possessed
the highest power and hence could administer the powerful rite of baptism
appropriately without contaminating or, even worse, misdirecting the enormous potency of the act (Or. 40.26). And there were many who presented
themselves as powerful initiators. Thus, according to Gregory, Constantinopolitans preferred to be baptized by a metropolitan (Or. 4.26), 85 or by a
pneumatikos. There were "Arians," "Sabellians," and "Novatians," as weIl as
the "acerbic calculators of the divinity" (Or. 38.14), those who denied the
divinity of the Spirit, those who misunderstood the nature of Christ's fusion, and those who misconstrued baptism's power to purify.86
Behind Gregory's labels and allusions stood influential men. Demophilus, for example, for twenty years the "Arian" bishop of Constantinople, had
only been dispatched to the suburbs on 26 November 380, just a month
prior to the occasion of Gregory's sermons. There he continued to celebrate
Mass. 87 Eunomius, foremost among those whom Gregory described as "calculators of divinity," was at that moment the toast of the town, drawing
crowds including some court eunuchs to his estate in nearby Chalcedon. 88 A
significant number of persons belonging to the creme de la creme of the
Constantinopolitan ascetics denied the divinity of the Spirit, views with an
illustrious pedigree since they continued the tradition of Bishop Macedonius, Demophilus's precursor, and which were supported by men of great
influence at court. 89 These and other prominent ascetics like Isaac, who had
just then been offered housing for himself and his followers on the suburb an
estates of not one but two powerful courtiers, Saturnius and Victor, attracted vast numbers of faithful who sought them out on a daily basis. 90 Each
and every single one of them promoted different interpretations of the
meaning and function of baptism and its theological-cosmological significance, and Gregory's concepts had to answer to and win out over each.
The so-called "Novatians," who were very popular among the elite, preferred baptism late in life, considering it a one-time act of complete purification. They rejected all notion of penitence, indeed, the possibility of sin
after baptism, and punished the lapsed draconically-in diametric opposition to Gregory's view of purification as a lifelong process, requiring the
accumulation of "good works" to counteract evil ones even after baptism.
Gregory clearly sought to "convert" "Novatians" to his point of view by
offering them inclusion into his fold without rebaptism. In their case, it
sufficed to "modify what had been written into" them. Indeed, rebaptism
had repeatedly been prohibited by imperial law, but "Novatians" had been
excepted from that stipulation. Their baptism was in essence accepted as
"right"; should they seek to renounce their heresy, a simple anointing sufficed. 91
22
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
Controversies regarding the divinity of the Holy Spirit had been on Gregory's mind for quite some time. He had formulated his notion of the divine
essence as one in three partially in response to such doubts, but when he
delivered his orations on baptism the "orthodoxy" of his interpretation was
by no means assured. 92 It would be accepted as such some five months later
at the ecumenical council gathered in Constantinople in May 38 I, but
Gregory's orations delivered in December and J anuary were still "campaign
speeches. "93
In this regard, the fact that many of the city's ascetic stars doubted that
the Spirit was divine presented a true challenge. These star ascetics were
also known as pneumatikoi, "filled with the Spirit," in no small part because
of their life-style, which celebrated charismatic poverty. Therefore, these
men were also known as "the poor." A significant number of these ascetic
"poor" were of the opinion that their daily regime of "tears and groaning,"
combined with fasting and constant prayer, made baptism entirely superfluous since their life of continuous purification provided direct access to the
divine. 94 Given this background, Gregory's insistence that baptism was
necessary for the "poor" takes on a dual meaning. 95 On the one hand,
Gregory certainly sought to emphasize that the transformative powers of
baptism were not reserved for the social elite, but encompassed nearly all
strata on the social scale (he does not mention the infamous).96 Therefore, he
stressed that one should not feel humiliated when baptized next to a vendor,
a debtor, or even a slave: "do not refuse to be baptized with a poor person,
you who are rich, or you the noble with a low-dass person, or you the
master with your own slave" (Or. 4.25, 27). Yet, the kind of transformation
he envisages is not one between social registers; each person is transformed
within his dass, where he becomes perfectible; a shift in "social" inscription
would be miraculous. 97
On the other hand, these remarks polemicized against competing pneumatikoi, "poor" ascetics who deemed baptism superfluous. In addition, Gregory's insistence that Christ took on the form of a slave countered those who
denied the complete mixture of the divine and the human in the Incarnation. In fact, according to Gregory, wrong teachings regarding the Incarnation, in particular the relationship between Father and Son and the latter's
mixture with the human, that is, the "fusion of two paradoxa," abounded.
The "Sabellians" erred because they unduly reduced Father and Son into one
("like the Jews"). Others separated them too rigidly, thus introducing subordination ("Arians") or, even worse, a multiplicity of divinities ("paganism"). Yet others denied Christ's complete mixture with the humble aspects
of mankind ("Apollinarists") (Or. 38.8, 14-15; 39.12; 4.11,20-21).98
INSCRIPTIONS
AND
CONVERSIONS
23
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
where he plunged ahead and affirmed full mixture, thereby granting human
matter the possibility of salvation, others like Eunomius considered such
thinking dangerously reckless. 105
Baptism, of course, reflected these underlying differences, as shown by
the following quote from the Apostolic Constitutions, edited in a Eunomian
milieu: "Baptism, after all , is administered into the Son's death: the water
is instead of burial, the seal instead of the Cross; the chrism is the confirrnation of the confession. The Father is mentioned because he is the source
and the sender, the Spirit is included because he is the witness. The immersion is the dying with Christ, the ascent the rising with hirn. "106
Hence Gregory's expense of time and effort in demonstrating that baptism is both moment and process, actualization of a perfect fusion yet
requiring continuous purification, application of a seal on a cleansed slate
yet also an inscription that can be modified. Baptism was the initiation into
a mystery, and Gregory needed to establish hirns elf as mystaggos and pneumatikos, as one who possessed the power to transform. He could write,
inscribe, stamp, impress, and remodel correctly, since the appropriate words
had been written into hirn. Hence, his constant re course to his exegesis of
the most powerful cosmologies of the day, Plato through Scripture, and his
virtuoso mixing of these two worlds. Because Gregory demonstrably understood the mysterious nature (physis) of the divine as perfectly as anyone and
could prove such perfect understanding through his own physis as a xenos, a
poor person, an ascetic-looking countryman without a court (Or. 38.6), he
could administer the appropriate form of illumination and initiate correctly
into the mystery of baptism. Because he understood cosmology correctly he
could align those into whose souls he wrote the words of the baptismal faith
correctly within that cosmology. Moreover, he could overwrite the false
inscriptions of others, an awesome power because it realigned the "letters in
heaven," the writings in the heavenly books. Such writing signified a shift
in cosmological affiliation, a shift that guaranteed salvation. Hence, by
initiating a process of cosmological realignment, Gregory's baptism illuminated by "converting" those thus inscribed towards God. But such conversion did not occur in a flash of light; on the contrary, it required lifelong
purification. Baptism added the baptized into the citizenship of heaven, but
as for any good citizen, the demand for good works continued. Otherwise,
the entire economy of salvation was disrupted. Thus, while interesting for
modern scholars studying notions of conversion, these concerns were vital
for Gregory as bishop of Constantinople. And he proved persuasive. On 10
January 381,17 Theodosius issued a law banning the heretical teachings of
the "Arians" and the "Eunomians," but not those of the "Novatians."
INSCRIPTIONS
AND
CONVERSIONS
NOTES
I.
Conversion: The Old and the New Religion /rom Alexander the Great to Augustine
0/ Hippo (London, 1933), pp. 7, and 2-3.
2. For a detailed discussion of post-Enlightenment concepts of conversion see David Murray, "Object Lessons: Fetishism and the Hierarchies of
Race and Religion," in Conversion: Old Worlds and New, ed. Kenneth Mills
and Anthony Grafton (Rochester, N.Y, forthcoming).
3. Polymnia Athanassiadi and Michael Frede, eds., Pagan Monotheism in
Late Antiquity (Oxford, 1999), p. 19.
4. For more detail see my forthcoming book on Gregory of Nazianzus.
5. The date is controversial. Earlier scholarship favored 379/380, i.e.,
prior to Gregory's nomination as bishop, but the more recent consensus is
380/381. Claudio Moreschini, ed., Paul Gallay, tr., Gregoire de Nazianze,
Discours 38-4I, Sources Chretiennes 358 (Paris, 1990), pp. 16-22.
6. For specifics of the following, including bibliography, see Susanna
Elm, "A Programmatic Life: Gregory of Nazianzus' Orations 42 and 43 and
the Constantinopolitan Elites," Arethusa 33 (2000): 411-27.
7. John F. Matthews, Western Aristocracies and the Imperial Court, A.D.
364-425 (Oxford, 1975), pp. 120-24; Neil McLynn, "Theodosius, Spain,
and the Nicene Faith," in Congreso Internacional La Hispania di Teodosio I
(Segovia, 1997), pp. 17 1-7 8 .
8. Apparently two separate days of celebration emerged in ConstantinopIe around 380. The earlier one was dedicated to the birth of Christ and the
adoration of the Magi, and was perhaps celebrated on 25 December (evoked
in Gregory's 01. 38); and the second, later one was dedicated to Christ's
Epiphany and Baptism, celebrated on 6 January. This day would have occasioned 01. 39 and 40. Moreschini, Discours 38-4I, pp. 11-17; Jean Mossay,
Les /etes de NOel et d'Epiphanie d'apres les sources litteraires cappadociennes du IVe
siede (Louvain, 1965), p. 34; Jean Bernardi, La predication des peres cappadociens (Paris, 1968), p. 205; Hermann Usener, Religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen, vol. I: Das Weihnachtsfest, 2d. ed. (Bonn, 191 I), pp. 260-69.
9. Geoffrey William Hugo Lampe, The Seal 0/ the Spirit: A Study in the
Doctrine 0/ Baptism and Con/irmation in the New Testament and the Fathers
(London, 1967), pp. 149-90, 237-46, 249-57; Victor Saxer, Les rites de
l'initiation chretienne du IIe au VIe siede: Esquisse historique et signi/ication d'apres
leurs principaux temoins (Spoleto, 1988), pp. 297-332.
10. Representative is, for example, the study by Hugh M. Riley, Christian Initiation: A Comparative Study 0/ the Interpretation 0/ the Baptismal Liturgy
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
INSCRIPTIONS
AND
CONVERSIONS
27
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
such fine babes, was not buried by her children, but by strange hands" (Ant.
Gr. 7A84). Elizabeth A. Meyer, "Explaining the Epigraphic Habit in the
Roman Empire: The Evidence of Epitaphs," Journal of Roman Studies 80
(1990): 74-96; Cf. John Ma, "The Epigraphy of Hellenistic Asia Minor,"
American Journal of Archaeology 104 (2000): 95-12 1.
27. William V Harris, Ancient Literacy (Cambridge, Mass., 1989), pp.
221-22.
28. "The tomb is that of Samian Philaenis; but be not ashamed, Sir, to
speak to me and to approach the stone," (Ant. Gr. 7:450); "I, the stone
coffin that contain the head of Heraclitus, was once a rounded and unworn
cylinder, but Time has worn me like a shingle" (ibid., p. 479); Helmut
Husle, Das Denkmal als Garant des Nachruhms: Beitrage zur Geschichte und
Thematik eines Motivs in lateinischen Inschriften} Zetemata 75 (Munich, 1980),
pp. 4 1 -91.
29. The literature and body of evidence are vast; I am focusing here on
Asia Minor in late antiquity. Stephen Mitchell, Anatolia: Land} Men} and
Gods in Asia Minor, vol. I (Oxford, 1993), pp. 187-97; A. Hoelder, F.
Pichler, and G. Tempsky, eds., Tituli Asiae Minoris} 5 vols. (Vienna, 190178), 2, nos. 1296, 1299; or the following: "whosoever lays his heavy hands
on this stele, may he leave behind his children as orphans, his wife a widow,
and his household a desert" (TAM I, no. 608); "so that no one offends
against this stele or the memorial, here stands the staff of the god ofAxiotta
and of Anaeitis" (TAM I, no. 172); "we call upon the great divinity that no
one offend against the stele" (TAM I, no. 434). See also J. Strubbe, "Cursed
Be He That Moves My Bones," in Magika Hiera: Ancient Greek Magic and
Religion} ed. Christopher A. Faraone and Dirk Obbink (New York, 1991),
pp. 33-59
30. Mitchell, Anatolia} 1:27-17.
3 I. Georg Petzl} Die Beichtinschriften im rmischen Kleinasien und der Fromme und Gerechte Gott (Opladen, 1998); Susanna Elm, "'Pierced by Bronze
Needles': Anti-Montanist Charges of Ritual Stigmatization in Their FourthCentury Context," Journal of Early Christian Studies 4 (1996): 418-20.
32. For example, curses that bind ("weigh down") the victim or dissolve
hirn; see Fritz Graf, Gottesna'he und Schadenzauber: Die Magie in der griechischrmischen Antike (Munich, 1996), pp. 108-83; Augustus Audollent, ed.,
Defixionum tabellae: Quotquot innotuerunt tam in Graecis Orientis quam in totius
Occidentis partibus praeter Atticas in Corpore inscriptionum Atticarum (1904; reprint ed., Frankfurt/Main, 1967); Harris, Ancient Literacy} pp. 218-19.
33. Hipp. Re! 5.20.5-7; Philostr. V. ApolI. 4.30; M. F. Smith, "Fifty-five
New Fragments of Diogenes of Oenoanda," Anatolian Studies 28 (197 8): 44.
INSCRIPTIONS
AND
CONVERSIONS
29
34. Harris, Ancient Literacy! pp. 260-61 ; note his argument that graffiti
need not correlate to low social status.
35. For an overview of the terminology see Alfred Wilhelm, Beitrage zur
griechischen Inschriftenkunde mit einem Anhange ber die ffentliche Au/zeichung
von Urkunden (Vienna, 199), pp. 239-49.
36. Callie Williamson, "Monuments of Bronze: Roman Legal Documents
on Bronze Tablets," Classical Antiquity 6 (1987): 180-81.
37. John F. Matthews, Laying Down the Law: A Study 0/ the Theodosian
Code (New Haven, Conn., 2000), pp. 195-99. For the inscribing of convicts
see PS.-Plut. V decem Gr. 838b; Philo, Quis rer. div. haer 30; Jos. Ant. 16.6.2;
Philochoros! Fr. Gr. Rist. 328 F 134; Iambl. V Pyth. 252. Examples of laws
explicidy cut into bronze include a Constantinian law from 336/337 exempting municipal officeholders from "compulsory services of an inferior
kind"; another one, also from Constantine, exempts officials associated with
the court (palatini) from menial public services; a Valentinian law specified
that those registered as citizens of Rome and therefore entided to free bread
distributions should be engraved and their names displayed at the distribution site; CTh 12.5. 2 ; 635-4; 14.7.5.
38. Catherine Virlouvet, Tessera /rumentaria: Les procidures de distribution du
bte public a Rome a la /in de la Republique et au dibut de tEmpire (Rome, 1995),
pp. 243-3 08 .
39. The literature on this subject is vast; see e.g. A. H. M. Jones's classic
"The Caste System in the Later Roman Empire," Eirene 6 (1970): 79-96; or
now Peter Garnsey and Caroline Humfress, The Evolution 0/ the Late Antique
World (Cambridge, 2000), pp. 81-103. For a different methodological angle
see Louis Dumont, Homo hierarchicus: An Essay on the Caste System! tr. Mark
Sainsbury (Chicago, 1970).
40. Peter Brown's tide, The Body and Society! really says it all.
41. Elm, "Stigmata/' pp. 345-63; eadem, "Pierced by Bronze Needles,"
pp. 409-39; W. Mark Gustafson, "Inscripta in fronte: Penal Tattooing in Late
Antiquity," Classical Antiquity 16 (1997): 79-105; Constantine Zuckerman,
"The Hapless Recruit Psois and the Mighty Anchorite, Apa John," Bulletin
0/ the American Society 0/ Papyrologists 32 (1995): 183-94, I thank Peter
Brown for the reference to this excellent article.
42. A distinctive type of writing: Matthews, Laying Down the Law! p.
188.
43. R. Isaac, time of Diocletian; Saul Lieberman, "Roman Legal Insdtudons in Early Rabbinics and in the Acta Martyrum!" ] ewish Quarterly Review!
n.s. 35 (1944-45): 6-10.
44. J. Chrys. Homily on Genesis! PG 53:112.
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
INSCRIPTIONS
AND
CONVERSIONS
31
32
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
INSCRIPTIONS
AND
CONVERSIONS
33
72 . Plato Rep. 508c; Tim. 45 b-c; also Plotinus Enn. 5.3.8, Origen, and
numerous others, Claudio Moreschini, "11 platonismo cristiano di Gregorio
Nazianzeno," Annali della Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa 3, no. 4 (1974):
1347-92; J ean Danlou, Platonisme et theologie mystique: Doctrine spirituelle de
Saint Gregoire de Nysse} 2d ed. (Paris, 1954).
73. H. Pinault, Le platonisme de saint Gregoire de Nazianze (La-Roche-surYon, 1925), p. 52.
74. Joseph Ysebaert, Greek Baptismal Terminology: [ts Grigins and Early
Development (Nijmegen, 1962 ), pp. 167-74.
75 Gr. Naz. Gr. 2I.l; 28.3 0 ;- 4.5, 37; 443, 9, 17
76. Gr. Naz. Gr. 2.5; 30.20.
77. Plato Phaidon} 67 b ; Gr. Naz. Gr. 7. 17; 27.3; 405; 3I. 1 5, 21; 38.7.
78. Gregory uses approximately twenty-one expressions of baptism; those
referring to light and purity predominate, followed by those denoting "marking." Rebirth is used very rarely, see note 81 below. Moreschini, Discours
3 8-4 I } p. 357
79. For the rarity of delayed baptism, for example in North Africa, see
Eric Rebillard, "Le figure du catechumene et le probleme du delai du
bapteme dans la pastorale de saint Augustin, " in Augustin predicateur (3954I I)} ed. G. Madec (Paris, 1998), pp. 285-92.
80. Gr. Naz. Gr. 32 .22 ; 40.8, 10, 25-27;
8I. Gr. Naz. Gr. 4.2, 8; 39.2 and 6 are brief allusions to the widespread
notion of baptism as rebirth following J ohn 3: 5-6. This notion plays a truly
minimal role in Gregory's conceptualization, pace Saxer, Rites} p. 304.
82. Note also Gregory's use of baptism as purifying fire in Gr. 4.36. Gr.
Naz. Poem. I.2.1, 162S. Lampe, The Seal 0/ the Spirit} pp. 261-96. To cite a
remark of Emperor Julian: "The whole sum of Christian philosophy consists
in two things, whistling to keep away the demons and making the sign of
the cross on their foreheads." (Ep. 79).
83. Moreschini, Discours 38-4I} p. 17; only Gr. 4 "Against Julian" and
43 "In Praise of Basil" are slightly longer.
84. See his explicit recommendation of baptism as essential for those
engaged in public office, Gr. 4.19.
85. For example, by the metropolitan at that time still resident in Heracleia, or by the metropolitan in J erusalem, so Gregory; Gilbert Dagron,
N aissance d} une capitale: Constantinople et ses [nstitutions de 330 a 45 I (Paris,
19 8 4), pp. 44 6 , 459
86. Hermann Drrie, "Die Epiphanias-Predigt des Gregor von Nazianz
(Horn. 39) und ihre geistesgeschichtliche Bedeutung," in Kyriakon: Festschrift
Johannes Quasten} vol. I (Mnster, 1970), pp. 49-23.
34
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
INSCRIPTIONS
AND
CONVERSIONS
35
2
THE POLITICS OF PASSING
]USTIN MARTYR'S CONVERSION AS A PROBLEM OF
"HELLENIZATION"
REBECCA
LYMAN
At the end of his book Culture and Imperialism} Edward Said summarized the
ironie legacy of European imperialism for the twentieth century: "Imperialism consolidated the mixture of cultures and legacies on a global scale. But
its worst and most paradoxical gift was to allow people to believe that they
were only, mainly, exclusively, white, Black, or Western, or Oriental."l
Recent studies of the history of religion in late antiquity have begun to
make similar claims regarding the false clarity of the traditional narrative of
emerging "Christianity" in contrast to "Judaism" or "Hellenism."2 While
the Roman imperial context is of course not strictly equivalent to the
nineteenth century, the ancient era does share social and ideological issues
of multiple identities shaped by varied local traditions and centralized political power. As Said went on to say, "Yet just as human beings make their
own history, they also make their cultures and ethnic identities. No one can
deny the persisting continuities of long traditions ... national languages,
and cultural geographies, but there seems no reason except fear and prejudice to keep insisting on the separation and distinctiveness, as if that was all
human life was about."3 Sorting out ancient identities is an old historical
problem, but unfortunately centuries of scholarship have been based on
comparison and opposition, usually linked to the institutional self-identity
of a single normative Christianity.4 In this paper I will examine how these
oppositions have obscured our understanding of Justin and his "conversion."
The contrast between "Christianity" and "Hellenism" is often coded through
a contrast of "bishops" and "teachers" who in turn embody "orthodoxy," i.e.
normative Christianity, and "heresy," the multiple and often enculturated
forms of belief. Figures such as Justin who cross such boundaries appear
either muddled or duplicitous. Drawing on the theoretical work of postcolonialism concerning identities and cultures as well as on recent work on
THE
POLITICS
OF P ASSING
37
late antique religion, I want to read the Christian authors of the second
century as direcdy addressing issues of multiple authorities and identities in
Roman Hellenism. By unraveling strategies of assimilation as weIl as realities of estrangement in the theological writings of Justin, I will recover a
difIerent ideological and social context for the emergence of the first Christian literary works of "heresiology" and "apologetics." This shift in historical reconstruction will help us to locate Justin's conversion to Christianity
in new conceptual space.
Justin was an Asian immigrant to the West as weIl as a convert to a
persecuted cult, whose Hellenistic education allowed hirn to "pass" in several worlds. "Passing" as used he re simply refers to the successful participation by individuals in multiple layers of dominant and dominated culture,
especially the attempt by "outsiders" to master attributes or tools of "insiders" in order to gain recognition and power through the hegemonic culture
itself. This proce~s of mobility, if common, is also highly nuanced and
individual according to the ambitions, convictions, and experiences of each
person; assimilation in being an acquired state necessarily contains aspects
of alienation, but these can be turned in various directions. 5 Given this
complex and individual social reality, the simple contrast of "Christianity"
to "Hellenism" is not sufficient to unravel the cultural and historical realities of second-century provinciallife. The ancient authors of varying status,
who defined themselves and others by relation to local traditions, "barbarian origins," and Roman political dominance, as weIl as the elite literary
and philosophical paideia of Hellenism, preserve complex evidence of how
multiple choices were negotiated. Educated authors of Christian identification need to be understood within the same cultural context. 6 The persisting historiographical ambivalence concerning Justin as a Christian
philosopher therefore reveals the inadequacy of the traditional categories: is
Justin merely "passing" in the Hellenic literary culture through the language and form of his Apology, yet do these profoundly philosophical interests prevent hirn from "passing" as orthodox in the later Christian narrative?
Drawing on Homi Bhabha's work on mimicry, we note that figures of
"doubling" disrupt normatiye structures of authority by their simultaneous
resemblance and disavowal: "The ambivalence of colonial authority repeatedly turns from mimicry--the difference which is almost nothing but not
quite--to menace--a difference that is almost total, but not quite."7 This
description of "mimicry" and "rnenace" echoes the criticisms of ancient
Christianityas an inadequate, but ultimately destructive, pseudo-philosophy;8
yet, in "orthodox" discourse philosophy is the "rnenace" which leads to
heresy, equally inadequate and destructive. Justin's "double" commitment
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
THE
POLITICS OF
P ASSING
39
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
to exhibit and maintain. 21 Competition for patronage was the sharp and
very public reality of this new climate of opportunity. Averil Cameron
comments that Christians talked themselves into power, but largely everyone did. 22 In the politics of personal ambition which undergirds the production of literary works in this period, the issues of local and universal or
innovation and tradition are central factors to be negotiated personally and
demonstrated textually. Embarrassing provincial origins or new religious
conversionscan in fact provide yet another means to display philotimia in
the right hands: Lucian, for example, used parodies of his Syrian background to show his ambition and upward mobility as an educated man;
such wit however would not preclude criticism of Roman political and
cultural limitations in contrast to Hellenic culture. 23 Bringing together the
earlier descriptions of this imperial age such as "anxiety" or "claustrophobia," we now recognize in this period unprecedented social and geographical mobility, ideological and philosophical creativity, and competition as
central to the literary construction of the late antique "self."24
Traditionally, normative Christianity has been seen as surviving this plurality--or perhaps, to use a Californian image, surfing over it aIl-by
defensive theology, clear spiritual authority in the succession of bishops, a
central cultic community, and the priority of a revealed, simple truth. Certain individuals participated in competitive intellectual culture only out of
apologetic necessity, and those who embraced it too seriously were in peril,
notably Origen, the poster child of overenthusiastic Christi an intellectuais.
The defeat of "Gnosticism" in the second century, esoteric and intellectual
at once, can be seen as a sort of cultural exorcism of Hellenistic rationalism,
and superstition. 25 This traditional narrative creates and sustains Christian
uniqueness by selective contrasts to the "inchoate" plurality of paganism,
the "rationalism" of philosophy, the "static" forms of Judaism, and the
"speculative elitism" of Gnosticism. However, to return to the insights of
Edward Said, in the literary conflicts of Roman Hellenism, no one in the
end was purely one thing, especially not the socially mobile provincial
intelligentsia who wrote the majority of contemporary literature; not even
the emperor Marcus Aurelius himself, writing self-consciously in Greek and
embracing a philosophy which had been labeled traitorous a century before. 26 The polemical contrast of "Hellenism" to "Christianity" was a product of the fourth century.27 Distinctions both religious and cultural of course
existed with regard to authoritative texts, practices of monotheism or polytheism, or use of the dialectic, and provoked not only literary polemic, but
physical violence; these conflicts however were occurring within "Christian"
and "Jewish" communities as weIl as in relation to those outside. It is not
at all clear, therefore, whether converts to Christianity were "defecting"
THE
POLITICS
OF
P ASSING
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
THE
POLITICS
OF
P ASSING
43
certain educated young men, was to unite and transcend local identities
through philosophy.44 However, Hellenism also provided the means to challenge Roman dominance, especially in defending local religious practice. 45
Paideia as weIl as conversion therefore allowed a Samaritan to address the
emperors critically as fellow philosophers: "For thus both rulers and subjects would reap benefit .... For unless both rulers and ruled love wisdom,
it is impossible to make cities prosper."46
If historically and culturally essential to his social mobility and intellectual authority, Justin's philosophical identity, as we have seen, remains
problematic within the conventional narrative, and is explicitly personalized in order to preserve the primacy of a baptismal identityY His narrative
of conversion from Stoic to Peripatetic to Pythagorean to Platonist to Christian has often been explained as "conventional," like his gown, a literary
trapping to make his new Christian discourse palatable in the mainstream
or to distinguish hirn from Judaism. 48 Such descriptions reflect the assumpti on that J ustin's work as a teacher was distinct from or ancillary to a
normative Christianity of the time: "Such schools were only indirectly subject to the discipline of the church which, at least in second century Rome,
was not much concerned with philosophical or theological matters."49 Even
Grant's recent attempt at balance maintains the binary ring: "Justin was not
simply a philosopher ... he was a churchman."50 Justin's identity in these
historical narratives has been split and prioritized in order to fit the conventional opposition of Hellenism and Christianity as weIl as the taxonomy of
communal bishops and marginal teachers. Ir is almost impossible to visualize Justin as a free-willed agent of philosophical Christianity when the
social or ideological space for such action has been erased: if a philosopher,
he must by definition be idiosyncratic and if a Christian, his philosophical
interests must be subordinate to his religious identity. The underlying discomfort is the parallel, however triumphant, that Justin, dearly a member
of a Roman Christian community, draws between his own philosophical
searches and his own, if not others', conversion to Christianity.51 His description of a philosophical search in both his Dialogtte and the Acta of his
martyrdom reveal that Christianity in practice and teaching summed up the
partial answers he al ready knew: "I have tried to learn from all teachings,
but I came to accept the true teachings of the Christians"; "I found this
philosophy alone to be safe and profitable. Thus, for this reason, I am a
philosopher."52 Do we detect a double truth where Justin, "a serious philosopher," found only one?53
The problem lies perhaps less in Justin's choice of dress after baptism
than in our suspicions about "Christianity" and "Hellenism. " When framed
by the larger intellectual culture, Justin's literary work is highly conventional,
44
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THE
POLITICS OF PASSING
45
The discomfort and ambiguity for Christians and critics alike therefore
lie in this hybrid vision of philosophical Christianity. Revealed truth may
be readily accessible, but it is remains difficult to discern. Although Justin
asserted the absolute authority of his new philosophy based on Hebrew
Scripture and the incarnation of the true Logos in Jesus, truth and falsity
remain intertwined within the multiplicity of locative religions, texts, stories, and competing philosophies. The contemporary problem with truth as
Justin unravels it in his Apologies is less opposition of traditions than deceptive likeness and diabolical imitation. As Justin pointed out, "I confess that
I both pray and with all my strehgth strive to be found a Christian, not
because the teachings of Plato are different from those of Christ, but because they are not in every respect equal. ... For the seed and imitation of
something . . . is one thing, and another is the thing itself."61 Indeed,
philosophy had been "passing" as Christianity, that is as "truth," when in
fact the complete truth lay only in the Word. Justin ridiculed the traditional cults or myths for their immorality: these in fact were demonie imitations of Christian acts, however transcendent philosophy provided the very
means to criticize the cult. 62 The transcendent unity of Pythagorean Platonism therefore allowed Justin to claim the monotheism of philosophy and
Hebrew Scripture while criticizing polytheistic practice and Hebrew law. 63
Such distinctions between cult and philosophy of course appeared illegitimate to Celsus, who attacked the menace of Christian mimicry by defending the true Word of ancient Hellenism; Christians had no right to either
Jewish wisdom or Hellenie philosophy to defend their recent and superstitious practices, since to be so poody Hellenized was not to be Greek at al1. 64
The unsetding power of Justin's "mimicry" of Hellenism while describing Christianity as a transcendent philosophy--almost the same, but not
quite--is further reflected in his description of dissent as "heresy." As Le
Boulluec has pointed out, the construction of apologetics was the birth of
heresiology, since the same historiographical traditions allowed Justin to
marginalize those teachers he considered to be false. 65 Le Boulluec's masterful study of the development of heresiology, upon which I am gratefully
dependent, focuses however only on the rhetorical forms of Justin, and
attributes these developments to the institutional growth of the "church"
which necessitated defense and definition in regard to Hellenism and dissent. 66 Rather than locate the historical agency in a proto-Catholic community whose existence and character are largely assumed, I wish to show how
Justin's intellectual argument of mimicry to subvert philosophical authority
necessarily led to the subversion of orthodox Christianity itself. Hairesis in
Justin was no longer a neutral opinion or sect, but a diabolical error: "heresy."67 Yet", in contrast to his successors such as Irenaeus, Tatian, or Tertullian,
SEEING AND
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OF
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47
SEEING AND
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truth. This tradition of belief and exegesis was the means to discern jewels
from glass or sheep from wolves who were in the community itself. 78 Le
Boulluec suggests that the intellectual style of the "Gnostics" may have
provoked the form of the refutation of Irenaeus, his appeal to the polemics
of the Sophists, the separate diadoche, and a focus on doctrine rather than on
issues of common life; Michael Williams in his recent critical revision of
"Gnosticism" suggests by analogy to modern sociology that the "Gnostics"
may have been more assimilationist in their thought and practice. 79 I am
suggesting that problems of assimilation and authority were al ready present
in the form of universal Christianity taught by Justin, which could lead to
the polemical invention of "Gnosticism" as philosophical and superstitious
at once, whatever may have actually been taught by Valentinus or Ptolemy.
Irenaeus's concern with identifying valid sacraments, lasting conversions,
and legitimate successions reveals the instability of the inherited discourse
of Justin, and the necessity of establishing the correct diadoche and belief
within the baptized community itself. If we restore a primary teaching
identity to Irenaeus as aleader, the controversial rhetoric of his text reflects
a continuing debate over identity and authority by competitive intellectuals
within the community rather than a defensive protection against outsiders.
Ideologically, error as heresy therefore mimics the succession, canonical
writings, and cult of the true community, and lies within it. The paradoxical "alterite" and "negativite" of heresiology in Irenaeus therefore evinces
the cultural ambivalence of the orthodox discourse: even as baptized Christians within a shared community, "heretics" can be "idolaters" and "Sophists" for these are the corruptions of true philosophy, which is orthodoxy.80
In Lyons the necessity to identify the saving transcendent truth of the
persecuted immigrant community therefore provoked sharper philosophical
and cultural distinctions inside and outside the community.
In the second century Christian "orthodoxy" therefore could replace "philosophy" as a universal system because it could occupy many of the same
cognitive and authoritative spaces, even if it explicitly attacked the culture
and religion of traditional paideia. This is not a transformation of "Hellenism" by "Christianity," but a reconfiguring within the culture itself as a
means of understanding universality and identity. The ideological reception
of "Christianity," defined as a universal transcendent truth, in opposition to
"Hellenism," defined simply as a pagan tradition outside it, has led to a
theological and historical understanding of philosophy as simply a "guise"
for Christian truth. Yet, the continuing unease concerning the authority of
philosophy or Hellenism within Christianity reveals that Justin's mimicry
of Hellenism created an indeterminate hybrid which made Tertullian as
uneasy as Celsus: Can orthodoxy itself be simply a guise for Hellenism?
THE
POLITICS OF
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49
Justin's presentation of Jesus as the Logos was both subversive and legitimating, resulting in a seeming rejection of the authority of philosophy, yet
adopting the central notions of transcendent unity and historical succession.
Competition, speculation, and at least overtly, "philosophy" itself were externalized in "orthodoxy" not because of an apriori essential Christian
identity as unified or dogmatic, but rather to construct an "essential" Christianity as the universal truth within and beyond the perceived problems or
limits of intellectual culture. This construction depended on contemporary
historiographical and philosophical forms for its theological and cultural
power and persuasion. By refusing to be a "philosophy," Christianity was
able to "pass" as the sole transcendent truth in Justin; by rejecting all
dissent as hairesis, that is, demonized human opinion in contrast to revealed
truth, Christianity confirmed its singular authority. However, as a "hybrid"
the very discourse of orthodoxy disavowed these rhetorical assurances of the
security of divine authority and human reception in the apostolic succession. Instead, Christianity as "orthodoxy" provoked endless negotiation of
authority and boundary precisely along the lines of assimilation and conflict: Who was the true Word? If transcendent, how immanent? If universal, how locative?
Justin himself therefore bequeathed the tension of philosophical conversions within the history of Christianity. A fundamental ambivalence lay
within the development of "orthodoxy" as a transcendent, universal truth,
which instead of uniting and separating Christians from surrounding cultures and philosophies increased the necessity to discipline diversity and
boundaries of assimilation. To parallel Homi Bhabha's analysis of nineteenth-century colonialism, the mimicry of philosophy in Justin attempted
to contrast a transcendent, final, and authentic truth to human disorder and
error. However, in Irenaeus this "orthodoxy" threw the boundaries, negotiations, and plurality into a harsher and more menacing light, ironically
increasing adesire and necessity to discipline and normalize the existence of
plurality and dissonance. 81 I have tried to locate the historical agency for
this discourse within a group of immigrant Christian teachers rather than in
general assumptions of institutional inevitability or a need for coherence
based on an essentialized or transhistorical Christianity.82 I am suggesting
therefore that the creation of orthodoxy was a philosophical project of the
marginalized, not the intellectual expression of an inevitable "dogmatism"
of Christianity.83 This adaptation of paideia in Justin was inherently unstable since it was both true "Christianity," but also true "Hellenism" in its
declaration of cultural unity, transcendent truth, and universal claims. Therefore, the supposedly decisive elements of revealed truth in ancient texts or
public succession had to be constantly monitored in regard to proximity
SEEING AND
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both to eulture and to traditions reeeived. Deseriptions of heresy as "philosophy" or "magie" wi thin Christian hegemonie speech ereated yet another
level of diseursive mimiery and menaee, as Tertullian, Hippolytus, and
Origen offered inereasingly sophistieated, if quite different, arguments eoneerning the relation of eulture, philosophy, and orthodoxy. However, the
final sueeess of "orthodoxy" is revealed in how the authority of its historieal
arehiteets, the "Apologists," were themselves limited by later developments
of their own model of transeendent, revealed truth, and their errors laid at
the feet of Hellenie philosophy. Martyrdom perhaps resolved any linge ring
ambiguities about ]ustin's eonversion,84 yet even this aet eould disclose the
legaey of both ]esus and Socrates.
NOTES
2.
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5I
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THE
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53
54
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THE
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55
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tide. In his day the office seems to have been more clearly developed than
the terminology." For a more critical view, see V. Burrus, "Hierarchalization
and Genderization of Leadership in the Writings of Irenaeus," Studia Patristica 21 (1989): 42-48. A. Grillmeier noted ab out Irenaeus, "He was not a
philosopher as his master Justin was, but above all a biblical theologian,"
Christ in the Christian Tradition, vol. 1, tr. J. Bowden (Atlanta, 1964), p.
100; W. Frend says of Justin that he was "A Platonist before he became a
Christian, he never grasped the essential incompatibilities between Platonism and Christianity. He assimilated Jesus to the Logos of an eclectic
Platonic and Stoic philosophy arbitrarily," in The Rise o[ Christianity, p. 237;
1. Barnard more defensively sums up Justin as "no mere academic philosopher but a man with a mission . . . . Today, in a very different world, we
need to follow Justin in adhering to, and following the truth, wherever it
may lead, with a confidence in its power while remaining loyal to the
Church and to Christi an tradition"; introduction to his translation of Justin,
The First and Second Apologies, Ancient Christian Writers 56 (New York,
1997), p. 21. Geyer notes Justin's varied labels ("christlicher Platonismus,"
"christliche Philosophie", "hellenisiertes Christentum") as signaling interpretations of culture, Religion und Diskurs, p. 19; Subordination is generally
the error attributed to Platonism in Justin as in Hamman's critical remarks
in "Dialogue," p. 50. Stead minimizes the problem by noting that Justin's
philosophical skills were not particularly great, and in fact "his attachment
to Christianity was in many ways an advantage, as setting hirn new problems outside the traditional agenda of the Platonic schools"; he is most
importantly a teacher, "one of our Founding Fathers," Philosophy in Christian
Antiquity (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 81-82.
38. Arecent study of apologetic literature concludes that most Christian
works are "hybrids" and their "richness" and "diversity" can only be recovered by understanding the particular historical context of the authors. J .-C.
Fredouille, ''L'apologetique chretienne antique: Naissance d'un genre litteraire," Revue des Etudes Augustiniennes 38 (1992): 219-34, and
''L'apologetique chretienne antique: Metamorphoses d'un genre polymorphe," ibid., 41 (1995): 201-26.
39. Asad, Genealogies o[ Religion, p. 7
40. I Apology 1 (tr. Barnard), p. 23.
41. MilIar, The Roman Near East, pp. 227-28; Brown, The Making o[ Late
Antiquity, p. 73.
42. MilIar, The Roman Near East, p. 228.
43. The Greek Apologists o[ the Second Century (Philadelphia, 1988), p. 50;
see 1. Barnard, Justin Martyr: His Lift and Work (Cambridge, 19 67), p. 5:
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57
58
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52. Act. Just. 2.3. At the conclusion of his conversation with the teacher
in the Dialogue 8, Justin states, "Straightaway a flame was kindled in my
soul; a love of the prophets, and one of these men who are friends of Christ
possessed me, and while turning his words in my mind, I found this philosophy alone to be safe and profitable. Thus, for this reason, I am a philosopher." In The Ante-Nicene Fathers! vol. I, ed. A. Roberts and J. Donaldson
(Grand Rapids, Mich., 1981), p. 198.
53. Mark Edwards has defended Justin's integrity as "an intelligent but
sceptical disciple . . . one who on the eve of a great conversion is already
beginning to calculate the distance between his master's thoughts and his
own ... " in "Platonic Schooling of Justin Martyr," pp. 21, 29-30. He notes
that neither J ustin's knowledge of Greek philosophy nor his martyrdom was
in doubt, "Justin's Logos," p. 280.
54. See Droge, Homer or Moses? pp. 70-7 I, 198; for Jus tin and Numenius, see Le Boulluec, La notion d!heresie! pp. 50-54; 63; Edwards, "Platonic
Schooling of Justin Martyr"; H. Drrie, "Die Wertung der Barbaren im
Urteil der Griechen," in Antike und Universalgeschichte: Festschrift fr H. E.
Stier (Mnster, 1967), pp. 146-75.
55. Droge, Homer or Moses?; J. H. Wazink, "Some Observations on the
Appreciation of the 'Philosophy of the Barbarians' in Early Christian Literature," in Melanges offerts a Mademoiselle Christine Mohrmann (Utrecht, 1963),
pp. 41-56; R. Mordey, The ldea 0/ Universal History /rom Hellenistic Philosophy to Early Church Historiography (Philadelphia, 1996).
56. Bowersock, Hellenism in Late Antiquity! p. 8.
57. J ustin's definition is found in Dial. 8. I: "I found this philosophy
alone to be safe and profitable." Christianity is the original truth which
precedes all philosophers: I Apol. 44-46, 60; 2 Apol. 10. On the Pythagorean beliefs about ancient wisdom, see Droge, Homer or Moses? p. 91; Swain,
"Defending Hellenism," pp. 170-73.
58. See far example comments by Remus on cultic piety as opposed to
philosophy, "Justin Martyr," pp. 63-65; Rajak, "Talking at Trypho," pp.
66-7 1 .
59. Edwards describes Justin's original reflection on the Logos as not
derivative from philosophy, but his own construction based on biblical texts
and philosophical images; "Platonic Schooling of Justin Martyr," pp. 2425. Bhabha noted in his discussion of "hybridity," using the Hindi Bible as
an example, that the "paradigmatic presence of the Word of God" was
preserved, but the logical order of the discourse of authority, i.e. the dominance
of the English missionaries, was altered, in The Location 0/ Culture! p. 119.
60. I Apology 14 (tr. Barnard), p. 32; Irenaeus preserves an interesting
fragment from Justin's now lost work against Marcion: "I would not have
THE
POLITICS OF
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59
believed the Lord hirnself if he had announced any other than He who is our
framer, maker, and nourisher. But because the only begotten Son came to us
from the one God ... my faith's foundation is steadfast and my love for
God immovable." Against Heresies 4.6.2.
61. 2 Apology 13 (tr. Barnard), p. 83.
62. Droge, Honzer or Moses? p. 53; see I Apol. 9-10, 54-55: myths imitate Christ incorrecdy, but Plato, if not understanding completely, got some
things right.
63. Compare Dial. 47 with I Apol. 24-25, 59-60.
64. See Droge, Honzer or Moses? pp. 72-79; Mordey, Idea 0/ Universal
HistorYJ pp. 65-66; see comments by Bhabha on the gulf between being
"Anglicanized" and being "English," in The Loeation 0/ CttltureJ p. 154.
Some ] ews would of course have the same reaction; see D. Boyarin, "] ustin
Martyr Invents ]udaism," Chureh History 70, no. 3 (Spring 2001): 427-61.
65. Le Boulluec, La notion dJheresieJ p. 36.
66. Ibid., pp. 35-36.
67. Arecent review article of the scholarship on the development of the
term hairesis is Michel Desjardin, "Bauer and Beyond: On Recent Scholarly
Discussions of Hairesis in the Early Christian Era," Seeond Century 8 (1991):
65-82 .
68. Le Boulluec, La notion dJheresieJ pp. 62-63, 49-56; cf. I Apol. 10;
Droge, Honzer or Moses? p. 71.
69. I Apology 58 (tr. Barnard), p. 64; cf. 26, 62; Dial. 69, 80.
70. See Francis's comments on "superstition": "The use of the term in antiquity is notoriously slippery. Simply speaking, superstitio seems to be operationally
defined as 'a religious expression of which one disapproves' ... any belief or
practice foreign to, or exceeding the bounds of, traditional religion, which by
implication, is also seen as inimical to or destructive of religion." Subversive
VirtueJ p. 149; on magic as the common charge to discredit an opponent socially
and religiously, see R. Gordon, "Imagining Greek and Roman Magic," in Witehcraft and Magie in Europe: Ancient Greece and RonzeJ ed. B. Ankarloo and S. Clark
(Philadelphia, 1999), p. 217; cf. Droge on second-century Christian discussion
of "counterfeit," in Honzer or Moses? p. 98.
71. I Apology 53 (tr. Barnard), p. 60. For the argument on the Christian
invention of a nonlocative "religion," see M. Sachot, L'invention du Christ:
Genese dJune religion (Paris, 1998).
72. 2 Apology 13 (tr. Barnard), p. 84.
73. Le Boulluec, La notion dJheresieJ p. 118.
74. Grant, The Greek ApologistsJ pp. 112-13.
75. "We reject all that is based on human opinion; and not only the rich
philosophize, but the poor also enjoy teaching without charge .... All who
60
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3
CONVERSION AND BURIAL IN THE LATE ROMAN EMPIRE
ERle
REBILLARD
John North, writing on the various religious groups shaping the evolution
of paganism from the second century C.E., re marks that "the most sensitive
criterion available to us as to the degree of commitment asked by a cult ...
would be the incidence of conflict with the families of members."l The
question of the choice of burial place is decisive, therefore, since burial, in
that society, was first and foremost a family affair. Statistical studies of
funerary inscriptions pertaining to the civilian population in the Western
Roman Empire show in fact that, whenever it was thought pertinent to
state the relationship to the deceased of the individuals who took care of the
burial and the epitaph, 80 percent were spouses, parents, children, or siblings. This percentage increases from the fourth century onwards, but the
samples examined from the period are all Christian and thus less representative of the whole. 2 Even if epigraph dedications do not pertain to every
stratum of the Roman population, the figures do lead to the conclusion that
it was traditionally the family, indeed the nuclear family, that shouldered
responsibility for burial of its members in the Roman Empire. The question
might be asked whether the emergence of new cults and, in their wake, of
new religious groups resulted in tension between the family and the religious group on the subject of burial choice. Did, for example, conversion to
a particular religion, that is to say, adherence to a group whose primary
purpose was to promote the cult of one or more divinities, mean that the
convert had to choose to be buried among his fellow believers rather than
amidst his family; in short, in a specific, distinct sepulchre?
For Franz Cumont, it was patently obvious that conversion went hand in
hand with the election of a specific burial site. In a discussion of the adepts
61
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of Mithras, he noted that "In such closed religious groupings, where everyone knew everyone else and each helped his neighbor, the abiding feeling
was of being in one big family.... after death, each was probably laid in
a collective grave."3
The origin of statements of this kind is a document which, though it
dates from the fifth century B.C.E., constitutes the necessary point of departure of all discussions of the funerary practices of such cults: the famous
inscription from Cumae that seems to point to a special burial site reserved
for the initiates of Bacchus. 4 The text proclaims-and in terms that extend,
as they evoke religious sanction, beyond mere sublunary law-that it is
forbidden for a noninitiate to be entombed in the place, the necessary
condition for burial apparently being conversion to the cult. Following
Cumont, a number of scholars have seen this inscription as offering proof
that the Dionysian societies possessed their own burial grounds. 5 It is also
necessary, however, to examine the archaeological context of the inscription. 6 It does not appear on a stele, but is carved on the inner face of the
tufa gravestone that served as a lid. This means that the inscription could
never have been read from the exterior. Despite the strict religious prohibition that it records, the function of the Cumae inscription probably differed
little from Orphic inscriptions on gold tablets whose primary purpose was
to proclaim salvation. Rather than an interdict, the inscription provides a
"link between initiation and the world beyond. "7 Moreover, archaeology has
unearthed further examples of tombs which demonstrate that separate burial was not in fact the rule: in Calabria, for example, at Vibo Valentia (the
antique Hipponion), the tomb of an Orphic initiate has been found among
tombs of noninitiates in the same necropolis. 8 It was similarly long believed
that in Taranto, an area comprising one hundred tombs laid out very regularly formed aburial site for a Pythagorean community. Archaeologists
erroneously thought that what had been unearthed in the middle of the
necropolis was the tomb of Archytas, the fourth-century B.C.E. Pythagorean
strategius of Taranto. Recently, it was proved that the tomb belongs to a
female and dates from the beginning of the second century B.C.E., making
it impossible to associate this group of tombs with Pythagoreanism. 9 Ancient data, therefore, do not support the notion of the separation of the dead
by religion.
From an analysis of epitaphs whose dedicatees belonged to one of the new
cults in the Roman Empire, Burkert concludes that "individual distinction
prevailed over group identity."l0 Such inscriptions, however, occur very infrequently compared to our other evidence regarding the diffusion of these
cults, and the dedicatees are almost exclusively priests. It therefore does not
seem to have been especially pertinent in the case of mere adepts to signal
CONVERSION
AND
BURIAL
adherence to the cult on funerary inscriptions. Consequently, we may conclude that the new cults rarely ente red into conflict with the family as
regards their members' choice of tomb.
There is nothing to indicate that the worshipers, of Mithras had collective
graves. At Gross-Krotzenburg, ne ar Hanau in Germany, the tombs discovered near the Mithraeum are not, as was formerly believed, the remains of
a Mithraic cemetery, because they reuse blocks from the Mithraeum's wallsY
In Italy and Gaul, epitaphs attest to scattered examples of individual sepulchres, but none of these contains stipulations for the form of a Mithraic
tomb, and the dedicators are all closely related to the deceased. 12 Thus it
seems that the choice of a family tomb would not necessarily conflict with
the requirements of conversion to the Mithraic cult. Those who opted to
worship the Thracian divinity Sabazios also did not specify their religious
affiliation in their epitaphs. 13 They did, however, form associations which
financed burial for their members. Evidence for this comes from a firstcentury B.C.E. stele on Rhodes, on which a certain Ariston of Syracuse
receives honors for the devotion and the care he lavished on the tombs
belonging to the association. The stele was found in the context of a pair of
contiguous burial chambers that might well be a monument of the Sabaziast association. 14 The evidence is insufficient, however, for the conclusion to
be drawn that a Sabaziast graveyard as such existed. There is no specific
indication of the need for separate burial. Another piece of evidence shows
that an association of Sabaziasts in Teos in Asia Minor (modern Sigacik,
Turkey) endowed tombs for its members' wives although they themselves
had no connection with the cult. 15
The cult of Cybele provides more ample material. A public cult that was
introduced officially in Rome in 204 B.C.E., the cult of Cybele, closely
linked to that of Attis, was organized around a special clergy attached to the
sanctuary, known as the ga/li} Roman officials, and associations (the dendrophori and cannophori), the latter officiating at the major annual festivals held
in March. The majority of the funerary inscriptions preserved concern galli}
priests, or members of official associations, but a number indicate that
general worshipers of Cybele and Attis marked their affiliation in epitaphs
by calling themselves religiosi. 16 One inscription is particularly interesting.
From Puteoli (Pozzuoli) in Campania and likely dating from the second
century C.E., it mentions a "field of believers" (ager religiosorum) in which
Caius Iulius Aquilinus had a porti co erected and some seats installed at his
own expenseY What exactly does this expression ager religiosorum designate?
Ir might well signify a "funerary garden," as referred to in various epitaphs,
in which there stand, next to one or more mortuary monuments, various
constructions intended for the cult of the dead or simply for social
SEEING AND
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gatherings. 18 But the term eould just as well refer more generally to a
meeting plaee, portieos and seats being mentioned frequently in sueh eontexts. 19 As this inseription was diseovered out of its original eontext, it is
impossible to deeide one way or the other.
Another inseription from Pozzuoli refers to a field measuring seven jugeri
(more than a heetare), whieh is the property of "members of the eorporation
of the faithful of Jupiter Heliopolitanus." Onee again, a speeifieally funereal
role of the land eoneerned is not explieitly stated; the inseription mentions
a eistern and taverns and stresses only the right to enter the field, without
mentioning the use to whieh the site might have been put. Ir is therefore
not neeessary to see it as a "private eemetery."20 Felix Hettner ventured a
hypothesis aeeording to whieh a similar eemetery existed on the Roman
Aventine for worshipers of Jupiter Doliehenus (from Doliehe, modern Dlek,
Turkey), where a eonsiderable quantity of material has been unearthed from
a temple. The only inseription Hettner advaneed as referring specifieally to
the eemetery eannot, however, be explieitly assoeiated with the eult. His
argument rests wholly on the parallel drawn with the Pozzuoli inseription. 21
No epitaph pertaining to a regular member of the Jupiter Doliehenus eongregation is known and the three epitaphs belonging to priests that survive
bear no indieations as to the plaee of burial. 22
All in all, it would seem that eonversion to one or other of the Oriental
eults did not entail the ehoiee of a speeial burial plaee assoeiated with the
new religious eommunity.
THE ]EWS
Conversion to Judaism had been illegal in the Roman Empire sinee 198-99
C.E., if evidenee in the Historia Augusta on Septimus Severus is to be believed, and at least sinee the third eentury C.E., sinee Paul's SententiaeJ eompiled around 295, mention legislation that punishes eonverts with exile and
eonfiseation of property. The Theodosian Code preserves a number of imperial eonstitutions of the fourth and fifth eenturies that forbid eonversion to
J udaism, legal aets whieh demonstrate that eonversions did indeed oeeur. 23
However, the number of attested proselytes remains relatively low. The only
inseriptions relating to eonverts to Judaism eome from Rome. 24 Harry J.
Leon lists seven eases, four of whieh eome from the Jewish eataeombs, two
from the Vigna Randanini Cataeomb on the Via Appia and two from eataeombs in the Villa Torlonia on the Via Nomentana. No inseription belonging to a sympathizer, however, has ever been found in the eataeombs, a faet
that led Leon to eonclude that whereas proselytes earned the right to a
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65
66
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have been a place where both Jews and non-Jews who had some relationship
to each other were interred. 49 At Carthage, the necropolis of Gamart has
been found to be less extensive than formerly believed. In fact, it is now
known to contain only two hundred tombs and cannot therefore be the one
and only Jewish necropolis of Carthage, but merely a small agglomeration
of hypogea occupied by members of that community.50 The situation in
Rome is better documented if also more complex. The six known J ewish
catacombs are in burial areas also used by pagans and Christians, but nearly
all scholars are of the opinion that each of the separate catacombs was
reserved for the exclusive use of the Jewish community.51 Although this
assumption is quite impossible to prove, the evidence to the contrary is not
sufficiently strong. 52 The implication is that at Rome, from the end of the
second century (the period in which these catacombs began to be used), the
J ewish population preferred to be buried together.
According to Harry J. Leon, the choice of catacomb seems to have depended on an individual's synagogue affiliation. 53 Margaret H. Williams,
however, has recendy demonstrated that there exists but one synagogue
whose known members are all interred together in a single catacomb, and
that the members of at least three synagogues used several different catacombs. 54 Moreover, no inscriptions have been found attributing a role to a
synagogue in the selection or assignment of a grave. Most often, they simply indicate in which synagogue the dedicatee exercised an office mentioned
in the epitaph. The idea that the choice of a grave's location might be
determined by which synagogue the deceased belonged to can thus be
dismissed; a form of centralized system is even more difficult to envisage. 55
Margaret H. Williams voices the hypothesis that the J ewish populations,
like their contemporary pagan counterparts, might have purchased their
graves from "funerary complex developers" who would take on the expense
of preparing the underground spaces of the catacombs, divide the space into
more or less sizeable funerary chambers or simple tombs, and then seIl
them. 56 The catacombs at Beth She' ar im in Palestine may weIl have been
managed in this fashion. 57 In Rome, however, and unlike the situation in
Christian catacombs,58 Jewish inscriptions mention neither the sale of a
tomb nor its tide deeds, facts which might point to the role of these
developers. More generally, such consortia unfortunately remain insufficiently researched.
At the beginning of the last century, Jean Juster argued for the conception of "the confessional separatism oE corpses" as a specifically Jewish
phenomenon. 59 To justify this assertion Juster simply notes a few inscriptions whose wording presents numerous parallels with both pagan and
Christian examples in which the subject is certainly ius sepulchri but not
68
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
CONVERSION
AND
BURIAL
What is the explanation, then, for the grouping of family graves in the
same catacomb in Rome? The idea that it originated in adesire to be clearly
differentiated from non-Jews 66 seems to be contradicted by an absence of
parallels elsewhere among the Jewish communities of the Diaspora, though
perhaps the sheer scale of the Eternal City might account for variants in
.social behavior. 67
However that may be, conversion to Judaism seems not to have entailed
a priari the abandonment of familial mortuary practices, nor the choice of
a specific burial place.
THE CHRISTIANS
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
CONVERSION AND
BURIAL
72
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
slave) of Valerius Mercurius and his wife. The monument thus remains
simply a family tomb.
The same might be said of the tomb that Marcus Antonius Restitutus
recorded as constructing "for hirnself and his own [suis} faithful in the
Lord. "84 This epitaph comes from the Catacomb of Domi tilla at Rome, but
an accurate account of the discovery is not forthcoming: it might have
originated in a me re cubiculum or come from a more extensive group.85 It is
difficult to determine whether the expression "faithful in the Lord" is a
restrictive phrase meaning "so long as they remain faithful in the Lord," or
is simply a declaration of their faith. 86
Mortuary funds dedicated to fellow Christians are not particularly numerous. One example is that of Faltonia Hilaritas, "who built this cemetery
(coemeterium) at her own expense and gave it to her religion (huhic religioni)."87 The inscription was reused on another tomb found in the vicinity of
the small funerary basilica at Solluna, in the territory of what was ancient
Velitrae, not far from Rome, on the Appian Way.88 Since the marble slab
showed marks of having been affixed to a hook, its discoverer believes that
the inscription was originally hung up at the entrance to the basilica which
Faltonia probably donated to her fellow believers. As the context of the
inscription cannot be taken for granted, this hypothesis, though appealing,
is scarcely demonstrable. Even if it were true, what Faltonia did was simply
to open the doors of a funerary basilica that she had paid for to house her
own tomb, and did not in fact found a communal burying place.
A celebrated inscription from Cherchel in Algeria (ancient Caesarea) records
a gift of burial ground to the church made by a pious euergete, the most
illustrious Severianus. 89 The original titulus has not been preserved, only a
commemorative inscription of the donation carved by order of the Church
of Caesarea. Paleographically, the inscription dates from the fourth century,
but Severianus's donation might well antedate the Peace of the Church. The
circumstances surrounding the find are unknown: 9o any description of the
area is therefore entirely dependent on the inscription. Severianus, dubbed,
rather poetically, cultor uerbi, selected a plot as a graveyard and built a cella
there at his own cost. The whole plot-structure is referred to as a memoria,
that is to say a (monumental) tomb. The term cella is rather imprecise. As
no martyr is mentioned in the commemorative inscription, we can exclude
the possibility that the chapel had been dedicated to martyrs. Cella signifies
either the tomb itself or the edifice in which it was housed, a place that
would also have been used for the performance of funerary rites.
Gifts like those made by Faltonia and Severianus are not expressions of a
desire to separate Christians from non-Christians in death, but instead acts
CONVERSION AND
BURIAL
73
of euergetism that bear comparison with similar deeds by their pagan contemporaries. The same can be said of a further inscription at Cherchel that
originated with a priest, a certain Victor, who had an accubitoriunz made to
lodge several tombs, including that of his own mother, Rogata. He donated
the accubitoriunz to "all the brothers."91 Another example resembling pagan
euergetism comes from a Lydian inscription dated to the fourth century that
records how Gennadios purchased a monument "with what God had seen fit
to give hirn," endowing it as a "tomb for the Christians of the Catholic
Church. "92 The fact that the church was chosen, as it were, to serve as
intermediary between the donator and the eventual beneficiaries of his gift
is remarkable, but such gifts in no way entail that the Christians are concerned to be buried together and separately from others .
. Conversion to Christianity does not appear to involve the choice of a
particular place of burial. This is not the place to list all the localities where
a mix of pagan, Christian, and J ewish tombs has been attested, nor to
address the general question of Roman catacombs. 93 The present investigation, however, ventures to suggest that-since communal burial is not a
constitutive condition for the identity of the various religious groups in the
late Roman Empire and the teaching of the Christian Church itself had no
definable position on the question-there is apriori no reason to suppose a
desire on the part of Christians to be buried exclusively among their own.
The comparison which has been attempted in this paper is not intended to
suggest that conversion to one of the new cults in the Roman EmpireChristianity could be safely included among them, and perhaps even Judaism if one considers its capacity to attract-involves the same pro ces ses and
has the same impact on its members as conversion to any other cult. However, with regard to burial practice, one must conclude that conversion to
one of these cults has no specific implication. Neither religious teaching,
nor the actual practice of worshipers allows for the conclusion that separate
burial in a place specific to one's cult is either a common feature of the new
cults, or a feature particular to one of them. Such a conclusion has important consequences for our understanding of these religious groups, particularly for the Jews and the Christians. Regarding the Jews, it is an indirect
confirrnation of what a whole new trend of scholarship has now proved,
namely that Jews were not living in isolation from the Greco-Roman society. Regarding the Christians, it requires that the question of their interaction with non-Christians has to be asked again and on new grounds. The
church, even at the beginning of its development, and its converts might
not have been as concerned by the separation from their traditional links to
the Greco-Roman society as scholars have long been accustomed to believe.
SEEING AND
74
BELIEVING
NOTES
CONVERSION
AND
BURIAL
75
"Attitudes to Judaism in the Greco-Roman Period: Reflections on Feldman's 'Jewand Gentile in the Ancient World,'" jewish Quarterly Review 85
(I995): 36I -95, reprinted in L. V. Rutgers, The Hidden Heritage of Diaspora
judaism, Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and Theology 20 (Louvain, I998),
pp. I99- 2 34
24. Feldman, "Proselytism by Jews," p. 49.
25. H.). Leon, The jews of Ancient Rome (I960), 2d ed., revised by c. A.
Osiek (Peabody, Mass., I995), pp. 253-55
26. See B. Lifshitz, "Les Juifs de Venosa," Rivista di filologia e di istruzione
classica 40 (I9 62 ): 367-71.
27. Ibid., p. 368. Cf. L. H. Kant, "Jewish Inscriptions in Greek and
Latin," Aufstieg und Niedergang der riimischen Welt, 2.20.2, p. 688 n. I04;
Feldman, jew and Gentile in the Ancient World, p. 358 and n. 52.
28. See D. Noy, jewish Inscriptions of Western Europe, vol. I: Italy (Excluding the City of Rome), Spain, and Gaul (hereafter JIWE I) (Cambridge, I993),
pp. I46-47; cf. p. xvii.
29. See E. M. Meyers, "Report on the Excavations at the Venosa Catacombs I98I," Vetera Christianorum 20 (I983): 445-59. Cf. L. V. Rutgers,
"Archeological Evidence for the Interaction of Jews and Non-Jews in Late
Antiquity," American journal of Archeology 96 (I992): I I2.
30. R. Heberdey, ed., Tituli Asiae minoris, vol. 3: Tituli Pisidiae linguis
Graeca et Latina conscripti, pt. I: Tituli Termessi et agri Termessensis (hereafter
TAM 3/I) (Vienna, I94I), no. 448.
31. Ibid., no. 6I2.
32. L. Robert, "Epitaphes juives d'Ephese et de Nicomedie," Hellenica
I I-I2 (I960), p. 386.
33. M. H. Williams, "The Meaning and Function of Ioudaios in GraecoRoman Inscriptions," Zeitschrift fr Papyrologie und Epigraphik I I6 (I997): 262.
34 Cf. TAM 3/ I, no. 44 8 .
35. General introduction in R. Hachili, Ancient jewish Art and Archaeology in the Diaspora, Handbuch der Orientalistik I, Nahe und Mittlere Osten
35 (Leiden, I998), pp. 263-3IO. The whole discussion was opened by M.
H. Williams, "The Organisation of J ewish Burials in Ancient Rome in the
Light of Evidence from Palestine and the Diaspora," Zeitschrift fr Papyrologie
CONVERSION
AND
BURIAL
77
und Epigraphik 101 (1994): 165-82. Cf. D. Noy, "Where Were the Jews of
the Diaspora Buried?" in jews in a Graeeo-Roman World, ed. M. Goodman
(Oxford, 199 8 ), pp. 75-89.
36. See Rutgers, "Archeological Evidence," pp. I 10-1 I; R. S. Kraemer,
"Jewish Tuna and Christian Fish: Identifying Religious Affiliation in Epigraphie Sourees," Harvard Theologieal Review 84 (1991): 141-62; J. W. van
Henten and A. Bij de Vaate, "Jewish or Non-Jewish? Some Remarks on the
Identification of Jewish Inscriptions from Asia Minor," Bibliotheea Orientalis
53 (1996): 16-28.
37. J. Lieu, J. North, and T.. Rajak, eds., The jews among Pagans and
Christians in the Roman World (London, 1992); Goodman, lews in a GraeeoRoman World; 1. V. Rutgers, The lews in Late Aneient Rome: Evidenee 0/ Culturallnteraction in the Roman Diaspora, Religions in the Graeco-Roman World
12 (Leiden, 1995), specifically chap. I on the historiography of the discovery of the Jewish catacombs.
38. See P. R. Trebilco, jewish Conununities in Asia Minor, Society for New
Testament Studies, Monograph Series 69 (Cambridge, 1991).
39. Text and translation in J.-B. Frey, Corpus inseriptionum iudaiearum:
Reeueil des inseriptions juives qui vont du IIIe siede avant jesus-Christ au VIIe
siede de notre ere (hereafter CIJ), 2 vols., Sussidi allo studio delle antichira
cristiane I, 3 (Vatican City, 1936-52) no. 757; =E. Kalinka, ed., Tituli
Asiae minoris, vol. 2: Tituli Lyeiae linguis Graeea et Latina eonseripti, pt. 2
(Vienna, 1930) (hereafter TAM 212), no. 612.
40. See below for this type of euergetism. Cf. Trebilco,jewish Communities
in Asia Minor, p. 227 n. 71.
41. For Hierapolis, see T. Ritti, "Nuovi dati su una nota epigrafe sepolcrale con stefanotico da Hierapolis di Frigia," Seienze del/'antiehita 6-7 (199293): 4 1-43, and E. Miranda, "La comunira giudaica di Hierapolis di Frigia,"
Epigraphiea Anatoliea 31 (1999): 109-55, which records but one case where
two Jewish tombs lie next to each other whereas the others simply line the
road (p. 146). The northern necropolis from which the majority of the
Jewish inscriptions come is in the course of publication. Far Corycus, see J.
Keil, ed., Monumenta Asiae Minoris antiqua, vol. 3: Denkmler aus dem rauhen
Kilikien (Manchester, 1931), pp. 120-22, for a description of the necropolis
that stretches along the coast, including a map (pI. 46). Jewish inscriptions
have been discovered in each of the editors' three arbitrarily designated
zones, A, B, and C. Cf. M. H. Williams, "The Jews of Corycus: A Neglected
Diasporan Community from Roman Times," journal /or the Study 0/ judaism
25 (1994): 27 8 and nn. 23- 24.
42. J. H. M. Strubbe, "Curses against Violation of the Grave in Jewish
Epitaphs of Asia Minor," in Studies in Early jewish Epigraphy, ed. J. W. van
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
Henten and P. W. van der Horst, Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken
Judentums und des Urchristentums 21 (Leiden, 1994), pp. 70-128, 1012, contra Trebilco, jewish Communities in Asia Minor, p. 227 n. 71. M. H.
Williams, "Meaning and Function of Ioudaios/' p. 256 and n. 69, underscores just how flimsy Strubbe's arguments are; similar comments in D.
Noy, "Where Were the Jews of the Diaspora buried?" p. 81 n. 30.
43. Trebilco, jewish Communities in Asia Minor, pp. 67-68, 83, 100, implies that the population in cities such as Acmonia was aware of and acknowledged the Mosaic law.
44. As Strubbe himself knows, "Curses against Violation of the Grave,"
p. 100.
45. CI] 2, no. 777 (incomplete); new ed. in E. Miranda, "La comunira
giudaica di Hierapolis," no. 23, p. 131, with detailed commentary pp. 14045. Cf. Ritti, "Nuovi dati su una nota epigrafe."
46. Text, English translation, and commentary in Trebilco, jewish Communities in Asia Minor, pp. 78-81.
47. According to Trebilco (pp. 78-81), the association of the "Neighborhood of the First Gate" was a Jewish association. As for P. Ailios Glykon
himself, he was apparently not Jewish, but simply a "sympathizer." In both
cases the arguments proposed are not wholly compelling.
48. The city of Tukrah (ancient Taucheira) in Libya furnishes another
interesting example. Ir has thrown up a total of 440 inscriptions, most of
which come from burial chambers dug into the walls of abandoned quarries
to the west of the city. S. Applebaum has positively identified 109 Jewish
inscriptions, to which number he has added 144 others from tombs confidently ascribed to Jews. The implication is that one and the same tomb
houses only Jewish burials, and there is indeed nothing to suggest the
contrary. On the other hand-and against the opinion formerly held by
other scholars-Applebaum has demonstrated that if one of the quarries
seems indeed to have served almost exclusively as aburial ground for J ews,
others contain no Jewish graves at all , and others again comprise tight-knit
areas of Jewish graves among others belonging to non-Jews. S. Applebaum,
jews and Greeks in Ancient Cyrene Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity 28
(Leiden, 1979), pp. 144-60. Cf. idem, "The Jewish Community of Hellenistic and Roman Teucheira in Cyrenaica," Scripta Hierosolymitana 7 (1961):
27-5 2 .
49. W Horbury and D. Noy, eds., jewish Inscriptions 0/ Graeco-Roman
Egypt: With an Index 0/ the jewish Inscriptions 0/ Egypt and Cyrenaica (Cambridge, 1992), p. 4 (cf. p. xv); against C. S. Clermont-Ganneau's old hypothesis to be found in ''L'antique necropole juive d'Alexandrie," Comptes
rendus de FAcademie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (1907): 23 6-39, 375-76.
J
CONVERSION AND
BURIAL
79
80
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
58. See J. Guyon, "La vente des tombes a travers l' epigraphie de la Rome
chretienne (IIIe-VIIe siecles): Le rale des /ossores! mansionarii! praepositi et
pretres," Melanges de FEcole /ranfaise de Rome! Antiquite 86 (r974): 549-96.
59. J. Juster, Les juijs clans FEmpire romain: Leur condition juridique! economique
et sodale! vol. I (Paris, 1914), p. 480.
60. Ibid., n. 4, which cites the following three inscriptions: JIWE 2, no.
378 = CI] I, no. 220, in which a wife reserves a loculus next to that of her
spouse; TAM 2/2, no. 612 = CI] 2, no. 757, which makes a gift of an
individual grave to the Jewish community of Tlos (see above); CIL VI,
10412, whose Jewish character is not accepted.
61. Semahot I, 9; D. Zlotnick, ed., The Tractate !!Mourning!! (Semahot):
Regulations Relating to Death! Burial! and Mourning! Yale J udaica series 17
(New Haven, Conn., 1966), p. 32; for the date, see the introduction.
62. Tosefta! Gittin! 5, 5; Jerusalem Talmud! Demai! I, 4;Jerusalem Talmud,
Aboda zara! I, 3. Cf. Babylonian Talmud! Gittin! 61a, where the place of
burial is once again not mentioned (contra L. V. Rutgers, "Archaeological
Evidence," p. 114).
63. Mishna! Ohalot! 18, 7-8, translation and commentary in J. Neusner,
A History 0/ the Mishnaic Law 0/ Purity! vol. 4: Ohalot: Commentary! Studies in
Judaism in Late Antiquity 6/4 (Leiden, 1975), pp. 340-41; cf. G. G. Porton, Goyim: Gentiles and Israelites in Mishnah-Tosefta! Brown Judaic Studies
155 (Atlanta, 1988), pp. 16- 17, 274
64. Mishna! Shabbat! 23, 4, and Tosefta! Shabbat! 17, 14-15; translation
and commentary in J. Neusner, A History 0/ the Mishnaic Law 0/ Appointed
Times! vol. I: Shabbat: Translation and Explanation! Studies in Judaism in
Late Antiquity 34/1 (Leiden, 1981), pp. 200-201; cf. Porton, Goyim! pp.
28-29, 208.
65. See Porton's note of methodological caution, Goyim! pp. 4-5.
66. D. Noy, "Where Were the Jews of the Diaspora Buried?" pp. 88-89,
makes mention of such a wish but does not furnish further illustration. Cf.
idem, "Writing in Tongues: The Use of Greek, Latin and Hebrew in Jewish
Inscriptions from Roman Italy," Journal 0/ Jewish Studies 48 (1997): 3003 I I, where he suggests that the choice of Greek as the language for epitaphs (approximately 74 percent of the total) coincides with the selection of
a specific, and hence Jewish, wording, in contradistinction to Latin epitaphs
whose phraseology conforms more closely to contemporary pagan inscriptions.
67. On the implications of the status of such a "megalopolis," see the
recent Megapoles mediterraneennes: Geographie urbaine retrospective: Actes du colloque organise par FEcole /ranfaise de Rome et la Maison mediterraneenne des
sciences de Fhomme (Rome, 8-11 May 1996), a colloquium chaired by C.
CONVERSION AND
BURIAL
81
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
82. CIL VI, 1412 = ICVR VIII, 20737: "Monumentum Valeri Mercuri
et Iulittes Iuliani et Quintilies Verecundes libertis libertabusque posterisque eorum at religionem pertinentes meam hoc amplius in circuitum circa
monumentum lati longi per pedes binos quod pertinet at ipsum
monument(um)." See G.-B. De Rossi, "Le iscrizioni trovate nei sepolcri
all'aperto cielo nella villa Patrizi," Bullettino di archeologia cristiana (1865):
53-54
83. Cf. G. Boissier, La religion romaine dJAuguste aux AntoninsJ vol. I
(Paris, 1878), p. 383 n. 5.
84. ICVR III, 6555: "Marcus Antonius Restitutus fecit ypogeu sibi et
suis fidentibus in Domino."
8 5. See the doctoral thesis by P. Pergola, "Les cimetieres chretiens de
Rome depuis leurs origines jusqu' au neuvieme siede: Le cas du 'praedium
Domitillae' et de la catacombe homonyme sur la 'Via Ardeatina'" (These
d'etat, Aix-en-Provence, 1992), pp. 305-6. Cf. G.-B. De Rossi, "Le varie e
successive condizioni di legalira. dei cemeteri, il vario grado di liberta dell'arte
cristiana, e la legalira della medesima religione nel primo secolo verificate
dalle recenti scoperte nel cemetero di Domitilla," Bullettino di archeologia
cristiana ( 1865): 89-99.
86. A. Ferrua (ICVR III, 6555) compares this wording to 2 Cor. 1:9:
"non simus fidentes in nobis sed in deo qui suscitat mortuos."
87. ILCV 3681 = Supplementa Italica J vol. 2 (Rome, 1983), no. 66.
88. See G. Mancini, "Scoperta di un antico sepolcreto cristiano nel territorio veliterno, in localira Solluna," Notizie degli scavi di antichita (r924):
34 1-53, esp. pp. 345-46.
89. CIL VIII, 958s: text and commentary in Y Duval, Loca Sanctorum
Africae: Le culte des martyrs en Afrique du IVe au VIIe siedeJ vol. I, Collection
de l'Ecole franc;aise de Rome 58 (Rome, 1982), no. 179, pp. 380-83.
90. Contrary to statements elsewhere: see, for example, S. Gsell, Les monuments antiques de l'AlgerieJ vol. 2 (Paris, 1901), pp. 398-400; and P. Monceaux, Histoire litteraire de l'Afrique chritienne: Depuis les origines jusquJa l'invasion
arabeJ 7 vols. (Paris, 191-23), 1:14, 2:125-3. Cardinal Lavigerie did
indeed undertake excavations in the zone in which the inscription was
actually unearthed, but these did not furnish the results anticipated since
the discovery concerned a pagan area; see the publication of these excavations by P. Leveau, "Fouilles anciennes sur les necropoles antiques de Cherchel," Antiquites africaines 12 (197 8): 93-95.
91. ILCV 1179 = CIL VIII, 9586.
92. P. Hermann, Neue Inschriften zur historischen Landeskunde von Lydien
und angrenzenden Gebieten J Denkschriften der sterreichischen Akademie der
CONVERSION AND
BURIAL
4
CONVERTING THE UN-CHRISTIANIZABLE
THE BAPTISM OF STAGE PERFORMERS IN LATE ANTIQUITY
RICHARD
LIM
In the Lift 0/ St. Pelagia (32), the devil appears before Bishop Nonnus to
remonstrate with hirn over his most recent deed. The devil accuses the
bishop of being aserial miscreant: first he converted thirty thousand Arab
tribesmen, then he brought the city of Baalbek/Heliopolis over to Christianity, and now, to top his trouble-making career, he even snatched away
his (the devil's) prized disciple, the prima donna of the Antiochene stage.
By moving an infamous mime actress to accept baptism, the devil confesses,
the bishop has snatched his "last hope" away. Interestingly, the author
manages to capture in this one simple comment some of the most notable
aspects of conversion and Christianization in late antiquity: the mission to
barbarian peoples, the transformation of the ancient city, and the conversion
of individuals.
The devil's assessment may appear surprising at first. Surely the consequences of the evangelization of thirty thousand Arabs and the population
of an entire city outweigh those of the conversion of a single individual.
Further, Pelagia was al ready a Christian catechumen in the text, having
presumably been signed with the cross while an infant. Nevertheless the
author had good reasons for speaking through the devil in this way. The
public stage of late antiquity represents one of those conspicuous features of
civic life that remained more or less impervious to Christianization, and the
conversion of the foremost mime actress of an important city would have
been an immense coup indeed.
This paper examines select late antique evidence for the baptism of stage
performers as weH as Christian narratives of their conversion, without any
claims to exhaustiveness but with a focus on the Greek East. The opposition
between church and stage remained a live issue weH into the sixth century
despite the fact that, by that time, the shows were patronized, attended,
and staffed by Chrisrians. Thus while narratives of the baptism of perform-
CONVERTING
THE
UN-CHRISTIANIZABLE
85
ers appear to address the tensions between the pagan and Christian worlds,
being in fact addressed to people who al ready participated to varying degrees in a Christian identity, they speak more to the challenge of Christianizing post-Constantinian Christian communities.
CONVERSION, CHRISTIANIZATION,
AND SECULARIZATION: THE CASE OF THE
LATE ROMAN STAGE
86
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
grew out of centuries of experience and experimentation from the cooperation between central and civic elites; it remained a cornerstone of the imperial system in political, social, and economic terms. Moreover, the city
represented the best that the Greco-Roman world had to offer. Refinements
in urban life, lavish amenities, and the provision of large-scale entertainments made the ci ti es desirable pI aces in which to live despite drawbacks
such as crowding. Cities were also the showcases of empire and proof that
the Romans surpassed barbarians in achievement.
Central to the definition and prestige of an ancient city was its provision
of public entertainments. The urban spectacles consisted mainly of circus,
amphitheatrical, and theatrical games. Among these, the most ubiquitous
as well as the most enduring were the theatrical shows. 5
The Roman stage was never effectively Christianized in late antiquity for
reasons that still await full investigation. 6 Instead, it remained astapie of
civic and imperial entertainments and an ideological challenge to Christianity of the first order.
Once public sacrifices had been banned and the link between the games
and pagan festivals severed, Roman public spectacles could be and were
presented by the political elite as belonging to the saeculum, neither explicitly pagan nor Christian. Rather than being ludi dedicated to the gods, they
became voluptates designed to amuse the people. 7 Many ecclesiastical leaders
still preferred to brand them as pagan but, when faced with the contrary
instinct of the political elite, they could only effect incremental changes
such as causing the emperors to ban public shows during important Christian holidays. On the other hand, they could and did work to transform the
mores of their own congregations and their documented predilection for the
shows. In this respect, Christianization involved the slow molding of attitudes and habits of life through pastoral care, so that the anti thesis between
the church and the stage no longer reflects the conflict between Christians
and pagans but one among Christians. Historians, even now, often adopt
the stance of Christi an writers and preachers who sought to persuade fellow
Christians to live wh at they considered a more Christian way of life. These
more rigorist preachers advocated a set of behavior and beliefs thought to
set the genuine Christian apart from the semi-Christian or crypto-pagan.
But increasing attention is also being paid to the outlook of the local
Christian communities or the preacher's audiences, recognizing that Christianization involved a process of persuasion and negotiation over the meaning of a Christian identity.8 This paper adopts the position that the baptism
of stage performers furnished late antique Christians with an occasion for
debating with each other over what Christianization ought to mean.
CONVERTING
THE
UN-CHRISTIANIZABLE
87
Excepting a few apologists, elite pagan and Christian writers alike regarded
the theater as essentiaIly amoral as weIl as a powerful source of corruption
for those who attended it. But for some Christians, the stage could also be
seen as the embodiment of the hostile, unsympathetic pagan world that
stubbornly resisted the Gospel. The antipathy between the Christian church
and the civic stagehad become a commonplace by the fourth century.9
Stage performers were the popular heroes of the profane, secular world that
was litde affected by Christianization. In Roman law, they long suffered
from the penalty of infamia in perpetuity and were seen as personae probosae. lO
The age-old practice of assigning public performers the status of infames
continued weIl into the Christian empire, as witnessed by the Liber SyroromanusJ a textbook of legal instruction based upon a Greek original from
around 475 Y Within the Christian church, performers were refused the
sacrament of baptism, the rite of passage through which one passed into the
fuIl Christian community, unless they first abandoned their profession. Actors
who wished to be counted among the plebs Christiana were required by the
ecclesiastical authorities to forsake their life in entertainment. Hippolytus
of Rome, in commenting on the screening of candidates for admission to
the catechumenate, rejected active stage performers as weIl as those who
were currendy involved in the business of prostitution. 12 This rigorist stance
did not soften markedly in the post-Constantinian era. In 393, Augustine
denied the sacraments to prostitutes, public performers, and "anyone else
who promotes public turpitude," alongside gladiators and pimpsY Ecclesiastical canons from church councils also consistendy forbid baptized Christians from practicing the theatrical arts. 14
As the Roman population graduaIly embraced Christianity, the conversion of stage performers became a matter of public interest and discussion.
Significant mentions of the actual conversion and baptism of stage personnel first appear in written sources during the late fourth century.15 This type
of conversion was anything but straightforward, being subject to negotiations between the secular and ecclesiastical elites. Various references in late
Roman law codes and in a letter found among the spuria of Sulpicius Severus
reflect evolving official attitudes regarding stage performers, particularly
actresses, who wished to receive baptism.
By the fourth century, after many collegia had been transformed by the
state into involuntary and hereditary associations, the children of parents
involved in those public professions were required by law to take up their
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parents' metiers. 16 Stage performers were among those corporibus obligati whose
social mobility was circumscribed because their service was deemed vital to
the public interest. In this one area, we can find an interesting tension
between the official restrietions placed on the social mobility of members of
certain professions and the prospect of greater social mobility promised by
Christian conversion and baptism.
The anonymous author of a pseudepigraphic letter of Sulpicius Severus
urges the notables (primates, decuriones) of an African city to excuse a young
actor, who had recently been converted and baptized, from the munus, compulsory service, of public stage performanceY The writer of the letter argues that while the boy ente red the acting profession at a very young age,
thereby making a blot on his early life (ut annorum suorum initia macularet),
he is not culpable for, being an infant, he has done wrong without knowledge. His stage career is also a thing of the past. Now that the enlightened
young man has come to see the life of the stage as a perverted one (inte!!exit
uitam scenicam consilio meliore damnandam), he ought to be allowed to perform
a full purification (plena purgatio) by means of baptism. The writer also
states that the young actor, renouatus sacro baptismate, has al ready pledged to
avoid the theater and shun the public eye in the future.
We do not know the outcome of the story. It is likely that the petition
was granted. Already in 290, Diocletian and Maximian had issued a ruling
that the minority of young performers constituted a mitigating circumstance that spared them from being branded infames personae for the rest of
their lives, the common fate of all public actors. 18 Roman law had long
provided for the protection of minors in matters of property and inheritance
and this tetrarchie law extended this proteetion to humiliores by allowing
young actors who no longer performed to be restored to respectable social
standing, inviolatatam existimationem. This reminds us that not all changes in
such areas should be attributed to Christianization.
A similar situation prompted imperial legislation on several occasions. 19
Throughout the later fourth century, local officials were confronted with the
question as to whether actors who had received deathbed baptism but who
subsequently lived could be made to return to their former trade. 20 The political
elite faced a difficult dilemma. In an imperial rescript, Valentinian, Valens, and
Gratian ruled that baptism was a potent sacrament that could not be trifled
with and that, once baptized, former actors must not perform in public ever
again. 21 However, the emperors were aware that this might give undue encouragement to scaenici to desert their obligatory profession by joining the ranks of
the baptized. In order to avoid having no stage performers for the popular
shows, they stipulated that baptism could only be granted to ac tors certified by
their local bishops and curatores, city supervisors, to be near death.
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This law epitomizes the essential compromise upon which the political
elite settled. They dared not deny baptism outright to a dying individual
whose salvation depended on receiving the sacrament whilst alive. Neither
would they flout the established ecclesiastical teaching forbidding a baptized Christian from participating in public performances. FinaIly, they did
not want to provide an easy escape clause that would allow performers to
forsake their nzunera to the detriment of the urban entertainments. The
latter was a weighty consideration for the emperors. By admitting only
dying performers to baptism and in other laws forbidding members of this
and other essential professions from deserting into the Christian clergy, the
emperors aimed to ensure the proper discharge of the /unctiones publicaeJ
foremost among which was the provision of voluptates for the people. 22
The situation on the ground added to the emperors' concern. Many communities experienced difficulty in recruiting and retaining sta.ge performers
sufficient for their needs, the shortage of actresses and dancers becoming
especially noticeable in Western cities. 23 Around 371, certain individuals in
Roman North Africa apparently took to compelling former members of the
acting profession to go on stage, in contravention of both ecclesiastical
teaching and imperial law. The resulting dispute eventually reached the
emperors, who ordered Julianus, proconsul of Africa, to allow only women
born into the acting profession "who appear to be living and to have lived
a vulgar life in their manner of living and in their morals" to be pressganged back into service. 24 A decade on, in 380, Gratian, Valentinian, and
Theodosius issued a law in which they note with displeasure that thynzelicae
were being abducted from Rome to perform elsewhere. 25
Imperiallegislation on performers from the Theodosian age onward manifests a concern over their moral as weIl as legal status. In 380, the same
emperors instructed Anicius Paulinus, then urban prefect of Rome, that
baptized scaenicae from the lower orders (ex viliori sorte) must not be forced
to act again provided that they continued to exhibit a reformed way of life
(nzelior vivendi USUS).26 Former actresses were also to be released from the
praeiudiciunz that had hitherto adhered to them. Yet not every scaenica who
left the stage led a life that met with the approval of the emperors. While
a law of 381 to Valerianus, urban prefect of Rome, permits every actress
who so petitions to be released from her duty, it dweIls insistently on the
evil consequences that will result if she fails to follow this commitment
through with appropriate actions. 27 As stated in the laws, the authorities
must judge whether former actresses could be made to return to stage
service on the basis of their postbaptismal moral conduct, specifically whether
they offered sexual favors for money. Interestingly, former male actors were
reincorporated into society as respectable persons, ut probabiles habeantu",
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normally recognize their right to baptism and hence retirement from the
stage. These imperial laws regarding the baptism of performers suggest that
the extent and limits of Christianization were a complex issue, one that
involved the different and often conflicting interests of the imperial and
loeal elites, ecdesiastical leaders, and the performers themselves. Ultimately, the imperial authorities allowed everyone who so wished the ability to
receive baptism but, as part of the compromise, imposed a doser scrutiny
upon the moral conduct of former actresses. The burgeoning elite interest in
supervising the morality of women from the humiliores represents a new
twist that is an unintended consequence of the historical developments we
have deseribed as well as the universalizing tendency of Christian moral
discourse, discussed below.
Martyrology
0/ Actor-Saints
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addresses the entire audience, saying: "I am a Christian. For I have just
beheld the fearful power of God in my baptism and I will die a Christian. "
Upon this declaration, the entire audience becomes enraged and, having
dragged hirn from the theater, stones hirn to death.
The parodies of Christian rites would appear to be a natural extension of
the traditional practice of mocking the Mysteries on stage, particularly
amidst the carnavalesque atmosphere of festivals. The historical veracity of
the passiones of actor-saints aside, they belong in terms of narrative genre to
the same family as the Acts 0/ the Apostles, the apocryphal acts and accounts
of martyrdoms, most of which feature miracles, miraculous conversions,
obstinate magistrates, and martyrdom. With the various acta, these martyrologies of actor-saints share the premise that the world remains divided
between Christ and the old gods, Christians and pagans, persecuted Christianity and persecuting paganism; and they dramatize these oppositions by
pitting the civic stage against the Christian church. The two are thereby
represented as irreconcilable communities such that membership in one
bars a person from the other. In this manner, these ac counts retain their
relevance in a Christianizing society where real pagans, let alone persecuting pagans, were increasingly difficult to come. by.
Baptism in these stories serves as the key plot device that moves the
individuals along an inexorable and curtailed career from mocking outsider
to baptized Christian to martyr. Often one finds litde or no involvement of
the Christian clergy and church. Neither are there many discernible traces
of pre- or postbaptismal catechesis (a subject that we will take up later on).
These narratives are therefore highl y unrealistic in that they depict a kind
of eschatological conversion so prominent in early Christian accounts. They
reveal litde ab out the complexities of actual conversions, especially of stage
performers, in la te antiquity. By killing off the converted performers so
quickly and expediendy, the authors of these texts spare themselves the task
of oudining the challenges of living out a Christian way of life in the postConstantinian world.
Hagiography
0/ Penitent
Actresses
While the passiones of Tau/mimi highlight and reify the implacable divide
between the Christian and pagan worlds, other, hagiographie accounts of
converted performers deal with more subtle issues linked to the rite of
baptism and the meaning of the sanctified life. One of the most famous
lives from this tradition is connected with the figure of St. Pelagia, a former
mime-actress of Antioch. 45 lohn Chrysostom, in one of his Homilies on the
Gospel 0/ Matthew, describes how a certain unnamed prostitute (1topvrj), who
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. . . she was greatly moved and her conscience was pricked: tears
poured down as she sobbed, and amid heavy sighs she recalled all her
sins. She was groaning so much over her life as a prostitute that the
congregation became aware of her emotions. Everyone recognized her
as the city's famous playgirl, for as she groaned out aloud, people were
telling each other, "Ir really is the sinful woman, and she's been converted by the teaching of the God-loving and holy bishop Nonnos.
She, who had never paid the slightest attention to her sins, has all of
a sudden come to penitence; she who never used to come to church, all
of a sudden has had her mind turned to religion and to prayer as a
result of the divine words she has heard from the mouth of the holy
bishop Nonnos."56
In contrast, the Greek MS Group y omits these comments and, as a result,
gives a more subtle meaning to Pelagia's spiritual transformation.
In the Syriac version, Pelagia then sends her servants to seek the bishop
after the homily and herself pleads with Nonnus to baptize her forthwith. 57
Her confession captures the ideological significance of the penitent actress
to the Christian tradition: "I beg you, have pity on me a sinner. I am a
prostitute, a disgusting stone upon which many people have tripped up and
gone to perdition. I am Satan's evil snare: he set me and through me he has
caught many people for destrucrion ... "58
Nonnus then seeks permission from the bishop of Antioch to baptize
Pelagia. The metropolitan, giving his hearty assent, exclaims that three
happy results will ensue: "It will please Christ, and it will edify the entire
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church, as weIl as bring salvation to the life of this prostitute."59 His articulated hopes are exceeded in the Syriac text, for many of Pelagia's former
associates also repent and abandon their former careers as prostitutes; this
detail is omitted in the Greek. On the other hand, the Greek text of Group
'Y contains a rather lengthy ac count of Pelagia's elaborate preparation for
baptism, which she receives a week after her repentance or conversion.
Nonnus appoints Romana, chief deaconess of the church of Antioch, as
Pelagia's spiritual mother to help her through the catechesis and prepare for
baptism.
After she has been duly baptized and received into the church, Pelagia
makes her way to Jerusalem, to the Mount of Olives, where she lives out her
life as an ascetic disguised in male garb. 60 The journey from the public stage
to the cloistered community of the monastery is not an apriori implausible
event, as it can indeed be attested in early modern Spain, to ci te but one
example. 61 But it is the function of this narratival development that concerns us most here.
Analysis
Comparison between the martyrologies of actor-saints and hagiographies of
penitent actresses may be made on several levels. A facile juxtaposition of
the two suggests that the martyrologies, which assume the reality of persecution and a sharply dichotomized world featuring a pagan majority and a
Christian minority, express Christian concerns from the time of persecutions
while the hagiographies of penitent actresses speak to issues relevant to the
post-Constantinian age. But since texts of both genres in fact come from the
post-Constantinian era, such an analysis cannot be accepted. Indeed, although the two genres differ greatly in their specific emphases, both insist
on a strict division between the sanctified or Christianized aspects of life
and those that remain secular or unsanctified/unsanctifiable, thereby addressing an important tension within a Christianizing society.
Hagiographie accounts of female penitents, including those of actresses,
have proved just as fascinating for scholars today as they have been for pious
Christian readers through the centuries. A few decades ago, the theme of
cross-dressing and gender inversion became a topic of scholarly investigation. 62 More recently, with the rise in interest in late antique female spirituality, scholars have returned to the lives of female penitents, such as Mary
the Egyptian and Pelagia of Antioch, with new and interesting questions.
Today, the Vita Pelagiae is commonly read alongside the lives of other harlot-saints as a text about female asceticism and spirituality. Yet both the
transvestism and the ascetic career of Pelagia are minor, even peripheral and
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incidental, adjuncts of the main story. This becomes apparent when these
aspects are placed within the larger context of the work. Whereas in the
many biographies of female ascetics, the ascetic life of the heroine serves as
the central theme of the story, the Vita Pelagiae treats Pelagia's postbaptismal career in Jerusalem in a perfunctory way, observing it from the distant
perspective of the narrator J acob. The work focuses upon the issues related
to catechumens and baptism within an urban community rather than the
practice of desert asceticism, which indeed informs other works such as the
Lift 0/ Mary the Egyptian J63 one of the Vita PelagiaeJs ancient competitors,
and the Lift 0/ MarylMarinus. 64
The priorities of the author of the Vita Pelagiae are also clearly revealed
in the relative lengths of the sections. In the modern chapter divisions of
the work, chapters 1-42 deal with the events that transpire in Antioch
(ending with Pelagia's disappearance from the city eight days after her
baptism) and only chapters 43-5 I are connected with her career as an
ascetic. 65 In contrast, the ascetic career of the heroine becomes the focus of
the narrative al ready by chapter 4 (of twenty-one) in the Lift 0/ Maryl
Marinus. Nonnus rather than Pelagia features so much as the central protagonist of the Vita Pelagiae that for the sake of accuracy the work ought
perhaps to be renamed Acta Nonni.
The narrative transformation of Margari to to Pelagia through the agency
of Nonnus speaks to what some Christi an leaders with pastoral concerns
regarded as the paramount challenge of their day: the sanctification of the
large number of catechumens. While the wholesale conversion of barbarian
tribes and Roman cities, which the author of the Vita Pelagiae attributes to
Nonnus, might be taken for granted in Christian triumphalist narratives,
the transformation of an individual sinner holding a nominal Christian
identity into a baptized Christian was often a more elusive prize. Placed
within this context, the Vita Pelagiae appears as a dramatization of the
process whereby a catechumen became a baptized Christian in any late
antique city.
During the third century, which for Michel Dujarer represents the "Golden
Age" of the catechumenate as an institution, Hippolytus of Rome outlined
a program of catechetical instruction and prebaptismal preparation that
required some three years to complete. 66 The church of Alexandria appears
to have had a similarly elaborate catechetical system at that time. Given the
threat of sporadic persecutions and the length of the catechesis, only earnest
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also finds expression in the vita. Pelagia instructed her servants to dissipate
her wealth by donating it to the church for distribution to the poor. Here
the author editorializes to emphasize the need to ensure that donated funds
earmarked for the poor actually go to the poor and do not become diverted
to other purposes or simply rest within the church. This connection between proper almsgiving to the poor and repentance is a theme repeatedly
emphasized by late antique preachers such as ] ohn Chrysostom. 84
After remaining in Antioch for just over a week, Pelagia decamped quiedy for the Mount of Olives, where she took up the ascetic life in the guise
of a male monk. From the self-indulgent sinfulness of an acclaimed actressl
courtesan to the self-denying sanctity of a "male" ascetic: Pelagia's spiritual
transformation could not have been more complete. Many a late antique
bishop would have prayed that all his baptized Christians could have been
as serious about their baptism even if he might not have wished for too
many of his flock to become desert ascetics overnight.
The postbaptismal conduct of Pelagia set a high standard that most
Christians could not and probably did not want to meer. The reality was
more often otherwise. We have already seen how some baptized actresses
returned to their careers on stage despite ecclesiastical and imperial regulations forbidding this practice. Concerns over just such backsliding could
have prompted the requirement, cited in the Vita PelagiaeJ that no courtesan
might enroll as a candidate for baptism unless she had a sponsor (or a
godparent) who would vouch for the sincerity of her decision and her commitment to a reformed life. 85 But even ordinary Christians with ordinary
lives often failed to live up to the standards expected of the baptized. In this
respect, the story of Pelagia's radical transformation may be read as a calculated effort to persuade ordinary Christians of the importance of changing
one's behavior after baptism.
At issue was the authenticity of the decisions of those who sought baptism, particularly at a time when prebaptismal preparation took litde over
a month. The emphasis on the decisive and even miraculous quality of the
spiritual transformation that produced actor/actress-saints serves to underscore the authenticity of the individual conversions. The passiones depict the
Tau/mimi as pagan illusion-makers who were immediately and truly baptized against their personal wishes, yet their determination to receive martyrdom afterwards speaks to the authenticity of their conversion.
While many late antique catechumens must have thought long and hard
about whether they should enroll for baptism, weighing in their minds the pros
and cons of such a choice, the decision of Pelagia to undergo baptism is not
presented as the result of deliberation. There appears no hint of hesitation even
though the impact of her decision proves nothing short of life-changing. Pelagia
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is described as having been moved to repent of her former life by the preaching
of Nonnus. While not exactly a miracle, the transformation is described as
instant and unplanned, and therefore authentie and genuine. Certainly her postbaptismal career serves to confirm this impression.
The dramatic tale of the transformation of a secular "pop star" into a
Christian heroine offers ample opportunity for extolling ascetic virtues and
Christian ideals of social and sexual conduct. 86 It reinforces the attractive
notion, for many Christian preachers and writers at least, that the true
Christian identity (as embodied in the status of a baptized Christian) involves a radical rupture with the ways of the world and requires a visible
change in one's former habits, thoughts, and desires.
But such a not ion of conversion must be seen within the context of the
late antique debate ab out what being a Christian should mean in terms of
participation in public life. From the time of Tertullian to that of Jacob of
Sarugh (and beyond), baptized Christians had no trouble justifying how
their new identity was compatible with their previous habits and actions,
including attending the theater. 87 An imaginary interlocutor in one of J ac ob
of Sarugh's sermons denouncing the stage, a baptized Christian, defends
himself by saying that his attendance at the theater has nothing to do with
idolatry and everything to do with wanting to be made to laugh. 88 The
extent to which the theater had become a secular-that is, neither pagan
nor Christian-institution in the wider public discourse has to be recognized and taken into consideration when examining Christian narratives
about the conversion or baptism of performers.
The new Christian attitudes toward the theater and its personnel mark,
in certain key respects, adeparture from classical elite attitudes. There came
to be an interest in the moral standing not only of the spectators but of the
performers themselves, particularly when they quit compulsory stage service by means of baptism. Fascination with the implications of this supposedly very radical shift in these women's moral careers fired the imagination
of writers in the fifth and sixth centuries. The solicitude for the fate of the
actress cum prostitute in the Vita Pelagiae and the confidence in her ability
to redeem herself in the eyes of God and men find echoes in the tone of
nearly contemporary imperial legislation.
In the sixth century, it was popularly accepted that stage performers and
courtesans represented the antithesis of Christian holy persons, so that John
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obtaining any benefit from the Emperor, who had the power to place
them in the condition in which they could have remained, if they had
never been guilty of dishonorable acts, We, by the present most merciful law, grant them this Imperial benefit under the condition that
where, having deserted their evil and disgraceful condition, they embrace a more proper life, and conduct themselves honorably, they shall
be permitted to petition Us to grant them Our Divine permission to
contract legal marriage when they are unquestionably worthy of it ...
For women of this kind having been purified from all blemishes (macttla) , and, as it were, restored to the condition in which they were
born, We desire that no disgraceful epithet (vocabttlttm inhonestam) be
applied to them, and that no difference shall exist between them and
those who have never committed a similar breach of morality (peccaverttnt).92
There are two main provisions in this enactment that are also found in
the section De nttptiis in Justinian's Code. First, a repentant female performer
is to be granted full rehabilitation as if she had never been a scaenica; second,
she should no longer be referred to as actress or even ex-actress. Historians,
taking their cue from Procopius, have tended to read this law as an ad
hominem piece of legislation occasioned by Justinian's marriage to a former
actress, Theodora.
The marriage of Justinian and Theodora took place during the reign of
Justin when Justinian was a patrician. According to Procopius, the future
empress hailed from a family connected with urban entertainment. 93 After
the death of her father, an animal keeper for the Greens, her mother remarried to a bear keeper for the animal shows. In time, the mother put her
several children on the stage as they came of age. 94 When it came to her
turn, Theodora assumed the roles of mime actress as well as prostitute
(E'taipa).95 Allegedly ungifted in music and dancing, she resorted to other
means to entertain her audience, including indecent exposure and lewd
performances on the stage. According to the Secret History! these performances were linked direcdy with the offer of sexual favors for money.96
Someone with this kind of past was clearly unsuited for the role of empress.
But since Procopius's principal aim was to shock and outrage his readers
with the sordid past of an empress he loathed, his scandalous description of
Theodora's involvement in prostitution has been rightly called into question. 97 Still there is litde doubt regarding Theodora's former career as a
mime actress; it is the imputation that she was also a flamboyant prostitute
that should attract our suspicion. A far from hostile contemporary author
described her as "formerly shameless but later chaste."98
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conditions that attended the careers of such people and therefore as a remedy of the apparent injustice of permanently blacklisting individuals for
carrying out duties that they were bound to perform by law.
Indeed, Justinian dispatched a law in 536 to John, praetorian prefect of
the East, giving leave to scaenicae sworn to perform on stage to abandon the
profession without danger of prosecution, saying that pleasing God was
more important than observing oaths. 106 But such laws also hint at the
diversity and complexity of local situations and the continued demand for
performers which at times became so great that officials had to compel
retired scaenici to appear on stage. The emperor eventually forbade officials
from forcing actresses to swear oaths to the effect that they would continue
to perform and threatened offending magistrates with stiff fines. 107
During the fifth and sixth centuries, Christian rulers publicized their
firm commitment to the chastity of actresses, circa castitatem stttdittm. 108 In
Ostrogothic Italy, Cassiodorus included in the Formttla tribttni volttptatttm a
"job description" for a tribttntts volttptatttm, an official who would undertake
the moral tute lage and supervision of stage actresses committed to the
public shows in Italian cities. 109
Laws that permitted actresses to escape the life of the stage, and prostitutes to cease their acts of venal immorality, now began to express a concern
for their "chastity." This word had been largely absent in previous Roman
legal usage regarding these classes of women, who occupied a social space
that was worlds apart from that of respectable virgins and matronsYo JoHle
Beaucamp has noted that when describing the legal rationale for treating
women differently from men, the Justinianic laws invariably employ the
te.t;m fragilitas where classical jurists would have used the familiar phrase
inflrmitas sextts. 111 She further suggests that this may point to a shift in
official concern from feminine weakness to the need of females for protection. Even so, she describes this imperial position as aimed at "la protection
de la moralite des femmes plus que celle des femmes elles-memes."1l2
The sixth-century laws on performers demonstrate a definite departure
from earlier Roman discourses of order that are based on hierarchicall y
distributed notions of appropriate action and behavior. These legal formulations now feature instead a discourse of universal moral order, in which
the fragilitas httmana that is common to all increasingly became a factor in
the rationalization of imperiallegislation. 113 In the law of Justin and Justinian above, it is said that rulers who fail to extend the opportunity for
rehabilitation to actresses would themselves fail to merit the indulgence of
God (qttod si circa nostro sttbiectos imperio nos etiam facere differamtts, nttlla venia
digni videbimttr). Ideologically it was no longer possible to remain concerned
only with the welfare and conduct of the great and the good. Even members
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of the httmiliores and personae probosae must now be considered. Thus official
edicts voice concern not just with transgression of social boundaries by the
respectable classes, as for instance in Augustus' Julian laws, but with the
moral condition of all and sundry, including socially marginal performers.
Yet this imperial concern for penitent actresses was never fully extended
to prostitutes, who could not hope to be fully rehabilitated even after
retirement. "Harlots who repented were never relieved of their disabilities
even by Justinian-contrary to the prevalent view which credits his great
reform Novel with a range it does not have."1l4 Instead of being reintegrated without blemish into society, as penitent actresses were thanks to the
new law by Justin, retired prostitutes retained their lifelong in/amia and
had to be institutionalized. Thus a convent or monastery named Metanoia,
"Repentance," was founded by Theodora to accommodate the former prostitutes of Constantinople; this may be ci ted as a uniquely Christian brand
of benefaction in that the classical world had not known such an institutionY5 But we should not see Theodora as a pioneer in this regard, as this
would play into the hands of Procopius who wished this detail to lend
verisimilitude to his salacious comments about the empress's former career.
Earlier, under the guidance of Severus of Antioch, certain former prostitutes
had al ready begun to live together and were given protection through being
attached to a monasteryY6 The traditions of St. Pelagia, current in early
sixth-century Syria, might also have disposed lay and ascetic Christians to
favor such a change in attitude towards these public women. It is not clear,
however, why official attitudes towards performers and prostitutes should
have begun to diverge at this stage. Being an actress became far less reprehensible than being a prostitute; an actress was also regarded as more susceptible to reform.
CONCLUSION
Ir is not easy to draw comprehensive conclusions from the disparate material we have examined. Looking at the circumstances that surround the
baptism of stage performers in late antiquity allows us to understand more
clearly the often competing interests of the groups that were involved in the
process. The ecclesiastical elite favored allowing scaenici/ae to become baptized so long as they then quit the stage. The secular elite was wary that
this might enable performers bound to theatrical service to quit the civic
stage, but was ultimately unwilling to oppose their baptism. The performers themselves saw' baptism not only as a potent salvific sacrament but as
also an avenue of social mobility that might allow them to leave a compul-
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sory hereditary profession. These often riyal claims and interests generated
complications for and shape both the nature and the pace of Christianization.
The Christian narratives that dramatize these conversions/baptisms reveal
somewhat different concerns. In the hagiographical subgenre, as exemplified by the Vita Pelagiae, the presentation of the central baptismal theme
highlights a model of conversion or repentance that one can readily describe
as "Nockian." Pelagia's metanoia signals a deeply felt spiritual transformation, and such a narrative of religious change became all the more expedient, as a form of religious persuasion, within a context in which conversion
and baptism were at risk of becoming munda ne and uneventful. Certain
Christians simply did not appear ready to accept the views promoted by
other Christians that there was and ought to be a sharp divide between the
sanctified Christian life and their long-standing and beloved customs and
practices. As many institutions, such as the theater, became secularized,
narratives such as the Vita Pelagiae helped to reinforce the notion that the
wall between the city (and the stage) and the church was a thick and
insurmountable one, not the permeable one that many indeed supposed. To
those Christians, unbaptized as well as baptized, who argued back that the
spectacles were not of Satan but merely of the world, such narratives trumpeted the uncomfortable view that Satan remained the master of the world
and even of unbaptized Christians. Why penitent actresses and not penitent
actors? The figure of the actress embodied extreme elements of the devalued
and rejected Other; both the female gender and the profession of the actressl
prostitute brought horne the idea of an individual's ultimate debasement
prior to the grace of baptism. The resulting change seemed that much
sharper and more miraculous when the starting position was portrayed as so
very low. To take on male identity through transvestism as well as the
ascetic life, the highest vocation for a Christian in late antiquity, was to
reach the pinnacle of human achievement. The success of this genre must
have been due in part to the sheer miraculous nature of this thoroughgoing
inversion.
Finally, the late antique debate over the meaning of baptism influenced
if not produced the Christian narratives of actor/actress-saints. In these
texts, the emphasis is not only on the figure of the spiritual overachiever
but also on the ambivalent figure of the Christian catechumen. Recently,
the history of the catechumen has received much attention due in part to
the scholarship that has grown up around the Dolbeau Sermons of St. Augustine; but this literature deals mainly with the Latin West. Yet I hope I have
shown that many of the same concerns and contexts are also relevant to the
CONVERTING
THE
UN-CHRISTIANIZABLE
111
NOTES
I would like to acknowledge my especial debt to Peter Brown, Susanna Elm, Anthony Grafton , Judith Herrin, Bonnie S. Kim, Samuel Lieu,
Michael Maas, Neil McLynn, Kenneth Mills, Eric Rebillard, Charlotte
Roueche, Raymond Van Dam, and Ruth Webb for their generous help. See
P. Brown, "Conversion and Christianization in Late Antiquity: The Case of
I.
112
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
113
114
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
tia vel re conciliatio non negetur"; also, Concilium Illiberitanum canon 62: "Si
auriga aut pantomimus credere voluerint, placuit ut prius artibus suis renuntient, et tunc demum suscipiantur, ita ut ulterius ad ea non revertantur,
qui se facere contra interdictum tentaverint, proiiciantur ab ecclesia."
15. See Aug., De baptismo contra Donatistas, PL 43:17-244.
16. The rise of collegia necessaria dedicated to the performance of public
functions occurred some time during the later third century but their history is only adequately known with the coming of the fourth, see J.-P.
Waltzing, Etude historique sur les corporations professionnelles chez les Romains
depuis les origines jusq'a la chute de l'Empire d'Occident, vol. 2 (Louvain, 1896),
pp. 298-320; and F. M. de Robertis, Il fenomeno associativo nel mondo romano,
dai collegi della repubblica alle corporazioni del Basso Impero (Napies, 1955), pp.
162-85. A fourth-century inscription from Rome is particularly relevant to
these collegia in the city: see R. Ambrosino, "Riferimenti all'ordinamento
associativo romano," Bulletino della commissione circheologica deI governatorato di
Roma (Rome, 1939), pp. 85-94. On the impact of this development on
families, see J. Gaudemet, "Tendances nouvelles de la legislation familiale
au IVe siecle," in Transformation et conflits au IVe siede apres J.-c., ed. A.
Alfldi and J. Straub (Bonn, 1978), pp. 191-92.
17. The text was originally published by the Maurist Dom Luc d'Achery;
the more recent redaction appears in C. Lepelley, "Trois documents meconnus sur l'histoire sociale et religieuse de l'Afrique romaine tardive retrouves
parmi les spuria de Sulpice Severe," Antiquites africaines 25 (1989): 258:
"Licet domnus et germanus meus de uestra petierit honestate ut Tutum
uelitis esse tutissimum, tarnen mihi fas fuit eundem litteris commendare, ut
conduplicata petitione tutior habeatur. Huic enim nocuerit puerilis culpa
est error aetatis incertae, ut annorum suorum initia macularet; sed qui
necdum sciret quid bonis moribus deberetur, proprie sine culpa peccauit.
Nam se ubi ad bonam mentem considerationemque conuertit, intellexit
uitam scenicam consilio meliore damnandam. Huic autem plena non pos set
euenire purgatio, nisi diuinitatis accessu delicta dilueret; si quidem catholicae religionis remedio conmutatus, usum si bi loci turpioris negauit seque
ab oculis popularibus uindicauit. Domini (ut supra), quomodo itaque et
diuinae leges et publicae fidele corpus et sanctificatos animos non permittunt inhonestas exhibere delicias et uulgares edere uoluptates, maxime cum
castae deuotionis quodammodo uideatur inuria, si quis sacro baptismate
renouatus in ueterem lasciuiam reuocetur, oportet laudabilitatem uestram
bonis fauere propositis, ut is qui beneficio Dei pium munus indeptus est, in
foueam theatralern cadere non cogatur. Vestrum tarnen omnium iudicium
non recusat, si alias iniungatis congruas pro necessitate communis patriae
functiones."
CONVERTING
THE
UN-CHRISTIANIZABLE
115
18. Cod. lust. 2.1I.2I. The major classical sources on infamia are: lust.
Dig. 3.2 ("De his qui notantur infamia"); Cod lust. 2.12 ("De causis, ex
quibus infamia alicui inrogatur"); and Tabula Heracfeensis (= Lex lufia Municipalis). For modern discussions of the implications of infamia, see A. H.
J. Greenidge, lnfamia: lts Place in Roman Pubfic and Private Law (Oxford,
1894); 1. Pommeray, Etudes sur l'infamie en droit romain (Paris, 1937); M.
Kaser, "lnfamia und ignominia in den rmischen Rechtsquellen," Zeitschrift
fr Rechtsgeschichte 73 (195 6): 220-78; Barbara Levick, "The Senatus consultum from Larinum," Journal of Roman Studies 73 (1983): 97-115, esp. 10810; and Spruit, Romeinse acteurs, p. 116.
19. These laws are preserved in the mid-fifth-century Theodosian Code
necessitate cogente interitus inminentis ad dei summi sacramenta properarunt, si fortasse evaserint, nulla posthac in theatralis spectaculi conventione
revocentur." Generally on the status of actors in Cod. Theod., see Spruit,
Romeinse acteurs, pp. 197-225.
22. See Cod. Theod. 14.3.11; and Waltzing, Etude historique sur les corporations proJessionneffes, 2: 3 I 2- 15.
23. D. R. French, "Christian Emperors and Pagan Spectacles: The Secularization of the ludi, A.D. 382-525" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at
Berkeley, 1985), p. 188, notes that most of the laws on the baptism of
scaenici originated in the Western court, which is true as regards the earlier
laws. It is not clear to me exactly why female performers in particular
became the object of such predatory poaching. Their popularity with the
116
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
people as weH as the insufficient numbers of those in post must have contributed to the problem. See now also idem, "Maintaining Boundaries: The
Status of Actresses in Early Christian Society," Vigiliae Christianae 52 (1998):
293-3 18 .
24. Cod. Theod. 15.7.2: "Ex scaenicis natas, si ita se gesserint, ut probabiles habeantur, tua sinceritas ab inquietantium fraude direptionibusque
submoveat. Eas enim ad scaenam de scaenicis natas aequum est revocari, quas
vulgarem vitam conversatione et moribus exercere et exercuisse constabit."
2 5. C od. T heod. I 5 .7.5: "Quisquis thymelicam ex urbe venerabili inmemor
honestatis abduxerit eandemque in longinqua transtulerit seu etiam intra
domum propriam, ita ut voluptatibus publicis non serviat, retentarit, quinque
librarum auri inlatione multetur." On the theft of actors, see Cod. lust.
11.41.5 (409). This law added venatores and scaenici to the list of "protected
persons" which had previously included charioteers. On the tribunus voluptatum, whose duty it was to ensure regular theatrical performances in
Rome and elsewhere, see Cod. Theod. 15.7.13; and R. Lim, "The tribunus
voluptatum in the Later Roman Empire," Memoirs 0/ the American Academy in
Rome 4 1 (1996): 163-73.
26. Cod. Theod. 15.704: "Mulieres, quae ex viliori sorte progenitae spectaculorum debentur obsequiis, si scaenica officia declinarint, ludicris ministeriis deputentur, quas necdum tarnen consideratio sacratissimae religionis
et Christianae legis reverentia suae fidei mancipavit; eas enim, quas melior
vivendi usus vinculo naturalis condicionis evolvit, retrahi vetamus. Illas
etiam feminas liberas a contubernio scaenici praeiudicii durare praecipimus,
quae mansuetudinis nostrae beneficio expertes muneris turpioris esse
meruerunt." An almost identical law containing this provision was addressed by the same emperors to Herasius, proconsul of Africa; see Cod.
Theod. 15.7.9: "Quaecumque ex huiusmodi faece progenitae scaenica officia
declinarint, ludicris ministeriis deputentur, quas necdum tarnen sanctissimae religionis et in perenne servandae Christianae legis secretorum reverentia suae fidei vindicarit. Illas etiam feminas liberatas contubernio scaenici
praeiudicii durare praecipimus, quae mansuetudinis nostrae beneficio expertes muneris turpioris esse meruerunt." The language of this law is considerably more abusive: the women were characterized as originating ex
huiusmodi /aece.
27. Cod. Theod. 15.7.8: "Scaenae mulier si vacationem religionis nomine
postularit, obtentu quidem petitionis venia ei non desit, verum si post
turpibus volutata conplexibus et religionem quam expetierit prodidisse et
gerere quod officio desierat animo tarnen scaenica detegetur, retracta in
pulpitum sine spe absolutionis uHius ibi eo usque permaneat, donec anus
117
ridicula senectute deformis nec tunc quidem absolutione potiatur, cum aliud quam casta esse non possit."
28. Cod. Theod. 15.7.13: "Mimas diversis adnotationibus liberatas ad proprium officium summa instantia revocari decernimus, ut voluptatibus populi ac festis die bus solitus ornatus deesse non possit."
29. Aug., Civ. Dei 1.3. The theatrical shows were offered daily in Carthage
in the period just after the sack of Rome. Augustine notes with great
disapproval the zeal that these dislocated Romans exhibited for the shows.
See Lim, "Tribunus voluptatum."
30. Cod. lust. I A. 14: Myrte OOUAOV /lyrte .Aeu8epov crro/lU 'toA/la'tffi 'tt~ ei~
1tOpveiuv 1tp6uyetv ~ 1tpOl(r'taVat, /ll1OE el 8U/leAtKO~ eLll
Tl
/leATtO'et 'to /l110e KOUO'UV YUVUtKU OOUAllV EAeu8epuv O'UVetVat O'uYXopetV /li/lot~
Ti
118
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
47. Ibid.
48. On vitae of hadot-saints as a distinct hagiographie genre, see B.
Ward, Harlots 0/ the Desert: A Study 0/ Repentance in Early Monastic Sources
(Oxford, 1987).
II9
49. The female mime and her seductive ways are contrasted with the
virtuous decorum of virgins by lohn Chrysostom: see French, "Christian
Emperors and Pagan Spectacles," pp. I92-93.
50. The Syriac text is in 1. Gildemeister, Acta S. Pelagiae Syriacae (Bonn,
I879); the text was revised and reissued by P. Bedjan in Acta Martyrum et
Sanctorum vo1. 4 (Paris, I896; reprint ed., Hildesheim, I968). An English
translation is available in Sebastian Brock and Susan A. Harvey, Holy Women
0/ the Syrian Orient (Berkeley, Calif., I987). For an evaluation of the textual
traditions, see Petitmengin, Pilagie la Pinitente I: I7, 290. See also idem,
"Diffusion de la 'Penitence de Pelagie,'" pp. 33-47.
5 I. The connection between the baptism of Pelagia and the time around
Easter is not explicitly corroborated by the text, as Neil McLynn astutely
observes, but is the most likely conjecture based upon existing internal and
external evidence. Within the text, bishops from nearby towns have been
summoned by the metropolitan bishop of Antioch to come to his city to
stay for more than two weeks, an occurrence certainly connected with a
major Christian holy day. The time around Easter would appear to be the
most fitting occasion for visiting clergy to come to Antioch: see F. Van de
Paverd, St. John Chrysostom The Homilies on the Statues (Rome, I99I), pp.
290-9I. Also, in the story the narrator ]acob seeks permission from his
bishop Nonnus to visit ]erusalem three years later in order to worship the
resurrected Christ in situ (V. Pelag. 43); presumably he re the reader is to
understand that ]acob's request comes exactly three years after Pelagia's
metanoia and conversion. External evidence consists of the fact that it has
become customary in the Greek East for catechumens to be baptized only
once a year--during Easter (see discussion in text, pp. IOO-I02).
52. Palladius, Dialogus I6, PG 47:53. On penitence as a "second baptism" and the eucharistie rite as a form of remission for sins in daily life in
late antiquity, see Paul De Clerck, Pinitence seconde et conversion quotidienne
aux Illeme et IVeme siedes Studia Patristica 20 (Leuven, I989), pp. 352-74.
53. V. Pe/ag. 4, ed. Petitmengin, pp. 94-96,11. I8-25. Female performers are explicitly forbidden from wearing certain kinds of precious stones
and gems by an imperial decree of 393, see Cod. Theod. I5.7.II.
54. V. Pelag. 4. ed. Petitmengin, p. 96 ,11. 2I-22, 23-34; iou napeXE'tat
J
t' ~,.Hilty ~ nproTII 'tmv I-UIHXffiV Av'ttoxEia<; Kat UTII E ~v nproTII 'tmv XOpEtl'tptmv
120
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
actress. Her role as a prostitute is only explicitly stated in the Syriac and
Armenian versions. In this regard, the epithet "harlot-saint" may not be entirely
justified. On the other hand, her role as a stage performer is a consistent theme.
The Syriac text even retains the Greek word mimas in this context
56. V. Pelag. 18, ed. Bedjan, pp. 626-27; Brock and Harvey, Holy Women,
pp. 47-4 8 .
57 V. Pelag. 23- 24, ed. Bedjan, pp. 62 9-3 1; Brock and Harvey, Holy
Women, pp. 49-50.
58. V. Pelag. 23, ed. Bedjan, p. 629; Brock and Harvey, Holy Women, pp.
49-50. The admission that she hails from a "deep ditch of mire" (V. Pelag.
23, 26) recalls t!fe imperial rhetoric in Cod. T heod. 15.7.9 that brands
scaenicae as women ex huiusmodi /aece.
59. V. Pelag. 28, ed. Bedjan, pp. 632-33; Brock and Harvey, Holy Women,
p. 51.
60. On Pelagia's place in the tradition of early Byzantine female saints
who cross-dressed as male monks, see E. Patlagean, "L'histoire de la femme
deguisee en moine et l'evolutionde la saintete feminine a Byzance," Studi
Medievali, 3d ser., 17 (1976): 61 I: "Elle [Pelagial represente la feminite
charnelle poussee a son extreme, mais elle n'est pas liee a un partenaire
masculin qui ait le droit de la retenir." The hagiographie genre of transvestite female saints remained popular up to the ninth century at least.
61. Admittedly, such references are few and in the minority even for
actresses. Notable is the career of one Baltasara de los Reyes, who left the
performing profession at the height of her farne in the first few years of the
seventeenth century and entered a monastery dedicated to John the Baptist
near Cartagena. A generation later, Maria Calderon, a married woman, joined
the nunnery of Villahermoso in Guadalajara where she later served as abbess
and "repenting of her sins, there are those who assure us that she died in the
odor of sanctity." See H. A. Rennert, "Spanish Actors and Actresses between
1560 and 168o," Revue Hispanique 16 (1907): 362-63 (Calderon), 476 (Reyes).
62. Patlagean, "L'histoire de la femme deguisee en moine."
63. 1. 1. Coon, Sacred Fictions: Holy Women and Hagiography in Late Antiquity (Philadelphia, 1997), pp. 71-94, builds a chapter around the two vitae
and suggests that they share common concerns regarding "desert spirituality."
64. See M. Richard, "La vie ancienne de sainte Marie surnommee Marinos," in Corona Gratiarum: Miscellanea Patristica et Liturgica Eligio Dekkers
O.S.B. XII lustra complenti oblata, vol. I (Bruges, 1975), pp. 83-115; Greek
text, pp. 87-94.
65. The Greek MSS of Group y of the Acta Pelagiae have as their titulus:
ME'tclVOW TIj<; 6aia<; IIEAayia<;. Overall, the moral of the vita has to do with
repentance.
i'
I
CONVERTING
THE
UN-CHRISTIANIZABLE
121
66. M. Dujarer, A History 01 the Catechumenate: The First Six CenturiesJ tr.
Edward J. Haasl (New York, 1979), passim. See A. Laurentin and M. Dujarer, Catechumenat; Donnees de l'histoire et perspectives nouvelles (Paris, 1969).
67. See J. Jeremias, Le bapteme des enlants pendant les quatres premiers sdes
(Lyons, 1967); and E. Ferguson, "Inscriptions and the Origin of Infant
Baptism," jTSJ n.s. 30 (1979): 37-46. But even in the fifth century, the
baptism of infants was often reserved for those who were at risk of dying,
see S. Poque, "Un souci d'Augustin: La perseverance des chretiens baptises
dans leur enfance," Bulletin de Litterature Ecdesiastique 88 (1987): 273-86.
68. E. Rebillard, "La figure du catechumene et le probleme du delai du
bapteme dans la pastorale d' Augustin: Apropos du post-tractatum Dolbeau
7: De sepultura catehcumenorum J" in Augustin pridicateur (395-4II)JJ ed. G.
Madec, Actes du Colloque International de Chantilly (5-7 septembre 1996)
(Paris, 1998), p. 285.
69. See A. Piedagnel, ed., jean Chrysostome: Trois catecheses baptismalesJ
Sources Chretiennes 366 (Paris, 1990), appendix 3: "Bapteme tardif et bapterne des enfants."
70. On Augustine's De sepultura catechumenorum J see Rebillard, "La figure
du catechumene."
7 I. See M. von Bonsdorff, Zur Predigtt'tigkeit des johannes Chrysostomus:
Biographisch-chronologische Studien ber seine Homilienserien zu neutestamentlichen
Bchern (Helsinki, 1922), pp. 3-13. On the liturgical setting of Chrysostom's Antioch, see now Wendy Mayer and Pauline Allen, john Chrysostom
(London, 2000), pp. 17-25.
72. John Chrysostom, Homilia 25 in Iohannem J PG 59:151; my translation. Bonsdorff, Zur Predigtt'tigkeit des johannes Chrysostomus J pp. 28-29,
dates these sermons to 391.
73. John Chrysostom, Homilia 4 in Matthaeum 8, PG 58:48-49. Bonsdorff, Zur Predigtt'tigkeit des johannes Chrysostomus J p. 14, dates this sermon
to 15 April 390.
74. The work that I have found most useful in parsing the views of the
various patristic authors on the baptismal rite is V. Saxer, Les rites de !'initiation
chritiennes du IIe au Vle siede: Esquisse historique et signification dJapres leur
principaux temoins (Spoleto, 1988).
75. Peregrinatio Silviae (Egeriae) 45. See T. Finn, Early Christian Baptism
and the Catechumenate: West and East Syria (Collegeville, Minn., 1992), esp.
p. 52; and A. Bludau, "Das Katechumenat in Jerusalem im 4. Jahrhundert,"
Theologie und Glaube 16 (1924): 225-42.
76. See Saxer, Les rites de !'initiation chritiennesJ pp. 196-98. These sermons are also attributed to John of Jerusalem (387-417), Cyril's successor,
see ibid:, p. 195.
I22
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
1
I'
123
tinata 5 (Berlin, 1940), pp. 95-96. I wish to thank Peter Brown for bring-
12 4
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
125
sius Episcopus: Atti deI Congresso internazionale di studi ambrosiani nel XVI centenario
della elevazione del santJAmbroglio alla Catedra episcopaleJ Milano 2-7 dicembre I974J
ed. G. Lazzati, vol. 2 (Milan, 1974), pp. 13-42; and idem, "Fragilitas (infirmitas) humana chez Augustin," Augustiniana 41 (1991): 815-28.
I 14. Daube, "Marriage of J ustinian and Theodora," p. 395.
115. Procop. Anecd. 17.5-6 and Aed. 1.9.5-10; and John Malalas, Chron.
18.173, CHSB 28:440-1 and Nov. Inst. 14 (535). See also A. Sicari, Prostituzione e tutela giuridica della schiavaJ p. 50 n. 43.
116. See Libellus monachorum ApameaeJ 17.14-17, in Schwartz, Acta Conciliorum Oecumenicorum 3. I. These women had served a public function and
were quite lowly in social status and origins: 811flro811 yuvata ... hatpm yap
117. See A. Vogt, "Le theatre a Byzance et dans l'empire du IVe au XIIle
siede, I: Le theatre profane," Revue des Questions Historiques 59 (r93 1): 257-
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
96; and Bonaria, Romani Mimi) pp. 16-17. Mime performances and dancing
would have continued in more private settings, such as banquets. See now
R. Webb, "Female Performers in Late Antiquity," in Creek and Roman Actors: Aspects 0/ an Ancient Profession) ed. P. Easterling and E. Hall (Cambridge,
2002), pp. 282-33. On the persistence of the popular culture in which
mimes, dancers, and prostitutes featured, see H. Magoulias, "Bathhouse,
rnn, Tavern, Prostitution and the Stage as Seen in the Lives of the Saints of
the Sixth and Seventh Centuries," Epeteris Hetaireias Byzantinon Spoudon 38
(197 1 ): 233-5 2 .
5
THE MANY CONVERSIONS OF THE EMPEROR
CONSTANTINE
CONSTANTINE'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY
For almost eight hundred years a colossal statue of Constantine would preside over his new capital of Constantinople. The Forum of Constantine was
located on the crown of one of the city's seven hills, its vast open circular
plaza designed to be areminder of the boundless ocean. This forum was a
central focus for the city, and in its center the great bronze statue of the
emperor stood on a tall porphyry column. From bottom to top the monument consisted of five steps leading up to a large platform; an enormous,
almost cubical pedestal; a square plinth; a circular base; the seven huge
drums making up the column shaft; a large decorative capital; and the
statue. During the fourth century the new capital was a boom town, and
from the top of this column, about 120 feet high, the statue monitored the
construction. The statue faced east, and behind it a main street led out of
the forum past the Church of the Holy Apostles to the city's massive land
walls. Before its gaze the street ran past the Hippodrome to the imperial
palace and the Church of Holy Wisdom. Its vista then continued beyond
the houses and monasteries and sea walls to the shimmering waves of the
Golden Horn, the Bosphorus, and the Sea of Marmara.
During the formal inauguration of the new capital in 330 a procession
first celebrated the placement of this statue on top of the column, before
proceeding to the Hippodrome. This statue of Constantine hence marked
the emplacement of a new legendary center for the city. Yet from the
beginning the significance of this statue was ambiguous, almost deli berately equivocal in its many meanings. One tradition claimed that the figure
had originally been astatue of Apollo in his guise as Helios, the sun god
crowned with- rays of light shooting from his head, and that it had been
brought to the capital from a provincial city and reworked into astatue of
12
128
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
the emperor. Another tradition daimed that buried in the base of the
column was the Palladium, an ancient image of Pallas Athena that had
supposedly been conveyed from Troy to Rome as a guarantee of Rome's
safety. Constantine had once considered founding his new eastern capital at
Troy. Since he was thought to have spirited away this image, its transfer
seemed to imply that Constantinople was to be the proper successor to both
Troy and Rome. In its right hand the statue held a spear. Since Constantine
had appropriated for hirnself the tide of "Victor" after his final victory in
the civil wars, this spear was areminder of his military successes. In its left
hand the statue carried a globe as a sign of the universality of his imperial
rule. In later times, during the annual ceremonies that celebrated the anniversary of the city's foundation, soldiers escorted a gilded statue of Constantine through the Hippodrome. This smaller statue may have been a dose
replica of the large statue on the column, and when it finally arrived at the
imperial box, the current emperor was supposed to bow in honor. Pagan
deity, founder of New Rome, conqueror, ruler, imperial forebear: the colossal statue memorialized not just the foundation of the new capital and its
revered founder, but also many of the legendary images and associations
that had already grown up around Constantine. 1
For over a year before the inauguration of the capital Constantine had
been residing in or near Thrace. Presumably he had inspected the new
construction and helped plan the dedication ceremony. If in fact he had
imposed his own preferences, then it is possible to think of the statue as a
fragment of Constantine's autobiography, a text about hirns elf. The statue
was his story ab out his life and reign so far, and at the time he had wanted
to memorialize many different images of hirnself. Noticeably missing, however, was any overt indication of his devotion to Christianity. The Constantine of the statue could have been almost any other Roman emperor, flush
with his divine support, his victories, his imperial power. This colossal
bronze emperor seems not to have been aware of any conversion to Christianity.
The absence of overt Christian allusions should not be surprising. Already soon after Constantine's reign historians were judging hirn against
other criteria. The emperor J ulian dassified hirn as a revolutionary for
having upset old laws and ancient traditions, and criticized hirn as the first
emperor to have appointed barbarians as consuls. 2 The historian Ammianus
criticized Constantine as the first emperor to condone the greed of his
courtiers. 3 The historian Zosimus, drawing upon the earlier historian Eunapius, thought Constantine was responsible for the collapse of the frontiers
because he had supposedly removed troops to the cities. 4 According to these
interpretations, Constantine had been an innovator all right, but in nonre-
THE
MANY CONVERSIONS
OF CONSTANTINE
I29
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
EUSEBIUS' BIOGRAPHY
THE
MANY CONVERSIONS OF
CONSTANTINE
I3I
firsthand contact with Constantine. He certainly did not know about any
conversion experience.
In 325 Eusebius finally met Constantine for the first time at the Council
of Nicaea. less than a year before the emperor had defeated his riyal licinius to establish his control over the entire empire, and Eusebius had already
lighdy revised his History yet again to include a few derogatory chapters
about licinius. During the remainder of Constantine's reign Eusebius had
only intermittent contact with the emperor. They exchanged some letters,
they probably met again at a council in late 327, and Eusebius visited the
imperial court at Constantinople in 335 and 336. But Eusebius was not an
intimate confidant of the emperor.
Eusebius nevertheless decided to wrire a biography. His Lift was a combination of a panegyric, a collection of the emperor's letters and edicts, and
his own running commentary. Eusebius then combined these disparate elements into a narrative, more or less, of the emperor's life that started with
his early years and ended with his funeral. An early highlight in the narrative was Constantine's personal, but still very public, acceptance of Christianity just before the batde of 3 I 2. The account that Eusebius offered in
this Lift was much more elaborate than the account in the History, first
composed about twenty-five years earlier. Eusebius now turned the events
leading up to the batde into ~ clear transition, a conversion, in the emperor's life.
.
Setting up this transition required a carefully ambiguous narrative. Eusebius in fact knew nothing about Constantine's own religious affiliation
during his early years. He did claim, however, that Constantius, Constantine's father, had been a sympathizer of Christianity. Of all the emperors,
Constantius alone had had "a friendship wirh God" (I.I3.I, p. 22). Yet
Eusebius still preferred not to make Constantine's Christianity a direct
legacy of his father's influence. In order to highlight the magnitude of
Constantine's conversion in 3 I2, Eusebius had to distance the emperor from
the allegedly Christian atmosphere of his father's court.
Instead, Eusebius placed the youngish Constantine in a thoroughly pagan
context by emphasizing that he had grown up in the entourages of the
Eastern emperors, Diocletian and Galerius. A comparison with Moses helped.
The young Moses had been raised among "tyrants," until God finally summoned hirn to become "leader of the entire people." In the same manner,
according to Eusebius, the young Constantine had been raised among "the
tyrants of our time," until his own rectitude led hirn toward "a life of piety
and grace in God" (I.I2, p. 2I). In 305 Constantine left Galerius' court and
joined his father in northern Gaul. Even though he then campaigned with
his father in Britain for over a year, and even though he was then an
SEEING AND
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emperor for another six years before his batde at Rome, Eusebius constructed Constantine's background in such a way that he seemed to approach this
batde direcdy from his upbringing at these pagan courts. In the Lift Eusebius had Constantius die soon after his son's arrival, and he then had Constantine invade Italy almost immediately. Seven years had vanished from his
narrative. By having Constantine go into this batde almost at once from a
background of service at the courts of persecuting emperors, Eusebius could
imply that he was still not yet a Christian.
Eusebius then presented the events of 312 as a dilemma, as Constantine
pondered "what sort of god he ought to enroll as his supporrer." Eventually
he decided that he should honor "only his father's god" (I.27, p. 29). As he
prayed to this god, he had avision of the cross in the sky. Soon afterwards
he had another vision, this time of "the Christ of God" who suggested that
he construct a military standard modeled on this symbol (I.28-29, pp. 2930). The basic elements in Constantine's conversion included a crisis, a
revelation, a sign, adecision, a confirmation, and a positive outcome. Constantine was victorious.
Once Eusebius had transformed Constantine into a pious Christi an, he
had found a pattern for the rest of the emperor's life. He used it, first, to
denigrate Constantine's opponents. If Constantine was now a devout Christian, then his riyal emperors could not have been sympathetic to Christians.
At Rome Maxentius had in fact already decided to end the persecution of
Christians, and eventually he ordered that they could recover any property
confiscated during earlier persecutions. In his earlier account in the History
Eusebius had hinted at Maxentius' support for Christianity.13 But in the Lift
Eusebius emphasized that Maxentius had been just another tyrant, guilty of
all sorts of despicable behavior. After defeating Maxentius, Constantine
shared imperial rule with Licinius, emperor in the East. Licinius too had
been generally favorable to Christians. In fact, in the History Eusebius had
cited some of the edicts he had issued with Constantine. But in the Lift
Eusebius instead stressed only his measures against Christians and their
bishops. If Constantine was "God's friend," then Licinius could only be
"God's enemy" (I.5I.2, p. 42).
Eusebius also, secondly, insisted that after his conversion Constantine had
been consistent in matching support for Christianity with opposition to
paganism. He claimed that the emperor issued an edict forbidding pagan
sacrifices (2-45. I, pp. 66-67); modern scholars question whether Constantine did so. The discrepancy between Eusebius' claims and Constantine's
actual behavior is also apparent in a document ci ted in the Lift. Although
Eusebius introduced one letter (of 324) as a refutation of paganism, in the
letter Constantine tolerandy extended the blessings of peace to "those in
OF
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133
error," and insisted that "the customs of temples" were not to be harmed
(2-47.1,56.1,60.2, pp. 68,70-72). Eusebius was clearly trying to interpret
this letter to suit his own purposes. Even though Constantine had still been
tolerant, in his retrospective judgment Eusebius could not allow the emperor to waver in his opposition to paganism.
Eusebius' Lift reflected his later thinking about the significance of Constantine's reign. In the History Constantine had represented the end of persecution; in the Lift he was to represent the beginning of the expansion of
Christianity. The events of 312 were the pivot, toward the end of one
account and toward the beginnirtg of another. As a result, the Lift has been
more influential in setting the pattern for modern interpretations of Constantine's reign too. By the time he wrote the Lift Eusebius seems to have
read A. D. Nock's Conversion, which defines conversion as a "deli berate
turning ... which implies a consciousness that a great change is involved."14
In the Lift Eusebius distinguished Constantine's early life, which by implication was misguided, from his subsequent life of piety. The transition was
a moment of decision, a sudden insight, an unexpected revelation, that led
to a spontaneous choice. The consequences of this decision were steadfast
resolution and redemption. A new man, and a new empire, had emerged
from the revelation.
During the past twenty years the most influential book ab out Constantine has been T. D. Barnes' Constantine and Eusebius. Barnes suggested that
although Constantine may have been a Christian before 312, the batde
against Maxentius marked "the moment of psychological conviction." Thereafter Constantine never wavered. "After 28 October 312 the emperor consistendy thought of himself as God's servant, entrusted with a divine mission
to convert the Roman Empire to Christianity." Barnes also found an unwavering consistency in his subsequent decisions. "Constantine's religious policy was coherent and comprehensive."15 Two recent books offer somewhat
similar interpretations, despite their other disagreements. T. G. Elliott, in
The Christianity 0/ Constantine the Great, argues that Constantine had accepted Christianity already while he was at Diocletian's court, and that Eusebius
himself had simply "invented the conversion" in 312. But Elliott still finds
a straight line running through Constantine's career. He had accepted his
"Christianizing mission" early in life, and he remained consistent. "He was
throughout his imperial career a man with a mission."16 H. A. Drake, in
Constantine and the Bishops, concedes a transformation in Constantine's policies after 3 12, but he prefers to interpret it in terms of "the context of
contemporary power politics and political thought." He nevertheless finds a
"surprising consistency" in Constantine's subsequent actions: "he was acting
for a church that would be inclusive and flexible."17 Eusebius (and Nock!)
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SEEING AND
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would have appreciated all these interpretations. Even when they disagree
with Eusebius' version of the events in 3 12, they still accept the idea of a
singular conversion in Constantine's career, and they still find a single
consistent trajectory to his life.
Initial uncertainty, insight, decision, redemption, subsequent certainty:
this sequence of conversion was powerfully attractive in part because it had
an almost liturgical quality. Not only did Constantine's life fall into place
in Eusebius' historical interpretation, but it could become an effective paradigm for others contemplating the same decision, or hoping for the same
redemption. This sequence was also seductive because it was an interpretive
fiction. Eusebius imposed a coherence in his Lift in order to compensate for
the messiness and ambiguity in the emperor's career. The most daunting
obstacle to seeing Constantine's life in terms of one sudden transition and
a subsequent consistency is, in fact, his own life.
CONSTANTINE' S LIFE
THE
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CONSTANTINE
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been victorious: "the hand of God influenced the batde."25 In 321 a rhetorician at Rome provided a pagan interpretation of the vision. In his version
"armies appeared that claimed they had been divinely sent."26
The news that Constantine had enjoyed divine support in his victory over
Maxentius obviously traveled quickly throughout the empire. Within a few \
years a panegyrist in Gaul, a Greek bishop in Palestine, a Latin rhetorician
at Nicomedia in Bithynia, and a rhetorician at Rome all had vers ions of his
victory. Both pagans and Christians were claiming some credit for the emperor's success, and from the beginning the religious meaning of Constantine's victory in 312 was contestable, and clearly contested. Even when the
emperor himself commented on his victory, people might suggest an alternative perspective. Constantine's only (surviving) comment at the time was
again in his iconography. Apparendy he requested that a giant statue of
himself at Rome should hold a cross in its right hand, and that the dedicatory inscription should commemorate his devotion to the Savior: "I have
liberated your city by this sign of salvation."27 In contrast, the dedicatory
inscription on the huge triumphal arch completed at Rome in 3 I 5 was
much more bland and noncommittal. It attributed Constantine's success
merely to "the impulse of a divinity."28
The third moment of crisis was in 324, when Constantine defeated Licinius, a riyal emperor in the East. This victory included some of the same
characteristics that had distinguished Constantine's victory in 312. Before
setting out, the emperor prayed to God and waited for a "revelation" (2.12.2,
p. 53). Not only did Constantine receive avision, but so did Licinius'
soldiers, who saw Constantine's soldiers marching in their midst, as if already victorious (2.6.1, pp. 50-51). Constantine's troops advanced with the
"trophy of salvation," a military standard in the shape of a cross, leading the
way (2.6.2, p. 5 I). An uncertain prognosis, prayers, visions, Christian symbols, and a successful outcome: all the elements were in place for this
moment to be considered another transformative religious experience.
Eusebius of course decided that 312 would be the turning point. He
most likely did not even know about the vision of 310, and he simply
declined to mention any examples of Constantine's subsequent patronage of
pagan cults. As a corollary, some modern scholars apparently wish they did
not know about this vision of Apollo either. Barnes dismisses it as "the
fiction"; Elliott, who claims that Constantine had been a devout Christian
at least since 303, suggests that the ac count reflects only the paganism of
the panegyrist. 29 Eusebius also preferred not to consider the victory of 324
as another conversion experience. If Constantine had had one such experience in 312, he could not have had another twelve years later. Neither a
vision of a pagan deity nor another commitment to Christianity would be
THE
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OF CONSTANTINE
137
CONSTANTINE'S STORY
The events of 312 deserve additional scrutiny in their own right. In the Lift
Eusebius located the story of those events in his own peculiar perspective of
the emperor's reign. In his interpretation, those events had marked a singular religious experience, a singular moment of conversion. But his account
in the Lift was over twenty-five years removed from the events, and there
was at least one intermediate account. Since Eusebius noted that he had
heard the story direcdy from Constantine, he could not have heard it before
meeting the emperor for the first time at the Council of Nicaea. The interpretive context that he supplied in the Lift was hence only his retrospective
gloss on the emperor's own retrospective interpretation. Eusebius contextualized Constantine's story to fit the demands of his interpretive perspective.
But in his story Constantine had al ready contextualized the original experience to fit the demands of his situation after 325. Eusebius' "biographical"
account was an interpretation of Constantine's "autobiographical" story, which
was already an interpretation of the original moment.
There is no need to accept Eusebius' context of a religious conversion as
the exclusively correct interpretation, and it is possible to imagine different
contexts for Constantine's story that are as sensible as, if not more sensible
than Eusebius' reading. Constantine might weH have raId the story to make
a different point, especially when he recounted it over a decade after the
batde. In distinction from the context that Eusebius provided for the story,
we need to imagine Constantine's possible motives when he raId it. Obvious
alternative readings would highlight three of the important participants in
the story: the army, the bishops, and ] esus Christ.
"Since the victorious emperor raId this story ra me a long time later
when I was worthy of his acquaintance and conversation, who would hesitate to believe the account?" (1.28.1, p. 30). Even though Constantine
recounted this story at least a decade later, he apparendy made a point of
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
insisting that the vision of the cross in the sky had been a shared one: "His
entire army wirnessed this miracle" (1.28.2, p. 30). Since Eusebius himself
was prepared to minimize the significance of military support (1.27.1, p.
28), this insistence on the participation of the army presumably reflected
Constantine's own concern. And with good reason. The civil wars of the
third and early fourth centuries had demonstrated the necessity of military
support for anyone who wished to remain as emperor. But military support
was fickle, and emperors were looking for alternative justifications for their
rule. One alternative was an ideology that located the source of imperial
power in its association with divine power. Diocletian and his fellow emperors had associated their imperial rule with Jupiter and Hercules, and Constantine himself, precisely when he had faced a potential mutiny among his
troops, had al ready linked himself with Apollo. In 3 12 Constantine's primary concern had been, again, the loyalty of his troops.
Constantine's story made this connection clear. According to his telling,
his army too had seen the cross in the sky. Although his subsequent vision
of Jesus Christ had apparendy been a private one, it too had significance for
his troops, since Jesus Christ had suggested turning this symbol of the cross
into a military standard. Significandy, the standard included, in addition to
its religious symbols, a golden icon of the emperor and his sons (1.31.2, p.
31). The religious symbols ensured the loyalty of the troops to the emperor
and his dynasty. Eventually Constantine also taught his soldiers to recite a
prayer, which included both an expression of gratitude to "the only God"
for victories, and a supplication for the safety of Constantine and his sons
(4.20, p. 127). The prayer was the liturgical equivalent of the military
standard, and both were designed to guarantee the faithfulness of the soldiers. In this reading Constantine's telling of the visions in 312 had been a
story ab out the loyalty of his troops. It had certainly marked a turning
point, but a military turning point and not necessarily a religious conversion.
A second possible context for this story involves the bishops. Constantine
was an oddity as a Christian emperor. He presided over councils of bishops,
he participated in arguments among bishops, he scolded bishops. But all
the while he was not abishop, not even a cleric, but only a layman-and
an unbaptized layman at that. At some point Constantine seems to have
wanted to resolve the anomaly of himself with a pun by identifying himself
as an episkoposJ abishop or (more gene rally) an overseer. During a dinner
with Eusebius and other bishops he tried to define himself: "You are bishops of those inside the church, but I might be abishop appointed by God
for those outside" (4.24, p. 128). The story about his visions in 312 would
link up nicely wirh this comment, since they were proof that he had received
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SEEING AND
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rated J esus' crucifixion, burial, and resurrection. Constantine might weIl have
tald the story ab out his earlier visions in order to justify this patronage. Just as
Eusebius would later draw upon his familiarity with Constantine to compose
the emperor's biography (1.10.2, pp. 19-20), so Constantine could now draw
upon his intimacy with Jesus Christ to commemorate His life's story in the holy
land of Palestine. Constantine was an appropriate author for this new narrative
of Jesus' life, because he had had direct conversations with Hirn. In one of these
visions he had even talked with "the Christ of God" (1.29, p. 30).
Just as Constantine's relationship with the bishops had developed over
the years, so his relationship wirh Jesus Christ also changed. In some respects he now converted hirns elf again, this time from an adherent of J esus
Christ inta a direct analogue. In addition to commemorating His life, Constantine also began increasingly to identify hirnself with Jesus Christ. This
association was especially apparent at the new capital. According to later
traditions, Constantine placed a relic of the True Cross in the giant statue
of himself. 32 Some inhabitants of Constantinople so thoroughly identified
the emperor and J esus Christ that they began offering prayers to the statue
"as if to a god."33 Over the entrance to the palace Constantine erected a
portrait of hirnself and his sons, with a cross over their heads and a serpent
beneath their feet. This portrait commemorated the emperor's victary in
324 over Licinius, his imperial riyal whom he had hirns elf once characterized as a serpent. It also presented the emperor as another savior who had
defeated evil with the assistance of the cross. Eusebius hirns elf interpreted
this portrait in terms of a prophecy from Isaiah that was conventionally
applied to the soteriological role of Jesus Christ (2.46 .2, 3.3, pp. 67, 82).
Eventually Constantine constructed a shrine, either a separate mausoleum or
the Church of the Holy Apostles, to serve as his funerary memorial in the
new capital. This shrine contained a niche for his sarcophagus surrounded
by twelve cenotaphs that represented, and were possibly inscribed with the
names of, the twelve apostles (4.58-60, pp. 144-45). Since the emperor had
presented to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem the twelve
columns encircling the apse that commemorated the twelve apostles (3.38,
p. 100), he was certainly aware of the significance of placing his own tomb
in the middle of these twelve symbolic tombs. During his final illness
Constantine acknowledged that he had always hoped to imitate the Savior
by being baptized in the Jordan (4.62.2, p. 146). Now, even after his death
the placement of his sarcophagus would continue to remind people of his
standing as the equivalent of Jesus Christ.
Eusebius' context of a religious conversion is hence not the only interpretation that can be attached to Constantine's story about his visions in 312.
In telling this story Constantine may have also been thinking about the
THE
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OF CONSTANTINE
I4I
loyalty of his troops, his relationship with bishops, and his relationship
with ]esus Christ. With so many different interpretive contexts possible for
just this one story, it is difficult to insist upon the necessity of finding an
unswerving trajectory in our interpretations of Constantine. His own actions and words undermined any image of consistency. He continued to
have visions, he continued to support pagan cults despite his patronage of
Christianity, and he changed in his relationships with bishops. In the later
fourth century the author of abrief historical epitome divided Constantine's
reign into representative periods. "For [the first} ten years [of his reign} he
was truly extraordinary. For the next twelve years he was a bandit. For the
last ten years he was a little boy, because of his unrestrained generosity."34
Even though both the chronology and the characterizations were odd, this
historian had sensed that there had been no consistency to Constantine.
Throughout his reign he had repeatedly reinvented himself.
Since Eusebius was a recipient of imperial letters and an occasional guest at
the imperial dining table, he too could presumably sense these changes, even if
he did not want to acknowledge them for the sake of maintaining consistency
in his historical interpretation. In his Life there could be no deviation after the
events of 3I2, and certainly no more conversions. But Constantine's increasing
identification of himself with ]esus Christ was a change that Eusebius would
have found attractive. Eusebius had his own reasons for liking, and even encouraging, this particular transformation of Constantine.
EUSEBIUS' THEOLOGY
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
This Council of Antioch nevertheless held out the possibility of forgiveness at a subsequent council. In ]une 325 Constantine hirnself convened an
ecumenical council at Nicaea that eventually produced a statement of beliefs that was meant to repudiate the doctrines of Arius and his supporters.
Almost all of the participants subscribed to this creed. This time Eusebius
joined them, although not without strong misgivings. He had come to this
council with a prepared statement of faith that declared that ]esus Christ,
the only-begotten Son, was nevertheless a creature, "firstborn of all creation." According to Eusebius' own account, when he recited this creed in
the emperor's presence, Constantine immediately pronounced it "most correct" and suggested that it could be the basis for the council's general creed.
He furthermore suggested that the council's creed include the word homoousios} "of the same essence," as a characterization of the Son's relationship to
the Father. Sameness of essence should have excluded subordinationist doctrines, such as those promoted by Arius and Eusebius. In an embarrassed
letter to his own congregation at Caesarea Eusebius explained why he had
nevertheless endorsed the creed with this word. According to his own account, he had convinced the other participants to agree that "of the same
essence" meant only that "the Son was from the Father, but did not exist as
apart of the Father's essence." Eusebius had hence provided an Arianizing
interpretation of the Nicene Creed that reflected his own emphasis on the
subordination of the Son to the Father and the clear distinction between
Father and Son. Constantine, he claimed, had agreed with his perspective.
"The emperor, the most beloved of God, presented [my interpretations} in
his oration."37
These controversies over Arianizing and Nicene doctrines lingered throughout the fourth century. After the Council of N icaea Constantine was more
interested in reconciliation and harmony than in insisting upon a strict
Nicene interpretation. Unrepentant Nicene bishops fell from his favor, while
temporizing Arian bishops, like Eusebius, enjoyed his support. Eventually
the emperor even reinstated Arius. He invited Arius to enjoy "my goodwill"
at the court,38 and he then recommended that yet another council readmit
Arius and some of his supporters who had been exiled after the Council of
Nicaea.
Yet Arius never recanted his doctrines. When he had submitted a statement of his faith for the emperor's consideration, he too, like Eusebius, had
proposed a rather strained interpretation of the Nicene creed, and he had
avoided any reference to the suggestion that the Son was "of the same
essence" as the Father. 39 Eusebius too, especially since Constantine was now
favoring hirn, never gave up on his subordinationist theology. At the end of
his life he composed two more major works of theology. One, Contra
THE
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OF CONSTANTINE
143
Marcellum, was a thrashing of a theological riyal, Bishop Marcellus of Ancyra, who had continued to condemn Arius and his supporters, among them
Eusebius, despite Constantine's search for harmony. In a second treatise, De
ecclesiastica theologia, Eusebius complemented his rebuttal of Marcellus with
a more positive reassertion of his own theology that again highlighted the
differences between Father and Son.
Eusebius composed these two works after Constantine's death in 337. At
the same time he was writing his Lift of Constantine. Eusebius hence composed this Lift with theology, and not necessarily history, predominantly on
his mind. His days as ahistorian, the author of an Ecclesiastical History and
a Chronicle, were long over, and he was more intent on defending his own
theology. In addition to its functions as a biography, a panegyric, and a
collection of imperial documents, the Lift could serve as another exposition
of Eusebius' theology. The similarity between emperor and Jesus Christ was
especially useful as a theological idea that supported his doctrines.
In recent orations Eusebius had already associated the two. In 335 he
delivered some orations at Jerusalem during the dedication ceremonies for
the new Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Later in the year he traveled to
Constantinople, where he spoke on "the Savior's memorial" (4.33.1, p. 132)
in the emperor's presence. This oration at the capital was presumably a
repeat of one of his earlier orations about the Church of the Holy Sepulchre,
or apart of an earlier oration, or a composite of ideas from some of them.
An extant oration may weIl be the one that Eusebius now delivered at
Constantinople, or at least most likely represents its main themes. In it
Eusebius explained the successes of "our Savior God" after His death and
resurrection. But he also noted the emperor's own role. Since the emperor
was God's "good servant and minister of goodness," Eusebius suggested that
he should be the one to teach them more about the Savior, especially since
he had had so many visions. 40 This compliment was a recollection of the
emperor's vision of Christ, an acknowledgment that he had had many more
such visions, and a declaration that only Constantine was capable of revealing examples of God's assistance.
In 336 Eusebius was again at Constantinople, this time to celebrate the
thirtieth jubilee of Constantine's accession as emperor. In honor of this
anniversary he delivered another oration. Given the occasion, it is not surprising that he extolled the emperor and his accomplishments. But Eusebius added an intriguing identification. Rather than simply cataloguing the
emperor's virtues and achievements, he compared hirn with the Savior Logos, and essentially equated the two. Since God, the great Emperor, was
shrouded in his heavenly palace, He needed intermediaries to reveal Himself. arie was the only-begotten Logos, "the governor of the entire universe";
144
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the other was the emperor, "the friend of God," who directed everything on
earth. 41 The Logos commanded the heavenly armies while Constantine led
his troops to victory over the barbarians and defeated the demons of the
pagan cults. As he celebrated the successes of both mediators, Eusebius
described each with the same metaphor: "like aprefeet of the great Emperor. "42 In his estimation, J esus Christ the Logos and the Christian emperor
were coordinate rulers, identical because they were both commanders for
God.
In the Life Eusebius continued the identification. The most notable example was in his description of the proceedings of the Council of Nicaea.
Since the creed from this council had insisted that the Father and the Son
shared the same essence, at the time Eusebius had struggled to reconcile it
with his own subordinationist doctrines. In his later ac count he compared
Constantine, upon his arrival at the council, to "a heavenly angel ['messenger') of God" (3.10.3, p. 86). The culmination of his depiction of Constantine as God's special representative was his ecstatic description of the banquet
that the emperor hosted for the bishops after the council, and which Eusebius of course attended: "one might think that an image of Christ's kingdom
was becoming apparent" (3.15.2, p. 89). The Nicene Creed had associated
God the Father with the Son; Eusebius' description of the council instead
associated Jesus Christ the Son with the Christian emperor. Constantine
was an analogue of J esus Christ, and both were sub ordinate to God the
Father.
Among many modern scholars Eusebius has a reputation as a political
theorist, responsible for introducing Greek political thought into Christian
thinking. But as he composed this Life Eusebius may have considered a
political philosophy of a Christian emperor only one of his objectives, and
perhaps not the most important one. For political philosophy the comparisons with Jesus Christ were important for defining a Christian emperor.
But these comparisons would have worked in both directions. From a reverse angle the comparisons with an emperor were important for defining
Jesus Christ. By stressing the similarity between the two, Eusebius could
more readily argue that both were subordinate to God. As Constantine
increasingly associated hirnself with Jesus Christ, Eusebius seems to have
become increasingly interested in the emperor as a theological construct, a
doctrinal idea. He could use the idea of a Christian emperor who was
identified with J esus Christ to help hirn promote his doctrine that J esus
Christ was subordinate to God the Father. His vision in the Life of a
Constantine who was loyally subordinate to God would reinforce his doctrine that Jesus Christ, too, was always subordinate to God.
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THE STATUE
SEEING AND
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THE
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147
iron hoops. In the later fifth century an earthquake knocked the globe out
of the statue's left hand. The globe was replaced, and in the mid-ninth
century another earthquake shook it out again. In the mid-sixth century yet
another earthquake shook the spear out of the statue's right hand. It crashed
to the ground and buried itself five feet deep. This time it was replaced
with a scepter. In the later eleventh century lightning struck the column
and split three of the iron bands.
It was just a matter of time until the entire statue of Constantine fell off
the column. In 1106 a stiff gust toppled the statue, and apparendy also the
huge capital on which it stood . Many people were killed. The emperor
Manuel Comnenus finally repaired the monument in the later twelfth century. To stabilize the base he may have added four supporting arches around
the pedestal, and he topped the clumn with some courses of masonry and
a large marble block. But he did not replace the statue of Constantine.
Instead, on top of the block he erected a huge cross. From the beginning
Constantinople had sometimes been known as "Christoupolis."48 Now Constantine's city seemed to have truly become Christ's city, with a large cross
floating over its silhouette. Now everyone could imagine Constantine's vision of a cross in the sky.
Today the monument is a stub of its former eminence, its steps buried
beneath the current street level, its bottom encased in a bulky sheath of
concrete and rough stonework, the drums of its column charred and corseted in metal hoops, its top empty. Eusebius' Lift is meanwhile enjoying a
revival, especially with the recent appearance of a fine new translation and
commentary.49 That revival offers us the opportunity to rethink Constantine's conversion, and religious conversion in general. We should think
about conversion in a much larger sense, as one aspect of all the many ways
in which people represented themselves in public. We should approach the
stories about visions with greater respect for the many possible interpretations they offer, and not try so quickly to belitde some of them in favor of
finding a single consistent trajectory. Constantine's life must first be toppled off the column of Eusebius' Lift. As with Constantine's statue, there
will then be many ways of welding his life back together.
In the end, the statue did represent a conversion experience. But it was
not the conversion preferred by Eusebius, or by modern accounts. Popular
gossip claimed that the statue had once depicted Apollo in his guise as
Helios the sun god, until it had been reworked into an image of Constantine. The conversion of the statue mimicked the transformation of Constantine, who had early on been an adherent of Apollo. But after the statue had
been converted, people did not refer to it as "Constantine" or "Christian
emperor;" Instead, they called it Anelios. 50 Apparendy it was easier to think
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
of the emperor in terms of what he had left behind, rather than in terms of
what he had become. This statue was, simply, "Not the Sun."
NOTES
THE
MANY CONVERSIONS
OF
CONSTANTINE
I49
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
151
I}
P259
41. Eusebius, De laudibus Constantini} 1.6, in Heikel, Eusebius Werke I}
pp. 19 8-99.
42. Eusebius, De laudibus Constantini} 3.6. 7.13, in Heikel, Eusebius Werke
I} pp. 202, 215.
43. Socrates, Historia ecclesiastica} 1.4, in Hansen and Sirinian, Sokrates}
Kirchengeschichte} p. 91.
44. Sozomen, Historia ecclesiastica} 2.34.6, ed. J. Bidez, rev. G. C. Hansen,
Sozomenus} Kirchengeschichte} Die griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller der
ersten Jahrhunderte, n.s. 4, 2d ed. (Berlin, 1995), p. 100. A translation of
Sozomen's Ecclesiastical History by C. D. Hartranft is available in Socrates}
Sozomenus: Church Histories (n. 32), pp. 236-427.
45. Socrates, Historia ecclesiastica} 1.38.7-8, in Hansen and Sirinian,
Sokrates} Kirchengeschichte} p. 89.
46. Vita Andreae Sa/i} PG I I I :868.
47. Ducas, Historia 39.18, ed. 1. Bekker, Ducae Michaelis Ducae nepotis
Historia byzantina} Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae (Bonn, 1834),
pp. 289-9. A translation of Ducas' history is available in H. J. Magoulias,
Decline and Fall 0/ Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks} by Doukas: An Annotated
Translation 0/ ((Historia Turco-Byzantina JJ (Detroit, 1975).
48. Sozomen, Historia ecclesiastica} 2.3.7, in Bidez and Hansen, Sozomentts}
Kirchengeschichte} p. 53.
49. A. Cameron and S. G. Hall, Eusebius: Lift 0/ Constantine (Oxford,
1999)
50. Michael Attaleiates, Historia} ed. 1. Bekker, Michaelis Attaliotae Historial Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae (Bonn, 1853), p. 310; Anna
Comnena, Alexias 12-4, ed. L. Schopen, Annae Comnenae Alexiadis libri Xv,
Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae, 2 vols. (Bonn, 1839-78), 2:14951.
6
"DELIVERED FROM THEIR ANCIENT CUSTOMS"
CHRISTIANITY AND THE QUESTION OF CULTURAL CHANGE IN
EARLY BYZANTINE ETHNOGRAPHY
MICHAEL
MAAS
Ethnography is actively situated between power/ul systems o/llleaning. It poses its questions at the
boundaries
0/ civilizations,
0/ collective
0/ Ethnography
(1986)
When Islamic armies first challenged Byzantium in the middle years of the
seventh century, they encountered a Christian state drained by warfare with
Persians, Avars, and Slavs, but nevertheless exhibiting a vigorous and hardwon confidence. Roman culture had undergone a significant transformation
between the reigns of Justinian (527-65) and Heraclius (610-41), aperiod
in which the roots of the resilient medieval Byzantine state tookhold.
During this period Byzantines found great strength in their identity as a
Christian people, and their perception of domestic populations and foreigners in
imperial affairs acquired a completely religious cast. 1 The venerable genre of
classical ethnography that was devoted to telling the differences between cultures reflects these developments, not simply through the data it records about
Romans and other peoples, but because it, to~, changed in step with the times.
Ethnography can be seen as a kind of barometer of how Christianity became
identified with imperial authority and how the Byzantine elite imagined a
society that was first of all Christian, a society with new "grounds of collective
order and diversity, inclusion and exclusion."2
It is well known that Roman ethnographers, drawing on Greek models
throughout the imperial period, described in great detail the distance between
153
uncivilized peoples and their own normative society. We are less aware,
however, of their interest in the equally significant issue of how cultural
change was possible within the uncivilized communities they wrote about,
and consequently how an integrated imperial community might be achieved.
The tropes in wh ich they described uncivilized peoples had not changed
much since the time of Herodotus, but Romans knew quite well that the
uncivilized peoples of the world lived in communities that were anything
but static. They understood that human communities constantly change.
Romans' view of their empire required such an attitude, for the ruling elite
had long believed that lesser cultures might change their way of life under
Roman tutelage. The governing classes of the empire felt sure that by
imposing imperial rule upon uncivilized peoples they would transform barbarians into Romans. 3 That is why none of Rome's subjects, regardless of
how savage and barbaric some of their habits might have been, were ever
described as "barbarians." "Barbarians" were people not yet under Roman
rule and so assumed to be hostile and uncivilized. Notions of civilization
and cultural change were intimately linked to Roman rule.
During the period between Justinian and Heraclius, Christianity permeated all aspects of Roman society more deeply than ever before, and so
served as the catalyst for the emergence of medieval Byzantine society. This
paper is concerned with the turn to Christianity within different sorts of
ethnographie writing during this formative period. The Christianization of
ethnography profoundly altered understanding of how and why non-Roman
communities both within and beyond imperial borders might change their
character. As a result of this perception of the empire as a community of
Christians, the terms of inclusion within the empire and the nature of
Rome's "civilizing mission" changed. As a taxonomie exercise, ethnography
helped map out a new vision of the world and its communities through
Byzantine eyes.
Three Varieties
0/ Ethnographie
Writing
154
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
eultural inclusion and differentiation took shape. For this to be eomplete, among other things, eultural differenees had to be rethought in
Christian terms.
The first, and most important body of imperial ethnographie thought lay
in Roman law. It pertained to people living within the empire and gave a
total definition of society. When Romans organized their subject peoples for
the purpose of ruling them they imposed objeetive identifieations upon
them. Through such means as levying taxes, mapping and naming provinces, and espeeially through granting eitizenship, Romans gave the inhabitants of the empire reeognized status in eategories of Roman law. 5 Beeause
they were eonsistently applied, eitizenship, status, and other offieial markers of Roman identity may be understood as a set of ethnographie eategories. Subordinate peoples within the empire, however, maintained their own
subjeetive identities that had his tori es independent of Roman rule. For
example, Isaurians, Jews, and many other groups of all sorts did not surrender their sense of eommunal identity under Roman domination even though
they had a reeognized plaee in the Roman system. 6 Rome had always permitted its subjeet peoples who were not eitizens to maintain their own
eustomary laws in an urban eontext. 7 Cities stood as the embodiment of
independent, "loeal" traditions of law and eustom. 8 And so, when in 212 an
imperial grant of citizenship to virtually all free people in the empire eliminated the various gradations of eitizenship that had aeeumulated sinee the
Republie, the subjeetive identities of provincial populations slowly began
to ehange. 9 Loeal legal traditions faded away, and during late antiquity
eities declined as important markers of legal identifieation. By the end of
the sixth eentury, for example, no eities maintained any signifieant independent laws of their own. 10 As Christianity eame to predominate in city and
eountryside in this long proeess of eommunal redefinition, legal differenees
between eitizen and subjeet populations lost resonaneeY New regional identities defined by language and religious beliefs emerged: Greek, Coptie,
Syriae, and Latin beeame the tongues of new eommunities of faith that
adhered to variant interpretations of the nature of Christ and his relation to
God the Father. Roman law, whieh found a plaee within a Christian firmament, beeame an instrument to pursue eonformist religious goals. 12 The
dialogue between imperial and loeal, expressed in law, was at heart an
ethnographie enterprise beeause it objeetified, evaluated, and systematieally
differentiated the domestie eommunities of the realm.
The seeond main corpus of ethnographie thought was the classieal literary genre of ethnography.13 Classieal ethnography dealt with issues of eultural deseription, inclusion, and differentiation in literary texts, espeeially
155
15 6
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
Some Aspects
0/ Roman
157
suses, the often lengthy asides found especially in the writing of history,
were the traditional vehicle for ethnographie descriptions. They are now
understood to have been integral parts of the works in which they appeared,
not simply learned and decorative afterthoughts. 22 Ethnography brought
the unknown and unfamiliar to the attention of its readers, trying to "amuse
and edify,"23 but at the same time it supported the larger political or literary
goals of the document in which it appeared.
Romans assumed that every people had a particular way of life marked by
distinguishing characteristics and capable of change. Thus, sexual habits,
military organization, laws andinstitutions, and a host of other topics
occupied the attention of ethnographers. 24 Romans also took for granted
that there were intimate connections between geography, the arrangement
of the stars, and the formation of the character of peoples. 25 For this reason
they had a wide curiosity and looked forward to finding out about the
physical geography, climate, agriculture, natural resources, and exotic flora
and fauna of a region in which a people dwelled. What did foreigners look
like? Lying behind this question were astrological and physiognomie theories. 26 Romans understood that different peoples had different "belief systems" that included religion, cultic practice, and philosophical speculation of
different sorts. These were also susceptible to change. Roman ethnographers
generally kept "ways of life" and "religion" separate in their discussion; religious
beliefs were part of a way of life but did not define that way of life.
The range of topics discussed was quite broad. The origins of foreign
peoples were important, especially if they could be linked to classical myth,
because historical lineage gave a strong identity to a people. Little interest
was displayed in the languages of non-Romans though it was recognized
that language was an important marker of identity.27 Authors developed
such themes in different ways, but one element recurred throughout: the
opposition of Roman and barbarian.
As inheritors of Greek literary culture, the Roman governing elite took
on board a well-developed contrast between civilized and barbarian society
which they developed to suit Roman needs. 28 The opposition lay at the
heart of Roman reflections about their imperial power and contained the
possibility of cultural transformation, thereby enabling assimilation. Romans made the contrast between civilization and barbarism their own in
two somewhat contradictory ways. First, they had adynamie and quite
important belief in the transformative power of Roman law and society, and
they linked this possibility of cultural transformation, that is of a barbarian
becoming a Roman, to the function and ideology of the state: Rome had a
civilizing mission. 29 Yet at the same time that universalist beliefs embraced
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
159
late and self-conscious reflection on the possibilities of personal transformation. Writers who drew on the conventional contrast of civilized Greek
versus uncivilized barbarian distinguished between ethnic identity and cultural identity. By accepting Greek paideia intellectuals of Roman, Celtic,
Syrian, or any other background might transcend their culture of origin and
enter into an international elite fraternity of prestigious learning and above
all facility with Attic Greek. 36 (It should be noted, however, that the transformation of an elite individual through paideia was not the same as the
transformation of an entire community, nor was it associated with the Roman Empire.) Lucian of Samosata.in Syria, for example, presented himself as
the model of a "barbarian" who had become civilized through the force of
paideia. 37 More than individual transformation was possible. Plutarch presented Alexander the Great as a man who spread Greek civilization and
imposed Greek culture on passive barbarians, and Lucian, who understood
his own Hellenization as an active engagement with Greek ideas, believed
that his paideia could in turn influence Greeks themselves. 38 These ideas of
the Second Sophistic influenced the Cappadocian Fathers, whose work was
weIl known to Justinian and his circle. 39 And, of course, as the other essays
in this volume show, Christianity offered new paradigms of change through
conversion.
J
160
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
ehanged, as some loeal languages gradually beeame obsolete, and as paganism was eradieated in huge swaths in the eountryside, old poles of identity
fell away, and an imperial Christianity met areal need to artieulate new
onesY In Byzantium people of all ethne were welcome to partieipate, but
only if they were orthodox. Enforeement of belief was harsh. 43 A Byzantine
sense of identity erystallized around the Greek language, the emperor, a
reartieulated view of the Roman tradition, and above all , Christianity. It
was the making of Greek Byzantium in a fashion analogous to the development of Coptie and Syriae eultures. The religion set clear terms for a Byzantine view of the peoples of the world and politieal interaction with them.
Aeeordingly, under Justinian missionary and diplomatie aetivity reeeived a
joint emphasis. 44 There was less and less room in this Byzantine world for
an ethnography in whieh Christianity had no role. For this reason the reign
of Heraclius will provide a good stopping point for our diseussion. One
eharaeteristie of Heraclius's empire at mid-seventh eentury was the full
integration of Christianity into imperial theory, and at the same time classieal historiography, the usual vehicle for extended ethnographie deseriptions, eeased to be written. 45 Byzantine pereeption of the role of foreigners
in imperial affairs aequired a fundamentally Christian eharaeter. 46
The following examples illustrate important preoeeupations of ethnographie writers between Justinian and Heraclius. The reign of Justinian was
far rieher in different kinds of ethnographie writing than those of his sueeessors, and the passages chosen for diseussion here illustrate some of that
variety.
In the year 528 the armies of Justinian eonquered the Tzani, a bellicose
people living in the foothills of the Taurus mountain range ne ar Armenia
with whom imperial forees had clashed many times in previous reignsY
This military action was a small part of a grander strategy of reorganizing
and stabilizing the eastern frontier to inerease politieal influenee and to
maintain peaee with Persia. 48 Justinian fortified the region in order to eontrol the interior as weIl as the Blaek Sea eoast, and he built several towns in
Tzaniea. 49 The Tzani were foreed to eonvert to Christianity and to eontribute troops to the Roman army. Their land was ineorporated into the empire
though it was not made into a provinee. After an abortive rebellion by some
groups of Tzani in 558, Justinian imposed punitive payments upon them,
whieh are diseussed in more detail below.
161
The story of the Tzani is an interesting illustration of J ustinianic ethnography because their sad history is discussed in three different sorts of contemporary writing: panegyric, history, and law. Thus we can see particularly
weIl how each genre influenced the description of the Tzani and posed
different sorts of questions within a Justinianic framework. Each of the
various sources makes a different sort of value judgment about the Tzani
and locates the reader in relation to them in a different way. Each involves
a different sort of knowledge ab out them. This produces in the end three
rather different ethnographie statements. My purpose is not to sift these
versions and produce a "correct" historical account, but to point out the
ways the sources articulate questions of the Tzani's cultural transformation,
political inclusion within the empire, and the influence of Christianity
upon them.
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
march of events, with the result that many of the conditions which
formerly obtained have been replaced by new conditions, because of
the migrations of nations and successive changes of rulers and of names.
These things it has seemed to me very necessary to investigate, not
relating mythological tales about them nor other antiquated material ... but stating accurately and in order both the names of each of
those places and the facts that apply to them at the present day.50
Here Procopius adopts the pose of an empirical historian. He endeavors
to present correct information to his readers so that they might understand
better the militaryactions that are his chief concern at this point in his
narrative. More important for the purposes of this paper than any accuracy
that he may have achieved, however, is the very fact that he pursues it while
describing people and geography That is to say an attempt at historical
accuracy controls his presentation. He explains the need for scrutiny and
skepticism by stating rather baldly that "circumstances change" causing
people to move about and names to be altered. He considers ethnographic
knowledge as something that a historian must renew because of the passage
of time.
EIsewhere, Procopius describes the Tzani when introducing the subject of
war on the Persian frontier:
It happened also that a short time before this they had reduced to
subjection the Tzanic nation, who had been settled from of old in
Roman territory, as an autonomous people; and to these things, the
manner in which they were accomplished will be related here and now.
As one go es from the land of Armenia into Persarmenia the Taurus lies
on the right, extending into Iberia and the peoples there .... In this
place from the beginning lived barbarians, the Tzanic nation, subject
to no one, called Sani in early times; they made plundering expeditions among the Romans who lived round about, maintaining a most
difficult existence, and always living upon what they stole; for their
land produced for them nothing good to eat. Wherefore also the Roman emperor sent them each year a fixed amount of gold, with the
condition that they should never plunder the country thereabout. And
the barbarians had sworn to observe this agreement with the oaths
peculiar to their nation, and then, disregarding what they had sworn,
they had been accustomed for a long time to make unexpected attacks
and to injure not only the Armenians, but also the Romans who lived
next to them as far as the sea; then, after completing their inroad in a
short space of time, they would immediately betake themselves again
163
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
the Tzani with formal observations about the activity of the emperor and
the goals of imperial power. The material is presumably derived from the
passage in the Wars just discussed.
And it has seemed to me not inappropriate to record at this point in
my account what he did for the Tzani, for they are neighbors of the
Armenians. From ancient times the Tzani have lived as an independent people, without rulers, following a savage-like manner of life,
regarding as gods the trees and birds and sundry creatures besides, and
worshipping them, and spending their whole lives among mountains
reaching to the sky and covered wirh forests, and cultivating no land
whatever, but robbing and living always on their plunder.... For this
reason the Tzani in ancient times used to live in independence, but
during the reign of J ustinian they were defeated in batde . . . and
abandoning the struggle they straightway yielded to hirn, preferring
toilless servitude to dangerous liberty. And they immediately changed
their belief (TItv 86~ov) to piety, all of them becoming Christian, and
they altered their manner of life ('t11v Otat 'tov) to a milder way, giving
up all brigandage and always marching with the Romans whenever
they went against their enemies. And the emperor Justinian, fearing
that the Tzani at some time might alter their way of life ('t11V Otat'tov)
and change their habits ('tu 118r1> back to the wilder sort, devised the
following measures. Tzanica was a very inaccessible country. . .. As a result
of this it was impossible for the Tzani to mingle with their neighbors,
living as they did a life of solitude among themselves in the manner of
wild beasts. Accordingly he cut down all the trees by which the routes
chanced to be obstructed, and transforming the rough places and making
them smooth and passable for horses,54 he brought it ab out that they
mingled with other peoples in the manner of men in general and consented to have dealings (E7ttlltyvucr8m) with their neighbors. After this he built
a church for them . . . and caused them to conduct services and to partake
of the sacraments and propitiate God with prayers and perform other acts
of worship, so that they should know they were human beings. And he
built forts in all parts of the land, assigned to them very strong garrisons
of Roman soldiers, and gave the Tzani unhampered dealings ('tu<; E1tllll~tO<;)
with other peoples. I shall now tell where ... he built these forts .... And
at a place two days journey from Horonon, where the territory of the Tzani
who are called Ocenitae commences (for the Tzani are divided into many
tribes) there was a sott of stronghold built of men of former times ...
which long before had become a ruin through neglect. This the Emperor
Justinian restored ... 55
165
Six elements in this deseription des erve eomment. First, the opposition of
barbarian to Roman must be eonsidered as a form of politieal and soeial
self-definition. Proeopius judges the Tzani harshly. The terms in whieh he
deseribes them provide an exeellent statement of Romanitas-in reverse: we
learn what was eonsidered un-Roman and therefore bad. He establishes
distanee from Roman eivilization on different planes: the Tzani have no
rulers and no law; they are beyond the Roman state and its influenee; they
have no arts of agrieulture; they worship animals and trees; they live in
forests like beasts; they gain their livelihood from plunder; they live in the
solitude of high mountains, separated from other peoples. As in his aeeount
in the Wars, Proeopius imposes on the Tzani eertain cliched attributes of
barbarism that have a very long history in the Greeo-Roman ethnographie
tradition and must not be aeeepted as the literal truth, though in some
exaggerated ways they may be appropriate to the eondition of the Tzani.
The next fundamental element in Proeopius's deseription of the Tzani is
the possibility of eultural transformation. Several lines of thought are in
play here. We find a view of progress based on a rise to urbanism in keeping
with the Roman view of the primaey of city life and also with the Buildings'
emphasis on the rehabilitation of urban life. Eneouraging the growth of
eities had long been a prop of the Roman imperial order though not a
deli berate goal of empire. We also see Christianity presented as the final
and proper expression of belief. This attitude was embodied in Justinian's
sponsorship of foreed eonversions and missionary aetivity.56
When Proeopius explains aeeurately that the emperor built forts to include the Tzani and proteet them, and to separate them from surrounding
enemies of Rome, he ties the deseription of a people and their eulture to an
elaborate theory of empire at the he art 'of Buildings. This theory held that
the Christian emperor would restore the grandeur of Roman antiquity and
thereby ensure divine favor for himself and his people. 57 Buildings emphasizes Justinian's energy and produees "the impression that a sudden and
overwhelming ehange was brought about by Justinian's building polieies, as
though the empire was restored and revitalized solely through his efforts
and within a short spaee of time."58
That Proeopius singles out Christianity as the eatalyst for making the
Tzani entirely human is not at all surprising. Buildings, a fundamentally
Christi an text, takes it for granted that Justinian's building poliey was partly
direeted to bringing pagans to the Chureh,59 but it should be emphasized
that Christianity does not determine all of the deseription of the Tzani.
The methods by whieh these barbarie cireumstanees are ehanged to make
the Tzani civilized are partieularly evocative of Roman attitudes. Justinian
takes them from isolation so that they may have relations with surrounding
r66
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
peoples. He not only raises them from the level of animals, he welcomes
them into a community of nations dominated by the Roman Empire; in
other words, civilization is presented as a political condition of cultural
interchange and osmosis. 60 Regrettably, Procopius does not have anything
more to say about how this interaction is to work.
The cultural transformation described by Procopius has a more abstract aspect as weH that goes beyond habits of life. Ir is the custom of imperial writers
of many historical periods to categorize their subjects as primitive and stuck in
a rut of permanent routine. In Procopius's description, Justinian takes the Tzani
from a timeless, unchanging life of savagery in aland of eternal winter. 61 to the
wodd of history in which change may occur and in which history may be
written. 62 Pulling them into a world susceptible to change brings the Tzani into
not only the range of imperial law and government, but also the arena of
contemporary philosophical speculation about the nature of change. 63
Procopius's remark that Justinian took these steps because he feared "that the
Tzani at some time might alter their way of life and change their habits back
to the wilder sort" contains historical as weH as propagandistic information. The
possibility of cultural regression (rarely expressed in Roman imperial ethnography) may be understood as a polite reference to the revolt of some tribes of the
Tzani in 558.64 This notion of backsliding, which belies the conceit that culture
may be changed by Bat, brings us directly to a central tenet of Justinian's view
of legislation: since the wodd was in astate of constant flux the emperar must
constantly enact new laws to earn and keep the favor of GOd. 65
The third element to emphasize in this ethnographie passage is the special status of the emperar as the facilitator of social change. Justinian habituaHy presented hirnself as a restorer of the state in official statements, and
Buildings praises the emperar in these time-honored terms. 66 Note particulady how the language of this passage, entirely appropriately for a panegyric, focuses on the person of the emperor as he changes the ways of life of
the Tzani. Ir is Justinian who cuts away obstructions; he transforms the
rough places; he brings it about that the Tzani mix with their neighbors; he
causes the Tzani to worship as Christians. In short, the panegyric gives hirn
here and elsewhere a monumental role as Christian artifex in cultural transformation; in eadier periods the Roman state in a general sense, not the
emperor hirnself, had been understood to be the artisan. 67 There mayaiso be
a connection to the culture heroes of the Second Sophistic, like Alexander
the Great and Herades, who brought Greek culture to a barbarous warld.
A long history of the development of the emperor's central position lies
behind this emergence of the emperor at center stage, and Justinian's reign
was noteworthy for new coalescence of Christian legitimization of imperial
power in law and art and in the formulation of religious doctrine. 68 Here, in
r67
the description of the Tzani's transformation, we see one more aggrandizement: the intrusion of the emperor into ethnographie description.
Imperial arrogance marks the fourth element: Procopius is utterly blind
to what this forced conversion and cultural transformation actually entailed
for the Tzani themselves, and this of course alters his description of them.
In the panegyric, the Tzani exist simply as players in an old imperial drama
of conquest and assimilation. The changes imposed on the Tzani are of
interest to hirn only because they illustrate assumptions about Rome as a
civilizing power. The fact of imperial violation of Tzanic culture is immaterial, hidden behind the glorification of Romanization. Charles Pazdernik
correcdy explains Procopius's mention of the Tzani's replacing a "dangerous
liberty" with a "servitude free from care" as a reference to Justinian's beneficent shouldering of the weight of all their troubles. 69 Servitude to the
emperor did not mean slavery but a natural dependence upon a wise and
helpful ruler who would guide them to the true liberation of Christianity.
The fifth point pertains to the authority of the passage. With Procopius,
the description of the Tzani gains its authority because of how it reinforces
beliefs about the emperor's mission of restoration and conversion. In his
History 0/ the Wars, Procopius describes the conquest of the Tzani in more
empirical terms, and claims to have conducted research on them. 70 In the
historical discussion he explains that the Tzani do not live in isolation but
have had a long history of relations with the Romans, marked by broken
agreements, subsidies, and frequent defeat in batde. He would have known
as well from classical authors other episodes in the Tzani's long history. All
of this information is not relevant in the panegyric.
Finally, we note the presence of Christianity, Justinian's "system of belief'
which gives a coherence to the entire passage and afEects nearly every aspect
of Procopius's treatment.
Ir is clear that the chief characteristics oE the Tzani in the panegyric,
namely their isolation and consequent barbarism, and the accompanying
description of their transformation into Roman subjects, are determined by
the imperial ideological concerns on which the panegyric rests. Christianity
animates these concerns. The description of the Tzani reinEorces beliefs
about the emperor's mission of restoration and conversion and celebrates
Justinian's power over them through the medium of the cultural progress
that he enables. The description oE the Tzani is in the service of the panegyric. Just as it made itself felt in art, law, and politics, the totalitarian
presence of the emperor Justinian appears here in ethnographie description.
The rhetoric oE authority, not a science of humanity, animates the ethnography. One thing is certain: Justinian's power over the Tzani, as celebrated
in Buildings, leads them to fundamental social change.
r68
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
r69
tion as his obedient subjects, paying tribute and totally under his
power. Accordingly their names were all inscribed in a register, and
they were subjected to the payment of a tribute which to this very day
they are still paying. 74
But was this tribute the same as the taxes that all citizens in the empire
paid? It is difficult to identify their status. In none of these circumstances
were the Tzani dealt wirh as normal provincial citizens who did not receive
subsidies or pay tribute. The difference between subjects and citizens had
effectively been eliminated by the Constitutio Antoniniana75 and the word
subiecti (subjects) was in fact the word for citizens most frequently used in
Justinian's laws. 76 If anything the Tzani seem to have been in the condition
of dediticii (though this term is not mentioned), that is, recently conquered
subjects who remained in a "condition of suspended political existence until
arrangements are made for their permanent organization as Roman allies or
provincial subjects."77 J ustinian, however, seems to have abolished at least
some aspects of this status in 530.78 Perhaps J ustinian felt that the law
would contribute to the Romanization of the Tzani. 79
Yet, for all of the peculiarity of their subjection to the empire, Procopius
and Agathias refer to them as citizens. Roman law clearly applied to them. 80
The conclusion must be drawn that the Roman community as imagined in
the law embraced people who were subject to the state in very different
ways. Citizenship in effect had come to mean simply recognizing the authority of the emperor, a beneficent father.
How a subject people became assimilated into the empire through the
agency of law is well illustrated by Justinian's law of 536 regarding inheritance practices in Armenia. The contrast between Roman civilization and
barbarism is an important issue in the legislation:
The Emperor J ustinian to Acacius, Proconsul of Armenia:
Desiring that the country of Armenia should be governed by good
laws, and in no respect differ from the rest of our empire, We have
conferred upon it a Roman administration; have delivered it from irs
ancient customs 81 and have familiarized it with those of the Romans,
ordering that it shall have no other laws than theirs. We think, however, that it is necessary, by means of a special enactment, to abolish a
barbarous practice which the Armenians have preserved; for among
17
SEEING AND
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them women are excluded not only from succession to the estates of
their ascendants, but also from those of their own brothers and or
blood relatives; they are married without a dowry; and are purchased
by their future husbands. These barbarous customs they have observed
up to the present time, and they are not the only ones who act in this
cruel manner, for there are other races that dishonor nature in the same
way, and injure the female sex just as if it were not created by God,
and took part in the propagation of the human race, and finally, as if
it was utterly vile, contemptible, and not entitled to any honor.
Ch. 1. Therefore we decree by this imperial enactment that the laws
in force in our Empire, which have reference to the right of women to
succeed to estates, shall be observed in Armenia, and that no difference
shall hereafter exist between the sexes in this respect. . . .
Hence the Armenians shall no longer be subject to laws different from
those of the Empire; and if they form part of our subjects, and are under
our government like many other peoples, and enjoy the benefits conferred
by Us, their women shall not be the only ones deprived of our justice; and
they shall all enjoy the benefit of our laws, whether they have come down
to Us from former ages and have been inserted into Our Institutes and
Digest, or whether they are called upon to obey the Imperial Constitutions, Promulgated by Ourself, or by Our predecessors. 82
Because the Armenians were Roman subjects, Justinian could not call
them barbarians, but he does call them barbarous in one regard: they do not
live by Roman inheritance law. Precise knowledge of Armenian customs
allows J ustinian to legislate in this matter. 83 There is at the same time no
doubt that J ustinian will fully civilize them with his legislation, which
makes a clear claim to cultural transformation ("having delivered it from its
ancient customs"). The law's stated purpose is to integrate Armenia completely into the Roman administrative system so that it will be the same as
all the other provinces, a universalizing act that transcends (or levels) cultural difEerences among imperial subjects. While the novel recognizes differences among peoples, it desires to treat them all equally by establishing
certain legal norms. Thus, from a legal point of view the significant things
that the Armenians now have in common wirh the rest oE Justinian's subjects are law and Christianity, that is, a combination oE "way oE life" and
"belief system" (oat'tu and 06~u). This is Justinianic imperialism at its most
high-handed, imposing the imperial fantasy of bringing civilization and
God's order. As receivers oE civilization, the Armenians take a place in an
imperial Christian world view, as framed by the emperor's laws. They are
neither fully Roman nor fuHy barbarian. With its blend oE Christianity and
I7I
AFTER
JUSTINIAN
17 2
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
Alamannic society: traditional mode of living, government and administration, and religious observance, with the last of these receiving the greatest
attention:
[The Alamanni) worship certain trees, the waters of rivers, hills and
mountain valleys, in whose honor they sacrifice horses, cattle, and
countless other animals by beheading them, and imagine that they are
performing an act of piety thereby. But contact with the Franks is
having a beneficial effect and is reforming them in this respect too;
al ready it is influencing the more rational among them and it will not
be long, I think, before a saner view wins universal acceptance. 90
The Franks, for political reasons, are in turn described as being very
nearly Roman:
... the Franks are not nomads, as indeed some of the barbarian peoples
are, but their system of government, administration and laws are modeled
more or less on the Roman pattern, apart from which they uphold similar
standards with regard to contracts, marriage and religious observance.
They are in fact all Christians and adhere to the strictest orthodoxy. They
also have magistrates in their cities and priests and celebrate the feasts in
the same wayas we do, and, for a barbarian people, strike me as extremely
well-bred and civilized and as practically the same as ourselves except for
their uncouth style of dress and peculiar language .... I admire them for
their other attributes and especially for the spirit of justice and harmony
which prevails amongst them. 91
The patent inaccuracies of this description are less important than the terms
in which similarity is stated, namely orthodoxy and Roman customs, that
is, terms involving "system of belief' and "way of life." His rosy picture of
the Franks is an almost total projection of Roman views. 92
Similarly, dose contact might have negative consequences. Agathias believed that the Persians had been corrupted by Zoroastrianism:
But the present day Persians have almost completely abandoned their
old ways ('tu npo'tEpa E81l), an upheaval which has been marked by the
wholesale adoption of alien and degenerate manners, ever since they
have come under the spell of the doctrines of Zoroaster the son of
Horamasdes. . . .
Indeed I know of no other society which has been subjected to such
a bewildering variety of transformations or which through its submis-
I73
sion to an endless succession of foreign dominations has failed so signally to achieve any degree of continuity. Small wonder then that it
still bears the stamp of many different forms and conventions. . . .
For the irrationality and foUy of their beliefs can hardly fail, I think,
to strike even those who practise them, unless they happen to be
complete fools, and as such can be easily eradicated. All those who do
not attain to the truth merit pity rather than censure and fully deserve
to be forgiven. lt is not after all of their own accord that they fall into
error, but in their search for moral goodness they form a wrong judgment, and thereafter ding tenaciously to what ever condusions they
have arrived at. 93
According to Agathias, then, religion, and not urbanism or law, shape
behavior and the character of society. He feels that choice of religion 1S
susceptible to reason, which all people have, but reason may mislead:
lt is quite obvious, of course, that each of the various nations of mankind considers that any custom whatsoever which is both universally
accepted in their society and deepl y rooted in their past cannot fail to
be perfect and sacrosanct, whereas whatever runs counter to it is deemed
deplorable, contemptible and unworthy of serious consideration. Nevertheless people have always managed to find and enlist the support of
reasoned arguments from all quarters when their own conventions are
involved. Such arguments may indeed be true, but they mayaiso very
weIl be specious fabrications .... so it does not strike me as particulady surprising that the Persians too should try to prove, when accounting for their own customs, that these are superior to anyone
else's.94
174
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
situation there was no need for diseussion but that it was a ease for
immediately embracing the eause of Persia. When the others said that
it was not advisable to proeeed to ehange their whole way of life ('tov
AOV iov ~E'tEO"KE'UaO"eat) on the spur of the moment,95 but that they
should first embark on a eareful and lengthy diseussion of the issues
involved, he leapt up angrily, rushed into their midst and began to
harangue them like an orator in a popular assembly.96
Agathias reveals he re through the words of the Lazi how he imagines the
dilemma of politieal affiliation and its terrible eonsequenees. In a more
extreme ease a group of Huns have lost even their names: "The seattered
remnant of these Hunnie tribes has in faet been redueed to servitude in the
lands of other peoples whose names they have assumed; so severe has been
the penalty whieh they have paid for their earlier misdeeds."97
In sum, Agathias quite naturally presumes that being Roman is being
civilized and that being orthodox is being Roman-but "Roman" is no
longer deseribed in the old terms. Agathias's attitudes are more frankly and
openly Christian than Proeopius's. Furthermore, what distinguishes the Franks
from other barbarians is the way in whieh they are like the Romans. 98
Politieal reasons may have determined his deeision to write a positive pieture of the Franks (and a negative one of the Alamanni) but not the terms
in whieh he did so. Agathias has imposed his notion of Romanness on the
Franks. His knowledge about them is clearly limited. 99
The possibility of transformation is fundamental to his view of eulture,
though the examples are from beyond Rome's borders. No Roman dreamed
of including the Franks within the empire. However, their Chalcedonian
orthodoxy made them eivilized and helped them enter a larger world of
Christian belief. Agathias is prepared to include them within a Christian
oikoumene dominated by Constantinople. They have a plaee in a Byzantine
eultural hierarehy.
175
would seem that the diplomats themselves (as weIl as Menander) gave some
thought to issues of cultural definition.
In one incident during negotiations over disputed territory the Persian
ambassador mocks his Roman counterpart on the question of civilization
and barbarism:
When he had listened to this, the Zikh [the ambassador}, who was an
extremely intelligent man and able to speak briefly and to the point in
his native tongue, said the following in reply: "Who, Romans, is so
uncivilized and savage as to say your mission is not appropriate and
just? All men agree in regarding Peace as a blessing. I should have
been taken in by your fine words, were you not Romans and we
Persians. Do not imagine that your convoluted arguments hide from
us what kind of men you are who have come here, seeking your own
advantage ... "102
When Menander discusses negotiations between Justinian and a Hunnic
king, he reveals, through the speech he attributes to the Hun, certain
categories in which he understands ethnic identity to rest:
Justinian
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
and Avars), "the light-haired races" of western Europe, and Slavs and Antae.
He does not mention Arabs. Because this is a manual about warfare, it
shows interest only in defeating foreigners, not changing or assimilating
them.
The author's treatment of foreigners indicates that he has been influenced
by classical ethnography. He takes pains, for example, to associate the character of each group of people with the terrain they inhabit as weIl as wirh
the sort of government they possess, thus conforming to classical ethnography's interest in the effect of climate on human character and institutions. 105
Certain ethnic stereotypes appear as well. Persians, for example, are "wicked, dissembling and servile, but at the same time patriotic and obedient,"
while Avars are "scoundrels and devious."106 Most of his comments on techniques of warfare, however, have the ring of direct observation: "The nations
of the Slavs and the Antae live in the same way and have the same customs.
They are both independent, absolutely refusing to be enslaved or governed,
least of all in their own land. They are populous and hardy, bearing readily
heat, cold, rain, nakedness and scarcity of provisions . . . . owing to their
lack of government and their ill feeling toward one another, they are not
acquainted with an order of batde. "107
Because he was not trying to write a set piece within the historiographical genre, the author of the Strategikon is particularly valuable as a source
for everyday attitudes. 108 The author did not artificially disguise his Christianity as did Procopius and other writers in earlier periods. He began his
treatise with a prayer to the Trinity which also asked for the intercession of
Mary and the saints. His world was ringed by enemies (except on the
empire's southern flank) but protected by the Christi an deity.
Theophylact Simocatta, who recorded the wars of the emperor Maurice at
the turn of the seventh century, was the last historian in the classicizing
tradition. He was also the last historian in the seventh century to attempt
extended ethnographic description, but the absence of classicizing elements
is marked, notably in his confused presentation of the Avars and their
origins. 109 His treatment of the Persians is somewhat more trustworthyYo
His approach to barbarians in the rest of the narrative, however, is forthrighdy Christian, as seen for example, in this passage describing an incident
in 598:
Accordingly, in these days, our Jesus, in whom we trust, whose power
extends over aIl the nations, who received from the Father as his
inheritance the inhabired world and the ends of the earth as his possessions, by no means aIlowed his kingdom to be unwitnessed by the
Chagan [of the Avars}. For the barbarian hordes were stricken by a
177
sudden visitation of plague, and their trouble was inexorable and would
not admit any artifiee. Aeeordingly, memorable penalties were exaeted
from the Chagan for his dishonour of the martyr Alexander. . . . And
so in this way the Chagan had ill-fated good fortune in vietory eelebrations: for in the plaee of paeans, songs, hymns, clapping of hands,
harmonious ehoirs, and waves of laughter, he had dirges, te ars , ineonsolable griefs and intolerable punishment. For he was assailed by angelie hosts, whose blows were manifest but whose array was invisible. l l l
That his overtly religious opinions are similar to those expressed by eeclesiastieal writers 1l2 and, more partieularly, also similar to those developed by
George of Pisidia in his panegyries to Heraclius, 113 indieates simply the
degree to whieh classicizing deseriptions had been pushed aside. Like George,
who deseribed a divinely protected empire in whieh godless barbarians
punish Romans or are themselves injured as God desires, Theophylaet sees
barbarians not merely as the enemies of Rome but as the enemies of God.
He does not address the possibility of changing the eharaeter of their
soeiety.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper has suggested that the remnants of the Roman ethnographie
tradition between Justinian and Heraclius may to some small degree be a
measure of the transformation of Byzantine soeiety in that period. I have
limited myself to only one sort of evidenee, knowing that it ean be only
part of a larger story of changing attitudes. There is not enough ethnographie material to permit too mueh generalization, but by the eve of the
rise of Islam it seems as though ethnography, one traditional means of
reeording observations and attitudes, had been displaeed by more explieitly
Christian deseriptions. How new attitudes developed in other media remains to be seen.
In the Justinianie period extended ethnographie deseription on the Roman model appeared in panegyrie, law, and historiography, with eaeh kind
of text putting its own appropriate spin on the deseriptions, and we saw in
eaeh the old contrast of Roman and barbarian reeast in a Christian seheme
of empire. In eaeh example from the time of Justinian it was assumed that
the barbarians might beeome receivers of Christian Roman eulture. Justinian appeared as a faeilitator of eultural change as a law-giver, road-builder,
and bringer of Christianity. His actions identified "way of life" and "system
of belief." Christianity shaped his view of eivilization. There were other
SEEING AND
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NOTES
I. Geoffrey Greatrex, "Roman Identity in the Sixth Century," in Ethnicity and Cldture in Late Antiquity, ed. Stephen Mitchell and Geoffrey Greatrex
(London, 2000), pp. 267-92, provides insightful introduction and current
bibliography; Mary Whitby, "A New Image for a New Age: George of
Pisidia on the Emperor Heraclius," in The Roman and Byzantine Army in the
East, ed. E. Dabrowa (Cracow, 1994), pp. 197-225.
2. It is conventional to call the Roman empire that continued in the
eastern Mediterranean until 1453 the "Byzantine Empire" and its inhabitants "Byzantines." The inhabitants of that empire called themselves "Romans," and thought of themselves as "Byzantines" only inasmuch as they
lived in the city of Constantinople, formerly known as Byzantion. In this
paper I consider the period between J ustinian and Heraclius as a time when
"Romans" turned into "Byzantines," and I use the term "Roman" rather
loosely to refer to the empire and its inhabitants through the age of Justinian up to Heraclius. After that I use "Byzantine." Complete consistency is
impossible, but meaning should be clear from context.
3. See the remarks of Patrick Geary, "Barbarians and Ethnicity," in Late
Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World, ed. G. W. Bowersock, Peter
Brown, and Oleg Grabar (Cambridge, Mass., 1999), pp. 107-29. Geary
suggests that "the concept of ethnogenesis was alien to the Roman understanding of their neighbors" (p. 106).
4. For a preliminary discussion see M. Maas, "Ethnography," in Bowersock et al., Late Antiquity, pp. 435-36. The material will be discussed more
fully in my book, The Conqueror's Gift: Ethnography, Identity, and Imperial
Power at the End of Antiquity (Princeton, N.J., in preparation).
179
180
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
Legis (Tbingen, 2003), explores these developments during the Three Chap-
ters Controversy.
13. Important studies include: Karl Trdinger, "Studien zur Geschichte
der griechisch-rmischen Ethnographie" (Diss., Basel, 1918); Alfred Schroeder, "De ethnographiae antiquae locis quibusdam communibus observationes"
(Diss., Halle, 1921); Eduard Norden, Die Germanische Urgeschichte in Tacitus
Germania (Leipzig, 1922; 5th ed., Stuttgart, 1959); Kilian Lechner; "Byzanz
und die Barbaren," Saeculum 6 (1955): 292-306; D. B. Saddington, "Roman
Attitudes to the 'Externae Gentes' of the North," Acta Classica 4 (1961):
90-102; Klaus E. Mller, Geschichte der antiken Ethnographie und ethnologischen
Theoriebildung, 2 vols. (Wiesbaden, 1972-80); 1. Kapitanffy, "Griechische
Geschichtsschreibung und Ethnographie in der Sptantike," Annales Universitatis Scientiarum Budapestinensis de Rolando E"tviis Nominatae: sectio classica 56 (r977-78): 130-43; Yves Dauge, Le Barbare: Recherches sur la conception
romaine de la barbarie et de la civilisation (Brussels, 1981); Maria Cesa, "Etnografia e geografia nella visione storica di Procopio di Cesarea," Studi
Classici e Orientali 31 (1982): 189-215; Richard F. Thomas, Lands and PeopIes in Roman Poetry: The Ethnographical Tradition, Philological Society Supplementary Volume no. 7 (Cambridge 1982), pp. 1-7; Alexander C. Murray,
Germanic Kinship Structure: Studies in Law and Society in Antiquity and the
Early Middle Ages (Toronto, 1983), pp. 39-65; Arthur J. Droge, Homer or
Moses? Early Christian Interpretations of the History of Culture (Tbingen, 1989);
A. D. Lee, Information and Frontiers: Roman Foreign Relations in Late Antiquity
(Cambridge, 1993), pp. 101-5; Patrick Amory, People and Identity in Ostrogothic Italy, 489-554 (Cambridge, 1997); Walter Pohl, Kingdoms of the
Empire: The Integration of the Barbarians in Late Antiquity (Leiden, 1997);
Graeme Clarke, ed., Identities in the Eastern Mediterranean in Antiquity, Mediterranean Archaeology I I (1998); Laurence and Berry, Cultural Identity in the
Roman Empire; Walter Pohl wirh Helmut Reimetz, eds., Strategies of Distinction: The Construction of Ethnic Communities, 300-800 (Leiden, 1998); Richard Miles, Constructing Identities in Late Antiquity (London, 1999); Mitchell
and Greatrex, Ethnicity and Culture in Late Antiquity.
14. James B. Rives, Tacitus, Germania: Translated with Introduction and
Commentary (Oxford, 1999), pp. 11-2 I, on the ethnographie tradition, esp.
p. 16 on moralizing; Ernst Meyer, "Das antike Idealbild von den Naturvlkern und die Nachrichten des Caesar und Tacitus," Zeitschrift fr deutsches
Altertum und deutsche Literatur 62 (1925): 226-32; Schroeder, "De ethnographiae antiquae locis communibus," pp. 30-35; Mller, Geschichte der antiken
Ethnographie, index, s.v. "Idealisierung," 2:560. Many of the sources are
usefully collected in Arthur O. Lovejoy and George Boas, Primitivism and
Related Ideas in Antiquity (New York, 1965), pp. 315-45.
181
182
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
Ernst Honigmann, Die Sieben Klimata und die IIOAEIL EIIILHMOI: Eine Untersuchung zur Geschichte der Geographie und Astrologie im Altertum und Mittelalter
(Heidelberg, 1929).
27. P. A. Brunt, "The Romanization of the Local Ruling Classes in the
Roman Empire," in Assimilation et resistance a la cttlture greco-romaine dans le
monde ancien: Travaux du VIe Congres International d'Etudes Classiques (Madrid,
Sept. I974), ed. D. M. Pippidi (Paris, 1976), p. 170; on the importance of
interpreters, see Lee, Information and Frontiers, esp. pp. 66-67; see Maas,
"Fugitives and Ethnography in Priscus of Panium."
28. A very useful discussion is Karl Christ, "Rmer und Barbaren in der
hohen Kaiserzeit," Saecttlum 10 (1959): 273-88; for an anthropological treatment, see John and Jean Comaroff, Ethnography and the Historical Imagination
(Boulder, Colo., 1992), pp. 49-67, esp. pp. 50-52.
29. Vergil, Aeneid 6.851-853. Flavius Cresconius Corippus, In laudem
Iustini Augusti minoris Libri IV, ed. and tr. Averil Cameron (London, 1976),
11. 310-65, written in the first years of Justin II's reign, paraphrase this
passage with a Christian interpretation.
30. " ... it is the marking of relations-of identities in opposition to one
another-that is 'primordial,' not the substance of those identities." Comaroff and Comaroff, Ethnography and the Historical Imagination, p. 5 I.
3 I. Dauge, Le barbare, pp. 690-9 I .
32. Woolf, Becoming Roman, p. 241.
33. Joseph Meleze Modrzejewski, "Diritto romano e diritti locali," in Storia
di Roma, vol 3.2: [jEta tardoantica: I luoghi e le culture, ed. Andrea Carandini,
Lellia Cracco Ruggini, and Andrea Giardina (Turin, 1993), pp. 985-19.
34. Vergil, Aeneid 6,11. 851-53; 12,11. 19-91; Pierre Courcelle, Lecteurs
pai'ens et lecteurs chretiens de l'Eneide, vo1. I: Les temoignages litteraires (Paris,
1984) = Institut de France, Memoires de [jAcadimie des Inscriptions et BellesLettres, n.s., vo1. 4, gathers references to the most important Vergilian passages found in later authors.
35 . Taci tus, Agricola, 21.
36. Swain, Hellenism and Empire; Richter, "Ethnography, Archaism, and
Identity in the Early Roman Empire," p. 18.
37. See ibid., pp. 2 off. , for discussion.
38. Ibid., p. 25; cf. Aelius Aristides: "... the pillars ofHeracles do not limit
this power, nor is it bounded by the hills of Libya or by either Bosphorus or by
the gates of Syria and Cilicia, but over the whole earth, by some divine fortune,
there comes a yearning for your wisdom and YOUf way of life and this one idiom
all have ordained to be the common language of the human race. And so
through you the whole civilized world had come to be united by a common
tongue.... I call this the great dominion of the Athenians." Panathenaicus 26-27.
183
39. Susanna Elm, Sons of Hellenism and Fathers 0/ the Church (forthcoming)
diseusses in detail the shaping of paideia among the Greek Fathers of the late
fourth century; the precise links to the circle of ] ustinian remain to be traced.
40. See the recent studies of R. C. Blockley, East Roman Foreign Policy:
Formation and Conduct /rom Diocletian to Anastasius (Leeds, 1992); Garth
Fowden, Empire to Commonwealth: Consequences of Monotheism in Late Antiquity
(Princeton, N.J., 1993); Lee, Information and Frontiers (Cambridge, 1993).
41. Except for curiales, who might be lews, Samaritans, or heretics, Novel
45(537); see also Novel 8, iusiurandum (535). I have used the text of the
Novels prepared by R. Schoell and G. Kroll, Corpus Iuris Civilis, vol. 3. ed.
stereotypa, vol. 5 (Berlin, 1928). Translations are based on S. P. Scott, The
Civil Law, vols. 16-17: The New Constitutions ofJustinian (Cincinnati, 1932).
42. Compare the contemporary development of Syriac and Coptic cultures that combined language, writing, and a strong sense of local tradition,
real or imagined, within a Christian matrix. On city and countryside, see
the essays in lohn Rich, ed., The City in Late Antiquity (London, 1992);
Liebeschuetz, The Decline and Fall of the Roman City; on the disappearance of
local languages, Peter Charanis, "Ethnic Changes in the Byzantine Empire
in the Seventh Century," Dumbarton Oaks Papers 13 (1959): 25-26; and on
the disappearance of paganism, Frank R. Trombley, Hellenic Religion and
Christianization c. 37-529, 2 vols. (Leiden, 1993-94).
43. Michael Maas, John Lydus and the Roman Past: Antiquarianism and
Politics in the Reign 0/Justinian (London, 1992), pp. 7-72, for bibliography.
44. Isrun Engelhardt, Mission und Politik in Byzanz: Ein Beitrag zur Strukturanalyse byzantinischer Mission zur Zeit Justins undJ ustinians (Munieh, 1974);
Hans-Georg Beck, "Christliche Mission und politische Propaganda im byzantinischen Reich," Settimane di studio dei Centro italiano di studi sull'alto
medioevo, 14 (1967): 649-74, reprinted in Ideen und Realitten in Byzanz
(London, 1972); Averil Cameron, Procopius (Berkeley, Calif., 1988), pp. 12025; Ihor Sevcenko, "Religious Missions Seen from Byzantium," Harvard
Ukrainian Studies 12-13 (1988-89): 7-27. The loss of the account of Nonnosus, who undertook missions to Ethiopia and south Arabia, is particularly
regrettable in this regard. See Photius, Bibliotheca, ed. R. Henry, vol. I
(Paris, 1959), cod. 3.; Herbert Hunger, Die hochsprachliche profane Literatur
der Byzantiner, vol. I (Munieh, 1978), p. 303; Lee, Information and Frontiers,
pp. 39, 47, 102-5, 168.
45. Michael Whitby, "Greek Historical Writing after Procopius: Variety
and Vitality," in The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East, Col. I: Problems
in the Literary Source Material, ed. Averil Cameron and Lawrence 1. Conrad
(Princeton, N.]., 1992), pp. 66-74; John F. Haldon, Byzantium in the Seventh Centitry: The Transformation of a Culture (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 425-35.
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
46. Mary Whitby, "A New Image for a New Age: George of Pisidia on
the Emperor Heraclius," in Dabrowa, The Roman and Byzantine Army in the
East, pp. 197-225.
47. David Braund, Georgia in Antiquity: A History 0/ Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia, 550 B.c'-A.D. 526 (Oxford, 1994) for the most recent study of
the region; Ernest Stein, Histoire du Bas Empire, vol. 2 (Amsterdam, 1968),
pp. 105, 291, 516. Most recently, the Tzani had invaded the Pontic provinces in 506 during the reign of Anastasius, who paid them an annual
tribute, perhaps continuing earlier practice.
48. A. H. M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602: A Soda I, Economic
and Administrative Survey (Oxford, 1964), p. 27 I; for a list of ancient sources
that discuss the Tzani: "Makrones," Real-Encyklopa'die der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft 14.1 (1928), col. 815; for background on Byzantine policy
in the Pontic region, see Constantine Zuckerman, "The Early Byzantine
Strongholds in Eastern Pontus," Travaux et Memoires (Centre de recherche d'histoire
et civilisation de Byzance) I I (1991): 527-53, and Michel Kazanski, "Contribution a l'histoire de la defense de la frontiere pontique au Bas Empire,"
ibid., pp. 487-526.
49. Stein, Histoire du Bas Empire, 2:303; Novel 28 (535).
50. Wars, 8.1.7-9, tr. H. B. Dewing and G. Downey (1928; reprint ed.,
Cambridge, Mass., 1992), 5:59-61. All translations of Procopius below are
theirs, with slight alterations.
51. Wars 1.15.18-25, ed. Dewing and Downey, 1:135-37.
52. Wars 6.14.33-34, ed. Dewing and Downey, 3=411-13.
53. Michael Whitby, "Justinian's Bridge over the Sangarius and the Date
of Procopius' de Aedificiis," Journal 0/ Hellenic Studies 105 (1985): 129-48,
esp. pp. 141-48.
54. Perhaps a reference to Isaiah 10:33-34. I thank Hagith Sivan for the
suggestion.
55. Buildings IIr.6.1-14, 19, ed. Dewing and Downey, 7:205-11.
56. See note 44.
57. Cameron, Procopius, p. 112; see also Maas,John Lydus, pp. 14-18,4548 .
58. Cameron, Procopius, p. 109.
59. Ibid., pp. 89-90.
60. See Buildings 4.1.6, which discusses the inroads of Slavs into the
Balkans: "And in his determination to resist these barbarians who were
endlessly making war, the emperor Justinian . . . was obliged to throw
innumerable fortresses about the country ... and to set up all other possible
obstacles to an enemy who attacked without warning and who permitted no
dealings with others" (ed. Dewing and Downey, 7:22 I).
185
I86
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
I982), pp. 309-I7. On the resumption of citizenship in reconquered Romanized territories, see ibid., p. 307; on the Heruls, see Procopius, Gothic
War 2.I4.33; Jones, The Later Roman Empire! p. 663.
72. Procopius, Wars 1.I5.I8, 22-23. As part of a sequential account, the
latter passage does not indicate that they received the subsidies after their
defeat by Sittas.
73. Goria, "Romani! cittadinanza," p. 3IO .
74. Agathias, The Histories V2.3, tr. Frendo, p. I36, with some changes.
75. Attilio Mastino, "Antonino Magno, la cittadinanza, e l'Impero universale," in Catalano and Siniscalo, La nozione di !lRomano/' p. 563. On the
different specialized meanings of romantts and civis romantts! see Goria,
"Romani! cittadinanza," pp. 28I-85. Justinian's laws concerning the
Constittttio Antoniniana: Novel 78.5, Digest I.5.; see also Basilica 46.I.I4
(I3)
76. Wm. S. Thurman, "The Application of Sttbiecti to Roman Citizens in
the Imperial Laws of the Later Roman Empire," Klio 52 (I970): 457; Schreiner, "Brger, Brgertum," pp. I039-40, on the survival of the status of civis
Romantts in Byzantium for free inhabitants.
77. A. N. Sherwin-White, "The Roman Citizenship: A Survey of Its
Development into a World Franchise," Attfstieg ttnd Niedergang der rmischen
Welt! ed. H. Temporini, vol. I.2 (Berlin, I972), p. 57; Jones, Later Roman
Empire! pp. 200, 6I4, 620, 665; Jean Gaudemet, "Les Romains et les 'autres,'" in Catalano and Siniscalo, La nozione di !IRomano! " pp. 2I-22.
78. Code 7.5; Stein, Histoire dtt Bas Empire! 2:4I3; Thurman, "The Application of Sttbiecti!" p. 456; Goria, "Romani! cittadinanza," p. 285.
79. Goria, "Romani! cittadinanza," p. 3 I 3.
80. Ibid., pp. 30I-2; Schreiner, "Brger, Brgertum," pp. I039-40.
8I. Novel 2I, proern.
82. In Novel I54 (535-86), which forbids incestuous marriages in Mesopotamia and Osrhoene, an investigative panel is created to determine the
truth of charges of this crime; c.f. Novel I2 (535) forbidding incestuous
marriages within the empire. See A. D. Lee, "Close-Kin Marriage in Late
Antique Mesopotamia," Greek! Roman and Byzantine Stttdies 29 (I988): 403I3; Gillian Clark, Women in Late Antiqttity: Pagan and Christian Lifestyles
(Oxford, I993), pp. I6-I 7, 44-45, on Osrhoene.
83. Agathias, Histories II.22, 1V23-30 (Persians); 1.2-7, 1.I9, 11.5, II.I4
(Franks and Alamanni).
84. Averil Cameron, "How Did the Merovingian Kings Wear Their Hair?"
Revtte BeIge de philologie et d!histoire 48 (I965): I203-I6; eadem, "Agathias
on the Early Merovingians," Annali della Smola Normale Sttperiore di Pisa! 2d
187
188
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
7
"EMENDING EVIL WAYS AND PRAISING GOD'S
OMNIPOTENCE"
EINHARD AND THE USES OF ROMAN MARTYRS
]ULIA
M. H.
SMITH
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
Einhard's time, the word implied both an ideology and a program in which
ruler and bishops together strove to enhance Christian observance, foster
Christian ethics, and overhaul Christian institutions. Correctio resonated with
authority, whether that of imperial legislation, canon law, or bishops acting
together in council. Along with the virtually synonymous emendatio} it established normative practice, just as the emendation of a text brought it
into line with grammatical and orthographical rules and upheld a tradition
rooted in textual authorities. Emendation was "the correction of errors which
are made in writing or actions."2 Correction and emendation thus lead us
direcdy to the heart of the Carolingian push for what we might loosely call
"Christianization," that ongoing effort to redefine behavior and mores which
was the long, slow aftermath of baptism and conversion to Christianity. Ir
was, indeed, the task Charlemagne took upon himself in his widely circulated Admonitio generalis of 789 when, modeling himself upon the way the
biblical King Josiah had urged his subjects to turn to God by "traveling
around his kingdom, correcting and admonishing," the Frankish king set
out to "correct the erroneous, excise the inappropriate, and encourage the
right." In short, his bishops and secular officials should "correct that which
must be corrected."3 Differently put, Charlemagne and his ecclesiastical
advisors found their own way to conduct that "unrelieved batde with the
past" which Augustine and his contemporaries had launched, the batde to
change the habits (whether tradition or habitus) of Christians. 4
The zealous Carolingian drive to implement what we may call "correct
Christianity" has been much studied in recent years. Yet these discussions
usually ignore the role of saints' cults in promulgating this vision of a
Christian society, confining themselves instead to royal and conciliar legislative activity, preaching, prayer, education, and pastoral provision. 5 AIthough early medieval saints' cults are a burgeoning field of analysis, these
more commonly locate cults within their institutional context than within
any political or pastoral one. By contrast, this paper seeks out the connections between "emending evil ways" and relic cults. Ir takes the shrine of
Marcellinus and Peter at Mulinheim as the focus of a case study which asks
several interrelated questions. Why was Einhard, a scholar upheld as the
epitome of the Carolingians' renewed interest in classical culture on the
basis of the brilliant erudition of his Vita Karoli} also interested in prophetic
demons, rustic religion, and saints' bones? How was Rome's early Christian
past recovered and reinterpreted in ninth-century Germany? How was a
balance between local religion and newfound imperial norms negotiated?
What part did the lay elite play in the promulgation of correct Christianity? What can Wiggo's tale tell us ab out the politics of emendation in both
court and country?
EMENDING EVIL
WAYS
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
the spiritual renewal of the human soul through the operation of divine
grace, or sometimes for the restitution of the property rights of individual
churches; only in the late eleventh century did its usage extend to include
a generalized renewal of the entire church, whether juridical, administrative, or spiritual. 14 This latter institutional meaning has become normative,
but is profoundly anachronistic for the Carolingian period. Like their patristic predecessors, Carolingian writers confined the vocabulary of reformare
and renovare to inner spiritual regeneration or, more rarely, specific situations requiring the restoration of buildings, property, bridges, and the like.
They used instead the vocabulary of correctio for the royal and episcopal task
of disciplining morals, behavior, and ecclesiastical organization. 15 Moreover,
the notion of correctio itself lacks the cyclical, iterative implications of "reform" or "re-newal." Ir acknowledged the inadequacy of current Christian
practices, yet implied that they might be successfully altered by enforcement of the authoritative decrees of bishops in council and the edicts of
rulers. 16
When Einhard came to write about the miracle-working activities of Marcellinus and Peter, he did so within the framework of correctio and emendatio.
His avowed aim was "to arouse the minds of all, through examples of the
lives and deeds of the just, to emending evil ways and praising God's
omnipotence."17 In this way, he associated hirnself and his saints with the
program of imperial and episcopal correction, orchestrating the emergence
of their shrine at Mulinheim as a new center of correct Christianity, a place
of exemplary holiness for empire and locality alike. 18 His project was simultaneously intensely personal and pointedly political: to make it succeed,
Einhard deployed to the full his exceptional literary talents and architectural interests.
The project also relied upon its instigator's familiarity with the programmatic ideology of the Carolingian rulers. Indeed, few would have been more
familiar with the imperial goals of Christian action and correction than
Einhard. Born c. 770, he first showed intellectual abilities whilst a pupil at
the prestigious monastery of Fulda. At some point before 796, Abbot Baugulf sent the outstanding young scholar to the royal court, where he became
a friend and confidant of Charlemagne. Einhard recorded his debts to the
emperor in the preface to his Lift 0/ Charlemagne without, however, being
specific about his role at court. 19 From the testimony of others, we know
hirn to have been "a man greatly praised among all the courtiers of the day
not only for his learning but also for his completely honorable behavior."20
His integrity made hirn a valued political counselor: in 806, Charlemagne
entrusted hirn with a mission to Pope Leo III, and in 813 it appears to have
EMENDING EVIL
WAYS
193
been Einhard who persuaded the aged emperor to make firm provisions for
the succession. 21 "He was prudent by nature, upright in action, eloquent in
speech, and adept in the art of many things. Emperor Charles raised hirn in
his own court and through hirn the emperor carried out many great works."22
Thus his epitaph would read: Einhard had an insider's knowledge of Charlemagne's court and its policy of correctio.
Moreover, he was one of the few courtiers who managed to retain influence after Charlemagne's death in 814. About ten years older than the new
emperor, Einhard was evidently something of a senior advisor to Louis the
Pious, who entrusted his eldest. son ancl) co-emperor Lothar to his guidance. 23 Despite advancing years, Einhard continued to attend Louis's court
until at least 830.24 Thereafter, he certainly remained in dose contact, even
though his personal presence cannot be proven. 25 The years from 827 until
840 were dominated on the one hand by Einhard's promotion of the cult of
Marcellinus and Peter, and on the other by crisis at the imperial court, as
. corruption and aristocratic factionalism fueled succession disputes between
Louis's sons. Einhard seems to have managed to avoid taking sides during
the revolts of 830 and 833-34; he died on 14 March 840, three months
before the emperor's demise triggered civil war. 26
Early in his reign, Louis the Pious had rewarded Einhard for his loyalty
and good counsel with several choice lay abbacies and a grant of property.27
The latter consisted of two estates, Michelstadt and Mulinheim J gifted to
Einhard and his wife Imma on 11 January 815.28 The couple passed on the
former to the monastery of Lorsch in 819 whilst reserving rights to it for
the remainder of their own lives;29 Einhard probably retained pos session of
the latter until his death, for he buried Imma he re in 835 and was hirns elf
laid to rest beside her. Once established as a man of property he took up his
pen: all Einhard's extant literary output dates from Louis's reign. Indeed, it
is the last thirteen years of Einhard's life which are the best documented, for
both his letter collection and the Translation and Miracles 0/ Sts. Marcellinus
and Peter reveal much of the man hirns elf, in contrast to his self-effacing role
as the emperor's biographer. 30 Internal evidence suggests that the latter was
composed in the dosing months of 830, but the tale he told began a few
years earlier. 31 Since acquiring Michelstadt, he had built a church on the
estate, and by 827 was pondering which saint to choose as its dedicatee.
The Translation and Miracles opens with a conversation in the imperial
palace at Aachen between Einhard and a visiting deacon from Rome during
which the possibility of acquiring martyr relics from the holy city was
raised. Einhard relates the upshot vividly: he sent to Rome his personal notary
Ratleic who, with breathtaking audacity, managed to plunder a catacomb on
the Via Labicana and return north with the relics of the third-century martyrs
194
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
Marcellinus and Peter. In November 827, Ratleic and his holy baggagereached
Michelstadt. Einhard rushed to join them, but in January 828 transferred the
relics to lVIttlinheim} where he shortly afterwards began constructing the purposebuilt church which became their permanent home. 32
The establishment of a new shrine for imported saints required effort and
resources, as weIl as relics. To be successful, a new cult had to have an
impact on the locality and its inhabitants. The growth of this church's
property and its role as the central point of a substantial estate, with all its
tenurial, fiscal, and jurisdictional implications, forms the institutional and
economic backdrop against which to focus on the ways in which the relics'
arrival changed the local religious landscape, inspired new devotions, and
inaugurated correctio. 33
A sketch of the political and religious landscape of the region before the
martyrs' arrival provides the context. For centuries, the Roman Empire had
met the Germanic world along the Rhine, with a temporary extension of
the limes as far east as the Main valley until c. 250. However much the
frontier was a zone of cultural interaction and accommodation, it marked
the limit of an organized imperial church, with its bishoprics and martyrial
shrines. There had been Christians since the late fourth century in the eities
and settlements of the middle Rhine valley, most espeeially in and around
Mainz. 34 When Frankish kings asserted control over their area, the surviving Christian communities fell within their purview too.
Although the approximate chronology of the extension of Frankish hegemony east of the Rhine is clear, the ways in which this was linked to
cultural change, local aristocratic landholding, and the spread of Christianity remain disputed. 35 We are concerned with one subregion in particular,
wedged between the duchies of Alemannia to the south and Thuringia to
the northeast and the region of Hesse to the northwest (figure I). Here the
River Main twisted arid turned its way through sparsely inhabited wooded
uplands: Mttlinheim lay on the western bank ab out thirty kilometers upstream from Frankfurt, Michelstadt in the woodlands to the west. This area
lacked any political or ethnic identity before the late eighth century; from
then on, its inhabitants were simply, if vaguely, referred to as the orientales
Franci} or osterliztdi} the "eastern folk."36
Although it is almost impossible to map the spread of Christianity east
of the Rhine before the central decades of the eighth century, it does seem
to have seeped in unobtrusively in various ways.37 That there was an easy
acculturation to local customs is suggested by various grave finds: seventhcentury women's girdle hangings incorporating the symbol of the cross, flat
bronze crosses themselves worn as girdle pendants, and eighth-century crueiform brooches. 38 Local churches were certainly being built here and there
GIA
THC:.
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~
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Z
t)
H
Z
Cl
t:d
<:
t-<
BAVARIAI
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30 miles
40 kilometres
Fig.
1.
,0
80,
Northern Francia in the time of Einhard. Based on Dutton, Charlemagne's COltrtier, maps
I, 2,
and 3
\D
VI
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
EMENDING
EVIL
WAYS
I97
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
EMENDING
EVIL
AYS
Extant
5metres
,
15 feet
I
10
I
30I
199
200
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
On the other hand, we may view the oozing blood and the visions as the
mirades neeessary to authentieate the eult that followed. N ext to the altar
at Michelstadt Mareellinus and Peter shed their blood in a seeond martyrdom; their appearanees in angelie form affirmed their heavenly existenee.
These were the foundation stories of the basiliea at Mttlinheim.
We should also read the text against the standing arehiteeture of Einhard's two ehurehes, Michelstadt and Mttlinheim. Miehelstadt's ground plana central nave with side aisles, separated by a sereen from a trieellular,
triple-apsed rectangular ehoir-was dosely in line with the ehurehes reeently built to house showease monastie eommunities for Benediet of Aniane,
the chief proponent of a revised Benedietine monastieism and dose eounselor of Louis the Pious. Like the model eommunities at Maursmnster and
Inden (Kornelimnster), the design of Michelstadt sharply separated priests
from laity and also aeeommodated the multiple altars neeessary for a liturgy
in whieh private eommemorative masses played a prominent role. 64 Unlike
these ehurehes, however, it had a erypt, entered only from the side aisles in
the lay part of the ehureh. Einhard designed this with a unique eruciform
plan. Could he have intended to install the saints' ashes here, beneath the
ehoir but not aeeessible to the priests who served at the altar? Or were they
to be enshrined in the eastern, liturgieal, end of the ehureh?
We do not know. Either way, Michelstadt would have eoped with diffieulty with the erowds whieh the relies would eome to attraet. Moreover, it
was an out-of-the-way loeation, if not quite the "place apart, far from the
madding erowd" as Einhard deseribed it. 65 Mttlinheim, by eontrast, had two
nudei, upper and lower, and was an old Roman fort and eivilian settlement
right on the banks of the River Main, an arterial waterway linking Bavaria
with the middle Rhineland, and also aeeessible along old Roman roads. 66
The ehureh at Mttlinheim to whieh the relies moved would seem to have
been substantial; the large one whieh Einhard would go on to build there
was speeifieally designed for a relie eult and its pilgrims. 67 The decision to
transfer the relies may thus have marked a major change in Einhard's plans
as the deeision to launeh a major new eult site formed in his mind. In
presenting hirnself as the obedient servant of the martyrs' demands, he was
masking hirnself with the persona of the saints in good late antique tradition. 68
On r6 January 828, Einhard turned his back on Michelstadt, effeetively
abandoning it. 69 Mareellinus and Peter had told hirn where to take them;
the overnight journey from Michelstadt to Mttlinheim marked their "eoming
out" as mirade-working saints of great appeal. Ir seems that, in the years
sinee 8 r 5, Einhard had turned Michelstadt into something of a regional
center for the distribution of alms: as the proeession bearing the relies left
Miehelstadt under heavy winter skies, it was aeeompanied by a group of
EMENDING EVIL
WAYS
201
poor folk who had floeked there to reeeive eharity. Those earrying the relies
made an overnight stop at Ostheim (near Aschaffenburg) whilst Einhard
hirns elf rode ahead to Mulinheim; that January night marked the inauguration of a publie eult whieh was to have huge repereussions. In the litde
ehureh at Ostheim, the saints worked their first healing miracle; meanwhile
at Mulinheim, Einhard made the neeessary preparations for reeeiving the
saints. Doubdess he arranged their liturgieal reeeption. But he also passed
around the word: the saints who had left Michelstadt without the loeal
population realizing what was going were greeted en route the next morning by "a huge multitude of neighbors" who had traveled out from Mulinheim, exeited by the news of the saints' arrival. 70 By the time the proeession
reaehed there, the throng was so large that any attempt to take the relies
into the ehureh had to be abandoned; instead an open-air Mass was eelebrated in a nearby field. Only then eould the clergy enter the ehureh and
eelebrate another Mass indoors. On 17 January, a day as warm, bright, and
balmy as if it were spring, aeeording to Einhard, the relies announeed their
arrival at Mulinheim with many miraeulous eures. 71 Mareellinus and Peter
had eome horne.
Einhard did not know why these powerful saints had deigned to take up
residenee with hirn. But he rose to the challenge, determined that they
should reeeive "fitting honors."72 His understanding of what that implied
ehanged in step with his growing aeeeptanee of the martyrs' own will. Plans
for a splendid new reliquary at Michelstadt had al ready been overtaken by
the deeision to move to Mulinheim, but that deeision was not in itself
suffieient, for a sueeessful eult site requires "a moment um of miraeulousness."73 It demands an audienee-miracutes, witnesses, and gossipers-and
presupposes that its devotees are reeeptive to divine power working in this
manner. The move had initiated this. But if the veneration was not to
remain a flash in the pan, it needed energetie maintenanee. Hagiographieal
narratives are normally more eoneerned to represent saindy virtus in action
than to demonstrate how it was inaugurated and sustained; but at Mulinheim, we may glimpse in some detail the ways in whieh the eult of the relies
of Mareellinus and Peter aequired and maintained its momentum.
Einhard's strategies were politieal, textual, and arehiteetural. All three
indieate the eonneetion between relies and correctio. The first of these will
detain us for a while. Immediately after the relies' move to Mulinheim,
Einhard returned to the imperial court at Aaehen. 74 By this date a rapidly
growing market town, Aaehen was replete with the mixed population attraeted to any plaee of power-eareerist courtiers, administrators whether
effieient or lazy, Christian and Jewish merehants, litigants and eriminals,
202
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
builders and beggars, pimps and prostitutes. Built as the exemplary center
of an exemplary empire, the palace was the primary stage on which Carolingian rituals of rulership were enacted, but away from the limelight, shady
characters lurked. Ir was even the place where, according to Notker the
Stammerer, the devil lay in wait for unwary kings. 75
In the corridors of power Einhard, too, found the devil at work. On
arrival in late January 828, he was appalled to learn the latest gossip, the
"execrable story spread about by the cunning of the devil": 76 that a priest in
the service of the imperial arch-chaplain, Hilduin abbot of Saint-Denis
(Paris) and Saint-Medard (Soissons), had accompanied Einhard's men to
Rome, and had stolen part of the relics during the return journey. Einhard's
political finesse enabled hirn to extract one version of truth from Hilduin;
his own men provided a variant but conceded that the Roman cleric who
had been helping them in Rome had been bribed by Hilduin's man to rob
Ratleic of part of the relics. 77 Einhard was able to negotiate the return of the
missing portions, but not until after the octave of Easter 828 did he actually
take the box containing the relics into his own hands. He installed them in
a makeshift chapel within his own townhouse at Aachen.
The court had celebrated Easter in the palatine chapel dedicated to Christ
and the Virgin. No miracle-working relics had been interred or enshrined
there-doubtless in fear lest the drama of thaumaturgy disrupt the splendor
of imperial liturgy. Marcellinus and Peter were, it seems, the first potent
saints to arrive at court: and once safe in Einhard's possession, they immediately started working miracles. Their beautiful fragrance perfumed the
town, crowds flocked to Einhard's house from the town and its hinterland,
the sick were healed. 78 Louis the Pious and the empress Judith gave gifts. 79
Jews witnessed the miracles of the Christian God and gave thanks. 80 On one
occasion, an itinerant builder working on the palace who had been crippled
was carried in by his friends and placed in front of the saints' altar. Watched
by all bystanders, he became straightened-"corrected"-and walked away
unaided, albeit limping. The remaining lameness Einhard interpreted as an
outer sign that the man still needed to continue to work towards his inner,
spiritual healing. 81 Miracles of physical correction were thus the tokens of
interior correction. Aachen had become a place of almsgiving, healing, and
reconciliation: veneration of Marcellinus and Peter inspired correct Christianity in )the midst of courtly corruption.
Einhard's courtly skills had won the return of the missing portions; now
he used them to promote their cult far and wide. His web of court contacts
turned into a network for dissemination as he distributed small portions of
the relics to other churches in the region, at Valenciennes, Ghent, Maastricht, and Trier. 82 By the end of that summer, each except Trier had sent on
EMENDING
EVIL
AYS
23
to Einhard a libeflus containing a formal wrltten memorandum of the mirades which had occurred there. 83
By then, Einhard had hirnself returned to Mulinheim, where mirades were
continuing in his absence. Having established the saints' reputation at court,
his journey with the recovered portions of the bodies was a triumphal sixday procession through the countryside. 84 The devotion of the villagers was
manifest everywhere-and commemorated in a way which left a permanent
mark on the landscape. lust outside Wiesbaden, the townsfolk erected a
cross at the spot where they met the relic-bearing procession: this too
created a new sire of divine power. Eighteen months later (December 829),
when Einhard's baggage train got lost in a dense, dark fog in the forests
there, his servants stumbled upon the wayside cross. They invoked the
martyrs, and extended shimmers of lightning showed them the path they
had lost and dispelled the frosty douds. 85 Marcellinus and Peter's transformative effect on both lands cape and weather had again been demonstrated.
Those who trusted themselves to the curative power of Marcellinus and
Peter shared a belief that shrines were places where they might become
whole again. They shared too apredisposition to try out the new shrine at
Mulinheim. 86 There is little surprise in this, for men and women often traveled far and wide in the ninth century in search of healing at saints' shrines. 87
In this case, the information which Einhard and his notaries took care to
record enables us to gauge something of the spread of the shrine's reputation. Approximately half of the people cured there came from within the
Maingau, attracted by the presence of saints' relics in their midst for the
first time. 88 But the rest came from much further away. These were people
who made real choices about which shrines to visit. From their places of
origin, or the reports of the circumstances which brought them to Mulinheim, it is evident that the Rhine was as much the conduit of gossip about
new shrines as ir was of people, grain, and merchandise. 89 These visitors
induded landowners and peasants, the infirm and the mad, women and
men, priests and pilgrims: Einhard took care to stress the universality of his
saints' appeal.
But we should not be duped into mistaking this for consensus. The
opening salutation of the Translation and Miracles, to "The true worshipers
and the not false lovers of the true God, ]esus Christ our lord, and his
saints," hints that Einhard was arguing a case. 90 Not until his dosing words
is it evident just how polemical he knew he was being: he urged "the
unbelievers and those who disparage the glory of the saints" not to bot her
to read his words lest they respond with "blasphemy and spite."91 In those
parts of Francia where Christianity had been strongly rooted from the fourth
century onwards (and in some places, even earlier), a new shrine had to
24
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
establish itself alongside preexisting ones, and the recording and publicizing of miracles was a means of achieving this. 92 But this was hardly the case
on the banks of the Main. In view of this, the atmosphere of contestation
within which Marcellinus and Peter flourished requires a different explanation. We find it by returning to the imperial court.
In the spring of 828, just as Marcellinus and Peter were settling down at
Mulinheim, Louis the Pious's empire was sliding into crisis. There were
military problems along all the frontiers, exceptional weather conditions,
failed harvests and cattle disease, accusations of malpractice and corruption.
Aristocratic factionalism and riyal imperial ideologies were beginning to
fuse with a succession crisis. In November 828, Louis and Lothar convened
an assembly at Aachen to deliberate. Here Wala, Louis's senior surviving
male relative (he was Charlemagne's cousin, formerly a count but now abbot
of Corbie), circulated a memorandum setting out all the vices, corruptions,
and sins which he considered beset the Franks. 93 After lengthy discussions,
the emperors sent out missi (imperial officials), to inquire into the behavior
of royal officials and clergy alike. 94 They also issued a general letter calling
for regional church councils to meet the following spring. There the archbishops and their suffragans would "discover by inquiry [what should be
done} about their own correctio and emendatio and that of all of us, in accordance with divine authority." The emperors went on to acknowledge that
they themselves ought to be the forma salutatis, the "model of salvation," in
all things and to be the ones "to correct depraved deeds by imperial authority," but that they had nevertheless sinned: for this they desired God's
pardon. 95
The synods' agenda included the huge issues of the appropriate relationship of royal and ecclesiastical authority together with problems of church
property and the conduct of prelates and priests. 96 Of the four regional
synods summoned to formulate the route to correctio, only the text of that
which met in Paris in June 829 has survived. 97 Einhard demonstrably had
access to its dossier, including the emperors' general letter, when he wrote
the Translation and Miracles. 98 By lifting words and phrases from it he crafted a
savage, if veiled, attack on the arch-chaplain, Hilduin. 99 Hilduin, architect of
the theft of parts of Marcellinus and Peter, was the "false lover of the true God"
whose evil ways must be corrected, the object of Einhard's attack.
The conflict between Einhard and Hilduin ran deeper than that, however.
Hilduin was also central to the political tensions swirling around Louis the
Pious: in 830 he would be found among the rebellion's ringleaders, which
would result in his banishment from court. Einhard, by contrast, would
apparently remain loyal to both the aging emperor and his rebellious sons.
In this highly charged political atmosphere, both men exploited the relics
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206
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his trip to Rome, the many stories circulating as rumor and gossip which he
had strained his ears to catch, the records of mirades kept by his staff at
Mttlinhei17z, material from the crisis deliberations of 828-29, and libelli submitted by the dergy of the shrines to which relics had been distributed.
These he blended with panache, exercising as much creative literary talent
as in his invention of the genre of royal biography, and with comparable
influence on subsequent writers. 108 As he presented it, the tale also told of
his own conversion from the courtier skeptical of unusual mirades to the
enthusiastic proponent of the saints' cult, from the saints' patron to their
dient. Like the Lift 0/ Charlemagne, the Translation and lvIiracles combined
surface panegyric and covert polemic. 109 Its survival in more manuscript
copies than is usual for ninth-century accounts of relic translations strongly
suggests that Einhard had copies distributed. His intended audience was, it.
seems, a far larger textual community than merely the staff of his church at
lvIttlinheim and the pilgrims who flocked there: it induded all proponents of
correctio, whether bishops, abbots, or laity.llo
The martyrs' literary farne ensured, Einhard's final move to maintain the
momentum of the miraculous was to build another church at Mttlinheim,
expressly designed for pilgrims to venerate the relics. The decision to build
it had been taken in principle by the spring of 830,111 and his letters testify
to the great effort involved in summoning the necessary political will, labor
force, and material resources necessary to undertake it,u2 Its design reveals
much about the long-term role which Einhard intended Marcellinus and
Peter to play (figure 3).
Still standing, its central feature is an extended continuous transept with
an apsidal east end opening off it, and a crypt for the relics located exactly
under the high altar. The grave chamber for Einhard and Imma lies immediately to the west of the relic crypt. Accessible via a semicircular passage
around the interior of the apse, this layout reflected that of the most important shrine of the Latin West, St. Peter's in Rome, where an annular crypt
had been inserted c. 600 to improve access for pilgrims (figure 4).
Whilst NIttlinheim was not the first Carolingian church to copy St. Peter's
in this respect (both Saint-Denis and Fulda preceded it), it had an even
more precise referent in one of the new churches which Ratleic would have
seen being completed in Rome in 827.
No pope of the Carolingian period was more dosely connected to the
revival of early Christian forms of church architecture in Rome than Paschal
I (817-24). An energetic restorer of old churches and builder of new ones,
his finest extant achievement is the church of Sta Prassede (figure 5).113 Its
plan is a reduced version of St. Peter's: a nave with side aisles (albeit single
not double), a continuous transept off which opens a semicircular western
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10 m,etres
30 feet
!
2,0
60I
25 m,etres
75 ~eet
5,0
1~0
Fig. 4. St. Peter's, Rome. Adapted from Roger Stalley, Earl)' lVIedieval
Architectttre (Oxford, 1999), fig. 6.
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.. . .. . . .
.. . . . .
_:________ _
~1IIIIiIIIIiIIII1iIIIIIIIIIIIII==-:_:
apse, a relic confessio direcdy under the high altar accessible from a ring
crypt underneath the apse (figure 6).11 4
In the crypt, Paschal interred the relics of twenty-three hundred saints
whose relics he had translated from Rome's catacombs.11 5 He also decorated
the church's triumphal arch and apse with mosaics harking direcdy back to
the sixth-century ones in SS Cosma e Damiano: the triumphal arch depicts
the entry of martyrs and saints into the heavenly Jerusalem; the apse depicts
Paschal himself in the company of St. Praxedis herself being presented to
Christ by Sts. Pet er and Paul. 1l6 He deviated from the plan of St. Peter's to
add three side chapels, only one of which is still standing. This, the Zeno
chapel, was a funerary chapel for his mother Theodora; it too is decorated
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lLlJ
25 m,etres
5.0
with a sophisticated iconographical program in sparkling mosaic. 117 Conceivably Paschal hirns elf was buried here: whatever the case, he associated
hirnself more intimately with this church than with any other.
Sta Prassede rapidly established itself as a template for churches housing
translated Roman relics. Within a few years of its completion, it was being
emulated both to the south of Rome, at Farfa, and far to the north, at
lvIttlinheim. 118 Einhard's church was not, however, a slavish copy. For astart,
it was oriented to the east, whereas Sta Prassede followed St. Peter's in
having the liturgical east at the geographical west end. And its nave arcades
are made of round arches set upon square pillars, yet Sta Prassede has
architraves resting upon columns. Unlike Sta Prassede, it lacked an atrium.
Yet in other respects, the parallels between Sta Prassede and lvIttlinheim are
dose and precise. Both employ brick as a major building material; both
were purpose-built to house the relics of saints translated from the catacombs; both were simultaneously pilgrimage and funerary churchesY9 Sad-
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ly, all trace of Einhard's original interior decorations has vanished, and we
can he only speculate whether he also echoed in fresco Pascal's distinctive
mosaic ecclesiology.
Einhard's new church was, then, an architecturally self-conscious statement of contemporary Romanness. It was built to accommodate the pilgrims who came to seek divine grace at the shrine of Marcellinus and Peter.
It might also have been designed with an eye to close observance of Roman
liturgical practices. 120 By enabling the laity to enter the transepts en route
to the crypt via the stairs beside the altar, it uni ted clergy and laity in the
veneration of Marcellinus and Peter. In this, it was quite unlike the church
at Michelstadt, whose layout was intended to keep clergy and laity apart.
Not only relics but also brick-and-stone ecclesiology had been translated
from the Tiber to the Main.
Marcellinus and Peter's presence transformed Mulinheim into an echo of
Rome in Germany. They made it a holy city: within seven years of Einhard's
death we find it referred to as Saligunstat, the holy place. The change of
name took hold: it is now the town of Seligenstadt. 121 Had Einhard hirnself
chosen the new name? He certainly enjoined exemplary behavior on its
clerical staff: they were to be a forma salutis, a model of salvation to younger
people. 122 Perhaps he despaired of the emperor ever being able to fulfill that
role. Mulinheim-Seligenstadt was the model of correct Christianity in a devout, united congregation.
U nlike Aachen, Seligenstadt was a place of true faith in Christ and his
saints, where God's omnipotence was praised, where there was no room for
evil ways. Also at Seligenstadt, an area previously devoid of saint's shrines
had now acquired its own focus of devotion, to which people flocked from
ne ar and far. Here the message of correctio was broadcast in many ways:
through the messages which archangels and demons entrusted to blind men
and peasant girls, through the miracles which made men and women whole
both spiritually and physically, through the model life of the religious
community. The momentum of the miraculous which had been unleashed
at Michelstadt had been institutionalized, promulgated, defended, celebrated. A cult had been instituted that would endure for centuries: the feet of
generations of pilgrims abraded the steps leading down into the martyrs'
crypt until it was blocked off c. 1250, and the most recent pilgrimage there
was in 1993. 123
In 1911, Max Manitius commented on the Translation and Miracles that "its
highly gifted author fully shared the superstitions of his age."124 Although
in keeping with the attitudes of his own day, his condemnation of the
miraculous activities of Marcellinus and Peter as "superstitions" could not
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have been more misconceived. Rather, their cult shows how the miraculous
and tangible was in no way antithetical to ethical and educated religion. For
Einhard used the Roman martyr relics he acquired to argue the case for
correctio. In an age when paganism persisted only around western Europe's
northern and eastern periphery, the beliefs and practices of many of Europe's
Christians left much scope for improvement, at least in the verdict of those
who subscribed to the ideals of correct Christianity. Throughout the Carolingian empire-at its very heart, at Aachen, even-the task was not conversion, in the sense of the baptism of pagans, but rather the upgrading of
Christian observance, the elimination of inappropriate customs, and the
substitution of authorized forms of devotion and morality. Einhard showed
what the veneration of martyrs could contribute to this goal.
More than this, Einhard's account reminds us that the definition and
fostering of correct Christianity was a matter of political negotiation and
was by no means consensual. Certainly, correctio was at the heart of the
Carolingian royal vision of society, but early medieval religious politics did
not neatly divide elite from popular, clerical from lay, or court from country.
Rather, correctio provided a vocabulary, a repertoire of norms, and an array of
procedures from which a wide range of individuals and institutions could
appropriate whichever elements each cared to select. Those individuals included married laity as weH as bishops, peasants as weH as aristocrats,
serving boys as weH as kings. Their personal religious enthusiasms and
hopes varied, embracing personal commemoration, physical and spiritual
health, institutional advantage, a devout audience receptive to preaching
whether in word or in deed. Religious change in the Carolingian empire
was multiple in motifs, preoccupations and proponents. It emerges from
this analysis as a many-stranded endeavor; as competitive, at least within
the elite; as something which congealed around specific nodes-here and
there an aristocratic residence, a relic shrine, an imperial monastery. Underneath the rhetoric of religious uniformity, the mandate for change reinforced the plurality of Carolingian Christianities-imperial and local, lay
and monastic, urban and rural, traditional and corrected.
The uses to which Einhard put MarceHinus and Peter included personal
devotion, conjugal commemoration, and political argument. At the core of
this paper, however, is the argument that he promoted their cult as a
localization of the teaching of a universalizing church. 125 In his townhouse
at Aachen, the relics offered correction and salvation in the presence of a
corrupt court. At Mulinheim, the exemplary became the particular in written text, built brick, and ritual cult: it thereby changed the landscape of the
Maingau and the behavior of its inhabitants. Mulinheim became a new holy
place-ao Seligenstadt-from wh ich evils could be denounced and where a
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holy way of life could be fostered. Here, Einhard could "warn [others} ab out
how to correct [their} behavior,"126 for relic cult and emendation were inseparable.
NOTES
I am greatly indebted to the Davis Center for electing me to the fellowship which enabled me to carry out this research, and to all the participants
in the Davis Center seminar whose responses to the first version of this
paper did much to improve it. Donald Bullough, John Contreni, David
Ganz, Mayke de Jong, and Larry Nees all subsequently provided specialist
Carolingian expertise for which I am extremely grateful. I am of course
responsible for any remaining mistakes.
I. Einhard, Translatio et Miracttla Sanetorum Mareellini et Petri, III.14, ed.
G. Waitz, MGH SS XV, pt. 1, pp. 253-4. All translations are my own; cf.
the translation in Paul Edward Dutton, ed. and trans., Charlemagne's Courtier: The Complete Einhard (Peterborough, Ont., 1998), pp. 69-130.
2. Hildemar, Expositio regulae S. Benedieti, ed. R. Mittermller (Regensburg, 1880), as quoted by David Ganz, "The Preconditions for Caroline
Minuscule," Viator 18 (1987): 39. For important comments on the relationship between emendation and authority in the early Middle Ages see Martin Irvine, The Making 0/ Textual Culture: Grammatiea and Literary Theory,
350-I IOO (Cambridge, 1994), esp. pp. 74-7 8, 280-87, 298-313.
3. Prologue to Admonitio generalis, MGH Capit. I, no. 22, p. 53, 1. 41,
p. 54, 11. I, 3.
4. Peter Brown, "Conversion and Christianization in Late Antiquity:
The Case of Augustine," in The World 0/ Late Antiquity: The Challenge 0/ New
Historiographies, ed. Richard Lim and Carole Straw (Berkeley, Calif., forthcoming); Davis Center seminar paper, p. 35. Also William Klingshirn,
Caesarius 0/ Arles: The Making 0/ a Christian Commttnity in Late Antique Gaul
(Cambridge, 1994), chap. 10 on the important reception of Caesarius in the
Carolingian era.
5. The lack of attention to saints' cults in this context reflects the ways
in which studies of religious change in the Carolingian era still confine
their scope to those issues on which kings and bishops legislated insistently.
Since the regulation of saints' cults was a very modest topic of legislative
attention, saints and relics have remained marginal to studies of "correct
Christianity." For regulation of relic cults, see Eugene A. Dooley, Chureh
Law on Saered Relies (Washington, D.C., 1931); Nicole Hermann-Mascard,
Les reliqttes des saints: Formation coutumiere d'un droit (Paris, 1975).
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Martell in seiner Zeit, ed Jrg Jarnut, Ulrich Nonn, and Michael Richter,
Beihefte der Francia 37 (Sigmaringen, 1994), pp. 35-59, esp. pp. 40-42.
14. Gerhart B. Ladner, "Gregory the Great and Gregory VII: A Comparison of Their Concepts of Renewal," Viator 4 (1973): 1-31; idem, "Terms
and Ideas of Renewal," in Renaissance and Renewal in the Twe/fth Century, ed.
Robert 1. Benson and Giles Constable (Oxford, 1982), pp. 1-33; Giles
Constable, "Renewal and Reform in Religious Life: Concepts and Realities," ibid., pp. 37-67.
I 5. These generalizations rest on two lexical anal yses. (I) The indices to
MGH Capit. and MGH Conc. s.vv. correctio, corrigere, emendatio, emendare,
reformare, renovare, make clear the heavy preponderance of the vocabulary of
correction and emendation. U sage of re/ormare is confined to two instances
referring to the monastic office and one to polluted holy places (MGH
Capit. I, no. 30, p. 81,1. I; no. 141, cl. 10, p. 290; no. 179, cl. 13, p. 369).
(2) Alcuin's letters (MGH Epp. IV) are full of the language of correctiol
corrigere (but rarely emendatiolemendare) in his letters of advice to kings and
bishops. His correspondence occasionally uses re/ormatio in a spiritual sense;
in addition to spiritual regeneration, reformare mayaiso refer to the resumption of ecclesiastical order, a renewed correspondence, or the recovery of a
person's physical energy; renovare applies to bridges, relationships, etc.
16. The grounding of the notion of correctio in late Roman legislative tradition is pointed out by Ladner, "Gregory the Great and Gregory VII," p. 24; and
by Janet 1. Nelson, "On the Limits of the Carolingian Renaissance," in her
Politics and Ritual in Early Medieval Europe (London, 1986), pp. 53-4 (first
published in Studies in Church History 14 [1977): 51-67). On the connection
between correction and ruling (corrigere-regere), see Hans Hubert Anton, Frstenspiegel und Herrscherethos in der Karolingerzeit, Bonner Historische Forschungen 32
(Bonn, 1968), pp. 57-58, 95---96; Marc Reydellet, La Royaute clans la litterature
latine de Sidoine Apollinaire a Isidore de Seville, Bibliotheque des Ecoles Franc;aises
d'Athenes et de Rome 243 (Rome, 1981), pp. 575-58; Thomas Martin Buck,
Admonitio und Praedicatio: Zur religis-pastoralen Dimension von Kapitularien und
kapitulariennahen Texten (507-8I4), Freiburger Beitrge zur Mittelalterlichen
Geschichte 9 (Frankfurt, 1997)
Correctio was also the vocabulary of sixth-century canon law. It is used
occasionally in Visigothic church councils, for example 7th Council of Toledo, cl. I; Council of Merida, cl. 18; and 11th Council of Toledo, cls. 78, Concilios visig6ticos e hispano-romanos, ed. Jose Vives (Barcelona, 1963), pp.
249, 338, 360-61; and more frequently in Merovingian councils together
with emendatio (for example Ist Council of Orleans, cl. 5; Council of Clermont, cl. 2; 4th Council of Orleans, cls. 15-16; Council of Tours, epistola ad
plebem; Council of Chalon, cls. I I, 14, 18, 19, Concilia Galliae, A. 5 I I-A.
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21 5
695, ed. Charles de Clercg, Corpus Christianorum series latina, vo1. I48A
(Turnhout, 1963), pp. 6, 106, 136 , 197, 35-7.
17. Translatio et miracula, praef., p. 239.
18. Einhard's vocabulary of change is typical of his day. He never uses
re/ormatiolreformare; his single usage of renovare comes in the context of human emotions; letter to Lupus of Ferrieres: Servati Lupi epistolae, no. 3, ed.
Peter K. Marshall (Leipzig, 1984), p. 5,1. 21. Correctio/corrigere occurs in the
typically legislative context of Charlemagne's intention to revise the ethnic
law codes of his peoples, Vita Karoli 29, ed. O. Holder-Egger, MGH SSRG
(Hanover, 1911; reprint ed., 1965), p. 33,1. 7; and of his own responsibilities towards Lothar: "[Hludowicus] meaegue parvitati praecepit, ut vestri
curam gere rem, ac vos de moribus corrigendis et honestis atgue utilibus
sectandis, sedulo commonerem," Einhardi epistolae I I, ed. K. Hampe, MGH
Epp. V, p. 114. His usage of emendare is more wide-ranging, extending from
Charlemagne's overhaul of the liturgy (Vita Karoli 26, p. 3 I 1. 14), through
a penitential turn towards God (Ep. 2, p. 109) to the repair of buildings (Ep.
5, p. 111) and the correction of a written document (Translatio et miracula
II.I3, p. 25 2 , 1. 46). See also Epp. 9, 44, 49, pp. 113, 13 2 , 134, and
Translatio et miracula 1. 10, p. 243, 1. 43.
19. Vita Karoli, praef., ed. Holder-Egger, pp. 1-2. For the vast bibliography on Einhard and the vita Karoli, see Max Manitius, Geschichte der lateinischen Literatur des Mittelalters, vol. I (Munich, 191 I; reprint ed., 1974), pp.
639-46; J. Fleckenstein, "Einhard," in Lexicon des Mittelalters, 3: cols. 173739; Philippe Depreux, "Eginhard," Prosopographie de l'entourage de Louis le
Pieux (781-84) (Sigmaringen, 1997), pp. 177-85. There is an excellent
summary of re cent thinking on the vita Karoli, and the intense controversy
surrounding its date, in Dutton, Charlemagne's Courti~ pp. xviii-xxiv.
20. Walahfrid Strabo, prologue to the vita Karoli, ed. Holder-Egger, p.
xxviii.
21. Annales Regni Francorum, a. 806, ed. Friedrich Kurze, MGH SSRG
(Hanover: Hahn, 1895), p. 121; Ermoldus Nigellus, In Honorem Hludowici,
11.682-97, ed. Edmond Faral, Ermold le noir, Poeme sur Louis le Pieux et
epitres au roi Pepin (Paris, 1964), p. 54.
22. Hrabanus Maurus, Epitaphium Einhardi, MGH PLAC II, pp. 237-38.
23. Einhard, Ep. 11, pp. 114-15.
24. Severe illness prevented hirn attending in the spring of 830 (Einhard,
Epp. 13, 14, 15, pp. I 16-18); the evidence does not permit us to say when
or whether he returned to Aachen.
25. Ep. 40, pp. 12 9-3.
26. On the reign of Louis the Pious, see Egon Boshof, Ludwig der Fromme
(Darmstadt, 1996) and Peter Godman and Roger Collins, eds., Charle-
2I6
SEEING
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magne's Heir: New Perspectives on the Reign of Louis the Pious (Oxford,
I990).
27. Franz J. Felten, bte und Laienen'bte im Frankenreich (Stuttgart, I980),
pp. 283-86, for details of the lay abbacies.
28. Codex Laureshamensis I9, ed. Karl Glckner, 3 vols. (Darmstadt, I92936), I :299-300.
29. Ibid., 20, I:30I-2.
30. For a discussion of MarceHinus and Peter in the context of Einhard's
domestic and personallife, see my "Einhard: The Sinner and the Saints," in
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th ser., I3 (forthcoming, 2003).
3 I. Martin Heinzelmann, "Einhards Translatio Marcellini et Petri: Eine hagiographische Reformschrift von 830," in Einhard: Studien zu Leben und Werk, ed,
Hermann Schefers (Darmstadt, I997), p. 278. See also Marguerite Bondois, La
Translation des Saints Marcellin et Pierre: Etude sur Einhard et sa vie politique de 827
a 834 (Paris, I907); J Fleckenstein, "Einhard, seine Grndung und sein Vermchtnis in Seligenstadt, " in his Ordnungen und formende Krfte des Mittelalters
(Gttingen, I989), pp. 84-I II; Dutton, Charlemagne's Courtier, pp. xxiv-xxxi.
32. Translatio et miracula I.I- I 5, pp. 239-45.
33. Cf. Josef Koch, 'Die Wirtschafts- und Rechtsverhltnisse der Abtei
Seligenstadt im Mittelalter," Archiv fr hessische Geschichte und Altertumskunde,
n.s. 22 (I94I): I-53; Waldemar Kther, "Seligenstadt, Mainz und das
Reich," Archiv fr mittelrheinische Kirchengeschichte 30 (I97 8): 9-57; Ingrid
Firner, Regesten zur Geschichte von Seligenstadt am Main: Kloster und Stadt vom
9. Jahrhundert bis zum Ende der Kurmainzer Herrschaft (Darmstadt, I999).
34. Franz Staab, "Heidentum und Christentum in der Germania prima
zwischen Antike und Mittelalter," in Zur Kontinuitt zwischen Antike und
Mittelalter im Oberrhein, ed. idem (Sigmaringen, I994), pp. I I7-52, with
fuH references to earlier literature.
35. Paul Fouracre, The Age of Charles Martel (Harlow, 2000), esp. pp.
I02-I4, I26-34 gives the political outline; H. Schulze, "Ostfranken und
Alemannien in der Politik des frnkischen Reiches," in Alemannien und
Ost/ranken im frhen Mittelalter, ed. F. Quarthai, Verffentlichungen des Alemannischen Instituts Freiburg 48 (Bhl, I984), pp. I3-38, surveys theories
about the development of political organization; Robert Koch and Ursula
Koch, "Die frnkische Expansion ins Main- und Neckargebiet," in Die Franken: Wegbereiter Europas, Exhibition catalogue for the exhibition held at the
Reiss-Museum, Mannheim, I996-97, 2 vols. (Mainz, I996), I :270-84,
reviews the archaeological evidence for Frankish influence.
36. Koch and Koch, "Die frnkische Expansion," p. 273; Matthew Innes,
State and Society in the Early Middle Ages: The Middle Rhine valley, 400-IOOO
(Cambridge, 2000), pp. I57-59.
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222
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223
224
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8
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ASPECTS OF CONVERSION FROM ANTONINUS PlUS TO
LOUIS THE PIOUS
NEIL
McLYNN
To the distress of their duly anointed shepherds, the Christian congregations of late antiquity remained stubbornly reluctant to be domesticated.
When a preacher like Gregory Nazianzen invoked his "resplendent and
unblemished flock, worthy of the fold above," he knew that in fact he faced
an intractably diverse assemblage: "a beast made out of many creatures,
with many forms and shapes, large and small, tarne and wild."l However
frequently Christian spokesmen might invoke the solidarity of the faithful,
their lyrical appeals were as misleading as the brief appearance, each Easter,
of a fresh phalanx of white-robed neophytes. The people of God could be
instantiated only fleetingly. Susanna Elm offers a glimpse of pastoral reality
when she shows Gregory hectoring the Christians of Constantinople to
receive baptism, and to do so without regard to the distinction of those
either administering the sacrament or sharing the font (pp. 21-22): his
plaintive tone betrays how far he, or any other church leader of late antiquity, was from being able to impose his own view of what it meant to
become a Christian.
In this volume, moreover, Elm's Gregory meets as diverse an assemblage
as ever crowded the nave of Holy Wisdom. Here an emperor rubs shoulders
with ordinary (and obstinately heterogeneous) family groups on the lookout
for prime burial plots; ambitious intellectuals inhale the perfumes of actresses; peasants from the banks of the Main stand beside volatile tribesmen
from eastern Anatolia. The commentator, therefore, can no more hope to
impose uniformity on his texts than could the bishop on his congregation;
here, as in the cathedral, any uniformity that might be discovered will be
the fruit more of wishful rhetorical artifice than of direct engagement.
What emerges above all from these papers is instead a sense of the limits of
any prescriptive Christianity.
224
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225
In the seven hundred years between Justin's teaching career and the
composition of The Translation 0/ Peter and Marcellinus J the framework within which Christians expressed their commitment to the faith changed dramatically. Where Rebecca Lyman shows Justin's Rome crackling with the
multiple interactions of charged particles, for Julia Smith's equally competitive Einhard Christian authority congeals around specific nodes. But despite all the changes to the rules, the game remains recognizably the same.
Converts (or those effecting conversions) retain their room for maneuver:
there is no monolithic "church" (still less a monolithic Christian state) able
to dictate to its new members the exact terms of their faith. Conversion
continued to me an different things to different converts, just as it does to
our contributors, who have sought their indices of Christianization everywhere from imperial statutes to imperial statues, from theories of baptism
to burial practices, from ancient ethnographie vocabulary to modern postcolonial discourse. When A. D. Nock published his classic study of conversi on in 1933, he could treat "Christianity" as a given: here it sits squarely
at the center of the problem.
A question central to this volume thus concerns religious authority, the
degree to which conversions could be controlled. Elm's Gregory is merely
the most obvious case of a Christian leader proclaiming normative statements without any realistic means of enforcing them. When Eric Rebillard
discusses Cyprian's outraged denunciation of the party-going habits of a
Spanish churchman, or Richard Lim the legislation designed to restriet the
baptism of stage performers, they raise similar questions; even Michael
Maas's Justinian, in legislating for Armenia, is merely "imposing the imperial fantasy of bringing civilization and God's order" (p. 170). The buccaneering free market in which Smith's Einhard acquires and disposes of his
relics shows how far either papal Rome or the court of Aachen were from
being controlled environments. Time and again in these essays, the solid
structures of Christian church and Christian state dissolve beneath detailed
scrutiny. We have here seven different experiments conceived along seven
rather different lines, conducted at various points along the grand narrative
(which, although routinely disavowed by modern scholars, has still not been
definitively displaced in the scholarly, let alone the popular imagination) of
the "Rise of Christianity." Each time, a piece of familiar territory is rendered somehow strange, and possible new trajectories begin to emerge.
For if the only constant among our converts is their incorrigible diversity,
the principal similarity between the conversions on offer he re is that they
are analyzed not as mental events-the decisive inner reorientations at the
he art of Nock's classic treatment-but as social processes. Whether it involves Justin measuring hirnself against the other intellectuals, Christian
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Richard Lim and Eric Rebillard both remind us that we are still very much
in the ancient city. The Christian congregation in the cathedral was but one
of several overlapping assemblages: many of the same individuals would
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228
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been a private venture (p. 72). We are confronted here with the fluctuations
of the funerary market. Rebillard's previous work has brought horne the
unsystematic and uneven process by which the rituals of death were brought
within the scope of Christian pastoral care;3 his present paper invites us to
take the measure of those parts of the Christian cemetery where these competing clerical voices did not reach.
The prospects for such an investigation might best be illustrated by
adding a further case study to Rebillard's list, from the catacombs of Rome.
A convenient subject for such an analysis is the Via Labicana cemetery three
miles southeast of the city: a complex site, but one to which modern archaeological techniques have been applied by ] ean Guyon in his exemplary
survey.4 But where Guyon continues to frame his historical analysis within
Christianizing assumptions, we might seek less rigid categorization. Rather
than looking for a specific "community" within the Roman church that the
cemetery might have served, for example, we might think more gene rally of
a service being provided to interested parties within a catchment area. 5
Rebillard's interpretation of the case of Bishop Martialis, in terms of the
returns available from a long-term investment in a funerary collegium (p.
70), invites us to consider the converse attractions, for families thinking
ahead, of the facilities provided by Christians. No more commitment need
be implied in such a preference than in Martialis's choice on behalf of his
son. At Via Labicana, the persistence of informal arrangements is apparent
in the tradition concerning the interment of the martyrs Peter and Marcellinus, two clergymen who secured their berths through the good offices of
a pious sponsor, Lucilla. 6 The more that "Christian" burials depended upon
such private initiatives, the more the facilities will have appealed to pious
non -Chris tians.
Such a perspective will allow reconsideration of the two successive fourthcentury "conversions" of the city of Rome, by a Christian emperor and by
the Roman popes, as these are reflected at the Via Labicana cemetery. So on
after the Christian God had granted hirn his victory over Maxentius, Constantine authorized the construction of a huge basilica on an adjacent plot,
the graveyard for his defeated rival's troop of bodyguards. 7 This basilica
(like Constantine's other grand extramural projects) is in fact a vast enclosed
burial site, offering simple but presumably prestigious grave plots, and
attractive facilities for family members who would come to tend these. 8
Rather than serving the existing catacomb complex, however, this lavish
structure would completely redefine it. There was no attempt to incorporate
Peter and Marcellinus's remains into the basilica, and graves within the
building were more obviously aligned with the great imperial mausoleum
attached to the east end, which would house the empress Helena. But the
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magnificent pomp with which Helena's remains were installed would last
but a single day; and the lavish provision of liturgical vessels for the basilica
implies occasional spectacle rather than a constant routine. 9 The function of
this basilica (and the others which Constantine built around Rome) would
be determined, during the fourth century, neither by the emperor's intentions nor by the rituals conducted at the site by Roman clergymen, but by
the aggregate of the funeral arrangements, and the arrangements for posthumous commemoration, made for the hundreds of individuals interred
there. No doubt most (and perhaps all) users of the basilica would have
called themselves Christians, but they remained free to choose the most
appropriate means of relating their religious faith to their family piety.
Inside the basilica a familiar collective conversion narrative thus breaks
down into a multiplicity of elusive microhistories; only when the basilica
was no longer a focus for family business (and as children gave way to
grandchildren, the ties of graveside duty would doubtless weaken) could
officiating clergy claim it definitively for the church of Rome.
Beneath Constantine's basilica, meanwhile, the catacombs remained in
use;lO one can only wonder about the effect of the new building upon the
price of underground loculi. But Rebillard's paper also suggests the basis for
areinterpretation of the key fourth-century development in this part of the
site, the creation of a martyr sanctuary at the tombs of Peter and Marcellinus. Recent excavation allows a detailed reconstruction of the successive
enlargements of the cubiculttm where the martyrs were housed: it might
nevertheless be premature to describe the effect as a straightforward conversion from a private space to a public place, or to explain the change by
reference to the pressure from increased pilgrim trafficY Other users of the
facilities, he re as at other catacombs, will instead have seen a (probably
gradual) extension of the martyrs' families. Prominent among their adoptive
children were groups of students from abroad, pious young men separated
from their own kin and therefore free to create their own imaginative lineages; they made the places their own, reveling in the (to them) sinister
anonymity of the dark tunnels. 12 The remodeling of the catacomb, so that
by the mid-fourth century all major routes led to the martyrs, leaves little
room for doubt that such attentions were encouraged. Nevertheless, even if
those tending family graves also began to include the martyrs in their
commemorative visits, they remained free to use them as they wished-and
to subordinate them to their own business. 13
Nor would the si te and its function be changed fundamentally by the
most celebrated impresario of the martyr cult in fourth-century Rome, Pope
Damasus. 14 The sheer scope of Damasus's interventions-he left his imprint
upon eighteen separate extramural sites, and contributed four memorial
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tablets to the Via Labicana catacomb alone 15 -has seemed to imply a grand,
coherent vision: Damasus has thus been given credit for an intention "to
physically uni te the sites beyond the walls into an almost unirary Christian
hinterland of Rome."16 But it is misleading simply to plot the pope's initiatives upon a blank map; to appreciate their impact at ground level, we
need to think in terms of individual sites, and take into account their other
users. At Via Labicana, as elsewhere, Damasus's main contribution was
decorative. He faced the crypt with marble, crowning it (as was his trademark) wirh a beautifully carved verse inscription, which both advertised the
martyrs and explained his own personal connection with themY Once again,
we must draw a distinction between an initial impact and subsequent use.
The ceremony when this renovated chamber was opened, presumably in the
papal presence, would have had much of the solemniry of an inventio} a
formal discovery of martyrs' relics. But there is no reason to suppose that
the whole cemetery was immediately and irrevocably reoriented around the
martyrs. Our prevailing view of the cult of the martyrs is unabashedly
impressionistic: but only on a few days each year did the Christian city
"move from its address," and then only to a few especially favored shrines. 18
Nor were Peter and Marcellinus of this select company. While their anniversaries will doubtless have received increased emphasis and more formal
commemoration through the mensa that Damasus had (probably) installed
adjacent to the two graves, this only brought them into line with the
better-appointed chambers elsewhere in the cemetery, where such tables
were a long-established part of the furniture. 19 Once the papal cavalcade had
moved on, that is, familiar routines would reassert themselves. Damasus
could no more impose his martyrs than could Constantine his mother: the
pace for the eventual transformation of the complex was set not by popes or
emperors, but by the fossores. If martyr cults are to be measured by the
density of burials ad sanctos} Peter and Marcellinus must be counted as late
developers. Although few of the two dozen burials crammed into the chamber are dated, all these (which cannot by their placement have been the
latest) are dated to the fifth century; it was then, too, that burial elsewhere
in the catacomb seems to have ceased. 20
Such considerations suggest that we might modify Peter Brown's famous
characterization of the rise of the cult of the martyrs in the West as an
exuberant response to a crisis of ecclesiastical surplus which compelled the
Western bishops "to invent new ways of spending money."21 Instead, we
might see the bishops juggling scarce resources to maintain apresence,
treading gingerly through territories that they knew they could neither
afford to disown nor hope fully to control. In doing so we might also
reconsider such famous episodes as the fourth-century incident at Milan,
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when a porter in the service of the church prevented an African widow from
following her usual custom of taking grave offerings to the local martyrsY
This is conventionally interpreted as the routine application of a powerful
bishop's decree. But out-of-towners would be particularly susceptible to
episcopal direction-especially in cases like this, where the bishop offered
them a place instead in his own, approved services. Local matrons will have
taken much less readily to any interruption of their accustomed rounds of
the cemeteries, which combined observances at family graves with attentions to others among the deserving departed. So although Ambrose's attentions towards Monica would surprise her son, the bi shop had asound
appreciation of her value. Certainly, those with no personal stake in Milan's
sacred history would be most likely to accept Ambtose's sanitized version of
it. We should in any case envisage the episcopal takeover of the cemeteries,
at both Rome and Milan-and at places like Cherchel as well-as an incremental process. The churches established their ascendancy as the collegia had
once established theirs, by combining a perceived ability to provide an
appropriate send-off for. the departed and a proven record of posthumous
aftercare.
Demography was on the bishops' side. The tombs they identified as
authentically sanctified inevitably became more conspicuous, as fewer family members were left to tend the adjacent ones. The Lift 0/ Pelagial as
discussed by Richard Lim, shows the eventual impact upon the suburbs of
episcopal initiatives to celebrate the saints. For this story begins in a cemetery: the bishop of Antioch had lodged Nonnus and his colleagues in a
tomb complex, three miles from the city, which had become a monumental
mansio with accommodation suitable not only for eight bishops and their
retinues but also (as a later source shows) for imperial ambassadors. 23 The
gates provided a grandstand view of passersby: a group of bishops could
hardly have hoped otherwise for a legitimate opportunity to inspect an
actress and her entourage in all their pomp.
The Lift 0/ Pelagia is a text best read as a wish-fulfillment fantasy. Having
found material for an impromptu sermon (and a bout of paradoxical selfcriticism) even in a passing show of sinful beauty, abishop then preaches in
a more formal setting and inspires a spontaneous and spectacular conversion. But the story allows us to sense the constraints of fantasy. While Lim's
interest is in Pelagia as an actress, the text is insistent upon reducing her to
a prostit,ute. Even when the good citizens of Antioch (in the Syriac version
of the tale) fall to gossiping about the groaning sinner they think of her
misdeeds in the boudoir, not upon the stage. 24 In other words, this is not
presented as a "civic" episode at all. Nonnus does not rob the city of its
legitimate pleasures, but merely frees its debauchees from temptation. And
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even so, initiative is taken by an outsider, not the local bishop-such was
the instinctive resistance, perhaps, to episcopal interference in the entertainment industry. Moreover, Nonnus's initial homily is purely for the edification of his fellow dergymen; and even in the cathedral, there is no direct
appeal to the actress to abandon her profession. Nor again is Pelagia's'
baptism integrated into the liturgical rhythms of the cathedral: nothing
suggests that it occurred in parallel with the customary Easter initiations,
and unlike other famous converts like Augustine at Milan or Marius Victorinus at Rome she is never presented to the local community. And after
the customary seven days in her baptismal robes, she disappears from view
entirely. While the reader sees her in three different costumes in the story,
the people of Antioch witnessed only her sinful splendor. The only aspect of
Pelagia's story that relates to the workaday world of theatrical conversions
so expertly analyzed by Lim is the recruitment of a deaconess to stand
surety for her: 25 but here again, this sponsorship is explained as a requirement not of imperial legislation but of canon law. The church instinctively
saved face; the dergy were so accustomed to living by the state's rules that
they could pretend that they had made them themselves.
lohn Chrysostom, in his sermon Against the Games and Theater (p. 102),
likewise knew better than to stake his prestige on a prohibition that he
could not enforce. Instead, he quietly shifts tack during the speech. Having
addressed himself initially to a particular offender- "When you sit high up
[in the theater] where there is so much inducement to unseemliness, and see
a whore make her entrance bareheaded, with much shamelessness, dressed
in golden garments . . . do you dare to say that you feel no human response?"-by the dose (in the passage quoted by Lim) he has moved from
the miscreants to their enablers. When banning theatergoers from the sacraments he leaves the enforcement of the ban to their hapless neighbors,
who are to pass censure and snub them socially until they me nd their ways.
lohn thus applied moral pressure upon a congregation already committed to
his cause, visibly "groaning and cast down" by his severity. He made all his
own supporters accomplices after the fact in the crimes of the wicked. Ir
was thus the former who wilted beneath his famously searching gaze. 26 The
technique worked brilliantly as long as the villains themselves remained
safely out of reach: while lohn could not remove the Christians from the
Antiochene theater, he could bring the theater compellingly into his church.
Only rarely would real-life bishops come into direct contact with the
real-life stage. The legislation on the rights and duties of "converted" actresses (pp. 88-90) indicates that the dergy were occasionally called upon
to give testimonials, implicating themselves in difficult and delicate decisions. Cod. Theod 15.7. I (addressed to a prefect of Rome during the episco-
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pate of Damasus) provides for a complex procedure whereby episcopal approval is the first step, to be followed by an inspection by the state; the
bishop must also have been involved in carrying out the inspections provided for in the subsequent laws which link the authenticity of conversion to
satisfactory conduct: the actress must prove herself "respectable" (15.7.2),
maintain her "better way of living" (15.7 -4), and avoid being caught "betraying the religion which she had sought" (15.7.8). A striking feature of
these laws is the imprecision of their terms: as Lim notes, not even baptism
put an actress safely beyond reach of her past, and the combined authority
of governor and bishop would suffice to seal her fate. Pelagia was perhaps
well advised to remain out of sight during her conversion.
That collusion between bishops and magistrates might readily be suspected is clear from the provision, in cases of wrongful conscription to the
stage, that bishops as well as magistrates should be liable for fines (p. 90).
One can perhaps sympathize, however, with abishop who was faced with
such a convert. He earned great renown by conquering such conspicuous
sin, but in claiming his victory he was saddling hirnself with an anxious
responsibility for a vessel whose frailty was a given. Like Nonnus's Pelagia,
the ideal case would therefore be where the momentary glory of conversion
was followed by convenient disappearance. Chrysostom's treatment, in his
sermons on Matthew, of Pelagia's (probable) real-life exemplar, further illustrates the point. 27 He says much ab out her sin and little about her later
sanctity. He also recalls that in this case the state did make an attempt to
prevent her retirement; she was defended from the governor and his soldiers
not by the bishop and people, but "the virgins who had received her." Only
after the secular authorities had acknowledged defeat did she receive baptism, her cue for disappearance into ascetic obscurity.
Another law mentioned by Lim brings horne another important point:
the state was also seriously underresourced. A prefect of Rome was charged
with preventing the abduction of actresses for performance "either in hornes
or in other cities."28 For this magistrate was responsible for maintaining the
city's dauntingly complex entertainment industry: the scale of his task is
indicated by the intervention of another urban prefect, only three years after
this law, to protect "even the attendants of female mimes, as well as three
thousand dancers and their choreographers," from deportation during a
famine. 29 The most obvious culprits for the kidnappings, moreover, are the
prefect's fellow senators, who were locked into a cycle of permanent competition that encouraged them to advertise their exclusive claims upon celebrities. In the same way that they would scour the empire for racehorses and
barbarian combatants for their sons' games, they would be on the lookout
for glamorous women; and it would serve them well even in "off" years,
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235
Our second pair, Rebecca Lyman's Justin and Susanna Elm's Gregory, both
left accounts of their own "conversion" experiences; and both again suggest
the limited reach of the formal ecclesiastical structures of the Christian
church. Justin's celebrated description of his seaside encounter with a mysterious sage concludes with a newfound "passion for the prophets and for
the friends of Christ," not with the baptismal font;39 similarly, baptism is
the most conspicuous lacuna in Gregory's otherwise comprehensive recording of his Christian career in his verse autobiography, De Vita Sua. 40 In
neither case, perhaps, is the omission accidental. For both these men were
intellectuals, their conception of their Christian identity individual rather
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than institutional. And although much had changed in the two centuries
between them, the approach that Lyman employs to analyze Justin can
usefully be applied to Gregory also. The latter's younger contemporary
Augustine has provided a model of conversion that is, perhaps, doubly
misleading: so captivating are the idiosyncrasies of the Confessions that we
easily forget that this is the work of abishop. The direct path that Augustine follows, from acceptance of Christianity to the baptismal font and the
embrace of the Catholic church, reflects the author's own perspective at the
time of writing; a quite different trajectory is suggested by the works that
the newly converted rhetorician had produced the autumn before his baptism, at Cassiciacum. 41 Gregory, on the other hand, constructed his own
autobiography partly to argue that he was not abishop (not the bishop of
Nazianzus, at any rate), and partly also to suggest that most of the current
episcopate were impostors. In his account of his decisive commitment to a
Christian life he is therefore much doser to the Augustine of Cassiciacum
than to the Augustine of the Confessions. At the critical moment he summons a council of friends, to weigh up in their company the respective
benefits of practical e9gagement and contemplative withdrawa1. 42 This is a
frankly homemade Christianity, a recipe devised publidy and specifically
designed to maintain a safe distance from the church. Gregory attributes
the initial modification, and ultimate frustration, of this plan to the constraints of filial obligations43-it was not only in funerary arrangements
that family ties counted. Gregory's autobiography also reinforces another
point raised earlier. The arresting image with which he doses, of the false
bishops strutting vaingloriously to celebrate their victory over hirn, is typical of the rhetoric that has encouraged modern scholars, as Elm remarks, to
write hirn off as an ineffectual victim. But it was dearly in Gregory's
interest to play up the strength and cohesion of his enemies: like Damasus
for the Ursinians, the bishops made a convenient collection of monsters.
Our heavily episcopocentric view of late antique Christianity has been shaped
by an accidental conspiracy between the bishops' own propaganda and their
demonization by their enemies.
But Justin and Gregory are important less as converts than for the convers ions that they themselves effected. Once again, comparison reveals some
unexpected similarities between their working conditions. Lyman's presentation of Justin as a combative colonial intellectual applies also to Gregory,
who was also (for two crucial years) an immigrant freelancer in the fiercely
competitive environment of an imperial capita1. 44 Even doser to Justin's
model, down to his philosopher's robes, was Gregory's sometime ally Maximus of Alexandria, the Christian Cynic: and Maximus's alleged treachery
(in putting hirnself forward for promotion at Gregory's expense) in turn
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recalls the blame for Justin's arrest heaped by posterity upon Crescens the
Cynic philosopher. 45 Much ab out the Maximus episode becomes clear if we
follow Lyman's lead and treat Gregory during his career at Constantinople
as a "cultural work in progress"; although there was now a cathedral and a
state apparatus to lend shape and substance to ideas of orthodoxy, we underestimate both Gregory and the cultural complexity of his environment if we
reduce hirn to these points of reference. For he successfully created his own
world. Much like Justin in his bathhouse lodgings, Gregory operated in a
private house, and relied on his own charisma to endow the site with religiosity;
he too was held accountable before the city authorities for his behavior there. 46
Nor was this just an interlude. As we shall see, Gregory seems to have maintained the same tone even after he was installed in the cathedral.
In gauging the impact of Justin and Gregory-and both Lyman and Elm
raise the question of their "success" or "failure" (pp. 5, 4I)-we must
distinguish between the direct impact of the men and the more diffuse
influence of their books. Justin's teaching is especially difficult to assess.
Anyone who wished, he professed, could come to his horne and hear hirn
speak the "words of truth"; but the Acts of his martyrdom do not see m to
reveal a body of disciples. Only one of the six co-defendants, one Euelpistus,
speaks of his relations hip with Justin: and Euelpistus says that he gladly
listened to Justin's words, but had received his Christianity from his parents
in CappadociaY Justin's most famous (alleged) pupil, Tatian, in fact claims
to have been converted solely by books. 48 The sole direct evidence for Tatian's
relationship with Justin, moreover, is a single passage of the Oration to the
GreeksJ where he recalls how the false philosopher Crescens betrayed his fear
of death by scheming to entrap "Justin just as he did me."49 Although
scholars have treated this merely as happy confirrnation of Justin's own
enigmatic reference to Crescens, Tatian inserts the passage only a few lines
after he has appealed to Justin's authority (his only other reference to hirn): in
doing this, Tatian-who like Justin was an ambitious freelance writer, launehing a book into a narrow circle-was arguably using information familiar to
readers of the Apology in order to claim an association with its sainted
author. Justin, that is, was already defined by his texts. And when Irenaeus
subsequently distinguishes an "orthodox" Tatian, writing under Justin's
tutelage, from the swollen-headed heretic who emerged after his teacher's
death, he is applying much the same schematism that Lyman sees in modern scholarship.50 Eusebius, in turn, would read Justin through Irenaeus. 51
And despite his claim that these citations from Irenaeus should send readers
back to Justin's original text, Eusebius's presentation shows that the process
Lyman identifies in second-century Christian writing was still operational
in the furth: each successive hybrid is absorbed, to help produce another.
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While Gregory, at least during the six .r;>0nths when he had the cathedral
of Constantinople at his disposal, had a more direct impact upon a much
larger audience than Justin could ever have imagined, his abiding influence
again depended upon the circulation of his texts in circumstances remote
from their original contexts. There is, moreover, very litde evidence about
his success in changing minds among his own immediate listeners. Our sole
witness to his preaching (who is quoting hirn, as Tatian did Justin, to
establish his own pedigree) claims that Gregory could effordessly evoke
unthinking applause;52 the more profound impact of which Elm speaks,
upon the framework of theological thought, seems to begin only in the fifth
century, and is to be connected with Gregory's absorption into a "classical"
patristic canon. Like Justin, Gregory would be transformed by the context
within which he was read. A good example is the treatment of his oration
On Epiphany by the sixth-century commentator "Pseudo-Nonnus," where
the attention to the mythological allusions in the text makes this hardly
recognizable as the same work that Elm discusses. 53 And while we can
assurne that most readers were more interested in Gregory's theological co re
than in the mythological asides, we must not forget the connection between
his remarkable prominence in Byzantine libraries and his posthumous penetration of the schoolbook market. Like Justin, again, Gregory became the
pillar of an orthodox mentality that he would scarcely have recognized, and
with which he may well have had scant sympathy.
True Christian belief, for both Justin and Gregory, involved dramatic
confrontation with false belief: for both, Christianity is defined by reference
to heresy rather than to paganism. Their respective rhetorics of engagement
suggest the room that was available, at the conceptuallevel, for conversion.
In his Apology! J ustin's response to the calumnies against Christianity fomented by evil demons is at first dispassionate: there is a routine, formulaic
tone to the contrast he draws between Christian and pagan cult practices,
and the character of their respective deities. 54 Only when he discusses the
Romans' readiness to believe in the divinity of Simon Magus, a Samaritan
"from a village called Gitta," does he begin to argue his point, famously
adducing epigraphic evidence from "the statue on the Tiber between the
two bridges" to make his case. 55 Whether Justin had imagined or discovered this "Roman" cult of Simon, his sudden insistence he re graphically
delineates his imaginative horizons. From the Tiber bridge the famous temple of Asclepius was visible direcdy before hirn, and the great temple of
Jupiter on the Capitol towered above: but Justin preferred to pick his fight
with a worn inscription, which he needed to explain before he could denounce it. The passage thus shows one colonial teacher setting out to expose, for the benefit of a metropolitan audience, the false claims of another.
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be seen as boundary markers. For all his claims to have "tamed" his opponents by his gentleness of speech, Gregory (as has been well said of Justin
and his famous dialogue with Trypho)64 seems to have talked not to them
but at them.
We might go further. Gregory arguably needed his heretics to be irredeemable-for this spared hirn the need for converts. His preaching style
was not calculated to persuade . In each of the three sermons Elm discusses
Gregory finds occasion to pick a fight, and these arguments grow more
involved as the series progresses. In Or. 38 his interlocutor is a "feast-Iover"
who might object to the preacher's austerity; in Or. 39 he embarks upon a
spirited debate with a Novatian schismatic; much of Or. 40 consists of a
one-sided dialogue with a reluctant baptismal candidate. This was Gregory's preferred technique, but here his prickly approach jars strikingly with
his celebratory theme. The point noted by Elm, that we cannot be entirely
sure whether these sermons belong to the season of 379/80 or 380/1, deserves particular emphasis in this connection. 6S Far whereas in December
379 Gregory had still been confined to his partisan base in the Anastasia, a
year later he was freshly installed in the very different environment of Holy
Wisdom, preaching to the Theodosian establishment. Yet such was the
consistency of his rhetoric that there is no conclusive evidence either way.
On balance, the evidence suggests the later date-when his pugnacity would
become more stridently discordant. For inside his cathedral, the late antique bishop could afford a tone of lofty disdain; as if to compensate hirn for
his inability to project hirns elf into the cemeteries and theaters, incumbency guaranteed preeminence within his own walls. Yet Gregory continued to
speak, as it were, from the campaign trail. The explanation for this is
closely connected to a fundamental contradiction in his situation. While his
government sponsors were looking for abishop who would bring the many
lost sheep of Constantinople into the fold of a genuinely "catholic" church,
Gregory had no intention of making the compromises necessary to achieve
such a goal. The combative brilliance of Gregory's rhetoric should be seen
as a substitute for conversions, not a me ans of effecting them.
The presence of the Theodosian court in Gregory's audience would also
explain another feature of these orations. For the feasts of Theophany and
Epiphany bracketed, with near-perfect symmetry, the greatest festival of the
secular year. The New Year celebrations revolved around the formal inauguration of the consuls, and in 381 the people of Constantinople would see
Theodosius present the consular robe to his uncle, the first such ceremony
there in over a decade; meanwhile, presents were exchanged and the populace treated to three days of games. 66 There is no previous evidence, moreover, for the celebration of the Theophany in late December: so Gregory
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might even have been innovating here, creating a major Christian feast in
the run-up to the Kalends. 67 He could not compete with the New Year
festival, so much more compelling than any theatrical display, nor could he
denounce so important astate occasion in the presence of the imperial
court; instead, he simply ignored it. The seamlessness with which Elm
moves from the argument of Or. 38 to that of Or. 39 (pp. 15-16) reflects
exactly Gregory's own approach. Bleary-eyed courtiers who reappeared dutifully for the Epiphany service thus had to cope with the abrupt resumpti on of a train of thought that had begun a forrnight previously. This is not
the otherworldly self-absorption of a professor who begins his lecture by
completing a sentence which had faded into a pregnant pause the previous
week. Elm's Gregory creates a corpus that is "programmatic, political, and
influential" (p. 5): if Gregory's real influence came only later, when his
works became the set texts of Byzantine orthodoxy, with this quiet restructuring of the calendar he presented to the new Theodosian regime a program that wasindeed highly political.
But Gregory ignores more than the holiday his audience has just enjoyed:
the most remarkable political aspect of these orations is his obliviousness to
the most distinguished member of his congregation. For Theodosius would
certainly have been present for Epiphany, and probably for Theophany also.
Although in other sermons of this period Gregory is happy to acknowledge
the emperor's presence, he re he says nothing. 68 Theodosius had been baptized by a Nicene bishop the previous spring: yet during his Epiphany
speech, when Gregory mentions "Caesar" he means only "the world-rulers
of those who whirl below."69 More srrangely still, the following day (when
the emperor may weH have been absent) his question to a man "soiled by
public affairs" what he had to do with Caesar is intended to prompt a selfevidently negative response;1 and although this harangue was intended to
persuade secular officials to accept baptism, Gregory fails to exploit Theodosius's epoch-making reconciliation of the purple and the font. To und erstand Gregory's behavior here we might again compare hirn with Justin.
For both men, in their different ways, were of necessity sophisticated emperor-watchers. When Justin wrote his ApologYJ as Lyman points out, emperors spoke Greek and comported themselves philosophically: and he duly
addressed his first Apology not only to the emperor Antoninus Pius but also
to his two adoptive sons Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, styling each a
"philosopher";71 posterity would improve upon this to devise a special relationship between the Apologist and the most appropriate of his interlocutors. 72 This was a dialogue (whether real or fictive) appropriate for the
times, where Justin's addressees help define the work for his readers. Just so,
Gregory's- refusal to catch the emperor's eye as he re-creates for his audience
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the progression from Incarnation through Illumination to Baptism-a refusal that we can be sure made a much more profound impression on his
original audience than it has on later readers-marks a distinct moment in
the developing relationship between Christian emperors and Christian bishops, as they continued to experiment in finding ways of sharing liturgical
space. 73 Gregory's orations provide an example of the complications that the
conversion of Constantine bequeathed the church: a fourth-century philosophical Christian preacher seems to have found it more difficult to face a
baptized Christian emperor in the flesh than did his second-century predecessor to imagine an encounter with a pagan philosophical Caesar. Although
Gregory could preach to the converted, he could do so only in general
terms.
There was one further important difference. The prefect Rusticus found
] ustin frustratingly elusive when he tried to assign hirn a particular base
and a specific body of disciples. 74 Ir was much easier to take the measure of
Gregory. He hirnself records the rumor put about by his enemies, that (even
with the imperial court newly arrived in the city) his congregation "would
not even fi11 the doorways" of the cathedral;75 his success as abishop could
therefore be quantified by his ability to confound such predictions. The
crucial test of his Epiphany preaching would come a few weeks later at the
beginning of Lent, when catechumens put their names forward for baptism
at Easter. And close attention, we can confidently expect, would be paid to
the number of white-robed neophytes that Gregory led to Holy Wisdom
that Easter, in the formal inauguration of the new orthodox dispensation
after (as he would have it) forty years of heretical misrule. The size of the
baptismal cohort would be an obvious measure of Gregory's success in
sowing his harvest among an expectant populace; it also had a personal
significance for Gregory, whose previous experience at Constantinople included the disruption of a baptism service by a gang of stone-throwing
monks. 76 But the magnificent Easter sermon to be found among Gregory's(
works was not part of the cycle he delivered in Constantinople. 01. 45
belongs two years later, as his swan-song in Nazianzus; moreover, it incorporates two substantial portions (amounting to almost a third of the whole)
taken verbatim from the Theophany sermon. 77 In thus bringing his rhetoric
horne, from Constantinople to Nazianzus, Gregory would demonstrate, once
again, his talent for reinventing hirns elf. However, the "missing" Easter
sermon of 38r is also emblematic of a conversion program that seems never
to have been consummated. Gregory's subsequent correspondence with
Constantinople shows hirn eager to exploit whatever links he could claim
with the great men of the new regime: but nowhere does he claim to have
baptized a correspondent. Instead, for example, he would in 383 remind the
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We can better understand the effort it must have required for Gregory to
ignore the emperor after reading Raymond Van Dam and Michael Maas.
Van Dam's Constantine imposes himself physically upon the attention of his
subjects, who in turn clamor to impose their own interpretations of the
emperor; Maas then takes us to a time when the emperor is much more
overtly the driving force. These two emperors are separated by over two
hundred years, the same gap as between Justin's Apology and Gregory's
baptismal orations; once again the two papers allow us an opportunity to
observe continuities and changes-and to apply the themes and approaches
of the one to the subject-matter of the other.
We might, for example, envisage a paper on "The Many Conversions of
the Emperor Justinian." Maas's use of Bttildings reminds us that Justinian
pinned his identity to his architectural initiatives (or had his identity pinned
to his building programs) even more explicitly than had Constantine; we
might add that he enjoyed as hyperactive a spirituallife as Constantine and
faced as daunting aseries of crises, and late in life would baffle posterity by
announcing, by imperial edict, a conversion to Apthartodocetism. 82 Justinian's image, religious and otherwise, nevertheless seems much more
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245
own basilica at the Via Labicana, or the sermons that Gregory would preach
half a kilometer from the column in Constantinople, this was a "text" that
was unveiled with considerable care (and Van Dam is surely correct to allow
Constantine hirns elf a key role in planning so significant a ceremony-p.
I28), but which then inevitably slipped from its author's hands. And in
assessing the immediate effect of the statue we might usefully examine the
context in which it would first be viewed. For (irrespective of the doubts
that still attend the precise character of the lost statue) none of the Eastern
notables who converged upon Constantinople for the great ceremony of 330
could have failed to notice the difference between this idealized, semidivine
image and the fat smile which had grinned down upon their public spaces
previously from statues of the emperor Licinius. 88 The contrast with the
Licinian look is doubly important, for with Constantine the Eastern Empire
was only just emerging from a golden age of danznatio memoriae. Licinius's
statues had been systematically overturned in 325: the better-preserved of
the two surviving examples, from the theater in Ephesus, is preserved precisely because it fell behind the stage. 89 And Licinius's predecessor Maximinus had suffered a similar fate in 3 I I: Eusebius describes how his toppled
statues became "the object of laughter and jokes from anyone who wanted
to insult hirn," and Gregory Nazianzen tells us that his defaced statues were
still visible in provincial towns of Asia Minor fifty years later. 90 This burst
of licensed iconoclasm was arecent one: Eusebius, who had lived through
many reigns, could claim, wrongly but significantly, that Maximian (another who was consigned to the same treatment, just one year before Maximinus) was the "first" emperor to receive it. 91 So in making the erection of a
statue the centerpiece of his foundation ritual Constantine was defying a
recent trend: his decision to invest so much in the statue might therefore be
even more charged than Van Dam suggests.
As Van Dam notes (p. I36), when Constantine inaugurated his new
capital he had already had occasion to experiment in monumentalizing
conversion. His initiatives at Rome, following his victory over Maxentius in
3 I2, have endured rather better than those in Constantinople: the fragments of his colossal marble statue, and his triumphal arch, continue to
compel both admiration and a wide variety of conflicting interpretations. 92
Although Van Dam stresses the difference between the inscription reported
by Eusebius (which may or may not have belonged to the statue preserved
in the Palazzo dei Conservatori) and the noncommittal phraseology inscribed on the arch, we need not doubt either that Eusebius would have
been capable of giving the strongest possible reading to "the divinity"
mentioned on the arch, or that non-Christians could have found the statue
sufficientfy hedged with traditional divinity to outweigh such novel
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by the testimony of a common soldier who had also had the same dream,
and duly reported it to his centurion, who passed it up through the chain
of command until it reached Theodosius hirnself. Thus, once again, the
whole army was implicated in the emperor's experience.
If this example shows that Theodosius could on occasion enjoy direct
access to the divine, albeit on a less elevated level than Constantine, two
further reported dreams reveal a more fundamental change. Theodosius was
much more closely involved with-and personally committed to-individual churchmen and factions inside the church than Constantine had ever
been. Ir was reported that on his arrival in Constantinople he recognized the
venerable Meletius, bishop of Antioch, on the basis of a dreamYo whatever
the origins of the story, it is significant that the emperor's dreams could be
thought to be populated by specific churchmen. Still more remarkable is
the dream which Ambrose of Milan, on a famous occasion, would claim to
have had involving Theodosius himself. ll1 In reporting this dream to the
emperor (and gendy suggesting that he might give it wider publicity)
Ambrose was able to stake a certain authoritative claim upon hirn.
With ] ustinian we have an emperor more dreamed about than dreaming.
Indeed, he was famously able to do with a bare minimum of sleepY2 while
this asceticism on the one hand indicates a further development in the
points of contact men could have (and be seen to have) with the divine, his
nocturnal roaming of the palace could also be held to supply proof positive
of his demonic natureY3 In Maas's period as much as in Van Dam's, the
emperor was under close scrutiny from his Christian subjects, and imperial
initiatives to express a distinctive Christian identity continued to prompt
responses. We can trace one such "dialogue" in the evolution of a monument in Constantinople which Van Dam mentions (p. 145) as a counterpoint to Constantine's statue, the emperor's mausoleum at Holy Aposdes.
Eusebius describes this, in a famously convoluted passage which nevertheless brings out the tension between the two aspects of the monument. 1l4 On
the one hand it was a highly individual and idiosyncratic expression of the
emperor's own conception of his Christian identity; on the other the inclusion of an altar and provisions for services meant that whatever symbolism
he had intended, Constantine was entrusting to the clergy who would preach
there the task of interpreting the structure-and his own posthumous memory. This development, which can be seen as a consequence of the dismanding of the traditional imperial cult, seems to have caused uneasiness both
for Constantine's son (who must have feared losing control of the tools of
legitimacy) and for the ecclesiastical establishment, which faced the awkward responsibility of upholding an imperial ideology: the consequences
were misuhderstandings, rioting, and repressionY5 A provincial bishop helped
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solve the impasse by announcing that apostolic relics had revealed themselves to hirn, allowing Constantius to transform Holy Apostles into a more
intelligible (and more clearly demarcated) spaceY6 Procopius in his Buildings then describes a further transformation of the siteY7 The central episode in his account of Justinian's rebuilding is the miraculous reappearance
of the relics, now clearly operating on an imperial rather than an episcopal
frequency: "For when the emperor is pious, divinity does not walk apart
from humanity but mingles with men and delights in their company." As
Maas reminds us throughout his paper, we are now in aperiod when attention is focused upon the emperor with a new intensity. Dreams also organize
themselves around Justinian's projects. The most carefully structured of
Procopius's campaign narratives describes the ambitious invasion of Vandal
Africa, which Justinian was on the brink of canceling: Procopius shows a
Christian bishop stiffening the emperor's resolve by reporting a visionary
message from God, and the historian receives his own separate, private
reassurance; the orthodox Christians of Africa are meanwhile being inspired
by visions of Saint CyprianYs The interlocking dreams will recall the visions of Constantine and Theodosius before the defining triumphs of their
respective careers; at the same time, however, Procopius's report is presented
within a framework that requires analysis in terms of his own distinctive
discourse. 119
Maas's case study of the Tzani (p. 160) indicates how much the student
of conversion might learn from detailed attention to Procopius's language.
For here, in a cluster of converging passages, we see hints of how the
Byzantine missionary program was conditioned by imaginative horizons, as
well as by material resources and political priorities. Procopius's vocabulary
and style-the more valuable for its formulaic character-shows how a
conception of Christian conversion is related to traditional classical ideas of
acculturation. For example, the passage from the Wars which shows conversion to Christianity to mark the end of Tzani history- " ... such then was
the history of the Tzani" (2.25; above, p. 163)-is built around a single
long sentence which aligns the two transformations, the cultural and the
religious, in an elegant conceit: having changed their diaita for the gentler
they also changed their doxa for the more pious. That the two categories
diaita and doxa are exactly parallel is clear from their recurrence in the
Buildings passage (Buildings 3.6; above, p. 164), but in reverse order. But
whereas the former term had been part of the staple conceptual diet of
ethnographers from Thucydides onwards, doxa (which is not quite "religion") strikes a markedly unclassical note: it sees likely that Procopius has
here imported his vocabulary from the Christian scheme, where orthodoxy
faced the varieties of heterodoxy.120
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In the Buildings passage Procopius begins his account where the Wars had
left off, with the Tzani now converted but with Justinian concerned about
the danger of backsliding. The feared regression concerns their diaita and
ethe (the logical dependence of habits upon diaita again follows the classical
tradition)-not their doxa-and is solved by the classic Roman expedient of
road-building. But the instinctive parallelism remains, for as weIl as thus
taming their diaita J ustinian also builds the Tzani a church, causing them
(and the panegyrist credits hirn with as sweeping a range of initiatives as
did the Ursinian vituperators Damasus) to hold services so that, on my
interpretation of the puzzling Greek, "they might be human beings with
sense." And then, just as in the Wars passage where gentler diaita had
meant joining the Roman army and more pious doxa joining the Christian
church, Procopius appends to J ustinian's contributions a list of forts, one of
which is located at Schamalinichoi, the same place as the church. Significantly, although the Tzani are Christians they do not build their own churches, nor likewise are these forts garrisoned by Tzani recruits. We are far from
Justin's city of Flavia Neapolis, where the priests who would anchor the
newly Romanized Samaritans in the Roman order were recruited from the
local elite. Roman priests are now expatriates, agents of the imperial power
working in the shadow of its military presence.
EIsewhere in Bttildings Procopius shows Justinian effecting similar transformations by similar means in two places in outer Libya. First we find hirn
"making provision for" the twin ci ti es of Augila, previously still "diseased
with polytheism": he taught them the doxa of piety, having made them
Christians and transforming their wicked ancestral ethe. As with the Tzani,
the process is sealed with the construction of a church, to preserve their
safety and their "truth in respect of the doxa. "121 The Jews of nearby Boreium receive similar treatment: Justinian "brought it about" that they
changed their ancestral ethe and became Christian, and converted their
ancient temple (built by Solomon!) into a church. l22 From such examples we
can reconstruct a Procopian typology of conversion, where doxa manifests
itself in ethe, which in turn amount to a cluster of specific practices.
In Wars, likewise, the expressions that Procopius uses to describe the
Tzani recur in parallel cases. Closest to the model we have seen in Buildings
are the Beruli: Justinian again takes the initiative, purchasing their friendship and persuading them to become Christian. "As a result," they change
their diaita "for the gentler" (epi to hemerteron: the phrasing is identical to
the account of the Tzani) and decide to adopt Christian conventions (nomoi)
"for the most part"-but continue to practice their bestial customs. 123 Less
domesticated still are the Franks, barbarians who despite "having become
Christian!' still preserve most of their ancient doxa, which finds expression
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in human sacrifice and unholy rites, on the basis of which they practice
divination. 124 In this example we discover that Christianity is not necessarily identical with the doxa maintained by a Christian people.
But the most imeresting paralleis to the Tzani concern aseries of their near
neighbors on the Eastern Black Sea coast. The Abasgi, traditionally pagan and
blighted by the trade in eunuchs, have changed "for the gender" (the same
expression again: epi to hemerteron) in Justinian's day. They (the people, rather
than their mlers) chose the Christian dogma and responded enthusiastically
when Justinian sem a eunuch to command the abolition of the practice of
castration. The emperor then provided a church and priests to teach them "all
the he of Christianity." The church's task is thus conceived as the inculcation
of proper habits rather than correct belief. At the same time, conversion is
direcdy related to (and serves to legitimize) a fundamental political realignment, as the now Christian people eject their kings and "live in freedom"which means (unlike with the Tzani) subordinate to Roman rule. 125
The political implications of conversion are much more dramatic in our
final two examples from the region. The first is an attempted conversion
from Christianity. The whole sequence of Procopius's Wars is triggered when
the Persian king Khavad wished to compel the Iberians, Persian subjects
but Christians, who indeed "preserve the customs of the doxa most of all the
men that we know,"126 to follow the customs of his own doxa J and ordered
their king to expose the dead to be eaten by birds: which outrage provoked
the latter to declare for Rome. Here the solidly Christian populace becomes
a causal agent, when one of their central rituals is threatened: yet Procopius's account shifts swiftly and silently to the activities of the king, and no
more is heard of Iberian Christianity after the Persians arrive; other sources
meanwhile suggest that the historian has (at the very least) overstated the
preeminence of Christian culture. l27 We see much the same structure (and
several of the same difficulties) in the account of the revolt of the Lazi from
Persia. Persian rule was oppressive because the Persians were harsh in their
diaita and in their customs and ordinances; they especially differed from
the Lazi in their thinking and diaita because the Lazi were Christians "most
of all men," while the Persians were their direct opposites as regards to
theion. 128 Again Procopius establishes a fundamental cultural division, which
(with economic factors relegated to a footnote)129 helps to explain a vital
political event, but again the explanation fails to convince in the face of the
abundant evidence for Persian cultural influence in sixth-century Lazica. 130
Ir is also suspiciously convenient: where Persian failure in Lazica could be
explained as the inevitable result of cultural incompatibility, the Romans'
own previous alienation of the populace could be attributed to the failings
of a few individuals. 131
J
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254
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of Constantine. It describes how on the Feast of Mary the imperial party would
leave Holy Wisdom and take its place on the steps at the base of the column;
the patriarch would then arrive, and formal greetings would be exchanged. The
patriarch with his attendants would then enter "the chapel of the same column,
or of Saint Constantine." The first Christian emperor was now a saint, receiving
the formal ministrations of the clergy in a tiny church attached to the base of
the column; the ceremonies were so organized as to offer a potent display of
church and state in harmony.135
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sermons, for example, he would petition Theodosius for release from Constantinople-so that he could live a li fe wholly dedicated to God back in
his native Cappadocia. However, on his return Gregory would find it very
difficult to win recognition for his new role, as the bishops of his province
tried to pressgang hirn and the clergy of his city mutinied, while critics
asked pointed questions ab out his lifestyle and his literary ventures. 150 His
recently dead friend Basil was perhaps Gregory's nearest equivalent to Einhard's martyrs, but since the Hilduins of Caesarea retained physical possession of the body he had less scope to reconfigure the local spiritual
landscape. 151 Gregory struggled, too, to control interpretations of his retirement at Constantinople: hence (among other things) the combatively jagged
edge of his verse auto biog rap hy. Gregory's "conversion" from court bishop
to recluse created a sense of distance that is entirely lacking from Einhard.
Indeed, Louis the Pious hirnself would come to visit Einhard and his martyrs, quite possibly (as Smith has attractively and plausibly suggested) to
celebrate the dedication of their church. If so, his devotions can be compared to Damasus's before the same martyrs at Rome nearly four centuries
previously, astate visit intended both to enhance a nascent cult and to
establish a proprietorial claim. But where the pope had left his own story
about the martyrs inscribed on their tomb, the king would find that Peter
and Marcellinus had their own stories to tell about hirn. His son Louis the
German, at any rate, would in 874 see hirn in a dream suffering torments
in hell, after hearing reports that his own son had been in conference "in the
presence of the martyrs" at Seligenstadt: and the cause of the king's agony,
it was confidently stated, was his failure to comply with the book of instructions that the saints had forwarded via Einhardt long ago. 152
But perhaps the most useful counterpart to Einhard is another earnest
intellectual who forged a court career (and recounted an emperor's great
deeds) before returning to provincial obscurity and a life of piety and renunciation. Augustine of Hippo has figured obliquely in each of the previous
seetions of this paper, just as his presence is implicit in several of the papers
in this volume-and a test of the utility of this collection of case studies
would be to measure the fresh light they throw upon the most famous
conversion experience of late antiquity. We might, for example, follow Lyman and attempt a postcolonial reading of Augustine, whose early career
could be construed as a politic exercise in "passing"; or we could take our
lead from Van Dam and once again take seriously the idea of Augustine as
aserial convert-with each new conversion the subject of earnest discussion
(and formal exhibition) before a group of intimates.
Or else we might follow Lim and Elm, and consider (against the thrust
of his own narrative) Augustine's baptism as a defining moment in his
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conversion. The party which entered Ambrose's font in 387 seems to come
direcdy from one of Rebillard's cemeteries, for Augustine led a family
group consisting of his son and a fellow townsman from Africa. 153 It is
worth recalling all that we do not know about the context: whether the
three represented an isolated clique or part of a harmonious constellation of
similar groups; whether they counted for a significant proportion of the
year's baptismal intake, or were three among hundreds; whether the rhetor
stood out as one of the bishop's prize "catches" that year (a modest local
counterpart, perhaps, to Victorinus of Rome) or was merely a face in a
crowd. Such questions are important, since their answers are too often assumed in modern studies of Augustine. We need also to imagine, moreover,
Augustine's first encounter, direcdy after his baptism, with the Milanese
faithful (when he would have recognized his mother-and how many other
familiar faces?);154 and also the welcome that the faithful in turn accorded
the new recruit. Augustine would famously emphasize sounds rather than
sights: in the days after Easter, while he continued to wear the neophyte's
gown, he was haunted by "the music of the sweet chants of your Church."155
Modern scholarship has tended to underplay Augustine's reminder that the
music which was here incorporated into the liturgy had been improvised
under very different circumstances just one year previously.156 Yet we can be
sure that the singers themselves will have been keenly aware of the difference the past year had made. In 386 the bishop's prebaptismal instruction
had been interrupted by the clangor of weaponry in the streets outside, and
urgent reports of escalating crisis: there could be no question about the
commitment of the neophytes who emerged on Easter morning. Again, one
can only wonder how many there had been: and how the numbers the
following year compared. But this new intake of 387 might weIl have
seemed, to uncharitable onlookers, to be passengers belatedly leaping aboard
a bandwagon. It is not necessarily straightforward to join a church of justified near-martyrs. Was the bishop of Milan's undoubted readiness to reach
out to the formerly frigid offset by a reluctance, among some at least among
the faithful, to see their heroic purity diluted? All we know is that Augustine's conversion would lead to an abrupt departure from metropolitan Milan,
back across the Mediterranean to smalltown Africa. Perhaps the formidable
unanimity expressed by Ambrose's batde hymns had served to exclude as
weIl as to unite.
Finally, we might consider the baptisms that Augustine himself administered, year after year, as bishop of Hippo, and his sensitivity to the many
levels of "conversion" that attached to the sacrament. 157 Baptism featured in
several of the martyr-related miracles recorded in City 0/ God (one of Charlemagne's favorite books, as Einhard reminds US),158 which bring out with
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259
particular vividness the concrete, physical dimensions that have been central to this paper. Innocentia of Carthage, for example, suffered from breast
cancer-until "on the approach of Easter" she was advised in a dream (which
in turn responded to her doctor's orders) "to wait for the first woman that
came out from the baptistery after being baptized, and to ask her to make
the sign of Christ upon her sore."159 The story, which ends with a successful
eure, brings horne the quasi-magical significance that attached to the convert who could be seen to be converted: and this in turn will have had a
pow~rful effect in sustaining a conception of the conversion process that was
essentially physical. We also see; once more, the need to take into ac count
the role of the audience even at such formalized events as baptism, and the
way that their agendas will have helped shape the occasion for participants
too. Abishop like Gregory Nazianzen might have insisted to his baptismal
candidates that it made no difference in what order they emerged from the
font, but the ladies of Carthage clearly knew better.
Our final episode-which also provides the final climax to Augustine's
list of miracles-concerns a palsied brother and sister ftom Gregory's Cappadocia, whom a mother's curse had driven to wander the Mediterranean.
Two weeks before Easter they arrived at Hippo, "and they came daily to
church, and in it specially to the relics of the most glorious Stephen, praying that God might now be appeased, and restore their former health.
There, and wherever they went, they turned to themselves the gaze of the
city." On Easter morning, "when there was nowa large crowd present," the
young man dramatically collapsed beside the relics and then arose to stand,
significantly immobile, "looking upon those who were looking at hirn."
The news reached Augustine as he prepared to come to the cathedral,
causing hirn to cut short his Easter sermon so that the people might see,
rather than hear, God's message. 160
Augustine thus shows the two strangers "converting" the town of Hippo
during the fortnight before Easter, by turning its attention upon themselves
while they prayed to the martyrs: 161 "convertebant in se civitatis aspectum."
We underestimate at our perit the enduring connotations of what became
the language of Christian commitment: for such semantic overlaps will also
have done much to shape popular interpretation. This is where the contributions of Maas and Van Dam might most usefully come together. For
there remains much room for further exploration of the late antique vocabulary of "conversion," in such a way as to do justice to the broad spectrum
of phenomena that were included in contemporary understanding of the
term. Every sermon that Augustine preached would end, indeed, with a
mass "conversion," as his parishioners obeyed his call to "Turn to the Lord"
and give thanks; conversio in the Confessions is also a matter of faces being
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The miracle at Hippo brings together several key themes of this paper.
Augustine's successive sermons invite us to consider the shifting locus of
authoriry inside the basilica, as he sought an appropriate response to the
drama; and although few bishops can have seen their dealings wirh their
newly baptized converts so spectacularly disrupted, the episode reminds us
of the intense and diverse expectations that attached to the Easter ceremony.
Few Easters, we might suspect, were ever entirely "ordinary"; this critical
culmination of the conversion process was correspondingly hard to choreograph. The relationship between Augustine's homiletic texts and his subsequent commentary on the affair also brings into sharp focus the significance,
emphasized several times earlier, of the reshaping of conversion narratives in
their retelling. But above all, we should note Augustine's stubborn determination to maintain his train of thought. For much of this volume is concerned ultimately wirh the resources available to individuals (and to
institutions) that might enable them to command attention, whether as
converts or instigators of conversion; and, no less important, to the limits of
these resources and the constraints affecting their application. All of the
figures discussed in this collection, whether a fourth-century emperor imposing a Christian vision upon a capital or his sixth-century successor imposing his upon distant provinces, whether bishops or apologists, whether
unrepentant theatergoers or defiant mourners of the unpopular dead, were
in some sense required to make a public commitment before, and win a
hearing from, an audience that might be enthusiastic, indifferent, or hostile. The study of late antique conversion therefore has much to do with a
study of late antique modes of attention; which also requires-as each of the
papers in this volume demonstrates-a particular quality of attentiveness
from ourselves. If we are to identify the forces that acted upon the men and
women who stood up to declare a commitment, we need to heighten our
sensitivity to the nuances of the language-and to the contextual details of the
settings-in which they announced, demanded, or described such declarations.
NOTES
Greg. Naz. Gr. 2-44 (the monster); 117 (the shining flock).
M. J. Johnson, "Pagan-Christian Burial Practices of the Fourth Century: Shared Tombs?" JEeS 5 (1997): 56-58.
3. E. Rebillard, In Hora Mortis: Evolution de la pastorale chretienne de la
rnort aux IVe et Ve sdes dans I'Gccident latin, BEFAR 284 (Rome, 1994).
4. J. Guyon, Le cirneti'ere aux deux lauriers: Recherehes sur les catacornbes
rornaines, BEFAR 264 (Rome, 1987). There is also now a comprehensive
1.
2.
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18. Jerame's famous comment (Ep. 107.1: "movetur urbs sua sede") need
not, in its context, refer more broadly than to the contrast between the
papally led procession on the annual Feast of the Apostles, and the solemn
pagan rituals formerly conducted on the Capitol at the New Year. Another
canonical text-Prudentius Pe. 11.195-235 on the natale of Hippolytusdescribes an occasion closely linked with the annual feast of Lawrence, and
perhaps (in my view probably) conducted in the same basilica.
19. Guyon, Le cimeti'ere, pp. 381-82. MacMullen discusses the mensae in
Christianity and Paganism, pp. 63, I I 1.
20. Guyon, Le cimetiere, pp. 499-509, presents the evidence.
21. Peter Brown, The Cult 0/ the Saints (Chicago, 1981), p. 40.
22. Aug. Con! 6.2.2.
23. Procop. Wars 2.10.8.
24. VP 18: S. P. Brack and S. Ashbrook Harvey, Holy Women 0/ the Syrian
Orient (Berkeley, Calif., 1987), p. 47.
25 VP 24-3 0 .
26. For the testimony of Ps.-Martyrius on the effect of this technique
upon a different audience, at Constantinople, see F. Van Ommeslaeghe,
"Jean Chrysostome er le peuple de Constantinople," Analeeta Bollandiana 99
(19 81 ): 32 9-49.
27. J. Chr. Hom. 67 in Matth. 3 (PG 58:636-37).
28. Cod. Theod. 15.7.5; see above, p. 116 n. 25.
29. Amm. Mare. 14.6.19.
30. Ibid., 28-4.9. The sole manuscript is here defective. Where W. Seyfarth follows the original editor Gelenius to read "meretricem"-Ammianus
Marcellinus: Res Gestae, vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1978), p. 78-the lacuna of four
letters after "m" also admits the conjecture "mimam."
3 I. I borrow the phrase, and the implied model of Roman social relations,
from J. Matthews, The Roman Empire 0/ Ammianus (London, 1988), 419-420.
32. Amm. Mare. 26.3.3.
33. Greg. Naz. Carm. 2.1.12-402-3. Palladius portrays Porphyry in Dialogus de Vita Iohann. Chrys. 16.
34. Jer. Contra Iohann. Hierolym. 8; Coll. Av. 1.9.
35. Amm. Mare. 27.3.12-13; Coll. Av. 1. For arecent analysis of the
episode, wirh bibliography, see Curran, Pagan City and Christian Capital,
pp. 137-4 2 .
36. Coll. Av. 1.5-7.
37. Ibid., 1.12. For the basilica/mausoleum complex at the site, see Pietri, Roma Christiana, pp. 47-51; cf. Curran, Pagan City and Christian Capital, pp. 128-29.
SEEING AND
B ELIEVING
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
77. The identical passages are Or. 45.3-9,26-27, matching Or. 38.7,-13,
14-15. For the circumstances of delivery see J. Bernardi, La pridication des
Peres Cappadociens: Le predicateur et son auditoire (Paris, 1968), pp. 246-5.
78. Greg. Naz. Ep. 173.
79. J. Matthews, Western Aristocracies and Imperial Court (Oxford, 1975),
pp. 127-45, beautifully evokes the headstrong religiosity of the Theodosian
court.
80. Amb. De Spir. Sanct. I. 17-18.
8I. For the context see McLynn, Ambrose 0/ Milan: Church and Court in a
Christian Capital (Berkeley, Calif., 1994), pp. I20-2I.
82. There are several useful recent discussions of Justinian's Apthartodocetism: K. Adshead, "Justinian and Apthartodocetism," in Ethnicity and
Culture in Late Antiquity} ed. S. Mitchell and G. Greatrex (London, 2000),
pp. 331-36; M. van Esbroek, "The Apthartodocetic Edict of Justinian and
the Armenian Background," Studia Patristica 33 (1997): 578-85.
83. For recent discussion see P. W. 1. Walker, Holy City} Holy Places?
(Oxford, 1990), pp. 42-43; J. E. Taylor, Christians and the Holy Places: The
Myth 0/ Jewish-Christian Origins (Oxford, 1993), p. 31 I.
84. T. D. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius (Cambridge, Mass., 1981), pp.
110-11; for a different reading, A. Louth, "The Date of Eusebius' Historia
Ecclesiastica} " JThS 41 (1990): 118-20.
85 Eus. VC 3.7.
86. Eus. De laud. Const. 13.7.2; Dem. Evang. 3.6.32.8.
87. Eus. Comm. In Ps. 23. I IOI.7
88. R. R. R. Smith, "The Public Image of the Emperor Licinius," JRS 87
(1997): 170- 202 , esp. pp. 19 1-94.
89. Ibid., pp. 17 1-73.
90. Eus. HE 9. I I; Greg. Naz. Or. 4.96.
9I. Eus. HE 8.13.
92. Two recent discussions (with reference to previous controversies) are,
respectively, O. Nicholson, "Gaelum potius intuens: Lactantius and aStatue of
Constantine," Studia Patristica 34 (2001): 177-96; and J. Elsner, "From the
Culture of Spolia to the Cult of Saints: The Arch of Constantine and the
Genesis of Late Antique Forms," PBSR} n.s. 55 (2000): 149-84. See also
Curran, Pagan City and Christian Capital} pp. 76-9.
93. M. Culhed, Conservator Urbis Suae: Studies in the Politics and Propaganda 0/ the Emperor Maxentius (Stockholm, 1994); H. A. Drake, Constantine and
the Bishops: The Politics o/Intolerance (Baltimore, 2000), p. 170, aptly notes
Maxenti us's resourcefulness "in reaching out to new consti tuencies. "
94. P. Verduchi, "Columna Phocae," in Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae} ed. M. Steinby, vol. I (Rome, 1993) p. 307.
SEEING ,AND
BELIEVING
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
there can be seen as an attempt to find a use for a redundant building. Cf.
R. Davis, The Lives 0/ the Ninth-Century Popes, Translated Texts for Historians
20 (Liverpool, 1995), p. 121 and n. 42.
138. Guyon, Le cimeti'ere, pp. 439-55, arguing (at pp. 452-54) for construction by the same Pope Honorius who redesigned St. Agnes.
139. Ibid., pp. 47 8- 82 .
140. Suggested respectively by P. E. Dutton, Charlemagne's Courtier: The
Complete Einhard (Peterborough, Ont., 1998), p. xxiv, and Guyon, Le cimetiere, pp. 480-81.
141. Translatio et miracula 1.I, 2-6.
142. For Deusdona's operations, see P. J. Geary, Furta Sacra: Thefts 0/
Relics in the Central Middle Ages (Princeton, N.]., 1978), pp. 45-49.
143. Cf. ibid., pp. 119-20; Geary suggests elsewhere that Deusdona was
in fact acting with papal approval: Living with the Dead in the Middle Ages
(Ithaca, N.Y, 1994), p. 190. It is probably not coincidence that the pope's
appearance in Translatio et miracula, at 4.16, reduces hirn to a fellow beneficiary with Einhard of Deusdona's largesse. The papal envoys are reported
in Translatio et miracula 1.7.
144. Translatio et miracula 1.5.
145. For Walahfrid Strabo's remarkable poem on the equestrian statue of
Theoderic (with Einhard still harmoniously paired-in 829-with his riyal
Hilduin), see M. W. Herren, "The 'De imagine Tetrici' of Walahfrid Strabo:
Edition and Translation," Journal 0/ Medieval Latin I (1991): 118-39.
146. P. E. Dutton, The Politics 0/ Dreaming in the Carolingian Empire
(Lincoln, Neb., 1994), with useful discussion of Einhard's saints at pp. 9197
147. Translatio et miracula 3.13: the contents ofRatleic's booklet "should
be told in another place than here."
148. Ep. 13-15.
149. Translatio et miracula 2.8.
IS0. See in general McLynn, "The Other Olympias: Gregory Nazianzen
and the Family of Vitalianus," Zeitschrift fr Antikes Christentum 2 (1998):
227-4 6 .
I 5 I. For this interpretation see McLynn, "Gregory Nazianzen's Basil," p.
18 3.
152. Annals 0/ Pulda s.a. 874; Dutton, Politics 0/ Dreaming, pp. 219-22.
153. Aug. Conf 9. 6 . 1 4.
154. It remains unclear how many of Augustine's "Platonist" friends at
Milan were baptized. At least one fellow Thagastean would attach hirns elf
to Augustine after the latter's baptism: ibid., 9.8.17.
ISS. -Ibid., 9. 6 . 14.
27 0
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
15 6 . Ibid., 9.7.15.
157. An excellent study is now available: W. Harmless, Augustine and the
Catechumenate (Collegeville, Minn., 1995). A useful introduction to Augustine's theology of baptism in its historical context is P. Cramer, Baptism and
Change in the Early Middfe Ages c. 200-C. I I50 (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 8712 9.
158. Einhard, Lift 0/ Charlemagne, 24.
159. Aug. Civ. Dei 22.8-4.
160. Ibid.
161. On the question of topography raised by this passage, see V Saxer,
Morts, martyrs, reliques en A/rique chretienne aux premiers si'ecles: Les temoinages de
Tertullien, Cyprien et Augustin a fa fumiere de l'archeofogie a/ricaine (Paris, 1980),
pp. 179-8 1.
162. "Conversi ad dominum": see F. Dolbeau, "Sermons inedits de saint
Augustin preches en 397 (5ieme serie)," RevBen 10 4 (1994): 72-76; Con!
9.2.3 (faces being turned towards Augustine); 10.35.35 ("ad se convertit
illa venatio").
163. Aug. Civ. Dei 22.8.23: "conversi sunt eo."
164. Serm. 320-24, of which Serm. 322 is the fibellus read out in church
two days after the miracle.
165. Serm. 323-4: '''Dixi, proloquar': nondum prolocutus sum." Augustine had made but a perfunctory plea for prayers for the sister, before the
reading of the fibellus (Serm. 322, ad init.); but part at least of the audience
were evidently stirred by her visible suffering to accompany her to the
martyrium.
166. Ibid., 324.
167. Ibid., 320: "Date veniam, quia diuturnum non reddo sermonem:
nostis etenim meam fatigationem."
168. For discussion and references, see Harmless, Augustine and the Catechumenate, pp. 3 I 3- 15 .
NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS
Susanna Elm is Professor of History at the University of California at Berkeley. She is the author of Virgins 0/ God. T he Making 0/ Asceticisms in Late
Antiquity (1994, 1996) and, with Eric Rebillard, the editor of Orthodoxyl
History (2000).
Anthony Grafton teaches European his tory at Princeton University. His
books includeJoseph Scaliger (1983-93), The Footnote: A Curious History (1997),
and Bring Out Your Dead (2001).
Richard Lim is Associate Professor of History at Smith College. He is the
author of Public Disputation, Power, and Social Order in Late Antiquity (1995)
and is currently writing a book on public spectacles and civic transformation in late antiquity.
Rebecca Lyman is the Samuel Garrett Professor of Church History at The
Church Divinity School of the Pacific in The Graduate Theological Union in
Berkeley. She is the author of Christology and Cosmology: Models 0/ Divine Aaivity
in Origen, Eusebius, and Athanasius (1993) and Early Christian Traditions (1999).
Michael Maas is Associate Professor of History at Rice U niversity. He is the
author of John Lydus and the Roman Past: Antiquarianism and Politics in the
Age 0/Justinian (1992), Readings in Late Antiquity: A Sourcebook (2000), and
Exegesis and Empire in the Early Byzantine Mediterranean: J unillus Africanus
and the Instituta Regularia Divinae Legis (2002).
Neil McLynn is Professor in the Faculty of Law at Keio University, Japan.
He is the author of Ambrose 0/ Milan: Church and Court in a Christian Capital
(1994)
Kenneth Mills is a historian of colonial Latin America and the early modern
Spanish world at Princeton University, where he is the Director of the
Program in Latin American Studies. His recent work includes Idolatry and
27 1
27 2
SEEING AND
BELIEVING
Its Enemies: Colonial Andean Religion and Extirpation, 1640-1750 (1997) and,
with William B. Taylor and Sandra Lauderdale Graham, Colonial Latin
America: A Documentary History (2002).
Eric Rebillard is a researcher at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique in Paris. He is the author of In hora mortis: Evolution de la pastorale
chretienne de la mort aux IVe et Ve sdes dans f'Occident latin (1994) and Religion
et sepulture: L'iglise, les vivants et les morts dans l'Antiquiti tardive (forthcoming,
203)
INDEX
Abraham, 68
Acacius, 169
Acta 0ustin Martyr), 43
Acta Pelagiae, 122n86
Acta Sanctorum, 91
Acts 0/ the Apostles, 94
Adalhuno of Nilkheim, 196
Adelphius, 34n94
Admonitio generalis (Charlemagne), 190
Ad Scapulam, 69
Aeneid (Virgil), 158
Aeschylus, 4
"Against All the Heresies" 0ustin Martyr),
239
Against the Spectacles (Tertullian), 101
Agathias of Myrina, 169, 171-74, 178,
187n88
Alamanni people, 171, 187n88; aspects of
society, 171-72
Alberic, 205
Alexander of Alexandria (Bishop), 139
Alexander the Great, 159, 166
Alienation, 37
Amand de Mendieta, Emmanuel, 31n61
Ambrose (Bishop), 99, 243, 258
Ammianus Marcellinus, 128, 234, 248
Ammonius, 41
Antoninus Pius, 241
Apollo, 127, 135
Apologetics, 37
Apology 0ustin Martyr), 37, 39, 45, 238,
241
Apostles, 7
Apostolic Constitutions, 24, 101
Apthartodocetism, 243
Apuleius, 246, 247
Archytas, 62
Aristeas, Aurelius, 66
Ariston of Syracuse, 63
Aristotle, 185n69
Arius, 55n31, 139, 141, 142
Armenia, 169-71
Artemeis, Aurelia, 65
Asclepius, 238
Assimilation, 44; away from cuits, 41;
cultural transformation and, 157;
degrees of, 41; early presence of
problems with, 48; strategies of, 37;
of subject peoples, 169; toward
culture, 41
Asrrology, 13, 14
Attis, 63; cult of, 7
Augustine, 7, 34n97, 236, 247, 254-61;
conversion of, 1, 27n20; denial of
sacraments to prostitutes, 87; Dolbeau
Sermons of, 110; effort to change the
habits of Christians, 190; model of
conversion by, 236
Augustus (Emperor), 109
Authority: biblical, 52n12; centralized, 38;
Christian, 225; conflicts over, 38;
disruption of normative structures of,
37; early presence of problems with, 48;
exegetical, 38; imperial, 38, 85;
negotiation of, 49; philosophieal, 45;
religious, 225; spiritual, 40; subversion
of, 45; theologieal, 38
Bacchus, 62
Baptism: actualization of moments of
fusion in, 17; administration of, 17;
authentie, 53n14; benefits of, 34n94; of
blood, 18; child, 18; confirmation and,
6; cosmology and, 2; death bed, 88, 89,
99; delayed, 33n79, 99; denial of, 89;
differing notions of, 22, 23; as elite
event, 2-3, 20-21; as equivalent of
heavenly citizenship, 14; figurative, 17;
Gregory of Nazianzus and, 1-24;
illumination and, 17; incarnation and,
16, 17; into incarnation of ]esus Christ,
6; incentives for, 99; as initiation into
273
274
INDEX
Baptism (continued)
mystery, 24; interpretations of meaning
of, 21; of ]esus Christ, 5, 25n8;
language of, 27n22; late antiquity
catechumens and, 98-104; Lent and,
100, 101; light and, 33n78; markers of,
20; of the martyrs, 18; by
metropolitans, 21; as moment, 20; new
faith and, 18; as opportunity to exhibit
faith, 247; order of celebration of, 6; of
pagans, 211; of the poor, 18, 34n95;
preparation for, 18, 98-99, 100; as
process, 6, 20; programs of correction
after, x; purification and, 3, 17, 18, 20,
21, 33n78, 33n82; as rebirth, 18,
27n22, 33n81; religious conversion and,
1-24; renunciation of the devil and,
10 1; rivalries of, 20-24; salvation and,
17; of scaenici, 115n23; shortening of
preparation for, 99; social status and,
247; spiritual, 17, 18; sponsorship for,
103; of stage performers, x, 84-111,
225; subsequent conduct and, 102, 103;
of tears, 18; for those in public office,
33n84; transformation through, 187n94;
writing and, 19
Barbarians: change and, 153; communal
identities of, 154; in ethnographie
writing, 155; exclusion of women from
succession, 169-70; given citizenship by
Romans, 154; imperial rule and, 153;
legal reform and, 169-71;
Romanization of, 157, 158
Barnes, T. D., 133
Basilides (Bishop), 70
Basil of Caesarea, 2, 99, 246
Baugulf (Ab bot), 192
Beaucamp, ]oelle, 108
Being: formation of, 16; possession by
God, 15
Benedict of Aniane, 200
Bhabha, Homi, 37, 58n59
Black Damasus, 235
Boniface, 196
Brakke, D., 41
Brent, A., 41
Brown, Peter, 27n20, 230
Buildings (Procopius), 163-67, 184n60,
243, 250, 251, 253
Burial: Christian, 69-71; collective graves
and, 62, 63; conversion and, 61-74;
INDEX
with Judaism, 50n2; conversion of
Tzani people, 163-69; correct, 190,
192, 211, 212n5; cultural change and,
152-78; diversity of forms of, :;On2;
emperors and, 243-54; establishment of
as religio licita, 99; ethnography and,
152-78; expansion of, 133; forced
conversion to, 160, 167; funerary
separatism and, 69; homemade, 236;
imperial, 160; integration with state
ideology, 159, 160-69; intellectual
origins of, 42; limited reach of formal
ecclesiastical structures of, 235-43;
medieval, 191; mimicry and, 45;
multiplicity in, 38, 41; ordinary, 197;
orthodox, 46, 49; paradigms of change
through conversion in, 159; persecution
of, 53n14, 130; philosophy and, 44;
pluralities in, 211; predominance of,
154; prescriptive, 224; Roman, 153;
self-identity of, 36; slow adaptation to,
85-86; spread of, 194; as sum of
ancient wisdom, 42; survival of Roman
plurality by, 40; as third race, 52n12;
traditional narrative of, 36, 40; as truth,
58n57; as work in progress, 41
Christianization: correction and, 190;
emendation and, 190; ethnographie
writing and, x; in late antiquity, 85-86;
limits of, 91; nature of, 85-86; process
of persuasion in, 86; scope of, 85-86;
stage performers, imperviousness to, 84
Chronicle (Eusebius), 143
Chronographia (Malalas), 93
Chrysostom, John, 11, 94, 99, 100, 102,
103, 111, 119n49, 232, 233
Church of the Holy Sepulchre, 139, 140,
143
Citizenship: gradations of, 154; granted to
all in Roman empire, 158; heavenly, 14,
24; inscription and, 10; Roman, 154;
for Tzani people, 169
City 0/ God (Augustine), 258
Claudius Gothicus (Emperor), 135
Clement, 32n69, 55n31
Clifford, James, 152
Column of Phocas, 246
Community: barbarian, 156; Christian
imperial, 159; cult of, 48; defining, 41;
episcopal, 55n31; of faith, 154, 156;
under Erankish kings, 194; imperial,
275
INDEX
Conversion (continued)
and, 26n17; to Judaism, 64; as metanoia,
6; narratives, 198-99; negotiations over,
87; of Paul, 7; as personal event, ix;
philosophieal, 5 3n14; private/public
aspects of, 129; as problem of
Hellenization, 36-50; as process, 2, 6,
7, 8; as reorientation of the soul, 7; as
response to particular situations, 129; as
salvation through continuous adherence,
1; self-representation and, 129; sequence
of, 134; of stage performers, 84-111;
texts of, 226; tranquil process of, 27n20
Correctio. See Correction
Correction, 189, 190; Christianization
and, 190; discipline of morals and, 192;
Einhard and, 192; grounding in Roman
legislative tradition, 214n16; interior,
202; relics and, 201; religious practice
and, 197; route to, 204; vocabulary of,
214n15, 214n16
INDEX
277
Fredriksen, Paula, 7
Fulda monastery, 196, 197; location, 197;
saints' shrines at, 197
Funerary garden, 63
Hadrian (Emperor), 38
Hairesis, 46, 49; demonization of, 47
Heaven: as divine sphere, 16; as state of
being, 16
Hebrew law: polytheistic practice and, 45
Hebrew Scripture: authority of, 46;
monotheism of, 45
INDEX
Heden (Duke), 196
Helena (Empress), 107, 228-29, 248
Helios, 127
Hellenism, x, 36; ehallenge to Roman
dominanee by, 43; eontrast with
Christianity, 36, 37,43,47,48, 52n12;
goals of, 42-43; mimicry of, 45;
morality and, 46; politieal expansion of,
38; positive attributes of, 46;
rationalism of, 40; refraeting power of,
44; Roman, 39
Herades, 166
Heradius (Emperor), 28n28, 152, 153,
160, 177, 178n2
Hereules, 138
Heresiology, 37, 48; eonstruetion of
apologeties and, 45
Heresy: assoeiation with falsity of, 46; as
diagnostie eategory, 155; dissent as, 45;
error as, 48; ethnography and, 181n17;
magie and, 46, 50; philosophy and, 37,
47,50
Hermaios, M. Aurelios, 65
Hermeneumata, 12
Herosotus, 156
Hetener, Felix, 64
Hilarianus, 70
Hilaritas, Faltonia, 72
Hilduin (Abbot), 202, 204, 205, 254, 255
Himerius, 31n57
Hippolytus, 50, 87, 98, 263n18
Historia Augusta, 64
History (Eusebius), 132, 133
Homilies on the Gospel 0/ John (Chrysostom),
100
Homilies on the Gospel 0/ Matthew
(Chrysostom), 94
Homily on the Gospel 0/ Matthew
(Chrysostom), 100
Hrabanus Maurus, 197
Hume, David, 7
Hybridity, 38, 58n59; diffieulty of
evaluating, 52n12; in philosophical
Christianity, 45; subversive nature of, 38
Hypogea, 65
Iambliehus, 35n105
Identity: baptismal, 43; Christian, 85, 86,
104, 152, 249; communal, 154;
eultural, 159, 171, 173; ethnie, 36,
159, 194; Greek, 50n6; group, 62;
INDEX
lohn of Epiphania, 174
lohn of ]erusalem, 100, 101
lohn the Baptist, 17, 120n61
lohn the Evangelist, 4
Jonathan, 68
]o~eph, 68
]ovian (Emperor), 11
]udaism, 36; burial practices, 64-69;
convergence/divergence with
Christianity, 50n2; conversion to, 64;
lack of rules on choice of grave, 68;
punishment for conversion, 64; role ~f
synagogue in burial site, 67
]ulian (Emperor), 11, 12, 33n82
]ulianus, 89
]upiter, 135, 138, 238
]upiter Doliehenus, 64
]upiter Heliopolitanus, 64
luster, ]ean, 67
]ustinian (Emperor), 105, 106, 107, 108,
152,153,159,175, 178n2, 243,251,
252, 253; conquest of the Tzani, 16069; ethnography of, 161; as facilitator
of cultural change, 177; law of 536,
169; marriage to Theodora, 106; system
of belief of, 167, 177
]ustin Martyr, x, 225, 235-43; choice of
dress after baptism, 43-44, 57n48; as
colonial subject/religious subject, 38,
42; conversion of, 36-50; defined by
texts, 237; "doubling" and, 37, 38,
51n9; impact of, 237; literary
presentation of Christianity, 42;
mimesis of philosophical forms, 38;
mimicry and, 45, 48; as philosopher,
38, 58n52; reflections on logos,
58n59; universalism of theology of,
38, 42; as work in progress, 41;
writings of, 37
Kish, 68
Knowledge: ethnographie, 162;
transcendent, 41; of truth, 17
lactantius, 135
lampe, P., 41
language: of illumination, 1, 6, 35nl05;
in inscription, 35n105; local, 160; nonRoman, 157; of visions, 134
laws and edicts: as agents of change, 1011; Constantinian, 29n37; inscribed on
279
280
INDEX
INDEX
28r
INDEX
INDEX
Universalism, 39
Ursinus, 234
Valens (Emperor), 88
Valentinian (Emperor), 88, 89
Valentinus, 48
Van Dam, Raymond, x, 127-48, 243-54
Verus, Lucius, 241
Vietor, 21
Virgil, 158
Vita Karoli (Einhard), 190
Vita Pelagiae, 95-98, 101, 102, 104, 110
Wala, 204
Wars (Procopius), 161-63, 251, 252
Weber, Max, 191
Weismann, Werner, 91
Wiggo, 189-212, 205
Will: erisis of, 27n20; ftee, 14, 16
Williams, Margaret, 65, 67
Williams, Michael, 48
Williams, R., 41
Willibrord, 196
Wisse, F., 41
Writing: about cultural change, 158-59;
astrology and, 13, 14; baptism and, 19;
eanonieal, 48; formation of self through,
12; formative power of, 13; inseriptions
as, 12; meanings assoeiated with, 12;
memory and, 12; panegyrie, 163-67;
pedagogy and, 12; philosophiealpedagogieal aspeets of, 13; social order
and, 12; teehnieal aspeets of, 30n55; as
trans formative aet, 12; transformative
powers of, 19
Writing, ethnographie, 153; Christianity
and, 155; decline in, 174-77;
ethnographie thought and, 154, 155; in
Roman empire, 156-58; in Roman law,
154; varieties of, 153-56
Zenobia, 44
Zoroastrianism, 172
Zosimus, 128