RajK.

Subedi(BPH,MPH)

Educational Planning and Curriculum Development

Introduction to curriculum development
ThewordcurriculumderivesfromtheLatincurreremeaningtorun.Thisimpliesthatoneofthe
functionsofacurriculumistoprovideatemplateordesignwhichenableslearningtotakeplace.
Acurriculumismorethanasyllabus.Asyllabusdescribesthecontentofaprogrammeandcanbeseen
asonepartofacurriculum.
Difference between curriculum and syllabus

Education
Curriculum
Syllabus
Content

Types of curriculum
Theformalcurriculum:whattheinstitutionplansandorganizestoteach

Theinformalcurriculum:whatthestudentslearnfromavarietyofsourcesandinteractions
whiletakingpartintheextracurricularactivitiesattheinstitution

Thehiddencurriculum:whatthestudentslearnbuttheinstitutiondidnotsetouttoteach.
Muchofthisreferstotheaspectslikecaughtnottaught.

Some definitions
AlbertOliver(1977):curriculumistheeducationalprogramoftheschoolanddividedintofourbasic
elements:1)programofstudies,2)programofexperiences,3)programofservice,4)hiddencurriculum.
Bell(1971):theofferingofsociallyvaluedknowledge,skills,andattitudesmadeavailabletostudents
throughavarietyofarrangementsduringthetimetheyareatschool,college,oruniversity.
Harnack(1968):Thecurriculumembodiesalltheteachinglearningexperiencesguidedanddirectedby
theschool.

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)
RalphTyler(1957):Thecurriculumisallofthelearningofstudentswhichisplannedbyanddirectedby
theschooltoattainitseducationalgoals.
DavidG.Armstrong(1989):"isamasterplanforselectingcontentandorganizinglearningexperiences
forthepurposeofchanginganddevelopinglearners'behaviorsandinsights."
Bringingallthesepointstogether,thecurriculumisviewedasacompositewholeincludingthelearner,
theteacher,teachingandlearningmethodologies,anticipatedandunanticipatedexperiences,outputs
andoutcomespossiblewithinalearninginstitution.
Curriculum definitions fit into 5 categories.
1. Curriculumasaproductprogram,document,electronicmedia,ormultimedia
2. Curriculumasaprogramofstudyusuallycoursesoffered,curriculumsequencesofstudyin
standardsasbenchmarks,gateways,
3. Curriculumasintendedlearningsgoals,content,concepts,generalizations,outcomes
4. Curriculumasexperiencesofthelearneractivities,plannedandunplanned.
5. Hiddencurriculumwhatstudentslearnthatisn'tplanned(alsocalledunofficialorcounter)
Curriculum as PRODUCT
Advantages
canbedescribedinconcretetermsand
definiteways
providesdirectionforplanningand
developmentbyproducingadocument

Curriculum as PROGRAM
Advantages
easilydescribedinconcreteterms
recognizelearningtakesplaceinmany
differentsettingsinschool

Disadvantages
limitscurriculumtospecificprogramsand
coursesdescribedinthosedocuments
assumesthatallpossiblecoursescanbe
describedinsuchdocuments
separatesprocessesoflearningfromwhat
istobelearned

Disadvantages
viewthatallstudents'learningis
containedinprograms
programsimplythatwhatisdescribed,is
whatstudentswillactuallylearn

Curriculum as INTENDED learnings

Advantages
curriculumbecomesaconceptratherthan
aproduct
moremanageablefocusbylimitedscope

Disadvantages
Difficulttoclassifyexactintended
learnings
Difficulttodefinehowtoachieveandwhy
itneedstobeachieved

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)
Curriculum as EXPERIENCES of the learner
Advantages
focusesonlearningandthelearner,rather
thanteaching
includesallexperiencesplannedand
unplanned
canallowforbroaderexperiences

canbemoremeaningfullearningifit
relatestostudentinterests,needs,orif
studentshelpselectmeaningfullearning
activities,
canbegreaterretentionoflearning

Disadvantages
moreabstractandcomplex
makescurriculumsocomprehensivethat
itcannotbedescribedinsimpletermsor
shortphrases

Elements of curriculum
Thecurriculumhasfourelementsthatareinconstantinteraction:
purpose(goalsandobjectives)
contentorsubjectmatter
methodsorlearningexperiences
evaluation

Fig:Interactionbetweendifferentelementsofcurriculum

Purpose(Goalsandobjectives)

Methodsorlearningexperiences

Content(subjecttobestudied)

Evaluation(PerformanceMeasurement)

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

Concept of educational Planning

Whatevereducationalplanningis,itiscertainlynotamiracledrugforailingeducational
systems.
Educationalplanning,initsbroadestgenericsense,istheapplicationofrational,systematic
analysistotheprocessofeducationaldevelopmentwiththeaimofmakingeducationmore
effectiveandefficientinrespondingtotheneedsandgoalsofstudentsandsociety.
Educationalplanningisideologicallyneutral.Itsmethodologiesaresufficientlyflexibleand
adaptabletofitsituationsthatdifferwidelyinideology,levelofdevelopment,and
governmentalform.
Itsbasiclogic,concepts,andprinciplesareuniversallyapplicable,butthepracticalmethodsfor
applyingthemmayrangefromthecrudeandsimpletothehighlysophisticated,dependingon
thecircumstances.

Itisthereforewrongtoconceiveofeducationalplanningasofferingarigid,monolithicformula
thatmustbeimposeduniformlyonallsituations.

Principles of Educational planning

Educationalplanningshouldbebasedonfollowingcoreprinciples.

DefinedrangeView
i.
Itshouldhaveashortrange(oneortwoyears),amiddlerange(fourtofiveyears)and
alongrangeperspective(tentofifteenyears).
ii.
Obviouslyitsvisionwillgrowlessprecisethefartheraheaditlooks.Butconsideringthe
longleadtimerequiredtoincreaseeducationalcapacityandtoenlargeeducational
output,longrangeperspectiveshouldalsobeconsidered.Forexample,forthe
productionofdoctorsorengineers,orevenofelementaryschoolteachers;itis
necessarytoplanyearsahead.
Educationalplanningshouldbecomprehensive.
i.
Itshouldembracethewholeeducationalsysteminasinglevisiontoensurethe
harmoniousevolutionofitsvariousparts.
ii.
Moreover,itshouldtrytoextenditsvisiontoimportanttypesofnonformaleducation
andtrainingtoensuretheireffectiveintegrationwithformaleducationandwiththe
priorityneedsandgoalsofsociety.
Educationalplanningshouldbeintegratedwiththeplansofbroadereconomicandsocial
development.
i.
Ifeducationistocontributemosteffectivelytoindividualandnationaldevelopment,
andtomakethebestuseofscarceresources,itcannotgoitsownway,ignoringthe
realitiesoftheworldaroundit.
Educationalplanningshouldbeanintegralpartofeducationalmanagement.
i.
Tobeeffective,theplanningprocessmustbecloselytiedtotheprocessesofdecision
makingandoperations

RajK.SSubedi(BPH,MPH)

Ed
ducationalplanningmustbeconcerned
dwiththeQu
ualitativeasp
pectsofeducational
development,notmerelyw
withquantitattiveexpansio n

Educatiional Plan
nning spira
al

Steps of Curriculum Developme
ent

Determineand
dagreetheed
ducationalorrprofessionaalcontextinw
whichthepro
ogrammeisto
obe
developedand
ddelivered
Definethenee
edsoftheleaarnersinlinewiththerequuirementsofprofessionalbodies
Determinethe
eaimsandbroadlearningoutcomesof theprogram
mme
Id
dentifyideasandconstrain
nts
Agreethebroaadstructureaandframewo
orkoftheproogramme,theemainareaso
ofteachingand
earning,thesequenceofthemaintopiccsandthekeeyassessments
le
Allocatethed
A
ntermsofdeffiningobjectiives
etaileddevellopmentofeaachtopicorccourseareain
an
ndlearningoutcomestoin
ndividualsorrteams
Channelanddirectteamstodevelopco
oherentprogrrammeswhicchhavedefineedlearning
metables,conttent,approprriateteachingg,learningand
dassessmenttmethodsan
nd
outcomes,tim
whichutilisere
w
elevantandaavailablelearn
ningresourcees
Im
mplementandrefinethep
programme
Agreeanappro
opriateandd
deliverableevvaluationstraategy
Reviewandre
evisethecourrseinlinewitthfeedbackhasitmettheidentifiedneedsofthee
earnersandotherstakeholders?
le

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

Determinants of curricular trends

Technologyhashadatremendousimpactonsociety.Educationalcurriculumsmustkeepupwiththe
pacesothatfuturegenerationswillbenefitandcontinuedevelopingtechnologicalinnovations.The
conceptofknowledgehaschangedfromhavinginformationinthebrain,to"havingaccessto
informationaboutaparticulartopicandknowinghowtouseit".Hence,thechangeintrendsof
curriculumisdeterminedbyanumberoffactorsthatcanbebroadlyclassifiedastheextrinsicand
intrinsicfactors.
Extrinsic Factors
Political
Fromdefininggoals,interpretingcurricularmaterialstoapprovingexaminationsystems,politics
affectscurriculumdevelopment.
Howpoliticsinfluencescurriculumdesignanddevelopmentstartswithfunding.
Bothprivateandpubliceducationalinstitutionsrelyonfundingforhiringpersonnel,building
andmaintainingfacilitiesandequipment.
Allaspectsofcurriculumdependonlocal,nationalandinternationalpoliticalstandards.
Economic
Curriculumdevelopedforinhousetrainingincorporationsfocusesoneducatingemployeesfor
promotionsthatbringbetterreturnsinprofits.
Nationsfinancingeducationexpectaneconomicreturnfromeducatedstudentscontributingto
thecountry'seconomywithglobalcompetitionabilitiesintechnicalfields.
Technological
Thecomputertechnologyofthe21stcenturyinfluencescurriculumdevelopmentateverylevel
oflearning.
Technologicalmultimediauseinfluenceseducationalgoalsandlearningexperiencesamong
students.
Diversity (Sociocultural and religious)
Religion,cultureandsocialgroupsaffectscurriculum.
Affectedbyforceslikeconflicts,conceptsofjusticeandequity,inclusiveness,ethicsetc.
Learning Theories (Philosophical)
Bothchildandadultlearningtheoriesinfluencecurriculumdevelopment.
Intrinsic Factors
Acceptanceofthecurriculumbyteachers,studentsandadministratorsoftheacademic
institutions
Soundorganizationalpolicy,flexibility,financialstability,administrativecapacity
Managerialaspectsoftheinstitution(leadership,communication,coordination,motivation,
staffing,budgetingetc).

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

Organizationalenvironment(physicalinfrastructures,safety,peace,harmony,innovative
environmentforstudents,flexiblelawsandorders

Principles of curriculum design

1. PrincipleofUtility:It shouldbeusefulinsolvingproblemsandfacingsituationsinlife.
2. Principleofflexibility:It mustbecapableofaccommodatingthechangesinthechild'sdiverse
interest,inclinations& accordancewithsocialrequirements.
3. Principleofchildcenteredness:Theselectionofcontenthastobeinkeepingwiththechild
interestsandabilities.
4. Principleoflifecenteredness:Toenableasindividualtofunctionefficiently&facethe
challengesinlife.Experiencesshouldachievethephysical,mental,social&emotional
development.
5. Principleofcommunitycenteredness:Theneeds,problemsofthecommunityshouldbethe
focusdevelopmentofsocialvalues&spiritofinquiry.
6. Principleofcorrelation:Theyshouldbeviewedasanintegratedwholebringingaboutthe
development.
7. Principleofactivitycenteredness:Learningthroughpurposefulactivityandactuallife
experiencesmakeslearningprocessinterestingandenjoyable.
8. Principlefortheuseofleisure:Theuseofleisureinanappropriatemannerdevelopscreativity,
aestheticsenseandvocationalskills.
9. Principleofdevelopmentofcultureandcivilization:Thepupilshouldhavetheknowledgeof
theircultureandcivilization.
10. Principleofneedbasedactivity:Itistocatertotheneedsofsociety&providethemanpower
forsocialandeconomicdevelopment.
11. Principleofvalue:Fortheinculcationofvalueslikesocialjustice,equalityofopportunity,
equalityofsexes,socialvaluesanddemocraticvalues.
12. Conservationprinciples:Conservationsofculturalheritage,monuments,naturalresources,
wildlifeshouldbeinculcated.
13. Principleofcreativity:Itshouldstimulateanddevelopthecreativeabilitiesofthepupils.
14. Principleofharmony:Formal&Informaleducation,general,liberalandvocationaleducation,
individualandsocialaimsshouldbeskillfullyinterwovenintoaharmoniouswholepavingthe
wayforindividualdevelopment&socialupliftment.

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

Advantages and disadvantages of curriculum

Advantages

Makeslearningspecific,henceeasytolearn
Makeslearningsystemicandsequential
Makeslearningmeasurable,evaluativeandconcrete
Savestimeandresourcestoconducteducationalactivity
Helpsachievegoalsandobjectivesifplannedandimplementedcorrectly
Nationalandinternationalrecognition

Disadvantages

Societyalwayschanging,sodifficulttomakechangesincurriculumaccordinglyfromtimeto
time
Needsintensiveworktodevelopagoodcurriculum.Hence,developmentofeffective
curriculumrequireshighcost
Makeslearningspecific,hencehighchanceofmanyrelevantcontentstobemissedout.
Cantincludealllearningtheories
Curriculummadeatonesettingmaynotbeapplicableinothersettings
Curriculumchangerequiresintense,tediousprocesses
Curriculumdevelopmenthighlyinfluencedbypoliticalfactors.Hence,challengetomakeit
unbiased

RajK.ssubedi(BPH,MPH)

Types of curriculu
um modells/ appro
oaches
Thedifferrentmodelso
ofcurriculum
mdesignsaregivenbelow :

Contentorientted
Behavioristic
Processoriented
Competencyb
based
Fllexnermodel
Th
he'SPICES'm
modelofcurricculumdesign
PRISMSmodell

Content oriented
d

Ancientmodellofcurriculum
mdesign
Masteryofsub
M
bjectmatteriscentraltaskk
Sttandardsaresetfor
o Subjecctmattercove
ered
o Learne
ersmasteryo
ontheconten
nt
Atextbookisttheprimaryin
nstructionaltool
Breadthofthe
esubjectcentteredcurriculumisdeterm
minedbythen
numberofsu
ubjectstaughtt
Eaachsubjecthasthreecharracteristics:
nt
o Conten
o Itsinte
ellectualdiscipline
o Patternfororganiziingtheconte
ent

RajK.subedi(BPH,MPH)

Process oriented curriculum

Thisdesignfocusesonpersonalattributesandskillsoftheindividuallearner.

Thesemayincludesuchaspectsas:

workingwellwithothers,
effectiveleadership,
knowinghowtotakeandfollowdirections,
communicatingeffectively,
makingaccurateobservations,
learningindependently,
makingdecisions,
makinggoodjudgments,
inventing,
forecasting,
planning,
monitoringtheeffectsofone'sownactivities,
takingcorrectionactionwhennecessary,
creating,initiating,
developingasoundvaluesystem,
havingselfconfidenceandbeingsensitivetoothers

CharacteristicsofProcessorientedcurriculum

Thedevelopmentofskillsandtraitsthatwillservethelearnerforalifetimeprocesses
Thereisahigherdegreeofcarryoverintoeverydaylivingexperiencesthaninotherdesigns
Betterbalancebetweenaffectiveandcognitiveconsiderations.
Thelibrarycanprovidematerials,resourcesandservicespromotingindependentlearningand
creativity.
Thiscurriculumdesignsuffersfromadifficultyinassessinglearningoutcomesduetosubjective
judgments
Parentsmaybeskepticalasmorefocusisontheprocessratherthanthecontent

RajK.ssubedi(BPH,MPH)

Fig:Processsorientedcurrriculum

Compettency base
ed curricu
ulum

COMPETENCYisthew
wordusedno
ormallytodesscribeasetoofrelatedskillls.

Th
heaimoftheecompetencybasedcurricu
ulumisto:
o makesstudentsselfmotivated,robustandlifeelonglearneers
o strenggthenthelearrningcultureintheschool
o improvveresults

Sixpriorittyareasfora
acompetencyybasedcurricculuminpub
blichealtharee

cu
ulturalcompe
etency,
healthpromottionskills,
le
eadershipdevvelopment,
programmanaagement,
dataanalysis,aand
ommunityorgganizing
co

(JointCoun
ncilofGovernm
mentalPublicHealthAgenciies,1995)

RajK.ssubedi(BPH,MPH)

Fig::Competencyybasedcurricculumdesign
Characterristicsofcom
mpetencybase
edcurriculum
ms

Competencies aremorehigghlightedthan
nobjectives
Outcomesare
O
morehighlightedthanob
bjectives
Le
earneractivittieswillbebasedonperformanceofleaarnerandacccomplishmen
ntofcriteria;
Te
eachingactivitiesarelearn
nercentered;;
Fo
ormativeevaluationisneccessary.

Stepsofccompetencyb
basedcurricu
ulumdesign
1. Co
onductneedsassessmentt
Whatlearnersneed
dtolearn
Prograamrequireme
ents,boardce
ertificationreequirementsaand/orspeciaalty,society,eetc.
determ
minemuchoffthecontentstudentsneeedtolearnon
naparticularsubject

RajK.subedi(BPH,MPH)
2. Identifycompetenciesaddressed
culturalcompetency,
healthpromotionskills,leadershipdevelopment,
programmanagement,
dataanalysis,
communityorganizing
3. Writegoalsandobjectivesintermsofcompetencies
Thegoalsandobjectiveshelpto:
Provideaninstructionalroadmap
Provideclarityabouttheeducationalprogramtolearners,teachersandexternal
stakeholders
Encouragehigherorderlearning
Determinetheassessmentmethod
4. Determineteachingmethods
Didacticconferences,
Clinicalexposure,
Casebasedteaching,
Rolemodeling,
JournalClub,
Mentoring,
Simulation,
Individualorgroupprojects,
Researchprojectsetc.

5. Determineassessmentmethods
toevaluatethestudentsperformance
Bettertousemultiplemethods
6. Determineprogramimprovementmethods
Studentevaluationsofthestudy
Facultyevaluationsofthestudy
Studentsattainmentofthespecificgoalsandobjectivesofeducationalexperience

RajK.ssubedi(BPH,MPH)

Behavio
oristic app
proach to curriculum
m design

Th
henatureofaapersonsthinkingcanbe
eaffectedthrooughavariettyofrewardssand
co
onsequences.
Th
heaimfored
ducationthrou
ughbehaviorrismistodeveelopapproprriatebehavio
orsinthe
cllassroomsetttingthatarecconducivetolearning.
Behaviorismre
efersmoreto
oconditioninggthelearner tobereadyttolearnandn
notsomuch
ducating.
ed
Sttepbystepco
onditioningp
programsareusedtoachieevethedesireedbehavioraandrewardsaare
ussedtomotiva
ate.
Le
earnersreceivvesimpleformsofmotivaationsuchasvverbalpraisee,smiles,ato
ouchonthe
sh
houlder,andcandy.
Exxtrinsicrewarrdsarefollow
wedbytheinttrinsicreward
ds
Th
heroleofthe
eteacherasaabehavioristisacondition
ner.
Ifstudentscan
nchangethro
oughtheirownthinking,thheywillbegin
ntobecomecconfidentand
d
mselvesmore
e.
believeinthem

Fig:B
Behavioristicm
modelofcurrriculumdesignn
delofcurriculumdesign
SummaryyoftheBehavvioristicmod
ASPECTs
EXPLANA
ATION
Contributorss
Thorndike
e,Pavlov,Watson,Skinner
Viewofthellearningproce
ess Changein
nthebehaviorguideslearninng
Locusoflearrning
Purposeineducation
Educator'sro
ole
Manifestatio
ons

Stimuliinexternalenvirronment
Produceb
behavioralchaangeindesiredddirection
Arrangesenvironmentttoelicitdesireddresponse,faccilitatesstuden
ntcenteredleaarning
Sustainab
blelearning,de
evelopmentoffpositiveattitu
udeandskills,lleadership
developm
ment,entrepreneurship

RajK.subedi(BPH,MPH)

SPICES model of curriculum design

Hardenetalpublishedanarticlein1984whichwasaseminaloneinmedicaleducation.

Itdescribedsixdimensionsaroundwhichamedicalcurriculumcouldbeorganised.
Eachofthedimensionscouldberegardedasacontinuum.
Thusamedicalcurriculumcouldbelocatedsomewherealongthedimensionsof:
o Studentcentred
o Problembased
o Integrated
o Communitybased
o Electives
o Systematic

TrendsinMedicalEducation(BeforeandafterSPICESmodel)
Flexner(1910)model(ThiswasthemodelbeforeSPICES)

Teachercentred
Knowledgegiving
Disciplineled
Hospitaloriented
Standardprogramme
Opportunistic(apprenticeship)

Hardenetal(1984)TheSPICESmodel

Studentcentred
Problembased
Integrated
Communityoriented
Electives(+core)
Systematic

Blighetal(2001)PRISMS(ThismodelcameaftertheSPICESmodel)

Practicebasedlinkedwithprofessionaldevelopment
Relevanttostudentsandcommunities
Interprofessionalandinterdisciplinary
Shortercoursestaughtinsmallerunits
Multisitelocations
Symbiotic(organicwhole)

RajK.subedi(BPH,MPH)

Description of the SPICES model

ThepurposesoftheSPICESmodelare:

toreviewanexistingcurriculumtoseewhereimprovementscanbemade
todevelopanewcurriculumfromscratch
totacklespecificquestionsorissuesrelatingtoacurriculum
tohelpdecideonwhatsortofteachingmethodstouseonacourse
decidewhatformattheassessmentshouldtake

StudentCentered

Mostoftheemphasisisonthelearner
Increaseslearnermotivation
Prepareslearnersforlifelongselfdirectededucation

Problembased

Helpsdevelopproblemsolvingskills
Activeparticipationofthelearner
Helpsdealwithanovercrowdedcurriculum;highlightsconceptsratherthanknowledge

Integrated

Reducesfragmentationofcourses
Promotesstaffcommunicationandcollaborationasdepartmentsarebeingintegrated
Holisticapproachtolearning

Communityoriented

Directcontactwiththecommunitythelearnersarebeingtaughttoserve
Seeawidevarietyofconditionsatawidevarietyofstages
Learnerslearnaboutthesocialandeconomicaspectofillness

Electives

Allowscurricularflexibility
Elective+Core
Enableslearnerstoexplorefurtherinterestsinmoredetails;matchingtothelearnersneeds

Systematic

Teachingisstructuredandorganized
Teachingissequential
learnercanbecomecompetentandconfidentwiththeleastwasteoftimeandresources
Easyforaccreditationandvalidation

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

Factors influencing curriculum design, level of evaluation and corrective

action

Severalfactorsaffectallcurriculumdevelopmentinmeetingtheneedsof21stcenturylearners
inbothorganizedacademicsettingsandcorporationlearningcenters.

Blueprintingcurriculumdevelopmentrequiresselectinglearninggoals,designingknowledge
deliverymodelsandcreatingassessmentmethodsforprogress.

Political,economic,technological,sociocultural,religious,philosophical(learningtheories)and
environmentalfactorsaffectcurriculumdesign.

Factorsinfluencingthecurriculumdesign,evaluationandcorrectiveactioncanbebetter
illustratedbyanalyzingthefactorsaffectingeachlevelofcurriculumdesign,evaluationand
correctiveaction
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.
7.

8.
9.

Determininghealthneedofsociety.
Workinghypothesis
Defineeducationalobjective.
Developteachingprogramme.
Observeandrecordaboutbehavioroftrainees.
Cognitive
Affective
Psychomotor
Evaluationandanalysis
Correctiveactionbasedonmanipulativevariables:
Teaching
Examinationtechnique
Budget
Environmentstudent
Health
Situation
Objectiverevise
Hypothesisrevise

1. Determining health need of the society

Healthneedofthesocietyaffectscurriculumdevelopment
Theneedassessmentisalsoinfluencedbymanyfactors.
Somefactorsarerelatedtothesocietyandsomearerelatedtothosewhoassesstheneeds
Thepoliticalforcesalsoinfluencetheneedassessment

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

Differenthealthneeds/gap
o Numberofhealthserviceproviders
o Morbidity/disability
o Mortality
o NumberandtypeofHealthinstitutions
o Qualityofexistinghealthservices
o Adequacyofdrugsanddiagnosticequipments
o Qualityofserviceproviders
o Healthprofessionalspracticeandconduct
o Costofhealthservices
o Geographicalaccessibility
o PeoplesparticipationinHealthServiceManagement
o Informationmanagementsystemetc.

Factors influencing need assessment

Societyrelatedfactorsinfluencingneedassessment
o Socioeconomicstatusofpeople(education,incomeetc)
o Religion
o Tradition
o Taboos
o Availabilityofotherbasicfacilities
o Trustonhealthsystem,pastexperiences
o Politicalforceswithinsociety,formal&informalleaders
o Burdenofdiseases
o Populationdensityanddistribution
Factorsrelatedtothosewhoassesstheneeds
o Educationalstatusofthoseinvolvedinneedassessment
o Communicationandcoordinationskills
o Language
o Financialcapacity
o Degreeofobligation,Motivation
o Volumeofassignedresponsibility
o Complexity
o Methodology
o Technology
o Time
o Vestedinterest/hiddenagenda

Politicalforcesinfluencingneedassessment
o Donorinterestandinfluence
o Politicalstabilityofthenation
o Prioritybynation

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)
o
o

Politicalideologyandcommitment
Countryseconomicstatus

2. Working Hypothesis

Aworkinghypothesisisahypothesisthatisprovisionallyacceptedasabasisforfurther
research.
Itmaynotbedirectlytestedbutprovidesusefulguidanceandagreeabledirections.
Maynothaveconcretemathematicalandscientificbasisbutcanprovideideas,informationas
wellasqualitativecontentsrequiredforcurriculumdesign.
aworkinghypothesisisoftenusedasaconceptualframeworkinqualitativeresearch
Initialcoursedesignisusuallyframedasworkinghypothesiswhichwouldbetestedinpractice
andthenremodeledaccordingtothestudentsresponse.
Settingworkinghypothesisdiscouragesputtingtheceilingonlearningprocessandfacilitates
theredesigningofthecurricularelementsasperthefeedbackfromthedifferentstakeholders.
Characteristicsofworkinghypothesis
o Makeslearningflexible
o Helpsinclusionofqualitativeaspectsoflearning
o Savesresourcesforfurtherresearches
o Complementsscientificandquantitativeassertions
o Actsasapivotalfeatureintheprocessofinquiry
o Providesprovisionalalertnessforerrorsincorrelationandcausation
o Usefulduringbudgetarylimitations
o Easytomodifyandchange
Factorsinfluencingworkinghypothesis
o Learningtheories
o Technologicaladvancement,globalization
o Politicalsituationofthecountry
o Donorsinterest
o Resources
o Needofthesociety
o Motivation,leadership,communication,coordinationandcommunication
o Knowledge,attitudeandskillsofpeopleinvolvedincurriculumdesignetc.

3. Define Educational objectives
Educationalobjectivesarethestatementofwhatlearnersareintendedto(afterthespecificsession
or/andtheprogramofstudy):
o
o
o

Know(cognitive)
Think,believe(affective)
Do(psychomotor)

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)
Twotypes
o
o

Courseorsessioninstructionalobjectives:
o

Courseorsessioninstructionalobjective(afterthespecificsessionorcourse)
Programlearningobjective(afterthecompletionoftheprogramofstudy)

Statementsofwhatspecificteachersorinstructorsintendforstudentstoknow,think
anddoafterthecompletionofthecourseorsession

Programlearningobjectives:
o
o

Statementsofwhattheentirefaculty,collegeortheuniversitybelievesthestudentswill
beabletoknow,thinkanddoaftercompletionoftheentireprogramofstudy.
Theyarebroaderthanthecourseorsessionobjectives

Why educational objectives??

Tohelpcurriculumplanning,analysisandrenewal
Easytogetfeedback
Encouragesorganizedlearning
Givesmeasurableindicators
Standardizationofthecourseandprogramofstudy
Writing educational objectives
Useverbslikerecall,illustrate,demonstrate,generateetc.basedondifferentdomainsof
learningprocess
Usetheformat:WhoWhatbehavior.underwhatconditionhowwell???
Examples
o Afterthecompletionofthecourse(condition),thestudents(who)willbeableto
demonstrate(whatbehavior)thewaterpurificationbySODISmethodcorrectly(how
well).
Factors influencing the formation of educational objectives
Interestofteacher,university,donoretc.
Technology
Budget
Security
Time
Relevancetocurrentneedsofthesocietyandcountry
Leveloftheprogramofstudy(eg.Basic,intermediate,advanced)

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

4. Develop teaching programs

Therewasatimewhenauniversitywasalmostsolelyresponsibleforthecontentofitscourses
andthecurriculumwaslargelydefinedbyasyllabusthatwaslittlemorethanalistofthe
contenttopicsthatweretobedealtwithbymeansofthelectureprogramme.
Nowadaystheexplosioninknowledge,coupledwiththedemandsofvariousstakeholders,
placestremendouspressuresondecisionsaboutthecontentofthecurriculum.
Thereareveryrealtensionsbetweenthewishesoftheteacherswhodeliverthecurriculumto
preserveandevenincreasethesubjectcontentoftheircourseandthemanyexternal
stakeholderswhowantspaceforthedevelopmentofgeneralskillsthathaveastrongvocational
relevance.
Therearepressuresfromprofessional/vocationalbodiessuggestingimportantcoreareasof
knowledge(content)thatshouldbeincludedintypicalcoursesofstudyinthesubject.

What is teaching program???

Theteachingprogramwhichisablendof

curriculumcontent,
Methodology
philosophicalfoundationand
Resources

Goodteachingprogramshouldfollowthekeyprinciplesof

Usability
Feasibility

Factorsaffectingdevelopmentofteachingprogram
Severalcurriculumplayersaffectthedevelopmentofteachingprogram

Government(DepartmentofEducation)
Textbookpublishers
Professionalbodies(Recruitingagencies)
School,collegeanduniversity
Teachers
Students
Donors

Besidesthecurriculumplayers,theotherforcesaffectingthedevelopmentoftheteachingprogramare:

Currentneedsofthesocietyandcountry
Changeinconceptsoflearning(learningtheories)
Globalization
Financialcapacity
Time

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

Researches
Competenceofcurriculumdevelopers
Levelofprogramofstudy

5. Observe and Record about the behavior of trainees

Observing and recording the behavior of trainees:
Measurehowwellthestudentsmasteronthecontentsoftheteachingprogram
Howthestudentsfeel,believeandvalueabouttheteachingprogram
Howskilledthestudentshavebecomeonacquiringtheteachingprogram
Usefulness of observing and recording the behavior of trainees..
Findingcurrentgapsinteachingprogram
Evaluationandanalysisofperformance
Providingfeedbacktothecurriculumdevelopers
Furtherplanningandredesigningthecurriculum
Levels of observing and recording the behavior of trainees
Cognitive(knowledge)
Affective(attitude)
Psychomotor(motorskills)
Factors affecting the observing and recording the behavior of trainees
Time
Competencyoftheteacher
Teachinglearningenvironment
Budget
Typeandlevelofthecourseorprogramofstudyetc.

Blooms Taxonomy of learning domains

Knowledgeisnotpowerunlessitisactedupon.
Theconceptoflearninghaschangedfrommerelyknowingtoknowing,developingattitudeand
applyinginlifeprocesses.
Acommitteeofcolleges,ledbyBenjaminBloom(1956),identifiedthreedomainsofeducational
activities:
o Cognitive:Mentalskills(Knowledge)
o Affective:growthinfeelingsoremotionalareas(Attitude)
o Psychomotor:manualorphysicalskills(Skills)

Cognitivedomain
Itfurtherincludessixdomainslikeknowledge,comprehension,application,analysis,synthesis
and,evaluation

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)
o

Knowledge
o Recallingspecificandgeneralitemsofinformationandalsoinformationabout
methods,processesandpatterns
o KeyWords:defines,describes,identifies,knows,labels,lists,matches,names,outlines,
recalls,recognizes,reproduces,selects,states.
Comprehension
o Recognitionofitemsofinformationsettingssimilartobutdifferentfromthosein
whichtheywerefirstencountered.
o KeyWords:comprehends,converts,defends,distinguishes,estimates,explains,
extends,generalizes,givesanexample,infers,interprets,paraphrases,predicts,
rewrites,summarizes,translates.
Application
o Explainingpreviouslyunseendataoreventsbyapplyingknowledgefromother
situations
o KeyWords:applies,changes,computes,constructs,demonstrates,discovers,
manipulates,modifies,operates,predicts,prepares,produces,relates,shows,solves,
uses.
Analysis
o Breakingdownblocksofinformationintoelementsforthepurposeofclarification.
o KeyWords:analyzes,breaksdown,compares,contrasts,diagrams,deconstructs,
differentiates,discriminates,distinguishes,identifies,illustrates,infers,outlines,relates,
selects,separates.
Synthesis
o Combiningelementstoformcoherentunitsofinformation.
o KeyWords:categorizes,combines,compiles,composes,creates,devises,designs,
explains,generates,modifies,organizes,plans,rearranges,reconstructs,relates,
reorganizes,revises,rewrites,summarizes,tells,writes.
Evaluation
o Makingjudgmentaboutthevalueofinformation,materialsormethodsforgiven
purposes
o KeyWords:appraises,compares,concludes,contrasts,criticizes,critiques,defends,
describes,discriminates,evaluates,explains,interprets,justifies,relates,summarizes,
supports.

Affectivedomain
Theaffectivedomainincludesthemannerinwhichwedealwiththingsemotionally,suchas
o

feelings,values,appreciation,enthusiasms,motivations,andattitudes.

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)
Affectivedomainsarefurtherdividedintofivelevels:
Receiving:
o
o

Sensitivitytocertainstimuliandawillingnesstoreceiveorattendtothem.
KeyWords:asks,chooses,describes,follows,gives,holds,identifies,locates,names,pointsto,
selects,sits,erects,replies,uses.

Responding:
o
o

Involvementinasubjectoractivityoreventtotheextentofseekingitout,workingwithitor
engaginginit.
KeyWords:answers,assists,aids,complies,conforms,discusses,greets,helps,labels,performs,
practices,presents,reads,recites,reports,selects,tells,writes.

Valuing:
o
o

Commitmenttoorconvictionincertaingoals,ideasorbeliefs
KeyWords:completes,demonstrates,differentiates,explains,follows,forms,initiates,invites,
joins,justifies,proposes,reads,reports,selects,shares,studies,works.

Organisation:
o
o

Organisationofvaluesintoasystem,awarenessofrelevanceofandrelationsbetween
appropriatevaluesandtheestablishmentofdominantpersonalvalues.
KeyWords:adheres,alters,arranges,combines,compares,completes,defends,explains,
formulates,generalizes,identifies,integrates,modifies,orders,organizes,prepares,relates,
synthesizes.

CharacterisationbyaValueComplex:
o
o

Integrationofbeliefs,ideasandattitudesintoatotalphilosophyofworldview.
KeyWords:acts,discriminates,displays,influences,listens,modifies,performs,practices,
proposes,qualifies,questions,revises,serves,solves,verifies.

Psychomotor domain
o
o
o
o
o

Thepsychomotordomainincludesphysicalmovement,coordination,anduseofthemotorskill
areas.
Developmentoftheseskillsrequirespractice
measuredintermsofspeed,precision,distance,procedures,ortechniquesinexecution.
Ittalksaboutthethirdlevelofperformancewiththehelpofphysicalmovementwhenthe
cognitiveandaffectivelevelshavealreadymet.
Itgoesbeyondtheclassroomsettingandfocusesonabilitytoapplythelearntthingsinpractical
life.

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)
o
o
o

Thelearnerhasreachedtheleveltoperforminfrontofothernovicelearners.
Hence,thestudenthasreachedthelevelinwhichheismentallypreparedtoactphysically.
Hence,thelearnerisabletousesensorycues(signals)toguidemotoractivitywhichgradually
extendsuptothelevelinwhichhecanfinallybecomeusedtoitandfurthercandevelopnew
movementpatterns.

Detail of the domain

Thedifferentcategoriesofthepsychomotordomainfromsimpletocomplexlevelaregivenbelow:
1. Perception:Theabilitytousesensorycuestoguidemotoractivity.Alsocalledtheselectionstep
a. KeyWords:chooses,describes,detects,differentiates,distinguishes,identifies,isolates,
relates,selects.
2. Set:Readinesstoact.Itincludesmental,physical,andemotionalsets.
a. KeyWords:begins,displays,explains,moves,proceeds,reacts,shows,states,
volunteers.
3. GuidedResponse:Theearlystagesinlearningacomplexskillthatincludesimitationandtrial
anderror.Adequacyofperformanceisachievedbypracticing.
a. KeyWords:copies,traces,follows,react,reproduce,responds
4. Mechanism:Thisistheintermediatestageinlearningacomplexskill.Learnedresponseshave
becomehabitualandthemovementscanbeperformedwithsomeconfidenceandproficiency.
a. KeyWords:assembles,calibrates,constructs,dismantles,displays,fastens,fixes,grinds,
heats,manipulates,measures,mends,mixes,organizes,sketches.
5. ComplexOvertResponse:
a. Theskillfulperformanceofmotoractsthatinvolvecomplexmovementpatterns.
b. Proficiencyisindicatedbyaquick,accurate,andhighlycoordinatedperformance,
requiringaminimumofenergy.
c. Thiscategoryincludesperformingwithouthesitation,andautomaticperformance.
d. TheKeyWordsarethesameasMechanism,butwillhaveadverbsoradjectivesthat
indicatethattheperformanceisquicker,better,moreaccurate,etc.
6. Adaptation:Skillsarewelldevelopedandtheindividualcanmodifymovementpatternstofit
specialrequirements.
a. KeyWords:adapts,alters,changes,rearranges,reorganizes,revises,varies.
7. Origination:Creatingnewmovementpatternstofitaparticularsituationorspecificproblem.
Learningoutcomesemphasizecreativitybaseduponhighlydevelopedskills.
a. KeyWords:arranges,builds,combines,composes,constructs,creates,designs,initiate,
makes,originates.

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

6. Analysis and Evaluation

Evaluationisasystematicwayoflearningfromexperienceandusingthelessonlearnttoimprove
currentactivitiesandpromotebetterplanningbycarefulselectionofalternativesforfutureaction
WHO
Analysisisapartofevaluation.
IntheabovedefinitionofevaluationgivenbyWHO,analysisisthesystematicwayoflearning
fromexperiences.
Thusanalysishelpsidentifythecurrentgapsinteachingprogrammewhereasevaluationis
analysis+whatcanbedonetoovercomethecurrentgapsappropriatelyforfutureaction
Thusevaluationistheprocessof
o Determiningtheappropriatenessofprogramplanning(diagnostic),
o Assessingthedegreeofeffectivenessandprogressofprogrammeimplementation
(formative),
o Measuringthefinalachievementoftheprogram(summative),
andfinallysuggestingappropriatemeasuresforcorrectiveaction

o
o
o
o

6.1. Levels of evaluation

o Diagnosticevaluation
o Formativeevaluation
o Summativeevaluation
6.1.1.Diagnostic evaluation
Doneatbeginningofprogram.
Alsocalledinputevaluation
Donetoknowifproperstepsarefollowedin
o needassessment,
o workinghypothesis,
o settingobjectives,
o Selectingcontent
o selectingtheappropriatemethodsandresources
6.1.2.
o
o
o

Formative evaluation
Doneinthemiddleofevaluation
Alsocalledprogressevaluation
Donetoknowifproperstepsarefollowedin
o Deliveringthecontent
o Usingtheselectedmethodsandresources
o Observingandrecordingthebehavioroftrainees
o Alsorecommendsthewaysandmeanstoimprovelearningprocedures

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)
6.1.3. Summative evaluation
o Doneattheendoftheprogramme
o Alsocalledachievementevaluation
o Donetoanalyze:
o Successoftheprogrammeasawhole.E.g.Developmentinknowledge,attitudeand
skillsofstudentsafteroverallprogramme,Changeinthemorbidityandmortalityrate,
Improvementofsocioeconomicstatusofpeople
o Providesappropriatefeedbackforredesigningthecurriculum

Criteria for evaluation (as recommended by WHO)
o Adequacy
o Relevancy(aspertheneeds)
o Efficiency
o Appropriateness(techniques,procedures)
Methods of evaluation
o Interview
o Observation
o Reviewofrecordsandreports
o Meetinganddiscussion
Process of evaluation (R.F Mager)
o Formulatingtheobjectivesofevaluation
o Determiningappropriatetechniquesandtools
o Collectingdataandinformationusingdeterminedtechniquesandtools
o Analyzingandinterpretingthecollecteddataandinformation
o Preparingevaluationreportandrecommendtoconcernedauthorityfornecessaryaction
Factors influencing analysis and evaluation
o Resourcefactors(Man,material,money,time,technology)
o Politicalfactors(instability,bureaucracy)
o Performanceandachievementofstudents
o Impactofoverallprogramonsociety
o Abilityoftheanalystsandevaluators

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

7. Corrective action based on manipulative variables

Manipulative variables
o Manipulativemeansskillfulatinfluencingsborforcingsbtodowhatyouwant,ofteninan
unfairway,byediting,redesigningetc.
o Somanipulativevariablesareatriskofbeingusedinanunfairwaythatmayhinderthe
effectivenessofteachingprogramme
o Hencecorrectiveactionneedstobedonebasedonmanipulativevariablesforeffectiveteaching
learningactivities.
Some manipulative variables
Teaching
Examinationtechnique
Budget
Environmentstudent(setting)
Health(degreeofconcern)
Situation(situationofcollege(HR),university(concern),society(needs,pressure),job
opportunities(filtering),politicalsituation,trendacrossuniversities)
Factors affecting the corrective action based on manipulative variables:
Interest,levelofparticipation,pressureandfeedbackfromthestudents
Cognitive,affectiveandpsychomotorlevelofthestudents
ResearchesrelatedtoHRissues,schoolhealthetc.
Pressurefromparents,society,university
Competition

8. Objective Revise
1. Objectivesarethestatementofwhatlearnersareintendedto(afterthespecificsessionor/and
theprogramofstudy):
Know(cognitive)
Think,believe(affective)
Do(psychomotor)
2. Twotypes
Courseorsessioninstructionalobjective(afterthespecificsessionorcourse)
Programlearningobjective(afterthecompletionoftheprogramofstudy)

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)
3. ObjectiveRevisionishencetheRevisionofthestatementsofwhatthelearnersareexpectedto
doaftercompletionofthesession,courseortheoverallprogram
4. Objectiverevisionisoneofthestepsincorrectiveactionincurriculumdesigninwhichchange
ormodificationisdoneasperthe:
Analysisandevaluationprocesses.
Correctiveactionbasedonmanipulativevariables
Changeintheconceptsandtheoriesoflearning
5.Suppose,thecorrectiveactionisdoneintheexaminationtechniqueasfollows:E.g.letus
supposethat,

Previouslyitwassubjectivequestionsinwhichstudentshadtoexplainaboutdomains
oflearningandnow,itismultiplechoicequestionsinwhichstudentshavetoidentify
whichbehaviorfallsunderwhatdomainoflearning.

Hencethepreviousobjectiveandrevisedobjectivewillhavedifferentexpectationsfrom
thestudents

9. (Working) Hypothesis Revise

Initialcoursedesignisusuallyframedasworkinghypothesiswhichwouldbetestedinpractice
andthenremodeledaccordingtothestudentsresponse.
Hencerevisionofworkinghypothesiscanbedoneastheyareflexibleandwerejustthedraft
hypothesispreviouslywhentheywereinitiallydesigned.

Why revision of hypothesis??

Toavoiderrorsandfulfillgapsinthecurrenthypothesis
Tomakecurriculummorestableandfunctional
Tofacilitatethelearningprocess,
torevisethecontentsasperthechangeintheneedsofthestudents,societyandcountry
Toobeythediagnostic,formativeandsummativeevaluationprocedures
Factors affecting revision of working hypothesis
Changeintheneeds
Changeinlearningtheories
Researches
Resources
Findingsfromtheevaluationprocesses

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

Curriculum change

Thedevelopmentinthefieldofeducationispossiblebythegradualimprovementand
advancementi.e.change
Curriculumalsoneedstochangeovercertainperiodoftimetocomplythetrendinthefieldof
educationsoastomeettherequirementofstudents,colleges,university,recruitingagencies
andthesociety
Curriculumchangeishenceessentialandequallychallengingthatrequirescarefulprocedures
startingfromreviewingandrevisingtheeducationalobjectivestotheevaluationofthe
outcomesofeducation.

Steps of curriculum change

1. Objectivesofeducation
2. Diagnosisindevelopedcurriculum

Achievement(examinationperformance,proficiencyincompetencytoservesociety)

Studentaslearner(interview,meetingsanddiscussions)

Curriculumproblem(inappropriatedepthandbreadth,lessadaptable,lesssignificant
andlessapplicableetc.)

3. Selectionofcurriculumcontentandexperience(keepingfollowingthingsinconsideration)

Rationalselection

Problemestablishingcriteria(i.e.problemsettlingcriteria)

Significance

Depthandbreadth

Adaptability

Appropriateneedandinterestoftrainees

4. Organizationofcurriculumexperiencesandlearning
5. Evaluationoftheoutcomesofcurriculum

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

1. Objectives of education:

organizededucationcontainvariedpossibilitiesforlearning,whetherornotthepersons
involvedinplanningthecurriculumcontenttakethemintoaccountinmakingdecisions.

Unfortunately,thepossibilitiesfornegativelearningarealsoavailablelike:

Inadequategoodfeelingstoselfandothers

Mechanicalresponseswithoutcompleteunderstanding

Overdependence

Jumpingtoconclusionswithoutmuchthoughtorevidenceetc.

Hence,clarityofobjectivesisoneofthemostimportantaspectsindesigningthecurriculum.

So,duringthecurriculumchangeprocess,theobjectivesshouldbereviewedandrevised
keepingthefollowingthingsinconsideration:

theacquisitionofdesirablelearningshouldnotbeplacedtochance

Weshouldntoveremphasizecertainlearninginwaysthatleadstolessemphasison
desirablelearning

Weshouldequallybealertonpotentialnegativelearning

Thus,objectivesshouldbereviewedandrevisedtomake

abalancebetweenCognitive,affectiveandpsychomotordomainsoflearning

abalancebetweenCourseorsessionobjectivesandoverallprogramobjectives

2. Diagnosis in developed curriculum

Achievement(examinationperformance,proficiencyincompetencytoservesociety)

Studentaslearner(interview,meetingsanddiscussions)

Curriculumproblem(inappropriatedepthandbreadth,lessadaptable,lesssignificant
andlessapplicableetc.)

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

2.1. achievement
Thediagnosiscanbedoneindifferentways.Achievementisoneofthem.TheAcademicperformanceof
thestudentsaswellastheirpracticalskillscanbeevaluatedinordertomakenewcurriculum
experiencewiththeaimofdevelopingcurriculumexperiencetoimproveperformance

Thediagnosisintheachievementisdonetoevaluatethefollowing:
Theexaminationperformanceofthestudents(Writtenandverbalexaminations)
Proficiencyincompetenciestoservethesociety
Evaluationofperformanceintheprofessionalorganizationsbymeasuring
competencies(directmeasurement)
Feedbackfromtherecruitingagencies,communitypeopleetc(indirect
measurement)

2.2. Student as learner

Thestudentscanalsobeaskedwhetherornottheyhaveexperiencedthepositivelearning.

Thediagnosisofstudentaslearnerisdonebecauseofthefollowingreasons:

Theremaybenegativelearningexperienceslikelessfeelingofgoodtoselfandothers,
mechanicalresponseswithoutcompleteunderstanding,abuseandunnecessary
pressure,lesssupportfromthecurriculumimplementersetc.

Toassessthemotivationlevelofstudentsandtheirinvolvementincurriculum
experience.

Thedifferenttechniquestodiagnoselearningexperiencebystudentscanbedoneby:

Reviewmeeting

Interview

Discussions

Seminarsetc.

2.3. Curriculum problem

Inappropriatedepthandbreadth

Thecontentsareanalyzedhowdeepthecontentshavegoneintoandhowwidehave
theyreached.

Depthisdiagnosedtoanalyzethecontentadequacyorsufficiency

Breadthisdiagnosedtoanalyzecontentlinkagetootherdisciplines

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

Lessadaptable

Thecontentsandteachingmethodologiesarediagnosedtoevaluatewhetherornotthe
curriculumexperiencescanbeinternallyacceptedbythestudentstomakeitanintegral
partoftheirlifeandwhetherornotthestudentscanadaptthecurriculumexperiences.

Alsotakesintoaccounttheadaptabilityintermsofsocioculturaldeterminants,legal
provisions,choiceandinterestetc

Lesssignificant

Whetherornotthecurriculumexperiencesareaspertheneedofthestudents,society

Whetherornotthecontentsarevalidandreliable

Lessapplicable

Whetherornotthelearningexperiencesarepossibleinreallifesituationsi.e.volume
andcomplexity

Whetherornotthelearntthingscanreallybetranslatedintobehaviorsi.e.feasibility

3. Selection of curriculum content and experience

Whilecontentisthemeatofthecurriculumplan,wecanconsiderlearningexperiences
plannedforthestudentsastheheartoftheplan(OrnsteinandHunkins,1998).

Thelearningexperiencesarethemeanstowardsachievingthegoalsandobjectivesofthe
curriculum.

Curriculumexperienceisalsocalledthelearningexperience

Tylerusedthetermlearningexperienceinhismodelofcurriculumdesign

Itistheinstructionalcomponentofthecurriculuminwhichthestudents,teachersandcontent
interactamongeachother

Hencecurriculumexperienceincludesthefollowing:

Methods(thelecturemethod,smallgroupdiscussion,roleplaying,fieldwork)

learningactivities(answeringquestions,solvingproblems,journalwriting,viewing
videos,doingexperiments,playinggames)

Useofresources(whiteboards,markers,charts,LCD,OHPetc.)

Thecurriculumexperienceisselectedinsuchawaythatitmeetsthenewlyrefinedand
designedobjectivesofeducation(Rationalselection)

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

Rationalselectionisdoneforbothcontentsaswellasexperiences

Therationalselectionofcontentsisdoneonthebasisofproblemestablishingcriterialike:

Significance

Depthandbreadth

Adaptability

Appropriateneedandinterestoftrainees

Rationalselectionofcurriculumexperiencesisdoneby:
Properselectionofteachingmethodologyasperthecontent
Properselectionofactivitiesasperthemethodology
Properselectionoftheresourcesforcarryingoutactivities

Rationalselectionhelpsformutualinteractionbetweentheteacher,studentandcontent

Theselectionisinfluencedby:budget,time,competencytouseresources,technological
advancementetc.

4. Organizing curriculum experiences and learning

Afterhavingdecidedonthecontentandcurriculumexperiences,thenextstepistoorganisethemina
formthatwillfacilitatelearning.

Principles of Content Organisation

Thefollowingprincipleshavebeenproposedwhendecidingoncontentorganisation(Sowell,2000;
Ornstein&Hunkins,1998):
Scope
Whendecidingaboutthescopeofacurriculum,thefollowingguidelinesmaybeuseful:

Theusefulnessofthecontentselected.
whetherthecontentcaterstodiversestudentabilities
iftheamountofcontentselectedcanbecoveredinthespecifiedperiodoftime
if there is a balance in the content selected between cognitive, psychomotor and affective
domains.

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)
Sequence
Sequencereferstotheorganisationofcontentandtheextenttowhichitfosterscumulativeand
continuouslearning(referredtoasverticalrelationshipamongsectionsofthecurriculum).
Thefollowingaresomeprinciplesidentifiedasguidelinesinsequencing the curriculum:(Ornsteinand
Hunkins,1998,Taba,1962,Bruner,1960).
a) Simple to complex content is organised going from simple subordinate components to
complexcomponentsdepictinginterrelationshipsamongcomponents.Optimallearningoccurs
when students are presented with easy, often concrete content and to more difficult and
abstractcontent.
b) SpiralInaspiralcurriculum,conceptsmaybeintroducedonasimplelevelintheearlygrades,
thenrevisitedwithmoreandmorecomplexityandapplicationlateron(Bruner,1960)
c) Prerequisitesitworksontheassumptionthatbitsofinformationorlearningmustbegrasped
beforeotherbitsofinformationcanbeunderstood.
d) Wholetopartcontentisbetterunderstoodifanoverview(whole)isfirstpresentedtoshow
theconnectionsbetweentheparts.
e) Chronology this is a useful organiser for sequencing content especially in subjects such as
history,politicalscienceandworldevents.
f) VerticalorganisationThissimplymeansthatcontentandskillsarearrangedsothattheybuild
on one another; that they align with the general sequence of cognitive development. They
indicatewhatstudentshavelearnedandwhattheywilllearnlater.
g) HorizontalorganisationItinvolveshowskillsandcontentthataretaughtduringonelevelor
oneperiodoftimerelatetoanother.Forexample,inasocialsciencecourse,youmightconsider
particularissuesfromahistorical,sociological,politicalandeconomicpointofview.

Integration
Integrationisthebringingtogetheroftheconcepts,skillsandvaluesofdifferentsubjectareasto
reinforceeachother.Bitsofinformationfromdifferentsubjectareasarebroughttogetherinsuchaway
topresentthelearnerwithaunifiedpictureofknowledge.
Exampleoftheintegratedcurriculumincludessciencetechnologysociety.Inthesciencetechnology
society(STS)curriculum,scienceiscombinedwithsocialsciencesinattemptingtosolvepractical,
everydayproblems.Theintegratedapproachtakesthestudentoutsidethelaboratoryandawayfrom
thetextbookintothelocalcommunity.
Continuity
Continuityensuresthatideas,themesandskillsarerepeatedasthelearnerprogressesthroughthe
grades.Forexample,studentsintheprimarygradesaretaughttheprinciplesofessaywriting.Thesame
principlesarerepeatedinthesucceedingyears.Continuityensuresthereappearanceofcertainmajor
ideasatdifferentgradelevelsatincreaseddepthandcomplexityoverthelengthofthecurriculum.

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

Criteria for organizing learning experiences:

Domainsoflearning:
Methodsandmaterialsshouldbeorganizedinsuchawaythatitmeetstheobjectivesindifferentlevels
insequencei.e.fromcognitive,affectivetopsychomotor.Forexample,lecturemethodgroup
discussiondemonstration
Feasibility:
Thelearningexperiencesshouldalsobeorganizedinsuchawaythattheycanbecarriedoutin
sequencewithtime,availablefacilitiesandexpertiseofteachers.Theyareprioritizedaccordinglyin
whichsomelearningexperiencesmaybeomittedandsomemayberepeatedlyusedinsequence.
Complexity:
Thesimplemethodsandmaterialsareselectedfirstwhicharefollowedbymoreandmorecomplex
methodsandmaterialstoenhancesequentiallearning.

5. Evaluation of the outcomes of curriculum

Whenthenewdraftcurriculumhasbeenformedduringthecurriculumchangeprocess,the
evaluationofoutcomesofthecurriculumisnecessarybeforemakingitaccepted,accreditedand
stable.

Theoutcomesofcurriculumareevaluatedbythesummativeevaluation.

Twolevels:

toknowiflearnersachievedtheobjectives

whethertheprogrammeproducedthedesiredoutcomes.

Somequestionsthatcanbeusedwhileevaluatingtheoutcomesofcurriculum:
1) Havethecompetenciesdevelopedinstudentsasperthesetobjectivesafterthecompletionof
theprogramofstudy?
2) Hasthecurriculumbeenapplicableinreallifesituations?
3) Hasthelackofhumanresourcesinthesocietybeenovercome?
4) Arethepeoplebenefittedbythegivencurriculum?Towhatextent?
5) Hasthegivencurriculumbeensuccessfulinobeyingthesocioculturalnormsandvalues?Etc.

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)
Methodsofevaluation:

Questionnairesurvey

Keyinformantinterviews

Focusgroupdiscussions

Observations

Casestudy

Reviewofrecordsandreports

Processofevaluation:

Formulatingtheobjectivesofevaluation

Determiningappropriatetechniquesandtools

Collectingdataandinformationusingdeterminedtechniquesandtools

Analyzingandinterpretingthecollecteddataandinformation

Preparingevaluationreportandrecommendtoconcernedauthorityfornecessaryaction