HELICOPTER ENGINEERING LALIT GUPTA, HIMALAYAN BOOKS ‘New DelhiAE LaRaRYS Goll 9 DEC 2003 HIMALAYAN BOOKS alt ope 196 PREFACE, ‘Daring the ls two decades, hlcopter operations have sot only incre nifeld in India but so world over. The subject of helicopter engineering covering deren aspects of Edlopter aight and varour stodyaumi characters 3, owerer, aot commoa inthe aviation isdsey- Even inthe remit intioe, either the sje of belcopter ening [Spor taght and if all ge es more or ls theoreti in ‘nar and the studets doo pee opportunities og ‘horoug understanding inthe Geld of becopts engieeing In fay many personel working i the fel of aation in Tada lack te physical sapet of helicopter Bight. Even when T'was ndergsing sy gadution in Aeronautic, aly one Couns on hrlicoper engineering was fered which was more rls theoretical in ature Although number sf excellent books have Been writen fon the subj, thee are either too much theoriallrgly Akaling with mula or daborsive and rerciveto nly few tapead of helicopter Hight, This hook har Deen writen wich Ef objecive 10 de with vasious topics of ‘helicopter tnering with physical explanation which wil be osefl not ‘nb forthe sadeus of Acronautis but lo for those worlang, {the vation industcy aad other aeronautics) rexearch inainutes The book has been developed starting from basic ferodyeamice which ie Bnaly inked with the belcopter Serodymami. The Chaper of helicopter performance covers, ‘ations power reqirements takeoff and landing requirements Under Cangory A’ &'B operation, astrotatve capabilities of helicopter es, Other Topics like mabey and contol, Strctural requirements and tension system ave aro been ‘dace in illeene chapters. 1 hope tha dis book will (finely ll gap between the theoretical books and the tetng leratire on she sbje of belicopter engineeringTam exaumely grief to Shri MR. Sivaraman, Secretary even, Miniry of Finance, formerly Disease Genel of Civil Aviation, India wh ‘not oly inspired me to write thie book ‘but with is aviation experience aio comibuted asta dapter on ‘Air Salry Init of being busy on prestigious asignments inthe county, he has pared his valuable time'fo eding ech and every chapter of ths book igcqdhat without his ale guidaace I would not hve complied ei tsk, * Sed fly, 1995 at cape 2 “ FOREWORD. ea emremaly hoppy to write a oreword eo thisbook on Helicopter Eopeetcing for more han one reaoa. At 2 ie whe volo senting fs In bot orpescngt ted cx traupot, there a very few books arable on Trea ed jess wren by Indian exper It as ben “beldged thee Indi bas gor a age raereie of (ronniod scent and engineers working abroad in TMernaonally reputed companies and rexachetabshment Nevreles, we do aoe hive many books on aoasedl gern ight say cr sagaton and communication ‘Piten by ndansicors so mich, toda in engineering gg and ade ples wb ae wade rang ia the Strotsninngeablshens nthe counny nd ie tremely Ufcl to ge books cleat other waning. ‘aa now, in India, helicopters wee mostly sel by the defence force, vlan se of belcopter gir for Irarsporttion of pasenges or for goode watSelaivly ‘onknown, Aer the opening up ofthe sis for privteailine peraors a tumber of priate companies have. purchased Delcoeers for tamporsion of men and mitral to thee fois a plans located is Inia. There algo a eres tongs the North Ean Goveraents in sing hlicoprers a {beans of transporting pasengers fom ingrior agg 0 the {Baia nar cette. thatthe grote sin the ‘North Eat are connected by helicopters ute mat market centres in West Bengal, Asm op ia Bihar 6 with the {abalacion ofthe Indian economy, ee nesenary for people lhe regions lo to have acca tothe benef ofa growing Indian marke (Considered inthis content, there willbe interest shown by Indian students 0 speslive in Helicopter Engineering andalo tere wil be more plots who would ke to conver to Falicoperr or obtsin.helcoper licenses trom the rey beginning ‘This ot book writen by Shri Lae Gap ofthe Director Gene of Ci Aviation of indy oul ot are ome 1 morespprpraie tine. He as ender «pint ‘ko! goingshroughsncrnos Inert alate on this ‘bjt t presse ian nly sada orm, highly comple specs ang to coors ad in puter letcoperstrdyonmcs and lsper paformnce tam tre th book wil at only be weed in lta bu abe fide India by all dens of Arona Eagineeting and Fiaper ion (4. SIVARAMAN) Secrerary(Revens) Miniey of Finanes, Gove of India formerly Director General of Civil Aviation, lia vit ‘CONTENTS Preface Foreword Definitions (Chapter 1 ondamenal of Aecodynamics Invvoduction « Fundatnenals of Aifil Theory Theory of Lik Bousdary Layer «Reynolds [Number Separation - Drag - Parte Drag- Profile Diag, Skin Prision Drag - Presure Drag Imurfrene Drag = Indsced Drag ~ Wave Drag ~ Tal Drag - Lifting Ratio - Variables Affecting . Aetodynnic Coles: Plnfore- spec: Rais "Reyaclle Nusber = Mich Number ~ High Lit Devas» Sot = Skt - Boundary Layer Coateol Flips Aeedyaamie Momests "Aire Patching Moment = Effect of Caniber = Compresily Effsos "Airplane and Rotorcraft. Chapter 2 Rotoreraft Type & Systems “Types of Rotorcta - Autogyeo ~ Gyrodyne ~ Haleopter = Main Rotor Syrem = Festures of Fully ‘Asculatel Rotor System” Fetures of Seni Rigid Rotor Sytem ewes of Rigid Rotor System 1439 was‘contents “Trarsmision Syston «Main Rotor Tall Rotor Drive Sytem - Helicopter Comet Gallecive Pics Conte! - Cyclic Pitch Conte) ‘Ani Torque Pedals Throole Cosa, Drive yen Chapter 3 Hilcopter Aerodynamics Blade Twi Efer of Centre of Peesnure- Fores Action on the Min Rotor Blades in Retaios Natiton of Lift = Lit Disymmetry «Lace Flapping - Eff: of Flapping - Coriolis Forea ea Be Drag Hinge - Rotor Lif - Reason Tonge Comprenbilty Bess - Aiclow Tarouoh the Rotor- Teanltonal Lift Trawere Flow Gee Ground Eee, Chapter 4 “Helicopter Performance Power Requirement - Induced Foner - Profile Power - Parasite Power - Total Power = Elen ot Wind - Efex of High Deosiy ARule - Eff of Weight - Takeoff'and. Landing, Performance Cagory “A= Cagory "B= Category A Takeoff High Peformance “Takeofiy © Ca Neri Take ofl“ Cargory 8" Takes Coopers ‘8 Landing = Caggorr "AY Veral Lacie CCaepory "8° Landing Limiting Heigie Seiad Envelope (Deadman's Curve) - Autorotaion he Torgue Sytem Fallure ~ Soing Waly Fowen Lastations of Rotor RPM -Reting Bla oe sau ita Sey = ee aga SEY snd Anette Peet acta she Beez Sy ova Scie” Decne of ay Sn Rivage To, 2 Sed SiS Vaart nat Sa" Datos Ei) Sy ay Hong mas ‘Directional Stability - Stability Augmentation ‘Sysem Chaps 6 stength and Design Requirements ei te Ga esis 15129 sos‘contENTS Chapter 7 ‘Transmision System Spur Geis «Hic Gee - Bevel Gears - Hypoid poi Gears « Worm Gears Epicyclc or Planetary Gea Train + Pinion ~ Clutch Centifoga Cech Fricion or Bele Drive Catch - Freewheeling Unit Rotor Brake Tal Rotor Sytem. Chapeer 8 Weight and Boone ‘Weigh Limite - Cente of Gravity Lins fet of too far forward CG. Movement - El of 00 ar a CG. Movement - Weighing of Helicopter Loading of Ficcoper, Chapter 9 Air Satery References Index sie 102.166 rare wears vase DEFINITIONS Any roe blade or wing on 2 rotary-wing aiccralt ia horizontal motion, movinginto the relive wind A point on the chord of tid sbout which the moment focficient doer nok vary with Ui coofcene and ie commane forall angles of sack, An serodyzamie surface signed to obtain a reaion from the se through which it mover eg alleron, wing rier, devo, sore Blade, An angle beeween the slave ‘ind und the chord ne which represented by the symbol ‘An angle between 3 feed ‘efeeace surface andthe chord ofan ail which it Fepreeted by the sbArticulated Rotor Autorotation Ausiliny Rotor Arion Blade Loading HELICOPTER ENGINEERING A rororer wing design in thicket bale sited Foot vo alow the Unde to hang ply ead tad ag and Aap ete’ adda ot cohen ‘A rotor igh conn ia whi thing rotors dive ses by stn of the a owing speed though the ‘rotor disk. ms A rocor thet serves iter t0 countert the eet of the Iain rotor torque on a rotorea oto manocuvee the rororeratabout one or more of sth principal ates Horigomal_esucement in dune ceivan, fom 8 egee to 30) depres Horzoasl” dision “ats cell body om atc incon The unit load sind by he blades of a cetarywing siren, dleterminal by” dividing the toss weigh ofthe srr by the ft planfonn azen of rotor Hades, IONS stall ‘Twist xy Layer ted Airspeed “The condition occuring whan 4 totor blade opertes at an gle of stack grove than ¢ angle of manic i 1 The wie, or variation in the Bae angles a ‘lade usally so tha ce Bade ne deers toward hep Be A. deformation of a yowor Unde by unequl sr forces casing variation im the brn blade angle fom root A thin layer of uid dose to the mice of 2 body in moving stream. having Adscincive flow characteristics, ts a rent of fision between ‘Be id a che uae of the body Ik is the “inion sirpeed coreced for isto ern, postion error and. arom Sfluced hy scat aiade Measure of carvture of an sill which ie defined by the [aight Of the mean camber ine above or below the chord line, ‘Type low speed sie have 1 small postive camber of the fede of sour 3Induced Velocity Lag Angle [Laminar Flow Lealag Lead-Lag Hinge Leading Kage Radius ie HELICOPTER ENGINEERING ‘The downward air velocity fsecued inthe proven ef developing spracd ovr ik Wich s otary wing icra he angle between the pan ets of a rotor ‘blade ands ine Brough the ceatre of rotation sod the ead (deg) Hage A sooth Dow in which there so costow of id pares herween ajo trun Lean in an anclatedcotor System. Blade motion abou the vera hinge a the td root, A hing ocd the sick fein of ce ia rover bls wih We pepeate tie plas of hor conten, sich lows the Bade lead tod lp ving he sino ‘ad reteningeyseatce ros Teably hinge sas sown ar Alp hinge eis mearue ofthe cai of Component of the cetant secodynamic force highs Perpendicular t9 the live vind fe Coeticient Number in Rotor Camber ower Setilng [A cocfcent sepeseating the lie ef given sitll or any other bod Ratio of che velociy of aa tira andthe speed of sound ‘The oor that mpplee the prinpa ito a rorerent. [A Sine described inthe wave dng 155 LifeDrag Ratio ‘The Iiedrogsatio (L/D) it an important parameter since it directly deterines the pie, the erie and he fame tor lending spews and ls aes she ara performance ‘The reioncip besween the i and the dea is nostally ‘prevent by plot of the Eft confiient (C) andthe deg Chicane (C2) which s known or the dag polar. L/D ratio fan be determined deny from che dag pot 16. Vanisatss AFFECTING AERODYNAMIC COFFICIENTS 161 Planform ‘Their care slope andthe behaviour ofthe wing near the nall governed by the wing planform.. For ample, in tare of = Sighs wing, the sll is suddealy experienced ‘heres, a cae of 2 del wing or highly swept wing Tpprosh to sal is ganda (fer Fig 1). The sharp nose or SEE Tin wing or the further af position of the maxinnum {Hckans nd the tanker cauet carly spuation leading so fulden stall, The elle of the camber is 10 increase the ‘Srealaion around the wing leading to a incense in hei at Ml inceces.* HELICOPTER ENGINEERING FIG. 15 Stalt CHARACTERSMC oF WING PLANIORNS 62 Aspect Ratio ‘apes et which afc the aerodynamic coefficients defined asthe sao of the afoil span to the chord of @ righ srl. However all the wings are ot seigt with a tan chor. Therefore,» more pracl dafistion ofthe spec rtoapplisbleto any plnform e the rto of aque of "ving te othe wing span ‘Compared to an infinite span wing, wing with fice span doe ot develop the maximum pou it de tothe ip acs. For the mine angle of stack, the maim lit ficient roves withthe reduction inthe asp rto. A fction inthe asec ati resin the following (rer Fig % Reduced lift curve slope without change in zero lift ince Reduced ift/deag eto a al jncidenc. Reduction in (U/drap ati. Ince inthe saling ange Increned dag a every i coefficient Tncresed dag a all incidence, Tncrened induced dig, 43 Reynolds Number Fora gven aol, the elfex of Reynokis umber snes sgiean thigh lit coelGcens when appeoshing ling sgle of atk. For s given angle of aac, the in lift coef is obtained st the higher Reynolds os rele Fig. 1. ‘As the ange of arack ofthe aro increnses he loa locity inthe boundary layer ov the aol increases, Hence, ood Reynolds No inceues over the upper sure, The vein the velocy decreses the peture on the upper rice thu causing sareraiverepreare gradient onthe alt esion of he sir,2 HELICOPTER ENGINEERING The increased local Reynolds No. end the premuce alien cus ‘tanstion to the tibulenr Now” and the Spsition to occur lather forward on the wing "This forward movement proceed slowly atthe angle of stack is incre through moderate angles (ess than’ 8 to 10 depen) but fncrewes rapidly at high anges. ‘Thus for any given fee seam Reynols No, the dra incense slowly alo tls of atacand apy a higher angles ‘A irene in the fee stream Reynolds No, represents an incase in the energy ofthe flow. Besse ofthis atonal nergy, the boundary layer becomes thule farther fred ‘on the srface ad is ait rennin tached longer, epcaing nearer the tallng alge Since there i les spuraton, the Sift at» highes Cig and a ower tol dag, ‘The Reynold No. hae 2 get eft on the salig sped ofan aera. Any deers in Reynolés No. eases coreponding decree in Cing and st incre ia the aling ad 164 Mach Number ‘The Mach effects occur bec the airs acomprenble Aid, While the compeessiity ofthe airs nelle x low spends, it becomes sigafican and very importa at mpande Approaching Mach LO and above ‘As the velocity of the ai increas over an arf at low speeds there i a negligible change in he at deny, however at high speeds, 4 change in wlocy cae a ite stage in thea density. For enampl, at higher speods with Mach No. appreaching 10, a 10% ince in velocity cases shout 67 percent incre in the. demtty. Ty te sompresibiliy ofthe ir becomes siitcae asthe Mach No. lnceaes. Due tothe comprenliy eles, the lope of te Ii curve is abo a function ofthe Mach No, For = ea angle of aac, as che Mach No. is inereard the it coefien a Increer (ler Fig 18), FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS nse ABN EEG scene MAEM ( FIG, 18 Ervect oriqcrtNo, asst 012 HELICOPTER ENGINEERING However, this rend does act come indelintly beyond the eal Mach No, whoreshock waves begin to form on the aol suc. Ia ata superionic spede the rea is ‘eversed. The dag cole i ewe intend ithe high Speed fight however, chee flest ae teticed to spends {gone than the ciel Mach No. Ax constant cof, tore is ao incre inthe drag coeiciens atl the cit ‘Mach Noi exceded (fer Fig, 19), The, widen incre Jn the dap called the drag divergence it expvienced. This is ‘cased by formation of shock waver on thesia 7 an Lure Devices Manscoring, the slow speed flight sad the landing require high lft coetfisents Many of the low speed aitrat ave the maximum lif coefciets of the range of 12-14. In order to provide tel celcnts greater than the asitoumt lif coefficient of 2 gven ao ie erecntary to rcs the high Ki deve. Devies ofthis ype are te ls, ee lity the boundary layer contre and the flaps (bth leading and tesing edge) Bascllyinerssing the ito ao sii cam be comple by any or 4 combitation ofthe tree methods The fine would be to incteate the wing ar the cond would bet increase the camber of the wing snd the third woul he te delay the separation through de boundary layer come 17a Slo A sot isa boundary layer control device snc it kes the high energy si rom the lower surface of the ming sd dds i though the wing into the low energy boundary ayer fon the upper surface. Tn doings, edliys the seprsion sd Sllows the higher it coeficets to be develope er Fig 1.9). sor velaively selective low angles of sacks thet so tendency of separcion but becomes very efi high angles. Opession ofthe tines the sling angle by 1525 degrees, INDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS r— a 122 Specs on tse pipe ofthe sn xen a ich locned near te Teaing edge and represents 222 HELICOPTER ENGINEERING ‘dona sso infront ofthe bate sf. ts fuscton isto Aree the st Gow over the lading edge of the sifol The ‘movement of the slat cases a ight incre inthe waog ae 2s wel a an increase in the flow owe the upersuraee ae ing The satis held in a closed postion w low ages od sath by the presre on the lewing edge and strony pens a high anges of arack by tnetoe inthe paste Pressure ove the lt upper surfice, The leling ee sok ‘he Sats are primarily wed t preven the ip seligg. 173° Boundary Layer Control ‘The slots andthe slits ae the strodynamic means of affecting the boundary layer sortcl. "The bounds’ Ipee ontrol may aio be complished by anal ce vat owing air provided by acomprensr through the wing o Ly swing the low energy boundary layer threagh the sete the wing by che scion devi ler Fig 119, FIG. £10 Bounpany Laven Corot FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS 2 he aps provide inremed ik by increing che ember of the wing The inp fap shige ag ne tealing ede, Ina pli fp the waling eles lt wat ce the lover half being hinget This arrangemenr cous igh sg when th lps are lowered. Thi bette of hele ae na rloed fap, when the fap defected s der ‘opened up between the lp and the wing, Sine the mt blow: the wing at higher prese than the top. the ar Blows co the tp ad reenergbes the boundary lye and preven the SNA fowl fp incest the it by inceng the ffcive wing ates wall by increasing the cambr When ‘he lpi extnde, Towers nd rants a, ceo oceuree the wing aren andthe camber” Various tof the Magee shown in Fig 11 te oa os FIG, 111 Vanious TyeEs oF Fars oieHELICOPTER ENGINEERING fap is capable of producing 100% or more ‘maxim lit codices. A split Bap "may fo 800% incense while the slow aad the a, Gpto 6% increase. ‘There i abo a robiciog itt ve shicnesrchord ratio leading tothe ing sell He The slots, the ats and the aps afc the aerodynamic sheciarinis ofan airfol ashown insbe Fig Lie Becca ‘the slots the das andthe Boundary layer conol de ane ay the lift curve at low angle of stacks they only es ree the curve to higher lit colicin The Riga oe the nie bund ince the cabo thes, thus dying te eo, of sero lift and the picking moment of the Saceat as may ef of the laps ito silt the Lt care era sed tothe left in proportion tothe camber, with ta ees ‘he macimum lit confer. ee “| ee FIG. 1.12 Ereuct of Hic Lirt Devices FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS 36 18 Atoprwaanic Moments 1s addon to the aerodynamic lit aad the drag, an tira is ated upon by an trodynanic pichicg oot yrhich may be expesed in the soeficient forms coe ae Ui andthe drg coeficients. Since a moment defined oe force mes the perpendicular dance vo the elcome ron i necesary to include» uni of length, gone de aha Tenth 181 Acre Pitching Moment ‘he moments te crated on an ail by an seymuneti presaredivibuion over the sara oe ed and by the hfe vector. Summing moments about the leading see ofthe camberd ai 4 heute nictig ede cemsed en when thai i eae at ets seve ‘he vaiabes feng th peste dsibtion ge the sal of stk, te amber Sad he tae ee Tis fos of tickncs can be igeored since nsenan Ae thekoes ce ania oereae fr ae diibtion on the upper ash lower ne pace ‘0 that theres no oa sontbuson te te meee The sole of aac alec the momen oan ae isely. When ange of auch of seRecpeec ae isin, the lif increas mad the mosen eena ‘Sosant Hence the toed omen on te at a ‘The moment ar is cnmast sn or sual aps chee the centre of premue remain saioary mabe ah length bt the aig edge ons erent fo For amber aah th cee of prs eon et conan’ bir mve oredr the ent stack th afloting he pching moment by nee ae momenta betwen he fresco ae oR elo tal) ad the dig cp6 HELICOPTER ENGINEERING In eof cambered aii a ero lift alate sun of the pressure forces pependicale to the relive wind 20, however. the pressure dsribrion i ich thas the sum ofthe ‘The’ symmecicl sicoil_has ao camber and consequerly produces 80 moments at 210 lit snes the ‘only moments cate ae shore dae tothe angle of ack The wtal moment on saber ail the sum of sone deta de caer adhe omens eo he ne 182 Effect of Camber The posiive camber cass a negative monn on an siroil and incening. che camber incense. tis agave moment. Lowering ofthe Dap ines the camber ean Airflland, therefore, creates a more neptive moment, The fips increase he rations ton an sf and als ere ‘more aegave moment ca the sri The efleted wing tends to redace the effects ofthe camber by centing» down lad ‘mar the traling edge of the wing. I enough reflex incorporated in ving either by an upward monng conl Sure ov «fed elle, the negative pcg moment de the camber can be completly avepowerd, 19 Comonessmry Erexcrs Atlow spend the sillow i ncompresble eth aie experince changes in Peesere wth only pogigible change in the density. However, a high speeds, the aie experiences hangs in presure slang with signet change in density which is refered oa the compressibility effecs. The ‘compreniby effet are predominant i igh speed sso, transi, and supersonic flow regions." Although the compressibility efecs ate sigan, the principal ilerence beeween the high seal sebronie the tratsonic andthe supersonic How is thatthe loc nosy over the surface FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS x. remains slow the lca sped of sound ia the high speed Sabsoaic dw, sles than or egual vo or greater than the Toe ‘peed of sound inthe trantonic dow andi always eter than the lea speed of sound inthe superoaic low. Ths, the ompresible fw is governed by sigaicane changer in the density. Whereas, the convergence of the flow cite sealezation ofthe incompresibl low but desertion ofthe Comprenble ow, the divergnce of the Dow on the other hand cases decdersion of the secomprenible Now but sxodkastion ofthe compres ow. "When an sf is plac’ in mbsonic Now dhe loc velociyy on the surface incon otha some lotion i sore thn the fee steam velocity shireby experiencing the ‘ompresiblity effec. The ee steam Mach No. a which the Toc soni flow occur onthe sal surface known tthe Conic Mach’ No. which defines the lower limit of the ‘wansonic low. When the re rrem Mach No. more than the Catal Mack No, evidence of lorl spi ow (person) “over the aif marie is followed by the formation ofthe shockwave which sets a boundary betwee the mperionie tnd the sabsonic ows Due wo the compres ffs, thee is a masked incre in the dag cooler foe 2 given Lit octet and deen in theif eonicent for» given ange of atack, Wing fection with low thickner/chord io. with maviman thieknes point wel a small leading edge ads ora mater of fat shag lending edge, symmetrical soil, te. help to Increse the Crvel Mach No, thereby reducing the deg. The sweptback wings with Low apet ratio abo bp wo reduce the drag by increasing the ergeal Mack No.” Altougy this tcotbiation esl in on incrensed Coed Mach Newt ies Fhe toinred induced cag at high incidence Farr the sreptback wing: tend to all pear he tips due toa high sale fecal il coufces near the tips andthe cutward ding ifthe boundary layer,28 HELICOPTER ENGINEERING 110 Ammave ANo Roroncaarr From ho loging dit can Beco Gos sy vig tans, Se pwr ges earth Sa orm oma! Sia wilciyak Wis areyac aes crc {othe weg ofan scaly ch persis koe Sank hy. arg tel ir voc [oval byt engin ower ong Toay ving ara this elacey provid bythe rownon ol terror ven by fhe cir wi el aig sora ote fain Geyser howl spotdedby tn reekog eae ‘SRG wing ced the rotary winger Te peat engin a sy wing ary Gch ctr ade si ie wing of a) pie hk ne ‘oyun Tl sos mt oreo he ee ‘herp af ge evlo Like ang te ror Us SRG er bre ine et nora the pom may eh he Biden be cee {pute apes ais SET nate wh rota de we done o pete bor oneal he ting tal th pcg momma, Aries of en ‘ponte bah tend ad tery cag erate UD raiohwhsh ts dine meme afc foecco ee perma The move the UD ras ete ooh op pty of de aes “Tefal direns between Ge ote adeand ‘he na wing eh san af tea BS Sletten acd Syms pes !tghbourng ston "Thr Bade fd wcton egenences ‘fami eto int my peice aot ee topo of suc ase n't el agar whee Gir in be ane by sig hgh does ey ek wiley done ret ce cdr ae Et ak Spemerorera vay lini anpelrage Alogi ee FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS » wing state considered a bea show Bying machine as Tomar wo an arplan ye she rotor Hae ny experience, {he tomprembiy ts doe raved hgh wlocy of totr ope sam up, the nerdy ofthe cota wing and the Sized wing snare the toe Boh os qo proce Ih boi ue subjected to the four halanentl foes mana heli dhe ngs the weigh and the gi ocr, tr igh arcs of the retry wing eral fer ly et tow of th aed wig aaa ees Sepa decaon which ek wae separely in the [Blowing duperCHAPTER 2 ROTORCRAFT : TYPE & SYSTEMS 21 Tyess oF Rovoncnart Airplanes nein dren wing heavierthase sca that esappored in igh by the Uys ection of their pint its tig The forward veloc proved bp ‘# cagie, however in cise of copier he wlohy Provided by a otsing rotor which driven by an cage Ay Stel excl the dference brween srr bade ands aed wing, ie thet cach secon of ror ble expen a ‘enti atwnt pet dees nations te ‘Brealy a rotrcat an aera whch in ts ad Alig aides sppored in che as wBely ot pay te ‘ots rotating abou + vend acs Polosigg we he tort ype 21 __Atogym ‘Avtogyro i an sirrat driven loogiudially by ‘convertion propeler and sanained veal by "an powered main rotor mounted above the, huelge, Thos forward mosionis provided by the engine, The rote is ee on is shaft and rotues under the acon of relive wind, ‘Alogyro is ot capable of vsti or hovering gh 212 Gyrodyne Gyrodyne is 2 rotorenle whose rotors are normally éegine driven for takeoff, hovering, landing and lorwan ighe through parc ofits sped range, and whove meats of propulsion 'sby conventional propellers iadpendent ofthe over ystems SOTORCRAFT TYRE & SYSTEMS e hus incase of gyrodyne, oes powered. Forward motion provided by th togine and Lit is provided by rotor. fodyne pl of veri ight Se ee power Rawr pide both It nd fe MAIN RoroK Syste ‘Tree ae thre type of main rorr systems: i ccc ors i SER coor i, Rigdetort Min Rotor ‘| Risid a 2 one Fear 3 NoDme Dagcrnodeing =) Paster Ante Rotor Semi Rid sp coly (i lds ad fb are fad topes sd fap enya ok]e HELICOPTER ENGINEERING 221 Features of the Fully Articulated Rotor Sytem 2, Generly consis of thre or more soe Be Page fata acd ee sr bb bya hen Hoge (sping hing). Each Made mover vp sl dena Independety of oer ° Sy aon of the Mapping hinge is sla lasing in ew subiliy sod conta) hoe ith Mae is ached vo the ub by avec hinge (Gen eg hinge). Each Bade moves back od rk, the plan of the rotor dic indepenterly sf ots Ontos ofthe dag Hinge eel eo cond anpers a icorporatd inthe design of his pp of {oto o prevent excesive motion abou he fay ane 2 pf ttPO of the drag hinge and the danger absorb ‘cerstion aa dexceration ofthe rotor bial cauad Gy 1 Eas Bae an be feared about the span sit (Gesterng a) 222 Features of Semi Rigid Rotor Sytem 2) Consists of emo rotor Bader 5) Rotor bade are rigidly ached to the hub, © Hob andthe blader ae fe wo fap ee Hubs testo ue with pec tothe sve cha, 223 Features of Rigid Rotor Sytem 2), lado, hub and mas ate Hp with respect x exch 8) The ie no Seping hing, no inane ead ‘hinges and no dampers. “ eS e 3D oly taped mevon perma sade eatrng ® provide callane daca fORCRAFT ‘TYPE & SYSTEMS, a TRANSMISSION SYSTEM Pema eye pore to he wai the tl othe generator and eter setsris, Mow Rorox Davesvarat : Main sor dive ysem, provides the means of siting power romengite oma oto, The man tar ire aye contin of terion in Yt ea the rv hfe an the kecobeding sly S Tan Rorox Dave sistiat Tal rotor drive system provider the meses of smiting power from the wansmision to the tail rotor tall oto deve system broadly includes he ail ovr rive andthe al rotor pa Bow Huricorren ContRois Four main basic conteols of he heliopter are i. Calleaive pitch contol 4. Cyehe pth con “som Ui, Ansitorque peal for drsional contol jw Throtle conta 61 Callesing Pitch Consat Ti ant nto een yn sheanonntalsigun he ttrpradaes Cobesoe pk fa eked Oe at as goa eke isc pc on lonan on Bel nke Tc ce reat oft ie real pal Sg salts wa oor nis heey eee Shaders = *ChagePich angle of he or Hae cage sng of tia of oct bn tery changing te Seno ‘Sr Andon it pe stk odethe flowing 2) Tarte in deg 8) Decree arte pa, 9) Decree caine (On the other Band, dares jis the oppo een Since dering th igh, the pn shold ren {2 sompenate for change in dg aes te propoional which = alas by nee tivo conical cm Loge” Ts “aac he power we the clleie increase he roar if ad in the angle of tack bas 262 Cyl Pitch Control The cyl system conls the dcection of the shea by casing the rotor dis to alt wid reper pone sponte 0 the movement ofthe cyclic ee The ec ich & Tocated on the righ hand side of the plot. The Power abvays tls i the direction the gle ick fs daphne Se ‘gph contol basally cones the horinantl sevens ofthe icopr. ‘With the moveient of che eye eke seasol linkages act on s swash place whieh nat folowing two pans: EEE + aga Tt MOR aKng lower pare atached to the control linkages fom the cocky. i 1B ONG per pat which follows the motion of ontotating swash plate trough beng, The swash pla is fee to tk in any drction about 3 spheralbeing. The mexion strane rom te coeng swath plat tothe pitch horn on eae blade whch lang in the pitch of Blader shout the feathering wa Antisorque Pedals AAntitorgue pedals ae Ios ia font ‘tached tothe pitch change mechan inthe eal 263 They ate rotor gee HELICOPTER ENGINEERING TORCRAFY 1 & YSTEMS e wage te teh inks, pris he pots ge rn oft or Sa." man ion of ied cote to comet ce rg fhe man tr dng ih co cnmlie gf iptr sing srg ite eee eter nenanatpeanen ts Seana rotor has high positive pitch angle. The thrust produced by “Throttle Control “Th funn ofthe chro contol ito elite re. he ao ot nh nen en fle ps lnc. Thos one col ie Elncive pitch sbroug the ealcive pce synchronisation wnt Any chang inthe alse pc, the pm wil be maintained constant A locks sovemen of the rod onl incre he ren sd ceva 64CHAPTER 5 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS “is ost for of the copter provides lit and lows the forward fight, Theil tor coments dt ‘Gir raston torque and allows ara sorrel show ae i smin rotor comprises ofthe following pa Q Rotor ate den by te pours te 8) vor heal which js the secs thal and bled, ad wis fee Hades. "The blader are hinge ee otoe Repl nhich penis blade motion in the vend the eet sd the longiind plane 7 32 mn of the main Foor Blade a a SET soe pel “The cieumferenid pete ot Bde sevon wll thea vary withthe dance of fis from the centre of rosin, At any blade ooeeenean es om, the ‘centre “af rotation the He icmbeenal ped willbe U = onda tht he Ha ‘ssn ering in araive wind of Yao Rear tp ‘At ay spe of stack, the Bade Seon goa Hrotmanis load which ‘cat be tacled woth eed fanzonaly to give lif and dea, perpenicla Sed sect the lative win especialy cer Pe 93 Jc. 3.1 VARIATION OF BLADE CIRCUMFERENTIAL $880) ce Pio. 322Torat LIFT AND DaAC oF BLADE« HELICOPTER ENGINEERING ‘The rans of he sectional if and he dra oad of the blade sections ata he sete of pressure of te Bade to five the bade roa lit and For mitre Has, the centre of pressure acted a dinanee of 97K fromthe entre of rotation and 25% of chord from the leading edge (Rede Fg 33). Fic. 33 A Trricat BLADE PLaNFOn Since the rats of rotation incre frm the rot to the tip, it ress inthe intents ofthe blade crcumfcec speed or the elatve speed. The incre in the relative speed {ig tara cests inthe incense of iad dig from root ip eto increase init and dap forces the entre of premures located near the blade ip which ress in exces beng ‘moments atthe root end rer Fig 3.4). 33° Buape wise a onder to have moe dinsibuion of loads and to hae seduced Bending mementeat the coot end the blades ae twisted about ther fougitainal ais The mgle of stack kept more nae che root, where relative veloc) Vy i kms ‘teres gradualy fom roto tip. Thi enue n gral ‘eduton in oth li and ding, IBLICOPTER AERODYNAMICS e Fro. 34 Ereucr oF ReLative VELocrry (Vj) VARIATION Since madd loud dinsbution resus inthe shift of ceovre of pretreat the centre of rotation tress in heen in the beading momenta che root end (Refer Fig 35). 34 ERECT oF Cente or PRESSURE Tnaldition to sift of cea of prestorealoog the spn of the blade sie slong the chord of sol ao. A stated tui, ne fm rf th ene of pee iced and lies ot ditace of O7R frm te entre of rotation slong the span and a 25% of chord length from the leading edge also coincides withthe aerodymumic centre and the fencing an, However, in ce ofa canbered sro, the Towson of he centre of prsrre ir variable. With the increase in he renltae srodyanse fore the centeof pressure shifts erward casing novesp moment which tends to incest the tng of stacks vie vrs (Reler Fg. 3.8) ‘Due to this disdvaneage, the main coor blades ofthe eticopte are normally made of symmetrical sito seaions.HELICOPTER ENGINEERING HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS » iG. EFFECT OF BLADE Twr ON Lier DsrRBUTION io. 46 EFFECT OF CENTRE OF PRESURE CHANGE 35° Fonces ACTING ON THE MAIN ROTOR BLADES IN RovaTIon ‘A mu rotor blade i ubjaza to the following forces any time ia ssa 3) the ceil force, 5 abel, <)tteown weigh, and the aerating ine forces (coils forces) As compazed to te own weight theater forces which acon the Made aeof very high amplizade Rel Fig 37). In tera the ential fore is about 2525 times te lit force. “The liftforceprodaces an upward beading moment tthe root fend and to ince shi the blader are Mage in the vertical plan. ie permis the Bade motion i the veil plane undez {he action ofresan of lilt ad envfuga fore. The vertical tpoton stops when the line of action ofthe resent aoog the blade ai at whch sage the bending moment zero. The tage which the blade ace shes withthe Borizontal when the ‘ehding momene i bere ir releced to a0 the coning angle (Refer Big 38).36 a HELICOPTER ENGINEERING ic. 38 Conc A Vanianion oF Lire Main torr lit isgovena by the following for: The blade pitch controlled by the plot. HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS 3 1b) “The forward sped» the incre in sped incre the lik, The plot has to maintain «high pich seg while hovering tan in the forward fight )lncese inthe aitude and/or the temperscre resus decree of ik, Therefore, to maintain «conwen ie= crened altade and/or temperature, pitch has tobe increased Since the lif is always perpeniclar to the tors plae of roruion, aay tiking ofthe rotor plane res in he Ticination oft which will have two components namely the ‘vertical lit force andthe propulsive free which causes the Forward ight ‘Dae to tho tle ofthe lif vector, the helicopter ill asin a nose down stizde. This is due to the moment reed by the Lif owe ir centre of gravity tl the line of ston of ch it force pats through the cents of gravity For any given vale ofthe it fore sng ofthe roe plane sens ine seduction inthe veal lif force nding thar wantion to forward fight rel in Tom of alirade Therefore, 10 maintain aude the pil has to incense the pitch in proportion o the dgee of ult 37 Laer DissmMETRY Lift dieymnmery ir caeporied in the Flowing two forms: 5) Nawrl disymmewry due wo variation in the relative rind velocity which is compensated bythe blade Dapping B) Cyetc pth variation diseymamatey ett BY he poeta six the rotor plane revuling inthe change of ight firection ax desice bythe ple. ns hovering fight since the blades rotates constant angular speedy the blade tip speed ramais constant many postion which sql to she relive velocity ofa Rela Fig, 39) Therefor, U = Vy = ak“ HELICOPTER ENGINEERING ig. 39 BLADE Ler Hows ‘The velocity dssibuion over the blade i eit in terms ofthe tipspeed ratio which isthe aio of the forward Pec th tp sp in nes The ipspeed ratio ring ds Deseo ane iy the ae it be ho conta fora en ph ag The ren: HE ‘herr a athe four fronts u “oweve nthe foresight ae ip pedi seid with he fowar sec. “fe save eee a at willbe equate ave ip pend which ea de Tia mh When the Had vas inthe aco the slasee Bld tip sped incon tnd wheat rave the ‘aie Dlae pape dower: In fra fig te Sp {COPTER AERODYNAMICS 8 rod ri varies fom 0.30 t0 045. The tipapeed rao 030 cis tha the blade over the ase and the eal ve the eae lacy dseibution ain hover but the reteting blade pis roving 0% slower and abvancng ble tp 30% fer ‘Consider the elicopter in forward igh, it ca be oun that © and 180" in the seit, the rea blade tip spsd, Uy fs the same value, However, when the blade teat, te spend U; sas decceing sod hs the imam ue when the Bade ie at 90. There, star ncresing end ceaches a maim value a 270 Refer Fig. 3.10, “Thr spood rarition cates variation inthe blade Hie sig niin a 92" and naira at 270 in the asic However, the mapatades ofthe blade ita O° and 180° ae the me. The rotor lif, therfore sete at a point sway from the emis of rotation towards the advancing blade side. Hf the bles ae gi in the Mapping plane versal plan) his lit arition crete isyramety ae generates rling momeat shout the centre of rotation therby causing he ting ofthe ror (Ree Fg 3.1) Fie. 330 Vg Forwaro Fushi6 HELICOPTER ENGINEERING Fie. 3.1 CYCUC VAATION OF BLADE Litr Tae ong moment increas wth he ince in he fore peda te helcope Ths meet ea ee litvaaton mt she nena ore a Force fe ir seg inte sa place, be oe ct will be subjected to a large bending moment wich wil eae with te fread teed Ge eo itemsed i natn te varon ef fn so les the same blade to be subj to aerating se eter Fig 313, 1g. 3:32 DSTRIBUTION OF STRESSES ON BLADES 1 the rotor is aeuaed in che vorcl plan, the lates wil move nthe verucl ple under che action ofthe revltnt of the Lit and the cera frees. The verte tmotion will top when the ine of ston of the cela ie Along the lade ai thereby calling the bending moment t the Bade ror end ‘Duet appa ofthe rotor blade inthe verti plans, the Bade pitch varies aucomatially herby compensating for lateral Ke disymmetey. The rotor blades when sbjeted 12 Fic variion saute» gyroscope. Sine the retaton at of [temps i fee to move inal directions, due to prance af fytomopic ines forces, the effct or counter Fesson i ways felt 90" afer the action or the cause The sme prosopic pring is applicable tote oter lads which are Eset move inthe verte plane thureby moving the lit ddesibation nl compenting for the laura ie dssyramety “Thus ate pnt of anna elacive peed which also the point of masimam pica angle (cut) the Lk (les) i not fbusimim fe musimum ata point 90° beyond the pat of" HELICOPTER ENGINEERING ‘maximum relative sped. Since the Hades re fe to moe in the vera plane, the point ofthe maximum kf commends {9 the marimum blale se or the maximums Aapany sole, ‘Tarefore, the bade follows arising tajtory fe the po of maria relative speed (ler Fig. 13) Flo 313 BLADE FLAPPING 4s dissed eae, since the sltive velocity is the ‘iim a 99° andthe maximon 276 inthe sri de (© gyroxopic ele, the blade will i to is mani ae #0" and minimum value a 180, Thereore, when the blade ‘etre ftom 0° to 180" the blade follows a decrnding Kesezory during which the angle of attack of whe inde ‘pore, When the blade avance fro 189° to 340 the bake follows arising rjecory during wach the angle of tack of ‘ae as a lester value. In one complete revolution, che gle of sack of the blade is maximum a 99° (where Ugeis ‘minimn) and minimum st 279 (where Uy vost). The Apping motion stops when the line of ation ofthe rerskane ofthe lt and the centrifugal fore acts along the blade ie (fer Fig. 39). HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS ss cafpe—* pri io. 3.14-TRATECTORY OF BLADES SUBJECTED TO LATERAL LIFT VARIATION Icy eon sh hae of ak of th ade nd xin topo resionn Te nee inh ae of ck of he ade sac with th decree Us 26 Sie eT lis of he angle of rack an Up von on voter called in one comple sevoion tah lng the Incl doy (eer F319), The bate flapping vei ange of atack inthe azimt in Fg. 346.vasavig 9r¢-0u4 [HELICOPTER ENGINEERING Flo, 218 Enrtct oF Fuappna ow Bape Pcta [HELICOPTER ENGINEERING 58 Lares Fave In addition tothe fore and the af lapping ofthe rotor Hades, duc to unequal veloiy distribution, with the forward ‘motion ofthe helcopty, the rotor has tendeney to ap lately aso. Ths is again asbted wo the apmmecic lows ‘ve the nose andthe tal of the helicopter due to the soning tfc. The coning eautes the blade over te nove tobe alfeted by an upward component of the forward veloty. This asymmetry ofthe verte! velocity produce arynmety of the ange of wack and sioad diibuion which cases the ‘masimum cespanse 9% ler due tothe gyroscopic prciion This resus i ata Raping which is snaimeme upward on rereating side, 39 ERRicr oF Fuaremc i, lapping ofthe rotor blader occurs due to changes in ‘he fight condicons wih the pilot not giving any comol input iis refered to as the sablity characterise, However, if the Mapping resuks due to the plot control inno, iti ‘refered 1.26 the contol curser. Ta both the above ‘ass, the elec is primary fle 5a moment shut the ceae St pity. This moment eles roma thet ofthe asa rotor li eco ii, “During hover, when the rotor shaft i ted the stcodynamicfovces generated will au ing ofthe tp path Plane perpendicale tothe sa, Sine the feheving of the ‘otor blades is with respect to the rotor sha, the angle of sssck onthe advancing side incene and on the eteating side ecrenes de to the rotor uh backward. Ay change inthe angle of ata causes the rotor to fap til the rotor plane perpendicular tothe shaft where wil bein eguibam with the constant angle of aac inthe aeimuth andthe moment wl be baled ii, During the forward fight of the helicopter, when sudden nose up condition is expecencey the aunedine fl HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS 8 isthe same ain over nce in the ange of tack on the atvancing side and dereue in the tale of arack om the ering side casing Deping of the Hace to overcome the Hibaanced condition: Although the sprig con core the Jip path plne toe perpenila wo the Sa dhe to te Horward moon of ike teicopey tie forces, semsin imac. This duo he athe the oeward noon of ke heepter moe both the ltl veloc and the lol gle of stack once advancg sd he rresng sae. Te Bader om the advancing ard the setenting side have pose tangle of ack wil che reread having apr age than the advanig de however the ikon Un seeeaan es at compared to the advancing de beense ae Lit signal tothe produc of he gle of tack ade ear ofthe fnaat clecy Ar area of ths theo aps pox the postion pererdclar to the rotor dak peo farther ses up postion where the fore ie anced wt he fmupatode of ererave Tapping which proporiond te the ese of the forwstd spec Tiss the Soreordct f the rotor produc the now up pitching moment ik ree to become of granny ofthe aioe fr The lung of the ovr tn inthe forward ight ao sks in ie incre of lee flapping, ‘Duro the Se op the rotor linear thus reuing in inne of she stopping which also propor the ne of the art ped “The rotor upping wl slo reals devo the pitching the lingo the Reaper a ret of gst othe poss pet The Bapping cle wil en vo rade the rae he chor the roll ‘Tha ed othe fact ta th ik of oe ip Gh plane lage eid te wotion ofthe rote shat by a Cunt proporiond so he reo the pico the “Fhe amount of fpping du fo she cg in the ward pedir approximatly proporona to the prod of forward spec sed the sotr ks The chage in the6 HELICOPTER ENGINEERING Joagindil Mapping wich inecene in pd contributes tothe Sone sy Ine pene te ay eae somes ng ete pach epandee ae etgil ToeRpigS do e ‘el tac eigen chy diets ne ee inthe aamath. ae a Si ping ees rei he ord di Sad connie peat ad Sed co crazed mes coin aren chee el ‘kerata whle te fend el a ae te ‘Bevo oi il Spinal dea a specs ted tal Ging est spomeny es distribution. a 7 oa wi ping a isd 0 cage ia the Shain ao Bante aS frvad tina bc the direction of fligh: changes without any change in the ‘nacagebewting or omuol postion ths sansog the Eeoep fe ‘move to the righ; the blade over the tail becomes the advancing blade and thar over the nose the ‘retreating blade The sync ie wince te ror ay down cee oe he ‘ei pon he i cr oe hee TSEC olin moe ingen io acomptid ye pchig nema ke ee as dering the easinnadcatlainese ceoeae be Bich Kil slow ick cing sore eee ae Se sn thsty Prodan ie mt aw as moms The fs wil be the nee a ae fe eke thee Thus asec sidalip in ier dietion requis the mene cet {ii sin th Cleve pitch nh forwnd fghe ai els Hpi “a iene me cee oe feats in ee le cect tle nite advacogaod te recening ee loweves dete Siler earth ang Set ik polo HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS « advancing side is more as compared to that nthe eeteating ‘de Uns eesulkng in the aoe ap Hopping 10 Conlous Forces AND mz Dac HINGE Daring the flapping motion ofthe bade, the crclar sjctory of any blade emer changes de tothe change in ts radius. When the bade fellows the ringtecory, the ras ofthe Bade lemeat dees advice vers which has lcs ons tangential veloc sine its recy proportional tothe ras. However, de to ine the lade leat es fo maisain its intial tangential veloc daring the change in esjetory. Since che Made clemene is rigidly ataced 10 the blade andthe rotor which i rouig at conan angular locity, the angular velocity of the blade element cannot ange. The ine force which wend to change the angular loaty due to increa/decresie ia the rads, thereore, sot act asa dynamic force, I ats a «sate force which sence Bering momant atthe oot ia the plane of Since the advancing bad follows ising rsiatory, the plus of any blade element decenes. Due to thi the incre ore which teas o increase the angular veloity” atin the resion of the motion, On she other hand, the retzexing inde follow a descending trecory and the radia of Sade Henentincrenes due to which the inertia force tending To ras the angular velocity ac in the diction opposite to dreion ofthe motion (Refer Fig. 3.17) "Thus in one complete zeolution, the rotor blades ae bese to alraating acess the root The sherating ria forces caused by the venial Aapping of the blader hich act on it in she plane of rotion re clled Cocos Fores ale ig 318).FER ENGINEERING HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS Flo. .17 Enricr of FLAPPING ON BLADE ELEMENT TANGENTIAL Vinocrry Neer # ae 1.3.18 EFFECT OF VARIATION OF "U" DUE To FLAPRINGee -MELICOPTER ENGINEERING ‘The Coriolis ores ae overcome by providing a dng binge inthe plane of rottion which permits scan oft rotor blades in the plane of roution theahy canalling the fic of eovois forces. When the blade advance, the crea force actin the forward drecion andthe Dla ola inthe forward diceaion, Similariy, when the blade retry the incr foree acs ia the direction paste tothe dizetion of rotation and the Made orcllace towards the sea The ‘tillatry motion nop when the elas of the fn force Ful fe pas hroigh th dg He Fig 33 Fic. 3.19 RANGE OF Dang Oscu:aTiON The drag inn fore can be redused by comtolling ‘he lapping motion ofthe rotor blades. This can be achieved by providing cicher = Keoupling or a pitchchange ever coatolled by the poe The arangeeatn which the Happng > snot perpeniclarto the blade longitudinal as bat et ‘an angle i called a Keoupling, When the Bade tse, the Pitch or the angle of sack decrees which roles he blade | HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS 6 ie and consequent Bade sse or the spping, hie de to the fac chat when the Bade ree, the irik ete forward thereby desreing the pitch angle. Normally the pitch arm from the blade i stashed 9° ahead of (Refer Fig. 320), " y Na & | ty ae NK NS rane he iG. 320 A TYPICAL FULLY ARTICULATED ROTOR SYSTEM,7 [HELICOPTER ENGINEERING Al Rotor Ler ‘The rotr lit canbe consol by the following reo aoe 5" Amplitude of the rotor lit is comllad by the colleive pitch vation ii "Directions control of the rotor ii achieved by the je pach varision ‘When he collie pitch is varied, the itch angle on all he 10 Made change By the same amount epee their postion. Due to the change in the pitch angle, the ‘nagaitude ofthe rotor lit varies, however, hat no eet on the direction. ‘The variation ia the mapntade of the ror Lit Prmanly helps in comolling the altade ofthe helicopter (ler Fg. 823. Yas FR. 3.21 Couzerve Pci: Vauaniow HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS ns Daring the directional control ofthe rotor li the sagle of amark varintion i produced by the cyclic pitch ‘ation which may be applid in. any direction by the ‘controled ia af the swash ple. The Blades wll ap asin ‘he ese ofthe erie drymmery 20a to equals te it Uisbuton on the advancing andthe etesting sides ofthe ‘las. The eye pitch aviation cases the tlking of the Foution plans, however cha a eet on the magico of ‘the rotor it Reer Fig 3.2) Fic. 3:22 GYCUC PITH VARIATION In one compte elation, when she bla Mapping is experienced, the Blade res acompanied by a decree inthe eagle of tack and vce vera, The rotor it wil remain essen andthe cyclic Lit variation, which is present for = Shor daraton, rere in the wit of swath plate The eis pth varton i symmerrial in bo the pposiceatnnh porsions, I aay particular portion, +” HELICOPTER ENGINEERING itis lower by some amoust, the opposite poise inthe wioach is ese by the same amount. Therefore, the pte. increse will be equal tothe pitcndeceae at the opposite postions. For example, when the pitch incre ets the ‘miaimom value (0) to the masimum value (70) a 180 ge 260 the cis pitch variaon har no elle At these two locations, he blades wll have the inital coletive pitch vue (Rede Fig 323). ‘When the swash ple iste abou the transvere ais, ‘jcc variations about the fre and the aft aus takes place ‘When the swash plate is ted about the fre and the as, "he yi variation nthe lateral direction takes place Blade pitch and rie during the sit of woh plate about ‘waneverie and fore and af ars at explained inthe Fig, 3.2 M2 RExcnon Tonave ‘When the main rotor rotate, the haioptr fueage Palle ina diretion oppose to that ofthe rower by» teation ‘orgue which i equal and appesteto th engine torque, The fone tat compensstes forthe tongue and heaps the feadage from waning inthe diresion oppose tothe main Foor ie prodaced by means of «tal rotor or an amtongee totee loosed atthe end ofthe val boc. The tal rotor profs Ure in the direction ‘oppouie'to the tongs eanice developed by th sain ceror Like che main oto, che el rotor is also driven by the ‘opine snd rotates in the versie plane. ‘The trae prodecel bythe eal roar ace the orzo plane, The wil ror comprises she pith hinge for controlling the maghivade of the tl rotor that by calecive varying of the lide pitch. “Tk also incorporate the fap Hage ‘compensate for the aymmerial yond lacs Peemers the advancing andthe rereating Hades soda K-eouplig wo dice the eet of the blade apping is, 323 Tit OF ROTOR PLANE WITH CYCLIC VARIATION” HELICOPTER ENGINEERING When the main rotors ate driven by the coping, the Bitch of the tail rotor Made i adjusted 50 thar en ‘roduced by i becomes equal tothe reacton wore cts ‘usin rotor, This conto is achieved when the sons Brodaced by teal rotor drs bout the cee of reat {he lcopter brome qual othe ration tong Rae ky 328, Wil blancng the main rotor acon tore, one tional fore ac at he cnee af gravity a he foc ih maga gual othe al ror true hick et side dif of th lope. This ue tote Senha analyse tbe eff of tal ctr thru, ts powsbne ee frome erro ray two rea whi wee sd pari othe al rear thru so that al shee oes are equa The rerltatofthe foray in hs ens seg a entre of gavity wll be ae which means te ae psa act euvaest. "Therefore, in or an one fone Becomes eq to a torque and’ a forces Tesco compensates he min rotor econ torque snd he rs to di the hebcopte Rie ig 3.29) “The dif cancelled 4 tikng the rotation plane ro such an eat that the side ore so etted bent ao the al stor tras, The rotation planes ed by teed ‘7c vrion which can be adcwelasomaaly be flowing ewe wa: i ecgB Providing kin the main coor sein the divecsion opposite 1 tht ofthe tal rotor thers ii Dy Providing oer ine cack Soh he swath ite has 2 aight ul 0 eompemste forthe tal sea ee, it the ei sick in era ponon under che oraal Be condos HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS Th Fig. 325 EFFECT OF TAIL ROTOR THRUST1” NELICOPTER ENGINEERING “he main seo te compen for Aatcoptes, ut athe two fro are an oer ihe ecu ‘Produce ede oul the helper Hower, hs ees of the blip is rece by tasing te ses of oe theta sor which ede the romen ars Re ago With the cing nthe caltve ph the Sacoy ‘ore ofthe min rotor changes scoragy Theo ie tall oxo thr and the min rotor a to ope ee heioper dl) ould be ae to hap the bleep ee inche se diecion or bana! shout yer sts Tse sched by either moving te potas normaly oo mecthee ‘in rotor clever pch coupling The Leeks roving the erpling is ht ra gen pd pose wp shang it the clive pc prods ike heise sain rotor an the al oor pc Th he al eer ty somatic balancer the aa rotor hacen ergs For somatic competion o the heer dif Incr oriccallcive ph coupings wel The see aye sck postion ay alte pac varaion ml ge the iselinton ofthe aah ple to bance the a anu io. 336 CANCELLATION OF Dar HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS ny Dine cps nscye = FIG, 3.2 CANCRLLATION OF DIF Fe Seedy igh oy ofthe hloptr ror is sly onthe acing nie dig «ith seed ih Say proce compey sian ice ch Mit Number ver tbe ile ain of we ‘low sped hear Seren cay fomctee Fictnas stead & aeomprate Bow a ‘heim ego changa te pesre vies pos hang 0 the diay. Hiowowe a high ook, te Sopra tes tse fort whith a ene re hangs nthe posure companied by sige cag mene ces compressibility ‘Thea wn spl wig pes expr, fhe import ise pnranedega the nosedown pitching moment has only min cies Howeres whea the rotor bale experenes expres7 HELICOPTER ENGINEERING sh nga lo st neon is Newent a ease fra dso comgrebgirn Ee mone 2 Annoy Mmoven mis Rote Ion he man i nr ma of Ini, far ove he orth ere Pn iy Hoaee ea a ites nd tc pd ete sed seetie r sov oy h sel Aaa ig as Sd om rind sy Ras cy a ts te naa a Tae sre how ters nl, Te fr aan dost it eae ore Thee ek tote wad mio, na ee store thor nay oe ee een Ss fries down ste fins ee ore "Date ei inh ie ran wy or sai al cope to he cof es ng ta increnessecly from the fee steam tale abece oe ee {iced rete ire erence tae Hoven bth tr ern Se Te do sino Ear id e wesy e e When the bacon doce very ft verily, the fw i inv and pases spwars rough eae The fe seam vase of elo bee HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS » equal and opposite othe rit of descent. Ac the rotor dis, the rotor induced speed isl dred downwards wes the ate of dscns is ected upward casing Soren port, Atte |spseam postion, the oto induced peed steal increases 0 [outlet valu of rotor induced speed the rotor ds and iced dowawards, However, the net velocity willbe the iference ofthe rae of decent (acing upwards) sd the ter induce speed (ating downward). It ha poste value However, incase of « moderate re of deen the due ofthe rate of desea file Berwee the rotor indced sperds atthe rotor die and at upmreum postion above the rotor dsc. Thus the net velocity atthe upstream postion will be directed dowayarde athe difrence ofthe rt of desert end the rotor induced specd wl be negative inthis cae The ir low, ater passing chrough te roto ds, wil be defected jown disto this dowaward velocity at vpateam postion. In ot the fs and moderate descent conditions discs above, itis astmed that rotor is driven by the ar and doe respond to the powered condition. Ts cse ofthe slow descent which conrespond tothe wera flight condition, the rate of decent thee team ue of the speed below the rotor is lower than the rotor induced speed thereby cxsing inversion ofthe flow ander the rror sell This isd eo the fact a the act veloc tthe ctor csc, which isthe dierence between te race of descent rotor induced speedy is nepave and therfore dicted jownwards The sir ow over the rotor die forms «vortex the blade tps. The rotor roar unde this vorter sem resting to an unconerlatle condition ofall. Tn case af the forward igh, te max ofa flow above rotor tise ges both acieleraed and deflects! which roves the forward motion and a the sae te helps in rolling the helicopter side ‘Various ai low conditions are shown in Fig. 3.70 HELICOPTER ENGINEERING esnnaL DESC ic. 27 AmmLow Tamouait THe RoroR HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS a Traxstarional Lier The hlicoptr roto produces mori inthe forwacd Aighe as compared 10 hover ie al wind atthe rotor dine ‘ecrvs geste ast of air inthe forward Ligh tae in hove This addtional Hf is efred 20 ae traditional Lit The rslaton li is present the momen the heliopte ans moving horzontally, howeves, the. intese will not be sppreciabe il «speed of about 12 know ib stained, "The pion 1 avalable st this speed i slated to a the fictive translational its The tandationl it wil also be presen daring hover in 4 wind sas 1s Transverse PLow Erercr Dring the forward fight, the air passing trough the at portion of the sotor dic experiences a high dows oct than the at passing sought forward portion, This cto the fat thatthe ar pasting through the sa portion ben accelewed for « longer tie than the ai posing igh the forward portion. Duet thi he snpleof wack i eit decreases at the eea potion." This resist the 17 Gxouno Errtcr When th helicopter operas inthe immelie visinty the ground the kieic energy impared to the rors (ownwash velocity) cant be hy developed de proximity ofthe ground and gu canclled snd converted 9 prem entry.” Due to rehiction in the downwssh locy, the induced angle of stack of each cot late redes ng rection in the induced drag The net fl fel as sare increase on the lower surface of the bide that iting in an inerene in the ih anda lower powera HELICOPTER ENGINEERING requirement to suppor the helicopter weight. This phenomena is felerrd to Ia Grovnd Eff? (IGE). ln grees ‘experienced ifthe height af she helicopter above the ground is les than one rotor dave. When the het of elicpter becomes equal to or more than one rotor dameer, the halicopter i said vo be “Out of Ground Elle’ (OGE). During the forward light ofthe eliopter the ground ets lee predominant de othe fc thatthe ai low pst the rotor gets defeaed 318 To sammarie, daring the helicopter Light the forces ‘cting are the i the dag the crus aad the weight. Varour ying condtions along With the acsomnpsnying force ae ander i Hover 4) The sottion plane ix parallel tothe ground, 8) Thelitand the thro forces at veel up. 9) Thedrag andthe weigh sc vertically down The sam of thei and the drat goal tothe sm fhe drag and the weight ii, Vertical Fgh 4) The coetion plane i pall to the ground. 8) Theil and the thr foros ax vel up ©) The drag and che weight st veraly down, i When the um ofthe lit and the thr is goal { the sum ofthe drag snd the weigh, ze alco overs 1 When the sum ofthe if ad the thru is more ‘han the sim of he dag and the weigh, te lip ‘dinds veel "When the sm ofthe lian the drat les ‘han the um of the dng ad the weigh teflon decree, ii, Forward Flight 2) The union plane is ad forward, 8) The lif fore acs verclly upwards and che weight acs downwards The tnt fore acts horizontally inthe dieton of the igh and the deg fore actin dizection oppose tothe ira fore Ji When the lift is mote shan the weighs, he Jetcptr clin, a When the lift is es than the weigh, she Ielcapier decree ii. When the throtie more than the deg, the ged ie When the thst is ess than the diag, ad ere, b)__ The veurnad fight is oppose to che forward fight ith the station plane ited rearward, .Transverte Fight Daring the anes igh, che otaton plane ited yards the side im which the fii dese. The life force che weight ack vertically, however, che thrust force acsCHAPTER + HELICOPTER PERFORMANCE 41 There are many variables which affect the elcaper pesformanee of ae 8 miter of faethe srerftperlormance aly wipd temperature, alte, humidity, weight, power, Centre of grmvtye te. The eller of exch parameter on Indcopter performances explsine! bereundr: 42 Powm RequiueNT _Avalite power ise power use he man ir ox dewalt saga ag tbe gover aac by ell Sao de canmistnagecn: Ths sonene > OOS gf tRepone!dedopd by te pe “The pores reed the High is the enry atvortel ty Be sain Seto lp th elope in Bag send denon be wey hinds cengrmut ‘Sltcue sel his hie by mall poser te Sa wae caoat sent more ny than eco, “The pores rere compass tetova 3 hata pores B Friel power and 3 Poco tl: pose 421 Indaced Power Induced power is awocited with producing rotor. hous, fears out atts hover vale and is 69 to 80% ofthe “Gia mai roror pow, Ie decree the helicopter gos ato [HELICOPTER PERFORMANCE es forward flight andthe rotor encounters more ae. With the increne in speed more sr pases though the rotor which has {odo lew work on i 9 mainain consaoe thrust paced omer valu at maxinuim seed is about 1/at of is value at Sores SES Bor the same spend and weight, the induced power reduces with the incense in rotor lamer. This is dve to fnctese in mas flow Taduced power, om the other hand, increases with case in weight fr a given spe 422 Profile Power “Tis the power sauied to overcome the freon dragon the blades Iascount for 2 to 40% ofthe main rotor Toner ln Hover “The profile power inrewes wit forward peck tlowewe the increase i no appradable a low speeds nce ie incense onthe advaaing side compensated by the reas on the teresting tide Ar higher spre, the proBle powers predominant doe to blade sll “The prolle power. alo incense with skied, exaeratare ineese andthe helicopter weigh. “The profile power requir in forward Sight ders roma that in hover dae to following rezone i Oserl ieee in the magntudeof relative wind over he rotor which cao higher dug, ‘ilerent angle of attack distcibusion ove the rotor Fisk which ues higher dwg coticee Gi Compresibliy elles a high sped on the slvancog ie which nce an addinal wate deg fl J.23 Parasite Power This the power required > overcome the dag of ll be balicogter componente excep the rotor Blades. ‘Wil the merase ir tie Torward sped, the parase jower incrues as the cube of the speed. and Becomes6 [HELICOPTER ENGINEERING predominant higher speeds, On the oter hand, the partie power decreases with the alitade or the tempers nese The parasite power x proportional othe equivalent of ‘he fa plate area which "tim depends on the size and eae ofthe aire 424 Total Power ‘Toa power is sum ofthe induced power, the profile og it rte power, Frm fl ponerse (eles Piguce 4.1), i evident thatthe helicopter vegies Law powerin the frward gh an in over. However higher Spend the routed power agin ines, “This is due tothe ‘Berene inthe prof power Rc. 4.1 Powsn-Vetocrry Conve HELICOPTER PERFORMANCE. ° fe may be ssn that the required power cure stat ‘rom hover witha horizontal sloge. Ths is due othe fac chat the helcoprer caaot ditiguish between smal forward. or Tearward speed Fic. 41 POWERVLocITY CURVEee HELICOPTER ENGINEERING ThePower Velocity dng show tha the curve mart athe zero velocity condition. ‘The solid cure shows thatthe fndiopier i "Out of Ground Ellon” and he dowed cave show dhs the helicopter In Ground Etec, thereby showing that lest power is required © matin“ Ground Eifec hover, Threfer is ike tanstion zone where the speed ‘arenes andthe ground lat becomes les predominant. The bottom portion of the curve is refered to as the minima. power sped point which crreronds tothe maximum power Feserve Because the difference between the power avalible and the power sequced ie manumm a thi pont, The point of iersction of he angen driwa fom the origin abd te carve orveponts so the best rang sposd- ‘The maxima specl point is obeined where both the power avalable and the power requced cores intersect. While the masionm speed point inthe forward flighe i Umit by the eeaing Blade ll thi intersection pont lo define the hezopes absolute (lig, Her the power ceerv and hence the rte of clin is ‘ho. Ths the seven cling obviously orcs at some what Tower astode wid normally corresponds to the aizads sere the maximm ras of eb 5100 fer px mint Bacwcen te two exrene Pots on the power cure, there i a minimim valve onthe power equired curve. For ‘mow ofthe licope this point occre tan svace eto of Sppros. G9 ie. sts forward speed which 18% of the Up Speed The power ruled hie sperd i approx. 6% af the over value it may be sen froma the Fig, 42 thatthe becopter cling i hover IGE i more wcompsred to OGE beens of the power abiorbed bung les. Further, since the power oguled dts with the incre in the forward speed Be Felcopir ling is higher in he forward fighe shania the [HELICOPTER PERFORMANCE > foward Fighe sig. 42 VARIATION OF POWER WT ALTUDE% HELICOPTER ENGINEERING 43. Enmctor wisp When the helicopter change over from the hover to the forward ight, the main rotor produces mor itd tothe fae tha the eotor die vecivesprener ras of si bese of the high flow velo than inthe hover. This addtional i ir relrred to the trtslaionl The trndainal iis present fom the tne th heioper cates ito the forward Hight However, the iaceae in the Uf i x appreciable ll the dine the sped becomes about 12 knots when a abrupt Increme inthe itis cqpeincrd. This is rfc oo the ‘disive trnlioal if ‘Sines the ansaid! Lf depends onthe airspeed and ‘nt on the ground speed, the haicopter need not bein the owas ight wo have tis adiona i. The wansationa lit wil be peesear daring is hovering is wind, she amount beng propordoml to the wind veloc "The ellaive tational Lik ispretet in the wind elon vesying fren 12 v0.28 knot eppon). Hower at Increse in wind wlocty beyond. 25 knot, denroys the sddsionl if. The inrened i, when the helicopter hovers ina wind velocity varying from 12 to 25 knot har the following benefits ove the helcoper hovering in the nl-wind sendon 2)" Tes power required 8) more ukeof! capabilces while aking off inzo che wid, Both the above factors improve he halicoper performance onsideray 440 BerEcroF Hich Dewsry AurrUDe High density atte condition corresponds wo high stinde, bigh temperature, high moisture conten or 2 ombintion trea. Inyntral the high density aude veers to thin air andthe low derity tue to dense air AS the ‘moire conten of the ar increase with the increwe ia HELICOPTER PERFORMANCE a se ae sae ee ot FT ee care tite eS Fr ere whch ix the deme See ror and Be re ihe prema the Slowing sen becoper wei he over ing Fede. By More power is reused to execute vertical takeoff to Re BP read fn 9 RE Chg acco deemed enabity of hover power 45 Bmcror Woon Tne inthe eight of the Blige the oven bcs more poner required hover heey ree eNRE Rican power! Te loa he perormance inthe fellows wer ow ror lik required o Hover ec ne it depend, ponte glo tak ot whch the otras operate wad en oe fe reel ynor po mala he ae See e powe quired sbuld be ices whch Wil Tonk dete te ents pore: se ipa hover cating roc 46 Tampon? AND LANDING PERFORMANCE ‘Gar of the mot important eriteria which governs che sicopter performances the Cory "A ad 'B:Cerition BpFeleal Avion Admingesion (FAR) of USA2 [HELICOPTER ENGINEERING 46. Category ’8° This category provides the mos rigid cules requiring snulengine design with independent eagins fel sree ler syems. Gregory "A" design requires thr 0 sagle fngine fale ean case loer of ore than one. agiee Category 'A" eicopeers are cerifed st weigh which wal svar « minimum climb capably, inthe event of 2 eidel ngne failure and with adequate narice wea to ase + ane landing in the cse ofan engine fl erly inte sake off rn 452. Category 'B Gaegory’B' helicopters may be singh or mola sd may not avs a maximum weighe gree tan about 9009 Kg. "Caspr 'Bhelcopters ae not re cApabilty for contiauad ght with aed engine Tae main dilfereace bewoen the tw categories is that. Category 'A" provides may-up cpailiy tothe elpte te ‘apability oil leas 100 fet permite in formar ight ther one engine fare whereas Categry 8 does no prowie forthiscapabin. The advantage of Caegory'Av Cerficion is tha thse Baicopers are permite to tne skeet sad Jann fons heliport, pinnacles sad to Ny errowe over the areas that hive 20. emergency ten The Cagory "BY hadioptrs are restric to fying over dite routes i sch a manner dt inthe eae of an engine luce envvoue stay Pint an ismeliesfe landing is mae, vo have the 463 Category ’A’ Takeoff Apc takeoff profle for the beliopter under ‘Risshown in Fig 43. 2) Caepory A tle off begins with aeration followed by alm rm hover to 2 Ciel Deion Point (CDP) 3) CDP is defied aa combination of livade and sped hich is based on che minim otal energy concep Paes F FG. 43 CATHGORY 'AUTARE-OFF FROME* HELICOPTER ENGINEERING ©) Sufcient amount of Kinssic energy (peed) and ote ney (height) mus be stained we the CDP to ensure continued takeoff ater the blre ofthe eric engine 4)" Than engine fas at CDP or at any poine pros to CDP lung takeoff che elicoper is capable of ling sally within the exablished sad kof dance, Howevee ‘he engine fais afer CDP, a Continued Safe climb out ‘spably eased. Continued takeoff ie designed to allow for the Aquisition ofthe takeoll sf speed at» hight of 35 feet above the akeoff src with postive rate of lb 1) The CDP in a helicopter i a go/norgo sondiion analogous to the V, (decison sped) inthe fad ving sel Prior to the acainment of CDP when sa engine fais the plo has to rejet the takeoff athe helicopter has not possessed sufientamouat of energy fromthe cotinaed the oi Alter the CDP, tn ci of the crcl engine flare ‘hcg theo the haiopter har capability to sain the takealt salty sped and 38 ee eight and then climb to 100 feet above the theo silae 1b) “The Takeo! Ssfay Spesd ie a speed ac which « rinimum race of ein of 100 fee pe minutes sue i) The continued climb and actlertion ability from 100 let ahove the takeoff surice is aared by arate of climb of 100 fet per minute ines of eiclengie ure and 150 et permite othe bet rt of climb speed 464 High Performance Take offs High performance takeoff is carried out under high thiude condone where such cnttions prevent sustained hovering a the normal hovering ahivade of to clin at a scep angle forthe purpose of caring all the sbstrcions ia the ihe path HELICOPTER PERFORMANCE os ‘The angle of climb for high perormance aheolt depends upon coos ike the Senay aude, the prealng rds er gh denny sivas ad aikwind condone wil Fork i shalow angle a limo “Teo always executed into the wind, Afr the einmeat of wheal sp he liceper ir brought inthe ert IE rd the fread on cin by Ue vad ing ofthe u-paeplane of thesia corr without sung the collecive. Tht wil rau nthe forward fomporea of the roe thus nd rdacon i the vse Fomponent ofthe retorts” Ar are he beeopet ar aceclering forward athe sme tine experiencing sight felucion nbs ate. However the ls inte at compensated by en incre in he in Ground Ele ‘With the inne fn the forward speed, the power ira ede there rnin in a ce inthe power which can be tilsed for enabling climb or the fond asin. The nto nh xe poet Wi sues inthe sped, rts in the eaationl “Thos ie ket sae cesrce rom the hovering wave cnigue in whi th forward gh i xsi GE we the sian ik deeoged. thi a over ano alt Sno Ta, pcompanied by the incest colleive and at opi. Fernie the power seed o bring the icope 0 sen lib aide 1465 Vertical Takeoff Inthe Category’ the takeoff profile forthe vec ake off fon level arfae 2dr the pinnacles is shown in J) For the vericl ukeof, climb to the CDP is easly etal andthe CDP is fined primary bythe hag fe) Sale landing i exerted im case of the crical egine dre before the CDP.NI WOR FIMO HO-THVL WOUDEA,V, AYODRIVD #912 HELICOPTER ENGINEERING ©) The continued takeoff dixance is the horizontal ‘Usance {com te lfcofl ro the point at which, fellawing an teninehilare a the CDP, the hdoptr achieves 35 ee above the tkeoffsrfce andthe kev Sfery speed in 2 climbing The continued takeoff profile fom the devel Ialipors mum cles the obarustions by at lim 19 foe ‘erty and 5 feet hortontly. Or One engine inopenive takeoff profile includes the limb athe lect ley spend to 200 feet above the wheat Suckce price vo aclerating higher sp. 1D) Pordevsedhalipors the inimam recommended re ‘of clin of 150 fet per mint rogue oe complied wth 1 200 fet above the takeoff sures or TO0D fet above the Sarrounding tera, whichever higher th One eopne inoperive cakeoff from the pinmades Ullows dexent below the takeoff acc to aous 52 ee the feieumum edge eexrnce of 15 fet vertlly and 38 ler sionally, 466 Category "B Takeoff For the Category 'B takeoff, the takeoff dance is the horizontal dance mented foat the ins potion t= point 30 fee above the sakeollsurlace with all the engines pertng within the approved limit 467 Category ’A° Landing The pal landing profile i shown in ig. 45, 4) The Caegory ‘A leding pole begins with on Tleamed engite fare t or pri wo the Landing Decision Poin (LDP) 1b) The LDP ie defined in ver of she speed, the rte of tksceat and the aliude shove te landing sarfie. The LDP for the Category “A° landing i 100 fet above the landing sure 1c. #5 CATEGORY 'A’ LANDING PRORILE302 HELICOPTER ENGINEERING 47° Luwmnine HciTr-SreeD ENVELOPE (DEADMAN’S cunvt) The Hlegh Speed envelope ie dfined a an envelope of the asped andthe height shove the ground fom wich ase poweroll or one engine inoperative landing cannot be made "Thar the purpow of he disgram isto dently the portion o he euvelope rom which asf lending cannot be mae er sudden engine talure. Atypical HeigheVelocty EV) tavelope i thown in Fig 47, "he envelope comprises thes parts 3) thelr fighe portion 5) thesakeoft pomon, ant 9) the high speed portion The lnc of the curve spares the takeoff portion from the cause poron. Is idefined athe highest see pot on the low sptd portion ofthe heghespeed envelope. The tttudes above this pein coresponds to ese sod alitudes Below the hace represen skeoff The lsghtspeed envelope epics that there remain some combinations of the tial alta and spends where itis mponble to usta the High The prohibited sections ofthe heghespeed agama separsed by the ekeolf condor, This sonidos soll be ‘wide enough to conetenly permit tke of igh path cer Of the FHV clagram. The takeoff corridor should always permit minimum of 45 Knot cleanace fom the er pomios of the disgrace “The sue of the HV diagram depends upon sever factors. Fora given belcope,inervang the gost weight sa the densiyalttade both expand the ansfe reper, Avathur ral, a curve esablibed atthe sa lee canbe consiered to ‘xpind direc atthe weigh got up and inves a he air desiy decrees eter Fig 48) ; 3 E Es i& r T j 5 5 i a : i g i : sreticovteR PERFORMANCE 05 4 Avronoranion ‘ANtorettion 2 condition diag which the engine spe main rouor i deven ony BY the Poe OF ine clave wind. The aucortationalepabiity of Taio crop envore is ale landing caracenaics, The Telicoper wanseusion i designed im such » way chat inthe aaseret sauder toppage of te engine, i dsengags fromthe ‘Wii the engine power is mpplied to the main the silo tdownmards through the rotor, However, ding {ie Sins cell condition, he afiow is upward through he sae sre ke upward allow which helps the rotor vo roxae as engine flare condition Fe antge autoroation soadkion, the rotor states under the spn ofthe surotave and the antsutorottive uae HS Fove wo force depend upon the bade ange of forest Pike angle of ack i lng, the relant upward Bais drencd well oreard ths cxnsing the propulsive forse err te than the blade dra fore. Thus sei te Te Siicd onward which conser the atororaive fore oi eter hand, when the angle of atack decrees, the oo capen once tits bark thus causing the dag fore Ive force which conssaes the ai power is eat off a bre moe than the pro orotaive fore (reer P49) ‘ips bine angle of stack pends onl onthe direction ofthe nie wind Dosing an atoroeion from hover the oc oind ithe rslant ofthe tangential vdocty (Un) "ye lads and the verti speed ofthe a pasing Chrosgh Tec aoe In de middle ares the alow i directed upwardh Sethe rovrie the sly s upwards, However, above throwth ge eracl wosty i enceled and the sirow is we eae owamandstowande the outer portion ofthe rotating se ee in the ema postion, where he versal veloc Or Ta the be ange sf tack is large. Inthe outboard are ie mg of ack very low duet the combinedHELICOPTER ENGINEERING [HELICOPTER PERFORMANCE 07 ali ofthe inversion ofthe vera velocity and the increase in he blade tangential veloc. ‘Due tothe coetiavour variation of che Blade angle rack fom he root the ip ofthe blade the rotors vided. into the flowing thro ars eer Fig. 4.10) [RG 4.10 AUTOROTATIVE SE ANTE-AUTOROTATIVE AREAS 2) Fromth rot to 28 percent of the rotor radi, where - the vera! velocity is predominant with reece 10 the {agen velocy. "The blade angle of aac fb ery Tage Fic. 49 AvTonorATVE & ANTEAU ‘ete consbutig aloe nelle it and considerble dag TONOTNTIVE Fonces ‘Thich oppose the blade ott.oe HELICOPTER ENGINEERING 1) rom 25 percent co 70 pest ofthe rotor radius in ‘hich the biadeargleof stack thigh and the rena ofthe propulsive and the dag forces i dred forwards which tae {o sped up the Blade Tiss the acorotaiveseion, 6) ©” From70 percent ofthe tar alas wo the pia which the Blade ange of atk is very low and the rslane ofthe repulsive andthe dea fore dred earwards which tends ‘o ow the ip portion af the blade, This te dnven othe ncaa rion, The rotor rsatesat aconmant velocity when the effect. of the avtorottive fore is ancl by the wnrauoroeive force (elt Fig 4.1), W the rosor tangential velocity increases, itis sccompanics by a deren the angle of tack, THis ale in an incre nthe atiautorotative area and adres inthe toto spm. On the other hand, + decree in the tango ‘locity caus an inte i the angle of atch ands the sorocave area which cause a incfee inte ero pen, “The blade angie of stack depends pon the coleive pitch, Ith collective patch is lrg, the rotor tp dasees sd vice versu, Aaother factor alin the suorecon che Blade twist” A high ovis reat ia a increase inthe strove are ard hence the rotor speck. "On the athee hand low twist cases an incre inthe autoreve set snd a decrease inthe soto sped Daring the autororation om the forward ight, he relive velocity sue euler ofthe Bade speed the ee velocity ofthe arlow and the forward spect, As the Blee -etatve tip speed (U) is mare onthe advancing side the sgle of aac decrees hereby deceasing the autorotatve acto the avancing side, On the otber hand snr Uy iso the recreating sde, the angle of stack inrewes"and ales the sutortative zen Thus during the forward fight the ‘utrocaive ae i oft toward the rtceming sie reer Fg 43, iG. 4.11 AUTOROTATIE & ANTE AUTOROTATIV 49 asmeTonque sec anne a ° Jn case of the failure of the anti-torque system in ty oval ihe beri ves dea 0 pad ee Pe et nde te ach foie thy ncompancd by sree vibraions, The Tea rer acrndny ca be curll by hain the Peg near acted poton followed hy aetorotaon td nding.HELICOPTER ENGINEERING Fo. 4:12 SFT OF AUTOROTATIVE AREA DURING Ronwano Fusttr Pe sEL}COPTER PERFORMANCE m ta case of anttorque system flr during the hove, cue heticpace wil ave tendency to turn which should be ontcleg by closiag the there followed by landing Serrune WITH POWER Th the tendency of the belcopter to require more power te maimain the er trast while descending in the Pome ing state than t0 hover. Uae this condition, Ire elon i de thrust experienced which i of the order of Gp and is secompured by iacesed vibration aad & Sideoy to produce even» high vertical race of descent AY ‘Srtnow, dog the vortex condvon, aversion ofthe ir low Feepelcna! under the rotor” Due tothe presence of wake Ba he sowon the allow is cared down sad the upper air Bee Gaara vovtec nar he la ps In cae ofthe veri ee ean ok abo 300 fox per riaue o #0, te pee Td the downward slow act wogaber onthe roto ds: and {blader his owe was hereby ao Being rere Be theais Bow. The stor Blades tend o Sal the soot with Creel progeestingostward along ube blade span with an incre ince ma 0f desert. ‘Thon she power sting condition is expeienal i ‘vortex ring state both the power reqaiced snd the collective TSPRE SRG Inceaed in onder to avoid the Loc Blade fll Lomrrations oF ROTOR RPM "Te minima rotor spn is rmined by the como} characteris of the helcoper during the astorottion, The (Sieoum rotor spi dened a tht va 2 whic the al Pars i uftcen for mantinieg healing. nthe other RENAE inacimom. rome cpm is determined by the ‘tovotaton andthe sructrl suength characteris of the Teor symem, In the evens of rotor cpm cxcexdig the hao imi the aerodynunicpetaratons will develop omma IELICOPTER ENGINEERING the Hhdes thus causing sal, excessive vibrations and high iain te forward Sigh, thereat rai read decreases onthe rereaing blade side due tothe fat tha he Bade speed and the forward speed are in the opponte iections. The decent isthe maximum when the blades 9 fa azimuth which isthe mos: unfvourle postion (eer Fig 4410) At the cenie ofthe rosion the resultant elaive a is equi to the forward speed: (Cq=V), however, come Focation along the blade span, che resltact relive speed becomes eo and the Bade speed Become sual. the forward speed. Inthis region, the sellow iinvered and impinges spon the rotor bide onthe trang ede ides thus resulting fn Acgrive life ‘The invered Row aren depends upon the ference between the bade speed athe forward spol. Ta onde to reduce dhe inverted Mw ae, rection shot be pu on ithe the forward speed or the rotor rpm. The incre in ‘he forward sped wil tend eo inerene the inverted low sex 442 Retneannc BLADE Stan. ‘The stl of rozor blade limite the forward speed of the helicopter. Daring the forward fight ofthe helicopter, the fir flow over the etcetng side retards wale tha on the scvancig side inceses. The revesting Nade is required to produce the sane amount of it ar the advancing Blade ‘Therefore tthe at fow over the retening blade dereses ith she forward speed the blade angle of stack is reqused to be intend in order to have an equal it diseibuton ovr the ‘rotor disc in the azimuth Due tthe incre inthe angle of stack on the rating blade side, tend to all high forward speed.” On the other hand, the advancing blade i pert at reaively low angle of aac aad is not beret to sal. The maximum pose angle of atack occurs between 50 0 about 130 isthe smut fom abou 7O% to 15% af the Made radius which iethe mon sucepeible wer for the HELICOPTER PERFORMANCE a fF Fig. 4.13 VARIATION OF ROTOR RPM.ae [HELICOPTER ENGINEERING rarening ae sl nce of th uaewined Blas the ele tack the macnn athe ip. The resng ae ell cain this repo ding the prered igin veh ced to ‘preliawar ste forearlspcd cress Tis phenomena iP hotexperened ding the normal sworatons CHAPTERS STABILITY AND CONTROL 5.1 Abelicope isso be in a tate of puibriam when th sam of alte forts spd momeas acting om ies zero, A Iniopee which iia equlibrivm remains in a state of scaly igh condition, When diarbed fom tbe equilibrium by + fden input of coatrole or got the helicopter experienss teederaion cal bythe unbalanced fore or the moment the ‘Ropitede of trandational scaderation being propotsna the unbalanced force and tht of the rotional aeration, proportion to the unbalanced mone 52 Tame “The belcopter is sd to be inthe rimmd conticon Af the moment about the pitch, the zll ad the yaw 2X js ero which corresponds to the condition of equbsim, In Sidon to the zero moment conison, the contol force Should ay be zero. "Wheres the exernal free on the Iaticopter deterine the coadiion of eget, the ineral fight couralrysem mechansm deermines whether the feplibium concicon canbe acevo with zzo cootol free 521 Hover Trim ‘With the helicopter in the hover arin inthe nil ‘wind condition te following condition are required to be met ‘Pith for equilib: eee verted component of the rotor thst must be pal to the ovcll weight ofthe baicoptr.HELICOPTER ENGINEERING FRc. 54 DaMenie 1y Pci oR Row. STARILTTY AND CONTROL ns 4 srante Stastny Sia Staie Longtadinal Stabity Susie longeadinal sity of the helcoper is Serna tevts ofthe pitching moment which is caused by npn the forward spend and thers oto angle of ck {fou wimmed conditions Ax suc, the static longisinal sbi defied inthe following 180 Way B Speed maby, fi, Angle of sack saily SA:.4 Speed Sablty Speed ability irate the pitching moments which are produ shout the centr of gravity of the balicopter due to change inthe forward sped The we know a increase ia the speed cuss the ror to ap back thereby producing nose pitching moment about the cure of gravy of the beiopter. Tas change in the ‘ling moment which i che rele of the change in the Pestard spool is known 2 the speed stability or the sate eigeodsel maby, Ian uvitended increase in the speed prices noseup pitching moment, the ably i aid be ont because flee lone, te becopter would pick yp and Feet bac tots original em sped "Thos ehe ines lapping due to an income i the speed will produce s neweup moment sbout the centre of By ol the heiopter A rowedowa moment will be Produced by the decresing speed 542 Angle of Attack Stbilny “Tae ange of ack sable i raed tothe pitching ‘omen: prodoced about te ete of gravity ofthe Belcoper by a harge in the roor and the fselage angles of tack which Pcs by men collective pitch input or wpgst. When a diopters pitched in the toseup ection from a tim Conizon of constant veloc, twill zuse increase the oe220 [HELICOPTER ENGINEERING sod of ack. However he avancing blade side experiences ‘nor lif compared eo tha onthe rereing siden he ‘mma cnition, both he aang andthe teen sides ‘perience an equal staowct of it doe to loping the ‘Tmcing sting o low engl ofc ad aie peed fs rareing side se high angie of tack ands lowe poo ‘The changes the sgl ofeach cuss» legr perce increase om the advancing side (herby inceaing the Lf) =, compared to th raveting side, however, the spe remain ‘afte. Thi lit dasymmetty cous rearward apping of the rotor As the rotor Maps a the veloc dinrbusion fs ‘model inthe azimuth, Since th velocity ver the arancing lade becomer more x compared to that oa the reeaing ‘de, it cms incensed on the avancng side which for resus in an sional ft aping of the rotor. The sfeapping produces noseup pitching moment. In cise of the ‘oxen tad a thao fle ora sie increase inthe angle of auack has de ‘Wheres the aoseup pitching moment which ie che ref th xp Raping rom angen te oe ‘ablsigellec the nove up flapping duc fo an incre the ‘eu ofc pron Sevag Th de 6 fact thatthe noseup flapping cases noseup pitching Imomen that incre the agle of anack farther "The fuselage. andthe tail of the helicopter ako contibae othe angle of stack stability, Wheres the fle Iba desubilsing elec (an incre fa the angle of attack results inthe naseup pitshing momen), the horizontal al har ‘abiisig eas, With an incense inthe angle of ara, the dow ld on the el decrees hs reskig in ose dows, itching momen. STABILITY AND CONTROL mm 542 State Diecsional Stability Sue drecional ably of dhe helicopter is governed by te fllowing parameters: 2) Direcional Sabi, 8) Died fle, and 3 Side free 5421 Dirtionl Stabiliy The dreonal sabliy ofthe bcopter i reed to sn yaming more produced by the sep i the forwaed Mame Sic dena aly as the llowing three main orn ecoyuic mons onthe facie which ha Seabiling lcs ete fag» yoed to the rig 4 Scot te gn produ) This due 10 he Tenn i he ce ofthe tae Hugin aby BP Tea Sens on she verse al a eabsing eles XC sgh Help produces side frees on the veal fom Ar Mgie Shir loon of he alls bind th ene of cabeza, ig yorng moment is prod ie unde to everom: the diabare. Howeve, the ed TES see Packer nor pediment ashe tal roe Sse proteseneagh diteinn sabi Serge rou hrs bangs with he sidesip which JE eoblng fice When de bacon is yrwed inthe See Soar thr, cases + odio nthe ASS dacto «dese in the ble ago tak ofthe etrand a endency to euro the i produce. On SSI a hen the cope yma in» deeion to SO at of the al oor rs, eee an ieee in Gea our thru wbich opin produc sabiising oles Tho-tetoag moment a the moor source of ch sac ‘econ ating alow sped Where the veal eal ineua HELICOPTER ENGINEERING 5422 Diedral Effect Etioaive dihedral i relaed 0 the cling, moment prodoced by the sideaip. A eliopter eshbie. posove Albee effect iin a igh ideslp tens to rll tomas Jef and vice vera, This is due tothe asymmetric wdoty lsteibution in the aizath. Ia adion, the eagle fore above of below the roll axis seo producer sable or unstable rolling nométs. For example, he veri eal succes gente lace side forces in the aidestipe I the cen of press of the veral sure ib above the centre of gewiye# fabor onenbation othe postive dihedral effete chic and vce 5425 Side Force ‘The side force on the baicopter determine the oll attitude or the bank angle required to holds specie sdesip the constancy increasing forward sped.” The incre ‘peed is accompanied by a Tage bank angle oF roll. At we Snow, to blue the tail rotor tat tothe up, theme rotor is required to be tilted 10 the Ie. Howes a the forward igh, the mun rotor ct canbe ade 20 by fying ‘with enough righ sidelip so shar the fsclage develops the seguir aerodynamic ide lore to balance the al ote fr The helicopter having seal side force characterises has a tendency 10 slp ito a large sidesip thereby poneing sic Eeeconal ably ia forward Light 55. ConmutTioN oF Honizowrat Sranmzen _Abough te min rtrplay sn inprtat olen the speed sbiliy, the ozone abe caus ier or dere of sabily eve ofthe hekeope ea while I he sable is having epee wl cary the dows load which will improve the peed sbly sun oy neces ithe sped wll rent nan ere in che downoad eee rodicig 2 Sabilsiognoneuppthing moment STABILITY AND CONTROL ns here i a ienerteceae brwenn the wake ofthe main recor and the horizontal sabi, it wil produce destabilizing i Sc the dwn kind the i oor Sess ‘ith the incense in ped, role in an increase a the angle of aac of ability Tis cuss an inrese inthe it and produces dealing eee. $6 DermuananoN oF StamuiTy Ct ‘mover Frsciee sts 61 Spee 2° Mle considered ina imme sexy Hight thntiion a gen potion fhe oe nick Wath clans ph Sing coma he Hct i deo dive at «later peed ad he new poston of yc ick recorded 0) Tike sti is forward chan in the trimmed condition, the baiopter is cosidered to have postive stability bose ny inceme in speed Would have omued 2 noseup pitching moment provided the plot had not held the new sped With foeward wick, a The buicopter is considered tobe unstable ifthe fi ‘alc sick postion i behind the tied postion. os PESTA ate SE ccc atageemn tte eee itera ast ea ae Ss es ee wick porn more tring serum than in {erie ceaa HELICOPTER ENGINEERING & _Tebulicoperis considered o poses negative stability Af the sic is forward of the trimmed posites when ‘eqired to balance nove wp pitching moment STABUITY AND CONTROL us Similar phenomena occurs when 2 belcoper hovering in the nilwind condition experiences gus cutng noweown ecivde, ‘This ress inthe lorward motion ofthe helicopter and he forward spel case the rtoeto fap back (gu speed sably characteris) "The nt elec is the tose up situs ofthe iiopte. However, che rearward lt ofthe rotor marth rearward motion snd the sre process proceeds in revere thereby surpaing the point lam whee the Hiscurbance sated. The eye begins to epetell however, vith ver increasing dplcemers fromthe original hove post 1 leading to int ‘A hulcoper hating alow alhup-wcight (low mate nd igh speed rotor) islikly to have ls damping in he pitch or rll, Several mechanical devices do exist which make the licopter Syamicly sabe in the pitch othe rol in the 563 Directional sabilicy 4) Subize we che tri point and note the indie sie speed 1) Smoothly yaw the sireraf wth directional contol and eerdione with teal consol wo eabish the deisel desig age 4) Noe thea speed immudisly afer the completion of the yaw manoeuvre 2 came Scion! ety inoue by she incre ef pedal dplaemest for sarge right dep ‘conversely an neese right peal placement coresponders 4 lee le sei angle Thus higher does of oe bound to exis a2 higher spend. 57 Dwnasne Srannery The dynamic sablty of an aircraft deus with ite ‘xcilaions about the trimmed ‘postion folowing sy diurbance.“H the oxltions detewe in mapescae vay Sime, the srr is said to pons dynamic saphena in i tim postion ) "Hiller servo rotors which operate on a principle ilar to thae ofthe sabiier bat. The major diernce is hae in this case che damping is achieved aerodynamically ead of trough viscous damper. , “Lochhead” rotor symern which ues a gyro coupled ith speings. Tis rotor fem waa bo sated to he hinges or syste, 72 Forward Speed Dynamic Stability Whaher a heizopter i dynaiclly sable or unstable the forward light depends upoo is coniguration. The ion ofthe helicopter afer diurbance fom ce tamed ostion depends upon the speed stably, the angle of atack 524 Hoveing Dyn Say an eeepc aoe ci tae Ben em te nieuwe ee’ gira Mare Sore he sel ei pc enn rou tn hose me wl Howey te pleco rate Seems 2 to ek hs ait RE Se hi pads en on6 HELICOPTER ENcaNEERIN silty, he daping andthe moment of nea abou the a of roraion. “Here ta typeof onalason exit wi oh ‘id salations which ae 0 hay camped tthe pl ‘Ray aoe even notice them td the long period os ‘hich mayor may not have he posite damping common ‘ered a phegou a When :elcoper anesthe nosedown aia de to the dicurbanc rom the winumed penton el ag Incsene inthe speed However due to spel aby the incre in he pedi lowed bythe noseup mene, Dn {9 the sudden noweap momen” the ple of roaen lng tebind th rotor shat ths prodog'snowdows nome Gaoning mem) hich ope he nrp os ae thespeed eaily. [eal rots the Frag vo higher ang ‘of sack droga icesed es, Hoge ‘cies sill downwards which renin farther Meese the sped, noscup moment snd isthe ose down daspiag ‘momen ill the increwe trae i acetal off fight pah. \Thirconlsion conoponds tthe maim forward speed and he maxims age of atc Due oe Increned angle of atacand the seed bang more than the tim condi, th thas wil ice which wil eae the lelcoptr to cid. Ding this ate, he weg of he Ialcoper oppose the tion de to whch te helaopec slows down ther decresting the neveup momen, The ose

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