NATIONALISM IN JAPANS

EARLY MODERN PERIOD: A

CULTURAL OR STATEBASED GAME?
A Presentation by: Jessica Haynes
January 26, 2014

Research Advisor: Dr. N. Steneck

General Project Advisor: Dr. B. Donovan

PURPOSE

Explore the nature of nationalism in Japan from

the Meiji Restoration to the end of World War II.
Determine

if cultural or state influences were more

powerful and how the fervor spread.
Consider the case study according to modernism vs.
perrenialism and cultural nationalism vs. civic
nationalism.

Potential Uses:
Be

able to spot budding ultranationalism in other

countries before it blossoms?
Steer our own thoughts away from ultranationalism
with further understanding of the issue?

RESEARCH BACKGROUND
Temporal

Theories of Nationalism

Perennialism

The concept of nations existed prior to Treaty of

Westphalia (modern period)
Two main types
Continuous nations have existed due to blood and
cultural attachments since the beginning
Recurrent nations have existed since beginning of
history; not linear or continuous

Modernism

Nationalism is a product of the modern system.

Sovereignty and centralization of power

History of strong nation does not matter. - Gellner

RESEARCH BACKGROUND

Theories of Nationalism Considered

Civic

Nationalism

State as the focal point of nationalism.

State legitimacy = citizens support and participation.
Often creates systems of freedom and invidivualism
Stresses citizen as an actor individuals empowered

Cultural

Nationalism

Nation as the most important factor of nationalism.

Language, culture bind the group together.
Often paired with ethnic ties
Can exist alongside or independent of strong civic
nationalism.

RESEARCH BACKGROUND
The

Shinto Directives Influence

State

Shinto unchallenged as a central

pillar of early modern nationalism
Western paradigm skews State Shinto

Shinto Directive language

Unclear definition of State Shinto
Use

of Shinto vs. "State Shinto (blended scope)

Limits definition to cultural pressure and
indoctrination

State Shinto = cultural ideas taken too far?

Separation of Church and State
Normally focus on cultural nationalism

The Kokutai Cult

is a separate
phenomenon from
Shintoism.
Shintoism was
used to support
the Cult, which
created State
Shinto.

UNORTHODOX NATIONALISM
CATEGORIES
Jean-Franois

Dupr Postdoctoral
Fellow at University of Ottawa

Note: The following terms have been used in different ways

by different researchers. This project considered only
Duprs definitions.

Civic-Liberal

Model

Civic activities take the forefront

Citizens identify mainly by state affiliations/political
groups
Ethnic/national ties are secondary
Ex. United States

UNORTHODOX NATIONALISM
CATEGORIES
Civic-Republican
Citizens

Model

identify according to state/political

groups
Assimilation as a goal

Political identification > ethnic identification

To become true member of state, relinquish strong
ethnic identifiers, language, etc.

Examples

France
(particularly le Front National)
some right-wing American circles

THESIS

The nationalist movement in Japan from the

Meiji era until the end of World War II is a hybrid
model that blends political and cultural spheres.
Much

more hybridized than suggested by Western

researchers
Hypothesized to be closest to Duprs civic-republican
model

THE CULTURAL SIDE

To understand Japanese nationalism, we have to look at

both State Shinto and the broader Kokutai Cult.

Kokutai Cult
Focuses

on the specialness of Japan

Source of the State-Nation-Emperor notion

Blends Japanese state and nation into a divine family

Headed by supernatural emperor
When supporting Japanese state, you also support the
nation.
Notion evident in Kojiki and Nihon Shoki

THE CULTURAL SIDE:

THE KOKUTAI CULT
Shintos
The

Influence

Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki

Commissioned by the Yamato house in 710 and 720

AD, respectively.
Supposed historical accounts of Japan
Meant to consolidate power within the emperor
Glorified Japan, Japanese people, and a godemperor
Texts became central documents of Shinto
Late Tokugawa period 1945 taught creation story
as historical fact in schools and shrines

THE CREATION STORY: THE LAND

Japan

as Divine Land

Commissioned

by the Gods of Heaven

Created directly by Izanagi-no-Mikoto and
Izanami-no-Mikoto

First island Onogoro Palace of Heaven

Special in eyes of the kami
Islands born as kami
Kami = demands respect, appeasement, honor

Other

lands not mentioned Japan was first

and most holy

THE CREATION STORY: THE NATION

Japanese as Chosen People

Humans

placed on divine islands by the kami

The first kami child

Wicked, leech child

Caused natural disasters, killed many Japanese
Izanagi banishes him

More concerned about Japanese than his child

Izanamis

Izanami becomes kami of death

Swears to kill 1,000 of Izanagis people each day

Death and Izanagis Protection

Suggests the Japanese are chosen by kami of life

Izanagi becomes kami of live

Promises 1,500 births each day

Makes daily effort to ensure continuation of Japanese people

THE CREATION STORY: THE

EMPEROR

The Emperor as arahitogami (living kami)

First

claimed in the Kojiki

Legitimization of Yamato rule

Previously, emperor was human with supernatural powers
Favored by the kami could control rain/harvests
Soul purification rites, celebrations since 300 BC

Descended

from Emperor Jinmu

Direct descendant of Amaterasu-Omikami (sun goddess)

Therefore, direct descendant of Izanagi-no-Mikoto
Ancient celebration and rites continued, but Amaterasu
gained more prestige

(Fuel

for the Imperial Cult in Meiji Japan)

THE POLITICAL SIDE

The

Cult

Nationalism of Shinto and the Imperial

170,000

shrines under Yamato control

Standardized worship practices

Glorified Amaterasu-Omikami strong drop in regional
kami worship
Shinto priest training standardized; priests as political
figures and teachers

THE IMPERIAL CULT CNTD.

Grand

Ise Shrine

Became most holy shrine in Japan

Shrine of Amaterasu houses Eight Hand Mirror
Amaterasu expected to be revered by all due to the
emperor being the head of the divine family.

Emperor

as arahitogami

Emperor referred to as kami in Meiji constitution

Honored in tandem with Amaterasu
During prayers, matsuri, on kamidana

MEIJI EDUCATION SYSTEM

Ministry of Education established 1871
Meant to foster patriotism

Spread

pride for Japan to all walks of life (Mori Arinori)

State-run, open to all children compulsory (75)
Standardized curriculum
Stressed Confucian values of filial piety and honor
Imperial Rescript on Education (1890)
Honor the emperor, honor the state
Honor the state, honor your ancestors

Divine Family! State-Nation-Emperor

Honored the emperor heavily

Prayers

to Amaterasu
Bowing to emperors portrait, Rescript
Creation story taught as history

THE TOKKO
The

High Treason Incident (1911)

Prompted

Keisatsu

the creation of Tokubetsu Koto

Thought police
Kept records on anyone
Letters, overhead conversations, neighbor reports,
etc.
Arrested those against the emperor
Nearly destroyed all leftist movements in Japan
Mass exodus; huge number of arrests

CONCLUSIONS
Modern state was the stimulus
Not purely state or culture based.

Culture

backgrounds led to easier manifestations, but state

brought it to a peak and spread it.
State became a cultural as well as political figure.

Political arm of State Shinto stressed conformity.

Religious

practices standardized
Education standardized
Patriotism fostered in schools
Deviation from being good Japanese punished

Creation of thought police

Therefore, early modern Japans nationalism appears

to more closely fit Duprs definition of civicrepublican nationalism.

Thank you so much!