What can we learn from Video Games?

Which concepts and design principles of games can be applied in a classroom

environment?

Peter Mann, August 16, 2013

IED 1012 SAE Vienna
Word count: 9.350 overall / 8.580 content chapters

Preface
This paper was written as part of my diploma course in Interactive Entertainment at the SAE
Vienna. It represents the academic counterpart to my practical learning.
I have tried to choose a topic that ties in well with my previous education to become a teacher
at the University of Vienna. The connection of learning and video games has always interested me a lot and I enjoyed working on this topic.
This paper is a collection of what I think are useful and informed sources in this area, combined with examples taken from personal experience, further supported by information found
in other books and online.
Even though my education now moves away from teaching, I hope that this paper can be seen
as a starting point for interested teachers or students of teaching, should they choose to consider using any kind of video game in an educational context.

Peter Mann, 15.8.2013

A note on gender: Where possible, I will try to use gender neutral forms (such as player,
teacher, etc.). Unless explicitly stated, these forms always apply to both females and males.
Any deviation from this practice is solely for reasons of readability.

Contents

Preface
Contents
1. Introduction and Definitions
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Definitions
2. Serious Games and Edutainment

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3

2.1. What are serious games?

2.1.1.
Edutainment
2.1.2.
Commercial games in an educational context
2.1.3.
Research-based educational video games

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5
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2.2. Issues of the field

2.2.1.
Learning versus Playing
2.2.2.
Drill-and-practice versus Microworlds
2.2.3.
Immersion versus Transfer
2.2.4.
Teacher Intervention
2.3. Research findings

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2.3.1.
Research in cognitive learning
3. Learning principles in direct connection with video games
3.1. Video games as semiotic domains
3.2. Identity and learning
3.3. Practice and learning
3.4. Embodied and situated meaning
3.5. Transfer in video games
4. Learning principles for a school environment
4.1. Active involvement
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.
4.6.
4.7.
4.8.
4.9.
4.10.
4.11.

Social participation
Meaningful activities
Relating new information to prior knowledge
Being strategic
Engaging in self-regulation and being reflective
Restructuring prior knowledge
Aiming towards understanding rather than memorization
Helping students learn to transfer
Taking time to practice
Developmental and individual differences

4.12. Creating motivated learners

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5.

Conclusion

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5.1. Main issues of video games in an educational context

5.1.1.
The issue of Edutainment
5.1.2.
The issue of research
5.1.3.
The issue of transfer
5.1.4.
The issue of reflection
5.2. What design elements are crucial for games in an educational context?
5.2.1.
Represent a microworld
5.2.2.
Present as many options as possible
5.2.3.
Build basic skills from the ground up
5.3. What can we learn from video games?
6. Sources
6.1. Books
6.2. Internet
6.3. Games

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1. Introduction and Definitions

1.1. Introduction
Video games, in the sense of games played on a variety of platforms like home consoles,
handhelds, smartphones and on the computer, are now undisputedly part of everyday life and
an integral part of pop culture of the last thirty years. However, the educational value of video
games has so far been underplayed. For many, video games still represent a waste of time. An
entertaining waste of time, but nothing anyone could acquire any meaningful content from.
In his book What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy, James Paul Gee
links his findings in educational science to bring principles of learning and video games together. In my essay, I will attempt to build upon the findings of Gee and others in his field of
expertise by presenting a set of universally accepted learning principles and applying them to
a variety of contemporary video games.
The first part of this paper will remark upon the research done in the field of serious and
educational games. In the second part, I will summarize the findings of James Paul Gee in this
field of research and show the underlying concepts he attributes to learning. The final part of
the paper will list several principles of learning collected for a school environment, where I
will use the accumulated knowledge of previous chapters to link these principles directly to
video games.
Throughout this paper, I will add examples of games I have played myself, not only to explain
concepts but also to directly show how a game or its design philosophy can be used in a
school environment.
What should be shown with the juxtaposition of contemporary learning principles and video
games is that games, even games not specifically made to teach or instruct in any way, incorporate these principles and create and support learning environments.

1.2. Definitions
For further reference, this chapter gathers several words that will be used without additional
definition inside the text.

Video game: This word stands for any game of any genre on any platform enabling gameplay,
such as consoles, handhelds or personal computers.
Player: The person playing a game, usually by taking control of an avatar or becoming a certain character inside the video game.
Character/Player Character(PC)/Avatar: These words stand for the entity a player becomes
or takes control over while playing a game.
Non-player Character (NPC): Any kind of character in a video game not under control of a
player but controlled by the games code.
Game world: The visual representation of the game code that is shown to a player on screen.
The player, by moving a character in a way determined by the game, interacts with this world.

2. Serious Games and Edutainment

The focus of this document is on learning concepts in entertainment games, but the area of
games made specifically for education cannot be completely ignored.

2.1. What are serious games?

The topic of serious games is very diverse. The area is influenced by different factions talking
about similar or identical issues with different terminologies and interests. The common denominator is that all these factions argue that games can be used for more than just entertainment. In theory, any game can be serious and can have educational value in some way, depending on how it is perceived and understood.
The predecessors of educational video games were traditional games used in an educational
context, which were popular as far back as 1958 (see Egenfeldt-Nielsen et al 2013, p.229).
Based on over 40 years of research into the subject, findings show that these games presented
an alternative to more traditional means of learning but were generally not more or less effective. Students tend to value what they have learned through games more and prefer gaming to
other methods, resulting in an overall higher motivation for learning.
Research has shown that the school environment itself brings certain limitations and challenges for traditional games. Debriefing and reflecting after playing a game is important so that
students do not make incorrect assumptions based on their experiences. Teachers need to take
time to reflect on the game to correct mistakes and clarify misconceptions. The school setting
itself brings with it further problems like the physical size of classrooms and the time available to each teacher in each subject.
With the introduction of educational video games, three different categories for them
emerged. (see Egenfeldt-Nielsen et al 2013, p.229 - 232)

2.1.1. Edutainment
The most obvious category are commercial educational video games, which are commonly
referred to as edutainment, which teach players specific skills such as algebra or mathemat-

ics. Edutainment games often attempt to mirror traditional games in gameplay and graphics
but both are usually fairly outdated.
Edutainment games have been around since the 1970s, although the term was coined later.
Even though different approaches were used in the beginning, by the 1980s the dominating
learning approach used in these games was and is behaviorism.1 Because of this, the game
aspect of edutainment titles often only serves as a simple reward for correct answers or actions. This makes the motivation in these titles largely extrinsic2.
In addition, the simple gameplay of edutainment relies heavily on drill-and-practice learning,
encouraging players to memorize answers instead of understanding the underlying principles.
These games often also lack any form of preparation or reflection with a teacher or parent.
However, there has been a new approach to edutainment in the late 1980s which can be called
the instructional approach, which distances itself from straight forward behaviorism and
wants to incorporate elements from entertainment video games into edutainment games to
achieve intrinsic motivation.

Fantasy: An attempt should be made to emulate the creation of fantasy worlds in entertainment games, for example by linking a search for missing letters to rescuing a
princess. This is harder to accomplish with more abstract educational material.

Control: Edutainment games are often more limiting than their entertainment counterparts. More control over what is done when should be given back to players.

Challenge: Any activity in a game should be at an appropriate level of difficulty, instead of relying on the lowest common denominator, which often makes games too
easy for most players.

Curiosity: Many educational games make the mistake of showing information in a

well-structured and ordered way, instead of making the game more complex and unknown to encourage exploration and immersion into the material.

Behaviorism is an approach in psychology that is only interested in behavior that can be

seen from the outside without taking internal mental processes into account. (see Graham,
2010)
2
There are two kinds of motivation: Extrinsic motivation, where positive rewards are used to
motivate, and intrinsic motivation, when learners participate without having to be rewarded
for it. (see Vosniadou 2001, p.27)
4

A newer approach to edutainment puts the main focus on the construction process of
knowledge through interaction with the game. This approach focuses on open-ended games
and micro-worlds which represent simplified simulations of a closed system and also on
the creation of simple games by the students themselves. Crucial to this approach is the interaction of players with the game world and objects within it. Through this interaction they
learn the properties and connections of these objects.
While the transmission of information through the game is the only goal of games in a behaviorist perspective, this new approach wants players to actively engage in a video game to construct knowledge themselves. (see Egenfeldt-Nielsen et al 2013, p.232, 233 238)

2.1.2. Commercial games in an educational context

The second category are commercial entertainment games used in an educational context because they have a component that has potential to be educational or hold some educational
value. An example of these games would be the city-building simulation game SimCity
(1989) which requires a basic understanding of urban planning, sewage and power systems,
pollution and crime. (see Egenfeldt-Nielsen et al 2013, p.232)
The theory behind and benefits of this category of educational games is championed among
others by James Paul Gee. As it most closely coincides with the goals of this paper, Gees
work will be expanded on in the next chapter.

2.1.3. Research-based educational video games

The third and by comparison newest category is research-based educational video games. In
contrast to traditional edutainment, these games represent new approaches to video game
based learning. (see Egenfeldt-Nielsen et al 2013, p.232)

2.2. Issues of the field

Each of these categories has its own merits and problems that have led to considerable discussion and research questions. From this, four foundational issues have arisen. (see EgenfeldtNielsen et al 2013, p.239)
5

2.2.1. Learning versus Playing

There is an inherent contradiction between learning and playing and researches increasingly
suggest that educational games should clearly present that they are about learning a specific
topic.
The main aspect of this issue is player control. In most entertainment games the player remains in control, which is different from the clear demands of a classroom environment.
However, studies show that careful guidance through introduction and debriefing after the
game experience is crucial for the learning process. In the end, many students are unsure
whether to see playing a video game as play or learning.
Furthermore, depending on a students everyday exposure to entertainment video games,
some students do not trust information displayed inside a game, while others will trust it too
much. Both blind belief in and complete rejection of the information that should be transmitted are poor starting points for learning. (see Egenfeldt-Nielsen et al 2013, p.239-240)

2.2.2. Drill-and-practice versus Microworlds

The preference of the drill-and-practice approach, mostly propagated by the behaviorist
school of thought, is understandable, as it is similar to the repetitive methods of many traditional classrooms. Edutainment games using this approach are also easier to develop.
In contrast, games with microworlds are much harder to design. As mentioned before, microworlds represent a simplified version of a domain. A microworld could be a simplified
physics environment presenting the relationships between atoms or a simulation of a historic
city, showing the everyday life of a certain time in history. Players in microworld games are
not confronted with similar material over and over again, but can piece together knowledge of
a certain domain by immersing themselves in the represented knowledge in the order and time
frame that they prefer. (see Egenfeldt-Nielsen et al 2013, p.240)

2.2.3. Immersion versus Transfer

Studies have shown that the characteristic immersive aspect of video games can lead to a lack
of awareness of the underlying structures and the learning material the games should
transport. As a result, students can find it hard to transfer knowledge gained through a game
into other contexts where it is also applicable. However, successful transfer of knowledge
from a video game to other classroom practices is largely determined by how the teacher supports the usage of the game. (see Egenfeldt-Nielsen et al 2013, p.240-241)

2.2.4. Teacher Intervention

It has already been mentioned that behaviorist edutainment games largely deny the role of a
teacher, believing that the games themselves need no introduction or reflection. However,
commercial games in a classroom environment should be seen as tools that interested and
proficient teachers can use to create specific learning experiences.
When using video games in class, the teacher has to take on and switch between different
roles. As an instructor, they have to plan and communicate the goal of the game or part of the
game presented, in relation to the learning goal. As a playmaker, they need to be able to
communicate the tasks and goals of the game from the students perspective. In the role of a
guide, they provide scaffoldings and natural barriers within the games to help students meet
specific learning goals. And as an evaluator, teachers have to understand students gameplay
behavior and respond to it. These roles are not absolute and the teacher has to be able to
switch between them depending on the situation and the student. (see Egenfeldt-Nielsen et al
2013, p.241)
To provide a specific example using a more recent entertainment game, a teacher in an ethics
class could set up a certain situation in the fantasy roleplaying game The Elder Scrolls:
Skyrim (2011):
In Skyrim, players take control over the character of the Dragonborn, who moves in a world
set in roughly medieval times, but with magical elements like wizards and dragons.. The creation of this character is very open and provides a plethora of options, both in the way this
character looks and acts inside the game world. In addition, most situations of the game allow
players different approaches. For examples, an enemy can be defeated both through direct
martial prowess, magical abilities or by sneaking up on them to take them out with an unex7

pected attack. In addition, the player could avoid combat by sneaking past the enemy or in
some cases talk to the person and convince them of the players point of view.
The teacher could now set up a situation where students take control of the Dragonborn inside
the world of Skyrim for additional immersion, they could let students modify the look of the
character and have to gain access to a valuable magic ring by getting past an NPC that will
attempt to stop them. Inside the game, the player character has the equipment and skills necessary to utilize all the options for dealing with potential enemies listed above.
In preparation, the teacher explains the basic game mechanics of Skyrim and clearly states the
goal of the exercise gaining access to the magic ring and dealing with the NPC in some
way.
After the exercise, the students and teacher can talk about their experiences in the game. Students can discuss the merit of different approaches, while the teacher provides them with insight on ethical implications of their actions.
This exercise could also be used in a class dedicated to philosophy, where the teacher would
explain the relations of specific actions and philosophical schools of thinking, possibly opening up a students interest into the subject.
Arguably, this is a lot of work for a teacher, both in the preparation and reflection phase of the
exercise, but it is an example of the usage of an entertainment game in a school environment,
using the microworld of Skyrim to explore questions of ethics and philosophy.
Skyrim offers even more options for the interested teacher and students, as the game makes it
possible for the players to become influential military commanders in a civil war, lead other
influential factions inside the game world, or, on the other hand, build their own house, get
married and start a family.
In addition, Skyrim also addresses topics such as gender equality, tradition, racism, religion
and identity.
While most of this content is often represented somewhat superficially and not in a completely realistic fashion, all of these game elements can become starting points for discussion and
learning of connected topics in different subjects for students of different ages, genders and
cultural backgrounds.

2.3. Research findings

The book Understanding Video Games summarized the findings of several different studies
interested in the value of usage of video games in a school context.
One study that used a historical strategy game to teach about facts of history showed that
students found the video game more engaging and motivating than traditional learning.
A problem with research in the area is that it is often content with proving that students can
learn from video games, but there is no attempt to compare the results of learning through a
game with learning through traditional means.
Studies have come up with some guidelines that increase effectiveness of video game based
learning:

Games do have to be entertaining

Games have a stronger impact when learners have free access to them

Game-based learning requires an active approach. Games should require the player to
make decisions and infer rules from the game mechanic by themselves

(see Egenfeldt-Nielsen et al 2013, p.241-243)

2.3.1. Research in cognitive learning

A lot of research is focused on how games can be used to gain specific knowledge on specific
topics, but there has been some more general research into how games can influence cognitive
functions.
Although anecdotal evidence remained that games can influence hand-eye coordination, no
studies have proven this conclusively.
The cognitive function of spatial ability has also been researched thoroughly, and subjects
were often more adept at recognizing 2D and 3D objects in space after playing video games.
The cognitive area of problem solving has received the most attention in the last 30 years.
However, while these studies have proven that problem solving skills can be transferred from
one video game to another, and that general problem solving skills can be indicative of performance in games that require them, these studies did not find conclusive evidence that prob9

lem solving skills from video games can be transferred to real-life situations. (see EgenfeldtNielsen et al 2013, p.243-244)

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3. Learning principles in direct connection with video games

The following chapter summarizes concepts of learning developed by Paul James Gee in his
book What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy". They were created in
direct connection to video games and what a video game has to consist of to represent a valid
form of learning (see Gee 2007, p.4).

3.1. Video games as semiotic domains

The concept of a semiotic domain is brought up by Paul James Gee in What video games
have to teach us about learning and literacy A semiotic domain consists of a set of practices
that uses one or more modalities like written or oral language, signs, images, sounds, gestures
etc. to communicate meaning distinctive to a certain field of expertise. The term semiotic domain can be roughly translated to mean an area or set of activities where people think, act
and value in certain ways (see Gee 2007, p.19).
An example of a semiotic domain could be theoretical physics, rap music or first-person
shooter video games.
A semiotic domain consists of internal and external parts. The internal structure of a semiotic
domain contains the practices and processes unique to this domain (see Gee 2007, p.27).
Taking the above example of first-person shooters and making it more specific by using a
single game from that domain, Doom, we can easily determine what is part of this games
internal structure. The player controls a main character in the first person perspective. The
player can move that character through the game world. Inside this game world are enemies
that can be shot at with weapons that can be found and picked up. A lot of the symbolism in
the game, like enemies, symbols on walls and even the layout of the game world, is influenced by classical mythology or the bible. (see Shoemaker 2013)
The internal part of a semiotic domain largely consists of content. Acquiring knowledge outside of what can be deducted from the content of a domain requires connection to others invested in the same area, through personal contact or over the internet. This makes up the external part of the semiotic domain (see Gee 2007, p.27).
Going back to the above example of Doom, a player would connect to other players of the
game in some way, exchange their experience with the game and thus get to know other
11

views and methods of play practiced by the semiotic domain of Doom-players. By extension,
association with this semiotic domain can lead to the discovery of other domains closely related to it, like that of first-person shooter games. On the other hand, the symbolism of the
game serves as a connection to the semiotic domains of mythology and religion.

3.2. Identity and learning

In almost every video game, players are taking on an identity that is usually, to varying degrees, different to their own. In the above example of the game Skyrim, players take on the
identity of the Dragonborn, who can be either male or female, and a member of different races
(like a reptilian or cat-like humanoid, an elf or an orc).
Gee argues with a different example that to immerse themselves in a video game, players
must project their identity into the character, which results in three identities working together:

The virtual identity, which represents the virtual character in the virtual world

The real identity, representing the player who is playing a game in the real world and

The projective identity, where the focus lies on the interaction between the player and
the character. The word project is uses to show that not only is the player projecting
his or her values and beliefs onto the character, he or she also sees the character as
their own project for which they have certain goals and expectations.

(see Gee 2007, p.45-54)

A player that shapes his or her Dragonborn character in Skyrim to be an orc warrior creates
their own version of that character as their virtual identity, while remaining a real person playing the game Skyrim. However, this players projects their values onto the Dragonborn, which
will shape the decisions of this character in the game world. In addition the player will have
certain goals and aspirations inside the game world, and will use the Dragonborn to achieve
them.
To Gee (2007), this play of identities is the root of active and critical learning in a classroom.
In a science class, for example, students should be able to take on the identity of a scientist in
a similar way to how players take on identities in video games. Students should be able to
take on this new role and commit to the new identity, but will involuntarily project their be12

liefs, strengths and weaknesses onto this new role. What is important is that students will have
to be able to make a bridge between their real-world identity and the virtual identity of a scientist. In order to accomplish the creation of such a bridge, a learner must be enticed to try,
must be enticed to put in lots of effort and must achieve some meaningful success for his or
her effort. Three important concepts that good video games have at their core. (see Gee 2007,
p.54-56)

3.3. Practice and learning

Gee (2007) also remarks on the discrepancy between the drill-and-practice approach to learning that still dominates school environments and the different approach to practice in video
games, even though he admits that learning does require copious amounts of practice.
His argument is that because video games create commitment in relation to the virtual identities of players, these players will participate in the game for an extended period of time.
For an active learning process, students at school must be engaged in a similar manner to allow the amount of practice that is needed for them to succeed.
However practice without context or reflection does not have the same value as practice
gained through repetition of a process that has to be undone, analyzed and re-learned during
the process. (see Gee 2007, p.64-68)
A good example of this form of practice, where already learned and automated skills have to
be re-evaluated, is the single-player campaign of the science fiction real time strategy game
Starcraft (1998). In Starcraft, the player takes on the role of a commander of armies, who has
to build up an economy, create buildings and train units to fight against others. The singleplayer campaign is a set of missions that increase in difficulty and complexity over time. As
the game reaches a high level of complexity, the missions in Starcraft do not open up all possibilities to players from the start. For the first few missions, players will only control a small
amount of land-based units that fight against other land-based units. Most players will have to
develop some form of strategy that utilizes these limited resources in an effective way, or they
will not be able to complete the objectives of the missions. However, later in the game, flying
units (like space-ships and flying monsters) will be made available both to the players and
their computer-controlled enemies. Now, players will be forced to adapt their previous strategies and skills to incorporate these new circumstances. Starcraft does this very well, increas13

ing the complexity of the game not only through the amount of options available, but also
through the amount of units players have to control at once, in different circumstances.

3.4. Embodied and situated meaning

Meaning in video games is constructed differently than in books or movies, largely because
information is presented in a different way. The story of the game, and the information a
player possesses, often depends on which elements of the game the player has interacted with
in what order. (see Gee 2007, p.78-79)
For instance, in the game Skyrim, a player can find items called lock picks. From real-life
experience, a player might know that lock picks are used to open locks without a key. Inside
the game, these lock picks will have no further meaning than what the player brings in from
the outside. Yet, the first time the player interacts with a locked door or chest, an information
window will appear, instructing a player how these lock picks are used inside the game world.
A player that chooses to never interact with a locked door or chest will never know exactly
how lock picks are used in the world of Skyrim.
This is a simple example of the concept Gee (2007) refers to as situated or embodied meaning. In games, the meaning of any event, object, conversation or any other meaningful sign is
not completely explained unless the player gives it meaning through interaction with the game
world. In addition, the meaning of something inside a game can change depending on the situation the player and their character find themselves in. (see Gee 2007, p.81-83)
The meaning of ammunition for a powerful gun in a shooter game like Doom can take on
different meanings. By default, ammunition represents the number of times this powerful
weapon can be fired. However, if there are only a few shots left, the ammunition becomes a
limited resource that should be used sparingly, only when it is absolutely needed.
This concept of embodied meaning in video games is in contrast to how information is presented in a school environment, where the meaning of words or concepts are only general and
without context. The argument here is that it is believed that not all information needed in
school, like higher mathematical functions for instance, can be taught in a contextualized way,
while Gee argues and his opinion is shared with other information shown in this paper that
true learning can only be achieved through contextualizing meaning. (see Gee 2007, p.83-87)

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In the same way that meaning in video games is stored in objects or skills, thinking, problem
solving and knowledge can be stored in tools, technologies and scientific concepts. Learners
can free their mind for other things as they combine their own knowledge with the stored
knowledge and achieve more powerful effects. (see Gee 2007, p.110)

3.5. Transfer in video games

The concept of transfer in learning was already remarked upon in 2.2.3. Immersion versus
Transfer.
In video games, transfer can come into play at different locations, one most obvious one is
when a player has played through a game with a certain set of skills and strategies, but comes
to a point in the game where a certain enemy or situation is no longer beatable with established strategies. Now, the player has to transfer skills and strategies from previous experience, by detected underlying similarities of the old knowledge with the current problem.
However, these transferred strategies need to be adapted and changed to the new problem
with creativity. Furthermore, players will have to rely on trying out completely new strategies
along with the transferred knowledge. This, again, requires some degree of reflection, though
not after the experience but during the action. (see Gee 2007, p.124-129)
Gee (2007) argues that this method of transfer works in video games because these games
gradually build up the basic skills needed in them (or their genre overall), by slowly increasing the difficulty during the course of the game, while giving players enough time to adapt
their strategies and transfer previous knowledge. The main point here is that video games are
designed that way, while the classroom environment is usually not. Gee places the responsibility of creating designed spaces in a learning environment on the teachers. (see Gee 2007,
p.139-142)

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4. Learning principles for a school environment

In this chapter, I will summarize a set of learning principles collected by Stella Vosniadou for
inclusion in the Educational Practices Series developed by the International Academy of
Learning. These findings represent a more traditional3 view of learning with a focus on how
certain principles of learning can be applied by teachers in classrooms. The principles are
based on research in the fields of psychology and educational science (see Vosniadou 2001,
page 6).
Using the knowledge accumulated in previous chapters, an attempt will be made to explain
how and where these principles can connect to certain games, or video games in general.

4.1. Active involvement

Learning requires the active, constructive involvement of the learner.
(Vosniadou 2001, p.8)
Learning requires the cognitive activities of paying attention, observing and not only memorizing, but also understanding the knowledge that is presented to a student. Teachers have to
provide an interesting and challenging environment that encourages active involvement (see
Vosniadou 2001, p.8).
Playing any video-game, with few exceptions, requires active involvement of the player by
default. It is not rewarding to play a first person shooter without moving the character around
inside the game world.
James Paul Gee (2004) elaborates on this in his essay Learning by design: Games as learning
machines: His concept of co-design states that good learning requires learners to feel like producers, actively involved in the shaping of the game world, instead of mere recipients being
told about it. In good games4, the players are co-creating the world with their decisions and
actions. Gee cites the game The Elders Scrolls: Morrowind (2002) as an example of such a

Traditional in the sense that they are principles developed for learning in schools and other
traditional learning environments, not traditional in the sense of old or established a long time
ago.
4
The term good game is used by Gee to describe a game that incorporates the respective
learning principle in its gameplay. The term carries no meaning connected to the actual quality of these games.
16

game, as the actions and decisions of players shape the game world, effectively creating a
different gaming experience for every player. (see Gee 2004, p.17)

4.2. Social participation

Learning is primarily a social activity and participation in the social life of the school is central for learning to occur. (Vosniadou 2001, p.9)
In school learning, establishing a collaborative and co-operative atmosphere is an essential
pre-requisite. Children learn by internalizing activities, habits and vocabulary of the members
of their community. Students also work harder when they are aware that their work will be
shared with others. (see Vosniadou 2001, p.9)
While Vosniadou does not make use of the term, this learning principle speaks largely about
participation in semiotic domains of different subjects at school. For an elaboration of how
semiotic domains and video games are connected, see 3.1. Video games as semiotic domains.

4.3. Meaningful activities

People learn best when they participate in activities that are perceived to be useful in real life
and are culturally relevant. (Vosniadou 2001, p.11)
School activities can be perceived as not meaningful when students do not understand why
they are doing them or how they are relevant to their everyday life and their culture. In a
school environment, it is important to situate classroom activities in an authentic context to
make them relevant. (see Vosniadou 2001, p.11)
While activities inside a video game might not feel relevant to real life shooting monsters in
Doom will not contribute directly to the everyday life of a player, nor will it be relevant to
their specific culture they are directly relevant to the environment set before the player with
their character in the game world. With this in mind, any activity inside a video game can be
perceived as useful and relevant inside the context of the game world and its mechanics.
James Paul Gee (2004) says that in this way, game worlds provide a larger system in which
skills, ideas and strategies become meaningful. In a good game, players can understand how
the different elements of a game work together and are able to understand the underlying rules
17

of that game. With this knowledge, they derive context for their actions and perceive them as
meaningful. (see Gee 2004, p.22)

4.4. Relating new information to prior knowledge

New knowledge is constructed on the basis of what is already understood and believed.
(Vosniadou 2001, p.12)
It is very hard for someone to learn, remember or understand something if it is not in some
way connected to already acquired knowledge. However, possession of prior knowledge is
not sufficient, people must be able to activate it and bring it into context to understand and
learn. Teachers need to be aware of the prior knowledge of students and help them relate it
with new material. (see Vosniadou 2001, p.12)
Prior knowledge of students can be seen as part of their real identity (see 3.2. Identity and
learning), which can, in part prohibit their capacity to connect with new information by taking
on a new virtual identity in a new subject.
For example, children who see themselves as part of a family that are not adept at learning
technical things (the semiotic domain of people who are not good at technical things), it can
inhibit their capacity for technical learning. (see Gee 2007, p.57)
Video games on the other hand, require the play of identities and because their content is
almost always new and compelling make the projection of identity easier and allow students
to overcome their own conceptions or misconceptions about themselves easier.

4.5. Being strategic

People learn by employing effective and flexible strategies that help them to understand,
reason, memorize and solve problems. (Vosniadou 2001, p.14)
From an early age on, children develop simple strategies to help themselves solve problems.
For example, they repeat words over and over to commit them to memory, thus discovering
rehearsal as a strategy to improve memory. In a school environment, teachers should help
children develop appropriate strategies for solving mathematical problems or understanding
texts. Specific strategies help with understanding and solving problems in specific situations.
18

The more strategies a person can employ, the more problems they can solve. (see Vosniadou
2001, p.14)
When applying this principle to video games, applying specific skills or a set of skills in a
game can be seen as a strategy. In a good game, skills are not practiced over and over out of
context. Instead, a set of related skills is used in certain situations to accomplish a goal the
players want to accomplish. In this way, players will see certain skills in a package that makes
up a strategy for these situations, and use them again. (see Gee 2004, p.21)
An example of a set of skills and actions inside a game that form a strategy are the so-called
build orders in the game Starcraft 2 (2010). These games are real time strategy games where
the player takes up the role of a commander of armed forces and has to create an army to defeat the forces of their opponents. In order to do this, the player must build up an economy
and create buildings.
Build orders are a set of directions which building to build after the other, at specific times in
the game to maximize efficiency. Mastering a build order requires players to use skills inside
the game in a specific order over and over again. Certain build orders are used in certain situations and over time, a player builds up an internal inventory of these strategies and learns
when to use which one. (see Nalivakio, 2010)

4.6. Engaging in self-regulation and being reflective

Learners must know how to plan and monitor their learning, how to set their own learning
goals and how to correct errors. (Vosniadou 2001, p.16)
Self-regulation is connected to the employment of strategies. It is mandatory to evaluate the
strategy that was used, to understand if there were errors and to know how to correct them.
This reflection can be developed in discussions or debates or by writing essays where students
have to express their opinions and defend them. Another important aspect of this principle is
to help students set their own learning goals and to evaluate the best strategies to achieve
them. (see Vosniadou 2001, p.16)
While reflection about what has been experienced is not always an inherent part of video
games, it has been argued that in connection with education, reflection and debriefing after

19

playing a game (be it an edutainment or entertainment title) is an important part of the overall
experience (see 2.2.4. Teacher intervention).
A recent entertainment title, the adventure game The Walking Dead (2012), has made an attempt to make players reflect on their choices. The game was released in parts called episodes, and told the story of a group of survivors after a mysterious plague turned most people
into mindless zombies who wander aimlessly and attempt to kill and eat any living being they
come across. Players take control of a man called Lee and are faced with difficult moral
choices, such as who they will save from an attack or who of their slowly starving friends
they give food, when they do not have enough for everyone. All of these choices already influence the way the game progresses, forcing the player to immediately evaluate the choices
they have made. Additionally, at the end of each episode, the game will list the choices the
player has made, and compare them with every other player who has played the game. The
players can see how many others, in percent, acted like they did, encouraging players to reflect on their choices and the merit of choosing differently.

4.7. Restructuring prior knowledge

Sometimes prior knowledge can stand in the way of learning something new. Students must
learn how to solve internal inconsistencies and restructure existing conceptions when necessary. (Vosniadou 2001, p.18)
Prior knowledge about a subject can sometimes stand in the way of learning new information.
For example, students might try to apply what they know about natural numbers when they
are learning about fractions, which can lead to problems. (see Vosniadou 2001, p.18)
Problems like these can occur in video games as well. An example occurs in Starcraft 2, when
players transition from single-player mode, where they are completing missions against computer controlled enemies, to multi-player mode, where players have to defeat other players
online. Strategies used to successfully complete single-player missions no longer work against
other humans. As a result, players have to re-evaluate and change the strategies and skill-sets
they use. (see Fahey, 2010)

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4.8. Aiming towards understanding rather than memorization

Learning is better when material is organized around general principles and explanations,
rather than when it is based on the memorization of isolated facts and procedures.
(Vosniadou 2001, p.20)
Information that is only superficially memorized is forgotten much faster than information
that is also understood in a way that it can be transferred to other situations. This is directly
connected to the following principle. (see Vosniadou 2001, p.20)

4.9. Helping students learn to transfer

Learning becomes more meaningful when the lessons are applied to real-life situations.
(Vosniadou 2001, p.22)
Transfer is important to allow students to apply what they have learned to situations outside
the school environment. Transfer requires an adequate degree of understanding of the subject
matter. It is also important for students to learn how to apply what has been learned in one
subject to other areas. (see Vosniadou 2001, p.22)
The most obvious representation of the concept of transfer in video games are tutorials. Tutorials usually take place at the beginning of the game and aim to familiarize players with the
basic principles of the game, often in situations without time constraints or pressure. (see Gee
2007, p.114-124)
A good example for a tutorial that is integrated in a natural way into a game can be found in
the first and third person science fiction game Star Wars: Jedi Academy (2003): In this game
the player takes on the role of a young Jedi Knight a mystic warrior with supernatural talents such as moving objects from a distance and running faster than humanly possible. In the
first two missions of this game, the player has to move through a non-lethal course set up by
an authority figure inside the game. The supernatural powers mentioned before are made
available to the player at the point where they need them to proceed through the level, with
explanations

of

these

powers

presented

as

thoughts

of

the

main

character.

The player can now use these powers in combination to finish the missions, all of this without
any time constraints and without any real, in-universe danger to the character.
With the progression through these first missions, players will build up knowledge on when
21

and how certain supernatural powers can be used and combined in certain situations, and will
be able to recognize these situations when they come up later in the game.

4.10.

Taking time to practice

Learning is a complex cognitive activity that cannot be rushed. It requires considerable time
and periods of practice to start building expertise in an area. (Vosniadou 2001, p.23)
Obtaining expertise in an area requires a great deal of practice and exposure to the subject.
Teachers should attempt to increase the time students spend learning inside the classroom and
give each part of a subject enough time to sink in.(see Vosniadou 2001, p.24)
As in any game or sport, practice is an important part in many video-games. The harder and
more complex a game is or becomes, the more practice is needed to complete or master it.
An good example of this principle at work in entertainment games are team houses for professional players of the game Starcraft. Starcraft and its sequel Starcraft 2 have become hugely
popular in South Korea. The result was the creation of national and international tournaments
and the formation of teams of several professional players, who lived and trained together in
team houses under the supervision of a trainer. As a result of this, professional players from
South Korea dominate the international tournament scene of Starcraft to date. (see Bellos,
2007)
In addition the manner of practice required for Starcraft has already been remarked upon in
3.3. Practice and learning.

4.11.

Developmental and individual differences

Children learn best when their individual differences are taken into consideration.
(Vosniadou 2001, p.25)
Every student has different skills and abilities that result in major developmental differences
in learning. A teacher has to take these differences into consideration by assessing students
knowledge and strategies and providing them with the learning environment they need.
Teachers need to identify students strengths and areas of interest and use these areas to improve the overall academic performance.(see Vosniadou 2001, p.25)
22

This principle again connects to the concept of identity discussed in 3.2. Identity and learning.
When in a classroom environment, students should be able to take on the virtual identity of a
mathematician, a writer or a scientist, and should be able to use the strengths of their real
world identity in this new role.
This principle also ties directly into semiotic domains, as Vosniadou (2001) states that teachers should create circumstances for students to interact with people [] who are knowledgeable and enthusiastic about the kinds of things that are of interest to the students. (see Vosniadou 2001, p.26).

4.12.

Creating motivated learners

Learning is critically influenced by learner motivation. Teachers can help students become
more

motivated

learners

by

their

behavior

and

the

statements

they

make.

(Vosniadou 2001, p.27)

Intrinsic motivation, and with it the will to learn new things without reward, is created when
teachers recognize the accomplishments of students, provide feedback about their strategies
and help them set realistic goals. They should also provide new and interesting tasks to awaken curiosity and thinking skills at the appropriate level of difficulty.(see Vosniadou 2001,
p.27)
It has already been stated in this paper that intrinsic motivation is inherent in most video
games, as motivation is not created by assigning arbitrary rewards for correct behavior. Instead, the interplay of identities as explained by Gee (2007), shows that players will be motivated to progress through the game out of their projection of identity into the virtual character.

23

5. Conclusion
In the previous chapters, I have summarized different approaches to the topic of video games
and learning and elaborated more closely on the approach of James Paul Gee.
With this knowledge at hand, I have presented twelve learning principles created for classroom environments and juxtaposed them with these above approaches, adding my own examples made from analyzing several entertainment games.
Through the course of this paper, several conclusions can be made.

5.1. Main issues of video games in an educational context

5.1.1. The issue of Edutainment
The main problem of edutainment titles, video games made with the explicit goal of education
in mind, is that they are informed by a behaviorist approach to learning and as such do not
offer the kind of immersive experience of entertainment titles. Besides, they do not require the
same amount of preparation and reflection that more modern approaches to learning demand.
5.1.2. The issue of research
As was shown in 2.3. Research findings, a lot of the research in the area of video games and
learning has remained inconclusive. Either because the environment of the story favored a
certain outcome, or the research limited itself to a certain part of the overall topic.
However, as can be seen through the newer research-based edutainment titles, more research
in the right direction is being made.
5.1.3. The issue of transfer
Research has shown that, while students were able to transfer knowledge gained in a video
game to other video games, they could not transfer this knowledge to something outside of
games. This shows that the semiotic domains of video game genres like first-person shooters
and their sub-domains are closely linked and transfer between them is easy, but that these
domains are too far removed from those commonly associated with school and traditional
learning. For example, it is hard to find a link (and thus allow easy transfer) between the semiotic domain of first-person shooters and the domain of mathematics.
24

However, as I have shown in my example of a game situation in Skyrim in 2.2.4. Teacher

intervention, there is a possibility of transfer from the semiotic domain of the genre of roleplaying games to the domain of ethics and philosophy.
5.1.4. The issue of reflection
Due to the behaviorist approach of many edutainment titles, there is a misconception that students can be simply sat down in front of a game and be left to their own devices, without prior
introduction, without support during the game and without debriefing and reflection afterwards.
This issue can be only be circumvented if a teacher is willing to engage the subject matter
more thoroughly and prepare themselves and students for the exercise.

5.2. What design elements are crucial for games in an educational context?
This, I want to conclude, is the actual question that should be asked, not only when designing
new edutainment titles, but also when deciding which existing titles can or should be used in a
classroom.
The purpose of this paper was to show that there are already many elements in video games
that lend themselves well to creating a motivating environment for learning, but I want to repeat those that I think are essential for this purpose:
5.2.1. Represent a microworld
Microworlds represent a simplified version of a given domain. To use a previous example, the
game Skyrim represents, despite several supernatural elements, a simplified version of an
actual country. It has different cities and villages, with people living in them that go about
their everyday lives with or without direct interaction with the player. As such, Skyrim represents an opportunity for players to try out and learn things they could not do in real life. Obviously, many elements of Skyrim, like the possibility to kill other human beings, should not
be encouraged in school exercises with the game, but the many options of interaction with the
game world also represent options for connection and transfer to real-world issues and topics.

25

5.2.2. Present as many options as possible

Some of the games I have used in this paper, like the first-person shooter Doom, do not present the players with many options during gameplay. In Doom, players move through closed
environments where their only form of interaction is shooting at things with different weapons. While this alone creates many different skills and strategies for many different situations,
there is not much room for discussion aside from talking about simple effectiveness.
On the other hand, games like Starcraft, that offer many combinations of strategies that need
to be adapted at different points in the game, open up more avenues of discussion and reflection.
Ideally, a game not only visually represents the content of a given domain as a microworld,
but also gives players all the options that would be open to someone interacting with this domain in real life.
5.2.3. Build basic skills from the ground up
As argued by James Paul Gee (2007) (and summarized in 3.5. Transfer in video games),
transfer of knowledge works best when basic skills are built up by the game from the early
stages on, with difficulty increasing as the player progresses through the game.
I have shown this to be case in real-time strategy games like Starcraft, but this concept is also
incorporated in roleplaying or action games that use a system of ever-more powerful skills
that are unlocked as the game advances.

5.3. What can we learn from video games?

In conclusion, it can be said that the area of video games in an educational context is, like the
domain of video games themselves, not fully researched and evaluated. Nothing about the
design of video games is set in stone as, for example, the usage of the English language is.
In the same way, the value of video games in education is not yet fully explored and new research and findings will change a lot about how we feel about this topic. This makes the
whole area very interesting and exciting to analyze and work with, but it is clear that it also
requires a great deal of preparation by interested teachers, without any conclusive answer as
to how much influence it will actually have on students in a classroom environment.
26

What can we learn from video games? It could be argued that we can only learn as much as
what we can transfer from the semiotic domain of the game into other semiotic domains. It
could also be argued that playing a video game is in and of itself a learning experience that
follows along similar paths as our natural learning processes outside of the virtual world.
Therefore video games can not only be used to teach something, they can also be used as a
guideline to develop new concepts of teaching and learning for a school environment.

27

6. Sources
6.1. Books

Gee, James Paul. (20072nd edition). What video games have to teach us about learning and
literacy. New York.

Vosniadou, Stella. (2001). How children learn. Educational Practices Series 7. Brussels.

Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Simon. Heide Smith, Jonas. Pajares Tosca, Susana. (20132nd edition).
Understanding Video Games. The Essential Introduction. New York.

6.2. Internet

Shoemaker, Brad. The Greatest Games of All Time: Doom. URL:

http://www.gamespot.com/features/the-greatest-games-of-all-time-doom-6143094.
[26.05.2013]

Gee, James Paul. Learning by design: games as learning machines. Interactive Educational
Multimedia number 8, April 2004. URL:
http://www.ub.edu/multimedia/iem/down/c8/Games_as_learning_machines.pdf [12.08.2013]

Nalivakio, Toni. (2010). Starcraft 2 Guide. Learn the Game Basics. URL:
http://ezinearticles.com/?Starcraft-2-Guide---Learn-The-Game-Basics&id=4966678
[12.08.2013]

Fahey, Mike. (2010). How to fail at Starcraft II Multiplayer. URL:

http://kotaku.com/5599031/how-to-fail-at-starcraft-ii-multiplayer [12.08.2013]

Bellos, Alex. (2007). Rise of the e-sports superstars. URL:

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/6252524.stm [14.08.2013]

Graham, George. (2010). Behavirosim. URL: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/behaviorism

[14.8.2013]

6.3. Games

iD SOFTWARE. (1993). Doom. [MS-DOS]. Richardson, Texas: id Software

BLIZZARD ENTERTAINMENT. (1998). Starcraft. [DISC] Windows, Mac OS. Irvine,

California: Blizzard Entertainment

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BLIZZARD ENTERTAINMENT. (2010). Starcraft 2 Wings of Liberty. [DISC] Windows,

OS X. Irvine, California: Blizzard Entertainment.

BETHESDA GAME STUDIOS. (2002). The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind. [DISC] Windows,
Xbox. Rockville, Maryland: Bethesda Softworks.

BETHESDA GAME STUDIOS. (2011). The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim. [DISC] Windows,
XBox 360, Playstation 3. Rockville, Maryland: Bethesda Softworks.

MAXIS. (1989). SimCity. Amiga, Macintosh. Emeryville, California: Maxis.

TELLTALE GAMES. (2012). The Walking Dead. Windows, Xbox 360, Playstation 3, iOS,
OS X. San Rafael, California: Telltale Games.

RAVEN SOFTWARE. (2003). Star Wars Jedi Knight: Jedi Academy. [DISC] Windows,
Xbox, OS X. San Fransico: Lucas Arts.

29