Land Seismic Techniques for

High-Quality Data

Innovative seismic techniques are energizing exploration and development activities

in onshore areas, many of which have proved difficult to image in the past. New
seismic sources, acquisition methods and processing approaches help illuminate
reservoirs hidden beneath complex near-surface layers.

Claudio Bagaini
Oslo, Norway
Tim Bunting
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Adel El-Emam
Kuwait Oil Company
Kuwait City, Kuwait
Andreas Laake
Claudio Strobbia
Gatwick, England
Oilfield Review Summer 2010: 22, no. 2.
Copyright 2010 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Abdulmohsin
Al-Dulaijan, South Rub Al-Khali Co. Ltd, South Rub Al-Khali,
Saudi Arabia; Jarrah Al-Genai, Kuwait Oil Company, Kuwait
City, Kuwait; Danny Burns, Beach Petroleum, Adelaide,
South Australia, Australia; Daniele Colombo, Saudi Aramco,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia; Dennis Cooke, Santos, Perth,
Western Australia, Australia; Tim Dean, Tom Heesom,
Anthony McGlue, John Quigley, Paul Taylor and Richard
Whitebread, Gatwick, England; Benjamin Jeffryes,
Cambridge, England; Leif Larsen, Perth, South Australia;
Marco Mantovani, Milan, Italy; Denis Sweeney, Dubai, UAE;
Randall Taylor, Origin Energy Limited, Brisbane, Queensland,
Australia; and Pieter van Mastrigt, Brunei Shell Petroleum
Company, Brunei.
dBX, Desert Explorer, DX-80, MD Sweep, Q-Land,
Q-Technology and UniQ are marks of Schlumberger.
1. Quigley J: An Integrated 3D Acquisition and Processing
Technique Using Point Sources and Point Receivers,
Expanded Abstracts, 74th SEG International Exposition
and Annual Meeting, Denver (October 1015, 2004): 1720.
Ait-Messaoud M, Boulegroun M-Z, Gribi A, Kasmi R,
Touami M, Anderson B, Van Baaren P, El-Emam A,
Rached G, Laake A, Pickering S, Moldoveanu N and
zbek A: New Dimensions in Land Seismic Technology,
Oilfield Review 17, no. 3 (Autumn 2005): 4253.
2. Papworth S: Stepping Up Land Seismic, E&P (March 1,
2009), http://www.epmag.com/Magazine/2009/3/
item31469.php (accessed May 11, 2010).

28

Since the first land seismic surveys, performed in

the 1920s, the quality of data has improved dramatically through the use of better survey design
practices, acquisition techniques and data processing. Despite these advances, seismic surveys
still may deliver disappointing results in several
challenging parts of the worldincluding some
with significant onshore reserves.
Often, the cause of inadequate imaging of
deep structures lies in the presence of geologic
complexity near the surface. Variations in topography and in the velocity of near-surface layers
create distortions in the seismic signal. Strongly
refractive layers near the surface can prevent
deep penetration of seismic energy, as can intervals of anomalously low velocity. Abrupt lateral
changes in near-surface properties warp raypaths
and weaken the effectiveness of traditional processing methods. Provinces with rough topography, surface dunes, permafrost and buried soft
layers are notorious for the obstacles they present to exploration; companies prospecting in
these regions have learned to temper their
expectations of seismic surveys.
Recent advances in land seismic data acquisition and processing are enhancing imaging in
these problem areas. Advanced sources, optimized
acquisition practices and improved processing
algorithms are producing seismic data rich in
usable content, resulting in superior structural
imaging and successful inversion for reservoir
properties without compromising acquisition
efficiency. Sophisticated evaluation of signals

particularly those usually considered purely

noiseis enabling subsurface imaging in areas
that previously yielded poor results. With additional information, such as gravity, electromagnetic or remote-sensing data, uncertainty in
near-surface properties can be minimized, thereby
improving imaging of deep targets.
This article describes developments in land
seismic data acquisition and processing to help
oil and gas companies obtain effective results in
geographic areas that have proved difficult to
image in the past. Among the acquisition innovations are high-performance explosive and vibrator sources, a new way of activating vibrators that
extends the bandwidth of seismic energy imparted
to the earth and techniques for deploying multiple
vibrators to acquire data more efficiently. New processing methods involve characterizing near-surface properties using additional information from
surface waves and other geophysical surveys.
Because these advances rely on the enabling
technologies of point-receiver acquisition and
continuous recording available with the most
up-to-date land seismic systems, a brief review of
these systems is in order.
The Point of Point Receivers
Point-receiver acquisition involves recording
traces from individual receivers rather than summing the responses of a group or array of receivers
before recording the summed trace (next page,
bottom). Conventional seismic acquisition uses
group summing to attenuate coherent noise,
which is assumed to travel horizontally, and to

Oilfield Review

Copyright Andreas Laake.

enhance signal, which is assumed to travel vertically. However, summing the responses of a group
of receivers before recording the signal reduces
flexibility in subsequent processing. Furthermore,
the presence of near-surface heterogeneities can
complicate the desired enhancement of vertically traveling signals sought by grouping. Also, a
trace resulting from group summation generally
contains only the low end of the bandwidth of the
original individual traces.
WesternGeco pioneered point-receiver land
seismic acquisition and processing in 2002
with the Q-Land single-sensor system, capable
of recording 30,000 live channels.1 The newgeneration UniQ integrated point-receiver system,
introduced in 2009, relies on the same principle of
using a large number of receiversup to
150,000to sample the signal and noise in the
seismic wavefield.2 Compared with conventional
approaches that deploy fewer live channels, the
point-receiver approach allows much lower overall
sensor density on the ground yet provides superior
signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) and frequency content.

Summer 2010

Conventional groups

No corrections
before grouping

Conventional image

100m

Q-Technology point receivers

Trace-by-trace corrections
before grouping

Q-Technology image

Oilfield Review
Summer 10
Land Seismic Fig. Opener
ORSUM10-LNDSMC
Fig.seismic
Openeracquisition, receivers (inverted triangles) are deployed
> Point-receiver
acquisition. In land
on the ground surface (green). In this case the ground is an uneven surface, which causes signal
arrival times (red) to vary. Conventional acquisition (top) sums the responses of several receivers
before recording. Arrival-time variations are averaged and the resulting sum is a broader signal than
that of the originals. Point-receiver technology (bottom) records a trace from every receiver and
applies corrections to each of the traces before they are summed, resulting in a compact signal with
high signal-to-noise ratio. The seismic image created from point-receiver acquisition (bottom right) is
usually of higher resolution than that obtained from grouped acquisition (top right).

29

0
0.4

0.8

1.6

und

Gro

2.0

roll

Time, s

1.2

2.4

2.8

3.2
3.6

> Ground roll. High-amplitude ground-roll arrivals dominate the shot record acquired by point receivers
(left); however, they are properly sampled and therefore can be attenuated by filtering (right).

Signal preservation and noise removal in the

point-receiver approach are achieved in part by a
digital process that enhances the signal by summing recorded traces into groups at the spacing
required to correctly image the target without
aliasing.3 Before summation, individual traces
undergo noise-removal processing: Random noise

is removed on a trace-by-trace basis by proprietary programs; statics, or time shifts, are applied
to correct for elevation and other traveltime
differences; and amplitude compensations correct for variations in coupling of the source or
receiver to the earth. Noise that is coherent from
trace to trace, such as source-generated noise
ground roll, for instanceis removed by filters
that perform effectively because the noise is not
aliased (above).

Sources of Seismic Energy

Enhancing the receiving end of the acquisition
process is just half the story. Recent advances in
source technology are further improving data
quality by putting more seismic energy into the
earth at a wider range of frequencies.
Energy = power time Oilfield Review The ideal source for seismic exploration is an
Summer 10 impulsive source that concentrates its energy at
Land Seismic Fig. 2
a pointFig.
in space
and releases it instantaneously.
ORSUM10-LNDSMC
2
Such a source produces a concentrated wavelet
that enables resolution of subtle stratigraphic
and structural features. In practice, sources have
finite spatial size and emit signals over a finite
period, producing broadened wavelets that add
Vibrator source
complexity to processing.
Land seismic data acquisition relies primarily
on two types of seismic sourcesexplosives and
Time
vibrator trucks. Each has advantages and disad> Source energy. Impulsive seismic sources such vantages. Surveys may be acquired using one type
as dynamite supply a large amount of power
or both, and the choice depends on several facover a short period of time, and vibrator sources
tors, including geophysical objectives, cost and
supply power over a long duration. Both source
types can deliver equivalent amounts of energy environmental constraints.

Power

Impulsive
source

Explosive sources, usually dynamite, are

placed in shot holes drilled to below the zone
of near-surface weathering or unconsolidated
sedimentsusually a few to a few tens of meters
thick. Burying the source beneath this low-velocity layer increases the energy transmitted deeper
into the ground and reduces the amount of
energy that goes into creating undesirable byproducts: source-generated noise in the form of
surface waves. Dynamite is a high-power source
of short duration (below left). As such, it creates
a compact wavelet with a wide bandwidth. Other
advantages over vibrator trucks are its light
weight, low cost, lack of required maintenance
and capacity for deployment in rugged terrain
unreachable by vehicles.
As for disadvantages, the process of drilling
shot holes, burying the dynamite and cleaning up
after the operation is labor intensive, and with
this option the survey geometry cannot be
changed without drilling new shot holes. The
input signal can be neither measured nor reliably
repeated. Explosive sources are subject to strict
security regulations, and permission for use and
transportation may be difficult to obtain in some
places. The potential for causing damage prevents their use in populated areas.
To overcome some of these limitations
WesternGeco and Dyno Nobel developed dBX
purpose-built seismic explosive, the first explosive specifically designed for seismic source use.
The formulation offers significant geophysical
benefits over conventional explosive, optimizing
energy transfer to the earth and delivering higher
S/N and greater bandwidth than dynamite. A
comparison test in Canada demonstrated the
capability of the dBX source to improve imaging
of deep reflectors (next page, top). The safety
advantages of the new compound are also considerable. The two inert substancesa solid and a
liquidused in the formulation can be shipped
separately for safety. They may be mixed on site,
allowing field personnel to prepare only the
amount needed for immediate operations.
A completely different type of source, vibrators, or vibroseis trucks, use a concept developed
by Conoco in 1952. These mobile sources were
designed to obviate the need to drill shot holes,
reduce environmental impact and improve safety
and security.

the areas inside the blue boxes are equal.

30

Oilfield Review

Gel Dynamite Source

dBX Source
0

Amplitude, dB

Time, s

10
15
20

dBX source
Gel dynamite

25
30

25

50

75

100

125

Frequency, Hz

Seismic vibrators produce ground motion that

propagates into the earth. The waveform of the
ground motion is a chirp, also termed a sweep
(right). The envelope of the ground motion typically ramps up from zero at the start to a constant
level during the frequency sweep, then tapers back
to zero at the end of the sweep. This source type is
repeatable and customizablewith controllable
amplitude, frequency and phase. The force applied
to the ground can be monitored and adjusted in
real time by way of a feedback loop. Vibrator trucks
can be used in urban areas and can be equipped
with special tires or tracks for deployment in environmentally sensitive areas, such as sand dunes or
arctic snowpack.4
Vehicular access, however, may be restricted
in terrains such as mountains, swamps and
coastal areas. Source effectiveness may be limited in regions with thick weathered zones or
dune cover. Also, fleets of vibroseis trucks are
expensive to build and maintain. And unlike that
produced with dynamite, the input signal is not
impulsive, so additional processing is required to
extract interpretable data; a recorded trace is
correlated with a reference trace to extract the
reflected signal.

Summer 2010

Amplitude

> Explosive comparison. The dBX compound produces greater signal across the entire bandwidth (right) compared with conventional gel dynamite. The
increased low-frequency content is especially important for improving deep imaging. In this example from Canada the image obtained with the dBX source
(center) exhibits deep reflections (yellow box) more clearly than that obtained with conventional gel dynamite (left).

Oilfield Review
Time
Summer 10
>
signal.
LandSweep
Seismic
Fig. 4A vibrator creates ground motion in the form of a sinusoid
of varying frequency.
Amplitude
increases quickly from zero to a specified
ORSUM10-LNDSMC
Fig.
4
level for the duration of the sweep. This plot shows an upsweep, which
starts at low frequency and ends at high frequency. A downsweep does
the opposite.

For most survey objectives the advantages of a

vibroseis source outweigh the disadvantages.
Accordingly, hydraulic seismic vibrators are the
predominant source used in land seismic exploration today.
The performance of a seismic vibrator is dictated by its actuator, which is composed of a
driven and a driving structure. The main element
of the driven structure is the baseplatea

large rectangular pad in the midsection of the

vehiclethat is pressed to the ground by the
3. Aliasing is signal distortion caused by inadequate spatial
or temporal sampling; it can be avoided by sampling at a
frequency that is at least twice that of the highest
frequency in the waveform.
4. Gibson D and Rice S: Promoting Environmental
Responsibility in Seismic Operations, Oilfield Review 15,
no. 2 (Summer 2003): 1021.

31

Stopper
Reaction
mass

Baseplate

> Vibrator components. The baseplate is held against the ground by the
weight of the truck. A hydraulic system increases and decreases the force
on the baseplate by moving the reaction mass down and up at specified
frequencies, creating a sweep. The baseplate is about 1 m [3.3 ft] across.

weight of the truck. The main element of the driving structure is the heavy reaction mass. A piston
inside the reaction mass is mounted above the
baseplate with a hydraulic system to drive the
mass up and down (above).5

During operations the vehicle moves into

position and lowers the baseplate to the ground,
where it applies a compression to the earth. By
controlling hydraulic fluid flow around the piston
inside the mass, the vehicle operator can make the

Relative Acoustic Impedance

Low frequencies to 2 Hz

Low frequencies to 5 Hz

Relative acoustic impedance

Oilfield Review
Summer 10
Land Seismic Fig. 6
ORSUM10-LNDSMC Fig. 6

> Better inversion with low-frequency data. Increasing the low-frequency

content improves the ability to characterize rock properties through
inversion. In this model, shale of high relative acoustic impedance contains
a wedge of sandstone of constant lower impedance. Inversion of seismic
data containing frequencies down to 2 Hz (top) identifies the edges of the
wedge and also the relative acoustic impedance inside the sand body.
Inversion of seismic data containing frequencies down to 5 Hz (bottom)
identifies only the acoustic impedance contrasts at the interfaces. (Adapted
from Hill et al, reference 6.)

32

piston and baseplate assembly move up and down

at specific frequencies, transmitting energy
through the baseplate and into the ground.
The baseplate is often coupled with a large
fixed weight known as the hold-down weight.
During those parts of the cycle in which the reaction mass is moving down and the baseplate is
moving up, the hold-down weight applies a compressive force to keep the baseplate in contact
with the ground. Therefore, the ground force generated by a seismic vibrator is always less than
the product of the weight of the vibrator times
the gravity force. Harmonic distortions, or resonances, both in the vibrator and at the earth/
baseplate interface, can have the effect of additional upward-directed force and must be considered in the selection of the desired vibrator
output. Increasing hold-down weight on the
vibrator adds stability to the system and helps
establish optimal operating conditions.
Typical vibroseis vehicles can apply up to
60,000 lbf [267,000 N] and produce a sweep lasting
2 to 20 s. The frequency of the sweep may vary linearly or nonlinearly with time. A linear sweep is
one in which a plot of the instantaneous frequency
against time produces a straight line. Sweeps may
start at a low frequency and finish at a high frequency (upsweep) or vice versa (downsweep).
The typical vibrator can create signals with a
bandwidth from about 8 to 105 Hz. Broadening
the bandwidth by adding both low and high frequencies can enhance the resolution of seismic
reflectors.6 Increasing the amount of lowfrequency energy emitted by the source improves
the ability to invert seismic data for reservoir
properties (left). Enhancing low-frequency content also enables imaging of deep targets because
low frequencies are less attenuated and propagate deeper than high frequencies. The low frequencies are crucial for imaging beneath
absorptive formations. However, the energy output at low frequencies is limited by mechanical
constraints, such as the maximum displacement
of the vibrators reaction mass. The output at
high frequencies is limited by hydraulic and
mechanical constraints.7
5. Some seismic vibrators are designed to induce shear
waves (S-waves) instead of compressional waves
(P-waves) by vibrating from side to side instead of up
and down.
6. Hill D, Bacon J, Brice T, Combee L, Koeninger C,
Leathard M and McHugo S: Over/Under a Technology
for Illuminating Deep Objectives, presented at the
69th EAGE Conference and Exhibition, London,
June 1114, 2007.
7. Bagaini C, Dean T, Quigley J and Tite G-A: Systems
and Methods for Enhancing Low-Frequency Content
in Vibroseis Acquisition, US Patent No. 7,327,633
(February 5, 2008).

Oilfield Review

New Vibrations
To overcome these limitations, WesternGeco
developed two related source technologies: the
80,000-lbf [356,000-N] DX-80 vibrator and the
MD Sweep maximum displacement vibration
methodology. Together these systems enhance
the generation of both low- and high-frequency
energy delivered to the subsurface.
The DX-80 vehicle has a unique actuator
design that extends the high-frequency content
to more than 150 Hz, an improvement over the
105 Hz achievable from conventional vibrators.
The vehicles greater weight imparts more energy
to the formation to enhance the signal-to-noise
ratio. Also, the vehicles can be equipped with
rubber tracks, which offers several advantages:
In soft sand the enhanced traction enables the
vehicle to move to the next source location more
quickly, speeding up acquisition (right). A tracked
vehicle is more maneuverable, maintains a
straighter line and does not have to detour
around obstacles. It can climb steep slopes, cutting the amount of time spent bulldozing or
otherwise preparing lines and thus minimizing
environmental impact.

> A fleet of WesternGeco DX-80 vibrators. The 80,000-lbf Desert Explorer

vibrator can be equipped with tracks for use in soft-surface environments.

At the other end of the spectrum, the

MD Sweep approach increases the low-frequency
content of the signal. The method helps geophysicists design an optimized nonlinear sweep that
spends more time generating the frequencies that
need to be strengthened. This technique can add
up to one and a half octaves of full-power, low-fre-

Linear Sweep

quency bandwidth over what is possible using conventional practices. A DX-80 vibrator using the
MD Sweep technique can extend signal bandwidth
to below 3 Hz, greatly improving imaging results at
depth. A test in the Middle East highlights the
superiority of the nonlinear maximum displacement sweep in generating low frequencies and
illuminating deep reflectors (below).

MD Sweep Nonlinear Sweep

Two-way time, s

Oilfield Review
Summer 10
Land Seismic Fig. 8
ORSUM10-LNDSMC Fig. 8

70

Power spectral density, dB

65

> Linear and nonlinear sweeps. These lines (top) from a Middle East survey were
shot with the DX-80 seismic vibrator source but with different sweeps. The results of
the MD Sweep methodology (right) show better definition of deep reflectors (green
box) than the results of the linear sweep (top left). The deep imaging capability of the
nonlinear sweep is due to the addition of frequencies lower than 8 Hz in the power
spectrum (bottom left).

60
55

Linear sweep
MD Sweep
nonlinear sweep

50
45
40

10

12

14

16

Frequency, Hz

Summer 2010

33

Point-Receiver Acquisition with

DX-80 Vibrator and MD Sweep Design

Conventional Acquisition
1,400
1,500

Two-way time, ms

1,600
1,700
1,800
1,900
2,000
2,100

45

Amplitude, dB

40

35

Conventional bandwidth
From 8.5 Hz to 83 Hz = 74.5 Hz
3.2 Octaves

30

Q-Land bandwidth
From 5.1 Hz to 92 Hz = 86.9 Hz
4.2 Octaves

25

20

20

40

60

80

100

Frequency, Hz

> Pilot project in Australia. Point-receiver acquisition with the DX-80 vibrator
and MD Sweep design produced a seismic image with better definition than
that achieved with grouped receivers and conventional vibrators (top). The
new survey increased signal bandwidth by almost one octave (bottom).

Poissons Ratio

Q-Land acquisition with DX-80 source

and MD Sweep design

Conventional acquisition
1.3
1.4

Two-way time, s

1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0

Oilfield Review
Summer 10
Land Seismic Fig. 10
ORSUM10-LNDSMC Fig. 10

2.1
0.10

0.25

0.40

Poissons ratio

> Inversion for Poissons ratio. The broader bandwidth of the new survey produced inversion results
with improved apparent definition of zones of low Poissons ratio (ovals) in the reservoir interval (right)
compared with that of the conventional survey (left). Log values of Poissons ratio are shown at three
well locations (purple).

34

Santos and its joint-venture partners Origin

Energy and Beach Energy used this combination
of technologies to help map reservoir thickness
and sand quality in a pilot project in the Cooper
basin of Australia.8 Log data from a nearby field
indicated that reservoir quality, driven by low
clay content, could be linked to low Poissons
ratio.9 Part of the pilot study involved investigating the ability to invert high-resolution seismic
data for Poissons ratio and other attributes.
Earlier efforts with grouped receivers and
conventional vibrators produced a signal bandwidth of 8.5 to 83 Hz at the depth of interest. A
survey acquired with the Q-Land point-receiver
system and the advanced source technology
achieved a bandwidth of 5.1 to 92 Hz and delivered a clearer image of the target (left).
The new survey produced coherent signals
with some frequency content even below 4 Hz at
the reservoir depth (next page, top). Including
the wider bandwidth in seismic inversion produced a more detailed picture of Poissons ratio
than was previously available (below left).
Improving Productivity
Vibrators can be deployed individually or as a
groupoften with four trucks operating simultaneously at one source location. After the prescribed number of sweeps is completed, the
baseplates are raised and the vehicles move up
to the next location, typically a distance of 10 to
50m [33 to 160ft]. Meanwhile, signals from subsurface reflectors continue to be recorded by the
recording truck for 4 to 6 seconds, a period called
the listen time. For an 8-s sweep duration and
8-s move-up time, a minimum of 16 s is required
between sweeps (next page, bottom). Cycle time,
or the interval between two consecutive sweeps,
is the main limiting factor for productivity of land
seismic crews. Productivity, or the number of
seismic traces recorded in a given time, can be
increased by using more than one fleet; a second
fleet begins its sweep immediately following the
listen time of the first fleets sweep. This method,
called flip-flop acquisition, is currently in widespread practice.
Another factor that limits productivity is the
finite record length of traces acquired by conventional systems. These systems typically record for
only 30 to 60 s before they have to stop and write
the data to a hard disk. Efficient field deployment
of high-productivity vibroseis methods also
requires that the seismic crew be capable of
redeploying the receiver lines quickly.
Several techniques have been developed to
improve the vibroseis productivity that can be
obtained with flip-flop acquisition, mainly by

Oilfield Review

 8. Bunting T, Bayly M, Tham M, McBride P, Daly M and

Barclay F: Bookabourdie Q-Land* 3D Proof of Concept
Study; Mapping Sand Thickness and Sand Quality in
the Cooper Basin, presented at the 20th ASEG
Geophysical Conference, Adelaide, South Australia,
February 2225, 2009.
9. Poissons ratio, an elastic constant, is a measure of
a materials compressibility perpendicular to applied
stress. It can be expressed in terms of compressional
and shear velocities and varies with mineral composition
and fluid content.
10. Bagaini C: Acquisition and Processing of Simultaneous
Vibroseis Data, Geophysical Prospecting 58, no. 1
(January 2010): 81100.
11. Two sweeps are orthogonal if their initial phases differ
by 90.
12. Stefani J, Hampson G and Herkenhoff ER: Acquisition
Using Simultaneous Sources, paper B006, presented
at the 69th EAGE Conference and Exhibition, London,
June 1114, 2007.
Moore I, Dragoset B, Ommundsen T, Wilson D, Ward C
and Eke D: Simultaneous Source Separation Using
Dithered Sources, Expanded Abstracts, 78th SEG
Annual International Meeting and Exposition, Las Vegas,
Nevada, USA (November 914, 2008): 28062810.
13. Rozemond HJ: Slip-Sweep Acquisition, Expanded
Abstracts, 66th SEG Annual International Meeting and
Exposition, Denver (November 1015, 1996): 6467.
14. Jeffryes BP: Method of Seismic Surveying, US Patent
No. 7,050,356 (May 23, 2006).
Bagaini, reference 10.
15. Bagaini, reference 10.

Summer 2010

Conventional Acquisition, Low-Frequency Panels

1,400

0 to 4 Hz

4 to 8 Hz

8 to 12 Hz

Two-way time, ms

1,600

1,800

2,000

2,200

2,400

Point-Receiver Acquisition, Low-Frequency Panels

1,400

0 to 4 Hz

4 to 8 Hz

8 to 12 Hz

1,600

Two-way time, ms

deploying many fleets of vibrators. These techniques can be grouped into three categories:
cascaded sweeps, simultaneous shooting and
slip-sweep acquisition.10 Cascaded sweeps eliminate the listen time between sweeps when more
than one sweep is needed at each shot location.
In simultaneous shooting two or more groups of
vibrators generate orthogonal sweeps at nearly the
same time.11 The simultaneously acquired records
are then separated at the processing stage.12
During slip-sweep acquisition a second vibrator group starts its sweep before the end of the
listen time of the first sweep.13 This overlapping
approach is different from simultaneous shooting
in that it does not require the vibrators to be
ready at their locations at the same time.
However, harmonic noise from adjacent sweeps
can leak into each other, contaminating the
records. Numerous methods have been developed
to suppress the harmonic noise and separate the
shot records without affecting slip-sweep data
quality.14 Some of these acquisition techniques
can be used in combination for additional productivity improvement.
Geophysicists strive to find the most productive vibroseis acquisition technique that preserves data quality. Once the acquisition
parameters are set, including sweep length and
number of sources, the effectiveness of any of
these techniques at preserving data quality can
be determined. For a given set of acquisition
parameters, one study found an order of magnitude difference in productivity between the least
and most effective techniques.15

1,800

2,000

2,200

2,400

> Coherent low frequencies. Comparison of a series of band-pass panels shows the coherent energy
present in the point-receiver survey (bottom) relative to the conventional survey (top). Although the
point-receiver survey bandwidth of signal greater than about 35 dB was 5.1 to 92 Hz, the record still
contained energy in the 0- to 4-Hz range (left) where the conventional survey has none. The additional
low frequencies helped obtain high-quality images at greater depths.

Single-Fleet Operations
Cycle time = sweep time +
move-up time = 16 s

Fleet 1

Flip-Flop Operations
Fleet 1

Cycle time = sweep time +

listen time = 13 s

Fleet 2

Slip-Sweep Operations
Fleet 1
Fleet 2
Fleet 3

Sweep time: 8 s

Oilfield Review
Summer 10
Land Seismic Fig. 11
ORSUM10-LNDSMC Fig. 11
Listen time: 5 s

Move-up time: 8 s

Cycle time = slip time = 6 s

Slip time: 6 s

> Improving acquisition productivity. Flip-flop operations (center) reduce cycle time over single-fleet
operations (top) by beginning a sweep immediately after the listen time of the first fleets sweep. In
single-fleet operation and flip-flop acquisition, cycle time depends on the sweep length. Slip-sweep
operations (bottom) deliver a far greater productivity improvement because they eliminate the wait
for the end of listen time. In slip-sweep acquisition, the minimum allowed interval between two
consecutive shots is called slip time. The cycle time is therefore identical to the slip time and does
not depend directly on the sweep length. However, acquisition with longer sweeps typically requires
longer slip times to avoid severe contamination from harmonics generated from successive sweeps.

35

Dither Pair 1

Fleet 1

Dither Pair 2

Several km

Fleet 3

Fleet 2
Fleet 4
T1
T2

Shooting direction
T3

T4

Sweep time: 8 s

Listen time: 5 s

Move-up time: 8 s

Time

> Distance-separated dithered slip-sweep acquisition. In dithered acquisition

vibrators operate sweeps separated by a short, random but known time. In this
case two pairs of dithered sources are separated by several kilometers. The optimal
distance depends on target depth and source-receiver offset. Dither Pair 1 operates
first, at Times T1 and T2. Then they move to the next source point while dither Pair
2 operates at Times T3 and T4. This mode of operation enables the productivity to
be almost doubled compared with a slip-sweep acquisition of the same slip time.
Dithered slip-sweep acquisition with more than two fleets of vibrators is also
possible, although these deployments may require a higher number of vibrators than
is typically available.

However, until recently, an inherent limitation of the most productive vibroseis techniques
has been a compromise in data quality caused by
overlapping sweeps. Each record is contaminated with noise from the next record. An acquisition and processing technique developed by
Schlumberger scientists enables high vibroseis
productivity while retaining the data quality of

Source

conventionally acquired records.16 This technique, distance-separated dithered slip-sweep

acquisition, manages the interference noise
caused by simultaneous acquisition so that it
can be effectively removed at the processing
stage (above). Because the data quality of individual records after separation is essentially
identical to that of conventionally acquired

Eolian or
peatOilfield
deposits Review

Near-surface
zone

Summer 10

Land Seismic
Fig. 14 Receiver
High-velocity
zone:
ORSUM10-LNDSMC
Fig. 14
ice, evaporites, volcanics
Buried river channel
Glacial
scour

Water table
Datum

Bedrock

Leached zone

Reflector

> Near-surface variations. Differences in elevation and in subsurface lithology

and fluid content affect the traveltimes of seismic waves. Seismic processing
attempts to place the source and receiver on a datum plane by correcting the
traveltimes for the added propagation through the shallow subsurface.

36

records, and because many more records can be

acquired, the overall data quality is improved.
The method is able to separate the records and
eliminate interference noise, yielding final data
with quality comparable to that obtained with
sequential shooting.
Realizing the potential gains from this technique requires several enabling technologies
offered by the UniQ system that conventional
acquisition systems cannot provide. First, continuous recording is required to facilitate highproductivity acquisition without having to stop to
write data to disk. Second, the high channel
count with 150,000 active receivers allows deployment of wide receiver spreads. With receivers
spread over a wide area, sources can be working
at distant corners of the survey with negligible
interaction, promoting high productivity.
Solutions for Near-Surface Complexities
Nearly all land seismic surveys contend with surface unevenness and near-surface heterogeneity.
The shallow subsurface may contain large and
abrupt vertical and horizontal variations caused
by many factors, including differences in lithology, compaction, cementation and weathering
(below left). These variations generate delays or
advances in the arrival times of seismic waves
passing through them relative to waves that do
not. If the processing workflow does not account
for these time differences, the resulting seismic
image may exhibit low resolution, false structural
anomalies at depth, mis-ties between intersecting lines and artificial events created from noise.
Processing corrects for these time differences
by applying a static, or constant, time shift to the
seismic trace.17 The goal of applying static corrections is essentially to place the source and
receiver at a constant datum plane below the
near-surface zone. The amount by which each
trace is corrected depends on the thicknesses
and velocities of the near-surface anomalies.
Typically, a velocity model is constructed from
average velocities and thicknesses estimated
from refraction surveys or uphole shots.18
However, refraction techniques may not work
well in areas with shallow complexities, such as
velocity inversionswhere a high-velocity layer
overlies a low-velocity layerand vibroseis
surveys typically do not use shot holes.
An alternative approach uses surface waves to
develop a near-surface velocity model. Surface
waves, the main components of what the exploration geophysics community calls ground roll, contain more energy than any other type of wave

Oilfield Review

Rayleigh Waves
Wave propagation direction

Summer 2010

Lowfrequency
penetration

Dispersion

Shear-wave
velocity model

Depth
Velocity

Depth

Time
A

Distance

Frequency

Velocity

> Rayleigh wave analysis. Rayleigh waves are the vertical component of ground roll, the main sourcegenerated noise in the seismic shot record (A). As the wave propagates to the right, particles within
the earth experience an elliptical motion (B) similar to that of water waves. The wave amplitude
decreases with depth (C). Because waves with low frequencies penetrate deeper than those with
high frequencies, they usually travel faster (D). Variation of velocity with frequency or wavelength is
called dispersion. The dispersion characteristics (E) may be inverted to yield a shear-wave model (F).

Phase velocity, m/s

0

600

500

400

Phase velocity, m/s

700

100

100

Wavelength, m

50

150
200

600

500

700

150
200
250

250

300

Oilfield Review
Summer 10
Land Seismic Fig. 16
ORSUM10-LNDSMC Fig. 16

50
100
Wavelength, m

400

50

300

16. Bagaini C and Moore I: Dithered Slip Sweep Vibroseis

Acquisition System and Technique, US Patent
Application No. 20,100,085,836 (April 8, 2010). A similar
concept was developed for marine surveys by Moore et
al, reference 12.
17. Corrections that apply a time-variable shift to traces are
known as dynamic corrections, as opposed to static
corrections. For more on these corrections: Marsden D:
Static CorrectionsA Review, Part 1, The Leading
Edge 12, no. 1 (January 1993): 4349.
18. Refraction surveys use head waves that propagate
along a subsurface interface to investigate the depth
to the refracting interface, its dip and the velocity
contrast across it. Uphole shots use a source on the
surface and a geophone in a shot hole drilled to just
below the weathered layer. The traveltime from the
shot to the geophone gives the average velocity of the
weathered layer.
19. Park CB, Miller RD and Xia J: Multichannel Analysis of
Surface Waves, Geophysics 64, no. 3 (MayJune 1999):
800808.
20. Strobbia CL, Glushchenko A, Laake A, Vermeer P,
Papworth S and Ji Y: Arctic Near Surface Challenges:
The Point Receiver Solution to Coherent Noise and
Statics, First Break 27, no. 2 (February 2009): 6976.

Highfrequency
penetration

Particle-motion
direction

Wavelength, m

generated by a surface seismic source, and they

usually overwhelm the desired P-wave signals.
Surface waves are so called because they propagate
along the surface of the earth; their amplitude
decreases with depth. They typically have lower
velocities and shorter wavelengths than P-waves.
Surface waves can be dispersive, meaning velocity
depends on wavelengthlong wavelengths travel
faster and penetrate deeper than short ones.
Historically, exploration geophysicists have
regarded surface waves as coherent noise; in
conventional acquisition, receiver groups are
designed to attenuate them. But with proper
sampling by single receivers, these waves can be
analyzed for the information they contain about
the near-surface zone. Geotechnical engineers
use surface waves, especially Rayleigh waves,
which form the vertical component of ground
roll, to derive properties of shallow sediments.19
Applying this concept to exploration-scale surveys, WesternGeco scientists developed a workflow for surface-wave analysis for 3D land data
(above right).20 In this approach surface waves
are treated as useful signals until the near-surface properties have been extracted; then they
are removed.
For a given survey point it is possible to extract
the propagation properties of the Rayleigh waves
over a range of frequencies. For example, the relationship between phase velocity and wavelength
can be plotted to produce a dispersion section
(right). From this, a model of shear velocity versus
depth can be obtained by inversion. Shear velocity
is then transformed to compressional velocity
using well log information or empirical relationships. The compressional velocity model provides
the input for the static corrections.

150
200
250
300
1

10

Distance, km
700

600

500

400

Velocity, m/s

> Dispersion section. Analysis of Rayleigh waves at all frequencies produces a dispersion section
(bottom), a plot of velocity (color-coded) for every wavelength (vertical axis) and distance along the
seismic line (horizontal axis). These results are inverted for a velocity model. Two analysis points (top)
are highlighted, showing different profiles of velocity versus wavelength.

37

Kuwait Heavy-Oil Field

Depth, m

80

Shallow target

80

Time, ms

100

Shallow target

200
300

Refractor A

400

Refractor B

500
0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

Distance, km

> Near-surface velocity anomalies and a deeper image. The shear-wave velocity section (top) resulting
from Rayleigh wave inversion shows a notable velocity inversion with a high-velocity interval (red)
overlying lower-velocity formations (yellow). This velocity section was converted to compressional
velocity, which was used to correct the seismic data before stacking. The stacked section (bottom)
reveals the high quality with which shallow reflectors above Refractor B can be imaged. (Adapted from
Strobbia et al, reference 21.)

Shallow Targets
Characterizing shallow complexity is especially
important when the near-surface zone contains
the target formation. Such is the case confronting Kuwait Oil Company (KOC) in a field in northern Kuwait.21 This reservoir contains what is
probably the largest accumulation of heavy oil
in the country1,000 km2 [390 mi2] with 12 to
15 billion bbl [1.9 to 2.4 billion m3].22 The reservoir is extremely shallow, less than 200 m [about
650 ft], and thin: two 20-m [66-ft] sands separated by a 10-m shale. The shallow depth presents challenges to heavy-oil recovery methods.
The shallowness of the heavy-oil reservoir
also adds difficulty to seismic characterization.
The horizons of interest are in the interval usually considered the near-surface zone and are

embedded in a complex sequence of layers with

velocity inversions. Heterogeneities in the shallow subsurface that would normally be averaged
through static corrections are precisely the information required to understand reservoir properties and identify compartmentalization. The
attenuating nature of the near-surface sediments
requires powerful sources to achieve adequate
S/N and closely spaced receivers to record the
high frequencies needed for shallow imaging.
Kuwait Oil Company selected two sites for
acquisition testing, with point receivers deployed
Oilfield Review
in 2D lines.
Different
Summer
10sources were investigated,
including aLand
single
DX-80
vibrator
Seismic Fig.
18 with nonlinear
MD SweepORSUM10-LNDSMC
operation from 3.5 to Fig.
120 18
Hz.23
Near-surface time corrections were computed
by two means: conventional refraction statics

using a refractor below the reservoir and a hybrid

method that included analysis of surface waves
along with refraction statics. Although both
methods produced similar images, the refraction
static corrections alone resulted in a seismic section with some residual dip that was inconsistent
with the regional geology. The hybrid method
resulted in a section without residual dip.
Inversion of Rayleigh wave dispersion profiles
revealed a shear-wave velocity section with a
strong velocity inversion (above). This velocity
contrast corresponds to a change in compaction
or cementation of the sediments. Corrections
based on the associated P-wave velocity were
applied to traces before they were summed to
produce a stacked section. The resulting resolution of shallow reflectors is excellent. A strong

21. Strobbia C, El Emam A, Al-Genai J and Roth J: Rayleigh

Wave Inversion for the Near-Surface Characterization
of Shallow Targets in a Heavy Oil Field in Kuwait,
First Break 28, no. 5 (May 2010): 103109.
22. Oskui GP, Al Naqi A and Dusseault MB: Screening
Potential Production Technologies for the Lower Fars
Heavy Oil Asset in Kuwait, paper SPE 126268, presented
at the Kuwait International Petroleum Conference and
Exhibition, Kuwait City, Kuwait, December 1416, 2009.
23. Bagaini C: Low-Frequency Vibroseis Data with
Maximum Displacement Sweeps, The Leading Edge 27,
no. 5 (May 2008): 582591.
24. Strobbia et al, reference 20.

25. Bird KJ, Charpentier RR, Gautier DL, Houseknecht DW,

Klett TR, Pitman JK, Moore TE, Schenk CJ, Tennyson ME
and Wandrey CR: Circum-Arctic Resource Appraisal:
Estimates of Undiscovered Oil and Gas North of the
Arctic Circle, US Geological Survey, Fact Sheet
2008-3049 (2008), http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2008/3049/
fs2008-3049.pdf (accessed June 11, 2010).
26. Colombo D, Mantovani M, Hallinan S and Virgilio M:
Sub-Basalt Depth Imaging Using Simultaneous Joint
Inversion of Seismic and Electromagnetic (MT) Data: A
CRB Field Study, Expanded Abstracts, 78th SEG Annual
International Meeting and Exposition, Las Vegas,
Nevada (November 914, 2008): 26742678.

27. Colombo D, Cogan M, Hallinan S, Mantovani M,

Virgilio M and Soyer W: Near-Surface P-Velocity
Modelling by Integrated Seismic, EM, and Gravity Data:
Examples from the Middle East, First Break 26, no. 10
(October 2008): 91102.
For more on TDEM: Dawoud M, Hallinan S, Herrmann R
and van Kleef F: Near-Surface Electromagnetic
Surveying, Oilfield Review 21, no. 1 (Spring 2009): 2025.
28. Colombo D, Mantovani M, Sfolciaghi M, van Mastrigt P,
Al-Dulaijan A and Nafie T: Near Surface Solutions in
South Rub Al-Khali, Saudi Arabia Applying SeismicGravity Joint Inversion and Redatuming, First Break 28,
no. 2 (February 2010): 7784.
Karst is a term applied to carbonate formations that
have large cavities and irregular topography caused by
surface or groundwater dissolution.

38

Oilfield Review

Extent of karst structures

Two-way time

200 ms

Two-way time

200 ms

> Adding gravity information. Shallow karst features create large perturbations in traveltimes that are
not completely accounted for by refraction static corrections (top). Incorporating gravity measurements
in joint inversion generates a seismic image that is less affected by surface irregularities (bottom).
(Adapted from Colombo et al, reference 28.)

reflection near the bottom of the section, Refractor Integrating Other Measurements
B, is a Tertiary anhydrite and limestone layer that Approaches abound for improving land seismic
is continuous throughout most of Kuwait. For typi- results, whether by enhancing signal, attenuating
cal surveys it is considered the base of the near- noise, reducing model uncertainty or including
surface zone, and the reflectors and structures other measurements. For example, surface wave
above it are generally ignored. In this area con- inversion for near-surface velocity estimation has
taining a shallow, heavy-oil resource, they are the been successfully applied to land seismic surveys
layers of interest, and the hybrid method using in arctic regions, where permafrost and seasonOilfield Reviewally frozen layers induce large, abrupt vertical
surface waves successfully imaged them.
Summer
10 and lateral variations of elastic properties.24 The
In addition to creating velocity models
for comLand Seismic
19 north of the Arctic Circle has long been
puting near-surface corrections, Rayleigh
wave Fig.
region
ORSUM10-LNDSMC Fig. 19
inversion provides information about the shear- thought to contain a large portion of the remainwave properties of the reservoir and surrounding ing global oil and gas resources. In 2008 the US
formations. These results may be important for Geological Survey (USGS) estimated undiscovplanning enhanced recovery operations for pro- ered resources within the Arctic Circle at 14 bilduction of heavy oil.
lion m3 [90 billion bbl] of oil and 47.8 trillion m3

Summer 2010

[1,688 Tcf] of gas.25 More than 15% of the reserves

occur onshore, and finding them will require
ingenuity and high-quality surveys.
Variations in subsurface properties can also
be detected by gravity and electromagnetic measurements. Joint inversion of these data with seismic datasets is enhancing seismic imaging in a
wide range of environments. In the Columbia
River Valley, in Washington, USA, where a nearsurface basalt layer up to 10,000 ft [3,000 m] thick
refracts seismic energy, integration of seismic
and magnetotelluric data has improved imaging
at depths of more than 16,000 ft [4,900 m].26
Integration is also improving analysis of nearsurface properties. In the United Arab Emirates,
WesternGeco geophysicists incorporated data
from a time-domain electromagnetic (TDEM)
survey to compute static time shifts caused by
thick sand dunes.27 The high contrast in electromagnetic properties at the base of the dry sand
helped map the base of the dunes for the shallowvelocity model.
Information provided by gravity data has been
used in simultaneous joint inversion with seismic
data to compute statics for imaging deeper horizons. Gravity measurements are highly sensitive
to density variations near the measurement
point. This makes gravity a superb tool for
characterizing shallow heterogeneities. This
approach has been applied in Saudi Arabia,
where the gravity records showed clear evidence
of shallow density and velocity features inferred
to be karst structures in the Rus limestone.28
Final processing that included gravity and seismic joint inversion modeling for near-surface
properties resulted in a significantly clearer
image that was much less disrupted by nearsurface anomalies (left).
As more companies witness the progress
made in the quality of land seismic surveys and
deploy the latest source and acquisition techniques, applications will expand. In many areas
previously plagued with inadequate seismic
illumination, the way forward is to include new
kinds of measurements, whether they are other
types of seismic signals or surveys deploying
other physics.
LS

39