Applications of

Mathematics
STUDY GUIDE
PART B

Contents
Part B
Topic 4.

Modelling population growth

37

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors

37

Finding eigenvalues

40

Some interesting features and special cases

45

Leslie matrices

49

Answers to selected activities

56

References

57

TOPIC 4

Modelling population growth

PREPARED FOR THIS UNIT BY SUSIE GROVES AND
KEVIN MCAVANEY

One of the most well-known models of population growth uses aspects of linear
algebra, which you studied last semester in your unit EMM302 Linear and
Abstract Algebra.
The Leslie model (often referred to as the Leslie matrix) was developed by P.H.
Leslie in 1945. It is used in population ecology to model the changes in
population over time of an age-structured population.
Before we look at this application of linear algebra to modelling population
growth, we need to look at one further aspect of matrix theory that of
eigenvalues and eigenvectors. .

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors

For an n n matrix A, consider the mapping Av = u from n-space to
n-space.
Usually the vector u does not lie on the same line as the vector v.
In other words, u usually is not a scalar multiple of v, and there is no scalar
such that Av = v.
Of course, A0 = 0 for all A so we are only interested in non-zero vectors.
But sometimes some non-zero vectors do remain on the same line under the
action of A, as shown in Figure 4.1, where we have drawn the special case of
Ax = x.
FIGURE 4.1
Special case when

Ax = x

Ax = x

Av

In Figure 4.1, it looks as though the vector x has been stretched out by a
factor of about three and a half so that it is longer but still lies on the same line.
[Note that for our purposes here we will only consider vector spaces over the
field of real numbers, so whenever we say that is a scalar we just mean that
is a real number.]

38

EMM400 TOPIC4

Lets look at a numerical example.

EXAMPLE 4.1

2
1

2
1

4 1 6
1
= for any scalar , but

1 2 3
2
4 4 12
4
= = 3 .

1 1 3
1

2 4
1
moves the vector onto a different line in the

1 1
2
4
plane but keeps the vector on the same line while changing only its
1

So the matrix

length.
EIGENVALUES &
EIGENVECTORS

If A is a square matrix and Ax = x for some scalar and some non-zero

vector x, then
is called an eigenvalue of A; and
x is called an eigenvector corresponding to .
The terms eigenvalue and eigenvector come from the German word eigen
meaning own. So we see that if Ax = x, the vector x is moved onto its own
direction.

CHARACTERISTIC
VALUES &
CHARACTERISTIC

The eigenvalues associated with a matrix A are also called characteristic values
or characteristic roots associated with A, and the eigenvectors are called the
characteristic vectors.

VECTORS

EXAMPLE 4.2

4 1
. Then Ax =
2 1

Let A =

4 1
2 1 x.

1
1

4 1 1 3
= =3
2 1 1 3

1
2

4 1 1 2
= =2
2 1 2 4

Now A =

Also A =

1
1 .

1
2 .

1
1

1
2

So 3 and 2 are eigenvalues with corresponding eigenvectors and ,

respectively.

2
2

Notice that if we took the vector , we would get a similar situation, namely

2
2

4 1 2 6
2
= = 3 .

2 1 2 6
2

A =

MODELLING POPULATION GROWTH 39

2
2

So is also an eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue 3.

In fact, it is easy to show that if is any scalar,

1
) = A 1 = 3 1 .
1
1
1

then A

1
1

So, for all 0, is an eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue 3.

1
2

Similarly, for all 0, is also an eigenvector corresponding to the

eigenvalue 2.

1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
showing that A = 3 and A = 2 . In the process of doing
1
1
2
2
In Example 4.1, we verified the fact that and were eigenvectors by

this, we also found the two corresponding eigenvalues 3 and 2.

In the next example, we will illustrate how we can go about verifying that a
particular scalar is an eigenvalue for a given matrix A , and find its
corresponding eigenvectors.

EXAMPLE 4.3

2 5 5

In order to show that 2 is an eigenvalue of A = 0 3 1 we will try to

0 1 3
solve Ax = 2x.
This equation can be rewritten as 2x Ax = 0 or 2Ix Ax = 0, where I is
the 3x3 identity matrix.
So our original equation becomes (2I A)x = 0.

0 5 5

Now (2I A) = 0 1 1

0 1 1
5 5 0
0

We can apply row operations to the augmented matrix 0 1

1 0

0
1 1 0
(see pp. 1516 of your EMM302 Linear and Abstract Algebra Study Guide).

40

EMM400 TOPIC4

5 5 0
0
0 1
1 0

0
1 1 0

R2 = R1 + 5R2

R3 = R2 + R3

0 5 5 0
0 0
0 0

0 0
0 0

5 5 0
0
0 1
1 0

0
0
0 0

R1 = 1 R1
5

0 1 1 0
0 0
0 0 .

0 0
0 0

Hence x3 and x1 are arbitrary and x2 = x3.

x1

So the solutions for Ax = 2x are all the vectors of the form x = x3 ,
x
3
1

which can also be written as x = x1 0 + x3

0

0
1 .

1

So there are (infinitely) many eigenvectors that correspond to the eigenvalue

1
0

= 2, and they are all linear combinations of the vectors 0 and 1 .

0
1
THEOREM 4.1

PROOF

If is an eigenvalue of matrix A, then the set of all eigenvectors that

correspond to is a vector space.

The set of eigenvectors that correspond to is the null space of the matrix
(I A) that is, the set of solutions of (I A)x = 0.
(See Topic 3, in your EMM302 Linear and Abstract Algebra Study Guide.)

EIGENSPACES

The set of all eigenvectors corresponding to the eigenvalue is a vector space

called the eigenspace of .

Finding eigenvalues
In the previous two examples, we either started with some known eigenvectors
and found the corresponding eigenvalues (as in Example 4.2) or started with
some known eigenvalues and found the corresponding eigenvectors (as in
Example 4.3).
But what do we do if we know neither the eigenvectors nor the eigenvalues?
We will now show how to find the eigenvalues of a matrix when we dont have
any other information.

MODELLING POPULATION GROWTH 41

Recalling our earlier definition, a scalar is an eigenvalue of a matrix A if

and only if there is a non-zero vector x such that Ax = x that is, if and only
if there is a non-zero vector x such that (I A)x = 0.
Now we saw in Topic 2 of EMM302 Linear and Abstract Algebra, that there is
a non-zero solution of (I A)x = 0 exactly when det (I A) = 0.
So the matrix A will have an eigenvalue exactly when det (I A) = 0.
As we will see below, this observation will help us find the eigenvalues and
eigenvectors of a matrix (when they exist).
CHARACTERISTIC
EQUATIONS &

The equation det (I A) = 0 is called the characteristic equation of A and

det (I A) is called the characteristic polynomial of A.

POLYNOMILAS

EXAMPLE 4.4

2 5 5

Let us try to find the eigenvalues of A = 0 3 1 .

0 1 3
We can do this by finding and solving its characteristic equation as follows:

5
5
2

det (I A) = det
3
1 = ( 2){( 3)( 3) 1}
0
0
1
3
= ( 2)(2 6 + 8) = ( 2)( 2)( 4) = 0 when = 2, 2, 4.
So the eigenvalues of the matrix A are = 2, 2, 4 .
We found the eigenvectors corresponding to = 2 in Example 4.3.
To find the eigenvectors corresponding to = 4, we solve the system Ax = 4x,
which we can rewrite as (A 4I )x = 0.

5 0
2 5

Applying row operations to

0 1 1 0 we get
0 1 1 0

2 5 5 0
0 1
1 0

0 0
0 0

you should check this for yourselves.

Hence x3 is arbitrary, x2 = x3, and x1 = 5x3.
So the eienvectors corresponding to the eigenvalue 4 are

5 x3
5

x = x3 = x3 1

x
1
3
5

Thus the eigenspace for = 4 is generated by the vector 1 .

1

42

EMM400 TOPIC4

Before trying some examples for yourselves, let us try another worked example
that is a bit more complicated in its calculations.

EXAMPLE 4.5

2 3 1

Let A = 0 1 1 .

3 4 1
1
+ 2 3

So det (I A) = det
1 1
0
3
4 1

3 1
1 1
+ 3 det

1 1
4 1

= ( + 2) det

= ( + 2) (2 2 +1 4) + 3(3 + 1)
= ( + 2) (2 2 3) + 3( + 2)
= 3 7 6 + 3 + 6
= 3 4
= (2 4) = ( 2) ( + 2) .
So A has eigenvalues 0, 2, 2 .
We now need to find the eigenvectors corresponding to each of these
eigenvalues.
That is, we need to solve (I A)x = 0 for each of = 0, 2, 2 .
We do this in the usual way using row operations.
(i) = 0

1 0 2 3 1 0
+ 2 3
0
1 1 0 = 0 1 1 0

3
4 1 0 3 4 1 0

R3 = 2R1 3R3

2 3 1 0
0 1 1 0

0 1
1 0

R3 = R2 + R3

So we can make x3 arbitrary, x2 = x3, and

x1 =

1
1
(x3 + 3 x2 ) = (x3 3x3 ) = x3 .
2
2

2 3 1 0
0 1 1 0 .

0 0
0 0

MODELLING POPULATION GROWTH 43

1

So x = 1 is an eigenvector for = 0.

1
Notice that, as usual, once we have found one eigenvector for = 0, we know

1

infinitely many eigenvectors in this case all the scalar multiples of x = 1

1
1

that is, all vectors of the form x = 1 , where is any scalar.

1
As noted earlier, the set of eigenvectors corresponding to an eigenvalue form a
vector space called its eigenspace in this case the eigenspace corresponding to

1

the eigenvalue = 0 has as its basis the eigenvector x = 1 .

1

(ii) = 2

1 0 4 3 1 0
+ 2 3
0
1 1 0 = 0 1 1 0

3
4 1 0 3 4 1 0

R3 =3R1 4R3

4 3 1 0
0 1 1 0

0 7 7 0

R3 = 7R2 R3

4 3 1 0
0 1 1 0

0 0
0 0

So we can make x3 arbitrary, x2 = x3, and

x1 =

1
1
(x3 + 3 x2 ) = (x3 + 3x3 ) = x3 .
4
4

So x = 1 is an eigenvector for = 2, and the set of all eigenvectors

1
1

corresponding to = 2 have the form x = 1 where is any scalar.

44

EMM400 TOPIC4

(iii) = 2

1 0 0 3 1 0
+ 2 3
0
1 1 0 = 0 3 1 0

3
4 1 0 3 4 3 0

R1 =R1 R2

0 0
0 0
0 3 1 0 etc.

3 4 3 0

1
3

So we can make x3 arbitrary, x2 = x3, and

x1 =

1
1
4
5
(3x3 + 4 x2 ) = (3x3 x3 ) = x3 .
3
3
3
9

5

So x = 3 is an eigenvector for = 2 and the set of all eigenvectors

9
5

corresponding to = 2 have the form x = 3 where is any scalar.

9
We should also note that not all matrices have eigenvalues, as can be seen in
the following example.
EXAMPLE 4.6

0 3
.
2 0

Let A =

3
= 2 + 6 = 0 has no real solutions.

Then det (I A) = det

So the matrix A has no real eigenvalues.

ACTIVITY 4.1

Find the eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors for each of the

following matrices (when they exist).

1 2 3
1 1
0 1
0 1
a 0

; c)
; d)
; e)
;
a) 0 2 4 ; b)

1 3
1 0
1 0
0 b

0 0 2

1
0
2 0

;
g)
f)

0
1 2

0
cos sin
j)
.
sin cos

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
1

0
0

0
0
; h)
0
1

0
1

0
0
1
0

0
1
0
0

1
0
0 1
; i)
;
0
1 1

MODELLING POPULATION GROWTH 45

Some interesting features and special cases

ACTIVITY 4.2

Choose any 2 x 2 matrix and find its characteristic polynomial. What is

the degree of the polynomial? (That is, what is the highest power of
occurring in the characteristic polynomial?)
Repeat this with another 2 x 2 matrix of your choice.
Did you get the same answer in both cases?
Do you think you would always get the same answer? Why or why not?
Notice that in Example 4.5 the characteristic polynomial of A, det (I A),
was a polynomial of degree 3.
This will always be the case whenever we have a 3 x 3 matrix A can you see
why?
Now let us look at an n n matrix A.

a11

a21
If A =
...

an1

a12
a22

...
an 2

... a1n

... a2 n
, then
... ...

... ann

a11 a12

a21 a22
I A =
...
...

an 2
an1

a1n

... a2 n
.
...
...

... ann
...

We can now determine a few coefficients in the characteristic polynomial of an

n n matrix A without actually expanding det (I A).
If we were to use the top row to expand the determinant, we can see that the
highest power of in the polynomial is n
In other words, the characteristic polynomial of an n n matrix A has degree
n.
We can also see that the coefficient of n is 1.
Also the term in n1 can only come from the product of all the diagonal
entries, so its coefficient is the negative of the sum of all the diagonal entries in
A that is, the co-efficient of n1 = ( a11 + a22 + . + ann ).
Finally, the constant term in the polynomial is the value of the polynomial
when = 0.
So the constant term is det (0I A) = det (A) = (1)n det A.
In Example 4.4 above, the characteristic polynomial of the 3 3 matrix A is
( 2) ( 2) ( 4) = 3 82 + 20 16 and we can easily check that the
sum of the main diagonal entries in A is 8 and that det A = 16.

46

EMM400 TOPIC4

ACTIVITY 4.3

2 3 1

In Example 4.5, we had A = 0 1 1 .

3 4 1
Write down the characteristic polynomial for A you dont need to
calculate it again, just write it down.
Check that the statements above about the co-efficients of n, n1 , and the
constant term are correct.

ACTIVITY 4.4

Find a 2x2 matrix A with characteristic polynomial 2 + 1 .

Eigenvalues often give interesting information about their matrix.

THEOREM 4.2

det A = 0 if and only A has a zero eigenvalue.

For a proof of Theorem 4.2, see Exercise 9, Reiner, p. 77.

THEOREM 4.3

The eigenvectors that correspond to distinct eigenvalues of a matrix are linearly

independent.

PROOF

Suppose a matrix A has distinct eigenvalues 1, 2, , k , which have

eigenvectors v1, v2, , vk respectively.
Suppose one of these, say v1, is a linear combination of the others.
Thus v1 = c2v2 + + ckvk , for some scalars c2 , , ck .
Then Av1 = Ac2v2 + + Ackvk = c22v2 + + ckkvk.
But 1v1 = 1c2v2 + + 1ckvk .
So 0 = c2(1 2)v2 + + ck(1 k)vk .
The eigenvalues are distinct, so none of the brackets are 0. Also not all of the
cis can be 0, otherwise v1 would be zero.
Therefore one of v2, , vk is a linear combination of the others.
We can repeat this argument until only one eigenvector remains. Then this last
eigenvector must be zero, which is a contradiction.
Therefore all of the eigenvectors v1, v2, , vk are lineraly independent.

THEOREM 4.4

The eigenvalues of a diagonal matrix are its diagonal entries.

PROOF

d1

0
Let D =
...

d2
...
0

... 0
be a diagonal matrix.
... ...

... d n
...

MODELLING POPULATION GROWTH 47

The characteristic polynomial of D is det (I D)

d1

0
= det
...

0
d2
...
0

= ( d1)( d2) ( dn).

...
...

... d n

...
...

0
0

So the eigenvalues of D are = d1, d2, dn.

COROLLARY

The characteristic polynomial of an n n identity matrix is ( 1) .

Multiplying diagonal matrices is easy (why?). We can sometimes convert a
square matrix to a diagonal matrix in a way that helps us find powers of the
original square matrix.

THEOREM 4.5

Let A be an n n matrix.
Then A = BDB1 for some invertible matrix B and diagonal matrix D if and
only if A has n linearly independent eigenvectors and these are the columns
of B and their eigenvalues are respectively the diagonal entries in D.
We wont prove this result, but instead illustrate it with an example.

EXAMPLE 4.7

2 3 1

Let A = 0 1 1 be the matrix we used in Example 4.5.

3 4 1
We found that the eigenvalues of A were = 0, 2, 2 and that the

1

corresponding eigenvectors were 1 ,

1

1
5
1 and 3 .

1
9

We will now check Theorem 4.5 by letting

1 1 5
0 0 0

B = 1 1 3 and D = 0 2 0 .

1 1 9
0 0 2
Next we have to find B1 you can do this either by finding
A1 = adj A / det A (see Theorem 2.4, p. 14 of your EMM302 Linear and
Abstract Algebra study guide) or by using row operations (see pp. 1516 of the
same study guide). I will leave it to you to do this as Activity 4.5.

6 2 4
1
You should find B =
3 7 4 .

8
1 1
0
1

We can now check that A = BD B1 as follows:

48

EMM400 TOPIC4

1 1 5 0 0 0
6 2 4
1

BDB = 1 1 3 0 2 0 ( ) 3 7 4

8
1 1 9 0 0 2
1 1
0
1

0 2 10
6 2 4
1

= 0 2
6 ( ) 3 7 4

8
0 2 18
1 1
0
16 24 8 2 3 1
1
=
0 8 8 = 0 1 1 = A.

8
24 32 8 3 4 1
So we have now shown that BDB1 = A.
This is useful when we want to take powers of a matrix A.
20

20

20

For example, if we wanted to find A =(BDB1) = BD B1 (Why?).

This is much easier to calculate as finding powers of diagonal matrices is really
easy!
ACTIVITY 4.5

ACTIVITY 4.6

1 1 5
0 0 0

Let B = 1 1 3 and D = 0 2 0 , as in Example 4.7.

1 1 9
0 0 2
a)

Use either A1 = adj A / det A or row operations to find B1.

b)

Find D , D , D and write down what you would expect to get for D .

20

In Examples 4.3 and 4.4 we found that the matrix A = 0

0
1

eigenvalues 2, 2, 4 with corresponding eigenvectors 0 ,

0
1 0 5

Let B = 0 1 1 and D =

0 1 1

5
3 1 has
1 3

0
5
1 and 1 .


1
1

2 0 0
0 2 0 .

0 0 4

Find B1 and check that A = BDB1.

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors have many applications both in the theoretical
understanding of matrices and vectors and in mathematical modelling.

MODELLING POPULATION GROWTH 49

Leslie matrices
The Leslie model is one of the most used models in population ecology. It has
been used to describe the growth of populations of a wide variety of animals,
such as different species of fish, rabbits, beetles, and humans. In this section,
we will look at the model and its applications to a few examples, not all of
which are necessarily about living things.
The Leslie model uses a number of assumptions:

The population can be divided into discrete categories;

there is a known initial population distribution based on these categories;

the population is time dependent and we can use discrete time intervals to
describe the population (for example, years);

there is a known probability of movement from one category to another

from one time interval to the next; and

(when dealing with animals, etc) there is a known probability of

reproduction for each age group.

As we have seen, matrix multiplication is a way of expressing how data may

change. For example, the entries in a vector xk might represent the population
of various groups of animals in an ecological system at time k, and a square
matrix A might represent how the populations change from one period to the
next.
Thus xk+1 = Axk for each k. If the initial population vector is x0 what
happens to xk in the long term?
We will begin with a well-known example of rabbits reproducing according to
what is known in mathematics as the Fibonacci series, named after the famous
Italian mathematician Leonardo Fibonacci (c. 1170 c. 1250), who is regarded
as being responsible for spreading the Hindu-Arabic numeral system in Europe.
EXAMPLE 4.8
FIBONACCIS
RABBIT
PROBLEM

In the year 1202, Fibonacci became interested in the reproduction of rabbits. He

created an imaginary set of ideal conditions under which rabbits could breed,
and posed the question, How many pairs of rabbits will there be a year from
now? The ideal set of conditions was a follows:
1.

You begin with one male rabbit and one female rabbit. These rabbits have
just been born

2.

A rabbit will reach sexual maturity after one month.

3.

The gestation period of a rabbit is one month.

4.

Once it has reached sexual maturity, a female rabbit will give birth every
month.

5.

A female rabbit will always give birth to one male rabbit and one female
rabbit.

6.

Rabbits never die.

So how many male/female rabbit pairs are there after one year (12 months)?
It is easy to see that the following would happen:

50

EMM400 TOPIC4

Month 0 One pair of rabbits (condition 1).

Month 1 The pair of rabbits have mated but have not given birth. Therefore,
there is still only one pair of rabbits.
Month 2 The first pair of have gives birth to another pair, making two pairs in
all.
Month 3 The original pair gives birth again, and the second pair mate, but do
not give birth, making three pairs.
Month 4 The original pair give birth, the pair born in month 2 give birth. The
pair born in month 3 mate, but do not give birth. This makes two new pair, for a
total of five pair.
Month 5 Every pair that was alive two months ago gives birth. This makes
three new pair, for a total of eight.
The rabbit population creates the sequence: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, ...
We could look at this as follows:
Let Fk = number of pairs of rabbits in the kth month
= (number of pairs of rabbits in the (k 1) th month) +
(number of pairs of rabbits born in the (k 1) th month)
= (number of pairs of rabbits in the (k 1) th month) +
(number of pairs of rabbits in the (k 2) th month)
= Fk1 + Fk2
This relation, Fk = Fk1 + Fk2 is known as Fibonaccis relation.
The sequence satisfying the following conditions:
F0 = 0; F1 = 1; and, for all k > 1, Fk = Fk1 + Fk2 is known as the Fibonacci
sequence.
Its first few terms are 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, .
For k 1, the Fibonacci sequence describes the number of pairs of rabbits in the
problem above.
The Fibonacci sequence is very famous and has many fascinating properties if
you are interested you can easily find out more about it on the World Wide
Web.
Here however, we will try to describe the population growth of the rabbits
using matrices.
In this problem, we can think of the rabbit population as having two age groups
young and adult.
We can represent the number of rabbits at time k > 1 in each age group as a

Fk 2
, where the first entry Fk2 repesents the number of young
Fk 1

vector xk =

rabbits at time k, and the second entry Fk1 repesents the number of adult rabbits

1
0

0
1

at time k, with the added condition that x0 = and x1 = .

MODELLING POPULATION GROWTH 51

It is easy to see that we can no wrepresent the population growth over time as
follows:

0 1
, so
1 1

xk+1 = Axk , where A =

0 1 Fk 2 Fk 1
=
, which shows that at time k + 1, the

1 1 Fk 1 Fk 2 + Fk 1

xk+1 =

number of young rabbits is Fk1, while the number of adult rabbits is Fk2, as
expected.
Notice here the significance of each of the entries in the matrix A, which, for

a b
.
c d

convenience, we will rewrite here as A =

a = 0 represents the fact that none of the Fk2 young rabbits at time k will have
reproduced yet;
b = 1 represents the fact that all of the Fk1 adult rabbits at time k will have
reproduced;
c = 1 represents the fact that all of the Fk2 young rabbits at time k will be
adults at time k; and
d = 1 represents the fact that all of the Fk1 adult rabbits at time k will still be
adults at time k.
ACTIVITY 4.7

Use the matrix A and the other details from Example 4.8 to find x0, x1, x2,
x3, x4, x5, and in each case check that the total number of rabbits in each
month is as expected.

AGE

In general, population problems can be represented through the use of an age

distribution vector and a transition matrix.

DISTRIBUTION
VECTORS &
TRANSITION
MATRICES

x1

x2
.
The age distribution vector x =
.
.

xn
b1

s1
0
and the transition matrix A =
0
...

Number in the first age group

Number in the second age group
.
.
.
Number in the nth age group

b2

b3

s2

s3

... bn1 bn

... 0
0
... 0
0
.
... 0
0

... sn1 sn

For i = 1, 2, , n, the bi in the top row represent the average number of

offspring for a member of the ith age group.

52

EMM400 TOPIC4

For i = 1, 2, , n 1, the numbers si represent the probability of a member of

the ith age group surviving to the (i+1)th age group, while sn represents the
probability that a member of the ith age group remains in the ith age group.
ACTIVITY 4.8

In Example 4.8, the matrix A represents the transition matrix for the
rabbit problem. Explain its entries in terms of the definition of the
transition matrix above.

EXAMPLE 4.9

Suppose a species of animals lives at most four years and the number of males
is a fixed proportion of the number of females.
Let xi = number of females of age (i1) to age i years, for i = 1, 2, 3, 4.
For i = 1, 2, 3, 4, let bi = probability that a female in the age group i produces
a female offspring (i.e. the average number of offspring per female in this age
group).
For i = 1, 2, 3, let si = probability that a female in age group i survives to the
next age group. [Note that since these animals live at most four years, the
probablility that a female in age group 4 survives is zero i.e. s4 = 0.]
The following data is given:
b1 =

1
,
10

b2 =

1
,
2

b3 =

s1 =

4
,
5

s2 =

3
,
4

s3 =

3
,
4
1
,
3

b4 =

1
,
4

s4 = 0 .

We want to predict the female population after one year, two years, etc.

x1

x2
Let x = be the current age distribution vector.
x3

x4
After one year, we will have
x1 =

1
1
3
1
x1 +
x2 +
x3 +
x4
10
2
4
4

x2 =

4
x1
5

x3 =
x4 =

3
x2
4
1
x3 .
3

MODELLING POPULATION GROWTH 53

1
10
4
So the transition matrix A =
5
0

1
2

3
4

3
4

1
3

1
4

0 and x = Ax.

That is, the population distribution after one year is given by Ax, after two years
by A(Ax) = A2x, after three years by A3x, etc.

1200
1000
.
Let the initial population be x0 =
800

100
1200 1
1000 10
= 4
Then x1 = A
800 5
0

100

1
2

3
4

3
4

1
3

1
4

1200 1450
1000 800
=

800 750

100 267

1174
1160
.
and x2 = A x1 =
600

250
1000
800

However, notice that if instead we have x0 =

600

200
1000
800
= x0 .
and x1 = A x0 =
600

200
So in this case we have a stable population distribution.
This corresponds to A having an eigenvalue 1 with corresponding

1000
800
.
eigenvector
600

200

54

EMM400 TOPIC4

ACTIVITY 4.9

1200
1200
.
In Example 4.9, find x1 and x2 if x0 =
1000

200
We will finish this section with a slightly different example where there is
movement between two categories of population but no births.

EXAMPLE 4.10

Suppose in a small town in Malaysia every adult owns either a car or a

motorcycle, but not both and that this year 30% of the population own a car and
70% own a motorcycle.

0.3
.
0.7

We could write this as x0 =

Suppose also that 85% of the car owners remain car owners next year and 15%
change to motorcycles, while 20% of motorcycle owners change to cars while
80% remain motorcycle owners, and that this pattern continues each year.

0.85 0.20
.
0.15 0.80

We could write this as A =

So we could write this as xk+1 = Axk for k 0.

To find out what percentage of adults will own cars and motorcycles in the
long-term, we can look for the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A.

0.85 0.20
2
= 1.65 + 0.65

0
.
15

0
.
80

Let 0 = det (I A) = det

= ( 1)( 0.65) .
Thus = 0.65, 1.

To get the eigenvector for = 1, we apply row operations to

0.15 0.2 0
3 4 0
and get

. Hence x =
0.15
0.2 0

0 0 0

4
k .
3

To get the eigenvector for = 0.65, we apply row operations to

0.2 0.2 0
1 1 0
0.15 0.15 0 and get 0 0 0 . Hence x =

4
3

1
k .
1

1
are linearly independent, x0 is a linear combination of
1

Since and
these two vectors.

MODELLING POPULATION GROWTH 55

4
3

4 1 c1 0.3
1
or

= .
3 1 c 2 0.7
1

Thus x0 = c1 + c2

c1 4 1 0.3 1 1
Hence =
= 7 3

c 2 3 1 0.7
4
1
So x0 = 17 17.9 .
3
1
4
1
Then x1 = Ax0 = 17 A 17.9 A = 17
3
1
4
1
4
x2 = 17 A 17.9 0.65A = 17
3
1
3
4
1
and so on to xk = 17 17.9 0.65k .
3
1

1 0.3 1 1
.
=
4 0.7 7 1.9

4
3

1.9
7

1.9
7

1
,
1

0.65

1
,
1

0.652

As k becomes larger, 0.65k converges to 0 and therefore xk converges to

1
7

4
3 .

Thus the proportion of car owners increases from 0.3 to

proportion of motor cycle owners decreases from 0.7 to
ACTIVITY 4.10

4
7
3
7

= 57% and the

= 43%.

This problem is similar to Example 4.9, but with only three age groups.

v1

Let v = v2 give the number of members in each of the three age groups and
v3

let Av give the population distribution after a year has elapsed.

1
4
3
Let Av =
4
0

5
6
0
2
3

1
4

0 v .

a)

Interpret the entries of the matrix A.

b)

Find the eigenvalues 1 , 2 , 3 of A.

c)

Find one eigenvector x1 , x2 , x3 corresponding to each of the eigenvalues

1 , 2 , 3 , respectively. [Try to avoid fractional entries.]

d)

Write down the matrix B = [x1 , x2 , x3] that is the matrix with ith column
xi for i = 1, 2, 3.

e)

Find B 1 .

56

EMM400 TOPIC4

f)

Show that B AB = 0
0

2
0

0 and call this matrix D.

3

g)

Find D 2, D 3, and D n, for any natural number n.

h)

Since D = B 1AB , we know that A = BDB 1.

How could we write A n?

i)

Use h) to prove that

16 16 4
20 20 10
1
1 1 n

A =
12 12 3 +
15
30 30

30
30 2
8 8 2
40 40 20
4
6
6
1 1 n

+
18 12 18
30 4
48 32
48
n

j)

v1

If the initial population is v = v2 , show that the population distribution
v3

4
4v1 + 4v2 + v3
approaches
3 after enough time has elapsed.
30
2
[In fact, after 10 years the population distribution os correct to within 1%
of the population.]

k)

For which values of v1 , v 2 , v 3 is the population stable?

Describe what happens after a large number of years if the initial
population is not stable.

Answers to selected activities

ACTIVITY 4.1

1

a) 1, 0 , 2,

0
d)

2
1 ;

0

no real eigenvalues;

1
1

b) 2, ;

1
0

c)

0
1

e) a, , b, ;

f)

1
1

1
;
1

1, , 1,

0
1

2, ;

MODELLING POPULATION GROWTH 57

g)

0
1
0, , 1,
0

0

0
0
, 1,
1

1

i)

no real eigenvalues;

1
0
,
0

0

0
1 0
0

; h) 1, 0 , 1 , 1,
1
0 1


1
1 0

1
0
,
0

1

0
1
;
1

0

j) no real eigenvalues.

References
Reiner, I., Introduction to Matrix Theory and Linear Algebra, Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, New York, 1971. Chapter 11.