Carbon Phase Equili prium Diagram | CARBON, ATOMIC PERCENTAGE 2 4 6 8 40 12 14 16 18 20 4600 J Tr ot 8 PHASE + LIQUID al 7 uauIo B+ 2800 1500 5 EEE BEES EERE EEE eet 3 PHASE EY) | eo Poe — —enenss fH N eee AUSTENTTE™D LOU, us 2400 1300 ‘ 1200 ~ Rel, 2200 AUSTENITE 7 : ‘1100 oe E {¢ 2000, a Aes | austenre | | = 1000 + CEMENTITE 7-1— sa09, g j* LEDEBUATTE | | ‘a A See he ‘AUSTENITE | TF 1600 E fe + CEM L | 800 t rt CURIE rehire cause —S, ky 4° POINT 559 q -4 1200 600 1000WIS 10 Senior Welding Inspector Weld Symbols Example Instructions: Read the exam instruction sheet provided carefully then prepare the plain examination sheet provided with boxes, as shown below. Comment at the end of each description on any, nces on each symbol as applicable. Enter drawing details as requested and indicate the standard as follows: The drawing supplied has been drawn in conformance with BS EN 22553 standard Ref Sketch Description of symbol and non-conformances i = ‘A double symmetrical J butt-welded F joint 1 Full penetration. Ground flush. Welded with TIG (141) we Arrows line is pointing 10 the wrong plate, fe A Single mitred fillet welded lap joint 2 8 mm leg length, Welded from the arrow side with MMA (LID No apparent non-conformances too BS EN 22553 eEEeEeH ‘Single ¥ butt-welded butt joint. = PEE HEE 3 A] | ht penetration. Ground flush. Welded from other side on Stie Weliied with MAG (135) No apparent non-conformances too BS EN 22553 |__| Compound welded closed corner joint. (Singe bevel and Mitred Fillet) 4 Single bevel full penetration butt weld. Ground flusk. Welded from arrow side. 8 mam leg length mitred fillet weld. Welded from other side. No Z before Leg length & arvow line is pointing to the wrong plate. 5 Complete for all remaining symbols accordingly. 6 7 8 ‘Complete-other sheets as requiredCarbon Phase Equiliprium Diagram CARBON, ATOMIC PERCENTAGE 2 4 6s 0 12 14 16 18 20 at GSERERT ER TEMPERATURE, °FWIS 10 Senior Welding Inspector Weld Symbols Example Instructions: Read the exam instruction sheet provided carefully then prepare the plain examination sheet provided with boxes, as shown below. Comment at the end of each description on any non-conformances on each symbol as applicable. Enter drawing details as requested and indicate the standard as follows: The drawing supplied has been drawn in conformance with BS EN 22553 standard Ref Sketch ‘Description of symbol and non-conformances = A double symmetrical J butt-welded F Joint. 1 Full penetration. Ground flush. Welded with TIG (141) py Arrow tine is pointing to the wrong plate. et A single mitred fillet welded lap joint 7 2 8 man leg length. Welded from the arrow side with MMA (111) ~ No apparent non-conformances too BS EN 22553 t ESE ‘Single V butt-welded butt joint. oe 3 A Full penetration. Ground flush. Welded fiom other side on Site Welded with MAG (135) No apparent non-conformances too BS EN 22553 erEEE Compound welded closed corner joint. (Singe bevel and Mitred Fillet) 4 Single bevel full penetration butt weld. Ground flush. Welded from arrow side. 3 mm leg length mitred fillet weld. Welded from other side. No Z hefore Leg length & arrow line is pointing to the wrong plate. 5 Complete for all remaining symbols accordingly. 6 7 8 ‘Complete other sheets as requiredTWI Middle East 09/09/05 v3 Senior Welding Inspector Question: ‘You are required to visita site on which your inspection team have been working. The fabrication is now completed in accordance with a nominated specification and is awaiting your final inspection/approval. Prior to signing the Certificate of Conformance; yD What questions do you ask? 2 What measurements would you take? 3) What documents would you review? Typical answer: Prior to the site visit it is vital to spend some time planning the visit in order that a logical approach be made and that important details are not overlooked. Knowledge of the standard used and an idea of the service conditions would be useful in assessing the fitness for purpose of the product. A list of all personnel in the inspection team(s) and contact details of team leader(s) will ensure that relevant personnel are available to answer questions as required. Types of questions may include any difficulties encountered with the job, particularly attention being given to those conceming the contractor. Further information regarding repair rates, safety standards on-site and the general moral and standard of work amongst the inspection team(s) throughout production. Any unusual incidents may also need to be investigated. The availability of quality plans will help greatly in the planning of the audit. The review/audit of all relevant documentation is a major requirement prior to signing any Certificate of Conformance or compliance. In some major standards/codes the list of documents to be included within the fabrication file are listed. In the absence of such the following could be considered a basic guide to these documents for review/audit: 1) A review of the quality plan and inspection check list to ensure all stages are completed and signed off 2) Material certificates, mill test reports, and material traceability records are documented and accepted. (This may include welding consumables) 3) Process control procedures should be reviewed for adequacy, accuracy and approval. These should include approved procedures for cutting, welding, repair, NDT, heat treatment, coating etc. 4) Review of qualifications should include welder approvals, NDT operator or technician approvals. All inspection approvals should be in date and as identified and described within the contract documents. 5) Inspection reports should be reviewed and should include visual inspection reports, NDT reports, and dimensional control reports. © If the product is pressure containment ie. pressure vessel or high pressure pipeline etc. then hydrostatic testing procedures and a test repor/acceptance reports should be reviewed, along with test gauge calibration certificates and any associated documentation. 7) As built drawings showing materials and weld maps should be reviewed for completeness 8) Finally, transit and tie down procedures should all have been approved by the relevant engineer prior to the final acceptance of the product and issue of any signed certificate of conformance 1TWI Middle Rast 05/09/05 23 Product Completion Documents: Het its 2.1 Fabrication & Execution procedures Folder 1 2.2 Consumable Control Procedures 10 Certificate of Conformance 2.3 Weld Visual Inspection Procedures 4d Inspection & Release Note (LRS) 2.4 Dimensional Control Procedures 12 Inspection & Test Plan (2.3 PWHI Procedures 20 Procedures: 2.6 Hydro-test Procedures 2.7 Load Out Procedure 2.8 Painting Procedures 3.1 Radiographic Test Procedure 3.2 Ultrasonic Test Procedure .. 1 Test Procedt 3.0 [ NDT Procedures: eoebilni od ticaauad 3-4 Liquid Penetrant Test Procedure 3.5 Equipment Calibration Cettificate ponies 3.6 List of NDT Operators & Cetifi 4.0 | Welding Procedures (WPS PQR) | 4.1 | List of Welders and all Certification Folder 3 5.0 Material Traceability Position No = = item Description c |-——>Material Requisition No Heat No/ Plate No Part and Material List Ter [Reference _ Section Folder Number Pos No Drawing er 6.0 Material Grade | Part & Material List 5.0 Drawing 60 Length & Width | prawing fi ma Heat Number __| Material Certificates 52.TWI Middle East (As at 19-11-05 ABW) AUDIT of NDT Reports Concise Reports Check List UT Ultrasonic Testing RT Radiographic Testing 1) Material Type (Large grain lower Hz) 1) Material Type (All pes) 2) Time/Stage of inspection 2) Time/Stage of inspection 3) Place of inspection 3) Place of inspection 4) Procedure/Standard number given 4) Procedure/Standard number given 5) Sheat/Compression Probe 5) Radiographic Technique (DWDI ete) 6) Probe Size (Usually 10 mm) & Type 6) Screens front & back (type & thickness) 7) Probe Frequency (4-5 MHz <3 for Cu/SS) 7) Type of radiation (Gamma/x-ray) 8) Probe Angle <10=70°/10.15 = 60"-70">15=4s*-60"8) _Type/Strength of source or kva 9) Calibration Block (Type & Hole used) 9) SFD 10) Calibration Range 10) Type and range of IQ! 11) Scanning method 11) Speed of film (Characteristic Curve) 12) Surface finish 12) Sensitivity as % (<3%) 13) Type of couplant 13) Density range (2-3) 14) Type of equipment 14) _ Focal Spot Size 15) Scanning Sensitivity 15) Geometric Un-sharpness (vg) (<@.25mm) 16) Recording Level 16) Exposure Time 17) Joint configuration and area of weld tested 17) Development method and time 18) All Defects Identified, Sized and Located 18) All Defects Identified, Sized and Located 19) NDT Technicians Qualifications & Name 19) NDT Technicians Qualifications & Name 20) Report is signed stamped and dated 20) Reportis signed staraped and dated 21) BS Method BS 3923 21) BS Method BS 2910 (pipe) BS 2600 (Plate) 22) Now replaced by BS EN 585 & BSN 1714 22) Now replaced by BS EN 444 MT Magnetic Particle Testing PT Penetrant Testing 1) Material Type (Ferritic Steels Only) 1) Material Type (Nor Porous Only) 2) Time/Stage of inspection 2) Time/Stage of inspection 3) Place of inspection > Place of inspection 4) Procedure/Standard number given Procedure/Standard number given 5) Method (Wet/Dry Fluorescent/Contrast etc.) 3 Method (Colour Contrast/Fluorescent) 6) Method & standard of surface preparation 6) Method & standard of surface preparation 7) Method of Magnetisaton (Direct current etc) 7) Surface finish is critical (EB as welded??) 8) Equipment type (Prod/Yolk/MagnevBench) 8) Shelf Life of Chemicals (Normally 1 Year) 9) Prod spacing/amperage (7.5 amp/mm) 9) _Penetrant Application Method (Spray/Tank) 10) Contrast Paint (Type and application) 10) Penetrant Dwell time (5 — 60 minutes) 11) Test sequence (2.x directions @ 909 11) Method of Penetrant Removal 12) Poor surface finish may mask Indications 12) ‘Type and application of developer 13) Sub Surface imperfections (2mm Max) 13) Evaluation time (10- 30 minutes) 14) Black light 20 lux or 10002 Wien?” 14) Black Light (20 lux or 1000u/ent’) 15) Contrast Light (Minimum 500 lux) 15) Contrast Light (Minimum 500 lex) 16) Flux measurement Strips/kg Force ete. 16) Operating Temperature range (5-50°C) 17) > 50°C dry powder inks are sued 17) Surface breaking only imperfections 18) All Defects Identified, Sized and Located 18) All Defects Identified, Sized and Located 19) NDT Technicians Qualifications @Name 19) NDT Technicians Qualifications & Name 20) Report is signed stamped and dated 20) Report is sigmed stamped and dated 21) BS Method BS 6072 (inks BS 4069 Paint 5044)21) BS Method BS 6443 22) Now replaced by BS EN 9934 Parts 1-3/ BS EN 129022) Now replaced by BS EN 571 Part 1 ‘The correct terminology should be used on all NDT reports for identification and reporting of imperfections.TWI Te, f The Weldability of Steels: In general, the term weldability of materials can be defined as; THE WELDING INSTITUTE “The ability of a material to be welded by most of the common welding processes, and ‘retain the properties for which it has been designed” The weldability of steels can involve many factors depending on the type of steel, the process and the mechanical properties required Welding engineers mainly involved with welding C/Mn structural steels may often define weldability as carbon equivalent, however this is a very narrow application of this term. Poor weldability generally results in the occurrence of’ some type of cracking problem, though most steels have a degree of weldability. When considering any type of weld cracking mechanism there must be three essential elements present prior to its occurrence: D Stress, 2 Restraint, y ‘Susceptible microstructure. 1, Residual stress is always present in weldments, through local expansion & contraction, 2. Restraint may be a local restriction, or through plates being welded to others. 3. The microstructure is often made susceptible to cracking by the process of welding, The types of cracking mechanism prevalent in steels in which the CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector should have some knowledge are: L Hydrogen induced HAZ cracking. (C/Mn and Low Alloy steels) 2 Hydrogen induced weld metal cracking. (HSLA steels) Solidification cracking. (All steels) 4, Lamellar tearing, (All steels) 3 Inter-crystalline corrosion. (Stainless steels) Additionally a CSWIP 3.2 Senior Welding Inspector should have further knowledge of the above and other types of steels and any inherent cracking mechanisms ic 6. Hydrogen induced HAZ and weld metal cracking. (Q/T steels) 7 Re-heat cracking. (Creep resistant steels) Senior Welding spesion oF Steels WIS To Zt os Section 2 The Weldabllty of Steels TWH Tiare Rev 09.09.05 Copyright © 2005 TWILtd ‘cimoLocyTWI Dl. Definitions: THE WELDING INSTITUTE For this section it is essential to have a basic understanding of the following terms: Solubility: To be able to dissolve one substance in another. (As sugar in fea) Maximum Solubility: ‘The maximum % of a substance that can be dissolved in another Steel: An alloy of the metal iron with the non-metal carbon 0.01 - 1.4% C is considered as the general range for steels Plain Carbon Steels: Stecls that contain only iron é& earbon as main alloying elements. Traces of Mn, Si, Al, P & S may be also present from refining. Low Carbon Steel: Plain carbon steels containing between 0.01 - 0.3% C Medium Carbon Steel: Plain carbon steels containing between 0.3 — 0.6% C High Carbon Steels: Plain carbon steels containing between 06-14% C Low Alloy Steels: Steel containing iron and carbon, and other alloying elements ic Mn, Cr, Ni, Mo < 7% Total High Alloy Steels: __Stecl containing iron and carbon, and other alloying elements ic Ma, Cr, Ni, Mo > 7% Total Ferrum: ‘The Latin term for Iron from which comes its chemical symbol Fe Ferrite: A low temperature structure of iron & dissolved carbon, the ‘maximum solubility of carbon occurring in this structure is 0.02 % Austenite: ‘A high temperature structure of iron & dissolved carbon, the maximum solubility of carbon occurring in this structure is 2.06% Martensite: A hard structure produced in some steels by the rapid cooling from high temperature austenite, generally occurs at temperatures <300°C Diffusion: The movement of solute atoms, or molecules through a crystalline structure. This can generally be accelerated with increasing levels of heat energy in the material Senior Waling inapeaton of Seals WIS Te 7} ee Section 2 The Weldability of Steels Oe sermon Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TWI LtdTWI VIM. THE WELDING INSTITUTE Effect of alloying elements: Elements may be added to steels to produce the properties required to make it useful for an application. Most elements can have many effects on the properties of steels. Alumini Carbon: Chromium: Manganese: Molybdenum: Nickel: Niobium: Silicon: ‘Titanium: Tungsten: Vanadium: Alloyed to steels mainly as a grain refiner, and is also used as a de- oxidising agent in triple de-oxidised steel and welding consumables. A prime and essential element in steel alloys. An increase in Carbon, content will increase hardness and strength, but reduces the ductility Alloyed in additions > 12% to produce stainless steels, but is often used in low alloy steels < 5% to increase hardness strength and greatly increase the resistance to oxidation at higher temperatures. Chromium stabilises carbide formation, but promotes grain growth if added in isolation. It is thus often alloyed together with Ni or Mo Alloyed to structural steels < 1.6% to increase the toughness and strength. It is also used to control solidification cracking in ferritic steels and alloyed up to 14% in wear/impact resistant Hadfield steel Alloyed to low alloy steels to control the effects of creep. It is also used as a stabilising element in stainless steels, and will limit the effects of grain growth. Alloyed in Cr/Ni/Mo low alloy steels to control an effect called temper embrittlement. Nickel is alloyed > 9% steel producing austenitic stainless steel. It is also be added < 9% in the low temperature nickel steels. It promotes graphitisation, but is good grain refiner, and is often used to offset some effects of Chromium. Nickel is very expensive, but improves the strength, toughness, ductility and corrosion resistance of steels. Carbide former used to stabilise stainless, also in HSLA < 05% Is alloyed in small amounts < 0.8% as a de-oxidant in ferritic steels. It is alloyed to valve and spring steels, and can also increase fluidity. Used mainly to stabilise stainless steel, and <.05% in HSLA steels. ‘Mainly alloyed to high alloy High Speed Tool steels. This increases the high temperature hardness required of such steels, due to the tempering effect of frictional heat on other steels during cutting Used as a de-oxidant, or as a binary alloy as in HSLA steels <.05% It should be remembered that most alloying additions increases the ability of a steel to harden by the thermal hardening process. This property is termed “hardenability” ‘Senior Welding Inspection of Stecis WIS 10 223 Section 2 The Weldability of Steels MATERIALS IODUNG Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TWI Lid TecHNOLOGYTWI UM. THE WELDING INSTITUTE. Crack type: Hydrogen cracking (Hz cold cracking) Location: a, HAZ. Longitudinal b. Weld metal. Transverse or longitudinal Steel types: a. All hardenable steels i e. Low alloy steels. HSLA steels. QT Steels. Med —High C steels. Susceptible microstructure: Martensite Causes: Hh cracking is a cold cracking mechanism generally occurring below 300 °C and may be found in the HAZ or weld metal depending on the type of steel being welded. Hz may be absorbed into the welding arc from many sources including; moisture on plates or in the air, paint or oil on the plates, or a long or unstable arc etc. An E6010 cellulosic electrode produces mainly H as its shielding gas. Hz will easily dissolve into solution in molten weld metal and remain in solution upon solidification into either delta ferrite or austenite. As the weld cools below the LCT the weld metal transforms into alpha ferrite/peaulite that has far less solubility for Hy and at this point the H3 will tend to move into the HAZ. where austenitic is still retained. The process is termed diffusion, which occurs more rapidly at elevated temperature. If the HAZ. is of low hardenability it will itself transform into fenite/pearlite and Hp will remain in solution, eventually diffusing out of the weldment. If the HAZ has higher hardenability then the transformation of the HAZ will be from austenite to martensite, which as a supersaturated solution of iron and carbon offers no solubility for Hy This will result in expulsion of Hp from solution and a high level of internal stress occurring in this brittle microstructure that also offers no ductility Cracks may occur from areas of high stress concentration, such as from the toes of welds and generally move through the hardened #FAZ, though in some cases the weld metal The four critical factors and values, where hydrogen cracks are likely to occur, are considered to be: a. Hydrogen content: > 15 ml/100 gm of deposited weld metal b. Hardness: >350 HV c. Stresses: > 05 of the yield stress 4. Temperature: <300°C “aor Wing Iapeion of Seals WIS TO or pane Section 2 The Weldability of Stels Tears one Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TW1 Ltd VM ‘eciwovcorTWI VIM. Hydrogen may be absorbed into the are zone and liquid weld metal from: THE WELDING INSTITUTE Rust, oil, grease, or paint etc. on the plate E 6010 electrodes produce Hy asa shielding gas, A long, or an unstable are ‘Y_Austenite in HAZ ‘Weld metal changes phase to 0. ferrite and 1} H diffuses into HAZ H diffusion to HAZ —Austenite in HAZ changes to martensite 21.300 °C trapping H & Martensitic HAZ ‘Hy and forcing it out of solution ~~ Stress concentrations HH, HAZ Cracking a, Butt joints Stress concentrations H, HAZ Cracking Martensitie HAZ ‘Senior Weiding Inspection of Steels WIS 10 22.5 ccaennane: Section 2 The Weldabitity of Steels Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TWI Ltd reenmo.ocyVill. ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Prevention of hydrogen HAZ cracking: To control hydrogen cracking in the HAZ it may be necessary to pre-heat the weldment Pre-heating retards the 1ate of cooling and suppresses the formation of martensite and other hard structures formed upon rapid cooling, It will also promote diffusion of trapped Hp back to the atmosphere Considerations during calculation of pre-heat requirements are: a. Hardenability of the joint (ie. Ceq) _b. Thickness of metal and joint type ¢. Are energy input d. Hydrogen scale, or achievable limit Hydrogen Induced Weld Metal Cracking: Hp weld metal cracks may occur when welding HSLA (High strength low alloy) steels, These steels are micro-alloyed with titanium, vanadium and/or niobium. (Typically 0.05%) To cheaply match weld strength to plate strength the choice weld metal with increased carbon content is used as increased carbon content increases tensile strength (Up to 0.83% C) A graph showing the effect of carbon on the properties of plain carbon steels is given below. This action will also result in a hardenable steel weld deposit where austenite in the weld will transform direcily into martensite causing the same conditions as found in the HAZ previously, and where cracking may now occur within the weld metal. Both HAZ and weld metal Hp cracks are considered as cold cracks (< 300°C) and on occasions are referred to as “Hf; induced or delayed cracking” If Hy cracks are suspected final inspection may be delayed up to 72 hours, depending ‘upon application code/standard requirements as cracks may appear within this time Tensile Strength Hardness Ductility © 0.1 0.203 0.405 06 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 14 1.6% Carbon As indicated above, additions of carbon (up to 0.83%C or Eutectoid composition) will increase the tensile strength of plain carbon steel. This serves the purpose of cheaply matching the weld metal strength to the base metal but will also give the weld metal much higher hardenability. Senior Welding inspection of Secs WIS 10° 23.6 oe Section 2 The Weldability of Steels TWI vrennissonne Rev 09-09.05 Copyright © 2005 TWI LtdLs THE WELDING INSTITUTE These conditions may now result in Hp cracking occurring in the weld metal, as the weld will now transform directly from austenite — martensite trapping the H; in weld metal and inhibiting its diffusion to the HAZ. It can also be seen from the graph that higher carbon steels have much reduced levels of ductility. Cracks tend to be transverse as the main residual stresses are generally in the longitudinal direction, though they may occasionally be longitudinal, or even at 45° to the weld metal High strength low ductility weld metal ‘Hydrogen induced weld metal cracks Prevention of cracking for these steels is as per Hy HAZ cracking where preheating of the weld area permits a degree of trapped Hz time at temperature to diffuse from the weld and HAZ area back to the atmosphere, and as importantly retards the formation of the hard martensitic structure. ‘Summary of prevention methods for Hy cracking in Low Alloy and Micro Alloy Steels: ‘Use a low hydrogen process and/or hydrogen controlled consumables. Maximise arc energy (taking HAZ, and weld toughness into consideration) Use correctly treated Hp controlled consumables Minimise restraint. Ensure plate is dry and free from rust, oil, paint or other coatings. Use a constant and correct arc length. Ensure pre-heat is applied and maintained before any arc is struck ‘Control inter-pass temperature Ensure welding is carried out under controlled environmental conditions crm mene gs The selection of an austenitic stainless steel weld metal will also control the effects of Hh cracking but may also form an unacceptable corrosive condition to exist. It should also be noted that it is possible for monatomic hydrogen atoms (Il) to be trapped within the martensitic structure that has reached temperatures where diatomic hydrogen (Ek) should now exist. This will also result in atomic forces acting within the structure and should be considered as a contributory factor in this cracking mechanism, in weld or HAZ. ‘Senior Welding Inspection of Steels WIS 10 22.7 Section 2 The Weldabilty of Steels Narauntsion0 LMT vecixo100¥ Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TWI LtdTWI Ci. Q’T Steels THE WELDING INSTITUTE O/T ot Quench & Tempered steels axe alloys that obtain a high level of strength/toughness fiom the heat treatments of hardening and tempering. During quenching carbon is trapped in solution causing the structure martensite to form generally at temperatures < 300°C Martensite would normally be an undesirable structure in most welding applications as it is extremely hard and brittle with little if any ductility, however the martensitic structure is strong, extremely fine grained and essential to the final properties of any Q/T steel. During the heat treatment of tempering atoms attract heat energy enabling trapped carbon aioms to progressively move out of solution as the temperature is incteased. This is the function of tempering, as the properties of hardness v softness and brittleness v toughness are rebalanced with ever increasing temperature, until just below the LCT (Lower Critical Temperature) all the extra hardness and brittleness has been lost and the toughness regained. As the LCT has not been crossed then no re-crystallisation (Other than any deformed Ferrite) will have taken place resulting in a retained fine grain structure termed tempered martensite. This fine needle like structure will further enhance the tensile strength and toughness of the steel To enable Q/T steels to obtain optimum final properties as described above it is essential that these steels are able to form martensite and then be fully tempered at the correct temperature. This creates a number of problems to be considered; firstly the hardenability of the steel needs to be carefully considered as any increase in section or thickness of the plate may slow the cooling rate beyond the Critical Cooling Rate of the steel in its central area, The critical cooling rate of any steel is defined as the slowest cooling rate of any particular hardenable steel that is able to form 90% martensite (Normally 10 % austenite is retained within the structure) The eritical cooling rate is better explained when observing ‘curve Cin the TTT or Time Temperature Transformation diagram given below: oe. > 100 Cooling rate in Log Seconds Curve A represents full transformation to peartite and ferrite Curve B represents partial transformation to peatlite and ferrite with some martensite Curve C represents 90% transformation to martensite with 10% retained austenite ‘Senior Welding Inspection of Steels WIS TO ZRH WORLD CENTRE Scroons tae woLaoin oS ener Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TW1 Ltd VLA ‘ccmo.ocrTWI UTM. If the cooling rate of curve C becomes any slower it would then cut the transformation nose of Austenite too Peatlite and Ferrite transformation begin curve, therefore curve C is the slowest rate that this steel may be cooled and form the maximum degree of martensite Thus curve C is the eritical-cooling rate of the steel in Graph 1 shown above. It is the effect of most additions of alloying elements to move the critical cooling rate to the right of the graph, in other words to permit the formation of martensite at slower cooling rates. The severity of each element in moving this transformation curve to the right is given in the ‘denominator in the Carbon Equivalent formula or Ceq as: THE WELDING INSTITUTE Ceq = %C + %Mn + %Cr %MO%V + %Ni%Cu 6 5 15 This above formula is a mathematical representation of the term hardenability and is used as such in calculating the requirement for pre-heating to suppress the cooling rate of steels Tt can be seen fiom Graph 2 below that as transformation lines are moved to the right of the graph by the addition of alloying elements, the critical cooling rate is also reduced. This in reality moans that the alloy may cool more slowly and still produce a highly martensitic structure, as shown now in curve B (The new critical cooling rate) for the alloy represented in graph 2. This effect is termed "Hardenabifty" and is of extreme importance in many areas of the steel industry, and particularly during the production of Q/T steels. The Critical “4” Cooling Rate ~ * 0 o4 1 10 100 Cooling rate in Log Seconds ‘As a section size, or plate thickness increases, so cooling rate at the centre becomes slower (Mass effect) and thus there will be a maximum section size that is able to be hardened for any given chemical composition. This important value is referred to as the Ruling Section of the steel. A typical chemical composition of a quench and tempered steels is: C0.4% Mn1.0% Cr08% Mo03% -. Ceq=0.78 Importantly, as martensite must be formed in Q/T steels it is common to find changes in chemical composition as the plate or section thickness increases, this is to increase the +hardenability o: ultimately the Ruling Section of the steel ‘Senior Welding Inspection of Steels WIS 10 339 “WORLD CENTRE FOR Section 2 The Wekdabilty of Steels NareRALsonNG Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TWI Ltd TECHNOLOGYTWI Tl ‘The resultant weldability of Q/T steels can be low as ideally it is required to transform as much austenite to martensite as possible in order to maximise or regain the fall mechanical properties of the base metal that has been fully hardened and tempered on supply. This usually means that the use of pre-heat on Q/T steels to avoid hydrogen cracking would not be recommended, 2s any suppression of rate of cooling will greatly reduce the amount of martensite being formed. It is thus highly recommended and good practice that in order to minimise the risks of Hh cracking in either the weld or HAZ, that Hz content should be kept to a minimum by careful selection of process and consumable and secondly by taking every precaution in reducing stress concentrations such as poor toc blends, are strikes, hard stamps etc. in the weld and HAZ. ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE ‘Once welding has been completed it then becomes a requirement to temper the steel back to its original tempering temperature in order to re-gain the original mechanical properties and condition of the Q/T steel. Thus if suppression of the cooling rate has been used during welding, such as the usc of applied pre-heat then the full mechanical properties in the HAZ and weld metal cannot now be regained without a full harden and temper of the entire materials section. It should also be noted that all tempering temperatures should remain below the steels LCT (Lower Critical Temperature) as any passage through the critical fines will induce re-crystallisation of the pearlitic grains to austenite at 723 C (For plain carbon steels) and re-crystallisation of any remaining ferritic grains between lower/uppet critical temperatures, (The UCT value being dependent upon carbon content) Therefore any passage above the LCT will require a complete harden and temper to regain the properties of the steel It is a common indastrial practice to pre-heat these steels, but the temperature is generally restricted to a maximum of 100 °C. This practice will then lead too a reduction in the value of between 80-90% of the original mechanical properties being recoverable in the steel after tempering at the correct temperature. If the full mechanical properties are required in the steel then pre-heating is not an option and reduction in the risk of Hp cracking should only be made by reducing the Hpcontent and minimising stress concentrations ‘Senior Welding Inspection of Steels WIS 10 ‘32.10 TW wouvceme ron Section 2 The Weldability of Steels aTERALS NING Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TWI Ltd TECHNOLOGYTWI CMT. THE WELDING INSTITUTE Crack type: Solidification cracking (Hot cracking) Location: Weld centre. (Longitudinal) Steel types: All ‘Susceptible microstructure: Columnar grains. (in the direction of solidification) Causes: Solidification cracking is a hot cracking mechanism that occurs during solidification of welds in stecls having high sulphur content or contaminated with sulphur. A further potential cause is the weld depth/width ratio, which in normal welding situations refers to dcep narrow welds (cladding applications may produce shallow wide welds, as these are also prone to this problem). Therefore if we have a combination of deep narrow welds with a high incidence of sulphur we ate greatly increasing the likelihood of hot cracking. As with all cracking mechanisms stress plays a major role in susceptibility. During welding sulphur in or on the plate may be re-melted and will chemically join with the iron to form iron sulphides. Iron sulphides are low melting point impurities that will naturally seek the last point of solidification in the weld, which is on the weld centreline. It is here that still being above their melting point and hence liquid that they form liquid films around the hot solidifying grains that are themselves under great stress due to the actions of contractional forces. ‘The bonding between grains may now be insufficient to maintain cohesion required in accommodating the opposing contractional stresses within weld and HAZ, and a crack will result along the length of the weld on its centreline. Prevention of solidification cracking in ferritie steels: To prevent the occurrence of solidification cracking in ferritic steels that contain high levels of sulphur (these steels are said to suffer from Hot Shortness), manganese is added to the weld via the consumable. Sulphur related Scrutiny of Mill sheets is essential to assess the materials Sulphur content. A typical maximum level allowed in a low carbon steel specification is 0.05%. Even this seemingly low figure may be excessive for certain high stress/higher carbon applications, or if the depth/width ratio is excessive. Senior Welding nspention of ices WIS TO Dail ‘oni ca ton Section 2 The Weldabiliy of Stels Minne Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TWH Ltd moroTWI CMT. A further potential source of Sulphur is paint, oil and/or grease and is why temperature crayons always cany the statement “Sulphur Free” and is a prime reason for thorough cleaning. This becomes of critical importance when welding austenitic stainless steels. THE WELDING INSTITUTE If limited material availability requires the welding high sulphur steels then consumables with relatively high manganese content are specified. An example of steel with very high sulphur levels would be Free Cutting/Machining stecl. Some of these steels could be considered as un-weldable in normal circumstances as sulphur levels are very high. Manganese has the effect of forming preferential manganese sulphides with the sulphur M/S also form as spheroids and solidify at a higher temperature than iron sulphides and therefore are more dispersed throughout the weld and between the grain structure. Cohesion between the grains is thus maintained and the possibility of a solidification ctack occurring is much reduced reful consideration must be given to the Mn/S ratio, which at 0.12% C should be in the region of about 40:1. Increased carbon content can rapidly increase the required ratio exponentially; thus catbon must be reduced as low as possible, with low plate dilution and low carbon, high manganese filler wires A summary of prevention methods: a, Use low dilution processes b. Use high manganese consumables c. Maintain a low carbon content d Minimise restraint/stress ¢. Specify low sulphur content of plate. Remove laminations g, Thorough cleaning of preparation h. Minimise dilution Solidification cracking (Sulphur related) Direction of grain solidification Weld centre line with liquid Iron sulphides Som films around the solidified gains ‘wort cevike YOR atemats ones VLA eciscvoor 22.12 Section 2 The Weldability of Steels Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TWI LtdTHE WELDING INSTITUTE, Effect of Manganese Sulphides formation Sy —— — , Spheroidal Mn sulphides form between the solidifying__— grains, maintaining inter-granular strength Opposing |. Contractional Stress Depth/width ratio related The shape of the weld will also contribute to the possibility of cracking. This may be totally independent from the sulphur aspect but is usually in combination, Processes such as FCAW SAW and MAG (using spray/pulsed transfer) may readily provide these deep/natrow susceptible welds. However it is not the weld volume that is the prime factor but the weld shape as referred to previously. Therefore root runs and tack welds may readily provide the susceptible profile. As root runs are also areas of high dilution (therefore greater sulphur pick up) and mote likely to be highly stressed these must always be inspected with solidification cracking in mind Solidification cracking in Austenitic Stainless steels Austenitic stainless steels are particularly prone to solidification cracking. This is primarily caused through: ‘A comparatively large grain size, that gives rise to a reduction of grain boundary area A very high coefficient of thermal expansion, this results in high resultant stresses The large austenite grain structure is vety intolerant of such contaminants as sulphur, phosphorous and additional elements such as boron, though causes and avoidance may be regarded as similar to that found in plain carbon steels, but with extra emphasis on thorough cleaning requirements prior to welding. The welding procedure will have been ‘written to control the balance of austenite and ferrite in the weld metal. This balance will directly affect the structures tolerance of contaminants and the resultant grain boundary area, and is why the filler material specified often does not appear to match the parent material. Careful monitoring of parameters is required to control dilution to ensure this balance is maintained. Section 2 The WellsbityofSteds wanes 0-00.05 Copyright © 2 CLM “esiwoncer Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 IW1 LtdTWI CLM. THE WELDING INSTITUTE Crack type: Lamellar tearing. Parent material : All steels Susceptible microstructure: Low through thickness ductility Causes: During welding high levels of contractional stress may be passed in the through thickness direction of one of the plates within the joint. This short transverse direction generally lacks in ductility particularly in cold rolled plates. As ductility is the property required in the steel to accommodate this plastic strain caused by contraction stresses a stepped like crack may initiate in the affected plate just below the HAZ in a horizontal plane Micro inclusions of impurities such as sulphides and silicates that may occur during steel manufacture are also a contributory cause, which when subjected to short transverse stresses may lead to lamellar tearing tt joints Through thickness contractional stress =| ————> : A RS joints, Senior Welding Inspection of Steels WIS TO m4 Section 2 The Weldability of Steels arenas onan Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TWI Lid seanowoor 4. Lap joints ‘woRLD CReTRE FORTWI To assess the risk of a materials susceptibility to lamellar tearing through thickness tensile tests are normally carried out. ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Testing a steel for susceptibility to lamellar tearing U/T survey using 0° probe Testing for lamination ieee sd Penetvant testing for lamination indications at the end of the plate Machined transverse tensile specimen with Friction welded ends Testing fora minimum value of % reduction in CSA ‘A test can be made on the level of through thickness ductility, which to avoid lamellar teating should show a certain minimum level. The results are normally given in % Reduction in Cross Sectional Area (or CSA). The eritical value is generally considered as 20%. The lower the value below this threshold, then the higher is considered the risk of lamellar tearing occurring in joints with high through thickness contractional stresses, Prevention of lamellar tearing: To reduce the risk of lamellar tearing the following steps may be taken: Check the chemical analysis (Below 0.05% $ or P) Check laminations with UT (PT on plate edges) Check the short transverse ductility value (Higher than 20% R CSA) Use buttering layet of high ductility weld metal deposited beneath the member to be welded, enabling contractional stresses to be absorbed as plastic strain. Leave a contraction gap between members enabling any contractional movement Re-design of the weld Re-design of the joint. The use of pre formed T pieces. (Mainly in critical applications) aese Re Senior Welding Inspection of Secls WIS 10 213 Section 2 The Weldability of Stecls araRats son Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TWI Ltd TECHNOLOGY ‘wont ceviRe FORTWI VM. Methods used to control the occurrence of lamellar tearing: THE WELDING INSTITUTE. ‘This may not be structurally permissible 4) Use a pre formed T piece (Dornier Plate) for critical joints Senior Welding Inspection of Steels WIS 10 22.16 TWI wor cevresron Section 2 The Weldability of Steels TERIAL ORNING Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TWI LtdTWI VMI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE Crack type: Inter-crystalline corrosion Location: Weld HAZ. (Longitudinal) Steel types: Stainless steels. Susceptible microstructure: Sensitised grain boundaries. Causes: During the welding of stainless steels temperature gradients are met in the HAZ where chromium carbides can be formed from the carbon and chromium. This carbide formation depletes the affected grains of chromium, which will in tun severely reduce conosion resistance, Immediately after such an effect has occurred we can say that the stainless steel has been sensitised, that is to say it has become sensitive to corrosion. If no further treatment is given then corrosion will appear parallel to the weld toes within the HAZ. This corrosion will become more evident when the weld is subsequently put in service. This problem is colloquially known as weld decay, although its occurrence is mainly in the HAZ. Once initiated, localised pitting may lead to a relatively rapid failure. Prevention of Sensitisation and Inter-granular corrosion in stainless steels: a To prevent the occurrence of sensitisation, parent material with a carbon contents below 0.03% C are often used. This reduces the fiee carbon available to form chromium carbides. For example E316 stainless steel of low carbon content is designated E 316L, b. Elements such as niobium, molybdenum, tantalum, and/or titanium may be added to the base material and electrodes to stabilise the steel. These are termed stabilising, elements, and tie up any free carbon by forming preferential carbides, thus leaving chromium within the grain, where it will perform its main function in producing chromium oxide, and thus resisting the effects of further comosion. ¢, The association of chromium and carbon into chrome carbides is very time/temp dependant occurring between 600 — 850° C. Most welding procedures are designed to reduce the time that the HAZ remains within this temperature range. Therefore it is normal to see maximum inter-pass temperature controls applied. d. A sensitised stainless steel may be solution annealed after welding by heating to >1100 °C and cooling rapidly. This dissolves (disassociates) the chromium carbide back into solution where rapid cooling will inhibit any re-association. Lines of sensitisation 2247 we 7 Section 2 The Weldability of Steels wouup cvs ron Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TWI Lid TECHNOLOGYTWI CMT. ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Crack type: Re-Heat Cracking Location: Weld HAZ. (Longitudinal) Steel types: Creep Resistant Steels Susceptible microstructure: Temperature range of 450 - 550°C Causes: Re-heat cracks are cracks that occur in Creep Resistant Steels dusing the process of weld stress relieving as a PWHT. (Post Weld Heat Treatment) Creep can be defined as the plastic movement of material at stress levels below the yield point, which is accelerated by elevated temepratures. The vatious stages of creep are given as primary, secondary and tertiary creep where final failure occurs. Creep resistant low alloy steels generally contain molybdenum which has the effect of solution strengthening against the effects of cieep by preventing plastic slip when exposed to elavated temperatures. The process of stress relieving ulilises the effects of plastic slip to release residual stresses, As these alloys have been strengthened against this movement the residual stresses are generally relieved in areas within the alloys where either; the strengthening mechanism is lower, or the concentration of stress is higher, or a combination of the two. As a result of this preferential plastic deformation cracks may form during the susceptible temperature range of 450 — 550 °C where these conditions usually occur within the HAZ of the weld, primarily at stress concentrations such as the toes of fillet welds. The presence and liquation of low melting point elements/impurities around the grain boundaries (ie, Tin Bismuth and/or Antimony) which if enlarged can also be a major contributory factor in the development of re-heat cracks. Reheat Cracking Prevention: 1) Heat quickly through the susceptible temperature range. 2) Using a higher pre-heat and the use of PWHT during stages manufacture. 3) Dressing of fillet weld toes and removal of stress concentrations 4) Use high ductility weld metal or an alternative method of stress relieve. (Vibratory) 5) Control of heat input will minimise levels of expansional & contractional stresses. Senior Welding Inspection of Steels WIS 10 22.18 Section 2 The Weldability of Steels JATERALS ONIN. Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TWI Lid CLM ‘scioiccrTWI CLMl. Summary of Weldability of Steels: THE WELDING INSTITUTE ‘Hydrogen induced HAZ or weld metal cracks Key words: Cause: = ee [Hy HAZ racks Process Consumables __| Paint, Rust, Grease | ‘Super saturation Solubility ~_ | Low ductility | [Diffusion Transformation Critical factors =| [Hardness > 350HV__| Hydrogen >15ml__| o> 0.5 yield stress | Temp <300°C | Cause: He Key words: TISLA weld cracks | High strength metal | High C% in weld _[ Low ductility [Weld contraction | Transverse crack | Micro alloy Nb TV | Longitudinal o Prevention Low Alloy and HSLA steels Key words: [Pre-heat «| Shortstable arcs__| Prompt PWHT. ‘Use low Hz process | Minimise restraint Remove coatings | Stable arc length | y S/S weld metal [Reduce o concentration | Use low Ceq plate _| Use hot pass ASAP | Bake basic fluxes Prevention Q/T Steels Key words: | Reduce 6 concentration | Control Hy content [ Rapid PWHT crenpen | Minimise restraint | Solidification cracking in C/Mn steels Keywords: Cau: High dew Fe/Sulphides Weld centreline | Contraction | [Low melting point film] Contractional force Hot shortness _ Prevention: __ ise Key words: _ ‘High manganese % [Use low restraint [ Control carbon % ‘Control heat input | Control sulphur % I Lamellar tearing in C/Mn steels Key words: Cat Poor ductility Plastic strain Micro inclusions — | Contraction ‘Short transverse —_ [Segregation Prevention: He Ef Hd NDT for laminations | Through ‘f tensile | Buttering layers Contraction gap Re-design joint Forged Tpiece | Chem. analysis | Control heat input_| Inter - crystalline corrosion in stainless steels Key words: Cause: Cr grain depletion | Temp gradient Gr € Association | Sensitisation HAZ Parallel to weld _| 600-850 °C. High carbon content| Time/Temperature Senior Welding Inspection of Steels WIS 10 Section 2 The Weldability of Steels Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TWI Ltd 2219TWI UL fs THE WELDING INSTITUTE Inter - erystalline corrosion in stainless steels Key words: Prevention: ‘Low Carbon <0,03% | Max inter-pass temp | Stabilisation Run sequence ‘Low heat input TINb V Ta Solution annealing | Follow the WPS Re-heat cracks in creep resistant steels Key words: Cause: ee Impurities Low M/P__| Stress concentration | PWHIT Stress Relief | Weld Toes ‘Area of lower strength | 450-550°C __| High Residual Stress] Time/Temperature_ Prevention: Key words: Rapid climb through 450 — 350°C Higher Pre-Hleat | Stage PWAT “Minimise all stress concentrations _____| Dress weld toes | High Weld E% _ WIS 10 Weldability Exercises: 1) Write a brief account of: a) He cracking in he HAZ of Low alloys steels, indicating sources of Hy and briefly documenting its path to the HAZ and final expulsion from solution? b) How the martensitic structure may be formed in steels by rapid cooling from ‘austenite, then describe influence of carbon and alloying elements upon formation? 2) Describe why HSLA steels may suffer from Hp cracking in the weld metal? 3) Describe the merits of the possible methods that could be used to control Hp cracking via: Pre-heats. Low hydrogen processes, Consumables control, Increasing arc energy? 4) Describe the procedure used to enable O/f steels to gain maximum mechanical propertics, (tensile strength & toughness) then indicate why pre-heating these steals should be avoided. 5) Describe the term Aardenability, then indicate how the ruling section is maintained as the section size increases in Q/T steels? 6) Write a brief account of the mechanisms and control methods employed when avoiding: a) Solidification cracking b) Lamellar tearing ©) Inter-crystalline corrosion in Stainless Steels 4d) Re-heat cracking in Creep Resistant Steels Scaior Welding Inspoction of Stecls WIS 22.20 “Non ST Fo Section 2 The Weldability of Steets MATERIA ONG Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TWI Lid CLT recssox06¥7 4Seq O[PPIW JoseueW! LAL JOAITG AA Auoy, PYT IAL $007 @ 19814Kdog :£q poonporg 29 UayTI AA, LILO Dy ‘oreSe SuryyAraay 25995 OT PowoO] PUL PazIs ‘poryUSp! suOHODyJodUM [TY 337901, OL 1D § posTWI Ch Weld Symbols on Drawings: ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE ‘We use weld symbols to transfer information from the design office to the workshop It is essential that a welding inspector can interpret weld symbols, as a large proportion of the welding inspectors time will be spent checking that the welder is comectly completing the weld in accordance with the approved fabrication drawing. Therefore without a good knowledge of weld symbols, a welding inspector is unable to carry out his full scope of work. Standards for weld symbols do not follow logic, but are based on simple conventions. There are many different standards for weld symbols, as most major manufacturing countries have developed their own. It is important to understand the basic differences, and to be able to recognise a drawing standard being used. Reference should be always be made to the standard for specific symbolic information. Basically a weld symbol is made of 5 different components, common to all major standards. 1) The arrow line The arrow line is always a straight and unbroken line, (With the exception of instances, in AWS A24) and has only 1 of 2 points on the joint where it must touch, as shown below: Either/or 2) ‘The reference line The reference line must touch the arrow line, and is generally paralle! to the bottom of the drawing, There is therefore always an angle between the arrow line and reference line. The point of the joint of the 2 lines is referred to as the knuckle. Lo Eihesior 3) The symbol The orientation of the symbol on the line is generally the same in most standards, however the concept of arrow side and other side is shown differently in some standards, This convention is explained within the following text for UK, European, and ISO standards. (AWS A2.4 convention for arrow and other side follows that of BS 499) 4) The dimensions Basically, all cross sectional dimensions are given to the left, and all liner dimensions are given to the right hand of the symbols in most standards. 5) Supplementary information Supplementary information, such as welding process, weld profile, NDT, and any special instructions may differ from standard to standard. The following section gives a guide to the standards used in UK and Europe. Senior Welding Tspesion of Steals WIS TO aT Saas Section 03 Welding Symbols WY iexasionne ‘Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TWI Ltd CLM vecisoi0cxEs THE WELDING INSTITUTE 1) _ Convention of BS 499 (UK) The Arrow Line a) Shall touch the joint intersection b) Shall not be parallel to the drawing ©) Shall point towards a single plate preparation The Reference Line a) Shall join the arrow line b) Shall be pale! to the bottom of the drawing The Weld Symbol a) Welds done from this side (Arrow side) of joint go underneath the reference line b) Welds done from the other side of the joint go on top of the reference line c) Symbols with a vertical line component must be drawn with the vertical line drawn to the left side of the symbol 4) All cross sectional dimensions are shown to the left of the symbol Fillet throat thickness is preceded by the letter a and the leg length by the letter b ‘When only leg length is shown the reference letter (b) is optional “The throat thickness for partial penetration butt welds is preceded by the letter s ¢) _Alllinear dimensions are shown on the right of the symbol ie. Number of welds, length of welds, length of any spaces Example: a, Throat. b. Leg Number X Length (Space) 50 a7 b10 x Example: Senior Welding Inspection of Steels WIS 10 32 “TWI vonncomsron Section 03 Welding Symbols MATERIALS SONS TECHNOLOGY Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TWI LtdTWI Mt. Examples of Weld Symbols common to BS 499 and BS EN 22553 THE WELDING INSTITUTE Double-sided butt weld symbols Double bevel DoubleV Double J Double U RE Supplementary & further weld symbols Weld all around Weld onsite Square butt weld \ Secieivatsaals a 111 (Welding process to BS EN 4063 \ spot weld s.10 a7 b. a Compound weld (Single bevel and double fillet) Intermittent welds in BS 499 and BS EN 22553 are given as shown as below with number of welds x length of each weld and gap length given in brackets ie. 3 x 20 (50) 'A staggered intermittent weld may be shown with a Z drawn across the axis between the weld length and gap. 3.No’s 20mm length 50mm gap 3x20 60) Staggered Senior Welding Inspection of Steels WIS 10 33 ae Section 03 Welding Symbols fae! MATERIALS sonON Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TWI Ltd CLM rec088TWI Uae, fs » Senior Welding Inspection of Steels WIS 10 34 Section 03 Welding Symbols Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TWILtd THE WELDING INSTITUTE. Convention of BS EN 22553 (Has replaced BS 499 in UK) The Arrow Line (As for BS 499) 8) Shall touch the joint intersection 5) Shall not be parallel to the drawing ©) Shall point towards a single plate preparation The Reference Line a) Shall join the arrow line ‘As perBS 4 ) Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing Tp Asperns 499 ¢) ‘Shall have a broken line placed above, or beneath the reference line ie The Symbol (As for BS 499 with the following exceptions) The other side of the joint is represented by the broken line, which shall be shown above or below the reference line, exeept in the case where the welds are totally symmetrical about the central axis of the joint. Fillet weld leg length shall always be preceded by the letter Z. Nominal fillet weld throat thickness shalll always be preceded by the letter a. Effective throat thickness shall always be preceded by the letter § for deep penetration fillet welds and partial penetration butt welds Unbroken line representing the arrow side of the joint Removable backing strip Welding process to BS EN 4063 Wa Reference information 8 2a ae Broken line indicating other side of the jointTWI Mt. Elementary Symbols as extracted from BS EN 22553, THE WELDING INSTITUTE [Number Designation Illustration | __ Symbol | Butt weld between plates with raised edges. 1 Edge flanged 1 | weld USA. The raised edges | being melted down completely 2 | Square Butt Weld 3 | Single-V Butt Weld 4 | Single-bevel Butt Weld | Single-V Butt Weld 5 | With a Broad Root Face Single-bevel Butt Weld _ 6 | With a Broad Root Face | Single-U Butt Weld 7 | Parallel or Sloping Sides) 8 | Single J-Butt Weld Backingrun 9 | Backing Weld USA 10 Fillet Weld Plug Weld; Plug W Slot Weld USA 12 | Spot Weld ‘Senior Welding Inspection of Steels WIS 10 35 Section 03 Welding Symbols Rev 09-09-05 Copyright © 2005 TWI LidLM. THE WELDING INSTITUTE 13. | Seam Weld I = 7% extra alloying elements" The folowing base funda em etary il at frm mypertof your CSWIP examination Amos import fnetion inte metaltgy of sts. be {ily of ron e disove carton in solution ‘Thecarbenstcs ver uch small ha th on stom and oes nt replace a he nase stir, but His Beton oman S80 $> eaten some JC] eae ion oc Hern (Fe) $ ten witht caon “tp erie {Pose bl = 725° Pn Con Sted {rons abo a paca mole clement ht cn evs nether ps ofenbie rete depending oa be temperate ‘This portant feature which enables aon beat treatments ‘eronmasing aeeclng,badeng eto be ced ot At temperatures blow Ac ly (LCT) irom exists ike tie @ Alpha iron This sericea below 723°C and is body ceased er BCC in sour ng can aly dissolve upto 002% Carbon ‘Ako known s Ferrite or BCC iron eeBasic Atomic Structure of Stels, [Attemperntares above the Acie 3, (UCT) irom exit ike hit 7 Gamma iron ‘hiss occurs above the UCT ia Plan Carbon Stel and is FCC in stroctre ‘Itean dissolve up 2.062% Carben, Aww Aneto BCC ron GER omrecgemir ese parie Basic Atomnic Structure of Steels, Tf sels ete ag thon caked lowly in eulitviem then ‘sac eves atom bangs take place lWasteel hat coins mare than 039% Caton is ood gusty then the ean des not have ne ods ot of slic, ‘ence tapping thscabon in the BCC Terme ro Thisnow ctor te cube tosn regular cube or teragon ‘This supersaturted soln called Martensite ad ike ‘est sbucu that can be proce in sels Basic. Atomnie Structure of Steels. ‘some tet are cooled que thet structure Woks Ie his Marensiecan be defised A supersaturated sottion of carbon [BCT iron (ody Card Tengo) viet ardest structure ins canbo ‘hermaly roducdin els GOR corse cntiar ii ‘Toe Loportat Points of Sie! Micocactres Soluity of Carhon in BCC FCC phases of tects Ferrite: Low carbon solubility, Macimum 0 02% Ausesite: High carbon suite, Maximum 2.06% Maries: The bacdest pe nse, which spade tyra cootng fee Austen phase ems oscs bo 300°C coin Twas esp at * This is aterm vedo debe the sbi of tee to harden thequgh vrossextion Wenow andes he chasm ‘of ardeing ad sles o thee of cooing tom ‘hove be UCT of thostel ‘The ardenabilty of el fated bythe inten of the alloying element in Selying the ransfomacon ‘emperatus ofa ee! Esch alloying element has terest sveity o his eet and fom thus was bore the flowing fms Cea %6C-+ Mn+ Cr+ MoV # NIC ‘ . 15 ‘The Fe oii diagram i of news to be caginger nes comet rata ost resent sl hans ate shown in ogulibtum cooking Toundersand the relative pas ofa sel under cing ling conditions we aed to produce diagram th ges ‘Siinformation ime Temperate Tefen diagram shows sis intonation tnd diferent lagrom sprodecd foray aoe ‘ype see The flowing diagrams show how the eet of ‘onan alloying elements eh ardesblty md ene the depth of Rardening of tals‘TCL Curve for a Medium Carbon Stes) 1 Austen o Peake tanafrmaton begin pa Anew Peete usm nd uct ee tem) critical aja wansformation °C) eating ate attest sat eae Timeinseernds 01 T 1100 ‘TOLCurve fora Low Alloy Steel 1) Auseiteo Pesto Fen tranafomason begin \ ger easnaion' eterin ver emp ein second T 709 ardent has amar efit oa the west of sels ‘Consider 2 oad bars the Same cross seins aes Low Alloy Stat a1 Carb 16% Man riser 05% Mo _Aferheting above the UCT amd curach cooling, bey are ‘evant abd Hadoes ted aco the ars 350 VPN 300 VPN Go ards readings ‘a)Unhardened area a trough the CSA, Summary of Hardenability ‘Omasalysing this experimen ican be dete ts te only ‘tieencebsinee hese two spcinenss thir compeston ‘By subsite he vals inthe Cag free we cn se tat the baerabliy of specimen follows Aw%cn ceqos Bas %C+026+045+ 0052 ceqn76 ean be detemined rom this experiment hat bt; chen! ‘compos an male thehnes havea jor eis on the Inenaiy of tes Aint of fardnadly nates weeds raling Sectionifiinatr oe —The CSWIP3.2 Exam spete Teon Pate tt Tine ts Watsymtots Tine the Pra er? NDT Reger Rado ees of FS oF CSP Re at 2 adigahicnteryenions6 Tam th So mite Mats Ove Ratio Toe ort sexo Tie te ras Saale ee ot he SpotSeamwelds: ESF ee mente Ty Baie welds: <= f* _ Types of Welds — Va _ Types of Joints — By LI |. ook Pee | pp Sd ae Corner jit: a open cet ]pmonctrica 13-213 ‘3 Used to contol the eects ‘of dintortion when aces 0 ath ids ited Compound angle ‘Reduces wel vumelonts Asymmetrical bevel Aids postonal welling in ving supporto weld runs csmcamis __tepninr ee ‘A compound welded bot joint ft Welded Joints — Thins Ales welded ¥ joint L é Abas welded T joint I Acompound welled Tjont Ee 0(Cyan Gonnar Jets === A donble fillet welded Open Corser joint “i ="? emer oir eae Leg Length 2"Inprocess Jspecin: P Terms Associated with QA/QC. alee sere ree ee ‘Whats wanted nat ‘Asaronce: uot Conte = A welding imparteton hat ills ote ofa evel of eceepince in an apple sada Minor defect: Unlely to case feof the produet Mejor defer: key wo cose hire, bu sl sk 0 os oie (rtical defer Exoemely Why weasel. wih high isk of loss ofl Duties ofa Senior Inspector 1) Pn ‘An aged, pr-etrmined nd structed tay, tat mets spec ain 2) Organise Tome all uccessary amngements equi cary eat oF full plan 3) Supervise Tolnstc and cantol he work of stall | aes for which you ae espnsible Tocany oats periodic ad systematic “chek” ona syten/proces to este tht ‘thas een ete nt specified 4) Anat Using the otowing heatings andthe ays which hey willbe cavern he couse mk aver sched plano your ‘tam date, sing Your avalale foe ine. Your pla ase 0 be lec case thee oe an chanpesto de couse struct Remember raiogripic negation (Theory practi. serstmety) is norcvnre on ke coun slabs Sesto at ~ Pacers —| etsy ont NDT egos‘Once an inspection plan has been made the organisation ofthe plan should then begin Attributes of an Effective Supervisor, _AttneSs of mere Senor Welding specie Honesty “Knowledgeable ‘This ray involve the flowing elements: ‘Planning skills Experience 1) Any tsining einen required Organisational skills Leadership skis 2) Saige plan “Responsible Communication skits 3) Proewement of qupments “Delegation skills “Recordkeeping skills Thm oan st an tse “Motivation skills Impartial & fir oes, sDecisiveness “Problem solving skills 1) Amy special ees (Reise) as a 2) Leavoeyels te Analytical ‘Diplomacy ete Audits To cay out api and systematic “cheek” on ‘stenoses ene ta i as Den aed ou 3 Specified Responses ofa Sonor npertr For a supervisor the principles are: entity: ind the factst aa) + Star + Equipment NY Measure: Assess the facts + Docimentation (Le NDT reports) Simi + Health & Safety 8 ‘Observe: Implement & monitor! + Etc, “implement the solution ad clsely aoa enwomerns tapes uate 2] Lmeemmrene sey RAT SNe > PF Non D ive Testi ices Noo Destracve Testing (NDT) when we wish fo sco the igri ofa sacawe wet desoying i The dof commen types OF NDT ese when sc Penctrant Testing [Prosedare } Fit he wrt be ear here hen paca spi rapes me Once cont tine aoe pent sve and deeper hen aid Any penta tht basen eit rc by ‘Splny ston wilt wn cnt the Soler "we peo pment: 1) Celowe const 2) aoescent PenaAdvantages and Disadvantages. Dipadvantngrs | {Dita operaior save | [1 Big serface preperation (GiNen meen mei | [2)Seracetavseaty | Fit the work must be land and whiter appli for comin. A mprete ax then ape by pormanent magnet ‘eeuo magaet, oral caren, ‘Amaguctc inks applied which wll concent in aes of ‘a elage a thes cased by Das ‘The wed length mt be rosso at 90" by he magnet ld {he types of magnetic mein used ar: 1)Wetiak 2) Dry powder, 3) Fieresent ink [DpRaeieay went —_—_|[9)Canease resets] [seed rong hin contigs |) Festi dicen 0?) | ‘Woe wing sigue rod ecigne [7 Proeetare Trt sh ork must be cleaned hoouphly the coulis plied nrc cond ease A probeisthen spl withthe conect ange fe the wel ‘repurion and sound waves se wanslaed ‘Any imperfections wil bound the sound waves causing a Sigualtb occu be cathode ry wheAdvantages and Disadvantages Signal rebounded inn nme. fom Lack fasion aaa [adeantgs | BWE Dotter {3} Can find ack of fosion | [1 ich operator stim ] ‘Apply Couplaat Apply Sound Wave ‘Result [2yMestimateriats —__ ][2)Dient to interpret ~~ 3 a ea faa & eS '5).Can measare theknes | [5)Resteted to Jb gromenry eomteosaert rap laa M Radiographic Testing A fim eplaced oie a acne between lend Seren tis then placed othe as ofthe abject be raciogaphed ‘A ratiogaphie sources exposed othe werk an Ti fr 3 reese ne ‘Any imperfections in ine with the eam of ition wl be shown onthe fin aftr exponue and development ‘he 2 types of radiation used in industrial radiography: 1) Xrays from Cathode Ray Tabe) 2) Gamma rays (roma Radioactive sotope) im essen ate ingen the [oisndratags | [Tiemann |i Sietmcnaesr —[pterewa as —] (4) Directimage of laws [4) Wg neath bara [Serpent [5th nit est ——] eormeoscrms yaa a eeWhich properties ? 3) Hardness 2) Toughness 3) Tensile strength 4) Ductility ‘Dosti asoasof ice ae roses Saag tearm tt Tarver: tei em oe ain Topless Testeyefa sats 92d ipeceny Tenses hsm min tin ne ne Dotty: Thea deepal tr ace cect eran ree tnt : Hardness Testing. 1) Viekers Diamend Pyramid: Alvays sesaciamerd BS 427 Vickers Hardest Testing 2) Brine hardness tet: Always esate! tll ‘Uses al er mond epencing onthe sesle 4) Shore Sehlereseope: fests veal 3) Rockall bardaess ets centeampetis Ter wane Nite . 1) Charpy V tet: 101 10(Specimen horizontal) Jones BS 181 replaced by BS En 10085" 1010 (Specimen verte Feit Specimen wedi neuat design size Detalea fracture report. 4} Maio nas Cox“438-20 10 @ 0 20 =20 +40 ‘Teting temperature Eee Tan gre rac Gira aaah Tnproved toaphnes 5 more eoery is absorbed bythe specie ‘A Section of welds at, or machined ou ere the st piece ‘deed in tension t fue ‘The unis ae aly in Nin? S709/ BS Ex 10002 An Weld Metal Tonle Texting Cpimesmerci Toy We tba y ‘The new dimension taken st 36 f eres In exces fs mm (cachnam=284e él ~E 296 Occsioly Duct is measured asa % of ection io (CSA. paral in species that re bot han 50 en passat Tey Wao aa .‘area Met (13.142) 10 mum bar kat 2 O and therefore surface areas = lake post ust 059 mm is be ge CSA s= % Reduction in Svea = 19% Metra mtresenrin_ fog Wie een ° [Qeanstatve: ave wit) | {Quaitdre (Have wo unis) Hardness (VEN BAIN) || cro tests Toughness (Jools & sts) || Bend teste Sorengt (Nin? & PSI) | | Fe weld fracture tests Doct (E24 & YR Ares | [Batt Nik break tests ed ” or : i Welding Procedures _ A definition of the term “Procedure”? Aystematie metnod of prodecng an ain) Therefore, a “Welding Procedure” is? -Asptemaie method of prodacng sound wld Somemorms ert el oe ° Welding Procedures _ 8) ‘Materia types and form tbe welded? om ly Stee Pipe ©) Welding Poston? ised Veta! Pipe horuamatived vert ©) Welding Process & Consumables + beat input? MBIA ERDURG 538 Balad 550°C 4128 nrg © Solatdesign? Ga? Single VB waded bo oiet © Hest sreatments? Pre best 250 = PUA Stree Rete $50 4 ‘Once the weld bas been coupled tis sully visually Inspect, then Radiography or Ultrasone testing is sully lly, nd mostimponsndly, Mechanically tested ensure ‘tat th ese eal efmechanial roperies ave been et ‘fal the desire popes have been met en pocede ‘qulicason ecrd (WPOR or WPAR) is completed wth al ‘he reste, an the procedure then becomes used From this dt, «workable dosent fr production welding it prepared erdcallod a Welding ProcedreSpeicaon (WES) ‘A CSWIP.2 Sealer Welling persed rape te Sep a spp afl pecs eee ori Tey Mcgee at ” Ea ‘Welding P. ‘ Documentation: pwrs Preliminary Welding Procedare Specification wes ‘Wetaing Procedure Specifention WPAR (WPQR) ‘Welding Procedure Approval (or usifeaton) RecordWelding Procedures ‘Examples of Extent of Approval” incude: 2) Dimer of pipe or thine of plate 1) Welding poston, amnerge range. oe mumber ofr races (On mult process procedures nly) (© Censin sei groupe ©) Change f consumable to nt ofthe same elastin (Only ithe cls i given inthe rial prosedce 1) Het iape range (tam) fa Welder Approval _ One he procedure bas been approved then imponant to teitech welder f cease that hae si fo rec the ‘Blame level of qualia the weld a down inthe ‘pllaton standard ‘Theres o ward cay cut ihe mechanical esto tbe oredr, aough bead ests ate ale used ease good ‘ie wall fasion Normally, vs xy, bens, actures and mre ae wed in welder approval es -ACSONPS.1 Weng Inpecr i nrmay pobl rhe ‘prise nde ace toprol 1) Theatrow tne 2) theroferencetiae 3) Thesymbot 4) Thodinenione 5) Thesupplemensy information cima rnti i 1) Convention ofthe arrow Sine: BS. BSEn & AWS 1) SQatserepeate ote des © Stal eet swede ile pe XS Mt tet i 7] 2) Convention of The reference line: [BS 499 (UK) & AWS A24 (US) 9) Staltonch be snow toe 1b) Stal bp! othe batom of he raving ie C ea ‘Symbels: BS 499 (UK) & AWS 42.4 (US) et bs oe uaa te ite 1) Wee heaters fie i nian of eee tne © Srmttevith aaa aeempenat mbm ih sowealioe tks atesyehl © AYCGA dea esha eel ©) Alaa mein sows om et fe tal (eNews oe ng yee) TEL Greaey——— Weld Symbols on Drawings 3) Convention of The reference line: [BS En 22553 or I80 2553 2) Stat eck bea ne 1) Shae ete tone e ding ©) Therese irene be rte Siroer tee eye chow Seidel ‘Symbols: BS EN 22583 (180 2553) 1) Wo hint ge the ahah fone 9) Walters ej yo te Baka rene ine ©) Simin ibaa coment tbe dn ib Be ‘eal Enee areal 4) ABCA donna sownsn be afte tal ©) Abie dnmian wy som ns fe 1S mre el gc oss Ege cs Alleghany nd ty aes ZL aoe ey Weld Symbols on Drawings Reeesenation of welds done fon bath ies of ‘he jt inten, touched by te ao ead Double Flt Deublebevs DoxbleS Double V Doobie W ‘Supplementary Weld Symbols Tossto he groand smoothly (BSEn ny) ‘Ground fsb ‘Site Weld Weld alt ound ‘Welding proces. ‘Nemerial BS En & BS Funbersuplemenury infrmain, such as WPS sme NDT maybe placed inh Bb al ceeeecmrrne_tey wi » [7 ee a) PP Weld Symbols on Drawings BS £0 22553 0802553)[Aitaroeamnmn apted o mea ae ges of ements] i) Heating 2) Soaking P Heat Treatments edo make meta soft and due sees epee bot Pear gene gu sre oh gore | tennis etn} pemnmemss ameter set [Used to make some sees barder is nme tata ofcas sy ses Pc tne ezae pv toting wie and maa Heat Treatments Fev] [A Hes Tenet way bowed site wang] | Spoor t | [residual stresses caused by welding operations | a xy me Trenion Dy em eat spt me ee f Heat Treatments [Used manly on wed to retard the cooling late ofa herdenabestecl and reduce the nardening effect (Martens formation) is ae nse toad he diffusion of Hydrogen {from the HAZ of hardenable sts to avaid Inydrgen racking Typiealy<380°C 1 ako used to pradcen mere uniform rate cooing, controling tro. effets of igh conraetonal Figu facres anit tik al tus, fam reas where thestreses are bigher than other seas We el hse ares Suess ‘Ceacearatons and they occur a points where thee an abt change in CSA suchas the toes a welds an arse Fatigue fires era decyl loading ad at sts lvls srellblow tematerals UTS Sothet weld designer cat hav sae inst work within, SN pte hve een proce give fers of fey heaped ‘ith pele welded jot Coins ‘Ware «Fatigue Lis estabishe ite inporan to remember ‘ha ein il be reduced i th presence oa corrosive medFetigue facts are insted om sss concentton nd then progress slowly though the section ie dct mts nl here Is insufcent CSA to suport the apple aad Ares of sudden pati slip ar haacterised by beach marks, ‘which ca be aaorved on the Sal etre uric The epentre ofthe radi abvays pints to the crack tart Lines of mor pasitip Gecko) Fractured rottingsbat Summary of Fatigue Failures... 1) augue alures are vay ete fom srese 2) The final incre surice i characterised by aca of laste sip. these are known as Beal marks. 3) Theeplent of the ra she nition point of he frame 4) The fracture generally continue to move ui nsufont (CSA is avant cary he increased leva of woe 5) Fatigue willna be he final mode of face bat iis ery en he fst P ritle Fracture Failures Brie focus re rp failures of metallic souctes hat occur ‘when a metal os Hoare bite and inthe preseve of ome nd ‘of stese and on most ocesins alow temperature ‘hisses ean esate o yar suess, ote fal mae ot fale ssocted with noe form of ture ‘he faced mrfoce characters byt lat and featureless appeerans that i generally 190 dhe plan of the stress he surice i maha wit cheerens(29>48<<) which point ‘nthe ieton of # he Baer inten pink CChevrons point tothe fracture initiation point conn Yny wa a Ea fi Summary of Brittle Fractures... 1) ite rears inte om reso high res conceeraton 2) They my also be th fal mode of actarin aftque fae] 3) Brite aces generally cur at 9° tothe api ond 4) Drie acta sarees are cystine (Flat features) 9) Ares inlesing brine ucure may be obseved ia ‘herve ductile specie ceed by “Plain Sala Efe” 6) Duce fetes tad become vite when exposed bro ener (AeateDactil/Brae Transl) P Ductile Fracture Failures acti rcmues ate geerly Raul made of Batre and sre ‘more fesse with al fare of fatigue ereks ‘he fa duce scarce by a distin ure a 45 co the line of applied stress Ths fen ecempanel by shear nn etre ice ect tea at often det i rictons weil before al ‘tac and st reply mentored by NDT Ducts ers can often arrest thanseves na metalic scaresiow dete fractare feat dS" othe sre, EA 1) Ductile rcs oceur rom res of igh ress concentration 2) Way also be tena move of ctr in ague acere 3) Deetle Bact gens occur at 4&1 he apd oad 4) sie acted src ae sugh, and oe show shear Ups 9) Wispasible to Ha indications ofa 3 modes meaoned in this preset shown ona single Scud sure ry) Factors tobe consiered when investigating Brite Frames Brie facts ae iat ocurin tls tht exhibit good ‘waghnes at normal oom tempers fete have bee ‘xpaod ts ero temperatures for any length tins (At tempera blow he esion a8) ‘he reseaceof sudden lnpact wil eause these to undergo Ini actus wit cbnaterse sade failure Tiss moet ‘fea acumpaied by a sharp ad ud aise Factor tab atcerained would inchdeeyvitnest account of ‘these lemons and ater Investigative werk to esalish ober possible cntbtory factor, eh othe casing of exonenic Tiguid gases under pressure Summary of Fatigue Failure Analysis. Factors tobe carsiered when investigating Fatigue Fractures Fig ote ar iit from ara fighter enecenraton Sach 5 tap fe blend oF undereut, convex ‘le weld toes Tey are ire bythe scion a jell stresses much ower ses levels thatthe UTS In analysing fatigue lures he preseace of yi stress isa Prime requirement ine okaion ard fier propaention of Figuo cracks I wuld taefr ply an important par of he investigation oeablish te nate ouch lading which ny Deseo depres of bration ‘Ansty the Rate sure sea ene of epicentre of ‘the laste slip wl lado te ciseovery ofthe fracture into oa ee Summary of Ductile Failure Analysis... Factors tobe considered when investignting Duele Frets ote ctr ar intd om aces of hgh sees corcnttion ‘When analysing the Sure parem of acteurs, the propagation sa ofthe crack may bave bon extremely slow ial ee wl [erapif the component alae alysis of he fracture src win how that he cre ‘coud st 45° oh oa, and th surface tnd may be accep Tyahear lps orlarge areas of plastic movement asl mata may vr fn show Indeaons associat with Toile act caued during Gace by th Plea Sta Efe” ‘Example Fracture Report Specie number 001 Baie bor wed an nner a pa nO) set SC Fiat los