STRUCTURAL NOTES

ASTM- American Society for Testing and

PROPERTIES OF FORCES

ACI- American Concrete institute

According to ACI code, I the strain in concrete reaches
0.003 (conc= 0.003),
=3mm
It begins to crack

MAGNITUDE- the amount of force, N

Materials

1000

DIRECTION- refers to the orientation of its path or line of

action. It is usually described by the angle that the line of
action makes with some reference.

AISC- American Institute for steel construction

If a grade 60 steel (fy= 60ksi= 414Mpa) reaches a strain
0.0021 it begins to yield of (2.1mm)

SENSE- refers to the manner in which it acts along its line

of action

FEATURES OF A STRAIN STRESS DIAGRAM:

FORCE SYSTEM

STRESS- STRAIN DIAGRAM - a graphic representation of

the relationship between unit stress values and the
corresponding unit strains for a specific material

COPLANAR
- all acting in a single plane of a vertical wall

1. PROPORTINAL LIMIT- maximum stress which the

material springs back to the original length when the load is
released

PARALLEL
- all having the same direction
CONCURRENT
- all having their lines of action intersect at a common point.

2. ELASTIC LIMIT- maximum stress below which the

material does not return to its original length but has
incurred a permanent deformation we call permanent set

MOMENT
- force x distance
- moment can be about any point called

3.YIELD POINT- the stress wherein the deformation

increases without any increase in the load. The material at
some portion shows a decrease in its cross section

CENTER OF MOMENT

MOMENT ARM
- distance from center of moment to force
- shortest or perpendicular distance from the center of
moment to line of action of force.
KINDS OF LOADS
CONCENTRATED LOADS - example is a
supporting a column

beam

UNIFORM LOADS- a series of uniform

concentrated
loads, but for 5 or more
uniformly spaced concentrated
loads.
OTHER LOADS- varying load, moment load
TYPES OF SUPPORT
HINGED
ROLLER
FIXED/ RESTRAINED
TYPES OF BEAMS
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM
SIMPLY SUPPORTED W/ OVER HANG
(OVERHANGING BEAM)
CANTILEVER BEAM
PROPPED CANTILEVER BEAM (indeterminate)
CONTINOUS BEAM
INTERNAL FORCES TYPES
TENSION- pulls away from joint
COMPRESSION-pushes towards joint
SHEAR- for connections

4. ULTIMATE STRENGTH- the maximum stress that can be

attained immediately before actual failure or rupture

RUPTURE STRENGTH- stress at which material specimen

breaks
ALLOWABLE STRESS- the maximum unit stress permitted
for a material in the design of a structural member, usually a
fraction of the materials elastic limit, yield strength, or
ultimate strength. Also called allowable unit stress, working
stress.
ELASTIC RANGE- the range of unit stresses for which a
material exhibits elastic deformation
ELASTIC DEFORMATION- a temporary change in the
dimensions or shape of a body produced by a stress less
than the elastic limit of the material
BRITLENESS- the property of material that causes it to
rupture suddenly under stress with little evident
deformation. Since brittle materials lack the plastic behavior
of ductile materials, they can give no warning of impending
material
DUCTILITY- the property of a material that enables it to
undergo plastic deformation after being stressed beyond the
elastic limit and before rupturing. Ductility is a desirable
property of a structural material since plastic behavior is an
indicator of reserve strength and can serve as a visual
warning of impending failure.
ELASTICITY- the property of a material that enables it to
deform in response to an applied force and to recover its
original size and shape upon removal of the force
MALLEABILITY- the ability of a material to regain and
rebound to original shape when the load is released

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TOUGHNESS- the property of a material that enables it to

absorb energy before rupturing, represented by the area
under the stress- strain curve derived from a tensile test of
the material. Ductile materials are tougher than brittle
materials.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY- a coefficient of elasticity of a
material expressing the ratio between a unit stress aSd the
corresponding unit strain caused by the stress, as derived
from Hookes law and represented by the slope of he
straight line portion of the stress- strain line diagram. Also
called coefficient of elasticity, elastic modulus
PERMANENT SET- the inelastic strain remaining in a
material after complete release of the stress producing
deformation
YIELD STRENGTH- the stress necessary to produce a
specific limiting permanent set in a material, usually 0.2% of
its original length when tested in tension. Yield strength is
used to determine the limit of usefulness of a material
having a poorly defined yield point. Also called poor stress.
STRAIN- RATE EFFECT- the behavior an increased rate of
load application can cause in normally ductile material
TEMPERATURE EFFECT- the brittle behavior
temperatures can cause in a normally ductile material

AXIAL STRESS- the tensile or compressive stress that

develops to resist axial force, assumed to be normal to and
uniformly distributed over the area of the cross section. Also
called direct stress, normal stress
COMPRESSION- the act of shortening or state of being
pushed together, resulting in the reduction in size or volume
of an elastic body
COMPRESSIVE FORCE- an applied force producing or
tending to produce compression in an elastic body
ECCENTRIC FORCE- a force applied parallel to the
longitudinal axis of a structural member but not to the
centroid of the cross section, producing bending and
uneven distribution of stresses in the section. Also called
eccentric load.
STRESS- the internal resistance or reaction of an elastic
body to external forces applied to it. Equal to the ratio of
force to area and expressed in units of force per unit of
cross- sectional area. Also called unit stress.
TENSILE STRESS- the axial stress that develops at the
cross section of an elastic body to resist the collinear tensile
forces tending to elongate it.

low

STRESS RELAXATION- the time- dependent decrease in

stress in a constrained material under a constant load
CREEP- the gradual permanent deformation of a body
produced by a continued application of stress or prolonged
exposure to heat. Creep deflection in a concrete structure
continues over time and can be significantly grater than the
initial elastic deflection
FATIGUE- the weakening or failure of a material at a stress
below the elastic limit when subjected to a repeated series
of stresses
STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES
OF A36 STEEL:
Maximum allowable stress (Fv) in shear is 14.5 ksi
Maximum allowable stress (Fb) for bending is 24 ksi
Modulus of elasticity (E) is 29,000 ksi

WEIGHT:
water= 1000 kg/ m3
steel= 7850 kg/ m3
concrete= 2400 kg/ m3
weight= density x volume
volume of cylinder= pi (diameter)2 x length
4

PROPERTIES OF A MATERIAL
TENSION- the act of stretching or state of being pulled
apart, resulting in the elongation of an elastic body
TENSILE FORCE- an applied force producing or tending to
produce tension in an elastic body
AXIAL FORCE- a tensile or compressive force acting along
the longitudinal axis of a structural member and at the
centroid of the cross section, producing axial stress without
bending, torsion or shear, also called axial load

TENSILE STRAIN- the elongation of a unit length of

material produces by a tensile stress
ELONGATION- a measure of ductility of a material,
expressed as the percentage increase in length of a test
specimen after failure in tensile test
REDUCTION OF AREA- a measure of ductility of a
material, expressed as the percentage decrease in crosssectional area of a test specimen after rupturing in a tensile
test
TENSILE STRENGTH- the resistance of a material to
longitudinal stress, measured by the minimum amount of
longitudinal stress required to rupture the material
STRAIN - the deformation of a body under the action of an
applied force. Strain is a dimensionless quantity, equal to
the ratio of the change in size and shape to the original size
and shape of a stressed element.
STAIN GAUGE- an instrument for measuring minute
deformation in a test specimen caused by tension,
compression, bending or twisting. Also called extensometer
YOUNGS MODULUS- a coefficient of elasticity of material
expressing the ratio of longitudinal stress to the
corresponding longitudinal strain caused by the strain.
POISSONS RATIO- the ratio of lateral strain to the
corresponding longitudinal strain in an elastic body under
longitudinal stress
COMPRESSIVE STRESS- the axial stress that develops at
the cross section of an elastic body to resist the collinear
compressive forces tending to shorten it.
COMPRESSIVE STRAIN - the shortening of a unit length of
material produced by a compressive stress
SHEAR - the lateral deformation produced in a body by an
external force that causes one part of the body to slide
relative to an adjacent part in a direction parallel to their
plane contact.
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SHEAR FORCE - an applied force producing or tending to

produce shear in the body
SHEARING FORCE - an internal force tangenial to the
surface on which it acts, developed by a body in response
to shear, shearing in a vertical plane necessarily involves
shearing in a horizontal plane and vise versa
SHEARING STRESS- the force per unit area developed
along a section of an elastic body to resist a shear force.
Also called shear stress, tangenial stress
SHEARING STRAIN - the lateral deformation developed in
a body in response to shearing stresses, defined as the
tangent of the skew angle of the deformation.
SHEAR MODULUS OF ELASTICITY - a coefficient
elasticity of a material, expressing the ratio between
shearing stress and the corresponding shearing strain
produced by the strain. Also called modulus of rigidity,
modulus of torsion
BENDING- the bowing of an elastic body as an external
force is applied transversely to its length. Bending is the
structural mechanism that enables a load to be mechanism
that enables a load to be channeled in a direction
perpendicular to its application.
TRANSVERSE FORCE- a force applied perpendicular to
the length of a structural member, producing bending and
shear
TORQUE- the moment of a force system that causes or
tends to cause rotation or torsion
TORSION- the twisting of an elastic body about its
longitudinal axis caused by two equal and opposite torques,
producing shearing stresses in the body

REINFORCED CONCRETE
EFFECTIVE LENGTH- the depth of concrete section
measured from the compression face to the centroid of the
tension reinforcement
COVER- the amount of concrete required to protect steel
reinforcement from fire and corrosion, measured from the
surface of the reinforcement to outer surface of the concrete
section
BOND STRESS- the adhesive for per unit area of contact
between reinforcing bar and the surrounding concrete
developed at any section of a flexural member
HOOK- a bend or curve given to develop an equivalent
embedment length, used where there is insufficient room to
develop in adequate embedment length
STANDARD HOOK- a 90, 135, 180 bend made at the
end of a reinforcing bar according to standards
ANCHORAGE - any of various means, as embedment
length or hooked bars, for developing tension or
compression in a reinforcing bar on each side of critical
section in order to prevent bond failure or splitting
CRITICAL SECTION - the section of a flexural concrete
member at a point of maximum stress, a point of inflection,
or appoint within the span where tension bars are no longer
needed to resist stress

BALANCED SECTION - a concrete in which the tension

reinforcement theoretically reaches its specified yield
strength as the concrete in compression reaches its
assumed ultimate strain
OVERREINFORCED SECTION - a concrete section in
which the concrete in compression reaches its assumed
ultimate strain before the tension reinforcement reaches its
specified yield strength. This is a dangerous condition since
failure of the section could occur instantaneously without
warning
UNDERREINFORCED SECTION - a concrete section in
which the tension reinforcement reaches its specified yield
strength before the concrete in compression reaches its
assumed ultimate strain. This is desirable condition since
failure of the section would be preceded by large
deformations giving prior warning of impending collapse

BEAM
BEAM- a rigid structural member designed to carry and
transfer transverse loads across spaces supporting
elements
SPAN- the extent of space between two supports of a
structure
CLEAR SPAN- the distance between inner faces of the
support of a span
EFFECTIVE SPAN- the center to center distance between
the supports of a span
BENDING MOMENT- an external moment tending to cause
part a structure to rotate or bend, equal to the algebraic sum
of the moments about the neutral axis of the section under
consideration
RESISTING MOMENT- an internal moment equal and
opposite to a bending moment, generated by a force couple
to maintain equilibrium of the section being considered
DEFLECTION - the perpendicular distance a spanning
member deviates from a true course under transverse
loading, increasing with load and span, and decreasing with
an increase in the moment of inertia of the section of the
modulus of elasticity of the material
NEUTRAL AXIS - an imaginary line passing through the
centroid of the cross section of a beam, other ember subject
to bending, along which no bending stresses occur
BENDING STRESS - a combination of compressive and
tensile stresses developed at a cross section of structural
member to resist transverse force, having a maximum value
at the surface furthest from the neutral axis
CAMBER - a slight convex curvature intentionally built into
beam, girder, or truss to compensate for an anticipated
deflection.
How is camber treated in a steel truss 25 meters and
longer? Camber shall be approximately equal to the dead
load deflection
TRANSVERSE SHEAR- an external shear force at a cross
section of a beam or other member subject to bending,
equal to the algebraic sum of transverse forces on one side
of the section

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VERTICAL SHEARING- the shearing stress developed

along cross section of a beam to resist transverse shear,
having a maximum value at the neutral axis and decreasing
nonlinearly toward the outer faces
HORIZONTAL SHEARING- the shearing stress developed
to prevent slippage along longitudinal planes of a beam
under transverse loading, equal to any point to the vertical
shearing stress at that point. Also called longitudinal
shearing stress
FLEXURE FORMULA - a formula defining the relationship
between bending moment, bending stress, and the cross
sectional properties of a beam. Bending stress is directly
proportional to bending moment and inversely proportional
to the moment of inertia of a beam section.
MOMENT OF INERTIA - the sum of the products of each
element of an area and the square of its distance from a
coplanar axis of rotation. Moment of inertia is a geometric
property that indicates how the cross sectional area of
structural member is distributed and does not reflect the
intrinsic physical properties of a material
SECTION MODULUS- a geometric property of a cross
section, defined as the moment of inertia of the section
divided by the distance from the neutral axis to the most
remote surface.
LATERAL BUCKLING- the buckling of a structural member
induced by compressive stresses acting on slender portion
insufficiently rigid in the lateral direction
STRESS TRAJECTORIES- lines depicting the direction but
not the magnitude of the principal stresses in a beam
SHEAR DIAGRAM - a graphic representation of the
variation in magnitude of the external shears present in a
structure for a given set of transverse loads and support
conditions concentrated loads produce external shears
which are constant in magnitude between the loads
uniformly distributed loads produce linearly varying shears
MOMENT DIAGRAM - a graphic representation of the
variation in magnitude of the bending moment present in a
structure for a given set of transverse load and support
conditions. The overall deflected shape of a structure
subject to bending can often be inferred from the shape of
its moment diagram

NEGATIVE MOMENT- a bending moment that produces a

convex curvature at a section of a structure
SIMPLE BEAM - a beam resisting on simple supports at
both ends which are free to rotate and have no moment
resistance. As with any statistically determinate structure,
the values of all reactions, shears, and moments for a
simple beam are independent of its cross sectional shape
and material
CANTILEVER BEAM- a projecting beam supported at only
one fixed end
CANTILEVER- a beam or other rigid structural member
extending beyond a fulcrum and supported by a balancing
member or a downward force behind the fulcrum
OVERHANGING BEAM - a simple beam extending beyond
one of its supports. The overhanging reduces the positive
moment at midspan while developing a negative moment at
the base of the cantilever over the support
FIXED END BEAM- a beam having both ends restrained
against translation and rotation. The fixed ends transfer
bending stresses, increase the rigidity of the beam and
reduces its maximum deflection
CONTINUOUS BEAM - a beam extending over more than 2
supports in order to develop greater rigidity and smaller
moments than a series of simple beams having similar
spans and loading. Both fixed end and continuous beams
are indeterminate structures for which the values of all
reactions, shears and moments are dependent not only on
span and loading but also on cross sectional shape and
material
HAUNCH - the part of a beam that is thickened or
deepened to develop greater moment resistance. The
efficiency of a beam can be increased by shaping its length
in response to the moment and shear values which typically
vary along its longitudinal axis
SUSPENDED SPAN- a simple beam supported by the
cantilevers of two adjoining spans with pinned construction
joints at points of zero moment. Also called hung span
EFFECTIVE LENGTH- the distance between inflection
points in the span of a fixed end or continuous beam,
equivalent in nature to the actual length of simply supported
beam

CONCENTRATED LOADS- produce bending moments

which vary linearly between loads
UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOADS produce parabolically
varying moments
POSITIVE SHEAR- a net resultant of shear forces that acts
vertically upward on the left part of the structure being
considered
NEGATIVE SHEAR- a net resultant of shear forces that act
vertically downward on the left part of the structure being
considered
POSITIVE MOMENT- a bending moment that produces
moment that produces a concave curvature at a section of a
structure
INFLECTION POINT- a point at which a structure changes
curvature from convex to concave or vise versa as it
deflects under a transverse load: theoretically an internal
hinge and therefore a point of zero moment

COLUMN
COLUMN - a relatively slender structural member designed
primarily to support axial, compressive loads, applied at the
member ends.
POST - a stiff vertical support especially a wooden column
in timber framing
BUCKLING - the sudden lateral or torsional instability of a
slender structural member induced by the action of a
compressive load. Buckling can occur well before the yield
stress of the material is reached
BUCKLING- the axial load at which a column begins to
deflect laterally and becomes unsuitable.
CRITICAL BUCKLING LOAD - the maximum axial load
that can theoretically be applied to a column without
causing it to buckle. The critical buckling load for a column
4|S t r u c t u r a l

is inversely proportional to the square of its effective length

and directly proportional to the modulus of elasticity of the
material and to the moment of inertia of the cross section.
Also called Euler buckling load
BIFURCATION - the critical point at which a column
carrying its critical buckling load, may either buckle or
remain undeflected. The column is therefore in a state of
neutral equilibrium
CRITICAL BUCKLING STRESS - the critical buckling load
for a column divided by the area of its cross section

acting in the same direction and equal at any point to their

algebraic sum.
KERN The central area of any horizontal section of a
column or wall within which the resultant of all compressive
loads must pass if only compressive stresses are to be
applied beyond this area will cause tensile stresses to
develop in the section. Also called kern area.
KERN POINT A point on either side of the centroidal axis
of a horizontal column or wall section defining the limits of
the kern area.

SLENDERNESS RATIO- the ratio of the effective length of

a column to its least ratio of gyration
The higher the slenderness ratio, the lower is the critical
stress that will cause buckling. A primary objective in the
design of a column is to reduce its slenderness ratio by
minimizing its effective length or maximizing its effective
length or maximizing the radius of gyration of its cross
section

LATERAL BRACING the bracing of a column or other

compression member to reduce its effective length. Lateral
bracing is most effective when the bracing pattern occurs in
more than one plane.

RADIUS OF GYRATION - the radial distance from any axis

to a point at which the mass of a body could be
concentrated without altering the moment of inertia of the
body about that axis. For a structural section, the radius of
gyration is equal to the square root of the quotient of the
moment of inertia and the area
The higher the radius of gyration of a structural section, the
more resistant the section is to buckling. In determining the
cross- sectional shape of a column, the objective is to
provide the necessary radius of gyration about the different
axes. For an asymmetrical cross section, buckling will tend
to occur about the weaker axis or in the direction of the
least dimension

EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR a coefficient for

modifying the actual length of a column according to its end
conditions in order to determine its effective length. Fixing
both ends of a long column reduces its effective length by
half and increases its load-carrying capacity by a factor of 4.

UNBRACED LENGTH the distance between the points at

which a structural member is braced against buckling in a
direction normal to its length.

TRUSS
METHOD OF SECTIONS a method of determining
member forces in a truss by considering the equilibrium of
any portion of the truss assembly.

LONG COLUMN- a slender column subject to failure by

buckling rather than by crushing

METHOD OF JOINTS a method for determining member

forces in a truss by considering the equilibrium of the
various joints idealized as points in free body diagrams

SHORT COLUMN - a thick column subject to failure by

crushing rather than by buckling. Failure occurs when the
direct stress from an axial load exceeds the compressive
strength of the material available in the cross section. An
eccentric load, however, can produce bending and result in
uneven stress distribution in the section

DEFINITION OF TERMS

INTERMEDIATE COLUMN - a column having a mode of

failure between that a short column and a long column,
often party inelastic by crushing and partly elastic by
buckling
ECCENTRICITY - The amount by which an axis deviates
from another parallel axis.
P-DELTA EFFECT An additional moment developed in a
structural member as its longitudinal axis deviates from the
line of action of a compressive force equal to the product of
the load and the member deflection at any point.
MIDDLE THIRD RULE The proposition that a
compressive load should be located within the middle third
of a horizontal section of a column or wall to prevent tensile
stresses from developing in the section.
EFFECTIVE LENGTH The distance between inflection
points in a column subject to buckling load. When this
portion of a column buckles the entire column falls.
COMBINED STRESSES A set of tensile and compressive
stresses resulting from the superposition of axial and
bending stresses at a cross section of a structural member,

ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE - a soil pressure acting on

any structure that will tend to push the structure wherein the
structure or a wall tends to move away from the soil
ACCELEROGRAPH- is an instrument which measures the
velocity and acceleration of an earthquake in the ground
ANCHOR BOLTS - a round, steel bolt embedded in
concrete or masonry used to hold down machinery, steel
columns or beam casting, shock beam plates and engine
heads
BALANCED DESIGN - is one which both the concrete and
the steel are so proportioned as to work to their full working
stresses when the member carries its full allowable load
BATTER PILES - are piles at an inclination to resist forces
that are not critical. This is also known as brace pile or spur
pile
BEARING WALL SYSTEM- a structural system without a
complete vertical load carrying space frame
BENDING MOMENT - is the algebraic sum of the moments
of the forces acting on either side of the section of a beam
about an axis through the center of the gravity of the section

5|S t r u c t u r a l

BORED PILE (bearing pile)- a concrete pile which

concreted either with a casing or without a casing at its
permanent location. This is a cast in place pile
CAISSON - a watertight, cylindrical or rectangular chamber
used to in under water construction to protect workers from
water pressure and soil collapse

EXPANSION OR CONTRACTION - the designed break in a

structure to allow for the drying and temperature shrinkage
of concrete, brickwork of similar material, thereby
preventing the formation of harmful cracks

CEMENT GUN - is an ejector operated by compressed air

to force gunite into cavities or cracks in rocks or cement
works

FATIGUE - is a phenomenon of failure under repeated

stresses. A fact, based experience and experiments, is well
known that stresses which are applied to a body a few times
without causing apparent structure injury may, if applied
repeatedly or causing a great number of times, causes
failure

CHUTE - is an open-top through which bulk materials are

conveyed and by gravity

GUNITE - is a rich cement mortar which is applied by

spraying under high air pressure

COFFER DAM - a temporary dam- like structure

constructed which excludes water from the site of the
foundation during its excavation and construction

GRADE BEAM - a concrete beam placed directly on the

ground to provide foundation for the superstructure

CONSTRUCTION JOINT - the vertical or horizontal face in

a concrete structure where concreting has been stopped
and continued later
COLD JOINT- formed when a concrete surface hardens
before the next batch o f concrete is placed
CREEP- the tendency of most material to move or deform
over time under a constant load The amount of movement
varies enormously depending upon the material. The area
that is highly stressed will move the most. The movement
causes stresses to be redistributed.
COUNTER (inner in retaining wall)- a cantilever wall that is
reinforced with a masonry structure extending upward from
the foundation or from the inner face of the retaining wall to
provide additional resistance to thrust and are placed at
regular intervals. (buttress if outer)
COFFER DAM- a temporary watertight enclosure around an
area of water or water bearing soil, in which construction is
to take place, bearing on a stable statum at or above the
foundation level of new construction. The water is pumped
from within to permit free access to the area
DIAPHRAGM- a horizontal or nearly horizontal system
including horizontal bracing system, that act to transmit
lateral forces to the vertical resisting elements
DIAPHRAGM STRUT - a structural member of a horizontal
bracing system that takes axial tension or compression. It is
parallel to the applied load that collects and transfers shear
to the vertical resisting elements or distributive loads within
the horizontal bracing system
DIVING BELL- a watertight bell- shaped steel chamber
which can be lowered to or raised from a fresh or seawater
bed crane. It is opened at the bottom and filled with
compressed air so that men can prepare foundations and
undertake similar construction work under water.
DOWEL - a short steel bar extending from one concrete
element to another as for instance a concrete foundation to
a concrete column. It may or may not transfer direct stress
DRIFT BOLT- is a long pin of steel or wood, made with or
without the head, driven through the timber and into an
adjacent timber to hold them together and to transmit
stresses
EXPANSION OR CONTRACTION - a joint designed to take
expansion and contraction

GRANOLITHIC FINISH - a surface layer or granolithic

concrete which maybe laid on a base of either fresh or
hardened concrete
GRILLAGE - is a footing which consist of steel beams
arranged to distribute a concentrated load to the supporting
masonry or soil
DISTRIBUTION OF HORIZONTAL SHEAR - design
analysis requirement, considered as the basis for the
structural design of structures where the total lateral forces
are distributed to the various vertical elements of the lateral
force resisting system in proportion to their rigidities
considering the rigidity of the horizontal bracing system or
diaphragm
HYBRID STEEL GIRDER - is a fabricated metal beam
composed of flanges with a material of a specified minimum
yield strength different from that of the web plate
INTENSITY - the measure of the damage level of an
earthquake (subjective to visual assessment)
INFLECTION POINT- a point in the moment diagram where
it changes from positive to negative moment of vise versa
and the value of the moment at this point is zero
JETTING - a method of driving piles or well points into the
sand in the situations where a pile hammer might not be
suitable owing to the risk of damage by vibration to the piles
of adjacent buildings
LINTEL BEAM - a beam especially provided over an
opening for a door, window, to carry the wall over the
opening
MAGNITUDE - the measure of the energy released by an
earthquake (measured by instrument)
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY - is the constant which, within
the proportional limit, express ratio between the unit stress
to the unit strain. It is the measure of the relative abilities of
the different materials of construction to resist deformation
under stress within proportional limit
MODULUS OF RESILIENCE - is a measure of the capacity
of the material to absorb energy without danger of being
permanently deformed
MOMENT OF RESITANCE- is the internal resisting moment
of a beam. It is opposite in sense to the bending moment
but of the same magnitude

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MORTAR- is a mixture, composed of one part of Portland

cement and one part of clean sand, used as a filter
MULLION- is a vertical member between two portions of
window sash usually designed to resist wind load and not
vertical load. It is different from muntin, which is smaller
member which separates the panels of glass within the
whole sash.
NON- BEARING WALL - is wall that carries no load other
than its own weight
ORTHOGONAL EFFECT - the effect on the structure due to
extreme lateral (earthquake) motions acting in directions
other than parallel to the direction to the direction of
resistance under consideration
PARTY WALL- is a wall used or adopted for joint service
between two buildings
PLASTER CEMENT FINISH- a mixture of Portland cement,
with water and sand applied to surfaces such as walls
ceilings in a plastic state, later it sets to form a hard surface
POINTING - in masonry, the final treatment of joints by the
troweling of mortar or putty like filler into joints
PORTAL METHOD - method of analyzing indeterminate
modular building frames by assuming hinges at the center
of beam spans and column heights or the interior column
carries twice as much shear as the exterior column
PORTLAND CEMENT - is the product obtained by finely
pulverizing clinker produced by calcining to incipient fusion
an intimate and properly proportioned mixture of
argillaceous and calcareous materials with no additions
subsequent to calcinations except water and calcined or
uncalcined gypsum
PROPORTIONAL LIMIT - is the highest unit stress for
which the deformation of a body is proportional to the
stress. Beyond this point, permanent deformation occurs
REDUNDANT MEMBER - is any framed structure or truss,
is one which maybe omitted in the structure without affect in
the possibility of analyzing the frame or truss by ordinary
static method of computations such as the counter diagonal
truss
RIP-RAP - consist of rough stones of various placed
compactly or irregularly to prevent scour by water and
protect material which maybe washed out by the water
SAGROD- structural member in the steel truss framing that
counteracts forces in compression because of high
probability of the purlins to deflect and bend down during
purlin installation.
SAND DRAIN- it is provided to help in the compaction of
natural soil which provide channels through which water can
escape much more rapidly then through the clay itself. The
weight of the drain itself helps in the compaction.
SHEAR WALL- a wall designed to resist lateral forces
parallel to the plane of a wall
SOFFIT- is the concave surface of an arch
SPANDREL BEAM- is a beam from column to column,
carrying an exterior wall in a skeleton building

STIFFNESS RATIO (K) in moment distribution method- (as

used in analysis of indeterminate structures) is the ratio of
moment of inertia of the cross section of its length
STRESS- is the cohesive force in a body, which resists the
tendency of an external force to change the shape of the
body
STRAIN OR DEFORMATION- is the change in the shape of
any material when subjected to the action force
TIE BAR- a deformed bar, embedded in a concrete
construction at a joint and designed to hold a butting edges
together, not designed for direct load transfer
TORSION OR MOMENT OF INERTIA- is a quality which
measures the resistance of the mass to being revolved
about a line
TRANSFORMED SECTION- is one in which the flexural
steel is conceived to be replaced by large area of imaginary
concrete which can take tension. This gives a
homogeneous section of concrete to which ordinary beam
analysis may be applied
TREMIE- is a watertight pipe 300 mm to 600 mm in
diameter with a flared top used in depositing concrete under
water
UNDERPINNING- is an art of placing new foundation under
old foundation
VIBRATOR- is an oscillating power operated machine used
to agitate fresh concrete so as to eliminate gross voids
including entrapped air and to produce intimate contact with
form surfaces and embedded materials
VOID- CEMENT RATIO- is the ratio of volume of air plus
water to the volume cement
WALL FOOTING- a continuous type of spread footing the
supports vertical load, the weight of the wall itself and the
weight of the footing
WATER CEMENT RATIO- the ration of the amount of water,
to the amount of cement in a concrete or mortar mixture
WEB CRIPPLING- local failure of a thin web plate of a steel
beam or girder in the immediate vicinity of a concentrated
load
ASD- allowable stress design
LRFD- load resistance factor design

SEISMIC DESIGN PROVISION

ARTIFICIAL RIGIDITY- will cause torsion (twisting)
BASE- is the level at which the earthquake motions are
considered to be imparted to the structure
BASE SHEAR- is the total designed lateral force or shear at
the base of the structure
BEARING WALL SYSTEM (shear type)- is a structural
system without a complete vertical load carrying space
frame
BOUNDARY ELEMENT- is an element at edges of opening
or at the perimeters of shear walls or diaphragm
7|S t r u c t u r a l

BRACED FRAME- is an essentially vertical truss system of

the concentric or eccentric type which is provided to resist
lateral forces
BUILDING FRAME SYSTEM- is an essentially complete
space frame which provides supports for gravity loads
CONCENTRIC BRACED FRAME- is a braced frame in
which the members are subjected primarily to axial forces
COLLECTOR- is a member or an element provided to
transfer lateral forces from a portion of a structure to the
vertical elements of the lateral force resisting system
DIAPHRAGM- is a horizontal or nearly horizontal system
(including horizontal bracing system) acting to transmit
lateral forces to the vertical resisting elements
DIAPHRAGM STRUT - also known as tie or collector, is the
element of a diaphragm parallel to the applied load which
collects and transfer diaphragm shear to the vertical
resisting elements or distribute loads within the diaphragm.
Such members may also take axial tension or compression.
DIAPHRAGM CHORD- is the boundary element of a
diaphragm or a shear wall which is assumed to take axial
stresses analogous to the flanges of the beam
DUAL SYSTEM- is a combination of a Special or
Intermediate Moment Resisting Space Frame and Shear
walls or Braced Frame
ESSENTIAL FACILITIES- are those structures which are
necessary for emergency post- earthquake operations
FLEXIBLE ELEMENT- an element or system is one whose
deformation under lateral load significantly larger than
adjoining parts of the system
HARMONIC MOTION- the coincidence of the natural period
of structural with the dominant frequency in the ground
MOMENT RESISTING FRAME- is a space frame in which
the members and joints are capable of resisting forces
primarily by flexure
ORTHOGONAL EFFECT- is the effect of the structure due
to earthquake motions acting in directions other than
parallel to the direction of resistance under consideration
P- DELTA EFFECT- is the secondary effect on shears and
moments of frame members induced by the vertical loads
acting on the laterally displaced building frame
PERT-CPM (Program Evaluation Review Technique- Critical
Path Method) - it is a presentation of project plan by a
schematic diagram or network that depicts the sequence
and interrelation of all the component parts of the project,
and the logically analysis and manipulation of this network
in determining the best overall program of operation.
PLATFORM- is the lower rigid portion of a structure having
vertical combination of structural system
PNEUMATIC MORTAR- mortar applied to a surface with a
cement gun in the same manner as gunite, with such mortar
has a cube crushing strength of 20.68 Mpa at 28 days with
water/ cement ratio of 0.45

SOFT STOREY- is a storey whose lateral stiffness is less

than 70% of the stiffness of the storey above
SOIL- STRUCTURE RESONANCE- is the coincidence of
the natural period of structure which dominant frequency in
the ground motion
STRENGTH is the usable capacity of a structure or its
members to carry loads within the deformation limits
prescribed in the code
SOIL STABILIZATION- is the process of improving the
properties of a soil to make it more suitable for a particular
purpose
SPACE FRAME- is a three dimensional structural system
without bearing walls composed of members interconnected
so as to function as a complete self contained unit with or
without the aid of horizontal diaphragms or bracing systems
STOREY- is the space between levels. Storey x is the
storey below level x
STOREY SHEAR- is the summation of design lateral forces
above the storey under consideration
STOREY DRIFT- is the displacement of one level relative to
the level above or below
STOREY DRIFT RATIO- is the storey drift divided by the
storey height
STRUCTURE- is an assemblage of framing members
designed to support gravity loads and resist lateral forces.
They maybe categorized as building or non- building.
RAINWATER LEADER- it is another term of a downspout. It
is a vertical pipe, often of sheet metal, used to conduct
water from a roof drain or gutter to the ground.
TORSION RIGIDITY- (s used in seismic design) refers to
the relative stiffness of the structure to resist torsional stress
TOWER- is the upper flexible portion of a structure having a
vertical combination of structural system
VERTICAL LOAD CARRYING SPACE FRAME- is a space
frame designed to carry all vertical (gravity) loads
WEAK STOREY- is a storey whose strength is less than
80% of the strength of the storey

SEISMIC REQUIREMENT FOR

TRANSVERSE REINFORCEMENT
1.
2.
3.
4.

maximum spacing of hoops shall not exceed 24

times the diameter of the hoop bars
maximum spacing of hoops shall not be 8 times
the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bars
maximum spacing of hoops shall not be more than
d/4
the first hoop shall be located not more than 50
mm from the face of the supporting member

SHEAR WALL- is a wall designed to resist lateral forces

parallel to the plane of the wall (sometimes referred to or a
structural wall)
8|S t r u c t u r a l

GRADING AND EARTHWORK

AS GRADED- is the extent of surface conditions on
completion of grading
BEDROCK- is in-place solid rock
BENCH- is a relatively level step excavated into earth
material on which fill is to be placed
BURROW- is earth material acquired from an off site
location for use in grading on a site
COMPACTION- is the densification of a fill by mechanical
means
EARTH MATERIAL- is any rock, natural soil or fill or any
combination
EROSION- is the wearing away of the ground surface as a
result of the movement of the wind, water or ice
EXCAVATION- is the mechanical removal of the earth
material
FILL- is a deposit of earth material placed by artificial
means
GRADE- is the vertical location of the ground surface
EXISTING GRADE- is the grade prior to the grading
FINISH GRADE- is the final grade of the site that conforms
to the approved plan
GRADING- is any excavating or filling or combination
thereof
KEY- is a designed compacted fill placed in a trench
excavated material beneath the toe of a proposed fill slope

CONCRETE - mixture of Portland cement or any other

hydraulic cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, and
water, with or without admixtures
SPECIFIED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
(f) - compressive strength of concrete used in design
expressed in megapascals (Mpa). Whenever the quantity
Fc is under a radical sign, square root of numerical value
only is intended, and result has units of megapascals (Mpa).
CONCRETE, STRUCTURAL LIGHT WEIGHT- concrete
containing lightweight aggregate and has an air-dry unit
weight not exceeding 1900 kg/m3. lightweight concrete
without natural sand is termed all- light weight concrete and
lightweight concrete in which of the fine aggregate consists
of normal weight sand is termed sand- lightweight concrete.
CURVATURE FRICTION- friction resulting from bends or
curves in the specified pre-stressing tendon profile
DEFORMED REINFORCEMENT - deformed reinforcing
bars, bar mats, deformed wire fabric and welded deformed
fabric.
DEVELOPMENT LENGTH - length of embedded
reinforcement required to develop the design strength of
reinforcement at a critical section
EFFECTIVE DEPTH OF SECTION (d) - distance measure
from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension
reinforcement
EFFECTIVE PRESTRESS- stress remaining in prestressing
tendons after all losses has occurred, excluding effects of
dead load and super imposed load
EMBEDMENT
LENGTHlength
of
embedded
reinforcement provided beyond a critical section
JACKING FORCE- in prestressed concrete, temporary
force exerted into prestressing tendons

REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

DEAD LOAD (DL) - dead weight supported by a member.

Loads of constant magnitude that remains in one position.

ADMIXTURE- a material used as ingredient of concrete and

added to concrete before or during its mixing to modify its
properties

LIVE LOAD (LL) loads that may change in magnitude and

position

AGGREGATE- granular material such as sand gravel stone

and iron blast furnace slag used with a cementing medium
to form a hydraulic cement concrete or mortar
AGGREGATE LIGHTWEIGHT- aggregate with a dry, loose
weight of 100 kg/m or less
ANCHORAGE- in post tensioning, a device used to anchor
tendon to concrete member, in pre-tensioning, a device
used to anchor a tendon during hardening of concrete
BONDED TENDON- pre-stressing tendon that is bonded to
concrete either directly or through grouting
COLUMN- member with a ratio to least lateral dimension of
3 or greater used primarily to support axial compressive
load
COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL MEMBERS concrete flexural members of pre-cast and/or cast in place
concrete elements but so interconnected that all elements
respond to loads as a unit

FACTORED LOAD- load multiplied by appropriate load

factors, used to proportion a members by the strength
design method.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY- ratio of normal stress to
corresponding strain for tensile or compressive stresses
below proportional limit of material
MODULUS, APARENT (concrete)- also known as long term
modulus, is determined by using the stress and strain
obtained after the load has been applied for a certain length
of time
MODULUS, INITIAL (concrete)- the slope of the stress
strain diagram at the origin of the curve
MODULUS, SECANT (concrete)- the slope of the line
drawn from the origin to appoint on the curve somewhere
between 25% and 50% of its ultimate compressive strength
MODULUS, TENGENT (concrete)- the slope of tangent to
the curve to some point along the curve
9|S t r u c t u r a l

PEDESTAL- an upright compression member with a ratio of

unsupported height to average least lateral dimensions of
less than 3

balanced conditioned. Failure under this condition is ductile

and will give warning to the user of thee structure to
decrease the load

PLAIN CONCRETE- concrete that does not conform to the

definition of reinforced concrete

OVERREINFORCED DESIGN- a design in which the steel

reinforcement is more than what is required for balanced
condition

PLAIN REINFORCEMENT- reinforcement that does not

conform to the definition of deformed reinforcement
POST TENSIONING- method of prestressing in which the
tendons are tensioned after concrete has hardened
PRECAST CONCRETE- plain or reinforced concrete
element cast elsewhere than its final position in the
structure
POSTENSIONING- method of prestressing concrete which
the tendons are tensioned before concrete is placed
REINFORCED CONCRETE- designed on the assumption
that two materials act together in resisting forces
SPIRAL
REINFORCEMNTcontinuously
reinforcement in the form of a cylindrical helix

wound

STIRRUP - reinforcement used to resist shear and torsion

stresses in a structural member: typically bars, wires or
welded wire fabric (smooth or deformed) either single leg or
bent into L, U or rectangular shapes and located
perpendicularly to or at angle to longitudinal reinforcement
(The term stirrups is usually applied to lateral reinforcement
in flexural members and the term ties to those in
compression members.)
DEIGN STRENGTH- nominal strength reduction factor,
NOMINAL STRENGTH- strength of a member or crosssection before application of any strength reduction factors
REQUIRED STRENGTH - strength of a member or cross
section required to resist factored loads or related internal moments
and forces in such combinations

TENDON- steel element such as wire, cable, bar, rods or

strand, or a bundle of such elements used to impart
prestress to concrete
TIE- loop or reinforcing bar or wire enclosing longitudinal
reinforcement
TRANSFER - act of transferring stress in prestressing
tendons from jacks or pretensioning bed to concrete
member
WALL - member, usually vertical, used to enclose or
separate spaces
WOBBLE FRICTION - in prestressed concrete, friction
caused by unintended deviation of prstressing sheath or
duct from its specified profile
YIELD STRENGTH - specified minimum yield strength or
yield point or reinforcing in Mpa
BALANCED DESIGN - a design so proportioned that the
maximum stress in concrete (with strain of 0.003) and steel
(with strain of Fy/Es) are reached simultaneously once the
ultimate load is reached, causing them to fall simultaneously
UNDERREINFORCED DESIGN - a design in which the
steel reinforcement is lesser than what is required for

AGGREGATES
Fine aggregates- sand
are those that passes through a No.4
(about 6mm in size)

sieve

Coarse aggregate -gravel or crushed stone

Coarse aggregate shall not be less than:

1/5 the narrowest dimension

between sides of forms

1/3 the depth of slabs

minimum clear spacing between individual reinforcing

bars or wires, bundle of bars or prestressing tendons or
ducts

CONCRETE PROTECTION FOR

REINFORCEMENT
75 mm

-for concrete cast and

permanently exposed to earth
as footings

such

40-50 mm
for concrete members exposed
to weather
40 mm

concrete cover of pipes,

conduits or fittings and exposed

to

weather
40 mm
20 mm

for beams and columns

for concrete not exposed to
weather
or in contact with
ground, such as
slabs, walls
and joists

FOR BUNDLED BARS

a.

groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in

contact as a unit shall be limited to 4 in any
one
bundle
b. bundled bars shall be enclosed within stirrups
ties

or

c. bars larger than 32mm shall not be bundled

beams

in

d. individual bars within a bundle terminated

within
the span of flexural members
should terminate at a
different points at least
40db stagger
The minimum concrete cover for bundled bars shall be:

Equal to the equivalent diameter of the bundle but

not exceeding 50 mm

10 | S t r u c t u r a l

75 mm- for concrete cast against and permanently

exposed to earth

STANDARD HOOKS
A.

180 bend plus 4db extension but not

STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTOR

less

than 65 mm at free end

B.

90 bend plus 12db extension, at free

end

of bar
C.

for stirrups and tie hooks:

16 mm bar and smaller, 90 bend plus 6d b
extension at free end of bar or
20 mm and 25 mm bar, 90 bend plus 6d b
extension at free end of bar or
25 mm bar and smaller, 135 bend plus 6db
extension at free end of bar

MINIMUM BEND DIAMETER

(b.)

6db for 10 mm to 25 mm bar

8db for 10 mm to 28 mm bar

(c.)

10db for 10 mm to 36 mm bar

in

diameter

ONE- WAY SLAB

A one-way slab is considered as wide shallow rectangular
beam. The reinforcing steel is usually spaced uniformly over
its width. The flexural reinforcement of a one-way slab
extends in one direction only.
Maximum flexural reinforcement spacing:
3 times the slab thickness or 450 mm
Minimum thickness of one-way slab:
Solid one-way slab
L/20 - simply supported
L/24 - one end continuous
L/28 - both end continuous
L/10 - cantilever
* Span length L is in millimeter
Ribbed one-way slab
L/16 - simply supported
L/18.5 - one end continuous
L/21 - both end continuous
L/8 - cantilever

LOAD FACTORS

REQUIRED STRENGTH, U or Pu
Required strength U to resist dead load DL and live load LL
is
U= 1.4DL + 1.7LL
Wind load W are included in design
U= 0.75 (1.4DL + 1.7LL + 1.7W)

Where structural effect T of differential settlement, creep,

shrinkage or temperature change are significant in design
U= 0.75 (1.4DL + 1.4T + 1.7LL)
but required strength U shall not be less than
U= 1.4 (DL + T)

4db minimum inside diameter of bend of

stirrups and ties for 16 mm bar and smaller

a.

Earthquake loads or forces are included in design

U= 0.75 (1.4DL + 1.7LL + 1.87E)

The diameter of bend measured on the inside of the bar

shall not be less than the following:
(a.)

Flexure w/o axial load

0.90
Axial tension & axial tension w/ flexure
0.90
Shear and torsion
0.85
Axial compression & axial compression w/ flexure
spiral reinforcement
0.75
b. tie reinforcement
0.70
Bearing on concrete
0.70

SIZES AND SPACING OF

MAIN BARS AND TIES
1.

Clear distance between longitudinal bars shall be

not less than 1.5 db nor 40 mm
2. Use 10 mm diameter ties for 32 mm bars or
smaller and at least 12 mm in size for 36 mm and
bundled longitudinal bars
3. Vertical spacing of ties shall be the smallest of the
following:
a. 16 x db (db = longitudinal bar diameter)
b. 48 x tie diameter
c. least dimension of columns
4. Ties shall be arrange such that every corner and
alternate longitudinal bar shall have lateral support
provided by the corner of the tie with an included
angle of not more than 135 and no bar shall be
farther than 150 mm clear on each side along the
tie from such a laterally supported bar. Where
longitudinal bars are located around the perimeter
of a circle tie is allowed.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR

DEVELOPMENT OF REINFORCEMNT
1.
2.
3.

not less than 12 db

not less than 1/16 clear span
not less than d
whichever is greater

dead load, DL. 1.40

live load, LL. 1.70
wind load, WL..... 1.70
earthquake, E. 1.87
earth or water pressure, H 1.70
11 | S t r u c t u r a l

CRITERION FOR CONDUITS AND PIPES

EMBEDDED IN CONCRETE
a.

Conduits and pipes embedded in slab, the wall or

beam shall not be larger in outside dimension than
1/3 the overall thickness of slab, wall or beam

b.

Reinforcement with an area not less than 0.002

times the area of cross- section shall be provided
normal to piping

c.

Conduits and pipes with their fittings, embedded

within a column shall not displace more than 4% of
the area of the cross section on which strength is
calculated

d.

Concrete cover for pipes, conduits and fittings shall

not be less than 40 mm for concrete exposed to
earth or weather

CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH BOLTED

CONNECTION
1.

high-strength bolted parts shall fit solidly together

when assembled and shall not be separated by
gaskets or any other interposed compressive
material.

2.

Bolts tightened by means of a calibrated wrench

shall be installed with a hardened washer under
the nut or bolt head whichever is the element
turned in tightening.

3.

When assembled, all joint surfaces, including

those adjacent to the washer, shall be free of
scale, except tight mill scales, dirts and burns.

4.

Surface in contact with the bolt head and nut head

shall have slope of not more than 1:20 with respect
to a plane normal to the bolt axis.

12 | S t r u c t u r a l