Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Iidentiitiiess Iin Metamorpphossiiss.. Liiterature,, Diisscoursse and Multiicultural Diialogue
Iidentiitiiess Iin Metamorpphossiiss.. Liiterature,, Diisscoursse and Multiicultural Diialogue
Iidentiitiiess Iin Metamorpphossiiss.. Liiterature,, Diisscoursse and Multiicultural Diialogue
IUULLIIAANN BOLDEA
(CCO
OO
OR
RD
DIIN
NA
AT
TO
OR
R)
IDENTITI ES I N
METAMO RPHOSIS.
LITERATURE, DIS COURS E
AND M ULTI CULTUR AL
DIALOGU E
SECTION: LITERATURE
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SECTION: LITERATURE
The sole responsibility regarding the content of the chapters lies with the authors.
Published by
Arhipelag XXI Press, Trgu Mure, Romnia, 2014
Moldovei Street, no.8, Trgu Mure, 540519
Tel: +40-744-511546
Editor: Iulian Boldea
Editorial advisor: Dumitru-Mircea Buda
Email:editura.arhipelag21@gmail.com
http://www.asociatiaalpha.comxa.com
ISBN 978-606-93691-9-7
LDMD 2
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Table of Contents
THE DENIAL OF THE LITERARY CANON AND THE NEW POETRY IN THE PROGRAMMATIC
POEMS OF THE WAR GENERATIONS POETS
Sorin Ivan, Prof., PhD, Titu Maiorescu University of Bucharest ..................................................... 64
THE METAMORPHOSES AND THE MODELS EFFECTS WITHIN THE EUROPEAN CULTURE
AND LITERATURE BETWEEN THE TWO WORLD WARS
Doinia Milea, Prof., PhD, Dunrea de Jos University of Galai ....................................................... 90
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DARIO FOS SPECTACLE. THE DRAMATIC TEXT AS A SCORE DESTINED TO THE ART OF
THE ACTOR
Alba Simina Stanciu, Assist. Prof., PhD, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu ................................... 135
ABOUT A FAILED EROTIC INITIATION. THE ILLNESS AND THE MORBID LOVE IN THE
FOREST GIRL, BY IOAN SLAVICI
Liliana Floria, PhD Candidate, 1 Decembrie 1918 University of Alba Iulia ................................... 165
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IOAN PETRU CULIANU AND THE MYTHANALYSIS. THE LITERARY TEXT AS A MYTH
Adriana Dana Listes Pop, PhD Candidate, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca ........................... 197
A NEW HISTORICIST READING OF JULIE OTSUKAS THE BUDDHA IN THE ATTIC AND
WHEN THE EMPEROR WAS DIVINE
Iuliana Vizan, PhD Student, Ovidius University of Constana ........................................................ 204
THE RISE AND FALL OF LILY BART IN EDITH WHARTONS THE HOUSE OF MIRTH
Oana Alexandra Alexa, PhD Student, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai.............................. 212
THE CHRONOTOPE FORMS AND MEANINGS IN THE FANTASTIC PROSE OF IOAN PETRU
CULIANU
Maria Holho, PhD, 1 Decembrie 1918 University of Alba-Iulia ................................................... 239
UNDER THE EFFIGY OF THE MASK: NORMAN MANEAS CLOWNS VERSUS HERTA MLLERS
MARIONETTES
Aurica Stan, PhD Student, University of Bucharest............................................................................ 244
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THE POETICS OF NONSENSE AND THE ABSURD: LEWIS CARROLL VS. URMUZ
Andreea Sncelean, PhD Student, Petru Maior University of Trgu Mure .................................... 484
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DIE TROMMEL ALS EINE NABELSCHNUR IM ROMAN DIE BLECHTROMMEL VON GNTER
GRASS
Monica Buoiu, PhD Candidate, Faculty of Letters, University of Oradea ........................................ 576
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MISUNDERSTANDINGS REGARDING THE ROMANIAN VISUAL LITERATURE OF THE AVANTGARDE AND EXPERIMENT MOVEMENTS
Daniela Nagy, Assistant, PhD Student, Adrian Lesenciuc, Assoc. Prof., PhD, Henri Coand Air
Force Academy, Braov ...................................................................................................................... 726
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THE IMAGE OF THE SMALL PROVINCIAL TOWN IN THE WORK OF DOMINIC STANCA
Cristina Florentina Pop, PhD Student, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Baia Mare Northern
University Centre ................................................................................................................................ 874
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THE PARADOX OF THE COMIC IN EUGEN IONESCU AND RKNY ISTVNS DRAMAS
Dek Julia, PhD Student, University of Bucharest.............................................................................. 901
RUSH HOUR BY GRAHAM SWIFT: THE CROSSROADS OF IMAGISM, HAIKU, AND ROMANTIC
LYRICAL POETRY
Irina-Ana Drobot, PhD, Technical University of Civil Engineering, Bucharest ................................. 924
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Abstract: This study examines the structures and formulas of the comic to Caragiale.The first
part examines Caragiale's comic mutations over time Alecsandri, then shows the structures
that motivates the comic (ontological reasoning, one structural and one rhetoric); the more
consistent, the study brings some structures and formulas of the comic, starting with Jean
Emelina and Henri Bergson. In the final part, we establish the comedy interferences between
c. publishing, and how the comic vector feeds satire and outlines a quotidian event literature.
Keywords : comic, the motivation of the comic, structures and formulas of the comic, the
comic vector
A devenit de-a dreptul unul dintre locurile comune ale criticii ca problematica legat
de comic, cu toate nuanrile sale (raportul umor-comic-rs), s se restrng preponderant la
nivelul comediilor i s evite interferenele dintre proza scurt i proza publicistic i teatrul
comic. n plus, comicul ca mod de structurare i organizare textual, intrat pe terenul acestor
ultime texte, devine vehicul de inducere a satirei, alimentnd aa-zisa literatur a
angajamentului. Pe de alt parte, nici fundamentele teoretice ale comicului din comedii nu au
conturat o critic aplicat care s motiveze preferina lui Caragiale pentru ceea ce poate
genera o ficiune a comicului, literaturiznd evenimentul cotidian.
1. Mutaiile comicului la Caragiale fa de momentul Alecsandri
Fa de momentul inaugural al textului comic cu Alecsandri, literatura comic a lui
Caragiale aduce att o schimbare de viziune, detectabil prin cteva universalii ale
comicului (intrig, personaje,teme), ct i structuri i formule noi care reorganizeaz textul
dup alte paradigme ale comicului. Principala mutaie deriv din regndirea raportului
particular-general sau local-universal. Textele comice ale lui Alecsandri rspundeau unei
convenii a materialului observat, tipic farsei clasice, de la moralismul paoptist cu lozinca
unionist la satira descoperit, din vodeviluri i tablouri comice; la Caragiale schema comic
se altoiete una de satir implicit care lrgete mult materialul investigat. De aceea, i efectul
comic este cu totul altul n cazul celor doi:la dramaturgul paoptist efectul se ncadreaz mai
degrab n literatura de divertisment, viznd moravuri i comportamente n manifestarea lor
exterioar, i o justificare moral; la Caragiale comicul intete ntr-o satir a societii i
exploateaz conflictul unor situaii bufe, care alimenteaz un conflict de profunzime,
valorificat n toate compartimentele comicului (gesturi, micri, situaii, personaj,
limbaj).Fora viziunii comice i satirice e legat de abandonarea oricror legi morale i
conturarea unei lumi reduse la oralitate mimetic. O alt mutaie este susinut de
instrumentarul comic la care recurg cei doi: la Alecsandri, n ciclul Chirielor,aparentul
conflict este dat de logica intern a situaiilor de dialog,prin adiionare progresiv ca realiti
anticipate de spectatorul-cititor; la Caragiale intervin factori perturbatori, prezena unor
obiecte materiale-obiecte ca vehiculi ai intrigii, dar care nu au nimic comic prin ele nsele.
Aceste instrumente apar inopinat n aciune i dispar fr urm n final, dar fr ele nu se nasc
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Citatele sunt extrase din I.L. Caragiale, Opere, V, Fundaia pentru Literatur i Art, Regele Carol II, Bucureti, 1938, ediie de erban
Cioculescu
3
Vorbind, lumea se refugiaz prin cuvinte n imaginar i ficiune, n Mircea Iorgulescu, Eseu despre lumea lui Caragiale, Ed. Cartea
Romneasc, Bucureti, 1988, p.82
4
Aceast motivare se face dup sugestiile lui Jean Emelina, Le comique, Sedes, Paris, 1991, p.94-105
5
H.Bergson, Teoria rsului, Ed. Institutul European, Iai, 1992, p.54
6
Jean Emelina, Op.cit.,p.110
7
Umorul este expresia unei stri de spirit calme, care, vznd insuficienele unui caracter, al unei situaii sau al unei lumi n care domnete
anomalia, non-sensul, iraionalul i injustiia, se acomodeaz acesteia cu o bonomie resemnat i surztoare, n Henri Morier Dictionnaire
de potique et de rhtorique, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1998, p.624
2
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mult mai nuanat i bogat n viziuni i construcii, dect discursul literar supravegheat al
comediografului ori prozatorului. Dac nu, istoric vorbind, multe din textele comice( schie,
momente, comedii) ale lui Caragiale preiau construcii i formule din modelul ziaristicii.
Cazul este similar, pe alte coordonate, cum am vzut, ale lirismului satiric, cu cel al
contemporanului su, Eminescu, la care publicistica a dus la o literatur angajat pe linia
polemic-satiric10.
Textul publicistic caragialean se caracterizeaz prin polifonie i eterogenitate.
Polifonie, prin cteva mrci ale enunrii i ale ipostazelor enuniatorului/locutorului( n
termenii lui O.Ducrot11), eterogenitate prin prezena n cadrul aceluiai text a diferitelor tipuri
de enunuri performative, de la cele argumentative, demonstrative, la cele dialogice i
descriptive. Aceasta permite ca textul jurnalistic s se organizeze dup regulile textului literar
i s propun lumi virtual fictive, n care miun personaje i evenimente de proz literar.
Nu este mai puin adevrat c vectorul ficiunii n aceste buci de proz este ironia i satira,
ca mrci ale comicului, activate printr-o serie de procedee i tehnici ale deriziunii, persiflrii
i manipulrii. E aidoma unui joc de puzzle pe claviatura cotidianului, prin care naratorul
recompune, din abunden i cu plcerea textului (R. Barthes), piesele realului fragmentat.
Aceste relaionri ale artelor reprezentrii au un fundament n motivarea raportului de
consubstanialitate dintre Politic i Literatur, prima venind cu un cmp larg de manifestare
n cotidian, a doua lrgindu-i mult graniele pentru a se adapta la amplitudinea cotidianului.
Acest raport ntre cele dou cmpuri traduce, n fapt, o relaie de inducere dintre fapt, aciune
militant (pentru politic) i reflecie, expresie, vocaie misionar (pentru literar). Unei explozii
a cotidianului i corespunde, la Caragiale, o explozie a formulelor literaturii:sunt art
literar Satira, Teatrul i Romanul, care ntipresc spre pstrare trectoarea fizionomie
social a deosebitelor epoce; sunt art literar i Polemica i Cronica uoar i
Pamfletul() tot art literar e i arta mrea a Oratoriei. Cu aceste din urm dou ramuri
ale ei, Literatura vine la fiece moment s dea da dreptul ajutor Politicei; cu acestea, i este
aliat combativ; cu celelalte, i este cluz cuminte.(Literatura i Politica)
O dinamic textual a cotidianului. Unul din atributele cotidianului n publicistic
caragialean este excesul de real(Ph.Dufour), n formula unei supraabundene a datelor
factuale, care acoper i depete puterea cuvintelor de a le putea exprima. Aceast torpilare
a scriiturii, prin exces de date epice, risc s focalizeze naraiunea publicistic n jurul unor
nuclee de banal realitate. Uneori, aceast realitate deirat, scpat de sub control, devine
subiect predilect de satir i umor. Banalitatea cotidianului poate lua, deci, alura unui subiect
major de literatur, valorificabil la nivelul detaliului derizoriu. De aceea spectrul ziaristicii
lui Caragiale are un orizont de micare larg, de la politic la social, de la ideologie i literatur
la erotic i religios.Ca formul literar, excesul de real face loc unei scriituri prin cumul12,
suport benefic pentru ceea ce numeam eterogenitate textual. Secvenele se organizeaz
adiional, prin interferene textuale, de la analogii la opoziii, de la paralelisme la
paradoxisme.
Ca formul i structura, textele publicistice ale lui Caragiale dezvolt o diversitate de
relaii inter- i intratextuale, care angajeaz deopotriv narator, personaje, cititor. Asocierile,
paralelismele i analogiile dintre secvenele de text, narative, descriptive, dialogice, oratorice,
induc ficiunea prin spontaneitatea recompunerii i recontextualizrii cotidianului. Scene
epice ample, fantezii utopice, scenarizri prin mixajul tipurilor de texte, transform textul
publicistic n proz de bun calitate estetic. Observator atent al cotidianului, naratorul este i
un fin analist i subtil imagist n constituirea cmpului ficional. Istoria, venind dinspre textul
vezi studiul nostru Pamfletul n publicistica lui Caragiale, n Studia, Philologia, XXXIX,3-4, 1994
cf. O.Ducrot, Le dire et le dit, Editins du Minuit, Paris, 1984
12
Philippe Dufour, Sociopathologie de la parole quotidienne, n Potique, Seuil, Paris, nr.119, sept.1999, p.291
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jurnalistic, se estompeaz prin aceast bre narativ-descriptiv, cednd locul unei construcii
noi, care descarc realul cotidian de fora limitativ a evenimentului liniar. De aceea i unei
dialectici prea sordid-logice a cotidianului i afieaz prozatorul o dialectic rsturnat a
textelor din scriitur, care foreaz textul s-i strng la minimum mijloacele de construcie i
s debueze prin secvenele de respiro ale naratorului.O viclenie a disimulrii face ca
majoritatea acestor buci de proz publicistic s activeze la toate nivelele ironia , satira i
umorul, vehiculi ce induc un act de personalizare intre narator i receptor13, pn la un
soi de complicitate ntre cei doi.
O formul epic preferat de textul caragialean este plasarea n exordium a unei
poveti, cu rol de captatio benevolentiae pentru cititor i ca argument de greutate pentru
credibilitatea naratorului. n bucata A zecea muz, de pild, naratorul apeleaz la autoritatea
livresc(spun unii erudii) pentru a arata cum s-a ajuns de la trei muze la nou. Rolul
textual al acestui ocoli este de a deschide intrarea n cotidian , prin anunul Teatrului
Naional de a organiza un concurs cu premii pentru scrierea unor piese de teatru originale.
Dei pare s continue datele povetii antice, niruind muzele, naratorul recontextualizeaz
povestea cobornd n derizoriu anunul cu pricina. Strategia atrage n capcan, prin punctele
de suspensie, i cititorul, pe care naratorul l reconecteaz la preajm:a opta, Urania, a
Astronomiei; a noua, Polimnia, a Poeziei lirice i a Mimicei, ia zeceaA zecea:1200
franci, muza special a Teatrului Naional din Bucureti. De aici pasajele ce in de
digressio, n care se plaseaz un scenariu ipotetic, de domeniul absurdului, pentru a motiva n
absurd premiul instituit la concurs. Raportat la secvena anterioar a povetii antice, acest
tampon de text are rolul unui elogiu paradoxal, care denun semnificaia iniial a datelor din
incipit. Aceast transpunere vizeaz readaptarea condiiilor de concurs din anunul Teatrului
Naional. O perfidie a imaginarului ntr-un cotidian de pres diurn, la care este conectat
cititorul:nchipuii-v c citii urmtoarele:Muzeul Naional de Curioziti Naturale din
oraul * public printr-aceasta un concurs cu un premiu de 1200 lei, ntre acei ce, de astzi
pn n trei luni, vor avea crescute musti n palm. Mustile vor putea fi groase sau subiri,
negre, blane sau castanii, sau vopsite n or ce fa va voi concurentul, numai trebuie s aib o
lungime de cel puin cinci centimetri una. La concurs pot lua parte i acei ce n-au pr unde ar
trebui s aib. Concurs! Ieirea n peroratio se face n formul tipic caragialean,
circumscriind toposul cotidianului n cunoscuta expresie a nimicului, moftul i, surprinztor,
prin autoironie, ca form de protejare a individului n faa unei ironii a sorii, dictat de legea
ntmplrii. Refutatio nchide textul printr-o fent textual a denunrii, ca neadevrate cele
scrise, i a reducerii la tcere:Mofturi! Lumea n-a fost fcut prin concursul
mprejurrilor? Dar nu mi-e dat mie, un biet cronicar, s filosofez
Pe exploatarea absurdului din cotidian, prin formula valorificrii unor obiceiuri
tradiionale (pelerinajul cretinesc n ara Sfnt) ori prin construcia fictiv a unei naraiuni
de anticipaie ( anul 3874, un spaiu exotic, Tmpitopole locuit de un trib de chinezi) se
construiesc i textele Cabinetul Hagi-Tudose, Cronica fantastic. Primul arjeaz obiceiul
pelerinajului prin convertirea eroului cunoscut ,a locurilor comune i a ceremonialului
ntoarcerii (hagiul devin aici Sturdza, spaiul sfnt-tripla Alian), al doilea recontextualizeaz
prin reteritorializare datele epice ale unui scenariu cotidian, n care povestitor i cititor scriu
mpreun o cltorie imaginar. Acest ultim text valorific din plin referenii cotidianului
romnesc, o toponimie i onomastic familiar cititorului. Hiperetimologii cu ncrctur
ideologic (Tmpitopole, Sinecorzi, Ti-Li, Punga-public, Sik-Tir) stau alturi cu indici
metatextuali, care fac ca naraiunea s nainteze prin cititorul-cltor. Finalul acestei cronici
fanteziste recurge la acelai procedeu al retragerii naratorului din propriul text, pentru a
Formula monologului personal, meta-argumentul, confidenele autobiografice, limbajul colocvial susin prezena satiristului n propriul
text. Vezi Bartolome Pozuelo, Methodologie pour lanalyse des satires, n vol. La satire humaniste, dit par Rudolf de Smet, Peeters
Press, Bruxelles, 1994, p.21
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dejuca ateptrile cititorului, desprirea de utopia-capcan n care l-a atras. Funcioneaz aici
aceeai perfid autoironie, discreditarea petiiei de principiu, pentru a se salva prin argumentul
paritii. n acest fel l pune pe receptor n faa a dou alternative, fie s-i duc pe mai departe
existena n lumea exotic a imaginarului, fie s se racordeze la cotidianul imediat. Este
trecerea de la funcia fatic a limbajului la cea metalingvistic. Un final care coboar povestea
n anecdotic i cotidianul uniform, centrat pe un banal discurs de pres cotidian:Cum vi se
pare, graioi cetitori, apocalipsul meu? Ce va s zic purtarea asta, vor striga unii din dvoastr; nti ne arunci peste dou mii de ani n viitor, ne spui nite comedii extravagante, ne
plimbi, nencurci, i-apoi ne lai n Tmpitopolea d-tale fr s ne spui cum s venim ndrt;
ne lai n un loc necunoscut, bizar, straniu, rtcii.
-Iubii lectori, nu suntei de loc rtcii. Navei nevoie de conducerea mea. Luai bine
seama ,a fost numai o glum fantastic: suntei acas, la d-voastr, ntre ai d-voastrn
Bucureti, n ara Romneasc; mi pare c cetii Ghimpele. (Cronica fantastic).
Alteori, n texte precum Toxin i toxice, Rrunchii naiunii, naratorul desfoar un
scenariu epopeic, trimind la o vrst a eroicului n fapt i trire. Elementele din narratio
devin apoi suport afectiv pentru refutatio, prin tehnica acumulrilor i interogaiei oratorice.
Sub semnul acestui timp al profeiei unor vremi de glorie,Toxinul a sunat despre ziu.,
crezul liberal dttor de sperane i idealuri entuziaste (voete i vei putea, lumineaz-te i
vei fi) se pervertete n zgomot i parad de strad14, prin care idealurile s-au mistificat,
golite de semnificaie i deturnate n cmpul semantic al sperjurului verbal i violenei
politice( toxice). St n sarcina naratorului, ca observator , s deconspire un act de
manipulare a limbajului. Ceea ce fusese scop pentru devine mijloc contra: Fraternitate?gheeft i chiverniseal! Egalitate?-impertinen fa cu distinciunea, cu meritul i cu
talentul! Libertate?-bani insult i reteveiu! Iat marele partid colectivist, urmaul partidului
liberal clasic! Iat continuatorii patrioilor vizionari de odinioar-toxice partide ale unor
btrne idei generoase.(Toxin i toxice).
Purttoare a unui timp epopeic, secvena descriptiv din Rrunchii naiunii, amestec
de idilism i poezie a naturii, introduce n imagine statura magnific a unui erou de legend i
mit, urcnd dealul spre a se reculege la mormntul naintaului su politic, Brtianu, (pe
cnd din muscele i vi, nvluite n aburul strveziu al luminoasei diminei, se ridic parc un
singur fior-suflarea Patriei romneti-un om mic de stat suie gfind, cu cerbicea-ncovoiat,
cu capul plecat i cu privirea ntunecat, pe crarea care merge sus la mormntul
patriotului.).Odat descoperit identitatea n persoana lui Sturdza, i odat dat soluia, prin
vocea de dincolo de moarte a maestrului (da, colectivitatea a izvort i izvorte din
rrunchii naiunii!) descriptorul bombardeaz discursul cu verbe imperative ale diseciei
anatomice, restabilind astfel adevrata semnificaie a cuvintelor strmoului su: o igienizare
care s nceap cu sine pentru a nsntoi partidul i naiunea. Ritmul nsui al frazei
urmeaz traseul de la o curgere calm, muzical i aezat n amplitudinea sintactic, la o
avalan sacadat de fragmente oratorice, apostrofe i poliptote, anafore discordante i
derivri discalificante. E i alternana ntre cmpul lexical al frumosului natural i cel al
urtului i dizgraiosului fiziologic i patologic:Vr-i minile adnc n mruntaie i scoate
din rrunchii-i pe toi Iudicii, Scupiewskii i Cavalliotti, toate malaxalele, caradalele,
budalalele i paciaurile lepdate de ostroavele i inuturile orientaleNu i-ai gsit pe toi
nc! Mai adnc, nenorocitule! Scotocete bine i scoate la urm, ca un mrgritar fin, i pe
elechi Sechiaris. Astup-i apoi spintectura pntecelui cu amndou minile, rmnnd s
nu mai ai cu ce-i acoperi obrazul, i strig lumii, cu tonul celui mai nalt triumf naional,
aceea ce mormntul lui Brtianu a optit aa de discret la urechea lui Sturdza:Da,
colectivitatea a izvort i izvorte din mruntaiele mele-din rrunchii naiunii romne!
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n fragmentul citat mai sus apare i formula catalogului epic, ca instrument al satirei
din proza publicistic a lui Caragiale. Ea slujete circumscrierii unei serii tipologice, prin
caracterizare analogic sau antitetic, precum n textul Caradle i budalle, ori prin
valorificarea etimologiei turceti ntr-un joc sofistic de argumente quasi-logice, ca-n bucata O
lichea. n prima reprezentare, portretul colectiv arjeaz pe aparena incompatibilitii dintre
trsturile specifice fiecrei categorii inventariate, pentru a ajunge, prin tranzitivitate, la
ipoteza probabilitii interanjrii i la argumentul celui de-al treilea exclus, n care nu mai
exist poziie de mijloc (Acesta este cazul interesant cnd o budal seac vrea s treac i ea
drept o carad adnc. Dar este, poate, i mai interesant cazul cnd o carad adnc vrea cu
orice pre s treac drept o budal seac.). Finalul textului aduce la o mas comun cele dou
categorii, n care ospul din pung public(ziafet colectivist) traduce metafora filat a
consumului ntreg al produsului. Excelent regie textual a punerii alturi, n acelai cmp
lexical ( al nutriiei), a dou cmpuri semantice diferite, (concretul anatomic i abstractul
principial), regie ce permite permutarea categoriilor i comunizarea prin uniformizare:Din
marea gsc fript de pe masa Colectivitii, caradlele degust pe tcute pulpele, pieptul i
ficatul; nevoiaii corci ciugulesc discret carnea rmas pe coul pieptului; iar budallele
clefiesc i sug cu entuziasm cpna i ciocul, cotoarele i labele, mzglite prin sos de
Patrie, libertate egalitate i jos ciocoii! Cu toate astea, fr a mai vorbi de corcitura nevoia,
eu gndesc c, dac e, poate mai profitabil, mai bine, pentru un colectivist s fie o carad, de
sigur tot e mai frumos i mai onorabil s fie o budal.
n al doilea text, petiia de principiu pe care o enun savant naratorul-etimolog la
nceput ( Leki, sau lichea, nsemneaz pe turcete pat; cu deosebire pat de care nu te poi
scpa, pat netears. n limba romneasc, cuvntul a trecut n accepie figurat: lichea va s
zic o sectur) este rsturnat printr-o pledoarie pro domo, care absolv naratorul de acuza
unei deturnri de sens. Oximoronul din finalul textului devine purttor al unei ironii a
elogiului paradoxal, alimentat i de argumentul empiric al cunoaterii autoritii omului
politic: A fi nebun s-i zic lui d.Sturdza lichea la figurat. La propriu ns i-o zic fr team:
l tiu c e om fr pasiuni i mare iubitor de adevr; o dovad strlucit despre aceasta e c,
atunci cnd trece, prin temperament, marginile permise, o drege numaidect prin judecat,
cernd scuze. Teribil lichea!
Parabola, ca structura de text asimilat n proza publicistic a lui Caragiale, nu are
doar o aciune pur ilustrativ, cu rol de exemplu pedagogic ori de captatio benevolentiae, ci
slujete unei construcii surprinztoare, inducnd un nou codaj parabolic() un joc de
coduri particulare legnd texte n mod tradiional socotite ca ndeprtate unele de altele.15
Compatibilizarea celor dou tipuri de texte, cel jurnalistic i cel al parabolei, se face fie prin
parodie o transformare ludic, comic sau satiric a unui text singular 16 (o transpunere a
textului sacru ntr-un text profan),fie prin modificri n nsi structura parabolei, ca pri ale
unui ansamblu textual neateptat i necunoscut.17 Textele lui Caragiale, precum D dmult,
mai d dmult, Energie i saiu apeleaz, primul la formula parodiei n ntreg textul, pe cnd
al doilea, la parabola modificat. Punctele comune din structura parabolei cu cea a textului
publicistic sunt, n al doilea text, numrul simbolic al anilor i raporturile dintre suveran i
sfetnicul su supus. Povestea alegoric a nucleului parabolei, a visului faraonului tlcuit de
Iosif( apte vaci grase i apte vaci slabe, reprezentnd ani roditori i de foame) este
recontextualizat n actualitatea politic prin modificarea parametrilor( numr i actani) i a
mesajului profetic. Dialogul direct, prezent n noul text conduce la conturarea unei noi
Henri Jacques Stiker, parabole n Dictionnaire des genres et des notiones littraires, Enciclopaedia Universalis & Albin Michel,
nouvelle dition augmente,Paris, 2001, p.551.
16
Daniel Sangsue, parodie n Dictionnaire des genres et des notiones littraires,ed.cit.,p.558. Autorul reia aici definiia din studiul La
parodie, Hachette, Paris, 1994
17
Henri- Jacques Stiker,art.cit.,p.551
15
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parabole, din care i trage substana ntreg textul publicistic. Un umor sntos, ivit n
naraiunea parabolic, nainteaz cu entuziasmul perfid al unei ironii implicite:Ion Brtianu a
visat doisprezece boi grai i opt slabi, i a chemat pe d.Carada i i-a spus:Iac i iac: oare
ce s fie visul acesta? Tlcuiete-mi-l! Iar d. Carada i-a rspuns: Vor veni doisprezece ani
de putere-pricopsete-i pe ai ti; cci vor urma opt ani de opoziie!. Rolul textual al parabolei
cotidianului politic este c alimenteaz ntreaga naraiune cu aceleai instrumente imaginare (
actani, stri, mesaj), pstrnd o relaie de complice cu cititorul, cunosctor al realitii
alternanelor la putere . De aceea, funcia textual a acesteia este de motor al naraiunii,
dinamiznd ritmul frazei i pigmentndu-l cu scene de umor i ironie. Iat mostra unui text n
care antifraza sporete prin acumularea datelor din parabola unui cotidian prea familiar
naratorului i cititorului:Oastea brav a flmnzilor de alt dat s-a pus dup attea isprvi la
osp. Au osptat doisprezece ani aa de bine nct, cnd a sunat trmbia, bravii au fost aa de
ndopai c nu-i mai ncpea armura, ba unii nici nu se mai puteau ridica de greutatea
pntecului.
Am poposit asupra ctorva din textele publicistice ale lui Caragiale, care transpun
evenimentul cotidian ntr-un scenariu imaginar al cotidianului, deci, n zona literaturii de
ficiune. ntreaga publicistic este un asemenea tezaur, nc nevalorificat suficient, de o
literatur bun. Forme literare strnse, de la scenete, naraiuni fantastice, utopii, la eseuri,
cronici, schie, necrologuri, pamflete, fiziologii literare, epistole se desfat copios n spaiul
ziaristicii. Din acest continuum al cotidianului va trebui s desprindem tipuri i gesturi care au
fcut carier n momentele, schiele i comediile caragialene, dac nu pentru o lectura onest,
ar fi s-l citim pe Caragiale prozatorul i comediograful dinspre actualitatea att de mozaicat
a publicisticii. O publicistic nu mai puin literar dect literatura cotidianului ficionalizat.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
Bergson, Henri, Teoria rsului, Ed. Institutul European, Iai,1992, trad.Silviu Lupacu
Diaconu, Mircea A., I.L.Cargiale.Fatalitatea ironic, Ed. Cartea Romneasc,
Bucureti, 2012
Dictionnaire des genres et des notiones littraires, Enciclopaedia Universalis & Albin
Michel, nouvelle dition augmente, Paris, 2001
Emelina, Jean, Le comique, Ed. Sedes, Paris, 1991
Fanache, V., Caragiale, Ed. Dacia, Cluj Napoca, 1984
Iorgulescu, Mircea, Eseu despre lumea lui Caragiale, Ed. Cartea Romneasc, 1988
Morier, Henri, Dictionnaire de potique et de rhtorique, PUF, Paris,1998
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Abstract: The article is an excerpt from the volume Criticism and creation: the case of
Alexandru George. A meta-critical examination, non-apologetic, focused in particular on the
footsteps of Liviu Rusu, Nicolae Manolescu, and E. Lovinescu, G. Clinescu, erban
Cioculescu, Vladimir Streinu, Al. Paleologu, M. Niescu etc. Al. George, in T. Maiorescu
writings, seeks the psychology, the philosophy, the culture, the theoretical concepts and
instruments, the aesthetic applicability, the stylistic talent, the critical creativity or the
creative criticism. Through (re)action and identification, he discovers the circumstantial
limits of a paradoxical and contrary personality. The criterion for liberating verification of
the truth is critical, located between ideality and reality.
Keywords: creation, criticism, protocronyism, truth, freedom, Liviu Rusu, Nicolae
Manolescu.
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Dac nu exist aici o banal i nefast eroare literal, T. Maiorescu este redus la
a(l)titudine critic. Maiorescu a fost expresia cea mai desvrit a atitudinii critice. El
susine o critic de altitudine. E, adic, un simplu cititor reactiv. Ori reacionar. mprumut,
cam abuziv, o poziie nalt. Dar din critic este aproape eliminat de Al. George, pentru care
rmne un cultural de context, unul privilegiat, cu harism, aproape un vrjitor, cam acest tip
de personaj impuntor: socotim c personalitatea lui, de importan prevalent cultural, va
interesa n primul rnd biografic, prin relaiile cu contemporanii, ca un punct de rscruce de
drumuri. Omul T. Maiorescu este luat de parvenit social, ca universitar i avocat, de
publicistul care va ndemna la contemplarea prii pozitive a parvenitului, aceea de a se
smulge din nchistare i inerie. Avocatul critic Al. George devine procuror al criticului avocat
T. Maiorescu. i elogiase onestitatea (altcum artat cu fisuri), i critic drastic
profesionalitatea arogat ori, prin alii, prezumat. Unul dintre acetia este chiar admiratul
(cum poate admira el) E. Lovinescu, n chip de apologet mistificator: marele critic al
literaturii romneti, prin complexitatea i puritatea sa, rmne E. Lovinescu. El l-a folosit pe
T. Maiorescu ntructva partizan i unilateral, ca aprtor al autonomiei esteticului. Al.
George repet programatica (doar a sa?) nevoie de temeiuri noi de nelegere. De
actualizare, de revizuire? Posibil, dar probabil nu printr-o abordare pur critic, ci istoricoliterar. Un reper rmne pentru el, desigur, monografia lui E. Lovinescu. Citit mai mult pe
dos dect pe fa.
Din Titu Maiorescu i discipolii si, alt articol din cartea sa aprut n 1980, aflm, nu
ca o mare surpriz, c nu toi convorbiritii care l-au criticat pe Gherea i sunt cu adevrat
emuli pretinsului, de fapt, mentor junimist. N-ar fi tiut s i-i fac, pe acei emuli. Are fali
discipoli, aa cum i-i dorea, inferiori. G. Clinescu l-a numit n 1947, cu o genial intuiie,
Platon academiznd printre ciraci. Conteaz i cum s-au poziionat acetia. Victima i
inspir clul pn nu mai respir. Pompiliu Eliade, noteaz Al. George, i este
mentorului (ca s-l numesc i eu cu termenul stereotip) cel mai devotat i obligat elev.
Epistolierul T. Maiorescu apare laconic, banal, ironic, zdrobitor, i cel mai frecvent el rupe
dialogul. Ciracii exist eventual n contiina lui narcisist. Admiratul nu le mprumut de
fapt ei le refuz i idei. S fie chiar idei? Al. George le concede pentru un moment existena
n mintea i scrisul junimistului principal, nu i principial. Chiar admiraia le trece repede
ciracilor. n adversitate. Sau n adversaritate. Al. George folosete cuvntul, scrie ntr-o
carte ulterioar a sa un eseu cu acest titlu. Divorul lor nu este lipsit de durere. Cel mai afectat
apare Duiliu Zamfirescu. Excepie de fidelitate fac S. Mehedini i Rdulescu-Pogoneanu. T.
Maiorescu nu are o echip credincioas. ntrebarea este dac i-o dorea.
La Bucureti a existat maiorescianism, nu junimism, crede Al. George. Nu e vorba de
cuvinte cu btaie doctrinar. Sensul ar fi acela c T. Maiorescu s-a izolat, iar ideologia
comun a junimismului ajunge abandonat. Oricum, junimism i maiorescianism admit doar
anumite apropieri, nicidecum identificri.
L. Rusu este scos din nou n afara dialogului cu critica: nu e un om al dialogului. i
scap mai nti dialogul cu scrisul lui T. Maiorescu. Se sustrage programului critic comun (i
lui Al. George): L. Rusu nu face o nou i revelatoare lectur a lui T. Maiorescu. Al. George
lovete n erori, chiar i n unele mult ipate. Erori sau poate doar pretinse erori. Cum este
aceea c Maiorescu nu are pregtire filosofic. Nu c n-ar fi filosof, dar c pur i simplu n-ar
fi citit, studiat, asimilat deloc filosofia, ceea ce este nedrept spus. Lui Maiorescu nu i se
contest ns pregtirea juridic. Poi fi jurist, dar nu filosof, n ambele cazuri fr a avea o
doctrin personal. Fapt ce s-ar cere mai bine discutat. Distana dintre filosof i pedagog n
filosofie are toate ansele s nu se restrng. Profesorul de filosofie T. Maiorescu nu e filosof,
din lips de vocaie i copleit de viaa din afara gndirii aprofundate. I s-ar potrivi dictonul,
automat notat de Al. George, Primum vivere, deinde philosophari. Dar disociatorul pare a
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exclude i acest deinde. Omul nltur creatorul, se sugereaz, se spune chiar. Lipsit de acces
la obiectivitate, adevr, unitate, armonie, continuitate, emoional mult mai mult dect raional,
dei nu la modul comun, banal, izolaionist. Dar, totui, un fel de sclav al sinelui biografic.
Omul l-a alungat pe creator, potrivit logicii radical-exclusiviste a lui Al. George. Nu doar la ncurcat, l-a anulat. T. Maiorescu ajunge stpnit de cel mai acut subiectivism, pasionat i
nedrept, de multe ori vindicativ. El are o alctuire luntric ciudat i contradictorie.
Ciudenia sufleteasc i-o dezvluie n iubirea exaltat, neverosimil pentru sora lui,
Emilia, ca i n raporturile cu tatl su. Fondul alterat al familiei i-a imprimat forma
scindat. T. Maiorescu nu este deloc un om dominat de principii, ci de puternice porniri
afective. Ai zice c afectivul nu posed organul gndirii. Al. George, extremistul, bovaricul
moderat, terge cu propria reflecie gndirea existent i n afara principiilor. nchide gndirea
n principiu. Sau din principiu!? Condamn majoritatea uman la afectivitate, ca i cum
afectul ar fi inferior, la mintea oricui, i nu, el nsui, gemelar gndirii. Mereu, el vede
personajul i nu personalitatea, omul i nu creatorul. Performana lui T. Maiorescu ar fi
exemplar i paradigmatic n ordine perfect psihologic. Junimistul ar avea, n secolul 19,
sufletul cel mai complex i contradictoriu. Materie bun, iat, dar numai pentru biografi,
eventual i pentru romancieri ori dramaturgi. Gnditorul ar fi fost un (di)simulant:
folosindu-se doar de principii, ntr-o lucrare (ori lucrtur) plin de contradicii. La
plural. La singular, din titlu, l va aborda N. Manolescu, n Contradicia lui Maiorescu, din
1970.
Ca atare, T. Maiorescu nu devine un teoretician i un director literar. Al. George nu
vrea s se singularizeze, se altur (pentru a-i spune n lturi lui Maiorescu!), noteaz el, lui
. Cioculescu sau Al. Paleologu, acesta citat extensiv din Spiritul i litera, pentru constatarea
unui Maiorescu temperamental, iar nu teoretician. Hulita, mai peste tot, teorie, are n cultura
romn o adversaritate, ca s reiau termenul inventat de Al. George, mai mare dect prin alte
pri. Ne condamnm i mutilm mai mult dect alii la orbecire, de teama presupusei sau
pretinsei noastre anulri pe calea teoretic
n Incontestabilul Maiorescu, alt articol din carte, plecnd de la sinteza lui N.
Manolescu, Contradicia lui Maiorescu (1970), peste care trece n zbor, Al. George se
cramponeaz de faptul c i aici, dac nu aici mai ales, T. Maiorescu trece drept un ctitor
critic i, de fapt, nu numai , n timp ce anterior E. Lovinescu i alii i-au acordat un rol de
frn lucid i logic ntr-o epoc de ameeli i de confuzii. Ctitor, n limite semantice
rezonabile, poate s nsemne nu doar iniiator, dar i fondator, ntemeietor, pe urme vagi. Un
ctitor impune, consolideaz, nu i, ori nu doar, ncepe i inventeaz. N. Manolescu, cum e
tiut, recunoate aproape discreionar nu pe cine are prioritatea, dar pe cine reuete s impun
o idee, un concept, un fenomen. Ecoul public ajunge n ce-l privete criteriul construciei
spirituale. Pe de alt parte, luciditatea i logica, opuse de Al. George ameelilor i confuziilor,
adic suficienei i blocajelor, nu sunt departe de o ntemeiere prin adevr. Iar adevrul
rmne i pentru Al. George criteriul primordial al domeniului critic. De adugat: al oricrui
domeniu. Pe scurt, un ctitor bun folosete ntr-adevr luciditatea i logica pentru a opri un
curs anemic i pgubos al lucrurilor.
Al. George minimalizeaz, pn la eliminare, i acest rol, care-i prea anterior
acceptat, de eficient frnar. l trece pe refuzatul ctitor, ca vehicul cultural, pe dreapta sau
l gareaz cu suficien. O suficien, pesemne, de esen liberal, sau naional-liberal,
autohton, afirmat n ipoteza, dat ca certitudine, c de fapt n epoc multe se soluionau de
la sine. Al. George ilustreaz de pe acum, punctual, n trecere, un liberalism echivoc,
deopotriv activist i pasivist. Iat un alt fel de a spune c orice lucru se face prin el nsui.
Formul activist-pasivist, deci, trimind la aceea cunoscut din expresia prin noi nine.
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Care a fost n form i n fond aciunea (cuvnt recurent la Al. George, cnd
analizeaz personalitatea s-i zic creatoare) lui T. Maiorescu? El i recunoate doar
aciunea () de suprafa, adic cultural; ea nu a fost determinant pentru contiina
scriitorilor. Un cultural i nu un estetizant, deci, este aici propus. A apsat astfel pe forma
dispensat de fond. Golit, literar, ea ajunge gonflat cultural. T. Maiorescu a dat o form
radical aciunilor sale. Nu este, subliniaz, un iniiator. Ctitori sunt n cultur Heliade,
Hasdeu, nu i T. Maiorescu, cel care reprezint o faz secund, am zice: de maturitate a
culturii, cum constat E. Lovinescu n Memorii, III, invocat i aici n sprijin.
Ocazia l determin pe Al. George s expun iar modul n care nelege critica literar.
Restrictiv, s o pun n raport cu creaia literar. El nu recunoate, ca N. Manolescu, i nici nu
susine critica, pentru Al. George, pretins creatoare. De ce nu este i critica creatoare ori chiar
o form de creaie, am vrea s aflm de la el, dar nu o face. Sau rspunde oblic. Evident
negativ. ntreab ce este critica, un manifest sau un epilog? Primeaz sau urmeaz n relaie
cu literatura de imaginaie (imaginnd c domeniul critic i este acesteia interzis)? Afirm c
Maiorescu nsui recunoate criticii un rol secund, nu creator. Creaia s fie mai cu seam un
fapt de primordialitate, iniiere, ctitorire? Pesemne.
Creaia a fost pus deasupra criticii de spiritele funciar anti-maioresciene (care) au
fost oameni de felul lui Heliade, Hasdeu i Iorga. nseamn c Maiorescu, punnd i el
creaia deasupra criticii, recunoscndu-i criticii un rol secundar, este i el anti-maiorescian?
Pesemne. Ba chiar sigur. E doar una dintre contradiciile sale. Dar a privilegia creaia
nseamn cumva a nesocoti estetica. S-ar putea deduce. Al. George remarc faptul adevrat, i
totodat curios, crede el, c G. Clinescu pe cei trei i-a admirat, dei admitea principial
radicalismul estetic al lui Maiorescu. E cu adevrat contradicia esenial a lui Clinescu. El
nu are sau nu respect principiile pe care ns le arog. Dar nu notase altundeva i Al. George,
pe urmele lui Al. Paleologu, c Maiorescu rmne temperamental i nu principial? Prin
urmare, conteaz nu doar ce spui i faci s primeze, dar i ce mplineti din ce pretinzi a urma.
Critica este totui un moment al creaiei, recunoate chiar i Al. George. Atunci de ce
o izoleaz de aceasta? Artistul i d seama c nu critica e creatoare. Nu-i i artistul un critic
implicit? Artistul i criticul, fie individual, fie n grup, greesc colabornd? Recunoscndu-i
identitatea i socialitatea, limitele n delimitri i interferene? Al. George se simte chemat si pun pe fiecare ntr-un alt col, ca urmare s-i ncoleasc, dar s-i ordoneze: mai nti
creatorul, doar apoi criticul.
Exist o insuficien a spiritului critic n raport cu creaia, iat convingerea lui Al.
George. Se poate crede aa ceva, la modul ideal? Pentru c n realitate exist preponderent
cazuri de insuficien a spiritului creator n raport cu critica. O suficien, adic o
nenelegere. O are i Al. George? S-ar spune c da.
n totul, n cultur, ca i n critic, precum n politic, T. Maiorescu i apare lui Al.
George drept un consecvent conservator. Aceasta rmne vocaia lui profund. Este un tip de
cultural msurat i circumspect. Un lucid purtat de adevr, greu de atins i mai ales de
asimilat, de pstrat. Dar se-ntmpl aproape oricui s cunoasc astfel de dificulti.
Maiorescu nseamn n cultura romn o prim afirmare a prudenei strategice n disputa de
idei. Aadar, mcar o anumit priz la idei tot are. Nu are idei proprii (recunoscute criticului
Ion Caraion!), dar apropriaz idei. Nu le induce ori deduce, dar le conduce. Ele se tulbur ori
l tulbur, cnd le rostuiete n relaie cu unii autori i textele lor. S-ar zice c le folosete ca
miticul Procust propriul pat. Nimeni i nimic nu i se potrivete. C T. Maiorescu a victimizat
pe unii ca Heliade, Brnuiu, Sion i c devine foarte sever, negativist, Al. George observ i
prin T. Vianu.
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despre Heliade, Koglniceanu, Hasdeu, Gherea. Un adevrat spirit ndrzne a fost, se susine
n contrapondere, creatorul literar I. B. Deleanu cu iganiada. Comparaia nu prea are raiune,
n dihotomizarea creaie-critic mereu abilitat de Al. George? De este aa, ea se repet. T.
Maiorescu apare pus n analogie cu un ficionar junimist. Viziunea general este i la
Maiorescu, ca i la Caragiale, de o scandaloas parialitate. De ce? Nu tiu dac o explicaie
ar fi conservatorismul. Firete, discutabil. Dar poate c-n esen indenegabil. Al. George vine
aici cu alt explicaie: talentul nu oprete neadevrul. S-ar zice chiar c-l grbete. E o
primejdie, pentru un critic, s scrie cu talent, sugereaz Al. George, odat cu soluia de a scrie
tern, pentru a fi peren, ca s nu zic chiar etern. N-ar fi cazul. E i el un sceptic, convins de
uzajul, nu doar nvins de uzul literaturii. Dar despre perimarea scrisului, pe genuri literare, se
cade a relua lectura
Purttor de adevr, cum se crede c i se cade , Al. George intr n disput i cu
succesorii n critica i istoria literar ai lui T. Maiorescu. Dintre victimele acestuia, el constat
c s-au recuperat doar doi, Sion i Urechi. Urmeaz dialogul critic att de polemic, de
rzboinic, victimizator, de la noi sau poate de oriunde. Cine nu e victim i cine nu
victimizeaz?
Dintre toi cei pomenii, ns, n cine se ntruchipeaz adevrul? Oricum, etica nu
ajut. Al. George recunoate moralitatea critic susinut de E. Lovinescu, dar e ncredinat c
un om de bun-credin poate grei, adic poate s se afle alturi de adevr.
Al. George se aga de adevrul existent n el nsui, n adevr, dar poate c i-n
subiectul care l arog. Cci adevrul i numai adevrul sancioneaz, legitimeaz actul
critic. Adevrul ca nume; n numele adevrului; adevrul este ceea ce se crede, de ctre
oricine, a fi. Aa cum l deine, Al. George l ndeprteaz pe T. Maiorescu de el. Or,
Maiorescu a fost de multe ori un judector strmb, care a izbutit datorit talentului, abilitii
polemice, s par totui c are dreptate. l ndeprteaz parial. Lui T. Maiorescu i-a trecut
demult momentul. El rmne pur conjunctural, nu e necesar ntoarcerea la el. Nu i se pare un
spirit creator, nici un spirit critic de solid postur, dar e recunoscut citim printre rndurile
firete autocenzurate ca un spirit liberal (conservator). Exemplul maiorescian e totuna cu
un apel la libertatea spiritului, semnul maturitii unei culturi. Se folosea oare Al. George de
T. Maiorescu pentru a-i exprima liberalismul, tot aa cum crede el c E. Lovinescu recursese
la mentorul junimist pentru a-i realiza crezul estetic? Sunt convins c, mcar n parte,
poate fi adevrat.
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Abstract: Phantasmal and visionary, anxious and ludic sometimes, exploring both the realms
of intimacy and those of the miraculous, the poetry of Matei Viniec cultivates the hieratic in
reasonable doses and the pathos tempered by parodic and ironic reflexes. His Apocalypses
have an air of dcor and metaphysical rhetoric has a very clear theatrical articulation. Many
of Matei Viniecs poems have the appearance of fables with an underlying moral, where the
lyrical tension arises from the slightly parodic assumption of antinomies: diurnal / nocturnal,
real, empirical / temptation of the absolute, low / high. Gravity is thus often turned to farce
and the tragic sense of existence seems to be embracing the mark of theatricality, of a clever
staging of feelings by a textual director endowed with lucidity, and with an acute awareness
of the relativity of poetic conventions. The pathos that may be divined in these poems belongs,
itself, to the species of badinerie and farce, of ironic revelations of an intelligence that acutely
perceives the cracks in the order of the world, as well as the negative appearances of an
alienating and mechanical reality.
Keywords: Matei Viniec, intimacy, miraculous, parody, irony.
Matei Viniecs poetic universe is steeped in history and mythology, but the presence
of everyday concerns is just as urgent. The temptation of allegory has the gift of transmuting
commonplace events into mythical projections and, at the same time, of giving ample, serious
subjects of indisputable prestige, a certain concreteness that brings them closer to daily life.
Despre Seneca (About Seneca) is such an allegory of a fake and agonizing history, in which
the ego seems unable to find its place: Lovesc i eu, lovete i tata/ iat-ne trecui de primul
rnd de soldai/ lovesc i ei, lovete i tata/ soldaii sunt din ce n ce mai elegani/ i pe msur
ce naintm/ n adncul coloanelor/ suntem servii cu lichioruri fine/ i purtm discuii despre
Seneca/ i despre economia politic/ iat-ne ajuni la capt/ cu hainele sfiate, cu pumnii
sngernd/ asemeni celor/ din primele rnduri. About the poetry of Matthew Viniec,
Nicolae Manolescu notes, among other things, the presence of certain features specific to
Marin Sorescu at the level of preferred techniques (linguistic farce, badinage, the taste for
enormities and for irony, parodic instinct, the temptation to play and so on). However, says
the critic, "Matei Viniec is much more inclined towards seriousness than towards play. In his
hands, Sorescu's formula becomes often something else, used by a different temperament.
Matei Viniec is a restrained and sad poet, essentially a melancholic ". Matei Viniec's
favorite space is the city, an area of congestion and of the regular, in which architecture is
rather dcor, an Eleatic space, where time seems frozen, in which almost nothing happens and
people have mechanical gestures, anonymous and anodyne experiences, being therefore
ridiculous actors on a small scale stage, having minimal, mechanic reactions. Reality is,
rather, as noted by N. Manolescu, a simulacrum, a haunting, imponderable presence, in
which, there seems to be almost zero gravity and individuals have the appearance of masks
placed over a well restrained nothingness: Uneori mi pun costumul cu dungi aurii,/ jobenul
nalt, papionul de catifea,/ mnuile albe, mi iau bastonul subire i/ pipa de abanos/ i m
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plimb nepstor prin faa secundei/ care mrie, mrie, mrie// n oraul cu un singur locuitor
timpul are o singur secund/ ochiul meu vede o singur dat/ urechea mea ascult un singur
sunet/ prin parcul cu un singur arbore/ fac plimbri de un singur pas/ n serile ploioase
moartea mea se nate,/ ruinat, din capul mirat al cifrei unu/ m simt vinovat, alerg pe
strzile ude,/ m nchid ntr-o florrie i rostesc/ un singur cuvnt misterios/ pasrea care
triete ntr-o singur pictur de aer/ m vede se repede asupra mea i moare/ la o singur
btaie de arip de mine// pentru o singur secund/ m simt cuprins de dorina de a cltori/
intru n sala de ateptare, m aez/ n unicul, nfricotorul scaun uria// trenul cu o singur
fereastr/ i cu o singur trecere prin univers/ se apropie.
Many of Matei Viniecs poems have the appearance of fables with an underlying
moral, where the lyrical tension arises from the slightly parodic assumption of antinomies:
diurnal / nocturnal, real, empirical / temptation of the absolute, low / high, as in the poem
Fereastra (Window) , where the suggestion of remoteness and of the height conjugates with
the approach of the ideal that contradicts an alienating reality undermined by the germ of
isolation and confinement: Pasrea, mirat, nduioat/ i-a luat gheara din burta mea/ i-a
ridicat ciocul din gtul meu// m-a lsat acolo, n patul rvit/ i s-a nvrtit prin odaia mea/ s-a
izbit cu icnete/ de pereii mei// dup aceea a dat de fereastr/ i s-a gndit mirat la fereastr/
nu mai ntlnise niciodat o fereastr// ar fi trebuit s-i spun ferete-te/ orice fereastr e perfid
i nrit, nu/ poi s tii unde duce, ncotro te arunc// dar i eu eram nrit, uram/ pasrea/ i
n-am scos un cuvnt, am lsat-o/ s-i ntind aripile i s se piard n vzduh. Or the poem
Corabia (The Ship) in which, beyond the apparent layer of meaning, one finds deeper
meanings of the human condition, a certain gravity of meditation, an amplitude of poetic
knowledge that does not deny the world's major meanings: Corabia se scufunda ncet noi
ziceam/ i ce dac se scufund corabia i mai/ ziceam orice corabie se scufund/ ntr-o zi i ne
strngeam minile/ ne luam rmas bun// dar corabia se scufunda att de ncet/ nct dup zece
zile noi cei care/ ne-am dat minile/ nc ne priveam / ruinai i ziceam nu-i nimic asta-i/ o
corabie care se scufund mai ncet/ dar pn la urm se scufund iat-o// dar corabia se
scufunda att de ncet/ nct dup un an nc ne era ruine/ nou celor care ne-am dat minile
i/ n fiecare diminea ieeam unul cte unul / msuram apa hm nu mai e mult se/ scufund
ncet/ dar sigur// dar corabia se scufunda att de ncet/ nct dup o via de om nc/ mai
ieeam unul cte unul i priveam/ cerul i msuram apa i scrneam din dini/ i spuneam asta
nu e o corabie/ aste e o.../ asta e o....
The privileged theme of poems of this kind is that of expectation, as noticed by N.
Manolescu, but it is a fake expectation, filtered through the playful ceremonies of fantasy,
with a large dose of parody and irony. Gravity is thus often turned to farce and the tragic
sense of existence seems to be embracing the mark of theatricality, of a clever staging of
feelings by a textual director endowed with lucidity, and with an acute awareness of the
relativity of poetic conventions. The pathos that may be divined in these poems belongs,
itself, to the species of badinerie and farce, of ironic revelations of an intelligence that acutely
perceives the cracks in the order of the world, as well as the negative appearances of an
alienating and mechanical reality: Ce frumos era odinioar/ cnd eu i kinele oraului,
/Leukodemos// ne plimbam zile n ir/ pe strzile ude// i ne plngeam c aritmetica, filosofia/
tiinele umaniste/ au ajuns ntr-o complet decdere/ de obicei pe strzile ude ncepe s
plou/ i mult vreme/ i mult vreme/ i mult vreme, eu cu Leukodemos/ adpostii sub una
din pori/ ne plngeam de cumplita decdere a gramaticii/ i a retoricii i a botanicii n
general// mai trziu ncepea o furtun grozav/ oraul se scufunda ncet n faa noastr/ i din
noroiul final mai apreau/ civa clbuci// atunci ne plngeam de cumplita decdere/ a
arhitecturii i a artelor frumoase or, in another poem where automatic machines receive a life
of their own, biological reflexes and even an autonomous consciousness of being: Eu sunt
automatul de limonad/ iat, am ajuns la contiina de sine/ sunt viu, domnilor, nu rdei/ prin
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meditaii i exerciii subtile/ am ajuns ceea ce sunt// dar am o singur ntrebare/ este adevrat
c n partea opus a strzii/ se afl o gaur neagr, imens/ care nghite mii de ace cu gmlie/
n fiecare secund?// aceast ntrebare m tulbur/ poate c mai sunt lucruri pe care/ nu le
neleg eu, domnilor/ am avut o copilrie grea i ntunecat.
In Femeia uria (The Giant Woman) we deal with a perception of reality falling
under the species of the terratomorph and the monstrous, in a vision in which the fantastic
mixes, in indefinite doses, with realistic detail. The poet's eye, attentive at the cracks in the
world order, at the anomalies in the state of things, is constantly on alert, assuming the role of
noticing the malformation, of perceiving the unusual, of recording the bizarre and the
incoherent: Eram singuri pe insula cea pustie/ eu i femeia uria// dimineaa, n pdurea
tcut/ vnam cte o pasre gnditoare/ femeia uria punea capcane/ pentru petele prost i
gras// la prnz aprindeam focul/ i prjeam carnea dezgolit/ ne ntindeam sub arborele
vistor/ i priveam cerul burduit cu planei // doar spre sear, Doamne, spre sear/ ochiul
femeii uriae ncepea s se roteasc/ intuindu-m tot mai adnc iar degetele ei/ se cltinau
prin aer i vocea ei se auzea/ dezmierdndu-m/ pe deasupra acelor ape. In the poem O
iluminare, we come across the same thrill of the unknown, the same vision of the miraculous
and of the distance to the preestablished order of things. An intimation of transcendence lurks
here, and between body and spirit there is a perfectly articulated parallelism, just as between
the levels of existence, between below and above, between the empirical and the sacred,
parallelisms are more readily established than we are inclined to believe: Pe oseaua plin de
noroi/ autobuzul nostru s-a izbit asear / de un animal ciudat, un animal/ spun specialitii/
cum de mult nu mai triete pe planeta noastr// noi, cei o sut de cltori/ am cobort
iluminai / i am stat de veghe lng trupul ud al animalului/ pn cnd acesta mirat i obosit de
singurtate/ i-a dat duhul cu un zvcnet uor// atunci am vzut cu toii / c duhul animalului
semna perfect / cu animalul, cu ploaia i cu noroiul/ semna foarte bine cu ntinderea
cmpului/ i mai semna de-a dreptul izbitor/ cu oferul autobuzului/ i cu fiecare dintre noi.
Referring to the poetry of Matei Viniec, Radu G. eposu emphasizes the drama of the
poet tormented by anxiety, by the convulsions and benefits of the word, but also by the
frustrations caused by the opposition between mind and body, between inner revelations and a
disaggregating reality, with meanings turned upside down, mined by anomia, desecrated once
and for all: "The hieratic universe of poems is often struck by unpredictable, terrifying
hallucinations, that bring an air of metaphysical comedy to the fantastic scenery. Knowledge
is resorbed in such cases, into an ecstasy of wonder, reactions melt into imponderable,
celestial mechanics, with phantasmal convulsions. This air of calm confusion, of ironic
redemption that shrouds the powerless being, turns the poetry of Matei Viniec into a perfect
transcript of civilized despair, in which intelligence acts as an anesthetic."
The poem is, for Matei Viniec, a gnosiological tool and at the same time, a being
equipped with its own physiology, with a fictional metabolism that can not be circumvented
and with a monadic, autotelic, structure, in a certain sense. The most relevant example is
Poemul care se citete pe sine: Poemul se ntoarce asupra sa/ i ncepe s se citeasc pe sine/
se descifreaz ncet, ptrunde n adncul su/ cu sfial, zmbete, scoate un ipt de uimire//
pe msur ce poemul se citete pe sine/ el se nelege pe sine i dispare ncet din univers//
poemul se oprete o clip, se uit n spatele su/ la cele citite: nu vede dect/ o dr alb i
subire care la rndul ei/ se topete n cenua deas a zilei// ai s dispari, ai s dispari pentru
totdeauna/ url cuvintele care au mai rmas necitite/ n-are nici un rost s dispari/ i optete
poemul/ duhul poemului, speriat, zbrcit ca o lmie/ dar poemul rnjete groaznic i din nou/
se arunc asupra sa precum gndacul/ asupra firimiturilor de pine/ poemul se ndrjete,
ptrunde n/ propriile sale mruntaie nghiindu-le cu urlet/ din aceast ptrundere nu rmne
dect nimicul - alunecos i rece// poemul e nebun, se nelege pe sine i/ se citete pe sine
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pn la ultima suflare/ pn cnd ultimul cuvnt cade n genunchi/ i url de durere, sunt
ultimul cuvnt,/ i spune, ai s mori o dat cu mine// poemul e trist, e golit deja de toate/ cele
citite, se repede asupra ultimului cuvnt i l citete aa cum osnditul/ citete ultimul zmbet
de pe faa clului// se aude un ipt suav, o lovitur de arip/ albul care se ntinde peste tot/
ceaa i acoperiurile pline de ap/ sunt tot ce a mai rmas din poem.
Phantasmal and visionary, anxious and ludic sometimes, exploring both the realms of
intimacy and those of the miraculous, the poetry of Matei Viniec cultivates the hieratic in
reasonable doses and the pathos tempered by parodic and ironic reflexes. His Apocalypses
have an air of dcor and metaphysical rhetoric has a very clear theatrical articulation.
Notations are, as has been said, sober, neutral, lacking broad gestures, rather impersonal
visions of a lyrical self fond of damnation ceremonies and of the ritual of aesthetic expiation.
BIBLIOGRPHY
Iulian Boldea, Istoria didactic a poeziei romneti, Editura Aula, Braov, 2005;
Romulus Bucur, Poei optzeciti (i nu numai) n anii 90, Ed. Paralela 45, Piteti, 2000;
Matei Clinescu, Cinci fee ale modernitii, Ed. Polirom, Iai, 2005; Mircea Crtrescu,
Postmodernismul romnesc, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 1999; Paul Cernat, Avangarda
romneasc i complexul periferiei. Primul val, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 2007;
Al. Cistelecan, Poezie i livresc, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1987; Valeriu
Cristea, Interpretri critice, Ed. Cartea Romneasc, 1970; Mircea A. Diaconu, Poezia
postmodern Ed. Aula, Braov, 2002; Gheorghe Grigurcu, Existena poeziei, Ed. Cartea
Romneasc, Bucureti, 1986; Mircea Iorgulescu, Scriitori tineri contemporani, Ed.
Eminescu, Bucureti, 1978; Ion Bogdan Lefter, Flashback 1985: nceputurile noii poezii,
Ed. Paralela 45, Piteti, 2005; Nicolae Manolescu, Istoria critic a literaturii romne, Ed.
Paralela 45, Piteti, 2008; Marin Mincu, Poezia romn actual. O antologie comentat, I,
Ed. Pontica, Constana, 1998; Marin Mincu, Avangarda literar romneasc, Editura
Minerva, Bucureti, 1999; I. Negoiescu, Istoria literaturii romne, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti,
1991; I. Negoiescu, Scriitori moderni, Ed. Eminescu, Bucureti, 1996; Eugen Negrici,
Introducere n poezia contemporan, Ed. Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1985; Marian
Papahagi, Exerciii de lectur, Ed. Dacia, 1976; Mihail Petroveanu, Traiectorii lirice, Ed.
Cartea Romneasc, 1974; Ion Pop, Jocul poeziei, Ed. Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1985;
Gheorghe Perian, Scriitori romni postmoderni, Ed. Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti,
1996; Liviu Petrescu, Poetica postmodernismului, Ed. Paralela 45, Piteti, 1996; Eugen
Simion, Scriitori romni de azi, IV, Ed. Cartea Romneasc, 1989Radu G. eposu, Istoria
tragic i grotesc a ntunecatului deceniu literar nou, Ed. Eminescu, Bucureti, 1993;
Mihaela Ursa, Optzecismul i promisiunile postmodernismului, Ed. Paralela 45, Piteti, 1999.
Acknowledgement: This paper was supported by the National Research CouncilCNCS, Project PN-II-ID-PCE-2011-3-0841, Contract Nr. 220/31.10.2011, title Crossing
Borders: Insights into the Cultural and Intellectual History of Transylvania (18481948)/Dincolo de frontiere: aspecte ale istoriei culturale si intelectuale a Transilvaniei
(1848-1948)/ Cercetarea pentru aceasta lucrare a fost finanata de ctre Consiliul Naional
al Cercetrii tiinifice (CNCS), Proiect PN-II-ID-PCE-2011-3-0841, Contract Nr.
220/31.10.2011, cu titlul Crossing Borders: Insights into the Cultural and Intellectual History
of Transylvania (1848-1948)/Dincolo de frontiere: aspecte ale istoriei culturale si
intelectuale a Transilvaniei (1848-1948).
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Abstract: The article describes the biography and anlysis the poetry written by Marina
Stroici, trying to reveal a side of the history of Romanian literature never before explored
systematically the Transylvanian feminine lyrical sensibility.
Keywords: Marina Stroici, Manuela Cernat, Gheorghe Boldur, love poetry, loneliness,
dreaming.
Anda Boldur, fiica Marinei Stroici, a fost o femeie foarte frumoas. Manuela Cernat,
nepoata Marinei Stroici, e o femeie foarte frumoas. Orict nu m-a pricepe eu deloc la
genetic i orict de imprevizibil i ilogic ar fi aceasta, cred c se poate presupune fr nici
o team c i Marina Stroici1 va fi fost o femeie foarte frumoas. i chiar era. n orice caz, aa
ne asigur, n memoriile sale, fiul Marinei, Gheorghe Boldur-Lescu; ba era, zice el, chiar
ntr-att de frumoas nct, la 21 de ani, cnd surorile i pun n gnd s-o mrite (cci era, dup
standarde, deja trziu), se constat c nu exista // nici un candidat demn de inteligena i
frumuseea surorii lor.2 Eecul acestui proiect e evitat, totui, graie fratelui Manole (viitor
campion european la tir i ministru al sporturilor sub Antonescu), care-i aduce, n vizit
intit anume, un coleg de la coala Special de cavalerie din Sibiu, pe junele locotenent Ionel
Boldur-Lescu, urma al vornicului Boldur, cel care i-a btut pe lei la Leneti, n 1497.3
ntlnirea, zice fiul Marinei, a fost electric absolut, iar surpriza Marinei fu de nedescris n
faa acestui tnr ofier nalt, subire i care arta superb n uniforma lui de roior. Ba
prea chiar un adevrat Ft-Frumos cobort din poveti.4 E dragoste subit i nvpiat, dar
cu ritual romantic lung i candid, concretizat numaidect ntr-un schimb de scrisori de mare
discreie i suavitate, n care Marina se plnge, totui, c suferina singurtii e tare grea. 5
Singurtatea nu va dura ns mult, cci peste un an, n 1922, cei doi se vor cstori. 6 Ionel
fcea parte din lotul naional de clrie, alturi de tatl lui Cristian opescu, i era aghiotantul
lui Antonescu, directorul colii sibiene (care-l i demite dup nsurtoare, pentru c nu l-a
consultat la cstorie;7 un asemenea aviz e, probabil, tot ce mai rmsese din jus primae
noctis). Orfan de ambii prini i srac,8 Ionel e, cu toate astea, mndru nevoie mare i, cu
eclatant cavalerism i emfaz idealist, refuz dota propus de socrul moier.9 Conu
Gheorghi, mirat oarecum de fna ginerelui, dar cinic de felul lui, i accept jocul, 10 ceea ce
Dup Marina Stroici i Singurtatea ei din 1943, aprut la Editura Cugetarea-Delafras din Bucureti, a trebuit s trimit pn la Paris-Bulac
(biblioteca universitii de acolo pare s fie singura care mai are cartea Marinei) i nc nici nu i-am decontat cheltuielile de drum cl lui
Daniel Ilea, care va rmne cu mulumirile cuvenite unui gest spontan de amabilitate. Exemplarul de la cole Nationale des langues
orientales vivantes e druit de Elena Vcrescu; Marina i l-a trimis abia la 15 aug. 1946, cu frumoas firete dedicaie, pe care-mi permit
s-o reproduc: Domnioarei Elena Vcrescu, pentru care am avut ntotdeauna cea mai adnc admiraie, socotind-o ca o mndrie naional,
acest modest dar nsufleit omagiu din partea autoarei.
2
Gheorghe Boldur-Lescu, Memorii. Patru generaii. Amintiri, Editura Universal Dalsi, Bucureti, 2008, p. 7.
3
Idem, ibidem.
4
Idem, p. 8.
5
Idem, p. 10.
6
Idem, p. 16.
7
Idem, p. 14.
8
Idem, p. 8.
9
Idem, p. 16.
10
Ibidem.
1
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n-a fost, firete, deloc bine pentru tnra familie. Eroismul sentimental i idealistica amoroas
duneaz grav uneori.
C Marina s-a mritat att de btrn (se nscuse la 24 martie 1900, n Iai, n ziua
de Buna Vestire;11 moare la Bucureti, n 1992), nu-i chiar a se mira. Dincolo de frumuseea
i inteligena ei (caliti care, n exces, nu favorizeaz la cstorie), mai era i izolarea la
Volovul de pe Prut, unde era moia Stroicilor (cobortori din Luca Stroici).12 i face studiile
la pensionul Humpel, din Iai, dar de pe la 16 ani (deci tocmai cnd nu era cazul) st doar la
Volov (era cel mai mic copil dintre cei apte ai familiei Stroici i probabil c moierul era
mai posesiv cu ea),13 unde n-avea nici mcar lumin electric (darmite prieteni!), deoarece
Conu Gheorghi era // un neprieten al noutilor, n ciuda studiilor sale de Drept urmate la
Paris.14 Cum altceva nu era de fcut, Marina citea mai tot timpul, din cnd n cnd vna i
adesea visa cu ochii deschii.15 Era vntori performant, ntr-att de versat nct nu numai
c-l va ntrece pe Ionel la o vntoare de iepuri, dar l va ntrece i pe Manole, ct era el de
campion la tir.16 Peste toate, mama Marinei, Coana Maricica, fuge de acas (la 50 de ani!,
pe cnd Marina avea 14), mpreun cu meditatorul copiilor, cu care se i cstorete la
Cernui.17 (Coana Maricica era femeie spectacular, cu gust pentru aventur i pentru gesturi
supreme de roman cu domnie rezolute: cnd s-a mritat, ca s aleag ntre pretendeni, i-a
aruncat inelul ntr-un tufi, dndu-le test s-l gseasc; Conu Gheorghi a fost mai ager i l-a
gsit primul.18) Dup divorul prinilor, atmosfera de la Volov devine de-a dreptul
sumbr19 iar Marina iese n lume doar dup ce ncepe primul rzboi, cnd tatl (care era
atunci senator conservator i va deveni vicepreedintele Senatului) o duce la Iai i o pred
Martei, cea mritat cu D. Gusti. Aici mai vede i Marina lume, cci n casa Martei veneau
mereu Ion Petrovici, George Enescu .a.20 Dup rzboi, viaa Marinei se ntoarce la aceleai
citit, vntoare i visare de la Volov (la care se adaug acum cteva ncercri de a scrie
versuri).21 Monotonia de la Volov dureaz pn cnd Ionel o duce cu sine la Sibiu. Dar nici
la Sibiu nu-i prea bine, cci Antonescu i alerga toat ziua pe cavaleriti, aa c biata Marina
sttea ore ntregi citind, dormind sau visnd cu ochii deschii,22 ntr-un ora n care era o
strin, de nu chiar un fel de exilat. Ionel face ce face i se accidenteaz tocmai cnd
cavaleritii lui Antonescu fceau demonstraie n faa regelui (care-l i viziteaz pe accidentat
la spital, cu toi generalii dup el, n semn de mare cinste).23 La doi ani dup mriti li se nate
primul copil, Anda,24 dar n 1926 Ionel e mutat la Botoani, unde, ghinion, tocmai se
deschisese unul dintre cele mai luxoase i excentrice cabarete din ar, pe care, firete, l
frecventeaz asiduu i Ionel, laolalt cu toat ofierimea, n vreme ce Marina, prins cu
naterea celuilalt copil (Gheorghe), e frecventat de gelozie. Cum solda nu era chiar grozav,
Ionel cumpr de la socru, mai pe nimic (poate datorit mustrrilor din afacerea dotei), o
moioar de 20 de hectare la Hrieni, unde va face viticultur,25 treab care merge binior.
n '35 Ionel e numit comandant al Divizionului de cavalerie din Bli, aa c toat familia se
mut n noroiosul ora basarabean.26 Dup doi ani, cnd Ionel devine maior, se trambaleaz
11
Idem, p. 5.
Ibidem.
13
Ibid.
14
Ibid.
15
Idem, p. 6.
16
Idem, p. 8.
17
Idem, p. 5.
18
Idem, p. 58.
19
Idem, p. 6.
20
Ibidem.
21
Idem, p. 7.
22
Idem, p. 17.
23
Ibidem.
24
Idem, p. 18.
25
Idem, p. 21.
26
Idem, p. 23.
12
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cu toii la Iai,27 dar peste un an, n '38, Ionel e trimis pe Nistru i Marina se rentoarce la
vechea ei singurtate.28 n aceast singurtate cu visare va ncepe s scrie poezii, pe care le
ascunde, dar fiul d oricum peste ele i le citete.29 Sunt poemele care vor intra n Singurtate.
Dup ncheierea rzboiului nu va mai scrie, dar se va reapuca de scris dup 1970 30 (n orice
caz, dup apariia volumului mai scrie, cci n Luceafrul din 1944 i-am vzut cteva poeme).
Familia se mut n Bucureti dup cedarea Basarabiei, iar Ionel, rnit pe front, e decorat i cu
Coroana Romniei i cu Steaua Romniei. Dar lucrurile nu mai in i n 1948 Marina
divoreaz de Ionel, recstorindu-se cu Teodor Rosetti Solescu (se cunoteau de la Sibiu),
fost mareal al Curii i strnepot al Elenei Cuza.31 Urmeaz o via de privaiuni i hituial.
La 50 de ani Marina se recalific n urma unui curs de desenatoare tehnic, dar e mereu
dat afar de pe la slujbele pe care le gsete.32 Bolnav i tot mai chinuit de boli, cnd s-a
stins, zice Gheorghe Boldur-Lescu, a lsat o valiz plin de versuri nepublicate,33 plus
un caiet cu ultimele ei versuri i cu rugmintea de a le publica.34 Dintre acestea, prefaatorii
i ngrijitorii, cred volumului Singurtatea amurgului (Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 2004)
Gheorghe Boldur-Lescu i Manuela Cernat - vor alege piesele incluse n ciclul Amurg. n
tot cazul, cei doi prefaatori cred c perioada 1970-1992 // sunt anii cei mai prolifici ai
poetei.35
n ciuda titlului, Singurtate nu-i o carte de spleen-uri i de lamentele (dei sunt i din
acestea cteva) i nu toarce suferin incontinent. Marina se vede i din traducerile pe care
le face din poezia francez modern i pe care le introduce n volum; i se vede i mai
limpede din ciclul de poeme n francez, Avril e septembre e o rafinat care trece cu
naturalee de la versul clasic (de toate lungimile) la cel liber i care face pregnant pictur de
reverii. Nu se patetizeaz mai niciodat, nici chiar n confesia erotic; ba din contr, are umor
nu doar n decuparea scenelor domestice, dar i n rezolvarea lor anecdotic (aa cum se
ntmpl n cele dou poezii de deschidere, dedicate Andei i lui Iordchel, Dup ploaie,
respectiv Roiul). Anecdota copilroas nu e, de fapt, dect un scenariu pe care se poate
desfura o reverie pastelist n tonuri euforice: Alearg norii umezi pe cerul de safir,/
Sclipete-n valuri iarba, trezit fir cu fir,/ i rde cmpul, rde i drumul, i fntna/ Se-ntrec
lstunii oachei de i-ai opri cu mna;/ E limpede lumina n nesfrita zare,/ ntinerit e codrul i
mai aproape pare etc. (Dup ploaie). Pe N. C. Cadioschi volumul n care, zice el, poezie
este din plin peste tot, grea de gnduri i simiri l-a impresionat cu deosebire prin
maturitatea formal, poeta fiind, dei debutant, chiar prea fixat asupra formei.36 Nu e,
firete, un repro, ci mai degrab o floare de omagiu, dar nu nemeritat, cci Marina ine
ritmul i-n poeziile cu aritmie intenionat. Primul ciclu care d i numele volumului e de
reverii naturiste, construite cu descriptivism i miglos i avntat (chiar dac mai scap cte-o
cacofonie) i transmutate n proiecii interioare (prin care mai adie, dar nu primejdios, cte-o
not de elegie erotic); peisajul, de regul mai degrab euforizat dect melancolizat, folosete
la confesiune i-i asigur un trend de discreie: Ca un pumnal de aur, sclipitor,/ Din mna
serii parfumat,/ Cade/ n taina nfloritelor arcade,/ iretul gangure/ Sonor.// Asuns/ Ca
dragostea noastr sfrit/ i luminos ca chipul tu/ Uitat/ Ca el, de patimi calde
frmntat,/ S-aprinde legnat n sfnta adiere,/ Ca o cdelni de aur,/ i de miere:/ n care
parc dorm de mult nchise,/ Mirezme de cpune coapte,/ i caise etc. (n grdin). Cnd i
27
Idem, p. 26.
Idem, p. 27.
29
Idem, p. 30.
30
Ibidem.
31
Idem, p. 102.
32
Idem, p.138.
33
Idem, p. 327.
34
Idem, p. 347.
35
Cf. Prefa la Singurtatea amurgului, p. 7.
36
n Familia, nr. 3-4/1943.
28
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las imaginaia descriptiv s zburde printre analogii, Marina se comport destul de pillatian,
desennd nostalgii pe un fond de tonice, printre realiile unei lumi bune, aurifere, paradisiace
n substana ei i prin cotloanele unei memorii feerizante. Cnd mut obiectivul pe portativul
sentimental, lucrurile se schimb destul de radical i Marina cnt de patimi grele i strivite,
unind, totui, imaginea delicat, adesea preioas, cu cea violent, de foc dezlnuit: Mi-e
sufletul un gol nemrginit,/ Cu fluturri de aripi i de oapte/ Un clre strin pierdut n
noapte/ Un chiot atuncat spre infinit! etc. (Iertare). Desenele de depresie prind consisten
aproape expresionist i Marina se las n voia unei retorici de desfigurare existenial,
traumatic numaidect: De ani atept i-n esul sur al vieii,/ Stau, alb canton, la margine
de drum,/ Dus-i ndejdea, zmbetul i visul,/ Spre zri de cea i tceri de scrum.// E
toamn, toamn rece i trzie!/ Hain mai geme vntul pe sub grinzi;/ Hurue lanul zilelor
ocnae/ Rnjete moartea-n cioburi de oglinzi.// Url n noapte sufletul spre lun,/ Ogar
flmnd i rtcit pe veci,/ Ce-i trage lanul rupt i dorul aprig,/ Pe-ntunecate, vetede
poteci! etc. (Singurtate). O natur ce ngn reverii i un suflet tescuit de frustrri, aadar.
Cnd trece chiar la Dragoste (e al doilea segment), Marina e cu adevrat poet de
patimi. Are, cel puin n bun parte (partea cu bucuriile nu-i chiar adevrat), dreptate
Cadioschi s spun c ntreg ciclul dragostei e un ipt de dorini i bucurii.37 i lui Victor
Papilian i-au czut cu tronc poeziile de dragoste, declamndu-le direct preeminena: cele mai
frumoase poezii // snt hotrte de iubire.38 Ce-i drept, asta i pentru c, n viziunea lui
Papilian, iubirea la femeie este esenialul, ea este o trebuin vital ca i respiraia, ea
cuprinde n sine i imboldul primar i scopul final39 i, prin urmare, celelalte cad din
importan. La Marina, Papilian subliniaz minunata discreiune a derulrii sentimentului,
lucru care, zice el, ade bine mai ales la poete.40 Tot un fel de minunat discreiune remarc
i Alex. tefnescu, pentru care aceast poezie (de al doilea volum vorbete) din alte vremi
impresioneaz prin delicatee, prin elegana retoricii, printr-o buncuviin fa de lume greu
de neles azi.41 La drept vorbind, Marina nu e chiar att de discret (marginile discreiunii
sunt, firete, relative, depind de la om la om) i nici nu vd cum ar fi putut fi avnd n vedere
voltajul slbatic al pasiunii i devorana ei absolut, deschis ntre calinerie i extazul fatal
i nchis, cum se cuvenea, ntr-un oximoron: Tu, fiar mndr, gale i blnd!/ Sfinit
mnunchi de busuioc n soare!/ Lumin cald i tremurtoare!/ Tu, dragoste! Extatic
osnd! etc. (Tu dragoste). Ca la Stnescu, ori de cte ori apare, iubirea e o fiar devoratoare
(i dorurile sunt fiare albe; e drept c i sfinte, dar cu toat inocena i sacralitatea lor,
funcia devoratoare rmne). n general, de o partitur furtunoas, pasional absolut, e vorba:
n ochii ti sunt nvliri de valuri/ Ce vin din larg, mnate de furtuni,/ Spre dorul meu ceateapt-n van pe maluri,/ Fregata plin-a dulcilor minuni! (n glasul tu e murmur stins de
strune). Iar momentele bune sunt frenezie pur, bucurie n explozie: A prinde toate
stelele de mn,/ Le-a nvrti n hor de argint,/ i n albastrul limpede, stpn/ M-a avnta
cu visu-mi, s-l alint! etc. (Sear n muni). O asemenea temperatur senzual cum e,
bunoar, cea din Dor - nu vd cum ar putea respecta gramatica discreiei cnd ea se exercit
direct n gramatica vlvtilor: S te ating cu degete de flcri/ Ca iedera de jar s te
cuprind!/../ S tremurm ca stelele n noapte,/ n cerul dezmierdrilor de foc. Nici nu m mir
c Marina are imnic exultant cnd vorbete despre iubit: Iubite!/ Tu, lumin, zbor i
cntec!/ Poveste drag-a nopilor pustii!/ Tu fagure de miere!/ Crng n floare! etc. (Obsesie);
i asta pentru c are cu adevrat cerneal extatic. Numai c, firete, se-ntmpl cantotdeauna: brusc focul se stinge i devine c zadarnic e tot ce-mi vei spune/ stau ziduri de
plumb ntre noi/ Suntem doi oimi rnii de moarte/ Ce nu pot zbura napoi! etc. (Calvar).
37
Idem, ibidem.
n Luceafrul, nr. 4/1943.
Idem.
40
Ibidem.
41
n Romnia literar, nr. 8/2005.
38
39
39
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40
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Abstract: The idea of individual freedom in Sartres philosophy resides either with the
singularity of the human condition or within the solidarity of Man with the world. Attempts to
project Man describe the dimensions of this freedom - it is through consciousness upon
himself that Man can manifest power over the world, attain control of his environment. Yet,
since Man is inevitably his own project, it follows that Man is supposed to will, to construe
this intentionality, by considering his actual situation in the world. Therefore, his freedom
is not absolute (as it would tend to be), because man has no use for it as such. Instead, Sartre
conceives of a freedom which is freely limited, treated in each individual as an accepted
mutilation; this is how Sartre aimed to discover the intimate structure of human praxis
and, to this end, viewed history not as whole-totality, but as a totalisation, an ongoing
course of ever-building process. Man is condemned to freedom and cannot choose to be other
than free: his essence within his existence; his liberty, Necessity.
Keywords: freedom, existence, conscience, human condition
Introducere
Pornind de la ideea c existena nu este niciodat necesar (nimic nu are dreptul de a
exista sau de a se bucura de existen, n optica sartrian), precum i de la constatarea faptului
c anxietatea i angoasa nu au ca surs doar imixtiunea Neantului n existen, ci existena
nsi Jean-Paul Sartre considera c datoria ce-i revine omului, din aceast perspectiv, este
aceea de a se spla de pcatul existenei. Pe de o parte, ntlnim singularitatea condiiei
umane (omul este fiina la care existena precede esena, ceea ce nseamn c, ntrupare a
contingenei absolute, el nu poate fi dedus dintr-o realitate preexistent, fiind productul
propriilor acte), iar pe de alt parte observm solidaritatea omului cu lumea (grija individului
uman constnd mereu n evitarea primejdiei de a fi tratat ca obiect pasiv i impersonal, de a
nu rmne permanent aruncat i necat n existen).
ncercarea de proiectare a omului (punctul principal de sprijin al contiinei pe care
omul o poate cpta asupra lui nsui, ct i n ceea ce privete puterea sa asupra lumii) pune
n eviden aria sa de libertate. Dar cum omul este, n acelai timp, propriul proiect, rezult c
el trebuie s-i construiasc aceast intenionalitate innd seama de situaie, de poziia lui
concret n lume (o desolidarizare de aceasta i de via ar nsemna o evadare n lumea incert
a visurilor i iluziilor interioare, o rtcire i o automistificare); deci, libertatea lui nu trebuie
s fie absolut (aa cum tinde s fie), pentru c omul nu are ce face cu ea. n acest sens, Sartre
vorbete despre o libertate liber limitat dup felul cum ea este n fiecare mutilare acceptat
(el vrea s descopere structura intim a praxisului uman, artnd c istoria nu este totalitatea,
ci totalizare n curs de a se face mereu).
Numai raiunea aplicat istoriei poate elucida problemele legate de rul uman (care
este violena), respectiv n ce const, de unde pn unde i dac poate fi eliminat. Cunoaterea
reprezint un anumit tip de raport al omului cu lumea; exist o structur dialectic a aciunii
individuale fr de care orice dialectic istoric ar fi neinteligibil. Sartre vrea s dezvluie
41
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42
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Cele trei volume din Les Chemins de la Libert las s se vad nzuina spre omul de
aciune. Cel de-al patrulea volum al ciclului, La Dernire Chance n-a mai aprut, nct critica
se poate ntreba pe drept cuvnt: sunt acestea, oare, drumurile libertii, sau, mai curnd,
impasurile libertii? Impasuri reale, pentru c adevrata libertate nu poate nici mcar fi
conceput ntr-o societate cu clase ar rspunde Sartre, autorul Criticii raiunii dialectice.
Singura aciune autentic ntreprins ntr-o asemenea societate este dezalienarea spune
Sartre, denunarea am spune noi (). Este denunat comedia social , n primul rnd,
adic funcia social care se joac n aceast societate, fr ca autorul cabotin s-i dea
seama de multe ori de acest joc, pe care ceilali l ntrein printr-un consens unanim i ipocrit.
n al doilea rand, este denunat reificarea, chose ismul ar spune Sartre adic
decderea uman n rndul obiectelor, solidificarea, bronzificarea existenelor care refuz
autenticitatea existentului i responsabilitatea actului care s-l justifice1.
n aceast carte se observ o mai accentuat cutare a sensului libertii, ntrezrit n
aciunea politic angajat (pentru care autorul militeaz i n eseul Qu est-ce que la
littrature?, scris n 1947); poziia adoptat este mai puin individualist, ncercndu-se
regndirea problematicii libertii individuale prin prisma conceptului de praxis 2.
Romanul Les Chemins de la Libert comport nenumrate i complexe semnificaii,
iar, suplimentar, maniera n care a fost elaborat ca scriere i multiplic neateptat conotaiile.
Intenia mea, se confesa Jean Paul Sartre, a fost s scriu un roman asupra libertii. Am
vrut s trasez drumul urmat de cteva persoane i cteva grupuri sociale ntre anii 1938 i
1944. Drum care le va conduce pn la eliberarea Parisului, dar poate c nu i pn la
propria eliberare.
Prea simplu i modest spus pentru c ne aflm n faa unei experiene scriitoriceti
extrem de profund i de nonconformist. Caracterul inedit al acestui roman const mai cu
seam n combinarea de elemente, personaje, tonuri, procedee, pe care, dac le-am lua
separat, poate c ne-ar fi familiare; asamblarea lor este, ns, original, respectivul roman
reprezentnd, totodat, o oper de analiz, oper psihologic, oper poetic n vechea
tradiie occidental (Raymond Picard)
Este o superb tentativ filosofico - literar de interpretare a responsabilitii, a
opiunii i a angajrii socio etice. Libertatea nu este o dimensiune uman indeterminat, ci o
form de afirmare a individului prin raportare la o situaie concret, n care el urmeaz apoi a
se defini i manifesta. Astfel, itinerariul eroului principal, Mathieu Delarue, precum i al
celorlalte personaje, este unul dificil, ingrat, care i conduce pe toi aceti oameni precari la o
fals libertate, la ceva pentru nimic, la un dramatic i total angajament fiinial (aparent
susceptibil de a conferi un nou sens vieii lor, dar, n fond, menit a-i lsa permanent n iluzie,
singurtate i deertciune). Romanul este vizibil influenat, aadar, de tezele existenialiste cu
care Sartre , ntr-un mod excelent, revizuia spiritualitatea epocii, ncercnd s descopere
dimensiunea istoric i solidar, a condiiei umane. Ca i n La Nause, i aici existenialul
semnific n mod unic o afirmare a marii intuiii eleate; imuabilitatea n faa Existenei
(varianta literar a conceptului de Fiin) i primatul ei ontologic n raport cu existenii finii
(cu lucrurile i cu oamenii).
Meditaia metafizic a personajelor din acest roman asupra vieii lor le aduce n
ipostaza de realiti fixate efemer n periodicitatea istoric, segmente de destin, individualiti
inutile, imagini trite de ceilali, iar modalitatea n care ele interacioneaz i comunic pune
n eviden acea restructurare estetic (pe care o ntlnim, la fel de magistral tematizat, la
Kafka, Joyce sau Faulkner), n baza creia entuziasmul destructurrii prezum exigena
construciei, banalitatea prefigurnd relevana sensului abscons al marilor adevruri. Eroii se
comport conform tezei sartriene; mai nti existm i apoi, prin liber alegere, devenim ceea
43
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ce suntem. Dar existena lor pare lipsit de orice sens, are un aspect absurd, este generatoare
de neant. ncercnd s se smulg din conformismul vieii cotidiene, ei sper s dobndeasc
autenticitatea tririi, proiectndu-se, spre final, n exterioritatea normelor morale obinuite.
Astfel, ei se elibereaz de orice doctrin prestabilit i canonic, pierzndu-i ncrederea n
explicaiile i n regulile vieii care le-a fost oferit de a gata i devenind pe zi ce trece mai
singuri ; iar cu ct se nsingureaz mai mult, cu att se responsabilizeaz mai acut, nct
conflictualitatea dintre cele dou stri le rezerv un soi de angoas permanent, care tinde s
se transforme ntr-un tragic destin (lipsa unui ajutor exogen mrindu-le responsabilitatea i,
implicit, grija i nelinitea).
Dar, n acelai timp, ei sunt demni de apreciat, umanismul lor este generos,
impresionnd prin felul n care i manifest libertatea i dreptul de a opta. ntr-o societate
structurat n clase inegale, ntr-o lume ameninat de rzboaie, ntr-o via pe care o mpari
vrnd nevrnd cu alii, nu mai sunt posibile nici libertatea, nici contiina. Iar aceti oameni
aruncai la ntmplare ntr-o existen strin, se strduiesc amarnic s-i reajusteze destinul
Existen, fiinare, esena uman
Filosof i romancier, polemist i autor dramatic, figur marcant a micrii
existenialiste, Sartre este intelectualul total, figur mitic a literaturii franceze.
Raionamentul lui Sartre pornete de la premisa inexistenei cogito-ului i a contiinei
pure, contiina fiind contiina a ceva (dup cum gndirea este gndirea a ceva). n forma sa
incipient (de cogito prereflexiv), contiina este contiina fiinei (i nu contiina a ceea ce ea
contientizeaz). n aceast situaie, omul este fiina prin care Neantul ptrunde n natur, cci
Fiina este perfect simetric, egal n- sine cu sine nsi (n timp ce fiina pentru-sine este
acea lips - manque -, acea distan prin care Fiina se neantizeaz).
Negaiile (interogaiile, ateptarea, regretul) trimit la fiina nsi a realitii umane
care se interogheaz n existena sa ca negaie a lui n-sine. Din aceast negaie, pentru-sine-le
va realiza c este perfect liber n faa unor posibiliti indeterminabile, iar prima manifestare a
libertii va fi angoasa: a exista, nseamn a se proiecta n viitor, a se rupe de imanena Fiinei
i a recunoate valori care au drept surs numai pentru-sine-le. Or, ntr-o asemenea situaie,
misiunea contiinei nu const n descifrarea valorilor ca fiine-n-sine (de a eluda
responsabilitatea inerent a libertii). Libertatea, deci, nu poate fi fundamentul su, fiindc
acesta este contingent (Dumnezeu, dac exist, e contingent); exist, ns, o esen a
existenei libertii umane, datorit creia omul nu poate alege s fie altceva dect ceea ce
este, adic liber, libertatea devenind astfel necesitate (Omul e condamnat s fie liber).
Situaiile n care se manifest libertatea uman definesc facticitatea (depinde de
fiecare individ n parte ce sens confer acelui ansamblu de fapte, care constituie situaia lui n
lume3.
Nu este vorba de altminteri, de o posibilitate i de o responsabilitate absolute, cele
doua entiti contradictorii ajungnd, n final, la un proiect de contiina unitar, de
plenitudine simultan total i anume: sinteza n-sine-pentru-sine. Aceasta este, n materie,
teoria sartrian a existenei. Detaliat, ea implic urmtoarele subelemente hermeneutice: a)
Fiina n-sine-lui (obiectualitatea, civilizaia disprut, omenire decedat), plin de sine,
masiv i nchis, se distinge de fiina pentru-sine-lui (contiina) care este nire din n-sine;
b) Contiina introduce Neantul n Fiin pentru c ea este libertate (deoarece este propria sa
neantizare, ea neag fiina sa trecut i transcende ctre un viitor); c) Existena este ceea ce ea
este (identitate absolut, pozitivitate plin, ce nu conine Neantul, dualitatea sau vidul), nu
este nici creat, nici cauz de sine, nici activ, nici pasiv (e fr devenire, imobil, fr
temporalitate, fr raporturi); neavnd o raiune, cauz sau explicaie, existena-n-sine este
ceva contingent (n plan ontologic) i ceva absurd n plan logic; d) Dei nzestrat cu
44
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contiin, omul este un element al lumii, un lucru printre lucruri iar cum existena n sine
este un fapt, acea dimensiune a omului care aparine lumii este facticitatea pentru-sine-lui
(prin corpul su, opus contiinei, prin trecutul su, opus viitorului, prin situaia sa, opus
libertii sale , prin moartea sa, opus devenirii sale); triumful facticitii i absurdului l
reprezint moartea; e) Dac prin facticitatea sa, individul uman pune n eviden existena-nsine, prin contiin, el ilustreaz existena-pentru-sine (mobil, precar, relaional,
temporal, fisurat), adic ceea ce nu este; contiina sa este fisura prin care Neantul vine n
lume ( a fi contient, nseamn a stabili un recul fa de tine nsui, a nu fi identic cu tine
nsui, a te situa la distan de tine); j) Omul fiind existena prin care neantul vine n lume,
realitatea uman reprezint un deficit, o lips, o ratare (experiena prim i fundamental nu
este aceea a existenei, ci aceea a lipsei de existen, adic experiena Neantului, a Greei, a
absurdului); g) Realitatea uman nu este, ea exist. n exclusivitate pentru cazul omului,
existena precede esena, ceea ce nseamn c omul este mai nti i numai apoi el este
aceasta sau aceea; dup ce-i creeaz propria esen (din prezena-de-sine, el tinde s devin
sintez-cu-sine, respectiv existen-pentru-sine-n-sine iar, n acest caz, omul se face, este
liber s i aleag esena: esena existenei umane se gsete n libertatea sa) 4; h) Dac totul
este n afara contiinei, contiina nu este nimic, ea este neant, este contiina-de-sine
(ireflectat, non-poziional, fr dedublare), este existen fr sens (ea nu are esen, ci este
pur nire, pur existen, este toat inconsisten, toat transluciditate, contiin de la o
parte la alta: orice existen contient exist ca i contiina de a exista); contiina este
proiect (deoarece, ca neant de esen, ea nu este ceea ce este), este libertate (prin intermediul
ei se structureaz ntreaga posibilitate a fiinrii); i) n ceea ce privete Neantul, el nu este
nimic, el nu este, dar n afara lui nu poate exista fiina acolo; Neantul mai poate fi neant al
contiinei (care este vid de tot, n afar de obiectul ei) i neant de lume (care este vidul
ntregului, n care totul este nghiit); j) Lumea este o structur de negaie radical a
contiinei (lumea este uman); ea este pentru om sensul su de transcenden: Omul, aceast
contiin n tcerea lucrurilor, se creeaz liber, el nsui, ca un gol (creux) n semnul Fiinei.
Fr aceast scobitur, care rsun de zvonurile lumii, fiina-nsi nu ar fi ea nsi o
rumoare; k) Neantizarea este asimilabil unei revolte a n-sine-lui mpotriva contingenei sale.
Fiind n chip esenial proiect de a deveni Dumnezeu, fiina uman este totodat, ns, eecul
inevitabil al acestui proiect, deoarece rmne curat i insurmontabil imposibilitate pentru
ea de a-i fi siei nsi cauz: Contiina ca neantizare a fiinei apare, deci, ca un stadiu al
unei progresii ctre o imanen a cauzalitii, prin urmare ctre o fiin cauz sine-nsi.
Numai c progresia se oprete aici din cauza deficitului de fiin a pentru-sine-lui.
Temporalizarea contiinei nu este un progres ascendent ctre o dignitate a lui causa sui, ci
este o curgere plan (surface), a crei origine este, dimpotriv, imposibilitatea de a fi cauz
de sine. Astfel ens causa sui rmne prin excelen ca o tentativ euat; l) Forma prin care
fiina uman ia cunotin de Cellalt (l'autrui) ca de o transceden este privirea (regard)
acestuia (toate celelalte modaliti ar implica o sesizare a Celuilalt n felul unui obiect, ar
implica o desconsiderare a lui ca libertate: Aceast femeie pe care o vd venind ctre mine,
brbatul acesta care trece strada, ceretorul acesta pe care-l aud de la fereastra mea, sunt
pentru mine nite obiecte, asta fr discuie. Astfel, una cel puin dintre modalitile de a fi
prezent fa de mine, ale Celuilalt, se dovedete a fi obiectualitatea.
Prin privire (creia i se asociaz evaluarea) individul ia dintr-odat cunotin de
Cellalt ca de o libertate strin de a lui, distinct, aparte (A fi privit, nseamn a te simi
obiectul necunoscut al unor aprecieri de necunoscut n particular, al unor aprecieri de
valoare Astfel, a fi vzut m constituie ca o fiin fr aprare, fa de o libertate care nu e
libertatea mea. n acest sens, am putea s ne considerm ca nite sclavi, n msura n care ne
nfim unui altcineva Sunt sclav n msura n care sunt dependent n fiina mea de o
libertate care nu este a mea)5 ; m) Rea-credina (mauvaise foi) semnific o vieuire n
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raporturi umane i la o definiie (). Altfel spus, elul nostru este de a ajunge la o stare
veritabil n care fiecare persoan s fie un om i colectivitile s fie n mod egal umane.
n acest context al concepiei sartriene, teza Je crois que lespoir fait partie de
lhomme ofer coordonatele eseniale ale unei lecturi unitare a operei i ilustreaz
concomitent, frmntrile unui intelectual angajat pe direcia unor idealuri progresiste i
umaniste. Noua modalitate a speranei ca principiu pune i ontologia fenomenologic (n
fond, ontologia umanului, a libertii) ntr-o nou lumin, fcnd ca ntlnirea cu Sartre s
devin o necesitate pentru orice experien veritabil a gndirii.n loc de concluzii
Jean-Paul Sartre i-a dorit i a reuit s fie un om de aciune, o contiin politic, un
narator extrem de atent al epocii sale, un partizan al literaturii angajate. Ignornd de multe
ori traseele cunoscute i comune, el a ales itinerariile cele mai noi i cele mai singulare,
detandu-se i fcnd abstracie de tehnicile consacrate, Sartre a optat pentru variantele
procedurale i stilistice cele mai directe, mai originale i mai persuasive: toat viaa, el a
investit n riscul de a fi inedit. A mizat pe libertate i s-a aventurat n numele libertii.
Judector obiectiv al realitii socio istorice, Sartre a oferit lumii, prin intermediul
operelor sale, documente preioase pentru evaluarea unei viitoare umaniti i a unei posibile
noi condiii umane.
S-a scris mult despre Sartre, omul i creatorul, i se va mai scrie nc. Autor i
personaj complex i controversat, adulat sau hulit, aprat sau condamnat el nsui i-a
limpezit eul n raport cu sine, judecndu-se cu suficient exigen, totui, i declarnd c
niciodat nu s-a crezut proprietarul unui talent, dar c s-a aezat fiinal i integral n opera sa
pentru a se salva. Totodat scria el n Cuvintele, cu un melancolic regret dac rnduiesc
imposibila Salvare la magazinul cu accesorii, ce mai ramne? Un om ntreg, fcut din toi
oamenii i care face ct toi i ct oricare dintre ei.
ntr-adevr, scriitura sartrian este tulburtoare (ca exerciiu de cerebralizare) i
pustiitoare (ca rezonan sufleteasc), n aceeai msur; i ntr-un caz i n altul avem de-a
face cu o mrturisire (ocant, trist, cuteztoare i mobilizatoare, concomitent) a unei lumi
scindate, aflat la cea mai derutant rscruce a istoriei, acolo unde speranele nc se mai lupt
s devin certitudini i adevruri n faa tuturor scepticismelor i deziluziilor.
Ilustru fondator i reprezentant al existenialismului ateu francez, mentor al
contiinelor imediat dup cel de-al II-lea Razboi Mondial, promotor al unei gndiri i al unor
aciuni uneori contradictorii i uneori contestabile, dar totdeauna vii, Jean Paul Sartre a fost
una dintre personalitile proeminente ale culturii europene din secolul XX.
Filosof, romancier, dramaturg, critic literar, jurnalist i militant politic, el a influenat
profund spiritualitatea contemporan i a marcat, totodat, un moment de excepie n istoria
literaturii franceze.
Pentru scriitor, angajamentul este unul dintre acele acte eseniale, despre care opera
i viaa lui Sartre ofer o mrturie repetat nencetat12.
Sartre estimeaz c scriitorul are misiunea de a-l face pe om s-i neleag adevrata
natur n scopul de a-l nva s fie liber.
Dar scriitorul nu este, n final, un fel de mandarin?
Nu putem contesta gndirea lui Sartre, care se caut mereu pe sine. Gnditorul nu
confer valoare dect existenei absolut afirmate, deschiznd ua spre beia intensitii sau a
puterii; libertatea sa este radical incapabil s-i ofere o frontier a umanului i a
inumanului13.
Trecerea decisiv, adevratul salt n realitatea istoric, nu se va realiza pentru Sartre
dect atunci cnd el va ajunge s situeze ineria Istoriei nu doar la singurul nivel al Celuilalt
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de a-l face s-i admit prezena (...). De-abia cu pasul urmtor vom intra n cel de-al doilea
stadiu al circularitii, stadiul rzvrtirii, va fi o lupt dintre cele mai aspre, o lupt pe care
eroul o are de dus, de fapt, cu sine nsui, cu propria nclinaie de a se aservi, de a-l socoti pe
Cellalt ce esenial (...). n sfrit, n cel din urm stadiu al acestui proces circular, se va
nfptui o conciliere a eroului cu Cellalt, ambii urmnd s apar n cadrul noii relaii ca
liberti ntru totul egale una fa de alta. (Liviu Petrescu, Romanul condiiei umane, Editura
Minerva, Bucureti, 1979, pp 203-204).
6. Alexandru Boboc, Filosofia contemporan, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic,
Bucureti, 1982, (rap. Existenialismul ateu, pp 197-198).
7. Tudor Ghideanu, Contiina filosofic de la Husserl la Teilhard de Chardin, Editura
Junimea, Iai, 1981, pp 132-133.
8. I. Knecht, Theorie der Entfremdung bei Sartre und Marx, 1975 (apud Al. Boboc,
op.cit., p.201).
9. Mai trziu, Sartre va nlocui noiunea de contiin cu cea de trit (vcu), prin
intermediul creia ncearc s asimileze, n mod critic, i experiena psihanalizei, deoarece
tritul (susceptibil nu de cunoatere, ci de comprehensiune) depete ambiguitatea faptului
psihic studiat de psihanaliz, implicnd intenionalitatea.
10. Sartre par Sartre, n Le Nouvel Observateur, no 272, Janvier, 1970, p. 41.
11. J. P. Sartre, LIdiot de la famille. Gustave Flaubert de la 1821 a 1857, vol.I, ed.
Gallimard, Paris, 1971, pp 7-8.
12. n vol. Anthologie de la littrature franaise (coord. Robert Horville) Editions
Larousse, Paris, 2001, p.175.
13. Emmanuel Mounier, LEspoir des dsesprs, Editions du Seuil, Paris, 1970, p.
142.
14. Francis Jeanson, Sartre, Seuil, Paris, 2000, p. 178.
Bibliografie
1. Boboc, Alexandru, Filosofia contemporan, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic,
Bucureti, 1982.
2. Dumitru-Pueti, Alexandru, Scriitori francezi, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic,
Bucureti, 1978.
3. Enescu, Radu, Ab urbe condita, Editura Facla, Timioara, 1985
4. Ghideanu, Tudor, Contiina filosofic de la Husserl la Teilhard de Chardin, Editura
Junimea, Iai, 1981.
5. Jeanson, Francis, Sartre, Editions du Seuil, Paris, 2000
6. Mounier, Emmanuel, LEspoir des dsesprs, Editions du Seuil, Paris, 2000
7. Petrescu, Liviu, Romanul condiiei umane, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1979.
8. Sartre, Jean Paul, Cile libertii (vol I: Vrsta nelepciunii; vol. II: Amnarea;
vol.III: Cu moartea n suflet; vol. IV: O prietenie ciudat), Editura RAO, Bucureti,
1999/2000, col. Opere XX (trad. Sanda Oprescu).
9. Sartre, Jean-Paul, Les Mots, Edition Gallimard, Paris, 1964.
10. Sartre, Jean-Paul, LEtre et le Nant, Gallimard, Paris, 1976.
11. Sartre, Jean-Paul, LExistentialisme est un humanisme, Gallimard, Paris, 1996 (col.
Folio Essais, prsentation et notes par Arlette Elkaim - Sartre).
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Abstract: The paper deals with the perception of the Blacks in Elizabethan England and the
research is formulated from a modern perspective in accordance to the question What is the
extent of Shakespeare's understanding of the Other?Even if Otherness is encountered in many
of his plays such as Aaron, the Moor of Titus Andronicus, Othello, the Moor of Venice,
Caliban of The Tempest, we will focus on Othello's personality on the background of the
Early Modern (pre)conceptions on race and Otherness.
Keywords: multiculturality, Elizabethan Age, race, the Other, Shakespeare
Queen Elizabeth to the Lord Mayor et al., 11? July 1596, in Acts of the Privy Council of England, n.s., 26 (159697), ed. John Roche
Dasent (London: Mackie, 1902), 167.
2
Queen Elizabeth to the Lord Mayor et al., 18 July 1596, in Acts of the Privy Council, pp.201.
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Finally, in 1601, she complained again about the great numbers of Negars and
Blackamoors which (as she is informed) are crept into this realm, defamed them as infidels,
having no understanding of Christ or his Gospel, and, one last time, authorized their
deportation. [3]
Some of the words in the Queens letter commented by Emily Bartels shed light on the
reality of Shakespeares time: the Blackamoors had of late been brought into this realme
or, even worse, are crept into this realm they did not simply relocate in England willingly;
and there were already too many of them in the country. The Queens reason of requesting
their deportation to Spain and Portugal is that they are infidels, that is non-Christian, and
having no understanding of Christ or his Gospel, which to the head of the Church of
England was an unpardonable sin. [4] Obviously the discrimination we are witnessing is
religious in nature, not overtly racist. One more detail: the Queen mentions both Negars and
Blackamoors which, in contemporary English translates as Negroes (or Africans), and
Black Moors (or dark-skinned Arabs). It is an interesting detail which might explain
Shakespeares models for Othello. Nevertheless, the Queens open letter has often been
considered a way of avoiding the social problems of her reign, and an attempt to put the
blame on the Negros in the country. The Queens reference to Negars and Blackamoors as
opposed to her English subjects who she calls her own liege people draws a clear-cut
distinction between the two categories, and prevents the Africans from becoming Englishmen.
They are regarded as a completely different nation, defined by their skin colour, and the
Queens statement is replete with the interpretation of Africans as undesired infidels. We
should not forget that these contested Africans were also the slaves of Englands political
rival, the social and cultural outsiders of Spain. It was a rivalry of a special kind: as the notion
of blackness was imbued with notions of political and cultural inferiority, the two powers
were drawn together by their whiteness and European heritage.
According to Karl E. Westhauser (cited in Sharon Tewksbury-Bloom), ever since their
appearance in Queen Elizabeth Is Realm, the blacks were the subject matter of a
multicultural ideology. Though the examples given refer to a much later period, more than
half a century after Shakespeares death, the basic idea is that the Africans attending the
parades marking the annual celebrations of the inauguration of the New Lord Mayor of
London presented conflicting understandings of race. The explanation resides in the special
status conferred to the Africans partaking in the parades. No longer considered inferior, the
Africans and the Asians alike were seen as worthy representatives of their nations. This is all
closely connected with the developments in cartography and map printing; far from being the
extremities of the known world, Asia and Africa were essentially presented as equals. [5]
Nobody knows whether George Best had had first-hand knowledge of a relationship
between a (white) British woman and a (black) Ethiopian, prior to his statement, but the text
undoubtedly suggests his being aware of the reality of interracial relations. The Queen was
right, after all: the growth of the slave trade with Liverpool and Bristol becoming major
slave ports brought about an increase of the number of Africans in England, and,
consequently, more and more encounters between the English and the Africans, which turned
the Africans into elements of fascination and fear. [6]
Qtd. in Eldred D. Jones, The Elizabethan Image of Africa (Charlottesville: Univ. Press of Virginia, 1971), p. 20. See also Licensing Casper
van Senden to Deport Negroes [draft], in The Later Tudors (15881603), vol. 3 of Tudor Royal Proclamations, ed. Paul L. Hughes and
James F. Larkin, 3 vols. (New Haven and London: Yale Univ. Press, 1969), pp. 2212, 221.
4
Emily C. Bartels, Too Many Blackamoors: Deportation, Discrimination, and Elizabeth I in SEL 46, 2 (Spring 2006): 305322.
<http://cms.press.jhu.edu/timeline/sel/bartels_2006.pdf>
5
Westhauser, Karl E. Revisiting the Jordan Thesis: White over Black in Seventeenth-Century England and America. The Journal of
Negro History, 85 (Summer, 2000): 112-122. Cited in Sharon Tewksbury-Bloom, Social Construction of Race in 17th Century England
Refer to Fig. 4 for visual reference to the better understanding in differences of cultures.
6
Wood, 45-66; Fryer, 5-16; Michael Craton, Sinews of Empire: A Short History of British Slavery (New York: Anchor Press, and London:
Temple Smith, 1974), 14-22.
3
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Before the seventeenth century there were differences among people, in most cases
supported by religion as the major source of discrimination and categorization. The 17th
century Englishmen were becoming more conscious of the differences between themselves
and the Africans, with whom they could not easily identify, and were right to question the
nature of such differences. What they needed was a logical, biological explanation that would
put an end to the impulse to wash an Ethiop white. Attempts to wash away the natural
infection of blackness were more than mere aversion to the colour of the skin; they were
expressions of deeply embedded and widely understood associations of African inferiority.
Blackness was quickly becoming a key signifier of a much broader, indelible inferiority. To
cite Tewksbury-Bloom, blacks had to be different on an elemental level before one could
justify treating them like animals or supernatural beings.
Not until the sixteenth century did the word race enter into the English language.
Meanings of the term in the sixteenth century included, among others, wines with a
characteristic flavor, people with common occupation, and generation. A meaning of
tribe or nation emerged in the seventeenth century. The modern meaning, one of the
major divisions of mankind, dates to the late eighteenth century, but it never became
exclusive (note the continued use of the expression the human race). Irrespective of its
numerous meanings, the main use of the term was related to lineage, which explains such uses
as in the race of man, the race of animals, and even the race of minerals. Only towards
the middle to late seventeenth century, did the term come to be associated with people of
common physical features and skin colour. It means an obvious shift in the perception of race
and the general status of the black-skinned people in the Western world. The English were
fascinated with and afraid of the Africans blackness, which is explained by their own
whiteness and the standard understanding of the contrast between the two. During Elizabethan
times, fairness became associated with beauty; for example, the Queen herself the poets
Fairy Queen led the country as an example of an ideal fair complexion. According to Kim
Hall, the contrast of light and dark in discussions of beauty began around 1550 (Hall, 5).
Whether we like it or not, the Englishmens perception of race was closely connected
to and dependent on the institution of slavery.
The Elizabethans perception of the Moor was more comprehensive than it is today.
They had a clear-cut knowledge of the Muslims who were either Turks or Arabs, but due to
the numerous reports of the travellers Ethiopians and other Africans were often taken for
Muslims. Othello himself is often described as black: statistics mention as many of fifty-six
uses of the word in the play.
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, black applies to Negros and other nonEuropean races, which leads to a complete exclusion of the Other from the civilized,
European identity. For us, black means African, but for Shakespeares audience so
familiar with the presence of blackamoors in the streets of London, the term black could
equally apply to the Arabs.
There was a common general assumption that early modern citizens of London had
scarcely seen a black face, which because of Shakespeares Othello is now contradicted
by modern scholarship. One example is Islam in Britain 1558-1685, an interesting study by
Nabil Matar, who contradicts this assumption by stating that there was no insurmountable
geographic and cultural gap separating the Muslims in the Near East and Northern Africa
from the English Christians. According to Matar, during the Elizabethan and Jacobean Ages
the English had ample opportunities to meet and trade with the Turks and Moors who visited
in great numbers the ports of England and Wales.[10]
10
Nabil I. Matar, Turks, Moors and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999)
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The matter of the black presence in Early Modern England was also commented by
American scholar Imtiaz Habib, author of Shakespeare and Race, who after examining
original documents of Elizabethan Age, such as parish registries came to the conclusion that
there were blacks in London in the seventeenth century.
One interesting detail, which might account for the plot of such a play as Othello, is
evidence of the presence of interracial couples and their offspring in Tudor London. Thus
Shakespeare had ample reason to refer to racial relations in his plays, and to examine the
unavoidable tensions in such a way that suited the taste of the Elizabethan playgoers. It also
gave Habib plenty of reasons to conclude:
We now have documented proof of the residences of black people, which must be
reckoned into the colors of Shakespeares world, in a very literal sense. Shakespeare knew
people of color. He walked through their neighborhoods every day. [] What Ive
discovered, I think changes the contours of existing knowledge on the English Renaissance.
What I have tried, and am trying to do, is to use the urgent lessons of the present to correct
and supplement the legacies of the past.
And if we have come as far as to accept that, to the Elizabethans, the black man was
the equivalent of a villainous and treacherous character, then we can estimate the surprising
impact Othello had on Shakespeares audiences, who were suddenly confronted with a black
protagonist endowed with outstanding qualities. Regarding this particular case, Ruth Cowhig
was positing a number of questions not readily answerable, wondering about Shakespeares
reasons in choosing a blackamoor as the protagonist of one of his greatest tragedies, or
whether Shakespeare had had any direct interaction with the blacks in London to justify his
choice of the tale of Othello from the great number of Italian sources available. [11]
Some of the answers may be found in Eldred Joness Othello's Countrymen: The
African in English Renaissance Drama (1965), in which he provided evidence that
Shakespeares resources for his black characters were not only literary: the black presence in
the streets of London was an uncontested reality, mentioned in the documents of his time,
such as the twelve volumes of sailors and traders narratives collected by Richard Hakluyt in
his Principal Navigations.
We cannot say that Shakespeares choosing a black protagonist for Othello was the
result of his having met blackamoors in the streets of London. Obviously, his choice was
deliberate, and he resorted to a printed source available: the Italian Geraldi Cinthios
Hecatommithi (1565). Cinthios tale follows the demands of his time, and the love story
between a noble Venetian girl and a Moor has a declared moral purpose, recommending his
young readers not to marry against their parents wishes, and to avoid relationships with
someone racially different in nature. Shakespeares adaptation of the tale has little to do with
the original, and there is a trace of irony in his use of Cinthios moral.
Shakespeare addresses a number of issues about blackness and whiteness without fully
answering them, and allowing his audiences to provide the answers. This act of deliberation
involved a disturbance of racial stereotypes. We do not know whether Shakespeares purpose
was to unsettle or perplex his audience, but he succeeded beyond expectation, for the question
of Othellos blackness, and his relation with the white Desdemona, is one that provoked
contradictory and heated responses in subsequent centuries.
There is no written evidence of Shakespeares interaction with blacks, but with his
keen eye for human behaviour and the details of daily existence he must have spent time
analyzing the cultural differences between whites and blacks. There was a whole range of
Ruth Cowhig, Blacks in English Renaissance Drama and the Role of Shakespeares Othello, in The Black Presence in English
Literature, Manchester University Press, 1985, pp. 1-25.
11
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relations. His development reaches its zenith in Othello. The Prince of Morocco is, in a way, a
sketch for the character of Othello: he is coloured but estimable; he selects the golden
casket because of his simple idealism. Love between members of coloured and white
races was a minor theme in Titus Andronicus (the Aaron-Tamora relationship), but in Othello
it is central and handled with incomparably greater skill and insight. Even in Shakespeares
portrayal of Othello, there is an element of conventionality. In the opening scene of the play,
Roderigo slightingly and significantly refers to Othellos thick-lips; though Shakespeare
calls Othello a Moor and he is constantly referred to as such by the other characters, thick lips
are a racial characteristic of negroes, not Moors. Thus, as in the case of Aaron, Shakespeare
unconsciously portrays Othello, not in terms of a Moor, but in terms of a composite figure of
a coloured man. But in other respects Shakespeare has advanced tremendously and Othello
is presented with almost complete realism. This is indicated by the very fact that Othello is
black but essentially different in character from Aaron; he is not just tawny like the Prince
of Morocco, but still a hero, and a hero of full tragic proportions, too. It is a white man,
Iago, who is in line with Aaron in point of character. Shakespeare has realised that the value
of a human being is not determined by the colour of his skin or his race.
Physically and culturally, Othello differs from the other members of Venetian society
in the play. They respect him as a successful general whom they cannot do without; at the
same time, they look down on him as a social inferior because he is a coloured alien
belonging to a race with little power.
In 1903, W. E. B. Du Bois outstanding African American intellectual and activist
stated that The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the colour-line. Du
Boiss prediction may have been premature with respect to Shakespearean tragedy, where
Hamlet, King Lear, and Macbeth continued to dominate critical attention throughout most of
the twentieth century. But today, Othello speaks to readers and audiences alike with unusual
power, largely because it explores race and racism in an unsettling fashion. Does this
emphasis, centred on the dark skin of the title character, belatedly recognize a crucial issue
previously neglected or misconstrued? Alternatively, does the recent preoccupation with race
impose contemporary concerns on material with a different orientation? The answer is
affirmative in both cases. Interpretation is always influenced by both past and present here
by the play itself, together with its theatrical and critical heritage, and by the current
preoccupations of contemporary audiences and readers. A complex work elicits different
responses in different times or places: in Othello, to oversimplify, one issue (jealousy) was
formerly more prominent, while another (race) has emerged or re-emerged only recently.
Neither race nor jealousy is the plays sole concern. Othello provocatively investigates gender
and sexuality. It is preoccupied with class conflict, morality and metaphysics. And it sets its
central domestic disaster against the international conflict between Venetians and Turks over
the island of Cyprus a religious, political and military antagonism that subtly informs the
characters catastrophic personal relationships.
In todays world, the problem of the colour-line seems both related to and distinct
from the persistence, in the eastern Mediterranean and beyond, of the very religious and
military conflicts evoked by Othello. Hence, the uneasiness of the ending, where the
unwarranted projection of guilt entirely beyond the confines of Europe is the precondition of
that noble acceptance of responsibility with which Othello so memorably leaves the world
and the play.
Bibliography:
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Abstract: The paper is focused on the status of the poetical body seen as the image of the
possible that arises in its double aspect, because it gives something to see and to understand.
That which begins to signify, coming out from the inexistence, has the nature of the absolute
beginning. If the being means apparition, it exists as an unapparent image, a transparence
through which one can see the discrete presence of a signifying figure, a kind of hidden image
without horizon. Therefore the poem must be opened in order to see its original flesh as an
image of the unapparent itself. Its way to appear is included only in the world of the poem,
but remains unapparent for any comprehension that intends to cover it. The poem shows itself
as the opening of an unseen apparition, disguised in the transparence itself, which, without
being seen, brings something to the light.
Keywords: poem, beginning, possible, unapparent, image, significance.
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actualizarea n fiina semnificant a poemului. Fiinarea oscileaz astfel ntre nefiin i fiin,
laolalt cu imaginea sa ezitant, reflectnd clar-obscurul acestui interval.3 n al doilea rnd,
fiinarea are n vedere ceea ce este fiintor i, ntr-un alt sens, ceea ce constituie fiina
fiintorului mai curnd dect nefiina, n cazul nostru fiina corpului textual care atrage spre
sine, unitiv, zonele nedeterminate ale fiinrii tuturor imaginilor care nsoesc semnificabilul.
Fiinarea acestora are mereu n vedere fiina nevzut, imprezentabil la nivelul la care
imaginile abia coloreaz pnza posibilului. Dac imaginea poetal este o fiinare, n sensul c
fiineaz n virtutea naturii propriei apariii, ea nu este dect n spaiul posibilului, n distana
inaparent dintre nefiin i fiin, n msura n care ea duce spre actualizare semnificabilul
originar. Nefiina nu este n acest caz o contra-fiin, ipostaz ori realitate subzistent a
fiinei, ci un-altul-dect-fiina, relevndu-i statutul alteritii. Ea este atunci substana
fenomenologic a fiinei, cu o formul mprumutat de la M. Henry, un dincolo-de-fiin i
un altfel dect a fi, cum spune E. Lvinas.4 Ceea ce ncepe s semnifice ieind din nefiin
are natura nceputului absolut. El nu intr direct din nimic n ceva, n fiina constituit, solid,
a unui text. Aici imaginea nu reprezint, la drept vorbind, nimic, spune Heidegger, 5 dar
aceasta nu pentru c nu are fiin, ci pentru c, ntr-adevr, nu este rezultatul unei
reprezentri. Dac nu are o fiin proprie (aa cum are imaginea poetic propriu-zis), ea este
n schimb fiinare desprins din nefiin i orientat spre fiin ca nspre un cer nc
inaccesibil. Fiina i lumineaz fiinarea inaparent, dar n lumina imaginii ce rsare fiina
rmne de negsit.6 n al treilea rnd, dac fiina nseamn apariie, cci ea fiineaz n
chip esenial ca apariie,7 fiinarea ei ca imagine rmne inaparent, transparena prin care
fiina nu se vede, nu trans-pare dect n forma care i reflect efigia. De aceea, ea nu e
prezen ca atare n pura fiinare n care ea abia i arat posibilul fiintor, fiiniabilul unei
configurri semnificabile, conturul mictor al unei prezene-absene. Ieind laolalt cu
semnificabilul din nefiina nerostibil, imaginea arat absena fiinei, inaparentul translucid n
care fiinarea se ntrupeaz i semnific nainte de a se ridica la rostitul fiinei. n al patrulea
rnd, faptul c ea propune o imagine nu i confer totodat un orizont; e luminat ns i
atras de orizontul fiinei, naintnd spre aceast deschidere ca nspre propria artare n care
se mistuie, la fel cum orice element imaginal al unui poem tinde spre unitatea poemului, se
integreaz pn la dispariie n vizibilul unui corp care i actualizeaz potenialitatea.8 n
corpul textual ns potena nu mai e; imaginea poetic nu poart n sine dect urma palid a
imaginii poetale, cci trecerea a potentia ad actum nseamn aducerea fiinrii vagante n
ordinea fiinei. Ea nu poate fi surprins, n chiar inaparentul su pulsatoriu, oscilant i
nedeterminat, dect n deschiderea fiinei, conform perspectivei inverse care arat imaginea
din interiorul predeterminrii ei, de la nceputul posibilei sale semnificri. De aceea trebuie
deschis fiina, pentru ca fiinarea s-i fac apariia n toat strlucirea.9 Trebuie deschis
poemul, pentru ca trupul poetal s fie vzut ca imagine a inaparentului nsui. Neartndu-se
pe sine, ea strlucete n fiinarea ce crete n perspectiva fiinei, arat spre fiina pe care nu o
avem n vedere, dar care cheam vederea.
Vorbind despre cltinarea fiinrii ntre nefiin i fiin, Heidegger adaug: Ct vreme fiinarea se mpotrivete posibilitii extreme a
nefiinei, ea struie n fiin, fr totui ca n felul acesta s fi depit vreodat posibilitatea nefiinei i s o fi lsat definitiv n urm
(Introducere n metafizic, Humanitas, Bucureti, 1999, p. 48).
4
Cf. Michel Henry, Voir linvisible. Sur Kandinsky, Franois Bourin, Paris, 1988, p. 125; Emmanuel Lvinas, Altfel dect a fi sau dincolo de
esen, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 2006. Sugestia ne este oferit de Anca Vasiliu cu referire la statutul imaginii platoniciene n Sofistul (cf.
Dire et voir. La parole du visible dans le Sophiste, Vrin, Paris, 2008, pp. 159, 169). Ar fi vorba atunci, ntr-un cuvnt, de instituirea unui fel
de piatr unghiular a fiinei, acea piatr neasemntoare necesar pentru a permite ansamblului multiplicitii fiinrilor s devin o unitate
adevrat i s in graie unei reasamblri (unei unificri modale) a forelor opuse (ibidem, p. 169). Perspectiv interpretativ care nu
numai c deschide nefiina spre actul fiinei (al n-fiinrii), dar confer fiinrii ca atare posibilitatea unei liberti de exprimare,
ontologiznd potena semnificabil a unei imagini care arat ceva de dincolo de fiin, un altfel dect a fi.
5
Martin Heidegger, op. cit., p. 54.
6
Ibidem, p. 55.
7
Ibidem, p. 139.
8
Fenomenul fiinrii nu este fiin (...) dar el indic fiina i o pretinde (Jean-Paul Sartre, Ltre et le nant, Gallimard, Paris, 1976, p. 30).
9
Martin Heidegger, Hlderlin i esena poeziei, n Originea operei de art, ed. cit., p. 230.
3
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acestuia, rmnnd inaparent pentru orice nelegere care ar dori s-l cuprind i s-l
tematizeze. Culoarea strlucete i nu vrea dect s strluceasc. Dac o descompunem n
unde luminoase, msurnd-o cu toat priceperea, ea dispare. Ea se arat numai atunci cnd nu
este scoas din ascundere i cnd rmne neexplicat.17 Dincolo de pro-punerea expoziional a poemului dar prin ea, datorit ei , lumina semnificabilului ntemeietor nu
strlucete dect n interiorul unui mediu poetal, n inter-mediul transparent sau n pre-poziia
unui trup strveziu. Ceea ce apare este forma nvluit a inaparentului, imaginea diafan a
unui semnificabil nemanifestat, care se d numai n lumina acestui criptofenomen, drept
lucrul cel mai ascuns, o realitate necunoscut i nereflectat. Este o imagine in nuce, miezul
ireductibil al unei pre-imagini, ceea ce numim un imagem.
Forma luminoas pe care o mbrac semnificabilul nu este forma poemului creat,
rezultat al unei lucrri. De aceea, spre deosebire de Heidegger, nu avem n vedere opera ca
atare, corpul poetic realizat ca lucru desvrit al artei, ci lucrarea creatoare prin care pentru
poet ca i pentru cititor, doar c pentru acesta din urm n alt mod , n suspensia fiinei unui
poem, ncepe s se nchege ceva cu sens.18 Din lumea poemului pornim, fr a zbovi ns n
locul pe care l configureaz reeaua sa de semnificaii, la nivelul imaginilor integrate n vasta
pnz a spaiului imaginar. Acest ceva ascuns nu se afl n structura poemului vizibil ci n
non-manifestarea unui semnificabil inaparent a crui lumin face cu putin procesul creaiei,
aducnd rostirea ascuns a fiinrii poetale la rostitul actual al fiinei poetice. Ceea ce se
nfieaz nelegerii intuitive nu e dect pro-punerea unui semnificabil care se ex-pune ntr-o
imagine diafan, dar o face prin pro-ducerea de sens n forma ce se deschide n miezul
fiinrii ca pur posibilitate de acces la cuvnt. Diafanul este nsui deschisul inaparentului; l
las s apar, s vin n afar, i ofer un loc de trecere i de manifestare, fondul de spaiu al
unei distane n care el poate strluci. Putem caracteriza creaia ca aciunea de a lsa ceva s
vin n afar lund forma unui produs,19 dar ceea ce vine n afar sub forma produsului i a
faptului su de a fi ascunde lumina unei forme originare din ascunsul creia producerea
ncepe s devin posibil, s pro-pun i s ex-pun ca pro-punere a faptului de a aprea. n
carnea poemului fiinarea se pune astfel ca deschis al unei apariii nevzute, camuflate n
transparena nsi care, fr s fie vzut, d de vzut, arat n felul luminii a crei imagine
rmne inaparent n chiar msura n care ea lumineaz posibilul pe care l pune n vedere.
Bibliografie
Bachelard, Gaston, La potique de lespace, Quadrige / PUF, Paris, 1981
Burgos, Jean, La notion de motif dans les recherches sur limaginaire n Michel
Vanhellpute and Lon Somville (ed.), Motifs in Art and Literature, Proceedings of the
Symposium at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Uitgeverij Peeters Leuven, 1984
Dufrenne, Mikel. Poeticul, Univers, Bucureti, 1971
Gadamer, Hans-Georg, Adevr i metod, Teora, Bucureti, 2001
Heidegger, Martin, Originea operei de art, Humanitas, Bucureti, 1995
Heidegger, Martin, Introducere n metafizic, Humanitas, Bucureti, 1999
Henry, Michel, Voir linvisible. Sur Kandinsky, Franois Bourin, Paris, 1988
Lvinas, Emmanuel, Altfel dect a fi sau dincolo de esen, Humanitas, Bucureti,
2006
17
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THE DENIAL OF THE LITERARY CANON AND THE NEW POETRY IN THE
PROGRAMMATIC POEMS OF THE WAR GENERATIONS POETS
Sorin Ivan, Prof., PhD, Titu Maiorescu University of Bucharest
Abstract: The fifth literary decade is a fertile framework of Romanian poetry, in which, in the
comprehensive space of the modernist poetic canon, various aesthetic formulas and stylistic
modes coexist, covering a wide lyrical variety: from the traditionalist poetry to the most
daring avant-garde and surrealist experiments. In this context, the war generation triggers a
process of poetrys renewal, both at the ideological and poetical levels. In relation to the
literary reality of the time, the young authors form a rebel, anarchic, iconoclastic movement,
which promotes the rejection of the canonic formulas and of the poetic patterns, the break
with the literary tradition, the refusal of aesthetics and "poetry" in the traditional
representation. Their act of rebellion is a struggle with the poetic canon, with the literary
mentality, with the existing aesthetic and axiological order. The iconoclastic movement aims
to change poetry in substance and form, foster the transfiguration of Romanian poetry under
the auspices of a new vision, determine a paradigm shift, a real poetic revolution. In the
dialectical logic of the renewal process, rejecting the poetic canon leads to the crystallization
of a new canon. The process can be followed, in its essential elements, in the poems with a
programmatic direction of the war generations emblematic poets.
Keywords: poetic canon, aesthetic denial, renewal process, transfiguration, new poetry.
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Poeii din generaia rzboiului i manifest prezena pe scena literelor romneti prin
elanul negator, prin respingerea mentalitii literare i refuzul poeziei tradiionale, prin dorina
rupturii de tradiie i prin negarea esteticii. Este un protest zgomotos, anarhic, debitor i
entuziasmului vrstei, desfurat att prin articole publicistice cu sens ideologic, ct i prin
producia poetic a tinerilor insurgeni. Ei sunt animai, n egal msur, de dorina afirmrii
i de idealul de a nnoi poezia. Procesul nnoirii vizeaz nsi ideea de poezie, concepia i
viziunea poetic, misiunea poeziei n plan estetic i ontologic, dar i expresia, formele de
obiectivare, metamorfozele discursive ale acesteia. n fapt, este o lupt mpotriva canonului
poetic.
Demitizarea temelor poeziei
nc din placheta de debut, Aritmetic (1941), Geo Dumitrescu (nscut n 1920) ia n
vizor, ntr-un sens ironic i persiflator, temele mari ale poeziei. Actul poetic este unul parodic,
deconstructiv, esenial anti-estetic, n continuarea poeilor avangardei. nsui poetul, creator
de lumi i scenarii lirice, nfiat ndeobte n reprezentri romantice, n ipostaze exemplare,
cu valoare simbolic, devine, ntr-un act auto-ironic, victima acestei viziuni provocatoare,
prin excelen polemice. Sublimul este redus la derizoriu, inefabilul la un prozaic dezarmant,
printr-o perspectiv minimalizant care coboar arhetipul din orizontul nalt, utopic al
reprezentrii lui n planul bidimensional al unei imagini banale, construit pe fondul unui
realism de crud parodie. n tabloul pe care poetul i-l picteaz, n total rspr cu poza
poetului romantic, inima este o gmlie de chibrit, creierul, un aparat sacru i concret,
ochii sunt dou semne de ntrebare, iar gndurile, o claie inform de rufe murdare. Tot
astfel, pieptul este o oglind cu poleiul zgriat, fruntea, o scar ctre infinit, n timp ce
urechile apar ca dou aripi, iar buzele sunt arc perfect, reprezentnd pentru eternitate /
obsesia roie a srutului-mit (Portret). Demersul demitizant se extinde asupra literaturii,
acuzat n subtext de poetul debutant (poemul e scris n 1940) c a devenit un spaiu al
temelor grave, mariale i fundamentale, n cheia unei solemniti livreti i a unui formalism
retoric, factice prin excelen. Literatura n aceast metamorfoz livresc, lipsit de orice
autenticitate, este minat de sterilitate, un univers cu porile nchise n faa vieii banale i
frenetice, care poart n ea seminele fertile ale poeziei. Satiriznd temele standard ale poeziei
osificate n tiparele unei viziuni lipsite de libertatea spiritului i a creativitii poetice i ale
unui retorism fastidios, poetul propune, polemic, existena n nesfrita ei diversitate ca surs
inepuizabil de inspiraie pentru poezie: Din toate astea nu se-ntmpl nimic / snt attea
lucruri din care poi s faci o poezie!... / Fapt e c cerul este tot albastru / i stelele mai mult
dect o mie... (Literatur). n viziunea desacralizant a poetului, plictiseala (spleen-ul, tem
fecund a simbolitilor) e o musc pe tavan (Tabu), o stea ncremenit pe cer pare un
balon, stricat, de sport, iar sufletul, un nasture obinuit inut n pumn (Psihoz).
Iubirea, tem sacr a poeziei, apare la Geo Dumitrescu ntr-o ipostaz degradat, cu
sens demitizant. Nimic mai banal dect o idil n parc, ntr-o scenografie bacovian, compus
din dupliciti morale i ipocrizii sentimentale: M gndeam tot mai ncpnat la Violaine
/ era att de departe de Bucureti... / Femeia de alturi se socotea totui prezent / i m
ntreba profesional: <m iubeti>? (Dram n parc). Erosul evolueaz ntr-o scen voit
parodic i ironic la adresa reprezentrilor clasice, n care relaia romantic este cadrul unor
triri de intensiti devastatoare, cu final uneori tragic. n cazul de fa, amorul conjunctural,
contractat pecuniar eueaz lamentabil ntr-un act caricatural. O lovitur dat poeziei serioase
a iubirii de tnrul poet, care ndeamn, (anti-)poetic, la ridicarea cortinei ipocriziei de pe
chipul poeziei. Iat cum: Femeia avea ochi obosii i buze de anilin; / a fi putut s o srut
pn dimineaa / dar ea voia bani i eu vream s fiu singur... / Era acesta un motiv pentru ca
vreunul din noi s-i ia viaa?... // Eram dezgustat profund, Dumnezeu s m ierte / liceanul
plecase; luna goal zmbea cu fantezie. / Cel puin era linite, femeia bun i calm... / ...
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Cnd m-am trezit, banca era dur i eu nu mai aveam plrie... (idem). Iubirea ca tem
poetic este nfiat ntr-o metamorfoz parodic, efect al unei viziuni duplicitare, care
amestec lucrurile grave cu elementele ironice. Poetul pare c se joac, alterneaz perspectiva
i tonul abordrii, ntinde mereu capcane cititorului, deconcertndu-l. ntr-o dezvoltare liric
aparent cuminte, care creeaz impresia c evolueaz n sensul unei anumite logici poetice,
cte un vers cade ocant peste ntreaga structur, deconstruind-o i revelnd adevratele
intenii ale autorului. De pild: Astzi, mine, dup fiecare srut, / purtm pe buze acelai
semn de ntrebare; / n fiecare clip i duc sufletul n palme / i hoitul important n spinare.
(Poem final). Sau: Cu toate c eti frumoas, / dei faptul c te iubesc mi pare evident, / cu
toate c n definitiv n-ai fcut dect s m srui, / nu tiu de ce te ursc n acest moment...
(Banal). Iubirea se obiectiveaz poetic i n cadrul unei viziuni condescendent-ironice,
parodic-dominatoare, degradant pentru sentimentul n sine i pentru femeia nsi, vzut
mai degrab ca un obiect erotic (un eros lipsit ns de orice tensiune), fundamental
minimalizatoare i n total contradicie cu imaginea idilic a cuplului: Cteodat mi-ar
plcea s ai mai mult de paisprezece ani, / s fii mai puin inteligent i mai degrab cast, / s
umbli descul prin buctrie / i s te cheme cineva, posesiv, umilitor i vulgar, <nevast> //
Nu tiu dac te-a iubi mai mult atunci / poate c a scrie aceleai rnduri aspre, sceptice i
fr poezie, / i a cugeta, la fel, cu nelinite i amuzament, / la bazinul tu prea larg i la snii
de strict simetrie. (Ipoteze). Dorina erotic, n aceast viziune provocatoare a iubirii, are un
sens duplicitar i pervers, care trebuie citit n aceeai cheie parodic: Dar cert e c a fi tentat
la maximum / s te am cu complicitate i fervoare / numai pentru a m gndi superior la
prostia soului tu / cnd i spun cu pervers zmbet afectuos: salutare... (idem). n alt
reprezentare, femeia este slbatic i mare, / cu picioarele groase, cu ceva din ridicolul
oamenilor blonzi / plin ntotdeauna de impertinen tacit i de mirare. (Scrisoare nou). n
acest context, ntr-o proiecie rudimentar-patriarhal, iubirea este mediul fecund al perpeturii
speciei. Poetul propune de aceast dat un eros arhetipal, despiritualizat, ntors la funciile lui
primare: Seara, n vatra cald, cu buzele pline de mmlig, nduii, vom face copii, / ca s
se mplineasc Scriptura, / vom face copii mari, proti i frumoi, / ca s ne anime i s ne
pzeasc bttura. (idem).
Actul demitizant al poetului se extinde asupra universului nsui, spaiu sacru al
poeziei, al visrii i al revelaiilor romantice, teritoriu insondabil al misterului metafizic. n
colimatorul observatorului de ocazie care vrea s contemple luna i s ptrund n rile
misterului, intr astrul selenar, stelele, planetele i galaxiile. n virtutea aceleiai viziuni
desacralizante, stelele dorm burghez, desumflate, sunt rotunde, buhite, murdare, iar luna
este obez i coleric. Cerul nocturn devine teatrul grotesc al unei scene sexuale de
dimensiuni cosmice, a crei protagonist este luna nsi, devenit, ntre timp, bordelul
selenar: Norii fluturau pelerinele lor cenuii, zdrenuite, / cu ridicole elanuri medievale, / nu
se vedea nici un alcov unde btrna libidinoas / i-ar fi putut ascunde nocturnele hemoragii
banale. // Curnd apoi a trebuit s-mi acopr ochii: / un nor masiv s-a depus masculin peste
flasca grmad de sex / dedesubt, luna se mai vedea doar o felie / pentru ochii muritorului
perplex. (Aventur n cer). Universul este, n alt secven revelatorie, scena disputei dintre
Cel-de-sus i Satan, care mestecau argumente ntr-o teatral divergen, pe cnd Saturn,
ntr-o revelaie obscen, eznd pe oitea Carului Mare, / i medicamenta organele, cu
indecen. Inteniile autorului sunt clare: s persifleze, s coboare n derizoriu, s degradeze,
ntr-o reprezentare grotesc, universul ca obiect poetic. Este o viziune teribilist,
provocatoare, pe care Geo Dumitrescu o promoveaz la nivelul literaturii, ieind, n chip
polemic, din tiparele unor reprezentri standardizate.
ntr-un alt poem, autorul persifleaz suferina, nemplinirea n iubire, perspectiva
morii, teme mari ale poeziei n diversele ei metamorfoze estetice. De data aceasta, gestul
ironic al tnrului anti-estet n lupt cu obiectele clasice ale poeziei se ntoarce asupra lui
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nsui, ntr-un act confesiv i auto-analitic n preajma presupusului sfrit, profund parodic i
zeflemitor. Suferind, o suferin expus ntr-o imagine plastic i pitoreasc, posibilitatea
morii nu-l tulbur, dar i inspir mai multe regrete, ntre care primul privete nemplinirea
literar din cauza timpului scurt al existenei sale: Snt bolnav i aprins ca un caldarm
bucuretean / o s mor, asta e sigur puin mi pas! / mi pare ru doar c n-am dect
douzeci de ani, / c nu tiu cine snt i din creionul ast ce-ar fi putut s ias. (Rnduri
pentru un eventual deces). Alt regret se refer la nemplinirea erotic, i aceasta privit cu
ironie duplicitar: mi pare ru c n-am iubit nici o fat / Dumnezeu mi-e martor c eu am
avut toat bunvoina. (idem). n materie de poezie, spune poetul ntr-un fel de art poetic
lapidar pe patul de moarte, opiunea lui s-a ndreptat ctre lumea frenetic, vibrnd de via,
ctre existena genuin, transfigurat n versuri pe msur, puternice, substaniale, apte de
capta sevele vieii: Mi-au plcut mult versurile aspre, mustoase, / toate lucrurile pline i nete,
copilul voinic, precoce, care nu plnge, / mi-au plcut florile, toate florile, / s zdrobesc n
pumni sntatea lor de hum i snge. (idem). Un teritoriu al inspiraiei poetice l reprezint
cerul cu luna i stelele, vzute ns tot printr-o prism parodic, n care soarele este
nestatornic i umbl n pielea goal. ntre lucrurile care rmn posteritii, pe lng o
splendid cravat verdei o caset cenuie cu scrisori, fotografii i o poz cu coroan dintra patra primar, poetul mai las o hart cu nsemnri de strategie pentru binele naiei.
Teribilist i sfidtor ca atitudine (Piru l apropie de Rimbaud), poetul este un explorator cu
imaginaia al lumii, un vistor cinic, care sfideaz prin nonconformism, surprinznd, la nivel
poetic, prin aceeai tehnic a ocului i a deconstruciei: Mai las n urm, n peretele camerei
mele, <Harta politic a lumii>, / pe care mi fceam zilnicele cltorii planetare / o s gsii
nsemnat pe ea baza mea naval, Tasmania, / de unde mi-aruncam elanurile i urina n
mare. (idem).
Demersul critic al poetului atinge i accente mai grave cnd poezia se focalizeaz pe
realitate, pe contingent i fenomenologia existenei. Poemul prsete paradigma parodic i
devine o critic a istoriei, a epocii i a sistemului, ntr-un discurs liber, de un retorism bine
controlat, dezvoltat gradual, cu accente ironice i sclipiri de sarcasm. Poetul anun
provocator sfritul unei ere, un timp al ipocriziei i al minciunii, al suferinei i al morii
(rzboiul), un veac duplicitar al progresului, dar i al goanei dup bani i al crimei: Prietenul
meu proorocul mi-a spus discret ntr-o zi / c veacul nostru, btrn i putred nainte de timp, /
va muri lamentabil n curnd, pe nesimite, / ca o simpl trecere de anotimp. // Hei, hooman
btrn, veacule muribund, / ai isprvit prin a pieri de pcatele tale / din cavourile tcute i
negre de srm ghimpat / nu te vor scoate o mie de mii de macarale. // Fanfaron, perfid, te
ludai cu lumin i generozitate / cineva spunea c eti cel mai modern i cel mai detept; /
ce-am s rd cnd oi vedea minile tale murdare de bani i de snge / definitiv ncruciate pe
piept. (La moartea unui fabricant de iluzii). Se ncheie, astfel, o er a speranelor
nemplinite, n care, sub auspiciile evoluiei rapide a civilizaiei, omul a czut victim
propriilor iluzii legate de emancipare i progres, dezumanizrii generate de un sistem
construit pe minciun, demagogie i profit, pe nelare, manipulare i exploatare. Totul cu un
imens consum uman, cu sacrificii, eecuri, pierderi pentru umanitate, sugereaz, de pe poziii
de stnga, poetul, care rezerv acestei ere blamate un sfrit caricatural i grotesc, n maniera
deja cunoscut: O, veac melancolic i cabotin, / vei duce n groapa ta o mie de mini enorme,
/ o mie de cri nelepte, o mie de mini misterioase i vetede, / o mie de blesteme,
decaloguri, drapele i alte vanitoase forme. // La dracu, s nu fim patetici! prietenul meu
proorocul are dreptate / n srma ghimpat timpul doarme i moartea e stpn / deces
banal: un cadavru a ncetat din via de plictiseal / cu o hrtie de o sut de dolari n mn...
(idem). Viziunea critic a poetului care anun, triumftor i sarcastic, sfritul unei epoci las
loc unei proiecii utopice, nemrturisite, dar implicite, proprie generaiei sale, pe care ali
poei (Stelaru, Caraion, Tonegaru, Corlaciu etc.) o vor explicita, n care prinde contur sperana
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unui viitor mai bun, al omului i valorilor sale. Se poate citi n subtextul poemului i un sens
polemic ndreptat mpotriva poeziei, n special cea avangardist, care face elogiul modernitii
i apologia progresului cu orice pre.
Civilizaia tehnicist, pus n slujba progresului i a lumii capitalului, duce la
dezumanizare i la falsificarea existenei. n centrul ei st omul nou, o fiin n curs de
robotizare, fr vise, fr imaginaie, fr aspiraii, alienat, definit doar de un pragmatism
strict, n orizontul devenirii materiale. n raport cu mesianismul congenerilor si, care
proiecteaz omul nou pe pnza viitorului, ntr-o reprezentare optimist, izbvitoare pentru
fiina uman, omul nou geodumitrescian, vzut sceptic i critic, obiectiveaz un avertisment
i un semnal de alarm fa de o metamorfoz dezumanizant a individului ntr-o utopie cu
semnul minus, n plin desfurare odat cu avansul impetuos al civilizaiei. Iat-l n revelaia,
metaforic i prozaic, a poetului: Vezi, omule nou, ai dreptate s rzi de mine / vagoanele
tale cu gru nconjur globul de <attea> ori, / Fordul tu are muli cai-putere / i din vrful
celor 300 de etaje ie nu-i vine niciodat s zbori. // Tu eti simplu, i mare, i practic, i util,
ca Majestatea-sa Crbunele, / omule nou cap de nuc; / n creierul meu se nvrte o Americ
ntreag de gnduri / i eu nc mai stau cteodat de vorb cu o uluc... (Ford). Pe de alt
parte, ntr-un suprarealist proces intentat bobului de porumb, retrograd, mpotriva veacului,
scelerat, trdtor, disimulat n <generalul mmlig>, poetul face un rechizitoriul moral
Pmntului nsui i civilizaiei, odat cu invocarea unei ere noi, a fiinei umane, gndit
inclusiv cu suportul tehnologiei: Pentru dragostea noastr universal, Violaine, / n lupta
noastr interplanetar pentru un veac mai bun, sau mai nou n orice caz, / ajunge! nu vom
tolera nici o defeciune! / Domnule Pmnt, e timpul s ai ceea ce se cheam obraz. // De
dou mii de ani nu facem nimic / triasc rzboiul! sntem oameni cu doctrin i cu
dispre de moarte; / mpotriva <generalului pelagr> i pentru un veac mai bun, / hei, inginer,
o conduct de oxigen pentru aliata noastr Marte! (Pelagr)
Un poem emblematic al poeticii lui Geo Dumitrescu este cel care d numele
volumului din 1946, Libertatea de a trage cu puca. Sensul lui programatic vine din titlul
nsui, care parafrazeaz Libertatea de a dormi pe o frunte, placheta de debut a lui Gellu
Naum (1937). Pus pe frontispiciul unui poem i al unui volum, cel mai cunoscut, de altfel, i
reprezentativ pentru opera poetului, acest titlu exprim fr echivoc opiunea pentru poezie ca
act de libertate i de provocare, de sfidare a strii de fapt din literatur, a ordinii estetice,
rezultate dintr-o perspectiv axiologic vetust. n alt plan, al existenei, pentru c poezia
trebuie s fie legat organic de via, conform revoluiei pe care tinde s o provoace generaia
rzboiului n literatur, titlul implic ideea de libertate, ntr-o metamorfoz chiar anarhic, a
omului, libertatea vzut ca stare ontologic fundamental a fiinei umane. Construit
parafrastic, sensul fundamental al acestui titlu este unul polemic la adresa unui mod de a face
poezie, hiper-literaturizat, metaforizat i livresc. Sensul polemic este, de altfel, definitoriu
pentru ntregul volum din 1946, cel care i confer autorului lui statutul de pionier n procesul
de nnoire a poeziei romneti. Este o polemic pe care poetul o duce cu armele inteligenei,
ironiei i spiritului critic, direcionat ctre deconstrucia canonului estetic i edificarea noii
poezii, cu mijloace anti-poetice i anti-estetice. Poemul n cauz persifleaz poezia
eroic, poezia rzboiului, construit, cum se ntmpl i la unii dintre congenerii si, pe o
viziune tragic, naturalist, de un tragism livresc, ceea ce duce la falsificarea poeziei. Poetul
trateaz o tem grav ntr-o cheie parodic, relativiznd totul, imprimnd un aer de
neseriozitate perspectivei poetice. Moartea nu nspimnt pe nimeni, viaa i moartea se afl
ntr-un fel de coabitare amabil, frontul constituie un spaiu al dezbaterilor ntre soldai, pe
care nimic nu-i impresioneaz, care discut senin despre libertatea de a trage cu puca,
stnd rezemai comod n groapa neagr sau poate chiar pe o piatr de mormnt, vegheai de
luna fr casc. Planurile se suprapun i se amestec, limitele dintre a fi i a nu fi au
disprut (autorul face trimitere n prima strof la Shakespeare), iar soldaii, narmai i
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patetici, ascult povestirile eroice ale poetului. Combatant el nsui pe fronturi celebre ale
istoriei, asediul Trebizondei, btlia de la Waterloo, acesta devine un fel de erou generic i
atemporal, unul care personific ideea de soldat, de lupttor i nvingtor. Este, desigur, un
prilej pentru el de a ironiza eroismul n literatur, temele mari, precum sacrificiul, martiriul,
jertfa, moartea pentru o cauz nobil etc. Abordarea este voit livresc, autorul se plimb prin
istorii (Imperiul Trebizondei, n secolul al XV-lea, n sud-estul Mrii Negre, ultimul imperiu
cretin n spaiul cucerit de otomani, btlia lui Napoleon la Waterloo), civilizaii i literaturi
(Sadoveanu, Rostand), parodiind i persiflnd eroismul ca singur opiune existenial, ntr-un
fel de bufonad livresc, esenial polemic. De observat n parantez o observaie care, dup
tiina noastr, nu a fost fcut , asediul Trebizondei s-a desfurat fr pierderi umane, iar
cetatea, capital de imperiu cretin, s-a predat, n urma unor nelegeri diplomatice, n minile
lui Mehmet al II-lea. Dar utopia liric d dreptul poetului s ajusteze adevrul istoric. Iat
versurile n rspr cu perspectiva eroic a poeziei: Snt sigur c unul din ei eram eu / de
altfel, astzi mi-am gsit n sertar, printre manuscrisele fel de fel, / pistolul meu ghintuit, cu
douzeci i patru de focuri, / cu care am participat la asediul Trebizondei, dac nu m-nel. //
Doamne, ce de isprvi am mai fcut i-atunci!... / Ca un erou din Sadoveanu, eram viteaz i
crud; / in minte s fi ucis trei sute aizeci de dumani ntr-un singur asalt / ah, rcnetele
mele de mnie i triumf i-acum mi le mai aud!... // La Waterloo, eram cu bietul Bonaparte,
cabotinul, / rostandiznd pe pragul unui veac; / viteaz i inutil i graseiat la culme, / luptam iatunci ce era s fac?... (Libertatea de a trage cu puca)
Lupta cu centimetrii ptrai ai poeziei
n Antreul poemului, din deschiderea plachetei sale de debut, Panopticum (1943), Ion
Caraion afirm n ali termeni, mult mai fermi i lipsii de echivoc, pe coordonata stilistic a
unui radicalism de viziune i atitudine, identitatea celor care militeaz pentru nnoire, n plan
existenial, mental i estetic, pentru revoluionarea canonului poetic. Poezia lui Caraion este
definit, conceptual i discursiv, de expresionism, particularitate care se traduce ntr-o
perspectiv hipercritic, dur i neagr, cu accente naturaliste, asupra existenei i realitii i
printr-o violen stilistic extrem, obiectivat n moduri poetice particulare la nivelul
scriiturii. Toate acestea i manifest prezena nc din primele poeme, n viziunea poetic i
n orizontul textului, un text dur, bolovnos, agresiv, anunnd liniile de evoluie a poeziei
caraioniene. Poetul, al crui pseudonim, cu sens programatic, exprim chintesenial o art
poetic Ion Caraion (Ion cel Negru) , se revendic de la o generaie ultragiat, cu nervii
ntini la maxim, de oameni care caut cu disperare autenticitatea existenei i a poeziei.
Cutarea surselor originare ale poeziei, a formulelor estetice i antiestetice care s exprime
existena n ipostazele ei fruste, genuine reprezint linia de for a programului pe care acetia
l asum n sens estetic i ontologic: Noi am scris cu nevroz pe ziduri / i-am colindat
neurastenia, s bem / igrasie din ploaie, rachiu din poem / otrava murdar, iptul spn
Este o generaie care-i triete la intensiti paroxistice cutarea, n termenii unui patetism
tragic i ai unui acut sentiment al damnrii: De douzeci de ani scobim ntr-un plmn /
pentru tineree, pentru pcat / ne-njunghe frumuseea n care n-am intrat! / Cu minile
ciungi, tatuate / ne ducem n crc pustele deprtrilor toate; / carnea neap zpezile, anii /
ne-au spart inimile, ne-au omort bolovanii n plan estetic, vistorii radicali, militani
pentru reformarea din temelii a poeziei, se pronun pentru spargerea tiparelor, a abordrilor
canonice, controlate de reguli, armonii i simetrii formale. Regulile, msura, rigorile
geometrice, viziunea standardizat, care definesc vechea poezie, constrng poezia ntr-un
Pat al lui Procust formal i conceptual, sufoc ideea i spiritul, genereaz un tip de
mediocritate academic i sterilitate literar, care acoper, estetic i eufonic, lipsa substanei
n plan ideatic i n orizontul tririi: Lng marginea vorbei, la cin, / semnm soare,
culegem vermin / la fundul puritii, fr gramatic, / dispreuim cuminenia reumatic / a
inilor bolnavi de centimetri ptrai. / Avem umbletul simplu, dar pai tulburai, / ne gtuie
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nscut pentru ntuneric, / pentru camerele ncuiate, / pentru perdelele trase, / pentru femeile
care ateapt; / voi v-ai nscut pentru tot ceea ce e via, flux, campanie / voi v-ai nscut s
fii permanent ntre oameni, / alturi de ei, / o dat cu ei.
Un al treilea poem cu sens programatic, Caseta cu inimi de fosfor (volumul Cntece
negre), propag, ntr-un discurs militant i propagandistic, ideea nnoirii omului, prin
renunarea la masca ipocriziei i la existena steril, golit de seva tririi, prin apologia
adevrului i a libertii. Poetul i arog misiunea de mesager al schimbrii, de apostol al
unei uriae metamorfoze, care vorbete mulimii: Fiindc niciodat nu v-am adus mesagii, /
fiindc niciodat nu v-am promis nimic / (aa cum nu mi-am promis mie, niciodat, nimic) /
v exalt, v numr / sntei / v simt / i de aceea dau laoparte lucrurile / cu care voi ai venit
n atingere prin sngele vostru, / dau laoparte masca pe care o vindei i-o cumprai n fiecare
diminea / i v vorbesc. Asumnd un rol mesianic, el exprim spiritul timpului, care
evolueaz frenetic ctre viitor, energiile care mobilizeaz ntreaga existen ctre renaterea
universal, sub semnul nalt al adevrului i al autenticitii. Pentru edificarea lumii noi, cea
veche trebuie distrus din temelii, pentru ca omul nou s se nasc, cel vechi trebuie s moar,
iar spiritul vieii s rsar din ruine i din cenu. Poezia nsi trebuie s se despart de trecut
i s renasc, adunndu-i forele din energia universal care impregneaz existena i din
schimbarea la fa a omului, o fiin nou, la un nivel superior al fiinrii, ntr-o metamorfoz
care s fac din ea un mod al renaterii spirituale, un instrument al adevrului i al cunoaterii,
o cale ctre viitor. Iat discursul poetului ctre mulime, ctre masele care vieuiesc confuz,
ntr-o mediocritate fr speran i fr orizonturi, asumnd rolul de profet al vremurilor noi,
care le arat calea ctre viitor: Eu nu vin n numele vostru / n numele vostru au venit toi
i-au plecat; / eu vin n numele durerii care trece prin aer, / care se simte la mas, n ciorb /
eu vin n numele energiei care circul / prin toate cercurile i arterele pmntului, ntr-adevr
liber; / eu vin n numele poeziei pe care n-a scris-o nimeni, / pentru c fiecare s-a temut de el
nsui, / n numele meu vin (cel care n-a promis nimic, nimnui, niciodat) // i proclam: / v
ursc. / Pentru c mi sntei aproape, / pentru c semn cu voi / pentru c ursc i vreau s
distrug toate lucrurile care mi snt aproape i care seamn ntre ele; / i de aceea / dau
laoparte masca / pe care voi o vindei i-o cumprai n fiecare diminea / i v vorbesc. // E
timpul. / Ascultai. / S zvrlim tot ce avem cenuiu n noi.
Invocarea mesianic a omului nou
ntr-un poem publicat n revista Albatros, Dimitrie Stelaru, spirit boem i iconoclast,
un vagabond modern al vieii i al poeziei, cu modele livreti n istoria poeziei universale,
condiie pe care o experimenteaz consecvent la nivel existenial i estetic, viseaz la Omul
nou. Poemul este tiprit n numrul 7, ultimul, al revistei, apariie efemer, dar care i
transcende prin semnificaie i importan cadrul editorial i limitele temporale. Publicaia
promoveaz o nou mentalitate pe scena literaturii, aduce un suflu nou n cmpul literelor
romneti, iniiaz un proces complex de nnoire care va continua n urmtorii ani, pn ctre
sfritul lui 1947. De la aceast dat, viitorul ateptat i invocat de poeii generaiei
rzboiului, utopia la care ei viseaz n noua poezie i n textele programatice de pe frontul
militantismului publicistic se transform treptat, dar ntr-un declin vertiginos, ntr-o utopie
neagr, n cea mai sumbr distopie a istoriei. Poemul trebuie citit n cheia unei revelaii
cretine, din care ia natere chipul lui Isus, biruitorul morii, care nviaz aducnd oamenilor
sperana vieii i a izbvirii. Omul nou este Hristos, purttorul de lumin i de via, Cel care
rspndete ntre oameni vestea cea bun a biruinei i a vieii, a restaurrii omului n condiia
primordial, a unui nou nceput, mesagerul divin al renaterii fiinei umane din cenua
pcatului. Luminnd lumea cu o nou speran n planul orizontal al terestritii, el se
ntoarce, pe axa relaiei teandrice, n condiia dumnezeirii sale prin nlare. Textul poate fi
citit ca un poem mistic n cheie parabolic, ntr-o viziune i metamorfoz discursiv cu totul
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aparte fa de poezia de inspiraie religioas, cum este, de pild, cea ortodoxist, ancorat
ntre limitele canonice, religioase i poetice. Revelaia stelarian poate fi ns interpretat i
ntr-un sens mai larg, omul nou ca simbol al renaterii fiinei umane i al aspiraiei ctre
emanciparea din condiia teluric, spre nlarea spiritual. Iat versurile: Omul nou l-am
vzut ieind din pmnt ntr-o diminea / Avea fruntea alb, iluminat de alt via; /
mbri orizontul, ntmpinat de soare / De soarele unei lumi neneltoare. / Omul nou nu
era nici sclav, nici mprat, // Cu sgeile ochilor iscodea timpul cristalin / Necunoscut,
ateptat nu era nimnui strin. / Omul nou, Omul altui nceput, / Nscoci o geografie, un trup
nou al pcii, // Omul pe care l-am vzut ieind din pmnt ntr-o diminea / Avea minile
albe, iluminate de alt via; / Mergea liber, prin orae, ctre Apus / Mergea nspre Nord,
nspre Sud, dar mai mult n sus, // Cntnd biruina Omului nou.
Tot o form de mesianism, dar lipsit de sens metafizic, dezvoltat pe coordonata
existenial, practic Ben Corlaciu n poemul Pentru omul meu liber, publicat n Universul
literar (nr. 4, 11 februarie 1945) i inclus n volumul Manifest liric, din 1945. Omul liber este
o proiecie, o aspiraie a celui care vieuiete n spaiul existenei fr orizont, limitate de
constrngeri i neputine, un alter-ego al acestuia, care exprim, n mod esenial, adevrata
identitate a individului, victim a condiiei sale sociale, morale, existeniale. Cel care se
viseaz n aceast metamorfoz, de om liber, exponent al dezmrginirii ontologice i al
libertii fiinei, este un poet boem, rebel i anarhic, de spea lui Stelaru (prieten de experiene
bahice i reverii poetice, cruia i dedic poemul Popasul nopii), care practic o boem
extrem, n mediile sordide i promiscue ale vieuirii sub semnul unei revolte apriorice i al
hazardului. Existena la limit sub auspiciile boemei de tip villonesc, poesc ori baudelairian
este un fel de coborre n infern din care poetul ncearc s renasc trecnd prin purgatoriul
spiritual i estetic al poeziei. Poemul lui Cornaciu este un elogiu al libertii, condiia
fundamental a individului spre care acesta trebuie s tind pentru a renate spiritual. Iat
versurile, dezvoltate ntr-un discurs de esen prozaic, n formula promovat de poeii
generaiei, augmentat de un suflu retoric tezist i persuasiv: Totdeauna, omule liber m vei
iubi, / aa cum iubete sracul pinea i soarele, / fiindc sntem amndoi din acela grunte
/ i fiindc singura religie adevrat e munca. // Noi ne cunoatem, fr s ne fi vzut
vreodat; / cnd ne-ntlnim, ne-mprim unul altuia viaa / i, c-un srut ct o confluen de
larg, / zrile-n colul buzelor noastre se sparg. // M vei iubi, omule liber, aprig i cald, / aa
cum iubesc eu cltoriile prin inima ta, / cum ateapt fecioara smna copilului nou, / pe
care s-l poarte la snul su roditor ca pmntul. // Braele noastre cuprind longitudini,
meridiane, / i toate anotimpurile vin spre noi, ca un fluviu; / inteligena i munca snt
singurele noastre arme, / prietenia, singura noastr avere. Libertatea omului antreneaz
libertatea poeziei ca act spiritual care exprim spiritul uman n substana i esena sa. Poezia
este o form esenial, paradigmatic, a libertii omului i a fiinrii. Pentru a redeveni ns
un mod de trire i afirmare a libertii, ea trebuie s treac printr-o metamorfoz
fundamental, s prseasc teritoriile sterile ale visrii lirice, cerul metafizic al conceptelor i
s coboare la sursele originare, puternice ale existenei, din care s-i trag sevele poetice, s
extrag cuvintele apte s exprime prin fora expresivitii lor genuine ideile, pulsul i ritmurile
frenetice ale vieii, spiritul vibrant i incandescent al renaterii i al viitorului: Pentru tine,
omul meu liber ca timpul, / voi asvrli cu pratia cuvintele cele mai pline, / voi rsuci
universul, ca pe-un compas / i punctele, care pe hart nseamn hotar, / am s le terg
dintre noi, ca pe un simplu popas.
Un alt poem al lui Corlaciu, Manifest liric (din volumul omonim, 1945), este un act de
protest la adresa unei lumi dezumanizate, guvernate de valori materiale, care doar mimeaz
valorile umane, o lume ipocrit, arogant i mediocr, pentru care omul i idealurile sale nu
valoreaz nimic. Este protestul i actul de sfidare al unui ins marginalizat, al unui vagabond
poetul nsui , care lanseaz acuzaii n cheia unei sumbre ironii i care propune ca soluie de
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supravieuire evadarea n alte spaii geografice, exotice, ndeprtate, la Cape Town sau
oriunde altundeva, departe de Europa, care i-a consumat rezervele de umanism. n preambul,
poetul explic lucrurile: Oamenii spun c Europa e centrul de / gravitaie al culturii. / Totui,
eu a pleca spre Cape-Town / sau, n cel mai grav caz, oriunde n / afara meridianelor acestui
continent. / De altfel oamenii sunt obinuii s se / cread fiecare-n parte buricul /
pmntului. / Aa c negreit realitatea trebuie s / fie cu totul alta. ntruct aceast evadare
nu este posibil (mai trziu va fi, cnd Cornaciu va cere azil politic n Frana, dar n alte
mprejurri existeniale), deocamdat, poetul opteaz pentru evaziunea ntr-o lume a fanteziei
i reveriei pe calea alcoolului, mult mai accesibil. Boema i ofer soluia de a rezista i de a
sfida realitatea imediat, o boem nvluit n aburi bahici, mediu al eliberrii din condiia
damnrii sociale i al atitudinii protestatare. Din acest spaiu vermicular, n care cei umili pot
supravieui i pot experimenta fericirea care altfel le este interzis, poetul viseaz la lumi mai
bune i i exercit critica social i moral asupra contemporanilor. Manifestul liric al
poetului devine astfel un manifest moral i existenial n care poemul se transform n act de
acuzare. Iat ce spune poetul: O sticl cu vin nc i nc una, / c venim dintre oameni ilutri
i bogai / care ne-au spus c nu meritm s fim dect dezbrcai / i crora le este totuna / c
dormim pe maidan, lng o cas / cu apte etaje i-o servitoare fnoas. // Astzi am gsit
nite bani / pe strad sau, dac vrei, i-am furat; / ns n-am s mnnc, fiindc scrie /
undeva c n-am voie, deoarece-s deocheat / i-mi place s m joc cu pduchi i igani. // Mai
adu, mai adu, mai adu, / i nu te uita c-am slbit ntr-att; / dac vrei, poi s m prinzi i de
gt / ori s m-arunci triumfal sub tejghea, / numai adu o sticl i bea, / ca i cum ai putea snelegi / de unde venim i plecm zile-ntregi.
Fronda, parodia, evaziunea i noile orizonturi ale poeziei
n poemul Grdina public (volumul Plantaii, 1945), Constant Tonegaru dezvolt o
perspectiv ironic, deconstructiv, asupra unei teme ancorate n banalul existenei i al
memoriei. Ironia constituie, de altfel, o marc stilistic a poetului, prezent, la diferite
intensiti, n majoritatea poeziilor. Dac la Geo Dumitrescu, ironia este deseori acid,
caustic, vitriolant, cu un grad sau mai multe de malignitate, la poetul Plantaiilor, aceasta
apare, n general, benign, amabil, complice, parcurs de un umor subtextual, aflat n spatele
imaginilor care se deruleaz pe pnza poeziei. Imaginea bacovian a fanfarei din grdina
public nu comport nostalgii ori reverii autumnale, ci este parcurs de un umor parodic, care
impregneaz n culorile ironiei ntregul tablou: n loc de sgeat pleca marul nr. 3; / prin
artere toreadorii treceau victorioi n trap / conveci i concavi fiindc se cnta fals, / ns
domnul cu decoraii aproba categoric din cap. De notat inclusiv stilul prozaic, administrativ,
de intendent aflat n permisie, n care poetul precizeaz piesele din repertoriul fanfarei
militare abordate n parc: marul nr. 3, cntecul nr. 4. Ecourile almurilor din memorie
declaneaz poetului, un fel de Bacovia tonic, lipsit de orice nclinaie spre melancolie i
depresie, un ntreg lan de amintiri, developate n secvene definitorii, care se succed
cinematografic pe fundalul romantic, dar de un romantism parodic, al peisajului ptruns de
toamn i de muzic. nainte de toate, un autoportret, de adolescent rebel i teribilist, pasionat
de scris, cu poz de scriitor spre impresionarea publicului, care vede lumea dintr-o
perspectiv ironic i umoristic: Toamna, printre pomii anemici trgeam la fit; / de
bunseam cndva se va fi zis: Uite, sta e Tonegaru, poet decadent; / scrie despre fantome,
constelaii i alte drcii / fr a se ti c la limba romn a rmas repetent. // Ignoram pe Iulius
Caesar, dar m interesa un erou mai recent: / schimbam juxtele pe un lexicon medical / s
cunosc date despre pensionarul afon cu decoraii / i am aflat se chema <impetigo> ciuperca
de pe chelia domnului general. n acest peisaj, cu muzici i frunze de toamn, spaiu desuet
al rtcirilor adolescentine i al frondei juvenile, elevele colii Normale se plimb romantice
i vistoare, n ipostaze ironizate complice de poetul care observ i comenteaz lumea din
jur: Normalistele se plimbau ca potrnichele n oruri cu picele; / scond melancolic
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batiste cu monogram rou din buzunar / discutau pe alei despre moartea lui Rudolf Valentino /
potrivind sandalele pe frunzele uscate de arar. Alte secvene se succed n filmul evocrii,
urmnd logica sentimental a memoriei, care combin imagini i frnturi de reflecii, pe
acelai fond al ironiei, dublate de o viziune umoristic asupra lucrurilor, ceea ce imprim un
caracter parodic rememorrii: Cntecul nr. 4 era chiar romantic; / Doamne, s fii tnr cu
douzeci de ani trebuie s mini... / i aminteti de candelabrul acetilenic din prefectur? / i
omul sandwich gsea momentul s fac reclam pentru pasta de dini. Evocarea, declanat
de contemplarea meditativ a unei vechi fotografii, i anihileaz potenialul nostalgic prin
ntoarcerea la derizoriul metamorfozelor timpului i destinului, accentuat n chip prozaic i
autoreferenial ntr-un tablou cu sugestii ludice i suprarealiste: coala Normal e acum
uzin de nasturi; / totui, dup cin am fost s caut negativul pozei din parc / sugeam atunci
bomboane cu miez elastic / i capelmaistru din pavilion se ndoia ca un arc.
Emblematic pentru opera lui Tonegaru, Plantaia de cuie, poemul care a inspirat titlul
volumului (simplificat n Plantaii, la sugestia lui Miron Radu Paraschivescu), ofer o
imagine semnificativ asupra poeticii acestui autor. Un poet interesant, care nu a lsat
literaturii romne dect un volum antum i altul postum (Steaua Venerii, 1969, editat de
Barbu Cioculescu), cu o poezie de o uimitoare modernitate i chiar postmodernitate. Poemul
este, n esena sa, un protest la adresa rzboiului, a cruzimii i absurditii acestuia, care face
din moarte o realitate generalizat, aproape indiferent. n nota specific autorului, dar cu
mijloace acutizate, tema este tratat cu ironie i sarcasm, ntr-o satir acid, ca un act de
acuzare, care se exprim ns mai mult parabolic dect direct i incriminator. n aceast
viziune a rzboiului, grozvii inimaginabile, secvene macabre, imagini ocante, momente de
un grotesc enorm se ntlnesc cu elemente de un negru i crud umor. Poetic vorbind, autorul
i dezvolt grotesca revelaie ntr-o abordare naturalist, cu instrumentele stilistice ale unui
expresionism extrem, dar i cu mijloacele pe care i le pune la dispoziie suprarealismul.
Planurile se amestec, experiena direct se ntreptrunde cu amintirea, tragismul este
subminat de un fond parodic, aproape ostentativ, elemente mitice, fantastice i stranii
coabiteaz cu realitatea, seriozitatea este dublat discret de ironie ntr-o compoziie
tonegarian complex, emblematic. Un aer subversiv i duplicitar traverseaz ntregul poem,
cu titlu ocant, de thriller hollywoodian. Impresia este c autorul nu poate lua nimic n serios,
la fel ca Geo Dumitrescu, pentru c, de altfel, nici nu-i propune o abordare grav, marial.
Iat un fragment: Caut acum pe domul caporal pe platou / rsufl, nu rsufl, a murit? /
Azi-mine, se face ora s dam atac la bastion. / Cnd m voi ntoarce, dac m voi ntoarce, /
n contra fricei n loc s descntai cu pr de lup / zpada prului meu s-o topii la chibrit. //
Mai demult pe coada pianului din salon / mpream soldaii de plumb n dou armate / i
topeam pe nvini la maina de spirt / lng oglinda cu ngeri dezolai deasupra apelor
colorate. // Spre tavan duhul odii, ntre broderii olandeze, / se ntrupa din ostaii de plumb
aruncai n scrumier; / de obicei venea tulburat din somnul de cenue / cu pleoapele
ntredeschise ct o butonier. // Ascultnd cu nepsare povestea Vasului Fantom / croiam din
hrtie nvingtorului o pelerin / iar heruvimii prseau demonstrativ n oglind de pe rama
rococo penele lor de stearin. Secvene crunte, de o cruzime fr margini, sunt tratate cu o
indiferen, aproape cu o senintate, din care nu lipsesc ironia, o anumit predispoziie spre
ludic, parodic i grotesc a autorului: La zece pai de mine domnul caporal / i clacsona
prelung pompa biliar / ce-i atrna din pntec, verde, afar, / patrula nimicit la asalt. // Se
liniti apoi pe spate ca-ntr-un stal / n glasul lui rupndu-se o stamb. / Pmntul i se urca sub
unghii / i braele svcneau vslitul unei gropi cu smoal. // Himera Scylla ni din ea /
fcnd escal cu ghiarele nfipte ntre ghimpi / pe Luna ca un ficat nsngerat / rmas acolo pe
reea. // Un lampagiu aprinse privirea fantasmei care rar / peste traneie lustruia stul pliscul
de metal. Revelaia poetului ia amploare n termenii unei viziuni suprarealiste, dominat de
prezena unui monstru mitologic, Scylla, prezen parabolic, apariie nefast care vine din
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Infern ca simbol al morii, n peisajul devastat de crimele abominabile ale rzboiului. Puternic
parabolic este i imaginea cuielor ngropate n lut ca un elogiu adus ceteanului
necunoscut, un elogiu ironic i necrutor la adresa absurdului care domin lumea,
transformat, din cauza propriilor neputine, n spaiu al crimei de dimensiuni planetare.
Cuiele ngropate formeaz, de altfel, imaginea central a acestui poem, reprezentativ pentru
poetica tonegarian, ca o promisiune nefast i ca o viziune a destinului celor care vor veni,
un destin de martiri ai unei cauze pierdute, victime ale unei lumi iraionale. Imaginea poate fi
extrapolat simbolic la nsi condiia uman, aflat sub auspiciile necunoscutului i ale
morii. Iat ultima secven a poemului: Privirea fantasmei Scylla lucea ca o lam de sabie /
clit i ciocnit pe nicoval. / Din orbite un ochi i sri ct o portocal / dar n loc s-o culeg
ngropam n lut / cuiele ce ridicau srma ghimpat pe pari / s rsar n alt decad, lungi, cu
vrfuri mari / pentru Ceteanul Necunoscut. // Prin groapa din care himera venise din adnc /
mruntaiele caporalului ncepur s cad / pe un arhipelag cu nou irozi / plecai clri la
vntoare cu este la oblnc. // Pn aici se auzeau trompetele cinegetice de la antipozi! / Pe
urm o rachet / ro-alb alt rachet slta pe nor; / Iat mi spuneam, ncepe cel mai mare
atac la baionet, / n sfrit, iat spuneam, e ceva s fii gladiator.
Noua poezie n cutarea noului canon
Poemele puse n discuie sunt emblematice pentru poetica generaiei rzboiului, n
materie de viziune i de opiune estetic. Unele au un caracter asumat programatic, altele
conin elemente semnificative care sugereaz formule i direcii de evoluie. Dincolo de
versurile care se refer explicit la poezie, la metamorfozele ei, puse sub necesitatea schimbrii
estetice, i la misiunea acesteia, poemele reprezentative, prin modurile estetice i stilistice n
care obiectiveaz ideea, constituie modele pentru ceea ce i propune s fie noua poezie. Ele
au, aa-zicnd, un caracter programatic intrinsec. Toate acestea contribuie la cristalizarea unui
nou mod de a privi poezia i de a face poezie. Ele indic drumul ctre un nou canon poetic.
Dac negarea canonului existent n epoc este un obiectiv asumat de militanii noii
poezii, despre un nou canon este nc prematur s vorbim. Totui, acesta tinde s prind
contur, treptat, n ritmul frenetic al contestrii, prin formele poetice propuse de tinerii autori i
printr-o serie de elemente constitutive eseniale. Ca tendin general, toi poeii generaiei
rzboiului pledeaz pentru re-umanizarea poeziei, prin ntoarcerea ei n realitatea existenei i
apropierea de via. Poezia, susin acetia, trebuie s fie precum viaa, i frumoas i urt, i
luminoas dar i ntunecat, i sublim dar i grotesc, s acopere prin metamorfozele i
capacitatea ei de cuprindere ntreaga diversitate a existenei. De aceea ei combat poezia
estetic din canonul modernist i estetismul n poezie i promoveaz o ideologie anti-estetic
i anti-estetizant, prozaismul, autenticitatea, modurile i formulele genuine ale comunicrii
poetice n deplin sincronie i sinergie cu viaa trepidant. Geo Dumitrescu este un
deschiztor de drumuri n mai multe direcii. Cu instrumentele spiritului critic, ironiei,
sarcasmului, parodiei, abordrii polemice, el contest, demitizeaz i destructureaz temele
mari ale poeziei, ntr-un demers desacralizant i deconstructiv. Iubirea, poezia, poetul, arta,
creaia, universul, istoria, eroismul, civilizaia, suferina, moartea intr n colimatorul poetului
i sunt ironizate, minimalizate, persiflate cu inteligen i aduse n dimensiunea terestr a
existenei din cerurile abstracte n care se izolaser spre falsificarea i dezumanizarea poeziei.
Ion Caraion este apologetul cntecelor negre, al poeziei negre i urte, poetul care face o
critic virulent a mentalitii i formelor literare din canon, care militeaz susinut pentru
desprirea de tradiie i pentru nnoirea spiritual i estetic a poeziei, ntr-o formul antiestetic, bazat, n esen, pe estetica urtului i pe expresionismul funciar al autorului.
Dimitrie Stelaru rmne n istoria literaturii ca un boem i ca un vagabond al poeziei. Din
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mediile promiscue ale vieuirii anarhice, viseaz la viitor i la omul nou, ntr-o reprezentare
christic, mesianic, prin care existena i poezia nsi sunt transfigurate i spiritualizate.
Mesianismul poetului traduce aspiraia ctre adevr i renatere spiritual, ctre un nou
nceput, ntr-un timp de criz a istoriei i de alienare a fiinei. Poezia constituie modul de
exprimare a acestor idei de un profund umanism, un medium ntre contingent i transcendent,
statut care pledeaz pentru misiunea nalt spiritual a acesteia. Un paria al poeziei, rtcitor
prin taverne, n stil villonesc, fascinat de Poe i Baudelaire, pe care i ia, de altfel, ca modele
existeniale, este Ben Corlaciu, care, n total antitez cu numele de botez, Benedict, devine
un damnat al vieii i al poeziei. Este i poz, cultivat asiduu de poet, dar i realitate. El
viseaz la omul liber i afirm, pe calea revoltei i a protestului, libertatea ca principiu
suprem al existenei umane. Libertatea i poezia formeaz un tot, o unitate primordial care
trebuie permanent refcut. Pentru a-i ctiga libertatea din spaiul constrngerii existeniale
i sociale, poetul practic boema ca peregrinare prin medii sordide, evaziunea n spaii utopice
pe calea fanteziei, alimentat de aburii etilici. Tonegaru ofer, prin poezia sa, o experien
literar complex, care asimileaz formulele, experimentele, tendinele poetice ale celorlali.
Poezia sa, aa cum s-a observat (Simion, Manolescu), poate fi considerat, cel puin sub unele
aspecte, o summa estetic a celorlalte experiene poetice. Ironia, fronda, parodia, satira,
umorul, boema, fantezia, evaziunea n spaii exotice sunt mijloace poetice care fac din
versurile lui Tonegaru o poezie cu propria identitate, de o uimitoare modernitate i actualitate.
Procesul de nnoire a poeziei este, de-a lungul deceniului cinci, nc la nceput. El
deschide drumul ctre noul canon, dup contestarea asidu a celui modernist, considerat
anacronic n raport cu ritmurile i aspiraiile timpului. Dar drumul este curnd ntrerupt de
involuiile pe plan istoric. Va fi reluat dou decenii mai trziu prin generaia aizecist, cu
pierderile, cu regsirile i redescoperirile inerente.
*Aceast lucrare a fost realizat n cadrul proiectului Cultura romn i modele
culturale europene: cercetare, sincronizare, durabilitate, cofinanat de Uniunea
European i Guvernul Romniei din Fondul Social European prin Programul
Operaional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007-2013, contractul de finanare
nr. POSDRU/159/1.5/S/136077.
Bibliografie critic
Clinescu, Matei, Conceptul modern de poezie, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1972
Cristea, Valeriu, Domeniul criticii, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1975
Cristea, Valeriu, A scrie, a citi, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1992
Cristea, Valeriu, Criza culturii, Caiete critice, nr. 3, 1993
Iorgulescu, Mircea, Al doilea rond, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1976
Iorgulescu, Mircea, Critic i angajare, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1981
Ivan, Sorin, Opera poetic a lui Ion Caraion, Editura Universitar, Bucureti, 2014
Ivan, Sorin, A Tragic Poet of the East, sterreichisch-Rumnischer Akademischer
Verein, Wien, 2014
Manolescu, Nicolae, Despre poezie, Editura Aula, Braov, 2002
Manolescu, Nicolae, Istoria critic a literaturii romne, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti,
2008
76
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Manu, Emil, Eseu despre generaia rzboiului, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti,
1978
Manu, Emil, Sinteze i antisinteze literare, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1975
Manu, Emil, Istoria poeziei romneti moderne i moderniste, Editura Curtea Veche,
Bucureti, 2004
Micu, Dumitru, Istoria literaturii romne de la creaia popular la postmodernism,
Editura Saeculum I.O., Bucureti, 2000
Mincu, Marin, O panoram critic a poeziei romneti din secolul al XX-lea, Pontica,
2007
Negoiescu, Ion, nsemnri critice, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1970
Negoiescu, Ion, Analize i sinteze, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1976
Negoiescu, Ion, Scriitori contemporani, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1994
Petroveanu, Mihail, Traiectorii lirice, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1974
Piru, Alexandru, Panorama deceniului literar romnesc 1940-1950, Editura pentru
Literatur, Bucureti, 1968
Piru, Alexandru, Poezia romneasc contemporan, I, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti,
1975
Pop, Ion, Pagini transparente. Lecturi din poezia romn contemporan, Editura
Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1997
Popa, Marian, Dicionar de literatur romn contemporan, ediia a II-a, Editura
Albatros, Bucureti, 1977
Popa, Marian, Istoria literaturii romne de azi pe mine, Fundaia Luceafrul,
Bucureti, 2001
Simion, Eugen, Scriitori romni de azi, I, Ediia I, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1974,
Ediia a II-a revzut i completat, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1978
Simion, Eugen, Prefa la volumul Geo Dumitrescu: A putea s art cum crete
iarba, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1989
Simion, Eugen, Fragmente critice, Editura Scrisul Romnesc, Craiova, 1997-2000
Steinhardt, Nicolae, ntre via i cri, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1976
Streinu, Vladimir, Poezie i poei romni, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1983
tefnescu, Alex., Istoria literaturii romne contemporane (1941-2000), Editura
Maina de scris, Bucureti, 2005
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Abstract: Echo effects link Emil Ciorans aphorisms and Georges Perecs novel A Man
Asleep. How can they be explained from a literary point of view, knowing that Cioran hardly
liked the contemporary novel, that Perec on the other hand did not especially like artful
writings and that, finally, both authors ignored each other?
The author of this article analyses some aspects of this case of resemblance without
influence the expression of boredom, of melancholy, of indifference, of inaction, the
relations to time and to oneself and concludes that both writers, independently from each
other, use the same compositional technique based on the theory of rhetoric topoi and the
same thematic repertoire. The melancholic tribulations of the Perequian hero point to the
Cioranian intertext and vice versa. One could not explain this specular effect in a coherent
way without relying on an enlarged theory of intertextuality.
Keywords: Emil Cioran, Georges Perec, insomnia, melancholy, acedia, intertext, rhetoric
topo
Tout semble enfermer les uvres dEmil Cioran et de Georges Perec dans des univers
destins rester jamais clturs, trangers lun lautre. Et pourtant, plus dun trait unit les
destines de leurs auteurs et maintes affinits leurs uvres. Tel est le cas entre maintes sries
daphorismes dEmil Cioran et le roman Un homme qui dort (1967) de Georges Perec. Si le
parallle semble asymtrique, cela sexplique, dun ct par le dynamisme de la qute
formelle perequienne oppose la dmarche cyclique de lcriture cioranienne spcifique de
lcriture aphoristique.
Ce que les deux auteurs partagent, dun point de vue humain, cest avant tout une
fracture avec des retombes dcisives sur leurs volutions respectives : celle de la Seconde
Guerre mondiale, avec tout le cortge de malheurs qui le prcde et quil trane sa suite.
Cette exprience demeure meurtrissure vive, souvenir cuisant, marque indlbile dans
lcriture de tous deux. Elle divise leurs vies en un avant et un aprs avec des implications
existentielles et morales : pertes, renonciations, chute. Elle va dterminer spcialement, dans
sa deuxime phase, une dmarche de reconstruction personnelle o lcriture et les
problmes de langage jouent un rle central tant chez Perec que chez Cioran. Le champ de
proccupations de Cioran aprs la guerre est totalement tranger aux volutions dans la sphre
du roman. Le roman Un homme qui dort (1967) reprsente la zone de recoupement des deux
uvres. On peut reprer de nombreuses passerelles entre ce roman et les aphorismes de
Cioran. Dans ce qui suit, nous nous proposons de disposer quelques considrations autour de
ce phnomne de ressemblance qui ne doit rien ni lappartenance des deux auteurs un
mme courant ou mouvement esthtique ou idologique, ni la pratique dun mme genre
littraire, ni une quelconque relation de filiation ou dinfluence. Comparons en guise
dexemple ce fragment de Sur les cimes du dsespoir
il s'agit l d'un puisement qui vous consume et vous dtruit. Aucun effort, aucune
esprance, aucune illusion ne vous sduira plus dsormais. Demeurer abasourdi par sa propre
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SECTION: LITERATURE
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catastrophe, incapable de penser ou d'agir, cras par des tnbres glaciales, dsorient
comme sous l'emprise de quelque chose hallucination nocturne ou abandonn comme dans les
moments de remords, c'est atteindre la limite ngative de la vie, la temprature extrme qui
anantira la toute dernire illusion.1
cet extrait dUn homme qui dort :
quelque chose se cassait, quelque chose s'est cass. Tu ne te sens plus comment
dire ? soutenu: quelque chose qui, te semblait-il, qui, te semble-t-il, t'a jusqu'alors
rconfort, t'a tenu chaud au cur, le sentiment de ton existence, de ton importance presque,
l'impression d'adhrer, de baigner dans le monde, se met te faire dfaut.2
Dune manire ou dune autre, les deux textes prsentent les deux faces dun mme
tat de mlancolie. Un homme qui dort est un roman dune facture particulire : quoiqu'il n'en
prsente gure les traits attendus, il comporte un lment d'intrigue (la survenue dun malaise
moral), une volution graduelle, un dnouement dont les causes demeurent inconnues. Entre
les points extrmes et en quelque sorte immotivs, laventure est mince : une suite dallers et
de retours, d'errances sans but, dactes ordinaires, de perceptions subjectives, relats la
deuxime personne du singulier. Sont dcrits ainsi un ensemble d'instants dont la succession
ne s'organise gure en une srie ordonne d'actions obissant aux tapes obliges d'un rcit
lmentaire. Ces fragments sont disposs selon une chronologie faible, relative, incertaine,
sans lien causal et clos sur eux-mmes. Un homme qui dort opre une dstructuration de la
cohrence propre la forme romanesque traditionnelle et un rapprochement de l'criture
fragmentaire. L'effet d'volution du personnage d'un tat initial caractris par la volont de
solitude vers un tat final tmoignant d'un retour l'quilibre moral se produit par
l'effacement de certains thmes et le retour ou lintervention dautres, petit petit. Le lecteur a
ds le dbut l'intuition d'une composition musicale avec thme et variations :
Tu tranes dans les rues, tu entres dans un cinma ; tu tranes dans les rues, tu entres
dans un caf ; tu tranes dans les rues, tu regardes la Seine, les boucheries, les trains, les
affiches, les gens. Tu tranes dans les rues, tu entres dans un cinma o tu vois un film qui
ressemble celui que tu viens de voir [] Tu sors, tu tranes dans les rues trop claires. Tu
remontes dans ta chambre, tu te dshabilles, tu te glisses dans les draps, tu teins la lumire,
tu fermes les yeux.3
La composition dUn homme qui dort repose sur une stratgie de saturation
thmatique : lauteur se propose de mettre en texte les divers tats traverss par le personnage
et sous-tendus par le concept de mlancolie. Pour ce faire, Perec commence par la mise en
place dune base de donnes intertextuelle : une cinquantaine4 de citations extraites dune
trentaine dauteurs et de livres quil utilise comme matriau soit sous la forme de la citation
avec guillemets et indication de nom (celle de Kafka, en exergue, par exemple), soit sous
celle, plus ludique, plus fine, plus ambigu de lallusion5. La pratique citationnelle et allusive
est une donne de base dans la construction dUn homme qui dort. Lintertexte perequien vise
en premier lieu des auteurs tels M. Blanchot (L'attente, l'oubli), M. Butor (La modification),
E. M. Cioran : uvres. Paris : Gallimard Quarto , 1995, Vol. I, p. 26.
Georges Perec : Un homme qui dort. Texte intgral, dossier. Paris: Gallimard, Folio plus, 1998 (Denol, 1967), p. 22.
3
Georges Perec : Un homme qui dort. Op. cit., p. 104-105.
4
Dans une lettre de Perec sa femme figurent sept citations dont une de Dante et une de Kafka et, dans une autre, Perec explique la faon
dont il compte s'y prendre pour organiser la matire du rcit, transcrit l'anthologie dont il entend se servir ( une bien belle chose ), et lui
propose en guise d'exemple le fragment de Moby Dick qui figure, transform, la fin de la version dfinitive. Voir Hans Hartje : Un
homme qui dort : le lu et le tu . In : Yvonne Goga (dir.) : Actes du Colloque International Georges Perec. Cluj-Napoca : Editions Dacia,
1997, p. 82.
5
A son traducteur allemand, E. Helml, Georges Perec crivait : J'ai en effet appel mon secours, mais souvent en les dformant une
bonne demi-douzaine d'auteurs, parmi lesquels Kafka, Melville, Dante, Joyce, etc. le plus miraculeux tant que cela ne se remarque pas.
Lettre de Georges Perec Eugen Helml cite par D. Bellos in : David Bellos : Georges Perec ; une vie dans les mots. Seuil, coll.
Biographie, 1994, p. 382.
1
2
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A. Camus (L'Etranger), L.-F. Cline (Voyage au bout de la nuit), Dante (La Divine comdie,
chant XVII), R. Descartes (Mditations philosophiques, Mditation III, Sur l'existence de
Dieu), F. Kafka (Journal, Le Procs, Mditations sur le pch, la souffrance, l'espoir et le
droit chemin), A. de Lamartine (Mditations potiques, Le Vallon ), J. M. G. Le Clzio (Le
Procs verbal), H. Melville (Bartleby the Scrivener, Moby Dick), M. Proust (A le recherche
du temps perdu), A. Rimbaud (Le bateau ivre), A. de Saint-Exupry (Vol de nuit), J. - P.
Sartre (La Nause, Erostrate, nouvelle dans Le Mur)6, etc. Dans maints cas, les lieux cits
renvoient eux-mmes plusieurs sources ou contiennent des allusions intertextuelles
enchsses. Les allusions, non signales7 vont jusqu'aux paraphrases de plus en plus
lointaines, et jusqu'aux lieux communs de la doxa : clichs de la langue de tous les jours,
proverbes et expressions figes, lieux communs et strotypes de pense, reprsentations
schmatiques, modes de pense devenus des manires de dire, bribes de mythologie moderne
la manire de Barthes, allusions aux croyances, lgendes et exemples littraires, etc. Un
intertexte plus lointain, plus diffus peut tre repr dans les allusions au Faust, aux thmes du
romantisme allemand (Empdocle, etc.), D. Defoe, aux lieux communs de la culture
renaissante et classique, etc. La dmarche intertextuelle de Perec consiste essentiellement
dans la rcriture fragmentaire de scnes connues (contemplation de l'arbre dans le chapitre
IV, qui renvoie la Nause de Sartre, le rsum de Bartleby the Scrivener, etc.), dans la
reprise quasi littrale de vers ou de phrases d'anthologies scolaires (Lamartine, Saint-Exupry,
Apollinaire, etc.), dans la transcription plus ou moins fidle de certains fragments dauteurs
prfrs (Melville, Kafka, etc.), enfin dans d'incessants renvois hors-texte, ironiques ou non,
poss ou catgoriquement rfuts. Cette dmarche de Perec peut tre dcrite comme un
passage en revue de la thmatique de la solitude, une visite des lieux rhtoriques de la
solitude tels quils ont t illustrs dans la littrature franaise et universelle. Ce parcours est
destin fournir au tu les arguments pour lutter contre sa tendance se reprsenter son
histoire sous un jour tragique, s'identifier avec des hros marginaux ou maudits. Perec dcrit
sa dmarche intertextuelle comme un parcours reliant les fragments repris aux auteurs
prfrs :
[] pour Un homme qui dort, la lecture outrance, enfin, pendant des semaines et des
semaines, d'une nouvelle de Melville qui s'appelle Bartleby the Scrivener et des Mditations
sur le pch, la souffrance et le vrai chemin de Kafka, enfin, du Journal intime de Kafka, m'a
conduit presque ncessairement [] au livre que j'ai produit. Si vous voulez, je peux dcrire
mon criture comme une espce de parcours.8
Perec utilisera cette matire trangre comme une sorte de paradigme narratif,
susceptible dannihiler ou dinverser la direction d'action des forces centrifuges de la citation.
Un homme qui dort est un collage dont les lments fondent et ressuscitent les uns dans les
autres, comme dans la musique, tel point que leur combinaison semble spontane. Cette
description structurale du roman perequien met en vidence certaines procdures que lon
retrouve galement dans la composition des recueils daphorismes cioraniens, commencer
par leur caractre intertextuel: Cioran crit en raction immdiate une autre criture, sa
motivation est toujours contigu. Parfois, il traduit la citation, et celle-ci apparat comme
lment de rebondissement. L'criture cioranienne se prsente comme mosaque de citations,
comme des fragments contenant dautres fragments, enchsss, la discontinuit qui en rsulte
D. Bellos indique galement comme sources supposes: Itzhak Leibush Peretz, Bontcha the silent et une autre nouvelle de Kafka: Das
Schweigen der Sirenen.
7
Sont voqus ou alluds en outre de nombreux autres auteurs : R. Aron, Apollinaire, R. Barthes, Ch. Baudelaire, A. Breton, L.-F. Cline,
Dante, D. Diderot, F. Dostoevski, J. Joyce, G. Flaubert, A. de Lamartine, M. Lawry, J. Prvert, R. Queneau, A. Rimbaud, Th. Mann, A. de
Saint-Exupry, Sophocle, etc.
8
Georges Perec : Pouvoirs et limites du romancier franais contemporain . In : Parcours Perec. Colloque de Londres, Mars 1988. Textes
runis par Mireille Ribire, Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 1990, p. 36.
6
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SECTION: LITERATURE
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tant l'un des traits majeurs du fragmentaire cioranien. Le lecteur est renvoy dun texte
lautre qui est inscrit dans le premier, il doit reprer la trace du fragment dans le fragment et
l'interprter. Cioran s'efface derrire le rappel d'un vnement, d'un personnage historique ou
dun propos, cit ou allud. Lessentiel de sa potique consiste transformer et transposer
ces bribes venues d'ailleurs, condition de l'criture gnomique. Cette criture qui cache de
nombreux intertextes concerne souvent lexpression dune exprience vcue, dune
conscience malheureuse, lobjectivation potique dtats psychologiques dun homme en train
de traverser une crise existentielle. Chez Cioran, ldifice mtaphorique est fait dhypotextes
bibliques ou philosophiques, historiques ou potiques. Ecriture lyrique, confession sans
commencement ni fin, cette mditation amre sur lexistence a des racines intertextuelles et le
lecteur doit avoir recours la mmoire culturelle pour en matriser la porte : For Cioran the
aphoristic style is less a principle of reality than a principle of knowing: that its the destiny of
every profound idea to be quickly checkmated by another idea, which it itself has implicitly
generated.9 A lcrivain choit le rle du rapporteur et du commentateur de la parole de
lautre. Rien ntant tent pour unifier ces fragments, ils laissent limpression de textes
bricols , de patchwork intertextuel. Comme Valry et vraisemblablement pour des
raisons similaires, Cioran se mfie du roman, tant sous sa forme traditionnelle que du roman
contemporain : Figurez-vous un roman o les personnages ne vivraient plus en fonction les
uns des autres, ni deux-mmes, un Adolphe, un Ivan Karamazov ou un Swann sans
partenaires : vous comprendrez que les jours du roman sont compts et que, sil sobstine
durer, il devra se satisfaire dune carrire de cadavre10. La critique cioranienne du roman nest
finalement fausse que sur un point, mais de taille : celui prcisment que le roman a su faire
de sa propre inanit, de ses propres impuissances la matire mme du roman ; que le roman
survit sa propre fin, comme lhistoire continue par-del la fin de lHistoire. Lcriture
fragmentaire constitue, pour Cioran, un dpassement du roman11, voire de la littrature.
Prcisment, Un homme qui dort ne prsente gure malgr la mention qui laccompagnait
lors de sa publication les caractristiques du roman traditionnel. Ecriture du constat []
en touches plates que ne suture aucune coordination , comme le prsente Claude Burgelin12,
mise en srie dtats instantans sans situation, il est tonnamment proche du recueil
cioranien. En effet, l o Cioran dispose dans la successivit de lcriture un discours sur les
hypostases situationnelles dun on anonyme (qui peut scrire comme un nous, un je
ou un il/s), o chacun peut se reconnatre, le tu perequien de son ct se fait dire, par un
je simplement grammatical, les tourments successifs dune sorte de chute hors du temps.
Dans les deux cas mais de manire spcifique, la stratgie dcriture consiste dans un
dploiement de topo communs que nous appelons, avec le mot de Perec, qui est galement
celui des rhtoriciens latins, lieux. Il est ici question des lieux de la mlancolie.
Comparons encore les deux textes suivants :
C. me parle d'un sjour Londres, o, dans une chambre d'htel, pendant tout un mois,
il est rest immobile face au mur. Ce fut pour lui un bonheur rare qu'il et souhait sans
terme. Je lui cite une exprience analogue, celle du missionnaire bouddhiste Bodhidharma,
qui, elle, avait dur neuf ans... Comme je jalouse sa prouesse, dont il ne tire aucun orgueil, je
lui dis que si mme elle demeurait son unique exploit, elle devrait encore le rehausser ses
propres yeux et l'aider surmonter les crises de prostration dont il ne sait comment sortir.13
Susan Sontag: Thinking Against Oneself: Reflections on Cioran . In: http://emcioranbr.wordpress.com/fortuna-critica/thinkingagainst-oneself/ consult le 11.11.2014.
10
E. M. Cioran : La tentation dexister. Oeuvres, Op. cit., p. 910.
11
Entretien avec Sylvie Jaudeau. E. M. Cioran : Oeuvres, Op. Cit. p. 1751 : Le fragment, seul genre compatible avec mes humeurs, est
lorgueil dun instant transfigur, avec toutes les contradictions qui en dcoulent. Un ouvrage de longue haleine, soumis aux exigences dune
construction, fauss par lobsession de la continuit, est trop cohrent pour tre vrai.
12
C. Burgelin : Georges Perec. Paris : Le Seuil, 1990, p. 71.
13
E. M. Cioran : Ecartlement. In : Oeuvres, Op. cit. p. 1444-1445.
9
81
SECTION: LITERATURE
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14
82
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clairvoyance suprme, que l'on ne peut, que l'on ne doit rien faire en ce monde ni dans l'autre,
que rien n'existe au monde qui puisse nous convenir ou nous satisfaire.17
Le tu perequien partage cette exprience radicale de l'ennui qui se traduit par le
sentiment de la vacuit de toute chose et de l'inutilit de toute action :
seule compte ta solitude: quoi que tu fasses, o que tu ailles, tout ce que tu vois n'a pas
d'importance, out ce que tu fais est vain, tout ce que tu cherches est faux. Seule existe la
solitude, que tt ou tard, chaque fois, tu retrouveras en face de toi, amicale ou dsastreuse;
chaque fois, tu demeures seul, sans secours, en face d'elle, dmont ou hagard, dsespr ou
impatient.18
Cioran dcrit l'ennui comme une sorte de dmantlement de l'tre sous l'effet
destructeur du temps ds lors qu'il n'est plus envisag que comme une suite d'instants
dconnects les uns des autres :
La mlancolie est une sorte d'ennui raffin, le sentiment qu'on n'appartient pas ce
monde. Pour un mlancolique, l'expression nos semblables n'a aucun sens. C'est une
sensation d'exil irrmdiable, sans causes immdiates. La mlancolie est un sentiment
profondment autonome, aussi indpendant de l'chec que des grandes russites
personnelles.19
La mlancolie est lie lennui et linsomnie. L'insomniaque est exclu, retranch des
vivants, en dehors de l'humanit. Le monde humain devient aprs une nuit d'insomnie un
monde de spectres. Cioran y voit la cause principale des suicides. L'insomnie a pour effet une
lassitude qui s'ajoute une grande fatigue de vivre : Mais cette atroce matresse des jours et
des nuits lui est aussi, ajoute-t-il, la plus grande exprience qu'on puisse faire dans sa vie.
C'est la plus terrible, toutes les autres ne sont rien ct. C'est l'insomnie aussi qu'il doit
d'avoir form son regard sur le monde, davoir compris des choses que les autres ne peuvent
pas comprendre :
Le phnomne capital, le dsastre par excellence est la veille ininterrompue, ce nant
sans trve. Pendant des heures et des heures je me promenais la nuit dans des rues vides ou,
parfois, dans celles que hantaient des solitaires professionnelles, compagnes idales dans les
instants de suprme dsarroi. Linsomnie est une lucidit vertigineuse qui convertirait le
paradis en un lieu de torture. Tout est prfrable cet veil permanent, cette absence
criminelle de loubli. Cest pendant ces nuits infernales que j'ai compris l'inanit de la
philosophie. 20
Le monde humain devient aprs une nuit d'insomnie un monde peupl de monstres.
Cioran y voit une exprience du Nant. Le hros perequien vit lui aussi le calvaire muet de la
vie nocturne :
Maintenant tu te relves la nuit. Tu trines dans les rues, tu vas te jucher sur les
tabourets des bars [], ou tasseoir au Franco-Suisse, dans la rue Saint-Honor, presque en
face de ta chambre, ou tattabler dans un caf des Halles, et tu restes l, pendant des heures,
jusqu la fin, en face dune bire ou dun caf noir ou dun verre de vin rouge. Tu regardes
les autres aller, venir, les commis de boucherie, les fleuristes, les crieurs de journaux, les
bandes de ftards, les solots solitaires, les filles.21
Il dcouvre la laideur du monde, jusqu la nause :
Ennui (Fragment dun Entretien avec Fernando Savater). In : E. M. Cioran : uvres. Op. cit., p. 1748.
Georges Perec : Un homme qui dort. Op. cit., p. 110.
19
E. M. Cioran : uvres. Op. Cit., p. 1759.
20
Prface Sur les cimes du dsespoir. In : uvres, Op. Cit., p. 17.
21
Georges Perec : Un homme qui dort. Op. cit., p. 106.
17
18
83
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Ville putride, ville ignoble, hideuse. Ville triste, lumires tristes dans les rues tristes,
clowns tristes dans les music-halls tristes []. Des gares noires, des casernes, des hangars.
Les brasseries sinistres qui se succdent le long des grands boulevards, les devantures
horribles. Ville bruyante ou dserte, livide ou hystrique, ville ventre, saccage, macule,
ville hrisse dinterdits, de barreaux, de grillages, de serrures. La ville-charnier : les halles
pourries, les bidonvilles dguiss en grands ensembles, la zone au cur de Paris,
linsupportable horreur des boulevards flics, Hausmann, Magenta ; Charonne.22
Le tu perequien est le visage contemporain de la mlancolie. Lauteur y touche des
tats que nous vivons. Le hros perequien vite le suicide, et mme la sagesse, exigs par la
philosophie cioranienne. Pour lui, cest une exprience qui napporte rien, qui ne mne rien,
inutile. Un tat de tristesse qui paralyse lamour de soi et dautrui et quexpriment les
comparaisons et mtaphores animalires :
Les monstres sont entrs dans ta vie, les rats, tes semblables, tes frres. Les dizaines,
les centaines, les milliers de monstres. Tu les repres, tu les reconnais dimperceptibles
signes, leurs silences, leurs dparts furtifs, leur regard flottant, vacillant, effray, qui se
dtourne quand il croise le tien. La lumire brille encore au milieu de la nuit aux fentres
mansardes de leurs chambres sordides. Leurs pas rsonnent dans la nuit.23
Le dgot du contact avec les autres, la nause, le mpris de soi et des autres exclus,
parias, bannis, exils , les aspects dgotants de la vie quotidienne qui nient en nous toute
divinit et font de nous les prisonniers du rel brut, tout entre dans ce sentiment. Cet tat
saccommode parfaitement de linsomnie, de la nuit, en inversant les cycles naturels :
Dans la tranquillit de la contemplation, lorsque pse sur vous le poids de l'ternit,
lorsque vous entendez le tic-tac d'une horloge ou le battement des secondes; comment ne pas
ressentir l'inanit de la progression dans le temps et le non sens du devenir ? A quoi bon aller
plus loin, quoi bon continuer ? La rvlation subite du temps, lui confrant une crasante
prminence qu'il n'a pas d'ordinaire, est le fruit d'un dgot de la vie et de l'incapacit
poursuivre la mme comdie. Lorsque cette rvlation se produit la nuit, l'absurdit des
heures qui passent se double d'une sensation de solitude anantissante, car l'cart du
monde et des hommes vous vous retrouverez seuls face au temps, dans un irrductible
rapport de dualit.24
Il peut galement saccompagner dun certain activisme, notamment la marche pied :
Flneur minutieux, nyctobate accompli, ectoplasme quun drap flottant ferait tort
passer pour un fantme qui neffraierait mme pas les petits enfants. Marcheur infatigable, tu
traverses Paris de part en part, chaque soir, mergeant du trou noir de ta chambre, de tes
escaliers pourris, de ta cour silencieuse ; au-del des grandes zones de lumire et de bruit :25
Mais lindiffrence tout le dfinit le mieux : lquivalence de tous les actes, leur
caractre automatique, leur nullit. Ecoutons la voix blanche qui raconte les mtamorphoses
du tu perequien :
Tu marches ou tu ne marches pas. Tu dors ou tu ne dors pas. Tu descends tes six
tages, tu les remontes. Tu achtes Le Monde ou tu ne l'achtes pas. Tu manges ou tu ne
manges pas. Tu t'assieds, tu t'tends, tu restes debout, tu te glisses dans la salle obscure d'un
cinma. Tu allumes une cigarette. Tu traverses la rue, tu traverses la Seine, tu t'arrtes, tu
repars. Tu joues au billard lectrique ou tu n'y joues pas.26
22
Ibid., p. 115.
Ibid., p. 110-111.
24
E. M. Cioran : uvres. Op. Cit., p. 101-102.
25
Georges Perec : Un homme qui dort. Op. cit., p. 90-91.
26
Ibid., p. 86.
23
84
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85
SECTION: LITERATURE
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contrainte formelle ne peut tre que celui des lieux rhtoriques, le seul susceptible de
garantir la cohrence thmatique et la cohsion interne du systme. En la promouvant au rang
de principe architectural dUn homme qui dort, Perec passe la mise en uvre d'une criture
intertextuelle en choisissant les lieux convenables pour la trame de son rcit. Le procd
consiste disposer autour d'un thme central des noncs dcrivant les divers aspects et
nuances du thme central. L'crivain est libre de les relier entre eux et de les narrativiser,
comme fait Perec, ou de les laisser, une fois reformuls, rcrits, surenchris, flotter sur le
blanc de la page comme autant de fragments indpendants (en fait, ils ne le sont jamais dans
la mesure o ils restent amarrs au thme central). L'originalit de Cioran consiste dans le
fait que ces noncs sont le plus souvent des arguments reposant sur des raisonnements,
c'est--dire des enthymmes ou, avec un autre mot, des syllogismes. Mais dans la rhtorique
traditionnelle, les syllogismes puisaient des catgories gnrales ou lieux, (loci
inventionis). La description laide des topo participe ainsi d'une criture de l'investissement,
de l'exhaustion et du ressassement. Lemploi manipulatoire du lieu commun comme matire
littraire indispensable y est central. La thmatique choisie suite la frquentation des
historiens, des penseurs et des moralistes amnent Cioran dvelopper une topique dj
formalise depuis lAntiquit (phrasologie, clichs verbaux, strotypes de pense et de
langage, etc.). Ces thmes ont travers lhistoire culturelle de lOccident et Cioran ne se fait
pas faute dy puiser volont. Nous pensons ici les topo dans les termes dE. R. Curtius33,
premier prendre en considration srieusement les lieux communs littraires. Depuis
Isocrate, la formation des rhteurs se fonde sur la frquentation des textes anciens quon lit,
commente, mmorise, paraphrase, dveloppe, enfin, imite. Dans les coles romaines de
rhtorique (Cicron, Quintilien, etc.) on considre les loci comme sedes argumentorum lieux
de rsidence o des possibilits d'argumentation attendent d'tre dcouvertes. Ce type
d'enseignement se poursuit pendant tout le Moyen Age. Les Topiques d'Aristote sont entrs
dans les programmes universitaires dans le sillage de la Logica nova partir du XIIIe. L'tude
des lieux tait assigne la logique. Il se retrouve la Renaissance dans les coles des
humanistes et, plus tard, dans les humanits des lyces qui accordent aux textes classiques
latins et grecs la place d'honneur. Tous les hommes de lettres taient initis cette rhtorique
btie sur les lieuxet rglaient leurs crits sur ses procds. La production de textes consiste
imiter, copier ou combiner dautres textes ou les traits que l'on pouvait en dduire en
conformit avec les exigences d'un genre. Tout cart se limitait la variatio, un changement
la surface du texte. L'auteur pouvait se permettre l'aemulatio (rivaliser avec le modle) et la
contaminatio (imitation simultane de plusieurs modles). A lpoque mdivale et celle de
la Renaissance, on utilisait ou crait en vue dutilisation ultrieure des recueils de lieux
communs, d'habitude en latin, tires d'auteurs jugs faire autorit et tenus pour exemplaires
quant l'usage de la langue et au raffinement du style. Les lieux taient mthodiquement
organiss par entres, regroups sous des rubriques, dont le sujet tait la vie morale de
l'homme en tant qu'individu et en tant qu'tre social. Ces recueils taient rvlateurs des
structures mentales des gens duque en Europe occidentale. Les grands humanistes en
conoivent : Lulle, avant tous, avec son systme combinatoire qui jouit du plus grand prestige
pendant un sicle, mais aussi bien Thodor Zwinger, Mlanchton. Erasme en conoit un avec
des entres telles pietas, fides, beneficientia, ainsi que leurs opposs et la thmatique associe.
Les topo les plus frquents taient Divitiae, Pauperitas, Munerum corruptela, Forma,
Deformitas, Taedium et iteratione, Iteratio citra taedium, Molesti intolerabiles, Garrulitas,
Breviloquentia, Clamosus, Rixosus, Taciturnitas, Facundia, Abstinentia, Adulatio, Affectum
moderatio, Ambitio, Amicitia, Amor dei, etc. Au XVIIe sicle, on commence sen lasser,
preuve la Logique de Port-Royal ou la Rhtorique ou l'art de parler de Bernard Lamy (1675).
33
E. R. Curtius : La littrature europenne et le Moyen ge latin. Berne, 1948 (trad. fr. 1956).
86
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Celui-ci qui prend dj une attitude critique envers la pratique des lieux moyens courts et
faciles imagins par des individus incomptents pour trouver de la matire de discourir
mme sur les sujets qui leur sont entirement inconnus . Les lieux rhtoriques et
dialectiques fonctionnent comme des mcanismes qui permettent d'toffer le discours en
faisant rfrence aux conjoints, antcdents et consquents, ainsi qu' d'autres notions par
association, filiation et affinit fondes sur la proximit du sens. Les recueils de lieux
communs formaient le systme principal sur lequel s'appuyait la pdagogie humaniste. Il tait
demand aux coliers de se constituer des recueils de lieux communs et de rassembler des
extraits de leurs lectures sous les rubriques appropries. Quand ils en venaient rdiger leurs
propres compositions, on les encourageait puiser dans les ressources de leurs recueils de
lieux communs, en tirer des citations ou tout matriau illustratif de mme qu' reproduire les
catgories de pense que refltaient les rubriques. Ces exercices formaient chez les enfants
des acquis mentaux et des habitudes de lecture et d'criture qui ont marqu la culture lettre
de l'Europe pendant une trs longue priode. Les recueils de lieux fonctionnaient comme
une mmoire o taient emmagasines des citations que l'on pouvait activer pour dire
l'exprience prsente dans le langage de paradigmes moraux familiers et en rfrence une
histoire culturelle commune ceux qui crivaient et leurs lecteurs. Agenc par isotopies,
ils fournissaient des extraits tirs de sources revtues du degr ncessaire d'autorit pour
tayer leur argumentation ou leur point de vue . De nos jours, ce type de recueils est pass
de mode, mais la citation garde toujours la fonction conservatrice de matriser l'exprience
prsente et de la mettre en perspective. Conus au dpart comme des formes gnrales du
raisonnement et intgrs l'inventio, les topo sont plus quune mthode de raisonnement : la
totalit des topo constituent un prcis de philosophie, une sorte de Weltanschauung. Cest
sur ce terrain que se rencontrent et se recoupent, les uvres de Cioran et de Perec dans les
conditions o, dans les annes 60 du sicle pass, la discussion sur les lieux rhtoriques tait
actuelle preuve les ouvrages dE. R. Curtius, de Joachim Dyck, etc.
Le type de dmarche que nous proposons ici est trangre lanalyse des influences.
Partant de similitudes et daffinits dont nous esprons avoir dmontr la ralit force
dexemples et de mises en parallle, elle essaie de dceler un entre-deux ou un moyen
terme qui les explique littrairement dans les cadres dune dfinition largie de
lintertextualit. Ce qui unit les deux uvres, par-del les barrires gnriques, cest
l'utilisation du procd rhtorique des lieux. Cioran nen parle pas, mais reconnat plus ou
moins explicitement le caractre intertextuel de son criture : Tout ce que j'ai crit est
toujours n de quelque chose, d'une conversation, d'une lettre reue. 34 Notre tentative
comparatiste rend possible le pari dune lecture croise, fonde sur la stratgie scripturale
partage par les deux crivains, au-del des barrires des genres. Elle est avant tout formelle
et thmatique. Et surtout, elle se propose de mettre en vidence la mthode dorganisation de
lensemble : la technique des lieux commune aux deux auteurs, puisque les deux pratiquent
une criture de la saturation. Mme si Cioran na pas de cahier de charges et quil travaille
dune manire apparemment dsordonne, lui aussi se soucie de biffer des cases, de
construire un parcours, comme il le dit, mme si ce parcours nest pas vident : Mais il est
trs difficile de remonter lorigine, parce que je nai pas exprim le parcours. Tout ce que
jai crit suppose un parcours. Cest a linconvnient, ou lavantage, de ce genre dcriture
ou de texte.35 Perec utilise le mme mot mais avec un sens lgrement diffrent pour
dcrire sa propre technique dcriture intertextuelle. Chez lui, il sagit dun itinraire qui
passe dun lieu lautre et qui lui permet de mettre en place son ide d'art citationnel :
34
35
87
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j'essaie de dcrire partir [] de tout un acquis culturel qui existe dj. A partir de l,
j'essaie [...] de dire tout ce que l'on peut dire sur le thme d'o je suis parti. C'est ce que les
rhtoriciens appelaient des lieux rhtoriques. [...] Un homme qui dort, c'est les lieux
rhtoriques de l'indiffrence, c'est tout ce que l'on peut dire propos de l'indiffrence.36
Mme si Cioran nen fait qu moiti laveu, il est de notorit que laphorisme est
lune des formes le plus puissamment lies lintertextualit. Comment, dans ces conditions,
qualifier la relation entre les deux textes, comment la valider et, surtout, comment linscrire
dans les codes potiques afin de la doter dun pouvoir explicatif et justificatif. L il nous
semble que la thorie intertextuelle de Michael Riffaterre est susceptible de montrer toute son
efficacit. A la diffrence de Julia Kristva et de Laurent Jenny qui parlent dun texte
centreur ncessaire pour la matrise du sens, et contrairement G. Genette qui limite
lintertexte aux cas de prsence effective dun texte dans un autre texte, M. Riffaterre37 fait la
thorie de la rception, du lecteur intertextuel. Tout dpend, selon Riffaterre, du niveau de
culture, du niveau et de la qualit de la lecture. Le lecteur peroit dans lintertexte propos par
lauteur autant dlments que son niveau de culture lui permet. Cest aussi la position de Ph.
Sollers : Tout texte se situe la jonction de plusieurs textes dont il est la fois la relecture,
l'accentuation, la condensation, le dplacement et la profondeur. D'une certaine manire, un
texte vaut ce que vaut son action intgratrice et destructrice d'autres textes38. La parent des
uvres de Cioran et de Perec discute ici nest pas due des changes dun auteur lautre,
mais lutilisation dune rserve dides et de formules communes et dune technique
ressemblante. Trois lments expliquent que les deux auteurs ont adopt indpendamment
cette technique : dun ct lessoufflement de la littrature classique. De Cioran Beckett et
la gnration no-romanesque, la littrature d'aprs 1945 exprime un esprit de dsillusion
absolue, de malaise et de dsespoir. L'criture aboutit la notion de fragment, d'inachev.
Dans La littrature et le mal, G Bataille parle de la mort de l'criture, du moment que tout a
t dit, qu'il n'y a plus rien inventer. Cette ide ouvre le dbat sur la condition intertextuelle
de la littrature et prend forme dans la thorie critique des annes 60. Deuxime lment,
lidologie esthtique post-moderniste o la citation a acquis une nouvelle vigueur, presque
obsessionnelle. Enfin, troisime cause, le renouveau rhtorique du dbut de la seconde moiti
du XXe sicle (de C. Perelman au Groupe , etc.). A un niveau thorique plus gnral, le
regain d'intrt actuel pour la rhtorique et son retour en grce comme systme
d'argumentation et comme vhicule d'expression, a amen la pense critique rechercher les
preuves de l'efficacit d'un ensemble raffin d'outils de production verbale longtemps nglig
tels les lieux. Ainsi, entre les deux sries textuelles sinstitue travers les oprations de
lcriture une relation hypertextuelle : les textes compars nont pas de rapport direct entre
eux, mais ont en commun un lieu douverture et de communication. En mme temps, cest
un lieu o viennent affluer et trouver leurs affinits intertextuelles tous les textes convoqus,
latents ou patents, dans les deux oeuvres. Entre le texte perequien et le texte cioranien, il ny a
pas transfert de matire mais consanguinit, gmellit intertextuelle, les deux uvres tant
in-formes par le mme principe structurant des lieux rhtoriques.
Bibliographie
E. M. Cioran : uvres. Paris : Gallimard, Quarto , 1995.
E. M. Cioran : Cahiers 1957-1972. Paris : Gallimard, Quarto , 1997.
E. M. Cioran : Entretiens. Paris : Gallimard, NRF Arcades , 1995.
Georges Perec : Pouvoirs et limites du romancier franais contemporain . In : Parcours Perec, p. 36 37.
Michael Riffaterre : La Production du texte. Paris, Seuil, 1979.
38
Ph. Sollers : criture et rvolution . In : Tel Quel. Thorie d'ensemble. Le Seuil, 1968, coll. Points , p. 75.
36
37
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Georges Perec : Un homme qui dort. Texte intgral, dossier. Gallimard, Folio plus,
1998 (Denol, 1967).
Georges Perec : Entretiens et Confrences 1965-1978. Dominique Bertelli et Mireille
Ribire (d.). Nantes :
Joseph K., 2003. 2 vol.
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Abstract: The theme of identity has become a constant presence in European Studies in the
last decades, interwar Europe (as an intellectual construction), retroactively stemming
analyses focused on the expression and exploration of subjectivity, drawing adherent/ nonadherent sensitivities at the impact with the hectic history, involving philosophical discourse,
compensatory configuration of ideas, and the image of some problematic identities. The
intellectual discourse of the twentieth century is a space of dialogue between great names that
represented social, political and cultural areas in those times of historic tumult. The presence
of philosophy, from Kierkegaard, through Nietzsche or Heidegger,Lenin or Papini as
hallmark of the metamorphosis of culture in the first half of the twentieth century, is related to
the many facets of the human identity crisis, also mirrored in the artistic forms, under the
influence of the stream of consciousness and that of the constructions built upon the place and
status of man. These perspectives intersected with the movement lines of science and art, the
works of Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, which will determine the relations between
authors and their works, a pretext for asserting their own concepts and values, by underlining
the ideal of the supreme possibilities of the spirit, of the individual freed from morals and
above them, modify the cultural and ideatic paradigm of the time, reconfiguring the
expectations of a generation.
Keywords: identity, European Studies, 20th century intellectual discourse, identity crises.
Mediator virtual, literatura nchide n ea, ca ntr-un ,,labirint, o lume de idei ,de
imagini care au marcat o epoc sau alta, idei capabile s structureze, s fac legturi i s dea
coeren unor modele culturale supuse tuturor variabilelor de sensibilitate intelectual i
moral. O linie imaginar unete, n ciuda diferenelor ideologice, un filozof romantic i
vizionar, din sfritul secolului al XVIIIlea, ca Friedrich Novalis ,de un filozof ca Kirkegaard
sau Nietzsche ori Heidegger, de Freud, ntemeietorul psihanalizei ,de Lenin, nume
recunoscute prin influena ideilor, a construciilor lor teoretice, asupra deschiderii intelectuale
dintre cele dou rzboaie mondiale, i implicit,asupra generaiilor de creatori postbelici.
Imaginarul european se bazeaz astfel pe imagini consolidate, chiar saturate, de discursuri,
ideologii, deja hibridizate, dup cum remarca Jean-Jacques Wunenburger, ntr-o intervenie
pe tema ,,Les imaginaires europens
Micarea ideilor este revelatorie dac urmrim influena lecturii lui Kirkegaard i a lui
Nietzsche n cultura Europei Centrale, asimilarea filozofiei cu rol totalizant la Sartre sau
Camus, punctele de incizie a teoriilor despre roman ale lui Georg Luccs sau ale lui Hermann
Broch. Din urm, Dostoievski este considerat un precursor, n textele lui fiind prefigurate idei
ce vor marca parcursul multor revoltai ai epocii urmtoare, intermediate de asocierea cu
Nietzsche: omul superior,puterea elitei gnditoare, voina de putere, morala sclavilor i
morala stpnilor. O carte, cum a fost Un om sfrit cartea lui Giovanni Papini, 1912,
nseamn un punct de plecare pentru generaii succesive. Avem nsemnrile lui Mircea Eliade
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n Memoriile sale despre Un om sfrit a lui Papini: Citisem, ca atia din colegii mei,
LHistoire du Christ, dar nu m cucerise. Dimpotriv, Un om sfrit a czut ca un trsnet.
Apruse n traducere romneasc la Cultura Naional i o descoperise Haig Acterian. A
insistat s-o citesc.<<,Are s-i plac>>, mi-a spus. <<Seamn cu tine>>. Nu-mi putusem
nchipui pn atunci c pot semna att de mult cu altcineva. M regseam aproape pe de-antregul n copilria i adolescena lui Papini. Ca i el, eram urt, foarte miop, devorat de o
curiozitate precoce i fr margini, voind s citesc tot, visnd s pot scrie despre toate. Ca i
el, eram timid, iubeam singurtatea i m nelegeam numai cu prietenii inteligeni sau erudii;
ca i el, uram coala i nu credeam dect n cele ce nvam singur, fr ajutorul profesorilor.
Mai trziu, am neles c asemnarea nu era totui att de extraordinar pe ct mi se pruse
atunci; bunoar, Papini nu avusese o copilrie de derbedeu, ca mine, nu fusese atras de
tiinele naturale i de chimie, nu era pasionat de muzic. Iar eu nu voisem s scriu, ca el, o
Enciclopedie i nici o Istorie a literaturii universale. Dar nu era mai puin adevrat c
precocitatea, miopia, setea de cultur, enciclopedismul i mai ales faptul c, ntocmai ca i
mine n roman, Papini vorbea de adolescen ca de o epoc a descoperirii intelectuale, iar nu
ca o criz fiziologic sau sentimental, m-au impresionat profund. Recitind Un om sfrit,
aveam uneori impresia c sunt doar replica lui Papini. Entuziasmului meu i-au urmat ndoiala,
gelozia, furia la gndul c attea capitole din Romanul adolescentului miop vor fi socotite
copiate sau cel puin inspirate din Un om sfrit. () Nu m ndoiesc c Un uomo finito
este i va rmne un document excepional, unic n toate literaturile moderne. Analiznd
impactul acestui climat ,care de la autonomia spiritului ajungea la reevaluarea tuturor
valorilor, Sorin Alexandrescu (Privind napoi modernitatea), urmrete dou modele
ilustrative pentru tineretul anilor 30-Eliade i Cioran . Pentru Eliade , fascinaia fa de
superioritatea spiritului creator, oblig la o atitudine ferm manifestat n paginile numrului
100 a ziarului Buna Vestire( ,,O revoluie cretin) :,,Micarea tinereasc din 1927 s-a
nscut cu contiina acestei misiuni istorice de a schimba sufletul Romniei, subordonnd
toate valorile unei singure valori supreme: Spiritul. Sorin Alexandrescu remarc urmarea
reflectrii acestor idei in planul general al creaiei lui Eliade, prin retragerea n atemporalul
valorilor atemporale ale spiritului(,,Spre o examinare filozofic a operei lui Eliade). Aceeai
atmosfer de generaie care se simte marginalizat de social i de economic, va face din
Cioran un ,,exilat al spiritului, ,, un Cioran secret chinuit de istorie(,,Portretul gnditorului
ca tnr exilat).
n relaia lor cu gndirea social, politic i filozofic contemporan, formele literare
dau natere unui cmp de reflecie asupra condiiei umane dinspre mecanismele puterii
politice care o condiioneaz. Strategiile scriiturii confesive i ale povestirii de tip cronic
genereaz i o imagine a lumii care apas asupra eului intim, forndu-l s emigreze ntr-un
exil interior, asumat de personaj fie la modul ironic, fie la modul tragic. Miturile singurtii
individului sunt elementul de legtur ntre aceste romane ale condiiei umane, punnd n
discuie i relaia dintre realitatea istoric i cea fictiv.
Aceast micare a sensurilor pe care alegoria o permite este sugerat de Camus prin
selectarea unui text de Daniel Defoe (Jurnal din anul ciumei), ca intrare n romanul su
Ciuma: Poi tot att de bine s nfiezi orice lucru care exist cu adevrat, prin ceva care
nu exist.
Ce anume d liniile configuratoare ale opiunilor ideologice sau de creaie ntr-o
epoc de intense transformri ale istoriei? n articolul ,,Generaia, Mircea Vulcnescu
explic din mai multe perspective conceptul,gsind important i influena epocii n care s-a
nscut un anumit scriitor asupra formrii sale, asupra mentalitii i devenirii sale n literatur:
Cum vedem, naterea unei generaii nu e numai o problem de vrst i nici numai o
problem de influen istoric. Ci ntlnirea amndurora ntr-o psihologie vie. Modele
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formatoare interne ,, Vasile Prvan si Nae Ionescu , dar i ,, influenele modei din afar.
Enumernd influenele modelatoare pe care generaia sa le-a suferit succesiv, ( influenta
misticismului orientalizant german din primii ani de dupa razboi, si a misticismului rusesc din
emigratie, influenta maurrassianismului francez si a neo-tomismului; influenta comunismului
rusesc si a marxismului german; influenta fascismului italian si a national-socialismului
german),Vulcnescu se ntreab retoric :,,Cum s-au putut amalgama aceste influente
divergente, in sufletul unei aceleiasi generatii, e greu de spus. Orientarea cultural care i se
pare lui Vulcnescu de realizat, structureaz ntr-un fel amestecul eclectic despre care
vorbise :,,Daca tineretul acestei ri nu reueste ca, n aceast generaie, s reduc idealurile
omeneti centrifugale ale romnilor din diferite coluri ale rii ntr-un singur chip al omului
romnesc, n care s se recunoasc romnii de pretutindeni, ca ntr-un bun al lor; dac tipul
omului rusesc, dostoievskian i tolstoian al basarabenilor i omul latino-kantian al ardelenilor
nu reuete s dea o sintez vie cu omul bizantino-francez al celor din Vechiul
Regat()unitatea politic a acestui neam(), mi se pare ameninat.
n Fragmente critice (IV), criticul Eugen Simion identific cteva lipsuri n
ncercarea lui Mircea Vulcnescu de a prezenta generaiile care s-au succedat n istoria
Romniei,subliniind marile modele literare europene contemporane, n lumina crora s-au
format scriitorii romni: ,,Aceste influene sunt reale, dar mai sunt i altele, pe care,
deocamdat, Mircea Vulcnescu nu le menioneaz. Lipsesc, de pild, scriitorii i filosofii
momentului. Gide ncepe s fie cunoscut i imitat pe la mijlocul anilor `20. Apoi Joyce i, n
genere, romancierii anglo-saxoni. [...] Gide, Joyce devin modele epice, lng Proust, Italo
Svevo, Papini pentru noua generaie de prozatori. Sunt descoperii, tot acum, Kirkegaard si,
prin tinerii filosofi care studiaz n Germania, Heidegger.
Milan Kundera, scriitor i eseist ceh n exil,n volumul Testamente trdate (1993,
traducerea romneasc-Humanitas, 2008), a doua carte de eseuri scris n Frana, aduce n
discuie testamentele trdate ale artitilor (Kafka, Gombrowicz, Beckett, Fuentes, Rushdie),
de ctre prieteni, critici, traductori, care sunt dublate de trdri ale romanului, adic ale
genului romanesc, prin subordonarea lui eticului sau ideologicului, aducnd i dinamica
modelelor care ar putea prelungi analiza raporturilor artistului cu spaiul social de inserie :
Imperiile totalitare, cu procesele lor sngeroase, au disprut, dar spiritul procesului a
rmas ca motenire i el regleaz conturile. Astfel sunt urmrii de proces cei acuzai de
simpatii pronaziste: Hamsun, Heidegger (toat gndirea disidenilor cehi cu Potocka n frunte
i este datoare), Richard Strausss, Gottfried Benn, Drieu la Rochelle, Cline (n 1992,
jumtate de secol dup rzboi, un prefect indignat refuz s-i declare casa monument istoric);
Pirandello, Malaparte, Marinetti, Ezra Pound (luni de zile, armata american l-a inut ca pe o
fiar ntr-o cuc, sub soarele arztor al Italiei); Giono, Morand, Montherlant, Saint-John
Perse (membru al delegaiei franceze la Mnchen, participant de aproape la umilirea rii
mele natale); apoi comunitii i simpatizanii lor: Maiakovski (cine-i mai amintete astzi de
poezia lui de dragoste, de incredibilele lui metafore?), Gorki, G. Bernard Show, Brecht (care a
avut astfel parte de un al doilea proces), Eluard (acest nger exterminator care-i orna
semntura cu imaginea a dou spade), Picasso, Aragon, Sartre (...), Malraux (acuzat ieri de a
fi trdat idealurile revoluionare, acuzabil mine de a le fi avut). Iat problemele ce m-au
fascinat, cnd, acum vreo douzeci i trei de ani, am scris Viaa e n alt parte, n care
Jaromil, un tnr poet, devine servitorul exaltat al regimului stalinist. Am fost ngrozit cnd
criticii, fcnd totui elogiul crii mele, au vzut n erou un fals poet, un ticlos. Pentru mine,
Jaromil era un poet autentic, un suflet inocent (...).
Gradele de opoziie ale discursului literaturii i artei fa de social politic, va genera
n comunitile intelectuale din partidele comuniste ale Estului european, dar i al aderenilor
din occident ideea c literatura epocii are nevoie de reguli clare de apreciere, ceea ce n timp
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va duce la victoria modelului de scriitur, cnd birocraiile politice vor recomanda reete
(realismul critic, realismul socialist, propus n 1932, acesta din urm codificnd sugestii
literare ale clasicilor marxismului ca i definirea artei progresiste i a artei revoluionare,
direcii care au fcut ravagii n fostele ri comuniste - aspecte analizate de George Steiner,
ntr-o serie de articole grupate sub titlul Marxism and Literature, 1958-1965).
Societatea fr clase, inta expresiei omului nou eliberat de acea condiionare
istoric, de clas, este modelul utopic (al literaturii proletare) care va circula spre occidentul
Europei (n 1948, n Ouest-ce que la littrature, Sartre vorbea despre literatura care va
ncheia dobndirea contiinei de sine n societatea fr clase), pn la destalinizarea
vrfurilor intelectuale, demarxizarea elitelor occidentale i naterea fenomenului dizidenei
ruse, care capt proporii n anii 70. Autoritatea unor analiti de marc ai fenomenului
cultural, de orientare marxist, ca Antonio Gramsci, Roger Garaudy, Georg Lukcs, Lucien
Goldmann, va sprijini circulaia ideilor grefate teoretic pe corpul marxismului pn nspre anii
60.
Opera filozofic a lui Sartre, imagine i ea a neputinei regsirii de sine, a identitii
ntr-o lume a rspunsurilor imposibile n faa violentrii condiiei umane, este i ea o imagine
a acestor idei n dialog. Singur, fa n fa cu ideea de libertate, condamnat la libertate,
accentund asupra rspunderii individului pentru esena pe care i-o alege, omul sartrian este
chemat s-i reevalueze critic situaia, s cumpneasc alternativele i opiunile. (Fiina i
Neantul, 1943). Mutnd cutarea realizrii de sine n planul ficiunii, influenat profund de
ideile lui Heidegger, din aria raportului ntre neautenticitatea existenei umane, a omului
anonim, a angoasei existeniale n faa Neantului (Fiin i Timp, 1927), Sartre construiete
compensatoriu spaii n care domin angoasa, nelinitea, sfierea interioar (romanul
Greaa, 1938, piesele de teatru Mutele, 1943, Cu uile nchise, 1945), i n care Viaa
omeneasc ncepe de partea cealalt a disperrii.
Sisif, alt proiecie eseistic filozofic, aparinndu-i lui Albert Camus (Mitul lui
Sisif, 1942) este imaginea nstrinrii de sine, o ipostaz a eecului ireversibil, neputincios i
dezarmat n faa sorii, imaginea acestui dialog intelectual interbelic, existenialismul, n care
luciditatea omului ncepe cu absurdul i culmineaz cu tragicul. Omul care nu-i nimic de la
sine, devine punctul central al dialogului ficiunii lui Camus cu Istoria (Strinul, 1942,
Nenelegerea, 1944), imaginea deplin a unei rupturi cu lumea (spaiul absurdului absolut)
dar i a dialogului cu lumea libertii interioare alegere care domin mijlocul secolului XX,
legndu-l de angoasa i disperarea lui Kirkegaard, revendicat ca precursor al
existenialismului (Conceptul de angoas, 1844).
Un manifest ca Pentru o art revoluionar redactat de Andr Breton, Leon Troki
i Diego Rivera, n 1938, realizeaz o bre n inima avangardei, separnd intelectualii de
stnga, sprijinitori ai ideii de revoluie sub impactul bolevic (Aragon, Eluard sau Sartre, dup
schimbarea opiunilor ideologice) care n 1947 condamn atitudinea lui Breton de a-i
continua experienele interiore n marginea activitii revoluionare, socotit eretic fa de
dogma Revoluiei.
Gsim n jurnalul lui Pierre Drieu la Rochelle (Journal, 1939-1945, Gallimard, 1992),
publicat la 47 de ani de la sinucidere, lumea interioar a acestui scriitor care a colaborat cu
guvernul de la Vichy i cu ocupantul nazist, care-i exprim ideile ataate extremei drepte i
n acelai timp o vedere pesimist asupra destinului culturii Europei, n numele unui program
de purificare a lumii impregnate de raionalism, de la Academia Francez la Premiul
Goncourt. Dezamgirea l face s vad n Stalin noul stpn al Europei, ntr-o confuzie de
valori prin care-l altur pe Lenin i Hitler lui Napoleon, Goethe sau Hegel. Lhomme de
toutes les ruines, cum singur se caracterizeaz, simte gustul amar al cderii unei Europe a
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imperfeciune, disperare, etc.). Marii scriitori ai secolului XX sunt considerai reacionari din
punct de vedere politic, i pe bun dreptate. Muli dintre ei au exprimat idei conservatoare i
chiar s-au plasat pe poziiile curentelor fasciste: Pound, T.S. Eliot, Jeats, Faulkner, D.H.
Lawrence (...) Heidegger, Benn, Thomas Mann, Cline, Giradoux, Claudel, Saint-John Perse,
Borges, Gombrowicz. Alii au preferat s resping lumea modern cu totul, astfel nct
atitudinea lor a fost i mai radical: Kafka, Beckett, Ionesco, Giono. Mai sunt i cei care fie au
gsit de cuviin s-i modifice poziiile stngiste iniiale, fie au ajuns s le regrete: Dos
Passos, Malraux, Camus, Maiakovski, Esenin. O ultim categorie sunt cei ale cror vederi de
stnga par a strni unele suspiciuni, cci le-au asigurat n mod convenabil, un maxim de
autoritate social i succes: olohov, Sartre, Bll, Grass, Arghezi. Nemoianu aaz
opiunile artitilor dincolo de valoarea i funcia creativitii artistice, pentru c Literatura i
arta nu intr n tiparul ordinii umane: ele in de iraionalitate i aleatoriu, iar surpriza, refuzul
i dispersiunea fac parte din nsi esena lor. Acolo unde scriitorul reacionar se lupt cu
disperarea i pesimismul, cu haosul i lipsa de ncredere, cel progresist accept senin rolul de
instrument al istoriei i se las prad banalitii i superficialitii (...).
S amintim dialogurile despre viaa crilor, plasate pe fondul memoriei culturale, care
reconfigureaz discursul intelectual al unei epoci, din Greaa lui Sartre, n care un personaj
citete crile dintr-o bibliotec n ordine alfabetic, inventarul de capodopere ale literaturii
din toate timpurile, abordate parodic,din Gog al lui Papini, sau nregistrarea modelelor
momentului n ,,ntlnirilelui Gog(,,O vizit lui Freud, O vizit lui Lenin,O vizit lui Knut
Hamsun). Canonul modernizator de spaii narative din Abaddon Exterminatorul, de
Ernesto Sbato, 1974, peste timp nregistreaz schimbarea atmosferei culturale dup rzboi, n
tot attea parcursuri evaluative abordate ironic, dar avnd n centru ideea reaezrii literaturii
n spaiul estetic. Canonul occidental contemporan dialogheaz cu un alt tip de selecie
canonic . Sincronizarea i chiar detaarea de modelele europene, apar n cartea lui Sbato,
ntr-un capitol numit Ideile lui Quique despre Noul Roman care propune un dialog ntre
generaii i modele guvernatoare: Din clipa n care vulgul a putut s-i citeasc pe Joyce i
Henry Miller n spaniol i i-a dat seama c acetia au lsat ua deschis, s-a produs o
renviorare general (...) O infinitate de motenitori rahitici ai lui Joyce, zmislii din legturi
consanguine (...); i pregteti un rezumat cu inovaiile literare pe care urmeaz s le trimii
de acolo (din capitala Franei).
Din acelai spaiu sud-american care l va trimite pe Jorge Luis Borges, Mario Vargas
Llosa, peruanul devenit celebru cu mult nainte s fi primit premiul Nobel, 2010, pentru
literatur, propune ntr-o carte-eseu Adevrul minciunilor,1990, o cltorie prin acele texte
literare care suport eticheta de ,,adevr al tririi, putnd fiina ca modele de ideaie i de
scriitur, n acelai timp: ncepe cu Thomas Mann i nuvela sa Moartea la Veneia, pe care
Llosa o vede alturi de Metamorfoza lui Kafka sau Moartea lui Ivan Ilici a lui Tolstoi:
ideea dominant este acel ceva misterios n text care-i scap i la o lectur mai atent...un
fond obscur i violent, aproape abject care are de-a face att cu sufletul protagonistului ct i
cu experiena comun a speciei umane... tentaia abisului... un simbol ambiguu i
contradictoriu, golit de coninut, fcut de nerecunoscut de epoca noastr .
Alturi de Veneia lui Mann, triete n paginile lui Llosa, Dublinul lui Joyce, acoperit
de sordidul i griul metafizic pe care turistul nu-l mai regsete pentru c el n-a descris
oraul n ficiunile sale, ci l-a inventat.
Sunt note de lectur, observaii de detaliu, asociaii a tririi scriiturii de ctre
Flaubert i de ctre Joyce i mai ales cele dou fee ale Dublinului: cel real, efemer i
Dublinul povestirilor, curat de imperfeciuni.
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Alte nsemnri de lectur se opresc asupra romanului lui Hermann Hesse Lupul de
step vzut prin prisma schimbrii de paradigm: redescoperirea lui Hesse dup moartea sa
(1962) de ctre o generaie protestatar sub semnul muzicii Beatles.
Cartea lui Hesse, scris dup rzboi (1927) este vzut ca o lume simbolic n care
estetica expresionist construiete pe tehnica cutiilor chinezeti cu povestiri nlnuite - o
lume a introspeciei, spaiu de exil, n care att autorul ct i Llosa la o relectur se regsesc
ntr-un teatru magic populat de nemuritori. Lumea la care ader Llosa, recitind cartea,
este aceea a cutrii perfeciunii morale prin transformarea lumii reale n magie i fantezie
pur: punnd problema receptrii crii lui Hesse, Llosa argumenteaz teoretic legtura dintre
intenionalitatea autorului i adncurile cele mai secrete ale personalitii autorului care
permit ca generaii ulterioare s descopere altceva n oper, identificndu-se cu laturi
nevzute ale ei.
Dei traseul lecturilor traverseaz predominant lumea romanului de limba englez
(Joyce, Virginia Woolf, Scott Fitzgerald, Faulkner, Huxley, H. Miller) totui iniiatorul de
modele selecteaz i lumea lui Elias Canetti, realiznd apropieri de Kafka, din perspectiva
statutului de scriitori evrei de limb german. n alt sens, ns, Llosa remarc cu finee o
disociere n universul ficional. Kafka i lumea sa absurd nchide un anume patetism al
singurtii, n timp ce creaturile lui Canetti, din romanul Auto da fe (1936), sunt crude,
morbide, mpiedicnd cititorul s se lase emoionat n faa comarului realist. Intrarea n
universul prozei lui Canetti se face prin citarea mrturisirilor autorului privind geneza operei,
pe care Llosa le comenteaz n sensul inconsistenei lor: Afirmaiile unui romancier despre
propria lui oper nu sunt ntotdeauna edificatoare; ele pot chiar induce n eroare, fiindc textul
i contextul sunt greu de difereniat pentru el, iar autorul tinde s vad n ce a fcut ceea ce
i propusese s fac (ns cele dou lucruri pot s coincid sau pot diferi, adesea, n mod
considerabil).
Este interesant c Llosa revine obsedant la consideraii teoretice prin care amendeaz
luri de poziii auctorale i n egal msur prin ceea ce s-a numit critica creatorilor
propune modele, comenteaz i se autocomenteaz.
Referindu-se la lumea ficional de limb german, Llosa pune textul lui Canetti n
acelai plan cu Moartea lui Virgiliu lui Hermann Broch sau de Omul fr nsuiri al lui
Musil, asociate din perspectiva efortului cititorului de a sesiza sensul lor profund i cheile
simbolismului complicat. Pentru a da coeren demersului lectorului, Llosa se rentoarce la
autocomentariul autorului: M-am gndit ntr-o zi c lumea nu mai poate fi creat ca n
romanele anterioare, adic din perspectiva unui scriitor; lumea se dezintegrase i numai avnd
curajul de a-i reprezenta dezintegrarea, puteai oferi o imagine verosimil a ei.
Civa ani mai trziu,Mario Vargas Llosa n Scrisori ctre un tnr romancier,
1997, inventariaz modelele literare care constituie (ca i n orice jurnal intim) nceputul
formrii de sine: Faulkner, Hemingway, Malraux, Dos Passos, Camus, Sartre panteonul
particular, care alimenteaz vocaia artistului (aspect al creaiei care apare deja n
dialogurile platonice).Ancorarea n modelul existenialitilor oferii ca modele presupune i
discuia despre libertatea omului de a alege ceea ce-i va configura esena, condamnarea la
libertatea actului alegerii, de care vorbete Sartre (O liber alegere ca i drogul generaiei
Beat).
Schimbarea de paradigm socio-politic i cultural, de dup rzboi, nu schimb
radical viaa crilor. Pastiele-pastil la cri celebre, create de Umberto Eco, romancier
nscut dintr-un teoretician al literaturii, care, ntr-un anumit fel, analiza cu anticipaie
romanele pe care urma apoi s le scrie, trec insesizabil prin ironie parodie, practicat cu un
plaisir du texte, recuperator al modelelor de scriitur ca n Jurnal sumar,1992((Rapoarte de
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lectur ctre editor): Kafka Franz. Procesul. Crulia nu e rea, este un roman poliist cu
anumite momente la Hitchcock; de exemplu, crima din final, care va avea publicul su. ns
arat de parc autorul ar fi scris-o sub cenzur. Ce sunt aceste aluzii imprecise, aceast lips
de nume de persoane i de locuri? i de ce protagonistul este pus sub acuzare?
Misterioasa flacr a reginei Loana ,2004, cartea aceluiai autor, are o deschidere
care invit la o lectur a literaturii prin literatur. Aa a nceput totul - este o deschidere
mprumutat din romanul lui Cline Cltorie la captul nopii, care ar putea crea o linie
de organizare a sensurilor fie n direcia dat de titlul metaforic, captul nopii (prezent ntrun fel n soarele negru al finalului), fie n direcia romanului n form autobiografic.
Sfritul crii De ce soarele se face oare negru? poate propune un joc intertextual cu trei
trimiteri suprapuse: la soarele negru din imaginea lui Drer, la cel din poezia lui Nerval, El
Desdichado, sau, de ce nu, din crile de tarot. Amintirile personajului, puternic creatoare de
atmosfer, vin dinspre cri: corespondenele lui Baudelaire, alturi de culcatul devreme al
lui Proust, vocalele colorate ale lui Rimbaud, metamorfozele lui Gregor Samsa al lui Kafka,
iubirea ce rotete sori i stele a lui Dante, Pisicile lui Baudelaire,,marchiza care a ieit la
orele cinci, genernd o bibliotec a textului care acoper naraiunea propriu-zis, tinznd
s devin autonom :,,Doctorul m-a ntrebat care fusese primul lucru care-mi trecuse prin
minte cnd m deteptasem din somn. Am scris : Cnd Gregor Samsa se detept ntr-o
diminea, se pomeni transformat n patul su ntr-o gnganie uria.
Orizontul de ateptare, nscut din aspectul de scriere-confesiune este susceptibil s
orienteze lectura pe liniile deschise de gen, dar structura complex, dialogul ntre strategiile
formei biografice, care presupun autenticitatea scriiturii i afirmarea ficiunii ca lume
concurent a realului, cu estomparea frontierelor prevzut n pactul ficional, intr n
concuren cu strategiile intertextualitii (citatul, aluzia, pastisarea, parodierea etc.), derutnd
cititorul. Orice carte, care-i dubleaz sensul cu comentarea gestului scriptural, trece n
metaliteratur i marea literatur revine sub efectul,,esteticii nostalgiei cci ntrebarea asupra
identitiide sine se transform n ntrebare asupra asupra timpului, istoriei, societii, asupra
spiritelor care au marcat lumea i oamenii, aa cum au rmas n literatur .
Bibliografie de referin
Alexandrescu, Sorin, Privind napoi modernitatea, Bucureti, Univers, 1999
Bloom, Harold, Canonul occidental. Crile i coala Epocilor, Bucureti, Univers,
1998
Bloom, Harold, Anxietatea influenei. O teorie a poeziei, Piteti, Paralea 45, 2008
Eliade, Mircea, Memorii, volumul I, Bucureti, Humanitas, 1991
Levy, Bernard-Henry, n ,,Elogiul intelectualilor ,Timpul, 7/1996.
Llosa, Mario Vargas, Adevrul minciunilor, Bucureti ALLFA,1999
Lilla, Marc, Spiritul nesbuit. Intelectualii n politic. Iai, Polirom, 2001
Nemoianu, Virgil ,O teorie a secundarului. Literatur, Progres i Reaciune,
Bucureti, Univers, 1997.
Simion, Eugen, Fragmente critice, IV, Bucureti, Univers Enciclopedic, 2000.
Vulcanescu, Mircea M. ,,Generaie n Criterion, an.I, nr.3-4, 15 noiembrie-1
decembrie 1934.
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Abstract: Starting from Harold Blooms observation that If there is an American sublime,
going beyond irony, in modern American fiction, then it is located most centrally in The Great
Gatsby (Bloom 2010:4), this study purports to look into Fitzgeralds most accomplished
novel as an epitome of the most glamorous decade in American history. Set in New York the
epicentre of the youthquake of the roaring 1920s, the novel reveals a city of lavish parties
and dazzling artificial lights. As early as 1925 when he wrote the novel, Fitzgerald already
knew that the party was over, but he wanted to capture both its glamour and the bitter taste
of its immediate aftermath, at the same time putting the undying splendour of New York into
the perspective of a mystical enchanted moment, when it compelled the first man beholding
it to aesthetic contemplation. Like a camera lens, the narrative takes in the rich colours of
financial bliss, ruthless consumerism and waste, elegant cars, the ecstasy of communication,
the luxury of technological modernity, the new arts of cinematography and photography, but
also the interzone of the valley of ashes under the strange surveillance of the eyes of
Doctor T. J. Eckleburg. Referencing the most fashionable tunes of the early 1920s and
redolent of jazz and tango rhythms, glowing with scenes in which songs bring back the past,
exhaling exquisite whiffs of perfume and powder, the narrative moves its readers from one
gem of emotion to the next against a velvety backdrop enveloped in the hues of the twilight.
This sense of an American sublime, which resides in a renewable self-devouring vitality and
an intangible promise of the American Dream, is a legacy that Fitzgerald himself inherited
from Henry James and passed on through his fiction to Thomas Pynchon, Don DeLillo and to
a writer of no fixed abode, Salman Rushdie, whose protagonist Malik Solanka echoes
Gatsbys bouncing in Fury. Whether that bouncing may be an allusion to New Yorks
motto Excelsior is ultimately for the readers of the American sublime to decide.
Keywords: New York sublime, party, twilight, valley of ashes, green light, artificiality /
fabrication, money, technology, illusion, delusion, the Roaring 1920s, The American Dream,
quest
Making his debut with This Side of Paradise as the chronicler of the jazz age also
called the roaring twenties - with its flappers, their looks and their ways, F. Scott Fitzgerald
was determined to write a book that would capture not only the laissez-faire ethos, but also
the most painfully disturbing sides of the new Zeitgeist. Of all places in America in the 1920s,
New York fascinated and attracted like a magnet through its glamour and its spectacle of
disorder and energy on such a profuse scale. (Homberger in Bradbury and McFarlane 1978:
151)
Although he was born in Saint Paul, Minnesota, and made several excursions to Paris
and the French Riviera, which surely influenced his development as a writer, Fitzgerald was
familiar with New York since his early childhood. So fascinated was he with the grand
opportunities and lavish life style offered by New Yorks consumer culture, money and
technology that both in real life and in fiction, he glorified the rich and their glamorous world
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of parties, fancy hotels, elegant dresses and suits, glittering jewels, perfumes, fragrant
powders and luxury cars, and he abhorred the other side of the coin, i.e. poverty, and its
disastrous impact. May Day, a novella written and published in 1920, is set in a post-World
War I New York welcoming its conquering people with triumphal arches and vivid with
thrown flowers of white, red, and rose. (Fitzgerald 1999: 43) Fitzgeralds fine eye for luxury
and consumerism pictures the great city abandoning itself to lavish entertainments.
(Fitzgerald 1999: 43) Indeed, New York becomes the centre of a glorious New World, where
more and more spenders had gathered from the provinces to drink the wine of excitement
and to buy for their women furs against the next winter and begs of golden mesh and varicolouerd slippers of silk and silver and rose satin and cloth of gold. (Fitzgerald 1999: 43)
However, this new Rome1 of circus and bread, feast and merriment, mercilessly crushes its
poor and hopeless under its golden high heel. In sharp contrast with the glamour of the city,
Gordon, a key character in the text, has absolutely gone to pieces (Fitzgerald 1999: 45),
having made a hell of mess of everything (Fitzgerald 1999: 46), and listening to him speak
about it, his former colleague Phil and his old flame Edith Bradin feel only repulsion and
disgust. Beneath the resplendent display (Fitzgerald 1994: 50) of furniture, silk underwear,
engagement rings, platinum wrist-watches, and under the splendid surface of what promises
to be the best party since the war (Fitzgerald 1999: 50), there lurk forces of riot and
violence, cheap restaurants, an ugly humanity, ill-nourished, devoid of all except the very
lowest from of intelligence, people that were cold, and hungry in a dirty town of a strange
land; they were poor, friendless; tossed as driftwood from their births, they would be tossed as
driftwood to their deaths. (Fitzgerald 1994: 53)
It was against that side of the coin, namely poverty and dereliction, that Fitzgerald
wrote his novels, short stories, novellas and essays, where the American Dream of the most
flamboyant decade in American history took the shape of a gorgeous city of lights, fast cars,
flickering crowds, tall buildings, gilded hotels, extravagant parties, jazz and lascivious tango,
where one could invent oneself, chase ones chimeras and die for them.
Looking back at his and Zeldas taking up position in New York in 1920, Fitzgerald
recalled in 1932 that to my bewilderment, I was adoptedas the arch type [sic] of what New
York wanted. (Fitzgerald quoted in Prigozy: 4) When he wrote The Great Gatsby, their
marriage had gone through periods of crises, and what the novel does is to fictionalize their
lives into a mesmerizing world of parties and booze, an artificially created and artificially
maintained island of material eccentricity. Like Scott himself, Jay Gatsby is capable of (re)inventing himself through fabricating his persona and acting his role. Like Zelda, Daisy, born
in Louisville, is a married flapper of vague and uncertain feelings whose only solid foothold
is money and what it can buy. Why the Buchanans came to live in New York is not known,
although Toms reply to Nick is that he would be a God-damned fool to live anywhere else
(Fitzgerald 1993: 9), but it is certain that Gatsby chose the city in order to enjoy Daisys
proximity, and in doing so he found that he had committed himself to the following of a
grail. (Fitzgerald 1993: 95)
With those romantic ideals in mind, the mysterious Jay Gatsby stages his sublime
performance, faithfully following the lines in the motto of the novel:
Then wear the golden hat, if that will move her;
If you can bounce high, bounce for her too,
Till she cry, Lover, gold-hatted, high-bouncing lover,
In a letter dated July 1921, Fitzgerald wrote that we will be the Romans of the next generation as the English are now. (Bruccoli 1994:
47)
1
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provoked in the first place by Gatsby himself. Nick Carraways first encounter with Gatsby is
shrouded in the mystery of a moonlit summer night when
I saw that I was not alone fifty feet away a figure had emerged from the shadow of
my neighbours mansion and was standing with his hands in his pockets regarding the silver
pepper of the stars. (Fitzgerald 1993: 15)
Nick feels the impulse of approaching the figure, but he has the sudden intimation
that it prefers to be alone. The distance and the darkness add to the strange effect the solitary
figure has upon the viewer. The mysterious apparition stretches out his arms towards the
dark water in a curious way and he seems to be trembling. The only discernable thing is a
single green light, minute and far away, and
When I looked once more for Gatsby he had vanished, and I was alone again in the
unquiet darkness. (Fitzgerald 1993: 16)
Fitzgerald calculated the effect very carefully: Nick, a young man, determined to
improve himself through reading and to make his mark in New York, inhabits the first fifteen
pages or so of the novel without meeting his neighbour. When he thinks he sees him, the
distance, the darkness surrounding him and Gatsbys transported solitude rush upon Nicks
mind, which, when testing the figures questionable presence one more time, is confronted
with the bafflement of its mysterious disappearance.
Not even halfway through the book can anybody be sure who Gatsby is. Tom
Buchanan insists that he would like to know, but his supposition that he might be some big
bootlegger (Fitzgerald 1993: 69) meets Nicks firm denial. In another episode of sublime
effect, Buchanans trivializing enquiry is suffused by music:
Daisy began to sing with the music in a husky, rhythmic whisper, bringing out a
meaning in each word that it had never had before and would never have again. When the
melody rose, her voice broke up sweetly, following it, in a way contralto voices have, and
each change tipped out a little of her warm human magic upon the air. (Fitzgerald 1993: 69)
Like in other memorable scenes of modernist fiction, music de-solidifies the solid
world of business and money and brings back the past to ones mind. Even if Gatsby is
disappointed by Daisys reaction, the music triggers that moment when he is certain that four
years can be swept away with a sentence which is only in his head but never uttered. The
terrible uncertainty of the thing described recurs in this scene, this time in the form of
an elusive rhythm, a fragment of lost words, that I had heard somewhere a long time
ago. For a moment a phrase tried to take shape in my mouth and my lips parted like a dumb
mans, as though there was more struggling upon them than a wisp of startled air. But they
made no sound, and what I had almost remembered was uncommunicable for ever.
(Fitzgerald 1993: 71)
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The novels plot is thin, but its substance is dense and rich in sublime moments. Some
of those are Gatsbys parties, described in a style which strikes notes of bitter sensuality. In
the crowd of great and confused images the mind is hurried out of itself (Burke 1812:
106) and compelled to gaze at a sublime of a twilight zone, in which the past tense of the
narrative-descriptive passages signals melancholy and nostalgia:
There was music from my neighbours house through the summer nights. In his blue
gardens men and girls came and went like moths among whisperings and the champagne and
the stars. At high tide in the afternoon I watched his guests diving from the tower of his raft,
or taking the sun on the hot sand of his beach while his two motorboats slit the waters of the
Sound, drawing aquaplanes over cataracts of foam. (Fitzgerald 1993: 26)
The sublime of Gatsbys parties, so packed with visual images, sounds and smells and
so sparkling, is artificial. The cataracts of foam, the wafer of a moon (Fitzgerald 1993:
37) shining over his house, his garden and house glowing with electric light are Gatsbys
design, the theatre hall he fabricated for these performances meant to impress Daisy.
The richness and profusion of images (Burke 1812: 140) in the descriptions of
Gatsbys place and parties mirror the larger scale effects of the sublime in the descriptions of
the city of New York. After attending one of Gatsbys parties for the first time, Nick feels a
surge of joy of living in New York, and he confesses:
I began to like New York, the racy, adventurous feel of it at night, and the satisfaction
that the constant flicker of men and women and machines gives to the restless eye.
(Fitzgerald 1993: 37)
What Nick finds compelling in this experience of the city which engages all his senses
is what Burke called the artificial infinite, which resides in succession and uniformity of
parts (Burke 1812: 131). Being stirred by the sublime, Nick activates his imagination and
starts daydreaming: he picks up women from the crowd and fancies entering their lives:
Sometimes, in my mind, I followed them to their apartments on the corners of hidden
streets, and they turned and smiled back at me before they faded through a door into warm
darkness. (Fitzgerald 1993: 37)
The moment is called enchanted metropolitan twilight (Fitzgerald 1993: 37), and the
novel progresses through a series of such moments. In its last passages, these moments of
sublime enchantment are subtly connected with a transitory enchanted moment when man
must have held his breath in the presence of this continent, compelled into an aesthetic
contemplation he neither understood nor desired. (Fitzgerald 1993: 115) It is through these
subtle connections of moments which in Joyces terms are epiphanic that Fitzgerald created
what Bloom calls Gatsbys mythic projection of a more than Adamic innocence, in which
his perpetual optimism, amoral goodness, and visionary hope are all centered in an escape
from history, in a sense of being self-begotten. (Bloom 2010: 6)
According to Burke, extreme light has the same effect as darkness; by overcoming
the organs of sight it obliterates all objects. (Burke, 1812: 145) The Great Gatsby is
lavishly bathed in artificial light. As Guy Reynolds remarked, artificial light creates an
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original form of American landscape, a kind of urban pastoral that is both natural and manmade. (Reynolds in Fitzgerald 1993: viii) Although, as Reynold argues, the novel meshes
natural and artificial light, electricity creates sublime effects by combining intensity and
suddenness with a frisson of terror:
When I came home to West Egg that night I was afraid for a moment that my house
was on fire. Two oclock and the whole corner of the peninsula was blazing with light, which
fell unreal on the shrubbery and made thin elongating glints upon the roadside wires. Turning
a corner, I saw that it was Gatsbys house, lit from tower to cellar. (Fitzgerald 1993: 52)
Sublime effects are frequently achieved in the novel through other methods suggested
by Burke when he tackled light as a source of the sublime: the quiet lights in the houses
burning out into the darkness and the stir and bustle among the stars (Fitzgerald 1993: 71)
are visual impressions Gatsby recalls from a night five years before when he and Daisy took a
walk and kissed; indeed, that effect of light and darkness, treasured by Gatsbys soul, opens
up for him, across those moments in his life, a ladder that mounted to a secret place above
the trees, and climbing it he could reach that place where he could suck on the pap of life,
gulp down the incomparable milk of wonder. (Fitzgerald 1993: 71) In the last dawn of
Gatsbys life, he and Nick open the windows and let in an intermittent and uncertain greyturning, gold-turning light (Fitzgerald 193: 96), foreshadowing the end of Gatsbys life of
gilded luxury and his last plunge into the swimming pool of death.
Adding layers upon layers of the sublime, Fitzgerald calculated the effects of light and
darkness, their intermittence and transience, aiming at a general air of arty refinement to
suggest elegant luxury and, even more importantly, that reality is sham and dream and
illusion are far more significant than it. Nothing and nobody are what they seem in Gatsbys
world. On his first visit to the Buchanans, Daisy insists that she is sophisticated and Nick
feels the basic insincerity of what she had said; he also feels as though the whole evening
had been a trick of some sort. (Fitzgerald 1993: 71) The novel is full of such as if markers,
which reinforce the odd sense that everything partaking of their world is make-believe.
Sometimes, the trick may be mild, its consequences immaterial, and its artificiality can be
trivialized in a jocular remark, like Toms, when in the same evening he draws Nicks
attention that not everything Daisy says is to be taken for granted. Some other times,
however, the fake can be dangerous and even fatal, as it eventually is for Gatsby. On their last
encounter, Nick pays him a compliment, and he notices that Gatsby responds with a
sublimely radiant and understanding smile, as if wed been in ecstatic cahoots on that fact at
all time. (Fitzgerald 193: 98) That remark, which designedly deploys the as if marker in
order to increase the characters artificial aura, is followed by an elegant description of the
arty effect of his suit against the white steps, undoubtedly an effect calculated by Gatsby
himself, like all the other major and minor effects aimed at impressing Daisy. Looking
retrospectively at Gatsbys parties, the moment foreshadows the last act. An alert reader
should already know that this is the last goodbye ever waved by Gatsby, with all its calculated
effects of colour and glamour. Bidding him farewell, Nick remembers that the crowds of
people who had attended Gatsbys parties guessed at his corruption, but in spite of their
contentious suspicions, he would stand on the steps, concealing his incorruptible dream, as
he waved goodbye. (Fitzgerald 193: 98) What really matters, we are made to understand, is
the incorruptibility of Gatsbys dream, not his uncertain past corruption.
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In Burkes account, visual objects of great dimensions are sublime (Burke 1993:
259), and Fitzgeralds novel plays on that effect in order to reinforce the unmatched grandeur
of New York in a decade when money made the city shine:
Over the great bridge, with the sunlight through the girders making a constant flicker
upon the moving cars, with the city rising up across the river in white heaps and sugar lumps
all built with a wish out of non-olfactory money. The city seen from Queensboro Bridge is
always the city seen for the first time, in its first wild promise of all the mystery and the
beauty in the world. (Fitzgerald 193: 44)
In this passage, the sight of New York rushes the mind in a contemplation of the
sublime through a combination of vertical magnitude, magnificence, vastness and light, which
mirrors effects similar to the descriptions of Gatsbys place.
The Great Gatsby is a story of power, violence and pain, which, especially in this
combination, induce the sublime. New York in the 1920s was a citadel of money, populated
by people like the Buchanans, who smashed up things and creatures and then retreated back
into their money (Fitzgerald 1993: 114). Gatsbys remark that Daisys voice is full of
money(Fitzgerald 1993: 76) has the value and impact of a significant realization for Nick,
who works in finance. Nick thinks to himself:
That was it. Id never understood before. It was full of money that was the
inexhaustible charm that rose and fell in it, the jingle of it, the cymbals song of itHigh in a
white palace the kings daughter, the golden girl(Fitzgerald 1993: 76)
Money gives the whole city and its rich dwellers their smashingly glamorous, their
sublime charm. At the same time, anybody who has it has power, and that includes Gatsby,
the mysterious host of extravagant parties. Gatsby is, like the city itself, a strange combination
of gross materialism and romantic idealism, as tender as he is tough. (Bloom 2010: 5) He is
the embodiment of the dream of love and wealth (Bloom 2010: 9), a Quixotic character in
love with a chimera, which fills the mind and soul with the awe of the sublime.
Pain is Gatsbys prevailing feeling. Under the shiny crust of wealth and power there is
a wounded soul, and under the sophisticated man a nave boy, a desperate lover wearing his
heart on his sleeve, who bounces high whenever he is in Daisys presence. Gatsbys pain
reaches maximum intensity in the moment of confrontation, which seals his doom. While
Daisy stares terrified between Gatsby and her husband, he looked as if he had killed a
man (Fitzgerald 1993: 86) The allusion to the serpent whispering his words in Adams ear,
which is subtly slipped n this passage, reinforces Gatsbys Adamic condition and sets the
moment in a Biblical illo tempore. The violence associated with uncommitted murder rushes
the plot into the disastrous dnouement of the murder Daisy commits by accident, followed
by Gatsby being murdered under false suspicion.
The scene when Gatsby is shot while looking up at an unfamiliar sky and realizing,
in the last moments of his life, what a grotesque thing a rose is and how raw the sunlight was
upon the scarcely created grass (Fitzgerald 1993: 103) is the last sublime of Gatsbys
fabrication. It is the very last series of flickering images, where some of them show him the
fake of his created world, while the last one is the hyperbole of his killer, an ashen,
fantastic figure gliding towards him through the amorphous trees. (Fitzgerald 1993: 103)
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also the sense of the sublime associated with it, which magnifies it and makes it shine.
Following the line into the 1980s, one recognizes the American Dream in the inescapably
enticing shopping trips to the mall, the religious aura of the image, the mantras of TV
commercials, the ambiguous translation of death into computerese in Don DeLillos White
Noise. Just like Fitzgerald and Pynchon before him, DeLillo gives it the luster of the sublime
with his enumerations of consumer goods suggestive of the American plenitude, and a sense
of artificial world of glossy surfaces of screens endlessly reflecting a prosperity under which
an incurable fear of death lurks. In the very first year of the 21st century, the American Dream
and also the American disappointment were revisited by Salman Rushdie in Fury. Like Jay
Gatsby, Malik Solanka is a bouncer, but he admits that Fitzgeralds character was the highest
bouncer of them all who failed too in the end, but lived out, before he crashed, that brilliant,
brittle, gold-hatted, exemplary life. (Rushdie 2002: 82)
Bibliography
1. Bloom, Harold (ed.). F. Scott Fitzgeralds The Great Gatsby, New Edition, Infobase
Publishing, New York, 2010. Print.
2. Bradbury, Malcolm and McFarlane, James (eds.). Modernism. 1980-1930, Penguin
Books, 1978. Print.
3. Bruccoli, Matthew J. (ed.). A Life in Letters. F. Scott Fitzgerald, Maxwell Macmillan,
New York, 1994. Print.
4. Burke, Edmund. A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime
and Beautiful. With an Introductory Discourse Concerning Taste; and Several Other
Additions. A New Edition, London, 1812. Print.
5. Curnutt, Kirk (ed.). A Historical Guide to F. Scott Fitzgerald, Oxford University
Press, New York, 2004. Print.
6. Fitzgerald, Scott F., The Great Gatsby, Wordsworth Editions Limited, London, 1993.
Print.
7. Fitzgerald, Scott F., The Diamond as Big as the Ritz & Other Stories, Wordsworth
Editions Limited, 1994. Print.
8. Prigozy, Ruth (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to F. Scott Fitzgerald, CUP,
Cambridge, 2002. Print.
9. Rushdie, Salman. Fury, Vintage Press, 2002. Print.
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Abstract: The 1950s Beat Generation and the 1960s Hippies as countercultures, expressed
dissatisfaction with societal restraints. A link between the two, Ken Kesey was a
countercultural figure himself, who explored in his works the negative impacts of this society
on the individual. The mental hospital from A Fly over a Cuckoos Nest is a microcosm of this
American totalitarian world Kesey is rebelling against. It is a place meant to fix people who
do not conform. The paper presents the individuals relationships to the controlling state and
society, the societys destruction of an individuals natural impulses and the fight to retain
individuality and diversity and bring them to others as well.
Keywords: counterculture, totalitarianism, repression, individuality, diversity.
Introduction
Ken Kesey immersed into San Francisco counterculture while he was a student at
Stanford University of Oregon. His novel One Flew Over a Cuckoos Nest draws on his
personal drug experience and work in a mental institution exploring madness,
institutionalization, and rebellion, reflecting a broader critique of the social restrictions placed
on the individual in that time. The success of the 1975 film adaptation of the novel, starring
Jack Nicholson as hero R.P. Murphy, only helped to confirm the novels status as a canonical
antiauthoritarian tract of the US counterculture. (Baugess 344).
The novel One Flew Over a Cuckoos Nest was written in the 1950s and was
published in 1962. The age starting in the 50s was the first TV generation, when American
peoples brains were wired to watch rather than do. Also, the 1950s was a time when people
outside the mainstream were often viewed with suspicion due to the diplomatic Cold War
between the USAs democratic ideology and the USSRs communist ideology. The fear of
communism led to a counterculture through which, young people in particular, began
questioning authority. Their dissatisfaction with societal constraints led to the foundation of
the 50s beat generation (The Beatniks) and the 60s counterculture hippies, which found
expression in art, writing, dress and nonviolent action.
The country's ever-growing consumer culture almost required an increased sense of
individuality and its own counterculture. Figuring as a link between these two
countercultures, Ken Kesey explored the negative impacts of this American society on the
individual. The setting of the novel is a mental hospital, a microcosm of the world these
countercultures are rebelling against. The LSD, a most common hallucinogen, was a good
thing as a scientist experiment; it helped hippies to explore their own mind and expand their
horizons.
The mental hospital allows for this exploration. Kesey chooses this setting as a place
meant to fix people who do not confirm. He presents the patients relationships to the
controlling state and society, the oppression of the individual in a totalitarian system,
represented by the Nurse, the societal destruction of natural impulses and the fight to retain
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individuality, freedom and diversity in this mechanized world. This struggle for power and
control as the central idea is made evident in the novel through symbolic representations (such
as the fog machine, the white whales on McMurphys boxer shorts, the electroshock therapy
table, or the biblical imagery), as well as through recurrent motifs (such as invisibility,
laughter or reality vs. imagery). Thus, the lesson that Kesey is trying to teach his readers is
about individuality and rebellion against conformity, the state as a controlling machine, the
importance of expressing sexuality and the false diagnosis of insanity.
Martinez challenges Keseys message to his readers: In his novel, the threat to the
individual comes from the institution [.] Kesey places the individual at the mercy of
systemic institutionalization that transforms him into a machine, a Combine. Moreover,
Keseys vision of the institution is a site where the male individual is castrated and the
masculine is sapped by a controlling matriarchy. Only lone and not communal action, as
Chief Bromden (characterized by ethnicity and mental state) does, can be successful in this
institutionalized immobility, symbolized by the mental hospital. (113)
The patients receive medical treatment (lobotomy and electroconvulsive therapy) for
their severe mental illness. They are oppressed by the Big Nurse, who tries to destroy their
identity and sense of dignity, while McMurphy, the embodiment of democracy, comes to save
the situation. Nurse Ratched is the head of the ward. Middle-aged, former army nurse, she is
very strict and expects total submission on the part of the staff and the patients, too. She
controls them through threats: everyonemust follow the rules (Kesey 24, italics mine).
The methods she and her staff use are the ones used by the Government. Nicknamed Big
Nurse by the patients, it is a clear allusion to George Orwells Big Brother (1984), where
the totalitarian, all-knowing authority watched every move one could make, and if somebody
disobeyed the rules, the consequences were drastic: Big Brother is watching you (Orwell 2).
A huge turning-point in the lives of these suppressed individuals occurs when Chief
Bromden, the narrator, who has paranoia and hallucinations, introduces R. P. McMurphy as
different from them. Randle is thirty-five years old, red-haired, with a scar on his face and
tattoos on his body. His physical description is a clue to his outgoing and uninhibited
character as well. Diagnosed as a psychopath, but not really insane, he brings life into the
mental institution. He embodies sexuality, masculinity, confidence and especially freedom.
His loud voice and confident walk stuns everybody as an oddity. His laughter is also
something they admire, as Chief Bromden describes him: Nobody can tell exactly why he
laughs; theres nothing funny going on. But its not the way that Public Relation laughs, its
free and loud.() This sounds real. I realize all of a sudden its the first laugh Ive heard in
years (Kesey 11). A rigid and depressive mood changes into laughter gradually after
McMurphys arrival.
The power of laughter to join so different identities and to heal lasts, however, until
the Big Nurse, representative of the oppressive mechanization and cold stability of modern
society reassigns them to the Shock Shop (electrotherapy) to remind them of their need to fit
into the rules of that society. And she succeeds to literally brainwash them. Moreover,
brainwashing succeeds even better if people are rendered incapable of critical thought, for
instance, by distraction, lack of sleep, or physical suffering. (Gilbert qtd. in Baumeister 235)
This is valid for Dale Harding, a college-educated patient, later president of the
Patients Council, who voluntarily entered the mental institution, due to his sexual orientation.
He wanted to escape peoples judgments and tried to get rid of peoples prejudices by
marrying a very attractive woman, whom he could not satisfy. At one moment in the plot
unfolding, he checks himself out of the ward.
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Another volunteer is the thirty-one years old, stuttering Billy Bibbit, whose major
problem is the fear of his mother, who controls all his life, especially his love affairs.
Immature, shy and impressionable, he comes to take shelter in the hospital from his tyrannical
mother, only to face another tyrant, Nurse Ratched. He looks up to McMurphy who brings
him a sexual partner to rebuild confidence in him, but, when the Nurse finds out, she asks him
what his mother would say if she found out. Fearful, he commits suicide.
Chief Broom Bromden, the son of the chief of the Columbia Indians and of a white
woman, is the oldest patient in the ward; he has been there for ten years. He uses the first
person to tell the story as a flashback after his escape from the mental hospital. He pretends to
be deaf and dumb in order to distract attention. He has paranoia and hallucinations, and he is
treated like a cleaning-machine. Though he is tall, strong and muscular, he acts like a little
child, is unconscious of his own forces, because the Big Nurse makes him feel inferior;
consequently, he becomes a quiet listener and conformer. He becomes a big deaf Indian
(Kesey 26), who represents the traditional values of society.
McMurphy brings a wind of change into this rational and stable world. He makes
everybody feel well and alike, unlike the hospital rules that categorize the patients as Acute,
Chronic, Disturbed, and Vegetables. Chief Bromden reiterates that Nobody like hims ever
been on the ward before. Theyre [the patients] asking him where hes from and what his
business is in a way Ive never seen them before. He says hes a dedicated man () plays
poker and stays single and lives where and how he wants to, if people would let him, he says,
<< but you know how society persecutes a dedicated man>> (Kesey 20). McMurphy himself
admits the fact that not even a strong and dedicated man like him can resist the oppression of
the government. The rules are just too strict to be broken, so, a totally sane man like him ends
up in a mental institution.
McMurphy accepts that he has deceived the system, and has chosen to be interned in
the institution in order to escape jail, because he became involved in quite a lot of unclean
business, including rape. He is the embodiment of freedom and democracy in comparison to
the totalitarian tyrant, Nurse Ratched. He acts like an alarm clock on their dead brains. The
patients start rebelling against Nurse Ratched. Cheswick Charles is the first to support such a
rebellion. His punishment for daring to rebel has to come. He drowns in the pool as a possible
suicide to pay for his disobedience. Democratic acts start taking place since McMuphys
arrival: they vote to watch the baseball match, although they have no permission from the
Nurse. He symbolizes everything that modern society has forgotten. He is the cool, cow-boylike guy, who embodies masculinity, sexuality, confidence and, most of all, he is not afraid to
express his thoughts and feelings.
Although the Nurse represents imperial, masculine power, the Combine [the
Government], she has hard time destroying their sense of dignity. She organizes group
therapy sessions where they discuss the problems publicly by making them confess things
they have not done and hence she induces in them insecurity and vulnerability.
McMurphy is the only one apparently escaping her malefic procedures to annihilate
will and disobedience: "He hadn't let what he looked like run his life one way or the other,
anymore than he'd let the Combine [the Government] mill him into fitting where they wanted
him to fit...He's not gonna let them twist him and manufacture him" (Kesey 153). On the
contrary, even the other patients become aware of the importance of expressing sexuality and
recovering their sense of masculinity: they organize a basketball team, and even if they lose
the game, they have the feeling of having accomplished something important. They finally
feel alive. McMurphy replaces Nurse Ratched as their mentor. He becomes the symbol of the
unique individual, altruistic, who wants to fight to retain this individuality and bring it to
others as well. The society with Big Nurse, as an active member of the system, destroyed the
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patients natural impulses, reducing them to mere mechanical toys easily manipulative and
controllable.
McMurphy adds color to the grey walls of the institution. He takes them fishing,
shows them that life can be beautiful, and they can be treated as humans. Just like Jesus, he
sacrifices his life in order to save others lives. The change is evident. Cheswick finally takes
an attitude, demanding his cigarettes. Harding, the homosexual, forgets all the prejudices and
leaves the ward proud of himself. Chief Bromden finally speaks. He gets out of the fog
machine and realizes he is not small and weak. Similarly, Billy manages to have a sexual
intercourse with a woman.
Unfortunately, what McMurphy did to others turned against him. The Shock Shop and
Nurse Ratched manage to transform him into a brainless vegetable. But not for long, as Chief
releases him when theres nothing in the face. Just one of those store dummies (Kesey 278).
He kills McMurphy: I watched and tried to figure out what he [McMurphy] would have
done. I was sure of one thing: he wouldnt have left something like that sit there in the day
room with his name tacked on it for twenty or thirty years so the Big Nurse could use it as an
example of what can happen if you buck the system.(Kesey 278) McMurphy was really
against the system and paid with the price of his life. Still, the end of the book is not
pessimistic. We can see Chief Bromden getting out of the mental institution. Freedom has
won, the system has lost its power.
Conclusion
The individual will always face social problems in a tyrannical system but leaders
cannot control free minds, hence uniqueness and individuality are the most powerful weapons
against tyranny and totalitarianism.
In the story, McMurphy is punished for challenging authority. First he is crucified
with electro-shock therapy, and then martyred with a lobotomy. Ken Keseys purpose is to
show people who have good lives how life is for people with mental problems. Being crazy is
painful, irrespective of reasons that can be connected to drug addiction or to American way of
life (Kesey qtd in Noah). Further on, Dr. Robert Faggen in Social Aspects of Ken Keseys
One Flew Over a Cuckoos Nest wonders whether you can function in a society based on a
conflict between freedom or authority. The answer Kesey gives through McMurphy and Chief
Bromden is ambivalent and ambiguous at the same time. A cultural ring between two
countercultures, Kesey seems to leave the reader to opt for an adequate answer. While
McMurphy is a visible loss for the American society, Chief Bromden is a gain. Both are
schizophrenic. However, the outcome of the plot is somehow paradoxical. While McMurphy,
white, not drug-addicted, and apparently a good American worker, is unable to discover the
right tools to fight this totalitarian system in the short period of time spent in the mental
hospital and ends up as a vegetable, Chief Bromden, who is mixed-blooded (half Indian, half
white), the oldest patient, manages to solve this conflict and hence to leave the hospital
willingly after regaining his speaking powers. Would that possibly indicate a race issue
needed to be excluded in an increasingly multicultural America? I think the answer is
ambivalent and, therefore, we can speak about the power of Ken Keseys message in A Flew
Over a Cuckoos Nest not only in American culture but in any culture.
Works Cited
[1] Baugess, J.S. & Abbe Allen Debott (eds). Encyclopedia of the Sixties. A Decade of
Culture and Counterculture, Vol. 2. USA: Greenwood, 2012.
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[2] Baumeister, Roy F. The Cultural Animal. Human Nature, Meaning and Social Life.
Oxford: OPU, 2005.
[3] Kesey, Ken. One Flew Over a Cuckoos Nest. London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2003.
[4] Martinez, Manuel Louis. Countering the Counterculture. Rereading Postwar
American Dissent from Jack Kerouac to Toms Rivera. London: The University of Wisconsin
Press, 2003.
[5] Noah, Kelly. Social Aspects of Ken Keseys One Flew Over a Cuckoos Nest.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_lpIkVsGeKc, 27.11.2014.
[6] One Flew Over a Cuckoos Nest. Milos Forman. United Artists, 1975. Film.
[7] Orwell, George. Nineteen Eighty-Four. Fairfield: 1st World Library-Literary
Society, 2004.
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Abstract: While in the times of totalitarianism the Romanian literature was looking for some
of the most sophisticated ways of evasion, the Romanian writer was then faced with a
reinvention. The starting-point was, again, the dream. Mircea Crtrescu, Leonid Dimov,
Dumitru epeneag, tefan Agopian, Corin Braga and others have continued to construct true
oneiric cosmologies, which demonstrated that the Romanian literature has some of the most
interesting, but yet unmined resources.
Keywords: onirism, infrareality, surreality, dream, oneiric imaginary
Dup 1989, preocuparea scriitorilor romni pentru vis a trecut prin multiple faze. Cea
mai la-ndemn continua evaziunile necesare din timpul comunismului. Ele justificau nevoia
de a ocoli direciile ideologice i interveniile cenzurii, rezultnd producii literare ce aveau n
primul rnd un rol de complementaritate. Umpleau locurile aride sau imposibile din realul
agreat cu notaii i plonjri din zona oniric. Aceast faz a continuat oarecum firesc, dintr-un
instinct scriitoricesc, dei timpul istoric, cel puin n aparen, se schimbase. O alt faz
emblematic este i cea mai veche; ea urmeaz obsesia frumoas a lui Breton, pentru care un
scriitor devine complet ntr-un ideal dac reuete s-i viseze via i s-i triasc visele.
Lucru pe care Mircea Crtrescu l i pune n practic odat cu debutul lui n proz (Visul
publicat ulterior cu titlul Nostalgia). Nu cred c e defel ntmpltoare aceast intenie
crtrescian din intimitatea visceral a visului. Crtrescu reia ideea visului i pe cea a
totalitii de la Eminescu i le transform n dogme ale fiinei interioare. Numai c, odat cu
Mircea Crtrescu i perspectivele postmoderniste ale literaturii noastre, vom avea de-a face
cu o adevrat arheologie a visului. Ea comport o dubl alctuire: o arhitectur livresc i
una psihedelic.
Arhitectura livresc a visului are, n primul rnd, un rol recuperator. Crtrescu o
artase i n Levantul. Scriitori precum Heliade-Rdulescu, Eminescu, Macedonski, Arghezi,
Barbu, Dimov, Bogza i alii sunt prini acum ntr-o adevrat arhitectur interioar cu antene
livreti. n al doilea rnd, reface un canon al conceptului. O Cetate oniric construit din cri,
din texte. Borgesian la baz, gestul lui Crtrescu definete, din alte perspective, ce se vor
interioriza acut, literatura romn n ntregul ei, prin dimensiunea oniric.
Pe de alt parte, arhitectura psihedelic are ca genez intuiiile suprarealiste, ns pe
acestea le deceleaz ntr-un mixaj al fiinei i livrescului pstrate n memoria esenializat.
Iat labirintul oniric, pe care Mircea Crtrescu, i nu doar el, caut s i-l explice siei, att
n proz i poezie, ct i n jurnale.
Evident c nu toi scriitorii care au cel puin o dimensiune oniric n scrisul lor se
circumscriu unei atari clasificri. E, totui, prea puin. Ne intereseaz nu doar cei care triesc
cu ardoare visul i lumile lui, ci cei care au reuit s-i construiasc un sistem din noile
realiti oferite de vis. Ne vom referi, n cele ce urmeaz, la doi contemporani cu asemenea
proiecte: Mircea Crtrescu i Corin Braga.
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Mai puin cunoscut i mult mai discret cu tririle sale onirice, Corin Braga a construit
un sistem ancorat strategic n biograficul clandestin. Mircea Crtrescu a fcut din
clandestinitate o formul estetic, pe cnd Corin Braga a rmas un explorator al sinelui
propriu conservat ntr-un soi de intimitate ntredeschis. Crile lui de proz au fost nsoite i
trebuie neaprat nelese prin jurnalele sale onirice: Oniria. Jurnal de vise. 1985-1995 i
Acedia. Jurnal de vise. 1998-2007. Publicarea Oniriei a avut pentru Corin Braga un efect
devastator. El a regretat apariia n haine publice a notaiilor sale intime. Ele s-au mpcat ntro form cathartic cu sinele desprins numai n 2014, cnd apare Acedia.
Tot sistemul oniric al lui Corin Braga are a face cu o secret i fundamental
convergen: visele sunt realitatea, ele o explic i o definesc cel mai bine. Visul continuu, aa
cum l numete el, este poate cea mai ideatic poziionare a scriitorului n lume. i numai aa
poate fi ea explicat n amnunt, pn aproape de suprapunerea cu nsui sensul vieii.
Practica oniric este pentru Corin Braga un exerciiu fundamental al fiinei umane. Nu se
poate ca lumea, aa cum o percepem noi, s dea un sens complet. De aceea, visele vor defini
lumea de zi cu zi vzut pe dos, noteaz el n Oniria. Iar ncrctura lor, sensul pe care-l
dau de fiecare dat, va defini ntrutotul lumea interioar. De aici i sistematizarea lor n proz:
Romanele mele sunt o ncercare de a pune cap la cap imaginile onirice care m-au obsedat,
pentru a alctui un film continu. Pe firul lui ar trebui s se poat cobor pe trmul lumii
celeilalte.
Nimic nu are sens ca inspiraie dect visele, iar singurul lucru ce se poate transforma
n poveste e materia visului, aceasta este credina lui Corin Braga. El se gseste permanent n
cutarea febril a unui vis exploziv, care s m alunge, prin pagina de hrtie, direct n
interiorul lumii, al lumii din interior, altfel degeaba m descnt n caietul de jurnal, noteaz
el n Acedia. Exist n confesiunile lui Corin Braga ceva din ingenuitatea unei Alice care nu
vrea s mai ias din imaginaia oniric. De aceea, din perspectiva maturului i a scriitorului
lucrurile sunt ceva mai complicate. n acest caz, o tripl prezen din interioritatea adnc
unde se prelucreaz visele: Aia spaima anxioas i traumele o definesc, la o reprezentare
comaresc i Peter Pan sindromul adultului care se ncpneaz s pstreze lumea n
ingenuitatea specific vrstei copilriei. De la spaima fr contur, la victoria singurtii
feerice, ntre aceti doi poli, cu mitizrile lor, se deruleaz ntregul discurs al lui Corin Braga.
Cei trei dubli ai singurtii onirice au pentru Corin Braga i valenele unor mti
sociale, unde eul preaplin de oniric ce refuz s se adapteze, dar care trebuie s se i
manifeste. E un conflict fr finalitate, paralizant, de multe ori, semn c trirea oniric duce n
subcontient o lupt zadarnic cu ofensivele realitii. E tensiunea fundamental a lui Corin
Braga, iar soluia presupune s jonglezele printre etajele viselor, pentru a reui s se piard i,
astfel, a se putea regsi.
Frumos paradox, ncercat i de Mircea Crtrescu, dar care reuete i vrea, firete, s
fac prta cititorul la propriile izgoniri din interioritate.
Dac ferestrele onirice ale lui Crtrescu sunt ntotdeauna transparente i multicolore,
abisale, ale lui Corin Braga sunt mate i arereori zgriate, ct s asigure cteva ocheade nspre
afar sau invers.
Mircea Crtrescu a reuit performana de-a-i visa viaa estetizant, i de a-i tri
visele cu patima celui care triete clipa cu efervescen. Iat de ce Mircea Crtrescu este n
clipa de fa un oniric nvins.
Corin Braga gsete tot felul de portale prin care i poate agresa interrioritatea. Boli
ale singurtii onirice, cu alte cuvinte. Una dintre acestea este acedia: prin ea, Braga nelege
imposibilitatea transcenderii, iluzie de evadare, o ascez a plictisului i neproductivitii, fr
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nicio ateptare. Acedia este refuzul realizrii intelectuale, starea epuizrii fiinei din toate
punctele de vedere. Iar medicamentul nu poate fi dect o armonizare a contrariilor sale.
Este interesant de explicat starea de boal oniric a lui Corin Braga prin conceptul de
acedia. Lips a vitalitii i sor a melancoliei, acedia definete o incapacitate structural de a
pleda intelectual i spiritual, stare de zdrnicie, inclusiv a creaiei. Cert e c acedia lui Corin
Braga se transform n formul estetic. Aici va fi vorba despre ce nseamn creator,
inspiraie, frumos, care regleaz legturile cu creaia prin sine nsui. Un soi de supradestin,
cel al scrisului, ajunge s domine dimensiunile onirice. De aceea, Corin Braga decide c locul
de ntlnire unde adevrul reuete s transgreseze distana dintre ficiune i via, unde fiina
abisal i se deschide ca un canal de lav subacvatic spre suprafa i te implic la un mod
ireductibil i definitiv, aici se poate transforma textul n destin i invers.
Cu alte cuvinte, intersecia aceasta complex definete, la fel ca la Mircea Crtrescu,
o infrarealitate. Una esenializat, ce nu mai poate fi schimbat, nici manipulat. Ea vine de
pe urma unei revelaii cathartice, purificatoare, fr ntoarcere. Din acest punct, locul acediei
l ia, finalmente, melancolia, ca stare de ateptare, cum se ntmpl, de asemenea, i la
Mircea Crtrescu.
Nu e mai puin adevrat, pentru ambii scriitori, c n starea oniric revelatoare din
infrarealitate, melancolia ce nlocuiete acedia s nu fie doar o ateptare, ci o permanen.
Frica nou, dar nu la fel de intens ca acedia, este ca nu cumva, asemeni lui Eliade, s se
piard de propriul sacru prin experienele orientale. Yoga ajut, dar presupune i pierderi
grele din categoria muzelor. Cci, orict de terifiant ar fi strile de comaresc sau de acedia,
ele genereaz un imaginar ce se revars ca nesfrit inspiraie ntr-un text reprezentativ.
Odat curat starea de angoas, se pierde cea de inspiraie care, dei negativ ca form,
pozitiveaz luminos ca reprezentare.
Infrarealitatea definete, la ambii scriitori, o contiin crepuscular cum noteaz
undeva n Oniria. E una dintre strile de ieire din scorbura-portal a lui Carroll. Nu neaprat
eliberatoare, ci necesar prin tangena unei realiti ntretiate, structural.
Poate ar fi trebuit s ncep acest studiu despre arheologia visului cu o mrturisire a lui
Mircea Crtrescu din Postmodernismul romnesc, confesiune care a rmas, din pcate,
neneleas: n procesul abolirii realitii, artitii, spune Crtrescu, au nceput de cteva
decenii, cu o nemaipomenit libertate interioar, explorarea miilor de moduri n care realitatea
i ficiunea, posibilul i utopicul, istoria i imaginarul se pot combina pentru mbogirea unei
lumi virtuale de consistena (dar i de farmecul) visului, singura (s.n. M.M.) care-i este dat
omului postmodern. Prin urmare, pentru omul postmodern, singura lume virtual rmne cu
adevrat visul, chiar dac el se alctuiete din cu totul alte (sau exotice) plmade. Visul
rmne fundamentul omului recent, iar Crtrescu se identific, de aceea, cu lumea visului, ca
valorizare unificatoare a tot i toate.
O observaie: dac suprarealismul i primele accente din cultura postmodernist recurg
la numeroase reprezentri ale ntietii visului, ele nu acoper i textul n sine. i amintesc un
exemplu, deseori folosit n varii contexte i de cele mai multe ori eronat. Anume, expresia a
visa cu ochii larg deschii. Ea definete nu att faptul c trieti visele i visezi viaa, ct un
tip de adaptare la text. De adecvare. Scriitorul autentic postmodernist nu se mulumete cu
expresia, seductoare, ce-i drept, care ispitete i generaiile post-postmoderniste. Textul, ca la
Braga i Crtrescu, se construiete deodat cu cititorul, nu se las visat nainte. E o invitaie
de a nelege arhitectura visului, iar nu visul n sine, fantezia, imaginea etc. E la mijloc o
neutralizare a gustului cititorului, dar, i mai important, o invitaie la reinventare, prin
atragerea n dinamica unui vis complet, ce presupune rapoarte dintre ficiune i referenial cu
totul imprevizibile.
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Abstract: Stretched between two opposite poles, the mineral is revealed in Henry Bauchaus
work as the testimony of a quest for identity and for a place in the world. This quest is
realized at the imagination level through a series of conflicting aspirations, which can be
grouped into two divisions: the requirement of the hard and the weight of the gravity. This
dialectic develops a philosophy of the gravity and the lightness, of the possibility to ascend,
resolved by an ethic that proclaims the access to ascendance by confronting the gravity of
life.
Keywords: imagination, mineral, dialectic, ascendance, gravity
Tendue entre deux ples dialectiques, la minralit se rvle dans les crits dHenry
Bauchau le tmoignage de la qute dune identit et dune place dans le monde1. Cette
recherche est soutenue au niveau de limaginaire par une srie daspirations opposes, que
lon peut grouper autour de deux ples : lexigence du dur et le poids de la pesanteur.
Ds le premier roman, le monde est figur dabord sous les traits de la cassure et du
manque de cohsion. Le rcit est construit autour dun je angoiss par le manque de
stabilit : instabilit affective, vacillement des certitudes, rendues travers la sensation de
mou , comme nous lavons vu, sont autant de sentiments qui structurent les actions des
hros, la recherche dun point dappui dur , stable et rassurant. Mais, en mme temps, il y
a aussi une angoisse, une rsistance la stabilit, comme lindiquent les pulsions, les dsirs, la
force et la violence. Gaston Bachelard avait repr dans les notions de mou et de dur
les bases de limagination matrielle :
Dur et mou sont les premiers qualificatifs que reoit la rsistance de la matire, la
premire existence dynamique du monde rsistant. Dans la connaissance dynamique de la
matire - et corrlativement dans les connaissances des valeurs dynamiques de notre tre rien nest clair si nous ne posons pas dabord les deux termes dur et mou. Viennent ensuite les
expriences plus riches, plus fines, un immense domaine dexpriences intermdiaires. Mais
dans lordre de la matire, le oui et le non se disent mou et dur. Pas dimages de la matire
sans cette dialectique dinvitation et dexclusion, dialectique que limagination transposera en
dinnombrables mtaphores, dialectique qui sinversera parfois sous curieuse ambivalence
jusqu dfinir, par exemple, une hostilit hypocrite de la mollesse ou une invite agaante de
la duret. Mais les bases de limagination matrielle rsident dans les images primitives de la
duret et de la mollesse2.
Voir ce sujet nous tudes : Corina Bozedean, Paysage suisse et imaginaire minral chez Henry Bauchau , Revue Internationale Henry
Bauchau, Lcriture lcoute, no. 3/2010 Lancrage suisse , Louvain-la-Neuve, Presses Universitaires de Louivain, p. 91-101 ; Topos
minral et prsence au monde chez Henry Bauchau , Studia Universitatis Petru Maior Philologia, Trgu-Mure, Editura Universitii
Petru Maior, no. 9/2010, p. 206-213 ; Plerinage au cur du minral dans luvre dHenry Bauchau , Studia Universitatis Petru Maior
Philologia, Trgu-Mure, Editura Universitii Petru Maior, no. 7/2008, p. 154-161.
2
Gaston Bachelard, La terre et les rveries de la volont. Essai sur limagination des forces, Paris, Jos Corti, [1948] 1957, p. 18.
1
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Cest la double tentative de grer ces nergies qui sempare de lhomme, une fois quil
en a conscience, et qui rgit ses actions, comme la montr Bachelard : La conscience dtre
une force met notre tre au creuset. Dans ce creuset nous sommes une substance qui se
cristallise ou se sublime, qui tombe ou qui monte, qui senrichit ou qui sallge, qui se
recueille ou qui sexalte 3.
Le je bauchalien des crits diaristes, comme ses personnages, fait lexprience de
ces tats contradictoires. Les journaux, comme par exemple Les annes difficiles, laissent
souvent lire une sensation de mollesse et de drive, en liaison avec le sentiment du peu de
solidit de ldifice de vie (AD, p. 370), procur dans ce cas par la maladie, puis la mort,
de sa belle-fille Annie. En voquant le processus de rdaction de La Dchirure, lcrivain
confesse : Je me sens perdu dans la matire molle du temps, je nai pas treint son corps
dur (EE, p. 63). Au niveau de la fiction, les exemples sont nombreux : Antigone est avertie
dans le roman ponyme par sa sur Ismne quelle doit durcir pour vivre Thbes, pour ne
pas scraser , car ici on dteste ce qui est mou (A, p. 54). Orion, lenfant psychotique
du roman LEnfant bleu, a la main molle (EB, p. 16), expression de lincertitude de son
tre et lexigence dune exprience durcissante .
Durcir signifie arriver trouver un ressort intime, un sens dans lexistence, se mettre
vivre intensment, dpasser ltat flottant et acqurir une consistance compacte en vue de
pouvoir affronter la ralit, car la matire dure apparat comme une grande ducatrice de la
volont humaine, comme la rgulatrice de la dynamognie du travail, dans le sens mme de la
virilisation 4. Ainsi, Antigone se fortifie et sendurcit lpreuve (A, p. 61), dipe []
[l]a endurcie par ses marches incessantes et cet espoir toujours en mouvement (JA, p. 241),
Clios avait d, pour supporter cette vie, [s]endurcir et [s]e fermer (OSR, p. 101),
Vronique, [s]e durci[t] (EB, p. 43), dipe dcouvre que la vie ne se gagne que par un
travail dur et constant (OSR, p. 221). Le dur quivaut une consistance et une plnitude de
lexprience. La duret fuit lanarchie et savre bnfique lorsquelle sincarne dans la forme
juste : Orion, le handicap, dessine, sculpte, face la mer, son esprance en dur (EB, p.
178) ; cest ce que Vasco fait remarquer sa femme : Orion te veut en dur, Vronique, moi
aussi. Le dur cest lart, cest la musique . Travailler la matire abrupte et dure, cest
cela qui console la blessure (D, p. 194). Le dur reprsente ici la matrialisation du spirituel,
lincarnation dans la forme dune vision intrieure, sa transposition dans une forme artistique,
comme le dit Annie Ernaux, cite par Bauchau, dans un de ses journaux : crire, cest
construire en dur, alors que la vie na pas de consistance (PBG, p. 242).
La dialectique du dur et du mou se dveloppe en une philosophie de la pesanteur et de
la lgret, dallgement de la vie. Relie au mal physique du vertige, la pesanteur est perue
par Bauchau comme une menace d aller vers linforme (JAJ, p. 26), mais en mme temps
comme une ncessit qui rvle notre insuffisance, le besoin imprieux des relations, dune
prsence apaise du monde, des objets, des autres (JAJ, p. 25). Nombreux sont les passages
o les personnages dHenry Bauchau accusent les lourdes matires de lesprit (BP, p. 88),
le corps demi mort dune pouvantable pesanteur , le fardeau des actes si lourds , le
poids ignoble de la guerre (BP, p. 95), le poids lourd, enferm d larthrose du
monde dans lequel on avait vcu (PC, p. 300) qui disent la peur de la chute et de
lcrasement, de la perte des fondements du moi.
La mise en question du rapport allgement - pesanteur est largement dploye dans le
roman Le Boulevard priphrique. Pleinement nourri par louvrage de Simone Weil, La
3
4
Gaston Bachelard, Lair et les songes : Essai sur limagination du mouvement, Paris, Jos Corti, 1943, p. 295.
Gaston Bachelard, La terre et les rveries de la volont. Essai sur limagination des forces, op. cit., p. 21.
120
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Pesanteur et la Grce, le roman dHenry Bauchau propose, comme Irne Poutier lobserve,
une possible attitude de ltre au monde, dans le monde, debout, analogue celle de larbre,
ce qui quivaudrait la grce au sens o lentend Simone Weil. La critique conclut son
analyse, en sinterrogeant dune manire rhtorique : La grce. Cest donc possible ? 5. La
question dIrne Poutier invite cerner plus profondment le sens de la dialectique
allgement pesanteur et de sa dimension thique. Pour Simone Weil, lme ne peut chapper
la loi de la pesanteur que par lintervention de la grce, ce qui suppose pour lindividu de
transcender son tat personnel travers lamour et de transformer sa conscience dans la
conscience de lautre.
Le propos dHenry Bauchau, exprim dans le pome Paroles du corps endormi ,
semble proche de celui de Simone Weil : pour combler lvnement de la pesanteur , il
faut descendre dans lamour (PC, p. 303). Lanalyse dIrne Poutier claire un aspect
important li au concept d amour en dur (A, p. 150) exprim par lun des frres fratricides
dAntigone, et qui revient dans Le Boulevard priphrique : il na pas senti, quand jtais
prs de lui, combien ma haine laimait (BP, p. 162). Lhomme dont le je est mort,
comme celui de Shadow, massacr par lhistoire familiale, face la grce ne peut que
dtruire linsupportable amour qui est venu lui rappeler son tat de ruine intrieure 6. Irne
Poutier reproduit un passage de Simone Weil, susceptible dexpliquer la dfaite du je
moribond de Shadow, face Stphane :
Pour ce dont le je est mort, on ne peut rien faire, absolument rien. Mais on ne sait
jamais si, chez un tre humain dtermin, le je est tout fait mort ou seulement inanim. Sil
nest pas tout fait mort, lamour peut le ramener comme par une piqre, mais seulement
lamour tout fait pur, sans la moindre trace de condescendance, car la moindre nuance de
mpris prcipite vers la mort. Quand le je est bless du dehors, il a dabord la rvolte la plus
extrme, la plus amre, comme un animal qui se dbat. Mais ds que le je est moiti mort, il
dsire tre achev et se laisser aller lvanouissement. Si alors une touche damour le
rveille, cest une douleur extrme et qui produit la colre et parfois la haine contre celui qui a
provoqu cette douleur. De l, chez les tres dchus, ces ractions en apparence inexplicables
de vengeance contre le bienfaiteur7.
La question de savoir si la lgret de Stphane est vraiment celle de la grce, est trs
nuance. La lgret est une notion cl chez Nietzsche8, dont Bauchau a t un grand lecteur,
de mme que chez Kundera, qui en traite dans LInsoutenable Lgret de ltre, roman lu par
Bauchau, une poque cependant o le roman tait dj en partie rdig9. La pesanteur et la
grce nest pas lunique source qui a pu irriguer la conception de la notion de lgret
dHenry Bauchau, comme dfi la pesanteur ; elle est susceptible davoir mri au carrefour
de plusieurs lectures. Henry Bauchau rejoint Simone Weil dans le concept dobissance et
dacceptation, dune manire analogue celle de la matire, obissante aux lois physiques et
gouverne par la ncessit, mais avec une certaine rticence : Il faut ntre rien pour que
Irne Poutier, Henry Bauchau : de la ncessit dans la cration , Revue internationale Henry Bauchau, Henry Bauchau et les
arts , N 2, 2009, p. 87.
6
Ibid., p. 81.
7
Ibid.
8
Voir cet gard Olivier Ponton, Nietzsche Philosophie de la lgret, Berlin, De Gruyter Libri, 2007.
9
Bauchau note dans son journal, Passage de la bonne graine : LInsoutenable Lgret de ltre. Il y a longtemps quun roman ne
mavait plus fait pareille impression. Il dit quelque chose de trs juste sur la socit urbaine, sur la vie en gnral si elle nest plus relie au
monde, aux autres, au temps et sans doute nos dieux intrieurs. La part que le hasard, les rencontres, les consquences des consquences
tiennent dans nos vies est vrai dire insoutenable si nous ne marchons pas vers autre chose que nous ignorons mais qui est l, qui nous
appelle sans que nous puissions jamais totalement le rejoindre ni lexprimer (PBG, p. 263).
5
121
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Dieu soit tout, il faut tre obissant comme leau, comme la matire. Ces propositions me
paraissent vraies mais hors de proportion avec mes forces, avec le besoin de scurit de ma
ralit bourgeoise. (AD, p. 121). Il exprime dailleurs dans plusieurs passages son
loignement par rapport la thorie de Simone Weil, quil considre trop absolue (PI, p.
128) :
Il y a eu chez Simone Weil une renonciation la sant alors que chez moi il y a un
effort inabouti vers la sant. Elle me parat se confondre avec le bien, avec la justesse. Simone
Weil a rconcili ma pense avec elle-mme, la matire et la grce. Son ide que la matire
est le grand modle a t illuminante pour moi. Mais son asctisme et sa folie de renoncement
marrtent. Il me semble que ma nature est bien diffrente, bien moins absolue, moins entire.
Ne forons pas notre talent, en somme je nai pas faire le travail de Dieu sa place. Il me
suffit denlever les obstacles, de nettoyer devant ma porte (AD, p. 132).
Si Bauchau accueille lide dobissance par lacceptation des limites inhrentes la
condition humaine, il affirme aussi lexigence de dvelopper sa vie par louverture aux autres
et travers ses actions. cet gard, le personnage ddipe est la figure qui illustre
pleinement lide dune acceptation du destin, tout en essayant de donner un plus de sens
sa vie 10.
En analysant luvre de Nietzsche comme une morale de lallgement de la vie,
Olivier Ponton interroge les notions de lgret, de pesanteur et dallgement, dont lanalyse
apporte des claircissements essentiels pour lapprhension de ces concepts chez Bauchau. O.
Ponton remarque quil faut distinguer entre le bon et le mauvais allgement, de mme quil
faut distinguer entre la fausse et la mauvaise lourdeur, et la fausse et la vraie lgret. La vraie
lgret ne reprsente pas labsence de lourdeur, mais laptitude la supporter ; elle nexclut
pas, mais implique la contrainte de la gravit. Sallger, nest pas se dcharger de la vie, mais
se charger delle avec plus de force ; la vraie lgret, cest la joie de la volont. En
revanche, la lourdeur correspond une volont touffe, crase, qui naspire plus qu se
dcharger de ce qui loppresse 11. Selon le critique, elle reprsente la volont extenue de
ceux qui souffrent de lappauvrissement de la vie. La mauvaise lourdeur est tristesse de la
volont. La bonne lourdeur est une charge quon soulve ; la vie semble dautant plus vraie
quelle semble plus lourde. Le poids des choses rvle lintensit, la densit de la vie qui
simpose avec ses difficults. Cest cette pesanteur qui assume la vritable lgret. Olivier
Ponton propose deux critres pour reprer le bon allgement : dune part, le devenir de soi,
pour celui qui supporte une bonne lourdeur, de lautre, lamour du rel, tel quil est, dans sa
singularit et son tranget. Ceci met en vidence une diffrence essentielle entre la grce de
Simone Weil et lacception de lide dallgement chez Henry Bauchau : Henry Bauchau,
ajoute [] que le dfi de toute cration artistique et, de faon plus gnrale, de toute
existence, est de devenir soi-mme, quel quen soit le tribut, quelle quen soit la violence ou
le dsquilibre. Seulement ensuite sagit-il de seffacer ou de se fondre 12.
Cest prcisment par cette exigence de devenir soi-mme quHenry Bauchau rejoint
lthique de Nietzsche. Analyse dans cette perspective, il semble que la lgret de Stphane
est une fausse lgret en ce quelle va vers un allgement qui ne consiste pas allger sa vie,
Anne Begenat - Neuschfer, Temps narr et temps existentiel dans dipe sur la route dHenry Bauchau , Revue Internationale Henry
Bauchau, N 1, op. cit., p. 58.
11
Olivier Ponton, op. cit., p. 2.
12
Irne Poutier, Henry Bauchau : de la ncessit dans la cration , loc. cit., p. 79.
10
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mais sallger de la vie. Il finit par sabmer dans lindiffrence, il ignore la joie et ne veut
pas du spasme de la jouissance (BP, p. 207). Sa lgret rappelle celle de la libert et du
libertinage sans attache (il na ni femme, ni enfants), de la vacuit, propre aux personnages de
Milan Kundera13 : Stphane tait un homme qui avait tout perdu, ctait l sa perfection. Il
navait encore perdre que sa vie, mais il ny attachait aucune importance (BP, p. 23).
Stphane choue dans laffirmation de soi, car la ncessit dans laquelle il vit nest pas
volontaire , mais se rapproche un peu de celle de lne et du chameau dont Nietzsche se
moque, non parce quils portent, mais parce quils portent passivement, parce quils subissent
tristement la charge quils transportent14. Lexistence ne prend son sens que lorsque ltre
essaie daffirmer son authenticit et son accomplissement. La vie de ltre est donne en tant
que destin accomplir, preuves affronter, volont de lhomme de mettre en uvre ce qui
lui est constitutif.
En supportant la lourdeur de la vie, dipe accde lallgement, tout comme le rve
de peser ressenti par le Zarathoustra de Nietzsche est aussi un rve de vol parce quil a
la lgret aile quil pse sur le monde 15. Loiseau figur par Bauchau dans le tableau La
traverse des grandes eaux, comme lobserve une amie de lcrivain, est charg de douleur,
de dpressions, mais il vole (JA, p. 327).
En comparaison avec dipe, le dtachement de Stphane ressemble une certaine
apathie, il ne cherche pas dpasser son impuissance, comme on peut le constater dans
lpisode o il risque de se noyer : Tu las vu, je ne peux pas ! La vie comme a, la vie qui
est ainsi, qui na pas cess de me heurter depuis ma petite enfance ne le trouble pas, lui. Il y a
l une interdiction dans son corps, il constate quil na pas pu. Cest tout, pas de commentaire,
pas de conclusion (BP, p. 57). Cet allgement, qui met en pril le principe dindividuation,
finit par se retourner contre lui-mme et permet Shadow de lui imposer une part de
pesanteur : Cest cette supriorit, cet allgement mle, corporel, sexu de Stphane que jai
briss. Oui, je suis arriv faire entrer de la force, tu entends, faire ingurgiter Stphane
une part suffisante de pesanteur pour tre connu de lui (BP, p. 96). La pesanteur effrayante
et satanique de Shadow, o tout est mtaux, lourdes matires de lesprit (BP, p. 88),
empche Stphane de devenir soi-mme. Le mauvais allgement de Stphane et la mauvaise
lourdeur de Shadow sont deux mouvements opposs qui mnent galement un faux
allgement :
Cest le mme mouvement vers la concentration. Mais lun dborde, se vide, devient
de lair, de la lumire, atteint peut-tre le vide ncessaire au dieu. Lautre se durcit, salourdit,
concentre de la matire dense, de la connaissance toujours plus varie, toujours plus opaque
[] Peut-tre arriverons-nous au mme rsultat, moi par la haine et la pesanteur, avec tout ce
fardeau de mes actes si lourds, avec le poids ignoble de cette guerre et de ses dessous puants,
je pense que je serai accueilli, dcouvert, retrouv, exactement comme Stphane [] qui a
connu ce destin presque parfait : tre un hros inconnu. Sans moi, aurait-il atteint la mort
parfaitement allg, dpouill ? Oui, dpouill mme de cet amour qui la justement mond
(BP, p. 95).
En revanche, le narrateur du Boulevard priphrique se charge de la vie et lassume
dans toutes ses dimensions, il emploie sa volont assumer ses obstacles : moi aussi, je
La contradiction lourd-lger structure le roman de lcrivain tchque. Il y a dune part des personnages qui ne cherchent pas la passion,
qui se contentent du plaisir immdiat, sans sattacher rien et qui incarnent la lgret ; de lautre, il y a ceux qui sont attaches des
principes une morale prdtermine.
14
Cf. Olivier Ponton, op. cit., p. 1.
15
Gaston Bachelard, Lair et les songes : Essai sur limagination du mouvement, op. cit., p. 181-184.
13
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pse lourd avec ma cargaison despoirs, de dsirs, damour en regard de la petite barque et de
la grande voile blanche de Stphane (BP, p. 89).
Lantinomie entre lgret et pesanteur, mise en question travers les trois
personnages, rvle un cheminement vers soi-mme o de toute sa pesanteur, on continu[e]
peser sur la vie (PC, p. 300), o le cri de joie (BP, p. 98) nexclut pas la douleur, o
lhomme ne peut tre que ce quil est. Dans cette voie, qui est le chemin vers soi-mme, ce
quil faut savoir avant tout, cest saffronter soi, se brler dans sa propre flamme, comme le
fait le peintre Florian et comme lexige Zarathoustra : comment voudrais-tu te renouveler
sans ttre dabord rduit en cendres ? 16. Cest en ce sens quon peut notamment
comprendre la condition de natif / de mes ruines surgissantes , chre Bauchau.
La grce de Stphane reste un espoir de la grce 17 car, pour rpondre la question
dIrne Poutier, la grce semble possible seulement dans la mort. Dans lamour devenu haine,
la conscience de Stphane ne sefface jamais dans la conscience de Shadow, comme dans la
cellule de la prison, o le souffle de Shadow reste dans une position parallle celle de
Stphane (BP, p. 152). Ils descendent dans lamour seulement par-del la vie, comme le
laisse comprendre les penses de Stphane dans les heures qui prcdent sa mort :
Il regarde cet amour qui sest autrefois lev en lui. Cet amour qui tait, qui se voulait
sans espoir ntait que le signe dun amour spar. Il pressent confusment quil y a un
espace immense, proche du moment o il fut dit : Que la lumire soit. Que la terre et les
eaux se sparent. Dans ce temps il ny a pas de mots et mme le barde, le pote, le
constructeur dabmes et de ciel nont plus de mots, ni le penseur de penses. L, pas damour
spar, pas de diffrences entre amour et haine, entre dsir et jouissance, il ny a rien, rien et
tout (BP, p. 156).
La convocation dun autrefois , dun espace et dun temps autres que le prsent, o
la fusion de la propre conscience de lun dans celle de lautre soit possible, infirme
lacceptation de ce qui est. Le retour dans ce pass davant la gense soppose lternel
retour nietzschen, qui consiste revivre tout ce quon a prouv, la vie telle quelle fut, dans
une rptition continuelle. La grce de Stphane est lattente dun salut qui vienne dun futur,
qui nest que le pass de la mort. Et Shadow de le dire :
Ce que je voulais cest que par sa mort nous entrions lun dans lautre par une sorte
daccouplement spirituel particulirement long et pesant. Jai la satisfaction de te dire que jai
russi et que dune certaine faon Stphane est devenu non pas un ami, lami est toi, si tu
parviens un jour faire quelque chose de toi. Je nen ai pas fait un ami, mais ce que je
voulais, ce que je dsirais : un gal (BP, p. 96).
Les paroles de Shadow remettent en cause la grce de Stphane : profondeur et grce
mles 18, Shadow et Stphane fondus lun dans lautre deviennent possibilit dans une
antriorit ou postriorit, dans labsolu de la mort. Si lauthenticit de lexistence, ou la
grce, suppose le renoncement soi, tout renoncement nest pas grce ; le renoncement ne
doit pas tre voulu, mais assum dans la ncessit des doutes et des preuves.
16
Friedrich Nietzsche, Ainsi parlait Zarathrousta, Raleigh, Hayes Barton Press, 2006, p. 46.
Irne Poutier, Henry Bauchau : de la ncessit dans la cration , loc. cit., p. 86.
18
Ibid., p. 87.
17
124
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Dailleurs, Stphane natteint pas la grce, non seulement cause de son mauvais
allgement, mais parce que le don de la grce, comme transcendance de ltat personnel et
transformation de sa conscience dans la conscience de lautre, semble rserv une
dimension de lexistence antrieure ce moment o il fut dit : Que la lumire soit . Seul
lespace des tnbres est susceptible de concilier la pesanteur et lallgement, autrement
comment pourrait-on comprendre cette impossibilit dunion avre aussi entre Clios et
Alcyon, condamne rester parallle, et ainsi tente par Alcyon dans le chant qui prcde sa
mort ?
La musique de sa flte semblait monter de la terre elle-mme, avec sa charge dherbes,
de fleurs et de montagnes et slever dans lair pour y faire, dans lespace, une rencontre
indicible []. La flte dAlcyon sest arrte, il chantait et ce chant ntait pas form de
paroles. Ctait, partant du a et parcourant lentement toute ltendue des voyelles, lenvol
souverain dun oiseau. Sans le prononcer jamais, ce chant disait mon nom et le liait au sien
dans ce vaste lan parallle. Nos deux noms se faisaient face, se regardaient passionnment,
sans jamais se rejoindre, prolongeant lamour par un renoncement indfini quperdu
dadmiration je ne pouvais cependant mempcher de har (OSR, p. 89).
Lamour ml la haine, qui ne drive pas ici dun mcanisme psychique, comme
dans le cas de Shadow, renvoie la monade originelle, seule susceptible de faire concider les
contraires. Lamour, si puissant soit-il, et si puissant soit le renoncement qui en dcoule, ne
permet pas de dpasser la dualit, et donc daccder la grce. Autrement dit, la dissolution
dans la conscience de lautre nest quune tape dans la rappropriation de soi, qui consiste
en une pleine prsence soi, travers lautre, mais non pas dans lautre. La grce reste un
absolu, qui ne sinscrit pas dans la logique bauchalienne, fonde sur les relativismes. Le
problme de la vie devient celui de son allgement, par la pleine concidence de soi et du
monde, propre ltat de recueillement, qui dpasse les inquitudes personnelles et les
bouleversements existentiels.
Le mou et le dur, lallgement et la pesanteur sont des tensions antagonistes aussi
ncessaires les unes que les autres dans la marche sur la route quest la vie. Si le monde est
fait de grandes forces en mouvement (TC, p. 73), comme le constate Temoudjin,
lindividu est toujours en devenir. En consquence, lexigence matrielle du sujet nest jamais
la mme, mais une suite dalternances et doprations contraires, comme le dit une note du
Journal dAntigone date le 3 juillet 1994:
La drive, ltat flottant, lincertitude du monde actuel me psent et souvent
minquitent, mais aprs tout, cela vaut mieux que les deux blocs gels dans leurs fausses
certitudes que nous avons connues. Cela rend possible les tristes dcompositions qui sont
ncessaires et sans lesquelles rien de juste ne se recomposera (JA, p. 335).
Bibliographie de luvre :
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BAUCHAU Henry : Posie complte, Arles, Actes Sud, 2009 (PC) ; Le Boulevard
priphrique, Arles, Actes Sud, 2008 (BP) ; Le Prsent dincertitude. Journal 2002-2005,
Arles, Actes Sud, 2007 (PI) ; LEnfant bleu, Arles, Actes sud, [2004], 2006 (EB) ; La
Dchirure, [Paris, Gallimard, 1966], Arles, Actes Sud, 2003 (D) ; Jour aprs jour. Journal
1983-1989, [Bruxelles, Les peronniers, Maintenant ou jamais , 1992], Arles, Actes Sud,
Babel , 2003 (JAJ) ; Passage de la Bonne-Graine. Journal (1997-2001), Arles, Actes Sud,
2002 (PBG) ; Antigone, [Arles, Actes Sud, 1997], Paris, Jai lu, 2001 (A) ; Thtre complet :
La reine en amont, Gengis Khan, Promthe enchan, Arles, Actes Sud, Papiers , 2001
(TC) ; Lcriture lcoute, Arles, Actes Sud, 2000 (EE) ; Journal dAntigone (1989-1997),
Arles, Actes Sud, 1999 (JA) ; dipe sur la route, Arles, Actes Sud, Babel , [1990] 1992
(OSR).
Bibliographie critique slective :
BACHELARD Gaston, La terre et les rveries de la volont. Essai sur limagination
des forces, Paris, Jos Corti, [1948] 1957, p. 18.
BACHELARD Gaston, Lair et les songes : Essai sur limagination du mouvement,
Paris, Jos Corti, 1943, p. 295.
BEGENAT - NEUSCHFER Anne, Temps narr et temps existentiel dans dipe
sur la route dHenry Bauchau , Revue Internationale Henry Bauchau, N 1, op. cit., p. 53-66.
Olivier PONTON, Nietzsche Philosophie de la lgret, Berlin, De Gruyter Libri,
2007.
POUTIER Irne, Henry Bauchau : de la ncessit dans la cration , Revue
internationale Henry Bauchau, Henry Bauchau et les arts , N 2, 2009, p. 74-87.
NIETZSCHE Friederich, Ainsi parlait Zarathrousta, Raleigh, Hayes Barton Press,
2006.
Finanarea pentru publicarea acestei lucrri s-a realizat de ctre Programul
Operaional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane prin proiectul Sistem integrat de
mbuntire a calitii cercetrii doctorale i postdoctorale din Romnia i de promovare a
rolului tiinei n societate: POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652.
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Abstract: Naipauls literary career encompasses both specific Trinidadian novels like The
Mystic Masseur and A House for Mr. Biswas and diasporic and migrant fiction, which
includes The Mimic Men, Half a Life and Magic Seeds. In between the anguish of dislocation
that characterizes The Mimic Men and the global journey in search of identity undertaken by
Willie Chandran in Half a Life and its sequel, comes the narrative of The Enigma of Arrival,
a book dedicated to the authors effort at belonging to the community of rural Wiltshire in his
adoptive country, Great Britain. The failure to belong testifies to Naipauls conceptualization
of the (post)colonial subject as situated outside strict national locations. My paper aims to
offer a historical perspective on V.S. Naipauls fiction, showing that the construction of
subjectivity and identity in his novels is associated with early postcolonial independence, with
the rise of anti-colonial nationalism and the task facing postcolonial nations of healing old
bruises and re-building identity from a new position. Naipauls fiction, in spite of the authors
repeated professions that I am my own person, is haunted by the desire to belong, a
product of the early phase of nationalism. Nevertheless, his novels engage critically with the
nationalist project, revealing the contradictions and conflicts that plague postcolonial
nationalisms. In Naipauls last novels the focus shifts from an understanding of subjectivity in
terms of roots (or rather the lack thereof) to one in terms of routes. This change of outlook
can be pinned down to a radical transformation in world economy, politics and culture:
globalization. On the other hand, the authors experienced marginality as a member of the
Indian community in Trinidad may explain his long stubborn refusal to identify himself as a
Trinidadian. While the historical context of decolonization and early nation building infused
Naipauls prose with a desire to belong, his geographical marginality engendered a
repudiation of and reluctance to belonging. This contradiction translated in fictional works
informed by a fierce critique of postcolonial national politics and at the same time haunted by
the longing to belong.
Keywords: text and context, (post)colonial identity, mimicry, existentialism
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ideology. Nevertheless, his novels engage critically with the nationalist project, revealing the
contradictions and conflicts that plague postcolonial nationalisms. In Naipauls last novels the
focus shifts from an understanding of subjectivity in terms of roots (or rather the lack thereof)
to one in terms of routes. This change of outlook can be pinned down to a radical
transformation in world economy, politics and culture: globalization. On the other hand, the
authors experienced marginality as a member of the Indian community in Trinidad may
partly explain his long stubborn refusal to identify himself as a Trinidadian. While the
historical context of decolonization and early nation building infused Naipauls prose with a
desire to belong, his geographical marginality engendered a repudiation of and reluctance to
belonging. This contradiction translated in fictional works informed by a fierce critique of
postcolonial national politics and at the same time haunted by the longing to belong.
After the publication of Half a Life, whose protagonist is an Indian from India,
Naipaul was asked by an Indian interviewer whether the creation of Willie Chandran meant
that the author started feeling more of an Indian. To this question Naipaul offered the
following reply, which is also a perfect statement of his position:
What do you mean more Indian ...? I don't like such terms. I said when receiving the
Nobel Prize that I was born in Trinidad, I have lived most of my life in England and India is
the land of my ancestors. That says it all. I am not English, not Indian, not Trinidadian. I am
my own person. (qtd. in Trivedi www.findarticles.com)
Against this response we can set Naipauls statement in an interview with Derek
Walcott: I do not think one can ever abandon ones allegiance to ones community, or at any
rate to the idea of ones community. (6) Although these affirmations appear contradictory at
first sight, the dialectic between the acknowledgement of allegiance and the refusal of
identification can prove extremely useful for an understanding of Naipauls fiction and nonfiction alike. A sense of allegiance to community is not the same thing as identification. Out
of loyalty to ones community, one can choose to reveal harsh truths about it and analyze it
critically.
Naipauls literary career encompasses both specific Trinidadian novels like The Mystic
Masseur and A House for Mr. Biswas and diasporic and migrant fiction, which includes The
Mimic Men, Half a Life and Magic Seeds. In between the anguish of dislocation that
characterizes The Mimic Men and the global journey in search of identity undertaken by
Willie Chandran in Half a Life and its sequel, comes the narrative of The Enigma of Arrival, a
book dedicated to the authors effort at belonging to the community of rural Wiltshire in his
adoptive country, Great Britain. Yet this novel, too, in spite of the deep yearning for roots that
is evident in the descriptions of natural background and simple rural life, stages the
impossibility of the uprooted Naipaul to find home anywhere in the world. In the end,
England remains an enigma, a country of his imagination: the novel is made up mostly of the
narrators life-impressions and his struggles with creation- there are few real experiences
recounted in the book.
The structural conflict in Naipauls fiction is that between the desire to belong (which
Naipaul construes as idealism) and the rational acknowledgement that such a desire is
impossible to gratify, given the historical context in which he was born and raised. The
impossibility to belong to Trinidad (his native country) is posited on a specific colonial
history that led to the creation in Trinidad (as in many other colonies) of unnatural, Westernmade, half-made societies, with no organic link between the individual and his environment.
In such communities, originally based on mercantilism and plunder, the individual is unable
to construct a meaningful identity, because he lacks the institutional framework that orientates
individual life-projects. In A House for Mr. Biswas, the importance of what we may call
positive freedom stands out for the journalist that can never afford to buy a decent house as he
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does not possess enough of this kind of freedom and independence. Positive freedom 1, as
defined by Isaiah Berlin in Two Concepts of Liberty (131-4) consists in self-realization, and
individual self-fulfillment is often embedded in a network of social groups and communities
capable of offering their members a positive choice among valuable life-projects. It is positive
freedom that is hard to achieve in artificial and half-made societies like the one in Trinidad,
which lack proper social/political institutions and traditions that can provide a modicum of
social cohesion. Without these institutions which offer intelligible frameworks for lifeprojects, society remains highly volatile, segregated and unorganized and individuals are
deprived of the very basis for the construction of subjectivity.
Naipauls deep sense of rootlessness and his rejection of Trinidad as the archetype of
the improvised postcolonial nation can be also traced back to the marginality of the Indians in
Trinidadian society-a particularity of the colonial history of the Caribbean. Bridget Brereton
offers a detailed perspective on the historical context that had precipitated the import of
Indian labour force through the indentureship system in the decades following the liberation
of black slaves in 1838. The arrival of the Indians coincided with one of the most important
moments in the history of the Caribbean: new ethnic groups appeared that made Trinidad a
heterogeneous, cosmopolitan society (i) and great economic shifts were underway. Although
Trinidad was mostly a white dominated society (by Spanish, French and British elites) these
economic shifts led to new class patterns and gradually a non-white middle class was
emerging, augmented from below (i). The Indians, although initially brought in a new form
of slavery to replace the freed blacks as labour force on the cocoa and sugar cane estates,
managed to rise socially faster than the blacks, due to their traditional culture that emphasized
education and knowledge-and formed a large part of the non-white middle class. Their
position was naturally envied by the blacks and the Creoles, who looked on Indians with
suspicion. There were also other reasons for the Indians marginality within Trinidadian
society:
the Indians remained marginal to Creole society. For many decades after their initial
arrival, they were viewed as a group of migrant labourers, birds of passage, who would not
remain to form a permanent part of the population. Even when, after the1870s, it became clear
that substantial numbers had chosen to settle permanently, the Indians remained largely
outside the Creole society. They showed no desire to play a wider part in the island society,
and mostly abstained from Creole activities, apparently satisfied with the traditional values of
their own culture. [] Indians were difficult to locate in the Creole colour hierarchy, being
neither black nor white. (2)
As it appears from Breretons study, the category of Indian in Trinidad corresponded
loosely with Kristevas definition of the abject, that which does not fit easily into any
category due to its ambiguity. Kristeva points out that it is a common feature of human
cultures to try to oust the abject-and so it is no wonder that Indians were regarded with
suspicion and marginalized. The Indians, of course, reciprocated the attitude of the black and
Creole population. In The Middle Passage, Naipaul dwells on the racial tensions between the
Indians and the blacks, claiming that they took center stage in the segregated society of
Trinidad: When people speak of the race problem in Trinidad they do not mean the Negrowhite problem. They mean the Negro-Indian rivalry. (78) The antagonisms between blacks
and Indians are a specific product of white colonization, driven by the principle divide et
impera:
In a lecture recently given at the French Institute in Bucharest, Julia Kristeva focused on the two models of freedom that Berlin defined as
negative and positive, noting that negative freedom is Kantian and European, while positive freedom, the freedom to choose from many
alternatives and to exercise subjective creativity was first defined in the independent American states.
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The Negro has a deep contempt [] for all that is not white; his values are the values
of white imperialism at its most bigoted. The Indian despises the Negro for not being an
Indian; he has, in addition, taken over all the white prejudices against the Negro.... Indians
and Negroes appeal to the unacknowledged white audience to see how much they despise one
another. They despise one another by reference to the whites (80)
The segregation of Trinidadian society is analyzed extensively in The Middle Passage
and dramatized in The Mimic Men, where Naipauls description of racial and ethnic
fragmentation on Isabella corresponds to the sociopolitical climate on Trinidad and the
neighbouring islands. By exposing the racism and the stereotypes prevalent in the school
system (a system set up by the white colonizers), Naipaul is able to put his finger on the
terrible illness engendered by colonialism: self-division. His bleak outlook and political
pessimism evident in the novel may be put down to the authors disillusionment with preindependence politics in the Caribbean. Naipauls political hopes, as he confessed in The
Middle Passage, were for a coalition government between blacks and Indians which would
undertake nation building on the basis of shared communal values. According to Peter Simms
(24), this type of government appeared for a while in the coalition between the East Indian
Cheddi Jagan and the black Forbes Burnham in British Guyana in 1953. The Burnham-Jagan
government offered Naipaul the historical antecedent for his exploration in The Mimic Men of
an experiment in early independence politics conducted by the Indian-black coalition of Singh
and Browne. The historical coalition government of Jagan and Burnham ended disastrously
after only a few months, and British troops were called upon to crush the resulting estate
strikes. Naipaul, initially thrilled by the possibilities of such a government, suffered a great
disillusionment, and his opinion of Burnham was radically transformed in 1961, when
Burnham, a great rhetorician, changed his message to one that intensified existing racial
tensions in an attempt to defeat Jagan, now turned his adversary.
Naipauls negative view of cultural hybridity (The Mystic Masseur, A House for
Mr.Biswas) is also a product of his historical background. Kavita Nandan claims that Naipaul
cannot celebrate the developing creole culture of the Caribbean like African-Caribbean
writers such as Lamming and Edward Kamau Brathwaite because the indentured East
Indian community of the West Indies was largely a homogenous group isolated from other
cultures, a consequence of their refusal to inter-marry with AfroCaribbeans.(www.findarticles.com). Building on Naipauls metaphor of arrival as the
perpetual condition of the migrant, dislocated self (The Enigma of Arrival), Victor Ramraj
makes the same point:while the Afro-Caribbeans are, to use Edward Kamau Brathwaite's
term arrivants, however dislocated and ambivalent, the Indo-Caribbean assimilationists are
perpetual arrivers, who find themselves at the harbour contemplating the enigma of their
arrival" (Still Arriving 84).
In his 1990 Wriston Lecture, Our Universal Civilization, Naipaul describes the East
Indian community on Trinidad Island in the following terms:
We were a people of ritual and sacred texts. [] But it couldn't be said that we were a
literary people. Our literature, our texts, didn't commit us to an exploration of our world;
rather, they were cultural markers, giving us a sense of the wholeness of our world and the
alienness of what lay outside. I don't believe that, in his family, anyone before my father
would have thought of original literary composition. That idea came to my father in Trinidad
with the English language; somehow, in spite of the colonial discouragements of the place, an
idea of the high civilization connected with the language came to my father; and he was given
some knowledge of literary forms. (www.manhattan-institute.org)
Naipaul acknowledges his affiliation with Indian culture and history and his debt to
the English language, which introduced him to an idea of high civilization and writing as a
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personal and deeply original act. Although he has been intensely criticized by leftist critics for
his admiration of canonical English literature, it is a courageous gesture on the part of a
person who suffered (and exposed in his novels) the ills of colonial exploitation to
acknowledge both the drawbacks and the benefits of colonization. It is also part of his
objective writer persona. His notorious travelogue about India An Area of Darkness
employs this objective persona in order to give a comprehensive account of Indian civilization
and identity. It is my contention that this travelogue, far from being just a plain objective
account of Indian realities, serves as both a gesture of inscription and erasure. By his
description of petty incidents, characters and slices of Indian life, Naipaul attempts to inscribe
certain Indian cultural features into his writer persona, while erasing his sense of
identification with his India. Originally in search of his roots (he is undertaking the journey
with the express purpose of finding the village in Utar Pradesh from which his ancestors had
emigrated to Trinidad2), he ends the narrative of his journey with a meditation on illusion and
negation, pitting his experience in India against his homelessness: It was only now, as my
experience in India defined itself against my own homelessness, that I saw how close in the
past year I had been to the Indian negation, how much it had become the basis of thought and
feeling. (339) This capacity of negating something by an identification with the source of
negation is perhaps a standard feature of Naipaulian irony. Paradoxically, he grounds his
homelessness (and thus rejects his identification with India as home) on the idea of negation
as an Indian cultural specificity. Moreover, by the end of the book it has become perfectly
clear to the reader that the ideas of illusion, negation and ruin3 are one of the few worthwhile
characteristics of Indian realities, since most of the book is dedicated to Naipauls minute
criticism of the social and historical ills affecting Indian society.
While accusing Naipauls travelogues of adding to the familiar grid of Western
perceptions images of India as a place of heat and dust, Dipesh Chakrabarty acknowledges
that there is more to Naipauls critique than a simple pandering to Western tastes:
What it speaks is the language of modernity, of civic consciousness and public health,
of even certain ideas of beauty related to the management of public space and interests, an
order of aesthetics from which the ideals of public health and hygiene cannot be separated. It
is the language of modern governments, both colonial and post-colonial, and for that reason it
is the language not only of imperialist officials but of modernist nationalists as well. (Of
Garbage 541)
Chakrabartys observation proves especially useful when trying to elucidate Naipauls
controversial position on the issue of nationalism. While some critics claim that his fiction
and non-fiction reflects an unenthusiastic view of postcolonial nationalism and nationbuilding (Greenberg 214), Dipesh Chakrabarty associates Naipauls discourse with a specific
modernist nationalist ideology and aligns him with Gandhi4 in deploring the absence of a
citizen-culture on the part of the people (541) A fair appraisal of Naipauls position
regarding nationalist issues has to take into account the historical sociopolitical conditions
that changed him from an early supporter of independence politics to a disillusioned critic of
nation-building in the former colonies.
2
The journey described in An Area of Darkness was undertaken by Naipaul in 1962, one year after his disillusionment with postindependence politics in the Caribbean.
3
In The Enigma of Arrival, Naipaul claims again that his bleak and pessimistic vision is a heritage from his Indian ancestors: To see the
possibility, the certainty, of ruin, even at the moment of creation: it was my temperament. Those nerves had been given me as a child in
Trinidad partly by our family circumstances: the half-ruined or broken-down houses we lived in, our many moves, our general uncertainty.
Possibly, too, this mode of feeling went deeper and was an ancestral inheritance, something that came with the history that made me: not
only India, with its ideas of a world outside men's control, but also the colonial plantations or estates of Trinidad, to which my impoverished
Indian ancestors had been transported in the last century. (52)
4
Besides Gandhi, Chakrabarty pairs Naipaul with Nirad Chaudhuri, a self-declared Anglophile who offended many Indians because of his
open admiration for the British Raj. Dissatisfied with Indian politics and what he saw as the failure of the nationalist project of Gandhi and
Nehru, Chaudhuri moved to Britain in the 1970s and lived in Oxford until his death at the age of 101.
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indifference, it is no wonder that the colonial/postcolonial quest for identity is fraught with
obstacles and self-knowledge is painful to arrive at. Because of this obsessive concern with
the recovery of the past-a past that acts as a burden, placing restrictions on the construction of
subjectivity-Naipauls prose looks bleak and pessimistic. Fawzia Mustafa notes that instead of
resistance and contestation, his fiction offers its readers only an existentialist epiphany of
marginality (106). Paradoxically, the same contention was echoed by the Nobel Prize
Committee, who awarded him the Nobel for works that compel us to see the presence of
suppressed histories. (Nobel Prize in Literature 2001 nobelprize.org) Naipaul has been often
contested by his critics (who notoriously included Edward Said), yet this contestation took
place in a context which was inimical to the reception of his prose, in the high decades of
postcolonial theory, when political engagement seemed to call for a more actively-challenging
attitude on the part of writers from the former colonies. Thus he was judged and interpreted
from a perspective that did not do any justice to his fiction.
Naipauls valuable contribution to postcolonial as well as world literature lies exactly
in his unearthing of suppressed histories, histories of people oppressed or erased by centuries
of colonization. His intellectual sincerity prevents him from giving the suppressed a voiceand thus his fiction embarks on a journey of discovery and self-discovery that problematizes
the past and its carefully hidden secrets. The impulse behind his fiction is the horror (the
Conradian horror) one feels towards the discovery of terrible atrocities lying underneath the
layers of colonial history (Naipauls drive is to remove the upper crust in order to reveal what
lies beneath). In his Nobel Lecture, Naipaul recounts his visit to the British Museum to read
the documents left by the Spanish in Venezuela, documents that testified to the genocide of
the Chaguanes Indians (the native inhabitants of Trinidad) at the hand of the Spaniards,
following the support they had given the English. The discovery that he had been living on
the land of the cruelly murdered Indians came as a shock to Naipaul:
The world is always in movement. People have everywhere at some time been
dispossessed. I suppose I was shocked by this discovery in 1967 about my birthplace because
I had never had any idea about it. But that was the way most of us lived in the agricultural
colony, blindly. There was no plot by the authorities to keep us in our darkness. I think it was
more simply that the knowledge wasn't there. The kind of knowledge about the Chaguanes
would not have been considered important, and it would not have been easy to recover. (Two
Worlds nobelprize.org)
In conclusion, any reading of his novels informed by the awareness of his literary
purpose will yield better results than the approach favored by many of his critics, who focus
on his foreclosure of invention and contestation. Writing on the cusp of decolonization,
Naipaul is understandably preoccupied with the issue of how the past is able to shape (and
impose constraints) on the future, and his importance as a postcolonial writer resides in an
extensive analysis of colonial/postcolonial ills and an attending vivisection of the diseased
postcolonial subject, rarely capable of freedom and the attainment of an authentic existence.
Works cited:
Berlin, Isaiah. Two Concepts of Liberty. An Inaugural Lecture. in Isaiah Berlin,
Four Essays on Liberty, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969
Brereton, Bridget. Race Relations in Colonial Trinidad 1870-1900. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1979
Chakrabarty, Dipesh. Of Garbage, Modernity and the Citizens Gaze. Economic and
Political Weekly vol.27, no.10, Mar. 1992. 541-547
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Abstract: Both dramatist and expert in many theatrical departments, Dario Fo creates an
original performance, in the middle of a strong artistic phenomenon (dominated by
personalities as Carmelo Bene, Carlo Quartucci, Leo de Berardinis, etc.). The drama created
by Dario Fo is, undoubtedly, a product| obtained as a result of the huge experience as
actor and stage director. His texts are the basis of theatricality (as the italian canovacci from
commedia dellarte), and offer priority to the art of acting. They become dependent on the
resources of the histrionic technique, on the liberties of improvisation performed in the
medieval comical theatre (giullari or the court jester), on grammelot (an encoded theatrical
language). Dario Fo recuperates the genuine performative instinct from the medieval theatre,
which relies on the actors technique and on the particularities of the language (dialect,
sounds and the musical expression of voice).
Creator al unui spectacol destinat n ntregime artei actorului, i al unui sistem cvasiabstract de cuvinte ce alctuiesc textul de spectacol, Dario Fo contureaz - prin formula one
man show - una dintre cele mai energice dar controversate entiti teatrale ale secolului XX.
Teatrul su poate fi privit din perspective diverse, fie aliniat unui curent foarte larg de
culturalizare a maselor (n stilul lui Habib Tanvir), fie ca manifest politic dup principii ale
teatrului brechtian. Performance-ul su are la baz un contact foarte strns att cu clasele
lipsite de avantajele educaiei ct i cu cele din alte sfere sociale. Este un teatru cu
spectacularitate accesibil, cu apropieri i congruene mentale ntre performer i audien, fr
distanele impuse de arta elitist. Teatrul lui Fo renun la tradiionalele formule de
scenicitate, ncrcate, cu recuzit i cadre decorative. Este un one man show care
magnetizeaz audiena fr artificii scenice, doar prin simpla prezen a actorului, care
dezbate de la texte din Lenin sau Mao pn la poetica propriului su teatru.
Cele mai multe aprecieri teoretice ce privesc teatrul i teatralitatea spectacolului creat
de Dario Fo sfresc prin evaluri limitate. Cele mai studiate aspecte sunt cele politice. ns
centrul de for este actorul ce ofer o tehnic complex de manevrare a cuvntului prin
resursele histrionului, ce resusciteaz ritmul i causticitatea bufoneriilor medievale. Clovnul
vorbete despre politic n timp ce re-creeaz o art valabil n orice context istoric. n
secolului XX acesta nu poart masca tradiional, ns mimica i gestul sunt antrenate pn la
abiliti de transformare i flexibilizare a performerului n cele mai variate personaje.
Trecerile de la un caracter la altul sunt rapide, iar publicul devine martorul unui spectacol
total, al situaiilor dramatice complicate, toate executate doar de un singur actor, Dario Fo.
Cultura european este puternic marcat de doi dramaturgi care etaleaz idei marxiste,
Brecht i Dario Fo. Aceast atitudine militant axat pe afirmaii caustice la adresa claselor
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favorizate ale societii este prezent mai ales n Italia (situaia va atrage nenumrate
consecine neplcute pentru Dario Fo i Franca Rame). Din punct de vedere teatral, Fo
apeleaz la soluii inovative i eficiente, ce mizeaz pe colaborarea cu publicul n stilul
teatrului care se creeaz mpreun cu publicul nu pentru public (Marco de Marinis). Aceast
formul preia importante elemente din teatralitatea popular medieval, tradiia bufonilor,
adaptat preteniilor i sensibilitii spectatorului de secol XX aflat n mijlocul unui peisaj n
pline zvrcoliri sociale.
Pornind de la un antrenament intens n coala francez a lui Jacques Lecoq (Thtre
du geste et du movement) de unde se dezvolt ca actor n direcia teatrului fizic, a mimului
contemporan, Dario Fo recurge la un limbaj teatral propriu unde este inclus o palet larg a
artei mimului suprapus rezonanelor teatrului epic al lui Bertolt Brecht. Fo extinde i mbin
cele dou laturi ale colii de mim din Frana. Umrete att modelul din pantomime blanche
(Marceau) ct i coala lui Jacques Lecoq care mizeaz pe cuvnt i pe expresia vocii, pe
muzicalitate, stridene i efecte, pe comicitatea feei, a musculaturii ochilor i expresia
grotesc n stilul mtilor din teatrul commedia dellarte.
Anul 1968 este un moment de turnur creativ pentru dramaturgul italian. Se desparte
de vechile repere oferite de teatrul oficial care este i comercial, considerat o entitate steril,
lipsit de mesaje i consisten uman. n urmtorii ani Fo se ndreapt ctre zona artei i
teatrului underground (fenomen foarte larg n Italia, mai ales n sfera cinema-ului de art i
experimental). Pune bazele a dou companii de teatru sau cooperative teatrale, Nuova Scena
i La Comune unde mbin experimentul, spectacolul ce include sketch comic de variet creat
n spaii de tip scene de club, derulat n faa unui public foarte relaxat care asimileaz
mesajele sale sociale fr eforturi de inteligen. Teatrul de pe aceste scene periferice va fi
mereu susinut de o categorie aparte a publicului. Alura improvizat privete nu numai arta
actorului dar i scena. Fiecare club i orice tip de spaiu sunt pretabile actorului care creeaz
un spectacol doar pe baza propriului su corp, i din joc inteligent al cuvintelor.
Fo declar n repetate rnduri c este un fabulatore, un povestitor care relateaz
anumite situaii, detaat emoional de evenimente, responsabil cu emiterea de informaii unui
public cu ateptri variate. Face apel i la comicitatea din fabliaux sau la interpretarea
clovnesc n termenii cabaretului, cu trimiteri directe la problemele contemporane. Creeaz
veritabile alegorii politice cu teme de actualitate (anii 70) montate pe structura teatrului
medieval. n spectacolul Mare Pantomim cu Steaguri i Ppui apar personaje simbolice
(Capitalul, Regele Marionet sau Dragonul, un reprezentant al muncitorilor revoluionari, care
se va arunca n lupte sngeroase cu forele puternice i exploatatoare indicate n pies).
Atenia asupra luptei este deturnat de ispitele i tentaiile oferite de consumerism, de hipnoza
produselor accesibile i de distraciile ieftine de televiziune, de meciurile de fotbal, care
slbesc impulsul lupttor al clasei muncitoare. Spectacolul este bine ancorat n fenomenele
every day, n condiiile societii de consum. Sunt evidente influenele din direcia noului tip
de gndire artistic, fragmentarismul (montajul de scenete), rezonane ale noilor condiii de
via ale metropolei, efectele mecaniciste ale tehnologiei care re-coordoneaz i condiioneaz
ritmul i aspiraiile oamenilor societii industriale.
Fora teatral - invocat de Dario Fo i amintit n debutul fiecrui spectacol - este
stilul de joc al bufonilor medievali, giullari, iubii de public dar persecutai de autoriti, cu
apariii foarte asemntoare cu aceea a actorului Dario Fo n scena european a anilor 70.
Spectacolul su este o giullarata popolare, cu baz ntr-un text de tip cannovaccio n care
prioritar este improvizaia. Este un teatru sub form de monolog. Bufonul Dario Fo este
original ns nu un caz izolat n secolul XX, n sensul orientrii poeticii teatrale spre atacul
societii. Fenomenul l include pe Jacques Tati, cu al su teatru teatral cu inserri de
slapstick.
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Situaiile scenice nseamn demonstraii prin pantomim, iar Dario Fo ofer nu numai
un spectacol ci mai ales, att ct este posibil, documentaia istoric (Manuale minimo
dellattore). Este interesat de valorile spectaculare existente n sfera teatro minore. Absoarbe
orice formul de teatru periferic sau spectacol ce include comic brutal i vulgar. Dar cea mai
important surs vine din direcia formulelor teatrale transmise fr documente scrise,
meninute doar pe cale oral, existente n zonele rurale ale Italiei (mai ales zona din sud).
Tehnica povestitorilor locali (fabulatori) va contura stilul i fizionomia teatral a
spectacolului. Dario Fo elimin orice iluzie a procedeelor scenice, iar audiena este liber s
evalueze evenimentele construite la vedere. Aceasta este i metoda tradiionalilor
fabulatori, care ofer n permanen demonstraii prin limbaj corporal. n teatrul lui Fo sunt
detectabile i alte surse teatrale italiene. n lucrarea Dario Fo : Stage, Text and Tradition,
cercettorul Joseph Farell invoc studiile folcloristului italian cu o important activitate n
secolul XIX, Giuseppe Pitr ce invoc termenul lu cuntu (istorie, poveste) extras din dialectul
perimetrului sicilian, insistnd asupra fascinaiei publicului din Sicilia pentru arta povestirii
care implic ntreg corpul, cu gesticulaie energic i multe exemplificri prin intermediul
limbajului fizic. Este prezent de asemenea arta clovnului recuperat n maniera celei
practicate n secolul XIX, formul mai puin cunoscut, cu documentaie aproape inexistent :
pantomime noire i Jean-Gaspard Debureau (unul dintre cele mai importante personaliti ale
mimului din secolul XIX, personaj legat de activitatea de la Thtre des Funambules, cel ce a
solidificat personajul Pierrot cu sensibilitate romantic n scheme de pantomim cu
influene ale melodramei), sau interesanta mixtur pe care o face Joe Grimaldi ntre commedia
dellarte i stilul teatral practicat pe scena englez.
Dialectele sunt folosite dup raiuni teatrale. Energia i amestecul folosit pn la
anularea sensului cuvntului i ideii dramatice - susin operaiuni situaionale cu o teatralitate
dens. Fo invoc limbajul comic grammelot, bazat pe souplesse (dup cum mrturisete nsui
autorul), pe o capacitate unic a actorului de desfiinare a iluziei jocului i de a trece n modul
cel mai lejer i imperceptibil de la un personaj la altul, de a crea duete, terzete, etc. doar prin
propria sa tehnic. Actorul triete experiena complet a tuturor personajelor, traseaz
situaii pentru fiecare caracter, particulariti de comportament, voce i expresie, creeaz un
eveniment teatral att coerent ct i fragmentar, n faa audienei, bazat doar pe improvizaie i
referine culturale.
Dei introducerile montrilor sunt bogate n informaii culturale i tehnice privind arta
actorului, Fo accentueaz mereu poziia vulnerabil a histrionului ntr-un context agresiv,
dominat de fore menite s intimideze exprimrile libere. Fo nu este un teoretician ns
studiile meticuloase asupra trecutului i investigaiile asupra forei de convingere a misterelor
medievale au un impact scenic extrem de puternic. n Manuale minimo dellattore. Fo aduce
n prim plan tradiia comediei italiene. Stilul su apare ca o subtil continuare a spectacolului
creat de comicul italian Ettore Petrolini (stil care poate fi considerat ca una dintre sursele de
baz pentru spectacolul caustic al lui Dario Fo), unul dintre primii contestatori ai teatrului
marelui actor (modelul care domina scena italian a nceputului de secol XX), militnd
pentru un apariia unui actor popular, creator al unui spectacol comic accesibil cu o marj
avansat de agresivitate verbal. Fo este de asemenea infuenat de omul de teatru Eduardo de
Filipo (o emblem pentru teatrul popular napolitan, pentru aplicarea grotescul teatral).
ns Dario Fo i va construi propriul stil, n care prioritar este dialectul i mixajul
lingvistic, o teatralitate specific italian a cuvntului, din care nu lipsesc sunetele
onomatopeice. Argumentele invocate de actor la nceputul fiecrui spectacol traseaz liniile
unei partituri program destinat audienei care nu rmne cu aspecte neclare referitoare la
ceea ce urmeaz s se desfoare n scen. Prezint condiiile istorice ale histrionului, care a
inventat un limbaj codificat, cu accente din toate limbile, ce pare lipsit de sens. Prin acest
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etc. Este conceput sub forma unui joc naiv care stimuleaz inteligena audienei, ofer chiar
rspunsuri explicative din partea histrionului n timpul spectacolului. Tehnica brechtian este
vizibil, discuiile directe cu audiena conduc spre suprapuneri ale momentelor mitice
(biblice) cu anturajul politic. Audiena rspunde, are posibilitatea s creeze - prin reaciile sale
- entitatea vie i energic a spectacolului. Mistero buffo este n acelai timp i un exemplu
pentru teatrul epic brechtian. Didacicismul i distanarea apar n mod alternativ.
Discuiile cu publicul fluidizeaz teatralitatea, apeleaz direct la latura analitic a audienei.
Personajul cu trsturi de zanni (Dario Fo) expune problemele i erorile de funcionare ale
sistemului (capitalismul) aplicat condiiilor de producie din evul mediu. Teatrul lui Fo devine
n multe situaii un teatru de participare, unde se revars ntreaga energie italian, ntr-un ritm
ameitor al derulrii cuvintelor, al situaiilor imaginare sau mimate. Expresia feei, mimica,
gestualitatea creeaz att confuzii ct i trimiteri clare, depind eficiena cuvntului. Mistero
buffo este centrat n ntregime pe complexitatea artei actorului, pe prezena sa simpl, fr
accesorii sau recuzit, singur ntr-un spaiu auster, lipsit de artificii scenice.
Sunt antrenate resurse tehnice, transformri uluitoare ale fizionomiei, schimbri totale
de construcie mental, salturi i contraste, dublate de inflexiuni melodice ale vocii, n grade
variate de patetism i causticitate. Sunt evidente consecine ale colii lui Jacques Lecoq i
congruene cu stilul actorului Jacques Tati, cu personajul Monsieur Hulot, prezent ntr-o serie
de filme comice din perioada anilor 50 i 60 (categoria personajului balordo sau neghiobul,
variant francez a lui Charlie Chaplin, studiat cu atenie de Fo). Apar teme din commedia
dellarte, personajul mereu lihnit de foame, ceea ce ofer un potenial pentru expresii i
gesturi (la fel ca n commedia Renaterii cnd mncii sau listele de mncare i de vinuri erau
extrem de apreciate de audien), favoriznd creativitatea limbajului grammelot, cu sunete
exagerate ce sugereaz momentul cnd personajul nfulec i nghite.
Piesa-spectacol Mistero buffo este conceput sub forma unei colecii de fragmente (fie
biblice, fie din texte recuperate de Dario Fo din secolele XIV i XV). Parabolele sau
miracolele sfinilor sunt expuse n formul grotesc : Povestea lui St. Benedict din Norcia,
Masacrul Inocenilor, etc. Apar moraliti cum este cazul piesei Moralitatea orbului i
schilodului (text de Andrea della Vigna) n care teatralitatea este gndit ca manifest
mpotriva societii capitaliste. Este vorba de o fabul a refuzului oricrui miracol de
vindecare, doar pentru a nu aparine clasei muncitoare i pentru a nu avea o via dificil
destinat muncii. Este indicat n pies dezvoltarea unei industrii a handicapului n noua
societate. Un alt fragment, Cstoria de la Cana, etaleaz o atmosfer pgn i orgiastic,
n care imaginile i sugestiile situaionale (un beiv care jumulete aripile unui nger) sunt
expuse ca blasfemii brutale. La nascita del giullare, Naterea lui Villeyn (text de Matazone
da Caligano) mizeaz pe o tehnic a actorului centrat pe mixturi interpretative ntre villano i
giullare. Fo explic n timpul spectacolului (n interventi) particularitile acestor dou
formule de joc i relaiile dintre ele, trasnd istoria acestui fenomen de la primele apariii
medievale. nvierea lui Lazr este o complex demonstraie histrionic, o tem cu un grad
maxim de dificultate la nivel tehnic interpretativ, n care Dario Fo interpreteaz aisprezece
personaje. Folosete o palet larg de nuane vocale, de transformare de mimic, i mai ales
de improvizaie. Momentele silenioase sunt atent calculate, accentueaz energia i
magnetismul spectacolului. Sunt urmrite cadenele vocii i jocul oaptelor, salturi ctre
grammelot i comic grotesc. Evenimentele se deruleaz n ritm alert, n care este meninut o
relaie strns cu audiena. Povestea unui Tigru (La storia delle tigre e altre storie),
fragment adugat n 1980 din Mistero Buffo vorbete despre fenomenul cinema-ului care
accelereaz nstrinarea uman, n timp ce teatrul mizeaz pe nevoia de existen colectiv i
participare. Povestea este simpl, despre un soldat rnit i o tigroaic care i va nva pe
oameni s rag (moment prielnic pentru Dario Fo de expunere a complexitii limbajului
sonor, a expresiilor corporale cu micri i sunete animalice).
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Meritul teatral al lui Dario Fo este actualizarea teatrului popular, reconstituirea unui
stil de interpretare prin folosirea i amestecarea dialectelor (provenal, napolitan, bolognez,
etc.). Activeaz sensibilitatea i orgoliul naional, stimulat s ia poziie mpotriva structurii
capitaliste (mai ales din zona italian). Folosete texte originale, vechi, medievale miznd pe
efectul educativ (mai mult persuasiv) al fabulei. Restaureaz carnavalescul medieval, unde
rsul histrionului sfideaz cruzimea i poziia n faa morii.
Dei Dario Fo apare n prim planul literaturii mondiale, n mare parte datorit
premiului Nobel din 1997, acesta este un histrion, un bufon. Actorul ofer variante
interesante ale interpretrii bufoneti, giullare dell popolo, expune situaia bufonului n
carnaval. Spectacolul su este echivalentul anarhiei, nebuniei. n carnaval nebunul este
executat, iar Dario Fo i va asuma acest risc, de a fi nebunul propriului su spectacol.
Teatrul lui Fo este un produs att al colii franceze ct i al tradiiei teatrului italian, ce se
distinge prin originalitate, acumuleaz, prelucreaz i continu arta mimului n secolul XX.
Bibliografie
CAPPA, Marina, NEPOTI Roberto, Dario Fo, Gremese Editore, 1997.
FARELL, Joseph, SCUDERI, Antonio, Dario Fo: Stage, Text, Tradition, SIU Press,
2000.
FO,
Dario,
Manuale
minimo
dellattore,
Einaudi,
MARINIS, Marco de, Drammaturgia dellattore, I quaderni del battello ebbro, 1997.
MITCHELL, Tony, Dario Fo: Peoples Court Jester, A&C Black, 2014.
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1997.
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Abstract: Compared to Andr Gides courage, who had no shame in the discrepancy between
the deep and the shallow ego, Nicolae Balotas Cietul albastru (Blue Notebook) is organized
as a data warehouse with no rift between the shallow and the deep facet. A drawer literature,
apparently with a fantastic story (lost, found, re-written), the diary is a way of understanding
the conservative Nicolae Balota at twilight, by using a diary written in his youth.
This is not a journal in which the author flatters himself, nor is it a narcissist or
compensatory diary, but simply a diary in which anxieties are removed, and individual as
well as utopian and historical coloring are refused. Information on the status of the librarian,
researcher, university professor, even if spontaneous, lack deliberation and detail, and the
Blue Notebook lacks the strategy of pace and despair. The ludic is not linked with infinite
polishing of the text, rather with the ability to discover what is authentic in ones own
autobiography. There is here a time of experience and one of remembering, but initially, for
Nicolae Balota, the diary was secret and its transformation into an act of public destination
requires, necessarily, the interventions he termed Remember, while we have termed them
threshold-curtains.
Although he seems a romantic, the author regards himself from the outside and the saved
diary functions neither as release, nor as rescue, but is a secondary creation, without tragedy,
and without being pushed by reason or idolatry reasons. Secrecy seems an accident and the
space between history and writing, increased in interventions noted in Remember, is but a
piece of evidence. Compared to ID Srbu's diary, where the author builds aphorisms and
ironic portraits, we see that the rules are totally different with Nicolae Balota. His writing
seems an initiation creation and, despite all its theories, the diary without large breaks, is
written for himself. The artistic and the human ideal are not too clear, nor challenging, but it
is certain that motivation is ethical and only later psychotherapeutical, and finally aesthetical
and religious. We believe that his diary is a spiritual exercise through which, apparently
secretly, the author, would rather be a writer thant a critic.
Keywords: diary,labyrinth, curtains-initiation thresholds.
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N i c o l a e B a l o t , C a i e t u l a l b a s t r u , v o l . I I, U n i v e r s a l D a l s i , 2 0 0 0 , p . 5 4 3 .
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1580, artau c materia prim este propria lui personalitate, putem afirma c Nicolae Balot
scrie un jurnal datorit culturii, datorit unei filosofii existeniale, datorit nevoii de a face
bilanul.
Experiena social a intrat ntr-un topos de manuscris regsit. Real sau imaginar,
Caietul albastru funcioneaz drept un instrument revendicativ, o provocare ce scap oricrei
explicaii i care sugereaz un statut de excepie pentru autorul jurnalului.
De altfel, privirea celui ntors, nspimntat, cu un necessaire vechi" coninnd cri,
se oprete asupra torionarului cu ochi splcii, indifereni". Spaima cltorului urmrit de
Securitate, n vagon, rmne una dintre cele mai frumoase pagini n care se sugereaz modul
de a exista n anii postbelici. Fiecare descriere capt o semnificaie simbolic, precum
scenele din dreptul mausoleului, scene n care credeam c invoc n joac Gloria i evocam,
fr s tiu, Moartea"2. Tot simbolic ni se pare scena n care autorul se privete n oglinda de
la toalet, scena pe care o reia peste 7 ani, atunci cnd nu se mai poate recunoate.Jurnalul
aezat n plasa trenului dup arestare i modul n care i se pun lui Nicolae Balot ochelarii de
soare reprezint intrarea din lumea gloriei n lumea morii.
Structura prologului e foarte bine fcut, pentru c, n spatele lipsei privirii, n spatele
ochelarilor, se zbat morile celebre din epoc. Caietul gros, cu scoare tari, albastre,
metamorfozat n jurnal, repertoriu, note, nsemnri, reprezint coloana vertebral, real sau
imaginar, a acestui jurnal, scris pentru prieteni, pentru sertar, n timpul mort. Un student
nfricoat a salvat caietul, l-a anunat pe I. Negoiescu i i l-a dat mamei lui Nicolae Balot.
Jurnalul se raporteaz la perioada pe care am numit-o bucuretean, cu un Remember
informativ n 1996, apoi, ntorcndu-se n 1954, la rtcirile labirintice n casa Soranei i
aceea a lui Dominic Stanca. Se poate vedea construcia lui prin dubla privire, de data aceasta,
nu doar a unuia i a altuia, ci i a unui ins mprit n timp de 30 de ani.
Imaginile despre relaiile dintre Nicolae Balot i G. Bogdan-Duic, vzute prin
prisma unui copil, creeaz o perdea, n care anxietatea epurrilor" e mereu ndeprtat de
elegana stilistic a autorului. Fr s aib o memorie a resentimentelor, Nicolae Balot face
trimiteri la perioada Almanahului literar", precum i la momentul re-scrierii jurnalului la
Paris.
Rupturile atemporale din Caietul albastru din 1954 reprezint o modalitate
interesant, fcnd trimiteri att la spiritul acelor ani, ct i la nevoia noastr de curenie
vizibil n clipele
de distanare:mi spun uneori,n clipele de elan ncreztor:dac am fi n stare s ne
aezm n faa Luminii i am reui s ne golim fie i numai ntr-un punct infinitezimal
contiina, prin transparena acesteia am fi npdii de lumina Adevrului i a Iubirii. Danezul
are dreptate: boala ce ne duce spre moarte este disperarea. Dar unul dintre simptomele bolii
spre moarte este refuzul Adevrului, este minciuna esenial."3
Emblema puritii o reprezint Monseniorul Ghica, mort n nchisoare i convins c
moartea este marele act al vieii. Ceea ce este marcant n personalitatea lui Nicolae Balot
rmne ingeniozitatea articulrii, prin enjambement" n text (replica conformistului BogdanDuic fiind figura luminoas a Monseniorului Ghica).
Glisrile amintirilor reale sau construite seamn cu micrile de du-te, vino" din
mbinarea roilor de tren, ntruct tulburtoare sunt tipologiile prietenilor din jurul lui Nicolae
Balot, ncepnd cu aceea a lui Negoiescu, Nego, cultivator al unei moderne ars amandi.
2
3
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Eugen Simion, Ficiunea jurnalului intim Exista o poetica a jurnalului?, Univers enciclopedic, Bucuresti, 2001 pp.99-100
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stabilesc tipul de structur al jurnalului. Semnele misterioase par, n 1954, uor refcute. Sigur
c exist o ncercare de a descoperi druirea de sine, metanoia, conversiunea total i
spectacolul plictisitor al lumii construite e din cnd n cnd rupt de imaginile minciunilor
epocii (Iuda Tito, clu i trdtor). n 1954, autorul e mprit, e scindat ntre poziia eroului
cuttor al tainei morii i poziia tnrului doritor de peregrinri pentru a se stabili n lumea
bucuretean. Acest drum, de la Cluj la Bucureti, reprezint, dup anul 1949, o a doua
ruptur.
O faz iniiatic va fi nchisoarea, o alta Lteti, n ianuarie n 1963, dar sigur scopul
lui Nicolae Balot este de a descoperi cultura de catacombe", subteran, nu att a lui nsui,
ct aceea a epocii, n lzi mizerabile, n depozite secrete cu tomuri filosofice i opuri
teologice.
Perdelele-praguri iniiatice continu: aceea cu lacrimile, apoi aceea cu Farmacopeea
Scandinavic fiind urmate de perdeaua cu Medeea. Aici este, probabil, relaia de profunzime
a omului Nicolae Balot cu propriul su destin. Medeea este o eroin tragic, hybrisul ei
const n faptul c i ucide copiii, aprinde palatul, alung brbatul, ntruct a dorit s fie
infinit iubit.
Credem c perdelele-praguri marcheaz literar diferitele etape iniiatice, cum e aceea a
coborrii lui Orfeu n Infern, coborre cu trimiteri n plan real la ntlnirea cu doctorul oiu,
cu doctorul Stanca sau cu Ovidiu Constantinescu. Principiul jurnalului ine de pactul cu
ordinea zilnic. Aceast ordine ofer nu numai o marc a timpului istoric, ci i un fel de
protecie pentru jurnalist. Interesant e c Nicolae Balot se sperie s fac literatur i, alturi
de anumite scrupule etice, apeleaz la o suspendare a clauzei temporare, introducnd o
viziune peste patruzeci de ani, ceea ce ar nsemna acceptarea unui adevr trit prin
intermediul timpului n adolescen i retrit n timpul matur.
Jurnalul seamn puin cu Jurnalul fericirii a lui N. Steinhardt, dar nu ne intereseaz
att viaa real, ct modul autorului de a lucra cu ajutorul buclelor". Relaia ntre nfricotor
i profetica sacrului (horrendum i mirabile) reprezint axul pe care se nvrte labirintul lui
Nicolae Balot. n partea lui pozitiv, cea referitoare la siajul Monseniorului Ghica, st nu
doar familia ora, familia I. Chinezu, ci i Tudor Vianu i Edgar Papu, ptruni de spiritul de
toleran.
ntr-un fel, jurnalul acesta sfiat de Remember reprezint un an fixat n timpul mort,
dar timpul mort reprezint relaia cu demonia", ct i pe omul Nicoale Balot, sau viaa
societii bucuretene, iar imaginile groteti ale personajelor, probabil, reale (Nelly, sau a lui
C.) sunt fundalul pe care se dezvolt o alt tem perdea-prag: Robinson Crusoe.
Imaginarul e proiectat pe relaia dintre bine i ru, realizat nu prin referiri la propriul
destin, ci prin referiri la destinul libertii sau la diferite pri ale lumii pline de stelue
rtcitoare n care, din cnd n cnd, strlucete Nego sau Ion Omescu, n care este prins
tefan Bezdechi terorizat de Xantipa lui.
Un alt prag la care ne referim e reprezentat de perdeaua iniiatic a oglinzii relaionat
cu Osiris, enigma oglinzii negre care l obsedeaz pe Nicolae Balot. Aproape toate treptele
labirintului au fost fcute sub semnul ochiului iniial al securistului care supravegheaz lumea
din exterior, sau a eului care privete lumea exterioar, ncercnd s se priveasc pe el.
ncercm s segmentm metodic jurnalul pentru a descoperi principiul nemrturisit al
iniierii omului Nicolae Balot, n raport cu evenimentele importante din biografie. Avndu-se
pe sine ca obiect al discursului, n funcie de grupurile sociale i istorice, Nicolae Balot nu
poate comenta etapele iniiatice la care este supus. Credem c, n momentul maturizrii din
1955, se afl trecerea de la adolescen spre maturitate. Oglind a istoriei, prima etap a
jurnalului se termin n 1953, o dat cu moartea lui Stalin. Pragul de trecere este marcat i de
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un element cosmic, marele viscol din ianuarie-februarie 1954 i de o relaie special cu grupul
cerchitilor, atunci cnd Eta Boieriu a sugerat o sinucidere colectiv. n acest timp ncepe
coborrea n infern, ad inferos, un fel de drum de tip deert, o coborre ca ascensiune.
Drumul din deert reprezint, pentru Nicolae Balot, o ascensiune grea i
ndelungat"5, coborrea drept ascensiune refuznd:
ntoarcerea din copilrie;
refugiul n boal;
refugiul n art;
refugiul n contemplaie
refugiul n masc;
Pentru Nicolae Balot, ascensiunea ncepe n clipa n care a disprut frica, a refuzat
minciuna, a acceptat clarviziunea, a descoperit libertatea drept un tot invizibil; toate acestea
pot fi prinse n adevratul antidot care este Sacrificiul.
Dup perioada inial a neofitului, o perioad de rtcire prin labirint, urmeaz o a
doua etap, de ucenicie n iubire i n acedie, melancolie, nostalgie. ntr-un fel, n etapa de
ucenicie, se nate pasiunea de a tri prin scris. Aceast etap iniiatic st sub semnul lui ordo
amoris, ordinea iubirii.Partea a doua a iniierii din 1955 reia rtcirile labirintice din prima
parte cu referiri la concepia erotic a lui Sade, replic la acedia sau replica misterului oferit
de existena lui Parsifal. Aici st fraza esenial care explic pasiunea lui Nicolae Balot de a
scrie, dorina de a transforma existena n scris, de a metamorfoza viaa i obiectele,
Dumnezeu i fiinele, crile n alte cri: Am ajuns la vrsta (dac este vorba doar de vrst)
cnd mi dau seama c trebuie s scriu totul, adic s preschimb toat viaa n scris. Cred cu
adevrat c totul poate fi i trebuie scris, c pot scrie orice. Pot transforma orice piatr inert
n cuvnt viu. Dar, neleg tot mai mult c nu pot scrie dect cobornd pn n strfundul
abisului."6
Dac la nceputurile sale ucenicul oscila ntre dou elemente fundamentale, rzboiul
i pacea, n a treia etap iniiatic, atunci cnd devine un iniiat, personalitatea adolescentului
se asociaz cu alte fantasme. Procesul fundamental de transformare se datoreaz existenei
Monseniorului Ghica, cu toate c faptele istorice nu sunt repovestite, ci doar afirmate. Nicolae
Balot transcrie ceea ce i se ntmpl, face foarte puine portrete i evit confesiunile,
marcnd doar etapele existeniale. Exist aici un timp al experienei i unul al rememorrii,
dar, iniial, pentru Nicolae Balot, jurnalul era secret i transformarea acestuia ntr-un act de
destinaie public cere, neaprat, interveniile pe care le-a numit Remember, iar noi le-am
numit praguri-perdele. Aici intervine i o sinceritate de rangul al II-lea, un artificiu al
sinceritii, structura etapei aceluia care a devenit iniiat fiind o structur spiralat.
Micrile n spiral, din prima etap iniiatic, sunt reluate prin imaginea celor din
cercul Saint-Vincent-de-Paul" a Monseniorului Ghica, comentndu-se diferitele bolgii,
relatia :
cu divinitatea;
cu filosofia;
cu societatea;
cu eul;
cu scrisul - putere ascuns;
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cu fecunditatea tinuit.
Autorul uit c scrie o povestire, el caut mereu cteva taine i ntlnirile cu Nego,
Dinu Pillat sunt relatri cumini despre o via neobinuit, dar n nici un caz ngrozitoare sau
nspimnttoare. Sentimentul de a fi intrat n Castelul lui Kafka pare mai degrab un
sentiment literar, iar ntlnirile cu personalitile epocii, Eta Boeriu, Niculescu, Dinu Pillat,
Malia, Drimba, Ica Pop, Emil Petrovici, Alexandru Roca, par doar rupte de explozia
luminoas a imaginii lui L. Blaga cu zmbetul lui Tao"7. Lucian Blaga i Constantin
Daicoviciu, precum i pasionatul profesor Alexandru Borda, alturi de Nicolae Mrgineanu
sunt privii, n 1990, cu ajutorul ocheanului oferit de Universitate i de zbaterile unora de a
rmne prin trdri" la Universitate.
Desele reveniri la Remember arat o nencredere a lui Nicolae Balot n potecile" din
1955. Un eveniment important l reprezint luna martie, cnd a czut Roller"8, sau filmele
despre Gulliver, n care Nicoale Balot caut simboluri ale pcatului din epoc.
Cele dou voci, din 1954 i din 1994, nu au nimic cvasi-ironic, sunt lipsite de ur, sunt
lipsite de contradicie i sunt mult prea lucioase, polizate. Prea multe dintre informaii sunt
verificabile prin concepii filosofice i literare i, n permanen, discursul lui Nicolae Balot
pare convenional, circumstanial, estetizant i teoretic. Nu e vorba de nici o descumpnire, de
nici un repro, sau de o eventual falsitate, este vorba de un daimon" pe care l-am numi
distanarea fa de via cu ajutorul sursului complice, ce ar coagula un adevr fr
discontinuiti, ruptura din Remember omogenizndu-l sau rvindu-l.
Modelul pe care l genereaz Nicoale Balot rmne unul practic cultural: valoarea
independent a dreptului de a citi, valoare din care decurge dreptul de a scrie. A tri
nseamn, pentru Nicoale Balot, a scrie, iar a scrie nseamn o referire la poziii metafizice,
filosofice, politice, ideologice .
Se poate observa tolerana religioas acceptat n relaiile lui Nicolae Balot (relaii cu
ungurii, evreii, germanii) dar i un succes i un triumf semnificativ al romnismului, neles
ca un efect de echidistan fa de toate cmpurile de aciune: art, tiin, politic .n plan
metafizic, suferina individual presupune o nelegere a sadismului social n care discursul
populist-comunist e simit nu att ca un balaur destructiv, ct ca o structur a destinului, a
moirei, care presupune un imaginar literar acceptat drept virtute, precum modelul lui Orfeu, al
Medeeii, al lui Avraam.
Nu am descoperit, n Caietul albastru al lui Nicoale Balot, nici o teorie a evoluiei,
cci decupajul viitorului, aproape inexistent, presupune o rmnere n prezent, n bibliotec, i
o re-scriere a lecturilor n sens larg umanist.
Virtutea esenial n scrierea intim a lui Nicolae Balot, jurnalul intitulat Caietul
albastru, este suita de informaii autobiografice i senzaia c tot ceea ce scrie autorul este
realizat prin bun credin, prin sinceritate, fr orgoliu. Rolul pe care l joac eul de suprafa
se suprapune rolului jucat de eul de profunzime, sinceritatea neputnd fi falsificat dect de
buna cuviin, de elementul decorum. O alt caracteristic a acestui jurnal este legea prudenei
i existena unei retorici a cruzimii. Lipsa elementelor dure sugereaz c, uneori, trirea
autorului este marcat de exigenele buneicuviine i de dorina de veridicitate. Confesiunea
sa are un dublu filtru: n afar i nluntru.
n acest dialog dintre Caietul albastru, scris ntre 1954-1955, comentat prin
intermediul Remember-ului din 1996-1998, se nsereaz operele tiinifice, vocaia tragic a
autorului ascetic, doritor de acedie, sau mptimit de ea, admirator al uransimului, fr a intra
7
8
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n el, i, n ultim instan, un personaj ce se oglindete n eternele ape ale altor scriitori,
ncercnd s descopere, n micrile valurilor, propria sa faet, mai mult sau mai puin
autentic, dar, sigur, etic, estetic i religioas greco-catolic.
Imaginile grupului de prieteni se contureaz pline de farmec i seductoarele ntlniri
n lumea teatrului reprezint, ca i alt dat, perdele-praguri, cu toate c iniierea n timpul
mort se face acum cu ajutorul cutrii nu n lumea real a partenerei, ci n lumea literar.
Remember, din 1993, comenteaz nu doar despre limb i bilingvism, nu doar despre
polingvismul maghiar i german, ct preferina pentru limba francez. Povetile despre
relaiile lingvistice pregtesc cursa comod a imagini vieii zilnice din Bucuretii anilor 1955.
n acela an, Nicolae Balot propune o aciune de revigorare a bisericii catolice, revenind
mereu la imaginile privitoare la lumea lingvistic. Rentlnirea cu lumea Clujului i cu
Magistrul Blaga l face pe Nicolae Balot s reia manuscrisele din ultimii 10 ani. Reamintim
titlurile lor, ntruct e evident c multe dintre virtuiile Caietului albastru sunt prinse n aceste
titluri: tragic, exerciiu, polemos, pax.
Jurnalul este foarte puternic organizat pe cutarea lui Agape, dragostea cretin, i,
pentru ntia oar, Nicolae Balot comenteaz filocalia: Eros: o art, o tehne misterioas,
activitatea prin care faci tot ce poi (moral sau imoral) pentru ca s te iubeasc. Nu m
gndesc desigur la agape, la caritas, n care nu este art, nu este facere, ci druire. n iubirea
profan, spre deosebire de iubirea sacr raportul primordial este de putere"9 n aceast a treia
etap iniiatic, relaia eului cu sinele profund e mult mai puternic: Avem toate vrstele n
noi."10 Toate sensurile cuvntului l obsedeaz i astfel Nicolae Balot caut lepdarea de
sine."11
Dac ntr-adevr jurnalul nu este re-scris i nsemnrile din 1954-1955 sunt reale, o
lectur psihanalitic ar sugera c toat a treia etap rmne o pregtire pentru ultima eliberare
de sine. Prerile despre scrierile criticilor (V. Streinu, T. Vianu, . Cioculescu, E. Papu) sunt
destul de acide, dar important rmne aventura, cu un caracter mai mult sau mai puin
pasager, precum i ncercarea de a descoperi ce ar nsemna pentru el "Cercul".
ntr-un Remember 1991-1997, Nicolae Balot face portretul lui Radu Stanca i al
spectacolului baladesc, cu preacunoscutul text Corydon. n 1955, Nicolae Balot crede c
eroarea capital a modernilor a fost dispunerea culturii n acelai plan cu religia. Moartea
dionisiac, legea trupului cu legea minii l obsedeaz n epoc i scrierea Memorandumului
constituie o dilem, un examen al contiinei. n articolele din Remember, peste 40 de ani,
lectura intern a omului Nicolae Balot este preocupat de accepia unei forme echilibrate
care se amplaseaz egal, indiferent de dramele intelectuale, din 20 n 20 de ani, n planuri
echivalente.
Amintirea de la celula ngheat de la Malmaison, 1956, taie mereu drumul iniiatic
din a treia etap, ndreptat spre ultima bolgie. Etapa iniiatic de intrare n clasa ultim a
infernului, spre care coboar Orfeu, pare realizat de frigul (ultima bolgie a infernului
presupunea ngheul trdtorului) din celula de la Malmaison, dar mai ales de aliana
cuvintelor, care marcheaz dorina incontient a lui Nicolae Balot de a fi sortit pierzaniei.
Exist o negaie nscris n personalitatea omului, un entuziasm i o nflcrare pentru teorii
estetice i mai puin dorine de afirmare politic. Anul 1955 reprezint un aliaj contientizat
ntre voina de a fi om al aciunii i dorina de a fi om al contemplaiei.
O alt perdea-prag, raportat la prima etap iniiatic, o reprezint horoscopul,
horoscop aplicat i asupra lui Thomas Mann, ct i asupra personajului Adrian Leverkhn. 12
9
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Aceast analiz a lui Thomas Mann, precum i analiza Principiului ironiei al lui Kierkegaard,
adaug la personalitatea lui Nicolae Balot ideea de ales. Perdele-praguri sunt din nou imagini
ale spectacolelor, ale cuplurilor homo sau obinuite, iar o privire din luna august spre vacana
marin demonstreaz existena vie a nevoii de a creea traducnd, scriind despre cri,
colabornd la Institutul de lingvistic, cltorind la Cluj i la Ochiuri.
Dintr-un anumit punct de vedere, Nicolae Balot este o fiin dubl, un aliaj de
Bibliotecar" i de ingenuitate, ndrzneala, generozitatea innd de avantajele unei logici
antitetice ntre profitul simbolic al Memorandumului i logica sigur a ntlnirii cu infernul
carcerii. Dualitatea autorului e mai profund dect toate duplicitile, pentru c e vorba de o
relaie cu el nsui i acea glorie i moarte din prima etap iniiatic apare inversat. Gloria e
doar a lui, el vrea s-i demonstreze siei c are curajul de a se confrunta cu politicul, cu toate
c, situat ntre boem i lume, poate intra, precum T. Vianu, . Cioculescu, n lume, cu
ajutorul traducerilor.
Explicaiile din 1955 asupra subtitlului Timp mort sunt mai degrab teoretizri
mpotriva unei structuri anxioase, pe care autorul i-o rezolv singur, pentru a sublinia etapa
de nevedere n care va intra13, fiind interesat, n realitate, de o etap narcisiac.
Narcisismul lui Nicolae Balot se vede n ambiguitatea relaiilor cu Cercul (admirativ,
dar i mefient). n sfrit, el are nevoie de un model demonic (Nego i Monseniorul Ghica),
oglind a lui Narcis. Ca orice Narcis, Nicolae Balot prefer s moar privindu-se pe sine i
de aceea accept ncarcerarea, ochelarii negri, fa de lume. Jurnalul scoate n eviden nevoia
de program ambiguu: Narcis, privindu-se pe sine, tie c vede apa, dar caut un nume ascuns.
Patria lui Nicolae Balot este cartea, propria sa fiin i cartea pe care o scrie. Contiente sau
incontiente, obsesiile sale au stabilit un mediu n care se exercit fore sociale, atracii i
respingeri, care-i afl manifestarea fenomenal sub forma unor motivaii psihologice
(rzvrtitul cuminit se rzvrtete, dorind s fie arestat). Nicolae Balot a avut norocul lui
Narcis de a se metamorfoza ntr-o floare. A fost eliberat i a fost nscris din nou n traiectoria
posibil a jocului cu crile. Procesul de mbtrnire social se ncheie n aceast etap a
ocuprii poziiei din infern.
n cele trei etape iniiatice ale lui Nicolae Balot, religioas, etic i estetic, exist
drumuri nlnuite ntre evoluia estetic i aceea etic, ntre aceea religioas i aceea estetic.
Jocul cu sinceritatea a fost completat sau depit de ctre Magister, acela care a
publicat jurnalul n 1999. Magistrul trece la viaa exterioar, deprtndu-se de aceea
dinluntru, ncearc s judece lumile celorlali scriitori, retrind cu empatie motivele
existeniale. n etapa de Magister, Nicolae Balot renun la factorii interiori, cu toate c
privete orice experien a altor autori, sau a personajelor, cu ajutorul unei prisme detaate,
dar mereu deschise
Strategic, am reuit s facem portretul subiectiv al autorului, folosind o schem
emblematic, aceea a unui iniat ce coboar n lumea infernului, urc spre aceea a paradisului,
dar rmne mereu n purgatoriu, pentru c nu are puterea s se autocontemple. Credem c o
descoperire personal este aceea a unui autor care refuz s-i arate prile ascunse, se
distaneaz mereu de sine cu ajutorul mtilor i, la un moment dat, utilizeaz doar strategii
retorice, povestind mereu ceea ce se ntmpl altora i prea puin lui nsui.
Travestiul Caietului albastru demonstreaz c autorul, cuttor de metafore, rmne
sedus de senzualitatea scriiturii altora. Autorul utilizeaz mereu un narator omniscient i
omniprezent, dedublndu-se cu o proprie masc dup patruzeci de ani, dar nu reuete s-i
piard identitatea de voce distanat. Caietul albastru este un titlu de mprumut i artistul face
13
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mereu vii disecii n glasurile altor autori. Cnd scrie despre autorii de jurnale, Nicolae Balot
este contient c scriitorii inventeaz mereu sosii pentru a-i ascunde eul fictiv. n cadrul
discursului jurnalului, Nicolae Balot arat c singura sa vocaie este aceea de a comenta
tehnicile din glasurile celorlali, mania de a schimba mereu mtile, devenind un simbol i o
situaie fr ieire, chiar dac mereu introduce alte detalii.
Bibliografie:
1. Balot, Nicolae, Caietul albastru (Timp mort 1954-1955, Remember 1991 1998),
Editura Universal, Dalsi, 2000.
2. Balot, Nicolae, Nu tiu altceva dect s citesc i s scriu, interviu realizat de
Alexandru tefnescu n Romnia literar, 30, 6 (12-18 februarie 1997), p. 3, 10
3. Balot, Nicolae, Dup ntoarcerea din Babilon, n Viaa romneasc, An. 94, Nr. 819
(aug sept 1999), pp. 8-22.
4. Balot, Nicolae, Plnge raftul, n Romnia literar, An 32 (11-17 aug. 1999), p.10.
5. Balot, Nicolae, Biblioteca neterminat, n Flacra, nr. 7, anul 1999, p.36.
6. Balot, Nicolae, Cine poate s spun cu cugetul mpcat c este ales Dora Pavel n
dialog cu Nicolae Balot, n Contemporanul ideea european, An. 10, nr. 4 (27 ian.
2000), pp. 8-11.
7. Balot, Nicolae, Scrisul are acelai rost ca i viaa. Scriu aa cum triesc. Scriu
pentru c triesc i scriu ca s triesc. (dialog cu Nicolae Balot, realizat de Ion
Zubacu), n Convorbiri literare, An. 134, nr. 3, (martie 2000), pp. 4-5, 43.
8. Balot, Nicolae, Schie pentru un autoportret (II), n Luceafrul (Bucureti), nr.5 4, (9
feb.2000), pp. 12-13.
9. Afloroaei, tefan, Lumea ca reprezentare a celuilalt, Editura Institutul European, Iai,
1994.
10. Simion, Eugen, Ficiunea jurnalului intim. Exist o poetic a jurnalului?, Univers
enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2001.
11. Blu, Ion, Caietul albastru, n Apostrof (Cluj-Napoca), An. 10, nr. 9 (sept. 1999),
p.10.
12. Chioraru, Dumitru, Dublul jurnal al lui Nicolae Balot, n Apostrof (Cluj-Napoca),
An.11, nr. , (ian-feb. 2000), pp. 118-121.
13. Christi, Aura, Magister Nicolae Balot, n Contemporanul ideea european, An.10,
nr.4, (27 ian.2000), p.7.
14. Grigurcu, Gheorghe, Nicolae Balot ntre divin i demonic, n Viaa romneasc,
an.94, nr. 8-9 (aug sept. 1999), pp. 166-172.
15. Petreu, Marta, Omul cu caietul albastru, n Apostrof (Cluj-Napoca), An. 11, nr. 112,
(ian.feb. 2000), pp.188-193.
16. Pop, Ion, Timp viu n timpul mort, n Vatra (Trgu Mure), An. 27, nr. 342, (sept.
1999), pp.57-58.
17. Popa, Mircea, Nicolae Balot sau fascinaia cuvntului, n Apostrof, (Cluj-Napoca),
An.11, nr. , (ian.feb. 2000), pp. 149-151
18. tefnescu, Alexandru, Despre scriitorul Nicolae Balot la aniversarea a 70 de ani, n
Romnia literar, 28, nr. 3, (1-7 februarie 1995) p.3.
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Abstract: The present paper illustrates the gradual unfolding of the fictional dictator-like
character from the earliest literary manifestations to the appearance of the dictator novel
an idiosyncratic medium of conveying the identitary peculiarities which criss-cross the
cultural universe of Hispanic America. More specifically, it gives an overview of the main
poetic and dramatic works that capture rather the theme of the use and abuse of power,
inasmuch as the idea of a properly constituted literary corpus should be dismissed, due to the
relatively sporadic presence of the dictatorial figure as such at this level.
Keywords: identity, dictator, dictator novel, poetry, theatre
Plinio Apuleyo Mendoza, Parfumul de guayaba. Convorbiri cu Gabriel Garca Mrquez, ediia a 2-a, traducere de Miruna Ionescu, Curtea
Veche, Bucureti, 2008, p. 84.
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Carlos Fuentes, La nueva novela hispanoamericana, Cuadernos de Joaqun Mortiz, Mxico, 1972, p. 12.
Carlos Fuentes, op. cit., p. 12.
4
Miguel ngel Asturias, Romanul latino-american, traducere de Paul Alexandru Georgescu, Editura pentru Literatur Universal,
Bucureti, 1964, p. 5.
5
Mario Vargas Llosa, Literatura y poltica: dos visiones del mundo, 11 de mayo del 2000, http://www.vitral.org/vitral/deliras/11/pags.htm
(Consultat: 22/11/2014).
3
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scriitor mai bun dect ei, destinul, i poate gloria lor, fiind, prin urmare, ncercarea de a o
imita cu smerenie i ct mai bine cu putin. ntr-adevr, realitatea depete adesea ficiunea,
iar apariia unui dictator, pe lng faptul c reprezint o lovitur dat logicii i raiunii, este
dovada incontestabil a consecinelor care se ivesc atunci cnd relaiile cu cei din jur nu se
desfoar n mod firesc; atunci cnd, pentru a nlocui unitatea familial ori credina
religioas, singura alternativ e adeziunea oarb fa de putere, ntrupat ntr-un personaj
monstruos cu vdite trsturi din mitologia groazei, care de sute de ani oscileaz ntre lumini
i umbre, vis i comar, realitate i fantezie. n sprijinul afirmaiilor sale, Nobelul columbian
aduce n prim-plan cteva figuri autoritare de trist amintire, ale cror bizarerii i excese
trivial-groteti au cptat proporii halucinante odat cu trecerea timpului i cu amplificarea
aurei mitice care le nconjoar: Intuiia lui Juan Vicente Gmez era mult mai ptrunztoare
dect o capacitate real de a ghici. Doctorul Duvalier, din Haiti, fcuse s fie exterminai toi
cinii negri din ar, fiindc unul dintre dumanii lui, ncercnd s scape de persecuia
tiranului, se lepdase de condiia sa uman i se transformase ntr-un cine negru. Doctorul
Francia, al crui prestigiu ca filosof era att de mare, nct a meritat un studiu al lui Carlyle, a
nchis Republica Paraguay ca i cnd ar fi fost o cas i a lsat deschis numai o fereastr prin
care s ptrund pota. Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna i-a ngropat propriul picior cu funeralii
grandioase [...]. Anastasio Somoza Garca, din Nicaragua, avea n curtea casei o grdin
zoologic n care se aflau cuti cu dou compartimente: n unul se aflau fiarele, iar n cellalt,
desprit numai printr-o zbrea de fier, erau nchii inamicii lui politici. Martnez, dictatorul
teozof din El Salvador, a ordonat s se acopere cu hrtie roie tot iluminatul public din ar ca
s combat o epidemie de rujeol i inventase un pendul pe care l punea deasupra
alimentelor, nainte de a le mnca, pentru a ti dac erau sau nu otrvite...6.
Alejo Carpentier afirma la un moment dat c a scrie despre dictatori reprezint un fel
de necesitate, n vreme ce ngel Rama ori Mario Benedetti fac referire la aceste
ipochimene abominabile ca la chintesena vieii politice a continentului. Mai mult, a scrie
despre dictatori constituie ntotdeauna o sfidare a timpului i a memoriei, fiindc existena
sinistr a unui dictator nu apas doar asupra trupului i a contiinei, ea reprezint, n plus,
metafora desvrit a puterii absolute, acel spaiu iluzoriu unde despotul omnipotent se
nfrunt n singurtate cu mreia i nefericirea, cu gloria i nfrngerea. Dictatorul este mai
presus de toate ntruchiparea ubicu a masculinitii tipic latino-americane, un fel de printe
atotputernic nzestrat cu caliti excepionale i menit s cluzeasc cu mn forte destinele
naiunii din care face parte. De-a lungul timpului, speranele i soarta oamenilor au depins,
ntr-o mai mic sau mai mare msur, de umorile i deciziile schimbtoare ale tiranului, ce
pare a reuni n figura sa admiraia, temerile, frustrrile i ura compatrioilor. Din momentul
declanrii rzboaielor de independen republicile hispano-americane au oscilat ntre
despotism i anarhie, iar dictatura i dictatorul au devenit astfel o tem predilect n literatur:
consecin fireasc a faptului c tiranii, care se proiecteaz aidoma unor umbre peste istoria
naiunilor, sunt parte indisolubil a identitii culturale latino-americane, a memoriei colective
i, prin urmare, a textului i contextului operelor literare, unde personajele capt autonomie
fa de personalitile istorice care le-au inspirat.
Personajul dictatorial este prezent n toate epocile literaturii hispano-americane i a
fost cultivat de toate genurile, ns ocup indiscutabil un loc preferenial n proz; ipostaza
ficional a acestei figuri complexe se consolideaz simultan cu prestigiul i autoritatea pe
care o dobndete n America Latin romanul. Acesta se definete nainte i mai presus de
toate ca o oper de ficiune, dar reprezint n acelai timp un document uman ce conine
elemente valoroase i utile pentru cercetarea sociologic a realitii latino-americane. Apariia
Gabriel
Garca
Mrquez,
Algo
ms
sobre
literatura
y
realidad,
http://elpais.com/diario/1981/07/01/opinion/362786413_850215.html (Consultat: 22/11/2014).
6
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in:
El
Pas,
01/07/1981,
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colonialist asupra ntregii Americi Latine. Cu toate acestea, Mart nu individualizeaz nici
dictatori, nici regimuri, iar n pofida tendinei romantice care se resimte n creaia sa, sunt de
remarcat i trsturi ale unei poezii nclinate spre obiectivitate. n tratarea dictatorului ca
obiect sau abstractizare poetic, modernitii prefer mai curnd descrierea dect
subiectivizarea, i generalizarea dect individualizarea personajului. Efortul de sintez pe care
l ntreprind const n relaionarea abuzului de putere nu doar cu forele politice naionale, al
cror exponent generic este dictatorul, ci i cu cele de dincolo de granie, respectiv marile
puteri occidentale n frunte cu Statele Unite, fapt ce aduce pentru prima oar n poezie, prin
intermediul poeilor moderniti, conceptul de imperialism.
Cea mai prolific n tratarea temei dictaturii i a dictatorului s-a dovedit poezia
postmodernist, a crei apariie n universul literar hispano-american se produce ntr-un
moment istoric radical diferit de cel al poeziei moderne, dat fiind c realitatea social-politic
sufer prefaceri majore; n ansamblu, aceste schimbri au nsemnat distrugerea slabelor
sisteme democratice i instalarea n fruntea mai multor ri de pe continent a unor dictatori
corupi i sngeroi. Poezia capt din ce n ce mai mult un caracter social, iar dictatorul ca
personaj central devine o tem poetic predilect. ntre creaiile care abund n aceast
perioad pe ntreg cuprinsul Americii Latine se pot distinge dou curente importante:
desfurat n timp pn la finele anilor 50, prima direcie literar corespunde unei poezii
prin care cititorul hispano-american mprtete tragica experien a Rzboiului Civil
spaniol; n aceste versuri dictatura apare ca un sistem social-politic alturat formelor de
manifestare militar-naionaliste, iar dictatorul este nfiat ca un brbat puternic n minile
cruia se concentreaz ntreaga putere a statului, condus n complicitate cu oligarhia i
armata, prin legturi de prietenie i rudenie. Poei precum Csar Vallejo (1892-1938), Nicols
Guilln (1902-1989) ori Pablo Neruda (1904-1973) denun, ntr-un stil cel mai adesea
nonconformist, rebel, agresiv, imposibilitatea nelegerii unei realiti istorice n destrmare,
declarndu-se, printr-o viziune apocaliptic i totodat entuziast, n favoarea unei societi
socialiste mai drepte i mai libere. Cea de-a doua direcie literar corespunde poeziei anilor
60-70, n care se filtreaz artistic experiena Rzboiului din Vietnam, a Revoluiei Cubaneze
i instalarea dictaturilor militare de orientare fascist n mai multe ri din America Latin. n
acest caz, dictatura este vzut ca un sistem social-politic ce acioneaz n folosul intereselor
burgheziei naionale i ale imperialismului nord-american, iar dictatorul, general de armat
antidemocratic, pregtit i antrenat la coli peste hotare, este zugrvit ca un slujba servil al
pturilor bogate, vajnic aprtor al capitalului naional i strin n beneficiul propriu, dispus s
elimine pe oricine ar ndrzni s i se opun. Poezia acestor ani este una de tip sociologizant,
care transpune artistic conflictul dintre capitaliti i socialiti; datele istorice se gsesc din
abunden: relatarea unor ntmplri adevrate, nume reale de locuri i persoane, descrieri
veridice ale unor acte violente, torturi i crime; prin metafore, imagini i simboluri, poei ca
Pablo Neruda, Nicols Guilln sau Mario Benedetti (1920-2009) denun aceste abuzuri i
militeaz pentru schimbare social.
n dramaturgie problematizarea dictaturii nu a dat natere unui corpus literar
semnificativ, dar a existat nc de timpuriu, ca i n cazul poeziei, o preocupare crescut
pentru denunarea abuzului de putere al autoritii existente. Ca precursoare ale teatrului
hispano-american pe aceast tem, menionm dou texte din epoca colonial: piesa
Entrems, semnat de Cristbal de Llerena, profesor universitar de latin i clugr dominican
un protest mpotriva venalitii, neglijenei i autoritii exagerate a guvernului colonial din
Santo Domingo, la finele veacului al XVI-lea i Ollantay, poem dramatic anonim, scris
iniial n limba quechua, n care monarhul inca Pachactec este zugrvit ca un tiran crud i
nedrept, fiindc se opune iubirii dintre fiica sa, prinesa Cusi-Coyllor, i cpetenia militar
indigen Ollantay, din pricina obriei umile a acestuia. Lucrarea constituie o critic adus
prejudecilor de clas i puterii aberante a monarhului, legitimnd n acelai timp dreptul
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populaiei de a se rzvrti mpotriva unei autoriti atunci cnd aceasta capt tendine
dictatoriale.
Tema va dobndi contururi din ce n ce mai ferme odat cu realizrile artistice ale
secolului al XIX-lea. El Sargento Canuto (1839), a lui Manuel Ascensio Segura, comedie
ntr-un singur act, care ofer un portret viu, critic i ingenios al societii peruane din primele
decenii ale republicii, epoc marcat de venirea la putere a armatei, este o satir a soldatului
parvenit, fanfaron, ndrzne i arlatan, dar mai mult dect att, este un atac direct, prin
elemente comice i ridiculizatoare, mpotriva militarismului i a utilizrii armelor n scopuri
personale. Eroul piesei, btrnul sergent Canuto, preia puterea motivat de chestiuni
sentimentale i ntreprinde o serie de aciuni bizare i ridicole, ce culmineaz cu ocuparea
armat a pieei publice din ora, menite s trezeasc dragostea n inima mai tinerei femei
iubite, Jacoba. Eforturile sale se dovedesc ns zadarnice i nu fac dect s demonstreze
precaritatea i primitivismul afiate de sergent n raport cu poziia de conducere pe care o
deine. Autorul hispano-american care ntocmete pentru ntia oar portretul unei figuri
dictatoriale este Ignacio Rodrguez Galvn, n drama istoric Muoz, visitador de Mxico
(1838). Subiectul se articuleaz n jurul descoperirii, la nceputul perioadei coloniale, a unui
presupus complot, pus la cale de Martn Corts, fiul conchistadorului Hernn Corts, pentru
eliminarea lui Alonso Muoz reprezentant al regelui Spaniei, Filip al II-lea, n posesiunile
din Lumea Nou i eliberarea viceregatului Mexic. Aciunile de nbuire a tentativelor de
rzvrtire i anihilarea adversarului su, Baltasar Sotelo, pe a crui soie credincioas,
Celestina, ncearc zadarnic s o seduc, fac din descrierea lui Muoz un tablou ilustrat prin
trsturi aproape exclusiv negative: crud, nedrept, sngeros, calculat, pn n finalul piesei
cnd dramaturgul, n intenia de a-i salva eroul, prad unui maniheism neproductiv, l face s
se ngrozeasc de propria-i ferocitate i josnicie.
Din dramaturgia secolului al XX-lea, menionm mai nti drama n trei acte a
uruguayanului Ernesto Herrera, El len ciego (1911), o viziune emoionant a rzboaielor
civile, simbolizate de doi vechi tovari de arme, Gumersindo i Gervasio, comandani ai
trupelor celor dou faciuni politice aflate n conflict. Important datorit profunzimii n
tratarea temei, piesa vorbete despre numeroasele ncercri de a ajunge la putere ale lui
Gumersindo, un btrn caudillo, obosit de via i netrebuincios celor pe care i servise cu
loialitate, ncercri destinate n mod repetat eecului, fapt ce l cufund pe erou ntr-o
permanent stare de frustrare i de nemulumire. Personajul este reprezentat ca o figur
sngeroas, abrutizat de o existen nsingurat i fr speran departe de lumea civilizat.
ntrevede n puterea politic ansa de a dobndi fericirea personal i ocazia de a se rzbuna
pe toi aceia considerai a-i fi dumani. Aciunea penduleaz ntre realismul rural i
simbolism, o contribuie important la caracterizarea eroului avnd-o orbirea fizic a acestuia,
care reprezint n esen un mijloc de a sublinia o alta, de natur spiritual; acestei trsturi i
se altur sugestiv prin contrast cuvntul leu, opoziie ce adncete i mai mult diferena
uria dintre brbatul puternic i lipsa de viziune istoric a personajului. Alte dou piese care
merit evideniate sunt El nio y la niebla (1936), a lui Rodolfo Usigli, i Tpac Amaru
(1957), a lui Osvaldo Dragn, care au n vedere mai mult prezentarea sistemelor socialpolitice opresive i abuzive, i mai puin caracterizarea personajelor.
n teatrul contemporan, piesa care se detaeaz prin maniera de abordare a
problematicii dictatoriale este Pedro y el Capitn (1979), a scriitorului uruguayan Mario
Benedetti, o sondare dramatic a psihologiei torionarului. Axul central l constituie relaia
dintre cele dou personaje, simbolistica fiecruia n contextul hispano-american i punctele
tari, ca i cele slabe, ale ideologiilor reacionare i revoluionare din epoca anilor 70. Drama,
n patru pri, este construit sub forma unui dialog tensionat ntre victim i victimizator, n
decorul sumbru al unei sli de interogatoriu. Pedro este prizonier politic ntr-o dictatur
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militar i chiar dac fizic libertatea i este ngrdit, el nu nceteaz s fie un spirit liber,
deoarece lupt pentru idealurile sale; Cpitanul, reprezentantul acestei dictaturi i torionarul
lui Pedro, este mai captiv dect victima sa, fiindc se supune orbete dispoziiilor primite.
Structura piesei are la baz trei momente ale relaiei Pedro-Cpitan: unul n care Pedro este
victima, iar Cpitanul clul; al doilea, n care personajele se afl pe poziii de egalitate,
datorit faptului c i descoper suferine, sperane i frustrri comune; i al treilea, n care
rolurile se inverseaz, victima fiind acum Cpitanul, iar Pedro acuzatorul.
Operele menionate anterior ne permit s afirmm c, dei nu constituie un corpus
literar propriu-zis despre figura dictatorului, ele ntresc dou orientri generale care
contribuie la formarea imaginii acestuia, tendine ce se vor manifesta frecvent n romanele
dedicate controversatului personaj hispano-american: n primul rnd, remarcm operele
dramatice al cror personaj central este un caudillo dornic s ajung la putere pentru a-i
realiza aspiraiile personale, ns nu de puine ori eroul sfrete prin a fi ridicol; n al doilea
rnd, exist piesele de teatru unde, n prim-plan, se afl un personaj serios numit dictator, ce
posed capacitatea de a-i domina pe toi i pe toate, i care confer acestor piese un caracter
pe deplin dramatic.
Ca o concluzie, putem afirma c n poezie, figura autoritar, distructiv, crud i
sngeroas, ntruchipat de colonizatorul spaniol ori de conductorul indigen, n epoca
colonial, sau de puterea imperialist ori de liderul absolut, n vremea Republicii, se regsete
n poeme epice, imnuri patriotice din timpul rzboaielor de independen, poezii despre
idealul romantic de unitate naional, ori versuri legate de conflicte precum Rzboiul Civil
spaniol, Revoluia Cubanez ori Rzboiul din Vietnam. n dramaturgie, att n perioada
colonial, ct i n cea republican, piesele nfieaz un tiran dezbintor, surs a rului
absolut i cauz unic a sfritului tragic.
Bibliografie:
Asturias, M. ., Romanul latino-american, traducere de Paul-Alexandru Georgescu,
Editura pentru Literatur Universal, Bucureti, 1964.
Fuentes, C., La nueva novela hispanoamericana, Cuadernos de Joaqun Mortiz,
Mxico, 1972.
Mendoza, P. A., Parfumul de guayaba. Convorbiri cu Gabriel Garca Mrquez, ediia
a 2-a, traducere de Miruna Ionescu, Curtea Veche, Bucureti, 2008.
Castellanos, J.; Martnez, M. A., El dictador hispanoamericano como personaje
literario, in: Latin American Research Review, Vol. 16, Nr. 2, 1981, pp. 79-105,
http://www.jstor.org/pss/2503126 (Consultat: 22/11/2014).
Garca, J. C., El dictador en la novela hispanoamericana, tez de doctorat susinut n
1999,
coordinator
tiinific
Keith
Ellis,
Universitatea
din
Toronto,
http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape9/PQDD_0017/NQ45793.pdf.
Garca Mrquez, G., Algo ms sobre literatura y realidad, in: El Pas, 01/07/1981,
http://elpais.com/diario/1981/07/01/opinion/362786413_850215.html
(Consultat:
22/11/2014).
Gonzlez Echevarra, R., La dictadura de la retrica / la retrica de la dictadura, in:
La voz de los maestros. Escritura y autoridad en la literatura latinoamericana moderna,
Editorial Verbum, Madrid, 2001, pp. 110-144.
Subercaseaux, B., Tirano Banderas en la narrativa hispanoamericana (La novela del
dictador, 1926-1976), in: Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos, nr. 359, 1980, pp. 323-340,
158
SECTION: LITERATURE
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http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/FichaObra.html?Ref=33367&portal=157,
(Consultat:
22/11/2014).
Vargas Llosa, M., Literatura y poltica: dos visions del mundo, 11 de mayo del
2000, http://www.vitral.org/vitral/deliras/11/pags.htm (Consultat: 22/11/2014).
159
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Abstract: Patrick Chamoiseaus works take their strength from the Caribbean history and the
crole tradition. His novels, similar to most of the Caribbean literature, are inspired of the
Caribbean history and its specific mixture of cultures (African, French, Indian, local). Many
of the novels of Patrick Chamoiseau have the figure of the slave as a central one, as we can
see in Texaco and Biblique des derniers gestes.
In our paper, we would like to analyse the evolution of the cultural symbol related to the
slave, his place and importance in this authors fiction as symbol for the entire Caribbean
literature.
Keywords: Patrick Chamoiseau, identity, Caribbean culture, mixture culture diversity,
slavery.
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lesclave dhabitation autour duquel lauteur construit la substance de son message. Les
personnages chamoiseaunians sont tous des acteurs-crateurs de lHistoire et des modles
didentification pour tout tre opprim.
Les rcits chamoiseaunians nous introduisissent dans un univers peupl de gens
simples dont les points communs sont la pauvret, la misre et un hritage ancestral peu
glorieux, mais qui sont la fois, dous dune force inne. Parmi la multitude des
personnages tels: les urbanistes, les djobeurs, les bks, des personnages mi- rels, mifantastiques, la figure de lesclave se remarque par sa grandeur et sa force qui nat de sa
confrontation permanente avec le monde dans sa qute de la libert.
Lhistoire de dbut de lesclave remonte jusquaux premiers embarquements des
ngres africains sur les bateaux dvoreurs de chair humaine. La traverse du gouffreocan figure la douloureuse Gense 3 du personnage dans la cale ngrire . Il sagit
dun voyage de transformation, un voyage deshumanisant que la figure promthenne du
Balthazar Bodule-Jules, le personnage cl du Biblique des derniers gestes, remmore sur son
lit dagonie :
Elle semblait le dmantibuler, lui dfaire lesprit, lanantir au plus extrme. Son
corps disait, cette fois, quil y avait eu dans cette cale, une explosion des hommes et une
dilatation de leur tre semblables ce qui stait produit dans le vide de cosmos. Son corps,
captif dans cette calle, se souvenait peine de sa terre africaine. Ses frres, (complices des
ngriers) lavaient forc tournoyer sept fois autour du grand arbre de loubli, avant de le
livrer, avec lesprit bris, aux chaloupes irrmdiables du navire mangeur dhommes. Cette
terre africaine avait achevait de spuiser en lui mesure que le navire, quittant la barrire de
corail, avait dploy en direction des terres nouvelles le dsir de ses voiles. Ses chairs et son
esprit staient dissous dans un noir stomacal qui les digrait de seconde en seconde, la
manire dun dragon sans manman. 4
Larrive des esclaves enlevs et transports dans des bateaux sur lle marque la
rupture dfinitive avec la Terre- Mre, lAfrique et Nomie Auzas voit dans cette situation un
abandon progressif du schme de lAfrique au profit de celui de lle5. Mais la cale a un
double symbolisme et part la tombe, elle figure aussi la matrice car, assistant leffacement
de la vie antrieure, le personnage aboutit une nouvelle conscience , sa propre
renaissance :
[] Cette conscience fut dabord une inconcevable douleur, puis un flottement
hagard, puis un vouloir-vivre erratique. Cest avec cette nouvelle conscience (cette fraicheur
enfantine vieille une ruine de souvenirs) quil stait veille dans ce noir sans passe, dans
les crasses aveugles, les rles inhabites, dans la faim animale, la maladie de toutes les
maladies, la peur primale sans avenir. Dans ce terrible berceau, tout contre lui, un cadavre
inconnu refroidissait ternellement.6
Nous assistons une mtamorphose du personnage et dans cette renaissance il trouve
sa force pour lutter et pour rsister devant la Maldiction . Lesclave antillais est le
symbole de la survie, de la rsistance et du refus dabdiquer devant les oppressions imposes
par les colonisateurs. Balthazar Bodule-Jules est lavatar de cet esclave et pendant son rcit,
le tmoignage visionnaire dune mmoire collective , nous dcouvrons les nombreuses et
diverses formes de rsistances :
Patrick Chamoiseau, Bibliques des derniers gestes, Paris, Gallimard, 2002, p.60
op. cit. 2002, p.61.
5
Nomie Auzas, Chamoiseau ou les voix de Babel. De lImaginaire des langues, Paris, Ed. Imago, 2009, p.100.
6
op.cit. 2002, pp.63-64.
4
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il tait capable de produire dinterminables rcits sur les rsistances quil mit en ouvre
dedans les plantations, sabotant les outils, empoisonnant les chevaux et les bufs de labour,
draillant les chaudires et moulins. Il prtendit stre fait spcialit de lincendie des champs
juste avant les rcoltes, ruinant ainsi bien plus dun maitre esclavagiste. Il prenait aussi un
solennel plaisir raconter comment il devient ngre marron, poursuivi pendant sept nuits par
trois dogues sanguinaires quil parvint semer7.
Aux yeux de Elena Brandua Steiciuc, le vieux guerrier Balthazar Bodule-Jule est
un patriarche biblique 8 dont le credo sur la vie est le rsultat des expriences vcues par
tout le peuple martiniquais dont il devient le symbole archtypal.
Figures desclaves les combattants de lHistoire
Dans le riche univers chamoiseaunian, les figures des esclaves foisonnent et le lecteur
y dcouvre toute une varit notable de dnominations pour lesclave antillais, annonant une
certaine position sociale. De ce fait, dans Texaco, le lecteur rencontre toute une socit
laube de son affranchissement : la conqute de lEn-ville, symbole de la prise de conscience
de soi-mme. Rappelons ici quelques appellations de ces esclaves enchans, travailleurs sur
les plantations : des ngres en-chanes ou ng-chien , les ng-en canne , les
rebelles des premiers temps , les gros-ng- ; ou les esclaves libres - liberteux et
affranchis 9, la ngraille affranchie, les ngres marrons qui staient enfuis des
plantations des bks 10. Tout autant des dmultiplications de la conscience collective
porteuse dune seule signification : lesclave est le symbole de la rsistance acharne,
lhritier dun mlange des cultures au sein desquelles il sest forg une nouvelle identit,
savoir lidentit crole. La souffrance, la dignit et la rvolte sont des qualits quincarne la
figure de cet esclave chamoiseaunian enchan ou libre et elles constituent la fois des
repres communs dans leur qute de la libert et dans la recherche de leur propre identit
morale et sociale.
Marie Sophie Laborieux, la narratrice du roman Texaco raconte lhistoire dun tel
ngre- affranchi , son pre Esternome. Nous sommes les tmoins dun long rcit qui
dessine le contour de sa vie, ds sa naissance sur une des plantations esclavagistes, jusquaux
derniers jours de sa vie. Esternome tait fils dun homme- guine , lui aussi un combattant
rsistant contre lesclavage: le papa de mon papa, racontait Marie Sophie Laborieux, tait
un empoisonneur. Ce ntait pas un mtier mais un combat contre lesclavage sur les
habitations 11. Il tait un homme de Force qui savait des choses que lon ne doit pas savoir.
[] il avait mmoire des merveilles oublies : Pays davant, le Grand Pays, la parole du
grand pays, les dieux du grand pays 12 qui allait trouver ses fins dans lune de ces lieux
dalination et de souffrance qui constituaient les cahots construits par les bks pour terrifier
Ibidem, p.70.
Elena Brandua Steiciuc, Horizons et identit francophones, Chisinau, Cartier2012, p. 216.
9
Libres parce quils avaient sauv quelque bitation dun incendie, sauv de la noyade un enfant peau blanche, dtacher sans blesse un
serpent de la jarretelle dune vieille bke, parce quils avaient lutt contre des attaques de ngres marrons, des descentes de forbans, bataill
contre angliches et pangnoles, avaient pass leur vie en dvouement sans faille, donn du lait aux enfants des Grandes-cases, mis au monde
pour lesclavage une longue thorie de marmaille, t plus mchants avec les ngres de terre que sils en avaient t propritaires, ou alors
plus simplement parce quils avaient la suite de circonstances heureuses, matris un mtier qui les avaient rendus tellement indispensables
quils avaient pu se louer, amasser des pices cosmopolites, et pu, un bon matin, se racheter. Dautres tenaient cette libert dtre ns de
Libres, ou dtre apparus au monde avec une peau de multre si claire que cela prcipitait en angoisse les bks qui les apercevaient en
champs desclaves ou dans des cases ngres. Il y avait mille sept cent cinquante douze treize manires, dont rvaient tous les ngres en
case. Les gouverneurs qui en voyaient les effets dans les rapports de police urbaine, cauchemardaient. cf. Patrick Chamoiseau, Texaco,
Paris, Gallimard, 1992, p.90.
10
Bk descendant des premiers colons blancs , dfinition propose par Patrick Chamoiseau comme note en bas de page, op. cit., 1992,
p. 29.
11
Ibidem, p. 49.
12
Idem.
8
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les empoisonneurs. Mais pour lhomme-guine, le cachot tait un lieu souterrain de combat,
do il continua ses rsistances et il retrouva la parole en plein silence dune nuit .
lev comme ngrillon de la Grande-case, Esternome devient un esclave affranchi
aprs avoir fusill un ngre-marron de mauvaise qualit qui avait tent de tuer son matre.
Suite ce geste, le bk lui concda le droit de libre savane . Horrifi par les atrocits qui
sont augmentes sur la plantation et qui le rendaient dracin, Esternome dcide
dabandonner la bitation . Au dbut de son errance picaresque 13, il rencontre une sorte
de quimboiseur, sorcier, un Ment un mentor, un homme de Force qui aura une forte
influence pour son destin. Cette rencontre donnera un but aux errances dEsternome:
de prendre de toute urgence ce que les bks navaient pas encore pris : les mornes, le
sec du sud, les brumeuses hauteurs, les fonds et les ravines, puis investir ces lieux quils
avaient crs mais dont nul nvaluait laptitude dnouer leur Histoire en nos mille cent
histoires.14
Ctait la reprsentation des sacres villes : LEn-ville fout: Saint-Pierre et FortRoyal , cet espace fortement symbolis car la force du peuple rside dans le lien la nature
et la terre. Pour se (re)crer une identit propre et pour aboutir une conscience de soimme, les esclaves libres ou Les ng-de-terre avaient choisi la terre. La terre pour exister.
La terre pour se nourrir. La terre comprendre, et terre habiter 15.
Il y a dans le merveilleux univers chamoiseaunian, un personnage dominant mais
jamais domin qui incarne la force de la libert intrieure et le symbole de lidentit crole:
le Ment. Figure rcurrente dans la prose romanesque de Patrick Chamoiseau, il na jamais
souffert du fouette ou du cachot ; lheure des fers et de la barre on les oubliait net; les envies
mchantes de qui que ce soit ne sexeraient jamais contre eux 16 Pour le peuple crole,
dpourvu dHistoire et de Gense, le Ment est le symbole du mythe fondateur, il est le
guide spirituel selon Radu Petrescu, porteur dun savoir ancestral et de la Mmoire: le
Ment prservait nos restes dhumanit. Il tait le charbon dun combat sans hros dont le
chaud ne peut se calculer jourdhui, quau toucher des services conus par les bks en vue de
le dfolmanter1718. Chose tonnante, affirmait Esternome de Texaco, il tait impossible de
garder en esclavage une telle Force:
quand un bk dtenait un Ment parmi ses ngres, quil veuille ou pas ; avec sel ou
sans sel, lhuile ou au vinaigre, quil ait messe ou pas de messe, quil soit gentil ou tout
mchant, que sa terre soit bonne ou brhaigne, quil soit bien n ou ptisse dun ancrage en
dveine, au bout du tt ou quelque part dans le tard, ce bk tombait ruine.19
Le Ment est un personnage hors - monde, un personnage rcurrent, le symbole
mythique de la Force et de pouvoirs , un des possibles modles de lidentit antillaise.
Conclusion
Abordant lcriture chamoiseaunienne, il ne faut pas oublier lhistoire qui est rattache
cet espace insulaire et qui constitue le moteur engendrant de limaginaire de Chamoiseau.
Sa vaste uvre a un lien directeur commun: le souci pour la prservation de la mmoire qui
traduit le souci de restaurer une culture profondment traumatise par la priode esclavagiste
cf. Radu I. Petrescu, Le Mento et son entour. Notes sur lespace identitaire dans Texaco de Patrick Chamoiseau , in Philologica
Jassyensia, Iasi, VIII, No.2(16), 2012, p.179-183.
14
Op. cit. 1992, p. 74.
15
Ibidem, p. 109.
16
Ibidem, p. 69.
17
Dfolmanter, mot crole qui signifie dtruire, dmolir , cf. Rafael Confiant, Dictionnaire du crole martiniquais,
http://www.potomitan.info/dictionnaire, page consulte en ligne le 24.11.2014.
18
Patrick Chamoiseau, Texaco Paris, Gallimard, 1992, p. 71.
19
Ibidem, p.72.
13
163
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et de la (re)construire son Histoire. Comment traduire mieux cette poque, sinon en rendant
hommage lesclave opprim, tout en transbordant sa figure en pilon central de son uvre ?
Dans lunivers chamoiseaunian, les esclaves, s victimes dune non-histoire, dun nontemps et dun non-espace, sont des gardiens de la mmoire ancestrale, des symboles et des
rvlateurs de la rsistance culturelle antillaise.
"Note:
Cet article a t financ par le projet SOCERT. Socit de la connaissance,
dynamisme par la recherche, n du contrat POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132406, cofinanc par le
Fonds Social Europen, par le Programme Oprationnel Sectoriel pour le Dveloppement des
Ressources Humaines 2007-2013. Investir dans les Gens!"
Bibliographie
Patrick Chamoiseau, Texaco, Paris, Gallimard, 1992.
Patrick Chamoiseau, Bibliques des derniers gestes, Paris, Gallimard, 2002.
Auzas, Nomie, Chamoiseau ou les voix de Babel. De lImaginaire des langues, Paris,
Ed. Imago, 2009.
Ghermann, Susanne, La traverse du moi dans lcriture autobiographique
francophone in
Revue de LUniversit de Moncton, vol.27, no.1, Berlin, 2006.
Moura, Jean Marc, Littrature francophone et thorie postcoloniale, PUF, Paris,
1999.
Petrescu, Radu I., Le Mento et son entour. Notes sur lespace identitaire dans Texaco
de
Patrick Chamoiseau, in Philologica Jassyensia, VIII, No.2(16), 2012, p.179-183.
Steiciuc, Elena Brandua, Horizons et identit francophones, Chisinau, Cartier, 2012.
Site : http://www.potomitan.info/dictionnaire,
164
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ABOUT A FAILED EROTIC INITIATION. THE ILLNESS AND THE MORBID LOVE
IN THE FOREST GIRL, BY IOAN SLAVICI
Liliana Floria, PhD Candidate, 1 Decembrie 1918 University of Alba Iulia
165
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Biedermayer originar din centrul Europei3. O personalitate complex devine automat una
controversat i Ioan Slavici, prin simpatia politic manifestat pentru monarhia austroungar, prin spiritul tolerant fa de celelalte naionaliti i deschiderea fa de Occident a
devenit o persona non grata. Cu realism i nelepciune, se autodefinea drept un
cosmopolit, fiind romn cu nume de srb, vorbind ungurete n ora nemesc 4. Din cauza
ignoranei, a relei-voine i a unui patriotism prost neles manifestate de ctre contemporanii
si, un mare prozator romn a trit spre sfritul vieii, btrn i bolnav fiind, clipe cumplite n
temni ca orice infractor de rnd. Cu toate acestea, Slavici a reprezentat pentru proza
romneasc ceea ce Eminescu a fost pentru poezie i Titu Maiorescu n critica literar, adic
un spiritus rector sau cum l-a numit Cornel Ungureanu - inspirat dup prererea mea,
exagernd, n opinia celor de la Romnia literar - Homo aedificator n timpul clasicilor5.
El va deschide scriitorilor secolului XX drum larg spre proza modern, obiectiv i
analitic6. Mai mult, nainte de Eugen Lovinescu care va contientiza i va promova
necesitatea racordrii literaturii romne la literatura occidental prin teoria sincronismului,
prin opera sa, Ioan Slavici devine contemporanul unei ntregi generaii de scriitori din vestul
Europei prin abordarea unor teme literare agreate, prin realismul de factur psihologic. Din
acest moment, n literatura romn, autobiografia liric, proza poetic ori romanul de tip
balzacian ncep s dateze; cu el, proza romneasc se europenizeaz, devenind contemporan
cu ceea ce se scria n restul continentului7.
Dac unii cercettori au identificat elemente de proz Biedermayer n opera
scriitorului ardelean, alii au afirmat c Slavici este un realist mai modern, apropiindu-se de
naturalism prin reacia fiziologic i comportamentul personajelor8, n timp ce cheia
psihanalitic de interpretare a textului literar a dezvluit n locul tarelor ereditare adevrate
scindri ntre eul social i cel interior, ntre posibilitate i realitate, ntre a putea i a nu
putea s poat, ntre a vrea i a nu voi s voiasc, surs a dramatismului i a tragismului.
Pe baza datelor bio-bibliografice oferite de Slavici nsui, se pot identifica unele direcii
imprimate operei sale de lecturile filosofice realizate sub ndrumarea lui Mihai Eminescu:
Kant, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Hegel, Confucius. De la Hegel preia opoziia stpn-supus,
valorificat n nuvelele n care erosul este direct influnat de acest tip de relaie mai ales n
societile tradiionaliste romneti, unde cstoriile aveau loc doar pentru a spori avuia celor
deja bogai; Scopenhauer furnizeaz ideea conform creia n raporturile dintre Eu i lume,
Cellalt nu este altceva dect o suprafa aparent, antropologic, prin intermediul creia se
manifest n fapt tiranica voin de a tri, completat de voina de putere sau de aparen,
elemente din filosofia lui Nietzsche: Omul literaturii lui Slavici se manifest pe marile
direcii indicate de Scopenhauer ca fiind ale voinei de a tri: satisfacerea necesitilor
biologice i materiale (instinctul de achiziie i posesie, patima lui a avea, obsesia banului),
necesitatea perpetrii speciei, sexualitatea (dorina i iubirea ca patim a iraionalului din om),
injustiia (expansiunea voinei prin nclcarea voinei altora voina de putere, orgoliul). Pe
toate aceste drumuri, omul lui Slavici l ntlnete pe cellalt, dar nu ca pur obiect (al dorinei,
al posesiei, al subordonrii) i nici ca pur agent (opunndu-se, colabornd, subordonndu-se).
Cellalt exist mai ales ca o contiin care privete i calific9. Confucius cu filosofia sa
completeaz concepia profund moralistic despre lume i via insuflat de mama
Mihai Zamfir, Prozatorul Biedermayer: Slavici n Romnia literar, nr. 30, 2009 http://www.romlit.ro/prozatorul_biedermayer_slavici
(data accesrii 15.02.2014).
4
George Clinescu, Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn n prezent, ediia facsimil, Bucureti, Editura Semne, 2003, p. 126.
5
Cornel Ungureanu, Slavici-monografie, antologie comentat, receptare critic, Braov, Editura Aula, 2002, p. 8.
6
Ion Dodu Blan, Ioan Slavici sau roata de la carul mare, Bucureti, Editura Albatros, 1985, p. 12.
7
Mihai Zamfir, art. cit.
8
Alexandru Sndulescu, Proza romneasc la sfritul secolului al XIX-lea forme ale realismului, n Istoria literaturii romne. Studii,
coord. tiin. Zoe Dumitrescu Buulenga, Bucureti, Editura Academiei R.S.R., 1979.
9
Magdalena Popescu, Slavici, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1977, p. 148.
3
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autorului, care-l legitimizeaz drept un iluminist nnscut10: lumea trebuie s fie un spaiu al
echilibrrii permanente a unei balane axiologice, n care binele i rul, frumosul i urtul,
calmul i violena se regsesc ntr-un melanj permanent. De aici, teama Persidei c o prea
mult fericire este indecent i periculoas, dar i ncrederea nestrmutat c nefericirea nu
este permanent. Aceeai concepie se desprinde din pedepsirea exemplar a lui Hubr i a
lui Busuioc, ipostaze ale ratrii condiiei paterne, prin non-asumare i pasivitate. Acest
confucianism filosofic se suprapune n plan etic, moral i estetic acelui Kalokagatia specific
att Greciei antice ct i neoumanismului german, la Schiller i Geothe11.
Tudor Vianu a sesizat discrepana stilului slavician, care se dovedete abstract i
rafinat n analiza psihologic a personajului i, de cele mai multe ori, srac i lipsit de
imaginaie lingvistic n cadrul descrierii spectacolului lumii externe 12. Descrierile
peisajului natural, a unui apus de soare, a seceriului sunt lipsite de via, dac nu sunt
animate de prezena omului. Din perspectiva naratologiei slaviciene, omul anim Kosmosul
prin trrile, suferinele i dramele sale, care altfel nu este dect non-spaiu, o geografie
fizic, lipsit de esena meta-fizicului: Gndit i experimentat n sens concret, cu bogate
atribute calitative, spaiul acesta dispune de o mare infuzie spiritual. Pentru mentalitatea
ranului romn, ntre lumea sensibil a naturii materiale i aceea suprasensibil a
transcendenei, se stabilete un contact intens, un adevrat comer. Spaiul este i el afectat de
acest raport, participare ce poate duce pn la o coexisten a lor. Spaiul ranului romn nu
exist n sine, detaat de lucruri, forme sau acte ce se petrec n preajma lui sau n lume.
Spaiul este n primul rnd loc, loc concret, precis determinat, cu o natur specific, deci un
spaiu calitativ13.
Pdureanca scena unei iniieri erotice ratate
Incipitul nuvelei ofer n primele cinci alineate tot attea chei de interpretare a
filosofiei de via a autorului, care alimenteaz principalele conflicte narative. Adresarea
direct din primul rnd, cu ndemnul de raportare la o for superioar omului, este urmat de
explicarea cauzalitii acestui gest, care trimite la teoria aristotelic cu privire la raportul
dintre Fiin/Nefiin, legitate/ntmplare tradus, n planul concepiei cretine, prin raportul
dintre predestinare i liberul arbitru: (...) lumea din ntmplri se alctuiete, iar ntmplarea
e noroc ori nenorocire, i nimeni nu tie dac e ru ori bun ceasul n care a pornit, nici dac va
face ori nu ceea ce-i pune de gnd14. Pentru Aristotel, accidentul e ceva aproape de
nefiin15, cci presupune o asociere fortuit sau spontan, care nu poate fi neleas raional
ca determinat prin cauze necesare i nici nu poate fi subordonat unor legi fie i statistice. El
se sustrage astfel multora dintre determinrile fiinei, ceea ce-l face s fie ntr-adevr o
nefiin (un non-subject) pentru tiin16, iar cauza accidentului este pentru Aristotel
materia, nefiina ca posibilitate17.
n al doilea paragraf, apare Busuioc, bogtoiul, drept exponent al fiinei raionale
care tie ce voiete, care i-a consolidat puterea pe vrute, pe muncite pe chibzuite18,
plasat, prin intermediul conjunciei adversative ns, ntr-un raport de opoziie cu absurdul
existenei, de refuz i inacceptare a accidentului. Iat un adevrat personaj tragic, n nelesul
dat de ctre antici, cel care nu accept imperativul sorii, ci crede c o poate supune voinei
Munteanu, George, Istoria literaturii romne (Epoca marilor clasici), vol. 2, Bucureti, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, 1980, p. 305.
Pompiliu Marcea, Slavici, ediia a III-a, Timioara, Editura Facla, 1978, p. 185.
12
Tudor Vianu, Arta prozatorilor romni, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu, 1973, p. 116.
13
Ernst Bernea, Spaiu, timp i cauzalitate la poporul romn, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2005, p. 162.
14
Ioan Slavici, Mara. Moara cu noroc. Pdureanca, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu, 1986, p. 360.
15
Andrei Cornea, O istorie a nefiinei n filosofia greac. De la Heraclit la Damascios, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2010, p. 190.
16
Ibidem.
17
Ibidem, p. 192.
18
Ioan Slavici, op. cit., p. 360.
10
11
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sale! n acelai timp, prin supremaia raiunii i a voinei, Busuioc este un iluminist al
spaiului tradiionalist romnesc eminamente fatalist. n acest personaj coexist dou contrarii,
care-l vor scinda pn la paralizarea oricrei aciuni, de unde nlnuirea tuturor ntmplrilor
dramatice care vor pecetlui destinul fiilor si i al su.
Boala este o prezen, discret, dar puternic, n ntreg universul nuvelei Pdureanca,
ca i cum autorul ar subscrie involuntar unei concepii filosofice postmoderne, conform creia
orice epoc i are bolile ei directoare19. Menionat iniial ca un simplu fapt divers, apariia
holerei n cadrele spaio-temporale, contamineaz att geografia profan, ct i sacralitatea
implicit a acesteia prin ameninarea ei direct, dar complet ignorat: Se ivise holera-n ar,
iar Busuioc nu voia s tie de ea20. Aceast fraz scurt esenializeaz raportul dintre
accident surprins magistral prin verbul impersonal - i fiin, subiect actant aflat ntr-un
raport de cauzalitate implicit, Busuioc, cel care refuz, neag accidentul supunndu-l voinei
(nu voia) i contiinei (s tie).
Urmeaz introducerea n scen a pdurenilor, o adevrat for care acioneaz
compact, care migreaz n fiecare var dinspre munte spre es, ntr-o micare descendent
esenial, ritualic, ce funcioneaz asemeni unei atracii magice: setea de via i ia i-i duce
pe toi la srbtoarea cea mare ce se ine n fietecare an o dat pentru mprirea pnei de
toate zilele21. Pdurea i cmpia corespund unor perechi de elemente simbolice antitetice
ntunericul i lumina, frigul, umezeala i cldura, dionisiacul i apolinicul. Nu trebuie ignorat
nici faptul c faunii, spirite ale pdurii, coboar n cmpia solar pentru a participa la serbrile
orgiastice, care celebrau renaterea naturii. Viaa i moartea, srbtoarea i seceriul, seceriul
i holera se constituie n serii antonimice doar la prima vedere, cci simbolismul acestor
noiuni le poart nspre semnificaii implicite. Secera este simbol al vieii, asociat de
civilizaiile agrare cornului lunii22, dar i al smnei hrzite morii, ca hran sau ca
germene23, ntruct seceriul este o aciune de retezare a tulpinii, care leag ca un cordon
ombilical smna de glia roditoare24. Srbtoarea seceriului are puternice conotaii
ritualice, fiind expresia celebrrii paroxistice a vieii, un recurs la sacru, o ntronare
nsi a sacrului25 n plin spaiu profan. n acest sens, srbtoarea opune o explozie
intermitent unei continuiti terne, o frenezie exaltant repetiiei cotidiene 26, ea genereaz
o actualizare a timpului dinti al universului, Urzeit, a erei originare eminamente
creatoare27. Kosmosul - expresie a ordinii, a legitii, a curgerii timpului - se uzeaz
continuu, distrugndu-se pn la instaurarea Haosului sugerat de excesele de tot felul din
cadrul srbtorii pentru a permite renaterea, remprosptarea esenelor vieii, reinstalarea
vrstei de aur a omenirii, un adevrat rezervor de fore atotputernice i mereu noi28.
n contextul apropierii srbtorii seceriului, agitaia i nelinitea lui Iorgovan sporesc
nebunia atraciei pdurencei l mbat: mna iute fiindc-l mna pe el ceva nainte29.
Notaiile autorului cu privire la starea interioar a flcului accentueaz ideea unor stri
Byung-Chul Han, Agonia erosului i alte eseuri, traducere din german de Viorica Nicov, Cuvnt nainte de Ctlin Cioab, Bucureti,
Editura Humanitas, 2014, p. 13.
20
Ioan Slavici, op. cit., p. 360.
21
Ibidem.
22
Vezi Hans Biedermann, Dicionar de simboluri, vol. I-II, traducere din german de Dana Petrache, Bucureti, Editura Saeculum I.O.,
2002, p. 390-391.
23
Jean Chevalier, Alain Gheerbrant, Dicionar de simboluri. Mituri, vise, obiceiuri, gesturi, forme, figuri, culori, numere, vol. I-II-III,
traducere dup ediia aprut n 1969, modificat i completat, aprut n colecia Bouquins, coordonat de Micaela Slvescu, Laureniu
Zoica, Bucureti, Editura Albatros, 1994-1995, p. 217.
24
Ibidem.
25
Roger Caillois, Omul i sacrul, ediie adugit cu trei anexe despre sex, joc i rzboi, n relaiile lor cu sacrul, cu o prefa la ediia a II-a
(1949), o prefa la ediia a III-a (1963) i un cuvnt nainte (1939) ale autorului, traducere din limba francez de Dan Petrescu, Bucureti,
Editura Nemira, 1997, p. 109.
26
Ibidem.
27
Ibidem, p. 113
28
Ibidem, p. 118.
29
Ioan Slavici, op. cit., p. 364.
19
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30
Ibidem, p. 365.
Ibidem, pp. 372-373.
Ibidem.
33
Ibidem, p. 374.
34
Roger Caillois, op. cit., p. 121.
31
32
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agonizant al simurilor, care mimeaz doar n mod jalnic ritualul iniiatic dionisiac, nconjurat
de false bacante, care-l ndeprteaz de la adevrata iniiere sacr.
n mitologia popular romnesc, Fata Pdurii este o apariie terifiant care atrage
flcii neajutorai i neiniiai ntr-o iniiere, creia, dac nu-i fac fa, pier. Mitul Fetei pdurii
reprezint n fapt un ansamblu de rituri ce presupun iniierea erotico-sexual a tnrului, care
trece de la ipostaza de flcu la cea de brbat. Ca orice iniiere, ritul trimite i la sfera morii,
care presupune o trecere dintr-un stadiu n altul: feciorul care are de-a face cu ea trebuie s i
fac singur fa, trebuie s o stpnesc, fiindc numai astfel el se dovedete matur sexual i,
prin urmare, apt de nsurtoare. Altfel, trind n nluciri periculoase, el trebuie s fie recuperat
pentru viaa real prin practici magice puse n act de apropiaii si, i, mai cu seam, de
femeile din familia sa, n primul rnd de femeile n vrst, ca i cnd s-ar pune n scen o
nou natere35. Componenta funerar i cea magic coexist, deoarece tnrul atins de Fata
Pdurii este introdus n cuptor, asemeni pinii, pentru a trece de la crud la copt, simboliznd
trecerea tnrului de la o perioad n care nu a tiut s-i controleze viaa sexual (...) nspre
o epoc de maturitate, degajat de excesele i curizitile unei tinerei neglijente 36. Iorgovan
pare a nu fi avut tria i maturitatea necesare trecerii acestui rit n urma cruia, din feciorul
rsfat al bogtoiului Busuioc, ar fi devenit un brbat matur, capabil s stpnesc orice
exces att n interior, ct i n raport cu exteriorul.
Frumuseea ireal a Siminei, pdureanca, este un prim semn al tabuizrii acesteia, al
contaminrii acesteia cu sacrul, superlativul absolut n plan estetic plasndu-se la antipodul
ureniei legendare a Fetei Pdurii. Comportamentul permisiv al fetei a fost evideniat de
critica literar, care a identificat n acesta un motiv al blocajului, al refuzului flcului. Ea
ncalc legea nescris a comunitii rurale, pe care Iorgovan o urmeaz cu sfinenie, legea
ruinii, devenind astfel o eroin tragic prin nclcarea hybris-ului. Ea l urmeaz pe
Iorgovan din Zimbru la casa lui Busuioc, dei are doar certitudinea unei dragoste n sec, l
caut n locurile ru famate unde acesta petrece cu alte femei, umilindu-se ngrozitor, nu i
urmeaz tatl i rmne n curtea bogtoiului dei nu-i va deveni nor. Cu ct flcul
zdrobete mai multe bariere ale bunului sim, cu att ea devine mai umil, acceptnd ca o
pedeaps bine meritat acest calvar. Spre deosebire de Iorgovan care se mpotrivete i nu are
curajul de a tri liber iubirea, agoniznd consumat de focul sexualitii mistuitoare refulate la
adpostul conveniilor sociale, ea sparge barierele sociale i convenionale, trind plenar
sentimentul, cu toate implicaiile dramatice ale nclcrii tabu-ului. La fel ca n cazul Persidei
care iubete i se teme, ateapt umil i se abandoneaz erosului, Simina l copleete pe
labilul Iorgovan cu o iubire pe care acesta nu are capacitatea emoional de a o nelege i de a
o mprti. Ea are curajul unui brbat, el, slbiciunea unei femei, de unde o ambiguizare a
sexelor, care trimite la acele srbtori antice, n care att femeile ct i brbaii se travesteau,
sugernd practicarea unor rituri ale fecunditii37.
n plan ritualic, cuplul Simina-Iorgovan reunit n plin srbtoare a seceriului avea
menirea de a reinstaura i de a refertiliza Kosmosul. n Enuma elish, Marduk nvinge
monstrul Tiamat i ntemeiaz lumea valorificnd matricea originar a rului, de unde
dualismul cosmogonic funcional38 al acesteia. Haosul nu a fost ndeprtat complet, el
reapare pentru ca omul s celebreze nnoirea, primenirea constant a universului, i a vieii.
La asiro-babilonieni, ntr-o zi anume destinul comunitii era dat pe mna unui nebun, care
era lsat s decid n locul regelui, Haosul, lumea pe dos, reinstaurndu-se. Dac n timpul
domniei Haosului, regele era dezbrcat, batjocorit i umilit n public, dup ce i relua
Otilia Hedean, Pentru o mitologie difuz, Timioara, Editura Marineasa, 2000, p. 47.
Idem, op. cit., p. 48.
Vezi Marie Delcourt, Hermaphroditos. Mituri i rituri ale bisexualitii n Antichitatea antic, traducere de Laureniu Zoica, Bucureti,
Editura Symposion, 1996, p. 25.
38
tefan Borbely, Mitologie general, Cluj Napoca, Editura Limes, 2001, p. 12.
35
36
37
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171
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scenariu mitic gnostic, marele mit al maniheismului, evideniind faptul c mitul dac exist
scap complet inteniei contiente a autorului44. Culianu laud tehnica narativ, nlnuirea
rapid a episoadelor, sondarea psihologic i contureaz contextul istorico-social al apariiei
nuvelei coroborat cu mentalitatea epocii, de care nici scriitorii romni nu erau strini. Astfel,
hanul unde se mut familia lui Ghi mrginit de cele cinci cruci marcheaz n plan simbolic
grania dintre un spaiu al ordinii i cel al haosului, cele dou spaii avnd drept corespondent
n geografia profan oraul viaa -, respectiv pdurea moartea. Ghi, agent al binelui, are
menirea de a se sacrifica i de a-l nfrunta pe Lic, nu ntmpltor eful porcarilor, agentul
rului. Culianu interpreteaz simbolismul crucilor de piatr i de lemn, prezena simbolic a
porcilor n mpria ntunericului i puterea de fascinaie a lui Lic. Cercettorul romn
concluzioneaz c valoarea unei opere literare sporete n timp mai ales dac coordonatele
spaio-temporale realiste capt valoare simbolic i rezultatele unei mitanalize vor fi cu att
mai spectaculoase cu ct opera este mai realist. Contient sau nu, nclinaia lui Ioan
Slavici ctre simbol exist, cci nu ntmpltor moara, pdurea, focul, lumina, moartea
depesc semnificaia imediat a unor simple motive literare menite a condimenta
naraiunea, devenind metafore-simbol ntr-un scenariu mitic i ritualic cu valoare iniiatic.
Boala fenomenologie i pattern al iubirii-boal
Din perspectiv magico-religioas, boala este o aciune demonic posibil n urma
unei btlii aprige dus n cer ntre ngerii buni ai lui Dumnezeu i ngerii ri. Odat alungai,
n cderea lor, demonii au rmas suspendai n aer, alii au czut pe pmnt, prini n deert
sau n ape. Ei chinuie de atunci omul cu diverse boli care afecteaz att fizicul ct i psihicul
acestuia. Tudor Pamfilie45 identific patru tipuri de boal, care contamineaz echilibrul vital
al omului: boala adus de demonii nii ascuni n ap, ntuneric, n miez de noapte;
farmecele, vrjile i blestemele izvorte din lcomie i invidie; boala, consecin a pcatului i
a neascultrii divine; boala, ca urmare fireasc a nclcrii unor legi nescrise, vechi de cnd
lumea, al cror izvor este nelepciunea popular romneasc. Cercettorul romn asociaz
sntatea omului de noroc, relaionnd astfel hazardul de ideea de predestinare pentru a
explica inexplicabilul. Ciuma, holera boli epidemice grave, virulente n manifestare,
pandemice n rspndire sunt considerate n mitologia popular romneasc creaturi
demonice.
Bolile pandemice au devenit teme n literatura universal, ncepnd cu Boccaccio.
Celebrul scriitor renascentist valorific ciuna drept pretext livresc pentru a nrma povestirile
sale, menite, n intenia autorului, s distreze, nu s moralizeze. Cu toate acestea, scurtele
naraiuni conin adevrate meditaii filosofice cu privire la sensul vieii, cptnd o valoare
artistic intrinsec profund. Cu privire la ngrozitoarea boal, Boccaccio are o atitudine
detaat, descriptiv, aceasta fiind un punct de pornire, un argument oferit pentru gruparea
i petrecerea tinerilor povestitori46. Pentru scriitorul iluminist al secolului al XVIII-lea,
Daniel Defoe, ciuma este o boal, ale crei cauze trebuie cutate att n ignorana oamenilor,
ct i n incapacitatea autoritilor de a gestiona corect situaii extreme. Scriitorul respinge
ideea superstiioas a originii supranaturale a ciumei drept consecin a pcatelor oamenilor i
a mniei divine, el ridiculiznd chiar naivitatea acelora care, din dorina de imunizare, au
czut victime ale arlatanilor de tot felul. Ignorana oamenilor i nencrederea acestora n
tiin, n medicin au amplificat monstruos numrul victimelor. n opinia scriitorului, situat
n ipostaza lui H.F., flagelul a gsit nu doar victime inocente, ci i ajutoare nesperate, care
44
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SECTION: LITERATURE
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au sporit dezastrul. Boala devine sinonim cu absurdul nsui, n faa cruia omul i pierde
voina, puterea i capacitatea de a comunica.
Boala apare ca motiv literar i n Pdureanca lui Ioan Slavici, la nivel pandemic orin
prezena discret amenintoare a holerei, la nivel fiziologic pe un fond ereditar, la Pupz i la
nivel emoional, senzorial, la Iorgovan. Din perspectiva celor menionate anterior, n raport cu
voina i puterea omului de a-i alege destinul, boala este un accident al nefiinei, expresia
hazardului, care aduce nenoroc prin aceasta. n plan magico-religios, holera este un agent al
sacrului, care tabuizeaz prin prezena sa ntreaga regiune aflat n ateptarea marii srbtori a
seceriului. Consumarea timpului profan presupune eliberarea fiinei de credina canonic n
curgerea zilelor i alunecarea spre ascendena sacr a temporalitii, n care boala devine
agent al sacralitii.
Iorgovan este un flcu inteligent, care ns rateaz ansa de a depi condiia de ran
a tatlui i se ntoarce la plugrie. Este totodat foarte tnr are doar douzeci de ani, din
notaia autorului, ceea ce sugereaz c nu a fcut armata i, conform uzanelor sfritului de
secol al XIX-lea nu este major47 i nu poate ntemeia o familie. Sub aspect ritualic, el este
un neiniiat, un candidat la titlul de brbat, n comparaie cu ofron, de exemplu, care are
treizeci de ani. Pe fondul imaturitii emoionale i sexuale, se dezvolt o sensibilitate
senzorial care-l face candidatul ideal al unei iniieri, pe care o va rata n plan erotic, pentru a
o desvri ritualic n final. prin trecerea prin foc n marea moar cosmic. Iorgovan a fost
numit depresiv de Steliana Brdescu, care-l plaseaz astfel n rndul pacienilor secolului
XX n virtutea celor civa ani de liceu fcui la Arad. Dar lui Iorgovan i lipsete
profunzimea tririlor, complexitatea gndirii i mediul stresant pentru a fi victima ideal a
depresiei. Agitaia resimit n apropierea srbtorii, atracia irezistibil i inexplicabil de a
pleca dup Simina la Zimbru, goana nebun din timpul nopii ca ntr-o trans hipnotic sunt
semne ale contaminrii cu sacrul, care-l cheam.
n proximitatea bolii totul se contamineaz, chiar i erosul. ncepnd cu renascentistul
Ficino care-l face cunoscut Europei pe Platon i a sa iubire platonic, este promovat ideea
magnetismului natural, a contagiunii erotice prin privire. Conform acestei teorii exist
persoane dotate cu o putere magnetic de atracie erotic surprinztoare, care tulbur prin
fora lor interioar. Julius Evola va numi acest magnetism natural tsi, folosind un termen
preluat din vechea mitologie indian, numind iubirea o intoxicaie fluidic a ndrgostiilor.
n Antichitate s-a crezut, iar la unele popoare primitive nc se mai crede, c fluidul unei
persoane o ptrunde att de puternic, nct impregneaz nu numai trupul, ci i vemintele48.
Iubirea este considerat sinonim cu o mbolnvire att n plan psiho-emoional, provocnd
melancolie i chiar un soi de nebunie ndrgostitului, ct i n plan fizic, cnd se fac asocieri
cu bolile venerice. Iorgovan este intoxicat cu frumuseea pdurencei, sfiat ntre dorina de
a o vedea i aceea de a fugi ct mai departe de ea: Ct a stat dnsa la Curtici, zmbet n faa
lui nu s-a ivit, mncarea lui n-a fost mncare i somnul lui n-a fost somn i totui de cte ori
era vorba de plecarea ei, i venea s rcneasc i-i nfigea ghearele n olduri. Era grozav
lucru cnd vrei s nu voieti ce vrei i simi c nu poi voi nimic, ci te duce altul dup cum te
poate49. Este melancolic, pierdut n gndurile care-l sfie continuu ntre a voi, a putea i
chiar a voi s voiasc i atins de o nebunie pe care o contientizeaz permanent. Acestea
sunt semnele iubirii-boal, a crei simptomatologie este oglindit i n romanul lui Goethe,
Suferinele tnrului Werther. Tnrul se ndrgostete de o proiecie a propriei sale
sensibiliti care identific n Lotte, logodnica i soia lui Albert, idealul feminin, a crui
Steliana Brdescu, Slavici sau iubirea ca mod de via. Relaia uman ca loc geometric al prozei lui Ioan Slavici, Prefa de Mircea
Anghelescu, Editura Institutului European, Iai, 2011, p. 113-114.
48
Julius Evola, Metafizica sexului, cu un eseu introductiv de Fausto Antonini, traducere de Sorin Mrculescu, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti,
1994, p. 67.
49
Ioan Slavici, op. cit., p. 367.
47
173
SECTION: LITERATURE
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inaccesibilitate sporete cu att mai mult dorina. Iorgovan i Werther se apropie prin
sensibilitate i fatalism, dar rafinamentul intelectual al personajului lui Goethe i distaneaz
n planul dramatismului tririlor. n timp ce toat patima lui Werther se consum la nivel
retoric50, pasiunea lui Iorgovan arde mult prea mistuitor pentru un tnr necopt, care nu a
trecut nc n rndul brbailor. n absena iubirii, a fluxului vital transmis prin privire, care s
hrneasc sufletul nsetat al lui Werther, acesta se stinge de uscciune ca vegetaia de pe un
pmnt mort, de sete, percepnd moartea inimii chiar n termeni de ariditate creatoare,
imaginativ, de artificializare mumificatoare a oricrei pulsaii organice de altdat51. Din
alt perspectiv critic, Suferinele tnrului Werther surprinde momentul fatal cnd clipa
spune nu voluptii, cci clipa are i aceast posibilitate, atunci cnd a luat chip
omenesc52 i, parafrazndu-l pe Friedrich Gundolf, am putea afirma c cei doi tineri suport
chinul intangibilitii clipei frumoase prin renunare involuntar53 n cazul lui Werther i,
voluntar, deliberat n cazul lui Iorgovan. n romanul lui Gabriel Garcia Mrquez, Dragostea
n vremea holerei, dragostea i holera mpart de la bun nceput reperele spaio-temporale i
metaforice ale naraiunii. Exist un timp al bolii, exist un timp al iubirii i un timp al morii,
cele trei teme majore unindu-se ntr-una singur, cea a iubirii care dureaz o via de om, pn
la moarte, fie c este vorba despre iubirea conjugal a doctorului Urbino pentru soia sa, fie c
se refer la iubirea eternului ndrgostit, Florentino Ariza pentru aceeai femeie timp de
cincizeci de ani, Fermina Daza. Iubirea i boala se suprapun simbolic, ndrgostitul
experimentnd din punct de vedere fizic simptomele unui bolnav de holer: (...) i pierise
pofta de vorb i de mncare, nu mai avea somn i se perpelea toat noaptea n aternut. (...)
starea i s-a complicat cu o pntecraie fr leac i nite vrsturi vrezui ca fierea, i pierduse
simul orientrii i se prbuea ca din senin n nesimire, nct maic-sa, ngrozit de
suferinele lui, se ntreba dac nu era vorba mai degrab de ravagiile holerei dect de chinurile
dragostei. (...) bolnavul, cu pulsul slab, cu respiraia hrit, scldat tot ntr-o transpiraie
searbd ca a muribunzilor, (...) nu avea febr, nu-l durea numic, iar singura senzaie care-l
ncerca era nevoia urgent de a muri54. Holera constituie i interesul tiinific al doctorului
Urbino, boala devenind mijlocitoarea ntlnirii provideniale dintre el i Fermina Daza.
Boala i iubirea traverseaz asemeni dou fire mpletite armonios ntreaga naraiune, din
incipit pn n final, cci iubirea presupune virusarea ndrgostitului de prezena i
personalitatea fiinei iubite, intoxicarea tuturor simurilor acestuia cu cellalt.
De-a lungul itinerariului literar romnesc i universal parcurs n prezentul studiu,
iubirea nseamn contactul nemijlocit cu alteritatea, care presupune contagiune, virusare,
intoxicare, fermecare, chiar nebunie termeni preluai fie din limbajul medical, fie din
cel magico-religios. Pentru fiina uman, iubirea presupune un tip de iniiere, uneori violent,
alteori mplinit, uneori regenerant, alteori distructiv, dar ntotdeauna prilej de cunoatere a
lumii i de autocunoatere prin Cellalt. Iorgovan ntlnete iubirea, al crei foc este prea
puternic pentru fiina lui firav (Ion Barbu), graviteaz n jurul acestuia atras irezistibil, dar
nu are curajul s se scalde n flcrile lui. De aceea, flcul se stinge dup ce arde n focul
care-i lumineaz i i spiritualizeaz fiina, cel care l izbvete ncet pedepsitor (Tudor
Arghezi) de ignorana sa cu privire la dimensiunea sacr a pasiunii, care-l lega de pdureanca
sa unic. Prin uniunea erotic hierogamic a celor doi s-ar fi unit cmpia i pdurile, lumina i
ntunericul, apolinicul i dionisiacul, dizolvnd n dimensiunea ritualic a srbtorii timpul i
Mihaela Ursa, Eroticon. Tratat despre ficiunea amoroas, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 2012, p. 138.
Idem, op. cit., p. 141.
52
Gundolf, Friedrich, Goethe, vol. I, traducere, prefa, tabel cronologic, note i indici de Ion Roman, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1971, p.
280.
53
Ibidem.
54
Gabriel Garca Marquez, Dragostea n vremea holerei, traducere din limba spaniol Sarmiza Leahu, Bucureti, Editura Rao, 2012, p. 8889.
50
51
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spaiul uzate de curgerea profan, revitalizndu-le. Doar moartea lui ddrept sacrificiu de sine
salveaz universul comunitii arhaice de la disoluie.
BIBLIOGRAFIE CRITIC
Bachelard, Gaston, Psihanaliza focului, n romnete de Lucia Ruxandra Munteanu,
Prefa de Romul Munteanu, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1969.
Blan, Ion Dodu, Ioan Slavici sau roata de la carul mare, Bucureti, Editura Albatros,
1985.
Bernea, Ernst, Spaiu, timp i cauzalitate la poporul romn, Bucureti, Editura
Humanitas, 2005.
Biedermann, Hans, Dicionar de simboluri, vol. I-II, tradus din german de Dana
Petrache, Bucureti, Editura Saeculum I.O., 2002.
Borbely, Stefan, Mitologie general, Cluj Napoca, Editura Limes, 2001.
Brdescu, Steliana, Slavici sau iubirea ca mod de via. Relaia uman ca loc
geometric al prozei lui Ioan Slavici, Prefa de Mircea Anghelescu, Iai, Editura Institutului
European, 2011.
Caillois, Roger, Omul i sacrul, ediie adugit cu trei anexe despre sex, joc i rzboi,
n relaiile lor cu sacrul, cu o prefa la ediia a II-a (1949), o prefa la ediia a III-a (1963) i
un cuvnt nainte (1939) ale autorului, traducere din limba francez de Dan Petrescu,
Bucureti, Editura Nemira, 1997.
Clinescu, George, Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn n prezent, ediie
facsimil, Bucureti, Editura Semne, 2003.
Chevalier, Jean, Gheerbrant, Alain, Dicionar de simboluri. Mituri, vise, obiceiuri,
gesturi, forme, figuri, culori, numere, vol. I-II-III, traducere aprut dup ediia din1969,
modificat i completat, aprut n colcia Bouquins, coordonat de Micaela Slvescu,
Laureniu Zoica, Bucureti, Editura Albatros, 1994-1995.
Cornea, Andrei, O istorie a nefiinei n filosofia greac. De la Heraclit la Damascios,
Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2010.
Culianu, Ioan Petru, Studii romneti, I, Fantasmele nihilismului. Secretul doctorului
Eliade, traducere de Corina Popescu i Dan Petrescu, Bucureti, Editura Nemira, 2000.
Delcourt, Marie, Hermaphroditos. Mituri i rituri ale bisexualitii n Antichitatea
antic, traducere de Laureniu Zoica, Bucureti, Editura Symposion, 1996.
Evola, Julius, Metafizica sexului, cu un eseu introductiv de Fausto Antonini, traducere
de Sorin Mrculescu, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 1994.
Gundolf, Friedrich, Goethe, vol. I, traducere, prefa, tabel cronologic, note i indici
de Ion Roman, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1971.
Han, Byung-Chul, Agonia erosului i alte eseuri, traducere din german de Viorica
Nicov, Cuvnt nainte de Ctlin Cioab, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2014.
Hedean, Otilia, Pentru o mitologie difuz, Timioara, Editura Marineasa, 2000.
Iorgulescu, Mircea, Mara un roman al predestinrii, n Ioan Slavici interpretat de...,
Antologie, prefa, tabel cronologic i bibliografie de C. Mohanu, Editura Eminescu,
Bucureti, 1977.
Marcea Pompiliu, Slavici, ediia a III-a, Timioara, Editura Facla, 1978.
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176
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Abstract: Fay Weldons female protagonists see men as central to their existence and
repositories to any happiness they might obtain. The womens way towards independence
started. Fay Weldons Life and Loves of a She-Devil was quite a shock in the eighties and
it even has the power to shock today. Ruth, the narrator, is everything but pretty. Her
husband, Bobbo, has an almost princess like mistress. She wants him back, but at the same
time, she wants to destroy Mary Fisher and her perfect world. In this paper I will present her
complicated and perfect plan, and all the obstacles she has to overcome in order to achieve it.
Even though it is difficult to judge whether Ruth is a good or a bad person, she is in the end a
winner. In my opinion, she won her painful and demanding evolution, and at the same time,
the readers full attention and sympathy.
Keywords: Feminism, Ruth, femininity, gender equality.
This novel is remarkable in the context of Fay Weldons fiction, and in the context of
other feminist literary works. It was quite a shock in the eighties, when it appeared, and even
today it has the power to shock. Fay Weldon created a brand new world for a desperate, yet
dangerously determined woman, Ruth Patchett, not being scared of unexpected and extreme
actions.
Ruth, the narrator, who is everything, but not pretty, lives in the suburbs along with
her husband Bobbo and their two children. Bobbo is presented at the beginning of the novel,
as having a mistress: Mary Fisher - a beautiful and charming woman, a writer of romantic
fiction, an almost princess-like creature (as she seems to Ruth). Her husband tried to justify
his cheating by telling her about each and every one of his infidelities. Ruth feels that she
cannot endure her situation anymore, a situation in which all she has left is her ugliness,
unrewarding domesticity, a suburban home, ungrateful children and unfaithful husband1.
Ruth Patchett, in the most obvious contrast with Mary Fisher, wants her husband back,
but at the same time, she wants to destroy her rival and the perfect world she lives in. She
makes a perfect and complicated plan in order to reach these goals. All her actions are
successful, but purchased by a lot of pain. She becomes a member of several social
communities, and by manipulating people, she fulfils her journey and rebirth.
Ruth and Marry Fisher are the perfect opposites there is an obvious difference
between them: I am as dark as Mary Fisher is fair, and have one of those jutting jaws which
tall, dark women often have, and eyes sunk rather back into my face, and a hooked nose. My
shoulders are broad and bony and my hips broad and fleshy, and the muscles in my legs are
well developed. My arms, I swear, are too short for my body. My nature and my looks do not
agree.2
1
2
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Ruth, a six feet two inches tall, dark, clumsy and manlike woman, who is unable to
make anyone truly love her, describes her husbands mistress as a personification of her own
heroines.
Mary Fisher is forty-three, and accustomed to love. There has always been a man
around to love her, sometimes quite desperately, and she has on occasion returned this love,
but never, I think, with desperation3 She thinks that nothing can disturb her perfect world
which involves champagne, silk dresses, dinners, smoked salmon, affectionate lovers and
parties. She is in the company of important people and possesses the freedom from the
difficulties of the average women.
Unfortunately, she soon discovers how weak her perfect world is, when she has to
face the responsibility of taking care of Ruth and Bobbos thoroughly unattractive children.
Little did she know that it was the beginning of her misfortune.
The opposition between Ruth and Mary is not only physical, but at the same time,
spiritual. When her husband calls Ruth a she-devil, she assumes this role and in the name of
the she-devil, she begins her incredible journey. She takes her spiritual power from envy, hate
and lack of love, whereas Mary, presented as an angelic creature, takes it from love and
tenderness.
Ruths aims are quite clear, as she herself explains: But what do I want? That of
course could be a difficulty [...] I want revenge. I want power. I want money. I want to be
loved and not love in return4
She is aware of the fact that she has to get ready for a new life, to leave everything
behind, but unlike many other desperate housewives, she decides to act. She does not create
her new life in a common, conventional way, but she plans every step and move carefully.
She has only one goal in mind: to destroy and discredit Mary Fisher. This at least seems to be
her goal, but her real plan is revealed by the end of the novel to become a new Mary Fisher,
surrounded by mens admiration, love and respect, everything she always wanted to have.
With every new identity she chooses, Ruth reaches to a better understanding of her
inner self. All her emotions and hatred for her rival forced and helped her achieve everything
she resolved. She found out how strong and devil-like a hurt woman really is.
Ruth tries several identities and professions throughout the story, and achieves
material and social success in all of them. She also learns the fact that people can actually like
her. These actions represent social steps which play a minor role in the whole process she
plans to undergo.
She steals her husbands money, knowing that he has never been careful enough about
his finances. Bobbo is accused of speculation, put into custody, thus deepening his mistresss
misery. Ruth starts her physical transformation and evolution using his money, with the help
of three plastic surgeons. She goes through an incredible amount of interventions to be like
other women.[...] If you have been extraordinary all your life, reflected Mr. Ghengis, just to
be ordinary must be wonderful 5
During the convalescence of Ruths surgeries, Mary Fisher dies of cancer, giving the
former the opportunity of coming to High Tower and living with Bobbo, happily ever after, at
last.
Now I live in the High Tower, and the sea surges beneath as the moon circles and the
earth turns, but not quite as it did. [...] Bobbo loves me, poor confused creature that he has
3
LLSD 1983, p. 5
LLSD 1983, p.43
5
LLSD 1983, p. 219
4
178
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become, pouring my tea, mixing my drinks, fetching my bag. [...] Sometimes I let Bobbo
sleep with me. Or I take my lovers in front of him. What agreeable turmoil that causes in the
household! Even the dogs sulk. I cause Bobbo as much misery as he ever caused to me, and
more6
By the end of the novel, Ruth presents herself as a winner, having received everything
she planned to have: the love of her husband, money, power and even to live in the High
Tower. But does this mean that she is finally happy? Her journey made her see hate, envy and
weakness in the people around her, making her unable to love again.
Nevertheless, her revenge is exemplary in its complexity and extend, her goal is quite
trivial, similar to many other womens goals. She now knows that she can do anything she
wants to, being able to achieve much more significant and attractive purposes, but in a strange
parody of her rival, she is happy in her tower. She knows she only performs a role.
The unexpected ending is seen as rather controversial by many reviewers. Rhoda
Koenig from the New York Magazine wrote: Women who love men lose their identities;
women who vanquish them lose their souls. Ruth truly becomes a defeated soul when trying
to rule her own version of the world. In contrast with her bad decisions the abandonment of
her children, the burning of their house down, stealing her husbands money the reader
tends to be on Ruths side : It is more to the point to note and to applaud Weldons
triumphant achievement in managing, against often considerable odds, to keep the reader in
Ruths side even as her acts become increasingly vengeful and destructive [...]7
In my opinion, Ruth Patchett is indeed a winner, but it is quite difficult to judge
whether she is a good or a bad person. She took action and control over her life, having a
demanding, painful and complicated evolution. But in the end, the most important fact is that
she managed to win the readers sympathy and full attention. This sympathy is connected to
the novels aggressive feminism, both with our initial feelings for Ruths situation, and, as the
book goes on, with the involvement in its rhetoric of deserted wives. We should applaud
Weldons achievement in managing, against important odds, to keep the reader on her
protagonists side, even when her acts became vengeful or destructive. What Ruth seeks is to
be freed from natural affection8 and the pain of memory9
Bibliography
BBC News. Fay Weldon: Rape Isnt the Worst Thing That Can Happen.
BBC News.co.uk. June 1998. Web. 25. May 2010.
<http://news.bbc.co.uk>.
Dowling, Finuala. Fay Weldons Fiction. Madison: Farleigh Dickinson UP, 1998.
Fay Weldon Interviews and Articles.
Web. 14. Mar. 2010. <http://redmood.com/weldon/interviews.html>.
Fay Weldons Biography on Answers.com.
Web. 14. Mar. 2010 < http://www.answers.com/topic/fay-weldon>.
Weldon, F 1983, The Life and Loves of a She-Devil. Hodder & Stoughton, London.
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Abstract: Septimiu Bucur published various books of literature reviews, literary theory, philosophy,
both Romanian and foreign starting with 1934 in magazines "Thinking", "Shattered stone",
"Romanian Thought", "Progress and culture", "Literary Life", "Literary Romania," "Today," "Me and
Europe" etc.
Most chronic, reviews and notes written by Septimiu Bucur between 1934-1941 are not
excesses. Doing critical prose discusses the validity of the subject and themes, the quality of
observation and analysis, intentions of the author's novels rejecting Damian Stnoiu, Carol
Ardeleanu, Ionel Teodoreanu, Peltz but enthusiastically appreciated Emanoil Bucuta's
writings, Henriette Yvonne Stahl, Mircea Eliade, Victor Papilian.
Dissolved in a pen the four titans of Jewish contemplation: Marx, Freud, Bergson, Einstein
and deeply disgusted with the nullity of the "Romanian Life" or total absence of manifest
vocation at Tudor Arghezi, George Clinescu etc, which threatens to block.
Keywords: article, writer, magazines, to publish, critical prose, Septimiu Bucur
Articlierul
Cum trebuie s fie un eseist? Eseistul nu trebuie s inventeze poveti, nu trebuie s
eas metafore i nici s reinventeze lumea. Aa cum crede filosoful francez Jacques
Ranciere, genurile literare nu se definesc printr-o form, ci mai degrab printr-un mod de
reprezentare a lumii. Eseistul umbl ntre culmile poeziei, cmpiile prozei i nesfritul teren
accidentat al filozofiei pe o osea de unde vede toate formele de relief fr s-o ating pe nici
una, cu idealul lipit de retin i cu traficul de mare vitez n coast. Eseistul e un nimenianume, cineva care poate n orice clip s o apuce pe poteca de munte, crruia de es sau si croiasc drum pe unde nimeni n-a pit i n-ar putea s-o fac, sau poate dar nu se stie unde
ar ajunge. Drama lui e aceea de a se mpca cu nehotrrea i este totodat ceea ce-i rmne
dup ce i s-au luat tragedia i comedia. Logica l taloneaz strns. Metafora i gdil nrile,
dar ct de metaforic poate fi un eseist? Inelept, el nu e totui un stoic i informat, nu e un
jurnalist. Eseistul e totui singurul specializat n ale scrisului cruia nu i se deir niciodat
visul de a fi scriitor.
Poate fi considerat Septimiu Bucur eseist i cronicar? Rspunsul este afirmativ.
Textele sale sunt bazate pe convingeri argumentate, contextul fiind cel care-i orienteaz
argumentele. Respect principiile morale i estetice constitutive redactrii textului pe care nu
le abandoneaz deloc pn la ultimul eseu, cronic literar publicat. Si-a evideniat atributele
dnd dovad de obiectivitate, discernmnt, stpnirea valorilor etico-estetice, limbaj
pertinent, luciditate, verticalitate. Pe plan filosofic, i vdete confluene cu existenialismul
elabornd ase studii privitoare la filosofia lui Blaga. Familiaritatea criticului cu universul
abstract al filosofiei nu a tocit ascuimea intuiiei critice, sensibilitatea fa de opera liric i i180
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a influenat stilul n sensul unei sporite precizii i rigori analitice. 1 Septimiu Bucur este un
intelectual pe care pregtirea filosofic, sensibilitatea estetic, simul valorii, rigoarea
expresiei l recomandau pentru magistratura critic. El opteaz pentru demonstraia polemic,
argumentaia stringent i sobrietatea expresiei strecurnd, pe alocuri, imagini critice care
marcheaz nite vrfuri emoionale n fluxul ponderat al demersului analitic.2
In calitate de cronicar, Septimiu Bucur i etaleaz talentul, pasiunea pentru litere,
reactivitatea, empatia. E nzestrat cu condei iute, poate scrie repede, fr gestaii lungi i
dospiri interminabile, nite texte nzestrate cu fler discriminator. Simte atmosfera crilor pe
care le analizeaz i comenteaz, murmurul lor prelexical, adic melodiile de subnelesuri din
care se hrnesc, l simte pe autor dincolo de buchiile vizibile. Cele mai multe cronici i
recenzii scrise ntre 1934-1941 nu fac excese. Fcnd critica prozei, discut valabilitatea
subiectului i a temelor, calitatea observaiei i analizei, inteniile autorului, respingnd
romanele lui Damian Stnoiu, Carol Ardeleanu, Ionel Teodoreanu, I. Peltz dar apreciind cu
entuziasm scrierile lui Emanoil Bucua, Henriette Yvonne Stahl, Mircea Eliade, Victor
Papilian. Ca intelectual ardelean elaboreaz, pe de o parte, studii ample, revelatorii, solid
documentate, referitoare la rscoala lui Horia, Cloca i Crian, la Scoala Ardelean, la
Revoluia transilvan de la 1848, la Memorandum, la Mileniul maghiar, la Dictatul de la
Viena, n care dezvluie cu date precise bestialitatea turanic a honvezilor hothyti fa de
populaia romneasc, propaganda minuios finisat, antrennd absolut toate disciplinele
pentru a adeveri c Romnia e o umil colonie spiritual a Ungariei, iar pe linie politic,
revigorarea strategiei planului lui Bethlen Istvan din 1917 pentru deznaionalizarea romnilor
din cele 42000 km2 smulse Ardealului. Dedic studii lui Attila Joysef i lui Ady Endre, cruia
i traduce i multe poezii. Ca intelectual romn, n afara definitivrii unui studiu despre toate
rscoalele noastre rneti i a conturrii antinomice a unui profil de intelectual paradigmatic,
Septimiu Bucur scrie studii cuprinztoare despre sufletul romnesc, prin care tinde s
reliefeze puterea de creaie a poporului romn, reconstituind tipul nostru spiritual.
Septimiu Bucur- colaborator constant la revistele interbelice
Perioada interbelic, marcat de maxima dezvoltare i maturizare a gazetriei
romneti i ardelene, este cea care relev cel mai pregnant diferena de discurs dintre
publicaiile informative, politice, sociale, pe de o parte, i revistele culturale i literare, de
cealalt parte. Publicaiile culturale, literatura i critica perioadei sunt cele care caut calea
dialogului real, constructiv, n scopul instituirii unui sistem unitar de cernere a valorii pe
criterii comune. Se inaugureaz n literatura romn un spirit nou care va avea ca rezultat
deprovincializarea creaiei i eliminarea criteriilor extraliterare n evaluarea produsului literar.
Dintre revistele literare ce apar n perioada interbelic amintim: Viaa romneasc,
Blajul, Abecedar, Gnd romnesc, Pagini literare, Familia, Sburtorul, Gndirea, Revista
fundaiilor regale, Contemporanul, Convorbiri literare, Micarea literar, Alge, Adevrul
literar i artistic, Universul literar, Romnia literar, Punct, Integral, Azi, Sfarm piatr,
Cuvntul liber, Ramuri, Nzuina, Cetatea literar, Jurnalul literar, Progres i cultur, Viaa
literar, Eu i Europa, Vitrina literar, Ataat de pres, Indemnul, Bunavestire etc.
Septimiu Bucur desfoar activitate de cronicar, critic, eseist literar i filosofic,
redactor sau colaborator, publicnd diverse comentarii la cri de literatur, teorie literar,
filosofie, att romneti ct i strine, ncepnd cu 1934 n unele reviste ale perioadei
interbelice: Gndirea, Vitrina literar, Gnd romnesc, Cuvntul nou, Progres i cultur,
1
2
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Viaa literar, Romnia literar, Azi, Eu i Europa, Sfarm piatr, Indemnul, Bunavestire,
Ataat de pres, Romnia, Porunca vremii. Dei i las amprenta n revistele mai sus
enumerate, numele lui Septimiu Bucur este ignorat n critica i eseistica literar interbelic.
Cauza? Autorul nu reuete s alctuiasc pe parcursul vieii un volum de cronici i eseuri
literare, prin urmare, posteritatea l-a cam pierdut din vedere. Pe lng acest lucru, n-a fost
genul de persoan care s atrag atenia asupra sa, nedeclannd polemici. Ins, textele sale
critice, att cele pe care a reuit s le publice, ct i cele care au rmas n manuscris, i confer
statutul distinct de critic. Se ocup de critica prozei discutnd valabilitatea subiectelor i a
temelor, fiind un bun observator i analist, apreciind operele unor autori, desconsidernd
operele altora.
Septimiu Bucur a fost un publicist harnic, dedicat, dup cum confirm i ziaristul
Nicolae Carandino: In fiecare numr al ziarului Romnia, un publicist ardelean, Septimiu
Bucur, asigur artico lul de doctrin. Nimeni nu-l citea, nici din redacie, nici din afar.
Findc nimeni nu era curios. Doctrina Frontului Renaterii ( F.R.N), cine s se intereseze de
asemenea amalgam, n care intrau tot felul de rezidii ale fascismului, ideologie la mod n
Europa? Numai el, Septimiu Bucur, nu se descuraja. Scria mereu i devenea din ce n ce mai
trist. Pn ntr-o bun zi, a murit, parc intoxicat de propria sa secreie.3
Gndirea a fost revista de suflet a scriitorului Septimiu Bucur, revista n care
debuteaz i public numeroase cronici i eseuri literare nfptuite ncepnd cu anul 1935
pn n 1941. Scrie un numr de treizeci i patru de cronici i eseuri literare prin care i
evideniaz cultura bogat, simul critic bine dezvoltat, rafinamentul, fraza seductoare,
judecile penetrante, pasiunea literar, ideile originale: Cretinism i realitate social,
Reabilitarea realului, Poema Marelui Anonim, Spre o antropologie paradoxal, Dou cri
despre existen, Orizont i stil, Pascal vzut de J. Chevalier, Spangler i momentul
european, Thierry Maulnier i miturile socialiste, Constantin Noica i problema conceptului
deschis, Cuvinte despre Germania nou, O prezentare romneasc a lui Schopenhauer,
Filosofie i poezie, Intia rotunjire metafizic a lui Lucian Blaga, Nichifor Crainic i spiritul
vremii, Eroism demonic, Funciunea spiritual a provinciei, Victor Papilian: De dincolo de
ru, Un aspect al problematicii literare, Emanoil Bucua: Capra neagr ( Un roman al
iubirii nemplinite), Lucian Blaga: Art i valoare, George Clinescu: Principii de estetic,
Mircea Eliade: Nunt n cer, Rainer Maria Rilke: Povestiri despre bunul Dumnezeu, Victor
Ion Popa- Maistoraul Aurel ( Aurel Vlaciu n imaginea romneasc a lui Victor Ion Popa),
Heliade Rdulescu- Opere, Stefan Baciu: Cuttorul de comori, Destinul omenirii, Gheorghe
I. Brtianu- O enigm i un miracol istoric: poporul romn, D. Caracostea: Simbolurile lui
Eminescu, Nostalgia Paradisului, Vasile Voiculescu: Intrezriri, Gherghinescu VaniaPrivighetoare oarb, Despre gndirea moral.
In calitate de eseist, pe plan filosofic, Septimiu Bucur i vdete confluene cu
existenialismul iar ca i hermeneut i exeget elaboreaz studii despre Lucian Blaga, punctnd
Geneza metaforei, aportul gnditorului romn la problematica filosofiei europene a veacului
nostru. Prin Poema marelui anonim Septimiu Bucur ne prezint o alt imagine asupra operei
lui Lucian Blaga i nu numai. Trebuie inut cont de faptul c Septimiu Bucur lectura cu mare
plcere opera marelui poet, ajungnd s lege n cele din urm o relaie de prietenie.
Pe lng elaborarea de studii despre metafizica blagian, Septimiu Bucur observ o
incompatibilitate ntre structura filosofiei lui Schopenhauer i felul de a gndi al lui Ion
Petrovici. Petrovici ne dezvluie tainele metafizicii schopenhaueriene dar de la distan, fr a
face o dezvluire nflcrat. Schopenhauer combate eficacitatea procedeelor raionale.
Raiunea explic raporturi fenomenale ns nu reuete s explice sensul adnc al lucrurilor.
3
Nicolae Carandino, Viaa de haz i de necaz a lui Constantin Tnase, Editura Biblioteca Bucuretilor, Bucureti, 2011, p. 15
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Septimiu Bucur, O prezentare romneasc a lui Schopenhauer n Gndirea, nr.7, 1937, p. 352
183
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istovind prin drama lui actul gndirii pure; volumul de poezii Cuttorul de comori al lui
Stefan Baciu, cntece nchinate iubirii i femeii.
In 1940, Septimiu Bucur i dedic un comentariu lui Nichifor Crainic, ca o rsplat
spiritual la 50 de ani mplinii, o legitimare religioas, metafizic i estetic a tot ceea ce
Nechifor Crainic ne-a oferit, Nostalgia paradisului. Cronicarul l vede pe Nichifor Crainic ca
pe o profund realitate romneasc iar maine va fi un bogat capitol n istoria noastr cultural.
Personalitile reprezentative sunt acelea care prin operele sau actele lor creatoare se aaz pe
marea linie a coeltivitii naionale. Realizeaz o sintez a ideilor pe care Crainic le-a
evideniat n cmpul realitilor, care multe dintre ele trebuiau clarificate.
Din 1935 pn n 1941, Septimiu Bucur i dedic timpul publicrii de articole n
revista Gndirea dnd dovad de continciozitate i cunoatere aprofundat a istoriei
naionale, a problematicii literare, a operelor i scriitorilor perioadei, a conceptelor filosofice
i religioase etc. Eseurile, cronicile i recenziile sale au la baz o documentare aprofundat, o
munc srguincioas de obiectivitate, discernmnt, stpnirea valorilor etico-estetice.
Septimiu Bucur, debutant n Gndirea n 1935, a colaborat cu o ideologie literar
echilibrat, susinnd ndeosebi valorile tradiionale ale literaturii romne interbelice. Astfel,
ncepe colaborarea la revista clujean Gnd romnesc, o revist ce afirm spiritualitatea
romneasc din Transilvania. Unele teme pe care le trateaz n cele cinci articole publicate n
Gnd romnesc sunt continuri ale ideilor expuse n articolele din Gndirea. Astfel, ncepe cu
prezentarea unei cri scris de Louis Reynaud, Lame allemande, o carte care surprinde
bogia spiritualitii germane pus n contrast cu cea francez. Germanul d dovad de spirit
lucid, logic, rafinat, fiind o insul spiritual profund iar francezul d dovad de tria vieii
instinctive. Bucur urmrete pe parcursul crii temele principale: limba ca unealt de
exprimare a unei stri interioare, reforma lui Luther, gnditorii germani, lirismul german,
muzica, substan intim a spiritului german.
Toate ipostazele personalitii lui Septimiu Bucur, critic, eseist, cronicar, se manifest
conjugat i plenar, acesta simindu-se obligat s ia atitudine fa de Emil Cioran. Viaa,
activitatea i lucrrile lui Cioran au fost relevate publicului romnesc dup 1989. Ins pentru
o mai deplin edificare trebuie luat n calcul i atitudinea sa a-romneasc i chiar
antiromneasc explicit n volumele la Tentation dexister i Histoire et utopie. Aceste
volume cuprind afirmaii depreciative la adresa poporului su, ruinea perfid mrturisit de-a
aparine unui neam de la nceput nvins i somnolent, ca i umilina de-a proveni din rani
practic sub-umani. El pretinde c pe planul semnificaiilor existenial-istorice, poporul lui nu
l-ar fi afirmat niciodat. Aa cum declar Septimiu Bucur faptele sunt fapte i nu se cuvine
s trecem peste ele, peste ele n-a trecut nici Lucian Blaga care i-a adresat o scrisoare public
scandalizat. Nici Septimiu Bucur n-a trecut cu vederea acest lucru. Dei nu a putut s-i
adreseze i el o scrisoare, s-a manifestat scriptic, ntre pereii odii sale printr-o epistolpamflet dedicat fostului su prieten Cioran. In prezentarea crtii Pe culmile disperrii el
pune sub semnul dubiului postura de apologet al disperrii a lui Cioran, cariera sa de
nihilist planetar i de vaticinator al neantului, acest dumnezeu al ateilor.5 Observ
suferina intens a lui Cioran care dorete cu ardoare dionisiac chinul dur al negaiei i
rzvrtirii. Cartea lui Cioran conine imnuri nchinate sentimentelor iraionale ale vieii i
durerilor supreme. Autorul se las devorat de drama disperrii i a tririlor frenetice i, ajuns
la punctul extrem al negaiei sale, se va converti.
Septimiu Bucur i observ fraza prea ncrcat de adjective i substantive sonore, cu
inevitabile tautologisme i chiar pleonasme, mperecheri de cuvinte des repetate. Totui,
Doina Graur, Septimiu Bucur- Un destin frnt?, Trnava, an.6, nr.1, 1996, p.9
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Bucur are sperana c Cioran i va reveni i va deveni un cap limpede iar experiena
zbuciumului su juvenil va deschide noi orizonturi.
Lsnd deoparte mhnirea produs de Cioran, Bucur se concentreaz asupra lui Cezar
Petrescu, Gherghinescu Vania i George Clinescu. Astfel ne ofer un rezumat al operei
Dumineca orbului scris de Cezar Petrescu, o oper ce reprezint icoana vieii zbuciumante n
care a trit autorul, o fresc a timpului su. Dac Cezar Petrescu nu mnuia firele ncurcate ale
aciunii ar fi riscat s treac la teatralism, salvnd un volum care se afla pe muchia ratrii.6
Dumineca orbului e unul dintre cele mai bune romane ale sale, dorina scriitorului fiind ca
literatura s aib ct mai vi contingene cu actualitatea. In Amvonul de azur al lui
Gherghinescu Vania observ nuane discrete, simplitate matur, un iremediabil ndrgostit al
frumuseii pure. Poemele au la origine motive baudelaire-iene, sunt simple, au osatur
organic, fiind mai mult dect un joc abil de cuvinte.
In confruntare cu lucrarea lui George Clinescu, Opera lui Mihai Eminescu, eseistul
oberv c analizarea operei a fost supremul examen pentru istoricul literar romn. Critica
literar realizat de Septimiu Bucur se deosebete de impresionismul lui George Clinescu.
Omului de carte Septimiu Bucur nu i sunt specifice metafora critic sau preocuparea expres
de limbajul criti; el opteaz pentru demonstraii polemice n studiile sale, punnd n prim plan
argumentaii stringente, expresii sobre. George Clinescu se ridic mpotriva ideii c
Eminescu ar fi pesimist, spunnd c pesimismul are un stigmat practic pe cnd consideraiile
poetului despre lume i moarte sunt teoretice. Deasemenea afirm c poziia lui Eminescu fa
de hegelianism e opus, ntlnindu-se n opera sa, de fapt, reminiscene leibniziene. Ins
Clinescu nu i-a verificat teza cu privire la reminiscenele leibniziene prin citate concludente.
Acesta rtcete prin cteva zeci de caiete manuscrise de la Academie mnat de dorina aprig
de-a inventaria crile citite de poet. Descrierea operei aduce numeroase buci inedite i
variante eminesciene ns metoda pe care o folosete Clinescu e criticabil. Volumul ultim al
autorului e cel care va decide dac Clinescu a druit istoriei i criticii literare romneti o
lucrare trainic sau una caduc.
In revista Gnd romnesc, eseistul mureean nu public mult ns articolele sale expun
o viziune proprie asupra scrierilor mai sus prezentate.
Intre 1935-1938, Septimiu Bucur public treisprezece eseuri i recenzii la n revista
Sfarm piatr dezbtnd teme specifice legionarilor, care evideniau problemele cu care se
confrunta n acea perioad poporul romn: iubirea, tinereea romneasc, spiritualitatea
romneasc, eroismul, cultul sacrificiului, laitatea intelectualilor, expansiunea romneasc,
naionalismul i dialectic, miult, istoria, latinitatea, tradiionalismul: Salvarea erotic,
Romnia dionisic, Fortul 13, Tineree eroic, Cultul sacrificiului, Despre laitatea
intelectualilor, Puncte cardinale n haos, Eminescu i destinul romnesc, Sentimentul
expansiunii romneti, Aurel C. Popovici, Dialectic i naionalism, Mit i istorie, Spirit
francez, Elogiul Huliganismului. Studiile lui Septimiu Bucur, dei tratate cu obiectivitate, au
n strfunduri nelesuri ascunse care se concretizeaz spre final cu o moral, un sfat adresat
de cercettor tinerei generaii.
Prin scrierile sale de la Sfarm piatr, Septimiu Bucur i-a etalat propriile gnduri i
nzuine, i consemneaz convingerile despre dictatura regal, totalitarism, democraie,
naionalism. Din meditaiile lui disperate un relevant gnd rzle reiese: Dac toat istoria
omenirii e lipsit de sens, dac absurdul i ntmplarea sunt singurele principii care
guverneaz desfurarea evenimentelor, dac inegalitatea este un blestem de sub care nu se
poate smulge nici o societate existent sau posibil, dac, n sfrit, finalitatea este o
cumplit iluzie pentru fanatici i naivi, atunci ce rost mai ai pe pmnt i de ce mai trieti?
6
Septimiu Bucur, Cezar Petrescu- Dumineca orbului n Gnd romnesc, nr.2, 1935, pp.109-111
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Care este, care poate fi, care trebuie s fie scopul existenei tale?(...) Vreau s te sftuiesc
prietenete c, pentru a-i afla rostul n societate trebuie s crezi n anumite idei
fundamentale, trebuie s fii adeptul uneia sau alteia dintre concepiile religioase sau
filosofice, trebuie cu alte cuvinte s lupi pentru realizarea unui scop, a unui ideal care s
dea sens constructiv vieii tale. (...) pentru mine demnitatea moral este contiina spiritului
de umanitate, contiin care mplinindu-se pe sine, te oblig s fii solidar cu toate valorile
menite s imprime existenei individuale un sens activ, creator.7
Dei public mult, numele lui Septimiu Bucur este ignorat n critica i eseistica literar
interbelic. Autorul nu reuete s alctuiasc pe parcursul vieii un volum de cronici i eseuri
literare, prin urmare, posteritatea l-a cam pierdut din vedere. Pe lng acest lucru n-a fost
genul de persoan care s atrag atenia asupra sa nedeclannd polemici. Prin numeroasele
cronici i eseuri literare publicate n aceste reviste, Septimiu Bucur d dovad de cultur
bogat, simu critic foarte bine dezvoltat, rafinament, fraza seductoare, judeci penetrante,
pasiune literar, idei originale. Respect principiile morale i estetice constitutive redactrii
textului pe care nu le abandoneaz deloc pn la ultimul eseu, cronic literar publicat. Si-a
evideniat atributele dnd dovad de obiectivitate, discernmnt, stpnirea valorilor eticoestetice, limbaj pertinent, luciditate, verticalitate.
BIBLIOGRAFIE SELECTIVA
A. BIBLIOGRFIA OPEREI
A.1. OPERA
1. Banchetul lui Lucullus: pagini de critic literar. - Ed. ngrijit, prefa i note
asupra ediiei de Serafim Duicu, Cluj-Napoca, Dacia, 1978,
A. 2. ARTICOLE APARUTE IN REVISTE;
1. Bucur, Septimiu, Cretinism i realitate social n Gndirea, Anul XIV, nr.3, Martie
1935
2. Reabilitarea realului, Gndirea, Anul XIV, nr.7, Septembrie, 1935
3. Poema Marelui Anonim, Gndirea, Anul XIV, nr.9 , Noiembrie, 1935
4. Spre o antropologie paradoxal, Gndirea, Anul XIV, nr. 10, Decembrie, 1935
5. Dou cri despre existen, Gndirea, Anul XV, nr. 4, Aprilie, 1936
6. Orizont i stil, Gndirea, Anul XIV, nr. 3, Martie, 1936
7. Pascal vzut de J. Chevalier, Gndirea, Anul XV, nr.6, Iunie, 1936
8. Spengler i momentul European, Gndirea, Anul XIV, nr. 2, Februarie, 1936
9. Thierry Maulnier i miturile socialiste, Gndirea, Anul XVI, nr. 1, Ianuarie, 1937
10. Constantin Noica i problema conceptului deschis, Gndirea, Anul XVI, nr. 3,
Martie, 1937
11. Cuvinte despre Germania nou, Gndirea, Anul XVI, nr.5, Mai, 1937
12. O prezentare romneasc a lui Schopenhauer, Gndirea, nr.7, Septembrie, 1937
13. Filosofie i poezie, Gndirea, Anul XIV, nr. 8, Octombrie, 1937
7
186
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14. Intia rotunjire metafizic a lui Lucian Blaga, Gndirea, nr.9, Noiembrie, 1937
15. Nichifor Crainic i spiritul vremii, Gndirea, Anul XVII, nr.7, Septembrie, 1938
16. Eroism demonic, Gndirea, Anul XVII, nr.10, Decembrie 1938
17. Funciunea spiritual a provinciei, Gndirea, Anul XVIII, nr.1, Ianuarie, 1939
18. Victor Papilian: De dincolo de ru, Gndirea, Anu; XVIII, nr.3, Martie, 1939
19. Un aspect al problematicii literare, Gndirea, Anul XVIII, nr.5, Mai, 1939
20. Emanoil Bucua: Capra neagr, Gndirea, Anul XVIII, nr.5, Mai, 1939
21. Lucian Blaga: Art i valoare, Gndirea, nr.6, Iunie, 1939
22. George Clinescu: Principii de estetic, Gndirea, nr.7, Septembrie, 1939
23. Mircea Eliade: Nunt n cer, Gndirea, nr.7, Septembrie, 1939
24. Rainer Maria Rilke: Povestiri despre bunul Dumnezeu ( traducere de Nichifor
Crainic), Gndirea, Anul XVIII, nr.8, Octombrie, 1939
25. Victor Ion Popa: Maistoraul Aurel, Gndirea, Anul XVIII, nr.8, Octombrie,
1939
26. Heliade Rdulescu: Opere, Gndirea, nr.9, Noiembrie, 1939
27. Stefan Baciu: Cuttorul de comori, Gndirea, Anul XIX, nr.1, Ianuarie, 1940
28. Destinul Omenirii, n Gndirea, Anul XIX, nr.2, Februarie, 1940
29. Gheorghe I. Brtianu: O enigma i un miracol istoric: poporul romn,
Gndirea, Anul XIX, nr.3, Martie, 1940
30. D. Caracostea: Simbolurile lui Eminescu, Gndirea, Anul XIX, nr.3, Martie,
1940
31. Nostalgia paradisului, Gndirea, nr.4, Aprilie, 1940
32. V. Voiculescu: Intrezriri, Gndirea, Anul XIV, nr. 7, Septembrie 1940
33. Gheorghinescu Vania: Privighetoare Oarb, Gndirea, Anul XIV, nr. 7,
Septembrie 1940
34. Despre gndirea moral, Gndirea, Anul XX, nr.2, Februarie, 1941
35. Despre tinerii nostril poei, Romnia literar, An I, nr.9, 1939
36. Salvarea erotica, Sfarm piatr, anul II, nr.46, 8 octombrie 1936
37. Romnitate dionisiac, Sfarm piatr, anul II, nr. 26, 21 mai 1936
38. Fortul 13, Sfarm piatr, anul II, nr. 14, 20 februarie 1936
39. Tineree eroic, Sfarm piatr, anul II, nr. 45, 1 octombrie 1936
40. Cultul sacrificiuliu, Sfarm piatr, anul II, nr. 43, 17 septembrie 1936
41. Despre laitatea intelectualilor, Sfarm piatr, anul II, nr. 49, 29 octombrie
1936
42. Puncte cardinal n haos, Sfarm piatr, anul II, nr. 16, 5 martie 1936
43. Eminescu i destinul romnesc, Sfarm piatr, anul II, nr.29, 11 iunie 1936
44. Sentimentul expansiunii romneti, Sfarm piatr, anul II, nr.36, 30 iulie 1936
45. Dialectic i naionalism, Sfarm piatr, anul II, nr. 11, 30 ianuarie 1936
46. Mit i istorie, Sfarm piatr, anul II, nr. 50, 5 noiembrie 1936
47. Spirit francez, Sfarm piatr, anul II, nr. 25, 14 mai 1936
187
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48. Aurel C. Popovici, Sfarm piatr, anul III, nr.5, 2 decembrie 1937
49. Louis Reynaud, Lame allemande, Gnd romnesc, nr.4, 1934
50. Emil Cioran, Pe culmile disperrii, Gnd romnesc, nr.7-8, 1934
51. Cezar Petrescu, Dumineca orbului, Gnd romnesc, nr.2, 1935
52. Gherghinescu Vania, Amvonul de azur, Gnd romnesc, nr.3, 1935
53. George Clinescu, Opera lui Mihai Eminescu, Gnd romnesc, nr.9, 1935
54. Henriette Yvonne Stahl: Steaua robilor, Azi, anul IV, 1935
55. I.Peltz: Foc n hanul cu tei, Azi, anul IV, 1935
B. REFERINTE CRITICE
B.1. IN VOLUME
1. Bucur Septimiu/ L.Pp. ( Liviu Papadima), Dicionarul scriitorilor romni: A-C,
Bucureti, Editura Fundaiei Culturale Romne. 1995, p. 388-389
2. Bucur, Septimiu= Gndirea. 1921-1994: indice bibliografic adnotat/ Emil Pintea,
Cluj-Napoca, Echinox, 1998.- p.88, 98, 119, 125, 128, 133, 150, 179, 190, 196, 244, 271,
303, 310, 319, 320, 330, 331, 413, 427, 428, 444, 457, 559.
3. Bucur, Septimiu= Gndirea i gndirismul/ D. Micu, Bucureti, Editura Minerva,
1975. p. 31, 364, 904, 969, 978, 1027
4. Profilurile unor absolveni sau foti elevi;...Septimiu Bucur...= Liceul Al. Papiu
Ilarian, la 75 ani, Trgu-Mure, 1994. p. 91-92, 135
B.2. IN PERIODICE
1. Prima zi de difuzare= Steaua roie.- An.30, nr 110 ( 11 mai 1978), p.4; nr. 113 ( 14
mai 1978). p. 2: 1 foto;
2. Banchetul lui Lucullus / Serban Cioculescu= Flacra.- An. 27, nr.30 ( 27 iulie
1978).- p. 17 ( Rubrica mea);
3. Septimiu Bucur: Banchetul lui Lucullus/ Doina Graur= Revista de istorie i teorie
literar.- Tom. 27, nr.4 ( oct/ dec. 1978).-p. 621-623;
4. Septimiu Bucur restituit/ Silvia Udrea= Vatra.- An.9, nr.2 ( 20 februarie 1979), p.3;
5. In memoriam Septimiu Bucur. 1915-1964: caiet documentar ntocmit de Doina
Graur pentru Simpozionul tiinific omonim organizat de Inspectoratul pentru Cultur al
Judeului Mure i Bblioteca Judeean Mure, prilejuit de mplinirea a 80 de ani de la
naterea lui. Trgu-Mure, 1995.- 16p;
6. Septimiu Bucur, un destin frnt?/ dr. Doina Graur= Trnava. An.6, nr.1 (1996).- p.
8-9: 1 foto;
7. Septimiu Bucur/ Ana Cosma= Cuvntul liber.- An.11, nr.100 (25 mai 1999).- p.4- (
oOchean ntors: Dicionar de scriitori mureeni);
8. Literatura romn trgumureean postbelic/ Iulian Boldea= Trnava.- An.9,
nr.1-2-3/ 2000 (54-55-56).-p.49.
9. Revista Romnia literar, Nae Antonescu, Romnia literar, nr.35, 5-11 septembrie,
2001
188
SECTION: LITERATURE
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189
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Anfang Dezember 2011 stirbt Christa Wolf mit 82 Jahren. An der Trauerfeier nehmen
mehr als Tausend Menschen teil, darunter auch prominente Figuren der Literatur und Politik:
Gnther Grass, Ingo Schulze, Christoph Hein, Gregor Gysi. In den wichtigsten deutschen
Zeitungen wird sie respektvoll die groe Zweiflerin1, die meist verehrte Figur der
Nachkriegsliteratur genannt. Der Spiegel nennt sie eine der bedeutendsten
Schriftstellerinnen der Nachkriegsgeschichte2, selbst fr Marcel Reich-Ranicki ist sie
inzwischen eine mutige Schriftstellerin geworden3. Der Ton ist respektvoll, verehrend,
gleich anders als dieselben Zeitungen und Zeitschriften, whrend der sogenannten Was
bleibt-Debatte Christa Wolf aus dem literarischen Leben fast ausgeschlossen htten. Es ging
damals, 1990 um das Verffentlichen einer Erzhlung mit diesem Titel, die im Jahre 1979
geschrieben wurde und die ber die stndige berwachung der Ich-Erzhlerin durch die Stasi
berichtet. Die Opfer-Rolle der Schriftstellerin wirkte damals unglaubwrdig und lste einen
Literaturstreik, der nicht zuletzt die DDR-Literatur der Literatur der Bundesrepublik
auseinandersetzte und vor allem die Frage nach dem realen literarischen Wert eines
Schriftstellers stellte. Man warf Christa Wolf vor, sie htte als wichtige Figur der DDR-Szene
(Mitglied der SED und Kandidatin des ZKes von Privilegien profitiert, auch wenn sie vor
allem wegen des Romans Kassandra als Dissidentin wahrgenommen wurde. Noch kritischer
wird es, wenn 1992 die Akte Christa Wolfs als ehemalige IM (informelle Mitarbeiterin) unter
dem Namen Margarete verffentlicht wird. Sie selber also sollte von 1959 bis 1962 als IM
gefhrt worden sein.
Christa Wolfs Fall ist also nicht nur wegen der Wechsel in der Rezeption ihrer Werke
und ihrer Person emblematisch fr die Diskussion um das Schreiben im Totalitarismus, und
fr die Dichotomie Schreiben /vs/ Politik, sie ist ebenfalls wichtig fr eine erneute
sozialistische Sichtweise, denn die Bekennung der Autorin zum Sozialismus war nie
bestritten, was wieder die Beziehung zwischen Ideologie und Utopie in Frage stellt. Sie ist
auch, wie sie selber sagt eine Figur, auf die man vieles projizieren kann4. Projiziert man die
Erwartungen eines Dissidenten auf sie (indem man ihre Romane Kassandra, Nachdenken
1
http://www.taz.de/!83670/
http://www.spiegel.de/kultur/literatur/berlin-bewegender-abschied-von-christa-wolf-a-803481.html
3
http://www.zeit.de/kultur/literatur/2011-12/christa-wolf
4
Jrg Magenau: Christa Wolf. Eine Biographie, Rowohlt, 2002, S. 13
2
190
SECTION: LITERATURE
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ber Christa T. oder die Stellungsnahme in dem Biermann-Fall betrachtet (sie unterzeichnet
den offenen Brief gegen die Ausbrgerung Wolf Biermanns mit), so wird man von der
Verteidigung des Sozialismus berrascht und von ihrer (sei sie auch kurz und harmlos)
Mitarbeit mit der Stasi tief enttuscht. Ihre rekurrente Frage nach Selbstverwirklichung: Was
ist das: dieses Zu-sich-selber-Kommen des Menschen von Johannes R.Becher, die sie als
Motto fr ihr Buch Nachdenken ber Christa T. gewhlt hat, synthetisiert die Schwierigkeit,
ich zu sagen, die nicht nur fr Christa T., sondern fr das gesamte System symptomatisch ist.
Im Fall Christa Wolfs ist aber nicht die Angst vor eventuellen Folgen einer Kritik an das
Regime, die ihre Selbstverwirklichung hindert. Es ist ihr Glaube selbst an das Regime, das fr
sie, wie fr viele der Intellektuellen nach dem Krieg eine Alternative zum
Nationalsozialismus bedeutet hat. Es ist der Hang zum Sozialismus und zur sozialistischen
Utopie, der es so schwer macht, denn utopiegesttzte Diktaturen sind intellektuell offenbar
auerordentlich verfhrerisch und ermglichen ein breites Spektrum von Denk- und
Verhaltensmustern, die sich nicht auf das Schwarz-Wei-Schema und die extreme Alternative
Machtteilhabe oder Widerstand reduzieren lassen.5 Und Christa Wolf zhlt zu den
Schriftstellern, die nicht unter Androhung von Gewalt Ideologie produzierten, sondern zu
groen Teilen freiwillig, berzeugt von der gesellschaftlichen Perspektive und in erklrtem
Bndnis mit der Macht6. Die problematische Zusammenfassung einer Gesellschaft, in der
sich zwei Tendenzen (die ideologische und die konspirative7) einigen, begrenzt ein radikales
Ausschlieen eines Schriftstellers, der sich zum Kompromiss zwischen den beiden
gezwungen fhlt.
Die Definition einer Person aus politischer Sicht ist ein Hhepunkt seines
Selbstbewutseins, wenn wir in Termini des Sozialen und Symbolischen denken, wobei eine
so drastische Reduktion natrlich, vor allem auf empirischen Niveau burlesk wirkt. Hier gibt
es mehrere Unterscheidungen, die gemacht werden mssen: wir haben es mit dem
enthusiastischen Brger der kapitalistischen Gesellschaft zu tun, der politisch bewusst und
uerst aktiv ist, dann gibt es den Brger, der sich komplett dem totalitaristischen System
anpassen muss und schlielich den Dissidenten, der sich zwischen den beiden vorhin
genannten Kategorien situieren will. Auch der letzte ist aber ein Produkt des Systems, er ist
eben derjenige, der dazu beitrgt, die Doktrin aufzufrischen. Man knnte auch von dem
neutralen Individuum sprechen, der sich fern jeder politisch aktiven Beteiligung hlt. Dass
man schon lngst nicht mehr von politischer Neutralitt reden darf, ist ein Faktum. Auch
wenn die Individuen die politische Wirklichkeit ignorieren, nehmen sie weiterhin an einem
politischen Szenarium teil. Andererseits kann jede Geste als politische Geste interpretiert
werden. Und das Individuum, das sich mit seinem Glauben an eine apolitische Utopie fern
fhlt, ist eigentlich viel wirksamer als der gehorsame Brger, der in das System
eingeschlossen ist.
Noch ein anderer Fall, der die Kasuistik Christa Wolf beispielhaft darstellt, ist der des
Individuums, der als Teil eines totalitaristischen Systems, sich freiwillig fr die Verbreitung
dessen Doktrin einsetzt. Er stellt sich einem oppressiven (als solches von allen, innerhalb und
auerhalb stillschweigend anerkanntes) System zur Verfgung und gewinnt dadurch eine
tragische Dimension. Er bernimmt die Rolle, fr deren Verwirklichung er sich komplett
opfert, und die Tragik besteht in der Sinnlosigkeit dieses Opferns. Solche Figuren sind
ambivalent, was ihre Glaubwrdigkeit betrifft. Ihr Involvieren ist vom Anfang an in Frage
gestellt, denn wenn man fr das Mitmachen unter dem Druck der Erpressung noch
Verstndnis haben kann, einer unaugeforderten Geste dieser Art kommt man mit Misstrauen
5
191
SECTION: LITERATURE
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entgegen. Innerhalb eines oppressiven Systems definiert sein wollen, kann nur als Oberflche
fr eine vielschichtige Interpretation gesehen werden.
Die hegelianische Dialektik Herr Knecht, die den politischen Mechanismus aufs
Wesentliche reduzierte und dadurch auch zu der Verstrkung des Funktionierens dieses
Mechanismus beigetragen hat, ist uns so vertraut, dass ein anderer Typ von Beziehung im
politischen Zusammenhang uns pervers scheint. Knecht sein, und den Herrn nicht hassen,
oder sich ihm wiedersetzen, ist eine Geste, die dieses Spiel des gesunden Hasses in der Politik
und im Sozialen strt. Auch die Wahrnehmung des Herrn ist erschttert: er bedient sich des
Knechtes und missachtet ihn gleichzeitig. Das ist vielleicht die wichtigste Quelle des
Misstrauens Christa Wolf gegenber, ein ergreifendes Element in jeder These der
Authentizitt ihres Schreibens: der Versuch, sich der eigenen Unzufriedenheiten gegenber zu
rechtfertigen, mit Argumenten, die an sich falsch sind, weil sie die Autoritten des Systems
beglaubigen.
Man kann Christa Wolf als ein fiktionales Ich definieren, das sich in einem politischen
Spiegel anschaut, in einem Spiegel, der ihr eine selbst gewhlte Identitt besttigt und immer
wieder betont. Die Oberflche strahlt mit berzeugung unsere eigene Fiktion aus. Das
Politische scheint die unwahrhafte Aufnahmeoberflche der Fiktion zu sein, aber wenn man
den Erfolg des Marxismus betrachtet (nehmen wir das Beispiel der Frankfurter Schule), bot es
Mitte des 20.Jahrhunderts die Illusion einer Elite in einem vulgren Umfeld. Das Heldentum
Christa Wolfs kann auch als zerebrales Muster in einer von Emotionen und Konsumliteratur
manipulierten Welt akzeptiert werden. Und Christa Wolf hat sich immer zum Marxismus
bekannt: So will ich der Deutlichkeit halber aber ausdrcklich wiederholen, was ich fter
[...] gesagt habe: dass die marxistische Philosophie zu meinen Grund-Erfahrungen gehrt8.
In ihrer Rede in der Erlserkirche im Februar 1990 uerte Christa Wolfa aber eine
Rechtfertigung des utopischen Glaubens nach der Niederlage des Stalinismus, als
Grundbel der DDR und mchte die berzeugungen von damals erneut analysieren:
Anfgen mchte ich: Ich brauche diese Untersuchungskommission auch fr mich selbst.
Nachdem ich die Berichte der Zugefhrten und die Schilderung der Drangsalierungen, denen
sie ausgesetzt waren, gelesen habe, brauche ich ein berzeugendes Gegengewicht gegen den
Schrecken und gegen die Verzweiflung.9
Mit der Wende wird der politische Kontext selbst ein anderer, und das im vorigen
System definierte Individuum befindet sich in der Situation, seine Wahlen verteidigen und
seine Akten erneut definieren zu mssen. Diese Umwandlung hat natrlich als Folgen
Wahrnehmungsstrungen, der Auenwelt und des eigenen Selbst. In diesem Bereich ist
Christa Wolf am besten zu situieren, wenn wir uns bemhen, ihre Authentizitt zu messen,
was eigentlich heit, dass wir ihre Denkmechanismen zu verstehen versuchen, die
Ambivalenzen des Systems selbst untersuchen, und sie dann in ihrer unvollendeten
Selbstwerdung mit Hilfe ihrer eigenen Konzepten auch platzieren.
Eins ihrer bekanntesten Konzepte war die Subjektwerdeung. Dieser Versuch,
Subjekt zu werden ist durch das Scheitern individueller Lebensentwrfe mit Schmerz
verbunden: eine besondere Art von Schmerz der Punkt, ber den ich sie mir anverwandle,
Schmerz der Subjektwerdung?10 Das Konzept der Subjektwerdung wird aber schon frher,
im Lesen und Schreiben (1968) als zentrales Merkmal ihrer Prosa entwickelt. Es beruft sich
auf die marxistischen Konzepte und erlutert gleichzeitig, die Distanz zu der marxistischen
Widerspiegelungstheorie und die Wichtigkeit, dass man im Erzhlen offene Strukturen bildet.
8
Christa Wolf: Lesen und Schreiben, Neue Sammlung, Sammlung Luchterland, Berlin und Weimar, Aufbau Verlag, 1981, S. 77
Wider den Schlaf der Vernunft. Rede in der Erlserkirche (am 28.Oktober 1989) in: Christa Wolf: Im Dialog, Sammlung Luchterland,
1994, S. 99
10
Christa Wolf: Voraussetzungen einer Erzhlung: Kassandra, Frankfurter Poetik-Vorlesungen, Darmstadt, 1988, S.89
9
192
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Der Versuch der Subjektwerdung gleicht der Suche nach dem besten Menschenbild, dass sich
in der utopischen Dimension des sozialistischen neuen Menschen und Subjekt der
Geschichte definiert. In dem Fall von Christa Wolf rckt diese Subjektwerdung immer mehr
auf die Ebene des inneren Lebens statt, denn der Selbstbehauptungsprozess der
Darstellerinnen Kassandra und Christa T. steht immer wieder im Gegensatz zum System.
Sowohl Kassandra, als auch Christa T. mssen sich dem Tod ausliefern, solange sie daran
gehindert werden, sich auszudrcken, oder sie werden ignoriert. Daraus ensteht die
Dichotomie Selbst-Subjekt, die auf eine weitere Dichotomie des Persnlichen und des
Politischen nachvollziehbar ist. Was im Politischen scheitert, kann aber durch eine intensive,
auch schmerzhafte Analyse des Ichs zum Ausdruck kommen. Es heit aber nicht, und hier
wird der Fall von Christa Wolf emblematisch, man kommt durch diese Analyse zu einem
konkreten Schluss. Eben dieses Zgern, eine definitive Schlussfolgerung zu ziehen definiert
das Werk von Christa Wolf, die dann als die groe Zweiflerin bekannt wird. Der berhmte
Satz am Ende von Kassandra: Mit der Erzhlung gehe ich in den Tod, ist das Ergebnis der
Konfrontation mit dem sinnlosen, gescheiterten Sich-Selber-Erzhlen: Hat es nicht schon,
dies probate Mittel, mein altes, schon vergessnes bel wieder wahrgemacht: dass ich,
gespalten in mir selbst, mir selber zuseh, mich sitzen seh auf diesem verfluchten
Griechenwagen, unter meinem Tuch, von Angst geschttelt. [...]Werd ich denn noch, wenn
schon mein Kopf, mein Hals werd ich um des Bewusstseins willen bis zuletzt mich selber
spalten, eh das Beil mich spaltet, werd ich - . Warum will ich mir diesen Rckfall in die
Kreatur blo nicht gestatten. Was hlt mich denn. Wer sieht mich noch [...] Wohin ich blicke
oder denke, kein Gott, kein Urteil, nur ich selbst. Wer macht mein Urteil ber mich bis in den
Tod, bis ber ihn hinaus, so streng.11
Jene Autoritt, die Kassandras Existenz besttigen soll, fehlt: Gtter, sowie Menschen.
Die Selbstbehauptung ist sich selber berlassen und wird trotzdem einer schmerzhaften
strengen Probe ausgesetzt. Mit dem Tod als endgltige Antwort vor Augen sind Kassandras
Fragen trotzdem nicht stillgelegt, auch wenn sie in Form von Aussagen geuert werden.
Die Spaltung zwischen dem Ich und dem Selbst, die durchs Erzhlen aufgehoben
werden knnte, ist in der Heiterkeit der Resignation Selbstenttuschung und Selbstzerstrung
zugleich. Die Selbstzerstrung setzt in einer ersten Phase die Anerkennung des Selbst voraus,
als distinkte Entitt, die das Bedrfnis nach anderen sucht, ohne es zu erfllen.
Der Prozess der Subjektwerdung ist sehr eng mit dem Bild Christa Wolfs ber
Schreiben und ber die Rolle des Autors verbunden. Solange es nicht mehr um eine
hierarchische Beziehung zwischen dem Autor und dem vorn ihm dargestellten Inhalt geht,
steckt der Autor im Text selbst und erlebt ihn durch die eigene Erfahrung. So ensteht die
subjektive Authentizitt, ein anderer wichtiger Begriff fr die Autorin: durch die
Verarbeitung der Erfahrungen, durchs Schreiben (man denke an die Lsung von Christa T:
nur schreibend ber die Dinge zu kommen) findet die Autorin den Weg zu sich selbst und
berwindet die Schwierigkeiten der Selbsterkenntnis: als sie gefragt wurde, ob sie mit
Nachdenken ber Christa T. eine Art Lebenslauf schreiben wrde, antwortete sie: Das
dachte ich zuerst. Spter merkte ich, dass das Objekt meiner Erzhlung gar nicht so eindeutig
sie, Christa T. war oder blieb. Ich stand auf einmal mir selbst gegenber, das hatte ich nicht
vorgesehen. Die Beziehungen zwischen uns - der Christa T. und dem Ich-Erzhler
rckten ganz von selbst in den Mittelpunkt: die Verschiedenheit der Charaktere und ihre
Berhrungspunkte, die Spannungen zwischen uns und ihre Auflsung, oder das Ausbleiben
der Auflsung.12
11
12
193
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Wir erinnern uns daran, diese subjektive Authentizitt entsteht durch den frhen
Tod einer Freundin (ein ganz subjektiver Antrieb zum Schreiben). Die Ich-Erzhlerin und
Christa T. als literarische Figur sind erfunden, sowie auch die ganzen Materialien,
Unterlagen fr die Erinnerungen, die zusammengefasst werden. Die Autorin erklrt sich
beim Schreiben (bzw. beim Nachdenken) sich selber: Nachdenken, ihr nach-denken. Dem
Versuch, man selbst zu sein.13
Wieder soll diese Analyse die rettende Lsung sein in der politischen Wende der 90er
Jahre: in der Rede in der Erlserkirche betont Christa Wolf die Notwendigkeit nach einer
Selbstanalye als Voraussetzung fr eine Vernderung des politischen Systems: Wir mssen
unsere eigenen Schwierigkeiten mit der Wahrheit untersuchen und werden finden, dass
auch wir Anlass haben zu Reue und Scham. Wollen wir uns doch nicht tuschen lassen: Ehe
die Erneuerung unserer Gesellschaft nicht in die Tiefe von Selbstbefragung und Selbstkritik
eines jeden einzelnen vorgedrungen ist, bleibt sie symptombezogen, missbrauchbar und
gefhrdet. Dass die Massenbewegungen dieser Tage auf die Vertiefung der Analyse und,
daraus folgend, auf der Vernderung von Strukturen bestehen, gibt mir Hoffnung.14
Was damals, sowohl bei Kassandra als auch bei Christa T. zu ihrem Tod fhrte, diese
Selbstanalyse, die als Schlussfolgerung nur der Gegensatz zum politischen System haben
konnte, ist jetzt hoffnungsvoller Anla zur Umstellung und Erneuerung der Gesellschaft.
Es ist vor allem an diesem Glauben an der Utopie, dass man Christa Wolf verstehen
kann. Es ist dieses Glauben, das sie auch nach der Wende behalten hat. In ihrer Hildesheimer
Rede anlsslich der Verleihung der Ehrendoktorwrde Ende Januar 1990 wagt Christa Wolf
ihr utopisches Glauben in einer erneuten Form der alternativen Gesellschaft einzubetten.
Die Utopie wird wieder ans Leben gerufen, trotz der Anerkennung ihrer negativen Wirkungen
in der Geschichte: Wohin wird die Geschichte dieser vierzig Jahre geraten, die ja kein
Phantom ist, aber bei ihrem Verschwinden Phantomschmerz hinterlassen wird. [...] Auch mag
kaum wage ich es jetzt schon auszusprechen ganz allmhlich ein Bedrfnis nach einem
utopischen Denken wieder wachsen, das sich aus dem Alltagsleben heraus entwickeln msste,
nicht aus der Theorie15.
Man soll im Fall von Christa Wolf ihr utopisches Glauben nicht nur auf politischer
Ebene betrachten. In einem weiteren Rahmen geht es bei der Autorin auch um die Verortung
des Ich-s, und um die Utopie als Nicht-Ort des Selbst. Der enge Zusammenhang zwischen
Utopie und Ideologie ist jedem totalitren System eigen: die DDR ist also beispielhaft fr die
Art und Weise, in der hier die Politik, von dem ideologischen Ansatz des Kommunismus
legitimiert, und durch den positiven Projektionsraum der Utopie angeregt wird. Sowohl die
Utopie, als auch die Ideologie sind fiktionale Konstrukte, die eine Rettung vor der Realitt
anbieten. Laut iek haben die kommunistichen Regimes trotz des Scheiterns (da sie vor
allem Terror und Elend generiert haben) einen Raum der utopischen Erwartungen erffnet,
der wiederum die Messung des Scheiterns des existierenden Sozialismus erlaubt hat.16 Und
die sozialistische Utopie war natrlich nicht nur das Narkotikum vieler DDR-Intellektueller,
sondern eine weltweite Epochenillusion und eine Hoffnungssucht, die trotz der degenerierten
Praxis an der heilsgeschichtlichen Perspektive festhielt17.
Christa Wolf: Nachdenken ber Christa T., Aufbau-Verlag Berlin und Weimar, 1975, S.9
Wider den Schlaf der Vernunft. Rede in der Erlserkirche (am 28.Oktober 1989) in: Christa Wolf: Im Dialog, Sammlung Luchterland,
Deutscher Taschenbuchverlag, Mnchen 1994, S. 101
15
Zwischenrede. Rede zu Verleihung der Ehrendoktorwrde der Universitt Hildesheim (am 31.Januar 1990) in Christa Wolf: Im Dialog,
Sammlung Luchterland, Deutscher Taschenbuchverlag, Mnchen 1994, S. 162
16
Slavoj iek: Ai spus cumva totalitarism?, Bucureti, Curtea Veche Publishing, 2005, S.105: "dei regimurile comuniste, n coninutul lor
pozitiv, au fost, n mare, un jalnic eec, care a generat teroare i mizerie, ele au deschis n acelai timp un anume spaiu, spaiul ateptrilor
utopice, care, printer altele, ne-a permis de fapt s msurm eecul socialismului existent."
17
Joachim Walter: Sicherungsbereich Literatur, Ch.Links Verlag, Berlin 1996, S. 11
13
14
194
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Was Ideologie und Utopie verbindet, in derer Gleichstellung als Projektionsraum ist
das so genannte falsche Bewusstsein, wie Karl Mannheim es benennt: Das Gemeinsame
und letztlich Entscheidende am Ideologie und Utopiegedanken ist, dass man an ihm die
Mglichkeit des falschen Bewusstsein erlebt18.
Es geht um ein falsches Bewusstsein, das selbstverstndlich neue Widersprche
entstehen lsst, denn Christa Wolf wollte sich gleichzeitig im Utopischen definieren und um
Realismus kmpfen: es geht immer noch und immer mal wieder um den Realismus, und
immer noch muss um ihn gekmpft werden. Und dieser Kampf, der Brecht zu seiner Zeit (und
fr eine gewisse Periode) veranlasste, die sozialen Bindungen zu betonen, in denen das
Individuum steht, und die Wechselwirkung zwischen diesen sozialen und individuellen
Faktoren (eine Hervorhebung, zu der ich keinen Widerspruch habe): dieser Kampf bringt es
mit sich, dass wir heute [...]; dass wir die Binsenweisheit nicht scheuen, die da lautet: nicht
die Welt, die Realitt oder ein hnlich unendliches und mir nicht fassbares Ding kann
von dem Autor schner Literatur beschrieben werden19.
Die Betonung der Widersprche als Formel der Auffassung einer komplexeren
Realitt weist auf die Tatsache hin, dass man bei Christ Wolf nicht von dem totalen Anspruch
der Ideologie, eine definitive Realittsdefinition zu geben sprechen kann. Die Autorin liegt
vielmehr wert auf die objektive Realitt, die durch die persnliche, subjektive Erfahrung
des Autors, dargelegt werden kann. Scheitert die Ideologie, so ist dieser Kampf um Realismus
nur auf Ebene des Inneren zu fhren.
Um dieser Realitt willen setzte sich Christa Wolf, trotz ihrer Position als Kandidatin
der SED auf dem 11. ZK-Plenum von 1965 fr Offenheit in der Diskussion um heikle
Themen ein: Wir mssen uns die Mhe machen, ber den Totalitarismus und den
Kommunismus als Utopie zu sprechen, denn das ist eine ganz notwendige Sache. Wir mssen
versuchen, solche Dinge wie die Notwendigkeit der Anwendung von Gewalt in
revolutionren Gesellschaften in der Diktatur des Proletariats ganz sachlich und ohne
jedes emotionelle Engagement zu erklren20. Allein der Kontext, in dem dieses Thema
aufgeschlagen wird stellt Christa Wolf in das Licht einer Dissidentin.
Die Widersprche der Darstellerinnen Kassandra und Christa T., sowie die
Widersprche Christa Wolfs selbst sind die eines Systems, das sich als Ziel setzt, die
Selbstbehauptung eines Individuums, einer politischen Doktrin zu unterordnen. Da die
Dissidenz, als absolute und radikale Auseinandersetzung zu einem solchen totalitren System
von Christa Wolf wegen ihrer Bekenntnis zum Marxismus keine Lsung ist, entsteht ein
breites Spektrum an Widersprchen und gleichermaen ein groes Potential an Projektionen,
das die Einschtzung des literarischen Wertes, (un)abhngig von der politischen Rezeption
ihrer Werke noch mehr zur Aufgabe des Lesers machen.
Literaturverzeichnis:
Magenau, Jrg: Christa Wolf. Eine Biographie, Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag,
Reinbek bei Hamburg, 2003
Mannheim, Karl: Ideologie und Utopie, 2.Auflage, Verlag von Friedrich Cohen, Bonn
1930
iek, Slavoj: Ai spus cumva totalitarism?, Curtea Veche Publishing, Bucureti, 2005
18
Karl Mannheim: Ideologie und Utopie, Verlag von Friedrich Cohen in Bonn, 1930, S.7
Christa Wolf: Lesen und Schreiben, Neue Sammlung, Sammlung Luchterland, Berlin und Weimar, Aufbau Verlag, 1981, , S. 77
20
Zitiert in Jrg Magenau: Christa Wolf. Eine Biographie, Rowohlt, Taschenbuch Verlag, S. 177
19
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The mythanalysis definition is given in the essay titled The Phantasms of Freedom at
Eminescu where we are told that the mythanalysis is a practical approach consisting in the
activity of discovering the latent myths within the literary discourse and question it. Culianu
points out that his mythanalisis was inspired by Mircea Eliades interpretation of the short
story Cezara, thus aiming to prove a certain continuity in the Romanian interpreting
traditions. The method was initially used by Mircea Eliade, followed by Adrian Marino who
called it mythocritics, although Culianu tends to call this interpreting tradition mythanalysis.
The mythanalitic process objective is to investigate the latent mythical material present in
the literary writings, under investigation being the literary text, its author, the former analysts
and the context all these elements are inserted in (Culianu 2006, 82-121). The significance of
this mythical substrate delivers proper information contained by the text and by the context
because having a meaning actually means reporting information (Culianu 2006, 84).
Understood as an experiment, the mythanalysis proposes reading the literary text as a myth
based on a certain regularities system outlined in a range of hypotheses, demanding a certain
specific capability. In the volume titled Introduction to Mythodology, Gilbert Durand includes
the mythanalysis within the science of mythodology, together with the mythocritics pointing
out that the mythanalysis requires a complete knowledge maturity from the specialist who
approaches the field. In Durands opinion, the mythocritics investigates the texts, while the
mythanalysis analyzes the contexts in order to identify the mythical or symbolical nuclei
which are significant for a society in a certain point of its evolution and its becoming. The
connecting point between the two levels of analysis is the myth, named by Durand the
common place emerged at the horizon of the these two approaches (Durand 2004, 191-192).
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accordance with the microcosm-macrocosm correspondence theory and with the logic of
similarity and universal sympathy (Eco, 2007, 17, 31).
Ioan Petru Culianu situates mythanalisis at the border of hermeneutics and scientific
discipline, although it is neither one nor the other and "does not aspire to scientific status" for
which it might be taken for an apparent "indolence" and a state of creative virtuality
comparable to an intellectual bricolage" (Culianu 2006, 86-87). In the study entitled
Structure, Sign and Play, Jacques Derrida analyzes the bricolage concept coined by Levi
Strauss as a research method used most effectively by the ingenious investigator who employs
the tools at hand, method used by Gerard Genette in his literary critics highlights Derrida. In
this context, the theorist notes that "every discourse is bricoleur" to the extent that borrows
concepts from other parties (Derrida 1978, 360) . Although Levi Strauss thinks that bricolage
technique seems to be opposite to the engineering calculations and precision, Derrida
concludes that every finite discourse is bound by a certain bricolage and that the engineer
and the scientist are also species of bricoleurs (Derrida 1978, 361). Bricolage is defined as a
type of "intellectual activity" combined with a "mythopoetical activity" because of the
mythical reflection involved (Derrida 1978, 361).
In his critical approach towards the "outdated methodologies" among which
Marxism, psychoanalysis and structuralism that tend to abuse the "facile formulas"
cosmeticizing the scientific language and thus creating an appearance of non semantic, Ioan
Petru Culianu seems to adhere to the anthropologist Claude Levi Strauss critical attitude
against amateurism in the study of mythology and history of religions (Culianu 2006, 87). In
his essay titled The Structural Study of Myth, Claude Levi Strauss warns about the wave of
opportunistic researchers called "all kinds of amateurs" implicated lately in the scientific
study of the history of religions (Strauss 1974, 206). Strauss points out the error committed in
anthropology field by avoiding religious studies which paved the way for the involvement of
other disciplines, especially psychological, encouraged by the psychologist approach taken by
the founders of the anthropological study of religion as Frazer, Durkheim or Tylor, whose
interpretations of religious phenomena are considered by Strauss 'flawed' because of the
pronounced psychologist orientation. Through this process, the scientific study of
anthropology of religion had been "discredited" at the same time with its practitioners
(Strauss 1974, 206, 207). Pulled into a shift of emphasis from logical and intellectual
mechanisms on the emotional ones, confusion and ambiguity was created, hindering research.
From this point of view, Strauss continues, the most exposed area remains that of mythology,
which finds itself in a "chaotic" situation in which myths are interpreted in "conflicting ways"
directing them towards onirical, ritualistic or aesthetic theory (Strauss 1974, 207). The main
purpose of mythology is in Levi Strauss opinion "to understand what a myth really is"
avoiding falling into sophistry or scientific platitude in the interpretation of mythological
phenomena as a form of human emotions and natural forces as in the naturalistic and
cosmological approach, or shifting the interest entirely towards the psycho-sociological
approach (Strauss 1974, 207).
The mythanalitical experiment undertaken by Culianu undergoes a series of strict rules
which if followed carefully lead the analyst to identify "latent myths" present within literary
works. Myths are deeply infiltrated within the textual structure, waiting patiently to be
discovered and are actually neither a product of the imagination of the analyst, nor his
invention. The mythanalist begins by investigating the sources and the biographical contexts
that can inform about the author and his creative process and continues by studying the
textual "mythical tissue" which must be "recognized" then structured into a research
hypothesis (Culianu 2006 94). The mythical elements identified occur repetitively like
symptoms fostering a "climate of interpretation" against which the mythanalist should act
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suspicious. From the initial phase of the identification or recognition of the mythical
symptoms within the text, the mythanalist goes to their significance detection phase (Culianu
2006, 95). As shown, mythanalitical operations are described through medical metaphors,
their final objective being to diagnose mythical occurrences and recurrences avoiding sliding
towards psychological factors, slipping on the field of psychology. The essential condition is
the competence given by acquiring a significant mythical database that the historian of
religions certainly does, being immune to the criticism uttered by the incompetent analysts in
this regard. The incompetent mythanalists usually tend to challenge the existence of mythical
elements in literary texts, denying them primarily because they are not able to see it or do not
understand the usefulness of mythical analysis.
Interpreting myths as a series of "deep structure factors revealing the human psyche,"
Corin Braga believes that the "mythological explanation" complement to the "psychological
interpretation" is a complex critical endeavor, benefiting from double intake offered in two
different directions, that of the mythanalisis and mythocritics on the one hand and that of
psihocritics and psychoanalysis on the other hand. Braga positions mythanalisis and
mythocritics within the archytypology field that targets a complex literary analysis, at the
metaphysical, psychological and cultural level. Metaphysically, "conceptual cutouts"
underlying literary creation, transmitted to the reader, are operated while from the
psychological point of view, are sought unconscious fantasies (originar, called
preconceptions), those abyssal insights equated with "latent mental structures"
phylogenetically transmitted, organized into "archetypal cutouts". The phantasms "lead the
artists pen often without him knowing it or even against his will" onto the production of
literary works containing concentrated archetypal information which powerfully impacts the
reader. From the cultural point of view, "constants", "invariants" or literary recurrences
systemically configured are researched in order to highlight the "symbolic images and
collective myths of each culture and trend, and in the final analysis, of all mankind" (Braga,
2007, 5-23).
Ioan Petru Culianu invites the reader to play the phantastic etymology game in order
to detect onirical schemes deeply rooted within the literary text. According to Nicu Gavriluta,
the mythanalysis is configured as a mythanalytics circle and is defined as the method by
which to discover the presence of the mythical sequences and phantasms in literary works
(Gavriluta 2000, 46). The mythanalysis consists in an inquiry and an investigation process
applied to the latent mythical material rooted in the literary discourse, where the object of
investigation is represented by the literary text, the author, its analysts and the context these
elements are inserted in. In the article titled Myth and Symbol in V. Voiculescus Prose, Ioan
Petru Culianu delivers the theoretical framework of the method and acknowledges that his
mythanalysis exercises made from the comparative history of religions perspective were
inspired by Mircea Eliades, Jungs writings and the Asconas group activity. In his opinion, a
historian of religions can make a unique contribution to the literary analysis through his
ability to enlighten the symbols contained by the texts, often connected with religious
concepts in the discourse underlying the textual rhetoric. Ioan Petru Culianu points out that
the method proposed has the ability to open whole new horizons in the literary analysis
field, being convinced that a significant part of the world literature cannot be completely
understood without being related to the phenomena and the religious beliefs that generated it
or which are reflected within, being currently reduced to a literary function (Culianu 2006,
12). Ioan Petru Culianu demonstrates the mythanalitic approach on Vasile Voiculescus
writings, being interested in detecting the symbolical structure mapped by surpassing the
psychoanalytic approach and investigating the psychological complexes, going deep into the
transpersonal symbols world (Culianu 2006, 18).
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In his essay, Culianu posits the "theoretical premises" of mythanalisis and confesses
that his mythanalitical exercises conducted from the perspective of comparative history of
religions were inspired by Mircea Eliades writings. Thus Ioan Petru Culianus mythanalitical
demonstration begins with the work of Vasile Voiculescu where he tries to detect the
underground "symbolic structure" mapped through the psychoanalytic approach by
investigating what is to be found beyond the "transpersonal world of symbols (Culianu 2006,
18). The ultimate goal of Culianus mythanalitical approach is to place the Romanian
literature in the universal context and demonstrate that "Romanian culture has its own stable
values, timeless and spaceless, falling into an organic concept of culture (Culianu 2006, 24).
The analyst acknowledged intention is to decipher the symbolic scheme Voiculescu built his
opera on and thus discovers "an onirical aesthetic play organizing Voiculescu's prose"
(Culianu 2006, 19). When the blind character and the lame priest meet and weld into one
body through a "mechanical procedure" which resulted in a new strange two-headed dual kind
of creature, the mythanalist recognized connections with the Indian folktale about Purusha
spirit in communion with matter prakrti rebuilt in pangvandhavan (Culianu, 2006, 19, 20). In
the next essay titled Vasile Voiculescu, Novelist of Illusion and Hope, the mythanalist detects
an Indo-Iranian symbol represented by the double character consisting of a blind and a
cripple, Zahei being a bum addicted to alcohol that anatomically reconstructs himself by
joining the lame body of Popa Fulga, a former thief. Culianu names this strange organism
"two-in-one" which in his view represents a symbol of spiritual pilgrimage through the
darkness.
In the study Ruthless Destruction in the Mill of Good Luck Novella by Ioan Slavici
(1881). A Mythanalitic Exercise, Culianu describes the method used in his mythanalisis taken
with the certain objective to probe the authors deep thinking and the "psycho-sociological
interpretation" of the text The Mill of Good Luck. Culianu discovers in Slavici's novella a
textual confrontation between good and evil, the story being a detective realistic novella
taking place in the XIX century Transylvania where the main characters, a Transylvanian
family with two children, invest in a property that turns into an inn located in the urban
periphery. The place attracts different passing customers and the attention of Lica, an
influential merchant who insidiously built a social network based on criminal behavior. Lica
uses blackmail strategies and commits a series of crimes skillfully hidden. The family tragedy
starts when, blinded by jealousy, the husband kills his wife, afterwards being shot by a
member of the criminal gang. Local police representative is unable to resolve the case, but
Lica will punish himself, committing suicide. The mythanalisis reveals the space divided into
three parts: urban, representing civilization and safety, rural forest being the uncontrollable
wilderness and the crossing area marked by the five crosses. Isolated in the outskirts, near the
forest, the family of entrepreneurs is exposed to hazards as for the mythanalist the city means
life and consequently the forest inhabited by animals symbolizes death. Culianu extracts the
mythical essence of the novella scenario which proves to be a ritual of sacrifice in the form of
a deadly mission during which the characters are killed, the objective of the intervention
being the elimination of the offender Lica Samadau. In this symbolic equation, Culianu
detects a Manichean myth visible through the incidence of number five and dual spatiality. In
this case, the mythanalist demonstrates that the author of the novella inserted a mythical
Manichean nucleus in the story on which he built a scenario endowed with symbolic data
easily assimilated by the reader.
In Mihai Eminescus poetry and prose, the scholar aims to outline a lyrical
mythological grammar where, underlying the Schopenhauerian influence, the dualist
mythology is deeply rooted into the phantastic scenarios set by the Romanian poet, a tendency
common to all the Romantic poets, thus Culianu intending to place the poet in the context of
the European Romanticism. Culianu tracks a series of phantasms present in Eminescus lyrics
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such as the erotic phantasms, the nihilist, freedom and fear phantasms searching for their
origins, the way the phantasm are generated and their role in shaping the poets personality.
The nihilist tendencies are visible in the transcendence disinvestment process by which the
traditional mythical instances are valued by opposition so that the above becomes negative
and the earthly gets positive value. This process triggers destructive phantasms formation in
the lyrical scenarios. The erotic phantasms are analyzed by Culianu from the magical
perspective of the visual communication process taking place between the watcher and the
person being watched. In the study Notes about Opsis and Theoria in Eminescus Poetry, the
mythanalist approaches the notes taken down on a manuscript regarding the visual analyzer
and the "psychological mechanism of vision", opsis, being a Platonic concept that explains
visual act as a more subtle tactile mechanism. Culianu analyzes the metaphors related to
opsis, the inner eye, the act of being contemplative and the expansion of the lover in the
universe, incorporating it into his psyche, the starry sky and the sea being reflected in the
contemplators eyes, the nature being appropriated by the act of vision, finally becoming
consubstantial (Culianu 2006, 27-32).
The text titled Acosmic Romanticism at Mihai Eminescu analyzes the poem Muresanu
and the three variants in manuscript within which the mythanalist detects dualist motifs in the
semantic structure inspired by the writings of Nicodemus Hagioritess works accessible in
Eminescus library. Culianu draws a comparison between Eminescus lyrics and the Gnostic
myth and discovers that Gnosticism is present at Eminescu at the imaginary level treated
romantically. The Phantasms of Eros at Eminescu. Luceafarul represents an attempt to
mythanalize Luceafarul poem built on a "phantasms scenario". Working on this text, Culianu
mythanalisis operates in three steps: the detection of the myth together with its deployment
area and then the assessment of the myths impact on the psyche of the author and the readers.
In terms of space, the universe is structured three-dimensionally: the sky, the sea belonging to
the upper essence and the land as humans place. The window separates the two dimensions,
but it is also the connecting element by enabling visual communication as through the
windows slit, Hesperus/Hyperion contemplates the girl in a voyeuristic act. Rooted in folk
literature, the isolated teenage girl watched by a dead masculine person is a recurrent literary
motif at Eminescu. The folk myth of the Flyer can be interpreted as an onirical manifestation
or discharge of erotic frustrations in puberty. Contrary to this position, the theme of the
woman prostitute offering herself to the drunk clients eyes to be seen in Poor Dionis is
negatively valued through its dehumanizing function. The Phantasm of Freedom at Eminescu
analyzes the erotic relationship in the novella Cezara built on a reversal of traditional roles
within the couple, the woman taking the active role while the man takes the passive one. The
hermaphrodite theme is present in the same text reflecting mental androgyny, according to the
debates of the time intended to undermine the marital relationships based on contract and
contribute to the liberation of women from under the man. In the novel scenario, Cezara
refuses to marry at her father's request to clear his debts by trading the daughter who was in
love with other man, Ieronim the monk. She builds a relationship with Ieronim in which
"model function seems to be eminently feminine, corresponding to the overturning of the
perspective on stereotyped roles assigned to the partners in a couple" (Culianu 2006, 104).
Following his interpretative approach, the mythanalist discovers four different intersected
myths centered on the myth of the Great Mother Goddess and the sacred bees.
The nihilistic tendencies are visible in Eminescu's work in the process of "divestment
of transcendence" by which the mythical instances are valued by opposition, so that what's up
becomes negative, and what's down gets positive value, a process that triggers the formation
of destructive fantasies. The Nihilism Phantasm at Eminescu approaches the phantasms of
destruction propagated in Romanian folk literature under the influence of Bogomilism and the
Asian myths brought by the Mongols. Culianu examines the aesthetic dichotomy between
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beauty and ugliness and the ethic dichotomy between good and evil present in the poem
Daemonism, the aesthetic belonging to the transcendence and the ethic to the material reality.
The negative ethic value of reality, the evil is understood by the poet in Gnostic sense as
having the role of "motor of history and social life", aggression not being good but rather
necessary in some situations because justice can not be done without the use of power. The
positive theme of death as regeneration is shown in the image of the anthropomorphized Titan
Earths dead body, where the dust is the rotten meat and people are swarming worms inside
the dead body. The mythanalists conclusion is that Eminescu operated an inversion of values,
context within which the negative and its range becomes positive, and what is located below,
the mundane, outperforms the transcendental.
References:
Culianu, Ioan Petru. 2006. Studii romneti I. Fantansmele nihilsmului: secretul
doctorului Eliade, ediia a II a, traduceri de Corina Popescu i Dan Petrescu. Iai: Polirom.
Durand, Gilbert. 2004. Introducere n mitodologie. Mituri i societi, traducere Corin
Braga. Cluj-Napoca: Dacia
Durand, Gilbert. Figuri mitice i chipuri ale operei. De la mitocritic la mitanaliz,
traducere Irina Bdescu. Bucureti: Nemira
Braga, Corin. 10 studii de antropologie. 2007. Cluj-Napoca: Dacia
Eco, Umberto. 2007. Limitele interpretrii, traducere tefania Mincu i Daniela
Crciun, ediia a II-a revzut. Iai: Polirom.
Eliade, Mircea. 1978. Aspecte ale mitului, traducere Paul G. Dinopol, prefa Vasile
Nicolescu. Bucureti: Univers.
Gavrilu, Nicu. 2000. Culianu, jocurile minii i lumile multidimensionale, prefa de
Moshe Idel. Iai: Polirom
Mihil, Ileana. 2003. Ioan Petru Culianu i mitanaliza, n Sorin Antohi, Ioan Petru
Culianu. Omul i opera, traduceri Corina Popescu, Claudia Dumitriu, Ioana Ieronim, Cristina
Ionic, Tereza Culianu-Petrescu, Polirom, Iai, pp. 373-388.
Kernbach, Victor. 1978. Miturile eseniale. Antologie de texte, cu o introducere n
mitologie, comentarii critice i note de referin. Bucureti: Editura tiinific i
enciplopedic.
Derrida, Jacques. 1978. Writing and Difference. London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis
Group.
Levi-Strauss, Claude. 1974. Structural Anthropology. New York: Basic Books.
Von Hendy, Andrew. 2001. The Modern Construction of the Myth. Bloomington:
Indiana University Press.
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Abstract: As the title states, this paper aims to connect key terms related to new historicism
with the Japanese American ways of thinking as reflected in Julie Otsukas fiction. More
importantly, the present paper brings to the fore not only concepts specific for the field of
literature seen from a new historicist perspective, but also aspects that circle around the
language and the culture encountered in the two selected works, thus proving that the
approach of new historicism can indeed make itself distinguishable in the Japanese American
sphere. Because this paper is intended to focus on more than one discipline, it will have as
main purpose the analysis of the two creative works from three different perspectives
(language, literature and culture) while focusing on power relations, discourse and ideology
in the contemporary Japanese American context.
Keywords: power, discourse, ideology, ethnicity, gender identity.
This research is concerned with power relations that function in the contemporary
Japanese American society as seen in Julie Otsukas The Buddha in the Attic and When the
Emperor Was Divine, while analyzing aspects related to the language used and, to a lesser
extent, the culture encountered in the selected novels. The present paper aims at connecting
key concepts related to new historicism to Japanese American studies, a domain that is
gradually gaining popularity worldwide. Profoundly interdisciplinary, the new historicist
approach will look into several knots that will integrate social history and the Japanese and
American culture reflected in Otsukas historical fictions. Thus, this analysis will manage to
differentiate itself from what has been written before, both in terms of coverage and approach.
The informed reader knows that before tackling key concepts that can be easily
encountered when discussing new historicism, one finds it of great importance to briefly
present the two selected works belonging to Julie Otsuka. The Buddha in the Attic gives the
floor to Japanese women who sailed their way to America in the hope of gaining a better life
as picture brides. They begin their story full of hopes by introducing their husbands and their
children only to end it with their acknowledgement of being forced to give up their Japanese
customs in favor of new American ones. When the Emperor Was Divine, on the other hand,
offers an insight into any Japanese family who managed to survive the injustices that came
with World War II. It is, in fact, the story of a father, who is taken away by authorities in the
middle of the night, and a mother with two children who are forced to leave their home and
head for a concentration camp in Utah. More importantly, Otsukas historical fictions deal
with issues related to Japanese ethnic and gender identity in the American space. What is
really surprising is that, apart from presenting historical events seen from the Japanese
perspective, the characters from When the Emperor Was Divine are nameless. The same could
be argued about The Buddha in the Attic, not only because the characters do not have names,
but also because they talk with the same voice, thus using first person plural in all their
recollections.
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Taking all these aspects into consideration, one could easily agree that the nameless
characters could speak for any Japanese who identifies with them. It should be added that the
social positions occupied by women and to a lesser extent by men in a patriarchal society, and
the racist views of a white society towards people who look and act differently, hint to the fact
that discrimination was and still is a powerful practice in contemporary America. Otsukas
novels aim towards an interpretation of history from a feminine perspective that seems to
create a world in which representations of Asian countries and America were merely viewed
as products of fiction due to the cultural practices that contributed to the construction of the
new historicist critical approach. In other words, Otsukas characters can be seen as the
embodiment of any immigrant, in this way speaking for the masses of people who decided to
better their lives by migrating to other countries. It should be noted that the reader is supposed
to learn from the common lives of Asian people in America, as these immigrants struggle
with the ideologies imposed by the society in which they were born and the ones imposed by
the one in which they live.
Nevertheless, it is relevant for the present study to first name and briefly comment on
certain key terms that will be referred to when talking about a new historicist interpretation of
Otsukas novels. First, one should put emphasis on Michel Foucaults writings because they
bring to the fore concepts such as new history, episteme, power, ideology and even discourse
terms that help in understanding and analyzing literary texts through new historicist lenses.
According to Foucault, new history (taken from The Archeology of Knowledge) emerges
from the history of thoughts, of science and of philosophy, but not from proper history
because proper history appears to be abandoning the irruption of events in favor of stable
structures1. To put it differently, new history seeks to determine the relations between
different fields of study and at the same time it refers to distinct ways of correlating the
dominance between them. Another concept that is present in new historicist analyses is
epistem (borrowed from Foucaults The Order of Things) and is defined as being similar to a
period of history, referring not to ordinary events but to a type of knowledge from a certain
time. More exactly, an epistem is a period in the history of thought and knowledge 2. One
could argue that both The Buddha in the Attic and When the Emperor Was Divine reveal ideas
that shape the knowledge of the 1940s, ideas that seen from the point of view of the
contemporary power-knowledge system can still be debatable.
An equally important term is power (encountered in Foucaults History of Sexuality),
a concept thought to be the most important term in the new historicist vocabulary, and it
refers to the relations of domination and resistance seen from social, political and cultural
points of view. However, it also refers to the pleasures that come after exercising it, in this
way being effective. Thus, power cannot only be subversive, but also productive. From a new
historicist point of view, power should not be understood as physical power or violence of an
individual towards another one. Instead, it should be seen as the ability to make someone
comply with the norms imposed without realizing that his/her decisions were not made
independently, but from an array imposed by centers of disseminating power. Hence, if, for
instance, we were to think of the Pearl Harbor attack which led to public hostility from both
Japan and America, then one would immediately link this attack to the concentration camps
established for the Japanese. More explicitly, the American society divided its power into
several detention camps which permanently observed first and second generation immigrants
who were behind barbed wire. If we accept this idea of power, then we could agree with the
fact that new historicism is a style of literary criticism which engages with human history as a
history of ideas in this way being interested in looking at how the text represents power and
1
2
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comparing that to social power at the time a text was written. In other words, new historicism
lends itself very well to certain kinds of feminist or post-colonial analysis. One looks to the
texts being created at a particular time in the hope that the history will help us to see new
meaning in the text, and that at the same time the text will provide us with new insights into
the ideas of the time.
A fourth key term crucial for present analysis is ideology which is explained by John
Brannigan as referring to a condition in which people identify themselves with particular
class or sectional interests, and therefore with the values and beliefs of this class or section 3.
In other terms, ideology can be seen as a system of ideas belonging to a particular section of
society, in which there are, obviously, different group interests and, hence, clashes between
groups. If one were to think about the selected novels, the ideological rigidity of the World
War II period had numerous consequences on the Japanese immigrants who were constantly
humiliated and discriminated. One could think about the Statue of Liberty political cartoon
from 1906 which contained the message Japan But that Statue of Liberty, Uncle Sam?
Uncle Sam Oh, that means liberty for Yankees.4. Apart from being a cultural icon, the
Statue of Liberty is in itself a representation of freedom for those who identify with and
support the American way of thinking. One could also mention the Japs Keep Moving This
is a White Mans Neighborhood5 photograph, which was intended to make immigrants of
Asian descent realize that America was indeed a land in which dreams could be
accomplished, but only for a selection of people.
The last concept that will be referred to in this paper, namely discourse, is again
present in Foucaults The Archeology of Knowledge and it refers to statements, texts and
relationships that work together in order to form practices and fields of study in society. More
importantly, one could add that Otsukas novels will also be focusing on language power
relations that can be encountered in the Japanese American society. To put it differently, one
would try to find and also analyze the way in which Japanese immigrants speak, what words
they usually use and to what purpose.
The reader should further agree that new historicism shifts the historicist view to a
critique of the ideology of the age by focusing on the politics of form and on the
reinterpretation of history, then we could further argue that new historicism looks at all
individual views and takes everything into account while at the same time it focuses on how
social life and history are represented in various discourses. In trying to prove that new
historicism is a viable theory that would perfectly blend in with the fields of ethnic and
gender studies, one should briefly present the views of two important figures in the
development of this theory, namely Stephen Greenblatt and Hayden White. Although their
perspectives on new historicism are different in many ways, the attempt of bringing them
together will end in a better comprehension of the new historicism sphere.
Stephen Greenblatts view is that a literary work is shaped by collective beliefs, social
practices and cultural discourses; these leave textual traces in a work of literature and
connect it to the extra-textual representational systems of the culture in which it is embedded.
He destabilizes the text (a poststructuralist approach) and focuses on its margins, borders,
where it connects with other representations in the culture. His reading is generally concerned
with power and the way it maintains itself through representation. Power is motivated and
mobilized by wonder and enchantment, two discursive terms that reveal representation as
productive and reflective of power. Therefore, the relationship between literature and history
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is one of circulation, exchange and negotiation rather than of reference or reflection 6. In other
words, by adopting a new historicist approach, the reader wonders how was the literary work
produced, distributed and who would read it. More importantly, when talking about Otsukas
fiction, the reader should be aware that a text is made up of practices, assumptions and
structures which function in such a way that it makes the reader wonder how the author
describes the way in which Americans treated Japanese immigrants before and after the Pearl
Harbor bombing.
Another American (a historian this time) who investigates the formal literary structure
of history is Hayden White. He discusses the literary dimension of history as historians
deploy the traditional devices of narrative to make sense of raw data and also to organize and
give meaning to their accounts of the past. Whites theory revolves around a history that is
written with the tools of the literary writer. He also claims that historical narratives are verbal
fictions with invented contexts and that history gains its explanatory power by processing data
into stories. These particular stories take their shape from emplotment i.e. the process
through which the facts contained in chronicles are encoded as components of plots7. He
further claims that no historical event can itself constitute a story; it can only be presented as
such from a particular historians point of view. White identifies four possible emplotments:
tragic, comic, romantic and ironic8. Nevertheless, in order to produce these emplotments,
White identifies four master tropes of figurative representation: metaphor, metonymy,
synecdoche and irony each of them corresponding to the four types of emplotment9. To be
more specific, one should think of Otsukas The Buddha in the Attic, where the historical
event of picture brides has been emploted into the novel. This would immediately raise
questions about the picture brides. Why did they leave Japan? Why did they choose America
as their destination? What would they hope to accomplish? Although at first sight one might
say that the Japanese womens coming to America could link to a romantic emplotment, due
to their hopes and the short conversation between them and their future husbands, it would
soon prove that this historical event perceived as tragic. Another example of emplotment can
also be found in When the Emperor Was Divine, because the key moment in the novel starts
with World War II, when the father from the novel is taken away by American authorities for
questioning, thus the emplotment being, again, a tragic one.
Taking these key terms into consideration, one could further agree to the fact that the
critical approach of new historicism can be applied to the field of ethnic studies, more exactly
to Japanese Americans. One reason for undertaking a new historicist reading of Japanese
American writings would simply be because they were considered aliens in the American
space. Furthermore, one could claim that representatives of ethnic groups that live in
American cities often choose to expose moments in which they suffered oppression and
public humiliation both in their countries of ancestral origin and in the country in which they
have chosen to work in order to provide a better living for their families. These link to the fact
that there are clashes between groups in the United States because of the different ideas
encountered in society, hence proving that power is disseminated in such a way that it
manages to control the weak individual, the one who has an odd behavior and who is not
able to relate to a certain kind of ideology.
Representations of power can also be encountered in Otsukas writings due to the fact
that there are many scenes which focus on the oppression of societies and institutions over the
Felperin, Howard. Cultural Poetics versus Cultural Materialism: The Two New Historicisms in Renaissance Studies. Uses of History:
Marxism, Postmodernism, and the Renaissance. Eds. Barker, Francis, Peter Hulme, and Margaret Iversen. Manchester, UK: Manchester
University Press, 1991. p. 84.
7
White, Hayden V. Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-century Europe. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1973. p. 7.
8
White, Hayden V. Ibidem. p. 29.
9
White, Hayden V. Ibidem. p. 36.
6
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weak. In The Buddha in the Attic, for instance, the no-name women talk about their intention
of fully integrating into the American system by dressing and acting in such a way that they
would not offend the white. However, the women regretfully recognized that they and their
families were discriminated and publicly humiliated in the sense that the institutions exercised
power over such weak individuals. For instance, at school the Japanese American children
had to stay in the back of the class and they would be last in line at the cafeteria and, more
importantly, always apologized with a smile on their face. Another example of exercising
power could revolve around the American ushers who gave first and second generation
Japanese immigrants the worst seats in the second balconies of the theatres. Even barbers had
the power to refuse offering their services when Japanese Americans wanted a haircut. Even
if the women notice these injustices, they eventually claim that the only way to resist, our
husbands taught us, was by not resisting10. Through these examples the Japanese are
portrayed as being discriminated and, at the same time, obedient because they think that if
they do not respond to insults with violence they will eventually prevail. From a new
historicist point of view, one could also think that resisting ethnic discrimination is also a way
of exercising power.
When the Emperor Was Divine also presents episodes in which institutions exercise
power over the weak. Because the father from the novel was taken by authorities in the
middle of the night under the impression of being a spy for the Japanese Emperor Hiroto
Shwa, the rest of the family was evacuated and taken to a concentration camp. On the one
hand, one could discuss the power the FBI has over the father while on the other one should
bring to the fore the power centers that control the rest of the family. The last chapter from the
novel entitled Confession reveals the fathers acknowledgement for his sins. This short
chapter could be viewed as a clear example of manipulation meaning that the father
recognizes that he was loyal only to his country of ancestral origin and did everything in his
power to compromise the lives of Americans. He admits that the Americans were always right
and he is responsible for the misfortune brought upon the white people. He further speaks for
all the Japanese who were suspected of being traitors and claims that: I planted sticks of
dynamite alongside your railroads. I set your oil well on fire. I scattered mines across the
entrance to your harbors. I spied on your airfields. I spied on your naval yards. I spied on your
neighbors. I spied on you11. The father thus speaks with one voice for all the Japanese
suspects, while at the same time he refers to any American citizen who identifies with the
you from the novel. He further makes reference to the Japanese invasion of Manchuria from
1931 and to the Nanking massacre from 1937 only to end up with the Pearl Harbor attack
from 1941. Nevertheless, the most powerful impact on the reader comes together with the last
lines of the fathers confession in which he urges the ones who question him to put everything
on paper, all the offences brought upon the American society, all the Japanese cunning ideas
towards the rest of the world, including his last thoughts. He finally asks: put it down in
writing [] and Ill sign on the dotted line. Is treacherous and cunning, is ruthless, is cruel.
And if they ask you someday what it was I most wanted to say, please tell them, if you would,
it was this: Im sorry. There. Thats it. Ive said it. Now can I go?12. Clearly, his confession
is not only his own and, more importantly, the contemporary reader understands that there
were Japanese immigrants who did not involve in war affairs of any kind. Hence, the father
embraces his Japanese identity and acknowledges all accusations, this being a perfect
example of resisting power by not resisting.
The same novel presents instances in which the mother and the two children are
oppressed by the American institutions. For one reason, they are forced to evacuate their
10
Otsuka, Julie. The Buddha in the Attic. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2011. p. 52. All further references are to this edition only.
Otsuka, Julie. When the Emperor Was Divine. London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2013. p.140. All further references are to this edition only.
12
Otsuka, Julie. When the Emperor Was Divine p. 143-44.
11
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home and live in a concentration camp in Utah, where the mother would often dream about
the sea. Interestingly enough, after their return the mother reminisces about the three years
spent in the camp. She claims with sorrow that they used to stand in line for everything they
needed, be it food, mail or even shower. The kids also remember that they used to play war
and hence had to choose between MacArthur and the enemy i.e. the Japanese. As a
consequence, they unconsciously had to choose between the hostile American society which
was responsible for their imprisonment and the country of their ancestral origin. Another
episode which perfectly describes the oppressive power of institutions over weak individuals
is concerned with the familys return and the childrens school experience. Just like children
from The Buddha in the Attic, the boy and the girl from When the Emperor Was Divine hoped
that they would not be noticed if they sat in the back of the class, they constantly apologized
for everything they did.
One could further argue that both The Buddha in the Attic and When the Emperor Was
Divine reveal injustices exercised upon immigrants to a wide audience, in this way presenting
past political events in the spectrum of contemporaneity. One could also argue that ethnic
groups in America are unknowingly being controlled in such a way that they no longer wish
to return to their countries, and instead independently choose to remain and work for the
host country. They do not reject the American society anymore, and consequently they do not
wish to return home. They now get acquainted with and accept foreign aspects that circle
around themselves simply because they no longer perceive them as being foreign.
Furthermore, because the main cultural practice present in every work that defines ethnic
studies in general is storytelling, we could not question the power a narrator has over his/her
stories. Of course, this issue triggers other aspects related to the narrators reliability and
makes the reader question how much truth is there in their stories. Because many ethnic
writers belong either to second or even third generation immigrants, this makes the reader
question how reliable the presented events are. Because ethnic writers tell told and retold
stories heard from their parents and, more than that, because they bring their own contribution
to the story, the writers focus only on some key aspects that are relevant for the development
of the story, in this way giving the impression that they alter the past. However, judging from
a new historicist perspective, the reader finds out that there is truth in all history, be it
American or Japanese history.
If one were to accept all the above stated facts, then he/she would agree that in Julie
Otsukas novels there are numerous instances in which Japanese women are portrayed as
being oppressed both by class structure and by their social imposed gender roles of worthless
females who entirely depend on male domination. More than often Japanese characters try to
challenge their status by rebelling against patriarchy in a rather passive way, as they are
believed to suffer oppression simply because they are women. Accordingly, the female
characters seem to emphasize the differences between men and women, by bringing to the
fore biological differences, such as independence /vs/ interdependence, competition /vs/
cooperation, domination /vs/ submission. It should be added that in both The Buddha in The
Attic and When the Emperor Was Divine, the Japanese women and men alike are confined to
hard labor and are controlled by a higher power than gender, namely society. Hence
immigrants are the ones upon which power is exercised.
Power can also be encountered when talking about the language used in Otsukas
novels, as this paper also puts emphasis on Japanese and American particularities that reflect
the ways in which context contributes to meaning. However, it is of extreme importance to
mention that before analyzing different types of approaches to language behavior one needs to
familiarize himself/herself with elements specific for both cultures. One should reveal that in
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the Japanese language the particle ka replaces the question mark 13. When discussing When
the Emperor Was Divine, we could argue that because the writer is a third generation
immigrant, she was probably not familiar with such particularity and added the question mark
immediately after the construction Nan desu ka?14. If one were to translate, then the
interrogative sentence would undeniably be followed by two question marks: What is it??.
There are two interpretations to this problem: the first one could be concerned with western
political reasons which imposed Julie Otsuka to introduce the question mark after the
Japanese question. Another explanation could be that probably because she was not a native
Japanese, but a third generation immigrant in America, Otsuka was not familiar with such
particularity.
One could further argue that in terms of phonetics, native Japanese cannot pronounce
the consonant l, hence an eru is heard, and it can be easily confused with r, which is
pronounced the same as l. The Buddha in the Attic, this time, brings to the fore the parents
opinions about their children, second generation immigrants. They observe that apart from
forgetting all the customs and good manners their parents taught them, they are also rejecting
their ancestry as they gradually give up their Japanese ancestry and replace it with a new
American one. The women further observe that they [the children] pronounced their ls and
rs with ease15. In other words, instead of saying prease they are now able so correctly
pronounce please, or hello instead of harro. In other terms, one needs to look into
several areas in order to develop a well-documented research. When attempting a new
historicist approach to Japanese American writings, one should take into consideration the
Japanese language particularities and explain them. Otherwise such aspects would be taken
for granted by a regular reader.
It should also be brought to light that because power is in a close connection to
knowledge, it resides both in oral (as it has been shown in The Buddha in the Attic) and
written discourse (as it was seen in When the Emperor Was Divine). However, probably
because the first objective of any person who is willing to learn a foreign language is to
understand the oral conversational discourse, The Buddha in the Attic further presents the
women who reveal that the American horses do not understand the Japanese commands and
so they have to learn words like giddyap, back, easy or whoa. Obviously, such
language is extremely helpful when working on the fields and not when attempting to run a
business in a small town. Even though, the women recognize that during their way to America
they have learned a few English phrases such as: Hello, Beg pardon, Please pay me my
wages and could recite their ABCs, but in America this knowledge was useless 16. The
reader could see that the Japanese immigrants had no power because they were not able to
master neither the oral nor the written discourse. Hence, they were seen as outcasts not only
because of their appearance, but also because they did not have the ability of fully integrating
into the American system. Again, this is a perfect example of knowledge-power relationship,
as only the one who possesses knowledge has true power over the weak.
This paper has demonstrated that Julie Otsukas novels reveal aspects connected to
traumatic events in Japanese Americans lives both in terms of language and cultural
difference. Because the main purpose of the paper was to look at The Buddha in the Attic and
When the Emperor Was Divine through new historicist lenses, it mainly revolved around
power relations and the structures of the American culture as seen from the Japanese
perspective. Through their stories, the narrators exposed the American ideology of the time,
thus proving that history in itself is a collection of interpretations that need to be known.
Hondru, Angela. Curs de Limba Japonez. Bucureti: Universitatea Cultural-tiinific, 1983. p. 2.
Otsuka, Julie. When the Emperor Was Divine. p. 50.
15
Otsuka, Julie. The Buddha in the Attic. p. 74.
16
Otsuka, Julie. The Buddha in the Attic. p. 26.
13
14
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Moreover, various historical events were emploted into both novels, in this way proving that
in the contemporary society one accepts the stronger statement simply because it comes from
a higher position. The novels prove that if Japanese Americans were avoided during the early
20th century, they are nowadays acknowledged and listened to due to literary texts such as
Julie Otsukas novels.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my beloved professors from Ovidius University for taking such a
great interest in me even from the beginning. First, I would like to express my deep gratitude
to Professor Ludmila Martanovschi for introducing me into the field of Ethnic Studies and
also for her constant encouragements throughout my years of study at this university. Second,
I would like to thank Professor Adina Ciugureanu for her explicit lecture on Historicism and
New Historicism. Then, I would like to mention Professor Eduard Vlad who guided and
encouraged me in writing this paper. Last but not least, I would like to thank my family and
all my friends for their patience and understanding. I am deeply grateful to all.
Bibliography
Brannigan, John. New Historicism and Cultural Materialism. New York: St. Martins,
1998.
Felperin, Howard. Cultural Poetics versus Cultural Materialism: The Two New
Historicisms in
Renaissance Studies. Uses of History: Marxism, Postmodernism, and the
Renaissance. Eds. Barker, Francis, Peter Hulme, and Margaret Iversen. Manchester, UK:
Manchester University Press, 1991. p. 84.
Foucault, Michel. The Archeology of Knowledge. London: Routledge, 1989.
Hondru, Angela. Curs de Limba Japoneza. Bucuresti: Universitatea CulturalStiintifica. 1983.
Japs Keep Moving - This Is a White Man's Neighborhood. Digital image. A More
Perfect Union.
Courtesy of National Japanese American Historical Society, ca. 1920. Web. 20 Nov.
2014.
Otsuka, Julie. The Buddha in the Attic. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2011.
Otsuka, Julie. When the Emperor Was Divine. London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2013.
Political Cartoon, Statue of Liberty. Digital image. Literay Digest. Fischietto (Turin).
Courtesy
of Library of Congress, 22 Dec. 1906. Web. 20 Nov. 2014.
White, Hayden V. Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-century
Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973.
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THE RISE AND FALL OF LILY BART IN EDITH WHARTONS THE HOUSE OF
MIRTH
Oana Alexandra Alexa, PhD Student, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai
Abstract: Edith Whartons usual categorisation as a novelist of manners does not enirely do
her justice, as it leaves out her preocupation with the moral realm according to her
conviction that every literary work, much like life itself, has an underlying moral issue.
Thus, this paper aims to analyse Whartons first big literary success, The House of Mirth
(1905), from the viewpoint of its illustration of both social and moral conflicts, in the attempt
to prove that they inevitably intersect in her works and that, in this particular case, the rise in
morals of the main character, Lily Bart, paradoxically brings about a fall in the social realm,
which ultimately kills her.
Keywords: rise, fall, social conflict, moral conflict, Edith Wharton.
Introduction
Edith Wharton was categorized in the American literary history as a novelist of
manners, very successful in rendering turn of the century upper-class life. But critics would
not go as far as to say that her writings were also moralizing. In one of the first critical studies
of her work, Blake Nevius declared: It should be clear, at any rate, that we are deceiving
ourselves if we try to account for the compelling interest of The House of Mirth by the nature
or intensity of the moral conflict. (Nevius 1976: 58) Indeed, this may not have been
Whartons main purpose, but we will have to disagree with him as far as his opinion that there
are no moral conflicts. In the words of Carol J. Singley, Edith Wharton is not only a
contributor to the novel of manners but she is also a novelist of morals: a writer not only of
society but of spirit; a woman who, in life and art, searched for religious, moral and
philosophical meaning. (Singley, Matters of Mind, 1998: x)
In The Writing of Fiction (1925), Wharton clearly states that
any subject considered in itself must first of all respond in some way to that
mysterious need of a judgement on life of which the most detached human intellect, provided
it be a normal one, cannot, apparently, rid itself. [] In vain has it been attempted to set up a
water-tight compartment between art and morality.[] A good subject, then, must contain
in itself something that sheds a light on our moral experience. (Wharton, The Writing of
Fiction 1997: 23-24)
In other words, it is in the human nature to relate to those moral judgements which are
inherent in the very behaviour of mankind, so by describing this behaviour in fiction, the
writer cannot separate one from the other. Carol Singley goes on to say that Wharton is not
didactic, insistent or judgemental in her treatment of moral issues, (Singley 1998: x) but we
might argue that her irony in depicting the lack of moral conflicts in some of her characters
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minds is, by any standards, judgemental. At any rate, the authors upper-class background did
not prevent her from addressing moral issues, not in an absolutistic way but by finding a
necessary balance between individual morality and group convention. (xi)
As a consequence, much of Whartons fiction presents characters facing moral choices
and longing for nonmaterial values, but most critics have missed these instances, probably
because the author did not choose to accentuate them.
Lily Barts Moral Dilemmas
In our opinion, Lily Barts last year of life as it is presented in The House of Mirth is
one of the most obvious and extended instances of moral conflict in Whartons works. At
twenty-nine years old, Lily is still a beautiful and intelligent young woman who is expected to
find a rich husband to support her luxurious life-style as a member of the upper-class.
However, she isnt willing to marry just anyone, especially since she likes Lawrence Selden, a
lower-rank bachelor. Her reputation is ruined step by step as she is seen in the company of
different men and is set up by one of her friends, Bertha Dorset. As Lily refuses to fight back
using some compromising letters because they were addressed to Selden, her aunt leaves her
only 10,000 dollars on her death, which barely covers her debts. As a consequence, she is
forced to work in order to earn a living, first as a secretary and then as a seamstress. In her
current state, not even Simon Rosedale, a cunning financier who wanted to use her name to
enter the inner circle wants to marry her anymore. After a failed attempt to declare her love
for Selden, Lily takes an overdose of chloral and dies. It is too late for Seldens visit the next
day, as he discovers that she had used her entire inheritance to pay her debts and had died
alone and rejected by all of her friends.
Like so many other characters in Whartons works, Lily Bart faces inner battles
between personal feelings and outward conventions, which are so ingrained into her self that
she end up defeated in the process. This is because Whartons characters do not usually have
a strong moral code of their own, to guide them through their decisions and supply arguments
for their choices. Their sense of morality is empirical at best, simply because society only
provided them with rules and conventions, not with principles for decision-making. One may
have read books on ethics, but in important matters he or she relied on the rules of the tribe,
rather than those of philosophical reasoning.
In one of Whartons letters, referring to the House of Mirth, she explicitly states that
no novel worth anything can be anything but a novel with a purpose, & if anyone
who cared for the moral issues did not see in my work that I care for it, I should have no one
to blame but myself or at least my inadequate means of rendering my effects. (qtd. in
Singley 1998: 6, emphasis in the original)
Lily Bart is a singular case in Whartons fiction. Other characters facing moral choices
have the inner strength to live with the consequences of their decisions, but Lily is such a
specialised product of Old New York, almost Victorian ways, that she cannot evolve into a
new woman: she was so evidently the victim of the civilization which had produced her, that
the links of her bracelet seemed like manacles chaining her to her fate. (HOM 8) Its not that
the manacles cannot be broken, but she will not survive outside the glass conservatory of her
upbringing. In analyzing Lilys moral life, we must consider the fact that she was a woman
and that she lived in the early 20th century upper-class milieu. Back then, women were
considered morally superior to men only to the extent that they were completely innocent of
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wordly knowledge. (Preston 2000: 33) They were intentionally kept in the dark about
anything considered improper, which included studying, books, politics or business and social
experiences except chaperoned visits. In other words, girls were not taught anything except
the art of being dull, well-mannered and looking pretty and they were not given the
opportunity to learn anything by themselves either. We may actually say that they knew only
what was proper and improper, not what was good and bad. Society had replaced morality
with convention. In her autobiographical fragment Life and I, Wharton confesses that this was
also true for herself:
My mothers rule of behaviour was that we should be polite my fathers that one
should be kind. Ill-breeding any departure from the social rules of conduct was the only
form of wrong-doing I can remember hearing condemned. (qtd. in Singley 1998: 91)
In the same way, Lily Bart realises that using Bertha Dorsets letters to save herself is
in fact a moral choice she consciously makes only at the end of the novel when she really
considers using them against their addressee.
Although we are asked to believe that two sides of her personality are struggling for
possession, there is no possibility of a genuine moral conflict until near the end of the action
when as a result of suffering she experiences the self-realization which is the condition of any
moral growth. (Nevius 1976: 57)
Because of her upbringing, she can only have the loosest theoretical grasp (57) of
Seldens principles of marrying for love and being appreciated for who she is rather than for
her decorative role. She realises that, but she also knows it is not her fault:
Inherited tendencies had combined with early training to make her the highly
specialized product that she was: an organism as helpless out of its narrow range as the seaanemone torn from the rock. She had been fashioned to adorn and delight; to what other end
does nature round the rose leaf and paint the humming-birds breast? And was it her fault that
the purely decorative mission is less easily and harmoniously fulfilled among social beings
than in the world of nature? That it is apt to be hampered by material necessities or
complicated by moral scruples? (HOM 350)
It is the first time when Lily realises that she is in the middle of a moral conflict and
she makes a conscious decision: to burn the letters. She also chooses to die because she
knows she is not fit for the new world, where women work and support themselves without
marrying. She develops a kind of hyper-morality (Tyson 1992: 8) in the last chapters of the
book because this is the way she thinks she will be admitted in Seldens republic of the
spirit. Because she has not internalised the moral principles on which it is based, she sees
things in black and white and therefore cannot save herself, even though, in reality, she does
not have to hurt Selden or anyone else except Bertha Dorset. Lily and Selden cultivate a
moral fastidiousness which leads to no practical use: he does not help Lily when she needs
him and she dies thinking there is no more hope for specialised products like herself.
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In the end, both Lily and May sacrifice themselves. Lily dies, while May remains
trapped in a conventional marriage with a man who does not love her. But all of this is not
because a strong sense of morality had dictated Lily not to use the letters or May to set
Newland free. Similarly, Ellen sacrifices her love for Newland even if he was not yet married.
She exagerates because in a world Ellen has seen to be quite odious, she wants to distinguish
herself and her lover by their moral rectitude. (Cahir 1999: 12) The truth is they did not
know better. Conventions had not taught them otherwise. They did not know they could be
free somewhere else. But they most likely wouldnt have survived outside the system,
anyway.
Conclusions
Wharton does not deal explicitly with either social or moral conflicts. She doesnt
describe lower-class workers complaining about working conditions and protesting against
factory owners and we dont see her characters having long monologues on their passion
versus duty dilemmas. She is more subtle than that. Her protagonists live in a world so aloof
that it doesnt even conceive the fact that its existence is based on such conflicts. They are
brought up to ignore the unpleasant and put on a mask of conspicuous serenity. But these
conflicts do exist, and they take the shape of infinitely small nuances, betrayed in the
ceremonial performance of conventional rituals.
In terms of the moral component, Wharton is not didactic, but her characters do battle
with their own selves and their choices are usually dramatic because the result is invariably
personal defeat. Lily Bart destroys Bertha Dorsets letters to Selden, not because she doesnt
want to hurt him (since he will probably never know about the blackmail), but because she
realises she cannot live the kind of life that Gerty Farish or Nettie Struther lead. Somehow,
moral conflicts are there without the characters acknowledging them, while social conflicts
are similarly hidden behind a curtain of respectability and politeness.
In the end, the thing that defines Whartons leisure class best in her novels is
concealment. Both the moral and the social conflicts are considered unpleasant, so their
mentioning is repressed. It is a hieroglyphic world, as the author explains in The Age of
Innocence, where the real thing is never said or even thought, but only represented through a
set of arbitrary signs. However, once decoded, this language describes in detail the dynamics
of different social groups.
Bibliography
Bell, Millicent, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Edith Wharton. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1995.
Cahir, Linda Constanzo. Solitude and Society in the Works of Herman Meliville and
Edith Wharton. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1999.
Lippmann, Walter. A Preface to Morals: With a new introduction by John Patrick
Diggins. New York: Macmillan, 2009.
Nevius, Blake. Edith Wharton: A Study of Her Fiction. Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1976.
Preston, Claire. Edith Whartons Social Register. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000.
Singley, Carol J. Edith Wharton: Matters of Mind and Spirit. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1998.
216
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Singley, Carol J., ed. Edith Whartons The House of Mirth. A Casebook. New York:
Oxford University Press, 2003.
Tyson, Lois. Beyond Morality: Lily Bart, Lawrence Selden and the Aesthetic
Commodity in The House of Mirth. Edith Wharton Review, No. 2, Volume IX, Fall 1992, 310.
Veblen, Thornstein, The Theory of the Leisure Class. New York: Oxford University
Press, 2007.
Wharton, Edith. A Backward Glance: An Autobiography. New York: Touchstone
Simon and Schuster, 1998.
Wharton, Edith. The Age of Innocence. London: Harper Collins, 2010.
Wharton, Edith. The House of Mirth. London: Penguin, 2012.
Wharton, Edith. The Writing of Fiction. New York: Touchstone Simon & Schuster,
1997.
The Edith Wharton Society. http://public.wsu.edu/~campbelld/wharton/
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652, cofinanced by the European Social Fund within the Sectorial Operational Program Human
Resources Development 2007 2013.
217
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Abstract: Our work illustrates the way in which the archaic thinking process we developed
has tried to uncover the signs of the Universe, while reality is being accepted through rites
and myths, and by making references to the short work of prose composed by Vasile
Voiculescu. The disappearance of a magical world (partly because of the rationality excess
and, on the other hand, due to the exaggeration in technology of a modern world like ours)
becomes the catalyst of Voiculescus prose. That is why, just like Mihail Sadoveanu, the
writer is trying to recreate the myth of eternal comeback, a recuperation of the sacred found
in the profane space, a dialogue between what once used to be, and what is now.
Keywords: the myth of everlasting comeback, totem, magic, archetype, ritual
Mircea Muthu, Repere culturale transilvane, Ed. Eikon&Scriptor, Cluj Napoca, 2014, p. 32
Idem
218
SECTION: LITERATURE
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n fond fantazeaz, ntr-o complicitate senin cu naratarul, pentru c ele au n snge patima
povestirii, iar condiia lor existenial este mrturisirea. Termenul ,,comunicare i
pstreaz la Voiculescu sensul arhetipal de comuniune cu divinitatea ( lat. cuminecare).
Naratorul las impresia c spune, nu c scrie, iar lectorul triete sentimentul c
nainteaz pe firul povetii o dat cu acesta. ,,Povestirea nu analizeaz, nu descrie, nu
portretizeaz, nu intr n detaliu psihologic. Faptele conteaz, consider Nicolae
Manolescu.3 Nucleu esenial al epicului, povestirea este, n fapt, ,, un edificiu al relatarii, al
transmiterii, al pregtirii i al oficierii, n termenii lui Ion Vlad , respectnd un cod ritualic.
Personalizat prin oralitate, prin relaia explicit narator / naratar , prin respectarea unui
ceremonial care urmrete redarea unei atmosfere tensionante, marcate de suspans i prin
evocarea unui timp trecut , auroral, relativizat, povestirea are, de regul, o dimensiune
iniiatic.
Dispariia lumii magice, datorit excesului de raionalitate i a supratehnologizrii
lumii moderne, devine catalizatorul prozei voiculesciene, de aceea, la fel ca i Sadoveanu,
scriitorul ncearc o re-facere a mitului eternei rentoarceri, o recuperare anamnetic a
sacralitii n spaiul profan, un dialog ntre a fost odinioar i este. Elementul ordonator al
substanei epice este metafora drumului, vzut ca ,,rspunsul ce se d destinului,
tragicului vieii4 n termenii lui Mircea Eliade. Pe parcursul traiectului ontologic, fiina st
ntru drum, cci ,, drumul nu este rtcire, ci oglind a sinelui5, conoteaza o dubl
valorizare: iniiatic i recuperatoare, apropiindu-l pe neofit de nelesurile grave ale
formulei oracularei ,,Gnothi Seauton.
Viaa omului vechi se constituie dintr- o succesiune de operaii magice, n scopul de a
crea o legtur afectiv ntre sine i realitatea exterioar, de a constrnge i de a conjura
forele naturii, instaurnd relaii magico - totemice . ,,Totemul, consider Romulus
Vulcnescu, este o form de cunoatere intuitiv- naiv a realitii concrete6. Voiculescu
abordeaz n majoritatea naraiunilor tema comunicrii secrete dintre om i animal.
Prozatorul configureaz o lume de nceput de leat, dominat de coincidentia oppositorum, n
care sacrul i profanul coexist: solomonari, vrjitoare, indivizi care se revendic din animale
totem, vieti malefice, diavoli, strigoi etc. Oamenii acestui spaiu nu triesc n mit, ci
triesc i cunosc miturile i practicile ancestrale, ceea ce le confer o anume flexibilitate n
adaptarea la viaa modern, facilitnd astfel ntreptrunderea celor doua lumi.
Urcnd pe firul gndirii totemice, Vasile Voiculescu se oprete n zaritea dacic,
aducnd la iveal motivul lycantropului n povestirea ,, In mijlocul lupilor.7 De o stranie
arhaicitate, Luparul este ,,marele vrjitor de lupi, cu care naratorul, un judecator de pace de
la ora, se mprietenete, interesat s-i mbogeasc culegerile de datini populare i pentru ai afla taina, de care vorbea ntregul sat. Sugestia subliminal este c acest vntor are o
identitate bivalent: ,,uneori, se preface el nsui n lup i iese naintea oamenilor s-i sfie" .
Altfel spus, acesta ntreine o relaie totemic, asigurat prin comunicarea cu animalul asociat,
numit, n termeni de specialitate ,, totem individual." Toat viaa luparului i a familiei sale
este legat de existena acestui animal, cruia i-a deprins limbajul nc de mic copil. Semnele
convieuirii cu lupii s-au imprimat n nfiarea vrjitorului, de o tulburtoare primitivitate i
slbticie, alctuirea trupului su fiind o combinaie ntre uman i neuman, trdndu-i
valenele magice prin privire : ,,Era un btrn verde, uscat, nalt i ciolnos, posomort, dar
cu o privire arztoare, prul des, czut pe frunte i minile lite, cu degete rchiate ca nite
labe. Chipul msliniu i prelung, spnatic, abia rcuit pe sub flci de o zgard de barb rar
Apud Irina Petras, Teoria literaturii. Dicionar- antologie, Ed. Apostrof, Cluj- Napoca, 2002, p. 179 - 180
Mircea Eliade , Eseuri, Ed. Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1991, p.53
Mircea Muthu , Alchimia mileniului, Ed. Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1989, p. 42
6
Romulus Vulcnescu, Mitologie romaneasc, Ed. Academiei, Bucureti, 1987, p.88
7
Vasile Voiculescu, Povestiri, E.P.L., Bucureti, 1966
3
4
5
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SECTION: LITERATURE
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i epoas, avea ceva tainic, trist i totodat vehement n el." Descendena sa este neguroas:
,,N-am avut mam, rspunde el scurt. Luparul coboar direct din lupul primordial,
paradoxal pe linie matern. n mitologia romna, lupul este investit cu o simbolistic dual:
ipostaza chtonian, satanic i auroral, benefic, predominnd latura chtonian, legat de
rolul su psihopomp. ,,Lupul este fcut de Diavol, dar acesta nu-l poate nsuflei dect cu
ajutorul lui Dumnezeu observa Ovidiu Brle . Pentru Mircea Eliade, lupul rmne animalul
totemic al dacilor i patronul iniierii rzboinicilor. Copil fiind, crescuse ,, ntre cei de lup,
cu care mncam alturi, cu care m jucam i m bteam. El este n egal msur omul- lup,
dar i stpnul lor, cunoscndu-le graiul i deprinderile. ntre Lupar i animalele slbatice se
stabilise o solidaritae i o legatur mistica ,,de snge . Vntor, vrjitor i artist, Luparul ia
n stpnire realitatea prin tripl relaie: aciune - spirit- creaie. Aceast ter ar putea
reprezenta definiia ,,vntorii magice.
Trind ntr-o recluziune impus i autoimpus, Luparul i guverneaz existena dup
strvechile legi cosmice, dup habitaturi ancestrale, luate n derdere de membrii
comunitii. Ni se spune c Luparul ,,tria ca un paria afar din sat, pe coclauri, ntr-un fel
de jumtate bojdeuc, jumatate peter scobit ntr-un mal argilos i sterp (...). Era singur
ca un sihastru. Surprinztor este faptul c Luparul, att de hulit i privit prin prisma
degradrii sale fizice este, in esena lui cea mai intim, cu adevrat un artist. Pe pereii
peterii sale se vd zugrvite ,,chipuri mari i mici de lupi, de cerbi, vulpi, mistrei,
zugrvii unii cu crbune, alii cu hum roie, n felurite nfiri. Civa alergnd, altii
czui, muli n atitudini nefireti, de pild sculai n dou picioare sau suii n copaci
rmuroi. i, in mijlocul acestor icoane un om uria cu o bt enorm, cu care i mna
parc. Contururile lui treceau dincolo i se lungeau pe tavanul scund ca al unei uniti
protectoare (...)pe vatr i prin coluri alte chipuri de fiare plsmuite din hit. Descrierea
amintete de pictura parietal din Peterile Altamira sau Lascaux. Suntem n faa unui model
de peter arhetipal, sanctuar n care sensul lui ,,mysterium tremendum i ,,numinos8 este
nc viu. Asemeni unui preot pgn, Luparul oficiaz aici rituri magice de vntoare,
confirmndu-i astfel condiia de ,,om al cavernelor, de solomonar. amanul n cultura
romn solomonarul - ocup un loc aparte n religia preistoric.
Petera reprezint cavitatea-arhetip perfect, ,,loc magic n care tenebrele se pot
revalorifica sub chip de noapte 9. ntr-un asemenea loc, personajul i anuleaz identitatea,
lepdarea numelui sugernd, n fapt, negarea de sine. Prin urmare, la fel ca i n basmele
iniiatice, asistm la o ,,moarte ritualic, urmat de o ,,re - natere simbolic, ntr-un nou
palier ontologic, personajul dobndind prin supranumele - masc o noua identitate: ,,I se
spunea Luparul, pentru c ,,era un fel de vrjitor de lupi, pe care i supunea i-l folosea cu
farmecele i cu magia lui, ca un stapn. Ipostaz a magicianului primitiv, Luparul are pictate
pe pereii casei-peter figuri de animale pentru a provoca atracia magic a vnatului.
Desenele rupestre i sculpturile naive din lut ndeplinesc funcia ritual a exorcizrii: ,,unele
se nfiau chioape, le lipsea cte un picior, altele cu guri n coaste, cu epue. Aa cum
remarca Lucian Blaga, atunci cnd primitivul picteaz, o face din credin n efectele magiei
analogice: ,,o putere magic, scoas de nicaieri, prezent oriunde, se ndreapt asupra
antilopei reale din pdure, datorit numai analogiei ce exist ntre figura desenat i realitate.
Analogia este investit cu darul de a canaliza puterea magic." 10 .
n noaptea Sfantului Andrei, srbtoare cu adnci i malefice conotaii, noaptea
valpurgic prin excelen pentru lumea cretin, cnd ,,lupii ii primesc pentru tot anul tainul
de przi, Luparul , programnd , n aparen, o vntoare de lupi, i dezvluie naratorului
8
220
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Mihai Coman, Bestiarul mitologic romanesc, Ed. Fundaiei Culturale Romne, Bucureti, 1996,p. 12
221
SECTION: LITERATURE
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mbelugate."12 Dei pot face multe lucruri vrjitoreti, principala funcie reinut de folclorul
romnesc e aceasta, ritual-meteorologic. Iniierea solomonarilor presupune parcurgerea unor
trepte : prsirea locului natal i recluziunea; mutilarea iniiatic (credinele romneti atest
o nfaiare neobinuit a solomonarului, prin semne particulare); moartea ritualic prin
coborrea sub pmnt i urcarea la cer - ,,Descensus ad Inferos; svrirea unei minuni care
s-i confere titlul i renumele de vrajitor. Exegeza asociaz solomonarii cu preoii sacerdoi
ai lui Zalmoxis. Andrei Oiteanu anuleaz ipoteza descendenei semi divine: ,,solomonarul
e pentru mentalitatea popular o apariie concret, pmntean, o fiin real deci i nu una
divin."13 Altfel spus, acesta se definete ca un iniiat, ale crui insuiri i comportamente
rituale sunt reflectri, la scar uman, ale Zeului Furtunii, deosebit de nsemnat n panteonul
dac. nainte de a se fi alterat sub incidena dogmei teologice, credina popular romneasc i
trata pe solomonari ca pe nite clugri sau oameni sfini, predestinai s aib puteri
surpanaturale, supui unei prelungite recluziuni iniiatice. Sub influena Bisericii, vechea
religie devine magie, daimonii se transform n demoni i vechii preoi sunt asimilai
vrajitorilor vndui Necuratului.
O uimitoare regresiune spre arhetipuri ntlnim n naraiunea Ultimul Berevoi,14 al
crei nucleu epic l reprezint ritualul vntorii magice. Solomonarul este descendentul
magilor daci, purtnd un fel de cum uguiat, rudiment al cciulii sacre pe care o purtau
preoii pgni: ,,Era vestit cum a cciulailor, semnul oamenilor liberi i de neam, din
care se alegeau crmuitorii noroadelor de rnd." Tatl su, Berevoi cel tnr, fusese ,,vestit
vraci i descnttor, care, pentru multele pre grmdite asupr-i, c leag ploile, ia mana
vitelor i pune cuit dumanilor, fusese nevoit s pribegeasc n Ardeal." Bunicul, Berevoi
cel Mare, era ,,meter zodier i cititor n stele, cruia i slujeau spiridui nchii n sticl, iar
strbunii lui, vechi slujitori ai lui Zamolxe, viteji ce se aruncau cu piepturile goale n sulie,
s duc de vii veste la zei despre npastele czute asupra neamului. Povestea transcrie
drama ultimului solomonar care nu va reui s mplineasc ritualul magic dect cu preul
vieii. Suntem la rscruce de timpuri, naraiunea desfoar decderea lumii strvechi i
,,nvlmeala nceputului de leat", adic a haosului instaurat de fora civilizatoare: ,,Plouase
mult cu snge i vremile veneau roii i-nvolburate. Echilibrul cosmic este alterat, prin
proliferarea fiarelor slbatice care devin tot mai amenintoare, nemairecunoscnd supremaia
omului, semn c structura sa adamic este compromis: ,, Munii miunau de salbaticiuni.
Lupi bezmetici bntuiau stnele, urii dau buzna peste cirezi.. Peste aceasa se suprapune o
interdicie din partea autoritilor, inexplicabil pentru oameni, de a folosi armele de foc
mpotriva slbticiunilor. Naratorul crede c acolo unde vntoarea arhaic este anulat,
cealalt arm a lumii, magia, este chemat s-i in locul: ,,n lipsa armelor, de sub troianul
leaturilor, practici strvechi, meteuguri primitive de aprare ncepeau s scoat capul (...)
Pna la urm, duhurile trebuiau chemate n ajutor i puterile oculte puse n micare."
De ce s-a ajuns aici? Pentru c vntoarea, ca practic ancestral , a disprut, mai
mult, noul vntor nu respect pravilele nescrise , dar sfinte ale vntorii. n apte sate de sub
culmea muntelui Stur un urs, ntruchiparea Necuratului, nu putea fi oprit de nicio capcan.
Convini c n lupta cu fiara ,,trebuia altfel i altceva", pstorii scormonesc ,,straturile de
oameni vechi". Aa e gsit, undeva, ntr-un ctun izolat, Berevoi, poreclit "Cciul-mpletit",
deoarece ,,vara-iarna, purta un fel de scuf uguiat mpletit gros din fire de ln, ca un fel
de ciorap lucrat cu iglie", nsemn al nobilei sale descendene: ,, Altdat, cnd m-am
pomenit eu, numai oamenii de seam purtau aa ceva. Acum am ramas singur cu cinstea
asta. (...) la obria ei st cciula sacr pe care preoii pgni, strvechii magi, i aezau
George Munteanu, Puterile mitului, n Istoria literaturii romane.Studii, coord. de Zoe Dumitrescu Busulenga, Ed. Academiei, Bucuresti,
1979, p.168
13
Andrei Oiteanu, Motive i semnificaii mito - simbolice n cultura tradiional romneasc, Ed. Minerva, Bucuresti, 1986, p.163
14
Ibidem
12
222
SECTION: LITERATURE
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SECTION: LITERATURE
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principiului activ, productore de smn"15 , taurul a fost considerat un animal sacru n toate
civilizaiile care au domesticit bovine. Cuvantul ,,taur se asociaz ideii de ,,for n
ipostazele ei uraniene (tunetul, fulgerul, furtuna), terestre ( fertilitatea i fecunditatea) sau
umane (puterea i impetuozitatea, curajul n lupta i fora instinctualitii).16
Corelaia zimbru - urs ar trimite la discutata teorie a descendenei neamului din
hyperboreeni: ,, acest neam fericit, ducnd o via spiritual, locuind n cer, undeva, dicolo de
muni" 17 sau la filiaiile spirituale cu popoarele nordice: ,, geii credeau la fel ca i nordicii,
ntr-un fel de Walkall, unde, dup moartea trupului se vor ntlni cu zeul lor suprem i vor tri
fr sfrit" (Herodot, IV 95) 18 Taurul, alaturi de bour sau zimbru - animale sacre - este unul
dintre totemurile majore ale daco-geilor, bucurndu-se de o deosebit cinstire religioas.
Totemul descinde din Taurul primordial din care este creat ntreg Universul. Ursul este ,,un
simbol nordic polar al clasei rzboinicilor, al Ksatrylor, deci perfect pozitiv n el nsui" 19,
jucnd un rol semnificativ n viaa triburilor trace. Pornind de la nsemnrile lui Porphyrus,
comentariile mai recente susin c la geto-daci cultul mitologic al lui Zalmoxis se
fundamenteaz pe cultul ursului totemic, Zalmoxis fiind la origine un Zeu-urs (cf. "zalmo" piele i "olxis" - urs). Revenind, apreciem c Berevoi ar fi Ultimul descendent al marelui
Preot i Profet al neamului nostru.
La captul itinerantei coborri, Berevoi ntlnete arhetipurile neamului su: marele
taur i ursul: tragic. Ursul, totemul neamului Bervoi, dezleag tlcul experinei euate:
"Magia se istovise n om. Puterile ei se mutar n fier i n oel () Acum tia. Taurul magic
vrea brbie adevrat, potrivnic viu, nu o sperietoare." Berevoiul ajunge la concluzia c
magia nu poate fi renviat dect prin jertfa de sine, prin forma absolut a sacrificiului.
Lsndu-se ucis n coarnele taurului, solomonarul repet o fapt exemplar petrecut la
nceputul nceputurilor. Aidoma vitejilor daci, ce duceau prin moarte solie zeilor despre
pcatele lumii, ultimul Berevoi oficiaz un sacrificiu pentru toate fpturile: ,,Va duce ns, de
viu, acolo unde trebuie, solie despre toate cte nu se mai ajung, cte lipsesc, cte s-au
pierdut, jlbar al celor prsii aici, jos pe lume." Numai prin aceast autentificare a luptei
magia reuete s insufle fora necesar taurului de a nvinge ursul: ,,Acolo taurul a flfit
ntr-un corn cciula mpletit smuls din capul vrjitorului, artnd cu fal muntelui, c se
tie c de acum nainte nimeni nu-i mai poate sta mpotriv. i, mre, taurul Sturului a
rpus fiara cea mai grozav, pe omul-urs, cel din urm aprtor al vitelor, pe Ultimul
Berevoi." Identificarea magicianului cu omul- urs nseamn, n fapt, reabilitarea magiei,
nu moartea ei. n opinia lui Sergiu Pavel Dan ,,eroul moare, dar cu preul sacrificiului su
suprem, actul magic se mai nfptuiete o dat- aureolat virtual de nimbul unei legende
viitoare" 20. Sarcina magic va fi preluat i dus mai departe de copilul conceput prin actul
mpreunrii dintre omul-taur, biruitor i femeia juncan.
Spre deosebire de moderni, pentru care experiena st sub semnul lui ratio, la
primitivi aceasta are o puternic ncrctur emoional, este axat pe anima,
comportamentul lor fiind guvernat de categorii afective ale supranaturalului21, dup cum
opineaz Lucien Lvy-Bruhl. Cele dou lumi nu se exclud, primitivul st deschis nspre
Lume, stabilind puni concrete de comunicare , ntre dimensiunea natural a existenei i
cea supranatural: fie la nivel oniric, prin vise premonitorii, prin vise n care comunic ori
cu rude disprute ori cu totemul su ; fie prin experienele mistice obiective precum
negoul cu spiritele protectoare, riturile colective de invocare i mbunare a spiritelor morilor
Gilbert Durand, Structuri antropologice ale imaginarului, Ed. Univers, Bucureti, 1977, p.63
Mircea Eliade , Imagini si simboluri. Eseu despre simbolismul magico-religios, Ed.Humanitas, Bucureti, 1994,p.192
17
Rudolf Otto, Sacrul, Ed. Dacia, Cluj- Napoca, 1992, p.102
18
Idem , p. 94
19
Victor Kernbach, Dicionar de mitologie general, Ed. Albatros,Bucureti, 1983, p.60
20
Sergiu Pavel Dan, Proza fantastic romneasc, Ed.Minerva, Bucureti, 1975, p.220
21
Lucien Lvy-Bruhl , Experiena mistic i simbolurile la primitivi, Ed. Dacia, Cluj Napoca, 2003, p.23
15
16
224
SECTION: LITERATURE
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etc.
Orice experien din lumea natural, succesul la vntoare , depindea de
performana formulelor incantatorii i de accesoriile magice utilizate, alturi de ritualul
propriu-zis. Eecul n ceea ce ntreprinde n dimensiunea real se datoreaz prejudiciilor pe
care le-a adus lumii de dincolo , situat ntre transcendent i imanent. Aadar, Realitatea
primitivului ncapsuleaz deopotriv naturalul, dimensiunea perceput prin simuri i
supranaturalul, trans-umanul, invizibil i de aceea revelat, ntr-un tot unitar, care exclude
hazardul, cu toate c se articuleaz pe pe coordonate mistice.
Indiferent de ipostazele n care ni-i nfieaz Voiculescu pe vechii vrjitori ai satului
romnesc, personajul arhetipal este redimensionat ntr-o alt durat dect cea a istoriei, n
durat etern a spiritualitii umane. A-l citi pe Voiculescu nseamn, aadar, accesul spre alte
Niveluri de Realitate.22
Bibliografia operei
Voiculescu, Vasile, Povestiri, 2 vol., cu studiu introductiv de Vladimir Streinu; I Capul de zimbru; II - Ultimul Berevoi , E.P.L., Bucureti, 1966
Bibliografie general
Blaga, Lucian, Despre gndirea magic, Ed. Garamond, Bucureti, 1992
Coman, Mihai, Bestiarul mitologic romnesc, Ed. Fundaiei Culturale Romne,
Bucureti, 1996
Dan, Sergiu Pavel, Proza fantastic romneasc, Ed.Minerva, Bucureti, 1975
Durand, Gilbert, Structuri antropologice ale imaginarului, Ed. Univers, Bucureti,1977
Eliade, Mircea, Eseuri, Ed. Cartea Romaneasc, Bucureti,1991
Eliade, Mircea, Imagini i simboluri. Eseu despre simbolismul magico-religios,
Ed.Humanitas, Bucureti, 1994
Kernbach, Victor, Dicionar de mitologie general, Ed. Albatros, Bucureti, 1983
Lucien Lvy-Bruhl , Experiena mistic i simbolurile la primitivi, Editura Dacia,
Colectia Mundus Imaginalis, Vol. 7, 2003
Munteanu, George, Puterile mitului, n Istoria literaturii romne. Studii, coord. de Zoe
Dumitrescu Buulenga, Ed. Academiei, Bucureti, 1979
Muthu, Mircea, Permanene literare romneti din perspectiv comparat, Ed.Minerva,
Bucureti, 1986
Muthu, Mircea, Repere culturale transilvane, Ed. Eikon&Scriptor, Cluj Napoca,
2014
Muthu,Mircea, Alchimia mileniului, Ed. Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1989
Nicolescu, Basarab, Transdisciplinaritatea. Manifest, Editura Junimea, Iai, 2007
Oiteanu, Andrei, Motive i semnificaii mito- simbolice n cultura tradiional
romneasc, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti, 1986
Otto, Rudolf, Sacrul, Ed. Dacia, Cluj- Napoca, 1992
Petra,Irina, Teoria literaturii. Dicionar - antologie, Ed. Apostrof, Cluj- Napoca, 2002
Vulcnescu, Romulus, Mitologie romneasc, Ed. Academiei, Bucureti, 1987
22
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Abstract: The mad and the flower, with the original title Jesus and the others, is the
parable of the human being. We can meet in the novel with the Liberator, an Admiral, a
Scientist, a Philosopher, a Chamberlain and Jesus, Joseph, Irina and other illustrious ideas
in persons, all of them in a madhouse, arguing in metaphors, symbols, allegories, for disclose
the abnormal reality in which we live.
Keywords: Romulus Guga, mad, novel, metaphor, reality
227
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maladiv pe care actorii l percep ca pe ceva normal, o lume guvernat dup legi proprii.
Locul evenimentelor, clinica, nu prezint importan ca loc de desfurare a evenimentelor ci
este un pretext pentru meditaia personajelor asupra existenei, asupra concepiilor lor despre
lume. Este o carte fantastic i alegoric, plin de metafore i simboluri, de subnelesuri,
toate pentru a releva cititorului realitatea anormal, dur, confuz, pal n care tria autorul
care nu este numai un simplu narator, ci este om analist, rafinat cuttor de accente moderne
n teatru i n proz.
Parabola este conceput pe dou planuri: pe un plan exist o povestire, o naraiune
fictiv, nchipuit, scurt, luat din viaa zilnic a crei personaje sunt, de obicei, oameni, iar
pe planul al doilea este simbolul i morala, care prin asemnare sau paralel, este urmarea
primului plan sau este dedus din aceasta. Parabola se poate percepe ca o comparaie
dezvoltat care este o prelungire a povestirii.
Nebunul i floarea este o parabol a realitii dezolante n care cei mari, cei talentai
i cei nelepi sunt nchii ntr-un ospiciu, sunt nlturai, exclui i uitai. ntr-un final
mori, ca i autorul nsui. Romanul este opera reprezentrii unor situaii-limit existeniale,
este romanul-simbol ale unei lumi rsturnate, aflate n criz, un roman al meditaiilor,
confesiunilor, dezbaterilor despre via i moarte, demnitate, singurtate.
Simbolistica titlului romanului ne prezint dou concepte antitetice din punct de
vedere al semanticii, al ideii transmise, adic: nebun ne transmite ceva ru, exclus de
societate, anormal, neacceptat, urt i cuvntul floare nseamn ceva frumos, ginga, care
trebuie protejat. Cititorul este condus astfel, nc de la titlul crii, prin asocieri de concepte,
cuvinte, sensuri nepereche, stranii i neobinuite, autorul justificndu-i adjectivul de
maestru al cuvntului.
n spatele realismului operei este criptat o idee filozofic, filozofia vieii, ceea ce
duce la ambiguizarea romanului. Convenia literar de la care pornise autorul i care era
impus de cenzur face treptat loc filozofiei, din precauie atrage simbolicul i ajunge la
parabolic. Personajul numit Mortul, alter-ego-ul autorului, analizeaz viaa celor care
triesc n lumea spiritual, a ideilor, a cunoaterii, care se zbat i lupt pentru a-i menine
puritatea moral chiar i n lumea deczut n care au ajuns. n contiina eroilor se nfrunt
tribulaii privind binele i rul, nceputul i sfritul, sacrul i profanul. Realitatea abstract a
societii ntr n coliziune cu realitatea practic a individului. Contradicia este prea mare i
individul este nvins.
Protagonitii operei sunt personaje ilustre: ca o procesiune a celor care influeneaz
cursul vieii, al destinului, defileaz n faa cititorilor Isus, Majestatea Sa, Amiralul,
Judectorul, Ucigaul i Ucisul, Savantul, Filozoful, Reporterul i naratorul crii, Mortul. Cu
toii sunt exilai, fr nume, cu toii nsufleesc principii i totodat le compromit4 i triesc
marea dilem a vieii: triesc cu adevrat sau sunt mort? Ei fiind nchii n lumea abstract a
spitalului de alienai ncearc s se menin pe suprafa prin nchiderea sufletului ntr-o lume
nchipuit normal, real din care cndva i cumva va exista o ieire, poate c prin moarte,
poate c prin vindecare. Romanul este opera captivitii sufletului, a destinului i a gndirii,
este o parabol a carceralului, o parabol apocaliptic n care personajele i-au pierdut busola
ce le indica msura lor uman5.
Imaginea personajelor confirm talentul scriitoricesc al autorului, sunt nite
demonstraii de art a comunicrii, oferindu-ne descrieri de o expresivitate unic,
incontestabil, de valoare universal cum ar fi Chelul, ce-i mica agale oldurile plesnind de
4
5
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grsime, ca o femeie nsrcinat6 sau cel despre Savant: Privirea i era sever, o ciudat
ecuaie cu plus i minus infinit, o privire nglbenit timpuriu de o toamn statornicit de mult
n nite strmoi ciudai.7 sau Cum mergea cu picioarele crcnate..., Platt prea o uria
broasc ce, spre deosebire de animalul cruia i semna, n loc s sar din loc n loc, mergea
trndu-i ambele picioare, de puteai auzi tritul monoton toat ziua... .8 Despre un alt
personaj, btrnul Pony, autorul spune c are nfiare liliputan9. Opera mpnzit de
asemenea descrieri, imagini i comparaii parc este un amalgam de dispre i admiraie,
invidie i respect fa de acei nebuni, ntruchipri ai marilor mitologii de sorginte biblica.
Opernd cu nume simbolice cum sunt Isus, Luca, Matei, Ioan, Iosif, Rebeca i cu ipostazele
cele mai frecvente pe care acestea le triesc mhnirea, credina, sperana, autorul ne
dezvluie o lume visat, idealizat i pierdut. i n aceast lume imaginat exist puini eroi,
avem de a face mai ales cu victime, victime ale suferinelor, ale cror mrturisiri vin una dup
alta ca n decameronul suferinelor. La fiecare pas, la fiecare paragraf ne lovim de vise, de
sperane, de nevoi nesatisfcute, de suferine, de rni care determin viaa sau chiar moartea.
Tema romanului Nebunul i floarea ne prezint un segment al realitii epocii
autorului, plasat n casa de nebuni. Cei nvai, cei care gndesc sau problematizeaz dispar,
sunt supui unui tratament, sunt exclui din viaa zilnic, dispar din societate. Guga creeaz
situaii nu chiar obinuite, zilnice, ci deosebite, excepionale. Personajele romanului se afl
ntr-o situaie limit, n momente de criz a identitii. n astfel de momente de rscruce
trebuie s decid pentru ori contra marilor valori omeneti i autorul are acum posibilitatea de
a ne arta eul adevrat al omului, pentru c este obligat la efort moral i sentimental. Oamenii
sunt lsai n voia sorii, convenia social, poziia lor n societate, nimic nu le protejeaz. Prin
personajele sale, Romulus Guga ncearc s dezvluie cititorilor esena fiinei omeneti, de
aceea ele ne sunt nfiate n coloratura alb-negru. Nu exist cale de mijloc, omul trebuie s
decid pro ori contra valorilor. Fiecare dintre cei internai se zbate s dovedeasc ceva, s
conserve ceva din valoarea sa, din filozofia sa ori caut o cale de ieire din acest impas al
individualitii. Ei sunt simboluri ai unor idei sau chiar erori. Savantul se joac, filozoful
ngrijete floarea, Isus ateapt chemarea lui Dumnezeu, Mortul se zbate ntre a spune
adevrul sau a nu dezvlui decesul lui Dumnezeu, Pony se pregtete de marea curs, cu toii
au nite preocupri ciudate, stranii, dar care le constituie scopul i idealul vieii. Acest ideal se
mbin firesc cu paradoxul situaiei n care ei se afl i declaneaz n cititor un fior de
tristee, comptimire i regret pentru vieile i zilele dearte ale lor.
Vocea naratorului este plin de ironie amar att fa de el nsui ct i fa de colegii
lui din ospiciu. Eroii sunt aproape cu toii intelectuali care se adapteaz cu dificultate situaiei
n care se afl, trecutul lor fiind fatalitate. Nu avea, deci, nicio importan, cum i prin cine
voi nelege, ceea ce oamenii neleg prin existen. Mai trziu mi-am dat seama c aceast
greeal a mea a costat omenirea mii de ani... .10 mrturisete Isus. Tonul direct, epica sunt
permanent surprinse de alunecri n amintiri, n plan pur reflexiv, ceea ce i nsingureaz pe
eroi, i transform n neadaptai, artificiali.
Originalitatea i unicitatea epicii lui Romulus Guga a fost remarcat, nc de la apariia
romanului, de critica literar. Pentru capacitatea lui de novator al literaturii, ndeosebi al
epicii, autorul nostru a cules aprecieri pozitive, cuvinte de laud. ,,Originalitatea prozei sale
const n combinaia discontinu de elemente realiste i parabolice, cu intervertiri temporale
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i conflicte sumare consumate ntr-un spaiu limit; aceleai distribuii sunt realizate prin
lirism, apatie, cinism i grotesc11
Ideea central a operei este viaa, concurnd pentru ntietate cu moartea. Personajele
triesc din trecutul lor sau cu sperana viitorului, toate faptele, aciunile, gndurile lor sunt
guvernate de aceast idee dual: via-moarte. Chiar i Isus, una dintre figurile centrale ale
romanului, confeseaz c Te plictiseti la nceput pn cunoti lumea. i moartea, vezi
dumneata, n cazul de fa, e necesar.12. Isus, este marcat, pn la anihilarea propriei
identiti, de lecturile din cartea cea mai adevrat a umanitii, crezndu-se predestinat s
renvie mitul mesianic refcnd drumul Golgotei, spre a rscumpra omenirea din pcat i a
cldi o nou lume a dreptii, din care s piar frica, netiina, lacrimile, prigoana. Filosoful,
care dezavueaz superior prostiile lui Isus, convins c totul e n smn! i bun, i ru, i
nviere, totul13, sfrete de asemenea prin a-i vedea spulberate speranele n miracolul
supravieuirii prin floarea esenelor14 Obsesia scriitorului pentru problematica adevrului
dirijeaz cititorul spre zone mitice, atitudine derutant, avnd n vedere locaia desfurrii
evenimentelor, adic ospiciul. Autorul se mic n jurul ideii c viaa ndrum totul. Acesta
nseamn n viziunea lui Romulus Guga voina, adevrul i moartea. Aceste idei ntruchipate
n personaje simbol i dezbat importana de a lungul crii. Simbolul este ideea n imagine.
Concretul i ideea ajung aici la o sintez n care simbolul nu este o transpunere ntr-un alt
simbol ci va fi expresia unei aciuni sau obinuine.
n loc de concluzie, iat cteva preri ale criticii despre aceast oper inedit, aproape
unic n literatura romn contemporan, o parabol a vieii i a epocii desenate cu finee i
talent excepional de Romulus Guga:
Romancierul mbin reflecia exaltat cu imaginaia cruzimii, notaia realist a lumii
cu metafora ei, precizia detaliului cu protecia alegoric a faptelor. Pagina epic se transform
ntr-un spectacol nud, n care puterea se nfrunt cu morala, crima cu umilina, individul uman
cu principiile. Tendina spre parabol, organic autorului, nu srcete imaginea lumii i nici
nu estompeaz sinceritatea suferinei dimpotriv, le intensific. Rezult de aici un amestec
original de violen i poezie, de comar i luciditate, de obsesie a morii i de aspiraie la
puritate, cu un sentiment de credin n via, n regenerarea ei de fiecare clip.15
Creator autentic, ale crui texte se nasc dintr-o trire acut, liminar a unui real
convulsiv i anomic, Guga are toate calitile unui creator complex i complet, prin evantaiul
foarte divers al preocuprilor sale culturale i literare (poezie, proz, teatru, publicistic, eseu,
cronic literar sau plastic etc.). Dac operele sale literare, n care transpare imaginea unei
contiine interogative, cum s-a mai afirmat, reprezint o oglind a unei epoci i a unui spaiu
delimitat cu anumit rigoare, ele conin, nu mai puin, o dominant problematic generaluman, n msura n care au ca fundament generator un set de simboluri, reflexe ideatice i
reprezentri cu valene arhetipale.16
Nebunul i floarea este parabola unui Lazr nevindecat, este alegoria unui Toma care
nu tie cu certitudine c se ndoiete, este povestea lui Iona care triete derutat ntr-o lume
modern. Dar de unde i ce este aceast tragedie a modernitii? Cum spune Iosif, lumea este
nchis ntr-o nuc. Lumea e aadar un univers concentric, i, din pcate, carceral. Mai multe
dect att este o lume nelume.17
Marian Popa, Dicionar de literatur romn contemporan, ediia a II-a, Editura Albatros, Bucureti,
1977, p.256
12
Romulus Guga, op. cit., p.11
13
idem, p.110
14
ibidem, p.57
15
Cornel Moraru, Romulus Guga - Scriitorul, Revista Vatra veche, Anul V, Nr. 10 (58), octombrie 2013, p.20
16
Iulian Boldea, Romulus Guga, azi, Revista Vatra, Nr. 12, 2013
17
Marius Mihe, idem, p.33
11
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18
Dan Culcer, Citind sau retrind literatura, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1976, p.162
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Abstract: Considering the fact that the myth is the oldest cultural human manifestation, the
implicit and the explicit element of any cultural act, we consider that the literary work of an
eminently cultural personality as Ana Blandiana cannot be completely understood and
perceived without revealing its mythological dimensions. The fact that the poet appeared and
developed her literary personality in the 60s and 70s, a period characterised by the
reinterpretation of the myths, makes this hermeneutic approach even more
justified. Therefore, we will hereby try to reveal and outline the mythological references from
her very first volume of poems, The First Person Plural, 1964. The references, mostly
implicit, emerge from the classical Greek-Latin mythological substrate, of a pagan, often
pantheistic, nature. We will analyze the literary motifs of mythological origin like: the mirror,
the chant, the incantation, the bow (Artemis), the waiting for the lover (Penelope), the crops
(Demeter), the satyrs, the Dionysian dance, the sleep etc.
Keywords: myth, symbol, Ana Blandiana, The First Person Plural
SECTION: LITERATURE
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n acest prim volum referinele mitologice se circumscriu unui cmp tematic destul de
restrns. Am identificat o recuren a urmtoarelor motive literare de origine mitologic
greco-latin sau autohton: oglinda (v. Narcis), cntul (v. Orfeu), descntecul, arcul (v.
Artemis), plecarea iubitului (v. Ulise), ateptarea iubitului (v. Penelopa), roadele (v.
Demeter), nimfele, satirii, dansul dionisiac, somnul.
n poemul Copilrie apar trei dintre acestea: oglinda, cntul i somnul, dar s-ar mai
putea aduga i arborele cosmic/paradisiac. Oglinda, ca suprafa care reflect, st la baza
unui simbolism extrem de bogat n ordinea cunoaterii. Aici, eul liric n ipostaza sa
adolescent se privete n oglind, iar interpretarea imaginii reflectate trdeaz un efort subtil
de autodefinire i autocunoatere. Eugen Simion constat aici existena unei ,,mitologii a
trupului tnr, realizat prin metafore surprinztoare ca: ,,claviatura coapselor, ,,coul
pieptului de crengi6:
,,Din oglind m privea un trup firav
Cu claviatura coastelor distinct,
Inima-apsa pe clape grav
i-ncerca s-apar n oglind.7
Ce reflect oglinda? Adevrul, sinceritatea, coninutul inimii i al contiinei. Oglinda
este pus n relaie cu revelarea adevrului i cu puritatea. Adevrul revelat de oglind poate
fi, evident, de ordin superior. Oglinda va fi astfel i instrumentul iluminrii. Ea este, ntradevr, simbolul nelepciunii i al cunoaterii, este consecina celei mai nalte experiene
spirituale. Ea este un simbol lunar i feminin.8
Copacul, aici salcmul, simbolizeaz copacului cunoaterii, dar i al iubirii juvenile,
deoarece salcmul este copacul cel mai iubit de copii datorit florilor sale dulci, copii care
devenii adolesceni, l caut pentru a le oferi protecie i intimitate, ca n celebra poezie
eminescian Sara pe deal. S-ar putea intui chiar o posibil iubire de sine, de tip narcisic, dar
mult mai candid i ntr-o cheie ludic:
,,N-am vzut-o niciodat, dar tiam,
Ca-ntr-un joc de-a baba-oarba, c-i ascuns
(Precum inima salcmului din geam
Coul pieptului de crengi o face frunz).
Oglinda capt, n strofa a treia, o alt semnificaie, cci btaia inimii este identificat
acum cu cntul, cu nsi poezia, iar cunoaterea se realizeaz n planul creaiei poetice prin
reflectarea n nsui actul creator.
,,M-ntrebam de unde l-a-nvat i dac
E aievea cntu-i uniform,
i ca nu cumva n somn s tac,
Mi-era fric seara s adorm.9
Preocuparea pentru definirea relaiei poet/creator-univers este una dintre principalele
caracteristici ale generaiei literare 60-70, iar in cazul Anei Blandiana se realizeaz ntr-o
viziune de sorginte blagian, dar i orfic, prin care fiina intim a creatorului caut a se pune
n armonie cu stihiile i cu lumile sale interioare nou descoperite. Orfeu apare pretudindeni ca
muzicantul prin excelen, care, care cu lira lui potolete stihiile dezlnuite ale furtunii,
farmec plantele, animalele, pe oameni i pe zei. ,,Orfeu se arat a fi un seductor la toate
nivelurile cosmosului i psihismului: cer, pmnt, ocean, infern, subcontient, contiin i
Eugen Simion, Scriitori romni de azi, vol.IV, Ed. Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1989, pg. 152
Ana Blandiana, Poezii, Ed. Minerva, BPT, Bucureti, 1989, pg. 1
8
Jean Chevalier, Alain Gheerbrant, Dicionar de simboluri, Ed. Artemis, Bucureti, 1993, vol. II, pg. 369-372
9
Ana Blandiana, Poezii, Ed. Minerva, BPT, Bucureti, 1989, pg. 1
6
7
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supracontient. Dar el este n stare doar s domoleasc rul, nu i s-l fac s piar i de
aceea moare la rndul su, victim a propriei incapaciti de a-i depi neputina 10.
Aceast fric de moarte apare dup cum am vzut i n versurile citate. Dar, dup prerea
criticului Al.Cistelecan, evoluia poeziei Anei Blandiana ,,se cuprinde ntre temele candorii i
temele morii, trecnd prin stadiile necesare ale somnului i erosului, ntr-un act de
iniiere.11
n poezia nvingtori, apare ipostaza liric a poetei ca lupttoare i aprtoare a
cetii. Cnd spunem cetii, ne referim la spaiul unor idealuri civice i morale, pentru
aprarea crora poeta este gata a se arunca n lupta cu arcul mpotriva furtunii de pe cmp.
,,Fusese furtun pe cmp i anume
S-nvingem furtuna ieisem cu arcuri pe cmp.
nvingtori ne-ntorceam fluturnd peste lume
Cerul senin ca pe-un pana puin strmb.
Arcul de viin petrecut peste umr i eu
Mi-l legnam fericit n rnd cu bieii,
Cu demnitate, n urm, ca pe-un trofeu,
Tram tcui pisica moart a ceii12
Aceast strof a doua, surprinde printr-o turnur brusc de registru, realizat prin
metafora ,,pisica moart a ceii, ce sugereaz probabil moartea idealurilor ce pot fi vnate,
dar nu pot fi prinse, nu pot fi mblnzite (adic turnate n form concret i.e. formula utopic a
comunismului). Aceste versuri ar fi probabil o bun ilustrare a ceea ce criticul Al. Cistelecan
numea ,,cinismul candorii13
Imaginea poetei cu arcul pe umr, trimite la mitul lui Artemis, sora geamn a lui
Apollo. Este slbatica zei a naturii, ,,deopotriv cluza de pe potecile castitii i leoaica
de pe cele ale voluptii14. I se aduc jertfe de animale slbatice sau domestice. Aceast
caracterizare facut de Jean Chevalier, corespunde atitudinii lirice din poezie, deoarece poeta
este aici o lupttoare patima a unor idealuri morale, devenind propria jertf a idealurilor ei.
Artemis ar ntruchipa pentru anumii analiti latura pizma, dominatoare, castratoare a
mamei. Fiarele de care ea se nconjoar sunt instinctele, inerente fiinei omeneti care trebuie
nfrnte pentru a se putea ajunge la acea cetate a celor drepi pe care dup spusele lui Homer,
o ndrgea zeia. Un fapt ce ine mai mult de curiozitate sau de coinciden este c numele
Dianei, ca variant mitologic italic a lui Artemis, este probabil preluat din cultul unei
diviniti celtice continentale al crei nume seamn cu al ei, D Ana, adic Zeia Ana, mama
zeilor i ocrotitoarea artelor. (Ne ntrebm dac Ana Blandiana tia acest detaliu n momentul
scrierii poeziei.) Imaginea poetei narmat cu un arc, avnd n fundal un cer senin, amintete
i de amazoane, rzboinicele care se crmuiesc singure. Lupttoare, vntorie, preotese, ele
se nchin zeiei Artemis. Potrivit lui G. Lanoe-Villene, ,,amazoanele ar fi n ordine
metafizic, un simbol al forelor psihice stelare ce se rotesc n eter n jurul Paradisului ca sl pzeasc. Caii amazoanelor sunt norii ce alearg n dalbe cete pe cerul azuriu. Pzitoare
nenduplecate ale unui Paradis, ele nu sunt poate dect porile ambigue ale unui cer
ndoielnic.15
Jean Chevalier, Alain Gheerbrant, Dicionar de simboluri, Ed. Artemis, Bucureti, 1993, vol. II, pg. 384-385
Al. Cistelecan, Poezie i livresc, Ed. Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1987, pg. 145
12
Ana Blandiana, Poezii, Ed. Minerva, BPT, Bucureti, 1989, pg.1,2
13
Al. Cistelecan, Poezie i livresc, Ed. Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1987, pg. 145
14
Jean Chevalier, Alain Gheerbrant, Dicionar de simboluri, Ed. Artemis, Bucureti, 1993, vol. I, pg. 145
15
Ibidem, pg. 92
10
11
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236
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237
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238
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Abstract: In the volume The Pale Parchment by Ioan Petru Culianu, there are described
some spaces favourable to communication the exhibition, the museum, the camp, the store etc.
Emphasizing the changes in the postmodern society, the author stresses the idea of individual
alienation. The places favourable to communication in contemporary society are various,
increased in number, improved in comfort and much promoted by mass-media. However, they
seem suitable for the emigrants or trevellers soul, who has left his universe willing to fit in
some political, economic, spiritual new mentalities, finding clear differences in belonging and
identification.
The concrete individuality of the spaces described in the fantastic Culian short stories and
stories creates the illusion of non-space related to non-time, as instruments of adjustment of
individual conscience related to collectivity. In these creation the laws of the ordinary world
seem suspended in the hope of configuration of some solvable dilemas only at certain levels of
reality.
Keywords: postmodern society, illusion, non-space, non-time, reality.
239
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temporale: titlul volumului Pergamentul diafan face referire la un fragment dintr-o scriere
siriac, Stpnul Sunetului poate fi asociat cu un scurt rezumat al unei cri de nelepciune a
tozgreciilor din Maghreb, Miss Esmerald ar fi un adevrat cadou testamentar, Conspiraia
sufletelor indienilor ne convinge c este un document unic dintr-o bibliotec olandez, Cursa
de oareci a Doctorului Mayow este considerat un comentariu primit n faza de dactilogram,
iar Intervenia zorabilor n Romnia este un reportaj publicat ntr-o revist Asmodeus,
completat de o recenzie, Jormania liber.
O alt serie recurent din acest volum este prezena personajului feminin ivit sub chip
fantasmatic, fie Miss Emeralds, fie Alice H., un nger fr articulaii, alteori sub chipul Leei
sau chiar de Fata Morgana. La rndul ei, piatra magic pare s fie o alt serie recurent prin
efectul su entropic asupra contiinei universale, prezent sub diferite concretizri: colecia
de smaragde, discul de smaragd, raza smaragdin, ochiul de smaragd, pdurea de smaragd, un
golf al smaragdelor, Preriile Verzi din cauza strlucirii smaragdelor, varietatea de bijuterii
care conin n centrul fiecreia unul sau mai multe smaragde, pandativul cu smaragdul brut cu
ase gheare, triada mineralelor preioase: diamante, rubine, smaragde, mitra stareului
mpodobit cu ase smaragde.
n povestirea Pergamentul diafan este prezentat n linii critice aezarea unei mnstiri
din societatea modern desacralizat. Domeniul monastic i pierde caracteristicile de loc al
rugciunii i detarii de problemele cotidianului sau loc al alinrii sufleteti i al ndejdii
pentru pelerinii venii s nale rugi i ofrande. Primete dimensiuni imaginare exagerate att
din punct de vedere administrativ ct i ideologic, pierzndu-i destinaia iniial. Magia pare
s pun stpnire chiar n organizare. Cuvintele rostite de Al al-Kashkar ca un rspuns
provocat de lamentrile monahului nsoitor par s elucideze cauza pierderii harului de ctre
clugri: ce m ntreb eu nu e cum se face c nu mai avei viziuni, ci cum de-a fost vreodat
cu putin s fi avut.2 Aceast replic avertizeaz faptul c s-a pierdut definitiv comunicarea
cu divinitatea, spaiul monahal primind noi valene, doar un loc al judecii, deprtndu-se de
legea nou-testamentar a iubirii. Att personajele, ct i zonele destinate aciunii sunt
eteroclite, aducnd povestirii o diversitate de medii.
Visul devine n povestirea Stpnul Sunetului un sol al magiei. Naratorul acestei
povestiri surprinde ideea revelatorie a instaurrii pe Pmnt a armoniei magice. Mesajul
primit de Mahd (Stpnul Sunetului) prin intermediul visului transform aciunile de
cucerire a continentului negru ntr-o succesiune de victorii mijlocite de prezena principiului
feminin. Naraiunea pare s includ numeroase paradoxuri antrenate de contiina temporal.
Dei punctul de plecare pare realist, prezentnd personaliti islamice, curnd apar anumite
discontinuiti, cauznd adevrate rupturi stranii. Una dintre situaiile care sfideaz logica
obinuit este transformarea unui disc de smarald. Dintr-un instrument folosit pentru a invoca
divinitatea folosind un fundal sonor, se transform ntr-un obiect magic care plsmuiete
modele sonore ale diferitelor fiine. Al-Kind se exersase ncercnd s proiecteze modele
fonice n lumea aceasta, s le umple cu substan compact, s le fac tangibile, colorate, pe
scurt - sensibile3 creznd c astfel ar reui s l egaleze pe Alah. El a fost cel care a zmislit
modelul lui Mekor Hayyim, demonul feminin rocat. Cnd a dorit s priveasc plin de
admiraie chipurile sonore create, a constatat c: toat substana i se scursese n modelele
sonore ale fiinelor concepute de el, fcndu-le s triasc. Al-Kind nu mai exista ca entitate
separat nu mai era vizibil i nu mai putea s s vad.4
Prezena discului de smarald este reluat n povestirea Enigma discului de smaragd.
Obiectul era inscripionat cu diferite forme magice, ilizibile. Prezentat la un magazin de
Ioan Petru Culianu, Pergamentul diafan n op. cit.,, p. 20
Io a n P e t r u C u l i a n u , S t p n u l S u n e t u l u i n o p . c i t . , p . 4 4 .
4
Io a n P e t r u C u l i a n u , S t p n u l S u n e t u l u i n o p . c i t . , p . 4 5 .
2
3
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antichiti, acest obiect avea puterea de a intui intenia cumprtorului, reacionnd ntr-un
mod miraculos, iar magazinul destinat unor obiecte vechi primete o alt semnificaie. Dintrun loc al ntoarcerii spre zone temporale cutate de amatori sau profesioniti se transformase
ntr-un loc justiiar. Dac era rotit cu o curea de un impostor, discul scotea un fel de uierat,
apoi aprea un animal felin nspimnttor. Forma leonin se npustea asupra strinului,
nspimntndu-l pn la moarte. Cel care este ferit de aceast scen nspimnttoare este
tocmai Grobok, brbatul ndrgostit de Lea. Miraculosul obiect dinuia de o mie dou sute de
ani, iar ntruchiparea Leei primea aceleai caracteristici, femeia cald i supl, doar
extremitile-i delicate erau reci.5
Povestirea Tozgrec pune n atenia cititorului o zon cu ruinele unei mnstiri, vndut
pe o sum derizorie de oficialul localitii. Considerat un teren fr perspectiv, chiar
nstrinarea lui a devenit o form banal de comercializare: o sut de dolari, fr licitaie,
lipsit de documente justificative pentru utilizarea banilor. Cumprtorul nu a fost n atenia
localnicilor, care cu greu ar fi reuit s-l descrie civa ani mai trziu. Un moment de grea
cumpn n existena unei familii, i-au disprut fr urm trei membri plecai la pia (tatl i
doi feciori), declaneaz n sufletul femeii rmase singure, Ignes, o puternic disperare din
neputina de a sprijini pe cei disprui. Ea se stabilise n aceast localitate, comunitatea a
acceptat-o, iar povestea vieii sale era deseori repetat cu discontinuiti, cauzate de chinurile
disperrii. Epuizarea drumurilor i a cutrilor fr urm de speran o determin pe femeie s
rtceasc pe o crruie ntunecoas ce se pierdea n pdurea de pini i urc pe ea fr rgaz,
spernd c povrniul abrupt nu va avea sfrit i acolo, suspendat ntre pmnt i cer, va
gsi poate cteva resturi din strigtele de agonie ale celor dragi, dac nu chiar sufletele lor
rtcitoare.6 Prin hiuri i locuri greu de rzbtut spre amurg ajunge la un podi cu pini
rari, cotropit de tufe de ienuperi pitici aproape de netrecut.7 Locul anticipeaz o zon la care
nu mai are acces, posibil de strbtut doar pentru cei iniiai. Prezentarea acestor locuri se face
succint: ...o cldire ruinat din piatr i intr n cmpul vizual. Era mprejmuit de resturile
unui zid purtnd o inscripie uria scris cu var pe care nu era n stare s o citeasc (No
trespassing).8 Imaginea noului vieuitor din aceste locuri pustii i apare confuz, fr s-l
ntlneasc btrnul mergea domol, cnd disprnd, cnd aprnd din nou printre tufiuri,
traseul i era labirintic, fr ndoial din cauza accidentelor de teren pe care doar el le vedea 9,
dar n mintea ei se acumuleaz detalii despre destinul celor trei disprui. Drumul strbtut de
aceast femeie s-a dovedit un parcurs al iniierii, iar zona delimitat de pini i ienuperi era
accesibil doar cunosctorilor marilor taine.
Povestirea fantastic asociaz ntr-o manier modern acest loc miraculos unde se afla
Tozgrec cu unele spaii moderne destinate socializrii, amenajate din spirit comercial n
apropierea ruinelor: hoteluri, bnci, uniti comerciale. Societatea modern care a pus
stpnire pe aceast zon desacraliznd-o a rspndit doar suspiciune, invidie, ideologii,
propagand, manipulare, agenii de informaii, tlhrii, crime. Dei devenite locuri
suprapopulate, aceste zone nu se disting prin valene morale, adevrul fiind mereu denaturat.
Singurul amnunt care stabilea o comuniune n aceast lume modern, susinut de guverne i
armate era dorina de a anihila adevrul. n atenia unei critici indirecte se nscrie televiziunea
ca loc al manipulrii maselor de oameni, prin intermediul creia un eveniment restrns ca
zon de influen primea dimensiuni hiperbolice, angrennd instituii internaionale sprijinite
de tehnologii performante Cu subtilitate, naratorul valorific prin contrapunct o secven
moralizatoare: Un fenomen straniu se produse atunci toi acei npstuii care ateptau plini
Ioan Petru Culianu, Enigma discului de smaragd n op. cit., p. 160.
Ioan Petru Culianu, Tozgrec, n op. cit.,p. 132.
Ibidem.
8
Ibidem.
9
Ibidem.
5
6
7
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de speran o vizit a lui Tozgrec se ndreptar deodat, ca nelei, ctre un alt podi, situat la
civa kilometri mai la nord n alt Golf al Smaragdelor, perfect identic cu primul, inclusiv n
privina cldirii n ruin.10
O iluzie desvrit este cltoria ntr-o piatr verzuie de smarald, o lume nsufleit
din secvena rezervat Jocului de smaragd. Iniial ideea a fost valorificat n Jocul de zaruri
din volumul de tineree Arta fugii. Relaia magic dintre intelectul sensibil i imaginarul
debordant transform piatra strvezie ntr-un univers greu accesibil prin lipsa de consisten
(sau o consisten aparte, specific prozei fantastice), structural diferit de cea comun.Piatra
de smarald devine un prilej de a redescoperi plmada atemporal, o ilustrare prin magie a unei
tehnici a extazului. Universul desfurrii acestui exerciiu al minii devine unul miniatural,
dar care poate ascunde multe taine rmase necunoscute oricrui novice. Primul pact al
cititorului este cu stranietatea pentru a accede imaginar n lumea multidimensional
prezentat n povestire11, o lume de piatr descoperit printr-o cltorie dominat de
ambiguitate. Cunoaterea se concretizeaz prin cltoria pe coridoarele orizontale, dar i cele
verticale formate prin deschiztura bolii. Explorarea acestui spaiu mineral primete valene
magice, transformndu-l ntr-un loc viu, cu dimensiuni necunoscute, deoarece s-a anihilat
noiunea de nainte i napoi. Cunoaterea primete valene insolite, fiind mereu alternate:
vizibil cu invizibil, dincolo cu dincoace.
Prezena unei frontiere invizibile este contientizat doar cnd experiena este
analizat ca parte declanatoare (ca un joc) i parte final (experiena prin cunoatere ajut
personajul s tie). Consecina cunoaterii se reflect n plan spaial prin tergerea liniei de
separare dintre lumea de din afara i cea dinuntrul smaraldului. Cele dou perspective ale
textului epic, exterioar i interioar, elucideaz caracteristicile spaiului ficional.Explorarea
acestui spaiu mineral primete valene magice, transformndu-l ntr-un loc viu, cu dimensiuni
necunoscute, deoarece s-a anihilat noiunea de nainte i napoi.
Cunoaterea primete valene insolite, fiind mereu alternate: vizibil cu invizibil,
dincolo cu dincoace. Prezena unei frontiere invizibile este contientizat doar cnd experiena
este analizat ca parte declanatoare (ca un joc) i parte final (experiena prin cunoatere
ajut personajul s tie). Consecina cunoaterii se reflect n plan spaial prin tergerea liniei
de separare dintre lumea de din afar i cea dinuntrul smaraldului. Cele dou perspective ale
textului epic, exterioar i interioar, elucideaz caracteristicile spaiului ficional. Povestirea
pune n eviden caracterul inedit al experienei narate i evoluia spre un nivel ontic superior.
Decorporalizarea i pierderea identitii sunt modaliti de transfigurare a celor care se iniiaz
n lumea verde. translucid i multidimensional a smaraldului, diferit de cea euclidian. n
timpul lecturrii acestei povestiri, frecvent repetat de cititor, asemeni personajului din
povestire, ntrebarea existenial, este: i unde suntem noi ?12 Prin intermediul acestei
povestiri lectorul cunoate un alt fel de spaiu, neeuclidian , iar perceperea acestuia poate fi
interpretat o cunoatere a sacrului ca loc al iubirii.13 Ioan Petru Culianu, autor al
povestirilor fantastice, nu a dovedit preocupri deosebite pentru compoziii exemplare, a
perfectat operele, dar nu n dorina unei lucrri impecabile.
Majoritatea scrierilor fantastice din acest volum (Pergamentul diafan. Ultimele
povestiri) sunt caracterizate de ideile capitale: problema iubirii, a morii, a distrugerii i a
salvrii universului, a participrii n istorie, a evadrii din timp. Apar episoade excentrice cu
Ioan Petru Culianu, Tozgrec n op. cit., p. 144.
Alina Pamfil, Etapele receptrii textului literar n vol. Monica Onojescu, Alina Pamfil, Lectur i interpretare, Cluj-Napoca, Casa Crii
de tiin, 2011, pp. 40-45.
12
Ioan Petru Culianu, Naterea infinitului. Revoluia nominalist, 1300-1450 n vol. Jocurile minii. Istoria ideilor, teoria culturii,
epistemologie, Ediie ngrijit de Mona Antohi i Sorin Antohi, Studiu introductive de Sorin Antohi, traduceri de Mona Antohi, Sorin
Antohi, Claudia Dumitriu, Dan Petrescu, Catrinel Pleu, Corina Popescu, Anca Vaidesegan, Iai, Editura Polirom, 2002, p. 351.
13
Alina Pamfil, Etapele receptrii textului literar n op. cit., p. 44.
10
11
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efect facil de senzaional, deseori crend o atmosfer bizar. Personajele traverseaz uneori o
ntreag perioad istoric, aducnd n atenia cititorului o diversitate de medii cluzite de
dobndirea clipei paradisiatice de fericire n cutarea iniiatic. Paradisului anistoric deseori i
este contrapus infernul n aceste creaii fantastice, iar cutarea sacrului n lumea modern
desacralizat se realizeaz n multe situaii doar sub form de visare.
Bibliografie:
1. Academia Romn (2004) Dicionarul general al literaturii romne, C-D, Bucureti,
Universul Enciclopedic.
2. Chevalier, J., Gheerbrant, A. ([f.a.]). Dicionar de simboluri. Mituri, vise, obiceiuri,
gesturi, forme, figuri, culori, numere, vol. 3 P-Z, Bucureti, Editura Artemis.
3. Culianu, Ioan Petru, (2002) Arta fugii, Povestiri cu cinci desene ale autorului, Prefa
de Dan C. Mihilescu, Iai, Editura Polirom.
4. Culianu, Ioan Petru (2002), Cltorii n lumea de dincolo traducere de Gabriela i
Andrei Oiteanu, Iai, Editura Polirom.
5. Culianu, Ioan Petru, (1996), Eros i magie n Renatere 1484, Bucureti, Editura
Nemira.
6. Culianu, Ioan Petru, (1998), Hesperus, Bucureti, editura Nemira.
7. Culianu, Ioan Petru, (1995), Mircea Eliade, ed. Revzut i augmentat, trad. Florin
Chiriescu i Dan Petrescu, postf. Sorin Antohi, Bucureti, Editura Nemira.
8. Culianu, Ioan Petru, ( 1999), Pcatul mpotriva spiritului, Scrieri politice, Bucureti,
Editura Nemira.
9. Culianu, Ioan Petru, (1996), Pergamentul diafan. Ultimele povestiri.Scrise n
colaborare cu H. S. Wiesner, Traducere de Mihaela Gliga, Mihai Moroiu i Dan
Petrescu. Postfa de Dan-Silvestru Boerescu, Bucureti, Editura Nemira.
10. Culianu, I. P., (2002), Pergamentul diafan. Ultimele povestiri. Scrise n colaborare cu
H. S. Wiesner, Ediia a doua, Traducere de Mihaela Gliga, Mihai Moroiu i Dan
Petrescu, Postfa de Paul Cernat, Iai, Editura Polirom.
11. Culianu, Ioan Petru, (2000), Studii romneti I, Fantasmele nihilismului, Secretul
doctorului Eliade, Traduceri de Corina Popescu i Dan Petrescu, Bucureti, Editura
Nemira.
12. Oiteanu, Andrei, (1998), Ioan Petru Culianu un cltor n lumea de dincolo n vol.
Mythos & Logos. Studii i eseuri de antropologie cultural, Ediie ilustrat, Ediia a
II-a, revzut i adugit, Bucureti, Editura Nemira.
13. Popa, Mircea, (2010), Culianu dup Culianu n vol. Continuiti, Cluj-Napoca,
Editura Dacia XXI, p. 210.
14. Romila, Adrian G., (2010), De-a dragostea i drumul - staii de lectur, Prefa de
Vasile Spiridon, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Eikon.
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Abstract: The subject of the work I proposed, Under the effigy of the mask: Norman Maneas
clowns versus Herta Mllers marionettes, is generous and can be contextualised from a
multicultural perspective, considering the identitary and cultural affiliation of the two
authors. In the context of Ceausescu's totalitarianism, the two export writers of Romanian
culture attempt to outwit censorship (Norman Manea) or to express an absurd reality using
an expressly chosen typology of characters: clowns and marionettes. The question is
predictable: WHY do the aforementioned authors directly or indirectly appeal to these
prototypical figures? Incompatible with their forced living environment communist
Romania , they become messengers of an original world, imposing through their game a set
of new rules by ridiculing the given. The clowns and marionettes also represent generic
masks of the narrators, based on which the identity hiding-revealing dichotomy is achieved
alongside the reconstruction of a page our countrys history.
Keywords: clown, marionette, totalitarianism, concentration camp, dictator
The question I started from is predictable: Why do the aforementioned authors appeal
directly or indirectly to these prototypical figures? Before everything, I took the hazard of
believing that appealing to these character typologies represents no more and no less than a
discourse strategy having the capacity to simultaneously express and hide the meaning of the
message to be transmitted.
As a research methodology, I used discourse analysis, having as support several
novels by Manea and Muller.
In the first case, the subject is, undoubtedly, slippery to the extent where the figure of
the clown does not allow itself capture by a single definition, impossible to understand
without considering its cultural avatars. The clown, a recurrent character in Maneas
literature, appears, as I have mentioned, particularly in the first editions of the essay
collections The Apprenticeship Years of Augustus the Fool (1979) and On Clowns: The
Dictator and the Artist (1997), being the messenger of an original world, capable of
instituting through his game a new set of rules, by deriding the given one.
At the other end, using a minimalist and objective discourse, Muller offers the
impression that the grand majority of her characters are nothing more than marionettes, the
term being used with its basic dictionary meaning of dummy, straw man and string puppet.
Unlike Manea, the German-speaking authors marionettes, subjected to an implacable destiny
of living under communist terror, become lost in theorisation without taking action per se.
From a diachronic perspective, centred on autochthonous literary theory research, it is
observed that the clown figure has not arisen much interest among specialists. On the other
hand, most reference titles were published in the USA, the UK and France. Apart from the
first cultural area, the preoccupation could have a historical basis in the case of the other two:
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both were great monarchies during the times court jesters flourished. With regards to the
historical avatars of the clown, the debut is ensured by the Mediaeval fool, become buffoon,
then Harlequin in the Italian Commedia dellArte, Pierrot in French literary tradition and
autonomous circus character at the beginning of the 19th century.
In his first writing, Manea details the condition of a writer, A.P., during Ceausescus
era, his drama being so significant, that his character gains increasingly more of the
personality of a clown. Using the same elementary logic, we can intuit that A.P.s destiny is
that of Manea himself before his departure into exile or that the two overlap as well as up to
complete identification1. The outraged figure of the creator by excellence gains significance
under the grotesque mask of the buffoon.
Augustus is defined from as early as the first pages of the book as a sort of zany
which in figure and buffoon actions comes close to Polichinelle, in contrast with the clown,
related instead with Pierrot2. Built on the basis of a paradox, Augustus alludes to a noble
genealogy with imperial resonance, which is counterbalanced by the second element, the
substantivized adjective with pejorative valence the Fool(ish). The authenticity of the terms
combination to name Augustus the Fool has an effect both comical and ridiculous.
It is interesting that, unlike the prototypical figure to which it corresponds, Maneas
Augustus does not have revenge at the end of the circus act as a defining feature, as the figure
of this clown is defined in cultural dictionaries. Thus, the figure of A.P. the writer becomes
illustrative for the gradual degradation of the protagonist, similarly to how the portrait of
Dorian Gray reflected the interior tribulations of the model it represented. The writer has no
access to the normality that even lifes slackers during university reached, living inside a
surrogate day-by-day existence. Manea insists on the images and scenes in which A.P. is
placed among workers in the brimstone pits, party activists, the Javanese and drillers, whom
he hinders and in the middle of whom he becomes lost.
In addition, his inadaptability in society is doubled by his personal failures. With
Elise, A.P. only has a tumultuous and dysfunctional relationship, his affair with Tia proves
painful. Not even his attempts to reconcile with Mona do not succeed, the relationship ending
up being as complicated as it is difficult due to the sentimental inconstancy and the distance
that the writer places between himself and not only his partner, but the world. A knight []
of social defeat through his evolution, the protagonist (A.P.) transitions from an apparently
dull, nameless individual to our friend, then to the designation A.P.. However his tragic
condition becomes more clearly outlined and concretised, more palpable one might say,
meaning real to the reader,, as it would become in the context of a discussion between two
strangers. At this point, the texts gains some orality through the use of a corresponding
linguistic registry somewhat lacing academic considerations and of a nearly
conversational style with specific elements (addressing, rhetoric, first person verbs and
pronouns).
In a dialogue published in Robert Escarpits work, From the Sociology of Literature to
the Theory of Communication, published one year apart from Maneas book, the American
sociologist Armand Lanoux analyses the writer profession from a sociological perspective.
Lanouxs observation The writer dreams, in fact, to be considered, from a social and
professional point of view, equal to the surgeon. [] He would like to be considered as a
writer, and not dispersed, fragmented, atomised by a society that is analytical up to insanity
1
In supporting my point of view, I will mention one of the definitions of the character, identified in the Encyclopaedic Dictionary of
Psychology (p-z): the character as a mask, beneath which the individual seeks to appear in front of others, or seek refuge with relation to
himself, in Ursula chiopu (coodrd.), Vol. III, Editura Universitii din Bucureti, Faculty of History-Philosophy, Department of
Psychology, Bucharest, 1979 p. 52.
2
Concept defined in the Enciclopedia dello Spettacolo (The Encyclopaedia of the Performance), Editrice le Maschere, Rome, 1954, used by
Manea in the two editions of the work On Clowns, the Dictator and the Artist.
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marks, in relation to the definition offered by Manea, the difference in perception over a
profession exercised in two societies: the democratic France and the totalitarian Romania of
the 80s.
Many times the characters lack of fulfilment is surprised through powerful images
of an A.P. who, for example, awaits shrivelling in front of the Athenaeum to catch a seat after
those with tickets finish entering, being the poor artist, sensible and vulnerable. A teenager
who reached adulthood, the village idiot or someone out of the race are just some of the
labels the author gives to the writer, in direct and indirect relation to the clowns figure.
The similarities between the characters are obvious, both A.P. and Augustus are
practically incompatible with the social environment in which they are forced to live, being
generic masks of the narrator on the basis of which the dichotomy between identity hiding
and revealing is achieved. Depending on these two variables, the author chooses to juggle
with several identity constructions in a game until A.P. and Augustus the Fool become
confounded.
Even if we may have the illusion of identifying or overlapping the character and the
mask, this subtlety could mislead an inexperienced reader. The distinction is clarified by the
author himself:
The artist is not a buffoon [] even when society forces him to the grimaces of paint
and antics. But when the pressure of the environment, itself split, twisted [] disfigures him,
the derisory mask that the artist wears is not an acceptance, but a refusal3 of imposed
conventions.
The dissimulation of naivety through tricks and somersaults is not a way of removal
from the rules of an absurd society, but an inverted reinterpretation of it. In fact, Bahtin4
equates folly to buffoonery, a state inscribed in human nature, as it represents an innate
attribute of it, which is reactivated during a celebration or in a rigid context.
Under a discursive aspect, the author theorises one by one the justifications, purpose,
benefits of art as a justification towards the self, a moment in which the style becomes
interiorised ad rigid, distant towards the reader, vaguely academic, marked by quotes or
paraphrases of the works of other authors, the impersonal style, argumentation and
justification techniques, and erudition.
The decor totalitarian Romania is one anchored in absurd and without escape. By
proliferating the metaphor of emptiness, the writing outlines the escapist character of
totalitarianism, defined as an extreme situation whose limits can always be extended, whose
malignant potential creates a cancerous social pathology5. Manea uses the same mechanism
of decoupling reality perceived by an artistic conscience in the brute material of a drifting
world.
Eyes aloof and thoughts absent becomes the ontological state of the writer in this
crisis period (and period of the crisis at the same time). The retreat in the non-secure space of
the house is not a solution, but rather a sentencing to a Spartan-like hell. Reaching, finally,
your personal cage, you remain lost, mute, staring into nothing for an indefinite time which
seems, only this way, the infinity of despair, Romania in three (commented) phrases.
In any case, Maneas clown-characters are built in various ways and by appealing to
several textual artifices. Under a discursive aspect, Manea rebuilds his past, but also an entire
page of history lived inside the totalitarian state. Besides, the historical reconstruction is
Cf. Norman Manea, in Gheorghe Grigurcu, The Norman Manea Case, in Familia, no. 1, 1981, pp. 6-7.
Mihail Bahtin, Franois Rabelais and popular culture, p. 86.
5
Cf. Emil Moang, Mihai Iovnel, in Eugen Simion (coord.), The General Dictionary of Romanian Literature, edited under the supervision
of the Romanian Academy, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Bucharest, 2005, p.196.
3
4
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subjectivised and finds a parallel in the personal one. The past is described in fragmentary
form, more akin to a slideshow than a film. Repeated transitions take place between the first
and third persons and vice versa, as if the author is trying sometimes to detach himself from
an inescapable past. The focalisation is combined with ambiguity, like a view through the
pinhole of a handmade camera, in which the details (photographs, episodes registered in
memory) are imprinted with obscured borders.
As spectators, we witness a pulverisation of the identity, understood in the
terminology of Vera Clin as the process of substituting characters 6, a relation between the
theme of losing personality and the one symmetrical to it of seeking a new personality.
The authors option of placing, even at a discursive level, the leaders figure at the
same level as that of his subject has as an immediate consequence the agglutination of these
two instances in the buffoonery magma, thus accomplishing a taming of the totalitarian
evil. By analogy, we bring to mind the perception of unknown and unpopulated spaces,
represented by white surfaces in Middle Age maps.
The hidden place was imagined like a terrifying one, through its enigmatic note itself,
of a bestiary. However once explored, it became accessible and freed from the governing of
this preconception. In addition, I cannot omit the clowns function as an expiatory substitute,
which has its origin in a ritual past: in the late Roman Empire, the patrons would pay the
mountebank troupe to remove, through their presence, the evil in the court. Also interesting is
the clowns function as a scapegoat, killed in many instances instead of an old sovereign.
As the name of the essay volume itself indicates, the representation of both characters
the dictator and the artist ultimately provokes laughter, which denotes their
interchangeable, substitutive character. The carnival-like laughter is mocking, liberating of
any form of interdiction, power or enclosure. Adopting the mask, a social one, after all,
becomes a natural option. Through the clown hypostasis, Manea attempts to cheat reality, to
deride totalitarianism, enclosed positions, dogmatism, and to reiterate the attitude of the jester
from the times of monarchy. As we know, the kings jester represents the ironic conscience,
meant to ridicule authority in all its conceit and sufficiency7, in the same way the artist
borrows the mask of the clown to parody imposed rules, clown being a generic term, as it is
more identifiable as a trickster8, a sham by excellence.
Manea is afraid of evil, he amplifies any form of restriction on his own liberty placed
in his personal past (totalitarianism perceived as an extension of the concentration camp), this
reflection on the past being equivalent to a revival of evil. Because of that, writing becomes in
this context the sole form of catharsis for the self and, via extrapolation, for an entire past.
And what better mask could he have chosen than a clown (and here not necessarily for strictly
aesthetic, literary considerations, but especially for human ones)?
The White Clowns figure and that of Augustus the Fool corresponds not only to the
history of the game, but to history itself. If we walk along the entire history, we find the
damaging artist, or not only the artist, but the damaging outcast and we find the representative
of power, of authority, who not just once is an even more grotesque clown than the outcast.9
Vera Clin, The Metamorphoses of Comic Masks (Processes, Motives, Modalities), Editura pentru Literatur, Bucharest, 1966.
Ivan Evseev
8
Trickster is a colective shadow figure, a summation of all the character in individuals. And since the individual shadow is never absent as
a component of personality, the collective figure can construct itself out it continually, from On the Psychology of the Trickster Figure
(Despre psihologia figurii tricksterului), in C. G. Jung, Four Archetypes: Mother, Rebirth, Spirit, Trickster, R. F. C. Hull, Routledge &
Kegan Paul, London, 1972, p. 150.
9
Elena Vldreanu, Interview with Norman Manea, in Romania libera, no. 145, 21 April 2008, p. 7.
7
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In addition, alongside this resizing of the dual or, better said, collective link (in the
idea that history cannot be limited to a single Augustus, or a single White Clown), the author
reconfirms the validity of the interchangeability that we emphasised during this study.
In the case of Maneas aesthetics, we operate with a couple of clowns. The dictator is
a clown, thus a boring individual, not a monster: he causes laughter, is comical and grotesque.
But the artist is also a clown, and he hides, is submissive to the dictator and also causes
laughter. More so, by being a clown like the dictator, he resembles him. We therefore obtain a
couple of clowns. If both are buffoons, does that not mean, perhaps, that they could be
interchangeable? Here we are, thus, in front of a question as simple at a logical level as it is
complex on a philosophical one. We stated this hypothesis, thinking that the status of the
clown resides in a mask and that that mask can be changed at any time. Moreover, the clown,
through the acceptations he represents (hiding, superficiality, makeup as a surrogate of the
face) can be reduced to being considered a simple actor or, better said, interpreter of various
roles.
To note the entire network of similitudes between the two, one characterised by the
destructive evil he exerts through his absolute power, the other, on the contrary, belonging to
a completely opposite pole art, a creative act by definition, we will pause at the notion of
banality of evil10, a concept offering us an overturned perspective on appearances, or a
closer view of the essence.
To define it, we will concisely nuance the premises of the apparition of this concept.
When Hannah Arendt notices that the Nazi leader Adolf Eichmann, who had a close overlook
of the Nazi camps, ensuring their proper functioning, is not a monster:
It had been comforting to consider him a monster, says the author, [but he was] an
average person, normal, neither mentally disabled, nor indoctrinated or cynical [],
incapable of defining good or evil11, an ordinary bureaucrat who exercised his work
functions (he perfectly remembered that he would have had a heavy conscience only if he
hadnt done what he was ordered to do12) who, even more, was born in Palestine and a
speaker of Hebrew and Yiddish, languages he utilised to communicate with his Jewish
friends, but also with his victims, she concludes that any other character would have acted the
same way if one had been in his stead.
Through the banality of the described man, subsequently catalogued by psychiatrists
as a man obsessed with the desire to kill, a perverted, sadist personality, the author also
emphasizes a certain banality characterising his acts, which doesnt have the genocidal evil at
its foundation. In conclusion, the evil is that done onto the other. Why banal? The
intentionality of the author is not minimising an atrocity and defining it through a rigid
concept, but underlining the fact that the greatest criminals are awfully normal, that evil
means an activation of inhuman, instinctive potencies that exist inside every individual. In the
case of totalitarian systems, this evil is extended onto an entire community, and the
executioners are those who have the power over the weak, they do not know or do not feel
they provoked the evil onto the others. Like Eichmann, who in front of the judge strongly
maintains his innocence:
I had nothing to do with killing the Jews []. I never gave the order for a Jew or a
non-Jew to be killed, I simply did not. It happened that it was never necessary that I do
it.13
10
A concept created and analysed by Hannah Arendt in Eichmann in Jerusalem. A report on the banality of evil, translation by Mariana Net,
afterword by Dinu C. Giurescu, Ed. All, Bucharest, 1997.
11
Ibidem, p. 35.
12
Ibidem, p. 34.
13
Ibidem, p. 30.
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Adina is described through automatisms and repetitive actions: she accompanies her
mother to the tailors, she goes to the barber every week, she talks to her friend Clara, she
often receives fruits from the tinsmith, she wears the same dress every summer. In addition,
she demonstrates a sadism which she only develops as time passes: from making the ant
necklace to measuring with the fabric scraps.
Strings of ants had invaded the cracks. Adina poured sugar-water into the narrow and
transparent tube of a circular knitting needle. She put the needle in the stones crack. The ants
slipped inside one after the other, here a head, there a belly. Adina glued the ends of the tube
with the flame of a match and placed the necklace around her neck. She went to the mirror
and saw that living necklace, although the ants had died glued in sugar in the very place they
had suffocated, p. 18.
Adinas figure is exponential as a personality for the children in Even Back Then, the
Fox Was the Hunter. As an adult, she interacts as a teacher with lonely students, who do not
know what playing means and who do not distinguish themselves among peers in any way. In
the world configured by the author, the environment is not a secure one, but one full of
threats: the kittens in the factorys yard are eaten by their mother, the female workers
children are left to wait unsupervised near the porters hut, smutty with rust. All, without
exception, have the same childhood.
I never saw their children with each other, I only saw them one after the other. Small
or big, thin or fat, dark-haired or blond. Girls and boys. When they sit together it is visible
that theyre all brothers to each other, Even Back Then, the Fox Was the Hunter, p. 75.
Moreover, the characters in the novel, despite being at a young age, are full of vices,
they have an uncivilised or bizarre behaviour: Adina wants a fox fur for Christmas and is
fascinated by the image of the shot animal, Pavels girl her spoon against the plate and makes
moustaches from pieces of meat, the gypsy child slurps beer remainders from the glass, a
stray child steals a gold ring from the hanged tinsmiths neck, the children of the women at
the factory exchange the hooks stolen by their mothers for socks, cigarettes or soap, a girl
keeps a frog in her pocket despite knowing it will die.
Taken with a truck to a tomato plantation, the children reveal their barbaric,
uneducated behaviours, squishing the fruit in their garments. Even when they try to do
something specific to childhood, the little ones fail.
The only sequence where the authors intentionality to create an image of childhood
can be guessed is when throwing the baby teeth in the grass. After suckling on grass blades,
the children throw their fallen teeth over their shoulders, while saying a playful incantation:
Mouse, little mouse, please give me a tooth anew, and Ill give my old one to you, but the
image is not one of candour, as the toothless children have dirty hands, covered in rows of
warts, and the new teeth are late to appear.
Reaching adulthood, Adina is haunted by insignificant episodes of her childhood.
When she takes the train, she notices a child biting on an apple and remembers the frozen
apples her father brought her during childhood. These are the memories of a girl who does not
have the notion of good or evil, being allowed to do what she wanted, even if she risked her
health.
(The apples) were so cold, that their skins were misty in the room like glass lenses.
Adina would immediately eat an apple. The first bite hurt, it was so cold, that she felt it in the
temples before swallowing. And upon the second bite, she felt the cold in her entire head. The
bite didnt hurt anymore because the brain itself had frozen, p. 136.
In The Hunger Angel (2010), the overarching theme of hunger is an ample one. A
primary need according to Maslows need pyramid, hunger gains control over the being in the
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camp, it controls and subdues all prisoners. The political and social aspects of life in the camp
are transcended, in the minds and bodies of those inside, by that of hunger, the masterpuppeteer of the concentrationary space.
In the trap of wanting to be strong at the morning meal, in the trap of the bread
exchange at the evening meal, in the trap of the night spent with the saved bread under your
head. [] The hunger angel tells you every morning: Think that the evening will come 15,
The Hunger Angel, p.117.
The hunger angel, not the soldiers or the soviet regime, is the one controlling the lives
of those incarcerated through a presence so frightening, that Leo Auberg, the central figure of
the novel, eventually almost worships it like a deity. Ahead of it, people become lifeless
bodies, mechanical entities lacking gender, neither men nor women, almost like objects, so
that the hunger angels couples with all. Its presence and control are so overwhelming, that
Leo Auberg still keeps count, more than 50 years after the release from the camp, of each
mouthful.
The other characters are either the soviet authorities de-individualised and
dehumanised figures, predictable (and stereotypical) illustrations of the control-obsessed
mechanisms of the soviet totalitarian regime, from the Russian camp commander who always
shouts his orders to the officer who commands without having any concrete role beyond this
, or the starving prisoners used as slaves.
If the first represent the automatons of a dubious, formal authority, components of a
state control apparatus who have lost their human aspect, the latter are victims and
marionettes of hunger at the same time. The originality of the author lies not in exposing
impact scenes typical of concentrationary literature (predictable themes include soldier
brutality, inhumane working conditions, the physical and psychological degradation to which
the prisoners are subjected), but in the way each aspect of life in the camp is viewed through
the prism of the omnipresent hunger angel.
In Traveling on One Leg, the main character, Irene, is a marionette of destiny, of the
obsession for leaving, a recurring preoccupation and motive in the writers work.
A dull, sketched character, with ambiguous traits, Irenes arrival to Germany is
marked by a series of almost predestined events through which she meets Franz, his friend
Stefan and Thomas, the homosexual driver, having an uncertain and sentimentally
complicated relationship with each. The character itself is pale, almost concretised in haste.
Her existence appears as an enactment imbibed with symbolic elements, from the birds flight
to stereotypical moments seemingly arranged to illustrate the situation and social context
rather than the individual (the interviews for receiving citizenship, the contacts with strangers
and the new countrys environment).
Inert, appearing to have moments of lucidity interspersed with a dense delirium
marked by her identity search, Irene floats powerless among the events to which she takes
part and which form her.
The structure of the entire tome is almost arbitrary, with action lacking major intensity
variations. The action is fragmentary and structured in short episodes, attention is focused on
the environment and its consequences on Irene, on the way in which context pushes her to
decisions and shapes her, absorbing and manipulating her identity to adapt her to new
situations. From this perspective, we become the witnesses of a training exercise.
Herta Mller, Leagnul respiraiei (The Hunger Angel). Translation by Alexandru Al. ahighian, Editura Humanitas, Bucharest, 2010, p.
117.
15
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The states become theatrical, to illustrate the feeling of loss of control given by the
placing in a new, unfamiliar state of the emigrant. Irene always appears one step behind the
events confronting her, thus letting herself carried by them on the path of a destiny that
becomes increasingly obscure. The political becomes personal, influencing the existence of
the stateless wanderer up to the microscopic details.
Irene does not act in her environment, but permanently reacts to the stimuli she
receives, demonstrating a passivity and an automatism specific to Mullers works.
By synthesising the observations in the case of each writer, we can affirm that Herta
Mullers marionettes are lacking any weight, being deformed, with an interiority marked by
fractures, subdued to terror and expectation. It is interesting that the enunciated typology is
not minor in the ensemble of her integral work, as all of the authors characters can be
perceived as marionettes. To this extent, they are nothing more but string puppets submissive
to several handlers: to the paternal figure, then to the one having the authority within a certain
space and, last but not least, to the political system which they cannot escape in any way. Not
as resigned, however, are the Augusts and clowns of Manea who interchange, overturn and
parody absurd hierarchies.
,,This work was financially supported through the project "Routes of academic
excellence in doctoral and post-doctoral research - READ" co-financed through the
European Social Fund, by Sectoral Operational Programme Human Resources
Development 2007-2013, contract no POSDRU/159/1.5/S/137926.
Bibliography:
A. Primary Bibliography:
MANEA:
MANEA, Norman, Anii de ucenicie ai lui August Prostul, Editura Cartea Romneasc,
Bucureti, 1979.
MANEA, Norman, Despre clovni: dictatorul i artistul, Biblioteca Apostrof, Cluj,
1999.
MLLER:
MLLER, Herta, Cltorie ntr-un picior, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2010.
MLLER, Herta, nc de pe atunci vulpea era vntorul, Editura Univers, Bucureti,
1995.
MLLER, Herta, Leagnul respiraiei, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2010.
MLLER, Herta, Omul este un mare fazan pe lume, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti,
2011.
B. Secondary Bibliography:
B.I. Norman Manea:
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253
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Abstract: This essay aims to bring to discussion a very delicate subject, the space of
Romanian antedemocratic literature, created in a society which was truly suffering.the
system of totalitarism from Romania before 89. This image of a lost society is being reborn
in Octavian Palers roman, named: Un om norocos. The analyse of this roman is being
treated succinct in this paper work.
We are obliged to interfere in reality which is carefully developed, by a key-character who
seems to be ,,playing with the image of totalitarism seen in its total splendor. This roman
comes to hitch its image and to shout out the truth.
We analysed here the life of Daniel Petric, the main character of the roman, a perfect result
of what this wrong system created in its creatures, throw the wing of writing metaphore. This
roman is not about the totalitarism unless it is read behind the linesThat was the only way
that the author reached to publish itthat metaphore is being detailed herein this paper
work.
Keywords: totalitarism, roman, Daniel Petric, metaphore, key-character
,,Revista Transilvania, nr. 3/2013, revist editat de Centrul Cultural Interetnic Transilvan, serie nou, Anul XLI (CXLV)
Ion Simu, ,,Variante la un autoportret- Prefa la ediia a III-a a volumului Autoportret ntr-o oglind spart, Iai, Polirom, 2010, p. 7
Pruteanu, George, Octavian Paler, [n] revista ,,Dilema, nr. 182, 5 iul. 1996, http://www.pruteanu.ro/ CroniciLiterare/182paler-jum.htm
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spun, dndu-li-se chiar i textele pe care urmau s le recite.) 4, iar autorul lui s fie arestat,
n baza unor ordine primite de sus,,fr a se ti vreodat i de unde ori de la cine anume 5, dar
Octavian Paler nu a fost condamnat. n cartea de confesiuni, realizat de criticul literar
Daniel Cristea-Enache, Convorbiri cu Octavian Paler, autorul amintete despre aceast
apariie a romanului i despre primirea nepotrivit ce i s-a fcut: ,,n decembrie 1985 am fost
<<demascat>> n <<Contemporanul>>, ntr-o anchet ampl care purta titlul Literatura n
instan. Mai muli cititori indignai luau atitudine mpotriva romanului meu, Un om norocos,
socotindu-l <<nociv>>, <<dumnos>>. [] Am ajuns astfel un scriitor <<interzis>>. Nu
oficial ci prin indicaii date la telefon. 6
Se lupta aadar nu mpotriva omului Paler ci
mpotriva ideilor sale, deranjante pentru un sistem care milita pentru oprimarea gndirii i
subminarea oricror idei revoluionare distonante pentru spiritual i ideologia comunist.
Octavian Paler ieea astfel din tiparele scriitorilor vremii, majoritatea ,,mercenari angajai
ntr-o lupt care, de fapt, nu le-a aparinut niciodat. Totui, n faa acestei strigri a realului,
pe care o promovase Octavian Paler n romanul su, autoritile devin oarecum neputincioase
i capituleaz. S fi fost acesta ,,un semn c se schimbase ceva n funcionarea sistemului, o
schimbare ce nu ar fi fost posibil n absena unei certe rezistene opuse de scriitori? 7
Cartea lui Paler poate fi o dovad c spaiul social, societatea antedecembrist despre
care scrie cu o ironie trist autorul, nu trecuse pn atunci ntr-att de puternic prin sita deas
a demascrii. Dictatura este aspru pus la zid iar promovatorii acesteia foarte dur pedepsii.
Prin urmare, cenzura are toate motivele s declare acest scriere problematic i
problematizatoare, chiar dumnoas.
Se regsesc denunate aici toate mecanismele defectuoase ale unui regim perimat,
defalcate pn n cel mai adnc ungher al existenei lor. Sigur c romanul este ncifrat i se
dezleag sau se leag sub metafora scrisului sau, mai degrab a comarului. Nu ni se vorbete
nicieri de societatea comunist dar subnelegem prezena ei concentrat n evoluia
personajului ,,antierou, Daniel Petric, ratatul absolut cu accente de laitate i mediocritate
extinse pn n strfundurile existenei sale.
Eroul ,,antierou care ne plimb prin
destinul su, de-a lungul romanului, nu rezum un caracter de ncadrat ntr-o anumit
tipologie care s fuzioneze perfect cu societatea damnat i ruginit de zbaterile unui sistem
grav avariat moral i estetic. Este exact opusul a ceea ce ne-ar face s-l numim, precum n alte
romane, exponent al epocii din care face parte i pe care o reprezint cu interes. Ne rezumm
doar la prima ncadrare -exponeialitatea- pe care o ia n serios i o reprezint, cu eroism, sau
antieroism. Cine este aadar, Daniel Petric? Un ratat8, ironic numit ,,norocos ne las s
nelegem, creatorul su. ntreaga sa existen se construiete din hul dat de ruperea
echilibrului existential, ns modul n care i construiete destinul: ,,este mai semnificativ
dect destinul nsui9 Tot parcursul vieii sale este incert i oscileaz ntre vis i realitate.
Nici mcar la finalul crii nu-l putem clasa, cu certitudine, pe Daniel Petric ntr-o dimensiune
sau n cealalt, atta timp ct incertitudinea proprie personajului devine cheia care ncheie
finalul: ,,Dac nu m trezea ajungeam poate la sfritul visului, ns a ciocnit n somnul meu
ca ntr-un ou pn l-a crpat. []. Hai uurel Daniel Petric, pregtete-te s cobori n era
raiunii s-ar putea s-i clnne puin dinii, dar e vina ta, n era raiunii nu se d nimic
4
Mircea Iorgulescu, Prefat la Octavian Paler, Un om norocos, Ediia a II-a, Iai, Editura Polirom, 2008, p. 9
Ibidem, p. 9
Daniel Cristea-Enache, Convorbiri cu Octavian Paler, Bucureti, Editura Corint, 2007, p. 204.
,,Ratarea nu este doar un leitmotiv regsit n romanele paleriene ci este n acelai timp un act de reflecie pentru autobiografistul creator de
eseuri devenit ,,autor al propriei sale existene- G. Gusdorf, Auto-boi-graphie, op. cit., p. 260: ,,Probabil, inclusiv de ideea ratrii s-ar cuveni
s ne apropiem cu pruden. La urma urmei lumea e plin de ratai [] ca s devii un <<ratat>>, trebuie s fi avut nite visuri mari
9
Eugen Simion, Scriitori romni de azi, vol. IV, Editura David. Litera, Chiinu, 1998, p. 200.
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gratuit, iar tu n-ai fost n stare nici mcar s-i aduci nite lemne []. Sau visez nc? Dar
atunci cine bate?10 Un final deschis interpretrilor de orice fel pe care autorul le permite
fiecrui lector n parte: primenirea visului-comar sau viaa propriu-zis a personajului S
ne ntoarcem aadar la nceputul crii: ,,Visam c11. Cu un vis ncepe periplul
personajului Daniel Petric. Timpul i spaiul, menionate aici <<noaptea de Pati>> i <<la un
proces unde eram judecat>>, ncep s creioneze, hotrtor, portretul acestuia: personaj
damnat i condamnat, asemeni Fiului Domnului, primindu-i i ducndu-i, fr s
crcneasc, patimile. Din acest moment, biografia personajului intr ntr-un con de umbr,
urmnd o linie a inteligibilului, cu o cronologie nedefalcat, nentrerupt i coerent ns
totalmente negativ.
Un prim detaliu, moralicete pus n prim plan, chiar de personaj, este relaia sa, deloc
bun cu Dumnezeu: ,,i chiar am nceput s bolborosesc, speriat, o rugciune cnd mi-a trecut
prin minte c Dumnezeu este Marele Dresor n faa cruia tremur toate fiarele pmntului
[]. Mi-am ncletat imediat buzele i mi-am nfipt unghiile n carne ca s nu mai spun
niciun cuvnt din rugciune.12
Prin urmare, personajul nu vrea s par altceva dect
este construindu-i un autoportret sincer dar n acelai timp dezonorant. Intr n scen, n
urma unui vis din care este trezit de murmurul mrii ce intrase-n ncperea azilului pe
fereastra larg deschis, i tot n urma acestui vis iese din roman.
Pn n momentul
ajungerii sale n azil personajul activeaz ntr-o serie de locaii dominate de simbolul
dezonorrii: casa tatlui, spaiu angoasant i creator al nenumratelor temeri i frustrri
personale, cuca de la circ, spitalul de psihiatrie, nchisoarea, azilul i, n cele din urm,
propria-i via. Am putea fi tentai s credem c Daniel Petric este o victim a sorii hrzite
s-l fac s-i renege propria existen. ns parcursul narativ dovedete exact contrariul: la
coala de corecie, la spital, la Belle Arte, la nchisoare, n azil sau acas, lng tatl su,
personajul reneag orice calitate moral construindu-i din imoralitate, superficialitate i
mediocritate, dar mai ales din lingueal nite atuuri despre care concluzioneaz ,,mi-au adus
cu timpul nu numai linite ci i o situaie de invidiat.
Acesta mrturisete, nc
de la nceput, obligativitatea de a se comporta astfel, nvinuind conjunctura social de
comportamentul su. Copilria i este guvernat de aura fratelui mort despre a crui existen
afl ntmpltor perindndu-se prin cimitir: ,,Ducndu-m nuntru, destinul mi-a artat ce era
necesar: s citesc numele de pe pietrele funerare [] n clipa aceea nu bnuiam c avusesem
un frate, care se chemase Dinu. [] La drept vorbind, nu neleg prea bine ce s-a petrecut cu
mine atunci i de ce m-am rzvrtit cu atta nverunare mpotriva unui mort. []13
Cu o ran profund, rmas n suflet dup moartea lui Dinu, tatl caut s nlocuiasc
dorul pentru acesta cu Daniel dar constat, cu tristee, c el este total diferit. Acest fapt l
aflm din mrturisirea personajului: ,,printr-o ironie a destinului, eram exact inversul celui
disprut. De la nfiare la caractere nimic nu ne apropia i totul ne deosebea. [] Mineam
cu uurin i m foloseam de asta ca s m sustrag poruncilor printeti, dovedind nc de pe
atunci resursele de ipocrizie de care m-am folosit mai trziu cu pricepere i nesocotin.14
Clivajul dintre cele dou personaje se adncete i mai puternic cnd tatl autoritar,
pictor foarte cunoscut i impune mndria i ncercarea de a impresiona n faa fiului. Daniel
trebuia s se comporte la fel, s exceleze n exacerbarea adulaiei pe care printele celebru o
simea din toate prile. n acel moment Daniel se hotrte s devin excepie de la regul. Se
va pronuna aadar mpotriva strii de fapt adoptnd, pentru prima dat, cu nverunare, lips
Octavian Paler, Un om norocos, Ediia a II-a, Prefa de Mircea Iorgulescu, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2008, p. 482-483.
10
11
Ibidem, p. 17.
12
13
Ibidem, p. 28-29.
14
256
SECTION: LITERATURE
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de interes i nesupunere. Evoluia relaiei lor va atinge climaxul respingerii n cel mai scurt
timp. Resentimentele btrnului vor deveni adevrate arme pentru Daniel Petric care nu va
pierde nicio clip ocazia de a se afla mpotriva convingerilor printelui su: ,,Bnuiala c
prerea lumii l interesa chiar mai mult dect afeciunea mea m-a mpins s-i art ndrzneal neruinat! - c nu-mi psa de autoritatea lui. Or, aa ceva un om ca el nu putea
s-mi ierte. neleg foarte bine asta.15 Toate momentele de maxim problematizare prin care
trece personajul: coala de corecie, nchisoarea, spitalul, vin ca un mod de a lupta mpotriva
posibilitii de a rennoda legturile dintre cei doi.
Egoismul personajului atinge cota maxim n momentul n care i refuz propria-i
aprare, n timpul procesului, prefernd condamnarea la nchisoare: ,,M-am blestemat pentru
slbiciunea care m mpinsese s-i scriu i am renunat cu totul s m apr. Mai mult, am
declarat la anchet c m socoteam un gunoi al societii, c acceptam orice concluzii doreau
s-mi pun n crc, deoarece i silnic autoritatea tot autoritate rmne.16 Nu-i contest
acuzaiile dei tie c este nevinovat, din ambiia meschin de a aduce nc un afront imaginii
tatlui su. El nsui mrturisete: ,,habar n-avea c n sala procesului el nu era dect un
simplu martor, c adevratul proces se judeca ntre mine i tata, i interpreta tcerea mea ca
un afront personal. Dar chiar dac a fi tiut c ncpnarea mea m ducea la treang, tot na fi izbutit s vorbesc.17
Realiznd c pentru supravieuirea n vacarmul n care se afund, din pricina
ambiiilor sale i a deciziilor nepotrivit luate, este nevoie de duplicitate i linguire, i
construiete, cu ajutorul lor, o masc, de care se va folosi mereu. La Belle-Arte devine elevmodel, la nchisoare deinut-model, la spital pacient-model i reuete s intre n graiile
tuturor pentru a-i asigura o existen mai uoar. Nesupunerea pe care o artase tatlui su
devine repede o supunere fa de sistem i fa de exponenii si, pentru a-i asigura un loc
aparte n peisajul sistemului nchis. Sosirea sa n azil va ntri aceast poziie ridicndu-l mai
presus de toi cei care-l populeaz. Evadeaz acum c i se ofer ocazia fr s aib nimic de
pierdut, fr a lua cu el nimic, ntr-o lume unde dintr-o dat primete importan i aproape
c-i gsete un rost: de a sculpta profilele rposailor din azil pentru a intra direct n
eternitate. Acum putem afirma, mpreun cu autorul, c Daniel Petric este un ,,om norocos;
Scap din lumea care nu mai are nimic s-i ofere, pentru a se refugia, ntr-o alt lume unde va
primi, se pare, celebritatea. ns metehnele lumii de afar i vor face simit prezena i aici.
Profilul psihic al personajului pare a se afilia celui al mediului unde coabiteaz nesfrite
constrngeri i neajunsuri. Evenimentele i situaiile prin care trece sculptorul, nainte de a
ptrunde n azil, l clesc i l nva cum s procedeze pentru a pactiza perfect cu noul mediu.
Un azil de btrni sau, mai degrab, un ospiciu, acesta apare ca spaiu de ntlnire a unor
oameni cu reale probleme psihice; Locatarii azilului sunt individualizai de autor prin
patologiile care strnse la un loc contureaz un spaiu al nevrozelor, al nesiguranei, unde
teama se instaleaz la orice pas i din orice direcie. Acetia sunt individualizai prin aciuni
sau trsturi morale, care completeaz tabloul patologic, reunit sub auspiciile cldirii: portarul
are o activitate hilar: ,,vna mutele din gheret dup o metod bine pus la punct.
Arhivarul ndosaria destinele tuturor celor care intrau n azil, anulnd orice posibilitate de a
pstra vreun secret nemrturisit; Ehoan, hingherul are o ur nestrmutat pentru oameni i-i
dreseaz cinii pentru a ucide, antrenndu-i pe manechinele din paie. Domnul Andrei, fost
pilot, are reacii comportamentale diferite, n funcie de perioada zilei: dimineaa e ,,vesel i
sclipitor, i noaptea nchis i taciturn. Victor taie cuvinte din dicionare formulndu-i
discursuri fr sens, somptuoase dar greu inteligibile. Filip se tnguie mereu, povestindu-i, ori
15
Ibidem, p. 30
16
17
Ibidem, p. 99.
257
SECTION: LITERATURE
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de cte ori are ocazia, lui Daniel Petric despre canarul su, ucis de o pisic adus de
Tuberculos. Leon, pe care cei din azil l porecliser Piorcea, fcea mereu pe el. Clugrul
enuna mereu blasfemii la adresa oricui, chiar i la a Divinitii. Anton, fost judector, are
mania proceselor pe care le-ar organiza ad-hoc, ori de cte ori i s-ar da ocazia. Siminel, fost
vidanjor, se plnge mereu de frig i se nclzete vrndu-i sub haine, mereu, ziare. Cel mai
dificil dintre acetia, i totodat cel mai ru este Mopsul. Pare a fi cel mai inteligent dintre
locatarii azilului dar cu un caracter subliminal. Faptul c nu are dini i scuip cnd vorbete i
face pe cei din jur s se retrag din calea lui. Aceti ratai ai existenei sunt condui pare-se
de o Moa, creia toat lumea i poart fric i care intermediaz toate evenimentele cheie
ale aciunii. Figura sa denot duritate i lips de feminitate: ,,Femeia gras, cu prul puternic
oxigenat, era Moaa. [] Blond, masiv, cu buzele violent rujate, ca nite lipitori roii, cu
snii mari, umflndu-i provocator halatul18
Deasupra tuturor, se gsete Btrnul -personaj mai degrab imaginat dect existent,
stpnul tuturor. Despre acesta vorbesc toi, cu team, i n oapt, dar nu l-a vzut nimeni.
Singurul despre care aflm concret c l ntlnete i ne d de neles c are o altfel de
legtur cu acesta, alta dect cea instituit cu ceilali locatari ai azilului, este nsui Daniel
Petric. El este, de altfel, singurul cruia i se permite intrarea n sala cu oglinzi, pzit, cu
strnicie, de Francisc, un fel de corespondent al Cerberului mitic19: ,,n faa uii metalice se
aezase, mbrcat n halat alb, un cerber care, se vedea de departe, nu tia de glum. [] Avea
ceva de imbecil puternic n stare s te striveasc
mngindu-te.20Acest Francisc
pzete, de fapt, conform simbolisticii sale, poarta spre moarte. Sau dimpotriv
imposibilitatea de a merge nspre acolo a personajului Daniel Petric pentru c i se interzice s
prseasc lumea cu care, se pare, nu i-a ncheiat nc socotelile?
Poate din acest motiv este evident alienarea personajelor sau identificarea lor cu un
prototip: cel al supuilor nchii ntr-un sistem fr ieire i care depind de o instan suprem,
locuitoare a unui Rai nerevocat: ,,Sala toi i-o imaginau la fel []21Cu toate acestea, nimeni
dintre cei prezeni nu are certitudinea existenei acestei sli, numit de Siminel ca ,,la
Versaille22 Existena slii, i prin urmare a Btrnului, le d celor din azil ncrederea n
singurtatea controlat de cineva: Btrnul, este asemeni unui Dumnezeu pe care-l simt
prezent printre ei dar pe care nici mcar nu caut s-l identifice de team s nu fie cumva o
plsmuire a nevoii de a nu fi singuri. Pesemne c n momentul descoperirii unui astfel de
adevr, esena azilului ar fi devenit nul. Curiozitatea nestvilit a personajelor, este, din acest
motiv, refulat ns ntr-o team de a nfrunta realitatea. O realitate care ar putea s nu le fie
conform plsmuirii lor. Absena Btrnului creeaz un soi de mister i o stare de stabilitate,
n vreme ce prezena lui palpabil sau concretizarea inexistenei lui ar desfina menirea
azilului, cu tot cu locatarii si.
Sculptorul intr i el n jocul imaginaiei, promovat de cei din azil dar caut cumva s
ajung n centrul sistemului dup care se guverna azilul. Vede posibil o ntlnire cu Btrnul
pe care o mrturisete celor din azil i care intr ntr-un ritm al repetitivitii. Toi l respect,
din acest motiv, i pn i el ncepe s-i manifeste aceast importan sinequanon pe care tie
contient c n-o deine dar pe care i-o fabric drept arm. Aceast arm devine i mai
18
19
Ana Ferrari, Dicionar de mitologie greac i romn, traducere de Emanuela Stoleriu, Dragos Cojocaru, Dana Zamosteanu, Editura
21
Ibidem, p. 202-203.
22
258
SECTION: LITERATURE
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puternic n momentul n care cei din azil afl de vizitele fcute Btrnului i de ptrunderea
lui n spaiul interzis. n plus, toi l trateaz cu respectul cuvenit unui mare artist.
n sinea sa, Daniel Petric tie c nu merit aceste elogii dar nu se sfiete s le
primeasc i chiar s uziteze de prezena lor. De aici poate i denumirea de ,,om norocos pe
care i-o ataeaz autorul, n titlul romanului, cu sau fr ironie grav. Sigur c acest noroc se
va disipa vizibil n aciunile personajului de mai trziu. Anticalitile sale i perisabilitatea
universului pe care i-l construiete din minciuni, nchipuiri dar i manipulare, l vor declara
un ,,antinorocos.
Explicaia actelor sale este mrturisit oarecum chiar de personaj: ,,Soarta m-a ajutat
s greesc grav la o vrst cnd alii abia i julesc genunchii. [] Dar ziua aceea m atepta
s m mpart n dou fiine, una care eram i una care vroiam s par.23 Prin urmare, destinul
pare s fie cel care monitorizeaz traseul sinous pe care se va orienta Daniel Petric, dup
descoperirea din cimitir, asta pn la un punct: ,,Ducndu-m nluntru, destinul mi-a artat
ce era necesar [..] Iat c personalitatea sa devine duplicitar, fiecare fa a acestei dupliciti
izbucnind dup caz. Masca aceasta a bunvoinei i confer ns privilegii neateptate i
devine chiar un scut al autoaprrii. La spital mrturisete c i-a tratat pe medici cu duritate
pn a neles c poarta de ieire de acolo este obediena, i le ctig simpatia, realizndu-le
portretele. Personajul motiveaz comportamentul su duplicitar: ,,am neles mai limpede c
nu puteam tri ca o fiar nemblnzit, n conflict cu toat lumea, i c m purtasem ani n ir
fr noim, rzvrtindu-m pe fa cnd puteam s obin ceea ce doream, mult mai uor i mai
sigur prin viclenie, prnd smerit i supus. Am descoperit astfel, singur, ipocrizia.24
n acelai mod va proceda i la coala de Belle Arte: ,,mi pot ngdui s recunosc c
m-am purtat i la coala de Belle Arte ca un potlogar, [] Totul e, am rs n sinea mea
atunci, s nu fii lipsit de metod25 sau la nchisoare: ,,Am nceput s-i tratez pe gardieni ca pe
nite oameni importani i, cnd am avut prilejul, i-am artat directorului nchisorii un respect
ieit din comun, ccea ce i-a atras atenia asupra mea.26
Este sesizabil aadar nu doar duplicitatea personajului ct i agilitatea acestuia de a se
situa mereu n centrul evenimentelor i ntotdeauna lng liderii Puterii. Aciunile sale prind
putere atunci cnd descoper esena azilului. Acest spaiu este o carcer din care nimeni nu
poate s scape, nici mcar sculptorul. Mirajul lui i atrage, paradoxal, pe toi ntr-un cerc al
nchipuirilor i al imaginarului fantezist. Pn i aezarea lui ntre un cimitir marin, o mlatin
i un ctun izolat reprezint un drum fr ntoarcere cu o singur poart: cea pe care se intr.
Nici aciunile ce se petrec n interiorul acestuia sau n proximitatea lui nu pot fi din alt
registru. Se organizeaz vntori de cerbi, dar ntr-un alt context dect cel al unei vntori
propriu-zise, care trec de limita macabrului: ,,Propriu-zis nu era vntoare, ci un mcel
murdar.27
Am crede, la un moment dat, c acest spaiu al damnrii va primi purificarea, o dat cu
incendiul izbucnit n spatele azilului: ,,gonind flcrile ca pe-o turm roie, nnebunit,
situaia amenina s devin critic.28 Nici mcar acesta nu va mica ordinea unui spaiu
guvernat parc de un Dumnezeu absent. Purificarea prin foc este departe de a anula
simbolistica i destinul acestui univers nchis. Fumul ,,nneccios i neptor ce ptrunsese
pe coridoarele cldirii, semnnd panica ntre cei prezeni i mrturisete parc refuzul de a
cura acel loc, refuzul de a-l sacraliza, atta timp ct cei care coabiteaz aici triesc n cele
23
Ibidem, p. 27.
24
25
Ibidem, p. 58.
26
27
Ibidem, p. 88.
28
259
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
mai cumplite dintre pcatele obteti. nchistai astfel ntre pcatele, a cror povar i-o poart
incontieni, locatarii azilului sunt salvai din incendiul care amenina s mistuie azilul ca un
foc purificator, semn c drumul spre mntuire le fusese categoric refuzat i cu certitudine
interzis.
Singura prezen uman care pare s anuleze imaginea deja perimat a azilului, este
Laura, un personaj superior celor desfurate deja n galeria romanului. Rafinamentul
acesteia, i poate chiar aura ei misterioas l fac pe Daniel Petric s resimt fa de ea o
atracie puternic ce se transform, pe parcursul evoluiei epicului, n iubire, totui
nemrturisit. Este singurul moment din desfurarea romanului n care personajul se
umanizeaz, are sentimente i contiin: ,,totui am simit, pentru prima oar, o cldur care
mi-a dezvluit un adevr surprinztor, c apariia iubirii nu e un proces, e instantanee, aa
cum cred c e clipa morii; c dragostea apare ca orice mare idee, fiind o nire de undeva
din ntunericul nostru.29
Laura are curajul de a se revolta mpotriva unei stri impuse, fr a se gndi la
consecine. De aici si superioritatea personajului n raport cu Daniel Petric. Acesta ns nu
poate concepe ca cineva
s-l scoat din mediocritatea n care se scufund voit i nu
contientizeaz; Nu poate renuna la statutul oferit n azil pentru c aici are, n sfrit un
destin: al artistului deintor al adevrului suprem, conferit de relaia pe care o are cu
Btrnul, i care inspir tuturor celor din azil team i respect.
Justificarea sa este ns afirmat n rspr: ,,Vroia s m vre din nou n cuca
mediocritii mele, s mtur de-acolo toate cojile viselor mele, s renun la tot, s-mi vr nasul
ca ntr-o murdrie n adevrul meu jalnic, s nu-mi pierd timpul n slile cu oglinzi, i de ce?
cum de ce? Ca s respectm adevrul, domnule Daniel. E neplcut dar i ajunge i o singur
oglind ca s vezi cine eti, de fapt: un ins oarecare.30
De aici i drama personajului: s renune la minciuna care-i confer un statut i care-i
fusese scut al destinului n diferitele circumstane n care fusese nevoit s apeleze la aceasta
sau s coboare n adevr pentru a-i pecetlui aadar mediocritatea i superficialitatea, toate ca
zlog n faa iubirii consimite: ,,Ar fi vrut s fiu undeva o mediocritate oarecare, numai s fiu
o mediocritate adevrat? S m nbu n adevrul meu, n destinul meu mbcsit i
strmt?31 Dezumanizarea personajului atinge cota maxim n momentul n care enun: ,,n
realitate nu m zguduise moartea femeii pe care o iubisem ci moartea femeii care m iubise!
Simeam moartea Laurei ca pe o nedreptate care mi se fcuse mie! M socoteam pe mine o
victim, condamnnd-o pe Laura care m obligase la singurtatea mutilate de a fi cu ea n
absena ei.32
Din nou totul se rsfrnge la ,,eul absolut. Daniel Petric regret moartea Laurei n
msura n care aceasta l marcase profund, transformndu-l ntr-o victim, reducndu-i
aspiraia spre ascensiune o nedreptate mpotriva propriului su sine. Egoismul i
egocentrismul personajului iau accente groteti atunci cnd afirm c Laura este vinovat
pentru c-l forase, prin moartea ei, la singurtatea mutilat obligat s o perceap i s o
triasc, n absena ei. Nu l doare moartea Laurei ct l zguduie neputina de a fi la nalimea
acestei drame, ce culmin n sinea sa cu o ,,biat prere de ru. Drama sa se mrete i
devine incontrolabil atunci cnd observ c btrnii din azil l evit, desconsiderndu-l i
acuzndu-l, direct, de moartea Laurei. Alege drept arm menit s regndeasc i s
reconfigureze poziia btrnilor fa de el, retragerea n tcere, dar care nu are, pare-se
29
Ibidem, p. 270.
30
31
Ibidem, p. 401
32
260
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
finalitate. Aura artistului o depete pe cea a individului care relaioneaz cu cei din jur.
Triete cu convingerea c btrnii i aezarea lor ntru eternitate depind de el. tie c are
acest atuu i uziteaz de importana lui. Dar nu este suficient pentru ca lucrurile s convearg
n direcia stabilit de el. nelege c nu se poate mpotrivi relaionrii cu acetia, urndu-i dar
n acelai timp avnd nevoie de prezena lor. Singura consolare rmne pentru el sala cu
oglinzi, spaiu n care-i proiecteaz importana si grandomania. Atitudinea de respingere i
dezacord a btrnilor fa de el se adncete n momentul n care i anun de dispariia
Btrnului. Declinul azilului i al locuitorilor lui abia ncepe. Vrnd s ucid o certitudine,
prin acest gest, sculptorul i ucide, de fapt, propriul rost. n lipsa Btrnului nu mai
intereseaz pe nimeni nemurirea conferit de sculptarea pietrelor funerare.
Dinu este cel care i atrage atenia asupra actului su necugetat: ,,Te-ai jucat cu lucruri
cu care n general nu te poi juca nepedepsit.33La un moment dat, spre finalul romanului,
asistm la o mrturisire fascinant: ,,Dac nu m trezea ajungeam poate la sfritul visului,
ns a ciocnit n somnul meu ca ntr-un ou pn l-a crpat.34 Schimbare de locaie i, n
acelai timp, cteva semne de ntrebare pe care le sugereaz nsui personajul. Departe de azil,
n camera auster, oferit de meterul de cruci, este deranjat de btrna mama a acestuia i
trezit, dintr-un lung somn; Romanul se ncheie ezitant: ,,Sau visez nc? Dar atunci cine
bate?35 Finalul deschis i interpretare liber, am putea conchide Ajunge Daniel Petric n
azil sau ne aflm n faa unui vis mrturisit n acel ,,Caiet de vise? Cte interpretri, attea
chei de a deschide i analiza romanul Nu suntem constrni s vedem un singur final
Analizat, n esena lui, prin raportare la social, romanul se vede a fi o transparent
fresc a anilor 80, avnd la baz ideile i obsesiile germinative (singurtatea, iluzia, vina,
teroarea)36. Autorul gsete astfel un prilej cu care curajul de a denuna ororile unui sistem
abuziv, viciat de numeroase reduceri la tcere este enunat curajos, prin destinul lui Daniel
Petric, acest om denumit, ironic ,,norocos, un posibil avatar37 al scriitorului i, totodat, al
omului Paler.
Nu avem n fa, dup cum ne-am fi ateptat, un lupttor antitcere, pentru libertatea
convingerilor i a existenei, ci un exemplar croit dup chipul i asemnarea creatorilor
acestui sistem. Introspecia este, cu att mai puternic construit, cu ct personajul ales nnoat
n negativism i defecte. Un personaj aflat la polul opus ar fi creat cel mult apreciere pentru
lupta sa. Acest Daniel Petric enun, ca un strigt de neoprit, degradarea i superficialul, mult
mai bine dect ar fi putu-o face opusul su, struitor n perfeciune i combatant puternic n
faa unei realiti nesuprimate. Prin existena sa pot fi obiectivate toate neajunsurile i
problemele grave ale Sistemului. Pentru a pune pe tapetul istoriei aceast realitate diform,
autorul se vede obligat s apeleze la nite artificii literare. Nu poate s enune i s denune
realitatea tiind c astfel romanul su ar rmne nepublicat i necitit, fcnd, n plus, i
obiectul unui grav delict mpotriva bunei funcionri a legii i a statului. De aici i decizia de a
striga aceste realiti fr a o enuna direct, ci n baza unui ,,caiet de vise, deinut de
sculptorul Daniel Petric, exemplar fidel al acestei societi damnate.
Cobornd n transparena oniricului i a consecvenei epice, acest om norocos triete
i acteaz conform ,,principiilor stabilite de o societate mbolnvit de morbul degradrii, n
care sacrul i pierde orice valen iar profanul urc i coboar destine i caractere. Niciunul
dintre personajele romanului nu a fost creat pentru a declara mpotriva sistemului ci, mai
33
Ibidem, p. 443.
34
35
Ibidem, p. 483.
36
Mircea Zaciu, Marian Papahagi, Aurel Sasu, Dicionarul scriitorilor romni (M-Q), Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 2000, p. 265.
37
Daniel Cristea-Enache, Ultimul Paler, [n] ,,Revista Romneasc, nr. 48, 2007, http://www.romlit.ro/ultimul_
Paler
261
SECTION: LITERATURE
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degrab, pentru a-i exalta greelile i defectele. Nu putem astfel trasa o grani ntre
personajele aa-zis pozitive i cele negative cci ar fi cu neputin o astfel de clasificare.
Dac este s-l condamnm pe Daniel Petric, o putem face cu toat convingerea, cci
acesta este un produs al sistemului, aproape o mainrie care acioneaz la impulsuri, instincte
i pornire, dei tim c are contiin i discernmnt. Dac e s-l aprm, lovind de aceast
dat n metehnele mediului ce l-a creat, personajul i-ar pierde din importan i ar devein
inert, ntrerupnd astfel pulsul realitii.
Fr s putem afirma, cu certitudine care ar fi
cheia de decodare a romanului, ne rmn dou puncte de reper: Un sculptor ratat social i
sentimental i viseaz n locuina austere, din curtea cioplitorului de cruci un destin n care
devine un erou de conjuncture ce tine friele unui azil, ajungnd din simplu invitat-oaspete al
locului la conducerea lui, prin manipularea minilor btrnilor decrepii coabitani ai azilului.
Pe de alt parte, Daniel Petric devine corespondentul i emblema unei societi certate,
vizibil, cu moralul, cu altruismul, cu responsabilitatea i curajul, dar mai ales cu libertatea
individuluidevenind purttor de cuvnt al sistemului anterevoluionar, instaurat n spaiul
romnesc antedecembrist. Privit din aceste dou unghiuri romanul, Un om norocos, trimite
spre aceeai concluzie n spaiul damnat al unui sistem nchis, privarea de libertate i
anularea contiinei sunt arme cu care se neutralizeaz existena iar halucinaia, visul, realul i
irealul i dau mna n semn de coabitare.
Tot ceea ce rmne de fcut este s pactizm cu personajul, fr a-l judeca n afara
mediului ultragiat ce l-a creat, i al crui produs este. Varianta sa pozitiv ar fi atentat serios
la transparentarea universului proiectat de facto i de jure. Personajul nu are greutate dect n
msura n care i se confer calitatea de exponent prezentnd ,,lecia existenial a iluziei ca
motivaie tragic a umanitii38. O dat anulat, aceast calitate, romanul i pierde greutatea
i libertatea de a vedea dincolo de ceea ce s-a scris despre Epoca de Aur. Ori autorul tocmai
acest pas a ncercat s-l evite
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Crihan, Alina, Naraiuni identitare n proza lui Octavian Paler: de la romanul
parabolic la scriitura autobiografic postotalitar, [n] ,,Revista Transilvania, nr.
3/2013, revist editat de Centrul Cultural Interetnic Transilvan, serie nou, Anul
XLI (CXLV)
2. Cristea-Enache, Daniel, Convorbiri cu Octavian Paler, Editura Corint, Bucureti,
2007
3. Cristea-Enache, Daniel, Ultimul Paler, [n] ,,Romnia Literar Nr. 48, 2007,
http://www.romlit.ro/ultimul_paler
4. Ferrari, Ana, Dicionar de mitologie greac i romn, traducere de Emanuela
Stoleriu, Dragos Cojocaru, Dana Zamosteanu, Editura Polirom, Bucureti, 2003
5. Gusdorf, Georges, Auto-bio-graphie, Lignes de vie 2, Odile Jacob, Paris, 1991
6. Micu, Dumitru,
Istoria Literaturii romne, De la creaia literar la
postmodernism, Editura Saeculum. I. O., Bucureti, 2000
7. Paler, Octavian, Un om norocos, Prefa de Mircea Iorgulescu, Ediia a II-a, Editura
Polirom, Iai, 2008.
38
Ileana Alexandrescu-Voicu, Octavian Paler Mitopoetica eseului, Editura Alfa, Iai, 2008
262
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263
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Abstract: In the Romanian literature, framing Mircea Ivnescus poetry in a stream of literature
cannot be done accurately. Mircea Ivnescu is a complex poet, which offers a new formula of writing
poetry: the games of poetry. The poetry is for the poet, the one who speaks of inner reality using the
right words. His poetry opens a new chapter in the romanian literature, writing intellectualist poems,
poems of remembrance, poems of everyday reality. The tone used is a common one, as the language
of the time, apparently humanized. The technique used is intertextualism.Therefore we looked over
2000 until 2003 to see how is seen his poetry trought critical eyes and to find out what is his place in
the course of literature.
SECTION: LITERATURE
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dect o monotonie aparent, noteaz Cristina Niu. Mircea Ivnescu este poetul ce rescrie
mereu acelai poem original, folosindu-se de o metod subtil, aflat sub aura melancoliei.
n anul 2001 singurul articol aprut, n periodicele vremii, este un omagiu adus lui
Mircea Ivnescu cu ocazia zilei sale de natere. Revista Observator cultural puncteaz la ceas
aniversar importana scriitorului care prefaeaz postmodernitatea literar de azi. Printre
trsturile enumerate se aduce n discuie contribuia la recuperarea narativitii n poezia
autohton din partea a doua a anilor 60 i din anii 70, se evideniaz c scrie proz n
versuri, desfurri epice ample sub form de poveti, povestiri i amintiri. Emblema
poetului este considerat a fi personajul mopete.
n acest articol este publicat motivaia Asociaiei Scriitorilor Profesioniti din
Romnia ASPRO, la solicitarea Comitetului Nobel al Academiei Suedeze, unde poetul a
fost nominalizat pentru premiul Nobel, alturi de Gellu Naum i Paul Goma, n anul 1999.
Motivaia aduce n discuie calitatea de pionier al postmodernismului n Europa Central i de
Est, amintete de debutul poetului din 1968, la vrsta de 37 de ani. Poetul este cunoscut
pentru faptul c abandonase moda metaforic, n favoarea direciei descriptive i narative a
poeziei anglo-saxone1 iar articolul vorbete despre influena sa asupra poeilor romni ai
anilor 80 i 90.
O caracterizare dat poemelor mirceaivnesciene se realizeaz prin apropierea
acestora de maniera proustian, ele fiind compuse asemenea unei Odisee a sensibilitii
contemporane: Poemele lungi ale lui Mircea Ivnescu compun un fel de Odisee a
sensibilitii contemporane, asaltate de oameni i de obiecte, dar nu mai puin rsfrnt asupra
emoiilor i a vieii interioare, ntr-o manier pe care critica a considerat-o n repetate rnduri
proustian.
n anul 2003 apar un numr de nou articole n revistele de specialitate i dou cri
despre Mircea Ivnescu. Putem afirma c acest an este un an productiv din punctul de vedere
al receptrii critice. Ce considerm c merit s atrag atenia este contribuia, n acest sens, a
lui Matei Clinescu, care aduce n prim-plan cteva aspecte noi, nemaiabordate de critica
mirceaivnescian, alturi de monografia realizat de Al. Cistelecan, prima monografie
despre opera lui Mircea Ivnescu, precum i apariia unui val de tineri critici, printre care
amintim contribuia Raluci Dun sau a lui Victor Marian Buciu, care abordeaz lirica
poetului i propun viziuni ce completeaz tabloul creat poetului pn acum.
Aducem n prim-plan articolul lui Matei Clinescu despre Poezia lui Mircea Ivnescu,
publicat n revista Apostrof . Acest articol pune fa n fa asemnri ale poemelor lui Mircea
Ivnescu cu scrieri ale lui Mallarm, Kierkegaard, gsind o altfel de abordare sub condeiul
profesorului de literatur comparat.
Matei Clinescu consider c ecoul mallarmean are rsunet n poezia lui Mircea
Ivnescu prin atmosfera modern, prin jocul alternativ al lui noi cu eu, printr-o obsesiv
revenire la meteorologie, cu preferina pentru anotimpul iarna.
Poezia lui Mircea Ivnescu se evideniaz prin crearea unei atmosfere specifice,
asemntoare cu cea gsit de poet n lecturile ndrgite, cu elemente din atmosfera cotidian
contemporan cunoscut i nou tuturor.
Anotimpul preferat al poetului, din perspectiva lui Matei Clinescu, este iarna,
descris ca aducnd ninsori infinite, zpezi viscolite, ploi amestecate cu ninsoare, ngheuri
ce afecteaz i strile de spirit (o melancolie geroas), zpezi i iari zpezi, albe, orbitoare,
murdare2, o viziune nu att de diferit pe ct pare de cea a lui Mallarm.
1
2
265
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Ibidem, p. 5
Ibidem, p. 5
5
Matei Clinescu, Poezia lui Mircea Ivnescu (II), n Apostrof, 2003, nr. 4, p. 4
4
266
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(moffeta, de la muffa, nsemnnd mucegai). Mofette n francez (dup micul Robert) are
sensul emanaie de gaz carbonic rece, consecutiv unei erupii vulcanice; e un gaz nociv, pe
care Candrea l nregistreaz n romnete ca mofet, cu explicaia: orice gaz ce nu poate
fi respirat. Tot n francez, mofette mai desemneaz i un animal, un fel de dihor ru
mirositor [...] Asociaiile sunt deci neplcute, dar schimbarea fonemului f i p
neutralizeaz acest efect conotativ. Ceea ce este interesant e faptul c acest cuvnt poate
suferi asociaii fonice interesante, cu toate c e o invenie proprie a poetului: A zice c
mopete are asociaii fonice mai degrab comice, simpatic-comice; mai are meritul c e un
cuvnt inventat, unic, fr asociaii denotative sau etimologice imediate i, cum am vzut, cu
posibiliti de a fi citit anagramatic, ceea ce l-ar nnobila6. Ceea ce este clar i de reinut este
faptul c acest nume aparine total lui Mircea Ivnescu .
Prietenii lui Mopete sunt apropiaii din realitatea cotidian, ntre care Mircea Ivnescu
se nvrtea, de aceea se observ uurina cu care poetul le realizeaz portretele. Bruna
Rowena, tnra Nefa, prietenul tatlui lui Vasilescu, care n vacan la mare se joac cu
mingea pe plaj, ca eseistul i. negoescu, ca el midoff, ca gogo zagora i dr. Cabalu, care i
provoac o mare invidie lui mopete pentru c sttea la mas cu o zei cu bucle rocate, v.
nnopteanu erau
cunotine apropiate poetului, le tia firea. Matei Clinescu cunoate adevratele
nume ale personajelor, pe care consider c nu e momentul a le face cunoscute, dei face ceva
aluzii la unele asemnri ntre ceea ce fceau personajele i ceea ce fceau prietenii lui Mircea
Ivnescu n realitate.
Pentru Matei Clinescu, Mircea Ivnescu este un scriitor ocazional, evideniindu-se
prin abilitatea sa de a scrie uor n orice situaie. Acest aspect este evideniat prin pariul pe
care scriitorul l face cu Nichita Stnescu, pariu pe care l duce la bun sfrit ntr-un timp
scurt.
Alex. tefnescu n articolul su despre Mircea Ivnescu nu aduce noi interpretri, ci
reproduce ceea ce a mai scris despre poet, n recenziile trecute. Ne aduce n prim-plan opinia
sa despre discursurile prozaice, alctuite prin renunarea la artificii, la imagini poetice,
folosind tehnica evocrii. Criticul observ faptul c poetul evit s-i declare n mod direct
sentimentele, asigurndu-i cititorii c nu vorbete serios, ci doar i imagineaz. Cu toate c
aduce n discuie principiul care spune c nu e bine s povesteti n poezie, scriitorul nu l
respect, susine Alex. tefnescu.
Pentru Alex. tefnescu, poezia mirceaivnescian ia o nfiare aproape de
realitatea trit, poetul inventeaz personaje pe care le urmrete n momentele cele mai
banale. Poetul i ironizeaz personajele fr mil, astfel nct cititorul, n schimb, ajunge a le
ndrgi.
Opiniile prezentate de Alex. tefnescu sunt diferite de ale lui Matei Clinescu.
Printre acestea am surprins urmtoarele aspecte: poveste/ descriere, imagine a realitii/
realitate concret, evenimente/ sentiment, ironie/ acceptare.
Raluca Dun consider c singura tem abordat de poet de la primul su volum pn
la ultimul este imposibila rentoarcere n paradisul timpului (interior) pierdut fie c e vorba
de copilrie, de o fptur isoldic sau de simplitatea unei clipe adevrate, netrucate de
imaginaie, memorie ori literatur7. Monotonia, pe care o transmit versurile
mirceaivnesciene, nu este dect o camuflare a discreiei i a seduciei, iar unitatea, unicitatea
se nate din structura circular, continu a poemului.
6
7
Ibidem, p. 5
Raluca Dun, Despre poezia adevrat, n Luceafrul, 2003, nr. 31, p.4
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10
268
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ntunec tulburtoarea lumin seral: poezia lui Mircea Ivnescu este cu siguran unul
dintre ceasurile care msoar timpul poeziei romne contemporane13.
O interpretare interesant despre poezia lui Mircea Ivnescu o propune BogdanAlexandru Stnescu. El vede n extensia, n dezvoltarea tentacular a poeticii, termeni
sinonimi cu poezia mirceaivnescian: Conceptul cheie n cazul poetului retras n Sibiu ar fi
extensia, dezvoltarea tentacular a poeticii cu fiecare cuvnt scris, narativitatea de factur
anglo-saxon14.
Obsesia timpului originar este cheia poeticii lui Mircea Ivnescu, susine Aurel
Pantea. n acest fel imaginarul este surprins n diversitatea de chipuri ale lui Cronos: n toate
crile sale de poezie apare cu pregnan obsesia unui timp originar, ntrezrit ca o promisiune
fugar cu fiecare nou situaie poetic. Strategiile de construcie a poemelor [] devin n
consens cu cele spuse mai sus, un model de cutare i, n acelai timp, provocare a unui
asemenea timp originar15.
Apariia volumului Aceleai versuri, publicat de editura Dacia, n 2002, este fcut
cunoscut prin recenzia Raluci Dun, care pune n discuie cteva aspecte interesante cu
privire la acest volum. Despre acest volum aflm c este compus din versurile publicate n
presa ultimilor ani de Mircea Ivnescu, adunate de poeii sibieni D. Chioaru i Radu Vancu,
dei nu sunt menionai ca ngrijitori ai ediiei ca atare.
Versurile acestui volum sunt scrise folosindu-se acelai discurs monoton, dar care e
seductor i care poart cititorul n lumi nchipuite, interioare, care se deschid i se nchid
concentric n ele nsele, absorbind realitatea16.
O alt trstur remarcat este discreia versurilor. Aceasta i permite comparaia cu
poeziile lui Emily Dickinson, ntruct poetul aduce n imaginea absenei fpturi
prezentificate, adic personaje, amintiri, chipurile i nelesurile realitii. Acest
procedeu este folosit cu scopul de a seduce cititorul, rmnnd astfel prizonierul acestei
realiti.
Prin intermediul unui anume retorism, prin teatralitate se construiete o stare de
ateptare greu de definit, un suspans aproape dureros. Acest aspect se face simit prin
prezena celebrelor paranteze, linii de pauz, explicaii, repetiii, reluri ale unei teme pe
mai multe voci, prin trimiteri livreti. Poetul se folosete de teatralitate pentru a ascunde
neputina exprimrii unui sentiment tragic al fiinei. Acest mod de a ascunde este unul discret,
specific versurilor mirceaivnesciene i este folosit ca mijloc de a sublinia neputina
exprimrii nude, neputin trit de poet cu acuitate: Teatralitate, livresc, retoric,
prozaism, anodin ascuns de fapt, cu aceeai discreie, un lirism funciar, contient de neputina
exprimrii sale nude, reconstruit prin metoda naraiunii realiste, cotidian-biografice17.
Mircea Ivnescu ne povestete prin intermediul unor false naraiuni despre frumuseea
clipei, despre anumite stri, despre amintirea gestului sau chipul unei femei, sub forma unor
scenarii verbale, unde realul devine imaginar, asemenea unui joc fantomatic, noteaz Raluca
Dun. Povestirea clipei se face din dorina de o transforma n timp, adugndu-i-se atributele
necesare pentru a o face sensibil, palpabil. Ceea ce surprinde n cazul poetului este
legtura care se realizeaz ntre a povesti i a vedea, pentru c a povesti la Mircea Ivnescu
este sinonim cu a vedea, surprinde Raluca Dun: El traduce imaginea realului n scenarii
verbale, fantasme, fictive, care golesc realul de substan, umplnd un spaiu-timp imaginar,
care i el i va deconspira incertitudinea. De aici, o anumit spectralitate a lirismului su,
13
Ibidem, p. 4
Bogdan-Alexandru Stnescu, Sintez epic i cinci poei, n Luceafrul, 2003, nr. 26, p. 5
Aurel Pantea, Spaiul i timpul visate, n Vatra, 2003, nr. 1, p. 30
16
Raluca Dun, Ceasul vrjitoresc al poeziei, n Luceafrul, 2003, nr. 13, p. 4
17
Ibidem, p. 4
14
15
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aura tulbure, chiar dac adesea luminoas, care plutete, neputincioas, asemenea fantomei
tatlui lui Hamlet, peste trmul unui timp iremediabil pierdut.
n aceast poezie de atmosfer se ascunde o filosofie a timpului i a relaiei timpspaiu, observ Raluca Dun. Ea consider c poezia mirceaivnescian se desfoar
jumtate ntr-un timp prezent, jumtate ntr-un timp trecut. Aceeai teorie e valabil i n
cazul spaiului poeziei, astfel poetul se joac permanent: jumtate aparine spaiului real, iar
cealalt jumtate spaiului interior: Poezia lui Mircea Ivnescu se desfoar jumtate ntr-un
trm real (camera, biblioteca, parcul, strada), jumtate ntr-un spaiu interior (strzi, camere
sufleteti), jumtate n prezent, jumtate n trecut. Jocul permanent (aici-acolo, acum-atunci,
acesta-aceea), de persoane (eu tu el ea - noi) ne plaseaz ntr-o (i)realitate fluctuant,
polifonic, faulknerian.
270
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Abstract: The text outlines the image of one of the most representative places for interwar
Romanian literary bohemians. Being located downtown, at the junction of Calea Victoriei
street and Edgar Quinet street, Capsa is of essential reference for the bohemians all over the
country, gathering people of various domains. Writers, painters, sculptors, teachers,
journalists, officials and artists for whom Capsa becomes a vital place, could be met at the
cafs tables.
Over the years, the caf undergoes a series of transformations and thus becomes a true
landmark of Romanian cultural life, while reading and writing are essential in order to be
accepted at Capsa. Being the scholars and creators favourite place, Capsa attracts more
people, from well-known writers to future writers, it becomes known both in the rural world
and abroad, being associated with Faiot restaurant, caf Flonari in Venice and hotel Sacher
in Vienna.
Political events escape control and the aftermath of World War II gradually extinguish the
glory of the caf that first turns into a restaurant, then a luxurious confectioner, eliminating
the artistic clientele with weaker financial situation from start. In addition, artists are divided
between the Athne Palace, Nestor confectioner and Caf de la Paix, while social and
political circumstances are unfavorable to many famous writers who are arrested, convicted
or banned from editting volumes or publishing in journals.
Keywords: literary bohemians, Capsa, , the caf, artists, Romanian cultural life
Unul dintre cele mai celebre locuri ale Bucuretiului, Capa, rezist timpurilor i i
pstreaz profilul extrem de mult vreme, considerat fiind de Paul Morand1 inima oraului
din punct de vedere topografic i moral. Capa nseamn patru lucruri n acelai timp: un
hotel, o cofetrie, un restaurant i o cafenea [...]. E un stil, o tradiie, un obicei, un organ un
decor, o sal a Pailor Pierdui, un monument i o cocard, aceast Capa [...]. Capa este un
loc foarte civilizat ar spune romnii. Capa este timpanul acestei mari urechi care e
Bucuretiul, ora al zvonurilor. Capa face parte din rndul cofetriilor celebre ale
Bucuretiului, Nestor, Zamfirescu, La Palat, ns se distinge de acestea prin bomboanele
deosebite i ciocolata savuroas, cunoscute n ntreaga Europ, ambalate n casete speciale,
fin creionate de Nicolae Vatamanu2. Astfel aceasta are 27 cm lungime, 17 cm lime, 11 cm
nlime. Un dublu fir de metal, bine ngropat n abanos, i mpodobete capacul cu un chenar,
iar n mijloc se gsete un ecuson metalic. Alt fir simplu metalic formeaz cadrul feei
anterioare. St pe patru butoane. Se ncheie cu o chei legat cu o fund roie. Solid lucrat,
este sobr, dar frumoas. Surpriza casetei apare doar cnd i ridici capacul. Fiindc pe
dinuntru acesta este dublat de o oglind, cam aburit de anii care s-au scurs. O dubl draperie
1
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de pnz roie, strns n cordane i alta, ripsat i dispus n arcad dubl, ncadreaz oglinda
lateral i deasupra. Un irag rou de inele brodate mrginete arcadele.
Aflat la intersecia Cii Victoriei cu strada Edgar Quinet, Capa este nfiinat de
ctre fraii cu acelai nume (Anton, Vasile, Constantin i Grigore), care ridic meteugul
cofetriei la nivel de art i timp de aptezeci i cinci de ani a fost mai mult dect un hotel, o
cofetrie sau o cafenea, a fost, ntr-un fel, buricul rii i cronica ei vie3, detestnd cel mai
mult prostia. Deschis iniial de doi dintre frai, Vasile Capa, care a nvat meserie timp de
10 ani la Constantin Lefteru (n alte variante, Alexandru Elefterescu) i Anton (acesta a
renunat la slujba pe care o avea la Vistierie), n Hanul Damari de pe Podul Mogooaiei,
vizavi de mnstirea Zltari, cofetria se mut la 26 octombrie 1856 n casele lui Vasile
Paapa, la Castrioaia, unde i va desfura activitatea pn la rzboiul din Crimeea, cnd
Vasile Capa i ncearc i n alt fel destinul. Hotrt s-i asigure un trai mai bun, acesta
pleac spre Sevastopol cu diferite sortimente de mncare (afumturi din carne de porc, unci,
cacaval, pine etc.), dar cldura mare i altereaz produsele i pierde aproape totul. Se
ntoarce spre cas prin Bulgaria i uimit de rodnicia naturii, se oprete o vreme, hotrt s-i
recupereze pierderea anterioar. Astfel, va vinde oamenilor de acolo diverse sortimente de
dulciuri, de la dulceuri, erbeturi, compoturi, fondante, la cozonaci, prjituri, ngheate,
picoturi sau nuga.
n 1855 se asociaz cel de-al treilea frate, Constantin, care a nvat meserie de la ei
timp de opt ani. n 1859 fraii Capa mai deschid un spaiu i n Craiova, n casa lui Hagi
Tudorache, dar succesul se las ateptat, doi dintre frai retrgndu-se, Anton n 1865 iar
Constantin n 1867. Istoria Capei nu ia sfrit. Cel care o aduce pe culmile succesului este
Grigore, care nva tainele cofetriei de la fratele su, Vasile. n plus, la cincisprezece ani, la
1856, acesta a avut ansa s se specializeze la Paris, la unul dintre cei mai renumii patiseri,
Boissier, de la care a deprins toate secretele domeniului, devenind un adevrat maestru al
preparrii dulceurilor, lichiorurilor, siropurilor sau al fructelor cu rachiu. Ca urmare, el are
curajul s-i expun produsele la o mare Expoziie Internaional, fiind singurul strin care a
avut acest curaj. Momentul este unul de glorie suprem, nsi mprteasa Eugenia este
impresionat de gustul deosebit al produselor sale, promindu-i s-l fac furnizor al curii
imperiale. n 1868 se asociaz cu singurul frate care a mai rmas s in friele cofetriei,
Vasile, noua cofetrie numindu-se La doi frai, Constantin i Grigore Capa. Din 1872
singurul proprietar rmne Grigore Capa, care, dorind s fie printre cei mai buni cofetari
europeni, aduce specialiti cu experien, pentru ca din 1891 s deschid i spaiul pentru
consum, care ulterior va deveni celebra cafenea.
Lumea boemei bucuretene este atras ca un magnet de inedita cafenea, a crei
imagine o creioneaz i Vlaicu Brna4: n lungul pereilor cafenelei Capa se aflau canapele
pluate, n faa lor mese de lemn de fag lustruit, iar pe cealalt parte scaune. Pe mese,
scrumiere adnci, dreptunghiulare din tabl de alam. Consumaia de baz era varul,
preparat de origine german, servit n vechile localuri, i a crui vog a inut pn la cel de-al
doilea rzboi mondial. Era consumaia cea mai ieftin, cea mai accesibil pungilor boemei
literare, dar ea reprezenta blazonul breslei i, n acelai timp consemnul ei democratic, pentru
c var consumau i maetrii cnd descindeau aici. Se mai servea cafea turceasc i filtru,
cafea cu lapte i capuiner. Dup orele 11 dimineaa se putea comanda pateuri calde i lng
ele un pri sau o uic. Mai mult de att, autorul red i o reet a varului, deinut chiar de
la unul dintre bieii ce serveau la cafenea n ultimii ei ani, Niculae, Ni i Brsan. Acesta din
urm dezvluie faptul c varul se prepara n cantitate mare, o singur dat pe zi, dimineaa,
ntr-un vas de zece sau cincisprezece litri. n apa care fierbea n acel vas se punea o cantitate
3
4
Gheorghe Crutzescu, Podul Mogooaia Povestea unei strzi, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1986, p. 127
Vlaicu Brna, ntre Capa i Corso, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 2005, p. 8
272
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corespunztoare de cafea mcinat mare, ca pentru filtru, i tot atta cicoare. Aceast fiertur
luat de pe foc i strecurat era varul. Se ducea la mas cald, ntr-o cup de metal alb, cu un
design specific, imitat dup cele din cafenelele Vienei, avnd alturi, pe tav, ceaca albastr
de cobalt cu linguria, bucelele de zahr cubic i paharul cu ap rece5.
n ceea ce privete lumea care se perinda pe la Capa, acesta era destul de divers,
autohton, dar i strin, adunat la un loc pentru a savura att brfele, ct i varul specific,
pentru a vorbi sau pentru a fi ascultat. Ca urmare, Capa devine echivalentul unui adevrat
loc de munc pentru muli care o frecventau, un reper veritabil al vieii culturale romneti n
care se citea i chiar se scria, un spaiu cu un farmec aparte n care muzele aduceau de cele
mai multe ori scriitorilor eliberarea deplin, mai ales c numai cafeneaua urzete dificila
pnz de pianjen a gloriei. Scara de mtase pe care poi s urci, sau de pe care poate s-i
lunece piciorul n gol, e la discreia ei. Din cafenea am vzut ridicndu-se minitri, mari
industriai, bancheri, profesori universitari, directori de gazet... Totul este s tii cnd s-o
abandonezi...6.
Primul rzboi mondial aduce importante schimbri n viaa Capei deoarece
evenimentele dramatice au reuit s schimbe generaiile care vor impune localului un caracter
exclusiv literar. ncepe acum o alt etap mai interesant, impregnat de povetile scriitorilor,
artitilor i publicitilor, care ncearc s recompun atmosfera prieteneasc prielnic
relaionrii dar i comunicrii spirituale. Astfel Capa devine localul crturarilor i al
creatorilor, laboratorul n care se discutau, se diagnosticau i se plmdeau toate combinaiile
politice de la ordinea zilei; n aceast cafenea se ticluiau pn i listele ministeriale, dup fiece
criz de guvern7; e un reper spre care toate drumurile converg mai devreme sau mai trziu,
un loc ntr-o continu efervescen, un spaiu literar n care dialogurile se ncingeau de la o
mas la alta peste capul tu; jocul dinamic, virulent al opiniilor se ncrucia n toat voia, cu
exuberan. Polemica, diatriba, snoava piperat i atacul, viclean pregtit sau spontan, evoluau
pe scena ngust dar tumultoas. Adic o exersare, cu causticitate a floretelor, dezbaterile
decurgnd n libertate deplin, mediul fiindu-le propice, deoarece ne aflam ntr-o cafenea8.
Cu toate acestea, imaginea Capei este diferit receptat de-a lungul timpului. Ca
urmare apar dou tipuri de atitudini, prima se refer la aspectul pozitiv al localului din
viziunea bucuretenilor, iar a doua se refer la cel negativ, receptat astfel de ctre provinciali,
n viziunea crora Capa aduna nu talentele, ci scriitorii i artitii ratai. Ziarele vremii
surprind articole violente la adresa capitilor, celebru fiind articolul unui ieean aflat sub
pseudonimul XY, publicat n revista Lumea din 1925, care nega cu vehemen orice valoare a
celor care frecventau Capa dup rzboi, acuzndu-i de lips de patriotism i cosmopolitism.
La vocea ieeanului reacioneaz dur unul dintre clienii fideli ai cafenelei, Tudor Arghezi 9,
care public n aceeai revist, numrul 21, articolul intitulat Capa i capismul (29 martie
1925): Provincialul crede c la Capa face purici oriicine. Trebuie rezisten i spirit.
Mesele sunt alturate, localul e mic i toat lumea st pe canapeaua lung de plu. Capa e un
parlament universal. Cine vrea s devie capist trebuie s fie, cum se zice la Braov, zolid. El
sosete, ia o cafea, intr n vorb cu un capist nveterat i a doua oar nu mai d pe la Capa;
fie c se abine definitiv, fie c rsufl ntr-o zi printr-o revist. Urechile aud, mintea rostete
i eti clasat definitiv, iar zincul n lexicon, la litera z. Capistul e un individ inteligent i
primejdios i critica real se face la Capa, nu n presa literar. Dac eti prost la Capa, este
imposibil s fii inteligent altundeva, mcar n scris .
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permanent al cafenelei trebuia s tii s vorbeti, s tii s asculi i s tii s taci [...]. Nu era
nevoie s fii orator ca s strluceti la cafenea. Era destul s ai spirit percutant i concis. Ca s
asculi era de ajuns s ai controlul reflexelor i rbdarea necesar pentru a nu ntrerupe
zadarnic14.
Unul dintre obinuiii cafenelei era i Ion Barbu, matematicianul i scriitorul pentru
care cafeneaua reprezenta o a doua cas, inabordabil de multe ori, mereu aplecat asupra
cursurilor de matematic sau asupra vreunei creaii. De altfel, el este printre puinii care
reuete s-i aduc soia n spaiul rezervat brbailor. La fel ca i la Caf de la Paix i Corso,
poetul avea propria mas, atrgnd precum un magnet nume importante printre care Radu
Boureanu, Adrian Rogoz, Oscar Lemnaru, Vladimir Streinu, uli Gheorghiu sau
matematicienii Ciornescu i Onicescu. Alteori la masa sa se opreau poetul H. Bonciu
(neagreat de Barbu), Paul Georgescu, Marcel Breslau sau Crohmlniceanu. ns prezena sa
la Capa este justificat prin faptul c acolo att poetul-matematician Ion Barbu gsete
atmosfera propice rezolvrii problemelor, momentul fiind susinut i de nelipsita cafea, drogul
fr de care munca e zadarnic. De aceea, orice rabat de la calitatea cafelei este repede
sesizat de Barbu care nu ezit niciun moment s se revolte, reclamnd acest lucru n condica
de reclamaii i sugestii a cafenelei, textul fiind redat de Gerda Barbilian15 n volumul dedicat
soului su:
17.XI.1951 Nu vin la cafenea nici ca s fac afaceri, nici ca s stau de vorb. Vin
ca s-mi fac munca mea de matematician care are, din pcate, nevoie de excitantul cafelei. M
cost bani i sntate, dar nevoia e imperioas. Filtrul care mi se servete uneori e o
contrafacere. Desigur, apa dulceag i neagr care se aduce sub acest nume nu face 200 de lei.
Declar c aceast neregul, aplicat mie, pentru care cafeneaua este un fel de cabinet
de lucru, nseamn pur i simplu sabotagiu.
Lucrez la un tratat de matematice (i n calitatea de scriitor la o traducere din
Shakespeare).
Fac vinovai pe funcionarii puini scrupuloi, care-mi falsific filtrul, de ntrzierea
muncii mele.
D. Barbilian
(scriitorul Ion Barbu) profesor la Universitatea C.I. Parhon, membru al Uniunii
Scriitorilor din R.P.R..
n atmosfera capist deseori puteau fi vzui erban Cioculescu, Ion Minulescu,
Tudor Arghezi, Alexandru Theodor Stamatiad, Corneliu Moldovanu, Dimitrie Nanu, Victor
Eftimiu. Nu se pot omite nici figurile lui Artur Enescu sau Stan Palanca, Dimitrie Stelaru,
Constant Tonegaru, Tudor George, George Mrgrit sau Theodor Pc, cu toii ns tiau s
accepte sau s ironizeze apucturile sau ticurile celorlali.
Un loc aparte n atmosfera capist l au I. Peltz i Mircea Damian, a crui imagine
este surprins de Bogdan Amaru n reportajul su, Cafeneaua cu genii i tutun, publicat n
ziarul Vremea, 1935: vine zilnic la cafenea, nepieptnat i morocnos. Cere un var sau un
pahar cu ap, aprinde o igar i pe urm scoate o coal mare din buzunarul de la piept, o
ntinde pe mas i se uit lung la ea. E planul de atac al lui Damian. n mijloc e desenat un
prmac, reprezentnd pe autor. De la prmac pleac liniue n diverse direcii, oprindu-se la
covrigii pozai pe hrtie, reprezentnd persoanele care trebuie lovite cu prmacul.
Dintre clienii fideli ai localului se remarc i imaginea lui Camil Petrescu, cel care
mai bine de zece ani i bea cafeaua la Capa, tcut i nchis, rsfoind gazetele vremii. Galeria
14
15
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este completat de poetul George Gregorian, redactorul ziarului Facla, Nicolae Carandino,
despre care Bogdan Amaru afirm: E una dintre cele mai simpatice figuri ale Capei. Plin de
talent i tineree, Carandino totodat intr n cafenea discret, ca o domnioar. Bea ceai, tot
aa de blond ca i el, citete gazetele i discut la infinit cu Camil Petrescu. Ori de cte ori
vede vreun cunoscut, se ridic surztor de pe canapea, salutnd politicos, apoi se aeaz
binior s nu strice dunga pantalonilor sau s turteasc gambeta. Continund lista, trebuie
aduse n prim plan nume precum Al. T. Stamatiad, Alexandru Cazaban, personaj brfitor,
gata s gseasc nod n papur oricui intr sau iese din cafenea. Pacostea cea mare, ns,
pentru confrai e alta i ea vine atunci cnd prozatorul ncepe s povesteasc anecdote cu
iepuri i coofene, pe care le-a mai spus, dar a uitat16 sau Al. O. Teodoreanu, cunoscut drept
Pstorel prin faptul c degusta pstorea vinurile i provoca diverse dispute literare n
preajma lor.
Dup 1955-1960 se transform mai nti n restaurant, apoi n cofetrie de lux, ce
elimin din start clientela artistic i scriitoriceasc cu o situaie material mai slab, astfel c
artitii care o frecventau s-au mprit ntre Athne Palace, cofetria Nestor i Caf de la
Paix. Mai mult, mprejurrile sociale i politice devin neprielnice multor scriitori de prestigiu
(Radu Gyr, Tudor Arghezi, Vasile Voiculescu) care sunt arestai i condamnai sau pui sub
interdicia de a mai edita volume sau publica n reviste.
n plan politic evenimentele se precipit, iar cel de-al doilea rzboi mondial stinge
treptat gloria ultimei cafenele literare de faim mai ales dup naionalizarea din 1948. Oprirea
importului de cafea determin ncheierea epocii varului, care a fost nlocuit cu cafeaua
turceasc preparat din diverse surogate, mei, nut, smburi de smochine, iar mai apoi cu
Expresso-ul italian.
Bibliografie:
1. Arghezi, Tudor, Capa i capismul, n Lumea, an I, nr 21, 29 martie 1925
2. Baltazar, Camil, Evocri i dialoguri literare, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1974
3. Barbilian, Gerda, Ion Barbu. Amintiri, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1979
4. Brna, Vlaicu, ntre Capa i Corso, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 2005
5. Bilciurescu, Victor, Bucureti i bucureteni de ieri i de azi, Editura Paideia,
Bucureti, 2003
6. Buda, Nicholas, Constantin Aronescu sau Ultima Boem a Micului Paris, Editura
Casa Crii de tiin, Cluj-Napoca, 2010
7. Crutzescu, Gheorghe, Podul Mogooaia Povestea unei strzi, Editura Meridiane,
Bucureti, 1986
8. Eftimiu, Victor, Amintiri i polemici, Editura Cultura Romneasc SAR, Bucureti,
1942, pp. 69-70
9. Manu, Emil, Cafeneaua literar, Editura Saeculum I.O., Bucureti, 1997
10. Morand, Paul, Bucureti, Editura Echinox, Cluj, 2000
11. Popescu, Florentin, Bucuretii cafenelelor literare, Editura DominoR, Bucureti,
2007
12. Popescu, Florentin, O istorie anecdotic a literaturii romne, vol. I, Editura
Saeculum I.O., Editura Vestala, Bucureti, 1999
13. Neagu Rdulescu, Turnul Babel, Editura Saeculum I.O., Bucureti, 1999
14. Vatamanu, Nicolae, Odinioar, n Bucureti, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1975
16
Florentin Popescu, O istorie anecdotic a literaturii romne, vol. I, Editura Saeculum I.O., Editura Vestala, Bucureti, 1999, p. 284
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Abstract: This paper overviews several features of Canadian literature, namely its novelty,
bilingualism and multiculturalism drawing on both international and Romanian perspectives.
It is our belief that a diachronic perspective on such major issues in Canadian literature and
a glimpse on its reception by international and domestic criticism could be useful to any study
pertaining to Canada, in general and the reception of its literature(s), in particular.
Keywords: Canadian literature, bilingualism, multiculturalism, (perspectives of) Romanian
Canadianists, immigrant voices.
Introduction
Despite the countrys long history (the foundation of Quebec in 1608, the
Constitutional Act of 1791 when the name of Canada was first officially used in creating
Upper Canada which became later Ontario and the predominantly French-speaking Lower
Canada, later Quebec, etc.), as far as the reading trends and practices are concerned,
publishing in the modern sense of the word did not develop in Canada until the 19th century.
This is because at first, white communities only consisted of isolated trading-posts and
military garrisons, with scattered settlements (both French and English) in the eastern parts of
the land. When dealing with the cultural history of reading (in Canada), it could be argued
that the small populations of Canada spread on a large geographical area made publishing a
real adventure (Chlebek, 2009: 5-6, passim) perhaps due to the hostile Canadian environment
that prevented pioneering in literature and the arts in colonial times (Keith, 1985: 3-4). As far
as practical reasons are concerned, books were needed in small numbers and even bookshops
were few and far between. But on the other hand, British and American publishers were able
to produce their items at low prices and in numbers that could adequately serve the Canadian
market, as well. Unfortunately, only those Canadian writers who reached international bestseller lists could be distributed in Canada on equal (financial) terms with reputed or simply
successful foreign authors. This is a feature common to many countries with small or scarce
populations, yet the tendency is exacerbated in Canada by the fact that her English-speaking
rivals have produced some of the best literary pieces in the modern world.
Moreover, since there was no copyright protection for books (either for the ones
originating in the colonies or for those imported from England and the US), the piracy of
books was a common practice. Many Canadian authors published their works abroad because
literary publishing had to be supported by authors or it came on a subscription basis.
Furthermore, literary reviews were ephemeral and more material from foreign reviews than
original Canadian one was reprinted in their pages. It is at the end of the 19th century (after
Confederation, in 1867) that copyright law in the US was also settled, thus halting the reprint
industry in Canada. The publishing industry boosted in Canada in the first half of the 20th
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century and by the 1950s four publishing houses that specialized in Canadian literature were
set up: Clarke & Irwin, Macmillan, McClelland & Stewart (The Canadian Publishers), and
Ryerson (Chlebek, 2009 ibidem).
1. Canadian Literature: A New Literature
The first signs of literary activity in Canada can be seen in the work of travelers and
explorers at the end of 18th century and the beginning of 19th century. However, Canadian and
international literary histories (Klink 1965; Jones 1982, etc.), on the one hand and Romanian
works signed by reputed Canadianists (Bottez, 2004; Petru 2005), on the other hand agree on
the fact that the first work of a Canadian-born novelist is John Richardsons Wacousta or the
Prophecy (not translated into Romanian to this day) which came out in 1832. This is if we
leave aside The History of Emily Montague (which appeared in England in 1769) by Frances
Brooke who spent a few years in Quebec in the mid-1760s while her husband was captain of
the English garrison.
Nineteenth century literature is conservative, timid in technique and forms and is
mainly derived from British models. For instance, Bottez (2004: 22) argues that Richardsons
novel is a historical romance in the tradition of Walter Scott, also marking the first appearance
of the Indian in Canadian literature, perhaps under the influence of James Fennimore Cooper.
The History of Emily Montague is an epistolary novel in the manner of Samuel Richardsons
Clarissa (Keith, 1985: 42; J&J Jones, 1982: 19). Moreover, in terms of literary activity in 19th
century Canada, some provinces are ahead of others, i.e. while Nova Scotia was developing a
sense of community that could be explored through the sophisticated medium of satire (by
means of Thomas Chandlers Haliburtons The Clockmaker), Ontario was still being cleared
and settled by pioneers, and the earliest literature of permanent interest from what was then
called Upper Canada portrayed the challenge and impact of the pioneering experience (Keith,
idem, p. 18). Such an instance are the works of two sisters coming from England, Catherine
Parr Traill (who mainly wrote childrens fiction and guidebooks) and Susanna Moodie
(renowned for her Roughing It in the Bush, the account of her colonial experience in Ontario,
later modernized by Margaret Atwood in her collection of poetry, The Journals of Susanna
Moodie). Regarding the contribution of the two sisters to the Canadian literary tradition, John
Moss, the compiler of A Readers Guide to the Canadian Novel comes with the following
explanation: Susanna Moodies Roughing It in the Bush, arguably a novel in any case, plays
a significant role in the evolving Canadian tradition and is represented; her sisters book, The
Backwoods of Canada, while delightful in its own right, remains a document of the past and
is left out (1981: XI). On the one hand, Moodies experience as an immigrant in the new
land is considered to be told in an arrogant and snobbish way to amuse Victorian England
(Chambers, 2006: 33). On the other hand, she confesses to have moved from feelings such as
love for Canada very nearly allied to that which the condemned criminal entertains for his
cell his only hope of escape being through the portals of the grave (1962: 100) in Roughing
It in the Bush, to trust in a promising destiny for the country in Life in the Clearings versus
the Bush:
The time is not far distant when she (Canada) shall be the theme of many tongues,
and the old nations of the world will speak of her progress with respect and admiration. Her
infancy is past, she begins to feel her feet, to know her own strength, and see her way clearly
through the wilderness. Child as you may deem her, she has already battled bravely for her
own rights, and obtained the management of her own affairs. Her onward progress is certain.
There is no if in her case. She possesses within her own territory all the elements of future
prosperity, and she must be great! (1989: 7)
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These are the main literary figures retained by the Romanian professor Monica Bottez
who dealt with this early stage of English Canadian literature in her Infinite Horizons. The
short outline of the history of the book and literary history above could be also provided as an
explanation for the late reception of Canadian literature in Romania as compared to British
and American literature in general. If the circulation of original Canadian literary material
started to take place in the 19th century, it should come as no surprise that such a new
literature was printed in Romanian periodicals no sooner than the beginning of the 20th
century (the poet W.H. Drummond in a Romanian review of 1915), not to mention that booklength treatment was given only in the inter-war period (translations from popular fiction, i.e.
Mazo de la Roches Jalna series in the 1930s and 1940s).
2. A Bilingual Literature
As the two founding nations of Canada, a name that was first officially used in 1791,
when the province of Quebec was divided into two provinces by an act of Parliament, i.e. the
predominantly English-speaking upper Canada, which became later Ontario and the
predominantly French-speaking Lower Canada, later Quebec, the Anglophones and the
Francophones in the two Canadas contributed to the specific Canadian duality that Margaret
Atwood had called the Canadian schizophrenia referring to the identity problem of a
country inhabited by two Founding Nations, with two different languages and two cultural
traditions (Bottez, 2004: 13). The value systems of Upper and Lower Canada are probably
best illustrated by a phrase that moulded the general view on Canada, i.e. Hugh MacLennans
lines from R. M. Rilke for his novel Two Solitudes: Love consists in this,/ that two solitudes
protect,/ and touch, and greet each other (quoted in Steele, 1982: 61).
In The Two Cultures in the Canadian Novel (Steele, 1982: 55), the critic Ronald
Sutherland argues that being bilingual in Canada could be far more complicated than simply
having the capacity to speak both English and French as there were economic, social,
psychological, and historical factors to be considered. This is because
For a long time in Quebec, English was identified with economic power and social
ascendency. Thus, for the Anglophone to learn French meant no more than acquiring a second
language, but for the Francophone to learn English meant the possibility of losing a mother
tongue, or re-enacting the Conquest, and of betraying his heritage. Moreover, to climb in the
business world right in Quebec, the francophone was humiliatingly obliged to learn English;
the Anglophone could choose to remain blissfully unilingual.
The statement comes after the establishment of the Royal Commission on
Bilingualism and Biculturalism in 1963 meant to secure an equitable partnership between the
two founding nations.
According to Romanian views on the issue (Petru, 2005: 51), the two literatures of
Canada should be considered from a comparative, thematic viewpoint in the context of
literary identity and no major differences are found except for the language of their works.
Other European critics (Heidenreich, 2008: 104, passim) claim precisely the opposite, namely
that, at least throughout the 19th century, the fictional works of English and French Canadian
writers could not have been more different. For instance, the Samuel Slick novels of
Haliburton (1836) or Richardsons Wacousta (1832) had no correspondents whatsoever in
French-Canadian fiction, whereas the French Canadian romans du terroir (e.g. Antoine
Grin-Lajoies Jean Rivard novels) depicting life in the remote rural regions of Qubec, had
no counterpart in English Canadian literature until the 1920s and 30s when the novels of
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Frederick Philip Grove, Robert Stead and Martha Ortenso came out. Furthermore, the roman
du terroir was regarded as belonging to a didactic genre while the English Canadian novels
mentioned above can be more properly attributed to the genre of realism. The German scholar
further explains the thematic and generic differences between the two literatures by the very
different issues that concerned writers in the English and French-speaking Canada of the time
and the different realities in which they lived. Thus, the French Canadians were still trying to
get over the trauma of the Conquest but what brought the two nations together was the
increasing interest in developments in the USA. However, while classics such as the Nova
Scotian Haliburton playfully satirized his American neighbours to the South, as well as the
Nova Scotian colony, the roman du terroir can be interpreted as a piece of advice for French
Canadians to remain on their land and not answer the call of American manufacturers to head
to the United States. The author concludes that it was only with the appearance of novels in
the realistic stance that English and Canadian fiction showed certain parallels to a limited
degree.
The Canadian critics that reflected on the two cultures proposed a number of
geometrical symbols meant to define the relation between them, parallel lines, the
horizontality of English Canada as opposed to the verticality of Quebec, a spiral, an
ellipse or a double helix. As far as the nations relation with a mother culture goes (either
English or French), English Canada chose to maintain the relations with such an English
culture (be it British or American), while French Canada supported the idea that it was a
separate fragment that followed its own destiny on the North American continent. Even more,
it was asserted that French Canada privileged prose as a more popular and less literary way to
address its pubic, while in the English-speaking part poetry was preferred (Petru, idem, p.
64).
At the level of the Romanian reception, both Canadian cultures are both represented
since criticism on English and French Canadian authors started to come out since the InterWar years. However, the most intense period of reception is the post-communist one when
Canadian concerns are institutionalized by means of the foundation of Canadian Studies
Centers and academic courses in the field.
3. A Literature of Immigrants
Apart from the literary voices of the two founding nations, immigrant writers are also
an important part of the Canadian mosaic or salad bowl, the alternatives to the American
melting pot. As Staines remarks,
the Canadian preference for a mosaic structure in which all the ethnic and social
regions retain their distinctness is central to an understanding of the nation. As a country,
Canada is not only a mosaic of ethnic cultures but also a mosaic of regions, each with its own
sense of identity; the nation, therefore, exists in a dialectic of regional and ethnic tensions
(1977: 3).
The literature of immigrant writers was grouped under the more generic syntagm of
ethnic literature (Palmer, 2011) used to designate those immigrants who do not belong to
Canadas founding European cultures: the Catholic French and the Protestant Anglo-Celtic,
also embracing the aboriginal inhabitants of Canada, the native Indian and Inuit. The
literature of such authors or the writings about ethnic experience, in general was regarded as
outside the literary mainstream and was less critically dealt with in classic literary histories.
The expression Canadian ethnic literature is complex and depends on combinations of such
variables as the writers ethnic identity, the language of writing or translation and the literary
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inquiry that intrinsically invalidates the notion of a single literary tradition (Davis, 2000,
idem). Canada is a nation of immigrants and succeeding groups of immigrants are influenced
by, and themselves influence, those who settled before them. Papers on immigrant Canadian
fiction in its multiple and shifting forms, ethnicity, immigration, inter-group relations, and the
history and cultural life of ethnic groups in Canada have been collected in the
interdisciplinary journal Canadian Ethnic Studies/ Etudes ethniques au Canada founded in
1969.
Many of Canadas celebrity immigrant writers, such as Yann Martel, Michael
Ondaatje or Carol Shields (whose works have also been translated into Romanian in the postcommunist years), were born and brought up in other countries. The Sri-Lankan born Michael
Ondaatje has been intensively discussed by our Romanian Canadianists in their works (Bottez
2004, Petru 2005, Irimia 2006), not to mention the post-communist literary periodicals. Other
more or less reputed ethnic voices have been included by R. Albu in her Canada anglofon.
Limb i identitate/ Anglophone Canada. Language and Identity (2008) in a chapter entitled
Mozaic literar canadian/ Canadian Literary mosaic: Aritha van Kerk, George Varhey, Rudy
Wiebe, and the Romanian-born writers Flavia Cosma, Kenneth Radu, Barbara Sarpegia and
Eugen Giurgiu. Similarly, Michaela Mudure, in her Canadian Readings (2009), introduced to
the Romanian public diasporic writers such as Monika Lee, Susan Helwig, Janice Kulyk
Keele or Nega Mezlekia.
Conclusions
In our paper we overviewed some of the major features of Canadian literature,
namely: its novelty which is a consequence of its late establishment in the 19th century that
contributed to a later reception in other cultural spaces (including the Romanian one);
bilingualism, accurately tackled by both Romanian Canadianists and international criticics,
despite their opposite views on the issue (cf. Petru, 2005 vs. Heidenreich, 2008); and
immigrant voices that are also made known to the (Romanian) public via fragments from their
works (as collected by Michaela Mudure in Canadian Readings, 2009) or translations (from
Michael Ondaatje, Yann Martel, Kerri Sakamoto, to name but a few).
Bibliography
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Rodica Mihil, Bucureti: Editura Universitii Bucureti.
Chambers, J.K. (2006) Engleza din Canada. In Rodica Albu (ed.) English in
Canada. Representations of Language and Identity, Iai: Casa Editorial Demiurg, p. 15-55.
Chlebek, Diana (2009) Canada. In Watling, Gabrielle (ed.) Cultural History of
Reading, Westport, Connecticut/ London: Greenwood Press, pp. 3-23.
Davis, Rocio G. and Rosalia Baena (eds.) (2000) Tricks with a Glass. Writing
Ethnicity in Canada, Amsterdam/ Atlanta: Rodopi.
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of Alberta. Research Institute for Comparative Literature, pp. 144-168.
Heidenreich, Rosmarin (2008) 1608-2008: The Time In-Between. Major Trends in
French and English Canadian Prose Fiction. In Zeitschrift fr Kanada-Studien, 28(2), pp.
101-113.
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Abstract: Literary designed at Mircea Crtrescu's circle from the Faculty of Letters in
Bucharest, Ana Maria Sandu practices a feminine writing assimilated to personal, intimacy
and sensuality. Making her debut in poetry "Din amintirile unui Chelbasan" (2003) Ana
Maria Sandu is the author of three novels "Fata din casa vagon" (2006), "Omoar-m!"
(2010), "Alearg" (2013) which revalorize women who had been repressed and forgotten.
Wrote both on the discursive axis of autofiction and psychoanalysis, "Fata din casa vagon" is
claimed as a feminine writing which asserts a thematic and stylistic pattern. As the increasing
sensibility, the exploring of sexuality and the returning to childhood compose the nucleus of
the feminine theme, the discourse folds on the poematic prose which is a non-epic writing
based on poetic images and obsessive symbols. The structure rest on the wagon-novel model
sustains another aspect of the autofictional writing the identity projected as Matrioka
puppets and the presence of a ventriloquist voice overlap on a unique image that of thegirl
on the wagon-house. From this point of view, the analysis of the thematic and discursive
field of the novel shows the way in which feminine writing makes the transgression from
(auto)biography to fictional writing a basic qualification for this type of discourse.
Keywords: autofiction, feminine writing, feminine, identity, discourse.
Autoficiunea la feminin
Potrivit opiniilor critice generalizate, atenia acordat intimitii i sensibilitii, ca
reflectare evident a narcisismului feminin, a pasionalului i a (im)pudorii, reprezint o
trstur specific scriiturii feminine. i autoarele romnce vorbesc deschis astzi despre
sexualitatea lor (Cecilia tefnescu), despre dorinele lor (Ruxandra Cesereanu), despre
nevoia de iubire (Ana Maria Sandu) sau despre identitatea sexual (Simona Popescu) i cea
social (Herta Mller). Aderarea scriitoarelor la un nou tematism s-a fcut n acord cu
adoptarea unei noi paradigme discursive modelul autoficional funcioneaz prin
exhibiionism, impudoare, narcisism. Genul bastard, hibrid, ilegitim, caracterizat feminin
prin fora sensibilitii i preocuparea pentru limb i stil, constituie un discurs pe care unele
autoare l-au mbriat cu entuziasm, apropriindu-l chiar ca form de angajare a propriei
persoane ntr-un discurs asumat1. Este evident c spectrul larg al practicii autoficionale
feminine de astzi are nevoie de o jalonare care s evidenieze legturile dintre
Analiznd modul n care autoficiunea se pliaz pe raportul dintre gen autorului i necesitile sale discursive, Annie Ernaux observ
asocierea literaturii feminine cu aceast scriitur: Je nai jamais entendu le mot autofiction propos de Philippe Roth, Philippe Sollers, Jean
Rouaud, Emmanuel Carrre, Frdric-Yves Jeannet, etc. [] Tout se passe trs subtilement comme si lautofiction tait principalement un
genre fminin, avec un cote sentimentalo-trash, narcissique, faon dtourne, inconsciente, dassigner aux femmes leur domaine, leurs
limites et littrature.(Nu am neles niciodat cuvntul autoficiune atribuit lui Philippe Roth, Philippe Sollers, Jean Rouaud, Emmanuel
Carrre, Frdric-Yves Jeannet, etc. [] Totul se petrece foarte subtil ca i cnd autoficiunea este, n principal, un gen feminin, cu o latur
sentimentalist (consumist), narcisist, manier deturnat, incontient de a atribui femeilor domeniul lor, limitele lor i literatura.)"Toute
criture de vrit dclenche les passions", interviu cu Annie Ernaux, Camille Laurens, n Le Monde, disponibil la
http://www.lemonde.fr/livres/article/2011/02/03/camille-laurens-et-annie-ernaux-toute-ecriture-de-verite-declenche-lespassions_1474360_3260.html , accesat la data de 18.06.2014.
1
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remarcabil n care se ntlnesc condeiul de poet al Anei Maria Sandu i reala sa vocaie
pentru ficiunea psihologizant.8
Identiti de schimb Ina-Ileana-Viorica
Laborator al multiplicrii identitilor prin deconstrucie, divizare sau replicare a eului,
autoficiunea rmne terenul cel mai fertil pentru desfurrile regizate ale cutrilor cu miz
identitar. Din aceast perspectiv, Fata din casa vagon se compune din suprapunerea a trei
poveti i a trei discursuri marcate de situaii repetitive, corelaii i corespondene care rezult
din destinele ngemnate ale celor trei. Ina, personajul cruia i revine funcia de narare, este
fetia care ncearc la nceputul romanului s ptrund n tcerea absolut a mamei sale,
Ileana. Alturi de cele dou triete o a treia femeie, mama Ilenei, Viorica captiv i ea n
casa vagon i responsabil de crizele tinerei femei. Prins n mreaja esut de cele dou, fetia
Ina se adncete tot mai mult n linitea dintre cele dou: Nu-mi lipsete propriu-zis nimic,
dar nu pricep ce are mama, ce-o doare i de ce umbl ca o nluc printre noi. Merge descul
i las urme pe linoleumul din buctrie, aa c-i urmresc cu talpa contururile subiri.
Piciorul meu nu atinge niciodat n cele cinci cercuri n form de degete, dar aa vrea s mut
definitiv acolo i s spun c, gata, nu mai locuiesc pe strada Unirii.9
Drama copilului se consum ntre dorina de a-i descoperi mama (o serie de imagini
simbolice refac un veritabil regressus ad uterum) i momentele de intim complicitate care
situeaz perechea mam-fiic n opoziie cu exteriorul (bunica Viorica, tatl tefan). n faa
dughenei pe care scrie FOTO, mama i fiica confecioneaz destine pentru cei imortalizai,
ntr-un absurd joc al puterii (reprezentarea raporturilor ntre cel dominat i cel care domin
fusese experimentat de cele dou puse fa n fa cu autoritatea violent a tatlui): O strng
pe mama de mn. Inelul ei pulseaz. Palmele mele ncep s iroiasc i degetele noastre se
blcesc ntr-un lichid scrbos. Nu mai tiu unde ncep eu i unde se termin mama, avem o
singur mn, uria i puternic. S-ar putea rzbuna pentru tot ce ni s-a ntmplat ru de-a
lungul timpului, ar putea s ucid pentru noi printr-o simpl atingere sau ne-ar putea arunca
att de departe nct s nu ne mai gseasc nimeni. []Rdem zgomotos, aa c nimeni n-ar
putea bnui ce rni ngrozitoare ascundem n palmele noastre lipite, unsuroase.10
Pe aceeai coordonat a concatenrilor de tip identitar, Ina, copilul nscut de Ileana la
aptesprezece ani, va prelua de la mam eticheta de copil indezirabil. La rndul su, Ileana
venise pe lume ca al doilea copil al Viorici cu Ion, la doi ani dup ce Viorica i zrete soul
ntr-o plcintrie cu o alt femeie. Cu devotamentul i dragostea resorbite (,,Nu-i mai iubete
copilul, nu-l mai poate privi, Viorica e acum o gras cumplit creia i s-a zdrobit inima n
maina de tocat i cu pasta crlionat s-a umplut o roat imens de plcint, din care au
mncat brba-su i curva.11), Viorica va vedea n Ileana semnul crizei n csnicie,
determinndu-i copilul s se lege indisolubil de tatl beiv. Atunci cnd acesta va muri,
lsndu-i fiicei unic amintire o pereche de pantofi albi pstrai cu sfinenie n ifonier 12,
naratoarea adult Ina va remarca suferina care leag indisolubil cele dou copilrii: Atunci
cnd era doar o putoaic la fel ca mine a trit Ileana cel mai mult.13
Echivalenele dintre personaje iau forma unor pulsiuni regresive n care Ina se
rentoarce imaginar n copilria Ilenei pentru a-i satisface irepresibila dorin de intimitate cu
Bura-Cernat, Bianca, Fantasme, nevroze, ape adnci, n Observator cultural, nr.352-353, iunie, 2006, disponibil la
http://www.observatorcultural.ro/Fantasme-nevroze-ape-adinci*articleID_16735-articles_details.html , accesat la date de 2.04.2014.
9
Sandu, Ana-Maria, Fata din casa vagon, prefa de Mircea Crtrescu, Polirom, 2006, p. 19.
10
Ibidem, pp. 30-31.
11
Ibidem, p. 135.
12
n acelai spaiu al interiorului care concentreaz obsesii ale copilriei i proiecteaz i micua Ina dorinele Dac a ncpea n sertar, ma cuibri acolo fr nici o grij, contururile i dantelele de la lenjeria mamei m-ar nvlui ca o pnz de pianjen. Doar cnd a ncerca s
ies, mi-a da seama c m-am evaporat, c picioarele i minile mele au fost nite dropsuri aurii cu gust de lmie.(Sandu, Ana-Maria, Fata
din casa vagon, prefa de Mircea Crtrescu, Polirom, 2006, p. 32.)
13
Ibidem, p. 120.
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mama prin evocarea prieteniei cu Dudua, sora de cruce a Ilenei, retrgndu-se apoi n
spaiul embrionar de care se mai simte nc legat: M lipesc de pntecul ei plat i am
senzaia c n-am plecat niciodat, c locul meu e nuntru, protejat de pilea subire i alb.14
De aici, schimbul de identiti: fiica i simte mama n pntece i este gata s o renasc pentru
a o menaja de resentimentele bunicii, de violena soului, de iminenta sinucidere,
contientiznd n acelai timp eecul resuscitrii: Numai c e cam trziu, nu te mai pot
ajuta, n-am dect s m mulumesc cu tine, mam, sub form intrauterin.15
Cele trei femei compun un tablou al feminitii care triete ntr-un ir de fataliti, ca
ntr-un joc al ppuilor ruseti: Ina coboar n copilria Ilenei, ncercnd s gseasc acolo
viaa care s-a scurs pictur cu pictur n ncercarea de a sinucide n uia, n lupta cu
tefan, alcoolicul agresiv, n eforturile de a-i reface viaa alturi de Alexandru. Ileana
ncearc, la rndul ei, s neleag comportamentul mamei din tineree, ns toate trei rmn
captive n casa vagon i captivitatea uneia le absoarbe i pe celelalte dou: tie c n-are unde
s plece i se aga de viaa ei jerpelit. Casa vagon a nghiit-o bucic cu bucic i nici
nu-i mai amintete c i-a dorit s fie mcar puin fericit.16
Traum i poezie
Toate personajele romanului plutesc indistinct ntr-un spaiu halucinant, lupt n
permanen cu un trecut traumatizant. Boala psihic a mamei, violul Duduei, moartea tatlui,
descoperirea infidelitii soului, violena din familie sau avortul toate acestea reprezint
experiene traumatice care determin o existen simultan, o fracturare a fiinei ntre dou
lumi prezent i trecut. Ca rspuns (tardiv) al psihicului la un eveniment cu impact puternic
asupra individului, trauma irupe n prezent prin reprezentri de tipul halucinaiilor, viselor,
flash-back-urilor. Din aceast perspectiv, romanul se compune din imagini care rbufnesc
din incontient, din senzaii aproximate metaforic, din analogii mentale nchegate spontan,
lipsite de logic discursiv.
Copilria Inei, populat de un tat alcoolic i violent i de o mam depresiv se reia
printr-o serie de imagini simbolice, dar care las n urm goluri ce se umplu pe msur ce
discursul avanseaz cu descrieri nelmurite, cu senzaii aproape imperceptibile i cu dorine
vag exprimate. ntre cele dou deliruri din partea a doua a romanului, n care Ina i
imagineaz cum i salveaz prinii, rmne aceeai stare nelmurit, reflexie a apelor adnci
ale subcontientului. Aici, proza respir un aer blecherian, cu tue hipnotizante, suprarealiste:
Primul delir: cum o salvez pe mama. Cnd trece prin dreptul uii, o deschid. O iau pe Ileana
de mn i pim printr-o cea groas. Cptuit cu blan. Nu tim unde o s ajungem.
Orbecim, important este c am scos-o pa mama din camera aia meschin, cu o sut de
mirosuri. Ne subiem i ncepem s coborm. Prindem vitez, m strig cnd nu m mai vede.
i fac cu mna. Degeaba, m dau pe derdelu pe sub limfa ei aurie. Un bob de porumb, poate
nici att nu sunt. O denivelare i ameesc. Am nimerit pe un canal greit, dar mai am timp s
virez. i s m ntorc.17(s.a.)
Ca forme de manifestare a traumei, percepia asupra propriului corp suport modificri
eseniale: corpul alienat ca expresie a subiectului fractalic18 suferina fizic pe care
14
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personajele i-o provoac involuntar, reaciile fizice incontrolabile sunt toate prezente n
roman. Divizarea propriului trup provoac curiozitatea Inei (M-am dus la doctor s-mi
smulg unghia i nu prea tiam ce m-ateapt, dar speram s m crue i s plecm ct mai
repede din sala de operaii. [] Bucata de carne atrna n gol i a fi vrut s o pot lua acas,
s o studiez pe masa din buctrie, ntorcnd-o de pe o parte pe alta i oripilnd-o pe bunica
pentru c pot s m joc cu aa o chestie scrboas.19), iar dizolvarea limitelor corporale
descoper spaii interioare necunoscute pn atunci (nuntrul meu a nceput s creasc o
strad, de undeva din dreptul mselelor. Am strigat s m extrag cineva dintre pernele alea
moi care se tot rostogoleau aiurea pe lng amigdalele mele. Un pled dup altul m
acopereau, un rnd de piele peste alt rnd de piele, am apsat cu degetul i nu simeam nimic,
din faa mea a rmas numai o gropi de carne moale i am nceput s plng n hohote.20)
n plan discursiv, romanul se bazeaz pe relaia privilegiat dintre discursul
autoficional i traum. Abolirea cronologiei i a cauzalitii, poetizarea limbii, privilegierea
discursului n detrimentul istoriei fac posibil reprezentarea traumei. Este cunoscut faptul c
aceasta se definete, n primul rnd, prin imposibilitatea integrrii n ordinea narativ. Aa
cum susine Lyn Marven, semnele traumei nu pot fi articulate, astfel c i fac loc n tcerile
textului i sunt decelabile doar la nivelul macrostructurii romanului. Textul abund n
procedee care apropie textul de proza poetic, de monologul interior sau de redarea fluxului
contiinei permind organizrii discursive (rcit) s devin element distinctiv n rapoartele
autoficiunii cu alte categorii de texte. Aceste tehnici sunt de cele mai multe ori de ordin
sintactic: un anumit tip de fraz, n care topica este sistematic destructurat prin elips, prin
absena sau prin multiplicarea punctuaiei; diferite figuri de construcie; noi forme de
exprimare a raporturilor de coordonare sau de subordonare. Toate figurile enumerate mai sus
activeaz funcia poetic a limbii care, n comunicarea artistic, att la nivelul expresiei, ct i
la nivel semantic, instituie limbajul poetic ca sistem autonom de semne.
Construcia romanului afirm un specific al scriiturii autoarei: o proz poematic, cu
rdcini suprarealiste, care se realizeaz la grania dintre proz i poezie, rezultnd din
operaii ntreprinse asupra limbii. Poetizarea limbii, fie n sensul funciei poetice a limbajului,
instituite de Roman Jakobson, fie n sensul privilegierii inscriptorului, aa cum explic
Dominique Maingueneau, rezult dintr-o serie de metaforizri: Visul mamei atrn pe
frnghie, e o hain ngheat bocn i, dac ncerc s aflu mai multe, se rupe foarte uor, aa
cum s-a ntmplat ast-iarn cu helanca bleu.21 Autoarea instituie astfel o relaie deosebit cu
limba scris: ordinea scrisului produce o realitate de gradul al doilea care reorganizeaz i
confer un sens trecutului, aa cum vorbirea nu ar putea s o fac.
Ordonat pe axa discursiv autoficional, dar i pe cea psihanalitic, romanul Fata din
casa vagon se revendic de la o scriitur feminin care afirm un tipar tematic i stilistic
propriu. Discursul autoficional se pliaz pe tiparul stilistic al prozei poematice,
concretizndu-se ntr-o scriitur fr naintare epic, traversat de imagini poetice i simboluri
obsesive, iar construcia unei identiti de tip Matrioka i prezena unor voci ventriloce se
suprapun pe o unic imagine a fetei din casa vagon.
Bibliografie
Baudrillard, Jean, Cellalt prin sine nsui, Casa Crii de tiin, Cluj-Napoca, 1997,
p.31
19
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Abstract: This paper approaches the way in which constructing and placing her I within
different systems of representation Christianity, socialism, the Angel of the House, the
Romantic artist with an eye for minute details , Elizabeth Gaskell seems near to Kristevas
perspective upon a multi-positioning of the subject in language as sign of longing and
becoming. She searches for her genuine I whilst admitting its socially-split existence, a
quest she would embark upon with her authorial self. According to the Tel Quel theory,
Modernist writers exploit and celebrate the semiotic and intertextual energies, where the
notion of a unique self that of ones own self interpreted as coherent identity, is totally
abandoned. With that, Gaskell stepped out of the canon, only to claim her place into it, the
moment she admitted subordination to patriarchal authority.
Keywords: womanhood, feminist criticism, psychoanalysis, gender studies, womens writing.
It seems that a woman of so many names and mes could not confine herself to her
self, nor could she be her own woman in the rather annihilating and narrowing sense implied
by what authorship meant to Charlotte Bront and alluded in a letter dated July 9th, 1853: A
thought strikes me. Do you, who have so many friends, so large a circle of acquaintance,
find it easy, when you sit down to write, to isolate yourself from all those ties, and their sweet
associations, so as to be your OWN WOMAN, uninfluenced or swayed by the consciousness
of how your work may affect other minds; what blame or what sympathy it may call forth?
(Elizabeth Gaskell, The Life of Charlotte Bront, p. 409). Three years earlier, in 1850,
Elizabeth Gaskell meditated on a shifting sense of self, that proved a sound knowledge of her
own mind and person, at the same time approaching her to the future perception Modernism
would develop on the idea of the dissolution of the unitary I, as advocated by Julia Kristeva,
at the same time pinning her down to the mighty patriarchal canon of submission: [] for I
have a great number and thats the plague. One of my mes is, I do believe, a true Christian
[only people call her socialist and communist], another of my mes is a wife and mother, and
highly delighted at the delight of everyone else in the house. . Now thats my social self
I suppose. Then again Ive another self with a full taste for beauty and convenience which
[sic] is pleased on its own account. How am I to reconcile all these warring members? I try to
drown myself (my first self,) by saying its Wm [William Gaskell] who is to decide on all these
things, and his feeling it right ought to be my rule. And so it isonly that does not quite doI
long (weakly) for the old times where right and wrong did not seem such complicated
matters; and I am sometimes coward enough to wish we were back in the darkness where
obedience was the only seen duty of women. (Elizabeth Gaskell, The Letters of Elizabeth
Gaskell, pp. 108-109).
Constructing and positioning her I within different systems of representation
Christianity, socialism, communism, the Angel of the house, the Romantic artist with an eye
for minute details Gaskell seems near to Kristevas perspective upon a multi-positioning of
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the subject in language as sign of longing and becoming. She searches for her genuine I
whilst admitting its socially-split existence, a quest she would embark upon with her authorial
self. According to the Tel Quel theory, Modernist writers exploit and celebrate the semiotic
and intertextual energies, where the notion of a unique self that of ones own self
interpreted as coherent identity is totally abandoned. With that, Gaskell stepped out of the
canon, only to claim her place into it, the moment she admitted subordination to patriarchal
authority. Nevertheless, we may contemplate Gaskells mes from a pre-Modernist
perspective, the moment we refer to Julia Kristeva and her belief that (in Modernist texts) the
transposition of angles and perspective of what she refers to as signifiance begins to be selfconsciously exploited and this inherently implied the very recognition of the fact that the
subject is not identical to the I that speaks. There is a certain concept of loss behind the
assumed authorial anonymity, as Roland Barthes assumes: Signifiace, unlike signification,
cannot be reduced to communication, to representation, to expression: it puts the (writing or
reading) subject into the text, not as a projection, not even as a fantasmatic one, but as a
loss.(Roland Barthes, Theory of the text, p. 38).
It is not only the subject that is lost within the threads of the text, we argue, but the
assumption of an illusory masculine identity, practice that defined what we might refer to as
geno-dimension [an allegory to Kristevas geno-text as the process of generating the
signifying system as signifying infiniteness] of the Victorian criture fminine. This is what
makes us consider Elizabeth Gaskells decision, not to resort to the already consecrated male
authorial stereotype, to embrace and define, within the image of loss, what Barthes defined as
The Grain of the new Voice. (my emphasis)
In many ways, the story of Gaskells life oscillated between polarities opened by
massive disparities - North and South, public and private life, social engagement and idyllic
withdrawal, although, eventually, she fled from each and every one of them. I argue that the
same vacillation accounts for the fact that she published her first novel anonymously, thus
neither wholeheartedly rebelling against convention, as Alexis Easley (Alexis Easley, FirstPerson Anonymous: Women Writers and Victorian Print Media, 1830-70) suggests, nor
defying it through a public claim of self-identity. If the reader was not familiar with the real
name that hid behind Mary Barton, a certain delay in taking a decision on behalf of Mrs.
Gaskells seemed to account for the fact, which appears to contradict the thesis of her
rebellion against the tyranny of the canon. This is what she wrote in a letter addressed to her
editor, Edward Chapman, on 26 May 1848, If you have no objection, I should on reflection
prefer no name being given as that of the author. I do not like assuming a name, although my
desire for secrecy is as strong as ever (A. V. Chapple and A. Shelston, Further Letters of
Mrs. Gaskell, p. 39). Nevertheless, on 19 October the same year, Elizabeth Cleghorn Gaskell
proposed Stephen Berwick as a pseudonym, but the suggestion came too late and what could
have been her second sobriquet, following Cotton Mather Mills that appears on her first work
of fiction, Libbie Marshs Three Eras (1847), as well on other two stories, The Sextons Hero
and Christmas Storms and Sunshine, proved to have too short an existence.
The problem of an identity publicly assumed and the search of the name that would
accompany her entire literary career mark an interesting point in what Mrs. Gaskell is
concerned. First comes the reflection on the idea of anonymity, which would only echo the
status women had in the times of the Patriarch, one that does not go beyond the blurry profile
of a fluttering shadow, whose immateriality appears to almost deny the attributes of
individuality and uniqueness hence the idea of no name; although, at first, she
acknowledged her dislike of hiding behind male pennames, and in spite of the fact that she
almost chose one, I argue that Elizabeth Gaskell, by preferring anonymity over a fictitious,
male-gendered identity, was actually forging her own image, preparing to introduce her own
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self to the world. With Mary Barton, she failed to articulate the will of having the shadowy,
womanly existence publicly acclaimed, in an assertive exercise that would intertwine the
inner logos of the self with its external acknowledgment, but this was only a milestone in the
life of this high-profile woman of letters (Alexis Easley, First-Person Anonymous, p. 91).
The literary signature of her voice seems to have undergone an equally intricate
forge as her earlier choices of pennames or no name at all. Deidre DAlbertis, meditating on
Elizabeth Gaskells authorial mark, emphasizes the institutional conformity that accompanies
her gender and summarizes her role: For much of the nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries, critics tended to refer to her as Mrs. Gaskell; only with the advent of feminist
criticism in the late twentieth century did Mrs. Gaskell ultimately become canonized as
Elizabeth Gaskell (Deirdre DAlbertis, The Life and Letters of E. C. Gaskell, p. 14).
It was precisely this form of reference Mrs., canonical in itself, that justified Lord
David Cecils abrupt disparity between Elizabeth Gaskell and her equally famous
contemporaries, the Bronts and George Eliot, her famous rivals who were not ordinary
women: Ugly, dynamic, childless, independent, contemptuous of the notion that women
should be confined to that small area of family and social interests which was commonly
regarded as the only proper province of their sex; fiercely resentful of the conventions that
kept them within it at every turn they flout the standards which were set up before the
women of their day. In the placid dovecotes of Victorian womanhood, they were eagles. But
we only have to look at a portrait of Mrs. Gaskell, soft-eyed, beneath her charming veil, to see
that she was a dove. (Lord David Cecil, Early Victorian Novelists: Essays in Revaluation,
pp. 9798).
In the wingspan lies the greatness of floating among the lofty peaks and the delicate
whitish fluttering that roams over mansion rooftops. The harsh epithets that Lord Cecil most
uninspiringly resorted to have a powerful opposing effect on the softness of destiny and
vocation Elizabeth Gaskell did come to epitomize. In one of her letters she argued that even
unique endowments, such as those of Charlotte Bronts, cannot compensate for a womans
duty to perform her part as the Angel of the Hearth. Even though she must not shrink from
the extra responsibility implied by the very fact of her possessing such talents, no other
person can take up the quiet regular duties of the daughter, the wife, or the mother, nor can
she drop the domestic charges devolving on her as an individual, for the exercise of the most
splendid talents that were ever bestowed (Elizabeth Gaskell, The Life of Charlotte Bront, p.
259). The catalytic agent of these thoughts must hide behind Gaskells Unitarian upbringing,
as she was the born the daughter of a Unitarian minister and she later became the wife of one.
One of the key values this religious community, one George Eliot herself held most dear, the
education was equally imparted to both men and women who were encouraged to cultivate
independence of thought and self-regulating morality. Unitarians were constantly concerned
with establishing literary, philosophical as well as scientific societies, charity schools for girls
and boys, just as they were much involved in printing, publishing, and book selling
businesses. It was also an Unitarian voice, William Johnson Foxs, which uttered, in 1834,
words that not often sprang from the lips of men: Man has placed them [women] in
degrading circumstances, and through them the degradation has recoiled upon himself. In his
disgust at female pretension, (not a jot worse than male pretension; and either, only
disgusting because unfounded) he has crippled female intellect, and thereby enfeebled his
own. In training a dependent, he has lost a companion. In the passing admiration of
superficial accomplishment, he has foregone the permanent advantage of solid attainment.
[] In claiming science, politics, philosophy, and all the higher regions of thought for
himself, and warning off intrusion by placarding them with the word unfeminine, he has
deprived himself of the best sympathy, the most efficient aid, the mightiest stimulus, and the
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noblest reward of his own most honourable toils. (G. Sherwood, The Monthly Repository of
Theology and General Literature, p. 642). Furthermore, Coral Lansbury points out that:[]
to be born a woman in the Victorian era was to enter a world of social and cultural
deprivation unknown to a man. But to be born a woman and a Unitarian was to be released
from much of the prejudice and oppression enjoined upon other women. (Coral Lansbury,
Elizabeth Gaskell: The Novel of Social Crisis, London, p. 11).
Could this be the answer to Mrs. Gaskells will to become acquainted with the world
and let the world know her true name and identity, furthermore strengthened by the indelible
mark of social appropriateness and dutiful bondage? Such rhetoric seems to dilute its core if
we consider the fact that Unitarian women enjoyed greater freedom of action in comparison to
other Victorian women, whose role as mothers and wives seemed to embrace a totally
different perspective. Unlike strict Evangelicals, Anglican and Dissenting devotees, Unitarian
ladies breathed at ease through not so tight a corset, hence Gaskells lightness of heart and
tone. The Angel of the House is not merely the prisoner inside the walls, the ethereal shadow
predestined to shallow endeavours and illusory trifles; she becomes part of the complex
family system that turns people into social beings. Inclusion defines the mathematical
algorithm that brings together, no longer separating, no longer isolating. Patsy Stoneman
argues that: Given the Unitarian emphasis on self-government based on careful early
training, it follows that mothers, and all those who care for children, preside over the
foundations of the polity. (Patsy Stoneman, Gaskell, gender and the family, p. 134).
This is the reason for which Elizabeth Gaskell introduces the reader to each man in
his home environment in order to suggest that the qualities which characterize them are
produced within the family. (The Cambridge Companion to Elizabeth Gaskell, p. 136).
Nevertheless, although Unitarian women would cultivate their intellect, despite the fact that
they were dynamic and strong-minded, they did not entirely rejected the supremacy of the
patriarchal canon, the moment they would believe that their husbands had the right to take the
lead in the marriage a thing Gaskell admittedly believed in, an attitude she would cultivate
in her heroines profile. This ongoing stepping in and out of the norm interlaces the threads of
a journey that would take the reader both onto the realm of private as well as public life; I
argue that Elizabeth Gaskell sketches a social self, one that roams around the northern
industrial towns of England and constantly defines its profile both within the surrounding
walls of stately or humble lodgings and the roar of machines and voices in sooty streets. It is
this social self that breathes in her novels which, echoing the Unitarian values of becoming,
rebels against the clear cut separation of spheres, genders and systems of reference. The
crossing over, the reaching onto the other, the cultivation of nurturing capacities is what
opens the private sphere onto the spirit of the world, fusing its sensitiveness with the
suffering, deprivation and challenges that exist outside ones threshold. Strict, rigid, malecentred hierarchies suffocate and alienate any emotion and trace of humanitarism, whereas
peripheries, with their infinitely diluted centrism, have not yet lost the capacity to care and
care about.
With Elizabeth Cleghorn Gaskell begins a journey which stays under the dramatic sign
of exploring a double estrangement; it is not only the realm of the female self that is minutely
scrutinized from the militant perspective of womens movement campaign for sociallyacknowledged positions for (educated) women within the field of labour, since it is also the
remote, dark corner of the other side represented by the work people of industrial Britain
which is equally offered a chance to speak out. Although she lacked George Eliots
intellectual refinement, Dickenss social range or the Brontss fine insight into self and soul,
Elizabeth Gaskell reversed symbolically Shakespeares famous words put into the mouth of
his correspondingly famous character, Mark Antony - Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend
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me your ears - into an allegorical shift of articulating what used to be, up to that very
moment, unarticulated utterance. She became anxious to give some utterance to the agony
which, from time to time, convulses this dumb people; the agony of suffering without the
sympathy of the happy, or of erroneously believing that such is the case (Elizabeth Gaskell,
Mary Barton: A Tale of Manchester Life, pp. 37-38), and continues her thoughts arguing that
at present they seem to me to be left in a state, wherein lamentations and tears are thrown
aside as useless, but in which the lips are compressed for curses, and the hands clenched and
ready to smite (Elizabeth Gaskell, Mary Barton: A Tale of Manchester Life, p. 38).
Mrs. Gaskell heightens the sense of exclusion and powerlessness of marginalia
identities which, under an criture fminine, end up translating their weakness somatically,
for it is the tear which comes first and only after that the will to speak out as epitome for the
desire to persuade and transform (Hilary M Schor, Scheherazade in the Marketplace:
Elizabeth Gaskell and the Victorian Novel, p. 43). This almost biologic sense of utterance is
carefully marked by Mrs. Gaskell who correlates the rough whispering and curses of aching
bodies with a phonemic, embryonic stage of language rather than a semic one that operates as
pure sound and self-expression (I. Kreilkamp, Voice and the Victorian Storyteller, p. 57).
The curse functions not only as crippled language, pushing rationality aside, but also as sign
of social paralysis Gaskell believes that the social problems of her time reflected not only
discontinuities in the logic of action, but also blockages in communication, which, if
overcome, could have instilled peace and harmony between rich and poor, men and women,
master and servant, north and south, agora and gynoecium, marketplace and parlour. Speak
to your workmen as if they were human beings. Speak to them kindly (Elizabeth Gaskell,
North and South, p. 175). It is with infinite kindness of heart that she speaks of these new
identities, forged at a crossroads of lodging and factory, parlour and outskirts, for throughout
this chapter I would like to emphasize how the high improbability of a past subjunctive (as if
they were) became the challenge dropping off Gaskells nib who pledged to find that (social)
self, regardless of gender, class and education that would make isolated spheres meet in a
common locus where real stories come to life. With the delicate touch of a miniaturist, Mrs.
Gaskell plays with the boundaries, permeating them and redefining their outline.
Bibliography:
Barthes, R., Theory of the text in Robert Young (ed.), Untying the Text: A PostStructuralist Reader, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981;
Cecil, Lord David, Early Victorian Novelists, Essays in Revaluation, California
University, Constable & co., 1935;
Chapple, J. A. V. and A. Shelston, Further Letters of Mrs. Gaskell, Manchester:
Manchester University Press, 2004;
DAlbertis, Deirdre, The Life and Letters of E. C. Gaskell in The Cambridge
Companion to Elizabeth Gaskell, Jill L. Matus (ed.), Cambridge University Press, 2007;
Easley, Al., First-Person Anonymous: Women Writers and Victorian Print Media,
1830-70, Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate, 2004;
Gaskell, Mrs Elizabeth Clenghorn, Mary Barton: A Tale of Manchester Life, Stephen
Gill (ed.), Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970;
Gaskell, Mrs Elizabeth Clenghorn, North and South, London: Penguin, 1975;
Gaskell, Mrs Elizabeth Clenghorn, The Letters of Elizabeth Gaskell, edited by J. A. V.
Chapple and Arthur Pollard, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1966;
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Gaskell, Mrs Elizabeth Clenghorn, The Life of Charlotte Bronte (1857), edited by
Elizabeth Jay, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1997;
Kreilkamp, I., Voice and the Victorian Storyteller, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2005;
Lansbury, Coral, Elizabeth Gaskell: The Novel of Social Crisis, London: Paul Elek,
1975;
Schor, M. Hilary, Scheherazade in the Marketplace: Elizabeth Gaskell and the
Victorian Novel, New York: Oxford University Press, 1992;
Sherwood, G. (ed.), The Monthly Repository of Theology and General Literature, New
series, no. LXI, January 1831;
Stoneman, Patsy, Gaskell, gender and the family in The Cambridge Companion to
Elizabeth Gaskell, in Jill L. Matus (ed.), Cambridge University Press, 2007.
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Abstract: This study focuses on negation structures, analyzed as modal operators in Moxa' s
Universal Chronicle. Negation is intertwinned with modality, for it implies the speakers
choice in the affirmative-negative alternative.
Keywords: archaic, context, discourse, literature, language.
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(6) Deaca veni Theodosie, el puse mult nevoin cu cetenii i cu mare chin i
metereug de-abia dobndi cetatea. (87v: 167);
(7) De va vrea netine s se adevereasc eftenugul lui, s auz... (104r: 179);
(8) ... ctu mi-u fost tiina i m-am preceput, eu am nevoit de-am scris. (139v: 203).
Negaia verbal trebuie distins de negaia parial, atunci cnd ea opereaz nu asupra
ntregii propoziii, ci asupra unei alte pri de vorbire dinafara predicatului:
(9) D-acii fcea ru nu numai c pn aciia, ce nc nite spurcciuni rele fcea...
(109v: 182).
Faptul c negaia verbal opereaz asupra ntregii propoziii a determinat ca, uneori, ea
s se deplaseze n faa conectorului:
(10) Ce de nu va putrnicul Dumnezeu rilor s stea n tmpi[ni]u, ca un painjin le e
putrea i sfatul omenesc. (101r/101v: 177).
De multe ori negaia nu se afl n corelaie cu adverbul de negaie nici:
(11) Pn nu vom vedea mainte de la tine smne minunate, nu vom crede, nice vom fi
cretini! (115r: 185).
Specific traducerilor de texte religioase, mai ales a celor din secolele XVI XVII este
fenomenul absenei negaiei verbale n prezena altor cuvinte cu sens negativ: n ce privete
primul tip, gsim n textele traduse din secolul al XVI-lea numeroase cazuri n care verbul e la
forma pozitiv2. Exemple se ntlnesc n textele traduse, unde traductorii au respectat
sintaxa textului slavon, care nu cunoate fenomenul dublei negaii:
(12) Ce nu-l iubiia boiarii, nice ranii, pentru c era ru, vizetlean, sireap, uciga,
plin de nebunie, nice avea om derept sine, nice sfat ntreba de nime, ce se inea nsui c e
prea nelept. (83r: 163)
Uneori, n acelai text, astfel de forme se ntlnesc alturi de construcia romneasc:
(13) Acesta nc nu se nchina icoanelor, ce iar nu le rsipiia, nice pre alii opriia s
nu se nchine. (101r: 177);
(14) Pn nu vom vedea mainte de la tine smne minunate, nu vom crde, nice vom fi
cretini! (115r: 185)
Ulterior, n situaia insistenei negaiei, ea se dubleaz de fiecare dat:
(15) Fu Duca mprat i domniia bine, c nice se foarte nla, nice se iar lsa, ce
mergea pre cale mprteasc. (134v: 199);
(16) Ce, cum nu poi ajunge naltul ceriului, nice adncul pmntului, nice marginea
lumiei, i cum nu se pot numra stlele ceriului, nice nsipul mriei, aa nu se poate afla
adncul scripturilor. (139r: 202)
Aceasta nseamn c ncepnd de la sfritul secolului al XVII-lea norma dominant sa impus: n textele parcurse din secolele al XVII-lea i al XVIII-lea, am ntlnit foarte rar
lipsa negaiei dup cuvinte ca: nimeni, nimic, niciodat etc3.
4. Ca operator modal, negaia se ntlnete, alturi de verbele specifice, n toate
tipurile de negaie.
4.1. n modalitatea epistemic sunt angajate n structurile negaiei verbele-operator a
putea, a trebui, marcnd sigurana i probabilitatea. Verbul a putea are valoare deontic mai
ales n structuri negative, cu sensul de a nu i se permite, a nu avea acces la:
2
3
SLR, 2007: 16
SLR, 2007: 17.
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(17) i mbla cum nu trebuiia, iar crma i sfatul dedse a nete ticii i nebuni de-l
inea (123r: 142);
(18) i au zcut vrme mult i nece un boiarin nu putea ntoarce pre mpratul s
iarte pre fiiu-su (116v: 186);
(19) i nime nu i se poate urca n vrh (52v: 135).
Verbele cu sens modal de tipul a ti, a crede dobndesc o mai mare valoare modal n
structuri negative:
(20) Aa pltte Dumnezeu cui nu tie har de bine ce-i d (96r: 173);
(21) Nu crde, c nu mor ngerii (67r: 151);
(22) Iar Roman nice pre unii nu credea, ce pre toi i avea hitleni i vrjmai (137r:
201).
Sensul probabilitii este exprimat destul de frecvent de adverbul mainte:
(23) Deci cnd veniia cineva la dins, mainte-l cerca s nu fie arm ascuns (39v:
127).
4.2. Modalitatea deontic este cel mai bine reprezentat prin structurile imperativului
negativ sau ale conjunctivului cu valoare de imperativ:
(24) O, Sevaste, nu grbi cu mniia pre nimenea a lovi, ce mainte cette (36v: 125);
(25) Pn nu vom vedea faa mpratului, s nu ne ntoarcem ntristai i smerii (42r:
130);
(26) O, mprate, nu se cade cine poart cftan mohort s griac menciuni (62v:
148).
O valoare interdictiv mult mai mare o are prohibitivul, foarte frecvent n limba
romn veche:
(27) Nic[e] tu nu veri domni de acum (16v: 107).
n mod similar, cu aceeai implicare semantic, se folosete i conjunctivul n
circumstanialele finale negative:
(28) Atunce-l druir cu 300 de galbeni, ca s nu-i uite cnd va veni la mprie (61r:
146).
Mai rar, sensul obligativitii, n varianta lui negativ, este redat de expresii cu
caracter impersonal:
(29) Ce cui nu-i iaste dat de sus, n deertu se ispitte, c perir ca prahul naintea
unui vnt (133r: 198).
Se ntlnesc, destul de frecvent i enunuri cu verbul a se nevoi, cu sensul de a se
simi obligat s fac ceva, ele fiind astfel marcate din punctul de vedere al modalitii
deontice:
(30) deci nu se nevoiia nimenilea la rzboiu (24v: 116).
Verbe colaterale, care sunt legate de percepia subiectiv a modalitii deontice, ca
reacie la obligativitatea impus sunt a se teme sau, dimpotriv, a ndrzni:
(31) nu se tme de cei nali, nice se ruineaz de nimenea (72v: 154);
(32) Acesta ndrzni cu vasele besreciei, de beu (18r: 109).
4.3. Modalitatea deziderativ poate i ea s apar n enunuri ce conin fapte de limb
contrafactive:
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(33) Cine va vrea de voia lui s ia galbeni i s ntoarne ce-au cumprat, noi vom da,
iar de nu va vrea, n voia lui s fie (47r: 133);
(34) Deci nu vrur s se mpreune ntru atta spurcciune a lui (86r: 166);
(35) Deci, de veri avea minte curat i via dereapt, s nu lcometi la dobnd
hitlean (72v: 154).
4.4. Modalitatea deontic apreciativ, n varianta ei negativ, are conotaii deontice
mai puternice:
(36) Om bun i m[i]l[o]stiv i nu iubiia str[m]btile, nici slutiia pre nime (43v:
131);
(37) Dar den om bun cum nu nscu bun (47v: 134);
(38) Ce nu plcu aceasta pizmeei, cumu-i griate: ochiul hitlean i pizmau nu
iubte binele omului (68v: 152).
5. Ca modalizator n actele de vorbire contrafactive, negaia are, de multe ori, un rol
intensiv, locutorul asumndu-i coninutul negativ al mesajului. De asemenea, se poate
constata c delimitarea dintre conotaiile modale interferente este, n multe dintre situaii, mai
clar.
6. Bibliografie:
1. Manea, 2012 Dana Manea, Modalitate i negaie n limba romn contemporan,
n vol. Limba romn, Direcii actuale n cercetarea lingvistic, Bucureti, Editura
Universitii Bucureti.
2. Moxa, M., 1989 Mihail Moxalie, Cronica universal, (Ediie G. Mihil),
Bucureti, Editura
Minerva.
3. SLR, 2007 Mioara Avram (Coordonator), Sintaxa limbii romne n secolele al
XVI-lea al XVIII-lea, Bucureti, Editura Academiei Romne.
NOT:
Aceast cercetare a fost efectuat prin Proiectul POSDRU/159/1.5/S/138963
Performan sustenabil n cercetarea doctoral i post doctoral - PERFORM, cofinanat
de Fondul Social European
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Abstract: The present paper will dwell on 2 main ideas, which were introduced by some of the
science-fiction novels written after the 80s. The first idea develops around the breach
appearing between the mind, the brain and the body, while the second one comes as a
consequence of the first: the falling into post-humanism. What being a cyborg or an android
involves, and how we relate these products of the science-fiction imaginary with what man is
today, will be the questions that we propose for analysis. Last but not least, we will conquer
the challenge of finding an answer to the question: can we still pose the problem of the affect
in post-humanity or not?
Keywords: Cyborg, affect, post-humanism, science-fiction, android.
Imaginarul science-fiction, de cele mai multe ori reprezentat prin civilizaii ce intr n
coliziune pentru deinerea puterii, acoper aproape ntotdeauna afectul. n lupta dintre bine
(tradiional) i ru (ideile progresiste), n rzboiul dintre biologic (om) i artificial (produsele
minii omului), nu este permis jonciunea sentimentelor. Subiectele science-fiction din
literatur (v. romanele lui Orson Scott Card, Serge Brussolo, William Gibson), dar i din
filmele de profil Her (2013) i Lucy (2014), pun problema afectului din dou perspective:
pe de-o parte, pentru evidenierea disjunciei biologic artificial, pe de alt parte, pentru a
crea cel mai convingtor scenariu al cderii n derizoriu pe care afectul o poate suferi n era
tehnologiei. Totui, fie uitat, fie pus la col, n funcie de deciziile auctoriale, afectul rmne,
marea pneum n funcie de care umanul se definete. Sau nu?
Ce este afectul?
Definit ca staz emoional, survenit sub form de reacie la o anumit interpretare,
afectul este denumirea generic pentru strile i reaciile afective. Aceste reacii pot fi de
scurt sau de lung durat, primind mai multe nuane. A nu se confunda ns afectul cu
sentimentul! Fiindc n vreme ce de sentiment se poate dispune dup bunul plac, cnd se pune
problema afectului lucrurile adesea se complic. Afectul declanaz, n funcie de
interpretarea imaginii mentale, reacii corporale, reacii care scap de sub controlul
individului uman datorit mecanismelor foarte fine prin care emoiile lucreaz. Marea
diferen dintre sentiment i afect const n faptul c cel din urm, conform teoriei JamesLange, irig corpul cu o serie de senzaii declanate chiar de el. Sau, conform teoriei cognitive
a lui Richard Lazarus1, n funcie de interpretarea evenimentului se declanaz un tip de afect
ce, ulterior, va iriga corpul.
Ce se ntmpl cu aceste stri atunci cnd, conform studiilor unor cercettori, se pune
problema disjunciei dintre corp, creier i minte?
a. Emoiile in de corp, de biologicul uman?
b. Emoiile sunt reprezentate ca arii n scoara cerebral?
1
Richard Lazarus, Emotion and Adaptation, Oxford University Press, Inc., 1991.
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Orson Scott Card, Jocul lui Ender, traducere de Mihai Dan Pavelescu, Bucureti, Nemira, 2005.
3
Ibidem, p. 279.
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pe el. n alt ordine de idei, Theo se va ndrgosti de o femeie non-uman, artificial, fiindc
aceasta va ti s mimeze afectul.
Samantha, spre deosebire de Jane, este un construct artificial de la nceput pn la
sfrit. Ea i construiete afectul i reaciile acestuia prin strile pe care Theo i le
mprtete.
Samantha i Jane ridic dou probleme situate paradoxal.
1. Prin faptul c Jane i dobndete idependena i afectul, rezult c afectul este n
minte i c nu ine de creier, deci nici de corpul biologic.
2. Prin faptul c Samantha rmne un program care i construiete programatic
afectul, rezult c mintea nu poate conine afectul departe de creier i departe de
corpul biologic.
n romanul lui Brussolo4, androidului Sirce i-au fost implantate programe care s
detecteze i s imite afectele. Pornind de la structura corporal asemntoare omului, dac nu
chiar identic lui5, oamenii nu numai c au reuit s creeze prin Sirce un dispozitiv identic
imaginii lor, dar l-au investit chiar i cu funcii specifice omului6. Dup o sum de
evenimente, pe care androidul le triete mpreun cu David, cnd acesta i d seama care
este adevrata natur a lui Sirce, androidul i mrturisete:
Simpl tehnic imitativ (...). Simulam, copiindu-mi atitudinea dup a ta. (...) mi era
de-ajuns s-i cunosc sentimentele de moment: transpiraia, undele de team emise de creier,
absena vitaminei C n organism, gradul de stres. Mna mea pe pieptul tu mi comunica
imediat electroencefalograma, electroencefaloradiograma (p. 172).
Iat, deci, n cazul acesta afectul este rediscutat i reatribuit omului, innd de mintea,
creierul i corpul acestuia. n afara corpului, n opinia lui Brussolo, nu exist afect, nu exist
umanitate, doar control i permutare.
A treia situaie a afectului va fi prezentat din prisma lui Case 7 i Lucy8. Pentru a-i
mri capacitatea creierului de procesare i nmagazinare a informaiilor, Case se conecteaz
prin intermediul deck-ului la spaiul cibernetic. Datorit acestei conexiuni, Case ptrunde n
spaiul cibernetic sub form de inteligen (imaterial, desigur). Nu discutm aici ce este
spaiul cibernetic i pe ce mizeaz Gibson prin aducerea acestuia n literatur. Discutm doar
structura lui Case, un om ce devine cyborg prin conectarea la deck.
Ce rspuns se poate da schemei: Case afect?
deck
Case
Corp biologic
Spaiu cibernetic
Creier
n cele din urm, Case ajunge s-i poat transporta n spaiul cibernetic i identitatea
dobndit n corpul biologic. Firete c n spaiul cibernetic, un spaiu infinit, o matrice
atotcuprinztoare, identitatea biologic a lui Case se schimb, acesta devenind practic un
Serge Brussolo, Mnctorii de ziduri, trad. Monica Columbeanu, AldoPress, Bucureti, 1997.
Cu buricele degetelor i pipi pielea artificial, cutnd mbinarea vertebrelor metalice. Cnd mplunt lama, un uvoi de snge ni din
ran, inundndu-i cmaa. Sngele, de altfel, e snge uman veritabil, stocat sub presiiune (Idem, 168).
6
Totui... i-era frig cnd mi era frig, foame cnd mi era i mie. Sufereai cnd sufeream i eu. i-am vzut frica n ochi, sudoarea pe trup
dup ce fceai dragoste (p. 172).
7
William Gibson, Neuromantul, traducere de Mihai Dan Pavelescu, Bucureti, Univers, 2008.
8
Lucy (2014), n regia lui Luc Besson.
4
5
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program, o inteligen pur multifuncional. Altfel spus, prin locuirea n spaiul cibernetic
Case i dezvolt inteligena ntr-att nct poate opera n mai multe situaii deodat, putnd fi
oriunde, oricnd.
Afectul n cazul lui Case nu exist. Importante sunt datele i permutrile acestor date
prin intermediul crora se deine controlul asupra lumii. Aadar, afectul lui Case se pierde
odat cu corpul biologic. Lucy ajunge s dein astfel de abiliti din cauza unui drog
nootropic. Rspndit n corpul acesteia, Lucy fiind principalul dealer al unei bande mafiote,
transportnd drogurile n propriul corp, drogul ncepe s-i afecteze psihicul, investind-o pe
Lucy cu aptitudini supraomeneti. Practic, aceasta devine din ce n ce mai inteligent. Cu ct
devine mai inteligent ns, corporalitatea sa se estompeaz. Ajunge inclusiv s poat
declana fenomene ale naturii. Ceea ce reuete Case i Jane, programe fiind, conectate deci
la spaiul cibernetic, reuete Lucy n mod natural din cauza aciunii pe care drogul acela o
dezvolt asupra creierului. Case renun la corporalitatea sa, Lucy se autodistruge din cauza
lipsei corpului. Unde se poate manifesta afectul? Doar n corpul uman
Pn la urm, discuia despre om i produsele minii acestuia este una ndreptit.
Dac nainte de era calculatoarelor omul, pentru a se defini identitar, se raporta la natur i
produsele acesteia, la animale i lipsa de raiune a acestora, n era digital omul se definete
identitar raportndu-se la produsele minii sale. n urm cu mult timp un grec influent definea
omul drept animal raional, astzi acel animal raional a devenit raiune animal. Ceea ce
rmne de discutat n urma unei asemenea analize este urmtorul fapt: de unde pn unde
aceast dorin a omului de a fi iubit de produsul minii sale a nceput s se impun tot mai
acut? S sufere toi de complexul lui Pigmalion sau s fie, n fapt, un semnal de alarm ce ne
spune c prin digitalizare riscm dez-umanizarea?
Bibliografie:
Daniel C. Dennett, Brainstorms. Philosophical Essays on Mind and Psychology:
Harverster Press, Brighton, 1986.
Katherine N. Hayles, How We Become Posthuman. Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics,
Literature and Information, The University of Chicago Press, Illionis, 1999.
Jean-Franois Lyotard, Condiia postmodern, Babel, Bucureti, 1993.
Karl Popper, Cunoaterea i problema raportului corp-minte, Trei, Bucureti, 1997.
Orson Scott Card, Jocul lui Ender, trad. de Mihai Dan Pavelescu, Bucureti, Nemira,
2005.
Richard Lazarus, Emotion and Adaptation, Oxford University Press, Inc., 1991.
Scott Bukatman, Terminal Identity. The Virtual Subject in Postmodern Science
Fiction, Duke University Press, Durham and London, 1993.
Serge Brussolo, Mnctorii de ziduri, trad. Monica Columbeanu, AldoPress,
Bucureti, 1997.
William Gibson, Neuromantul, traducere de Mihai Dan Pavelescu, Bucureti, Univers,
2008.
Filme
Her (2013), n regia lui Spike Jonze.
Lucy (2014), n regia lui Luc Besson.
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Abstract: Constant Tonegaru had promoted both the poetry anchored in reality and a certain
penchant for evasion and, thereby, for travelling either towards imaginary locations or towards his
inner being through the labyrinth of his own nightmares. Constant Tonegaru like the other poets from
his generation is an artist who can not be deluded anymore that what is he doing is nothing but
literature, namely a second world built of words, and therefore a place of absolute freedom where
anything is possible. There is more that one form of dialogism which is perceived either as an
imaginary conversation with the reader or with the poet himself or as an indirect dispute over patterns
of creation or literary techniques. Allusions are, consequently, very common, literary themes and
motifs that were considered obsolete are brought back to life. One of the literary genres preferred by
this poet is the ekphrastic poem, a text which seems to paint a real or imaginary picture in a bidimensional perspective. More often the picture is imaginary; it is distorted copy of the reality
lacking the third dimension, namely the height the capacity to spiritually rise above the sordid
world. There is a poetry distinguishing by the mistrust in poetic language, the abandonment of
certainties and perfection, the preference for the ludic and the irony.
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reprezentat de poemele n care trimiterea la o oper de art se face explicit. n acest caz,
poetul afirm desluit c ceea ce descrie nu este un obiect real, ci reflectarea acestuia ntr-o
oper de art. Ekphrasisul deschis presupune descrierea operei miznd pe ambiguitatea
limbajului astfel nct cititorul poate s cread c modelul avut n vedere a fost unul real. n
realitate, noteaz Peter Barry, exemplele cele mai interesante le ofer poemele care se
situeaz la jumtatea distanei dintre ekphrasisul explicit i cel implicit.
n ceea ce privete subclasificarea ekphrasisului imaginar, autorul studiului consider
c poate fi numit fictiv, tipul de ekphrasis n cazul cruia ceea ce se descrie este, evident,
inventat, dar poetul creeaz iluzia realitii (opera de art are cteodat i un autor fictiv, un
amplasament, eul poetic se pune n postura posibilului admirator) i, respectiv, conceptual,
ekphrasisul n care obiectul descris nu numai c este imaginar, dar are trsturi suprarealiste
care-i fac imposibil existena. Clasificarea nu poate fi riguroas, ne avertizeaz autorul
studiului, dect teoretic, practic tipurile acestea se amalgameaz i putem regsi poeme care
au aspectul unor hibrizi din acest punct de vedere.
Poeii romni din preajma celui de-al Doilea Rzboi Mondial, printre care i Constant
Tonegaru, reprezentnd generaia pierdut/a rzboiului/albatrosist, reinventeaz ekphrasisul
imaginar. Tablourile descrise de ei sunt desigur ireale, dar conin attea elemente care creeaz
impresia c cititorul, urmrind discursul poetic, ptrunde ntr-un univers halucinant n care
banalul i absurdul se ntreptrund.
Am ales s folosim termenul ekphrasis n sensul larg propus de Peter Barry, i anume
o descriere a lumii fcut nu n mod direct, ci printr-un obiect intermediar, astfel nct ceea ce
pare s fie esenial nu este realitatea, ci o anumit perspectiv asupra acesteia. Obiectul
intermediar este, n cazul poeziei generaiei albatrosiste o imagine psihic a realitii, un
tablou interior, diferit ns de alte reprezentri mentale ale lumii fie pentru c-i lipsete
aspectul tridimensional, fie prin faptul c se prezint ca un panopticum. Respectnd
clasificarea lui Barry, am putea spune c se utilizeaz un tip aparte de ekphrasis conceptual n
cazul lui Constant Tonegaru.
Astfel, la Tonegaru textele care se pot apropia de poemul ekphrastic au un statut
aparte, ele nu descriu o oper de art real, deci nu poate fi vorba sub nicio form de a le
integra n categoria ekphrasisului propriu-zis. Revine ns la acest poet aproape obsedant
imaginea plat, ideea reducerii lumii la un cadru artificial, din care lipsete o dimensiune a
spaiului clasic tridimensional.
n Moartea primului amorez se remarc aceast bidimensionalitate, totul se reduce la
un univers banal, banalizat: un candelabru nvelit n tifon, sugernd lumina care s-a stins, care
e ascuns parc sub obroc, un univers lipsit de grandoare sub semnul morii, al pustietii.
Imaginea e deformat, ca i cum s-ar afla pe o pnz pe care un ochi neatent confund
dimensiunile, n care distanele sunt relative: privind cum norii ncep de Lun s se frece
sexualizarea universului e evident, dar fronda care caracteriza primul volum de versuri nu
mai e att de evident n paginile celui de-al doilea din care face parte textul citat, totul pare a
se fi decantat ntr-un discurs al epuizrii, al prefigurrii morii.
ntregul univers se restrnge la o panoplie din aceast de sus mpreunare te cheam o
mn la fereastr:/e mna mea din panoplii/care agit smintit batista cea mai albastr. Dup
modernismul puternic metaforizant, Tonegaru propune o poezie a vagului, a ambiguitii date
nu de ecartul metaforei, ci de ruperea frastic i de proiectarea concretului, mitologicului,
poeticului, banalului, senzualului, grotescului chiar, pe acelai plan ntr-un fel de colaj
improvizat, ntr-un joc tragic cu limbajul sau cu viaa. Poemul devine aproape unul
ekphrastic, tablou ireal ale crui margini se pierd n universul cotidian.
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limitelor dintre ficional i nonficional. Totul e proiectat ntr-un fel de mitologie personal n
care binele i rul se confund. Exotismul este ironizat, nu e refugiu i nici nu provoac mari
nostalgii. Crima face parte din banalitatea existenei. Retorismul discursului este subliniat,
oarecum umflat: V spun: Aici am ntlnit Moartea cu aripi strvezii de cea/ cum arunca
sorii (), pe cuvnt de cinste poetul Constant Tonegaru a vzut Moartea/ plutind
deasupra plantaiilor desfrunzite de ceai. Retorica certitudinii nu face dect s pun sub
semnul ntrebrii universul pe care-l contituie textul. Anularea granielor e tehnic poetic,
ntre animat i inanimat nu exist limite i cele dou categorii se confund, nici moartea de
via nu se delimiteaz clar (omul galben strpuns venea spre mine ca o stea marin
apariia obsesiei acvaticului denot transgresarea limitelor dintre contient i incontient,
tehnica e apropiat de cea a suprarealitilor, fr s se intenioneze destructurarea lumii ntratt nct s redea universul tulbure al incontientului, ci, mai degrab, s se creeze impresia
de lume absurd, ieit din tiparele mentalitii comune). E aici o ncercare de rennoire a
imaginarului poetic, n spirit postmodern, lumea nu se schimb, sentimentele umane sunt i
ele aceleai, poetul nu are un material nou pe care s-l prezinte publicului, ceea ce poate s
fac este s apeleze la cliee deja cunoscute, subliniindu-le banalitatea, vulgaritatea de multe
ori, tratnd fantasticul, absurdul ca elemente ale existenei obinuite, comune. Suspendarea n
vioar, n sicriu indic totodat ruperea de spaiul terestru, diafaneizarea i pierderea n
universul fictiv, e, de fapt, o lichefiere (se prelinge).
Ekphrasisul e vizibil i aici, totul se strnge ntr-un univers de hrtie, bidimensional,
totul e ncremenire, ca i cum lumea ar fi surprins ntr-o fotografie: Astfel am ncremenit
tergndu-mi baioneta de snge cu batista. Raporturile de cauzalitate sunt excluse (fr s
tiu am nceput s m-nchin), e o lume guvernat de hazard (moartea sau viaa i-au pierdut
orice sens) i, n consecin, modul de construcie al textului se supune i el hazardului.
Finalul aduce o ruptur n structura textului (laolalt pentru mori i pentru vii la mnstirea
Sfnta Felicia/o misionar cu bocanci i ochelari de baga cnt Ave-Maria la clavecin).
Sunt cteva dintre motivele consacrate ale simbolismului prezente aici (vioara, clavecinul,
moartea). Momentul solemn ironizeaz acordurile grave ale poeziilor care aduc n discuie
tema morii.
Noi doi, un poem care a fost trecut n linia minulescianismului, e poate mai aproape ca
viziune de textele futuriste ale lui Boris Pasternak5. i aici totul se aplatizeaz, nici universul
interior nu reuete s scape de bidimensionalitatea lumii exterioare. A treia dimensiune a
spaiului cea lips pare a fi tocmai aceea care ar fi asigurat lumii un anumit grad de
spiritualitate. Elementele universului abstract sau ale celui spiritual nu au disprut dar i-au
pierdut caracteristicile fundamentale, tocmai acelea care le-ar fi asigurat nota definitorie i lear fi separat de lumea comun, material. Sufletul meu era senin ca dimineaa/ dar cnd
mna am vrut s ntind/ mi s-a prut la fel ca-n faa unei oglinzi:/ chipul din fund n-am putut
s-l cuprind. Revine i aici obsesia acvaticului, redus la suprafaa posibil a unei oglinzi,
dincolo de care se produce dedublarea. Nu numai c sunt aparent nchise orice ci de acces,
dar exist aici i o sugestie a nepsrii, a detarii de propriul eu. Apropierea de ekphrasis se
realizeaz i aici cu deosebirea pe care o subliniam c nu exist la Tonegaru poeme care s
descrie tablouri, imagini, ci aici se produce un proces de transformare a lumii n imagine.
Pornind de la un termen consacrat de scriitorii romantici cu sensul de durere provocat
de discrepana dintre existena real, fizic i nevoile, aspiraiile spiritului uman,
Weltschmerz ajunge s desemneze o stare de tristee, de slbiciune care caracterizeaz
depresia, escapismul, dar i refuzul de a se supune normelor sociale. La Tonegaru, poemul
Vezi poemul Proaspt vopsit, Proaspt vopsit - nu v atingei./ Dar sufletul n-a fost atent, se pare,/i azi memoria mi-e numai pete/ De
ochi, de buze, braesi picioare.// Poate de-aceea te-am iubit pe tine/Mai mult ca bucuria ori veninul,/ Cci tu, lumina mea nglbenit,/ O faci
din nou mai alba dect crinul.//i-i jur, iubito, ceaa mea!/ Vom face-o i mai alb dect munii/ Mai alb ca delirul, ca abajurul,/Ca
pansamentul alb n jurul frunii. n A.E. Baconsky, Panorama poeziei universale, Editura Albatros, [1972]
5
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cnd se prezint fie fapte banale, fie proiecii ale propriei imaginaii. Iar poemul ekphrastic,
specie cultivat de poeii acestei generaii, devine unul n care pare a se descrie un tablou real
sau imaginar, caracterizat prin bidimensionalitatea prezentrii. n cazul acestor poet, tabloul
este adesea unul imaginar, o copie deformat a realitii creia i lipsete a treia dimensiune, i
anume naltul, capacitatea de a se ridica, din punct de vedere spiritual, deasupra lumii sordide.
Bibliografie
a) Opera
Tonegaru, Constant, Steaua Venerii, ediie ngrijit i prefaat de Barbu Cioculescu,
Editura pentru literatur, Bucureti, 1969
Tonegaru, Constant, Plantaia de cuie, Editura Vinea, Bucureti, 2003, col. Ediii
definitive, ediie, studiu critic, note i variante de Barbu Cioculescu
b) Studii i articole
Altieri, Charles, The Fate of the Imaginary in Twentieth-century American Poetry,
American Literary History 17 (1), Oxford University Press 2005
DAngelo, Frank J., The Rhetoric of Ekphrasis, n JAC. A Journal of Rhetoric, Culture
& Politics, vol. 18.3, http://www.jaconlinejournal.com/archives/vol18.3/dangelo-rhetoric.pdf
Barry, Peter, Contemporary Poetry and Ekphrasis, the Cambridge Quarterly vol. 31,
no. 2, 2002, pp. 155-165
Grimwood, Stevan, Iconography and postmodernity, Literature & Theology, vol. 17,
no 1, Oxford University Press, march 2003, pp. 76-97
Mitchell, W. J. T. , Ekphrasis and the Other in Picture Theory, The University of
Chicago
Press,
1994,
ediie
online,
http://www.rc.umd.edu/editions/shelley/medusa/mitchell.html
c) Studii generale
A.E. Baconsky, Panorama poeziei universale, Editura Albatros, 1972
Chioaru, Dumitru, Poetica temporalitii. Eseu asupra poeziei romneti, Editura
Dacia, col. Discobolul, Cluj-Napoca, 2000
Crian, Constantin, Ieirea din metafor, Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1972
Negrici, Eugen, Sistematica poeziei, Editura Fundaiei Culturale Romne, Bucureti,
1998
d) Studii critice
Grigurcu, Gheorghe, Poei romni de azi, Cartea Romneasc, 1979
Iorgulescu, Mircea, Al doilea rond, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1976
Manolescu, Nicolae, Metamorfozele poeziei, Editura pentru literatur, Bucureti, 1968
Manu, Emil, Generaia literar a rzboiului, Bucureti, Editura Curtea Veche, 2000
Mincu, Marin, Poezia romn actual (O antologie comentat), ediia a II-a, Editura
Pontica, Constana, 1999
Negoiescu, I., Analize i sinteze, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1976
Petroveanu, Mihail, Traiectorii lirice, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1974
Pop, Ion, Poezia unei generaii, Editura Dacia, Cluj, 1973
Piru, Al., Poezia romneasc contemporan. 1950-1975,
Editura Eminescu,
Bucureti, 1975
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Abstract: The study aims at depicting the specific narrative techniques of the Romanian novel
from the interbellum period. We identify both the imagery and the linguistic level sustaining
the new temporal approach on fiction at the beginning of the 20th century and later. In these
one can hear the echoes of Henri Bergsons philosophical ideas as they were filtered through
Marcel Prousts literary work. The Romanian novel was much influenced in the first decades
of the last century by the French literature and thus much of the literary discourse techniques
were not copied but borrowed because they served as starting point in rethinking the
traditional novel and its temporal structures. Thus, Romanian writers understood that time is
not a simple narrative function but is the essential element of a new perception of the world
and of the fiction itself.
Keywords: literary imagery, temporality, consciousness, involuntary memory.
One of the most conscience-related issues of the modern times and one of the most
intriguing philosophical aspects as well as scientific has been the problem of time. This
has taken different shapes and aspects: psychological duration, physical or mathematical time,
biological or historical time.
As long as in the scientific research the functions of conscience were considered mere
replicas of the universe (in the sense of mirroring it), time was a fact that contradicted daily
experiences. It was perceived as homogeneous, continuous, bearing one singular and linear
direction, indefinite whereas the experience would notice its discontinuity. Therefore, in the
scientific theories of the early modern times, time was defined as the measurement of
succession. Yet, the measurement of succession is cannot be time, but only space. In order to
obtain a minimal determination of time, in the measurement of succession one should
introduce the reference to the three fundamental moments: past, present and future. And this
cannot be generated by the simple perception of succession, but the structure of human
conscience which allows the update of memory data. Due to memory, facts of succession can
be differentiated according to time order. This does not totally explain the idea of time. It is
still debatable whether time is a reality external to the things happening in a certain
succession, or it is just a ratio between these things. In both cases, the explanation is full of
contradictions.
At the end of the 19th century, a new direction appears in the study of time and this is
due to the French philosopher Henri Bergson. In his works (Time and Free Will, Matter and
Memory, Duration and Simultaneity) he opens the way to a new interpretation which will be
much influenced by psychological researches. One starting point is the clear distinction
Bergson makes between outside and inside or, psychologically speaking, the distinction
between introspective and non-introspective. It is, in fact, the difference of spirit within itself
or the conservation of self identity within difference. Beyond the play of words, Bergson
brings back the metaphysical reflection on time and space, connecting the concept of time
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with that of duration, respectively the concept of movement with the idea of mobility. In his
endeavour to clarify the ratios between the individual and the object of his cognition, Bergson
raises the following question: in his permanent contact with reality and real objects, doesnt
the individual borrow something from the outside world and assimilates it into his thinking
structure, reaching therefore to a self-cognition as something exterior, as a compromise,
keeping thus the individual in a state of perpetual object-dependence? And, trying to
understand individual and his environment by erasing the fingerprints of the outside world
will determine in bergsonian philosophy the premise of an introspective method which will
develop into a theory of intuition.
As for the time-space ratio, Bergson uses Kants theory which states that space has an
existence independent of his content and considers it isolatable of anything related to
individual. By tracing back the manner in which this theory was interpreted, the French
philosopher brings forward the judging errors, developing at the same time the theory of
multiple states of conscience. At the beginning of his Time and Free Will, Bergson settles that
states of conscience are not measures, but intensities, qualities and therefore immeasurable,
yet perceptible. And any attempt to measure them would eventually lead to a measurement of
external causes (as these are measurable because they are in space and space has the attribute
of quantity). Moreover, considering space as being measurable, it will be defined as a
homogenous environment allowing clear distinctions, counting, abstractization and even the
act of speech. Starting from this, two different realities are identified: one which is
heterogeneous (of the sensitive qualities) and another one which is homogenous that is
space. At this point of demonstration, the philosopher realizes that time is also homogenous
and feels the necessity to introduce a new concept to better explain facts of conscience:
duration. Conscience includes the past, all anterior experiences in a unity which cannot be
spatially represented.
La dure, however, is the foundation of our being and is, as we feel, the very
substance of the world in which we live. Associating his view of Real Time with the reality of
change, he points out that nothing is more resistant or more substantial than la dure, for our
dure is not merely one instant replacing another if it were there would never be anything
but the present, no prolonging of the past into the actual, no growth of personality, and no
evolution of the universe. La dure is the continuous progress of the past which gnaws into
the future and which swells as it advances, leaving on all things its bite, or the mark of its
tooth. This being so, consciousness cannot go through the same state twice; history does
never really repeat itself. Our personality is being built up each instant with its accumulated
experience; it shoots, grows, and ripens without ceasing [Gunn, 98].
What should be clearly stated in regard to Bergsons theory is that duration of inner
self is not immediately accessible to conscience. The individual has to break out from the
mechanical habits of social routine in order to grasp it; and when it does he is confronted not
with a succession or a continuous flow, but with an outburst of present determined by the
pressure of past. Continuing this theory, Bergson states that any phenomenon that appears to
conscience has duration. Considering as real succession the mental synthesis of external
changes, the French philosopher introduces the idea of projecting duration in space: we
project time in space, express duration as length and succession takes the shape of a
continuous line [Bergson, 1998, 77]. This is the mathematical time just a line, the physical
time measurable by the trajectory of a mobile object but they both cannot identify the real
time. In Mathematics or Physics, when time is of the issue, space is the only possible answer.
And this is not the movement which takes place, but the movement which had already taken
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place. Bergsons perspective upon time and its projection in space makes clear the distinction
between process and result and this will guide his entire philosophical system. The
mathematical time does not capture but few aspects, namely the spatial ones, measurable in
trajectory. In physical research, time is just a trace a something that happened.
If Bergsons philosophy is one of duration, then the access to duration is given by the
intuition of it. In his opinion there are only two ways of getting to know an object: a relative
knowledge which implies a gyration around the object, and an absolute knowledge when
the object is penetrated. And the latter is done by intuition any other gesture is just simple
measurement. For Bergson, intuition means that kind of intellectual sympathy by means of
which the individual is transposed in the interior of an object in order to realize its uniqueness
and inexplicability. On the other hand, analyzing it would mean expressing the object in terms
of it is not. From this point forward the theory brings into discussion the concept of
intuition of duration, as thinking intuitively as Bergson said means to think / be in
duration. Intuition is also a kind of thinking, but one directed towards time, an exploration
and perception of time different than placing it into space.
It is true that no image can reproduce exactly the original feeling I have of the flow of
my own conscious life. But it is not even necessary that I should attempt to render it. If a man
is incapable of getting for himself the intuition of the constitutive duration of his own being,
nothing will ever give it to him, concepts no more than images. Here the single aim of the
philosopher should be to promote a certain effort, which in most men is usually fettered by
habits of mind more useful to life. Now the image has at least this advantage that it keeps us
in the concrete. No image can replace the intuition of duration, but many diverse images,
borrowed from very different orders of things, may, by the convergence of their action, direct,
consciousness to the precise point where there is a certain intuition to be seized [Bergson,
1999, 5].
Reflection upon the conscience of time determines for Bergson a science of the spirit.
Thus, the spirituality of time is fulfilled by overpassing the historical time and grasping the
very essence of inner duration.
In modern era, finding elements that belong to intuition of time is often quite different
from the methods of ancient philosophy. This was much inclined to understand time by
observing physical movements (when myths were not enough). In last centuries philosophy
spirit is separated from matter and time looses the connection with the material movement.
Modern thinkers have found in time either a law of the divine universe or an a priori form of
human conscience, culminating in the identification of real psychological time with inner
duration. Intuition of time leaves behind the material features imposed by some divine laws
and embraces the ethereal characters of spiritual dynamism.
Starting from philosophical theories or scientific research, writers from the beginning
th
the 20 century understand that fictional structures have to develop in the same rhythm with
the modern era. And maybe one of the most important changes (and achievements) was rethinking the temporal levels of the novel. If Henri Bergson is the philosopher who stated
clearly that there is a duration which is different from the historical, homogenous time, then
Marcel Proust is the writer who understood that literary character must obey the same
temporal laws as real individuals did. In his masterpiece In Search of Lost Time ( la
recherch du temps perdu) the writer builds up a sort of temporal journey at the end of which,
Time, which seemed lost, highlights its very subjective essence. In real life, one can notice
that any kind of time once it is lived, it perishes, with no possibility of being recovered. And
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the traditional novel (which obeys the time of the real life) creates such a narration, repeating
the structure of real time. Thus, Marcel Proust is the first novel writer who not only makes
time the subject and content of his work, but also states the autonomy of narrative time as
compared to the real one. This characteristic is only depicted at the end of the reading, the
author allowing the novel to create for some time an identity between the fictional time and
the real time. As the reading takes place, the imaginary fictional temporality stresses out its
features, eventually becoming a character in Prousts novel. Nostalgia for the past is one of
the main characteristics of the novel, as in every page there is a certain hope that lost time
may and can be recovered, relived. Evoking past moments does not mean a simple return in
the past. Even though the almost obsessing usage of the eternal imperfect (as Proust himself
used to call it) creates a strange sensation of reliving the past, this is a sui-generis narrative
structure in which present and past borders are often indistinct. What is interesting is that
there is no clear distinction between the different moments of the past: between long time ago
and not long ago. Temporality becomes therefore in Prousts novel a synthesis of the human
experience.
Before Marcel Prousts writings there had been no clear disparity between the time of
the narrator and the time of the real life. Events took place in a chronological order with no
interfere of subjective temporality, of feelings or fluctuations of human emotions. In Search
of Lost Time brings a new dimension and measure of time. It becomes sometimes a static
time, flowing hard, and sometimes rushes up creating crises of temporality and of the
individual as he has to confront himself. Time is no longer meant to be measured by the
objective hands of the clock, but by the very inner self of the characters, by their emotions
and pulsations. As Proust himself said, novel writers are stupid to count time in days and
hours; days may be equal for a clock but not for a human being. If science elaborated an
abstract and uniform concept of time, the French writer catches its living pulsation. It is this
type of time that can be lost and then found. The lost time belongs to the individual, as
it is the time of the inner soul and its loss means to be aware of it and to have a clear
conscience of its presence.
Time is the ford in which all events flow, in which characters appear and exist. This is
a condition which even the narrator obeys, but, due to an extreme lucidity, he turns it into an
act of knowledge. Passing existence, the idea of panta rhei induces the nostalgia of time and
consequently, the illusion of everlasting. Experiences such as that with the madeleine or
slipping in the court of Guermantes, the memory of the church towers from Martinville are all
fragments of an esthetic emotion. The novel becomes therefore an ars poetica which reveals
its object in the meditation upon time. What is eventually discovered is interior time also
put into theory by the sciences of the beginning of the 20th century. The reader is introduced
to the conscience of temporality and, even more, to the intention of acknowledging its nature.
Thus, Time becomes the criteria for all events and characters presented with all their details
within the same implacable truth.
Because the narration does not follow the chronological thread of life but the lived
time brought into present by memory one can identify a double value of time: on one hand
it is the condensation of it to the ecstatic value of the moment and, on the other hand, it is the
neglecting of some periods of time, the so called narrative blanks. The reader witnesses the
stop and the speeding up of time flow. Walter Biemel states that, usually, the time leap is
preceded by a very detailed description of some moments, in other words an arrest or
condensation of time. This way, Marcel Proust succeeds in taking the readers conscience into
the depths of narrative flow. Condensation (the arrest of the flow of events) and the blank (the
narrative leap) are two fundamental possibilities of realizing the fictional time and these
anticipate future narrative techniques [Biemel, 245].
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Prousts work tries to catch a glimpse of the mysterious action of time beyond events
that is to find the cause of them. And this depend neither on the individual nor on his actions,
but it is contained by existence itself. Time seems therefore to be not only a theoretical issue
but a force which all characters and even the narrator depend on. And this is what the novel
implies: that, by fiction, the author may intervene even for just a moment upon time flow.
The European novel of the 20th century is revolutionized by Marcel Proust with the
help of a special narrative technique that of the involuntary memory. It determines what
Henri Bergson called interior duration: a lived time, as concrete as conscience, opposed to an
abstract one, conventional determined by the hands of clock. If the former is subordinated to
imaginary and irrationality, the latter is perceived as a listing of perfect measurable units,
equal and identical one with another. The inner time is in relation to intimate life of the
unconscious and it is impossible to be measured with an exterior unity. This duration is
immeasurable. As
it is every time different, according to each individual conscience, being in each
aspect determined, modified by all the others which preceded it, and with which it makes up a
whole. In its conditions there are frequent speed shifts which Proust observed in Faluberts
work [] due to which one can feel a single moment from the time of the clocks as an
eternity in terms of duration, or, on the contrary, tens of years of the same intellectual and
abstract time can be felt as one second of inner life. [Mavrodin, 20, transl. M. N.]
These temporal expansions and condensations which obey only the laws of inner
experience are defining that psychological realism of which Proust has been many times
accused of.
Voluntary memory operates with chronological time, in a logic and will-driven
manner. Involuntary memory has a spontaneous character, and does not answer to will but to
the unconscious because of the relations it realizes with most obscure intuitions of inner
conscience. Past becomes as real as present, as it is recreated by the accidental meeting of
two sensations: one from present moment and the other one from a more or less remote past
existence. Acknowledging the past (in other words re-living affectively the past moments)
changes it into something much more real and much more significant than the present itself.
Past has more reality because due to conscience and involuntary memory and later through a
voluntary intellectual effort the individual perceives it as truth.
Marcel Proust described many times (starting with Swan) the involuntary memory
mechanism: a present sensation triggers in the individual when it happens to be analogue
with a past sensation a short flashing state of real bliss same as the one triggered by love.
This unspeakable happiness is given by an immediate knowledge followed by the analyses
of intelligence. This second moment makes creation possible. This is what Proust wanted to
highlight: that any individual can experience the revelation determined by the involuntary
memory, but only the creator (the writer) is capable to save or to record in the work of art that
valuable knowledge.
Prousts novel is constructed entirely on this new logic of subjective and relativizable
vision (which was also put in theory by Freud, Bergson or Einstein) and this will govern the
composition, characters, subject, intrigue etc. making a huge leap forward from the objective,
traditional novel, There is a sort of interference of temporal levels due to the fluctuations of
involuntary memory which drills deep into the past experiences and brings to surface all
successive egos of the narrator. This is the typical time progression one can notice in Prousts
work. Traditional epic texts use time and temporality as a channel in which all events take
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place consequently, the latter being into focus. Such an epic model does not know any other
perspective but the one towards future, towards the end of things. Proust suggests that there
can be a dual perspective: past and future. Cyclic composition state an esthetic of temporality
which encapsulates what is specific to epic art, the feeling of wholeness being provided by the
arrest of time. This is what makes the narration so authentic, so much life-like experience.
Discovering motivation of life is what the author suggests and this is nothing else but
discovering the Heideggers being-in-time. This is not reduced to the narrator, but it covers
any individual who attempts to live in the perspective (hence the telescope metaphor, as a
gesture of looking deep inside oneself). It is what Marcel Proust asserts: that the scope of the
novel is to make the reader acknowledge his own being. The environment of the character
does not have to obey him; everything that happens must be clearly reveled in order for the
individual to understand what being-in-time means as dimension of his existence. In other
words, the past event determines a better understanding of the present and at the same time
projects a future possible experience. Therefore, time is no longer perceived as a fatality (as it
was many times in the traditional novel).
Marcel Prousts novel has imposed a method and a technique which acted as a model
to many other European writers of the beginning of the 20th century. And, as any small
culture, the Romanian culture felt the need of synchronization with the modern literature of
Europe. This explains the great influence Bergsons theories and, more important, Marcel
Prousts narrative techniques influenced so much the Romanian novel in the first decades of
the last century.
Undermining the former rhetoric, the new novel imposes another one, everything
being characterized by the flag of novelty. Shifting the conflict into consciences,
subjectivization and multiplying perspectives, the presence of digressions, of numerous
retrospective episodes, breaking up chronology and of the cause-effect principle,
pulverization of character, first person narration lead to a more unconstrained narrative
construction which looses the old rigidity of geometrical structures. [Clinescu, 43, transl. M.
N.]
In Romanian interbellum cultural space, Prousts work was greatly appreciated and
has been a landmark to all modern writers of the 20th century. Most of them embraced the
new narrative attempt to create authenticity in what time and temporality are concerned and
developed theories of their own. In the 20s and 30s, Camil Petrescu, Anton Holban and
Mihail Sebastian are at the same time authors of novels and theoreticians of the new narrative
technique, engaged in an important conceptual dialogue.
The main novelty brought by Camil Petrescu can be seen in the change of views upon
the scope of literature which is no longer called to amuse or delight, but to impose
revelation on reality. To really understand the mutation Camil Petrescu caused in Romanian
literature, one should appeal to his study Noua structur i opera lui Marcel Proust (The New
Structure and the Work of Marcel Proust). He asserts from the beginning that for almost a
century before, no other writer had troubled the literary conscience of the world as the author
of In Search of Lost Time. Observing the anachronisms in the literary art (especially that of
the novel), the Romanian writer feels of great necessity the synchronization with the evolution
of science and philosophy. Ultima noapte de dragoste, ntia noapte de rzboi (The Last
Night of Love, the First Night of War) succeeded in shocking the expectations of critics
familiar with the details of the traditional novel. First, it was the unusual structure of the novel
two parts of almost equal dimensions, disputing each half of the title that made many
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The author himself confesses at the end of the novel: a confluent stream obeys the
law of the river. In this respect, Freds notebook and his memories will become in the hands
of Mrs. T another way of sliding through Time, towards other worlds and other lives.
Therefore, Mrs. T, the one who wrote the letters at the beginning of the novel, will also
become familiar with the unconceivable length of time segments. She will most probably add
to Emilias trivial comments her own recollections. The labyrinth of life will, thus, be
supplemented with a new side where time slots intertwine and moments ebb and flow in a
great whirl of details which determine the mystery of life.
Camil Petrescu is, due to both his theoretical studies and fictional texts, the most
important author of the Romanian interbellum modern novel. His theories (in which he
announces the new temporal perspective Marcel Proust brought into novel writing) acted as
flagship for most of the writers of the period. Therefore, Mateiu Caragiale, Mihail Sebastian,
Anton Holban, Hortensia-Papadat Bengescu tried to make use of the new theories and created
texts which have been since then real landmarks for Romanian novel. They still are models of
writing that, is some cases, could not have been surpassed by any other fictional attempt. For
example, the novel of Mateiu Caragiale, Craii de Curtea-Veche (The Philanderers), has been
acknowledged by Romanian literary critics as the most important in the development of
contemporary literature.
Mateiu Caragiales novel strikes both in its symbolic content and structure. On the
surface level, an inversion of the regular chronological order can be observed: the second
chapter depicts events which precede the ones in the first chapter, as if there is a return to
something forgotten. The narrator seems the need of justifying his experiences and thus, he
uses a temporal feed-back in a considerably easy-going manner. The first two chapters can
also be read in a reversed order, without influencing the narration in any way. Alexandru
George notices that, unlike Remember (Mateiu Caragiales well-known short-story) where the
epic follows the usual pattern (starting with the arrival of the protagonist and ending with his
death), there is no development (typical expression of the action in the novel) here [George,
101]. This lack of development does not imply any confusion of the events, which remain
easy to follow. In fact, the reader is deliberately misled: the concept of time is shown as not
having the same importance it did in the traditional novel. I had lost track of time, the
narrator confesses at the beginning of the novel. But this will turn out to be not only
misguiding, but also deceiving. Time becomes a character in itself which determines in the
end the very existence of the philanderers.
The characters do not seem to exist on the present-future time frame, but only in a
perpetual relation with that Golden Age, somewhere far behind, in a sacred Past. I knew that
the specter of the past, he submerges passionately in, was the only thing able to move him. He
spoke of the past with a mystical depth. The concept of far back in time only exists as an
effect of the consciousness of present time. The characters try to rid themselves of the present
in order to retrieve from the past their real life. Therefore, it is imperative that the legendary
and somewhat obscure roots of the characters are brought forward.
They [the characters] are burdened with heredity, with the space where a certain
historical event happened; and they are either connected to it directly, when they recognize
and take pride in pleasure, or indirectly, unconsciously, when they receive it more than once
as a load or as a curse [George, 103].
The novel Craii de Curtea-Veche sets itself free from the limited time frame as
suggested by any predictable piece of writing which follows the same pattern for creating a
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beginning, middle and an ending. The action of the novel, therefore, under no circumstances
is the short time passed between the winter of 1910 and the winter of 1911, when the events
take place, but the vast time of infinity. Furthermore, the ending of the epic is not Paadias
death or Pantazis flee from the country, but the eternity of the dream in the last pages of the
novel. The obvious originality of the novel determined the literary critics to find similarities
between Mateiu Caragiales style and the one of the great novelists of the world. The most
interesting resemblance (as far as the present study is concerned) seems to be the Mateiu I.
Caragiale monograph written by Alexandru George. In his criticism he compares Craii de
Curtea-Veche to Marcel Prousts novel of lost time. The Romanian critic notices that Mateiu
Caragiale, the same as the French writer, focuses not on the past but on the rapport between
present and past. The recollections narrated in Craii de Curtea-Veche are also based on the
principle of involuntary memory (the stream of consciousness technique).
In the case of both writers, that which makes emotion complete and provides life with
meaning is restoring in the present time of things lost. In Prousts writing proper knowledge is
achieved through this restoration; in Mateiu Caragiales work, on the other hand, the
restoration brings forth a sort of poetic vaporous inebriation, whose effects reach the depths
of his complex nature. The discussion here is not about the existent past of the historic
novelists, but it is about that past which gives true meaning to the present. The perspective
of the past and its effect in the present should be taken into consideration, even more than the
concept of past, when comparing both writers [George, 127-132].
What is to be understood is the fact that Romanian writers did not copy the methods
Marcel Proust used in his work. They went beyond simple repetition and created texts that
breathe such freshness that one can only make a comparison between their narrative
techniques and the ones used in the novel In Search of Lost Time (but not a total
identification). Moreover, Romanian writers created a theoretical background against which
they developed their fictional universe. Their importance is unquestionable, as the Romanian
contemporary literature still finds inspiration and model in the interbellum novel. Writers
such as Augustin Buzura, Alexandru Ivasiuc or Nicolae Breban use involuntary memory or
multiplication of perspectives as main methods of creating authentic fiction.
Marcel Prousts influence on Romanian literature has been acknowledged and
accepted long time ago. This study attempts to identify the path concepts like duration or
memory took in order to become narrative techniques. Time and temporality sustain
imagination and therefore they are bound to fiction, as the characters become images of the
every-day individual with his present gestures, past memories and future thoughts. Temporal
perception does not fluctuate according to only age or individual, but also according to
different possible states of conscience.
The Romanian interbellum novel is, by excellence, a novel of Time and all its
imaginary structures come to sustain this idea. It is not a response to French literature, but a
gesture of existence within the European culture of the beginning of the 20th century, of
adaptation and synchronization with science, philosophy and modern literature.
Bibliography:
1. Bergson, Henri, 1998, Evoluia creatoare, Institutul European, Iai.
2. Bergson, Henri, 1999, An Introduction to Metaphysics, Hackett Publishing Company.
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3. Bergson, Henri, 2001, Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of
Consciousness, Dover Publications, New York.
4. Biemel, Walter, 1987, Expunere i interpretare, Univers.
5. Clinescu, Matei, 2005, Cinci fee ale modernitii, Polirom, Iai.
6. Genette, Gerard, 1972, Figures III, Paris.
7. George, Alexandru, 1981, Mateiu I. Caragiale, Minerva, Bucureti.
8. Gunn, John Alexander, Bergson and His Philosophy, chapter VI, at www.ibiblio.org
(http://www.ibiblio.org/HTMLTexts/John_Alexander_Gunn/Bergson_And_His_Philo
sophy/chapter6.html 12.08.2012)
9. Heidegger, Martin, 2001, Conceptul de timp, Humanitas, Bucureti.
10. Mavrodin, Irina, 1987, O mereu sporita uimire in Marcel Proust, n cutarea timpului
pierdut, Univers, Bucureti.
11. Vieillard-Baron, Jean-Louis, 1995, Le problme du temps, Paris, Vrin.
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Abstract: Ambivalence identity central character of the novel is manifested by the oscillation
between living experience that begins the novel and knowing and representing the world as it
is present in the interior landscape character's subjectivity, between lived experience and life
as she menus with other words, between a fact lived intensely in his interiority and has
disastrous consequences and exteriority projects outside the immediate reality of the other.
Keywords: ambivalence of identity, character, interior landscaping, inside, outside.
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Op.,cit.: "n perspectiv subiectiv, depersonalizarea e trit, n marginea patologicului, ca un <<gol interior>>. Subiectul simte c l-a
prsit o parte din interesul su spontan fa de lume, c l <<apuc urtul>>, c nimic nu-l mai atrage, c are <<spleen>>." (p.79).
4
Op.,cit.: "Trirea <<dedublrii>> interioare se manifest i prin <<ambivalen>>. Acum, persoana nu poate sintetiza <<contrariile>>
sufletului su ntr-o formul superioar care s nsemne i angajare orientat. Ambivalena se manifest n planul deciziilor, al atitudinilor
afective, al gndurilor, inteniilor i nceputurilor de act. Poziiile contrare, simetrice, se dovedesc pentru subiect la fel de valide, de
importante. Subiectul oscileaz ntre ele, nu reuete sinteza unitar ce definete individualitatea clar delimitat, poziionat, orientat i
angajat" (p.81).
5
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Op.,cit.: "n delir, ceea ce n mod firesc este cunoatere i reprezentare a lumii, prezente n subiectivitatea persoanei, structurate amplu i
nuanat, dup liniile de for ale unui set de opinii, evidene, convingeri i credine se simplific la extrem. Delirantul ader rigid la o idee
central, simpl i ieit din comun, formulabil n cadrul unei teme (...)" (p.85).
6
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Op.,cit.: "Omul anxios se afl ntr-o stare de ncordare, simindu-se n acelai timp vulnerabil"(p.135).
"Cnd gndete cu adevrat, cnd judec cu temei, omul trebuie s fie linitit, sigur de sine, bine aezat. Anxiosului i lipsete tocmai
aceast fireasc inserie ntr-o lume cunoscut, ordonat i limpede structurat, care s-i permit gndirea i aciunea eficient" (p.136).
8
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interioritii ar putea veni, crede el, din acea proiecie sub form de vis, secvenial i
provizoriu, ca modalitate de evitare a cderii n angoas9.
Anxietatea provoac licriri de speran c ajutorul ar putea veni din partea celuilalt,
mai nti n vis, paradoxal, din partea Madeleinei, mai apoi, din partea medicului care prin
stabilirea diagnosticului ar putea contribui la gsirea adevrului despre sine i cele ce s-au
petrecut.
"Sperana i era n bunvoina medicului. Evident, trebuie s dea i el o mn
de ajutor, s fac ceva, cel puin un gest"
[Liviu Rebreanu, Ciuleandra, p.31]
Puiu Faranga se afl situat "la marginea existenei sale n lume, raportul de for este
structurat dup relaia eulume, rezultat din crisparea personajului care are n fa un
obstacol periculos"10.
"i aminti c de fapt a fost primit prost aici chiar de la intrare. Internul a fost
att de indolent c a trebuit s-l admonesteze prefectul. Parc nu-i convenea sosirea unui
pacient mai distins".
[Liviu Rebreanu, Ciuleandra., p.34]
Teama de lume i gsete corespondentul, n peisajul interior, n teama de sine.
"Era zdruncinat ca o main care i-a pierdut crma. i mai rsreau planuri
noi n minte. Le izgonea. Ce planuri cnd nimic nu mai depindea de dnsul, cnd el a ajuns o
jucrie stricat aruncat ntre patru ziduri".
[Liviu Rebreanu, Ciuleandra, p.35]
ntlnirea cu medicul are rolul de a sonda peisajul interior al personajului pentru a-i
ntemeia o convingere i a putea gsi repere ale interioritii pacientului. Puiu devine un
caz, n care "investigatorul" va trebui s discearn ntre normalitate i anormalitate.
"- A dori s stm puin de vorb zise apoi [doctorul, n.n.] aezndu-se, cu
un glas oficial, nici prietenos nici dumnos. Am fost pus n curent aici cu chestia d-tale,
firete, att ct s-a putut n linii mari i nchipui, cred, c cele ce mi s-au spus nu m-au
lmurit nici pe departe i c, poate chiar n interesul cauzei d-tale, am nevoie de oarecare
date precise pe care s-mi ntemeiez o convingere"
[Liviu Rebreanu, Ciuleandra, p.35]
Puiu se afl "n stare de arest preventiv", iar, medicul dei nu este judector, trebuie s
cunoasc amnunte i intimiti pentru a putea cntri apoi motivele.
"S reconstitui deci evenimentele ct se poate mai clar [- zise medicul]".
[Liviu Rebreanu,Ciuleandra, p.35]
Frica genereaz agresivitatea personajului care st fa n fa cu cellalt, doctorul, pe
care l percepe ca fiindu-i duman. Confruntarea este "pe via i pe moarte". Agresivitatea se
manifest prin "afirmarea de sine prin respingerea celuilalt11. Trirea agresiv se manifest
Op.,cit.: "Omului anxios i lipsete sigurana dat de ederea pe un teren ferm, cu fundamente solide, care i-ar permite luarea unei poziii
anume, a unei atitudini adecvate n raport cu mprejurrile concrete ale existenei sale" (p.136).
"Anxiosul simte c nu mai are pe cine sau pe ce s se sprijine. Cnd presimte "cderea n angoas", el s-ar sprijini practic pe oricine"
(p.137).
9
Op.,cit.: "Trind anxietatea, subiectul se afl la marginea existenei sale n lume. Acum o dat cu fobia, cu frica, raportul "eu-lume" apare
ca fiind mai structurat, polarizat dup liniile de for dintre subiectul crispat i un <<obiect>> periculos ce-i st n fa" (p.141).
10
Op.,cit.: "Agresivitatea este complementar fricii. Omul ce st fa n fa cu dumanul su, n plin confruntare pe via i pe moarte,
triete, desigur, frica. Dar el se monteaz i agresiv pentru a face fa situaiei, pentru a aciona i a se salva. Atitudinea agresiv i cea de
resimire a pericolului sunt trite de obicei concomitent. " (p.153).
11
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Op.,cit.: "Agresivitatea, aa cum se desfoar n situaia confruntrii, indiferent cum a fost iniiat, prin provocare agresiv sau frustrare,
particip la structurarea prezentului trit de ctre subiect. Dup ce actul agresiv s-a consumat, dup ce evenimentul respectiv s-a ncheiat,
totul se plaseaz n memoria, n <<trecutul>> subiectului. Legturile acestui <<eveniment trecut>> cu tririle actuale, cu prezentul
persoanei, pot fi variate. De exemplu, dac individul resimte cele fcute ca fiind excesive sau nedrepte, apar deseori remucri, preri de
ru care se repet n manier obsesiv, mobiliznd subiectul spre <<reparare>>, spre <<rscumprare>> moral" (p.157).
12
Op.,cit.: "Situaia paradigmatic a depresiei poate fi considerat trirea doliului ce se instituie o dat cu dispariia fiinei iubite.
Trind anxietatea i frica sau tensiunea agresiv omul se simte izolat; izolat n marginea alunecrii existenei sale spre haos i nefiin;
izolat i singur n faa lumii ostile, a alter-egoului su amenintor, cu care se confrunt pe via i pe moarte. n toate aceste mprejurri
subiectul se resimte dureros desprins de lumea comuniunii i solidaritii, de universul ncrederii i al sprijinului reciproc, de cosmosul
iubirii. De aceea el caut aproape cu disperare pe altul, pe alii, pentru a i-i face protectori sau tovari" (p.162-163).
13
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Peisajul interior este dominat din nou de nelinite, Puiu este gnditor iar citirea
necrologului atrge "prevestiri sinistre".
"Ridic ochii gnditor. n grdin, n aceeai clip, un crd de ciori se cobor
crind pe copacii grei de zpad, ca un stol de gnduri negre. Puiu se scul repede de pe
scaun, enervat, i se ntoarse cu spatele, ca s nu vad ciorile care totdeauna l-au ngreoat
iar acuma tocmai cnd cetise despre Madeleine i se preau nite prevestiri sinistre".
[Liviu Rebreanu, Ciuleandra, p.58]
Obsesia crimei revine, manifestndu-se ca "lupt dureroas", proiectat pe fundalul
peisajului interior, confruntare ntre dorina lui Puiu de a ajunge la un oarecare rezultat
oarecum ateptat, debarasarea de obsesia morii Madeleinei i forele care fac nespornic
intenia sa14.
i totui, Puiu rateaz ambivalena comportamentului n faa medicului, dedublarea l
afund i mai mult n obsesie. Asemeni lui Cain care i omoar fratele, pe pstorul Abel,
Puiu o ucide pe Mdlina, persoana cea mai apropiat lui, i "fuge"; dar, tot asemeni lui Cain,
el nu poate scpa de "vocea contiinei morale" care-l va urmri peste tot i oriunde, n orice
situaie i n orice moment15.
i totui mai exist nc o soluie: s-i triasc o mare parte a momentelor vieii n
interioritate, iar, n acest sens, Puiu i imagineaz ntrebrile pe care medicul i le va pune i
rspunsurile sale, felul n care va suporta derularea evenimentelor i reaciile fa de ceilali16.
n cteva rnduri, Puiu pomenete de dansul numit Ciuleandra, care a i dat titlul
micro-romanului. Mai nti, n conversaia cu gardianul, mai apoi, n cea cu doctorul. Pe
parcursul uneia din ntlnirile cu doctorul care sondeaz cu perseveren peisajul interior al
tnrului Faranga, acesta i descrie dansul secven cu secven. E vorba de o hor care
pornete lent, al crei ritm se accelereaz n timp ce irul dansatorilor se ncovoaie i se
strnge ca un "arpe fantastic", lutarii "i ntrt iar cntecul". ("i aa jocul pare c va
continua pn ce toi juctorii i vor topi sufletele ntr-o suprem nflcrare de pasiune
dezlnuit", Liviu Rebreanu, Ciuleandra, p.73). Contopirea ntru-un tot a dansatorilor
semnific proiecia dilatat, apoi topirea n "pielea lrgit" (Mircea Lzrescu, op.cit., p.74) a
celuilalt care l include ntr-un tot dominat de histerie, ntr-o histerie general, care ia forma
spectacolului cinetic, n derularea sa, n acel "efort de aciune", devenit evident prin "efortul
apariiei, al prezenei expresive i semnificative pentru ceilali17
"Ei bine, doctore, cine n-a vzut Ciuleandra nu-i poate nchipui ce nseamn
lecia dansului! (Se aprinse. Ochii i luceau ntr-un zmbet fierbinte). Pornete ca o hor
oarecare, foarte lent, foarte cumptat. Juctorii se adun, se nir, se mbin, probabil dup
Op.,cit.: "Situaia paradigmatic a obsesiei poate fi considerat mustrarea de cuget, chinul, vocea contiinei morale. i, la fel, situaia
omului muncit de gnduri, precum i a celui chinuit de gndul muncii. Al muncii nespornice, care trebuie mereu reluat pentru ca, prin efort
anonim, omul, subiectul, s poat ajunge la un oarecare rezultat" (p.170).
14
Op.,cit.: "n legenda biblic, muncitorul de pmnt Cain i omoar fratele, pe pstorul contemplativ Abel i fuge la est de Eden. El fuge i
tot fuge. Dar orict de departe s-ar duce, oriunde s-ar ascunde, vinovatul Cain nu poate scpa de ochii lui Dumnezeu, care-l vd peste tot,
nu poate scpa de vocea acestuia, care-l acuz n orice clip a vieii sale, oricnd, n orice situaie prezent, orict ar fi aceasta de mplinit
de <<dulce>>. (p.170).
15
Op.,cit.: "Fiind un invalid al actului eficient, obsesivul triete o mare parte din existen n plan imaginar, la fel ca i fobicul, de care a i
fost uneori apropiat. Dar, spre deosebire de acesta din urm, el e preocupat continuu de eventualiti i posibiliti, de cum ar fi trebuit sau
cum ar trebui s acioneze." (p.174).
16
Op.,cit.: "Situaia paradigmatic a manifestrilor histerice, a existenei histerice, poate fi considerat spectacolul (apariia spectacular,
<<darea n spectacol>>). Aa cum exist un <<efort de aciune>>, care n ipostaz psihopatologic, ncadreaz obsesia, se poate
evidenia i un <<efort al apariiei>>, al prezenei expresive i semnificative pentru ceilali. Acest efort se poate plasa i el n centrul, n
prim planul prezenei situaionale a subiectului n lume; i, la fel ca n cazul obsesiei, el poate eua, se poate caricaturiza" (p.178).
17
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simpatii, ori la ntmplare, indiferent. Pe urm, cnd se pare c oamenii s-au ncins puin,
muzica prinde a se agita i a se iui. Ritmul jocului accelereaz, firete. "
[Liviu Rebreanu, Ciuleandra, p.73-74]
Puiu continu povestirea, explicnd cum a ntlnit-o pe Mdlina (Madeleine de mai
trziu), cum a cunoscut-o n ritmul acelui dans, cum, ameit de vrtejul dansului i "de pofta
lacom" pe care i-o strnise "ndrcita de feti", a dorit s o cunoasc. Va fi prezentat
btrnului Faranga, dus acas iar aceasta se adapteaz repede mediului de adopiune ("E
inexplicabil ce repede se adapteaz femeile", Liviu Rebreanu, Ciuleandra, p.10) iar Puiu se
ndrgostete de ea.
Momentul de mrturisire aduce linitea, pacea sufleteasc, despovreaz peisajul interior att
de tensionat pn acel moment18.
"Mi-ai fcut un mare bine, doctore, nici nu-i nchipui! (...)E tot ce puteai smi oferi mai plcut! i mulumesc, mulumesc".
[Liviu Rebreanu, Ciuleandra, p.81-82]
Mrturisirea atrage detensionarea peisajului interior al tnrului Faranga, dar i
sentimentul de ispire, de eliberare de pcat prin mrturisirea acestuia. Doctorul, n care Puiu
vede acum "un prieten", nu este dect reprezentantul "statului terapeutic" (Roland Jaccard,
Exilul interior, op.,cit.) specialistul care legitimeaz interioritatea personajului nostru. Drama
existenei personajului central, care rezult din moartea Mdlinei, este aceea a precaritii
existenei dimensionate prin a fi care nseamn aici a exista n i prin cellalt. Aproape la fel
se petrec lucrurile i la Cehov, n nuvela Salonul nr.6. Doctorul converseaz cu Ivan
Dimitrici, n efortul de a-l ajuta s depeasc momentul halucinaiilor. n atmosfera
apstoare, de spital, distincia ntre oamenii sntoi i ceilali nu se mai poate face,
normalitatea devine un concept relativ, iar personajul lui Liviu Rebreanu este definitiv
condamnat s triasc drama degradrii interioritii sale, provenit din ambivalena tririlor
sale.
Bibliografie
Rebreanu, Liviu, Romane, vol.II , ediie de Nicolae Gheran, Editura Cartea Romneasc,
Bucureti, 1986 ;
*
Blnescu, Stelian ,Pe Urmele Adevrului, Editura Excelsior, Cluj-Napoca, 2001 ;
Jaccard, Roland, Exilul interior, prefa, postfa i note de Jean Chiriac, Editura Aropa,
Bucureti, 2000 ;
Lzrescu, Mircea, Introducere n psihopatologia antropologic, Editura Facla, Timioara,
1989.
Op.,cit.: "Teatralitatea, <<dramatismul>>, faptul c persoana <<joac roluri pe scena lumii>> alctuiesc o structur fundamental i
ireductibil a existenei omului. [] Teatralitatea i rolurile histericului difer de toate acestea [difer de rolul social, n.n.], prin nefirescul
i neautencititatea lor, prin afectarea care subliniaz ruptura dintre trire i expresie, dintre resimire i apariie demonstrativ" (p.180).
18
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Abstract: In an original tone, the poets cosmogony highlights the feeling of consubstantiality
and becomes part of a renewal ritual through its immersion into the primeval nature. The
poets peace of mind evokes primordial times and he perceives himself as connubial to the
prime matter, gaining identity through divine will while being fascinated by the sacred forces
of nature. On the whole, B. Fundoianus poetry speaks of the believers confession before the
altar, who, through admission of all his known sins, asks forgiveness for the unknown ones,
hinting at a postulate about the human nature with its imperfection, which he does not call
down to the Creator, but keeps confined to himself as an archetype of the existential tragic.
With a tempestuous soul, typical of his generation, Fundoianu remains captive to a universe
which is constantly threatened by the terror of war. The return to God seen as a place of
exile for all tormented souls is the only way to regain hope, through detachement from the
tragic existential condition. The evolution of the sacred feeling, recalls memories of northern
Moldavian homeland, which are articulated on the archetype of universal values to which he
permanently relates.
Keywords: consubstantiality, confession, prime matter, resacralization, creation , tragic
feeling.
Clinescu enclosed Fundoianu, next to Ion Pillat, Ilarie Voronca, Radu Gyr, D.
Ciurezu, Zaharia Stancu and Teodor Muranu in the chapter The Traditionalists, within the
History of the Romanian literature, concluding that traditionalism is a form of
modernism 1. Even though he had affinities with modernism, the poets inspiration appears
to Lovinescu as traditional, rural () where the only modern elements are the accent and the
exciting notations, slightly influenced by Arghezi.2 Ov. S. Crohmlniceanu enframes him
within the chapter Avangardistic lyric, next to his friend, Tristan Tzara, in his book
Romanian literature between the two world wars.
Both traditionalist and modernist, the poet of Hera is included by Constantin
Ciopraga in the chapter Interfering reliefs, being described as an artistic personality defined
by a tragic anxiety.3 Thus, without imposing a unanimous opinion as far as his place within
the Interbelic literature is concerned, Fundoianu is one of the controversial personalities,
having one of the most shocking human and artistic destinies. In this existential context, the
feeling of the sacred becomes obvious, comparing the human being to his own destiny.
His cultural journey in the magazines of those times, Viaa nou, Cronica, Adevrul
literar, Rampa, but especially his training at the Lovinescus Sburtorul literar pushes him
into the literary universe of his times as a genius of the paradox, as Lovinescu used to name
him. Recognising his bright intelligence and his refined culture, the critic born in Iai
writes about him in the rubric The Chronicle of the ideas, where Fundoianu shines. This
1
2
3
G. Clinescu, The history of the Romanian literature, Minerva Publishing House, Bucarest, 1985, p. 864
E. Lovinescu, The history of the contemporary Romanian literature, Minerva Publishing House, Bucarest, 1978, vol. 2, p. 320
Constantin Ciopraga, The poets amphitheatre, Junimea Publishing House, Iai, 1995, p. 288
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position allowed him to express what Lovinescu called spiritual arrogance and ostentatious
independence; his opinions on the value of the Romanian literature are related to Eminescus
complex cultural personality. Fundoianu is the first which states that Arghezi descends
directly from the genius of Ipoteti. This opinion, made public in January 1923, appears in the
29th number of Contimporanul.
In the same year, a special event takes place in the poets life his leaving to Paris, an
expatriation which will eat up his soul; this is the point where he starts to write poetry and
essays in French, but he will never abandon the Romanian spaces, especially the north
Moldavian spaces, where he lived as a child and then as a teenager. The French environment
is fit for his spirit, bringing into the light, in the same time, the souvenirs of Hera.
Complex personality, anchored in the modern spirit, but also loyal to the traditionalist
values, where ever he went he aimed at capturing and re-dimensioning the archaic
impulses, which explains a quasi-religious feeling of the existence at Fundoaia estate,
where he identifies biblical reverberations.4 Deeply introvert, tormented by the historic
times of the First World War, he writes in 1917 a meditation about the man involved in the
torrent of events, regardless of his will. It is in fact a kind of response to the well-known text
written by Arghezi, Evening prayer: The cosmogony is poetry / I would throw into the fire the
entire universe / If only he could find another / In order to eternally sculpt my thinking, / I am
the goal and the end of the earth; the millennium/ He sees his goal through me
(Philosophy).
Opening the volume The views (1930), the poet intends to express a warning, a
response to those who said that his poetry is inspired from Francis Jammes: These verses
were born in 1917, during the war, in the small Moldova, in a fever of growth, of destruction.
() the description didnt follow a real pattern, but it was born out of the darkness of the
night, as an intimate protest against the mechanic landscape made of bullets, wires and
tanks.
The return to the worn nature back from the cruel historical time, through the evasion
of the technicist age, pushed Clinescu to notice the fact that the poet disregards the painting
and exalts the senses which bring together man and interior life of Creation, the smell, the
touch5, showing obvious expressionist shades, also identified by Ov. S. Crohmlniceanu.6
Nature penetrates his soul, overwhelming him and printing on the retina of his memory only
those images which stimulate the senses, being associated to interior experiences. The smell
of rain floating in the Moldavian village, the wind, the sand provoke a real phenomenon:
The village smells like rain, autumn and hay/ The wind is blowing hot sand into the lungs, /
[]/ Carts driven away by rain passed by, / And silence is molding in things (Hera)
Profane space, the village functions in the sacred universe of a nature in a permanent
explosion of elementary and aggressive vitality7. The cows, the pigs, the oxen populate this
landscape, evoking, through their presence, the wilderness, far from being cosmic but pure,
through its extra-vitality. The expressionist accents do not leave the verses, emphasising the
torments of the world, the nature soul, subject to change, just as it happens with the Genesis:
The earth comes forward, snitches,/ Grows in holes, climbs on the wall,/ And fat, it stretches
for a second time/ Over the conquered asphalt. (Province III)
Original, the cosmogony proposed by the poet is not a well-defined one; at any
moment, Creation wobbles and the World becomes chaotic, just like in a game, determined
maybe by the inspiration of Arghezi, which means recreating everything out of a little spit
4
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and earth: the road as a sole, is broken by rains / The pigs with flake souls pass through
mud, / The ugly pigs go for a sleep in mud/ Letting the chaos get us again. (Hera V) The
Universe is not picturesque and the texts are not simple pastels; integrated in the landscape,
the poet feels like he is part of it and participates in a true ritual of refreshment.
In Simple prayer, his voice pronounces magic words, as he does in Paparudele or in
Caloianu; his charming begging tone transposes the earth in a superior plan, equal to a
tutelary divinity: Rain, wash the earth of good dung, / have mercy of earth, rain, of your
hurricane. (Simple prayer) The effect is miraculous; a spectacular transformation of the
human being directs the thinking towards the powers of the earth and gives birth to a natural
question: God is, I wonder, the earth-itself ?: If I did not know that it is autumn, I would
believe that I am full / Of pus on my shell. (Romance II) the same atmosphere appears in the
verses: Light might as well fall down, / Deep into the lake and on the melons-/ And the light
which can fall into you. / If you come tonight, / Ripe me well, God, in the fields, as a melon. /
And break me in the coming autumn. (Other views)
In the poem How simple, the presence of the divinity in every wonder of the nature
and especially in the miracle of fertility, is confirmed: In the season, you feel Gods step/ And
he counts his earnings: / Corn-flower for the people and food for the goldfinches. (How
simple)
If the village is a claustric space, a monotonous and hybrid landscape, the nature offers
the chance of total liberty, of nothingness, without giving birth to fears and reluctance. The
silence of the soul evokes primordial times, and the poet considers himself part of the original
matter, which acquires little by little identity, through the divine will: In the young spring /
My soul is wet with so much sun / Like a virgin summer melon, /Full of seeds and freshness. /
I would like to break the windows of my body, / My eyes closed down with a cold look,/ Sit
into me like in a hive / The blonde sun with the smell of balm. (Other views)
Fascinated by the sacred powers of nature, he would like to be part of it and, at the end
of the volume, he is talking to himself in front of an omnipotent and distant God. Accents of
Argezis psalms ornate his poetry with the feeling of the creation mood; feeling guilty for
daring to praise the divine, unspeakable beauty of nature, Fundoianu confesses: Maybe I was
wrong, Father, when I praised your nature/ Good and clean just like in the old paradise.
(Views)
The escape in the middle of nature and the immersion into the original matter offers
him the chance to discover the magical power of water, principle of Genesis; activating it,
cosmicisation can be redone. He himself confesses that the war is guilty for his refuge in the
original matter; the newly created universe will be capable to invent the mystic exaltation of
death in bread. (The psalmist)
A supreme force, overwhelming through fascinans, but also through tremendum,
pushes him towards the dialogue. The words do not have the courage of Arghezis verses, but
they rather have Crainics piety. His humble and crying eyes beg, and his words have an
imperative tone, just like the one of a prayer: I did not understand, oh, God, what it was/ The
angel wing which above me / At the time when oxen are put to work./ But instead of asking
the richness of the rain / In the arid land,/ In order to wash my darkest sins,/ I tell you
nonsense, I sin again / And I make you send another storm []/ Let us talk for a while. (I
didnt get it, oh, Lord) The appreciative tone continues, stating the poets position in
relation with the divinity; this is fretting attitude, deeply Christian, in the spirit of the mentor
of The thinking, but also in the spirit of the mystic thrills of Teresa de Avila. The text is as
solemn as a true Te Deum: Oh, forget/ And let me clean my harp/ And let me sing a hymn to
you, / In which to say that you are great and big/ And I will search for this hymn in the
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temple./ Oh, let me contemplate you,/ Let me admire you and your creation/ And let me rise to
you like the sea / Rises as a snake to the moon (s.n.). (I didnt get it, oh, Lord)
Acquiring spiritual elevation, he will not adopt a too daring subterraneous attitude
towards God; he will not try to race with Him and he will not try to be Him; the comparison
of the gesture with the elevation of the snake converts in a subtle way the human being into a
possible demonic force which enters in relation with the moon, the fertility tutelary star, a
religious symbol of the human existence.8 Thus, the gesture acquires the resonances of a ritual
of refreshment, aiming at a pious approach to God. The poet imposes to himself a kind of
purgatory, a compulsory stage on the way from profane to sacred. Davids unique Psalm is
accompanied by psalmic incantations and appreciative tones. This text has common points
with verses from The hymn - Prayer at the Burning Stake of Mother Mary, written by
Sandu Tudor in 1947, at the Antim Monastery, in Bucarest. The refrain bears aphrodisiac
resonances, sign of the wisdom of man convinced of the existence of a tutelary force: You are,
oh God, One and only One
All in all, the poetry is the confession of the believer in front of the altar, who,
confessing his known sins, he also asks for forgiveness for his unknown ones. Still, the
influence of Arghezi determines the suggestion of an axiom about the human being, about his
imperfections, which the poet do not reproaches loudly to the Creator, but he keeps it within
himself as an archetype of the existential tragic: You are the one who makes me ignorant,/ I
cannot understand your greatness which can be found / In leaves, in wind, in stars, in
eternity,/ You, the one who lets my thoughts, just like e deer,/ Sit still, in the grass,/ You, the
one who does not tell me the meaning/ Of the stars. (s.n.)
Speaking to God, the poet hopes that the monologue will eventually turn into a
dialogue and in the same spirit specific to Arghezi, he hopes that the man will understand the
materiality of the divinity. In Adams Psalm, the pantheist notes sustain the existence of the
supreme power, surprised in the elements of the universe; a sacralisation of the spaces takes
place, and the distance from man to God erases little by little, giving the feeling that the
dialogue is finally possible: I know it, God, I know very well that you stayed here/ In a cicada,
I know, or maybe in some lavender (Psalm) The atmosphere specific to Blaga, in which
God is, just like Pan, the god of vegetal and mineral, the superhuman force which, through its
power, raises nature to the rank of chthonian divinity.
In 1917, a year rich in psalms, the author of Views makes some reproaches concerning
his carelessness towards the details of the human life, proposing a human way of looking at
the world in the rural space: It is more beautiful in the countryside, God, the place where you
can sit in the sky;/ But me, in your place, God, I look at the red ants/ And I meditate about the
dandelion as you meditate about life. (Psalm) The elements of the decor appear vertically and
merge with the cosmic boundlessness; the present time covers the sky, and the meaning of the
human being way reconstitutes the ladder which bounds the profane to the sacred (mediocre
life to flower petal, polished with smell soul), the finite to the infinite.
In Sulamitas Psalm, the man receives, in his clay pot, the Gods spirit, adopting a
teandric tone, in the Christian manner proposed by Nichifor Crainic9: But you, you know well
that this is not a sin / It is not a sin to wash yourself beautifully and often, / As if I wash
myself, in fact I wash you, God / And if use chrism, I use it for You, / And if I burn incense, I
do it for your soul.
Being convinced that the work of God is a form of art and God is an artist, the poet
dares to join Him, as he sees this common passion which brings them together, human being
8
9
Cf. Alfred Bertholet, The dictionary of the religions, Publishing House of the Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iai, 1995
Cf. Nichifor Crainic, The nostalgia of the paradise, Moldova Publishing House, Iai, 1994
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to human being; the supreme power becomes more human through revelation, without letting
go of the divine prerogatives. In the same psalm, the poet concludes: Loving the beauty, I love
you in it. (s.n.)
Philosophising, in the same 1917, he identifies the existential limits which define him
and considers himself a god; apparently, the sacred powers seem to overwhelm him: I am the
aim and the end of the earth; the millennium/ I am the one who helps him see his target and
understand his genius/ And often, pensively, I wonder deeply/ If I also come from the skies
and I am a god as the sour cherry tree is. (s.n.) (Philosophy)
It seems that the certitude concerning his own divine powers is the result of his prayers
in The psalmists prayer, which dates from the 10th of April, 1915. At that time, at only 17
years old, the young man declared: My heart is a wound and my soul is broken. / A large
sunset sits bleeding in it.
A tumultuous soul, consonant with the generation he belonged to, he stays captive in a
universe where the terror of war was planning in a threatening way. The returning to God
seen as an exile place for the tormented souls is the only way of regaining hope in the
disappointment of the tragic existential condition. The poets verses are a pious prayer and in
the same time they confirm the existence of the divinity: Have mercy, oh, God, and help me!/
Be the oasis which makes the Saharan way to flourish/ Be the wine which foams in the
glasses/ And be the spring of my thirsty soul.
Speaking about his evolution, Constantin Ciopraga considers him a wanderer in the
world, among the books, never reaching his target.10My word creates, if it wants, a God/
And my word can also dethrone Him/ I live the blind life of a generation/ And as I look far in
the blue sky/ My earths all spin around me. (Philosophy) The evolution of the feeling of the
sacred has, with Heras poet, substantial outlines with his native space back in the North of
Moldavia, articulated on the archetype of universal values, to which he had always related.
Bibliography:
Alfred Bertholet, The dictionary of the religions, Publishing House of the Alexandru
Ioan Cuza University, Iai, 1995
G. Clinescu, The history of the Romanian literature from the beginning to the
present times, Minerva Publishing House, Bucureti, 1985
Constantin Ciopraga, The poets amphitheatre, Junimea Publishing House, Iai, 1995
Nichifor Crainic, The nostalgia of the paradise, Moldova Publishing House, Iai,
1994
Ov.S.Crohmalniceanu, Romanian literature and expressionism, Eminescu Publishing
House, Bucarest, 1971
B. Fundoianu, Poetry published during his lifetime, Art Publishing House, Bucarest,
2011
B. Fundoianu, Views, Cultura Naional, 1930
E. Lovinescu, The history of the contemporary Romanian literature, Minerva
Publishing House, Bucarest, 1978
10
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Abstract: In my paper I want to deal with Philip Roths short story The Conversion of the
Jews (1959) and the question of identity. The protagonist of the short story tries to find his
own identity in America. The Jews experienced total freedom in speech, in life and most
importantly in thoughts in the new world. The bounds of their past life were forgotten and a
new set of values had to be elaborated in order to fulfill the needs of this assimilated,
acculturated and Americanized individual. Jewish families and communities were no longer
the most important things in the life of the individual. The individual came to the foreground
and left no place for other things. My task is to show how the protagonist defines himself in
this new world without losing his ethnic identity.
Keywords: Identity, Jewish identity, assimilation, religion, Americanized individual.
SECTION: LITERATURE
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inexperienced; none observe more strictly the letter of every code that is respectable; no
people do so completely and habitually what is expected of them: doctor, lawyer, dentist,
businessman, school teacher(qtd. in Greenspan 200).
The old values kept on living but their meaning was lost. Financial prosperity and the
American freedom had to reshape the values of the Jews. Roth felt that the rituals and
traditions became simple exercises which had no meaning. He was the angry young man who
could not help mimicking that way of life. He used the type figure of the schlemiel to show
how the passive hero became the active one. He cannot stay still and rely on his belief in a
God that let millions of Jews be killed. The schlemiels deeply rooted religious faith is
questioned by this new American one. The old concept had to undergo several changes so as
to be able to represent perfectly the anxieties of the individual of the 1950s.
Roths major thematic preoccupation has become the quest for a psychological
identity and an intimate confession of the feelings elicited by this search. His questions are no
longer concerned with his heritage, family and faith but rather with the condition of modern
man, reiterated with increasing urgency by dozens of post-World War Two authors: Who I
am? In his book Reading Myself and Others (1975) Roth claimed that one of his continuing
problems as a writer has been to find the means to be true to these seemingly inimical realms
of experience that I am strongly attached to by temperament and training the aggressive, the
crude, and the obscene, at one extreme, and something of a good deal more subtle and, in
every sense, refined, at the other" (82). He is first of all an American writer who happens to
be of Jewish origin. Typically, his characters reflect a kind of Jewish insecurity and American
ambivalence. In a broader sense, he presents the alienated condition of modern man. Roths
fictional characters are men and women whose moorings have been cut, and who are swept
away from their native shores and out to sea, sometimes on a tide of their own righteousness
and resentment (McDaniel 20).
He grew up in an environment where being Jew meant belonging to Gods chosen
people. Although he had to live in a liberal and democratic America, where the freedom of the
individual was a frequently used term and a cherished right, his Jewishness prevented him
from living his life as he wanted to. His parents tried to give him a traditional Jewish
education where everything was defined and confined. Roth was severely criticized by his
literary parents and by his co-religionists for presenting Jews as a vicious, immoral ethnic
group, as if the problems they had with the Gentiles were not enough.
Some critics, like Irving Howe, claimed that Roths themes were not Jewish themes
any longer and this signified the end of a tradition, the closing of an arc of American Jewish
experience (qtd. in McDaniel 24). On the other hand, Theodore Solotaroff had a very
different opinion from the above-mentioned one
Roth is so obviously attached to Jewish life that the charge of his being anti-semitic or
a self-hater is the more absurd. The directness of his attack against arrogance, smugness,
finagling and acquisitiveness should not obscure the perfectly obvious fact that he does so
flying a traditional Jewish banner of sentiment and humaneness and personal
responsibility[] (qtd. in McDaniel 24).
As Roth himself confessed in an interview:
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I have always been far more pleased by my good fortune in being born a Jew than my
critics may begin to imagine. Its a complicated, interesting, morally demanding, and very
singular experience, and I like that. I find myself in the historic predicament of being Jewish,
with all its implications. Who could ask for more? (qtd. in Girgus 121).
I think that critics will never reach a consensus regarding Philip Roths literary
achievements. But this does not prevent the readers from enjoying his books.
Now let me speak about the short story entitled The Conversion of the Jews (1959).
The question of conversion has been around since Christianity appeared. Philip Roth borrows
the term to speak about a conversion to the rights of American citizenship rather than to a
specific religion. He uses the term to show the struggle of the individual to find his own
personality which is no longer Jewish but Jewish-American.
The story was probably influenced by J. D. Salingers fiction of rebellion, according to
Ezra Greenspan. With Ozzie Freedmans character, he introduces a prototype of Alexander
Portnoy, the hero of Portnoys Complaint (1969). Ozzie is a thirteen-year-old Jewish boy who
lives in the America of the 1950s. He is the perfect example of what the schlemiel has
become. He cannot stand any longer for a nation or an ethnic group. He is no more the passive
hero of the literary works aiming to guide people to God. He is the individual who has to find
his own identity which is rather a mixture of Jewishness and residues of an American way of
life. He lives in a traditional Jewish family where everything was defined and confined, but he
has reached an age when he starts to question everything that he has heard or learnt.
The title of the short story is taken from Andrew Marvells (1621-1678) poem To His
Coy Mistress which was written in 1651-1652 and published in 1681:
Had we but World enough, and Time,
This coyness Lady were no crime.
We would sit down, and think which way
To walk, and pass our long Loves Day.
Thou by the Indian Ganges side
Shouldst Rubies find: I by the Tide
Of Humber would complain. I would
Love you ten years before the Flood:
And you should if you please refuse
Till the Conversion of the Jews.
According to Christians, the conversion of the Jews will take place before the Last
Judgment. We can read about it in Romans 11:25-26a: "I do not want you to be ignorant of
this mystery, brothers, so that you may not be conceited: Israel has experienced a hardening in
part until the full number of the Gentiles has come in. And so all Israel will be saved". We can
notice the contradiction that exists between the line in the poem and the title of the short
story. The line refers to eternity, while in the short story it signifies the beginning of a new
era. A new period of assimilation into American culture started in the 1950s.
The main character of the story, Ozzie Freedman asks questions about his religion,
bringing distress to his mother and his rabbi. He has arrived at a moment in his life when his
consciousness filters all information and questions everything. Ozzie does not want to
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challenge his mother and his teacher who in a way become one and the same person the
oppressor. In other words they become the representatives of old world values opposed to the
new world values represented by the protagonist. He says Mamma, dont you see you
shouldnt hit meYou shouldnt hit me about God, Mamma. You should never hit anybody
about God (8). Ozzies mother appears as a very powerful feminine force who tries to
impose her religious belief on her son. She does not want to understand that her son can
choose for himself in what to believe, she cannot force her religious belief on her child. This
child who lives in a democratic and free country cannot accept to believe in something
because he is told so.
His parents and grandparents grew up in small communities in Europe. But they do
not live in these shtetls any longer. The environment has changed; they have arrived to the big
faceless urban communities in which the formerly strong ties have become loose. Ozzie finds
it hard to understand that people can be divided into Jews and Gentiles. He cannot understand
his grandmothers words when she reads about a plane crash
Then there was the plane crash. Fifty-eight people had been killed in a plane crash at
La Guardia. In studying a casualty list in the newspapers his mother had discovered among
the list of those dead eight Jewish names (his grandmother had nine but she counted Miller as
a Jewish name); because of the eight she said the plane crash was a tragedy(102).
The Rabbi tries to explain to Ozzie his grandmothers words by speaking about
cultural unity and some other things(102). Ozzie feels that this is not the proper answer. It
seems that he transcends his limitations and assumes the role of a questioning student whose
understanding far surpasses that of his teachers. On another occasion, Rabbi Binder reminds
him that he should read faster in Hebrew, but Ozzie explains to him that he wants to
understand the words. For him, what he has to perform as a good, obedient Jew is not only a
ritual; he wants to understand it also with his mind. It seems to Ozzie that many Jewish
practices and traditions have become part of a ritual performed without having anything to do
with God. He mentions Yakov Blotnik, the custodian of the school, who always mumbles
some prayers To Ozzie the mumbling had always seemed a monotonous, curious prayer;
what made it curious was that Old Blotnik had been mumbling so steadily for so many years,
Ozzie suspected he had memorized the prayers and forgotten all about God (103-104).
Tradition and rituals became more important than the individual. Ozzie struggles against
becoming one individual who keeps repeating the prayers without being convinced about the
existence of a God. Customs have become empty and he wants to fill them with value. He
does not want to reject Judaism and Jewishness; he only shows that they need a few reforms.
They have to adapt to the needs of the 20th century man, to satisfy the needs of the changed
climate.
Rabbi Binder does not want to accept such changes. In a broader sense, he refuses
assimilation into American culture. Rabbi Binder is the typical parochial Jew. He knows the
rules and laws of Judaism, but this is not enough. He spends a lot of time on sorting out what
is Jewish and what is non-Jewish. He does not understand the America of the 1950s. Ozzies
intentions are innocent. He does not want to challenge Rabbi Binder, but their confrontation
cannot be avoided. Ozzie cannot accept the term Gods Chosen People when the
Declaration of Independence claims that all men are created equal.
On another occasion, Ozzie raised the question of the Immaculate Conception. Ozzies
mother has to come to the Hebrew school for the third time to speak with Rabbi Binder. Their
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final confrontation is caused by the Rabbi, who, during free-discussion time, forces Ozzie to
ask his questions. The result is Rabbi Binders punching his nose. Then, Ozzie runs to the
roof and locks the only door. The firemen appear and a crowd starts gathering under the roof.
We can observe Roths sense of humor in the way he depicts the firemens running to and fro
to catch Ozzie. The roles change now: Ozzie has the power, while the others- his mother,
Rabbi Binder, the firemen- become his puppets: Ozzie, who a moment earlier hadnt been
able to control his own body, started to feel the meaning of the word control: he felt Peace
and he felt Power (107). The chain of power is reversed by the protagonist. He realizes that he
can ask these agents anything he wants. He even makes them kneel down as Gentiles do when
they pray. He is like a commander who makes people say, first individually and then together,
that God can do anything and He could make a child without intercourse. His final request is
that they have to promise, his mother and Rabbi Binder, that, in the future, they will never hit
anybody in the name of God. His mission accomplished he can come down. Roth affirms the
individuals freedom to choose how much to assimilate or what to believe regarding his
religion. Ozzie struggles for a sense of self and, in a way, he gets his Bar Mitzvah on the roof
of the Hebrew School. Rabbi Binder has to accept that these two religions Christianity and
Judaism exist in the same universe of discourse. His moral explorations are limited to
Jewishness, but in the America of the 1950s this cannot be taken as a modus vivendi.
The Conversion of the Jews has often been labeled as the example of Jewish selfhatred which, in my opinion, is not true. I agree with Baumgarten, who contends that the story
shows the intertwining of religion, politics and ethnicity (qtd. in Baumgarten and Gottfried
47).
As Ozzies last name Freedman suggests, he only wants to be free to think and to
believe what he wants. As Irving and Harriet Deer insightfully said what has been violated in
him is not so much his logic as his sense that as an individual he has the right to ask
questions, even of religion. He is protesting his individuality rather than his theology (qtd. in
McDaniel 54).
Works Cited
Baumgarten, Murray and Barbara Gottfried. Understanding Philip Roth. South
Carolina: South Carolina UP, 1990.
Chametzky, Jules et al. Jewish American Literature: A Norton Anthology. New York
and London: W. W. Norton & Company, 2001.
Elliott, Emory gen.ed. The Columbia History of the American Novel. New York:
Columbia UP, 1991.
Fried, Lewis ed.-in-Chief. Handbook of American-Jewish Literature. An Analytical
Guide to Topics, Themes, and Sources. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood P, 1988.
Girgus, Sam B. The New Covenant: Jewish Writers and the American Idea. Chapel
Hill and London: U of North Carolina P, 1984.
Greenspan, Ezra. The Schlemiel Comes to America. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow P, 1983.
Holy Bible, The Authorised (King James) Version. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2004.
Karl, Frederick R.. American Fictions 1940-1980: A Comprehensive History and
Critical Evaluation. New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1983.
Marvell, Andrew. Complete Poetry. London: J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd., 1984.
McDaniel, John. The Fiction of Philip Roth. Haddonfield, N.J.: Haddonfield House,
1974.
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Abstract: A contradictory figure, often being read as a provocative Jewish writer, Patrick
Modiano conducts a personal ambiguous struggle against/for oblivion. In short, limpid and
very elegant sentences, he returns the same topics again and again, simply because these
topics cannot be exhausted. Creating a unique cartography of Paris, delineated by memory
and evoking restlessly a city forever changed by the upheaval of World War II, the writer
chooses narratives, solipsist autofictions focused on the problematic construction of personal
identity. From one novel to another, Modianos literary I becomes less singular and
paradoxically less defining. Both obvious ans misleading, Modianos narrative masks point
towards a persona behind the glass.
Keywords: identity, subjectivity, memory, ambiguity
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Et ces fragments de loubli chez Modiano sont les mots, les seuls fils qui permettent
de suivre les traces des tres et des lieux sans (trop) se perdre soi-mme. Le mot juste fait
passer de lautre ct du miroir pour essayer de revivre en bien ce quon a mal vcu une fois.
Une parole rdemptrice donc, qui rpare le temps perdu. Mais le voyage en sens inverse nest
pas toujours possible ; derrire le tain du miroir lombre hsite souvent revenir vers la
lumire. Tout le jeu de Modiano se tient dans ces va-et-vient douloureux.
Cette recherche constante et itrative de lidentit par tous les moyens possibles force
ladmiration, et la compassion, sans pour autant pouvoir carter une sorte de disconfort
trouble devant une obstination un tantinet pathologique. La simplicit apparente absorbe et
tisse une toile brumeuse au milieu de laquelle se tapit une mmoire rcalcitrante, prte
dvorer chaque souvenir, en filtrer dautres, en inventer, au besoin.
Avec Rue des Boutiques obscures (1978), la langue et le style de Modiano entre de
plein pied et mme de faon magistrale, en littrature. Son criture vertigineuse donne le
tournis, mais le plaisir du texte sy glisse dj :
La rue tait dserte et plus sombre que lorsque jtais entr dans limmeuble. Lagent
de police se tenait toujours en faction sur le trottoir den face. [] Alors, une sorte de dclic
sest produit en moi. La vue qui soffrait de cette chambre me causait un sentiment
dinquitude, une apprhension que javais dj connus. Ces faades, cette rue dserte, ces
silhouettes en faction dans le crpuscule me troublaient de la mme manire insidieuse quune
chanson ou un parfum jadis familiers. Et jtais sr que, souvent, la mme heure, je mtais
tenu l, immobile, guetter, sans faire le moindre geste, et sans mme oser allumer une
lampe. (p.122)
La conscience du moi, le rapport autrui (ou son absence), la perception du temps, la
mmoire fuyante forment les nvroses phobiques des hros modianesques. La solitude est leur
lot quotidien ainsi que lerrance la recherche dune identit problmatique. Omniprsente et
fantomatique, la prsence du pre hante frquemment les pages. Les questions ontologiques
assaillent jusquau point de non retour les narrateurs obsds par la mort, la leur, celle de
proches ou de parfaits inconnus.
3. Le biographe des anonymes
Dun livre lautre, on a la sensation de lire le mme ouvrage. Dans Un pedigree,
Modiano crit :
part mon frre Rudy, sa mort, je crois que rien de tout ce que je rapportera ici ne me
concerne en profondeur. Jcris ces pages comme on rdige un constat ou un curriculum vitae,
titre documentaire et sans doute pour en finir avec une vie qui ntait pas la mienne. Il ne
sagit que dune simple pellicule de faits et gestes. Je nai rien confesser ni lucider et je
nprouve aucun got pour lintrospection et les examens de conscience. Au contraire, plus
les choses demeuraient obscures et mystrieuses, plus je leur portais de lintrt. Et mme,
jessayais de trouver du mystre ce qui nen avait aucun. Les vnements que jvoquerai
jusqu ma vingt et unime anne, je les ai vcus en transparence ce procd qui consiste
faire effiler en arrire-plan des paysages, alors que les acteurs restent immobiles sur un
plateau de studio. Je voudrais traduire cette impression que beaucoup dautres ont ressentie
avant moi : tout dfilait en transparence et je ne pouvais pas encore vivre ma vie . (2005 :
44)
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Une impression que le lecteur retrouve dans tous les livres, confront la recherche
dune identit fuyante comme toujours vcue de lextrieur dans labsence dun soutien
parental jamais dfini explicitement. Bien au contraire, Modiano se retient, comme il lcrit,
de noter la duret de ses parents son gard et le manque damour dans son enfance :
Jamais je nai pu me confier elle [sa mre] ni lui demander une aide quelconque.
Parfois, comme un chien sans pedigree et qui a t un peu trop livr lui-mme, jprouve la
tentation purile dcrire noir sur blanc et en dtail ce quelle ma fait subir, cause de sa
duret et de son inconsquence. Je me tais. Et je lui pardonne.
La cruaut, voulue ou inconsciente, de ses parents est la racine de son criture, un
refuge pour chapper au souvenir tout en le choyant, en le reformant, comme
lorsquadolescent, il schappait tard dans la nuit, dans le quartier de Grenelle, en suivant les
petites rues au hasard, aprs avoir modifi la date de naissance sur son passeport, afin davoir
lge de la majorit aux yeux des policiers qui faisaient souvent des contrles lpoque. Ce
simple dtail est significatif dune qute intermittente, dun besoin dautofiction aussi
intimement constitutif de ltre que celui de prospection inquisitoriale la recherche de son
moi fuyant.
Qu'est-ce qu'on aime dans les textes de Patrick Modiano? C'est ce ton, cette ambiance
indfinissable qui n'appartient qu' lui: on commence lire, et on se laisse prendre. Ds les
premires lignes s'installent une vie, un dcor, des interrogations. Nous voil embarqus dans
une histoire avec ce narrateur hsitant, la mmoire la fois prcise et trouble, sur les pas de
ces destins cabosss. C'est une musique, parfois dcrie, mais c'est Modiano.
Dans Chien de printemps (1993), le personnage est un photographe qui semble avoir
exist mais que Modiano a invent: aprs avoir connu une certaine notorit, Francis Jansen
prend la soudaine dcision de tout abandonner pour partir au Mexique. Il laisse au narrateur
toutes ses photos - comme la marque de son passage. Le jeune homme n'en fait rien. Ce n'est
que des dizaines d'annes plus tard, en retrouvant un clich, qu'il replonge dans ces archives.
Il a quitt la France au mois de juin 1964, et j'cris ces lignes en avril 1992 (). Son
souvenir tait rest en hibernation et voil qu'il ressurgit au dbut de ce printemps de 1992.
C'est, bien sr, l'un des thmes majeurs de Modiano : la qute d'un homme, d'un parcours,
d'une destine travers des photos, des papiers d'identit, des documents administratifs, des
annuaires tlphoniques Ou comment reconstituer un puzzle dont on n'est pas sr que
toutes les pices existent.
On ne sait pas par quelle magie l'auteur arrive crer cette atmosphre charge de
mystre et de mlancolie, captivante et exasprante la fois. Il russit surtout mettre un peu
de lumire sur des anonymes qu'il nous rend si attachants. On retrouve tout cela dans le
roman Dans le caf de la jeunesse perdue, 2007 (Modiano, c'est aussi des titres, qui parfois se
ressemblent). Nous sommes Paris, dans les annes 1960. Une jeune femme disparat. On ne
sait pas grand-chose d'elle, si ce n'est son surnom: Louki. Comme d'autres personnes
dsuvres, elle se retrouvait dans ce Caf de la Jeunesse Perdue, prs du carrefour de
l'Odon. Mais qui tait-elle? Afin de brosser son portrait, Patrick Modiano laisse la parole
des hommes qui l'ont croise et, finalement, si peu connue: un dtective priv, un tudiant, un
romancier en herbe et le mari de cette jeune femme. Chacun ne possde que des fragments de
la vie de Louki, y compris son mari qu'elle n'a jamais appel autrement que Jean-Pierre
Choureau.
Cest l'uvre mme de Modiano: il est le biographe mticuleux des anonymes, l'agent
de recherche de personnes disparues sans laisser de traces, ou si peu. L'crivain travaille
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Pratiquement tous ses textes, dont le dernier, Pour que tu ne te perdes pas dans le
quartier (2014), reviennent sur son enfance et son adolescence dchire, sans clairer tout
fait ce qui, lui-mme, demeure obscur. Cest cette obscurit, cette qute dune vrit
dfinitive sur soi qui est le moteur de lcriture, une criture rythme autour du noyau de la
subjectivit casse. Ses personnages voluent mi-chemin entre deux mondes, entre ombre et
lumire, vie publique et destin rv ; plus il claire le pass, plus il l'obscurcit ; et plus il
vieillit, plus il rajeunit. Modiano crit donc dans le flou, dans lincertain, dans linquitude,
dans un sentiment de prcarit, qui nest cependant pas tragique, car si le brouillard obnubile
les traits et empche le bonheur de sasseoir au fondement de ltre, il est tout aussi dissolvant
pour le malheur, seule la musique polyphonique de lme pouvant rendre compte de ce
dsenchantement. C'est seulement d'une vertigineuse et poignante mlancolie.
Parce quil y a toujours une espce de je, et que ce nest pas un je dintrospection,
mais le je dune voix. Cest plus facile ainsi dintroduire un rythme, comme une inflexion
de voix. Mes phrases doivent tre troues de silence. Ce nest donc pas vocal au sens des
sermons de Bossuet, avec des priodes, des phrases trs construites, avec des propositions
relatives, etc. Il sagit plutt de trouver des choses qui sarrtent de manire abrupte, comme
des suspens. Quand je dis musical, cest plutt un rythme que quelque chose de continu. (avec
Sylvain Bourmeau, Libration , mai 2013)
L'uvre de Patrick Modiano est un jeu de piste permanent, o rien nest laiss au
hasard. Cette qute incessante, qu'il juge vaine, produit pourtant, aprs celle de Proust, l'une
des plus fascinantes et obsessionnelles recherches du temps perdu.
Simona Modreanu
Bibliographie
BENIAMINO Michel, La Francophonie littraire, Paris, LHarmattan, 1990.
COMBE Dominique, Les littratures francophones. Questions, dbats, polmiques,
Paris, PUF, 2010.
GLISSANT Edouard, Potique de la Relation, Paris, Gallimard, 1990.
GRANJEAN, Pernette (sous la dir.), Construction identitaire et espace, Paris,
LHarmattan, 2009.
HALL Stuart, Identits et cultures. Politiques des Cultural Studies, Paris, Ed.
Amsterdam, 2008.
MAALOUF Amin, Les Identits meurtrires, Paris, Grasset, 1998.
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Abstract: For Eliade, poetic dreams and images are an extension of sacred symbolism and of
archaic mythologies, often connected with waters image and of other primordial cosmic
elements. The scholar and mythological Eliade has been deeply preoccupied with water
symbolism and his works, i.e. Images and symbols, Notes on water symbolism, Treaty of
religion history, Aspects of the myth, fully prove these preoccupations concerning theoretical
symbolism. The fantastic literature resumes these aspects in the field of creation and insists
mostly on the spiritual demarche of the heros initiation, which leads to a spiritual wake up,
to a regeneration and even to a life restoration at a superior level, which results from the
meeting with the sacred, considered to be in fact the real by excellence. Present in all
cosmogonies, anthropologies or the apocalypse, the water is the source of life, germinated
and protective and having the force to purify and to regenerate. Being sacred because it takes
part in the primary fund, the water intensifies the vital potential, by regenerating and
permitting the rebirth of both spirit and sense. In the fantastic short stories, the water is the
symbol of the beings purification and reconstruction, center of egos regeneration and
reconstruction. In various fantastic short stories, the heroes limit experiences correspond
with some equivalent attempts of some rebirth and beginning moments of a new existence,
and the instructional testing has a cathartic function, which means re-renewal, rebirth, and
reconstruction.
Keywords: water, dream, rebirth, wake up, regeneration, instructional testing, sacred,
fantastic
Dans l`univers imaginaire des crits littraires d`Eliade l`eau participe au message de
la cration et tmoigne de la rintgration de l`tre humain dans l`unit originaire,
archtypale. Dans la vision d`Eliade il y a une correspondance entre les niveaux cosmiques et
les structures de la conscience humaine qui s`actualisent pour donner sens la vie et au destin
de l`homme. L`existence en harmonie avec les lments du monde cr est l`expression de la
cration, de la rintgration de l`homme dans la dimension du temps circulaire
mysteriumtremendum .
Mircea Eliade croit avec conviction au rapprochement ncessaire faire entre la
littrature et les mythes. Ce rapport reprsente une constante universelle de l`me humaine qui
se manifeste travers l`imagination symbolique dont la fonction essentielle est d`unifier tous
les aspects de la ralit au plan spirituel. L`imagination symbolique est une force spirituelle
relle, fondatrice de la modalit anthropologique d`une socit qui dtermine de manire
majeure la nature, l`organisation, les structures et l`volution d`une socit et qui explique la
diversit des cultures et des peuples du monde.1 La tendance instinctive d`unification des
Mircea Eliade Images et symboles: essais sur le symbolisme magico-religieux, Paris, Gallimard, 1979, coll. poche, p. 214.
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niveaux est spcifique la conscience humaine qui, dans toutes les socits et depuis
toujours a produit et continue de produire des systmes de type religieux, y compris dans les
socits dsacralises du monde moderne.2
Dans la littrature fantastique d`Eliade la concidence entre esse si non esse s`actualise
dans la distinction sacr/profane et surtout dans les reprsentations littraires de la thorie de
l`incognoscibilit du mystre. Au moment de grce dans lequel se produit la mystrieuse
concidence entre le plan sacr et celui profane, l`homme a la chance de voir et de
comprendre le sens de sa destine et de s`intgrer dans le mystre de l`existence. L`homme
total vers lequel tend l`humanit d`Eliade entre ainsi dans la dimension du prsent ternel, se
dtache des aspects manifestes de la conscience universelle et actualise la cration, en
harmonisant l`extension infinie et la rsorption des formes de la vie.
Pour Sabina Fnaru, chez Mircea Eliade les entits homologues de l`archtype sont :
les moments de l`origine (centre, omphalos, il, miroir), les moments de l`expansion
(hirophanie, image, forme, langue), les vhicules de l`autoreprsentation (le symbole, le
signe, le mot et la langue) et les vhicules de signification de l`existence de l`homme dans
l`espace culturel traditionnel reprsent par sacr, religion, imaginaire et nouvel imaginaire.
Sabina Fnaru est d`avis que, chez Mircea Eliade, l`archtype religieux est en continuelle auto
rgnration et que sa reprsentation ne suppose pas seulement l`actualisation d`un moment
originaire gntique (rversion), mais aussi la recration dans l`absolu (rptition) d`un
chronotope autogntique.3Pareil un miroir qui produit et qui capte des formes dont les
actualisations se ralisent l`aide des rptitions, l`homme dsacralis projette les symboles
et les signes, les hirophanies et les images dans ses nostalgies, ses rituels et ses rves. Le
renouvellement et la renaissance quivalent au retour l` origine, la rupture de l`espace par
une multitude de centres et par l`encrage du prsent sacr dans le prsent historique. 4Pareil au
symbole, l`archtype sacr a, dans la vision de Mircea Eliade, une fonction ontologique qui
s`accomplit par lar cration et le rinvestissement de la ralit avec du sens5. Ce processus
suscite la fonction sotriologique de l`archtype qui ne se rduit pas fairesortir l`homme du
prsent ou la reconnaissance d`un modle apriori, mais suppose la rgnration par la libert
de l`esprit.
Un aspect de toute premire importance concernant les symboles chez Mircea Eliade
est leur caractre systmique et structurel. Tels les mythes, les symboles ont la capacit de
constituer un univers cohrent, par la symbolisation en cascades. Nous sommes en prsence
d`un univers imaginaire qui s`organise selon une logique propre, illustrant la modalit
visionnaire de la cration littraire. La cration suppose des morts et de renaissances
successives par lesquelles l`tre humain harmonise les structures de sa conscience, se librant
de l`individualit et faisant l`exprience de la participation une totalit dynamique du monde
cr qu`il transcende par cet acte mme. C`est pourquoi ces nouvelles crites l`entre deuxguerres sont des nouvelles du retour et de la rintgration, du renouvellement et de la
rgnration, elles s`adressent tous les niveaux de la conscience, voilant le mystre des
vnements apparemment insignifiants qui veillent l`tre et le font chercher la voie de la
ralit ultime. Eliade lui-mme dclare avoir dcouvert la signification ontologique de la
narration qui l`a fait crer son propre concept de fantastique et rflchir au rle de la
littrature fantastique aux temps postmodernes. Il s`agit aussi, en fait, d`une fascinante
interaction des niveaux de la conscience de l`crivain lui-mme. Par les mythes et l`histoire
des religions, Eliade revient au trac initiatique travers des contes qui parlent de
l`unification du Logos avec la Vie.
2
Ibidem.
Sabina Fnaru Eliade prin Eliade, ed. Univers, Bucureti, 2003, deuxieme edition, coll. Studii, p.14.
4
Cf. Mircea Eliade Le sacr et le profane, Paris, Gallimard, 1987, coll. Folio Essais, p.67.
5
Mircea Eliade Le Mythe de l`ternel retour, Paris, Gallimard, coll.Folio Essais, 2001, p. 72
3
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6
7
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l`imagination etqui, au plan rel, plongent eux aussi dans les eaux de la cave. Cet espace
tnbreux correspond un monde de tnbres et semble tre une sorte de synthse de
l`univers entier, permettant l`entre dans un nouvel ordre d`existence. Nous pourrions mme
affirmer que cet espace aquatique souterrain reprsente un espace total de l`exprience du
sacr dans lequel s`accumulent les signes. Chaque enfant plonge dans l`eau, reoit la lumire
de l`autre monde et revient la surface pour raconter aux autres la luxuriance de la grotte
souterraine. Seul Iozi, connaisseur d`une langue consacre la vie religieuse embrasse ses
amis et disparat dans la profondeur des eux qui le mnent vers le monde d`au-del. Son corps
est introuvable pour ceux qui le cherchent, autrement dit, il est introuvable au plan de
l`histoire d`o il a t absorb. Il est bien possible qu`il s`agisse alors de cette ancienne
piphanie d`une condition humaine glorieuse et absolue. Comme Lixandru explique
Frm, Iozi continue de vivre mais pas ici et sous la terre non plus, a veut dire sous nos
pieds. Cependant c`est d`abord sous terre qu`on doit chercher les signes, l o peut se
produire le miracle de la libration de la matire.Le jeu l`arc dont parle Frm, pratiqu par
Lixandru nous fait plonger en pleine magie. La flche de Lixandru qui s`lve vers le ciel et
ne tombe plus quivaut au salut d`un espace concentrationnaire, lapntration au monde
libre en venant du camp communiste, salut qui tait envisag, nous semble-t-il, par l`crivain
lui-mme. L`pisode est tonnant pour tous et les enfants cherchent en vain de nouvelles
possibilits d`accs au monde invisible. La grotte est le lieu o l`on retrouve les origines,
tombe et utrus la fois, lieu initiatique qui imite l`tat embryonnaire de l`tre, retour aux
origines et cadre de rcupration de la mmoire ternelle.Eliade montre que la tradition du
retirement dans une grotte est un rituel iranien qui s`est rpandu tous les peuples indo
europens. Quant lui, Eliade affirmait mme qu`il voulait se retirer dans une grotte au
Himalaya. Pour Doina Ruti, la grotte est un univers en miniature reprsentant l`autre
monde et la fois l`univers entier8. Elle n`est pas seulement un lieu tnbreux et souterrain,
mais, comme Eliade le dit lui-mme un espace sacr et finalement total, constituant un
univers en soi 9 C`est pourquoi elle confre des puissances rgnratrices, marquant la sortie
du temps historique ou le retour in illo tempore.
Dans la nouvelle, Oana est un personnage hors du commun, dont la stature et le
caractre rappellent des anctres mythiques.Son rle, semble-t-il, est de dire que l`homme est
solidaire avec la totalit du monde cr. Son rve actualise un mode d`existence total, au-del
de l`histoire, sur un terrain situ au cur mme du monde, plein de splendeur et d`clat :Il
me semblait, a commenc Oana, que je nageais dans le Danube, mais je nageais en amont de
l`eau, jusqu`au moment o je suis arrive aprs je ne sais plus combien de temps, la source,
a veut dire la source du Danube. Et l, je me suis retrouve en descendant sous la terre et
dbouchant dans une grotte immense, brillante, dont les murs tait pavs avec des pierres
prcieuses et illumins par des milliers de bougies. Il s`agit, commentons-nous, de
l`exprience du retour la source primordiale de toutes les formes du monde.
Un autre personnage mystrieux est le boyard Calomfir, le mari de la belle Arghira.
Dans l`espoir de gurir sa femme aveugle, Calomfir construit un laboratoire dans la cave,
mais cet espace est englouti par les eaux. La signification en est que le passage vers le monde
ensorcel des profondeurs ne saurait tre trouv par le chercheur positif dont l`orientation de
pense ne fait que fragmenter la ralit.En effet, Calomfir s`est rendu coupabled`avoir voulu
savoir o et comment sigent ceux qui vivent sous la terre .10 Par cette ambition par
laquelle il contrevient un ordre ancien quasiment mystrieux, le hros produit un
dsquilibre, s`loignant de la ralit archtypale vers laquelle l`avaient orient les vieillards
Doina Ruti Dicionar de simboluri din opera lui Mircea Eliade, Bucureti, Ed. Coresi, 1998, p. 65.n. trad.
Mircea Eliade De Zalmoxis Gengis Han, cit par Doina RutiOp.cit. p. 65.
10
Cf,Mircea Eliade Pe StradaMntuleasa, in vol, La ignciialtepovestiri., ed. cit.
8
9
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qui lui avaient parl du mythe des Blajini, tres souterrains fabuleux qui se nourrissent d`eau
et qui envoient de temps en temps des messages vers les vivants.
Dans pas mal de ses contes fantastiques, Eliade projette les lieux de son pays et
Bucarest particulirement dans une sorte de mythologie roumaine. Ainsi, la rue dans laquelle
les hros ont fait des expriences capitales devient symbole dform du salut. Pour Sabina
Fnaru, celle-ci signifie un univers de lgende qui s`lve insensiblement des trfonds du
monde nouveau, communiste. Les histoires de Frm droutent et troublent parce que dans
un monde oppressif et artificiel, sans conscience des origines, le mythe dclenche le chaos.11
Le message en est que le monde roumain subit la fatalit historique vivant de manire
contradictoire et perptuant des rituels ancestraux, malgr l`histoire douloureuse qu`il est
oblig subir, celle communiste.
Dans la nouvelle n curte la Dionisla chanteuse Leana rapporte par la chanson au
pote Adrian les normes ontologiques qui l`aident lire les signes, en prparant le passage par
la surface mme des eaux souterraines vers le territoire miraculeux des mondes renverss. La
gurison d`Arghira laquelle on apporte de l`eau vive actualise l`histoire de l`homme dou
d`imagination cratrice capable de dissiper les fantasmes de l`histoire pour se pntrer du
sacrement de l`union avec le mystre du monde.
Sorin Alexandrescu a remarqu la manire subtile dont a lieu le passage vers le sacr
dans les nouvelles de Mircea Eliade.12 Dans Le Serpent le jeu est le moyen d`anticiper la
sduction fantastique, par lequel se fait le passage du ludique au sacr. Le jeu gratuit au dbut,
le jeu rituel ensuite et celui final caractre crmonial de la fuite d`Andronic et de la runion
sur l`ile reprsentent des hypostases de la sduction, disposes de manire concentrique
autour de l`ile qui est, elle aussi, prsente graduellement, mais continument comme un
espace d`exception. Danscette nouvelle, l`eau qui entoure l`le rappelle la nouvelle Cezara du
pote roumain Mihai Eminescu. L, l`eau est symbole de la rgnration, mais aussi de
l`inconstance de l`tre. Aprs tre tombe amoureuse d`Andronic et particip l`pisode
d`exorcisme du serpent, Dorina traverse l`eau en barque pour se rfugier dans l`le, corrigeant
de la sorte le rve prmonitoire qui lui avait annonc la mort. Au chaos de sa vie antrieure,
on met fin par le moi archtypal retrouv et cette nouvelle cration, qui est en fait une
rgnration, se fait prcder par des eaux germinatives. De mme, suite aux preuves
initiatiques, le personnage retrouve le paradis, entre dans un nouvel ordre du monde, aprs
s`tre purifi dans l`eau du lac. La barque permet donc le passage vers un autre monde, ou
plutt vers un autre ordre d`existence.
L`le est donc lieu d`isolement et oasis au milieu des eaux, symbole du paradis et
espace sans issue.Elle runit les symboles de la vie qui nait et en mme temps les sens de la
mort. Eliade observe lui-mme que, si l`eau reprsente dans pas mal de traditions le chaos
primordial qui a prcd la cration , l`ile symbolise elle-mme la manifestation, la Cration.
Dans l`essai Insula lui Euthanasius(1939)(L`ile d`Euthanasius) Eliade fait le commentaire de
ce symbole qui apparait dans la nouvelle Cezara de Mihai Eminescu en soulignant la dualit
de l`harmonie comme manifestation dans l`ros et dans la mort : L`ambivalence de l`ile de
Euthanasius est claire. C`est un territoire paradisiaque, qualitativement diffrent par rapport
la zone qui l`entoure o la batitude de la vie adamique n`exclut pas la batitude de la belle
mort ; les deux reprsentent des tats o la condition humaine-drame, douleur, devenir-ont t
suspendus. 13.Les affinits avec Eminescu sont videntes vu que, dans cette nouvelle, le
symbole apparait transfigur comme chez Eminescu. L`le d`Andronic se trouve sur le lac
situ au milieu de fort, prs d`un monastre qui cache une histoire dramatique. En mme
Sabina Fnaru Op.cit., p. 88.
SorinAlexandrescu, Prface au volume La ignci i alte povestiri, Bucureti, Editura Pentru Literatur. 1969
13
Mircea Eliade Insula lui Euthanasius, Bucureti, Ed. Humanitas, 1993, p. 10, n. trad.
11
12
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temps, cette le est un centre, un espace consacr par le mythe du serpent qui a perdu sa
marie. Son esprit domine l`le et dcide qui y a accs. Comme dans Pe Strada Mntuleasa
l`le n`est accessible pratiquement qu` une certaine catgorie de gens, ceux qui aspirent
pleinement la ralit et la batitude du commencement et de l`tat primordial14. Sous
l`enchantement du serpent, Dorina sent l`appel des origines en s`identifiant avec son
prototype primordial de marie du serpent. Eliade interprte la rencontre paradisiaque entre
Ieronim et Cezara comme une libration de la pression du temps car l`tat adamique qui
prcde la Chute est dpourvu d`vnement, de dure et d`histoire. Le parcours de Dorina
vers l`le est une preuve qui abolit la maldiction profre au temps mythique, celle-ci arrive
l`ile adamique en clturant un cycle du devenir personnel par le rituel mort- noces. Le
lendemain, elle se rveille avec une nouvelle me. Dans cette nouvelle, le symbolisme du lac
est li lui aussi celui de l`eau et du ciel. Conformment des croyances archaques, le lac est
l`il de la terre par lequel les habitants du monde souterrain peuvent voir ce qui se passe sur
la terre. L`le est elle aussi le symbole du centre spirituel primordial, refuge dans lequel la
conscience et la volont de l`homme s`unissent pour se librer des attaques de l`inconscient.
Dans cette nouvelle, l`eau est aussi moyen de rvlation d`une identit inconnue, quasi
profonde. Dans son songe, Dorina voit son double, la belle Arghira, dont la vue quivaut une
mort rituelle et au rveil une nouvelle vie. Le parcours de Dorina vers l`ile est un parcours
de sagesse fait dans la direction de la libert de l`tre.
Symbole conjoint l`eau, la barque connote la joie du flottement et la peur de
l`immersion. Vhicule de la vie et de la mort, la barque facilite l`accs au mystre. Pour
Andronic qui a survcu un naufrage qui s`est sold par la mort d`un ami, la barque a permis
de participer involontairement un mystre capital, la mort. Cet pisode lui a donn le sens de
l`instabilit et l`a libr de la terreur de la mort. Le dplacement de Dorina en barque vers l`le
reprsente une preuve qui abolit la maldiction profre dans le temps mythique, l o se
trouvent les racines de son destin. L`leelle-mmequivaut un paradis reconstruit, sortie du
chaos de l`inconscient et concrtisation d`un cosmos. La fin transfigure donc le symbole la
manire d` Eminescu : l`leentoure par les eaux est territoire sacr, centre, espace consacr
par la magie du serpent. L`appel de l`le est l`appel des origines, celui de l`identification de
l`homme avec l`archtype.
piphanie de la lune, le serpent contrle la vie fminine. Esprit des profondeurs,
reprsentant les forces incontrles de la nature, le serpent est aussi source de sagesse. Animal
magique, il suggre par lui-mme l`ternelle mtamorphose de la vie en mort et l`inverse.
Esprit des eaux, fix in illo tempore, le serpent fascine et runit comme un oracle les sens de
la vie. Comme symbole lunaire, le serpent inspire terreur et fascination et le dplacement
spatial des protagonistes suit le cheminde celui-ci vers l`le vue comme centre du monde,
mais aussi comme centre de l`tre. Si l`eau est lment de passage du chaos la cration, elle
devient aussi symbole de naissance dans une autre existence car, comme Eliade le dit dans
Trait d`histoire des religions les eaux prcdenttoute forme et supportent toute cration.
tant ambivalente, l`eau signifie tant la force germinative fertilisante que le chaos amorphe,
indiffrenci.15 Dans la nouvelle, nous sommes en prsence d` une intense posie de la nuit,
du lac, de l`rotisme et le fantastique lui-mme se dploie sur le seul portatif , celui de la
conscience humaine. En acqurant les vertus symboliques et rotiques du serpent, Andronic
s`identifie avec celui-ci et exerce un charme malfique sur les consciences de ceux qui
assistent l`exorcisation en les initiant au sacr, par le rveil de la conscience. Les hros
sentent leur vie plus proche et comprennent qu`Andronic vit un temps sacr, qu`il a vcu aussi
au temps d`Arghira, enterre entre les murs du monastre au dbut du sicle pass : Je
14
Ibidem,p. 9.
Mircea Eliade, Tratat de istoria religiilor,Bucureti, Humanitas, 2013, I, p. 173.
15
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connais ces murs comme si j`y tais depuis le commencement des commencements [.]. J`ai
mme le sentiment d`tren au temps de la construction du monastre. Il me semble que j`y ai
vcu jadis une autre vie .16 En l`coutant, on comprend qu` Andronic vit dans une ternit
temporelle, sans rptitions ou cycles, en communion plnire avec le monastre, le lac et les
oiseaux. Inscrit dans l`ternel retour, il actualise un temps mythique et en revenant sur l`le, il
retourne au paisible in illo tempore. Si les autres hros ne changent pas de destin, sous
l`impact du moment magique, Dorina subit un processus d`anamnse mythique d` veil au
sacr qui la fait pntrer dans un autre ordre d`existence. Le merveilleux, la magie, l`onirisme
crent tous ensemble par la suggestion des plans superposs d`imperceptibles passages d`un
ordre l`autre dans un chef d`uvre o l`amour, la magie, le symbole et la ferie se marient
pour organiser, de manire fascinante, l`histoire d`initiation aux grands mystres de l`tre.
L`eau est prsente dans d`autres hypostases dans quelques autres nouvelles, mais
participant toujours l`initiation et la renaissance. Dans la nouvelle Un om marepar
exemple, le mganthrope ressent l`appel des eaux rgnratrices et se dirige finalement vers la
mer pour renaitre dans un nouvel ordre d`existence. L`vnement fantastique donn par un
trouble biologique l`isole d`abord par rapport aux semblables, mais le singularise aussi
comme lu en vue de l`exprience mtaphysique qui l`attend et qui lui permet de voir dans le
ciel et de comprendre de grands mystres.
Dans la nouvelle Minuit Serampore l`image finale des eaux du fleuve Gange renvoie
l`oubli par lequel le narrateur espre chapper la terreur due l`exprience troublante qui
l`a fait participer un vnement ayant eu lieuau mme endroit 150 ans avant (vnement
dclench, parat-il, par la magie de Suren Bose). Cette fois-ci l`eau permet l`apaisement et
rend le hros soi mme : Quand je me suis rveill, le lendemain, dans mon kutiar, le soleil
tait haut et les eaux vertes de Gange m`ont sembl extrmement douces, d`une clart
reposante et sans pareil. 17
Dans le roman fantastique Domnioara Christina,(Mademoiselle Christina) leshros
ressentent de loin la magie du Danube au milieu de la plaine roumaine, magie qui se mle
celle des forts sculaires. Quelle joie que celle de reconnaitre chaque fois le Danube []
C`est une autre magie, une magie qui est facile recevoir, qui n`effraie pas. Les gens qui
vivent auprs des fleuves sont plus sages et plus courageux18.
Dans quelques unes de ses nouvelles fantastiques, Eliade a recours des procds de
prose SF qui se mlent, de manire originale, des moyens propres au rcit
policier,reprsents par les enquteurs illustrant les voix profanes. Dans le Journal, Eliade
souligne l`apport des sciences et des dcouvertes scientifiques dans la nouvelle littrature
fantastique qui devrait tre capable de s`ouvrir aux nouveauts scientifiques enregistres aux
dernires dcennies. Cette technique est propre aux nouvellesLe temps d`un centenaire, Les
trois grces, Les dix-neuf roses, A l`ombre d`un lys, Dayan.Dans Le temps d`un centenairele
thme de la rgnration biologique de l`homme et de son existence post historique se mlent
des motifs folkloriques venant du conte roumain Jeunesse sans vieillesse et vie sans mort
aussi bien qu` des lments SF. La qute de l`immortalit articule cette nouvelle
significations symboliques. La reconstruction du hros Dominic Matei se fait toujours par les
forces miraculeuses de la foudre et de l`eau.Nous assistons de nouveau, cette fois-ci sous
l`emprise de l`normedchargelectrique, une renaissance symbolique, plus exactement
une mort rituelle suivie du rveil une nouvelle existence. De faon troublante, la
rgnration est surtout intellectuelle, mentale, correspondant un dveloppement hors du
commun des facults intellectuelles du hros: celui-ci connait des langues qu`il n`a jamais
16
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apprises et peut anticiper les vnements historiques. Une autre ide SF, venant cette fois-ci
du domaine des sciences naturelles fusionne avec le mythe antique de Persphone dans un
rcit dont les moyens fantastiques rejoignent de nouveau le rcit policier. Il s`agit de la
possibilit de gurir le cancer par la direction consciente du processus gntique de
prolifration des cellules. La thse en question rejoint des problmes lis aux implications
mdicales de la thologie du pch originel. Ainsi, le docteur AurelianTtaru soigne ses
patientes d`un lixir incolore qu`il prtend avoir pris de la fontaine de jouvence. Le
thmerappelle galement le motif mythologique de l`eau vive, capable de rajeunir l`homme,
motif correspondant toute une mythologie populaire.
Dayan propose le sens oraculaire et spiritualisant de l`eau par la transfiguration du
symbole d`un conte folklorique. Dans la nouvelle, le merveilleux rejoint les mythes (le Juif
errant, Gilgamesh la recherche de Utnapistim) dans un tissu narratif o le hros est sur le
point de dcouvrir l`quationabsolue , celle qui avait hant Einstein et Heisenberg et dont
le but serait de recomposer le temps des deux cots en dclenchant le processus gnral
d`anamnse : si mon intuition est juste, reprit Orobete avec passion, et je crois qu`elle est
juste parce que le MatreAhasvrus m`a assur que j`en dchiffrerais l`nigme, nous avons
compris tous les deux que le temps peut tre comprim dans les deux directions, en avant vers
l`avenir et en arrire, vers le pass .19. Dans le voyage initiatique qu`il fait la suggestion
d`Ahasvrus, une sorte de anima mundi, le personnage doit choisir la source juste, celle d`eau
vive, mais il est dj initi et en choisit la bonne, buvantde la source mme de la mmoire. Se
rfrant l`eschatologie orphique, Eliade rappelle dans L`Histoire des croyances que, pour les
anciens grecs, dans Hads il y avaitdeux sources : celle de l`oubli, Lth, destine aux mes
voues se rincarner et celle qui jaillit du lac de la mmoire Mnmosyne, pour les mes
ayant chapp au cercle de l`incarnation.En fait, l`initiateur Ahasvrus est un vritable
professeur de renaissance, tout comme Eliade lui-mme. Aprs en avoir bu, il est illumin,se
rappelle toutes les existences antrieures et acquiert l`accs la mmoire gnrale o tous les
mystres se dvoilent. Par consquent, l`eau vive confre au hros des puissances de type
visionnaire. Durant l`initiation, le personnage se confronte un descenssus ad inferos, plonge
l`intrieur de son propre tre o il est soumis certaines preuves au boutdesquelles il
regagne son statut existentiel plnier.Devenu initi, Dayan franchit le seuil du profane, se
retrouvant en plein sacr, mais n`ayant pas de gnie potique, il s`avre incapable de partager
ce qu`il a appris. Tout comme Eugen Simion le montre, le modle de Dayan est le personnage
mtaphysique d`Eminescu, Dionis qui ose lutter contre la divinit mais qui en est puni.
Dans le roman La nuit de Saint Jean, la chambre Samb est un lieu privilgi o le
hros se retire et o le temps ne passe pas. Dans cet espace pur d`expriences profanes, la
soif est le seul indice qui rappelle au hros ses liens avec la vie extrieure. Dans cette chambre
secrte, toutes les fonctions physiologiques sont interrompues, rien ne se passe et on n`admet
que, de temps en temps, un verre d`eau du robinet. Le message en est que, avec un plus
d`ouverture, de volont et d`intuition, l`homme peut reconnaitre les miracles et une nouvelle
vision peut tre inaugure en matire de rapport entre le sacr et la conscience humaine. Mais
le moment est rarissime, ce moment par lequel on choisit le chemin vers le centre de la vie, ce
point miraculeux o l`existence rejoint la libert absolue.
Dans les nouvelles auxquelles nous voulons faire rfrence par la suite l`eau est
prsente surtout sous l`aspect des boissons que consomment les hros et, dans cette hypostase,
elle continue, d`une autre manire, contribuer au rveil spirituel du personnage. Ainsi, dans
la nouvelle La ignci l`eau signifie la connaissance de la vie, vrai labyrinthe auquel on ne
peut chapper que par un geste ou une action qui force les limites de la condition humaine. De
la sorte, l`eau contribue, de manire majeure, l`initiation que parcourt le hros.
Mircea Eliade Proz fantastic, vol. V, Bucureti, Editura Fundaiei Culturale Romne, 1991,p. 158, (n. trad.)
19
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21
356
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propos, tout comme observe Constantin Noica, une hermneutique cratrice. Si le cot
savant a permis Eliade des certitudes travers des dcouvertes positives, la cration
littraire lui a permis d`exprimenter, de jouer aux mondes parallles, de vrifier ses intuitions
et de chercher la ralit ultime, absolue de nos vies.
Bibliographie:
Mircea Eliade Images et symboles: essais sur le symbolisme magico-religieux, Paris,
Gallimard, 1979.
Mircea Eliade Insula lui Euthanasius, Bucureti, Ed. Humanitas, 1993.
Mircea Eliade Le Mythe de l`ternel retour, Paris, Gallimard, coll. Folio Essais, 2001.
Mircea Eliade Le sacr et le profane, Paris, Gallimard, 1987, coll. Folio Essais.
Mircea Eliade La ignci i alte povestiri, Bucureti, Editura Pentru Literatur. 1969
Mircea Eliade, Tratat de istoria religiilor, Bucureti, Humanitas, 2013.
Mircea Eliade Proz fantastic, vol. I-V, Bucureti, Editura Fundaiei Culturale
Romne, 1991
SorinAlexandrescu, Prface au volume La ignci i alte povestiri, Bucureti, Editura
Pentru Literatur.
Doina Ruti Dicionar de simboluri din opera lui Mircea Eliade, Bucureti, Ed.
Coresi, 1998.
Matei Clinescu Despre Ioan P. Culianu i Mircea Eliade Amintiri, lecturi, reflecii,
Iai, Ed. Polirom, 2000.
Sabina Fnaru Eliade prin Eliade, ed. Univers, Bucureti, 2003, deuxieme edition, col.
Studii.
357
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Abstract: Herta Mllers novels Der Fuchs war damals schon der Jger(1992,)
Herztier(1994) and Heute wr ich mir lieber nicht begegnet(1997) form a powerful
trilogy, depicting the oppression and horrors of the Romanian communist regime and their
effects on the individual. Focusing on female characters, the novels present their everyday
life, characterized by a gradual turning away from normality and the emergence of a foreign
perspective, which transforms familiar objects into foreign ones, which personify the
omnipresent persecutor.
The present article focuses on this very paradox, on the causes leading to its development, as
well as on its means of expression, on the stylistic devices employed by the Banat-Swabian
author to depict this central opposition.
The novels gravitate around the main conflict represented by the desire to fulfill the
individual potential and its oppression by the Romanian communist regime. Each intention of
the individual to fulfill his or her desires is brutally crushed by a malefic mechanism,
employing subtle, but very effective methods (tracing, spying, interrogations, observations,
changing the place of various objects in the pursued persons home ) in order to fulfill its
purpose.
The article also tries to offer an answer to the question: Why do Herta Mllers works
always focus on the paradox of normality and what makes them so unique? By
concentrating on the three novels making up the trilogy, the present work tries to trace Herta
Mllers intentions and their realization, following the path of transforming normal, everyday
objects and events into literary paradoxes.
The novel trilogy provides a very good example of Herta Mllers unique literary style, which
has established her as one of the most important postmodern authors.
Keywords: Herta Mller, foreign perspective, paradox of normality, Der Fuchs war damals
schon der Jger, Herztier, Heute wr ich mir lieber nicht begegnet, Securitate
SECTION: LITERATURE
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alarm la adresa politicii din acea vreme, i mai ales a cenzurii, care nbuea orice ncercare
de autoafirmare ntr-un mediu literar dominat de ideologia socialist. Dei nu fcea oficial
parte din acest grup, Herta Mller se numra printre prietenii i simpatizanii acestora. Grupul
a fost scos n afara legii n 1976 i silit s se destrame, dup ce trei dintre membrii acestuia au
ajuns la nchisoare n tentativa lor de a prsi graniele rii.
Premiul Nobel pentru Literatur, obinut de ctre autoarea romno-german n 2009,
reprezint ncununarea a douzeci de ani de activitate literar nentrerupt, de lupt continu
mpotriva unui sistem care i-a deportat mama ntr-un lagr de munc sovietic i care i-a
confiscat bunurile familiale, culminnd cu nenumrate umiline, interogatorii, percheziii ale
locuinei (care se soldau cu schimbarea locului anumitor obiecte) i ameninri cu moartea.
Din toat aceast suferin s-a nscut opera Hertei Mller, care impresioneaz cititorul prin
fora i prospeimea metaforelor, prin tonul ferm, prin alturri surprinztoare de cuvinte
(ajunge n acest sens s ne gndim doar la ngerul foamei, animalul inimii i leagnul
respiraiei pentru a nelege efectul acestora) i prin imagini cu o puternic tent
expresionist, n culori puternice i cu semnificaii profunde.
Luptnd mpotriva unui sistem care i-a clcat n picioare talentul, personalitatea i
demnitatea, Herta Mller a reuit s i creeze, nc din copilrie, un univers interior format
din propriile expresii, propriile imagini i propriile idei. Privirea strin asupra lucrurilor i
evenimentelor de zi cu zi, care s-a format deja n enclava Nichidorf, caracterizat printr-o
dorin acerb a vabilor de conservare a tradiiilor, cu preul strivirii individualitii n folosul
comunitii, este unul dintre aspectele importante ce urmeaz a fi tematizate n cadrul
prezentului articol. Ea reprezint totodat, mpreun cu percepia inventat unul dintre
pilonii stilului literar al Hertei Mller, care o deosebete i o detaeaz de toi scriitorii romni
sau germani din acea perioad.
Meritul ei, dup cum afirm criticul Norbert Otto Eke1 este acela de a fi dus o tripl
lupt, n primul rnd pe plan politic, n opoziie cu ideile i convingerile unui regim de tip
stalinist i a unei minoriti mai apropiate de tradiia nazist dect de cea romn, apoi n sens
etnologic ca reprezentant a unei minoriti germane ntr-un mediu majoritar romn, i nu n
ultimul rnd n sfera literar, deosebindu-se de toi ceilali autori de limb german din
Romnia, prin alegerea de a se dedica temelor i subiectelor cu tent revoluionar, diametral
opuse regimului comunist i minoritii vbeti.
Trilogia din care fac parte romanele nc de pe atunci vulpea era vntorul (germ.
Der Fuchs war damals schon der Jger), Animalul Inimii (germ. Herztier) i Astzi mai bine
nu m-a fi ntlnit cu mine nsmi (germ. Heute wr ich mir lieber nicht begegnet) au
consacrat-o definitiv pe scriitoarea romno-german drept una dintre cele mai cunoscute i
apreciate autoare postmoderne ale sfritului de secol XX i nceputului de secol XXI.
Tema principal a acestor romane o constituie lupta continu a protagonistelor cu
regimul comunist i cu mecanismele acestuia, n ncercarea de conservare a normalitii n
cadrul unei existene de zi cu zi ce poart perpetua amprent a urmririi i interogrii de ctre
Securitate, organul executiv al unui regim obinuit cu icanarea i dezumanizarea cetenilor
si. n aceste condiii, vulpea gsete n final puterea de a se transforma n vntor,
protagonista Adina reuind s evadeze dintr-un mediu ce o inea nu numai prizonier, ci o
transformase ntr-un vnat, ntr-o victim, prsind ara i emigrnd, asemenea autoarei.
Animalul inimii reprezint singurul punct de sprijin ntr-un univers ce se nruie din toate
prile, ntr-o societate n care trdarea reprezint o moned de schimb pentru o libertate
efemer, n care cei mai buni prieteni se transform n cei mai aprigi dumani, ce lovesc fr
Norbert Otto Eke (ed): Die erfundene Wahrnehmung. Annherung an Herta Mller [ro. Percepia inventat. Abordare a Hertei Mller,
n.a.] , Ed. Igel Literatur und Wissenschaft, ed. a II-a, Hamburg, 2009, p.8
1
359
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mil din umbr. Aa-zisa normalitate prezentat n romanul Astzi mai bine nu m-a fi
ntlnit cu mine nsmi este tot un paradox, orice ncercare de a avea o via privat mplinit
este sortit eecului, Securitatea personificat prin anchetatorul Albu - scotocind pn n
cele mai intime coluri ale personajului principal i mpiedicnd orice tentativ la fericire. Dea lungul cltoriei cu tramvaiul spre interogatoriul condus de maiorul Albu este nfiat
ntreaga existen a protagonistei, prins n plasa de pianjen a sistemului comunist, care
constituie adevrata aciune a romanului.
Privirea strin reprezint, dup cum s-a reliefat deja, principala particularitate a
stilului Hertei Mller. Deja n 1999, n cadrul eseului Der fremde Blick oder Das Leben ist ein
Furz in der Laterne (ro. Privirea strin sau viaa-i un sictir btut n piu), autoarea de
origine bnean inea s sublinieze importana percepiei n cadrul procesului creativ al
scrierii, punnd mai ales accentul pe cauzele care au dus la formarea acestei caracteristici i
reliefnd paii, etapele care au dus la transfigurarea obiectelor i evenimentelor normale,
fireti, n entiti necunoscute, nefamiliare.
Originile privirii strine sunt de natur dubl. Pe de o parte, aceasta izvorte din
continua stare de anxietate produs de universul claustrofobic al enclavei vbeti Nichidorf,
unde pasiunea tatlui pentru butur, ncercrile disperate ale mamei de a uita cei cinci ani
petrecui n lagrul de munc silnic din Uniunea Sovietic i ncpnarea stenilor de a tri
ntr-un mediu nchis, caracterizat de nerenunarea la tradiiile i convingerile naziste au un
efect traumatizant asupra copilului sensibil, silit s creasc singur, mergnd cu vitele la
pscut, vorbind cu plantele i animalele, temndu-se de ntuneric i de violena care n familie
constituia o component a unei crude normaliti. Astfel, sensibilitatea Hertei Mller aduce un
aport semnificativ la percepia, i mai ales, la transfigurarea literar a realitii.
Pe de alt parte, regimul comunist, monitorizarea continu i controlul exercitat asupra
populaiei, au dus la pierderea percepiei normale asupra vieii de zi cu zi, ducnd la apariia
privirii strine. Experiena vizibilitii dictaturii rezult la Herta Mller n dezvoltarea unei
culturi a ochiului, ntr-o ,privire vigilent asupra a tot ceea ce o nconjoar2, observ criticul
literar Friedmar Apel. Tot el afirm c n lucruri, mai cu seam n cele mai private dintre
acestea, este reliefat raportul dintre individ, stat i societate, acesta este personificat n cadrul
obiectelor.3
Cercettoarea norvegian Sissel Lgreid este de prere c la citirea textelor Hertei
Mller mi se ntmpl la fel ca n cazul lui Kafka, nu tiu ce s mai cred, i n consecin m
ncearc o anumit stnjeneal. Limbajul autoarei germane are att o component
seductoare, ct i una nelinititoare.4 n aceast afirmaie se regsete una dintre trsturile
principale ale privirii strine: obiectele i evenimentele percepute, apoi transfigurate n
scris, i pierd echilibrul, fcnd trimitere la altceva, aflat dincolo de cele spuse i aternute
pe hrtie. Deopotriv n textele lui Kafka i ale Hertei Mller starea de nelinite, de
stnjeneal se ivete datorit lipsei contextului logico-semantic, care are un puternic impact la
nivelul deconstruciei i recepiei estetico-receptive5.
Paradoxul normalitii poate fi observat n detaliu n cadrul romanului nc de pe
atunci vulpea era vntorul, care are la origine un scenariu de film, scris de ctre Herta
Mller n colaborare cu actualul so Harry Merkle. Romanul a fost ecranizat de ctre regizorul
Stere Gulea n 1993, filmul su Vulpe, vntor reuind s redea magistral atmosfera de
Friedmar Apel, Wahrheit und Eigensinn. Herta Mllers Poetik der einen Welt [ro. Adevr i sens propriu. Poetica unei lumi unice la Herta
Mller, n.a.], n Heinz Ludwig Arnold (ed.), Text+Kritik, revist pentru literatur, nr. VII/2002, Richard Boorberg Verlag, p. 41
3
Ibd., p. 42
4
Sissel Lgreid, Sprachaugen und Wortdinge - Herta Mllers Poetik der Entgrenzung, n Helgard Mahrdt i Sissel Lgreid (ed.) Dichtung
und Diktatur. Die Schriftstellerin Herta Mller [ro. Ochii limbajului i obiectele cuvintelor. Scriitoarea Herta Mller, n.a.], Ed.
Knigshausen & Neumann, Wrzburg, 2013, p. 61
5
dup Sissel Lgreid, Sprachaugen, p. 62
2
360
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Herta Mller, nc de pe atunci vulpea era vntorul, trad. de Nora Iuga, Bucureti, Humanitas Fiction, 2009, p. 17
361
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Ibd., p. 24
Lennart Koch, Macht nichts, macht nichts Herta Mllers Blick auf die Wende [ro. Nu face nimic, nu face nimic Perspectiva Hertei
Mller asupra revoluiei, n.a.] http://usuaris.tinet.cat/asgc2/Forum_2005/Autors/Koch/koch04.html
9
Ibd.
10
Trad. dup Brigitt Haines und Margaret Littler (1998): Gesprch mit Herta Mller (ro. Discuie cu Herta Mller), n: Haines, Brigid (Ed.):
Herta Mller, Cardiff, Univ. of Wales Press, 14-25
8
362
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363
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O s fie greu s ii albe cmile unui domn. Dar o s fie o plcere cnd va veni cu
mine n uscciunea aceea, peste patru ani. i, dac va reui s orbeasc drumeii n sat cu albul
cmilor lui, pentru mine o s fie o plcere. i, dac este un domn la care vine frizerul acas
i-i las pantofii la u. O s fie greu s ii cmile albe la atta murdrie n care puricii i
fac de cap, scrie Lola.14
Normalitatea, n acest caz doar iluzia unei normaliti se dovedete o himer, un crud
paradox: rmnnd nsrcinat, Lola hotrte s i pun capt zilelor, spnzurndu-se cu
cordonul personajului principal feminin, al crui nume nu l aflm pe tot parcursul romanului,
care ns funcioneaz ca o instan observatoare, ca un spectator mut al tuturor frdelegilor
regimului comunist.
Absurdul culmineaz cu excluderea postum din partid, exmatricularea i umilirea
public a Lolei. Imaginile de o sinceritate i putere de sugestie tulburtoare vorbesc descriu
politica dezumanizant a unui regim, n care partidul era organul suprem, strivind orice
ncercare de individualitate. Cmaa alb a rectorului trimite n mod ironic la visul spulberat
brutal al Lolei, minile se ridic la unison, relevnd supremaia colectivitii. Imaginile sunt
groteti, desprinse parc dintr-un film de groaz:
Dup ce n aula mare aplauzele au fost ntrerupte de mna rectorului, la tribun s-a dus
profesorul de gimnastic. Purta o cma alb. S-a supus la vot ca Lola s fie exclus din
partid i exmatriculat din facultate.
Profesorul de gimnastic ridic primul mna. i toate minile i luar zborul dup el.
cnd ridica braul, fiecare se uita la braele ridicate ale celorlali: dac propriul bra nu era la
fel de sus n aer ca alte brae, cte unul mai ntindea cotul un pic. i ineau minile n sus
pn cnd degetele oboseau i cdeau n fa, iar coatele atrnau grele n jos. Priveau n jurul
lor i, pentru c nimeni nu-i lsa nc braul s-i cad, i ndreptau din nou degetele i-i
ridicau coatele. Li se vedeau petele de sudoare sub bra, cmile i bluzele le ieeau pe
dinafar, i lungeau gturile, aveau urechile roii, buzele ntredeschise, capetele nu se
micau, doar ochii le alunecau ncoace i ncolo.15
Un laitmotiv al urmririi i opresiunii, observat de ctre Graziella Predoiu16, l
constituie prunele verzi, mncate de supraveghetorii provenii din mediul rural, care, odat
ajuni la ora, i pstreaz obiceiul de a fura prune din pomii aflai n spaiul lor de
patrulare i de se nfrupta din ele cu lcomie. Normalitatea ia n acest caz forme groteti, un
obicei nevinovat, copilresc devenind un gest care induce teama celor care i urmresc:
Mnctorii de prune erau rani. Prunele verzi le luau minile. Mncatul prunelor i
smulgea de la treburile lor. i reluau vechiul obicei al copiilor de a fura din pomii satului. Nu
mncau de foame, le era poft numai de gustul acru al srciei, n care, acum un an, nc i
plecau ochii i-i ndoiau ceafa sub mna tatlui.
14
Ibd., p. 12
Ibd., p. 32
16
Graziella Predoiu, Faszination und Provokation bei Herta Mller [ro. Fascinaie i provocare la Herta Mller, n.a.], Ed. Peter Lang,
Frankfurt am Main, 2001
15
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17
Ibd., p. 54
Ibd., p. 36
1919
Herta Mller, Astzi mai bine nu m-a fi ntlnit cu mine nsmi, trad. din german de Corina Bernic, Ed. Humanitas Fiction, 2014, p. 5
20
It. te atept, n.a.
18
365
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Sissel Lgreid, Der allegorische Blick des Melancholischen. Zum fremden Blick und dem Primat des Dinghaften in Herta Mllers
Roman Heute wr ich mir lieber nicht begegnet [ro. Imaginea alegoric a melancolicului. Referire la privirea strin i la primatul
obiectelor n romanul Hertei Mller Astzi mai bine nu m-a fi ntlnit cu mine nsmi, n.a.], n Transcarphatica. Germanistisches
Jahrbuch Rumnien, nr. 5/6, 2006/2007, p 94
22
Ibd.
23
Ibd., p. 98
24
Herta Mller, Astzi, p.22
25
Ibd., p.24
26
Ibd., p. 22
27
Ibd, p. 24
21
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Cnd eti chemat la interogatoriu, te deprinzi cu nite lucruri care ajut cumva. Nu
conteaz dac e adevrat sau nu. Nu te deprinzi, ci m-am deprins eu cu aceste lucruri, s-au
furiat unul dup altul n viaa mea. ()
Cnd m ntorc acas de la interogatoriu, mi pun pe mina bluza gri. Ea se numete
bluza care nc mai ateapt. E de la Paul.28
Primatul tangibilului ca un principiu poetologic al romanului este evident: obiectele
utilizate ca recuzit, neavnd la prima vedere nici un rol concret n desfurarea aciunii, i
creeaz i cititorului o stare de nesiguran, acest lucru constituind intenia expres a autoarei
bnene. Pentru a intensifica acest paradox al normalitii, i las protagonista s
hoinreasc, aparent fr nici un el anume, prin forfota cotidian, oprindu-se la alimentar
pentru a contempla diferite obiecte care fac n mod evident trimitere la nebunie, la pierderea
echilibrului interior:
nainte de a cumpra cartofii, fusesem n alimentar la raionul cu dulciuri. n
borcanele aezate unul peste altul am vzut bomboane roii de care erau lipite viespi moarte,
apoi lame de ras ruginite, apoi biscuii sfrmai, apoi cutii de chibrituri, apoi bomboane verzi
lipite ntre ele i cu viespi. n raftul de pe perete sticlele i alternau culorile: lichiorul galben
de ou, siropul roz de zmeur, rachiul verde de drojdie, acetona pentru unghii clar ca apa.
Nici unul dintre lucrurile de acolo nu tia ce e cu el. vnztorul, ca i cum din chibrituri, lame
de ras, bomboane lipite i biscuii s-ar fi fcutt un om care se va mprtia apoi la loc.
-O sut de grame de lame de ras dulci, am spus eu.29
Tabloul este din nou unul grotesc, iar culorile intense (galben, roz, verde) i confer o
aur expresionist, surprinztoare. Nimic nu pare normal, cu att mai puin dorina
protagonistei de a cumpra o sut de grame de lame de ras dulci 30. Avem de a face, ca i n
romanele precedente, cu o privire strin asupra lucrurilor, care sunt extrase din mediul lor
cotidian, devenind o alegorie a vieii de zi cu zi ntr-o Romnie comunist unde orice
ncercare de afirmare, de mplinire a aspiraiilor individuale, era din start nbuit cu
deosebit cruzime.
n concluzie, se poate afirma c paradoxul normalitii este unul dintre motivele
recurente ale trilogiei romanelor Hertei Mller, avnd un dublu rol: pe de o parte acela de a
contura, cu ajutorul privirii strine i al percepiei inventate, (particulariti ale stilului
autoarei bnene) un portret al vieii cotidiene n perioada dictaturii Ceauiste, i de a reliefa
imposibilitatea individului de a se mpotrivi sistemului.
Bibliografie
Surse primare
Mller, Herta Der fremde Blick oder Das Leben ist ein Furz in der Laterne, Gttinger
Sudelbltter, hrsg. von Heinz Ludwig Arnold, Wallstein
28
Ibd.
Ibd., p. 230
30
Ibd.
29
367
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Mller, Herta Der Fuchs war damals schon der Jger. Fischer Taschenbuch:
Frankfurt am Main, 2009, ed. A IV-a
Mller, Herta Der Teufel sitzt im Spiegel: Wie Wahrnehmung sich erfindet, Rotbuch:
Berlin, 1991
Mller, Herta Herztier, Fischer Taschenbuch: Frankfurt am Main, 2009, ed. A V-a
Mller, Herta Niederungen, Kriterion: Bucureti, 1982
Mller, Herta Animalul inimii, trad. de Nora Iuga, Ed. Polirom: Iai, 2006
Mller, Herta Astzi mai bine nu m-a fi ntlnit cu mine nsmi, trad. din german de
Corina Bernic, Ed. Humanitas Fiction: Bucureti, 2014
Mller, Herta nc de pe atunci vulpea era vntorul, trad. de Nora Iuga, Bucureti,
Humanitas Fiction: Bucureti 2009
Surse secundare
Arnold, Heinz Ludwig Text und Kritik. Zeitschrift fr Literatur Heft 155. Herta
Mller, iulie 2002, Richard Boorberg GmbH & Co: Mnchen
Bauer, Karin (ed.) / Eke, Norbert Otto Ethik und Poetik im Werk Herta Mllers, Lang:
Frankfurt, 2011
Bozzi, Paola Der fremde Blick. Zum Werke Herta Mllers, Knigshausen &
Neumann: Wrzburg, 2005
Grn, Sigrid "Fremd in einzelnen Dingen": Fremdheit und Alteritt bei Herta Mller,
Ibidem: Stuttgart, 2010
Haupt-Cucuiu, Herta Eine Poesie der Sinne: Herta Mllers 'Diskurs des Alleinseins'
und seine Wurzeln. Igel Verlag Literatur und Wissenschaft: Hamburg 1996
Eke, Norbert Otto (ed): Die erfundene Wahrnehmung. Annherung an Herta Mller ,
Ed. Igel Literatur und Wissenschaft, ed. a II-a: Hamburg, 2009
Haines, Brigitt (Ed.): Herta Mller, Cardiff, Univ. of Wales Press, 1998
Khnen, Ralph (ed.) Der Druck der Erfahrung treibt die Sprache in die Dichtung :
Bildlichkeit in Texten Herta Mllers, Lang: Frankfurt am Main, 1997
368
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369
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Abstract: The pamphlet as a literary genre, emerged with the society need for progress, from
the desire to take action through written word, to bring the truth to light. This essay aims to
present ideas that define Paul-Louis Courier's pamphlet work, placed in a parallel with the
art of pamphlet from the Romanian literary area during the interwar period. The text
reference intituled The Pamphlet of Pamphlets represents the main work, an reference book,
highlighting through its rows the author's concept about the role and mission of pamphlet, as
literary genre and artistic act. We proceed with presenting a series of coordinates from the
beginnings of the pamphlet genre, focusing on Paul-Louis Courier. The social life has her
share of touch concerning the writing destiny of the one's intended with talent and labour in a
perfect artistic combination.
Keywords: pamphlet, literary genre, social life, The Pamphlet of Pamphlets, Paul-Louis
Courier.
Pompiliu Marcea, Necesitatea polemicii, n Gazeta literar, anul XV, nr. 1 (798), joi, 15 februarie 1968, p. 1(7).
Ibidem, p. 1.
Pompiliu Marcea, Necesitatea polemicii, n Gazeta literar, anul XV, nr. 1 (798), joi, 15 februarie 1968, p. 1(7).
4
E. Lovinescu, Spirit polemic-spirit pamfletar, n Gazeta literar, anul XV, nr. 8 (799), joi, 22 februarie, 1968, p. 3.
5
Pompiliu Marcea, Necesitatea polemicii, n Gazeta literar, anul XV, nr. 1 (798), joi, 15 februarie 1968, p. 1(7).
1
2
3
370
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pamfletul pus n serviciul unor persoane sau grupuri, irit spiritele6, i agit pe cei ce se simt
vizai.
Astfel, pamfletul, recurgnd la caricatur i deformare, reprezint o faz iniial a
culturii, - cci nainte de a dobndi raiune, omul a acionat pasional.7
Aadar, mentorul Sburtorului, a realizat una dintre cele mai pertinente i precise
delimitri ntre spiritul polemic i cel pamfletar. n opinia sa, spiritul polemic presupune
linite, stpnire de sine, calcul i strategie, caliti () Spiritul polemic nu se cultiv la
temperaturi nalte, ci numai la temperaturi medii, chiar rece ()8 Astfel, E. Lovinescu a
creat un breviar al celor dou spirite att de diferite i n acelai timp care se confunda cu
uurin.
Referitor la dinuirea peste ani a genului pamfletar, observm c el poate trece n
eternitatea, n perenitatea artei, ns doar cu condiia s fie luat drept ceea ce este, adic
rezultat a inteniei artistice i nu instrument polemic autentic.9
n sprijinul redefinirii pamfletului, Cornel Munteanu, un renumit teoretician al
plaiurilor transilvnene, a acordat pamfletului un deosebit interes n cadrul cercetrilor sale n
domeniu, dedicndu-i dou ample studii: Pamfletul ca discurs literar i Pamfletul ca
literatur,. Definiia dat acestei noiuni este convingtoare i merit pe deplin a a fi reinut
i amintit aici i prin originalitatea ei. Este vorba despre precizarea c pamfletul s devin
oper literar se refer la: pamfletul este o elaboraie asumat de un scriitor; pamfletul este o
literatur angajat, de atitudine combativ i critic; pamfletul este o literatur ficional
(imitaie artistic mediat de un limbaj specific);pamfletul este o literatur subiectiv
(angajeaz experiene, temperamente, istorie personal, n raport cu marile probleme umane);
pamfletul este o literatur organizat dup anumite proprieti (retorice, formale, semantice,
pragmatice, aflate n diferite grade de reprezentare n text) () Pamfletul este un tip specific
de discurs social.10
Prin urmare, dorim s considerm enumerarea de mai sus a atributelor pamfletului, ca
reprezentnd un puternic punct de plecare n orice demers de cercetare, din aceast sfer.
Pamfletarii participani ai disputei, ai controversei, joac un rol sunt actori, iar
spectacolul este pamfletul11, scrisul pamfletar, noi ceilali care avem n mn creaia, care
ne aflm n descoperirea ei, noi lectorii-spectatori constituind publicul. Punerea n scen
rezult, am putea zice, din condiiile actualitii vremurilor lor.
n aceeai ordine de idei, G. Clinescu afirma c: hotrt lucru, literatura romn a
nceput prin pamflet.12
Observaia ce se cuvine rezid din, faptul c, exist un corpus pamfletar i polemic
bine nchegat, pe baza unui summum de tehnici i procedee de persuasiune, argumentare.
Acesta este cldesc din temelii, crmid cu crmid, sau putem spune sub forma unui
puzzle cu piese ce i au locul bine stabilit pentru a forma un ntreg puternic, rezultat dintr-un
cmp larg de ntemeiere, ca de exemplu: argumentele, discursul, ironia, arsenalul retoric i
stilistic, rolul lexemelor, respectiv mbinarea lor, construciile sintactice, paragrafelor i
dispunerea acestora, portretizarea, acuzele directe sau indirecte, sintaxa frazei, expresivitatea,
Ibidem, p. 7.
Ibidem, p. 7.
8
E. Lovinescu, Spirit polemic-spirit pamfletar, n Gazeta literar, anul XV, nr. 8 (799), joi, 22 februarie, 1968, p. 3.
9
Pompiliu Marcea, Necesitatea polemicii, n Gazeta literar, anul XV, nr. 1 (798), joi, 15 februarie 1968, p. 1(7).
10
Cornel Munteanu, Pamfletul ca discurs literar, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1999, p. 314
11
Ibidem, p. 342.
12
Virgiliu Ene, Satira n literatura romn, vol. I, Bucureti, Editura Albatros, 1972, p. XII, apud Ctlin Mihuleac, Pamfletul i tableta.
Jurnalism sau literatur, Iai, Editura Universitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza, 2009, p. 13.
7
371
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etc. Pamfletele, respectiv textele polemice, pot poseda o important ncrctur de sens,
innd att de argumente ad rem, dar i de argumente ad personam.
Viaa social i are doza ei de amprentare asupra destinului scriiturii, a aceluia hrzit
cu talent i trud, ntr-o perfect mbinare artistic, dup cum versul arghezian ne spune
Slova de foc i slova aurit/ mperecheate-n carte se mrit, slova de foc ca metafor
simboliznd nimic altceva dect, talentul, harul poetic, scriitoricesc, iar slova furit o
metafor a meteugului, a trudei, efortului ndreptndu-ne atenia i asupra celui de-al doilea
vers, se reliefeaz o hierogamie, o unire sfnt a acestora, a talentului cu meteugul,
devenind condiia sine qua non a creaiei.
n cea de-a doua parte a lucrrii, purcedem prin a prezenta o serie de coordonate ale
operei pamfletare din spaiul francofon, de la nceputurile genului,. Ne oprim asupra lui PaulLouis Courier. De ce Paul-Louis Courier? Ei bine, i pentru c-l regsim n literatura noastr,
ca omolog, dac tot suntem n sfera politicului, al lui Camil Petrescu. Acesta din urm, aa
cum o repeta el ca un laitmotiv, avea n snge virusul polemic. Absolvind liceul n 1913, el a
fost luat de N. D. Cocea la ziarul su Facla. Acolo i-a publicat el ntiele pamflete i
polemici.13 Astfel, el semneaz o diatrib agresiv, violent contra cunoscutului Vintil
Brtianu, ministrul nsrcinat cu partea financiar i economic a rii. La rndul lui, prin
acest gen literar a adus critici dure, chiar aspre, putem spune, la adresa conductorilor acelor
vremuri, contra regimurilor burgheze, acuze care nu s-au lsat fr repercusiuni traduse prin
suferine de ordin sufletesc i material, aternute, din nefericire, asupra autorului, cci acetia
loveau fr cruare pe neruinatul calomniator cum l-au catalogat mpiedicndu-l s-i
agoniseasc mcar sumara hran zilnic.14 Contestarea scriitorului este, aa cum am
observat, vehement, ns nu general. Legat de acestea, trebuie s amintim, s adugm i
faptul c natura climatului literar interbelic nu era una primitoare, calm, ci dimpotriv,
scriitorii acelor vremuri aveau parte de contestri, de ostiliti, fiind implicai n evenimente
dure, deoarece era o perioad a atacurilor i a luptelor literare.
ns, diferena dintre situaia celor doi ine, n primul rnd, de spaiu, apoi de metod i
ntr-un final, de urmri, cci lui P.-L. Courier i se aduc multiple afronturi, i se confisc toate
exemplarele pamfletului Jalba ctre camera deputailor pentru stenii mpiedicai s
danseze, mergnd pn la a fi condamnat. Dup tot irul de procese, P.-L. Courier i-a atras
inimiciia magistrailor i a jurailor unelte ale reaciunii monarhice dar, i important e c el a ctigat n schimb marea preuire a publicului, care are doza de greutate cea mai mare.
In a doua jumtate a secolului al XVIII-lea, Parisul saloanelordevine principalul
centru european de ntlnire a savanilor i perimetrul privilegiat al dezbaterilor politice.
naintea Revoluiei Franceze, Louis Sebastien Mercier aprecia c la Paris se cenzureaz nu
abuzurile unui ora, ci abuzurile a cror reform intereseaz ntreaga umanitate.15
Rmnnd n aceeai sfer, revoluia nu echivaleaz numai cu tentativa de rsturnare
a regimului puterii reale. Ea este i o lupt pentru dominaie i exerciiu de putere n sfera
simbolic, la fel de semnificativ i de influent ca puterea real. Astfel o revoluie trebuie s
renoveze imaginarul social.16 Se configureaz un imaginar agresiv care permite separarea
lumii ntre rul imoral aristocratic i binele popular, ... i culmineaz cu distrugerea Bastiliei,
nimic nefiind mai puternic n revoluie dect cderea unui simbol (s.n.)17
Constant Ionescu, Amintiri despre Camil Petrescu, n Gazeta literar, anul XV, nr. 1(792), joi, 4 ianuarie 1968, p.7.
Constant Ionescu, Amintiri despre Camil Petrescu, n Gazeta literar, anul XV, nr. 1(792), joi, 4 ianuarie 1968, p.7
15
Antoine Compgnon,; Jacques Seebacher, Spiritul Europei. Volumul 1-Date i locuri, traducere de Claudiu Constantinescu, Iai, Editura
Polirom, 2002,p. 140 apud Constantina Raveca Buleu, Revoluia Francez i mutaiile din cmpul puterii, n Voina de putere sub semnul
ideii europene, n Supliment al Revistei Contemporanul, nr. 8, 2012, p. 9.
16
Ibidem, p. 13.
17
Constantina Raveca Buleu, Revoluia Francez i mutaiile din cmpul puterii, n Voina de putere sub semnul ideii europene, n
Supliment al Revistei Contemporanul, nr. 8, 2012, p. 13.
13
14
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Tot aa, facem un prim apel la un eveniment din viaa lui Paul-Louis Courier, la atacul
asupra Cetii Bastilia, din 14 iulie 1789, unde alturi de revoluionarii francezi prezeni, se
afla i tnrul Courier atunci n vrst de 17 ani, acest adolescent nu era altul dect celebrul
de mai trziu autor al pamfletelor, episod din tineree n care unii biografi vd cheia
adevratului su caracter, a afinitilor sale cu epoca n care a trit. 18 Fr ndoial, faptul
are ns o semnificaie deosebit atunci cnd aparine unui adolescent care s-a hrzit cu trup
i suflet studiului antichitii greceti i latine i care prea s nu cunoasc alt pasiune dect
cultura veche. El descoper dintr-o dat n Paul-Louis Courier un temperament de lupttor,
care nu traverseaz epoca fr s nu vad, fr s nu neleag, fr s nu participe la tumultul
ei.19
Mai apoi, condeiul cu care-i stiliza traducerile din Isocrat l va ascui i-l va muia n
cel mai coroziv acid de a nfiera regimul, dezmurile de la curte, moravurile
aristocraiei...pentru a face din el o arm de aprare a norodului20. n acest mod, s-au nscut
pamfletele sale drept, model clasic al unui gen combativ de nalt valoare satiric i
literar. (s.n.) 21, va fi un mijloc de luminare a masei. Pentru a numi arsenalul de care
dispune Courrier, F. Brunea-Fox aducea expresia ca surs din joc pratia lui polemic, el
fiind rnd pe rnd pamfletarul aprig ancorat n actualitate i interpretul vechi al bucolicilor
elini.22
Mihail Sadoveanu ntr-un articol despre Courier, aprut n anul 1925 n ziarul ieean
Lumea, afirma c: firea lui semea i dur, inteligena rece ca o lam concentreaz n pagini
de art desvrit un venin fluid i paralizant. Courier n-are invectiva tare; nu izbete cu
sunet i larm. neptura pe care o face e mortal, ns e ascuns sub zmbete i duhul
blndeii. Vorbete limpede, linitit i-n pilde, ca un ran. Ideea ns e teribil.,
identificndu-se o la suprafa o nglobare de cuvinte obinuite, domoale, ns care analizate
n miezul lor, se dezvluie nite cuvinte ascuite, cu ti, cu iz psihologic. Pn la sfritul
vieii, P.-L. Courier va nutri o imens aversiune mpotriva clasei politice i mpotriva ei va
scrie cele mai necrutoare dintre pamfletelor sale.
Satira lui Courier, avnd un profund caracter social, atac instituiile fundamentale
ale regimului - autoritar al lui Ludovic al XVIII-lea fr a ine seama de sensibilitile
nimnui. Courier spune lucrurilor pe nume, ntr-un grai simplu, pe nelesul tuturor, ntr-un
stil de o puritate inegalabil (...) el d pamfletului o strlucire nou.23
Pamfletarul francez posed un atu deloc de neobservat, i anume bravarea, are
capacitatea de a nfrunta cu o doz mare de curaj, acuzele care i se aduc, nimic nu l-a nfricat
cnd a crezut c trebuie s intervin pentru a nfiera o inegalitate, a mpiedica o nedreptate.
Idee de altfel regsit ca stindard al autorilor de pamflete.
Ultima scriere a sa, aprut n anul 1824 i intitulat: Pamfletul pamfletelor,
reprezint o art pamfletar (s.n.), din mai multe considerente.
n primul rnd, autorul i construiete textul printr-o sum de adresri directe
publicului, ca actant major, ca instan deliberant, acordndu-i un maxim de importan n tot
ce nseamn pamflet. Astfel, asistm la o mrturisire a crezului su artistic, a menirii sale,
confesiune pus pe seama personajelor din pamfletul n discuie.
F. Brunea-Fox, Cuvnt nainte, la Paul-Louis Courier-Pamflete, prefa i traducere de F. Brunea-Fox, Bucureti, Editura de Stat pentru
Literatur i Art, 1960, p. 16.
19
Ibidem, p. 5.
20
Ibidem, p. 5
21
F. Brunea-Fox, Cuvnt nainte, la Paul-Louis Courier-Pamflete, prefa i traducere de F. Brunea-Fox, Bucureti, Editura de Stat pentru
Literatur i Art, 1960, p. 5.
22
Ibidem, p.7.
23
F. Brunea-Fox , op.cit., p. 16.
18
373
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Paul-Louis Courier, Pamfletul pamfletelor, n Pamflete, prefa i traducere de F. Brunea-Fox, Bucureti, Editura de Stat pentru Literatur
i Art, pp. 294-295.
25
Ibidem, p. 295.
26
Ibidem, p. 294.
27
Ibidem, p. 294.
28
Ibidem, p. 294.
29
Cornel Munteanu apud Michel Peronnet, Ractions d'un historien, n vol. Le Pamphlet en France au XVIe sicle, p. 117.
30
Lcrmioara Mutoiu, Alchimia textului poetic, f.l., Editura Versus, f.a., p. 10.
24
374
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Ceea ce crezi c este util, vrednic de a fi cunoscut de toat lumea nu poate fi trecut sub
tcere.31
Se contureaz, n mod clar, cteva definiii ale pamfletului, una dintre acestea este
urmtoarea: Un gnd elaborat, concis i limpede, cu dovezi, documente, exemplificri, o
dat tiprit, este un pamflet, este fapta cea bun, cea mai curajoas, uneori, pe care omul o
poate drui lumii. Dac ideea ta e bun, ea folosete; greit, va fi corectat, i tot poate fi
folositoare.
Putem mrturisi c, odat cu pamfletele courieriene ale secolului al XVIII-lea, are loc
cristalizarea i dac ne este ngduit, ntronarea sa, fortiori n toate timpurile pamfletele
au schimbat faa lumii (s.n.)32 Rolurile pamfletului, dup cum am afirmat mai sus, sunt
multiple, unul este i acela de educare a publicului cititor, a oamenilor, a celor muli dar care
n caz de unire pot mica munii din loc deoarece: Folie tiprite(...) instruiesc pe oamenii de
toate vrstele - nu confruntndu-i cu - fraze usturtoare, - ci fr nvrtituri de stil
meteugite - doar aa - expresia limpede i direct ajunge acestor oameni33 ca ntr-o
oglindire concis a ideilor pamfletare.
Bunoar, se acord o atenie deosebit publicului, ca actant major, fiind cel care
culege opiniile, delibernd nentrerupt, rezultnd o critic pertinent, viabil, simpl i
adevrat, cci: poporul, ca i cum ar fi adunat la un sfat permanent, culege opiniile,
delibereaz nentrerupt asupra fiecrei chestiuni de interes general i i formeaz hotrrile
din prerea ce oglindete unanimitatea, fr nici o excepie. (...) poporul nu face greeli.34
Pamfletul este, scrie Courier ntr-o not anonim, cel mai bun soi de carte, cel mai
popular prin scurtimea lui. Pamfletul se adreseaz celor care nu au timp s citeasc tomuri
ntregi un gen n primul rnd persuasiv, a crui notorietate secolele ulterioare o cunosc
foarte bine.35
Atitudinea potrivit n cazul unui atac pe ci literar-discursive, este aceea n care
autorul d fru liber exprimrii, cu prioritate, scris, necenzurndu-i propriului crez, ci s
dezvluindu-l, n vederea impregnrii adevrului, astfel opina P.L Courier: Las-i s spun
orice pe socoteala dumitale, las-te batjocorit, condamnat, nchis, las-te spnzurat, dar
public ce gndeti (s.n). Nu-i un drept, ci o datorie, strict obligaie a oricui vrea s-i
exprime gndurile i s le scoat astfel la lumina pentru binele comun (s.n). Adevrul este, n
ntregimea lui, al tuturor. Nu poti trece sub tcere ceea ce stii c este folositor i c trebuie s
fie cunoscut de fiecare. (...) E bine s vorbeti, dar este i mai bine s scrii; s tipreti este
ns lucrul cel mai bun (s.n).36 Ideea ce reiese din aceste prime dou afirmaii, ar fi aceea c,
acestui gen i se atribuie un loc prim n geneza literaturii.
Finalul pamfletului se ese sub form de adresare direct, cald, plin de simpatie,
ctre public, scumpi prieteni.37
n Pamfletul pamfletelor, autorul pledeaz pentru nsemntatea social a acestui gen
literar, demonstrnd influena pe care o are n politica rii. (...) pamfletul este genul cel mai
apropiat, mai drag milioanelor de oameni cinstii, care vor s afle adevrul.38
Paul-Louis Courier credea cu trie n salvarea lumii prin condei.
31
375
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Subscriem, prin urmare, meditaiei lui George Niu, care n prefaa sa la cartea
Pamfletul n literatura romn, recunoscnd valoarea nobil i creatoare a acestui gen literar,
semnala urmtoarele: Gen proteic i polivalent, pamfletul constituie, atunci cnd slujete
uneori idealuri nobile, o zestre de pre a umanitii (s.n.), fiind un gen literar care, dei este
consacrat trziu, mai ales prin fora prin care l-a impus presa n marile dispute politicoreligioase i literare ale timpului, reprezint o mrturie a trecerii efemerului n eternitatea
artei (s.n.).39
BIBLIOGRAFIE
MONOGRAFII/ANTOLOGII
1. COURIER, PAUL, LOUIS, Pamflete, prefa i traducere de F. Brunea-Fox,
Bucureti, Editura de Stat pentru Literatur i Art, 1960
2. HOGEA, VLAD, Antologia pamfletului romnesc, Vol. I-II, Bucureti, Editura
Samizdat, 2005
3. INSTITUTUL DE ISTORIE I TEORIE LITERAR G. Clinescu,
Universitatea din Bucureti, Atitudini i polemici n presa literar interbelic
Studii i antologie, Tipografia Universitii Bucureti, Bucureti,1984
4. MIHULEAC, CTLIN, Pamfletul i tableta. Jurnalism sau literatur, Iai,
Editura Universitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza, 2009
5. MUNTEANU, CORNEL, Pamfletul ca discurs literar, Bucureti, Editura Minerva,
1999
6. MUTOIU, LCRMIOARA, Alchimia textului poetic, f.l., Editura Versus, f.a.,
7. NIU, GEORGE, Pamfletul n literatura romn, Timioara, Editura de Vest, 1994
8. SLVSTRU, CONSTANTIN, Mic tratat de oratorie, Ediia a II-a, Iai, Editura
Universitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza, 2010
ISTORII LITERARE
1. M. ANGHELESCU, M. BUCUR, ZOE DUMITRESCU BUULENGA
(COORDONATOR TIINIFIC), PAUL CORNEA, ALEXANDRU DUU,
N. MANOLESCU, D. MICU, G. MIHIL, GEORGE MUNTEAN, AL.
SNDULESCU, Istoria literaturii romne. Studii, Bucureti, Editura Academiei,
1979
2. CLINESCU, G., Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn n prezent, Ediia
a II-a, revizuit i adugit, ediie i prefa de Al. Piru, Bucureti, Editura
Minerva, 1982
3. LOVINESCU, E., Istoria literaturii romne contemporane, I-II, Ediie ngrijit
de Eugen Simion, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1973
4. MANOLESCU, NICOLAE, Istoria critic a literaturii romne. Cinci secole de
literatur, Piteti, Editura Paralela 45, 2008
39
George Niu, Pamfletul n literatura romn, Timioara, Editura de Vest, 1994, p.5.
376
SECTION: LITERATURE
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DICIONARE
1. ANGHELESCU,
MIRCEA,
IONESCU,
CRISTINA,
LZRESCU,
GHEORGHE, Dicionar de termeni literari, Bucureti, Editura Garamond, f.a
2. SIMION, EUGEN (COORD.), Dicionarul general al literaturii romne, vol. I [AB], vol. II [C-D], vol. III [E-K], vol. IV [L-O], vol. V [P-R], vol. VI [S-T], vol. VII
[-Z], I-VII, Bucureti, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 2004, 2004, 2005, 2005, 2006,
2007, 2009
3. SASU, AUREL (coord.), Dicionarul scriitorilor romni, Vol. I-IV, Bucureti,
Editura Fundaiei Culturale Romne, 1995-2002
4. ZACIU, MIRCEA; PAPAHAGI, MARIAN; SASU, AUREL (COORD.),
Dicionarul scriitorilor romni, vol. I [A-C], vol. II [D-L], Bucureti, Editura
Fundaiei Culturale Romne, 1995, 1998, vol. III [M-Q], vol. IV [R-Z], Bucureti,
Editura Albatros, 2001, 2002
REFERINE CRITICE
A) REFERINE CRITICE N VOLUME:
1. SLCUDEAN, MINODORA, Tudor Arghezi. Discursul polemic, prefa de Ion
Dur, Colecia Academica, Iai, Editura Institutul European, 2009
2. VLAD, ION, Aventura formelor, Ediie ngrijit Irina Petra, Bucureti, Colecia
Akademos, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, 1996
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
SITEGRAFIE
1. SLVSTRU,
CONSTANTIN,
Teoria
i
practica
argumentrii
SIhttp://filozofie.3x.ro/Teoria%20Argumentarii%20-%20Capoitole%20PDF/
2. http://www.price.ro/specificatii_paullouis_courier_pamfletul_pamfletelor_35934.htm
377
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378
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Abstract: The characteristic feature that pervades most of Philip Larkins poems is its gloomy
atmosphere. Most lines from his poems are devoted to the negative aspects of life, such as
loneliness, dejection, disappointments, loss and terrifying prospect of impeding death because
people and life seem to have let Larkin down. As a matter of fact, in his poems men are
usually seen as victims, while women are powerful and able to control them, though he
considers them insignificant and inferior to men. He somehow associates deprivation with
women and his relationships with women seem rather difficult. Maybe this is the reason why
women feature prominently in a variety of his works, becoming the centre of his focus.
The present paper deals with the close relationship between the development of Larkins style
and his rather contradictory attitude towards women as well as with his problematic
relationship with them.
Keywords: Larkin, women, frustration, poetry, dilemma.
As critics remarked, Larkins fury against women is not so much a declared state of
siege against them personally as it is an internal battle raging within himself. 1 Not even his
mother, one of the most important persons in his life, was spared from Larkins critical
thoughts. In 1965, in a letter to his friend, J.B. Sutton, Larkin wrote: My mother is such a
bloody rambling fool, that half the time I doubt her sanity. Two things she said today, for
instance, were that she had thought of getting a job in Woolsworths and that she wanted to
win the football pools so that she could give cocktail parties [] I suppose I shall become
free [of mother] at 60, three years before the cancer starts. What a bloody, sodding awful
life.2 At that time, Eva Larkin was seventy-nine and she died at ninety-one. After his
mothers death, his poems, more or less, stopped coming and, as Andrew Motion noticed,
there was no coincidence. In a world characterized by deprivation, women came to stand for
the fact that: Life is an immobile, locked, / Three-handed struggle between / Your wants, the
worlds for you, and (worse) / The unbeatable slow machine / That brings what youll get.3
People and life seem to have disappointed Larkin a lot. Still, he always associated
deprivation with women. He had often difficulties in his relations with women the inability
to work out why things should be so difficult and the frustration of trying to accommodate his
own needs. In another letter to Sutton, in 1950, he wrote: My relations with women are
governed by a shrinking sensitivity, a morbid sense of sin, a furtive lechery and deplorable
flirtatiousness all of which are menaced by the clear knowledge that I should find marriage
a trial.4 This witnesses a general attitude towards women and it refers more specifically to
one of his relationships, the one with Ruth. During the last few months before he left for
Ireland, in September 1950, Larkin continued to shilly-shally, lurching between thoughts of
1
Janice Rosen quoted in Stephen Regan, Philip Larkin, Contemporary Critical Essays, Macmillan Press, London, 1997, p. 135.
Andrew Motion, Philip Larkin, A Writers Life, Faber and Faber, London, 1993.
3
Janice Rossen in Stephen Regan, Philip Larkin, Contemporary Critical Essays, Macmillan Press, London, 1997, p. 135.
4
Quoted in Eduard Vlad, The Glory and the Gloom, Mondograf, Constanta, 1997, p. 186.
2
379
SECTION: LITERATURE
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matrimony, love of solitude and eternal wayfaring, and in the wish to trust life to
bring something more decisive.5 In this context, the intertextual associations bridebridal-bridle, more mere echoes, acquire a definitely obsessive significance.6
Larkins views of women seem to be clearly part of his larger struggle with life in
terms of encountering its having-to, and feeling continually forced into enduring what he
dislikes. It is difficult to know who is to blame because of his negative thoughts. In another
letter to Sutton, he wrote: I am of the opinion that I shall never know anything about the
woman I marry, really. What do I know of you? Nothing at all. Preserve me from interesting
personalities.7
As a matter of fact, he never got married, maybe because he wanted to live only with
his thoughts and this remark dates from an early period in Larkins life, before he had time to
revise his views. To some extent it talks about the dilemma of his generation of men, who
were educated apart from the girls, who came to seem rather mysterious and inaccessible. It
assumes that women are other and distanced. Some years going down from Oxford, Larkin
wrote to Sutton, somehow in self-mockery: I dont know about women and marriage. One
thing I do think is that if we had known as many women as we have read books of DHL we
would have clearer idea of the situation.8
Though he considered deeply Lawrences and Freuds discussions about unresolved
sexual conflicts as they relate to ones earliest years, Larkin seems to have declined to press
the issue further in order to gain insight into the problem.9 No, if I consider my state of
permanent non-attachment, my perpetual suspension, my sexual indifferences, I should put it
down to Mother - complex if I were honest, I suppose. How irritating! And nasty, too!10
The poem Love Again comes closer to formulating a reason for his inability to avoid
the pain of love, by finding it impossible to say why it never worked for me. Larkins poetry
on this subject often points in the direction of his suffering, but does not fully explore its
implications. Love Again suggests a strong desire to avoid finding the source of his misery
always supposing that source was possible to find by resisting the task expressing it. That
usual pain means his feelings of being victimized by the outside world, which seem to
disregard him completely and to mock his desire.
Larkins general sense of frustration and alienation from the outside world is evident
in a cartoon entitled Portrait of the Author and Family, 1939, which he drew during his late
teenager years. It presents the artists family: his father, mother and sister are facing one
another and talking about different subject; all of these figures are talking at once, and
disregarding each others conversation. The father is reading a newspaper, the mother is
knitting, and the sister is standing in front of them, gesturing with one hand. What is weird,
but in the same time strikingly about this cartoon, is the fact that the young artist is sitting
somewhere outside this circle, scribbling at a desk with one hand while looking up; his face,
on which one can easily see the dark emotion, is turned towards the one who sees the picture,
while a huge wordless exclamation is over his head. This sense of emotion characterizes
much of his writing, and also informs many of his views on women and family life. Women
represent time wasted or stolen and appropriated entirely, as in Selfs the Man, where the
money he gets for wasting his life on work / She takes as her peck.11
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 187.
7
Quoted in Stephen Regan, Philip Larkin, Contemporary Critical Essays, Macmillan Press, London, 1997, p. 136.
8
Ibid., p. 137.
9
Ibid.
10
Ibid.
11
Anthony Thwaite, Collected Poems, Faber and Faber, London, 1998.
6
380
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Women tended to play a role in his writing, which counterbalances some misogynist
tendencies: To call Larkin a misogynist would be an overstatement to call him a
misanthropist might be closer to the mark; at the least, he capitalizes on the energy which
derives from seeing sexual politics solely from the mans point of view, and from projecting
much of his frustration onto women, thus locating the source of his anger there.12
This view, being based on universal human conflicts, reflects a dilemma with which
his readers, even female readers, can identify and which accounts in part for the appeal of
his work. As matter of fact, his negative and hostile view of women is countered by the
lyrical, tender side of his poetry which perceives women as inspirational and pure, as in
poems such as Maiden Name, I see a girl dragged by the wrists, Latest Face and Broadcast.
In Larkins poems, men are usually seen as victims while women are powerful and
able to hurt or control them: The habitual sense of self-consciousness which men feel in
relation to women can be excruciating; to escape from man-hunting harpies requires al ones
wits and energies.13 Larkins male characters are convinced that no woman, attractive or
unattractive, would look twice at them without the light of matrimony in her eye, and they see
themselves doomed, to their chagrin, to relationships only with women in the latter
category.14
Larkins bachelor characters usually assume that beautiful women will pay no
attention to them. If one is so lucky to meet a bosomy English rose, the way the speaker in
Wild Oats does, one may be certain that the beauty will be trying for her part, not to laugh.
Moreover, he also thinks that the available women are rather ugly, and therefore undesirable.
For Larkin, marriage is absolutely contrary to nature, both because man cannot help desiring
many women and because women in any case become undesirable at twenty-six.15
The problem concerning women represents a real dilemma for the middle-aged
bachelor, both personally and morally. Larkin addresses this problem in his poetry in a variety
of complaints against life, his own lack of power, and women themselves as the probable
cause of his suffering. His technique is to adopt the freedom of the sexual revolution in
talking about sex openly, proclaiming all the time that he cant enjoy its fruits in actual fact.
As poems Annus Mirabilis and High Windows suggest, he feels himself caught between two
generations. That might be because he feels personally affronted by women and in
consequence his poetry approaches the problem from the mans point of view, as a victim of
the system and from the perspective that women are responsible for all the deprivation in the
world.
One aspect of the inaccessibility of desirable women and its frustrating effect on
men is presented in four of Larkins poems: Lines on a Young Ladys Photograph Album,
Sunny Prestatyn, Essential Beauty and Wild Oats, depict idealized and beautiful women who
appear in fiction or in photographs and they seem to have a mental influence upon the viewer,
because from now on, everything happens in the viewers brain: their removal from the
realm of present reality stresses their unavailability and thus subtly raises their value. At the
same time, when these women appear in advertisements, men are invited by the photograph
and others who create these glamorous images to appropriate and possess these women in
fantasy, and create for themselves an unsatisfying illusion. Ironically of course the
inaccessibility of the beloved can also define romance, in another context. [] Romantic
distance is in some ways the most desirable relationship one can have with a woman.16
12
Janice Rossen in Stephen Regan, Philip Larkin, Contemporary Critical Essays, Macmillan Press, London, 1997, p. 139.
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 140.
15
Ibid.
16
Ibid, p. 141.
13
14
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Another possible result of distance is simply that of envy. The girl presented in Lines
on a Young Ladys Photograph Album seems to stir his jealousy; she is present with the poet
when he views the photographs of her, remaining in some way inaccessible. He becomes
jealous about the times in the past when he was not present. The girl, or the real girl as she
existed in the past, still remains inaccessible to him; his ideas of photographs are made of a
past that no one now can share. The distance from the young woman is more painful because
she is seen to be a real girl in the real place through the convincing medium of the camera.
The women in Essential Beauty and Sunny Prestatyn represent an exalted, infinitely
distanced version of femininity.17 Using their sexual powers for a specific purpose, they
seem to promise themselves through the medium of the product they represent. Essential
Beauty depicts a girl in a cigarette advertisement, while Sunny Preatatyn depicts a girl who
advertises a beach resort. These are the fact real girls because photography reproduces them
faithfully, but unreal because they very well glamorized and because they exist only in a
photograph. Thus, photography becomes a kind of metaphor for not being able to
communicate with or touch a woman.18 Further, the women are seductive because they
attempt to sell something through selling themselves first. Frustration seems to be the
potential effect that these women have on the men who behold them. For Larkin it is obvious
that the women fail to deliver on their promises, and never appear at all. Moreover, Larkin
thinks that the girl in the cigarette advertisement in Essential Beauty is a beautiful messenger
of death: dying smokers sense / Walking towards them through some dappled park / As if
on water that unfocused she / No match lip up, nor drag ever brought near, / Who now stands
newly clear, / Smiling, and recognizing, and going dark.19 The girl stands here for
announcing death, which overtakes those who smoke in an effort to consider her real and she
seems to accept complicity.
The girl on the poster in Sunny Prestatyn identifies herself with the holiday beach
resort. From the male point of view, she invites him to take his pleasures: Come to Sunny
Prestatyn / Laughed the girl on the poster / Kneeling up on the sand / In tautened white
satin.20 The invitation might stand for a sexual advance. The poster is described by means of
coarse language and a great number of critics asked themselves how much complicity the poet
shares in the act. For instance, Terry Whalen, in Philip Larkin and English Poetry from 1986
sees the poster as source of imaginative decadence, and also as a stimulus, maybe not
because she is beautiful, but because of her being feminine. The friend in specs tries to
capture him through the use of feminine wiles other than beauty, more notably that of sexual
accessibility. In this case the image of the bosomy rose overshadows the friend completely,
making a relationship with her impossible for the poet. The end of the poem presents the
image of the rose: In my wallet are still two snaps / Of bosomy rose with fur gloves on. /
Unlucky charms, perhaps.21 This makes the reader think of the idea that the glamorous
woman is unattainable in person and the poet remains with her image in mind. As an irony,
beautiful women in Larkins poems tend to be too good for this life, as Sunny Prestatyn puts
it.
Larkin, as a human being, always enjoyed his time being alone. About this solitude he
talks also in some of his poems. But since Larkin often insists so strongly on the dichotomy
of singleness as opposite to marriage, with sexual desire wreaking havoc in the middle, he
seizes on the sexual revolution of the 1960s as an illustration of what can happen when
several of these earlier restrictions are lifted. While this change could theoretically create a
17
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 142.
Anthony Thwaite, Collected Poems, Faber and Faber, London, 1988.
20
Ibid.
21
Ibid.
18
19
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better system for men caught in his bind,22 the poet remains pessimistic about his own
chances of happiness and envious of others who can enjoy pleasure without feeling guilty.
Several poems from Larkins final volume, High Windows, present the middle-aged bachelor
in a setting of sexual freedom; together with the sexual revolution, there is a source of
bitterness and frustration. This is a brilliant subject for his poetry to address, since the new
system is in many ways no improvement on the old, thus providing a new subject for satire;
freedom is the sense of lack of commitment and it does not necessarily lead to intimacy or
fulfilment. But seeing it even seeing it as an illusion played out by others, can reinforce
his personal sense of deprivation still further.23
Given the fact that Larkin is primarily expressing a masculine perspective on sexual
matters, many critics consider that there still remains the problem of his misogyny in his
work. Many readers and even critics might well ask what Larkin is trying to achieve with
these poems. One answer could be that he satirises men which have this view, showing that
women ought to be treated less as objects and more as people. However, this could turn him
into a feminist writer, which is not the case at Larkin. Another possible answer might be that
Larkin makes women symbolic of the lure of romantic love in order to satirise the
foolishness of excessive emotion; he is notably pessimistic on this subject and women in his
poetry and fiction might suffer in their representation from bearing the burden of expressing
this disappointment and bitterness.24
In poems such as I see a girl dragged by the wrists and Deceptions, Larkin shows
tenderness, even a reverence towards women; in Deceptions Larkin addresses the problem of
rape, seen as a combination of sex and violence. He focuses on the victims agony; he feels
compassion for this girls suffering, but at the same time, he seems to show sympathy with
the man who attacked her and thus he ends the poem with a rather detached attitude from the
womans suffering, with which he actually begins his poem. This double point of view
suggests a complex psychological structure underneath, where the poet can, to some extent,
identify with the girls abuse but only partially. He seems to show tenderness to her and
participation in her sorrow because she was hurt and somehow he seems to share some
empathy with her by identifying with her pain. Bruce Martin, suggest in his work called
Philip Larkin (1978) that though the girl cannot be consoled for her various paints, she
harboured no delusions as to what was happening. Because Larkin uses the rapists lust as an
emblem of all human desires, his sense of shared self deception allows him to go beyond
pity for the girl or indignation against the rapist.25 Anyway, this poem seems less
Hardyesque, because of its degree of sadism. The rapist is seen as an unfulfilled man,
ignoring in his actions the sociological perspective. Physically, he brutalized the girl, an act
which is not spiritually enlightening for her so much as it damaging.26 The girl suffers so
much that she begs her captor to kill her.
Although Larkin wrote non-satirical poems about mens relationship with women, the
underlying subtext still seems to express resentment towards women. The burden of these
poems seems to be the difficulty men experience in dealing with their sexual desire and in
relating to women. A posthumously published but incomplete poem entitled The Dance
provides a fascinating ambivalence, which Larkin apparently wrestled with over a long
period.27 The poem describes the poets feelings of jealousy, a social dance and the most
important ingredients: drink, sex and jazz. In this poem the view of love and desire are
22
Janice Rossen quoted in Stephen Regan, Philip Larkin, Contemporary Critical Essays, Macmillan Press, London, 1997, p. 149.
Ibid.
24
Ibid.
25
Ibid., p. 154.
26
Ibid.
27
Ibid.
23
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presented in a nearly positive manner. The poet seems to have some feelings, but at the same
time he expresses regret and real pain. The central emotional drama of this poem focuses on
the poets relationship with the woman herself. It is when they first dance together, that the
possibility of love appears, which the poet clearly recognizes and, in his opinion, as well as
dancing, it contains the threat of potential violence: I feel / The impact, open, raw, / Of a
tremendous answer banging back / As if Id asked a question. In the slug / And snarl of
music, under cover of / A few permitted movements, you suggest / A whole consenting
language, that my chest / Quickens and tightens at, descrying love 28
He still cannot decide how he should act and he even questions himself upon his own
ability to love. He even mocks himself as being too old to participate in emotional
relationships.
In most of his work, Larkins anger and frustration seem to be articulated against
women. From one point of view, the only way to counter feminine sexual allure as power is
by means of poetry.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MOTION, Andrew, Philip Larkin, a Writers Life, Faber and Faber, London, 1993.
REGAN, Stephen, Philip Larkin, Contemporary Critical Essays, Macmillan Press,
London, 1997.
THWAITE, Anthony, Collected Poems, Faber and Faber, London, 1988.
VLAD, Eduard, The Glory and the Gloom, Mondograf, Constanta, 1997.
28
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Abstract: In Ileana Malancioius lyrics there are a lot of sacred, religious symbols and
motifs.Her work offers rich possibilities of analyses.At the some times her lyrics is a life and
death lyrics .She brings us a real liricism.Ileana Malancioius poetry was defined from the
simplity,trouth and seriously
Keywords: faith, symbols, poems, death, life
Dumitru Micu, Istoria Literaturii Romne ,de la creaia popular la postmodernism ,ed.Saeculum I.O.2000,p.361
Ileana Malancioiu, Poeme ,ed .Albatros, Bucureti ,1980 ,cu un Cuvant inainte de Lucian Raicu,p.5
Idem. p.361.
Idem. p.362.
385
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poart de intrare n aceast lume nlucit presupun iniierea ntr-un alt mod de a simi
realitatea, precum i anumite modificri specifice percepiei. 6
Dac este s vorbim despre universul din poezia Ilenei Malancioiu nu putem face
abstracie de aprecierile lui Ion Holban care spunea c nu e nici trmul cellalt din basm,
nici departele eminescian dei pstreaz explicite legturile cu acestea; e o alt lume sau,
poate aceast lume, preajm (re) formulat dup desenul luntrului unde se ntlnesc pentru a
se completa publicistul i eseistul7
ntlnim n poezia ei ideea c fiin uman are de parcurs un drum i o cale 8pe care
tot Ion Holban o definete ca fiind o diferen specific ntre dou concepte care i genereaz
poezia. 9 Aceast cale i drum poate reprezenta drumul fiinei interioare spre lumea de
dincolo, drumul ca o rostogolire implacabil asemeni universului boilor tineri 10
n Istoria sa Nicolae Manolescu afirma c: Ileana Malancioiu este o poet
inconfundabil, nesupus modelor sau variaiilor de umoare a cenzurii, una dintre cele mai
puternice personaliti din ntreaga literatur romn . Dup un asemenea portret elogios,
demn de o regin a literaturii, muli scriitori s-ar fi culcat pe lauri, ns modestia extraordinar
a Ilenei Malancioiu i spune cuvntul, dumneaei replicnd indirect monumentalei fraze a lui
Manolescu cu un discurs autoreferenial destul de umil: Dac dup vrsta de 40 de ani mai
rmnem pe o list, nseamn ceva. nseamn ceva chiar i simplul fapt c numele nostru mai
este amintit . Aceasta este Ileana Malancioiu, o poet excelent, un filosof pertinent, o
eseist remarcabil, un polemist incomod i o modestie imens. Suficiente caliti pentru a
descrie un portret al artistului aa cum ar trebui s fie mai muli la btrnee.11
Nicolae Steinhardt spunea despre Ileana Mlncioiu c se nscrie n rndul celor care
nu au reacionat n faa interdiciilor i stimulilor n cadrul sistemului pedagogic, pus la
punct de partid i s evite situaia real de pe teren i caracterul atipic al unei literaturi
produse sub presiunea politicului, fiind o poet care nu-i ispitit a-i lua meteugul drept
obligatorie deformare, dichisire ori derivaie a realului. i tot el altdat aduga despre ea ca
fiind:
Aferim,femeie!
Curajoas. Aspr. Le vede, le tie, le spune. i cu suflet de muiere sensibil, simitoare. Suflet
adnc,coluros.Marepoet.
Da, asta admir: o trie inteligent (foc) si totodat accesibil milei, duioiei (indirecte). Am
calificat-o: o Antigon ducndu-l pe Oedip de mn, dar o Antigon cu suflet de Electr (i de
Ecaterina Teodoroiu). 12
Eugen Simion vorbete despre o rescriere a poeziei macabrului i a nevrozei
simboliste), simetric refuncionalizrii imaginarului poetic, eminescian sau de balad
romantic german, din universul fantasmatic, ritualizat n straniile invocaii din Inima reginei
sau Ctre Ieronim. Rezultatul e o poezie esenialmente elegiac, clamnd n patetice
confesiuni, cu o delimitate de personaj tragic, o suferin acut, dar i respingerea ineriei i
Ion Holban, Literatura romn de azi ,ed.TipoMoldova ,p.135,apud Eugen Negrici ,Prefata la antologia Urcarea Muntelui de Ileana
Malancioiu.
7
Idem.p.135.
Ibidem.p.135.
Idem.p.136.
10
12
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14
15
387
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animalul sacru.n cretinism, boul este animalul binecuvntat de Dumnezeu, este simbolul
blndeii, buntii, al omului bun, se tie c la naterea Fiului lui Dumnezeu n ieslea
srccioas boii suflau peste Pruncul nou Nscut/cldur ca s-i fac (Colind) ei i-au fost
de folos nc de la naterea lui hristos, de la venirea Sa n lume. Ei sunt animalele blnde i
linitite, iubite de oameni i indispensabile din gospodria i munca rneasc. Sunt simbolul
ordinii, al docilitii al ascultrii necondiionate i sincere: se uit blnzi i se ridic
singuri/i pleac amndoi ca la un semn. (Drum)
Jugul un alt element sugestiv, vzut c i cruce de purtat n sens spiritual, cruce a
necazurilor, ntmplrilor, problemelor, dar i ca element de opresiune. Jugul de regul ca
obiect material este fcut pentru dou animale, rareori se ntlnete carul pentru njugat doar
un singur bou. Ceea ce ne duce cu gndul c din punct de vedere al instrumentului de
opresiune jugul presupunea existena unei pluraliti a maselor adic jugul nu era doar
pentru unii ci marea mas de ini erau oropsii.
Ceea ce este cert este faptul c poeta are un drum ntunecat dar pe care se duce cu
demnitate, credin i siguran. Ea recunoate ca M-ndrept pe drumu-ntunecat anume
(Drum) Drumul n principiu este Calea fiecruia spre venicie.n acest drum sau pe acest
drum se ntmpl multe de la ntmplri banale pn la ritualuri cretine ca spre exemplu
nunta, alaiul nunii care tot pe drum trece, iar la ar se obinuia ca s le iese mirilor cu
gleata plin nainte s aib noroc Mi-am lsat n drum gleata plin (Nunta) Poeta pare
grijulie cu tot ce o-nconjoar, are ca i Ana Blandiana acel sim, sentiment social al
responsabilitii umane, pentru cellalt, dar recunoate ca (boii tineri) din cnd n cnd mi
ingenunche-n jug/i fiindc n-am trie s-i ndemn/Se uit blnzi i se ridic singuri/i pleac
amndoi ca la un semn.Pe acest drum pe care poeta i oprete doar la miezul nopii, ea se
simte hituit, ncolit, ltrat spunnd c: ltrat sunt de toi cinii mahalalei Apoi zice
i cinii ne mai latr o vreme i ne las/i rnile se vindec mergnd (Drum)
Credem c ar putea fi vorba despre o generaie care nu poate accepta principiile unui
regim cu care nu se puteau mpca. Fiind sub jug, ngenuncheaz. Jugul poate fi vzut ca
sistem totalitar, apstor.
Un alt simbol este sturionul, petele, care tim c este simbolul cretinismului. n
cazul nostru sturionii pot fi cei persecutai de regimul comunist. Petele, Sturionul, nc n
cretinismul primar se atest existena acestui simbol. El triete numai n ap i apa este
element sacru care contribuie la sfinire. Sturionii Ilenei Malancioiu Urc sturionii la
izvoare... /Ce limpede e apa care-i petrece/i cum le cresc nottoarele n ea/Pn se face rul
vlcea/i cum cresc mai departe nottoarele/Pn le sprijin n maluri s opreasc
izvoarele! (Sturionii)
Ploaia este binecuvntarea divin pentru lume, pmnt, lacrimile pot forma ploaia n
chip simbolic sugestiv.n cazul nostru vin ploile prin stncile roase (Sturionii)
Un alt element prezent n poezie este Apa. n cretinism apa este ilustrat ca element
primordial n creaia lumii. Ea era asociat cu Duhul Sfnt care se purta deasupra apelor, dar
i ca element eshatologic, semn al mplinirii actului de mntuire a omului la sfritul
timpurilor, dar i ca simbol al restaurrii i nnoirii spirituale i izvor de sfinenie, care spal
pcatul originar prin Botez.16
Ca element purificator, apa este elementul vital care ntreine viaa. O for care reface
unitatea dintre cer i pmnt, legtura dintre om i Dumnezeu. Ea determin o preschimbare a
lumii pctoase, trecerea ei spre o alt existen. 17Este elementul curirii al purificrii, al
16
http://www.ro.tezaur-romanesc.ro/arhitectur259-539259r259neasc259/-semnificaia-apei-si-fantana-ca-simbol-sacru-n-viata-trad.
17
Idem, http://www.ro.tezaur-romanesc.ro/arhitectur259-539259r259neasc259.
388
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http://egophobia.ro/11/critica.htm
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Poezia Cntec de bucurie este singura poezie n care se ntlnete cuvntul bucurie
Cntec de bucurie c ori ncotro m duc/Duhul tu m ntmpin blnd i mi spune/Ca din
el vin i-n el m voi ntoarce/n ceasul n care soarele meu va apune/E amiaz i soarele este
nc sus/i m uit cum razele lui cad mereu/ca nite sgei ascuite pe care/le frnge nc osul
pieptului meu/O ct de bine este s le vezi izbind/n pielea nnegrit asemeni scoarei unui
copac. Aici pare a fi o sintetizare a credinei n Dumnezeu, recunoaterea Lui,
omniprezent, ori ncotro m duc duhul tu m ntmpin blnd, recunoaterea c i Creator
al lumii i al omului c din El vin i n el m voi ntoarce i contientizarea faptului c
suntem trectori, cltori pe acest pmnt, lumea aceasta este una de trecere spre Cealalt m
voi ntoarce n ceasul cnd soarele meu va apune .
Poezia Ilenei Malancioiu este presrat cu o mulime de simboluri religioase graie
crora poezia ei devine mai sugestiv, mai interesant mai convingtoare. Aceste elemente fie
c se gsesc n incinta corpusului poetic ori n titluri sugereaz deplintate i profunzime a
cuvntului. Dac este s ne oprim asupra poemului Rugciune, n care spune: Nu pot trece
netiut prin lume/Luai-mi aura ei diafan/Luai-mi clopoeii arpelui, /Luai-mi degetul de
pe ran. / Aceast strof sugereaz i un crez personal al Ilenei Malancioiu, acela c ea tie
c este o persoan deosebit de ceilali i c nu poate trece netiut prin lume, este o
prezen distins, o personalitate puternic, cum rare poete sunt. Ea se adreseaz unora crora
le spune luai-mi aura diafan a lumii, adic bucuria de a tri, de a exista liber, la fel i
ndeamn s i se ia clopoeii arpelui, care clopoei se identific cu arpele, ca simbol al
nelepciunii, al raiunii, al refleciei dar i exponent al rului, al ispitirii (Biblie) motivul
arpelui i zice luai-mi degetul de pe rana Rana reprezint durerea, ea vrea s sufere tiind
c suferina este purificatoare.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
Bibliografie critic
1. Dumitru Micu, Istoria Literaturii Romne, de la creaia popular la
postmodernism, ed. Saeculum I.O., Bucureti, 2000;
2. Eugen Barbu, O istorie polemic i antologic a literaturii romne de la origini
pn n prezent, Poezia romn contemporan, ed. Eminescu, 1975;
6. Ion Holban, Literatura Romn de azi. Poezia Proz, ed. Tipo Moldova, Iai 2012;
Bibliografia operei
7.Ileana Malancioiu, Poeme, ed. Albatros, Bucureti, 1980, cu un Cuvnt nainte de
Lucian Raicu, p.5
Site web accesate
8.http://www.ro.tezaur-romanesc.ro/arhitectur259-539259r259neasc259/-semnificaiaapei-i-fntna-ca-simbol-sacru-n-viaa-tradiio
9.http://egophobia.ro/11/critica.html5
10 65 ntrebri incomode adresate de Zaharia Sngeorzan lui Nicolae Steinhardt,
http://www.revistavip.net/Arhiva_RevistaVIP/Ileana_Malancioiu_marea_doamna_a_literaturi
i_romane/39/882/ accesat 30 nov.2014
391
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11.http://revistacultura.ro/nou/2010/02/ileana-malancioiu-rememorari-laaniversare/accesat 30 nov.2014
12. http;//atelier.liternet.ro/articol/5171/Eugen Negrici Ileana Malancioiu/Ce
socheaza-la Ileana Malancioiu.html ,accesat 30 nov.2014
392
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Abstract: In "Master Manole" Blaga enriches its myth with modern meanings, especially
Expressionist. Expressionism is an artistic movement whose design aesthetic emphasizes the
desire to give a new expression of human spirituality. Expressionist writers cultivate the
feeling of being metaphysical, vitalistic impulses, existential anxiety. In theater Blaga as
expressionist theater, the characters are only symbols for forces of life. Consequently, on the
basis of dramatic conflict will stand contradictions between these forces acting behind the
characters, and not psychological or social reasons, the historically determinable. One of the
philosophical ideas of human destiny Blaga genius, misunderstood by others because you
have to make a sacrifice so great to work to achieve perfection. Master wonders why he just
has to make a sacrifice so great and what is required to kill when Christian dogma teaches
the opposite. However character creation for the chosen path monastery had fashioned
creator edifies himself, is accomplished through creation. By choosing love, love life would
have its own denial, cancellation creator. The drama begins with the collapse of the walls
reason: master fighting seven years fighting thwarted by the collapse of seventy-seven. It is
worth seven figures which cultural tradition of nations, the number seven is the symbol of
perfection: the world was created in seven days, seven is the number of continents, seven is a
symbolic number of Satan, who is trying to compete with the Divine. Seven is the expression
of man's word perfect and fully realized.
Keywords: myth, sacrifice, symbols, love, creation.
Mitul jertfei este un mit universal, specific popoarelor balcanice, dar numai balada
romneasc l desvrete prin sacrificiul meterului i prin nalta inut estetic. Motivele
romneti sunt cele mai numeroase, iar metamorfoza creatorului n izvor reprezint viziunea
poporului nostru asupra creaiei, cnd fiinm ntre contiin i limit. Tema jertfei pentru
creaie se ntlnete la foarte multe popoare, dar numai cele din sud-estul europeanau creat
capodopere ale literaturii orale pe baza unui scenariu att de arhaic.1
n Meterul Manole, Blaga i mbogete mitul cu semnificaii moderne, mai ales
expresioniste. Expresionismul este un curent artistic a crui concepie estetic evideniaz
dorina de a da o nou expresie spiritualitii umane. Aa, bunoar, nostalgia dup contactul
viu cu stratul Mumelor sau prelucrarea unor mituri dramatice, n Zamolxe, Mister pgn,
Meterul Manole, Avram Iancu. Toate acestea sunt conturate pe un puternic fundal magic i
integrate fondului folcloric al eresurilor, n care se menine intact fora arhaic a mitului
tragic. n identificarea stratului primar al mitului, simirea magic este viziunea unui spaiu
total, aproape nedifereniat, a unei "totaliti concrete" difuze, ontologice, n care mentalitatea
omului arhaic avea funcia de a-l reintegra pe acesta n univers prin legturile lui invizibile,
magice, cu Marele Tot. Mitul resuscitat exprim, nainte de toate, un mod de a fi n lume. Aa
M. Eliade Meterul Manole i Mnstirea Argeului, n De la Zalmoxis la Genghis-Han, Bucureti, Ed.
tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1980, p.166-192
1
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394
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lumea i soarta oamenilor2 ; mitul reprezint poate, forma cea mai nobil de concentrare a
evenimentelor reale sau plsmuite, toate expresie a modului imaginar dar i intrinsec de a
analiza, surprinde i releva lumea exterioar i universul interior.
Revenind la Manole, el caut prin raiune, prin socoteli s nving rul. Efortul
prelungit i zadarnic este exprimat chiar de meter: de apte ani pierd credin, pierd ziduri i
somn. Drama personajului este amplificat de contientizarea caracterului iraional, absurd al
jertfei care i se cere: svrirea unui act pgn pentru spiritualitatea cretin. Convini c un
duh ru clatin zidurile, stenii scot sicriele din cimitir i le dau drumul pe apele Argeului,
femeile ies pe malul rului la miezul nopii i sting lumnrile n ap pentru a alunga
blestemul, subliniind astfel, prin practici magice i sacrificiale, caracterul ritualic al creaiei.
Plasat pe dou planuri ontologice, Manole este concomitent un erou mitic, devenind exemplar
prin druire i jertf de sine, i unul tragic, a crui contiin problematizeaz esena artei:
aceasta este profund moral, dar sacrificiul impus artistului este asociat unui pcat.
Lucian Blaga comprim datele oferite de partea introductiv a baladei i expoziiunea
dramei ncepe cu motivul surprii zidurilor. Derutat i aproape descurajat de acest fenomen de
neptruns, Manole msoar i socotete n odaia sa de lucru, n prezena stareului Bogumil i
a unui ciudat personaj, Gman. Stareul Bogumil - numele acestuia provine de la numele unei
secte, bogumilismul, care este o erezie cretin balcanic din secolul al XI-lea, anunat prin
predicile preotului Ieremia Bogumil. Demonicul reprezint n estetica expresionist o
categorie a luntricului, marcnd puterea instinctual a creaiei. Bogumil ii pretinde
meterului s cread fr a cerceta. Aceasta admitea existena principiului binelui sub o
aparen diavoleasc; n folclor, s-a pstrat pn n timpurile moderne credina c Dumnezeu
i Satana sunt frai. n balad, ideea jertfei i era transmis lui Manole n vis, sub forma unei
oapte de sus, adevrat voce divin, care-i anula artistului voina proprie, transformndu-l
ntr-o jucrie a sorii. Spre deosebire de textul baladesc, n care Manole accepta i mprtea
tovarilor si visul, n pies meterul refuz ani de zile ideea sacrificiului, susinnd ca este
mpotriva preceptelor cretine. Conflictul dramei ncepe n momentul n care intr n scen
Mira, soia lui Manole. Mira cunoate frmntarea interioar a soului su i a neles sfatul
stareului Bogumil. Diferena definitorie dintre cele 3 personaje sacrificate (Ana, Mira i
Femeia), este c att Mira, ct i Femeia i asum zidirea, particip contient la sacrificiu, n
timp ce Ana reprezint victima. O victim care se mpotrivete, neag moartea, dar o accept
fr lamentaii.
Conflictul interior pornete pe de o parte, prin pasiunea pentru construcie, pe de alta,
intensa dragoste pentru via, pentru frumuseea i puritatea ei, toate ntruchipate de Mira.
Manole este obligat de jocul sorii s aleag ntre biseric - simbol al Vocaiei creatoare - i
Mira - simbol al vieii, al dragostei, al puritii omeneti: biserica i Mira sunt cele dou
"jumti" ale personalitii eroului. Fr una din ele, meterul e anulat ca om. Constatm deci
un echilibru perfect al forelor conflictului, i de aici caracterul tragic al acestuia. Conflictul
piesei lui Blaga e tragic pentru c nu exist cale de ntoarcere. Conflictul nu poate fi
soluionat dect prin moartea eroului, o moarte necesar, fr ndoial, iar nu o sinucidere,
cum am fi tentai, poate, s credem, sau o moarte accidental, ca n balad. ntreaga
desfurare a aciunii relev condiia tragic a creatorului aflat n lupt cu propriul su destin.
Drama creatorului are ca punct culminant jurmntul care-l face mpreuna cu meterii.
Unii vor s-l prseasc, dar marele meter le strecoar n suflet sentimentul unui destin
implacabil care cere o jertf. Hotrrea e pecetluit prin jurmnt. Dup trei zile de ateptare
nfrigurat, n care meterii se istovesc n tot felul de bnuieli de nclcare a jurmntului, ale
unuia, mpotriva celuilalt i ale tuturor mpotriva lui Manole, apare Mira. Se face un nou pas
. Vasile Nicolescu, prefa la Mircea Eliade, Aspecte ale Mitului, ed. Univers, Bucureti, 1987, pag. XI
395
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spre mplinirea unui destin. Mira ns vine pentru a prentmpina un omor pe care-l face
rspunztor pe stareul Bogumil. Trecnd prin chinuri mai presus de puterea unui om, Manole
ncearc s evite jertfirea Mirei, dar zidarii si l constrng cu virtutea jurmntului fcut.
Ignorarea sincer a faptului c el a zidit-o pe Mira coincide cu starea de tensiune maxim,
apropiat de tran, n care Manole execut ritualul sacrificial, la fel ca i n balad. Manole
mplinete destinul, cci patima de a zmisli frumosul e nendurtoare. n psihologia
frmntat a lui Manole, momentul hotrrii de a jertfi, reprezint n ordinea luptei omului cu
natura, la scar istoric, momentul transfigurat artistic al neutralizrii opoziiei dintre natur i
cultur. Manole e aici, prin sacrificiul fcut, un erou civilizator, care d oamenilor o nou
valoare, etern-durabil, aa cum Prometeu, tot prin sacrificiu, le dduse focul. Blaga nu
prsete nici o clip condiia omului. Zidarii triesc din plin febra constructiv a celorlali,
dar obsesia vaierului care rzbate din zid i comportarea Mirei n ultimele ei clipe de via l
robesc tot mai mult. Mira e personajul de contrast al dramei. Nevasta Meterului este cea
mai pur figur din teatrul lui Blaga. Mira e femeia-copil, candoarea nsi, e viaa pe care o
iubete Manole i pe care ea o apr aezndu-se cu nevinovie n calea destinului pe care
nu-l nelege.3 Tot mai puternic devine contiina pentru el, ca individ, sacrificiul nu mai
nseamn izbnd, ci sectuirea tuturor puterilor sufleteti. Bolnav de iubirea lui pentru Mira,
muncit de inutilitatea sacrificrii celei mai de pre fiine, care-i aparinea trup i suflet, n
gestul suprem al renunrii nemaigsind iari nici un sens, Manole se rzvrtete mpotriva
propriei sale fapte i a celui care i-o ceruse i vrea s sparg zidul pentru a-i elibera iubita.
Dar zidarii l opresc: biserica pe care o concepuse, opera pentru care sacrificase totul nu mai
aparine autorului ei, ci eternitii.n Meterul Manole, ideea sacrificiului devine postulatul
filozofic al dramei. Creaia presupune suferin i jertf. Creaia e mai presus de individ, de
fericirea personal, pentru c ea se svrete n folosul obtei. Manole nal o zidire pentru
toate sufletele lumii, nefericirea lui, moartea Mirei e obolul creatorului pentru ca opera s se
zmisleasc4
Totul se termina prin gestul de rzvrtire mpotriva propriei lui opere. Biserica rmne
dreapt. Domnitorul vine cu alai s vad minunea i s se bucure mreia acesteia. O alt
deosebire se impune chiar din prezentarea i din onomastica eroilor: Negru-Vod din balad
este denumit numai cu apelativul Vod, fiind un prototip al conductorului de ar, care
vrea sa ofere poporului su un monument de art i un lca de cult inegalabil ca valoare.
Chiar dac exercit o presiune psihologic asupra arhitectului, pretinzndu-i sa finalizeze
proiectul nceput, domnitorul n viziunea blagian pierde conotaiile negative din textul
baladesc, unde el este vzut ca un iniiator trufa, care vrea cu orice pre s devin ctitorul
unui edificiu unic, renumele su s persiste n timp, legat de cel al unui artist genial. Totodat
meterii au comportamente diferite fa de Manole, cel mai ataat sufletete de el rmnnd al
aselea zidar, care i-a plns amarnic moartea. Exist astfel o similitudine cu Hristos nconjurat
de ucenicii Si, n dificila ncercare de a crea o nou lume, splat de pcate.
Nu ntmpltor Blaga i localizeaz drama pe Arge n jos, deoarece reprezint un
timp iniial, fr determinare precis, n care se ncheag, prin expresia miturilor, situaiile
arhetipale, etern repetabile, ale poporului romn. Blaga ns, las n via pe meteri ca pe
nite dovezi vii i concrete ale adevrului c marile izbnzi ale omului vor cere nentrerupt
noi i mari sacrificii umane. n esena lor, fiecare dintre zidari e un meter Manole.
Astfel creatorul intr n conflict cu legile morale i principiile cretine pe care le
ncalc deopotriv: el este sfiat de conflictul luntric de-a ucide (jertfa fiind cerut de
practicile strvechi, impus prin stareul Bogumil) i patima de a construi, resimit ca o
fatalitate trit intens, dincolo de limitele firii.
3
4
George Gan, Opera literar a lui Lucian Blaga, Editura Minerva, Bucureti,1976,p.364
Mircea Vaida, Afiniti i izvoare, Editura Minerva, Bucureti,1975, cap. XI. Un nou teatru, pg.330
396
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Drama lui Manole reprezint drama artistului apsat de umbra timpului. Omului de
rnd i st n putin s-i prelungeasc existena doar prin mijlocirea procreaiei. n cazul
artistului exist o cale superioar celei de natur biologic: creaia. Nzuina meterului
zidar este a poetului care vede natura n prelungirea sentimentelor sale, putem spune, este
nzuina artistului constructivist despre care Blaga spune c vrea s ajung absolutul pe
drumul su propriu, fr nici o concesie fcut vreunei puteri supranaturale i
supraindividuale.5 Zbuciumul su este cu att mai mare cu ct va trebui s aleag, fr a se
putea mpri. Metafora femeiebiseric trimite la vocaia creaiei, a naterii. Astfel biserica
este simbolul creaiei care nvinge timpul. Femeia este etern prin destinul ei de a da via .
Teatrul lui Blaga are prin excelen for poetic, mbin lirismul cu creaia dramatic
obiectiv, purttoare de revelaie. Fiine i aciuni arhetipale apar proiectate ntr-un cadru
scenic primordial, dnd senzaia de spaiu nchis, n timp ce cadena abrupt incantatorie a
textului sporete densitatea atmosferei mitice sau de energie primar stilizat. Or, tocmai
aceast transgresare a limitelor fiinei omeneti, de care era vorba, face din Manole
(identificat, prin jertf, cu figura creatorului mitic modern) un extatic i un vizionar. Mai nti
este jertfit Mira, apoi vine jertfa final, dar tot ce se ntmpl pn atunci sunt doar nite
paliative ale hotrrii destinului. Chiar gesturile protagonistului, esenializate la maximum, ne
sunt nfiate ca nite acte succesive ale hybris-ului, nsoite de contiina vinei cu accente
nlate pn la paroxism. Pe Mira, el o zidete, transpunndu-se lunatic n magia unui joc
ingenuu n aparen (jocul creator de lumi), dar avnd un puternic revers tragic. Cu att mai
insuportabile vor fi dup aceea remucrile, cnd nici mcar delirul, extaza total a spiritului,
nu-l poate face s uite. Aproape nimic nu mai rmne din transparena genuin a eroului
popular, nimic din fabuloasa-i lips de memorie. Manole al lui Blaga, el nsui fiin
ambivalent, a fost "pedepsit cu dorul de a zmisli frumusei".
De la prima i pn la ultima scen, cnd se prbuete din clopotni, din proprie
dorin, viaa lui se scurge pictur cu pictur i trece n fiina operei. Dispare absorbit cu
totul n creaie. Iat cum n schema scenariului expresionist stilizat i a mitului sacrificial
strvechi, cu modificri eseniale n raport cu balada, dar i cu substratul mitic propriu-zis,
Blaga toarn un coninut ideatic i psihologic modern, care confer dramei creatorului
autenticitate i credibilitate.
Bibliografie:
I.Bibliografia operei i critic:
Blu, Ion , Lucian Blaga , Bucureti, Editura Albatros, 1988
Bgiu, Lucian, Dramaturgia blagian. Instituirea estetic a absolutului, Editura Imago,
Sibiu, 2003
Blaga, Lucian, Meterul Manole, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1977
Pop, Ion, Lucian Blaga - Universul liric, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1981
Eliade Mircea , Comentarii la Legenda Meterului Manole, Ed. Humanitas,
Bucureti,2000
Gan,George, Opera literar a lui Lucian Blaga, Editura Minerva, Bucureti,1976
Jean Chevalier, Alain Gheerbrant Dicionar de simboluri, Editura Artemis,
Bucureti,2000, vol I-III
397
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Moraru, Cornel, Lucian Blaga : convergene ntre poet i filosof, Editura Ardealul,
Trgu Mure,2005
Idem, Lucian Blaga: monografie, antologie, comentat, receptare critic, Editura
Aula, 2004
Tnase, Alexandru , Lucian Blaga-filozoful poet, poetul filozof , Ed. Cartea
Romneasca, Bucureti, 1997
Vaida, Mircea, Afiniti i izvoare, Editura Minerva, Bucureti,1975
II.Site-uri:
http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/7_(cifr%C4%83)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogomilism
http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me%C8%99terul_Manole
The research presented in this paper was supported by the European Social Fund
under the responsibility of the Managing Authority for the Sectoral Operational
Programme for Human Resources Development , as part of the grant
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652.
398
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Abstract: The destructive or self-destructive pulsations of people and society have been
staged since Antiquity and Classicism. The dramatic works of Euripides, Shakespeare,
Racine, Bchner, Kleist, Brecht, Becket, and Kolts represent some attempts of
comprehensiveness of the human violence mechanisms. This paper aims at an introspection of
Bchner and Kolts dramaturgies, into the depths of the two criminal figures that possess a
great seduction force: Woyzeck and Roberto Zucco. Considering the state of some characters
like Richard III, Iago, Macbeth etc., we are empowered to talk about justifications of criminal
pulsations, but in the case of Woyzeck and Roberto Zucco their crimes are irreducible to
similar motives, the two are incarnating the mythical figure of a natural evil. The perspective
that shocks and hits the sensitivity of the reader and spectator is the worthlessness of the two
characters actions. The two plays represent stances of some disillusioned young, two
parables of some young that become murderers as a consequence of their perception on the
others and on the world that terrorizes them. The two personages fear is converted to crime
and can be perceived as quasi-animal brutalization of a human being who feels threatened by
fear and misunderstanding of others. This analysis aims at an expressionist exploitation of a
common reference: artistic transfiguration of a fact that is centered around two antiheroic
characters, victims and executioners, the exclusion and madness of an unhealthy society. I
also tried in a natural timeline to approach the outline and the essence of a certain
modern and actual dramatic form the political theatre.
Keywords: violence, drama, fear, society, political theatre.
SECTION: LITERATURE
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deux personnages emblmatiques pour cette dramaturgie du crime, deux personnages qui
appartiennent deux poques diffrentes, deux dramaturgies diffrentes, deux langues
diffrentes mais qui ont en commun la rfrence au crime.
Dans Woyzeck et Roberto Zucco les deux auteurs, Bchner et Kolts ont tendance
reprendre leur compte la douleur, la souffrance de leurs quasi-hros et pousser leurs cris
avec eux. lorigine du parcours queffectuent les deux personnages il y a un arrachement,
un Aufbruch. Ils ont bondi hors de leurs chanes . Malgr leurs actes, Zucco et Woyzeck
savrent tre des personnages non point agissants, mais passifs Des personnages en
passion. Ici, le crime nest point un acte, mais seulement un geste, un spasme involontaire, un
raptus : cest quasiment la victime qui vient expirer entre les bras de son assassin.
Sur Zucco, on pourrait sans doute rpercuter la critique dAdorno lgard des
personnages expressionnistes : sa subjectivit exacerbe, sa subjectivit de pur regard
visionnaire risque de le rendre subjectivement inexistant, inconsistant. Chez Kolts, le
protagoniste chappe au formalisme absolu de certains personnages expressionnistes. La
distance entre le moi de Zucco et le monde est cette distance que G. Benn appelait le
divorce , la catastrophe schizode, autistique, de son personnage de tueur en srie1.
Ds la premire reprsentation de Roberto Zucco dans la mise-en-scne de Peter Stein
Berlin, la critique allemande na pas manqu dassocier la cavale de lhomme au treillis, qui
tue ceux qui croisent son regard, la traque de Woyzeck, qui se solde par le meurtre de sa
compagne. Cependant le rapprochement est alors loccasion de souligner, dans la diffrence
releve des deux figures, ce qui a gn la rception de la pice de Kolts : lesthtisme de son
auteur oppose la morale de Bchner2.
Pour nuancer un peu plus on doit mettre en relief la singularit de Kolts ; la
diffrence de meurtries tels que Iago, Richard III, Woyzeck dont on peut expliquer les
pulsions dautodestruction, les crimes de Zucco sont gratuites, sans motifs et le personnage
incarne la figure mythique dun mal naturel. On se pose souvent la question : quest-ce que
les classique ont nous dire ? On pourrait plutt se demander ce que nous a dire, nous aux
classiques. Woyzeck est un classique parce quil transporte avec lui un univers ou la servilit,
la peur de mourir et la frustration sexuelle changent leurs orages rciproques en des termes
nigmatiques, mais aussi parce que la vitesse plastique des scnes semble maner dun savoir
sur lart aussi cru que profond enfin parce que la mlodie dont la pice est la fois le rapport
mdical et la propagation potique relve dune vrit sans dfinition. Et si Woyzeck nest
pas la premire tragdie sociale dans lhistoire de lcriture dramatique, elle est nanmoins la
premire apparition dun hros qui nest issu ni de la mythologie ni des classes bourgeoises
ou aristocrates, mais du proltariat.
Au premier niveau de lanalyse on peut parler de lexploitation dune mme
rfrence : le fait divers. Les deux personnages ont comme point commun la rfrence des
personnages rels. Lexploitation dramatique du fait divers se fait par une construction
fragmentaire du rcit qui met en premire ligne des personnages qui sont des anti-hros, des
meurtriers et des bourreaux-victimes. On frle de trs prs la folie et lexclusion sociale.
On peut surprendre dans lcriture dramatique cet effet de distanciations
(Verfremdungseffekt, littralement effet dtranget ) dont parle Brecht ce principe
esthtique se caractrise tout dabord par un refus celui de se laisser leurrer par les artifices
de la reprsentation thtrale ; ceux des dcors qui cherchent leffet du rel, ceux des acteurs
qui tendent faire croire, par leurs gestes et leur diction, que le personnage a un caractre
Jean-Pierre Sarrazac, Rsurgences de lexpressionisme : Kroetz, Kolts, Bond, Etudes thtrales, no. 7, Louvain-la-Neuve, mai 1955, p. 24.
Que cet auteur ait plac la beaut au-dessus de la morale a toujours eu une rsonance plus douteuse que convaincante. Cest aussi ce qui
empche quon assiste la Schaubhne la naissance dun nouveau Woyzeck contemporain. (Wolfgang Ygn in Stuttgarter Zeitung,
14.09.1990)
1
2
400
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autonome et une psychologie, ceux des auteurs enfin qui dcoupent la vie en squences
organises de pices bien faites capables de capter le spectateur et de la ravir ainsi luimme. 3
Buchner sinscrit par son criture dans la tradition brechtienne, dans cette vise
anti-illusionniste de lensemble qui touche tout dabord la fable. Celle-ci chappe la
construction artificielle de lintrigue traditionnelle tributaire des seuls enchainements dune
logique causale. On favorise un assemblage de squences narratives dont on verra nettement
les articulations et qui seront rgulirement ponctues de commentaires.
Bchner sinspire dabord dun cas qui a marqu son temps, moins pour ses
circonstances que pour le dbat quil a suscit entre mdecins et juges autour de la question de
la responsabilit de lassassin.
Voyons de plus prs les faits qui ont inspir Bchner :
Julian Christian Woyzeck, perruquier et simple soldat est excut Leipzig en 1824
pour avoir assassin sa matresse. Un mdecin conseiller la cour, le Dr. Clarus, quon avait
charg de juger des facults mentales du meurtrier Woyzeck, a rdig, lun des premiers, un
trait sur la responsabilit des actes. Le concept dirresponsabilit lide quun coupable
puisse tre une victime est alors absolument nouvelle. Sinspirant de ce fait divers, Georg
Bchner invente ce personnage vers 1836. Par ses choix esthtiques, il replace Woyzeck
lintrieur de son contexte de pression sociale : constitue de vingt-cinq tableaux aussi brefs
qulectriss, la pice compose un puzzle psychique qui emprisonne le hros dans son
alination.
Ce personnage, en effet dpourvu de psychologie, rfractaire a tout sympathie de la
part du publique mais engage dans une action, ne donnent voir que la gestuelle habituelle de
son groupe social, ce qui lui tient lieu de caractre et dtermine ses traits distinctifs.
La pice de Bchner qui sinspire largement du matriel fourni par le rapport Clarus,
tout en inversant son objectif, ne relve pas pour autant de la simple reconstitution
dramatique, dun fait authentique. Elle sapproprie dabord le fait en lamalgament a dautres
cas analogues : les affaires Schmolling et Diess. Mais si Bchner sapproprie librement les
dtails de ces trois faits divers, cest que son objectif est diffrent de celui des journalistes et
experts dont il sinspire. Le matriel de description que Bchner emprunte Clarus se trouve
dtourn de son objectif initial visant nier la maladie ; tel point que les positions daccus
et de juge sen trouvent redistribues : chez Bchner, cest le juge qui est jug.
La premire version sachve sur la scne ou policier, barbier, mdecin et juge se
retrouvent pour constater le meurtre : Fin emblmatique du projet de Bchner qui vise
partir de trois faits divers analogues la reconstitution ou de la reconstitution dont chacun a fait
lobjet travers les dbats et procs quils ont suscits. Reconstitution entendue
paradoxalement comme une dissection, ainsi que le suggre la prsence du barbier dont les
comptences sont aussi celle dun chirurgien pouvant pratiquer des autopsies. La pratique
dramaturgique de Bchner se ressent lvidence de sa rencontre avec des pratiques
mdicales et judiciaires, chacune impliquant des gens autour et dun cadavre : la fois leon
danatomie la manire de Rembrandt, autopsie reconstitution et instruction 4.
La mme porte pour la dissection, la mise-a-nu se ressent dans lordre de lcriture.
Les thoriciens parlent dun passage de lexpose des faits lexamen des motivations. Le
personnage nest alors que lombre porte de la socit qui laline et le soumet tous les
compromissions. Il y a aussi un passage de la surface a la profondeur, une ngation de
3
4
Jean Marie Thomasseau, Drame et tragdie, Col. Contours littraires, Hachette, Paris, 1995, p. 163.
Astrid Fischer-Barnicol, Thtre du crime, in Kolts, combats avec la scne, Thtre aujourdhui, no 5, CNDP 1996, p. 61.
401
SECTION: LITERATURE
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lillusion thtrale qui vampirise le spectateur et lui te sa substance. Bchner, dans la ligne
de Brecht passe de la continuit des faires la discontinuit des motifs 5 ce qui remet en
question non seulement le fait-divers qui a t lorigine du drame, mais aussi les trompelil de la ralit et les faux semblants du politique. Bchner veut sortir lhomme tout comme
le spectateur, endormir par des constats dvidences, de son sommeil dautomate dans un
thtre dombre et lui prserver intact son droit de regarder : le foyer de la mimesis ne
saurait plus tre dans ce condition le personnage sur scne mais lobservateur du thtre au
dehors 6.
Lobservation est fondamentale pour notre propos : les pouvoirs cathartiques de la
tragdie sont dsormais rduits nant par limpossibilit de concevoir une transcendance
imposant den haut ses diktats, par le simple jeu des rapports des forces social et politique
entre les individus.
Kolts trouve galement son inspiration dans un fait divers mais lappropriation du
rel opre ici de manire forte diffrente. En voil une brve prsentation des faits :
Fin fvrier 1988, au terme dune cavale effrne, lassassin dun inspecteur de police
toulon mais est arrte en Italie o on le voit une dernire fois, apostrophant la foule du toit de
sa prison. Il sagit dun malade mental italien de 26 ans, Roberto Socco, intern en 1981 pour
avoir tu ses parents, et qui stait vade en 1986 de lhpital-psychiatrique o il bnficiait
dun rgime de semi-libert compte tenu de sa conduite irrprochable. Cest la diffusion dune
affiche davis de recherche comportant sa photo et son signalement qui permet de lidentifier,
grce au tmoignage dune adolescente, ancienne petite amie du tueur. Arrte peu aprs, celui
quon avait surnomme lhomme au treillis se suicide dans sa cellule du pnitencier de
Vicenza le 23 mai 1988.
Lide dcrire un drame partir dun fait divers ne part pas de la lecture des
documents du temps comme chez Bchner, mais du contact fulgurant avec une image chez
Kolts. Lors dun voyage en mtro il voit un visage sur les murs du mtro, le visage dun
homme recherche pour meurtre. De limage linformation, lide prend corps avec un
reportage tlvise voquent la tentative dvasion de Succo par les toits de la prison et une
seconde photo, publie par le journal Libration. Kolts se laisse fasciner par la beaut dun
visage et la thtralit dune situation. Si dans la premire situation la reprise du fait divers
visait un effet de rel, une recration des faits partir des documents authentique, dans le
deuxime cas elle vise plutt la dimension mythique et potique du personnage.
Le mode dexploitation des sources tmoigne dj dune approche trs diffrente du
fait chez les deux auteurs : plus scientifique chez Bchner, fonde sur un examen rigoureux
des textes disponibles ; approche plus potique chez Kolts, fonde sur une rverie autour
dimages 7. A ce stade de la rflexion il est temps den revenir au fait divers lui-mme.
Anne Laurent en parlant des rapports entre fait divers et thtre8 note propos des
criminels tels que Succo, Perry, Rivire ou Woyzeck, quils sont des symptmes de leur
temps, des feux de dtresse . Leur crime drange le consensus social : Il tranche comme
une lame, branle, djoue et prend revers tout espace dinstitution 9.
Dans les deux pices on retrouve limage du couteau, mtonymie du criminel et
mtaphore de sa violence.
Ibidem, p. 60.
R. Abirached, La crise du personnage dans le thtre moderne, Gallimard, coll. Tell, 1994, p. 279.
Astrid Fischer-Barnicol, op. cit., p. 62.
8
Anne Laurent, Pices au dossier in Alternative Thtrale, 35/36, p. 48-49.
9
Ibidem.
6
7
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403
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Pourquoi et-tu devenu fou, Roberto ? Entretien dAnne Laurent avec Peter Stein in Alternative thtrales, p.53.
Astrid Fischer-Barnicol, op. cit., p. 62.
404
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Ibidem, p. 64.
Scne XIV, lArrestation, p. 89.
405
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406
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Abstract: To be conscient means to feel. To be conscious means to feel, to be able to perceive and
analize the world we are a part of, to feel it, to transfer our emotions and make our mark on the
emotional. To know how to speak of all this. To perceive and feel the emotions of this universe that
sees us as living beings, worthy of recognition. Life has to be about sharing solidarity, universal
sympathy, of the infinite because God gave man His abilities, attributes and characteristics.
SECTION: LITERATURE
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fundamental, nceputul. Ne-am oprit asupra unui autor cunoscut pentru preocuparea sa pentru
mit, Georges Gusdorf. In cartea sa, el vorbete despre izgonirea mitului pe care, din fericire,
nu o consider definitiv.
Conform unui dinamism frecvent n viaa mental, pe care psihanaliza l ilustreaz cu
numeroase exemple, elementul cenzurat revine ca o remucare, cu att mai insistent cu ct a
fost mai mare energia depus pentru a-l respinge. Nici mcar succesele tiinei nu ne pot
nela n privina incapacitii sale de a satisface pe deplin nevoia spiritual a omului. Cu alte
cuvinte, schema care presupune o trecere continu de la o stare a gndirii la alta, conform
formulei lui Compte, sau un progres al epocilor inteligenei, n maniera lui Brunschvicg sau a
scientismului secolului al XIX-lea, se lovete de o rezisten de nenvins din partea realului,
sau mai degrab de un refuz.1
Aadar, elementul cenzurat nu numai c nu revine, ci i revendic n prag de secolul
XXI, dreptul existenial.
n studiul nostru ne-am raportat la realitatea contiinei, factor determinant n realitatea
mitului. Ne-am reamintit de contiina primitiv, de contiina logic, de contiina
globalizant, de contiina mitic. Toate aceste elemente n evoluia uman au putut exista,
au devenit viabile pe rnd sau concomitent prin permanentul raport la opinia public, opinia
celuilalt.
Ceea ce ar trebui precizat mai nti de toate este faptul c toate formele de contiin
au la origine forma suprem a contiinei mitice. Din ea s-au degajat toate, din armonia
contiinei mitice, din nostalgia nceputului. Datorit acestei supremaii, merit efortul de a ne
rentoarce i supune ei.
Orice raportare uman la esena existenial este un act mitic. Este o form de
rsucire unic spre cel dinti din noi, din eu-ul nostru, copleit de generozitatea sinelui. Ct
de intens este acest act depinde de fiecare dintre noi, dei arhetipal suntem aceiai. Difer
intensitatea imaginaiei, a tririi, a druirii i a capacitii de regenerare a acestor date.Orice
fiin uman are un trecut i un viitor. Depinde de ct de prezent este cu ea nsi, de ct de
supus poate fi propriei sale revelaii n faa Universului. Supuenia aceasta poate oferi
ansa universului celui care acord cu aceeai intensitate, n aceeai msur atenie sinelui i
eu-ului. Prin contiina de sine, prin contiina eu-ului, prin contiina axei celor dou realiti,
fiina uman nu se poate pierde n lume.Se poate doar statornici n venicie. Se poate
raporta la ea, fr s se anuleze pe sine, prin raportarea la eu-ul dogmatic. Din acest raport se
nate mitul. Raportul cu sinele, cu viaa concret, cu viaa ta, cu viaa celuilalt, nu neaprat n
ideea de aproapele tu, raportul comunitar. Se definete astfel prezena ta n lume. Intenia
mitic, aa cum afirm Gusdorf, este cea care definete modalitile acestei prezene n lume.
Contiina valorilor ca focar de mituri constituie inventarul virtual al semnificaiilor
umane, totalitatea a ceea ce omul adaug naturii atunci cnd se stabilete acolo2
O lume fr mituri, nu numai c nu ar fi uman, ci, pur i simplu, nu ar mai fi o
lume care s i aparin.
Dincolo de marile sisteme filosofice, de orice descoperire tehnic sau tiinific, de
concepii raionale sau logice, de influenele cotidianului imediat, exist realitatea magic a
mitului. El cristalizeaz starea de plenitudine existenial.
408
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Ibidem, p.261B
409
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Bibliografie:
1. Alpay, E. 2000, Self Concept and Self esteem Education Psychology Interactive,
Readings and Educational Psychology. Voldosta: State University
2. Aniei, M. 2000, Introducere n psihologia experimental, Bucureti: Casa de
Editur i
Pres
3. Boeree, G., 2006, Personality Theories, Shippensburg: University Shippensburg
4. Bonchi, E., Druga, M. 2006, Introducere n psihologia personalitii, Oradea:
Editura Universitii din Oradea
5. Brehm, S., Kassim, M. 1990, Social psychology. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Company
6. Eliade, M.,1995, Sacrul i Profanul, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti
7. Eliade, M.,2011, Mitul eternei rentoarceri, Editura Univers Enciclopedic Gold,
Bucureti
8.Eliade, M., 1992, Istoria credinelor i ideilor religioase, Editura Universitas,
Chiinu
9. Guardini, R., 2004, Ieirea din Evul mediu - Sfritul modernitii, Editura
Humanitas, Bucureti
10.Jung C.G.,2003,Opere complete, vol. I, Arhetipurile i incontientul colectiv,
Editura Trei
11.Lipovetsky, G., 2007, Fericirea paradoxal, trad. Mihai Ungureanu, Editura
Polirom, Iai
12.Ries, J.,2000, Sacrul n istoria religioas a omenirii, Editura Polirom, Iai
13.Wunenburger, J-J., 2000, Sacrul, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca.
410
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Abstract: Roger Craik comes from a British family of academics and for many years now he
himself has been performing as a professor of literature to University of Kent, Ohio, U.S.A.
As a poet, there is a sort of Neo-Expressionism, a coded inter-/ para- and meta-textuality
which places him within the lyrical modern and post-modern paradigm. In this respect, if we
are to encompass Roger Craik in a given acknowledged poetical pattern or if we are to
appropriate him to our familiar poetic proximity, he might very easily belong to our so-called
80s generation of writers, displaying the same thematic, turbulences and tonalities.
Keywords: modern poetry, inter-/ para- and meta-textuality, poem of proximity, solitude, self.
Explanatory Preamble
English by birth, Roger Craik is now performing as an Associate Professor of English
Literature at Kent State University Ashtabula, Ohio, U.S.A. Before settling here, he worked in
Turkish universities and he was awarded a Beineke Fellowship to Yale in 1990. He traveled a
lot visiting North Yemen, Egypt, South Africa, Tibet, Nepal, Japan, Bulgaria, where he taught
in 2007 on a Fulbright Scholarship to Sofia University; during the academic year of 20132014 he was a Visiting Fulbright Professor to the University of Oradea, Romania. As he
himself often confessed in interviews, poetry seems to be his inner passion and calling: he
writes for at least an hour over coffee each morning before breakfast1.
Yesterday Stasis
I find it quite refreshing whenever the circumstances compel me to admit a simple
truth that great minds pretty much think alike. Imagine thus my surprise when reading Roger
Craiks poems and detecting a similar intrinsic imaginary reminding of, for instance, our
Romanian contemporary poet Ion Muresan; there is a sort of Neo-Expressionism, a coded
inter-/ para- and meta-textuality and also an imagery of the poets interior stasis built up from
and with concrete elements which place the two of them within the same lyrical modern and
post-modern paradigm. In this respect, if we are to encompass Roger Craik in a given
acknowledged and poetical pattern or if we are to appropriate him to our familiar poetic
proximity, he might easily belong to our so-called 80s generation of writers, displaying the
same thematic, turbulences and tonalities.
1
Information provided by his most recent volume of poetry, Roger Craik, Down Stranger Roads, BlazeVOX Buffalo, NewYork,
2014. Other poetry volumes signed by the author are: I Simply Stared (2002), Rhinoceros in Clumber Park (2003), The Darkening Green
(2004), Those Years (2007) and Of England Sill (2009).
411
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The very first poetry volume that we are going to discuss, Those Years2, deals with
Roger Craiks inner crisis in his adult pose; both incertitude and solitude act as either the
recurrent motif or the souls label within this poetry. All modern series of lacks are to be
identifiable in the authors volume: the couples crisis, the lack of meaningful
communication, the solitude as a burdening reality combined with the lack of it (tangible
merely in a promise posture), the hollowness of love declarations, the routines emptiness of
living without her, always thinking of her, waiting for her sign, any kind of sign, all in vain
Thursday dawned and Thursday came./ I knew my telephone would never ring again/ as it
had done at nine oclock/ for eighteen months before.; as once again, / adrift, alone, / I dial
the number I know better than my own// to leave a few more tiny words of love, in vain;
You will go for walks, together./ You will never be alone// Perhaps Im wrong. Perhaps no
woman truly wants to be alone.// () Or so I hope.; I think of as he turns to sleep/ toward
you still, your face turned to the wall, / and hopes tomorrow youll be once again/ as once you
were/ to him.3 Both the poem and the poet make a resilient pair obviously opposed to he and
she couples impermanence. The authorial voice is self-defining by constantly including in his
organism both the permanency (meaning the poem) and the absence (meaning the female
figure). The solitude is bitterly marking the proximity in temporal and spacial limits while the
fulfillment is joyfully marking the memories. Consequently, the reader is dealing with a
fragile balance between reality and probability, respectively possibility, between the actual
and the virtual, between loss and accomplishment Although he doesnt know it, these days
are the last/ of his marriage. Perhaps hes reading now/ on his side of the bed, beneath his
lamp, while you/ peruse the book of myths my father bought/ second-hand, in England,
twenty years ago.; Alone, of course, / again and again/ I press my bell/ and every time,
although its not/ - although my reason tells me that its not -// its you, its you, its always
always you.; I may never be included here,/ but if I am, Id like to say/ that from his birth in
1956/ he flapped around/ doing this and that/ () where he continued to be lost until 4.
The organic, sonorous remembrance of her is inserted within detailed micro-realities, flooding
the poem in a mixture of dull present and oneiric retrospections and projections; Roger
Craiks reader lives under the impression of watching a screen and following the poets
intrinsic dynamic quite similar to a narrative; there is a story hidden in each of the authors
poems x-raying jealousy, incompletion and mainly the couple image which is exclusively
complete in projected realms, never in reality: the couples habitat is stamped by a Garden of
Eden lost the minute she walked away
The second book that we have chosen for analysis, Of England Still5 reveals no split
personality, no double rhetoric, but the ambivalence, the construction of a whole self, made up
of pieces, of fragments, of both nostalgia and reason. Roger Craik is revisiting himself in his
early childhood years and later in his teenage-hood restoring a reunion, a copulation of the
younger, in-experienced self to the adult photo of his ego; all senses are revitalized and they
are all capturing their own pseudo-forgotten story, a stage of the good always prevailing
embodying a well-defined reality as far as the childs world is concerned. The family portrait
is be it complete, be it fragmented and it inserts the acute feeling of loss: the loss of innocence
installs itself among disruptions, among distances imposed by exterior circumstances between
the child and his parents; this very loss is comprised within the metaphorical transgression
from colors to words, from innocence to corrupted adulthood Years passed. My colors
faded into words,/ then schools and universities, awards/ for things that led me further from
2
3
4
5
Roger Craik, Those Years, Professional Reading Series van Zeno Press Cleveland, Ohio, 2007.
The selected quotations are to be found in Roger Craik, Those Years, quoted edition.
See Idem.
Roger Craik, Of England Still, Finishing Line Press Georgetown, Kentucky, 2009.
412
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myself.; You are two years old./ You are sitting on an air raid shelter/ at the end of your
grandparents garden./ The concrete is hot.// () You know that the daylight always comes.;
I saw my mother in her fifties skirt/ () and then, as if to race the train,/ my father running
after me/ not as an athlete would/ () but stroking, pressing down the air/ () I saw him in
my minds eyes running thus/ () outdistanced, and outdistanced further still.6 As he grows
up, the bliss becomes disjointed as well, while the fear of misplacing the childhood and
mostly the figures populating it definitely installs. Evolving as a human being gets to be
similar to dropping your sincerity, to developing and mastering the art of faking. The adults
mask would comprise all his past marks and the adults desperate attempt to recapture his
pasts equilibrium, its certitude, its bliss is compelling him to act, to artifact himself. until
it flaps away and I am left/ to muse how habit over fifteen years/ has withered us of words.
And so I write/ these lines youll read when its too late to say; now Im pretending that Im
loath to leave/ and when we are finally into our coats, and the band/ are packing up their
instruments/ () I see his hand still holding her hand; over to the gramophone, draw out/
the ridged prismatic-black of album from/ its sleeve, perform// the delicate, the fearful/ act of
lowering the arm7. Once again the reader is dealing with the feeling of loss, another kind of
loss: the burden of missing the dear ones, the severe possibility of misplacing them - they
both perform as a definite proof of your broken, incomplete childhood circle. Time is no
longer patient and this particular awareness of the fact that we are all facing the end and that
nothing stays forever represents the inner bitter inscriptions of adulthood. Forty minutes
left. The air is growing thinner, shorter-breathed./ Urgently, before it gets too late,/ I want to
tell my mother that I love her,/ more than world away.; And so instead I choose to
celebrate/ his peterrades, those volleyed trumpetings/ () and knew in mirth a boys
unspoken love.8
A Playful Intermezzo...
The volume we are also referring to, The Pied Piper of Hamelin...9, does not bear the
signature of the poet Roger Craik; it is actually the facsimile of Robert Browning's The Pied
Piper of Hamelin, A Child's Story beautifully illustrated and colored by his parents and given
to him on his 6th birthday in 1962, when he was considered old enough to enjoy it. However,
his parents invented the book a few years earlier. His father described the circumstances to
his son as follows and described in the foreword of the book: In September 1958 I went to
New York to teach for the academic year at Queens College (CCNY), and Wendy
accompanied me. (You remained in England, at Kingston, with Rita and Gary.) (Rogers
maternal grandparents). During the day, while I was teaching, she pursued her research on
Jane Austens novels in the New York Public Library. We were living in East 58th Street. In
February 1959 we used the break between semesters to visit Williamsburg, Va., where we
bought the attractive traditionally-bound book in handmade paper which now contains The
Pied Piper of Hamelin. Our idea was to create a present for you on our return. I calculated the
length of the poem and the space available and in the evenings of about a fortnight wrote it
out and drew the pictures, which Wendy coloured in watercoulour. We returned to England in
May 1959. Of course, Roger Craik remembers nothing of this, being only 3 years old at the
6
The selected quotations are to be found in Roger Craik, Of England Still, quoted edition.
7
See Idem.
8
Idem.
9
The Pied Piper of Hamelin, A Child's Story by Robert Browning Illustrated and coloured by T. W. Craik and W. A. Craik, Blaze
Vox 2013.
413
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time, but he does remember enjoying The Pied Piper being read to him, and sensing his
parents relish in reading aloud and their pausing to point to the illustrations.
In order to refresh our childish memories, a series of facts must be uttered relating the
text: The Pied Piper of Hamelin in its initial form represents the subject of a legend
concerning the departure or death of many children from the town of Hamelin, Lower
Saxony, Germany, in the Middle Ages. The earliest references describe a piper, dressed in
multicolored clothing, leading the children away from the town never to return. In the 16th
century the story was expanded into a full narrative, in which the piper is a rat-catcher hired
by the town to lure rats away with his magic pipe. When the citizenry refuses to pay for his
service, he retaliates by turning his magic on their children, leading them away as he already
had proceeded with the rats. This version of the story spread as a fairy tale. This version has
also appeared in the writings of, amongst others, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, the Brothers
Grimm and Robert Browning. The story may reflect a historical event in which Hamelin lost
its children. Theories have been proposed suggesting that the Pied Piper stands for a symbol
of the children's death by plague or catastrophe.
Thus, as the editor specifies, the dramatic events that Browning recorded in 1842
marvelously unfold in the Craiks' illustrations. The pages have bold, imaginative drawings,
deep lines, rich colors and fine (often idiosyncratic) details. From the pillaging rats to the
gluttonous council members, every pen and brush stroke brings Browning's moral home. This
work contains over 40 illustrated pages with hand lettering and includes a foreword by Roger
Craik detailing this book's creation by his parents. This unique book is intended for all ages.
Roger Craik has therefore proceeded with the rats (in a manner of speaking), he is reexperiencing his childhoods completion and bliss, making it possible for all of us to relive
and moreover enjoy our past misplaced luggage, our remembrances belonging to our
childhood splendid days, offering this particular colorful and joyful book as a gift intended
not only for the public, but especially for his own parents; this proof of gratitude so original
and ingenious reveals a genuine Roger Craik playing still, pursuing the rats
Today Stasis
Once again, Roger Craik is offering the reader an intriguing collection of poems,
Down Stranger Roads10, his most recent poetry volume which stands for a book about the
self's excruciating solitude within the world, a book about the world's both splendor and
ingratitude, its substantial shallowness, a book about people, instant and brief most rewarding
surprises and human vanity, its appearance and above all its rarely uttered nucleus. As Steven
Reese opinionated, What sets Roger Craik's body of work apart from that of so many
contemporaries is the quality of its savoring, the sense that human experience in all its
complexity is richly rewarding when we attend to it with a keen eye and an open heart. 11 A
certain uniqueness of his poetical articulated discourse has been also identified by George B.
Bilgere who stated that No one sounds like Roger Craik. His voice, a beguilingly
cosmopolitan mix of British purebred and American mutt, is the well-stamped passport he
10
11
Roger Craik, Down Stranger Roads, BLAZEVOX BUFFALO, New York Publishing House, 2014.
See Roger Craik, Down Stranger Roads, quoted edition, cover four.
414
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shows at border crossing from Ashtabula to Auschwitz, from Kent State to Krakow, from
Amsterdam to the far-flung outposts of the human heart.12
The author would simply demonstrate an already largely acknowledged fact according
to which everything goes in modern and post-modern poetry, everything is allowed, there is
no border, no limit, no prohibition regime. The world is functioning intriguingly while the
lines are building up as paradoxical oppositions: the proximity poem is highly vocalized
always targeting the individual; he/ she is apparently thrown in the middle of the world,
constantly doing their best to fit in, to belong, to make sense and to define their selves. Despite the snow banked high to ice,/ the parking lot was jammed with cars; (...) The
airplane slowly turns,/ banks into its leisurly decline/ toward another city's lights,/ its suburbs
twinkling. It will not be long/ until he'll stand rehearsing someone else's lines/ written long
ago when he was someone else./ These days he never writes.13 The self is a spectator, a
reflector, a mere guest in his own world; he is constructing the poem of proximity along with
the poem of himself, but mostly the poem of his loneliness. Even the couple is eventually
imprinted by a series of probabilities, never of viable possibilities; in spite of the momentary
surprise, the other half of the couple never proves to be anything but a projected reality,
denying thus the concreteness and the fulfillment of it. The couple stagnates in its artifact and
virtual pose, doomed to an improbable future, never attached to an immediate present. (and
caught/ ()/ the sound that suddenly meant you; until you came/ and pressed the bell/ and
made me happy// then.// Alone, of course,/ again and again// I press my bell; And there I'd
be,/ in one great sweep all fingers fumbling off your wedding ring/ and smoothing with my
plans; Not two are close together./ Each one is drapped out on its own, draining/ into a flat
white shoelace; you would listen,/ tousled with your fantasies,/ making the willow a fiend
but a friend// in private, not a friend to talk about)14 Powerful images do bear strong impact
on the reader: the black with its shadows, variables, occurrences and innuendos is definitely
leading us to the idea of ending, of final statement; all these cities, museums, paintings and
songs, beyond labeling the inter-, para- and meta-textuality pattern they are obviously
displaying, they are also a proof not only for the authorial traveler self's remarkable memory
storing capacity, but mainly for the inner process of exaggerating in and out for de-frustrating
sake exclusively: Every six years or so/ you come back here, put up at the same hotel/ in the
Anna van den Vondelkpark; () She hums/ a line or two from Paul McCartney's song/
Another Day and sees, twelve hours away// beyond the customs wall a pacing man; Your
eight short lines announce a different truth./ Immortalized by what you never were,/ a
puzzlement to those whose Yeats descants; Instantly afraid, I hear/ my own voice
downstairs/ announcing my name to no one in the dark; Fear, ferocity, astonishment in one/
maddish eye of yours from Audubon/ beneath a few spiked feathers for a crest; On the day
that all the world had died,/ standing on my front door step/ with coffee in the dark blue mug
I'd bought15. Photos of strangers surprised or rather paralyzed within the proximity of the
poetic self's both exterior and interior journey would make up the world seen as a circus, a
mixture of shadows, precarious destinies and mostly unbearable solitude; with a proper
attention for details, blowing out of proportions, the imagery is revealed for both poetry and
ego reasons. Some common denominators, some hyper-marketed places are constantly
identifiable in Roger Craik's lyrics the recurrent battle targeting the author and the reader,
be it the genuine one or the critical acknowledged voice, text interpretation which is never
completely satisfactory, never totally trustworthy these are all articulated or insinuated in a
12
13
14
15
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game of ironical bitter counterpoints within the poem, thus linking once again the perverted
outside with the lonely inside of the authorial self: Near silence. Solitude. The gradual/ ebb
and leakage into truth.; <This next one's a prose poem>, he intones,/ and I think what were
all the others then. () // There's a bar just down the street.// There is indeed a bar just down
the street/ and I could be there, there expansively to contemplate/ the art that is a pint of
Guinness/ () Instead, I reason with myself, that I am here for poetry, to get a sense; And
all the tumblers, acrobats,/ all the gauzy zoomers of the air/ dull themselves to baubles,
gauds,/ drawing not one scrape of syllable/ from you16.
International, cosmopolitan vibrant images, projections and virtualizations they all
balance in a tango stepping from slow motion to stillness rhythms of heart, of self; there is
one familiar face in this dance of and for life that reappears: the grandfather, acting as a
nostalgic pillar for the poetic self, essentially doubling his singularity. The present volume
ultimately represents a trip along instants building up existence, completing gaps, ego-es,
progressively articulating the poems of the moment, the poems of proximity, the ones that
would last, the ones that would define the self.
References:
1. Roger Craik, Those Years, Professional Reading Series van Zeno Press Cleveland,
Ohio, 2007;
2. Roger Craik, Of England Still, Finishing Line Press Georgetown, Kentucky, 2009;
3. The Pied Piper of Hamelin, A Child's Story by Robert Browning Illustrated and
coloured by T. W. Craik and W. A. Craik, Blaze Vox 2013;
4. Roger Craik, Down Stranger Roads, BlazeVOX Buffalo, New York Publishing
House, 2014.
16
Idem.
416
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Abstract: The novel Ultimii, which Bujor Nedelcovici began with in 1970, attracted the
attention of literary criticism, being considered a mature prose of atmosphere, with Proustian
accents, a requiem for a vanished world (Alex. Stefanescu). Beyond its ambiguous crimes
and skilfully woven detective plot, Ultimii is a writing of careful observation, with political
undertone as many of the novels of the 1970s.
The characters of this novel who often illustrate the theme of identity in relation to the past,
are native souls, the last representatives of a world apart, whose peculiarity is to never
disclaim themselves, to remain loyal to their own beliefs, and not to deviate from the purpose
of their lives.
One such character is young Cristu, whom the writer lends many aspects of his own
biography, and whose destiny is mostly learned from his confessions to Petran Postasu. The
latter is a symbolic character, playing the messenger role, as the author himself confessed.
Starting from these premises, the present work aims to follow the christic destiny of the hero,
with a symbolic name, Cristu, thus highlighting the theme of search and self discovery, in
relation to the past, to heredicty, to others, to the Romanian society permeated with
communist transformations.
Keywords: destiny, identity, self-knowledge, heredity, freedom.
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el mrturisete: ,,i totul a plecat de la un joc de table care mi-a modificat ntreaga existen,
care n-a fost ntmpltor, jocul de table a trebuit s existe, s produc schimbarea existenei
mele dup ce tata ncercase s i-o modifice pe a lui; acel joc de table a fost providena mea,
cu toate c la nceput am considerat c este cel mai mare ghinion, cea mai mare nenorocire a
familiei noastre (Nedelcovici, op. cit.: 133). n sens figurat, prin jocul de table se sugereaz
ideea vieii ca joc, jocul destinului. n sens concret, este vorba de jocul de table la care
participau tatl i civa prieteni, n urma cruia a aprut suprarea unuia dintre ei pentru c
tatl ndrznise s rd de ideea organizrii unei nuni mari, dei diferena de vrst dintre
ginere i mireas era de vreo treizeci de ani. ,,Ginerele, care nu a putut s-l ierte, a devenit un
,,turntor, i-a amintit ce spunea tatl cnd juca table i s-a folosit de slbiciunea celorlali
participani pensionari: teama lor. Tatl ajunge astfel s fie nchis din motive politice.
Aa cum afirmam mai sus, personajului Cristu autorul i ,,mprumut unele
evenimente din propria via. Astfel, tatl lui Bujor Nedelcovici nsui, fost membru al
Partidului Liberal, a fost arestat i ntemniat de comuniti pentru delict de opinie. De
asemenea, scriitorul Nedelcovici este absolvent al Facultii de tiine Juridice a Universitii
din Bucureti, iar despre Cristu aflm c a studiat mai nti doi la Drept. n plus, fiind nevoit,
din cauza situaiei tatlui, s-i abandoneze profesia de avocat, Bujor Nedelcovici ajunge,
printre altele, s lucreze ca muncitor la ntreprinderea de Construcii Hidroenergetice Bicaz,
acolo unde va ajunge s lucreze i personajul Cristu.
Numele personajului este simbolic, trimite la destinul christic, aa cum sugereaz
chiar el. n traseul vieii sale el marcheaz ,,trei zile, ntre care se cuprinde cderea, suferina
i nvierea. Prin Cristu se ilustreaz motivul speranei, cci n toat rememorarea perioadei
acesteia a vieii sale, el mrturisete c a trit ateptnd cu ncredere ,,a treia zi.
,,Prima zi este cea n care tatl su, mpotriva cruia fuseser folosii ca martori
prietenii si pensionari, a plecat (nelegnd c urmeaz ntemniarea), acceptndu-i cu
demnitate destinul marcat de prefacerile istoriei: ,, i din ziua aceea tata nu s-a mai ntors
sub cireul din grdina unde juca table: s-a splat cu puin ap rece pe ceaf poate l durea
i-a luat o hain mai groas, bocancii, ochelarii, le-a pus toate ntr-un scule i a plecat
(Nedelcovici, op. cit.: 134).
,,A doua zi este cea n care Cristu este dat afar de la Facultatea de Drept din motive
greu de neles; trecutul, umbra tatlui marcheaz destinul fiului. Este ziua n care fiul s-a
simit dezorientat, nu avea puterea s se opun destinului potrivnic, ns avea sperana
existenei celei ,,de-a treia zile: ,,Triam a doua zi prima zi fusese cnd a plecat tata
coboram scrile facultii, eram convins sau mai bine zis speram c va veni i a treia zi, nu
tiam cnd va sosi, dar ncepusem s-o atept i asta nsemna pentru mine totul (Ibidem).
Confruntarea cu nedreptatea exterioar nseamn de fapt pentru Cristu confruntarea cu
el nsui, confruntarea cu propria neputin, pe care nu avusese curajul pn atunci s o
priveasc fa n fa, s lupte mpotriva ei, ci, aa cum mrturisete, o ascunsese: ,,
consideram acest accident o u deschis ntr-o camer pe care o prsisem de mult, o
ncuiasem cu grij, pusesem hrtie albastr n ferestre, fcusem ntuneric deplin, apoi
aruncasem cheia creznd c n-o s mai am nevoie de ea, acum ns eram obligat s-o caut, s-o
rsucesc n broasc, s fac un pas nainte i s privesc aceast camer care nsemna pentru
mine ntreaga neputin a fiinei mele acolo erau ascunse toate caietele de coal,
creioanele, penarele, jucriile, cteva iconie i, n special, tcerile mele, de ele m
nspimntam acum mai mult dect orice (Ibidem: 134-135).
Neputina lui Cristu nsemna o emotivitate exagerat, care l fcea s nu poat vorbi n
public, s se afunde n tcere, s-i fie fric de oameni, s par n ochii nvtoarei un elev
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incapabil s nvee, s devin motiv de batjocur pentru ceilali colegi, s se apropie i mai
mult de divinitate, reprezentat prin iconie, i s se aleag cu porecla Habotnicul, apoi Habi.
Odat cu arestarea tatlui i cu eliminarea lui din facultate, Cristu simte c i se clatin
din nou ncrederea n sine i ajunge s triasc pentru un timp un sentiment al vinoviei
mprite cu tatl, o vinovie nejustificat. Se sugereaz aici absurdul regimului comunist,
care putea domina prin instaurarea fricii i a sentimentului de ,,vinovie fr vin.
Privind retrospectiv, Cristu nelege c tocmai aceast neputin l fcuse s se
ndeprteze de el nsui, el cel adevrat, cu slbiciuni i cu defecte, ns momentul acesta de
rscruce din viaa lui va fi valorificat de el tocmai ca o ans, ansa de a parcurge un traseu al
coborrii iniiatice n sine, pentru a-i descoperi eul puternic. El este suspus unei ncercri,
ncercarea implic un risc, iar depirea ei se constituie ntr-o aventur, o aventur a
contiinei. Autocunoaterea nseamn dobndirea total a libertii. Ca i Iona al lui Marin
Sorescu, Cristu va ajunge s triasc sentimentul de a fi gsit nu n afar, nu n societate, nu n
ceilali, ci n sine deplina libertate.
Experiena prin care va trece Cristu dup eliminarea din facultate devine o expresie a
paradoxului: motiv al suferinei, dar i al bucuriei de a se descoperi puternic. Una dintre
leciile grave pe care le nva Cristu din aceast experien este aceea c trebuie s
depeasc aparenele spre a afla esena, iar acest proces ncepe cu raportarea la copilrie
dinspre prezentul celei de-a ,,doua zile, eliminarea din facultate i, apoi, dinspre prezentul
enunrii, al rememorrii i confesrii ctre Petran: ,,Crezusem c am ieit de acolo conturat,
format, uitasem ns de mine, de cel care fusesem la nceput, acum ns datorit
evenimentului lateral puneam mna pe clan, deschideam ua, fceam primii pai, rupeam
hrtiile din ferestre, sprgeam geamurile, aruncam lucrurile, jucriile, penarele, drmam
camera copilriei mele, camera neputinei mele nu bnuiam ns, nu nelegeam c aceast
ntmplare dur, brbteasc, neateptat, poate chiar nedreapt, era pentru mine o ans, i ca
orice ans adevrat era ascuns ntr-o aparent suferin, nu aveam puterea s pricep c o
durere poate fi transformat n for, n punctul meu de rezisten, atunci tiam numai c
trebuie s cobor scrile facultii i s plec (Nedelcovici, op. cit.: 136-137).
Cristu ajunge s lucreze ca achizitor de materiale la Uzina Electric de la Bicaz, unde
se lovete de la nceput de ostilitatea celorlali muncitori i oferi, ostilitate pe care nu i-o
poate explica: ,, credeam c sunt vinovat cu ceva, nu direct, ci prin tata care avea vinovia
lui, apoi mi-am spus c nu au avut de unde afla, nu pricepeam, presupuneam c nu sunt
suficient de comunicativ, c nu i-am rugat aa cum se cuvine, c nu le-am oferit o igar sau
poate i aici m opream nu gseam explicaia (Ibidem).
Trecutul apas asupra lui Cristu i i scoate la iveal neputina. Atta timp ct se
debaraseaz de el, ct nu are curajul s i-l asume, ,,inventndu-i un alt trecut, Cristu nu
trece de aparen, nu ajunge la esen, la el nsui. Gestul iubitei sale Verona, care nu se mai
teme de goliciunea ei i i se prezint ,,fr coaj, l determin pe Cristu s aib curajul de a-l
nfrunta pe muncitorul Jitaru, s triasc un fel de eliberare prin durere fizic. Asumndu-i
trecutul, de care nu se mai leapd, i eliberndu-se de sentimentul nentemeiat al vinoviei,
Cristu nva s nu se mai team, s nu-i mai fie fric de oameni i descoper c adevrata
for st doar n el nsui, trind un adevrat moment de revelaie: ,, simeam c voi cpta
puterea care m va face capabil s transform durerea n for, aparenta nenorocire n ans,
suferina n fericire, i de aceea apsam cu prosopul pe ran, i dac am vzut c sngele se
oprete, am nceput s rci cu degetele, i rdeam fericit c aprea din nou i rdeam
(Nedelcovici, op. cit.: 156). Puterea lui Cristu, descoperit n el nsui, restabilete relaiile cu
ceilali, alturi de care triete i muncete timp de trei ani.
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Aa cum arat Nicolae Manolescu, antierul pe care e obligat s lucreze Cristu, ca fiu
de deinut politic, ,,nu e nc acea colonie penitenciar din memorialistica postdecembrist,
aici ,,mai persist un aer, dac nu idilic, oricum respirabil, de solidaritate i cinste
(Manolescu, op. cit.: 1179). Iar cel care ntruchipeaz cu adevrat acest ,,aer este Drugan, cel
care le-a vorbit celorlali ntr-o edin despre Cristu, propunnd i obinnd s fie trimis la
facultate.
ncheindu-i confesiunea introspectiv, cu funcie terapeutic, susinut n faa lui
Petran, Cristu nelege foarte bine rolul acestuia, acela de a-l ajuta pe cel de lng el s se
descopere: ,,Tu ai fost pndar, pdurar, ai umblat singur prin codru i tii c bradul are rina
lui cu care i vindec rnile fr s cear ajutor cuiva. [] Tu nu eti ntr-un singur loc, nu te
gsesc, sau poate eti peste tot, n fiecare din noi cei care i spunem cte ceva. Te-ai ntrebat
de ce i povestesc aceti oameni despre ei? (Nedelcovici, op. cit.: 162). Simbolul bradului
este definitoriu pentru Cristu, cel care a reuit s i vindece singur rnile, nelegnd s
rmn devotat propriilor principii, s i le asume i s se elibereze de sentimentul vinoviei.
Chiar n seara de dinaintea susinerii proiectului de diplom la Arhitectur, n seara de
dinaintea ,,celei de-a treia zile probabil, Cristu, care era i el fascinat de fosta actri,
Doamna Rujinski, i rspunde invitaiei acesteia la cin i, pentru c afl adevrul mrturisit
chiar de Doamna Rujinski n legtur cu moartea accidental a soului, dar pe care nu a avut
curajul s o mrturiseasc, suspiciunea plannd asupra ei, tnrul este otrvit. A doua zi, este
gsit mort n camera sa chiar de ctre Petran, care va deveni principalul suspect.
nelegnd s-i ndeplineasc pn la capt rostul, tiind c tnrul Cristu nu mai avea
pe nimeni, Petran i asum procesul nmormntrii i ngroprii lui, de aceea i ,,fur de la
morg corpul nensufleit, l ngroap n cimitir, i pune o cruce de lemn i l ndeamn pe
copilul lui Pietraru s spun rugciunea Tatl nostru, att ct tie din ea.
Sfritul tragic al lui Cristu d romanului nelesuri profunde, grave. Prin rentoarcerea
la facultate, prin posibilitatea de a absolvi aceste studii, n ciuda trecutului su, Cristu simise
c i se ofer o nou experien, c i se deschide din nou drumul identificrii, cunoaterii i
asumrii unui tip de relaie cu realitatea. Existena pruse a-i da lui Cristu un semn concret al
substanei sale, iar acesta i percepe deplin sensurile i i cere la rndul su s-l vad, s ia act
de propria sa via ca de o realitate individual concret. ns arbitrarul spulber nc o dat
iluziile lui Cristu. Doamna Rujinski pare un trimis al destinului care se mplinete tragic.
Omul se dovedete un captiv ntr-un labirint n care fiinele au o dubl identitate, de vnat i
vntor, de jucrie a destinului i destin.
Aadar, n raporturile sale cu existena, fiina uman nu se afl doar n puterea
propriilor capricii, a unor fore sufleteti obscure sau a unor determinri sociale aberante, ci i
a unor transcendene arbitrare. Romanul Ultimii devine i o demonstraie a unei problematici
filozofice de natur existenial, cu privire la raportul dintre individ i societate, dintre
libertate i necesitate, dintre sens i nonsens.
Bibliografie
Dun, Raluca, n Dicionarul general al literaturii romne, L/O, coord. Eugen Simion,
Bucureti, Univers Enciclopedic, 2005.
Lovinescu, Monica, O istorie a literaturii romne pe unde: 1960-2000, ngrijire de
ediie, pref.: Cristina Cioab, Bucureti, Humanitas, 2014.
Manolescu, Nicolae, Istoria critic a literaturii romne. 5 secole de literatur, Piteti,
Paralela 45, 2008.
Nedelcovici, Bujor, Ultimii, ediia a II-a, Bucureti, Universalia, 2000.
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Abstract: This paper will focus on the way some recurrent metaphors of time are
interconnected in Ana Blandianas poetry, in a metaphorical revelatory network which
interweaves the complementary faces of the human destiny: life and death, temporality and
eternity. This hermeneutical approach will be focused on Ana Bandianas volumes of poetry
published after 1989 Arhitectura valurilor (1990), Soarele de apoi (2000) and Refluxul
sensurilor (2004) which configure a metaphorical map at the crossroads of three
dimensions of time: flowing, frozen and cyclic. The fluidity of the aquatic, the stillness of the
mineral and the vegetal boom of vitality capture three different attitudes towards temporality
which interfere in Ana Blandianas poetry: the exasperation of the human being caught in the
implacable flow of time, the impossible dream of stopping its fall in a frozen moment which
would last forever and the regain of serenity mediated by the rediscovery of the eternal
natural rhythms.
Keywords: Ana Blandiana, temporality, metaphor, flowing time, frozen time, cyclic time
Se prea c exist i chiar m speriam c exist
George Bacovia1
Pentru Mircea Eliade natura uman se afl sub semnul timpului; n precaritatea sa,
omul se dezvluie ca o fiin modelat de fluxul devenirii, ntruct esena sa este chiar
temporalitatea2. Dar trecerea sa implacabil spre moarte nchide cercul existenei sale ca
fiin ieit din Neant i n drum spre Neant3, astfel nct omul se regsete ntre cele dou
fee complementare ale fiinei: Timpul i Eternitatea. n poezia de dup 1990 a Anei
Blandiana, i anume, n volumele Arhitectura valurilor (1990), Soarele de apoi (2000) i
Refluxul sensurilor (2004)4, rzbate att exasperarea fiinei umane prinse n uvoiul existenei,
ct i spaima de ncremenirea n monolitul eternitii i regsirea senintii prin integrarea n
ritmurile venice ale naturii. Cele trei dimensiuni ale timpului trecerea implacabil,
ncremenirea clipei n eternitate i ciclicitatea n alternana via-moarte se oglindesc
n imaginarul poetic al Anei Blandiana n metafore revelatorii n sens blagian, prin care
razele realitii ptrund refractate straniu de substana sufleteasc strbtut [...] pentru a
rsturna i adnci nelesurile5.
Nota specific a imaginarului poetic al Anei Blandiana este imprimat pe textura
imagistic a poemelor de preferina ei pentru elementul acvatic. Gaston Bachelard, formulnd
legea celor patru elemente, stabilete existena a patru tipuri de temperamente onirice
fundamentale, ce se manifest n creaia artistic prin fidelitatea fa de unul dintre cele
George Bacovia, apud Ana Blandiana, Spaima de literatur, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2005, p. 61.
Mircea Eliade, Arta de a muri, Ediie ngrijit, selecie de texte i note de Magda Ursache i Petru Ursache, Prefa de Petru Ursache,
Editura Moldova, Iai, 1993, p. 112.
3
Idem, ibidem, p. 111.
4
Pentru a cita versurile din aceste volume, am folosit ediiile: Ana Blandiana, Arhitectura valurilor, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti,
1990; Ana Blandiana, Soarele de apoi, Editura Du Style, Bucureti, 2000; Ana Blandiana, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2004.
5
Idem, Spaima de literatur, ed. cit., p. 30.
1
2
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patru elemente: foc, aer, ap sau pmnt. Imaginile ascund un univers psihic profund, ntruct
n ele vibreaz o gam de sentimente primare: te crezi fidel unei imagini favorite, dar n
realitate eti fidel unui sentiment omenesc primitiv, unei realiti organice prime6. n centrul
universului poetic al Anei Blandiana se afl marea, imagine sintetic n care se concentreaz
paleta afectiv a sufletului feminin. Apa, nrudit cu feminitatea, ca element vital, for
regeneratoare i purificatoare, dar i distructiv, dizolvant i violent, are o natur
ambivalent, misterioas i deconcertant. Eul poetic din versurile Anei Blandiana se
regsete n frmntrile mrii pn la identificarea cu peisajul marin: Nimic nu e mai
nrudit/ Cu mine dect marea/ Ap srat sunt i eu/ nchis ntre maluri diferite/ Dar desenate
de acelai zeu (Cerneal Refluxul sensurilor). Sufletul su se simte consubstanial cu
ntinderea marin, intuind o coresponden intim ntre frmntrile ei afective i zbuciumul
perpetuu al mrii, oglind a spaimelor ancestrale: Eu nsmi doar vrtej/ [] nspimntat
mereu/ i totui viu,/ Un val eu nsmi,/ [] Fragment al altei spaime,/ Tutelar,/ Neoboseal
venic-n micare (n micare Arhitectura valurilor).
Spaima instinctiv trezit de imensitatea acvatic este inseparabil de sentimentul
timpului. Micrile timpului se suprapun peste dinamica apei, vizualiznd realitatea lui subtil
printr-o imagine plastic: n valul de sare al mrii/ Se clatin valul de timp (i n oglind
Arhitectura valurilor). Marea modeleaz n sfera sensibilului ipostazele complexului fenomen
temporal, ea fiind n acelai timp curgere nentrerupt, capricioas i imprevizibil, micare
pe loc, zadarnic i iluzorie, i ritmicitate ntr-o rennoire ciclic din propria prbuire.
Metaforele timpului graviteaz n jurul imaginii centrale a mrii, prin fora de atracie a unui
izomorfism ntre fluiditatea apei i fluxul temporal.
O prim manifestare a timpului n poezia Anei Blandiana se regsete n curgerea
perpetu ce transform necontenit lumea, prin fora unei legi implacabile: Totul se schimb,/
S-a schimbat/ Sau se va schimba (Trecere Arhitectura valurilor). Se poate descifra n
aceast viziune mobilismul heraclitian, concentrat n cunoscuta sentin: Nu ne scldm
de dou ori n apele aceluiai ru, interpretat de Gaston Bachelard prin asocierea apei cu
trecerea omului prin lume, astfel c fiina uman are destinul apei care curge. Apa este cu
adevrat elementul tranzitoriu.7
Realitatea covritoare a neistovitei treceri a timpului i trezete eului poetic adnci
ecouri afective. El nu se poate elibera de sub tirania timpului, destinul uman se ese din firul
pe care se nir momentele vieii, iar risipirea acestei bogii apare ca o nebunie n care se
ntlnesc sublimul cu ridicolul: Cum aruncam cu secundele, cu minutele,/ Cu orele, cu zilele,
cu sptmnile, cu anii!/ [] Eu continuam s risipesc tergnd/ Linia care desparte/
Sublimul de ridicol (Linia Refluxul sensurilor). n aceast atitudine transpare iluzia
dominrii timpului de pe poziia superioar a nvingtorului n nfruntarea cu constrngerile
existeniale. Radicalizarea acestei nverunri mpotriva timpului se dezvluie n sfidarea
acestuia, cu convingerea c, deinnd controlul asupra lumii sale interioare, omul l poate
anula ca dimensiune luntric: i totui, i totui desfid/ Timpul stingndu-se-n mine/ Nenvins de ru i de bine,/ Dar tot mai ridicol cnd/ descopr noi ceruri pe rnd/ n burta
aceluiai chit (i totui Refluxul sensurilor). Dar aceast intangibilitate este o amgire,
timpul impunndu-se ca o presiune exterioar ce claustreaz omul ntr-un prizonierat ce
amintete de destinul lui Iona, personajul lui Marin Sorescu. Zdrnicia luptei trezete
sentimentul ridicolului celui ce continu s ignore imposibilitatea evadrii de sub cerul ce l
nchide n lumea sa.
Gaston Bachelard, Apa i visele. Eseu despre imaginaia materiei, Traducere i tabel cronologic de Irina Mavrodin, Editura Univers,
Bucureti, 1997, p. 9.
7
Idem, ibidem, p. 10.
6
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accepta mcinarea/ i umilina finei ntre pine i gru, [] Laud ie, discontinuitate,/
Laud vou, particule i elemente,/ trepte frnte, urcnd/ Pn la ultimul gnd (n rate
Soarele de apoi). Dar esenele, odat descoperite, dezamgesc prin contaminarea lor de urtul
aparenelor care le-au mbrcat: aparenele au putrezit/ i au curs ca o spum murdar/ De pe
faa esenei,/ urt i venic (Poem Soarele de apoi).
Nisipul este asociat ruinei, metafor a decderii civilizaiilor, prbuite sub
vicisitudinile vremurilor, dar pstrnd nc amintirea gloriei ndeprtate: Triumfale nisipuri/
Curgnd din ruine [] Cnd tot universul/ E-o clepsidr ntoars/ Prin care se scurg/ nspre
cer Atlantide (Ceas de nisip Soarele de apoi). Imaginea panoramic a universului ca o
clepsidr imens prin care se perind civilizaiile dezvluie consubstanialitatea timpului i a
materiei, iar ntoarcerea ei, curgerea spre cer, n afara gravitaiei, este o ieire din existen
spre neant. Eliberat din ncarnrile lui succesive, dezgolit de vemintele contingentului,
timpul i dezvluie o puritate i o frumusee nebnuite, ce nu pot fi atinse dect n neclintirea
morii: Coloanele rmase n picioare/ Stau minunate i mirate oase/ Superb schelet al
timpului, mai pur/ Dect fusese viu, ascuns n carne (Sonet degradat Refluxul sensurilor).
Dar n cele din urm toate construciile omului sunt mcinate de vreme, i pierd
consistena, cedeaz sub degradarea timpului: Carii spnd tuneluri nisipoase/ n lemnul unui
timp murdar/ i streini devenite moi de vreme (Drum Arhitectura valurilor). Timpul
nsui pare a se degrada, ntruct are existen material, mcinat prin propriile-i legi
distructive de carii ce se hrnesc din miezul materiei asemenea viermelui de aur din versurile
lui Petre Stoica: Obiectele tac i ascult/ Nimeni nu le tulbur linitea,/ Numai timpul
vierme de aur / Le roade inima (Obiectele Miracole)13. Izomorf cu lucrarea cariilor care
macin lemnul, aciunea coroziv a ruginii ce atac duritatea fierului este o alt urm pe care
timpul o las n alctuirea materiei: Numai naintarea ruginii/ n inima fierului,/ Topirea la
rece,/ Praful rou nlocuind/ Molecul cu molecul zvorul [] Istorie cu ncetinitorul
(Topirea la rece Arhitectura valurilor). Dar aceast lent distrugere universal poart i o
und consolatoare prin promisiunea eliberrii de suferin, prometeic prin intensitatea ei, dar
trectoare i ea, asemenea mijloacelor prin care este provocat: Fiecare secund-n cdere/
erodeaz puin suferina./ S atept./ Fiecare val ce se sparge/ Sap n stnca/ De care-s
nlnuit,/ Fiecare fir de rugin/ Subiaz lanul (Molecule de calciu Arhitectura valurilor).
Copleit de criza existenial cu care se confrunt n lumea ce i schimb mereu
contururile, omul resimte nevoia sufleteasc de a se sustrage curgerii universale, de a iei din
temporalitate, de a ncremeni ntr-o clip suspendat deasupra torentului existenial, precum
visa Emil Cioran: Visez o clip de aur, n afara devenirii, o clip nsorit, transcendent
chinului organelor i melodiei descompunerii lor14. Acest refugiu n nemicare rspunde
nzuinei eleatice spre stabilitate, spre echilibru i certitudine, pe care lumea n continu
schimbare, subjugat imperativelor temporalitii, i le refuz. n viziunea lui Eugne Ionesco,
aceast ancorare n imobilitate poate fi atins printr-o raportare subiectiv la propria existen:
S nu ne considerm n durat, n acceleraie ci n imobilitate, n imuabilitate, cel puin
ntr-o (anumit) stabilitate15. n versurile Anei Blandiana transpare aceeai aspiraie spre
imuabilitate, ca singur salvare de declin: Stai,/ nu v micai,/ ncremenii! Orice micare
e o degradare. [] Cnd orele sunt sfrmate, marele/ Curaj e s opreti arttoarele
(Semnal Arhitectura valurilor). n acest strigt de exasperare rsun ecouri din rugciunea
disperat a lui Lucian Blaga, adresat divinitii, de a nghea timpul, risipind umbrele morii
cu preul renunrii la cldura vieii: Oprete trecerea. tiu c unde nu e moarte, nu e nici
iubire i totui te rog: oprete, Doamne, ceasornicul cu care ne msuri destrmarea (motto
Pentru a cita versurile din Petre Stoica, am folosit ediia: Petre Stoica, Uitat printre lucruri uitate, Prefa de Cornel Ungureanu, Editura
Minerva, Bucureti, 1997.
14
Emil Cioran, Tratat de descompunere, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1992, p. 107.
15
Eugne Ionesco, Cutarea intermitent, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2004, p. 74.
13
427
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la n marea trecere). n poezia Anei Blandiana omul i asum singur gestul supraomenesc de
a stvili rotirea nentrerupt a acelor ceasornicului universal, degradat el nsui de
mecanismele lui inerente.
Aceast nzuin eleatic spre echilibru i stabilitate se regsete n identificarea cu
materia mineral, a crei duritate opune rezisten n faa agresiunii timpului: S fii stnc
n mare/ S te izbeasc fr ncetare/ Valurile fluxului i ale refluxului,/ S te modeleze,/ S-i
rotunjeasc muchiile,/ S te micoreze,/ S te fac nisip./ S fii stnc n mare,/ Nesfririi
timpan,/ S reziti neclintit/ n tcere/ i-n van(S fii stnc Refluxul sensurilor). Stnca,
materie impenetrabil, presupune, dup cum intuia Gaston Bachelard, soliditate luntric, o
iluzie a permanenei fiinei, a indestructibilitii ei, oferind o imagine a unei fiine de
nezdruncinat16. Nemurirea, ca vis al poeilor, transpare n metafora corabiei de piatr,
centrul stabil, imobil, sustras ameitorului vrtej temporal: Lsai-m s m urc pe corabia cu
poei/ naintnd pe valurile timpului/ Fr s-i clatine catargul/ i fr s aib nevoie s se
mite din loc/ (Pentru c timpul se mic/ n jurul ei tot mai repede) (Corabia cu poei
Soarele de apoi). Doar c aceast ncremenire a fiinei este valorizat n poezia Anei
Blandiana att pozitiv, ct i negativ, ntruct, dup cum nota Laureniu Ulici, nghearea
este i moarte, i amnare a morii17. Amnarea disoluiei, prin eliberarea de eroziunea n
fluxul temporal, i dezvluie astfel i reversul: confruntarea inevitabil cu moartea tocmai din
dorina de a o evita. Pn i vegetalul pare a se converti n mineral prin pietrificarea n care
puterea de germinaie este anulat prin negarea devenirii: i miriadele de semine ale
nisipului/ n care au mpietrit,/ Niciodat nscute,/ Plante nebnuite./ Totul e sterp, ntrerupt
(Plaj Refluxul sensurilor). Aceeai sterilitate, nscut din refuzul fiinei umane de a rodi
i de a-i asuma metamorfozele vrstelor, ascunde dorina de a rmne n potenialitate, stare
echivalent nchistrii n moarte, ce amintete de nostalgia barbian a increatului: Pentru c
nu m-am dezghiocat/ n alte i alte fiine asemenea mie,/ Vrstele au rmas nchise n mine/
Ca seminele adormite ntr-o pstaie,/ Prea fericit ca s ncerce s sparg sicriul (ntr-o
pstaie - Refluxul sensurilor). Nemoartea e resimit i ca povar, ca ariditate i secare a
sevei vieii sub dogoarea soarelui ncremenit pe cer ntr-o zi nesfrit: Nu e trecut, nu-i
viitor,/ Un azi etern, nucitor,/ Cu soarele deasupra nemicat/ Nemainstare/ S msoare/
Frderostul nemuririi (Scaiei i zei - Refluxul sensurilor).
Odat cu intuirea apsrii eternitii, apare teama de ncremenire i dorina de a
rensuflei materia inert, ca n viziunea halucinant a piramidei lui Keops asemenea unei
corbii de piatr, smulse din ncremenirea ei milenar de o furtun a morii i lunecnd la
nesfrit, purtat de valuri de nisip (Mormntul de-afar Arhitectura valurilor). n fond,
ncremenirea este o iluzie, deoarece timpul atinge chiar i piatra aparent indestructibil, dar
nsufleit i astfel vulnerabil, printr-o erodare imperceptibil omului, datorit ritmurilor
diferite ale trecerii lor prin timp: Pietre cu sufletul demult/ Micare lung i tcere rar,/
Dai-mi rgaz s v ascult bolboroseala milenar [] Pe cnd noi ceilali credem c-ai murit,/
Cum eu i par efemeridei stnc/ Pentru c nu-mi cuprinde-un gest finit/ Secunda vieii ei
ntng (Pietre cu sufletul demult Soarele de apoi). Dac ncremenirea este imposibil,
timpul, n schimb, poate fi nelat n rgazul dilatrii sale, ntr-o viziune bergsonian asupra
timpului subiectiv, n care uniformitatea curgerii timpului dispare: Ceasurile din cnd n
cnd/ Se opresc, apoi pornesc mai departe,/ Dar cei care sunt dui astfel/ Nu tiu c ele s-au
oprit/ i ct timp au stat,/ i ct de tare accelereaz/ Ca s se ajung din urm (Orologii pe
in Arhitectura valurilor). Orologiile i pierd consistena, asemenea celor din pictura lui
Salvador Dali, iar timpul devine un fluid care curge capricios i iraional, ce ntunec
16
17
Gaston Bachelard, Pmntul i reveriile voinei, Traducere de Irina Mavrodin, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1998, p. 154.
Laureniu Ulici, apud Iulian Boldea, Ana Blandiana, Editura Aula, Braov, 2000, p. 88.
428
SECTION: LITERATURE
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429
SECTION: LITERATURE
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BIBLIOGRAFIE:
Bachelard, Gaston, Apa i visele. Eseu despre imaginaia materiei, Traducere i tabel
cronologic de Irina Mavrodin, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1997.
Bachelard, Gaston, Pmntul i reveriile voinei, Traducere de Irina Mavrodin,
Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1998.
Bachelard, Gaston, Poetica reveriei, Traducere din limba francez de Mircea
Brileanu, Prefa de Mircea Martin, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2005.
Blaga, Lucian, Meterul Manole teatru, Ediie ngrijit de Valeria Filimon, Editura
Agora i Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2008.
Blaga, Lucian, Opera poetic, Ediia a II-a, Prefa de George Gan, Ediie ngrijit de
George Gan i Dorli Blaga, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2007.
Blandiana, Ana, Arhitectura valurilor, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1990.
Blandiana, Ana, Autoportret cu palimpsest, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1986.
Blandiana, Ana, Refluxul sensurilor, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2004.
Blandiana, Ana, Soarele de apoi, Editura Du Style, Bucureti, 2000.
Blandiana, Ana, Spaima de literatur, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2005.
Boldea, Iulian, Ana Blandiana, Editura Aula, Braov, 2000.
Bot, Ioana, Eminescu i lirica romneasc de azi, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1991.
Cioran, Emil, Tratat de descompunere, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1992.
Eliade, Mircea, Arta de a muri, Ediie ngrijit, selecie de texte i note de Magda
Ursache i Petru Ursache, Prefa de Petru Ursache, Editura Moldova, Iai, 1993.
Ierunca, Virgil, Subiect i predicat, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1993.
Ionesco, Eugne, Cutarea intermitent, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 2004.
Sorin,Virgil, Scriitori romni contemporani interviuri i antologii critice, Editura
Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1999.
Stoica, Petre, Uitat printre lucruri uitate, Prefa de Cornel Ungureanu, Editura
Minerva, Bucureti, 1997.
430
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Abstract: It follows that, in former communist countries, the conviction of the regime started
somewhat from similar ideological positions with those of the power, not from opposing
positions. The only chance of dissent was contesting ideological principles by small steps
policy, within the ideology, forcing its limits of tolerance. Moreover, most of the dissidents
were communist themselves, now more or less confident in doctrine, and their affiliation did
not indulged much space for option.
Keywords: Communism, dissent, ideology, totalitarianism, Romania.
It happened that, unlike other Eastern exiles, ours was far less concerned about the
translation and promotion of writers in the country. True, interest to Eastern literatures there
was little in the West, maybe since the second half of the decade eight and only regarding the
dissenting literature. Poles and Czechs have taken advantage of this opening, promoting
"Solidarno" and Charter '77 by prompt translation of the writers of these movements. "The
reason of the immediate appearance of translations in the West is interesting - historian Tony
Judt points, illustrating the Polish example. This is because an entire generation of Polish
intellectuals, from 1968 until the late 70s, begin to hold positions in western universities,
Yale, Columbia, Berkeley, Oxford and gives example Kolakowski and his followers, Hus
and his followers like Alex Smolar, who is the founder of Bathory Foundation, "equivalent
Soros Foundation in Hungary. Alex Smolar was a student in Paris in the early '70s, I did not
know him, but it was one of those who translated Michnik. They all lived in the West, and
were the chain by which the Pole dissidents were heard in the West".1 Romanian exile has
chosen another way. Probably lacking the same means that have enjoyed their Czech and
Polish counterparts, did not support the Romanian literature abroad, but for Romanians,
aiming especially political purposes. The small number of dissenters was again an
impediment, but when they were there, exile has made every effort to make them visible.
Located differently in the emergency of the political command, the exile, through its
leaders, focused almost exclusively on directing its message to the country, in some cases
with propaganda purposes. Oriented towards the country, the militant exile exercised its
influence on the inside hierarchy of literature, primarily by ethical criteria, the aesthetic
platform falling on a secondary background. Simultaneously, the approach only aesthetically
of the most important critics in the country converged with the ethics of exile, aligning their
platform to the ethical one, so they finally meet. The two views were in fact faces of the same
reality, and their joint action concerned a same common enemy: the literature subservient to
the regime. However the hierarchy made in the country did not overlapped on the one made
1
Tony Judt, Europa iluziilor, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2000, pp. 19-33.
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outside so authors with real talent and aesthetic merits, because of their alleged
"collaborationism", not always real, was concealed, while the merits of the "brave" were
sometimes exaggerated. But - it must be said - the differences were not as pronounced as to
prevent axiological perception closer to reality. Small distortions still had a role, insidious, it
is true, with considerable effects in the long term upon literature, and especially on its
policies. This does not mean, of course, that the ethical attitude of Parisian critics would have
an intentional dogmatic position against the cultural act. To understand the historical and
political circumstances that led to their political responsiveness, beyond their natural anticommunism against the Soviet occupation regime that had taken possession of their land, in
their first two years of exile they faced with political circumstances designed to discourage all
their hope to be heard. France after the War was keen to erase from their consciousness
collaborationism with the German occupier, much larger than the French resistance, and also,
the "sins" of the Vichy government. On the other hand, for the French democrats the fascist
regime was a still an open wound, still unhealed. The main currents of ideas in postwar
France were as predictable as possible, anti-fascist and Marxist. In addition, the Soviets were
allies. This Marxist period was extended until Solzhenitsyn's case became well-known. Until
then, as Tony Judt points out, "different histories of anthropology, political science (not yet
appeared in France a separate discipline of political science) were dominated by people
trained after the war. People who studied at the Superior Normal School between - say - '48
and '55 ". It left all visible. In addition, the entire West seemed blind and deaf to the problems
of captive countries behind the Iron Curtain. In addition to "forget ethics" - the war left
behind an unbearable memory, as beneficiaries of prosperity due to the Marshall Plan of
economic rehabilitation, funded by U.S., Western Europe had no mood no curiosity to know
what is really happening in the new communist countries. Is there a selfishness of the
developed countries of Western Europe. For example Judt had appeared shocked at the time,
that "after what happened in Prague in August 1968, almost no one talked about these events.
There was not, of course, total silence, but for most "Prague Spring", as Dahrendorf said, was
a bourgeois spring. That does not really have anything to do with Western revolution ". In
fact, the Prague Spring and the May '68 revolts in Paris, as complaints were justified, as
legitimate as the seemingly antithetical. Yudt was shocked by "indifference, and cynicism
about what was happening in Eastern Europe". As a reflection of a guilty conscience or not,
"from 1956 to the mid-60s", French intellectuals interest would rather heading to Third
World problems and the war in Algeria.
"After '68 world realizes, however, that something is moving in this area (Eastern
Europe, NM, NS), but - says Judt - a whole tradition of forgetting had already established".
Solzhenitsyn's arrival will change the perception. After his interviews, books translated into
French, a small earthquake occurs in consciousness. In Nouvel Observateur is an editorial
by Jean Daniel, "Oh! How I could not figure out what happened?" Not that he didnt know
what happened, but "only Solzhenitsyn gave us a vocabulary to talk about all this. Until then,
interest in the situation of the East was almost zero. Yudt speaks of a "Yalta of mind", that
after 1945 "this part of the world becomes less interesting, included automatically in the
Soviet world to simplify the analysis" and "area east of Vienna was a nebula. Politically, on
the other hand, in the view of Yudt, "the second element of the postwar situation that
facilitated the construction of" Europe "was the Cold War. Since 1947, for most European
leaders became clear that the Soviet Union was a serious threat to Eastern Europe and that, if
only for their own protection, Western European countries had to create some kind of alliance
between them first, then with the U.S."2 In that conditions, Romanian intellectuals had to fight
2
Ibidem, p.153.
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in a specific way. The fight involves, both sides, tactical movements, strategic maneuver,
retreat, attack, concealment, enveloping, concessions, all to the interest of the unique cause.
The evaluation criterion is efficiency.
Consciously or not - notes Mircea Iorgulescu, this action falls within the boundaries
defined since the launch in July 1947 by George Kennan of the American strategic concept of
containment (...). Restriction, limitation, impoundment of the actions of the communist
officials, first of all in their cultural actions, but also in the social and political ones, was the
priority of the campaign ... "3 The containment strategies, which bowed on various
researchers4, the Cold War, applied within the culture, seem to belong to a conscious,
coordinated approach, although Mircea Iorgulescu slips a margin of doubt, because we will
see, cultural cold War indicates a concept for a reality orchestrated by the U.S. to a
remarkable level. Otherwise, both concepts have come to the attention of prominent historians
and researchers after the fall of communism, especially since the Cold War archives became
available.
In a famous text of 1978, The Power of the Powerless, Vclav Havel was announcing
a bizarre presence: A specter is haunting Eastern Europe: the specter of what in the West is
called dissent. This specter has not appeared out of thin air. It is a natural and inevitable
consequence of the present historical phase of the system it is haunting. It was born at a time
when this system, for a thousand reasons, can no longer base itself on the unadulterated,
brutal, and arbitrary application of power, eliminating all expressions of nonconformity. What
is more, the system has become so ossified politically that there is practically no way for such
nonconformity to be implemented within its official structures... Our system is most
frequently characterized as a dictatorship or, more precisely, as the dictatorship of a political
bureaucracy over a society which has undergone economic and social leveling. At the same
time Havel expresses his doubts on the adequacy of the concept of dictatorship, because the
term rather hides than clarifies the real nature of the power of the system. He prefers to call it
a "post-totalitarian" system, but without involving the prefix post that the system is no
longer totalitarian; on the contrary, I mean that it is totalitarian in a way fundamentally
different from classical dictatorships, different from totalitarianism as we usually understand
it. Then he will illustrate the idea by a brilliant allegory of a grocery store in the window of
which should be exposed the slogan Workers of the world, unite!, allegory which shows
that a mere slogan, taken or shown only formally, can distinguish between conformity and
dissent. That slogan could become one of the most powerful instruments of obedience in
"post-totalitarianism", an infinitely more subtle means of coercion than torture, but ultimately
just as implacable. Although the system was from a long time estranged from the social
movements that claim, these origins have provided a solid base so that they become
inextricable part of the structure of the modern world. The flexible, more logical structure of
such ideologies would be like almost a secular religion. It provides ready answers to any
question, can hardly be accepted in part, and this acceptance entails profound implications for
human life. In an era of metaphysical and existential certainties in a state of crisis, when
people feel uprooted and alienated, losing their understanding of what is today's world, this
ideology exerts, inevitably, a hypnotic charm - says Havel5. You see here an effort to
3
4
Mircea Iorgulescu, Tangeniale, Editura Institutului Cultural Romn, Bucureti, 2004, p. 141.
See also John Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: Acritical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy, Oxford University
Press, 1982.
5
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In the book Europe of Illusions (Editura Polirom, Iai, 2000), Tony Yudt speaks credibly about a certain blindness of the West in the
Eastern states. Also about a sense of guilt, quoting Hans Magnus Enzensberger,: "In the first years after the war ... Europeans were housed
under the umbrella of collective amnesia. " Judt said: "Had it not been the speed with which especially West Europeans have left behind the
war, postwar rebuilding, for many European countries, not to mention any European community, would be much more difficult. But the
result was that Europeremained highly vulnerable to memory - the past is a burden that weighs upon present, but is also a source of
understanding "(p. 196). Judt also speaks about what Lon Blum called "shame-release relief" feeling of abandonment and, therefore, of
forgetting. "This feeling of embarrassment of the French for abandoning Eastern allies, for betraying former established connections, turns,
after the war, into a desire to forget, and French, primarily (but not only them, nm, NS), are no longer interested in Eastern Europe after 1947
"(p. 34). In the case of Havel, after the echo his texts from the '80s, after the fall of the Iron Curtain, his writings, with their high moral tone
and neo-Heideggerian disgust towards the ornaments and the selfishness of modernity, were quite unusual and comforting to look
attractive, while a fleeting moment. If, under communism, the eastern countries were subject to forced marginalization, augmented both by
the "shame-release relief" and by the Western amnesia, today they are "enjoying" a different kind of marginalization that have only to be
accepted because "intellectuals from Eastern Europe (or Central as they like to say) can afford fewer illusions. Supporting the idea of a
Europe without divisions of East-West type, in which the culture kept (or recalled) of Central Europe would deal again its deserved place,
they must now realize that their issuance price itself is a renewed marginalization, both at home and abroad. In any case, for Eastern Europe
there is only one option: to join Western Europe in its conditions, "and conditions are determined by the fatality that, like Americans,"
Western Europeans are more concerned with Russia than its former satellites and more with their own problems than the Western aspirations
of their neighbors from the east "(pp.193, 195).
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doctrinaire otherness, their Romanian colleagues are even less justified. Of course, after the
fall of communism for some, after exile for the others, they have evolved doctrine in one
direction or another. But if we refer strictly to those times, we must address records with
respect to the truth. Disputes from Romania and adressed to Romania did not question the
entire system, but its methods, how they meet or fail to comply rather demagogic then
democratic principles outlined in its program.
If, in Hungary, in 1956, it starts the revolution against Soviet occupation, turned from
a peaceful demonstration of the students, whether in Poland, back in March 1968, is triggered
the student revolt between whose leaders is included the historian and the journalist Adam
Michnik, being in a leading position also in the solidarity action of the working class,
culminating with the great uprising of August 1980, whose result is the establishment of the
independent autocephalous union "Solidarno ", if, in Czechoslovakia, Vaclav Havel, Jan
Patoka, Zdenek Mlynar, Pavel Kohout, succeed to gather the signatures of a number of 243
Czechoslovak citizens solidary with Charter 77, a civic initiative of dissent, if, in Russia, the
samizdat is born, in Romania the idea of solidarity and samizdat seems to be absent. The
passivity of the Romanian elite is difficult to explain, although several arguments include the
rumor that, unlike its Eastern neighbors, just as Russian troops left Romania, the local
Communist Party could benefit to consolidate its position, suggesting obliquely the idea that
all actions of the other communist countries were of anti-Soviet nature rather than
antitotalitarian. Rather weak argument, however. Or that, in Romania, the regime was harsher
and nationalistic and the ceauist tint was more ruthless than the rest of the communist
regimes. As questionable argument, if we think that all communist regimes started from the
same wild and bloody Stalinism. Then the communist nationalism was not the appanage of
the regime from Bucharest. This nationalism was manufactured in Eastern European countries
where dissent began to make their voice heard. The moral capital of the opponents was
claiming from an European platform, from a membership of a common destiny, and it is easy
to imagine that their opponents, in order to discredit them, associated this international
affinity with the communist internationalism or with the transnational universalism of
communism. "Therefore - Tony Yudt reminds us - the most intelligent communist
aparatcici in Belgrade, Bucharest, Kiev, Zagreb and Bratislava had to recycle rapidly
turning into nationalist demagogues.7 A credible response to the relative passivity of
Romanians, in terms of the historians, we have not yet. An explanation that would appeal to
their cowardice would be equally implausible, however. It is needed more thorough and
competent investigation of the past.
Another feature to note is that the leaders of dissent from other communist countries,
bringing much of the suffrage of their people, were not limited to strictly domestic action, but
have maintained continuous dialogue with their neighbors, supporting each other, developing
even very friendly relations. Why the Romanian elite, with few exceptions, remained in place
prudent and self-sufficient is difficult to explain. Unlike Romania, intellectuals in neighboring
countries, as summarized Adam Michnik8, have tried to invent an alternative to totalitarian
society through the creation and strengthening of civil society which, finally, will break that
gap through which the totalitarian system will drain and will dissipate. "A Polish feature says Michnik - was that dissident movement has taken institutional form of the Workers
Defense Committee, and then - after August 1980 - the NSZZ Solidarno (...). I invented
something like the idea of an alternative society, which satisfies an important part of its needs,
7
Adam Michnik, Mrturisirile unui disident convertit, prefa de Vladimir Tismneanu, postfa de Jzef Tischner, Editura Polirom, 2009,
pp. 82-83.
435
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independent of the totalitarian state. " If the Russian samizdat somewhat satisfied the need
for alternative, "Czechoslovakia, around Charter 77, emerged the idea of independent polis,
which ought to be - according to Vaclav Havel's formula - the power of the powerless. In
Hungary, Gyorgy Konrad wrote Antipolitics policy. In Poland appeared Workers Defense
Committee, free trade unions, independent publications and books printed and gleaned
illegally. It was when Jacek Kuron formulated his famous principle instead of party
committees to give fire, you better create some own ". And, very importantly, Michnik adds:
"If the symbol of totalitarian communism was the Gulag Archipelago, we tried to create an
Archipelago of Freedom and Tolerance". Where, geographically, Romania did not take part in
the creation of this territory of the archipelago of freedom and tolerance, it did not get
involved either in a civic way. Therefore the only collaboration between the media of
opposition was between Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary, collaboration which Adam
Michnik calls "maybe the first meeting of the Visegrad community".
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
John Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: Acritical Appraisal of Postwar American
National Security Policy, Oxford University Press, 1982.
Vclav Havel, "The Power of the Powerless" (1978). Excerpts from the Original
Electronic Text provided by Bob Moeller, of the University of California, Irvine,
http://history.hanover.edu/courses/excerpts/165havel.html.
Mircea Iorgulescu, Tangeniale, Editura Institutului Cultural Romn, Bucureti, 2004.
Tony Judt, Europa iluziilor, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2000.
Adam Michnik, Mrturisirile unui disident convertit, prefa de Vladimir Tismneanu,
postfa de Jzef Tischner, Editura Polirom, 2009.
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Abstract: Located between West and East border, Romanian society could take full advantage
of all the surrounding cultural resources. On the contrary, it frequently happened that this
phenomenon produced a stagnation, because of disputes between conflicting theories and
doctrines of both worlds: the hungry for progress in the West, and the East area, that was
apparently hostile to modernity and prosperity of any such material. Combating the reading
of books, because according to their conceptions books lead to heresy, the Slavs borrowed
from Byzantine culture everything related to cult and religious views. That is the pattern on
which Slavic religious culture was transferred to Romanian Countries. Copies and
translations of religious books in the fifteenth century are the first steps in Romanian culture.
Soon after, scholars feel the urge to use their own language, and since the sixteenth century,
they have replaced gradually Slavonic with Romanian language, approaching their people.
Keywords: History of literary language, evolution of literary language, religious literature,
print in Valahia, print in the XVIIth century, romanian literature of the XVIIIth century
n secolul al XVII-lea, n rile romne aflate n plin feudalism, apare un tip nou de
boierime care va influena decisiv economia i politica acestei zone. O alt categorie,
meseriaii organizai n bresle, se ridic, iar limba naional se impune cu pai repezi n
Biseric i Cancelariile Domneti.
Dac n Moldova, crturari precum Ureche i Miron Costin au putut studia n Polonia,
Nicolae Milescu sau Dimitrie Cantemir au avut o baz greceasc i latin, iar iezuiii au
organizat coli n limba latin (La Iai, Galai, Cotnari), iar n Transilvania se extindea
propaganda calvin, n ara Romneasc, la 1694, se nfiina, la Bucureti, Academia
Domneasc, cu predare n limba greac. Fenomene datorate iniial micrilor luterane i
calvine, tiparul i difuzarea crii tiprite capt un rol mesianic. Odat cu tipriturile
coresiene se trezete tot mai mult contiina unitii de neam i de limb, iar romna ptrunde
i n scrisorile i actele particulare ale Domnitorilor i boierilor, ntr-o vreme n care se face
simit tot mai mult, att n plan religios, ct i laic, o influen greceasc.
La nceputul secolului al XVII-lea, rile Romne ncep s i pun problema
naionalizrii Serviciului Divin i a introducerii limbii romne ca limb oficial. n epoca de
nflorire spiritual pe care o proteja domnia lui Matei Basarab apar o serie de schimbri
majore n plan cultural. Arta caligrafiei i a miniaturii atinge apogeul i, n acesat perioad,
apar manuscrise cu miniaturi de o rar frumusee precum Slujebnicul n 1653, Evangheliarul
lui Porfirie, din 1633, Evanghelia Mitropolitului Anania, din 1651, Evangheliarul lui Silion
Rusu etc.
Eforturile lui Matei Basarab sunt susinute de Mitropoliii Teofil i tefan, de soia sa
Doamna Elina i de fratele acesteia, Udrite Nsturel.
437
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438
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Odat cu nscunarea lui erban Cantacuzino, n 1678, se pun bazele noii tipografii de
la Bucureti. Cea veche, datorat lui Matei Basarab i ncetase activitatea la moartea acestuia.
n timpul Domniei lui erban Cantacuzino vor fi tiprite, n romnete, primele cri
de cult religios. Aici trebuie s facem o precizare, redundant poate: ntruct Evanghelia i
Faptele Apostolilor sunt prea ntinse pentru a putea fi citite n cursul unui serviciu, ele au fost
mprite n pericope care sunt alese n aa fel nct s se potriveasc cu evenimentul din ziua
respectiv. Anul bisericesc ncepe n ziua nvierii, aa c, n prima zi, lunea, se citete din
Evanghelia lui Ioan cap. I, versetul 18-19. Marea se citete din Luca, XXIV, versetul 12-35.
Miercuri se revine la Evanghelia lui Ioan etc. Astfel, clerul avea nevoie de Evanghelii i
Faptele Apostolilor structurate pe pericope. Cum spuneam, acestea apar, n aceast form,
pentru prima dat, la noi, n timpul Domniei lui erban Cantacuzino.
Evanghelia din 1682, tradus de fratele Domnitorului, Iordache, i Faptele Apostolilor
din 1683, ambele cu predosloviile semnate de Voievod, marcheaz a doua treapt n procesul
de introducere a limbii romne n Biseric. n 1680, apruse, prefaat de Mitropolitul
Teodosie, Liturghia, cu textul rugciunilor n limba slav, dar cu tipicul scris romnete.
n primele luni de domnie ale Brncoveanului apare Biblia de la Bucureti sinteza
tuturor sforrilor ndeplinite de crturarii romni n cele mai vitrege mprejurri, timp de trei
veacuri, n toate rile Romneti, pentru a nvemnta cuvntul Domnului n haina limbii
naionale1. Fr ndoial, cea mai nsemnat tipritur a secolului al XVII-lea este Biblia de
la Bucureti, din 1688, de care s-a ngrijit erban Cantacuzino. Predoslovia aparine lui
Dosithei, patriarhul Ierusalimului, care arat c la traducerea i revizuirea crilor din Sfinta
Scriptur au colaborat, n egal msur, greci (Ghermanonissis, Dosithei etc.) i romni (Radu
i erban Greceanu .a.).
Traducerea are la baz o versiune greceasc apruta la Frankfurt pe Main, al crei
Vechi Testament are, la rndul su, la origine Septuaginta. Traductorii romni au folosit i
manuscrisul lui Milescu din 1667. Nu este sigur n ce msur au apelat la structurile
lingvistice, ns pri din acest manuscris au fost, cu siguran, utilizate. Astfel, la, p. 740-750,
Biblia de la Bucureti include tratatul filosofic despre Raiunea dominant al lui Josephus
Flavius, care apare i n versiunea sptarului Milescu, rmas n manuscris. De asemenea, este
cert c la traducere i revizuirea ei a contribuit i Constantin Cantacuzino, bun cunosctor al
limbii greceti.
Radu Greceanu, cruia i datorm i apariia Mineielor de la Rmnic, face o serie de
observaii cu privire la truda sa:
1. Unele cuvinte greceti nu se afl n lexicoane
2. Alte cuvinte, dei se gsesc n lexicoane, nu pot fi traduse n romnete, pentru c
limba noastr e prea ngust.
Opera preia i adapteaz texte din Palia de la Ortie, Parimiile lui Dosoftei, Vechiul
Testament n traducerea lui Nicolae Milescu i Noul Testament de la Blgrad i cuprinde, aa
cum am artat, ca i n versiunea lui Nicolae Milescu Sptarul, tratatul filosofic despre
Raiunea dominant (primatul raiunii asupra sentimentelor) de Josephus Flavius, tradus sub
titlul A lui Iosip la Macavei carte. Adec pentru singurul iitor gnd.
Tipritura este prima publicare integral, n limba romn, a Sfintei Scripturi, ea
evideniind limpede etapa de dezvoltare a limbii noastre la acea dat.
N. Cartojan, Istoria literaturii romne vechi, vol III, Bucureti, Fundaia Regele Mihai I, 1945, p. 216-217.
439
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Pe lnga acestea, limba romn s-a consacrat ca limb oficial a cultului religios. Mai
puin unitar sub aspect fonetic i sintactic, Biblia lui erban Cantacuzino este unitar la nivel
morfologic i lexical. Traducerea integral a Bibliei n romnete, n forma tiprit la
Bucureti (1688), reprezint, deci, n literatura religioas romneasc, precum i n istoria
culturii romneti, o dat important. Dac traductorii s-au strduit s foloseasc o limb ct
mai unitar, bazat pe fonetismul graiului muntean, nu e mai puin adevrat totui c
strdaniile lor n-au fost ctui de puin coordonate. De aici numeroasele alternane fonetice,
numeroasele alternane fonetice, numeroasele grecisme, turcisme, frecvente inconsecvene i
fraze traduse confuz, dei textul inteligibil este totui predominant.
Numrul termenilor bisericeti de origine slav este puternic redus fa de operele
tiprite anterior. De asemenea, pe lng numerosele arhaisme, impresioneaz cantitatea
alternanelor fonetice, ceea ce demonstreaz absena unor norme fonetice unitare la acea dat:
i esu ntrnsul (n engolpiu) estura dup piatr n patru rnduri: rnd de pietri sardion,
i topazion i smaragd un rnd; i rndul al doilea - anthrax, i zamfir, i iaspis; i rndul al
treilea lighirien, i ahatis, i amethisos; i rndul al patrulea hriselithes i viriliem, i
enihien, nconjurate cu aur, i legate prin prejur cu aur.2
n ciuda faptului c ntlnim structuri sintactice neobinuite, construcia frazei este mai
fireasc dect n operele anterioare. Pe alocuri apar devieri n cadrul regimului verbal,
dezacorduri n gen i unele construcii ambigue.
Valoarea Bibliei de la Bucureti sub raportul limbii literare este, deci, inegal, lucru de
altfel firesc, ntr-o epoc de formare a limbii. Cu toate acestea, prin calitile sale, prin
amploarea textului, prin circulaia mare pe care a avut-o cartea pe ntreg teritoriul de limb
romneasc i prin prestigiul de care s-a bucurat, Biblia de la Bucureti a contribuit la
impunerea graiului muntenesc ca baz a limbii literare. Principalele versiuni romneti
ulterioare ale Bibliei (Blaj, aguna, Galaction-Radu) au folosit, ntr-o msur mai mare sau
mai mic, textul Bibliei lui erban Cantacuzino, demonstrnd astfel caracterul ei de
monument fundamental n istoria limbii literare romne, una pentru toi romnii3.
Meritul ei de necontestat este, la un grad mai nalt, acelai ca n cazul tuturor
tipriturilor bisericeti: Marele merit al acestor cri e, poate, acesta, c, trecnd hotarele, au
adunat sufletete, prin viaa cultural, pe toi romnii laolalt. Prin ele, mai mult dect prin
vechile manuscrise, care circulau greu i se copiau puin, nedesvrit, s-a ntemeiat o via
literar comun a tuturor romnilor4.
Ctre sfritul secolului al XVII-lea, apare, n diverse centre, un numr mare de cri
romneti, a cror rspndire are un rol important n consolidarea fizionomiei romnei
literare: Liturghia (Bucureti, 1680), Evanghelia (Bucureti, 1682), Apostol (Bucureti, 1683),
Mrgritarele lui Ioan Gur de Aur (Bucureti, 1691), Pravoslavnic mrturisire (Buzu,
1691), Psaltirea romneasc (Bucureti, 1693), Ornduiala slujbei sfinilor Constantin i
Elena a lui Antim Ivireanul (Snagov, 1696), Evanghelie (Snagov, 1697), Triod (Buzu,
1697), Mineiul (Buzu, 1698), Molitvelnic (Buzu, 1699), Carte sau lumin cu dreapte
dovediri din dogmele bisearecii Rsritului (Snagov, 1699).
Domnia lui Brncoveanu este propice dezvoltrii culturale, iar tipografia ia avnt. Sunt
tiprite iniial texte religioase, dar n curnd apar gramatici, iar primenirea i dezvoltarea
limbii romne intr ntr-o nou etap.
440
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Andriescu, Al., Dosoftei, creatorul unui limbaj poetic original, n Stil i limbaj, Iai,
Editura Junimea, 1977, p.79-109.
2. Carte romneasc de nvtur, Bucureti, Editura Academiei, 1961.
3. Cartojan, N., Istoria literaturii romne vechi, vol III, Bucureti, Fundaia Regele
Mihai I, 1945.
4. Cartojan, N., Istoria literaturii romne vechi, vol. II, Bucureti, Editura Regal pentru
Literatur i Art, 1942.
5. Ciobanu, t., Istoria literaturii romne vechi, Chiinu, Editura Hyperion, 1992.
6. Giosu, tefan, Limba textelor juridice din secolul al XVII-lea, AUI, seciunea III, tom
IX, 1963, p. 101-149.
7. Grecu, Victor V., Probleme ale limbii romne n crile bisericeti, n Cercetri de
limb i literatur, Oradea, Editura Imprimeriei de Vest, 2000, p. 33-41.
8. Iorga, N., Istoria literaturii romne, vol. I, Bucureti, 1925.
9. Iorga, Nicolae. Istoria bisericii romneti i a vieii religioase a romnilor. Vlenii de
Munte, 1908 (vol. I).
10. Istoria literaturii romne, vol. I, Bucureti, Editura Academiei, 1970.
11. ndreptarea legii, Bucureti, Editura Academiei, 1962.
12. Schiau, Octavian, Crturari i cri n spaiul romnesc medieval, Cluj-Napoca,
Editura Dacia, 1978.
13. epelea, Gabriel, Gheorghe Bulgr, Momente din evoluia limbii romne literare,
Bucureti, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, 1973.
14. Vulcnescu, Romulus, Etnografie juridic, Bucureti, Editura Academiei, 1970.
441
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Abstract: Extending and developing the analytical approach initiated with the study Hybrid
Identity and Liminal Elements in the Biography and Work of Andrei Codrescu (which was
presented at the first edition of the International Conference on Literature, Discourse and
Multicultural Dialogue), the author of the present paper inventoriesin Codrescus novel
Casanova in Bohemianew forms of liminality, from biological liminality (expressed by
the irreversible, somatic degradation of the main character) to identitary liminality (equally
justified by Casanovas condition as an exile and the libertine side of his nature), all these
forms being projected on the background of a social liminality (the French Revolution at the
end of the 18th century, which marks the dissolution of the old social orderthe decadence of
aristocracy, culminating in the abolition of monarchyand the emergence of a new structure:
the fledgling bourgeoisie).
Keywords: libertinism, exile, liminality, identitary masks, the archetype of Seducer.
Libertinul este un individ care sfideaz deliberat legile moralei i ale decenei,
plasndu-se n afara normelor etice i fiind perceput ca indezirabil i periculos de ctre
societatea mainstream, n ciuda seduciei pe care el o exercit. Aceast ex-centricitate a sa, n
sensul distanrii de centrul unei structuri sociale dominante, poziioneaz libertinul ntr-o
zon liminal1, de tranzit spre o nou forma mentis, spre un alt mod progresist i
neconvenional de a nelege i de a se raporta la lume. Figur reprezentativ a acestei
tipologii umane, Giacomo Casanova a rmas n mentalul colectiv ca arhetip al Seductorului.
Nscut ntr-un mediu srac, va profita la maximum de abilitile sale de relaionare social,
frecventnd elitele i construindu-i tot felul de mti identitare:
Casanova se pliaz pe toate identitile, este un adevrat cameleon. Avea aceast
capacitate de a putea exercita orice meserie preot, militar, violonist, bibliotecar, secretar de
ambasad, spion, cavaler i de a-i seduce pe cei care-i puteau fi utili fcndu-i s cread c
face parte din lumea lor. Astfel, el face mereu rost de scrisori de recomandare care i sunt
indispensabile cnd vrea s nceap o nou via, s frecventeze o alt elit i s-i lase, din
nou, viaa n minile sorii2.
Conceptul de liminalitate, lansat de Arnold Van Gennep, a fost dezvoltat i consacrat de antropologul britanic Victor Turner n a doua
jumtate a secolului XX. n studiul Betwixt and Between: The Liminal Period in Rites of Passage (1967), Turner pornete de la structura
tripartit a riturilor de trecere identificat de Van Gennep (separarepragagregare), focalizndu-se pe analiza etapei intermediare, n care
status-ul indivizilor ce parcurg faza liminal a ritualului este unul ambiguu, indeterminat din punct de vedere al canonului social. Aflat ntr-o
zon de falie (neither here nor there) a comunitii, individul autentic, deconectat de la reeaua determinrilor sociale preexistente, este
pregtit acum s accead la un nou statut, prin parcurgerea etapei de resocializare.
Andreea
Lupor,
Istoria
real
adevratului
Casanova,
articol
http://www.historia.ro/exclusiv_web/actualitate/articol/istoria-reala-adevaratului-casanova.
442
disponibil
la
adresa
web:
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
Irina-Maria
Manea,
Cteva
lucruri
de
tiut
despre
seductorul
Casanova,
articol
disponibil
la
http://www.historia.ro/exclusiv_web/portret/articol/cateva-lucruri-stiut-seducatorul-casanova#.
4
Andrei Codrescu, Casanova n Boemia, trad. de Ioana Avdani, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2005, p. 7.
Andrei Codrescu, Voi mi hrnii spiritul, interviu acordat Florinei Prjol, n Romnia literar, nr. 16, 27 apr.-3 mai 2005.
443
adresa
web:
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
Rodica
Grigore,
Casanova
Boemia
sau
Tentaia
livrescului,
recenzie
disponibil
la
adresa
web:
http://rodicagrigore.blogspot.ro/2010/05/andrei-codrescu-casanova-in-boemia.html.
7
Pentru erou, cltoria una din cele mai tipice experiene liminale este un modus vivendi devenit adicie: Clrind de voie, Casanova
simi din nou prezent acel lucru care-i nclzea cel mai mult sufletul: libertatea de micare, de-a se ndrepta ctre un loc nou, de a cuceri lumi
noi. Acest interstiiu dintre locul prsit i destinaie era zona n care se simea cel mai bine. Avea nevoie de el ca de aer [...]. I se prea
imposibil s conceap o lume n care nu mai existau locuri noi, unde cltoria era la fel de plictisitoare i banal ca statul acas. (p. 225).
444
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Adina Dinioiu, Casanova, att de sentimental, n Observator cultural, nr. 18(275), 30 iun.-6 iul. 2005, p. 9.
10
11
Ironia eroului la adresa lui Voltaire, celebrul su rival, este evident pe tot parcursul crii.
12
13
445
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
culturale din prima jumtate a secolului XX, pe fundalul crora aventura publicrii
Memoriilor sale pare s le depeasc n amplitudine i intricaie pe cele din paginile
manuscrisului. n aceast perioad, se intersecteaz cu marile figuri intelectuale ale epocii,
precum Stendhal, Rimbaud, Verlaine, Apollinaire, Sartre .a. Cu aceast aducere n
contemporaneitate a naraiunii prin care autorul ne reamintete c marile spirite nu mor
niciodat , romanul lui Codrescu devine o meditaie clasic (a unui postmodern!) prin
intermediul unui personaj simptomatic asupra evoluiei sociale, politice i morale a lumii14.
n paginile finale ale crii asistm la un dialog savuros ntre Casanova redivivus i
Jean-Paul Sartre despre importana relativ a doi oameni care fuseser contemporani,
Marchizul de Sade i Jaques Casanova. n viziunea lui Sartre, dintre cei doi, de Sade fusese
vizionarul. Acesta anticipase mai bine revolta i ororile lumii moderne. Casanova, din contr,
fusese un brbat prea sentimental, prea dispus s uite i s ierte, prea complezent cu
oamenii15. Acest portret al eroului nostru, atribuit filozofului existenialist de ctre vocea
auctorial, vine s reabiliteze imaginea unui om redus mult timp doar la statutul de aventurier
frivol.
Cartea nu cade ns n pcatul de a demonstra cu orice pre i unilateral dimensiunea
erudit a personajului su, fiind presrat cu scene erotice de foarte bun calitate. Memorabil
este episodul debutului n societate al unei ppui mecanice numite Thalia, prin care autorul
prefigureaz revoluia modern a industriei sexuale. Nu lipsesc orgiile, tabletele afrodiziace,
scenele de erotism safic dintre Laura i Libussa (alt slujnic de la castel, mai tnr dar la fel
de voluptoas) sau ogarul mecanic botezat de ctre Casanova cu numele ilustrului su rival:
Volaire. Referindu-se la dimensiunea erotic a crii, Adina Dinioiu face urmtoarele
precizri:
Pentru c apariia n romnete a romanului lui A. Codrescu coincide cu aceea a
ultimului roman al lui P. Bruckner (Iubirea fa de aproapele), in s remarc c erotismul
decadent i voyeurist (Casanova nu face, de cele mai multe ori, dect s priveasc de pe
margine) din romanul lui Codrescu este mult mai insinuant i mai pregnant dect acela
explicit, aproape tezist de la Bruckner16.
n demersul autorului de ficionalizare a istoriei se nscrie i crearea unor scene cu un
vdit caracter senzaional. De pild, episodul n care Contele de Waldstein sosete la castel cu
tigvele celor doi monarhi decapitai la revoluie (Ludovic al XVI-lea i soia sa, Maria
Antoaneta), dup ce, n prealabil, Casanova i exprimase admiraia pentru un cap de rege.
Ironia instanei auctoriale este evident, n cel mai pur stil postmodern.
Fie c evoc, n pasaje duios-lirice, Veneia natal (metresa ncpnat) care
apune odat cu el, fie c se las sedus de farmecul povetii ntr-o construcie baroc de
secvene narative, personajul central al crii descoper plcerea aproape erotic de a-i
depna istoria propriei viei, pe msur ce o scrie: dar Casanova mai este altceva un arhetip
al povestitorului, al celui care istorisete, o eherezad masculin, fr pericolul tierii
capului, o eherezad proteic i multiform: Singura afacere din lume este istorisirea de
poveti, conchide eroul lui Codrescu17.
14
Ibidem.
15
16
Ibidem.
17
Ruxandra Cesereanu, One man show: Andrei Codrescu, n Steaua, nr. 1-2, 2007.
446
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Bibliografie
Cesereanu, Ruxandra, One man show: Andrei Codrescu, n Steaua, nr, 1-2, 2007.
Codrescu, Andrei, Casanova n Boemia, trad. de Ioana Avdani, Editura Polirom, Iai,
2005.
Codrescu, Andrei, Voi mi hrnii spiritul, interviu acordat Florinei Prjol, n
Romnia literar, nr. 16, 27 apr.-3 mai 2005.
Dinioiu, Adina, Casanova, att de sentimental, n Observator cultural, nr. 18(275),
30 iun.-6 iul. 2005.
Grigore, Rodica, Casanova n Boemia sau Tentaia livrescului, recenzie disponibil
la adresa web: http://rodicagrigore.blogspot.ro/2010/05/andrei-codrescu-casanova-inboemia.html.
Lupor, Andreea, Istoria real a adevratului Casanova, articol disponibil la adresa
web:
http://www.historia.ro/exclusiv_web/actualitate/articol/istoria-reala-adevaratuluicasanova.
Manea, Irina-Maria, Cteva lucruri de tiut despre seductorul Casanova, articol
disponibil la adresa web: http://www.historia.ro/exclusiv_web/portret/articol/cateva-lucruristiut-seducatorul-casanova#.
Turner, Victor, Betwixt and Between: The Liminal Period in Rites of Passage, n
The Forest of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu Ritual, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY,
1967.
Van Gennep, Arnold, Riturile de trecere, trad. din limba francez de Lucia Berdan i
Nora Vasilescu, studiu introductiv de Nicolae Constantinescu, postfa de Lucia Berdan,
Editura Polirom, Iai, 1996.
447
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Abstract: In the study we wish to make a presentation of the way in which a Romanian weekly
paper mirrored and reflected upon the issue of Transylvanianism. Emil Giurgiucas and
George Boldeas publication published numerous articles on the topic. Our aim is to analyse
the extent to which these articles accepted or rejected this Transylvanian regional ideology.
Keywords: Transylvanianism, regional ideology, the cultural magazine Abecedar,
intercultural communication, press in the interwar period
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
geografiei specifice a Ardealului, s-a conturat un psihism aparte al locuitorilor acestui inut,
psihism prin definiie ptruns de asumarea principiilor libertii, convieuirii i toleranei.
Ecoul transilvanismului n discursul cultural romnesc este extrem de complex i de
nuanat. n viaa de zi cu zi, transilvanitii mprteau o reea de convingeri, dintre care
foarte multe erau comune cu cele ale colegilor de breasl romni. Contiina i ideologia
naional romn a fost promovat mai nti de coala Ardelean (Samuil Micu Klein, Petru
Maior, Gh. incai), contiina comunitar sseasc s-a format prin scrierile lui August Ludwig
Schlzer, Stefan Ludwig Roth i Friedrich Teutsch. Bilingvismul i multilingvismul erau o
norm pentru central-europenii educai, cel puin pn spre mijlocul secolului XX. Cum
majoritatea scriitorilor ardeleni vorbeau limba romn i maghiar deopotriv, ei puteau avea
acces direct la creaia artistic i cea publicistic a celorlali. Ideologia transilvanist implica
existena spiritului ardelean i la scriitorii romni i sai. n articolul Az igazi erdlyi
szellemisg/Adevrata spiritualitate ardelean1 Kacs Sndor atinge problema implicaiilor
politice ale transilvanismului, atunci cnd spune c acesta nu este un construct exclusiv
cultural sau politic, ci este mai degrab un tip de atitudine - practic sau spiritual - care poate
fi adoptat att n literatur, ct i n politic. Transilvanismul este, n aceast accepiune, un
program de lucru i un curent, neansa cruia a fost tocmai mitizarea i glorificarea excesiv.
Rezultatul acestei proiectri n mit a fost catalogarea transilvanismului estetic drept
regionalism minor i a celui politic drept trdare. Kacs atinge n acelai articol i chestiunea
originilor transilvanismului romnesc. El aduce n discuie Dieta ardelean din 1863-64,
unde, dup prerea lui, romnii au folosit argumentaia i discursul de tip transilvanist pentru
a-i servi cauza. Cum anume? Episcopul uluiu vorbea acolo despre egalitatea tuturor
naiunilor, sugernd ca toate limbile vorbite n Ardeal s devin limbi obligatorii n colile de
stat. Concluzia epsicopului La urma urmei, multitudinea limbilor de la aceast Diet
reflect Transilvania nsi (Kacs apud Pomogts, 2008, 537-543) - faptul c Transilvania
este prin definiie plurilingv - anun deja discursul transilvanist din anii 20. Un alt text n
care chestiunea transilvanismului romnesc transpare cu claritate este articolul de ntmpinare
semnat de Kdr Imre (j romn folyrat Erdlyben/O revist romneasc nou n Ardeal),
n care autorul salut apariia revistei Darul Vremii, apreciat ca prima ncercare de
promovare a transilvanismului cultural n cercurile intelectuale romneti (Kdr 1930, 340341). De asemenea, Kovts Jzsef (1930, 184-185.) scrie un alt articol n revista Pszortz,
unde vorbete de George Cobuc i de t. O. Iosif ca despre reprezentanii transilvanismului
literar romnesc.
Problema transilvanismului a fost diferit perceput i dezbtut n publicaiile
romneti ale vremii. S-au nscut studii consacrate problemei Transilvaniei sub semntura lui
D. Popovici, Ion Breazu, G. Ibrileanu, E. Lovinescu, G. Clinescu, Ion Chinezu etc.
Existena unui specific literar ardelean este o idee acceptat att de literaii romni, ct i de
cei maghiari. Intelectualul ardelean, scrie Bucur Tincu, bazndu-se pe tradiie, servete
societatea, cel izolat i cel chinuit de dureri personale, cel snob i nnoitor universal sau
extravagant nu are ecou social. Caracteristica principal a intelectualului ardelean este
activismul i dinamismul n formare continu. (Todor, 1983, 306.)
Ion Chinezu formuleaz astfel n 1929: transilvanismul a fost ridicat la suprafa
atunci cnd Ardealul i-a ntors faa spre Bucureti ... vom cuta s vedem dac exist n
adevr un transilvanism generator de art, un suflet specific al acestei regiuni, o gndire
ardelean capabil s se cristalizeze ntr-o form literar proprie. Problema, astfel pus,
aparine geografiei literare.
Text aprut n Erdlyi Helikon, 1938, 35-41, i reprodus n Pomogts Bla, 2008, 537-543.
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Mihai Beniuc. Sptmnalul aprut sub ngrijirea lui Emil Giurgiuca i al lui George Boldea
s-a vrut, de la bun nceput, o revist ardelean, un Abecedar pentru scriitorii Ardealului, dup
cum sugereaz un titlu din numrul 2 din 18 mai 1933. Ardealul dinainte de rzboiu a dat
literaturii romneti, la scurte etape, o contribuie proprie de poezie nfrgezit i nou plin
de sev autohton, uneori de un nvluit iredentism, totdeauna drapat de un farmec
patriarhal. Valorile literare se vrsar peste Carpai absorbite de mirajul rii, de unde
strlucirea lor sa rsfrnt n toate prile, scprtoare, nlesnind contemplarea din tuspatru punctele de orizont. Slavici a deschis la Iai ferestrele ctre Ardeal, interesul i
simpatia pentru specificul transilvan fuseser ctigate i nlturat repulsiunea, provenit
dela artificiile acelui fals curent de latinizare. n ochii scriitorilor din familia Junimei,
Ardealul ncepea s se curee de sgura crturreasc. (Giurgiuca- Boldea, mai 1933, 1-3)
Se trec n revist cteva nume de scriitori care reprezint ardelenismul n literatur: solarul i
echilibratul clasic Cobuc, candidul furar de rime care a introdus n literatur tema
dezrdcinrii - t. O. Iosif, O. Goga care a nchegat formula ideii naionale (aspect la care
vom reveni). O idee interesant care trebuie reinut este aceea c, dei Ardealul a produs
muli literai, nu a oferit i teren de afirmare pentru acetia, ba mai mult, literatura produs n
Ardeal trebuia s fie diferit: dar ceeace intereseaz acum e constatarea c Ardealul na
oferit un bun teren pentru nobila art i na reinut pe cntrei. S fie dintro repulsiune,
contractat prin latinism, fa de ce era clar,- din lipsa de zare larg a mediului intelectual,
ori un efect al preocuprilor politice care cerea poeilor un alt sunet, dect acela de
mrgritar, al lirei i nu eulalii amgitoare. (Giurgiuca- Boldea, mai 1933, 1-3) Nae
Antonescu apreciaz, n volumul Reviste din Transilvania, c Titlul noului sptmnal
dobndete caractere simbolice, Abecedar, revist literar, devenind nceputul unei puternice
micri de desctuare a energiilor creatoate, literare i artistice din Transilvania, canalizndule n direcia unei concepii realiste, cu puternice rdcini n tradiie dar i cu ferestre larg
deschise spre orientrile veacului. Aciunea disciplinat a grupului de colaboratori a nceput
cu inventarul literar al unui secol de creaie, un bilan n care se recunosc valori reprezentative
pentru opera respectiv, dar se constat i o situaie precar, o lips de ndrumare a literaturii
romneti din Transilvania. (Antonescu, 2001, 92)
Textul semnat de Emil Popa, Lacune, din numrul 7 din 22 iunie 1933, reia ideea
necesitii unei reviste de calitate pentru a promova spiritul transilvan i credina n apariia
unui scriitor pe msur. Sufletul acesta de mprosptare de care va trebui s pulseze orice
sat, nu va putea fi furnizat numai de capital, din cauza centrismului ei exagerat, i din cauza
acelui mozaic spiritual de tendine ncruciate, ecou al curentelor din apus. De aceea va
trebui s ne ndreptm ochii i spre alte ceti.
Va trebui s spiritualizm provinciile, sle redm viaa cultural din trecut... n
aceast ipotez Ardealul apare srac. Dela Luceafrul lui Octavian Goga nam mai avut o
revist de cultur care s mbrieze ntrun mnunchi scrisul ardelean... Credem ns n
apariia unui scriitor care s dea via unei reviste bune. (Popa, iunie 1933, 3) Scriitorilor i
intelectualilor de mine, crede publicistul, le revine sarcina de a respiritualiza provinciile, n
special Ardealul.
ntr-un numr din iulie 1933, la sfritul revistei, n notele de final adunate sub titlul
Carnet, apare un scurt text semnat de Emil Giurgiuca, care salut demersul revistei lui Ion
Chinezu, care ar putea, dup modelul helikonitilor maghiari, s impun o instituionalizare i
o organizare sistematic a vieii literare romneti din Transilvania. Una din multele lacune,
n Ardeal, este lipsa de coeziune dintre scriitori. Unii se neac n apele politicii de partid,
alii umbresc n jurul lor de singurtate. Ar trebui zidit o cetate literar (revist, editur)
care s strng laolalt pe cei mprtiai, aa cum Ungurii dela noi au zidit un Helicon
Transilvan (Erdlyi Helikon), masiv publicaie literar, pe lng care funcioneaz o editur
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cultural. Saii ardeleni sunt circumspeci i manierai, scrie Muranu, i citeaz dintr-un
articol al lui Zillich, aprut n Gndirea (anul XI, no. 9), cnd spune c pentru dnii e un
adevr devenit banal, c prin crearea Romniei Mari, nu sau unit numai regiuni cu tradiii
istorice deosebite, dar c i cercuri culturale, de structur eterogen, ntretaie acest
teritoriu. (Muranu , noemvrie 1933, 9-11) n ceea ce privete cariera maghiar a
termenului, acesta nu circula nainte de rzboi, ba mai mult, Muranu amintete de acea
hotrre a unui ministru al educaiei care a impus folosirea denumirii de Platoul de Sud-est n
loc de denumirea Ardeal. Noi, Romnii, n discuiile literare i politice, ntotdeauna i-am zis
ardelenism sau regionalism. Cuvntul transilvanism, dei cu mai mult savoare de latinitate,
scormonitor de ndreptite orgolii romneti dincoace de Carpai, e o numire, care nu ne-a
prea entuziasmat niciodat. Pentru Romni e mai dulce cealalt. (Muranu, noemvrie
1933, 9-11) Noiunea de transilvanism, precizeaz Teodor Muranu, a fost pus n circulaie
de minoritari, i dei are, n mod evident un substrat politic, a ptruns i a fcut carier mai
nti n cmpul literaturii. i cu credulitatea lor, muli publiciti romni hipergeneroi, ar fi
perseverat n alunecarea spre capcana abil ntins, dac d-l Albert Zathurecki ...n-ar fi avut
imprudena s se grbeasc cu un bilan al transilvanismului, demascnd, involuntar,
subnelesurile urmrite de Maghiari. Trezirea la realitatea ciudat afost destul de penibil
pentru toi publicitii romni, cari, nainte, mbriau cu simpatie discuia unui
transilvanism cultural literar. (Ne referim aici la ampla polemic literar din Patria,
Curentul, Calendarul). (Muranu, noemvrie 1933, 9-11)
Teodor Muranu ncearc deci o circumscriere a termenului, nu n sensul lui politic
promovat de minoritari, ci, spune el, n sensul lui literar. Astfel, transilvanismul este un
regionalism literar, un specific etnic, acea flor particular unei pri de lume, bucat
veritabil de via, care nu poate fi nbuit, care merit i trebue eternizat n art.
(Muranu, noemvrie 1933, 9-11) ntrebarea fundamental la care ncearc s gseasc un
rspuns este dac exist sau, dimpotriv, nu exist un transilvanism, un ardelenism artistic,
literar. Ardealul este, crede publicistul, un pmnt stpnit de o mare de rani romni, printre
care se afl cteva burguri sseti i cteva insule maghiare. Dac se pune problema
reprezentrii artistice a Transilvaniei, a exprimrii literare a specificului sufletesc, a spiritului
ardelean, nu iptul ntre rs i plns al ungurilor l poate exprima cel mai bine, nici gustul
pentru privilegii medievale al sailor. Dimpotriv, apreciaz Teodor Muranu, sufletul
transilvan, spiritul ardelean se poate exprima numai prin scrisul artitilor romni. O mass
compact de oameni ai pmntului, ai munilor i ai vilor, ai vremurilor bune i rele, ai
vnturilor i al ploilor dintotdeauna..... Slavici, Cobuc, Goga i Agrbiceanu. Arta acestor
scriitori nu este un moft al unor burghezi plictisii de confortul vieii urbane. Scrisul lor e un
bloc de via autentic a lumii ardeleneti. E clocotul de via vulcanic a unei realiti
umane, care i caut respiraia i trirea prin veacuri.... n scrisul acestora e, n adevr un
transilvanism viu, necutat, necomandat. Din crile lor, n orice moment, n orice parte de
lume, ai putea reconstrui viaa autentic, marea i singura realitate, care conteaz n
geografia acestui col de pmnt romnesc.
Din ntreg scrisul literailor minoritari e imposibil s nimereti ceva viu, veritabil, ce
s rspund la viaa i lumea Ardealului. Nu pentruc nar fi artiti tot att de mari ca
scriitorii romni, dar n scrisul lor nu te izbete freamtul unei mulimi, suport sentimental la
spatele scriitorului. (Muranu, noemvrie 1933, 9-11) Rspunsul la ntrebare este categoric:
un transilvanism transetnic nu exist. Maghiarii ardeleni, n toate aspectele lor, nau putut
produce aici ceva difereniat de cultura general maghiar. Saii rupi de veacuri de massa
german... duc o via alimentat mereu i direct din marea cultur teuton.
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Citat n mod eronat sub titlul de Transilvania de ctre Nae Antonescu, 2001, 96
455
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fost o revist care simpatiza cu transilvanismul6, putem afirma c publicaia editat de Emil
Giurgiuca i George Boldea s-a vrut, ntr-adevr, o revist a Ardealului, a promovat spiritul
ardelean n literatur, fr ns a pune un semn de egalitate ntre ardelenism i transilvanism,
tratnd transilvanismul ca o ideologie cultural a intelectualilor maghiari, concurent al
ardelenismului literar romnesc.
Bibliografie
Antonescu, Nae, Reviste din Transilvania, Oradea, Biblioteca Revistei Familia, 2001.
Chinezu, Ion, Aspecte din literatura maghiar ardelean. Editura Revistei Societatea
de mine, Cluj,1930.
K. Lengyel Zsolt, A kompromisszum keresse, Editura Pro-Print , Miercurea Ciuc,
2007.
Ligeti Ern, Sly alatt a plma, Miercurea Ciuc, Pallas-Akadmia, 2004, p. 104
Kuncz Aladr, Erdly az n hazm, n Kuncz Aladr Tanulmnyok, kritikk,
Bucureti, Kriterion, 1973.
Neubauer, John - Cornis Pope, Marcel, History of the Literary Cultures of EastCentral Europe, vol II, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing Company,
2004.
Pomogts Bla, Magyar irodalom Erdlyben(1918-1944), Miercurea Ciuc, PallasAkadmia, 2008.
Ritok Jnos, Ketts tkr. A magyar-szsz egyttls mltjbl s a kt vilghbor
kztti irodalmi kapcsolatok trtnetbl, Editura Kriterion, Bucureti, 1979.
Todor, Avram P., Confluene literare romno-maghiare. Eseuri, ngrijirea ediiei, note
i prefa de Dvid Gyula, Editura Kriterion, Bucureti, 1983.
*Abecedar. Indice bibliografic ntocmit de Dona Daisa, Biblioteca Academiei RSR,
filiala Cluj, serviciul de documentare i bibliografie, Cluj, 1972, p. 21.
*Jelsz s mtosz, antologie i studiu introductiv de Pomogts Bla, Editura Mentor,
Trgu-Mure, 2003.
Articole
Barde, Silviu (Teodor Muranu), Carnet, in Abecedar, joi 20-27 iulie 1933, Anul I,
no. 11-12, p.8.
Boldea, George, Abecedar, joi 21-28 septemvrie 1933, Anul I, no. 19-20, p. 11.
Demetrescu, Romul, Renatere in Abecedar, joi 23 noemvrie 1933, Anul I, no. 29-30,
pp. 4-5.
Giurgiuca, Emil - Boldea, George, Abecedar pentru scriitorii Ardealului, in Abecedar,
joi 18 mai 1933, Anul I, no. 2, pp.1-3.
Giurgiuca, Emil, Carnet, in Abecedar, joi 6-13 iulie 1933, Anul I, no. 9-10, p.7.
Kuncz Aladr: Az erdlyi gondolat Erdly magyar irodalmban, in Nyugat, 1928.
Kdr Imre ,j romn folyirat Erdlyben, in Erdlyi Helikon, nr. 4 , aprilie 1930, pp.
340-341.
Kovts Jzsef, Legjabb erdlyi romn lra, in Psztortz, nr. 8, aprilie 1930, pp. 184185.
a fiatal nemzedket tmrt Abecedar cm folyirat pldul ersen rokonszenvezett a transzilvanista idelokkal
457
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Muranu, Teodor, Erdlyi Helikon, in Abecedar, joi 25 martie 1934, Anul I, no. 4952, p. 20.
Muranu, Teodor, Carnet in Abecedar, joi 6-13 iulie 1933, Anul I, no. 9-10, p.7.
Muranu, Teodor, Transilvanism in Abecedar, joi 9 noemvrie 1933, Anul I, no.
26-28, pp. 9-11.
Popa, Emil, Lacune in Abecedar, joi 22 iunie 1933, Anul I, no. , p.3.
Popa, Grigore, Noul suflet al Ardealului in Abecedar, joi 3-10 august 1933, Anul I, no.
13-14, pp. 5-6.
Popa, Grigore, Puncte cardinale... in Abecedar, joi 7decemvrie 1933, Anul I, no. 3132, pp. 1-3.
458
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Abstract: For the British writer Angela Carter, folklore makes real life more exciting and is
much easier to infiltrate with different kinds of consciousness. Like putting new wine in old
bottles, as she had somewhere put it, Carter enjoyed playing with texts and re-writing,
treating European literature as a kind of folklore. Her stories in the volume The Bloody
Chamber are the result of her belief that reading is just as creative an activity as writing, so
most intellectual development depends upon new reading of old texts.
Keywords: Angela Carter, British, re-writing, fairy-tales, Gothic
Meant for children, traditional fairy-tales always deal with the problems people could
be faced with, and provide ways of overcoming them. At an age when they tried to understand
themselves and to give meaning to their surrounding world, children were given moral
education by the examples contained in these tales. Along time, the tales became more and
more refined, gaining other meanings, addressing both children as well as adults. Initially a
part of folklore, they penetrated literature as one of its sources of inspiration, being adapted
not only by the Romantics, but also by contemporary writers.
The Bloody Chamber and Other Adult Fairy-Tales, a collection of stories published in
1979 by the British writer Angela Carter and rewarded with Cheltenham Festival literary
prize, rewrites the tradition, adapting fairy-tales to the 20th century atmosphere. Angela Carter
was attracted to fairy-tales because they use imagination to reinterpret daily experience. She
keeps the essential of the tales she tackles, but changes details, shifts the perspective, or
creates a different atmosphere.
I dont mind being called a spell-binder. Telling stories is a perfectly honourable
thing to do. [] I do find the imagery of fairy tales very seductive and capable of
innumerable interpretations, confessed Angela Carter in an interview (see Haffenden,
1985:82-83). Her intention was to extract the latent content from the traditional stories and to
use it as the beginnings of new stories (Haffenden, 1985:84). She was also inspired by the fact
that Italo Calvino had started his career by writing a fairy tale book which had a
transformational effect on his subsequent writings. But Carter credits Jose Luis Borges as a
more important influence in her stories than the traditional fairy-tales she enjoys retelling in
her own fashion.
Carter gives prominence to her version of Bluebeards tale by making it the title story
of her collection. There may have well been a historical Bluebeard (see Duncker, 1986:232).
One of the possibilities is Comorre the Cursed, a native of Brittany, who lived in AD 500. He
was given to murdering his wives as soon as they were pregnant, and supposedly decapitated
the last one.
In Carters version, the traditional interaction between the powerful, sadistic husband
and his innocent, curious bride is retained, although translated into the settings of rich French
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question, rather the key to my enfer [...] it is the key to a little room at the foot of the west
tower, behind the still-room, at the end of a dark little corridor full of horrid cobwebs... It is
only a private study, a hideaway, a den. (Carter, 1993:18) While saying these words he
seems to bear the burden of a terrible, haunting secret, being torn between his duty to protect
himself and his awful secret, and his inner hope that someone might eventually discover the
truth and find a way to release him from the spell.
After receiving such precise and detailed directions, who could resist the temptation of
going to the forbidden room? Anyway, with her husband gone away so soon, the young lady
has nothing better to do; the house is being taken care of by the housekeeper, and she cant
spend her time unpacking, as a maid has already unpacked her trunks. What else to do, then?
Alone in her room, bored, with the bunch of keys in her hand, she hopes to find something
interesting to do, as well as something else, more important: I was determined, now, to
search them all for evidence of my husbands true nature... Perhaps I might find his real self
in his den. (Carter, 1993:25)
She begins by searching his office, an extremely impersonal room, which raises her
suspicions that there must be a great deal to conceal if he takes such pains to hide it. Then she
heads for the forbidden room. Just like he indicated, it is at the end of a long corridor, along
the walls of which were hung heavy, Venetian tapestries with mythological subjects, full of
swords and immolated horses. To her surprise, she discovers that it is her mothers brave
spirit that she has inherited and that drives her forward in her quest, along this creepy
corridor.
The secret den she wasnt supposed to enter turns out to be a torture chamber, full of
funerary urns, bowls of incense, instruments of mutilation, with a catafalque in its centre. She
remembers her feelings each time she struck a match to light the candles around the
catafalque and see its occupant more closely: it seemed a garment of that innocence of
mine... fell away from me (Carter, 1993:27), a very suggestive image for her progressive
initiation in the horrible secret of the house. Just like in Perraults tale, all his former wives
are hidden there, and the frightful thought that she was meant, in her turn, to join them, added
to this horrible scene, makes her drop the key into a pool of blood blood that she will not be
able to scrub away, however hard she tries, just as she will never be able to forget what she
has found out.
In the French oral version of Bluebeards tale, entitled Le Pre Jacques, there is an old
man locked in the castle tower who reveals her things about her husband. In Carters version,
the place of this old man is taken by a blind piano tuner, Jean-Yves, her single ally and
comfort during the short period before her husbands return, although what he reveals her is
not very encouraging. Her husbands lust for blood appears to be hereditary, as one of his
ancestors used to hunt young girls on the mainland with dogs, as though they were foxes.
Bluebeard soon returns, and she has to face him. When he asks for his keys, she goes
to fetch them, praying to God his eyes would fail him, that he might be struck blind. (Carter,
1993:36) The same image appears again the moment he has the proof of her disobedience:
he raised his head and stared at me with his blind, shuttered eyes... (Carter, 1993:36). Had
he been blind, he could not see the proof of her disobey, and this recurrent image of blindness
may be the clue for the reader that, eventually, after she escapes Bluebeards terrible
punishment, it will be Jean-Yves whom she chooses as partner, Jean-Yves, the blind pianotuner who is not able to see the mark of her sin, magically transferred from the stained key to
her forehead: No paint nor powder, no matter how thick or white, can mask that red mark on
my forehead; I am glad he cannot see it not for fear of his revulsion, since I know he sees
me clearly with his heart but because it spares my shame. (Carter, 1993:44)
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When Perrault wrote down the orally transmitted fairy-tale, he changed some elements
to make it more suitable for bourgeois children. He wanted to convey patriarchal values
through his fairy-tales. However, Carter focuses on two periods of time simultaneously: the
time of patriarchy, and the time in which patriarchy is disappearing. She does this by placing
women in the center of her stories.
Countess Nosferatu, the main character of the short story The Lady of the House of
Love, is both the Sleeping Beauty and the Vampire Queen, plus the voracious witch of Hansel
and Gretel. Carter gives us a typical description of what a genuine last descendant of Vlad the
Impaler is thought to be: naturally, she inhabits a dilapidated, gloomy castle, with endless
corridors, up-winding staircases, and galleries where the painted eyes of family portraits
briefly flicker as one passes, a castle haunted by an army of shadows, in which she spends her
days lying in an open coffin.
Like Bluebeards castle, she is somewhere in-between, not belonging to a definite
realm: She has the mysterious solitude of ambiguous states; she hovers in a no-mans land
between life and death, sleeping and waking, behind the hedge of spiked flowers, Nosferatus
sanguinary rosebud. (Carter, 1993:124)
Yet, surprisingly, this vampire does not like the kind of life she leads: in her dreams
she would like to be human; but she does not know if that is possible as she bears the burden
of a hereditary vampirism it would be useless to fight. The young British officer who arrives
one day, after visiting friends in Vienna and deciding to explore the little-known uplands of
Romania is described as having a fundamental disbelief in what he sees before him
(somehow reminding us of Walser, the journalist who falls under Fevvers spell in Night at
the Circus, one of Carters later novels), a rational being who travels by bicycle in the land
of vampires and sees the funny side of it. He breaks the spell by kissing the countess
wounded hand and, thus, having a taste of her blood.
The symbol of the rose appears twice in the story: the roses which surround the castle
(like in the fairy-tale of the Sleeping Beauty), thickets bristling with thorns, with a heavy
scent inducing a sensuous vertigo, an abundance of roses reminding us of the funereal lilies
present in the Bluebeards story, The Bloody Chamber. When Countess Nosferatu dies, the
only thing the young officer takes away with him is her rose. If we consider the rose as a
symbol of regeneration (from ancient times, people used to put roses on tombs by virtue of
this very symbol), then we may see this withered rose which regains all its former bloom
and elasticity (when he puts it in water in his quarters, in Britain) as a reembodiment of the
Countess spirit, who avenges herself, even after her death. This might be one way of
explaining the abrupt ending of the story: next day his regiments embarks for France,
meaning he is sent to fight and die in the war, as a punishment of the rose.
According to Patricia Duncker, in fact, what the Countess longs for is the grand
finale of all snuff movies, in which the woman is sexually used and ritually killed, the oldest
clich of them all, sex and death. Only in death does she pass into womanhood, and the
handsome British cyclist passes out of the innocent security of fairy-tale into the terror of
history and the trenches of the First World War. (Duncker, 1986:232)
The sad, gloomy atmosphere of the story is, at times, enlivened by ironic, mocking
passages, as, for instance, Carters digressions about the officers means of transport on his
trip round the Carpathians: To ride a bicycle, writes Carter, is in itself some protection
against superstitious fears, since the bicycle is the product of pure reason applied to motion.
Geometry at the service of man! Give me two spheres and a straight line and I will show you
how far I can take them. Voltaire himself might have invented the bicycle, since it contributes
so much to mans welfare and nothing at all to his bane. Beneficial to the health, it emits no
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harmful fumes and permits only the most decorous speeds (Carter, 1993:117), or the officers
plans concerning the Countess: We shall take her to Zrich, to a clinic: she will be treated
for nervous hysteria. Then to an eye specialist, for her photophobia, and to a dentist to put
her teeth into a better shape. Any competent manicurist will deal with her claws. We shall
turn her into the lovely girl she is; I shall cure her of all these nightmares. (Carter,
1993:129)
This is how a rational, twentieth-century young person might deal with such a weird
thing as a vampire. Even the title of the story could be explained from a twentieth century
minds perspective. Seeing her macabre bedroom, the British soldier remembers his colonel,
who had once advised him to go to a brothel in Paris where, apparently, the biggest attraction
was a lugubrious bedroom full of the perfumes of an embalming parlour, where a naked girl
would lay on a coffin, and give pleasure to her customers. Seen through the eyes of the
character belonging to a different century, the grotesque background, the cobwebs, the wormeaten beams, the ill-lit rooms, and even the girls ceremonial, seem all cheap, vulgar, suited
only for a brothel.
Yet I do believe she scarcely know what she is doing (Carter, 1993:127). Every one
of her gestures is seen and commented in a mocking-pitiful tone by the officers inner voice,
which sometimes mingle with hers. In fact, the entire narrative is a mixture of expressed and
hidden thoughts. A perfect host at the beginning, Countess Nosferatu gradually loses her selfcomposure, hurrying to get what used to be the final stage of the passers-bys visit: the
bedroom.
She continually studies the officer, torn between her lust for blood and her need to
feed and her inexpected attraction to him, her hope of finding a little love and compassion.
Thus, incantations like Suivez-moi. Je vous attendais. Vous serez ma proie. (Carter,
1993:125) alternate with thoughts such as: I dont mean to hurt you [...] Ive always been
ready for you; Ive been waiting for you in my wedding dress, why have you delayed for so
long?... It will all be over very quickly. Carter, 1993:124) Still, heredity, her ancestors
voices, are stronger than her, and it is only by chance that the young British officer doesnt
share the others fate. Only by chance does he exorcise the vampire and break the evil spell
forever.
The Werewolf is Angela Carters re-imagining of Perraults Little Red Riding Hood.
From the late Middle Age onwards, oral versions of the story circulated in France. Charles
Perrault based his Petit Chaperon Rouge on this oral tradition, adapting the folktale to convey
social manners to children of the bourgeois class. This changes of purpose and public belongs
to the general tendency in Europe from the end of the seventeenth century onwards, which
Jack Zipes calls the literary bourgeoisification of the oral folk tale. According to Zipes,
Charles Perrault turns the brave girl, who is perfectly capable of defending her life and
chastity, into a helpless and even stupid bourgeois type. (Zipes, 1983:26)
In 1812, the bourgeoisification of the precious little girl reaches its appex in the
brothers Grimms version. Little Red Cap brings her grandmother neither bread and milk, like
her orally transmitted ancestor, nor biscuits and butter, but a piece of cake and a bottle of
wine. Importantly, the girl and her grandmother are freed from the belly of the big, bad wolf
by the big, brave hunter.
In The Werewolf, Angela Carter unites the bad woolf and the good grandmother in the
character of the werewolf, making us question grandmothers goodness. Why does the
grandmother have to die? The answer is obvious: to enable the girl to take her place, i.e. to
sleep in grannys bed and prosper. The Werewolf is, then, a story about elderly people who
refuse to follow the natural cycle of life, and who deny their offspring to succeed them (Zipes,
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1983:27). Jack Zipes goes on saying that this aspect of the story becomes more clear if we
look at the oral version, in which the wherewolf asks the girl whether she is taking the path of
needles or the path of pins, which refer to the needlework apprenticeship young peasants girls
underwent in certain regions of France, and which designated their arrival at puberty, when
the girl proves that she is mature and strong enough to replace the grandmother (Zipes,
1983:28).
Angela Carter reintroduced this aspect of the story as consciously as Perrault omitted
it. The later aimed at postponing the girls adulthood, describing the misadventure of a girl
who wants to enter adulthood too easily: she is eaten by a wolf and causes her grandmother to
go through the same fate. Carter revives the original version in a celebration of a girl passing
into adulthood, taking her fate into her own hands and replacing her grandmother. Carter even
takes the title of her story from the original folk-tale, as it is not about a wolf, but about a
werewolf.
The twentieth-century Little Red Riding Hood is only referred to as a child, who
lives in a northern country with cold weather and wild beasts in the forests. The people there
lead a hard life, and still believe in old superstitions. In such rough conditions, children grow
accustomed, from an early age, to dealing with hardships and managing by themselves in
various situations. That is why Carters heroine leaves for her grandmothers house not only
with some oat cakes and a little pot of butter, but also with her fathers hunting knife to
defend herself against bears or starving wolves, a knife she will not hesitate to use when
attacked by a wolf, whose right forepaw she slashes off.
Carters tales rarely rewrite one story only. The Werewolf, for instance, also contains
elements alluding to cruelty and mutilation, usually present in the Bluebeard-type stories. The
girl takes away the wolfs paw, which in her grannys house proves to be, in fact, a human
hand: chopped off at the wrist, a hand toughened with work and freckled with old age. There
was a wedding ring on the third finger and a wart on the index finger. By the wart she knew it
for her grandmothers hand (Carter, 1993:132), which explains why her grandmother had a
fever and had fallen into a fretful sleep, moaning and shaking. Pulling the sheet, the girl sees
that her granny was, indeed, missing a hand.
The following scene, in which the bad, split-personality grandmother is punished, is
linked, in a circular motion, to the beginning of the story, which presented the punishment of
the witches: The child crossed herself and cried out so loud that the neighbours heard her
and came rushing in. They knew the wart on the hand at once for a witchs nipple; they drove
the old woman, in her shift as she was, out into the snow with sticks, beating her old carcass
as far as the edge of the forest, and pelted her with stones until she fell down dead. (Carter,
1993:133)
The end of the tale leaves us convinced that the brave, innocent girl will live happily
ever after, as we are told that Now the child lived in her grandmothers house; she
prospered (Carter, 1993:133). Yet, we can not help wondering whether, after taking her
grandmothers place, she will not become, in her turn, another werewolf.
The story of The Little Red Riding Hood was also the starting point for Carters The
Company of Wolves, which was later transformed into a film. John Haffenden begins by
saying that Bruno Bettelheim disliked Charles Perraults version of the story, in which the
wolf gobbles the girl, because it points to a specific moral lesson you get what you deserve
if you stray from the path and give in to seduction. He prefers the later Grimm version, in
which a hunter finally rescues the girl and her grandmother from the belly of the wolf, only
to conclude that Carters version in The Bloody Chamber respected the oral version in which
the girl is not scared and lies down with the wolf. (Haffenden, 1985:83)
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I enjoy writing fiction, Carter confessed in interviews, and I set myself a number of
tasks each time I write a story. [...] I am all for putting new wine in old bottles, especially if
the pressure of the new wine makes the old bottles explode (Carter, 1983:69) to break
fictions conventional borders, and to point towards new possibilities.
References:
Armstrong, Isabel (ed.). (1992). New Feminist Discourses. Critical Essays on Theories
and Texts. Routledge, London and New York.
Carter, Angela. (1983). Notes from the Front Line, in Michele Wandor (ed.). On
Gender and Writing. Pandora Press, London.
Carter, Angela. (1993). The Bloody Chamber and Other Stories. Penguin Books, New
York.
Carter, Angela. (1992). The Magic Toyshop. Virago Press Ltd., London.
Duncker, Patricia. (1986). Re-imagining the Fairy-Tales: Angela Carters Bloody
Chambers, in P. Humm, P. Stigant, P. Widdowson (eds.), Popular Fictions. Essays in
Literature and History. Methuen, London.
Haffenden, John. (1985). Novelists in Interview. Methuen, London.
Zipes, Jack. (1983). Fairy-Tales and the Art of Subversion. Heinemann, London.
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Abstract: The play entitled The Fisher King, published by Julien Gracq in 1948, brings again to the
readers attention a famous fragment from that matire de Bretagne, source of several legends.
Our analysis proposes to choose from the multitude of The Holy Grails meanings an aesthetic one,
transposing Knight Perceval in the situation of the reader and of the risk implied when asking the
correct question, fact that would have brought the enlightenment of The Holy Grails mystery, now
turned into a text allegory. The Fisher King illustrates, in this transposition, the authors figure,
to whom, a unique and correct answer to an essential question, would bring the cure from the
illness that defines and individualizes him. The Fisher Kings reflections and discussions make him
a competent exegete that chooses to perpetuate the Grail-text mystery, without exhausting its
ultimate meaning.
Keywords: text, reading, interpretation, Gracq, The Holy Grail
Premier veilleur
Voix du premier veilleur
Esprance dans le Sauveur!
Esperance dans le Sauveur!
Deuxime veilleur
Voix de second veilleur
Dlivrance Montsalvage !
Rdemption Montsalvage !
e
(I acte)
(IVe acte)
Argument
La pice de thtre Le roi pcheur, crite par Julien Gracq en 1948, fait preuve dune vritable
circularit, elle souvre et sachve par le mot esprance suggrant, ds le dbut, lattente dun
vnement qui pourrait dlivrer Montsalvage. Lesprance est aussi celle qui gnre un certain
horizon dattente dans le processus de la lecture, tandis que la dlivrance peut tre celle du sens
cach du texte, du message que tout texte littraire est cens transmettre ses lecteurs. La
dlivrance pourrait symboliser une naissance, celle du Sens, celle du Texte. La fin de la pice
remplacera le mot dlivrance par celui de rdemption , consacr par le registre du
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sacr. La rdemption est une dlivrance en ce qui concerne la libration de ce qui est corporel
et pcheur dans lhomme, afin darriver un certain niveau spirituel exig par la
mtaphysique chrtienne. Gomtriquement, la pice de thtre, tout en se dployant sur
lhorizontalit des trteaux (ou sur lhorizontalit de la page blanche) ralise, la fin, la
verticalit de la rdemption du spectateur-lecteur. Un effet de catharsis serait donc
prendre en considration.
Voil les arguments qui nous semblent suffisants pour tenter une interprtation esthtique du
mythe du Graal.
Le texte de Gracq puise dans la riche matire de Bretagne, pays de tant de contes et de
lgendes, plus ou moins paennes. Le choix des mythes du Moyen-ge est expliqu par
lauteur dans lAvant-propos de la pice : Les mythes du Moyen-ge ne sont pas des
mythes tragiques, mais des histoires ouvertes, ils parlent non pas de punitions gratuites,
mais de tentations permanentes et rcompenses (Tristan : la tentation de lamour absolu,
Perceval : la tentation de la possession divine ici-bas) vus sous un certain angle, ils sont un
outil forg pour briser idalement certaines limites. (pp. 10-11). On retrouve ici la
confession de lhomme de notre sicle, pendulant entre la ngation et laffirmation dun
absolu, dissimulant sous chacun de ses actes le besoin de mieux comprendre sa condition et
reformulant toujours les termes de son rapport Dieu. Cela justifie les paroles que Gracq crit
ensuite : La conqute du Graal reprsente il nest gure permis de sy tromper une
aspiration terrestre et presque nietzschenne la surhumanit. (pp. 11-12). Mais la vision
ouverte sur ces mythes se calque trs bien sur la conception dopera aperta (pour utiliser
la terminologie dUmberto Eco) ou sur lide de la littrature moderne qui soutient la pluralit
de sens dune uvre artistique et linachvement de son sens ultime.
Bien que, structurellement, la pice soit close sur elle-mme, grce lemploi des presque
mmes mots, du point de vue de contenu, elle est ouverte plusieurs interprtations, et le
lecteur peut, lexemple de Perceval de la lgende, partir la qute du sens ultime du texteGraal. Ce qui compte, en dernire ligne, nest pas darriver au but, mais cette errance pour
sapproprier le sens, autrement dit, laventure pure de la conqute du Sens.
Visions sur le Sens
1. Le Sens malade
Le Roi pcheur pourrait avoir lallure dune pice religieuse du Moyen-ge, mais, par la
gnralit des symboles, elle est devenue un dbat sur la condition de lhomme de nimporte
quelle religion ou poque. La rdemption suppose un tat de pch, mais le mal sera, ensuite,
exauc. Jugeant les choses du point de vue esthtique, cest le texte de la pice qui dcrit
lexpiation, cependant quimplicitement, le lecteur est contraint souffrir, en lui-mme, la
catabase et lanabase.
Le Sens malade ne peut se construire que dans un topos malade : Montsalvage est un
lieu clos, car le temps et la vie ny trouvent plus de prise (Amfortas, p. 99), ce qui fixe la
gographie dune rgion malade de temps et despace, mme si elle est situe sur laxe de
lintemporalit du mythe et bnficie dun paysage tout fait symbolique. La rplique de
chevalier Ilinot : Mais quoi bon de veiller, au creux de cette fort ternellement vide ?
Rien ne te menace, Montsalvage, mais qui te sauvera ? Tu te consumes seule. (p. 20)
instaure un tat dentre-deux dun pays puis par une attente interminable, qui le vide de
vie et de signification. Cest un pays du brouillard permanent, qui a emprunt un visage
denfer : Il semble que le jour ne se lve plus jamais tout fait. (Kingrival, p. 20).
Lespace clos du chteau et des forts qui lentourent semble couver une lpre qui emmure
le chteau . Tout est dcrit en termes de maladie, car Montsalvage est comme un fruit qui
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pourrit par le cur. (Ilinot, p. 24). Ce huis clos porte le visage du monde davant
larrive du Christ, un monde qui semble garder le mouvement de la chute du Paradis, une
catabase qui leur enlve les attributs de hros.
Le topos est donc en crise, une crise moule sur lattente dune rvlation qui se laisse trop
dsirer. Les paroles du chevalier Bohort : Attendre esprer implorer comme une vieille
femme agenouille sur son prie-Dieu. Quel mtier dhomme ! (p. 24) expriment
lopposition entre la vie du chevalier, vie, par essence, active, aventureuse, et qui a t
remplace par une vie passive, lattente de ce principe actif capable de faire mouvoir la
meule du temps . Il est clair que la non-rvlation du Sens tellement attendue, bloque toute
activit humaine, tout comme le non-dire du Verbe divin, apporte un non-faire des tres
humains. Les chevaliers (Kyot, Bohort, Lhelin, Yvain, Gornemanz, Ilinot, Kingrival)
tournent en rond, et le texte lui aussi, tant quun Pur ne viendra pas les dlivrer.
Le personnage du roi Amfortas reprsente la variante terrestre, physique et dgrade du Graal
mtaphysique : Amfortas a pris la place du Graal. (Kundry, p. 34). On pourrait dceler
dans la construction gracquienne de la figure du roi pcheur la conception platonicienne
du Ciel des Ides pures, visibles aux hommes par bribes, par clairs. LIde est rflchie sur la
Terre comme une Ide malade dans sa forme parfaite, dtruite, dgrade, mais cest cette
forme en crise qui est lunique modalit dentrevoir lessence divine. La diffrence
consisterait dans le remplacement de Lth, fleuve de loubli, par la blessure ouverte (comme
le Sens du Texte) du roi Amfortas. Ce nest pas une blessure de guerre, mais une blessure
symbolique, une punition inflige par le divin celui qui na pas su garder sa puret, impose
au serviteur du Graal. Kundry, en hypostase de Marie-Madeleine (ou de distraction
textuelle), est la cause visible de sa maladie, et elle, tout comme Amfortas, seront pardonns
au moment o un autre Trs Pur prendra la charge de la coupe sacre.
Amfortas vit la Passion dans les deux sens : lun se rfre Kundry cest une passion
charnelle, le pch de la luxure (pourquoi pas le Roi Pcheur ?) ; lautre sens envisage la
Passion christique qui, par la souffrance individuelle, assure la rdemption des hommes. Pour
cela, les alternatives dAmfortas sont deux modes dexistence : lune est celle de ltre choisi,
dpassant sa propre individualit par la valeur symbolique quil est appel contenir ; lautre
alternative est lexistence anonyme et banale, mais dont le prix sera la gurison. Le sorcier
Clingsor saura trs bien rsumer les choses : Toi, tu seras ton rang, rconcili, plus rien
quun homme parmi les hommes. Tu ne seras plus que cette chose peine supportable ; un
pauvre homme ordinaire, avec son corps valide et son pourcentage de chances de salut. Tu
nauras plus dimportance ! (p. 51). Ces paroles ne caractrisent plus lhomme du Moyenge, elles rvlent une problmatique de lhomme du XXe sicle qui met en cause le rapport
tre-tres, lide de la diffrence (interprtative aussi) qui nous individualise.
Amfortas a trouv une manire pour supporter sa souffrance : se consoler de vivre le mme
air irrespirable de la divinit. Il est devenu un entremetteur entre Dieu et les hommes, une
sorte de Mose isol sur sa montagne-blessure. II est celui qui, par sa plaie, a mis du clairobscur pour que les gens puissent vivre autour du Graal-lumire : Le Graal nest pas fait
pour la terre Kundry... Le Graal est lumire, et une lumire trop vive les effraie. Ils ont besoin
dun peu de clair-obscur. leur soleil, il faut des taches. Je suis la tache dont ils ont besoin.
(p. 69) Prtons-nous de nouveau notre jeu textuel : le clair-obscur pourrait fort bien
symboliser aussi la tache dencre qui se d-tache de la page blanche, vritable lumire
qui contient en soi les latences du texte futur, comme le Graal sa nourriture.
Amfortas reprsente aussi une nouvelle incarnation dHerms, messager des dieux, anctre de
lhermtique textuelle, jouant avec le cach-dvoil smantique du mystre du Graal : Ma
blessure est mon lieu avec les autres hommes, avec Montsalvage. Quelquefois il me semble
que je nexiste que par elle, que cest elle qui me rend visible. (p. 49). Le roi semble avoir
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seulement une existence de symbole peru en termes de lien et de visibilit . Il est dans
le plan livresque, lquivalent de lcrivain, car il connat le secret du Graal-texte et le
transmet (tant le lien ) aux lecteurs (les quivalents de Perceval) par le langage
symbolique de sa blessure (ouverte comme une bouche ), le seul langage qui leur est
accessible ( visible ).
Lattente finie signifie pour lui dlivrance , non pas de sa libert enchane, mais de sa
signification spciale de gardien du Graal. Son dilemme est de choisir entre lannihilation de
son propre tre ou la continuation de sa souffrance physique. La blessure perdure
maintiendrait Amfortas responsable et personnage principal dans le rituel du Graal ; la
blessure gurie quivaudrait avec sa disparition textuelle. En dautres termes, sa mission
termine, le livre rvle son sens ultime et se clt irrmdiablement.
2. Les adjuvants textuels
Lermite Trvrizent prche la contemplation comme tant, selon lui, lunique moyen pour
servir Dieu, qui, lui seul, a le don de laction : ici cest le renoncement, la soumission la
rgie commune, et le salut l cest lorgueil, le choix singulier, la solitude, et la mort. (p.
64). Le prtre plaide pour lanonymat de ltre comme protection contre lhybris, dont on
pourrait accuser et Perceval et Amfortas. Les deux font partie du mme genre dindividus
pour lesquels laffirmation de leur tre, tout en tant soumise un but (soit-il celui de servir
Dieu), est la seule manire de respirer et de survivre. Le mtier dAmfortas roi
pcheur dit assez sur cet aspect : le rapport qui stablit est de supriorit nette (rappelant le
rapport divin-humain) le roi est pcheur, tandis que les autres sont ses serviteurs, ses
poissons dont le plus fameux sera Perceval ( remarquer laide quapporte le chevalier au
roi parti la pche dun poisson part).
Trvrizent essaie dattirer lattention de Perceval sur le risque de voir le Graal comme la
tentation premire (celle du fruit interdit) de la connaissance, car il y a la question : et si la
difficult ntait pas de vaincre, mais de savoir ? (p. 67). Dans cet ordre dides, le chevalier
devrait se transformer en sage, mais le visage que Perceval lui a montr est celui du chevalier
de la Table Ronde la recherche de lamour, de laventure et de la gloire : Lglise
dsapprouve en moi ces aventures troubles, et ce dsir paen du triomphe et de la dlivrance
qui est au fond de ton cur. (p. 68).
Lermite est incapable de penser en termes de libre-arbitre ce que chaque homme peut tre
pour sa destine, il laisse Dieu de dcider son sort. En prtre tibtain, Trvrizent ne veut pas
tre tromp par des illusions : Il ny a aucun lieu o lon puisse conduire dans ce monde
dillusions. Je lai tu sous mon regard et jai remis son salut aux mains de Celui qui nest
cach ici-bas nulle part. (p. 70). Ces phrases font natre une nouvelle dichotomie : le Graal
est vu par lermite comme image de la mort uniquement ; Perceval tente, au moins, de
rcuprer lautre ct du symbole, celui de vie, dans laquelle il a infiniment confiance.
Quel serait alors le rle de Trvrizent dans notre schma esthtique ? Sil refuse les illusions,
il pourrait, par consquent, refuser le livre, qui est fait dune matire imaginaire. Le texte est
mort pour lui parce quil na pas dexistence concrte ; seule laction de la lecture ferait
vivre le texte. Lermite est celui qui connat tout, Perceval le chevalier qui aime
laventure est celui qui ne connat pas, mais qui veut connatre et vivre cette exprience.
Dans le texte, la fonction de Trvrizent sera celle de linitiateur manqu, car il ne russit point
tablir la communication avec son disciple. Il a essay de linitier par la sagesse de ses mots,
mais Perceval est, en mme temps, homme de laction et de la parole.
Perceval est au dbut lquivalent du lecteur amateur, qui reste la surface du texte,
incapable de dceler la difficult de la mission quil devrait assumer. Perceval a encore toute
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sa libert de choix, tandis que Trvrizent a dj choisi le renoncement qui se traduit par une
mort tranquille la certitude . Certitude signifie valeur acquise et, dans un sens,
referme sur elle-mme, nexigeant ni mouvements de conscience pour son argumentation, ni
attente dune clarification de situation. Lantonyme de la certitude est, dans la pice, la
vie qui comporte un certain degr dinconscience, et dans les dmarches et dans le but
poursuivi : La vie cest toi qui te mets en route, ignorant et mal averti, dans la foret des
piges et des miracles, la recherche dun but imbcile, sans mme souponner les gouffres
sur lesquels tu poses le pied. (p. 69)1.
Perceval est ltre de laction accomplie ( dsirer et satisfaire ) o il ny a pas de place pour
lattente. Il vit son propre ge paradisiaque comme enfant chevalier vaillant et plein de vie
et de dsir. Cest un tre orient, son but est la qute du Graal. Lappel cette qute reste,
pour le moment, inconscient ou peru au niveau superficiel des grands mots dont il ne connat
pas encore le poids et les exigences : Le Graal est suffisance, extase et vie meilleure. II est
soif et tanchement, dpouillement et plnitude, possession et ravissement. (p. 59). Il est
intressant que Perceval utilise des formulations oxymoroniques qui ne font quattester la
richesse du Graal-texte travers ses multiples interprtations, bien que, parfois,
contradictoires.
Kundry joue, elle aussi, un double rle. Dabord, par sa beaut qui la fait devenir la cause de
la blessure du roi, elle est la femme tentatrice, femme du pch. Elle se repent de ce quelle a
caus, cest pourquoi elle est devenue linfirmire dAmfortas. Mais cest toujours ce charme
quelle tente sur le jeune Perceval, et la consquence en est lloignement du chevalier de sa
mission. Sur un plan esthtique, elle reprsente un moment de dtournement de lattention du
message, une distraction textuelle. En seconde hypostase, sa sduction nest autre que la
sduction du texte, grce sa rhtorique et son pathos. Mais, paradoxalement, elle essaie
aussi de faire revenir Perceval, effray par la vue de la blessure dAmfortas, en se servant
justement de ses charmes. Si elle choue, cest parce que sa ruse ne convient pas celui qui
doit assumer consciemment la fonction de gardien du Graal, et cest ce queAmfortas lui
reproche : Tu [Kundry] le poussais au Graal les yeux bands, comme le btail glorieux du
sacrifice. Jai prfr le traiter comme un homme. (p. 150).
Le dialogue entre Perceval et Amfortas du IIIe acte donne une possible cl de la pice.
Amfortas montre au jeune chevalier la responsabilit qui pse sur celui qui est le gardien du
Graal. Si, au dbut, celui-ci semble tre un lu de Dieu, le roi dmontre que, au fait, le choix
ne lui appartient pas du tout, mais que cest Dieu qui choisit. La libert humaine na, donc,
plus de place l o la connaissance de labsolu commence. Car tre le chevalier du Graal
signifie tre le chevalier de Dieu : Il est terrible pour un homme que Dieu lappelle vivant
respirer le mme air que lui. (p. 143). Lorsque Perceval dcouvre la blessure dAmfortas, il
est compltement horripil et veut renoncer cette aventure . Il entre dans une sorte de
Rsistance (noublions que la pice a t crite dans les annes 1942-43, sous lOccupation)
contre le Sens ultime du Texte.
3. Une rvlation manque
Le Texte-Graal est en mal de vivre/de sens parce quil nest pas questionn ; cest une
condition sine qua non pour quun Texte rvle son essence, celle du Lecteur qui sinterroge
sur les sens quil cache. Cette incuriosit est la faute la plus grave qui perptue sa mort.
On a affaire ici une situation dj rencontre dans la nouvelle gracquienne La Presqule, o lon oppose le monde alerte et alertant ,
monde de la hte insense, au monde de lattente pure, qui signifierait, pour Trvrizent, lattente de la vie daprs la mort.
1
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Le jeune Perceval semble tre fait pour la joie de la lecture, se refusant au sens unique
profond, mais dur supporter, et prfrant le sens lger, superficiel, aventureux, multiple.
Nomm le Pur, le Trs Pur, le Simple, llu ou le Sauveur, et dj obsd par la
prdestination de devenir le chevalier du Graal , il nest pourtant pas prt assumer ce rle
sacr, le transfert doffice est ajourn, le choix est repouss.
Possder le Graal cest arriver la certitude, au Sens unique ; pour Perceval cest renoncer
sa vie antrieure : Tu baigneras dans la certitude. (p. 139), Tu nauras plus daventures.
Il nen est plus qui possde tout ! (p. 139). Ces phrases sont comme des commandements
que profre Amfortas lIniti au chevalier novice pour lui faire part de la dshumanisation
( dpouillement ) quentrane le service du Graal. Dans le registre de lhorrible, la blessure
entrevue par Perceval est comme une bouche , prte rvler son essence celui qui
accepte ce mysterium tremendum et fascinans. Et les mots sang et sens forment une
heureuse et terrible homophonie. Trvrizent, lui aussi, prvient le nophyte : et si la
difficult ntait pas de vaincre, mais de savoir ? (p. 67) Il sagirait donc de passer de la
condition de chevalier celle de sage, mais Perceval nest pas prpar devenir
hermneute , cest--dire mdiateur entre le divin et lhumain. Laccs au Sens est trop
difficile pour lui, la fin ouverte de la pice prolonge lattente du mrissement de Perceval.
Julien Gracq ne tranche pas sur les causes de laphasie de Perceval au moment du passage du
Graal, le lecteur-spectateur ne sait pas exactement si cest un refus conscient, qui indique que
le personnage nest pas arriv la sagesse qui le fasse dnier la vie aventureuse et
sentimentale. Larmure que porte le chevalier le bloque dans son statut, elle ne peut pas se
faire ductile un simple tissu origine de la texture du Texte.
Conclusions
En fin de compte, pour Perceval, le transfert de fonction quivaudrait changer le rle de
lecteur avec celui de lauteur. Amfortas fait voir Perceval le vrai visage de celui qui est
chevalier du Graal, cest--dire de lcrivain. Perceval aura son Texte-Graal unique, mais
perdra le droit la libert des lectures .
Lexistence de la phrase-cl pour sapproprier le Graal : Quel nom est le tien, plus clatant
que la merveille ? illustre lespoir dans le pouvoir de rdemption par la parole, tant une
rptition de lacte divin qui a instaur le monde grce au pouvoir du mot prononc. Il se peut
que Julien Gracq glisse ici sa croyance, en tant qucrivain, dans la possibilit de sauver le
monde (symbolis par Montsalvage un monde sauvage ) par la force de la parole.
On a trouv pour le mot Graal , quoique sans preuves certes, une ressemblance avec le
mot krater, et on lui a rattach le symbolisme du lieu o la divinit a jet de la nourriture
(spirituelle aussi), tout en faisant de ce lieu une sorte de corne de labondance, chaque homme
tant invite cette Cne. Le Texte serait ce lieu o le lecteur est invit puiser ( pcher )
des significations varies. Et les pches peuvent tre multiples : pourquoi ne pas voir dans
le dpart final de Perceval la possibilit dun retour ultrieur, pour une nouvelle lecture du
message du Graal, faite un autre ge, filtre par une autre exprience, marque par un autre
horizon dattente ?
Bibliographie :
- Gracq, Julien,
Le
Roi
pcheur,
471
ditions
Jos
Corti,
Paris,
1989.
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Abstract: Philip Roths novel Patrimony is focused on the father-son relationship, covering
the last period in Roths fathers life. As the old mans illness progresses, so does the sense of
intimacy between Roth the father and Roth the son, to the point that the author feels as if he
were the father of his biological father. The article traces this growing intimacy, which
reveals an autobiographical self that is relational rather than individualistic. It also dwells on
the uses of memory as a resource for ones identity and as an ethical injunction to embrace
and maintain alive what came before.
Keywords: relational self, father-son relationship, Patrimony, Philip Roth, intimacy.
Introduction
In a dialogue with Stein recorded in Everybodys Autobiography, Dashiell Hammet
an American author of detective novels and short stories suggested that in the age when
there are no more genuine heroes or characters, a challenging topic for novelists is the
relationship between fathers and sons. Philip Roth took up precisely this challenge in
Patrimony, the book that covers the final years in his fathers life from the discovery of his
brain tumor up to Roths dreams of his burial.
The father-son relationship is featured in other works by Roth as well. What sets
Patrimony apart is the fact that the father is not the mighty target of ridicule, irony and bilious
attack, as it used to be the case in other novels. Unlike The Facts, for instance, Patrimony
depicts Philip Roths father as an elderly man devastated by the impending and uncontrollable
force of destiny manifested as irrational biology. This novel invites one to reconsider the
nature of the autobiographical self, which has long been conceptualised on the model of the
Cartesian self: an autonomous individual, a reasonable person, a solitary writer of his own
existence, who looks back on his life in a presumably honest way.
1. The father-son relationship
Philip Roths father, Herman Roth, was once a successful agent in an insurance
company.
In his old age, he was like a Samson whose Delilah had been weakness and disease. In
Patrimony, there is nothing fearful or awe-inspiring in the old Herman, just the recognition
that the will of the mind cannot determine the body to stay alive, whole and healthy.
Patrimony is built on the father-son relationship after the death of Roths mother,
Bess. However, Bess Ross was still alive in the fathers and sons memory and dialogue. For
Herman, she remained a standard against which he judged the other women whom he met
after her death; for Philip, she was the epitome of the self-sacrificing and self-effacing Jewish
mother, whose very obedience to the will of her husband caused her fatal heart-attack. In her
absence, though Herman was living with a woman, Philip took the maternal role of looking
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after his father and nursing him. To overhear Herman tell Lil on the phone that Philip is like
a mother to me (Roth 1991: 180) came as a surprise since Philip would have expected to be
associated, in his fathers mind, with a father rather than with a mother. Previously, when
Herman listened to Philip and did as he instructed him to, Philip perceived it as a borderline
moment that demarcated the end of the era when his father had been issuing orders, expecting
the rest of the family to obey, and the beginning of a new area where he the son took on
the Fathers commanding role in the family:
I then spoke four words to him, for words that Id never uttered to him before in my
life. Do as I say, I told him. Put on a sweater and your walking shoes.
And they worked, these four words. I am fifty-five, he is almost eighty-seven, and the
year is 1988: Do as I say, I tell him and he does it. The end of one era, the dawn of another
(Roth 1991: 82-83).
Despite his self-conception as his fathers father, Philip accepted Hermans association
of him with a mother figure as valid, and launched himself into a discourse of praise for what
his father had taught him, i.e. the vernacular:
his description was, in fact, more discriminating than my commonplace
expectations while at the same time much more flagrant, unblinking, and enviably, unselfconsciously blunt. Yes, he was teaching me something, something coarser than could be
accommodated by my predictably vainglorious boyhood yearnings for a judicious, dignified
father to replace the undereducated father who I found myself half-ashamed of at the very
same time that his assailability, particularly as a target of anti-Semitic discrimination,
quickened my solidarity with him and hardened my hatred of his belittlers: he taught me the
vernacular. He was the vernacular, unpoetic and expressive and point-blank, with all the
vernaculars glaring limitations and all its durable force (Roth 1991: 181).
It was in the vernacular that Herman distilled the most enduring features of his
character, namely stubbornness and resilience. These were features that he carried in his
blood as the survival kit that allowed his family to escape the Holocaust and to make the safe
journey to the United States. Even though Philip seemed to ignore it, he had inherited these
features himself, as his Polish friend reminded him during a phone conversation. This
conversation was an occasion for Philip to admit that he felt connected to his father in ways
that, up to that point, had never been so clear. It also allowed Philip to elaborate on the
trajectory of his relationship with his father, from his youth to the moment when he became,
symbolically, his fathers mother.
As intimated in the quote above, the young Philip had been ambivalent in his
relationship with Herman. The fathers lack of formal education made him feel halfashamed and it stimulated his imagination to take his father with him, in his mind, when he
went to college for his classes. This act of mental generosity was meant to allow Herman, in
Philips day-dreams, to benefit by proxy from the education that Philips generation could
acquire. In positioning himself as his fathers double or medium in the classroom, Philip
strove metaphorically to reduce the widening gap between his fathers generation of Jews
in America and his own.
Philip seems to imply that to a certain extent, his fathers generation worked against
themselves, by pushing their sons through the American educational system so as to become
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acculturated. Yet, in becoming Americans, they also acquired the force to distance themselves
from their parents legacy. It was precisely due to his American education that Philip could
take a critical look at his inherited cultural background and expose it in his prose. Philips
personal battle with Jewish values and mentalities, from the position of a first-generation
American, implied an inevitable fictional attack on his father as the embodiment of the Law,
of the all-mighty authority that required submission and expected the reproduction and
proliferation of the same cultural norms. In Roths own words, He wasnt just any father, he
was the father, with everything there is to hate in a father and everything there is to love
(Roth 1991: 180).
This love-hate dialectics defines Philips relationship to his father from the time when
the latter was powerfully healthy and driving me crazy with advice that was useless and
strictures that were pointless and reasoning that caused me, all alone in my room, to smack
my forehead and howl in despair (Roth 1991: 180) to the time of his physical frailty and
vulnerability as an aging man. The connection between the two became stronger as their
physical intimacy increased. After the death of his mother, Philip shared a bed with his father
and from his fathers room, he put off the man who was calling the father at night to scare
him. On another occasion, while crossing the street, Herman handed him his fake teeth in a
gesture that, for Philip, spelt the end of the physical estrangement that, not so unnaturally,
had opened up between us once Id stopped being a boy (Roth 1991: 152). A further step
across the divide occurred when Philip cleaned up his fathers shit his patrimony and
watched the old man bathing naked in the bath-tube. This is a critical episode in the account
because it highlights a touching moment of identification and Philips internalization of the
injunction that had been his fathers life-long motto: You must not forget anything (Roth
1991: 177).
2. Performative memory
For both father and son, memory was performative but in different ways: for Herman,
memory kept his European experience alive and reinforced his survivorship. It enabled him to
mark and reassert his presence, to position himself within a chain of historical events and a
network of family and community members. When making new friends, Herman placed them
on his memory maps in terms of locations they had shared and people that he had known in
the area as customers of the life insurance company that he had worked for. The stories that
he remembered allowed him to certify that he himself had been there, present in the history of
the neighborhood. On another occasion, when he fell ill, memory allowed him to make sense
of his brain tumor and overcome his terror:
on and on, remembering the illnesses, the operations, the fevers, the transfusions, the
recoveries, the comas, the vigils, the deaths, the burials his mind, in its habitual way,
working to detach him from the agonizing isolation of a man at the edge of oblivion and to
connect his brain tumor to a larger history, to place his suffering in a context where he was no
longer someone alone with an affliction peculiarly and horribly his own but a member of a
clan whose trials he knew and accepted and had no choice but to share. In this way did he
manage to domesticate his terror (Roth 1991: 71).
For Philip, memory was performative in that, in its conjunction with imagination, it
could help him recreate the father in artistic representation: I must remember accurately, I
told myself, remember everything accurately so that when he is gone I can re-create the
father who created me (Roth 1991: 177).
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Re-creation in a loop and renewed intimacy with the parents in imagination are
recurrent tropes in Patrimony. The book is precisely the result of Roths re-creation, for his
readers, of the father who created me, in full awareness of the narrative value or
appropriateness of episodes that he had allegedly promised his father to keep secret. In the
eyes of the son, Herman appeared as a family man, a hard-working sales-agent and low-level
manager for a company that should have beatified him for his dedication. He was a man who
allowed himself to be robbed without retaliation and who insisted on doing right, doing well
and doing good; a catalyst for the family association that he presided; and a person with an
extraordinary capacity for renunciation and iron self-discipline (Roth 1991: 79), for whom
memories were life sustaining: To be alive, to him, is to be made of memory to him if a
mans not made of memory, hes made of nothing (Roth 1991: 124).
3. Roths identity as a relational self
Roths fictionalization of his memories shows that he was probably more like his
father than he had been willing to admit. If in his previous autobiographical works, Roth was
careful to mark his difference from his father, Patrimony allowed him to acknowledge the
multiple points of convergence between them and to see the extent to which they mirrored
each other. When Philip himself had to undergo heart surgery, he became aware of the extent
to which their lives had been if not identical, so intermeshed and spookily interchangeable.
That was an occasion when he felt at one with his father, as he had felt in the past when
[he] used to smuggle him secretly into class with [him], the intellectual homunculus for
whose development [he] felt as responsible as [he] did for [his] own (Roth 1991: 225).
From a position of bewilderment I dont understand anything (Roth 1991: 129)
meaning his incapacity to grasp the depth of his connection to his father Philip came to
relinquish reason and to cherish their emotional connection and the celebration of life in its
most mundane manifestations that his fathers illness occasioned:
you clean up your fathers shit because it has to be cleaned up, but in the aftermath of
cleaning it up, everything thats there to feel is felt as it never was before once you sidestep
disgust and ignore nausea and plunge past those phobias that are fortified like taboos, theres
an awful lot of life to cherish (Roth 1991: 175).
Watching Herman bathe in the bathtub like a baby playing in the water (Roth 1991:
178) and cleaning after him, Philip experienced a renewed feeling of intimacy with his father.
This intimacy is dramatized after his heart surgery when, upon waking up, Philip went
through multiple identifications: with his father (who was also treading the thin line between
life and death); with his new self (as if he were a baby who had come to life through the
transplant of veins from his own body); with his old self (the son and father of his father, and
the father of his new baby-self); and with his mother:
.during those first few nights, . the thought that I was giving suck to my own
newborn heart provided hours of the most intense pleasure, sessions during which I did not
have to use any imagination at all to feel myself androgynously partaking of the most
delirious maternal joy I was as near to being the double of my own nurturing mother as,
during the anxious, uncertain hours on the eve of the bypass, I had come to feeling myself
transposed, interchangeable with even a sacrificial proxy for my failing father, choking on
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his mortality at the dinner table. I was never a heart patient alone in that bed: I was a family of
four (Roth 1991: 226).
As Judith Butler noted and as the quote above aptly demonstrates, [p]eople we know
and lose become internal features of the self (Butler 1999: xv). On his hospital bed, Roth
felt united with his mother; in Patrimony, the depiction of the evolving relationship between
the increasingly debilitating father and the son revealed the internalization of the voice and
the thoughts of the father. This internalization of the father became apparent in the two
dreams that are related at the end of Patrimony.
In the former dream, Philip saw himself standing on a pier down in Port Newark,
about fifty years before, watching a defunct warship drifting blindly into shore (Roth 1991:
237). This dream lends itself to multiple interpretations: on the one hand, Philip interpreted
the ship as a symbol of his father and its state of desolation as an omen of the fathers
impending death. At another level, the ship was a snippet of family history concentrated in a
metaphor: the transatlantic journey of Hermans immigrant parents, the struggle to get ahead
in a society and a company that would discriminate against Jews, and the wrecking of
Hermans body by the brain tumor. Finally, the dream could have foretold of Philips state of
bereavement after the death of the father.
The latter dream, however, implied that even though Philip was the one who decided
when to put an end to Hermans life after hours of lying unconscious, Herman remained alive
in his subconscious as the embodiment of the Father. By telling Philip in the dream that as a
corpse, he should have been dressed in a suit and that Philip did the wrong thing, Herman
returned as the judge of Philips deeds; this specular apparition reminded Philip that, at least
in dreams, he would always remain his little son (Roth 1991: 237), wondering to what
extent, as a relational self, he performed the oughts and matched the ideals that his father had
expected from him (Anderson, Chen 2002: 624).
The end of Patrimony restates Philips anguish to do the right thing in life and in his
writing. This anguish was at its peak when Roth was praying to his father directly: Dont die.
Dont die until I get my strength back. Dont die until I can do it right. Dont die while Im
helpless (Roth 1991: 229). In that context, doing it right referred to his farewell from his
father, in real life. Patrimony can be read as a symbolic farewell as well, but one that, as
Roths dream seems to intimate, has misfired: I had dressed him for eternity in the wrong
clothes (Roth 1991: 237).
4. Concluding remarks
Patrimony is an autobiographical writing that focuses on the relationship between
Philip Roth and his father, Herman. Through Philip Roths identifications with his father and
with his mother, it showcases a view of the autobiographical self as relational rather than as a
monad. On the other hand, the very last line in the book You must not forget anything
(Roth 1991: 238) shows that the internalization of his fathers voice led to Philips
appropriation of the defunct mans motto and guiding principle in life. What he had been
doing rather unconsciously, i.e. remembering for the purpose of artistic (re-)creation, became
a conscious form of praxis: the work of memory and of commemoration, whose result is
Patrimony. By restating the fathers injunction to remember without attributing it to him,
Roth showed that he himself had become, symbolically, his father, and impersonated him by
taking over his life-long work of remembering.
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References
Anderson, Susan M., and Serena Chen. 2002. The Relational Self: An Interpersonal
Social-Cognitive Theory in Psychological Review, vol. 109, No 4, pp. 619-645.
Butler, Judith 1999. Gender Trouble. Feminism and the Subversion of Identity.
Routledge: New York, London.
Roth, Philip 1991. Patrimony. A True Story. New York, London, Toronto, Sydney,
Tokyo, Singapore: Simon & Schuster.
1997. The Facts. A Novelists Autobiography. New York: Vintage International.
Stein, Gertrude. 1971. Everybodys Autobiography. New York: Cooper Square
Publishers.
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Abstract: When talking about the body, it seems to be, psichologically speaking, an interesting topic.
This interest has established itself in our memory and always places itself in new dimensions of
existence. The type (of discourse) proposed by us aims to create a certain profile for words regards to
body and corporality through re-reading, without meta-language, only through the arrangement of
some texts which could be key reception points of the initial message, in love, in he style of Roland
Barthes. The body as it is, as a raw material, the body as a prison, the carnavalesque body, are some
key ways studied in the oeuvre of some inter-war writers.
Corpul este originea identitar a omului, locul i timpul n care lumea prinde contur
ntr-o figur distinct. (David Le Breton Antropologia corpului i modernitatea)
Studiul corpului a preocupat omenirea dintotdeauna, de la corpul pcatului i pn la
corpul sublimului chiar dac pare ceva simplu, esena sa este greu de definit. Prin corp,
individul devine stpnul lumii asumndu-i autoritatea ca i cum lumea ar fi proprietatea sa.
Aceeai atitudine o are i asupra semenilor si, corpul i confer un pretext de superioritate,
ceea ce face s persiste o ndoial asupra lui. Aceast realitate se resimte cnd corpul este
tratat ca un obiect, cnd intervine iubirea ns, apare iluzia c ntre corp i exploatator se
creeaz o legtur. Corpul este implicat n propria pasiune pentru cellalt i se ofer pentru a-i
mplini i lui pasiunea. Plcerea se descoper doar dac va fi implicat i corpul ntre cele dou
spirite. Intervine teama de a nu fi considerat doar un obiect n dragoste. Ideea de frumusee
depinde n mare msur de percepia celui care iubete, corpul n sine nu este neaparat
frumos, organele sexuale dup cum remarca Freud1, nu sunt frumoase. Ideea de frumusee
depinde de convenii i de reprezentrile frumosului pentru cel care l admir. Brbatul vede
n femei cnd fragilitatea materiei verzi, cnd ferocitatea vreunui animal de prad, ceea ce i
excit senzaiile i l transform i pe el ntr-un corp cu aceleai trsturi.
Platon admite ca zeii ar fi plante . Asemnarea corpului cu vegetalul sau animalul este
frecvent n scrierile lui Camil Petrescu. Descrierea femeii abund de substantive sau
adjective care denumesc caracteristicile unor plante asemntoare cu ea. n Ultima noapte de
dragoste, ntia noapte de rzboi, ntlnim corpul Elei, un corp plin care se deterioreaz odat
cu pierderea ncrederii brbatului. Prin ochii lui tefan Gheorghidiu, corpul femeii sufer o
transformare ciclic, se golete de feminitate, devine vulgar. La nceputul csniciei, era
prezentat n termeni gingai i senzuali: Cu formele ei calde i vii, era ca o bucurie a serii 2,
sau Era vnjos i viu trupul, n toat goliciunea lui de femeie de douzeci de ani, tare, dar
fr nici un os aparent, ca al felinelor. Pielea neted i alb avea luciri de sidef. Toate liniile
ncepeau, fr s se vad cum, aa ca ale lebedei, din ocoluri. Snii robuti, din cauza minii
1
2
www.scribd.com/doc/...Angoasa-in-Civilizatie-Sigmund-Freud.
Camil Petrescu, Ultima noapte de dragoste, ntia noapte de rzboi, Editura Curtea veche, Bucureti, 2009, p. 88.
478
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mele petrecute pe sub talie, prelungeau graios, ca nite fructe oferite, coul pieptului, ca sub
ei, spre pntec, cderea s fie brusc. Picioarele aveau coapsele tari, abia lipite nuntru cnd
erau alturi, lung arcuite n afar, din old la genunchi, ca i cnd feminitatea ei ar fi fost ntre
dou paranteze fine, prelungi3. Camil Petrescu descrie femeia cu rafinamentul stilistic al
unui poet. ntre suavitatea plantei i agresivitatea animalului, George Clinescu ar spune
Confuzie sau echivoc i ar lmuri lucrurile din perspectiva estetic: Cnd din eroare lum
floarea drept fiin, se nate alt reacie. tim perfect c ne aflm n lumea vegetal. Acest
regn intereseaz n msura n care sublimeaz cu cellalt. Dac ni se aduce pe masa de
disecie un trup statuar, nu vom suporta totui scoaterea intestinelor i privelitea organelor
sangvinolente. Dar o floare se taie fr repulsie. Anatomia ei rezum purificat anatomia
animal4. Transpunerea, prin comparaie, a corpului iubitei n plant sau fruct are loc n
momente de maxim tensiune erotic. Cei doi ndrgostii se ceart, se mpac, se rvnesc
unul pe altul. Dup o prima desprire, a lor, corpul rmne ns la fel de atrgtor: Aproape
nalt, cu talia subire i oldurile vnjoase, cu snii rzbind ghicii ca merele prin maioul
negru (stns pe ea cum e un arpe n pielea lui), aduna toate privirile5. n psihanaliz,
frumuseea este expresia libidoului6 ntr-o legtur permanent cu dorina sexual. Varietatea
criteriilor estetice este legat de multitudinea modurilor de percepie a corpului. Ela apare, pe
rnd, n ipostaze care se modific n funcie de tensiunile pe care le sufer brbatul: Era ntro rochie neagr, de sear, oblic decoltat, care-i fcea braele lungi nc mai albe, mai calde,
plinue, voluptuos ncheiate n umeri. gtul i cretea uor, cu linii suav rsucite din grumazul
gol i alb, spre rdcina prului, cci muchii ascuni urcau n ncolcirea de spiral, sub
pielea fr o pat, ca petala de trandafiri galbeni, a blondei7. Trsturile gndirii lui
Gheorghidiu se apropie de cele ale gndirii originare, primare, edenice. El, ca i Fred
Vasilescu, personaje nrudite, vd adesea femeia n termenii regnului vegetal i animal.
Comparaiile conduc spre animale cu snge rece i animale de prad.
Concepia despre corp este tributar concepiei despre persoan, iar n societile
tradiionale, corpul nu se deosebete de persoan. Corpul femeii se deznsufleete doar cnd
devine gol. n antropologia biblic, corpul nu este izolat de om, omul este corp i corpul su
este el nsui, iar cunoaterea nu este separat de corp. La populaiile din Noua Caledonie,
corpul uman se regsete n termenii regnului vegetal, dup cum aflm din studiul lui David
Le Breton, Voi ne-ai adus corpul, citndu-l pe Maurice Leenhardt: Parte inseparabil a
acestui univers n care se scald, corpul i mpletete existena cu cea a arborilor, a fructelor,
a plantelor ntr-un amestec de corespondene n care omul i fiina lumii fac schimb de
componente. Partea dur a omului, osatura sa, poart acelai nume cu inima lemnului, acelai
cuvnt desemnnd i resturile de corali aruncate de valuri pe plaj. Cochiliile terestre sau
marine desemneaz oasele care protejeaz, precum craniul. Pulpa sau miezul fructelor numesc
carnea i muchii. Rinichii i celelalte mruntaie poart numele unui fruct cu care se
aseamn. Plmnii, a cror form amintete de cea a arborelui totemic al canacilor, poart
numele acestui arbore. Ct despre intestine, ele sunt asimilate cu mpletitura de liane care fac
ca pdurea s fie mult mai deas. Corpul apare, astfel, la canaci, ca o alt form a vegetalului
sau, invers, vegetalul apare ca o prelungire natural a corpului. ntre aceste dou universuri nu
exist frontiere clare8. Personajele feminine seamn cu plante gingae, atunci cnd sunt
extrem de feminine, dar i cu animale mici sau de prad, cu snge rece sau cald, atunci cnd
ele stimuleaz virilitatea brbatului sau inteligena. Femeia e comparat adesea cu un arpe,
3
Idem, p. 98.
George Clinescu, Regnul vegetal n Principii de estetic, Editura pentru Literatur, Bucureti, 1968, pp. 121-122.
5
Idem, p. 130.
6
www.scribd.com/doc/...Angoasa-in-Civilizatie-Sigmund-Freud
7
Idem, p. 147.
8
David Le Breton, Voi ne-ai adus corpul, n Antropologia corpului i modernitatea, Traducere din francez de Liliana Rusu, Editura
Cartier, Chiinu, 2009, pp. 27-28.
4
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animal cu snge rece care interpretat psihanalitic ntruchipeaz psihicul inferior, psihismul
obscur, ceea ce este rar, tainic, de neneles9. Reptilele cu limba ascuit, trtoare i
ademenitoare sunt simboluri ale lumii edenice. Trupul de arpe nu respinge feminitatea, ci o
apropie: Coul pieptului, lmurit, lsa s apar ocolul ultimelor coaste, atunci cnd porneau
lateral, iar pntecele se strngea ca un trup de arpe10
chiar cnd e aproape goal i lene lungit pe nisipul cald, i se vorbete unei femei
frumoase cu trup de arpe i ochii limpezi, fr ndoial mai frumoas dect mbrcat, cum i
s-ar vorbi ntr-un salon11.
George Clinescu n Principii de estetic12 discut condiia poetic a plantelor i
animalelor n funcie de dimensiunea lor. Prin analogie, Ela, Doamna T., Maria Sineti i
Ioana Boiu sunt personaje de factur poetic, iar autorul face asocieri care definesc dorina
personajului i modul su propriu de manifestare: ca o pasre speriat (Maria Sineti)13, a
rmas ca o ieder fr sprijin (Maria Sineti)14, D o impresie de sensibilitate i pasiune
<<din cap>>, care are ceva din rigiditatea i artificialul tulpinei de crin, poate chiar din
fragilitatea trestiei15crin rou (Ioana)16, cu o mndrie de floare alb (Ioana)17. Ioana,
prin verticalitatea caracterului su i prin rceala sentimentelor seamnn cu un crin, al crui
parfum poate ucide, inspirat ntr-un spaiu nchis. Ea triete ntr-un spaiu nchis istoric,
alturi de un tat care nu dorete i nici nu se poate adapta timpului prezent. Acest aer
parfumat l va ucide pe Andrei Pietraru, tnrul care va renuna la o logodnic bogat, la o
slujb bine pltit i la un statut social de invidiat. Crinul penduleaz ntre serafic i
demonic. Dei fr corupie sangvin, el produce o intoxicaie care predispune la
prerafaelism. Paloarea lui e prea animal. Carnea livid, tubul drept sugereaz o fiin
paradisiac.18 Aceast floare va fi, chiar i uscat, atrgtoare n uscciunea ei. Plantele
crnoase seamn cu corpul vulgar al Emiliei, pe care Fred o compar cu o friptur de
cauciuc. Dac ar exista o asociere cu vreo plant, aceea ar fi una dintre acele plante prea
grase, mustoase i sangvinolente, crescute pe teren putrid, uneori greu mirositoare, care
strivite sub picior au aspect de animal ucis19, cum spune George Clinescu.
n bestiarul simbolic, tigrul trimite cu gndul la ntunecarea contiinei, necat de
valul dorinelor elementare dezlnuite20. Ela este vzut ca o tigroaic vag domesticit, n
care se deteapt pornirea atavic 21 atunci cnd, tefan Gheorghidiu primete motenirea
unchiului. n momentele lor de hrjoan, Ela nu se lsa cu una cu dou i lupta rencepea,
cci punea uneori n acest chef de pedeaps o nverunare de panter tnr care se joac22,
Era fr ndoial un paroxism, o und de nebunie n furia ei, cci avea n joc aceeai frenezie
ca animalele din jungl. Niciodat n-o iubeam att de mult ca n asemenea clipe i ar fi putut
s m omoare, dar la ispita asta n-a fi renunat. E ceea ce n-am ntlnit niciodat la alt
femeie, aceast impresie de a te juca pasionat cu o panter ntrtat.23
Apud Lhomme la dcouverte de son me: Structure et fonctionnement de linconscient, ed. a 2-a revzut i adugit, Geneva, 1946, n J.
Chevalier i A. Gheerbrant, Dicionar de simboluri, Ed. Polirom, Iai, 2009.
10
Camil Petrescu, Patul lui Procust, op. cit., p. 295.
11
Idem, p. 305.
12
G. Clinescu, op. cit.
13
Idem, 179.
14
Camil Petrescu, Jocul ielelor, Studiu introductiv, tabel cronologic i bibliografie de Aurel Petrescu, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1973, p.
182.
15
C. Petrescu, Suflete tari, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1973, p. 23.
16
Idem, p. 103.
17
Idem, p. 101.
18
George Clinescu, Principii de estetic, op. cit., p. 122.
19
Ibidem.
20
Idem.
21
Camil Petrescu, Ultima noapte, op. cit., p. 64.
22
Idem, p. 66.
23
Idem, p. 98.
9
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seva n copaci, floare albastr, ca semn de recunoatere, un roi de fluturi deasupra unei
plante, grul copt, snii ca merele, caise strvezii, petala de trandafiri galbeni, plantele sub
privirea magic a fachirilor, floare de primvar, miez alb de fruct exotic, ochii ca nite
prune lungi, verzi etc. Asemuirea femeii cu regnul vegetal nseamn recunoaterea, din partea
lui Camil Petrescu a unei inocene cvasiparadisiace (literal, Edenul este grdina dintre ape),
nseamn apoi senzualitate i un anume hedonism cci fructele sunt ispititoare i prea uor i
nfigi dinii n ele. De aceea, ele se muc, se taie cu cuitul, se storc, ele au carne / pulp.
Vegetalul este un regn naiv, spontan, fr intelectualitate i fr indivizi, de unde accesele de
misoginie ale lui Camil. Gimnospermele sunt unisexuate, de unde, poate dorina de a fi una cu
persoana iubit, mai ales n momentele de criz. Cnd trupul femeii decade n atenia
brbatului, voluptatea crete: Cnd eram furios i sufeream din pricina ei, simeam un fel de
drojdie de satisfacie c snii, nici chiar cnd era culcat pe spate, nu mai aveau acea
elasticitate dur de fructe, c acum, cnd se mriser, alunecau uor, firete prea puin, nspre
coaste fr s mai afirme neastmprata mur, ca un sigiliu al voluptii, din vrful lor. Plinul
oldurilor nu mai avea liniile de lir de la nceput i era ciudat corespondena ntre impresia
aceasta de scdere, de atrofiere pur a lor i nflorirea molatic a snilor. Muchii coapselor,
care erau, n zilele dinti, ntini, seme, de la genunchi pn la old, acum se relaxau, mai
catifelai, mai dulci la pipit, imperceptibil, spre interiorul picioarelor. Dar att de
inexplicabile sunt ntortocherile iubirii, c acum, cnd o simeam nduioat alturi, tocmai
aceste scderi erau pentru mine prilejuri de voluptate. mi plceau, parc mai mult ca oricnd,
aceti sni molatici i asculttori, care mi umpleau, cu greutatea lor drag, palmele, lundu-le
forma, i mi lipeam, cu o dureroas bucurie, obrajii de coapsele cu frgezimi molcome de
petale, care altdat tresreau elastice i nervoase35. Brbatul lui Camil Petrescu are nevoie
permanent de confirmarea c femeia este a lui i doar a lui. Dorina de a avea n posesie
acest corp devine halucinant. Sufletul femeii este amestecat cu trupul, de aceea devine att
de consitent n memorie, dar trupul este esenial. n faa morii, i revine n minte trupul, din
nou trupul, dezlipit de suflet: Mai aproape acum dect sufletul femeii mele mi-e trupul ei,
cci senzaiile nc le mai triesc36. Pe toat ntinderea romanului, Elei i se dezvluie sufletul
doar atunci cnd i ngrijete prietenele bolnave sau copiaz pagini pentru mtua ei, moment
pe care Gheorghidiu i-l amintete n momentele de voluptate: Eu priveam ochii ndoliai,
care vegheaser nopi de-a rndul deasupra patului prietenei bolnave, mna palid care scotea
din camera suferindei ligheanul cu pansamente murdare schimbate, aceeai mn palid care
copia zeci de pagini pentru mtu. Am prins s caut n tot trupul acesta de prines dornic
sufletul, floarea gndului i a loialitii37. Replica pe care i-o spune la nceputul relaiei, ca
pentru sine, Destinul tu, fat drag, e i va fi schimbat prin mine 38, i confer dreptul de
via i de moarte asupra trupului femeii iubite. Iubirea fiind neleas ca o posesivitate
deplin. Att Fred Vasilescu ct i tefan Gheorghidiu pstreaz imaginea femeii iubite, a
corpului ei, ca imagine a minii pe care o recompun din ntmplri i gesturi. Corpul capt,
astfel, o consisten pe care ar pierde-o dac ar disprea i din raza virtualului. El se
reconstruiete n apele unei oglinzi limpezi pentru c ceea ce i amintesc cei doi sunt
momentele de graie ale cuplului. Asocierea corpului cu lumea vegetal i cu cea animal prin
comparaii frecvente las s se ntrevad o urm a puritii primordiale care nu poate fi
distrus de nimic din ceea ce nseamn percepia materialitii de astzi. Accente ale unei
lumi edenice n care plantele erau fcute ca s acopere, s mbie, iar animalul s inspire.
Cnd se vorbete despre corp, el apare, psihologic vorbind, un subiect atractiv. Acest
interes s-a cuibrit n fundul memoriei noastre i se aaz mereu n dimensiuni noi ale
35
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existenei. Forma propus este de a realiza un profil al cuvintelor care vorbesc despre corp i
corporalitate prin recitire. Corpul vegetal, corpul ca materie brut, sunt cteva ipostaze
studiate n opera lui Camil Petrescu.
BIBLIOGRAFIE:
Barthes, Roland. Fragmente dintr-un discurs ndrgostit, Traducere din francez de
Sorina Dnil, Editura Cartier, Chiinu, 2007.
Barthes, Roland. Incidente. Traducere de Iolanda Vasiliu, Editura Cartier, Chiinu,
2007.
Clinescu, George, Principii de estetic, Editura pentru Literatur, Bucureti, 1968.
Le Breton, David, Antropologia corpului i modernitatea, Traducere din francez de
Liliana Rusu, Editura Cartier, Chiinu, 2009.
Chevalier, J., Gheerbrant, A., Dicionar de simboluri, Ed. Polirom, Iai, 2009.
Petrescu, Camil, Ultima noapte de dragoste, ntia noapte de rzboi, Editura Curtea
veche, Bucureti, 2009.
Petrescu, Camil. Patul lui Procust, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1982.
Petrescu, Camil. Suflete tari. Jocul ielelor, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1964.
Petrescu, Camil. Versuri, Cu postfaa autorului, ESPLA, Bucureti, 1957.
Cri online:
www.scribd.com/doc/...Angoasa-in-Civilizatie-Sigmund-Freud.
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THE POETICS OF NONSENSE AND THE ABSURD: LEWIS CARROLL VS. URMUZ
Andreea Sncelean, PhD Student, Petru Maior University of Trgu Mure
Abstract: Aggressed by the real world, which abounds in clichs, conventions, titles and
emblems that, in fact, hide the non-value, Lewis Carroll and Urmuz create a literature that is,
in its essence, fantastic and even oneiric (the latter aspect being more evident in Carrolls
books), in which, using the refined play with forms and meaning (essence), applied to
language, ambiguity is in its element. Thus, absurd universes are born, that do nothing but
underline the nonsense of reality and, more than this, sanction it through a type of humour
that confuses and snatches the readers mind out of the ordinary, of the commonplace that
erodes the spirit.
Keywords: absurd, nonsense, irrational, language, logic
Cunoscnd primele pulsiuni n secolele XVII-XIX, ndeosebi prin baroc, dar, ntr-o
anumit msur i prin romantism, criza avnd ca simptom principal sentimentul absurdului a
cunoscut punctul su culminant n secolul XX, dnd natere unui nou tip de literatur, cea a
absurdului. n prima parte a acestui secol, Antoine de Saint-Exupry afirma: Totul este
absurd. Nimic nu e pus la punct. Lumea noastr este alctuit din piese care nu se ajusteaz
unele cu altele. Dar nu materialele sunt de vin, ci Ceasornicarul. Ceasornicarul lipsete.1
Dup cum noteaz Nicolae Balot pe marginea acestei afirmaii, Ceasornicarul nu e
Dumnezeu, ci omul, care se simte strin, alienat, ptruns de artificial, lipsit de o ax a
valorilor, neavnd contact, prin propria-i neputin, cu verticalitatea transcendental.2 Astfel,
omul, care nu se mai mic dect pe o ax orizontal, unde cantitativul i abstractul domin,
ncepe s se simt nstrinat de propria sa umanitate, ca urmare a perceperii realitii ca pe o
lume ce se capitalizeaz, se birocratizeaz, se automatizeaz i, ntr-un final, pare a se
descompune, sentiment ce se transfer asupra propriei sale fiine. n acest context, limitele
raiunii sunt subliniate, cci iraionalul, de neptruns pentru logic, pare a domina existena.3
Iar n acest punct apare ceea ce teoreticianul absurdului, Albert Camus, n Mitul lui Sisif,
numea divorul dintre om i via, care nate sentimentul absurdului, avnd trei elemente:
dorina omului de a gsi unitatea din lume prin intermediul raiunii, pe de o parte,
iraionalitatea specific a lumii, pe de alta, i confruntarea dintre cele dou, ce rezult din
condiia limitat a omului ca fiin raional.4 ns omul absurdului nu este cel care se
resemneaz n faa acestui divor5, dup cum se ntmpl n cazul omului filosofiei
existenialiste, ci este cel care se revolt, urmnd afirmaia lui Miguel de Unamuno: Eu nu
accept raiunea, eu m revolt mpotriva ei ntruct tot ce e vital e antiraional.6
n acest context se contureaz o literatur a absurdului, n cadrul creia omul apare ca
fiin reificat, alienat, cuprins de anxietate i nesiguran, dar i de plictis, de indiferen i
Antoine de Saint-Exupry apud. Nicolae Balot, Lupta cu absurdul, Ed. Univers, Bucureti, 1971, p. 10.
Ibidem, pp. 10-11.
3
Ibidem, pp. 11-14.
4
Albert Camus, Faa i reversul. Nunta. Mitul lui Sisif. Omul revoltat. Vara, trad. Irina Mavrodin, Mihaela Simion, Modest Morariu,
introducere Irina Mavrodin, Ed. I, Rao International Publishing Company, Bucureti, 1994, p. 136.
5
Ibidem, p. 140.
6
Miguel de Unamuno apud. Nicolae Balot, op. cit., p. 18.
1
2
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cinism, n faa unei lumi disclocate, ajungnd pn acolo nct parodia existent n lucruri
coboar n limb7, regsindu-se la acest nivel prin nonsens, paradox, cliee, echivoc,
incongruen etc. n ciuda faptului c niciun scriitor nu i arog titlul de scriitor absurd,
lumea literar nu s-a ferit s i numeasc astfel pe unii prozatori, dramaturgi sau poei ai
secolului XX, dar i, retroactiv, ai secolului XIX, printre care se numr Lewis Carroll,
Christian Morgenstern, Alfred Jarry, Kafka, Albert Camus, Urmuz, Eugen Ionescu, Samuel
Beckett.
n ceea ce privete forma literar care a precedat literatura absurdului, potrivit
consideraiilor lui Nicolae Balot n Lupta cu absurdul, aceasta este literatura nonsensului,
avndu-i ca reprezentani pe Edward Lear, Lewis Carroll i Christian Morgenstern. 8 Acest
aspect este confirmat de filosofia nonsensului conturat de Jean-Jacques Lecercle, care
definete acest concept ca la philosophie en riant9, care, asemenea literaturii absurdului, este
subversiv i constructiv n acelai timp.10 Alte puncte de convergen ntre absurd i
nonsens, asupra crora se va reveni n detaliu mai trziu, ar fi excesul de logic, subversiunea
limbajului i a raiunii, violena, zoologicul, artificialul, incomunicabilitatea etc. Totui,
diferena dintre cele dou concepte este nsemnat, dup cum se va vedea i n ceea ce
privete lumile create de Lewis Carroll i Urmuz, cci poezia [i proza] nonsensului nu
implic o agresiune susinut la adresa raionalitii i realitii lumii. Absurdul unei lumi
fictive [...] nu se rsfrnge asupra lumii reale dect sub forma caricaturizrii ei, a parodiei. 11
Dac situaia literaturii lui Lewis Carroll este destul de clar, dei acesta a fost
revendicat i de suprarealiti, Andr Breton fiind, totui, i cel dinti care l-a numit pe acesta
absurd12, n cazul lui Urmuz apartenena sa literar a dus la numeroase controverse, fiind
revendicat de avangarda romneasc. ns, dup cum observ Marin Mincu13, Nicolae
Balot14 i Lucian Boz15, pentru a aminti doar cteva nume, dac la o lectur superficial
prozele lui Urmuz par a dinamita literatura i realitatea, pentru a o reconstrui mai apoi
aleatoriu, la o analiz mai profund se observ maxima luciditate de care a dat dovad
scriitorul n crearea operei sale, condiie esenial a operei absurde potrivit lui Camus16, prin
care acesta agreseaz realitatea surprinznd i rednd absurditatea-i specific.
Dup cum observ Ion Biberi, n prozele lui Urmuz lumea real, fcut din coerene
i legturi logice, bazat pe determinism, fixat n contururi precise, crmuit de legi, se
desface din toate ncheieturile, se amestec, se estompeaz n fum, n cenuiu i n absurd.17
ns ceea ce omite exegetul este faptul c pentru omul absurd lumea nu este coerent, legile
dup care funcioneaz sunt doar aparente, aceast iluzie fiind dat de raiunea neltoare. De
fapt, lumea este iraional prin excelen, haotic i absurd. Astfel, printr-un paradox,
raiunea ajunge s se autoironizeze prin literatura absurdului, i mai ales prin umor, asemenea
unui arpe care i nghite propria coad, dup cum noteaz i G. Clinescu cu privire la opera
lui Urmuz.18 Nu este, prin urmare, de mirare c realitatea cunoscut ndeosebi prin
intermediul intelectului, cunoaterea (aceasta incluznd i valorile) dobndit de omenire cu
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ajutorul raiunii este pus sub semnul ntrebrii i nu doar att, este aruncat n aer de scriitorii
absurzi, aa cum fcuse Nietzsche n secolul XIX.
Revenind ns la lumea aa cum este perceput de absurzi, aceasta apare ca fiind golit
de valori, legi i etic, n sensul profund al cuvntului, cele promovate de realitate fiind doar
forme lipsite de fond, n sensul n care acestea nu respect manifestrile natural umane. Mai
mult, lumea, aa cum este ea nfiat att n opera lui Carroll, precursor al absurdului, i a
lui Urmuz, este lumea carcer a lui Pascal.19 Dei acest spaiu d impresia vastitii (ex.
locuina familiei lui Stamate, care, prin aglomerarea de obiecte, pare imens, are deschidere
spre infinit i e pe aceeai strad cu Nirvana; ara din Oglind e un teritoriu vast, al crui
capt nu poate fi vzut de eroin), este, de fapt, foarte limitat (familia Stamate triete legat
de un ru, ntr-o camer joas, aflat sub pmnt, iar ara din Oglind este parcelat sub
forma unei table de ah, unde personajele se pot mica doar dup reguli ce nu depind de ele,
dei nu sunt adevratele reguli ale jocului de ah). ns, dac Alice se elibereaz n cele din
urm din aceste lumi, trezindu-se din vis (de unde i acea lips a unei agresiuni susinute
din partea lumilor lui Carroll), eroii lui Urmuz nu pot face acelai lucru, dei ncearc. Tot ce
pot face este s renune n faa lui i s se consume la infinit, asemenea lui Stamate, fr a
putea, ns s scape din aceast lume. Probabil de aceea Alice nu sucomb, ci se revolt,
asemenea omului absurd al lui Camus, n faa acestei carcere absurde, cu personaje care o
agreseaz i cu ntmplri ce sfideaz logica, n timp ce personajele lui Urrmuz se predau n
faa absurdului.
Printre formele lipsite de fond specifice lumii absurde menionate anterior se numr
i birocraia, al crei sistem mpnzit de legi impersonale, de abstraciuni inexplicabile, se
substituie raporturilor umane.20 Astfel, att n lumile create de Lewis Carroll, ct i n cele
create de Urmuz, i face loc artificialul. n ara Minunilor i n cea din Oglind, personajele
se supun unor legi care nu le ia n considerare propria natur, legi specifice jocului, cel de
cri n primul caz, crile de joc-personaj fiind obligate s se supun unei ierarhii specifice, i
cel de ah n al doilea caz, unde acestea se mic n funcie de un destin impus n mod
artificial, ntreaga lume de dincolo de oglind prezentndu-se eroinei ca o imens tabl de
ah21. n plus, personajele sunt reduse la condiia lor de obiecte de ctre eroin nsi, care, n
finalul primei cri Alice, exclam: Cui i pas de voi? [...] Nu suntei dect un pachet de
cri de joc!22 Prin urmare, ambele universuri create de Lewis Carroll par a fi dominate de
aceast senzaie subtil de artificial, care, ns, se manifest cu mult mai mare violen n
cazul prozelor lui Urmuz. Aici, dincolo de aglomerarea de obiecte ce sufoc i care dau
senzaia unui univers din care natura a disprut aproape cu desvrire (ex. apartamentul
familiei lui Stamate este plin de astfel de obiecte) i a abundenei de instrumente folosite de
personaje n diverse scopuri: binoclul pentru a privi n Nirvana, cruciorul pentru a atinge
infinitul n Plnia i Stamate etc. (a se observa i titlul acestui roman n patru pri n care
obiectul are naintate n faa umanului), mecanizarea personajelor este aproape total. Acestea
par a pstra o frm din organicul uman, ns pe acesta se pliaz tehnicul care se
nurubeaz n fiin. Astfel, aceste fpturi par a fi fost reificate aproape total,
metamorfozate n obiecte, cum se ntmpl n cazul lui Turnavitu care nu a fost mult vreme
dect un simplu ventilator pe la diferitele cafenele murdare, greceti, de pe strada Covaci i
Gabroveni.23 Iar tehnicul ce este parte constitutiv a acestor fiine i afl manifestarea n
repetarea unor gesturi mecanice, artificiale ce creeaz impresia unor personaje-manechin,
Nicolae Balot, op. cit., 1970, p. 65.
Nicolae Balot, op. cit., 1971, p. 14.
21
Ibidem, pp. 91-92.
22
Lewis Carroll, Aventurile lui Alice n ara Minunilor, traducere de Radu Ttruc, ilustraii de Violeta Zabulic-Diordiev, Ed. Cartier,
Chiinu, 2010, p. 147.
23
Urmuz, Schie i nuvele... aproape futuriste..., ediie ngrijit, studiu introductiv i note de Ion Pop, cuvnt de ncheiere de Domenico
Jacono, ilustraii de Jules Perahim, Ed. Tracus Arte, Bucureti, 2012, p. 60.
19
20
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487
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bucurie, focuri de pistol n aer.30). Lumea aceasta de slujbai se regsete i n cele dou cri
Alice, unde Carroll satirizeaz unele valori, comportamente i atitudini burgheze: Iepurele Alb
o confund pe Alice cu menajera sa, lund n considerare doar aparenele31, Ducesa este o
mam frivol, preocupat de evenimente sociale i detestndu-i copilul32, ce, n cele din
urm, se metamorfozeaz n porc, Porumbelul este o reprezentare a mamei victoriene excesiv
de protective i isterice, al crei singur scop este acela de a-i feri cuibul de erpi (substratul
erotic este evident aici)33 etc. ns att n cazul lui Carroll, ct i al lui Urmuz nu se poate
vorbi doar despre lumea burgheziei, ci i despre omul vremii lor i al crizei spre care se
ndreapt n cazul scriitorului britanic, i al celei cu care deja se confrunt n cazul lui Urmuz.
Iar ceea ce depete observaiile anterior fcute este raportul obsesiv de ierarhizare i, mai
mult, dorina obsesiv de putere, de a domina, de a suprima i, prin urmare, violena i tirania
care abund n lumile fantastice ale celor doi scriitori.
Balot observ scindarea eroului urmuzian care se dedubleaz, acest aspect fiind cel
mai evident n cazul cuplurilor-erou al prozelor sale (Ismail i Turnavitu, Cotadi i Dragomir,
Algazy i Grummer, Plnia i Stamate etc.) care, dei par unii prin prietenie sau sentimente
erotice, sunt, n realitate, unii printr-o complicitate sadic, tiranic, exploatndu-i i
violentndu-i att pe ceilali, ct i unul pe altul i chiar devorndu-se reciproc, toate acestea
cu scopul de a stabili cine este stpnul. Aceast dualitate se observ i n cazul eroinei lui
Carroll, despre care aflm n Alice n ara Minunilor c pretindea cu tot dinadinsul a fi dou
persoane34, Alice devenindu-i propria autoritate n cteva rnduri, pn s intre contact cu
personajele celor dou lumi, care vor ncerca s i se impun ca stpni. Mai mult, motivul
cuplului apare i n lumile lui Carroll. Att personajele care sunt cri de joc, ct i piesele de
joc i au perechile lor, iar ntre ele se stabilete acelai raport de stpn-slug (ex. Regele i
Regina de Cup nu interrelaioneaz de pe poziii de egalitate, cci regina este cea care are
ultimul cuvnt).
Raportul de putere se afl n strns legtur cu cel de posesiune, care n lumea
capitalist, mercantil n care triete Urmuz este nfloritoare. Astfel, Emil Gayk o privete pe
nepoata sa ca pe proprietatea sa, de care poate dispune, dei, aparent, acestuia i pas de
bunstarea i educaia acesteia. Acelai raport se stabilete i ntre Stamate i plnie, care l
face s simt pentru prima dat divinii fiori ai dragostei, iar Algazy i Grummer, n ciuda
aparentei prietenii i afeciuni, ajung s se consume unul pe altul sub pretext c se gust
numai pentru a se completa i a se cunoate mai bine.35 Societate de negustori, de posesori,
lumea lui Urmuz sufer din pricina mpuinrii existenei. ntre a fi i a avea exist un raport
invers proporional.36 Astfel, cu ct aceste personaje au mai mult, amintind aici acea
aglomerare grotesc de obiecte din universurile urmuziene, cu att sunt mai puin, cutnd s
i umple existena tot prin posesiune. Iar aceast posesiune nu se poate realiza dect prin
violen.
Tirania inund att cele dou lumi n care se aventureaz Alice, ct i prozele lui
Urmuz, n cazul celor din urm aceasta fiind de un sadomasochism exacerbat. Fpturile care
populeaz universul lui Urmuz lovesc cu ciocul, i ncurajeaz pe ceilali s le provoace
durere, se muc i se consum una pe alta, se umilesc, fr a ine cont de faptul c sunt
prieteni, rude sau iubii, cci toate sentimentele lor sunt pseudo-sentimente. Ei nu simt cu
30
Ibidem, p. 78.
John Goldthwaite, The Natural History of Make-Believe: A Guide to the Principal Works of Britain, Europe, and America, Oxford
University Press, New York 1996, pp.127-128.
32
Ibidem, p. 128.
33
Andreea Sncelean, Femininity between Fantasy and Reality. Escaping to Wonderland, Lambert Academic Publishing, Saarbrcken, 2012,
pp. 61-62.
34
Lewis Carroll, op. cit., p. 17.
35
Ibidem, p. 95.
36
Nicolae Balot, op. cit., 1970, p 114.
31
488
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adevrat nici dragostea, nici ura, ci doar dorina de a acapara, de a domina i a poseda. n
aceast lume golit de triri profunde, suferina personajelor nu nduioeaz, iar destinul lor
care i duce fie spre sinucidere sau spre fuga disperat nspre propria neantizare, tot o form
de agresiune, nu nate tragicul, ci tragi-comicul, genernd un surs amestecat cu oroare37.
Spre deosebire de personajele lui Urmuz, care folosesc ndeosebi gestica i ipetele
pentru a comunica, prnd a fi ntr-o degradare att de acerb nct nici nu mai pot
comunica verbal, fiinele din ara Minunilor i din cea din Oglind sunt violente ndeosebi
prin conversaie. ntr-adevr, n cteva ocazii Alice se simte ameninat fizic de buctreasa
Ducesei, de Porumbel i, mai ales, de Regina de Cup care i amenin pe toi cu tierea
capului, dar n cazul lui Carroll raportul stpn-slug se stabilete la nivel dialectic. Astfel,
dialogul se prezint ca o btlie, iar rostirea pare a fi gata s fie nlocuit n orice moment cu
violena fizic.38 Alice este agresat constant de personaje care o corecteaz, o contrazic, i
fac observaii nepoliticoase i crora pare s nu le pese ctui de puin de regulile unei
conversaii echitabile, bazate pe cooperare, respect, politee, calitate, adevr, empatie. O astfel
de situaie se regsete n scena unui ceai nebun din Alice n ara Minunilor, n urma creia,
eroina, care ncercase s poarte o conversaie politicoas cu cele trei personaje, se ridic
insultat i pleac dezgustat de la mas. La fel se ntmpl i n ara din Oglind, cnd i
ntlnete pe cei doi frai gemeni, Tweedledee i Tweedledum, care, dei Alice le sugereaz n
cteva rnduri c nu poate rmne mult timp, se decid s i spun nu cea mai frumoas poezie
pe care o cunosc, ci pe cea mai lung. n realitate, fpturile din aceste lumi nu numai c nu o
iau n considerare pe Alice, ci caut s i se impun ca stpni, cci n momentul n care relaia
dintre interlocutori pare a se echilibra, unul din personajele lumii fantastice ofer o replic ce
o pune automat pe Alice din nou ntr-o poziie de inferioritate.
Dup prerea lui Jean-Jacques Lecercle acest lucru este cel mai evident n discuia pe
care Alice o are cu Humpty Dumpty, precum i n scena procesului39. Ne vom opri asupra
celei de-a doua, aceasta fiind reprezentativ i n cazul prozelor lui Urmuz. Singurul scop al
procesului nu este acela de a afla adevrul i de a mpri dreptatea, ci de a stabili o ierarhie,
prin care autoritatea regelui s se impun i s l proclame nc o dat stpn peste restul
locuitorilor din ara Minunilor. Discursul regelui, ntrebrile pe care le adreseaz, afirmaiile
i concluziile la care ajunge eludeaz adevrul i echitabilitatea, aplicnd retorica i
sofisticria terminologic, bazndu-se pe ignorana celorlali, pentru a domina. Astfel,
acesta dorete s se pronune verdictul imediat dup citirea acuzaiei, intimideaz martorii
prin observaii personale, irelevante pentru proces, sau prin acuzaii de furt aruncate la
ntmplare, i se folosete de puterea sa i de cea a limbajului inclusiv pentru a scpa de
martorii nedorii, aa cum se ntmpl cu Alice. Deoarece aceasta se nlase i devenise prin
dimensiuni amenintoare pentru rege, acesta inventeaz o lege, legea nr. 42, conform creia,
datorit nlimii, Alice trebuie s prseasc sala de judecat. ns acest abuz de putere se
ntoarce mpotriva regelui, cci, cnd eroina refuz s plece i afirm crearea legii pe loc,
regele spune c este cea mai veche dintre legi. Dar logica nvinge, iar abuzul regelui se
ntoarce mpotriva sa: raionamentele sale i limbajul l trdeaz, cci dac ar fi fost cea mai
veche lege ar fi trebuit s fie cea dinti, Asupra problemelor de limb i de logic se va
reveni, ns, mai trziu. Ceea ce intereseaz n acest punct este arbitrariul procesului legislativ
dovedit de Carroll, care nu ine cont de fiina uman, nu o respect, cci acord ntietate unor
norme ptrunse de artificialitate i de bunul plac al unei fore opresive dornice de putere.
Problema sistemului juridic i a legii este, pe bun dreptate, una dintre temele majore
ale literaturii absurdului, regsindu-se i n prozele lui Urmuz. Parte a acestui sistem el nsui,
Wolfgang Kayser apud. Nicolae Balot, op. cit., 1971, p. 59.
Jean-Jacques Lecercle, op. cit.,p. 72.
39
Jean-Jacques Lecercle, op. cit., pp. 86-91.
37
38
489
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490
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Carroll l reprezint pe btrnul William ca pe un avocat (din nou critic la adresa justiiei),
care i-a but minile i care recunoate c are mintea cam goal de gnduri.
n cele din urm, ntreaga parodie coboar la nivelul limbajului, iar punctele comune
ale celor doi scriitori sunt sonoritatea cuvintelor i rolul acesteia n crearea lumilor i a
fiinelor ce le populeaz, puterea nominal a limbajului, echivocul, clieul, automatismul,
avnd ca scop final dinamitarea limbii. n ceea ce privete sonoritatea cuvintelor, Lewis
Carroll a fost un maestru, inventnd cuvinte noi, folosindu-se de charabia, i anume crearea
de noi cuvinte folosind sunete specifice limbii proprii47, alturi de cuvintele-valiz, fiind
creatorul acestei tehnici (ex. slithy, toves, brillig etc. n poemul Jabberwocky). Acelai
accent pus pe sunet se regsete i la Urmuz, doar c n cazul su acesta se afl n strns
legtur cu valoarea nominal a cuvintelor, despre care sora sa, Eliza Vorvoreanu, afirm: i
plcea [...] i l fcea s rd... numele de persoane ce i evocau anumite firi, anumite
caractere.48 Un asemenea caz este cel al lui Turnavitu, care a avut pentru o lung perioad de
timp ocupaia de ventilator, astfel c simpla lui numire traduce trsturile sale constitutive.
La fel, Stamate nu poate fi dect cineva care lucreaz n consiliul comunal. n cazul lui
Carroll, numirea are acelai efect. Timpul devine astfel personaj, ia fiin, asemeni lui
Nimeni. Legea pe care o invoc Regele de Cup atunci cnd vrea s o alunge pe Alice din
sala de judecat este de ajuns s fie numit pentru a exista.49 Apoi, expresii precum Mad as a
hatter sau Mad as a March hare devin personaje, Plrierul i Iepurele de Martie, care se
comport ca nite lunatici.50
Echivocul, marcat de pluralitatea de sensuri, apare la ambii scriitori, acest aspect fiind
remarcat pentru prima dat de Tudor Vianu n Figuri i forme literare. Astfel, imaginea celor
doi oameni care coboar din maimu din Plnia i Stamate se bazeaz pe echivoc,
comportnd, ns, i sensuri antropologice. Tot aici, masa fr picioare, [...] bazat pe calcule
i probabiliti, mbin echivocul i clieul, n cazul celui din urm imitnd stilul specific
anunurilor publicitare51. La Lewis Carroll, acesta este folosit, ca n cazul lui Urmuz, pentru a
surprinde curgerea fireasc a logicii, deschiznd posibiliti infinite limbajului, dar i
universului creat. Astfel, atunci cnd Regele Alb din ara din Oglind o roag pe Alice s se
uite s vad pe cine vede pe crarea din pdure, acesta i rspunde c nu vede pe nimeni (n
limba englez, dubla negaie este imposibil; astfel, Alice ar spune c vede pe nimeni), la care
Regele i rspunde: Tii, grozav a vrea s am asemenea ochi [...]. S fii n stare s vezi pe
Nimeni!52
Dac echivocul este folosit pentru a lrgi perspectiva asupra a noi posibiliti de
semnificaii, clieele i automatismele apar tocmai pentru a sublinia platitudinea limbii care a
ajuns s fie sectuit de sensuri. Astfel, dup ce Alice o aude pe Regina de Cup rostind
pedeapsa decapitrii fr sens, dup bunul plac, fr ca aceast verbalizare s fie urmat de
consecine, nelege golirea de sens a clieului53, devenit automatism al unei fiine obsedate de
putere i de a-i tiraniza pe ceilali. Aceeai tehnic o folosete i Urmuz, doar c n prozele
sale recurena acesteia este mai puternic, subliniind formalitatea pur a comunicrii. n cazul
su, clieele, frazele gata-fcute, sintagmele mai mult sau mai puin osificate sunt prinse n
ineria calculat a textului [...], ce le dezvluie vacuitatea, procednd la montaje burleti sau
groteti, la asociaii descalificante pentru expresia tririlor fundamentale.54 Un exemplu n
acest sens este ritualul prin care Stamate caut s se pun n posesia plniei de care se
47
491
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Carroll, Lewis, Alice n Lumea Oglinzii, traducere, prefa i note de Eugen B. Marian,
Ed. Prut Internaional, Chiinu, 2005
*** Aventurile lui Alice n ara Minunilor, traducere de Radu Ttruc, ilustraii de
Violeta Zabulic-Diordiev, Ed. Cartier, Chiinu, 2010
55
56
Camus, Albert, Faa i reversul. Nunta. Mitul lui Sisif. Omul revoltat. Vara, trad. Irina
Mavrodin, Mihaela Simion, Modest Morariu, introducere Irina Mavrodin, Ed. I, Rao
International Publishing Company, Bucureti, 1994
492
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Vianu, Tudor, Figuri i forme literare, Ed. Casa coalelor, Bucureti, 1946
493
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Abstract: The idea of an active female sexuality was regarded during the nineteenth century
as unnatural, even perverted, and as a threat to the respectability of the Victorian household
and, by extension, to the entire nation. Therefore, the prevailing image of the Victorian
woman was that of a woman cloistered within the private sphere and her body enclosed and
unrecognized or, rather recognized as inferior. Taking as starting point Thomas Hardys
novel The Woodlanders, the paper focuses on the representation of women as objects and on
their reconfiguring as de-sexualized bodies, which are being remodelled and manipulated (by
father, husband or lover) in order to become submissive and comply with patriarchal values.
The instantiations of the female bodys manipulation and training will be revealed through
the use of Michel Foucaults theory on the docile body. However, the term de-sexualization
takes another interpretation, as borrowed from Foucaults line of thought, where it may be
interpreted as a form of empowerment through which the woman, by becoming vocal and
demanding her rights, actually gains power and manages to penetrate the public space, hence
redefining herself in a male-dominated society. De-sexualization indeed empowers women to
interact with the other sex, but it also triggers the loss or denial of their sexuality.
Keywords: female body, Foucault, de-sexualization, objectification, empowerment
In a society which put great emphasis on the objectification and cloistering of the
female body within the private sphere, emphasizing the sexual impulses that govern the
human being and challenging the prescribed ideas according to which women lacked passion
and erotic drive must have been a challenging task for a writer. The nineteenth-century
patriarchal discourse on women reconfigured the female body into a body that was easily
manipulated and submissive, rather than desirable. It was for this transformed, recreated
female body that a new discourse emerged, one which represented the woman as a machine
which could be handled as an object by the medical corpus of the age, whose determined,
fixed task was to decide whether the female body was capable of reintegration in the society
or had to be locked in an asylum or worse, disposed of among the outcasts of the society.
Medical experts provided supposedly scientific arguments to prove that, whereas men had
strong sexual drives, it wasnt fit for respectable women to feel the same. A leading figure of
this idea was Dr. William Acton (1818-1875), who argued that the majority of women
(happily for society) are not very much troubled with sexual feeling of any kind 1. For Acton
female sexual activity was highly evident in lunatic asylums, while healthy women were free
from these sexual drives, since they submitted the passions of the flesh to their husbands only:
The best mothers, wives, and managers of households, know little or nothing of sexual
indulgences () As a general rule, a modest woman seldom desires any sexual gratification
Acton, William, Prostitution Considered in its Social and Sanitary Aspects (1870) in Sheila Jeffreys (ed), The Sexuality Debates,
Womens Source Library, Volume VI. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. 2001, p. 61
1
494
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for herself. She submits to her husband, but only to please him2. In other words, a body
stripped of its sexual aura, de-sexualized and trapped in its domestic cage represented no
danger for the respectable society of nineteenth-century England.
This view of the female body as de-sexualized was encapsulated in the medical and
literary discourse by propounding an image of the woman as asexual, devoid of sexual desire.
Excess of sexual desire (most inherent in prostitutes and hysterics) had to be normalized
through a cautious process of discipline. Discipline of the female body triggered discipline of
female sexuality, hence the domestic female body had to be taught not to become receptive to
(illicit) sexual passion, otherwise it would have betrayed the unity of the society and thus
become a threat, a danger. The Victorian woman was expected to behave as purely as
possible; she had to control her behaviour, her sexual appetite and her speech so that she
could dominate and control the desires of the flesh; she was considered an extension of man,
devoid of passions and interested in maintaining peace and tranquillity in the home.
In Discipline and Punish, the French philosopher Michel Foucault developed his
thesis on the docile body, a type of body which is manipulated, shaped, trained, [it] obeys,
responds, becomes skilful and increases its forces (...) A body is docile that may be subjected,
used, transformed, and improved3. The variety of meanings conveyed by this single phrase
accounts for the transformation, reconfiguration of the body into a passive, manipulated and
obedient tool, which by training becomes an active body, a skilful body which gradually
increases its forces. By extension, we may apply Foucaults theory on the docile body to the
Victorian female body which is turned docile and becomes powerless in the nineteenth
century patriarchal environment and is consequently easy to manipulate. Thus, subjected to a
process of inferiorization, control and treated as a commodity, the female body becomes a site
of male domination. Such is the case of the female body in Thomas Hardys novels all
throughout Wessex, most female characters are reconfigured by male characters as desexualized so they could maintain their control and power over them. In a typical patriarchal
society, the restrictions imposed unto the female body restricted womens freedom and these
merely represented objects of trade, of inspection, bodies whose behaviour had to be
regulated since childhood in order to prove their usefulness and docility in later years, when
they had to be economically valuable. In this case, the woman was, without a shadow of a
doubt, a victim of destiny, of money and of her secondary position in the society.
However, I will assign another interpretation of the term de-sexualized, starting from
Foucaults idea that, during the nineteenth century, a whole movement of de-sexualization
took place and triggered the empowerment of women who, through their own desexualization, managed to empower themselves in order to interact, to speak the same
language as the other sex. However, taking into account the discourse of prudishness and
sexual repression which permeated the patriarchal Victorian society, it is practically
impossible to separate the concept of de-sexualized as empowered from the image of the
Victorian woman as passive, perceived as lacking a sexual body, submitted to male control,
hence a docile body, as I will show in the subsequent analysis.
Thomas Hardys The Woodlanders deals with love, courtship, issues of class position,
marriage and the status of women in the Victorian society. At the hub of the narrative Hardy
places the returned native Grace Melbury, an educated young woman, who comes back to her
patriarchal environment where she finds her father deeply interested in trading her marital
future to the most prospective suitor, hesitating between Giles Winterborne, the hard-working
but uncultured rustic and Edred Fitzpiers, the newly arrived mysterious doctor, a whole
2
Acton, William quoted in Marcus, Steven, The Other Victorians. A Study of Sexuality and Pornography in Mid-Nineteenth-Century
England, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2009, p. 31
3
Foucault, Michel, Discipline and Punish. The Birth of the Prison (1975), New York: Random House, 1995, p. 136
495
SECTION: LITERATURE
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discourse which places Grace in the position of an auctioned object. Following Hardys
preferred narrative thread, this love triangle is disturbed by the appearance of the femme
fatale Felice Charmond, who complicates the relationships between Grace and the two suitors.
The novels major focus resides in highlighting the status of the Victorian woman and the
limited choices she had in a patriarchal society from the moment of her birth.
Grace Melbury represents the first instantiation of the de-sexualized woman turned
into a victim of the society in which she lives. Grace is the perfect example of patriarchal
oppression, of the woman turned into a docile and useful body, treated as an object by the
different men in her life: her father and her husband. The patriarch of the household, Mr.
Melbury, constructs his daughter as commodity and judges her value taking as starting point
the money which he had invested in her education. In this context, Grace becomes a social
victim within the patriarchal system which entraps her and thus limits her choices. Thus,
when it comes to marrying his daughter, the father demands repayment for his investment:
since I have educated her so well, and so long, and so far above the level of the daughters
hereabout, it is wasting her to give her to a man of no higher standing than he 4. Grace
becomes gradually an object of barter for Mr. Melbury, who is unable to perceive his
daughter as a woman, but as an item which he must re-locate as most profitably as possible.
Unsatisfied with the prospect of his daughter marrying the not so well-off Giles, Mr. Melbury
configures his daughter according to a plan: I have () that plan in my head about her 5,
according to which she should marry a man of higher position than his. When placing his
daughter within a pre-established schema, the father annihilates the daughters possible choice
from the very beginning and re-configures the woman Grace into the object Grace by
constantly disciplining her into forcibly participating into the predominant discourse of male
superiority and authority over female weakness and submissiveness.
We may say that the strategies of discipline directed towards Graces body represent
subtle tactics, since they are deployed without weapons or terror, encapsulating forces that
bear directly on her body, but without the use of violence. Grace is thus disciplined, turned
docile through a micro-physics of power6, i.e. a power which invests bodies by means of a
multifaceted network of subtle mechanisms. This micro-physics of power is, according to
Foucault, the power exercised on the body [and] is conceived not as a property, but as a
strategy, that its effects of domination are attributed (...) to dispositions, manoeuvres, tactics,
techniques, functionings; (...) one should decipher in it a network of relations, constantly in
tension, in activity, rather than a privilege one might possess (...) [and] the overall effect of its
strategic position an effect that is manifested and sometimes entrenched by the position of
those who are dominated7. Hence, in the context of the father-daughter relation perceived in
pecuniary terms, the dominated Grace has to prove the usefulness of her body.
For Foucault, the body is crossed by the intersection of a series of correlatives: power,
dominance, control and subjection, all expressed and further exercised in socio-political
relations. Even though for Foucault the bodys usefulness is measured in terms of production
(economic), he notes that the body becomes a useful force only if it is both a productive
body and subjected body8. Mr. Melbury gradually keeps his daughter under control, seen as
a way of protecting his investment and which in fact turned into his obsession, consisting in
sow[ing] in her heart cravings for social position9, which shows that the father wants his
Hardy, Thomas, The Woodlanders (1887), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 17
Ibid.
6
Foucault, Discipline and Punish, p. 26
7
Ibid.
8
Ibid.
9
Hardy, The Woodlanders, p.81
5
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daughter to understand and internalize the power and importance of money and social
position.
Grace is trained into sheer docility and is continuously manipulated by outside forces
first of all, she is shaped and trained by her father to become an educated woman and marry
to her own advantage; she obeys her father in being ready to accept the suitor that had been
destined for her by her father; secondly, by Fitzpiers, the shrew seducer. Hence Graces body
is put to the test of discipline discipline seen as involving a whole technology of the body,
which is invested with relations of power and domination: it is branded, trained, worked,
observed, punished and lastly turned into a de-sexualized object.
In a Foucauldian reading, Graces body is re-configured by her father into a body as a
machine10, a body in which disciplinary procedures were used to optimize the economic
usefulness of the body, a significant moment in the development of capitalism, which
required the controlled insertion, implementation of bodies into the new machinery of
economic production11. In this context, Mr. Melburys de-sexualizing Grace entails a process
of torture for the daughter, who, upon returning in her native environment, lives the tragedy
of the exiled; she feels uprooted, alienated, gradually turning from an unpleased person to one
that is trying to please the others. However, in her case, as I shall demonstrate in the last part
of this paper, this process of de-sexualization performed onto her body by outer forces
transforms, re-configures Grace into a woman who will actually become empowered and raise
her voice above her oppressors.
Another instantiation of de-sexualization in The Woodlanders is provided by a female
character who resorts to self-mutilate her body out of economic reasons. Marty South is a girl
with little pretension to beauty12 and whose hands are hard, rough, red and blistering. It is
her hair which brands her femininity; her hair, in its abundance which made it almost
unmanageable, brown, even though its true shade was a rare and beautiful approximation to
chestnut13. It is through Marty that Hardy mirrors a harsh reality of the nineteenth-century
society, i.e. the economic hardships most poor peasant girls had to endure and which
eventually forced them into selling their own hair in order to survive: Young women in
England, who have beautiful tresses, are occasionally, we know, urged by poverty to part with
them for money to the hair-workers14. These girls were also providers of hair for the
boudoirs of [the] fashionable world15, ladies of the middle class who needed to embellish
themselves, to re-create their sexuality through artificial coils and curls, such being the case of
Felice Charmond who augments her charms in order to ensnare and betray men, thus hair
becoming a symbol of deceit (also used by Hardy in the depiction of Arabella Donn in Jude
the Obscure, when Jude discovers that his wifes enormous knob of hair is a detachable
piece).
It is lack of money and the realization that the man she secretly pines for (Giles)
would never take an interest in her which make Marty sell what she regards as her only claim
to beauty. Not only does she sell her hair, but she transforms this commercial process into a
ritual of self-punishment when she actually cuts it herself, thus completely de-sexualizing her
being. The process of de-sexualization brings about Martys inner struggle, the turmoil at the
thought of being deprived of her sexual, sensuous side: I cannot part with it: so there! 16; I
say I wont sell it to you or anybody17; I value my looks too much to spoil em18.
10
Foucault, Michel, The History of Sexuality. An Introduction, Volume 1, New York: Pantheon Books, 1978, p. 139
Ibid.
12
Hardy, The Woodlanders, p. 10
13
Ibid.
14
Rowland, Alexander, The Human Hair, London: Pipee Brothers & Co., 1853, p. 158
15
Ibid., p. 159
16
Hardy, The Woodlanders, p. 11
17
Ibid., p. 12
11
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When Marty cuts her own hair and transforms it into commodity, she effects a ritual of
self-punishment. By altering her appearance, she also alters her relations to the onlookers. The
punishment is visible when Giles sees her and he is startled by her looks: your head () has
shrunk to nothing it looks like an apple upon a gate-post19, to which Martys heart
swelled20 and she could not speak21. Thus, by robbing herself of an important feminine
asset, Marty contributes willingly to her own de-sexualization by unmaking herself as a
possible object of desire for the man she longed for (Ive made myself ugly and hateful
thats what Ive done!22) by sacrificing her feminine looks.
A womans hair has always been evocative of her sexuality, and it has even been
claimed that a womans head hair is to the male a symbol of her pubic hair and hence of her
very womanhood23. Thus it comes as no surprise on the part of prudish Victorians to dictate
some rules of good behaviour for ladies in public, rules which stated that, after the period of
adolescence, women were supposed to put their hair up and only let it loose in more private,
intimate occasions. That is why, by contrast with the considerate ladies who would groom and
tie up their hair, a woman with loose, unkempt hair would be easily associated with loose
sexual mores. In the case of the unfortunate Marty, her short hair equates to lack of sexuality
and sensuousness, which is noticed by Giles, who immediately re-configures the woman
Marty into the object Marty, by comparing her head to an apple. Not only does Marty
participate into the process of her own de-sexualisation, but she is also de-sexualized and
objectified within the male discourse which associates hair with femininity.
The de-sexualisation of the woman occurs in this novel at the level of the ageing body
as well. Felice Charmond buys Martys hair in order to increase her charms and thus render
herself more attractive to Fitzpiers. Felice internalizes the process of ageing as one that
transforms her body from useful to useless. The useful body is a body that can be, in
Foucauldian terms, handled and trained24. Therefore she interprets her body as capable of
performing a series of functions considered useful by the patriarchal society, i.e. to meet a
prospective husband, marry him and settle down. The panic of an ageing body is translated as
her fear of becoming unacceptable, abnormal and unattractive in males eyes. Upon realizing
and further acknowledging the signs of ageing, Felice internalizes the end of her usefulness
on the market, usefulness which should be understood in her case as her power of attraction,
which gradually fades away. She therefore tries to make her body useful again by decorating
herself with artificial props (false tresses). When Fitzpiers discovers that Felices beautiful
hair was only a substitute, he re-configures his mistress as another, de-valuing her from a
sexual, sensuous woman to a de-sexualized, hence useless woman. Placed on a pedestal by
her lover and by the members of the community in which she lived, Felice becomes an/other,
associated with the womans other face, one that she had carefully kept confined, veiled, but
which was unveiled so as to reveal the unequal play of power relations in Victorian culture:
women pay for being other, for not being able to comply with the ideal(ized) standards
expected by the Victorian patriarchal system.
The other meaning assigned to the term de-sexualization in this paper was borrowed
from Foucaults line of thought and it is associated with a creative and interesting element in
the womens movement during the nineteenth century:
18
Ibid., p. 13
Ibid., p. 21
20
Ibid.
21
Ibid.
22
Ibid.
23
Cooper, Wendy, Hair: Sex, Society, Symbolism, London: Aldus, 1971, p. 65
24
Foucault, The History of Sexuality, p. 170
19
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The real strength of the womens liberation movements is not that of having laid
claim to the specificity of their sexuality and the rights pertaining to it, but that they have
actually departed from the discourse conduced within the apparatuses of sexuality. These
movements do indeed emerge in the nineteenth century as demands for sexual specificity.
What has the outcome been? Ultimately, a veritable movement of de-sexualisation, a
displacement effected in relation to the sexual centering of the problem, formulating the
demand for forms of culture, discourse, language, and so on, which are no longer part of that
rigid assignation and pinning-down to their sex which they had initially in some sense been
politically obliged to accept in order to make themselves heard. The creative and interesting
element in the womens movements is precisely that25.
Hence I will extract this Foucauldian perception of the term and apply it to Hardys
female character who is depicted as unsexing herself and renouncing for a moment at her
sensuous, feminine side, in order to find a common language, to become accepted and thus
understood by men. In order to achieve this, female characters in Hardys fiction are
generally presented as inverting the dominant/submissive paradigm and consequently placing
themselves in a position of power. In a male-dominated society like the Victorian one, where
women were often the victims of sexual oppression, it was difficult for women to even
consider the topic of female sexual agency and choice, since women were assigned, cloistered
to the private arena. In this context, we may say that de-sexualization represented a strategy, a
ploy bringing some significant changes in womens status.
Throughout the novel, Grace Melbury is presented as a woman who is subjectively
constructed by the male gaze, either the patriarchal gaze of her father, who seeks to entrap her
in his system of normalization (as discussed above, Grace is nothing but a plan and an
investment to Mr. Melbury, who is permanently seeking to restore his daughter to the society
she had been taken away from) or the gaze of desire enacted by both Fitzpiers and Giles upon
her body. However, towards the second half of the novel, Grace manages to achieve a certain
degree of independence and manages to elude the gazes cast upon her, as she is attempting to
configure an identity of her own: I am a woman now, and can judge for myself26 and thus to
defeat the constraints of the patriarchal society and the cultural context which define women
in negative opposition to men.
It is when Fitzpierss gripping infatuation with her comes to an end, towards the
second half of the novel and she becomes aware of her husbands liaisons and the fact that she
was a mere object which might bring his social integration in the Little Hintock community,
that Grace stops being a mere spectacle and the dominant / submissive position is thus
inverted. The narrator remarks that Fitzpiers had become a silent spectacle to her27, which
reveals the reversal of roles in the visual field as well. From object of both trade and
information, Grace reconfigures herself as an assertive observer of her own self and of her
life. Grace acquires a high level of knowledge the moment she ceases being the naive, country
girl, compared to a mere chattel28 in her fathers discourse. Foucault finely observed that
the function proper to knowledge is not seeing or demonstrating; it is interpreting 29. The
moment she becomes aware of the two mistresses in Fitzpierss life, Suke and Felice, Grace
internalizes her own tragedy and begins the process of interpretation: what she had seen,
gazed at up to that moment is transformed into bits of information that are further analyzed
25
Foucault, Michel, Power/Knowledge. Selected Interviews and Other Writings. 1972-1977, New York: Pantheon Books, 1980, pp. 219220, my emphasis
26
Hardy, The Woodlanders, p. 74
27
Ibid., p. 185, my emphasis
28
Ibid., p. 81
29
Foucault, Michel, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (1971), New York: Vintage Books Edition, 1994, p.
40
499
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and internalized so that she is capable of empowering herself and deserting her cheating
husband.
Therefore it is through a painful and meticulous process of interpretation that Grace
manages to overcome the label she had been carrying for years and thus reclaim the
boundaries of her own body. It is the conversation she has with Felice, when they were both
lost in the woods, that helps Grace understand and recognize that the former had an affair
with her husband: O my great God! () Hes had you!30, and the episode in which both
mistresses come to Grace and Fitzpierss household in order to inquire about the latters
accident and Grace welcomes them with words full of bitter sarcasm: Indeed, you have a
perfect right to go into his bedroom () Wives all, lets enter together! 31. This is the
moment when Grace stops being the meek angel of the house type of woman and
reconfigures herself into an agent, a woman who is not afraid to voice the unhappiness and
humiliation in her own marriage. Later in the novel, when she rediscovers Giles, Grace is in
her turn re-discovered, re-configured by him as a new woman: () a new woman in many
ways whom he had come out to see; a creature of more ideas, more dignity, and, above all,
more assurance, than the original Grace had been capable of32. This new Grace speaks out
her mind and detaches herself from the role prescribed to her by the conventional, patriarchal
society and dares to make her(self) heard. She begins to make use of a high level of resistance
in order to break the conventions of the male-dominated system. According to Foucault,
where there is power, there is resistance33. In other words, resistance would not be possible
if there were no power relations present, and instead of taking on a passive, powerless role,
the subject Grace, by deploying resistance, takes part in the dynamics of these power relations
by changing and re-creating them.
As the above analyses have shown, the woman perceived as de-sexualized becomes in
Hardys novel a victim of the patriarchal system and she is made to adopt a passive position,
i.e. the position of the prey in front of the hunter. Victimized by the authority of the
patriarchal father (Grace), victimized and oppressed by the economic burdens she is subjected
to (Marty), victimized by a society that places high value on exterior beauty, without which a
woman feels she is unable to get a husband, marry, procreate, hence feeling unable to respond
to the pre-requisites of the society in which she lives (Felice), the female character in The
Woodlanders is being however offered temporary outlets in which to voice her unhappiness
and freedom of choice (Grace). As Hardys female characters are placed on a site of struggle
because they are preys to various forms of abuse, and they are rendered victims of oppressive
fathers, husbands or lovers, the female body in this novel is constituted itself as an object
through the methods inscribed within a male-modelled discourse. This act of objectification is
to be understood as an act of domination and control, which leads to the discipline and very
often punishment of the woman. Yet, Hardys novel also offers a reading of power as
productive, not only repressive, as power is coextensive with resistance, and hence it produces
positive effects. According to Foucault, where is power, there is a certain level of resistance34
to it as well, revealed in Hardys novels by those female voices who actually break the silence
and are delineated as active beings, empowered to vocalize their own self.
30
500
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Bibliography
Acton, William. Prostitution Considered in its Social and Sanitary Aspects (1870) in
The Sexuality Debates. Ed. Sheila Jeffreys. Womens Source Library, Volume VI. London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. 2001. pp. 42-57
Cooper, Wendy. Hair: Sex, Society, Symbolism. London: Aldus. 1971
Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish. The Birth of the Prison (1975). Trans. Alan
Sheridan. New York: Random House. 1995
Foucault, Michel. Power/Knowledge. Selected Interviews and Other Writings. 19721977. Edited by Colin Gordon. Trans. Colin Gordon and Leo Marshall, John Mepham and
Kate Soper. New York: Pantheon Books. 1980
Foucault, Michel. The History of Sexuality. An Introduction. Volume 1. Trans. Robert
Hurley. New York: Pantheon Books. 1978
Foucault, Michel. The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences
(1971). Trans. Alan Sheridan. New York: Vintage Books Edition. 1994
Hardy, Thomas. The Woodlanders (1887). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2005
Marcus, Steven. The Other Victorians. A Study of Sexuality and Pornography in MidNineteenth-Century England. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers. 2009
Rowland, Alexander. The Human Hair. London: Pipee Brothers & Co. 1853
501
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Abstract: Contrary to expectations, postmodernist writer Mircea Horia Simionescu offers the
readers a classic diary that displays a transparent equivalence between the writer, the
narrator and the main character of the book. Therefore, this autobiographic piece of
literature is not only the radiography of certain authentic thoughts and feelings experienced
by the writer, but also the stylistic expression of the social and historical realities of the
communist period.
Keywords: equivalence, authenticity, social, communism, classic.
502
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evenimentele de un timp bine determinat. Nu poate pluti n nedefinit. Anna Karenina poate s
se mite oriunde i mai ales oricnd. Jurnalul e al unei perioade din care nu poate iei. Este
foarte important ca fiecare capitol s se leasc sub acolada unui timp mereu amintit. De
aceea, eu n-a nsemna pe coperta jurnalului anul cnd lucrurile se desfoar, a nota vrsta
autorului nsemnrilor. Aceste note pe care le adun acum ar putea aprea peste 40 de ani sub
titlul: Jurnal 18. Nu se nelege nimic dac nu e prezent n marginea fiecrei nsemnri vrsta
scriitorului4.
La Mircea Horia Simionescu literatura de ficiune ofer multe informaii veridice
despre viaa autorului lor, pe de-o parte, dar pe de alt parte, jurnalele sale iau n rspr
conveniile genului i augmenteaz nclinaia spre ficionalizare a mrturisirilor5.
Acest fenomen de ficionalizare n numele literaturitii este prezent chiar din primul
volum autobiografic al lui Mircea Horia Simionescu, intitulat Trei oglinzi6. Aceast scriere e
destinat unui an din adolescena scriitorului, mai exact anului 1946. n contrast cu jurnalul de
tineree Trei oglinzi se afl un alt jurnal, intitulat Febra7, care cuprinde anii 1963-1971, adic
o perioad a vrstei maturitii.
Chiar dac aceste dou jurnale au ca subiect dou capitole diferite din viaa lui Mircea
Horia Simionescu, aflate la mare distan cronologic, autorul lor pare a fi neschimbat n
sensul c ambele volume reflect aceeai cutare struitoare, obsesiv pentru aflarea unui stil
absolut inedit, unic, pun n practic aceeai metod de rescriere a unor nsemnri mai vechi
prin omiterea de pasaje neinteresante sau incomode, i nu n ultimul rnd, relev atitudinea
scriitorului de asumare a propriei subiectiviti, credina sa n adevrul specific literaturii i nu
istoriei.
Pe coperta crii e redactat un fragment dintr-o scrisoare rmas neexpediat, adresat
de Mircea Horia Simionescu prietenului su Mircea Ciobanu, fragment din care se desprind
cteva idei ale autorului lor cu privire la jurnalul su i la modul n care a neles s-l
conceap, o caracterizare de fapt a propriului jurnal: Din lecturile mprtite ie i din
discuiile noastre, ai neles c n-am nici cea mai palid intenie s-mi pun condeiul n
serviciul istoriei, c obiectul meu de studiu i are limitele n spaiul dintre persoana mea i
pereii atelierului n care mi desfac pn la ultima fibr proiectele literare, nelinitile,
biruinele trectoare, eecurile recurente. Spre deosebire de istorie, dar spre folosul
literaturii, al adevrului propriu acesteia, aprecierile subiective, unele viu iritate, polemicile,
portretele subiate pn la caricatur, judecile intempestive, adesea nedrepte, intuiiile
riscate, rtcirile i obstinaia vicioas de-a relua cu fiecare nou zi cutrile, n ndejdea
unei descoperiri artistice cum n-a mai fost, toate aceste nsemnri disting jurnalul unui
scriitor de mai toate celelalte care, avnd rostul i utilitatea lor, i imagineaz c lucreaz
numai cu fapte incontestabile. n ce m privete, subiectivitatea i tacticile omisiunilor le-am
mnuit i-n alte scrieri, constrngndu-le s fac mrturisiri ricoate8.
Jurnalul Febra l nfieaz pe Mircea Horia Simionescu la vrsta maturitii, paginile
sunt nsemnrile mai mult sau mai puin zilnice ale bucureteanului de 35 de ani.
Acum el nu se mai bucur de grija i ocrotirea direct a mamei, ci i afl cminul
alturi de soia sa, Dorina, ntr-un apartament din capital, de pe Bulevardul Ana Iptescu.
Emoiile i gndurile legate de alctuirea Dicionarului onomastic i a Bibliografiei generale
se mpletesc cu nerbdarea dar i nelinitea unei noi ipostaze existeniale, aceea de a fi tat.
Mircea Horia Simionescu, Trei oglinzi, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1987, pp. 102-103.
Gabriela Gheorghior, Mircea Horia Simionescu. Dezvrjirea i fetiizarea literaturii, Editura Muzeul Literaturii Romne, Bucureti, 2011,
p. 148.
6
Mircea Horia Simionescu, Trei oglinzi, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1987.
7
Mircea Horia Simionescu, Febra, Editura Vitruviu, Bucureti, 1998.
8
Mircea Horia Simionescu, Febra, Editura Vitruviu, Bucureti, 1998, pe coperta crii.
4
5
503
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Dac n jurnalul anterior, Trei oglinzi, starea de spirit a tnrului Mircea Horia
Simionescu este influenat sau dictat de discuiile cu prietenii, cu fratele sau cu mama,
ameninarea cea mai mare fiind aceea a corigenei la unele materii de studiu, acum
ameninarea vine din partea Securitii: scriitorul se confrunt cu frica, cu sentimentul
permanent, aproape visceral, c va fi deconspirat i c va ajunge, datorit scrierilor lui, o int
i o victim. Deseori, speriat c vin jandarmii s-l salte, terge cu pensula nmuiat n tu
rndurile din jurnal, fapt de care i amintete cu regret: masacrul pensulei muiate n tu, n
seara cnd se pregtea (eu credeam c sunt vizat) arestarea Malvinei Urianu. Atunci jurnalele
mele le-am pieptnat ru, dar cu nemaipomenit rbdare, chiar cu metodic linite, stpnit
perfect. Pcat de acele multe bancuri (din jurnale). Trei Mercedesuri, la cele trei intrri, cu
civili citind ziare toat ziua; nea Vian mi btea n u din jumtate n jumtate de or,
tresream convins c au venit, eu mereu calm impus, cu pensula n mn, ascultndu-i
relatrile despre micarea de afar. Abia pe la 3 dimineaa m-am putut trnti n pat, adormind
butean9.
Ca i n jurnalul anterior, preocuprile lui Mircea Horia Simionescu rmn literatura i
muzica. Ascult la radio muzic de Bellini, Verdi, Wagner, Bach, ncearc cu disperare
mpreun cu nite prieteni de la redacie s-i procure nite discuri cu muzic simfonic i le
ascult la pick-up, lucreaz la romanele sale ori de cte ori prinde cte o pauz la redacie, sau
pn noaptea trziu n subsolul blocului, trimite manuscrisele prietenilor spre a afla prerea
lor, cel mai adesea lui Geo Bogza i lui Radu Cplescu, dar i vechilor amici din Trgovite,
Radu Petrescu, Costache Olreanu i Tudor opa.
Recitind filele de jurnal aparinnd acestei periode, scriitorul rememoreaz
ntmplrile i recurge la adugiri. Cuprinsul acestui jurnal e de fapt recitit n 1996, dup cum
arat notele de subsol care sunt datate i care aduc completri i lmuriri.
Retrospeciile pe care le declaneaz interviurile consemnate sau nregistrate cu ani n
urm, cum ar fi cel intitulat Discuii n legtur cu Tezaurul, schieaz din nou
personalitile amicilor cu vederi literare comune i ,bineneles, ale prietenilor si din ara
Rapetanului10 Trgovitea, dar o Trgovite care exist doar pentru rapetanezi, ca o oaz
de linite i regsire de sine. Citind amicilor fragmente de literatur, Mircea Horia Simionescu
le surprinde reaciile i i schieaz fiecruia portretul: Ascultate de un tip practic (Didel
Fole), de un literat de rafinament (Radu Cplescu), de un alt literat (acesta viguros i sobru
Radu Petrescu), al treilea literat, apropiat de modul meu de a vedea lucrurile i avnd un stil
format i matur (Costache Olreanu); de dou persoane cu vederi mic-burgheze (Ligia i
Cezar Micu), de o cochet, inteligent colaboratoare a gazetei, n rgazul ateptrii paltelor
din tipografie (Maria-Luiza Cristescu)11.
Pe lng aceste portrete se mai contureaz cel al mtui Jeaneta (Jeana), chinuit de
boal, de un cancer pulmonar, dar i chipul mamei aflate n postura de bunic foarte atent i
grijulie, al Dorinei, care nu obosete niciodat s-i ndeplineasc ndatoririle de gospodin i
care se dovedete a fi o mam priceput i extrem de iubitoare.
Dar cea mai pregnant figur rmne aceea a autorului jurnalului. Fa de volumul
Trei oglinzi, n Febra descrierile ocup un spaiu mult mai restrns, important fiind aici
modul n care fiecare ntmplare, situaie, gest, vorb i influeneaz autorului-personaj
gndurile i starea de spirit.
Astfel se contureaz portretul unui proaspt student la facultatea de litere din
Bucureti, care se descurc foarte greu din punct de vedere material i pe care cu multe
Mircea Horia Simionescu, Febra, Editura Vitruviu, Bucureti, 1998, p. 7.
Ibidem, p. 8.
11
Ibidem, p. 9.
9
10
504
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sacrificii l ajut mtuile. i ntrerupe studiile n anul II de facultate, mpins de cei trei F.
foamea, frigul, frica12 i prin interveniile secretarului-ef al ziarului Scnteia, Sorin
Mladoveanu, este angajat la secia Cultural-nvmnt-Sport unde rmne doar cteva luni,
fiind mutat la secia Scrisori. Aici i d seama c cei aproape patru zeci de angajai din secie
nu au alt sarcin dect s citeasc scrisorile pentru a le seleciona i tria n ncercarea de a se
gsi orice neregul sau ameninare la sigurana statului. Scrisorile cu problem erau
semnalate Comitetului Central, Securitii. Simionescu numete aceast period, de aproape
paisprezece ani, La galere13. De multe ori a ncercat s distrug scrisorile incriminatorii
aruncndu-le la closet, dar: Se mai ntmpla (...) s se mai descopere un ghemotoc de scrisori
n closet, tocmai din cele n care erau demascai dumani de clas, i completeaz n nota din
1996: Rupte, mrunite, fcute cocoloae, ale dracului scrisori refuzau s alunece n canal
dup repetatele trageri ale mnerului. Un oarecare vigilent le pescuia ...14. Pe parcursul
acestor ani n care lucreaz la Scnteia ntlnete tot felul de oameni de o conduit moral
ndoielnic, deseori referindu-se la ei cu apelativul struii15.
Dei de muli ani n Bucureti, Mircea Horia Simionescu se simte strin, dezrdcinat
i stingher n capital i-i amintete cu melancolie de Trgovite. Din 1968 lucreaz din nou
la secia cultural a ziarului, unde redacteaz diverse articole despre art i ia interviuri unor
scriitori, pictori, muzicieni. n acelai an debuteaz literar n Luceafrul cu povestirea Cum
l-am trdat pe Pascal, pentru ca un an mai trziu s debuteze n volum cu Dicionarul
onomastic, urmat n 1970 de Bibliografia general.
Aadar, pe tot parcursul acestor ani, n ciuda programului extrem de ncrcat de la ziar,
Simionescu nu renun la scris, reducnd drastic orele de somn, pn la extenuare. Studiaz n
timpul lungilor i plictisitoarelor edine figurile colegilor si, care l inspir n crearea
tipurilor umane ale Dicionarului su. Un astfel de personaj este noul redactor-ef al
Scnteii, Dumitru Popescu, care i cere lui Simionescu, n ianuarie 1969, s fie eful su de
cabinet. Dei nceac s-l refuze, nu reuete, i nici nu nelege motivul acestei favori.
Curnd i va da seama de falsitatea acestui Dumitru Popescu pe care l va numi att n jurnal,
ct i n volumele sale, Klam.
Programul ca ef de cabinet nu-i mai las timp pentru scris sau muzic simfonic, se
simte prizonier ntr-o situaie fr ieire. Din Rtcirile unui caligraf aflm amnunte despre
accidentul cu scuterul, sinuciderea fiind perceput de scriitor drept unica ans de eliberare
din comarul pe care l triete alturi de Klam. n jurnalul Febra, Mircea Horia Simionescu
face doar aluzie la acest eveniment din viaa sa pentru c din nou intervine un proces de
selecie, de omitere a unor fapte sau detalii pe care scriitorul le consider ruinoase: Nu cred
c am notat accidentul, ruinea, teama (...) sunt multe situaii, ntmplri pe care te sfieti s le
consemnezi n jurnalul intim, cu toate c, prin durat i iritri de fiece clip, i ocup o mare
parte a vieii16.
Revenind la birou dup acest grav accident, Mircea Horia Smionescu e ntmpinat de
atitudinea absurd, rece i ostil a efului su, deloc ngrijorat de sntatea subalternului su:
A te face s crezi nu numai c eti de prisos pentru treaba pentru care te-a luat lng el, de
altfel niciodat precizat, dar i de prisos (netrebnic) n general. Cum n-a simit nevoia unei
explicaii atunci cnd m-a adus n acest stabiliment al lui Kafka, nefcnd mcar efortul de-a
Mircea Horia Simionescu, Febra, Editura Vitruviu, Bucureti, 1998, p.59; Simionescu reia studiile universitare n 1963, la fr frecven,
i absolv n 1964, vezi paginile 60 i 225 din jurnalul Febra.
13
Ibidem, p. 52.
14
Ibidem, p. 51.
15
Ibidem, p. 43.
16
Mircea Horia Simionescu, Febra, Editura Vitruviu, Bucureti, 1998, p. 57.
12
505
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arta mcar cu degetul unde se afl scaunul pe care urmeaz s-l ocup, nici acum nu simte c
ar fi igienic s spun un cuvnt limpede, dup care s ne zicem <<bun-ziua>>17.
n luna august a anului 1970 este numit director al Muzicii din noul Comitet pentru
Cultur i Educaie Socialist.
Pe lng aceste detalii legate de viaa la Scnteia, aflm multe informaii interesante
cu privire la preocuprile literare ale lui Mircea Horia Simionescu. nainte de a fi numit ef de
cabinet, ori de cte ori rmnea singur n birou relua scrisul la Dicionarul onomastic, la care
lucra n paralel cu Bibliografia general. Aflm titlurile originale ale volumelor sale de proz:
Dicionar onomastic sentimental (pentru Dicionarul onomastic), Breviarul sau Istoria critic
a secolului 20 (pentru cel de-al patrulea volum al ciclului Ingeniosul bine temperat), Dincolo
de bine i de ru (pentru Toxicologia sau Dincolo de bine i dincoace de ru), i Tetralogia
erorilor sau Clavecinul bine temperat ( pentru titlul tetralogiei Ingeniosul bine temperat).
Experiena de la ziar i-a oferit material nu numai pentru caracterele Dicionarului, dar
i pentru procedeul de scriere a Bibliografiei: i datorez enorm ziarului. M-a disciplinat, m-a
forat s vd n fa realitatea, despre care aveam cunotine destul de vagi, mi-a deschis ochii
ctre ceea ce se ascunde n spatele cuvintelor uvoi, mi-a ascuit (scuze!) simul critic i m-a
ndemnat desigur fr voia lui s pricep c satira e o arm n mna celui care tie s o
mnuiasc. Nu trecuser trei ani de la angajare, i eu scriam Comentariul asupra lucrurilor
particulare, satir destul de strvezie la adresa struo-cmilelor, a lumii ntemeiate pe
simulacre. Ca s ajung la acest mod de a vedea i a face, n-a fost deloc greu: m-am mulumit
s ntorc lucrurile cu susul n jos. Experiena aceea mi-a oferit un procedeu, abia acum mi
dau seama de ctig, la scrierea Bibliografiei. Se va vedea. Deja sesizabil efectul n Leipzig
ora de carton, scris la sfritul lui martie, unde numai despre Leipzig nu e vorba, se nelege
de ce plasarea n geografia german: <<fenomenul german ne preocup n continuare>>18.
Paginile scrise sunt date spre citire prietenilor, prilej de a le contura profilul. Radu
Petrescu nu mai e n acest volum figura dominant ntre apropiaii scriitorului Mircea Horia
Simionescu, locul su fiind luat de Radu Cplescu, Mircea Ciobanu, Tudor opa i Timotei.
Pe lng aceste portrete masculine, n aceste file de jurnal, spre deosebire de volumul Trei
oglinzi, exist mai multe figuri feminine, fiecare simboliznd un tip de iubire, sau un fel de a
iubi: f de Diana Andreea se revars o dragoste patern, f de Dorina, dragostea
conjugal, fa de Geta, iubirea pasional, mistuitoare.
Comparnd cele dou jurnale, Trei oglinzi i Febra, notele celui de al doilea poart
ncrctura anilor i a experienei n arta scrisului, vdind mai mult migal asupra textului,
oferind mult mai multe informaii documentare mai puin subiective, chiar dac acestea sunt
susinute de argumentele personale ale autorului. Subiectele abordate sunt, de asemenea, mai
diverse dect n jurnalul adolescentului Mircea Horia Simionescu, fapt oarecum firesc, datorat
lrgirii orizontului de preocupri.
Fr doar i poate, aceste dou jurnale se completeaz unul pe cellalt i trebuie privite
n continuitatea lor, amprenta personalitii lui Mircea Horia Simionescu fiind la fel de
pregnant n ambele, chiar dac din punct de vedere al valorii literare, jurnalul Febra este
superior celuilalt, prin detalii i perspectiv, prin stilul de redare a faptelor, dintr-un unghi de
vedere mai complex, mai argumentat, prin faptul c nu exclude nici un domeniu din viaa
scriitorului, fie c e vorba de relaiile cu oamenii, cu colegii de la redacie, cu familia, sau cu
iubirile din viaa autorului, toate mpletindu-se cu pasiunea pentru scris, aceeai din anii de
liceu. Imaginea lui Mircea Horia Simionescu, aa cum se desprinde ea din cel de-al doilea
jurnal, Febra, este a unui individ mult mai ncreztor n puterile i n talentul su de scriitor
17
18
Ibidem, p. 395.
Mircea Horia Simionescu, Febra, Editura Vitruviu, Bucureti, 1998, p. 60.
506
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dect fusese n adolescen, i mult mai puin nclinat s-i reproeze inferioritatea fa de
prieteni de-ai lui din aceeai breasl.
n acest jurnal, contrar obiceiului, scriitorul pune semnul echivalenei ntre autorul
real, narator i personajul principal, renunnd la tentaia mai veche de a disimula i a-i
inventa biografia. Astfel, aceste nsemnri autobiografice reprezint nu numai radiografia
unor stri de spirit autentice, ci i expresia stilistic a unor realiti sociale i istorice specifice
perioadei comuniste.
Bibliografie
Bibliografia operei
1.) Simionescu, Mircea Horia, Trei oglinzi, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti,
1987.
2.) Simionescu, Mircea Horia, Febra, Editura Vitruviu, Bucuresti, 1998.
Biografie critic
A. n volume
1.) Gheorghior, Gabriela, Mircea Horia Simionescu. Dezvrjirea i fetiizarea
literaturii, Editura Muzeul Literaturii Romne, Bucureti, 2011.
2.) Simion, Eugen, ntoarcerea autorului, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti,
1981.
3.) Zamfir, Mihai, Cealalt fa a prozei, ediia a II-a, Editura Cartea
Romneasc, Bucureti, 2006.
B. n periodice
1.) Simion, Eugen, Jurnalul intim, n Romnia literar, nr. 27, 2 iulie 1987.
507
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Abstract: The focus of this paper is to investigate the various meanings of the relationship
that Philippe Jaccottet, one of the most distinctive voices in contemporary French poetry,
establishes with the specific moment of revelation and of creation. First of all we will identify
the conditions for the emergence of the creative instant that represents a kind of intersection
of the common things (related to immanence) and of the things that are exterior and distant
(related to transcendence). This encounter is due to the immediate revelation that illuminates
the soul. In the second part of our study we will take into account the way in which the instant
becomes a starting point for the creation. It is also through a discontinuous and fragmentary
writing that the poet attempts to reconstruct and to relive the intensity of this unique moment.
In order to accomplish this task the writer seeks the vitality of the instant in the images of the
sensitive and visible world. Disgusted nevertheless by the beautiful yet false metaphors,
Philippe Jaccottet turns to a poor, unfinished poetry, on the model of the Japanese haiku.
In the last part, the paper closely examines these transformations of Jaccottets experience of
the visible world and its link with the poetic.
Keywords: Philippe Jaccottet, creative instant, fragmentary writing, impersonality, (in)visible
world.
Selon Antoine Compagnon, Philippe Jaccottet fait partie de la gnration de potes qui
semblent les plus reprsentatifs de la recherche du lieu 1. Le questionnement autour de
cette notion reprsente une coordonne essentielle de la dmarche potique de lauteur :
Quest-ce quun lieu ? Une sorte de centre mis en rapport avec un ensemble. [] Dans les
lieux, il y a communication entre les mondes, entre le haut et le bas ; et parce que cest un
centre, on nprouve pas le besoin den partir, il y rgne un repos, un recueillement. (La
Semaison, II, p. 208)2
Dans son ouvrage portant sur le Tissu potique de Philippe Jaccottet (2004), Hlne
Samson considre que le concept de lieu sinscrit dans la pense dun monde htrogne o
se droule une vie elle aussi htrogne, telle que la modlise Eliade dans Le Sacr et le
profane. Le lieu permet daccder non seulement la perception dune densit spatiale et
temporelle confre par la relation avec la transcendance, mais aussi une densit dtre qui
ne peut tre quoccasionnelle, et dont le pote aspire traduire lunicit. 3 En faisant la
lecture du volume Paysage avec figures absentes nous constatons le rapport fondamental qui
se tisse entre le lieu et le temps, les deux coordonnes entrant en osmose : Tous les lieux des
Paysages sont aussi des moments marqus dphmre, crpuscule ou aurore, changement de
Antoine Compagnon, La qute du lieu , in J.-Y. Tadi (sous la dir. de), La Littrature franaise, dynamique et histoire, vol. II, Paris,
Gallimard, 2007, p. 742.
2
Toutes les rfrences luvre de Philippe Jaccottet renvoient au volume LEncre serait de lombre Notes, proses et pomes choisis par
lauteur 1946-2008, Paris, Gallimard, NRF, 2011, lexception du volume Paysages avec figures absentes, Paris, Gallimard, NRF, (1976)
2006. Les rfrences contiennent le nom du pome/fragment cit (entre guillemets), le titre du volume (en italiques) et lindication du
numro de page.
3
Hlne Samson, Le Tissu potique de Philippe Jaccottet, Sprimont, Pierre Mardaga diteur, 2004, p. 6.
1
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saison, apparition temporaire dun tang aprs de longues pluies. 4 Dans ce contexte, des
moments privilgis (piphaniques) correspondraient de vritables lieux privilgis . Cest
une caractristique identifie par Maurice lie dans son tude sur lthique et le potique dans
luvre de Philippe Jaccottet et dans laquelle la question du moment de rvlation est relie
la description de la coordonne spatiale : Cest qu Jaccottet la grce nest accorde que
par instants ; elle tient aussi des lieux privilgis. Les Paysages avec figures absentes
oscillent entre le mystre de lapparition et lapaisement que procurent certains lieux. 5
La mission du pote est de se laisser transformer dans un il 6 capable de tout
regarder, de tout observer afin de tout saisir. Nous partageons lopinion dAndrea Cady
lgard du fait que le regard potique de Philippe Jaccottet, mme sil porte sur le ct banal,
ordinaire des choses, est capable de rvler galement le ct central, essentiel de la vie.7 Le
pote est dailleurs conscient du pouvoir rvlateur du regard, celui-ci dpassant largement les
limites du langage : Quest-ce que le regard ? / Un dard plus aigu que la langue / la course
dun excs lautre / du plus profond au plus lointain / du plus sombre au plus pur / un
rapace. ( Oiseaux, fleurs et fruits , Airs, p. 144)
La posie de Philippe Jaccottet, tout comme la production potique de ses
contemporains Yves Bonnefoy, Andr Du Bouchet et Jacques Dupin, suppose lexploration
de lphmre afin de retrouver le vrai lieu , celui dune rvlation profane 8 et de tisser
ainsi un lien entre lphmre et lternel. Si le seuil reprsente le lieu potique de
Bonnefoy, Philippe Jaccottet choisit le verger dans lequel il voit la demeure parfaite 9.
Cest dans lexploration de llment vgtal, associ souvent leau et lair, que lon
pourrait trouver la source des moments piphaniques, des instants crateurs.10
Nous concentrerons notre attention sur les significations du rapport entam par
Philippe Jaccottet avec le moment spcifique de la rvlation et de la cration, avec linstant
porteur de perspectives nouvelles sur lexistence et sur la condition humaine. Nous
identifierons dabord les conditions propices au surgissement de linstant crateur, celui qui se
diffrencie des autres instants. Ainsi, cet instant unique devient une sorte de point
dintersection des choses communes (relevant de limmanence) et de tout ce qui tient du
dehors, du lointain (relevant de la transcendance). Cette rencontre est possible grce la
rvlation instantane, grce au moment fugitif qui illumine lme et qui donne envie tre
vcu de nouveau11.
Il est important de souligner le fait que linstant se retrouve associ une dimension
piphanique, rvlatrice, pleine de sens et dessence, le miracle (la grce) y tant associ.
Cette dimension extra-ordinaire, ce contact avec la vrit absolue du monde nest possible que
pour une courte dure, tout se mesurant en instants : Tout ce que jai, cest un espace tour
Michle Monte, Nymphes, barques et autres lieux dans luvre de Philippe Jaccottet , Babel [En ligne], 2 | 1997, mis en ligne le 11
juin 2012, consult le 29 novembre 2014. URL : http://babel.revues.org/2719
5
Maurice lie, thique et potique de Philippe Jaccottet , Noesis [En ligne], 7 | 2004, mis en ligne le 15 mai 2005, consult le 29
novembre 2014. URL : http://noesis.revues.org/25
6
Lil : / une source qui abonde / Mais do venue ? / De plus loin que le plus loin / de plus bas que le plus bas / Je crois que jai bu lautre
monde ( Oiseaux, fleurs et fruits , Airs, p. 143)
7
The particularity of Jaccottet as a pote du regard is that though he never loses sight of the suchness of things, he will reach through the
total nexus of their revealed aspects to a central essence to something intangible. Andrea Cady, Measuring the Visible : The Verse and
Prose of Philippe Jaccottet, Amsterdam, Rodopi, 1992, p. 7.
8
Antoine Compagnon, op. cit., p. 743.
9
Ibid., p. 745.
10
Gaston Bachelard tablit une distinction nette entre linstant et la dure : Le temps ne se remarque que par les instants ; la dure nous
verrons comment nest sentie que par les instants. Elle est une poussire dinstants, mieux, un groupe de points quun phnomne de
perspective solidarise plus ou moins troitement. Gaston Bachelard, LIntuition de linstant : suivi de Introduction la potique de
Bachelard par Jean Lescure, Paris, Denol, (1932) 1985, p. 33.
11
Bonheur dsespr des mots, dfense dsespre de limpossible, de ce que tout contredit, nie, mine ou foudroie. chaque instant cest
comme la premire et la dernire parole, le premier et le dernier pome, embarrass, grave, sans vraisemblance et sans force, fragilit ttue,
fontaine persvrante ; encore une fois au soir son bruit contre la mort, la veulerie, la sottise ; encore une fois sa fracheur, sa limpidit contre
la bave. Encore une fois lastre hors du fourreau. (La Semaison, I, p. 114)
4
509
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510
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Onimus observe que par rapport la posie moderne qui nous a accoutums des violences
verbales, des gesticulations effrnes, cris de rvolte, sarcasmes claironnants, clbrations,
etc. , dans la posie de Philippe Jaccottet on a affaire rien de tel. Une voix sourde,
presque terne, discrtement mesure, une posie ras de prose, dont les joyaux linguistiques
semblent se dissimuler. [] Comme si lauteur tenait passer inaperu, non point par
quelque fausse vanit, mais par une relle tendance sous-valuer son uvre, douter mme
de ses propres forces. 21 Labsence et le dtachement caractrisent sa potique : celle-ci est
dabord celle du sujet potique qui tend au dtachement et la dpersonnalisation volontaires.
Ds lors limage potique est comme trace en ngatif, puisquelle alterne le dpliement et le
repliement propres dune prsence absente. Ce qui se manifeste galement dans son langage
travers un travail de simplification, de dpouillement de lcriture et une volont de rduire
lessentiel. 22
Le choix de la manire instantane dexpression sexplique par la ncessit
quprouve lcrivain, pendant son geste de cration, de rester fidle autant que possible au
caractre minemment discontinu de son exprience. Lcriture suppose le moment bref,
insaisissable, imaginaire peut-tre ? o sanglier et tourterelle sont allis. (Paysages avec
figures absentes, p. 142) et devient une preuve difficile surmonter parce quelle a comme
objet de fixer ce qui est indcis et denregistrer le fugitif23 : Comme il est difficile de saisir
lessentiel ! On est toujours tent daller trop loin ou pas assez, dtre ou trop vague ou trop
prcis. Les choses devraient tre saisies brusquement, comme dun coup de fusil. (La
Semaison, II, p. 198) Observons que le phnomne de saisissement donne au pote,
lextrme limite , limpression que cest absolument un Autre, absolument tranger en
soi, qui est boulevers, puis qui agit, ou du moins, que le texte est crit dans un tat
littralement second 24. Il est important denvisager ainsi la double signification du terme
saisissement : le fait de saisir , lartiste se donnant comme mission de saisir cet
instant (le sens actif), mais aussi sentiment brusque, soudain, motion vive (le sens
passif) : Cest une faon dentendre ce que semble dire ce hameau qui sy attarde un
instant, par un dimanche froid davril. Une faon de se laisser emporter, orienter, exalter, sans
trop chercher comprendre. ( Hameau , Aprs beaucoup dannes, p. 424)
Lattitude de Philippe Jaccottet lgard des images reste sous le signe de
lambivalence et de lambigut : Dune part, il craint leur sduction, leur pouvoir
dgarement, et il tente de rsister leurs artifices qui risquent dentraner hors de la ralit.
Mais dautre part, leur pouvoir de figurer peut aider dcouvrir laltrit des choses et
donner forme la vision quon en a. 25 Parmi les figures, cest notamment la mtaphore qui
est employe, compte tenu aussi de son pouvoir de mdiation : on peut attendre delle
quelle permette de concevoir et dexprimer des relations entre le visible et linvisible, ou
quelle vienne suturer des rseaux disjoints, relier des lieux pars. 26 La mtaphore propose
une redescription du monde et offre la description la dimension potique qui lui
permet de dpasser les apparences saisies par la vue pour construire une vision du monde 27.
Dans lentretien que lauteur accorde Mathilde Vischer, nous pouvons lire laffirmation
suivante au sujet du travail potique et de lemploi de la mtaphore : je me dis parfois que la
21
511
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difficult de faire passer dans les mots cet merveillement est mieux rsolue quand limage, la
mtaphore, une cadence aussi bien, mest donne presque toute seule, lorsque je me laisse
aller la rverie. Il ne sagit videmment pas non plus de rsoudre cela en trouvant la cl de
ce que cette exprience signifie, mais bien de chercher le mot pour la dire de manire ce que
je ne sois pas trop insatisfait du rsultat, et ce que jaie limpression que quelque chose
dessentiel passe dans ces pages. 28
Le travail de pote est en mme temps un travail de rassemblement 29 des units
disparates : Je crois quelquefois que si jcris encore, cest, ou ce devrait tre avant tout
pour rassembler des fragments, plus ou moins lumineux et probants, dune joie dont on serait
tent de croire quelle a explos un jour, il y a longtemps, comme une toile intrieure, et
rpandu sa poussire en nous. Quun peu de cette poussire sallume dans un regard, cest
sans doute ce qui nous trouble, nous enchante ou nous gare le plus ; mais cest, tout bien
rflchi, moins trange que de surprendre son clat, ou le reflet de cet clat fragment, dans la
nature. Du moins ces reflets auront-ils t pour moi lorigine de bien des rveries, pas
toujours absolument infertiles. ( Le cerisier , Cahier de verdure, p. 383) Si nous pensons
la dfinition du mot poussire : mlange de particules solides, de nature trs diverse,
extrmement tnues et lgres, qui se maintiennent en suspension dans lair ou qui se
dposent sous forme dune pellicule poudreuse , nous en retenons les caractristiques
suivantes : htrognit, fragmentarit, diversit. Le pote lassocie galement lide de
poudre (et de poudroiement , qui est voque plusieurs fois dans ses pomes)30.
Philippe Jaccottet adoptera et suivra le modle du haku japonais, posie sans
images 31, au sujet duquel il note : une posie laquelle sa forme brve et stricte refuse le
moindre mouvement dloquence comme le plus simple rcit, interdit tout abandon la
fluidit musicale. 32 La posie est incapable de renoncer aux images, quil sagit ds lors de
justifier, la fois de critiquer et de reconqurir, lgal de toute la littrature moderne qui se
dfinit par le soupon lgard de la langue quand mme aime. Limage devra donc ne
jamais cesser dtre phmre ou furtive. 33 Dans une note des Paysages avec figures
absentes, le pote affirme lgard de cette forme potique dinspiration japonaise trouver
dans ce peu de mots louverture infinie qui me fait vivre (p. 155). Le volume dans lequel
prdomine lemploi presque exclusif du haku est le recueil Airs, publi en 1967, considr
par Jean Onimus comme une une suite de Ha Ku, avec moins de couleur - pomes en noir
et blanc - et des prolongements de mlancolie qui leur donne un accent particulier. 34 Hlne
Samson numre les traits distinctifs de ce volume : la brivet et la forme de ses pices ,
la prsence quasi exclusive du monde sensible et l'tablissement de rapport du moi au
monde , ltat de suspens dans lequel les pomes s'offrent au lecteur, d'o le nom si
vocateur de pomes-instants qui les dmarquent de la pratique antrieure des pomesdiscours. 35
Entretien ralis par Mathilde Vischer, Grignan, le 27 septembre 2000.
URL : http://www.culturactif.ch/entretiens/jaccottet.htm (consult le 29 novembre 2014)
29
Cest notamment le travail du rve et de la remmoration, fait pendant la nuit, qui favorise cet effort de recomposition des morceaux
collects par le travail diurne : Dans la nuit me sont revenues, avec une intensit pareille celle que produit la fivre, dautres images de
promenade ; au sortir dun de ces rves o lon voudrait que certain nud moite et vertigineusement doux ne se dnoue jamais. Cette fois-ci,
ctait toujours de la ralit, un morceau du monde, et un mme temps une espce de vision, trange au point de vous conduire au bord des
larmes (cela, donc, non pas sur le moment, mais dans la nuit qui a suivi, devant, telles quelles me revenaient, ces images insaisissables dun
fond de valle perdu o pourtant nous tions rellement passs). ( Hameau , Aprs beaucoup dannes, p. 419)
30
Une lampe invisible la lumire plutt faible, un faible jaune colore ces lieux quavive un parpillement, un poudroiement, un
saupoudrage lger de neige. ( Notes du ravin , Ce peu de bruits, p. 514) ou [] rien que des morceaux, des bribes de vie, des
apparences de penses, des fragments sauvs dune dbcle ou laggravant. Des moments pars, des jours disjoints, des mots pars, pour
avoir touch de la main une pierre plus froide que le froid. ( Aprs-coup , Ce peu de bruits, p. 524)
31
Antoine Compagnon, op. cit., p. 743.
32
Philippe Jaccottet, Lorient limpide , Une transaction secrte, lectures de posie, Paris, Gallimard, 1987, p. 128.
33
Antoine Compagnon, op. cit., p. 743.
34
Jean Onimus, op. cit., p. 52.
35
Hlne Samson, op. cit., p. 34.
28
512
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Selon Pierre Campion, luvre de Philippe Jaccottet reste sous le signe dune
prsence qui doit tre (re)construite lcrit : en dernire instance Jaccottet ne parle,
presque toujours, que de ces minuscules et fugitives manifestations d'une certaine
prsence. 36 De cette manire, les pomes doivent fixer linstant vis par lauteur dans
une sorte dcrite vivante, une criture qui se prte rinventer tous ces nuds de reflets
perus dans des impressions fugitives. 37 Cest pour cette raison que lcriture suppose une
association des extrmes : Comme quoi il faut associer le proche et le lointain, linstant et la
permanence, le particulier et le commun et dans un seul moment de fracheur et comme
dinsouciance, non par application, insistance, labeur, etc. (La Semaison, II, p. 205) Le
pote pratique une criture qui cultive en gale mesure loxymore : Quelquun qui sloigne
sans aller nulle part (La Semaison, III, p. 338) Gaston Bachelard considre que la porte de
linstant potique est donc ncessairement complexe : il meut, il prouve il invite, il
console il est tonnant et familier. Essentiellement, linstant potique est une relation
harmonique de deux contraires. 38 Lemploi des oxymores confronte le lecteur des images
puissantes et paradoxales : La mort, pour un instant, a cet air de fracheur / de la fleur perceneige ( La semaison, notes pour des pomes, III , LEffraie, p. 19) Lassociation de la
mort au perce-neige (symbole par excellence de vie, de naissance) est dautant plus
significative quelle se fait par le biais de la caractristique olfactive et visuelle retenue (la
fracheur). Linstant se transforme ensuite dans un point de dpart pour la cration et cest
aussi par le biais de la cration, dune criture discontinue et fragmentaire, ressemblant
linstant initiateur, que lcrivain cherche reconstruire et revivre lintensit du moment
unique.
Lcriture jaccottetienne expose la pratique et la reconnaissance du fragment potique
comme matriau de cration : Mais peut-on laisser suspendus ainsi de longs intervalles ces
globes purs, sans rien qui les relie ? On prouve parfois le besoin de les intgrer dans une
continuit la prose qui peut-tre les ruine. (Paysages avec figures absentes, p. 127) Le
mtissage et la fragmentation viss par les crits sont visibles aussi au niveau typographique,
de la disposition des phrases et des mots : Suspendu au milieu de la page, ajour de blancs,
le pome na plus d'ancrage que la majuscule initiale, puisque le point de vient mme plus le
refermer. 39 Lcriture sefforce de rpter par lcrit ces intervalles de libert absolue, ces
errances significatives.
Le pote vise la simplicit mais les mots semblent lui regimber. Lisons le fragment
suivant, dans lequel la question du langage est ritre : Mots comme des gousses vides,
creuses. Je prends en horreur toute parole que jai dite, encore pleine dillusion et de
mensonge. (Btisseurs sur cette poussire. Btisseurs de maisons en poussire. Btisseurs de
poussire.) Je devrais prendre les paroles dans le corps, seulement dans la douleur, ou la peur,
bouscules, comme des pierres dans la montagne. (La Semaison, III, p. 337) Le texte entre
parenthses se donne lire comme un vritable document potique, dvoilant les dessous de
la cration ; nous prenons part au travail de cration et de formation du texte potique, au
travail de concision et de synthse de lexpression. De cette manire, nous assistons la
formation de la formule potique, rduite en elle-mme, construite laide des mots qui
implosent afin den retenir uniquement lessentiel : btisseurs de poussire . La
comparaison des mots avec les gousses vides, creuses exprime la mfiance du pote
lgard de la parole ( encore pleine dillusion et de mensonge ), lauteur ayant le sentiment
Pierre Campion, Dieu perdu dans lherbe. Lexprience du sacr chez Philippe Jaccottet , in Olivier Millet (d.), Travaux de
Littrature, La spiritualit des crivains, TL XXI, ADIREL, 2008, p. 489.
37
Vassilia Coraka, Yves Bonnefoy et Philippe Jaccottet : Approches parallles, Bern, Peter Lang, 2007, p. 117.
38
Gaston Bachelard, op. cit., p. 104.
39
Hlne Samson, op. cit., p. 39.
36
513
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dune perte qui est voque par le recours au syntagme employ par Hlderlin dans le pome
Mnmosyne : perdu la parole en pays tranger 40.
La dmarche potique de Philippe Jaccottet peut tre rsume par la formule btirsemer qui englobe la fois le geste de runion et de dispersion : Philippe Jaccottet sest
empar, lui aussi, de cette prdisposition organique de la parole potique qui, se dlivrant des
faussets de quelques raisonnements atypiques, rclame le retour au sens dune substantation
verbale ; le pome se lit partir de sa priptie terrestre ; pourtant, cette aventure, bien quelle
soit la terre dun homme, ne tarde pas reflter la condition universelle de lhumanit ; une
condition gouverne par les mmes niveaux dexpression que ceux de lindividualit de
lauteur, et surtout, par la soif de transformer llment fragile, banal de la vie en source
nourricire, promesse de la joie permanente de notre monde intrieur. 41 Btir avec/sur la
poussire (dont limage renvoie aussi aux graines) signifie travailler cette matire fragile,
inconstante, qui compte le passage du temps (le sable) et qui inscrit tout dans lphmre.
Quest-ce donc qui est en train de natre si lentement dans ces tourments ? Quest-ce qui se
passe de central et de profond, dont nous ne voyons que les manations multiples, les
projections linfini, et de quelle graine commune sont issus et ne cesse de sortir au dehors
ces oiseaux, ces sueurs, ces pierres ? Parfois, il nous semble que de soudaines ouvertures se
creusent devant nous dont la direction dsigne un centre, comme produites par la foudre, et si
quelque chose alors en nous se rpercute et gronde comme un branlement prometteur, dj
cest un autre jour, une autre nuit, et tout pourrait aussi bien sachever avant que rien ne se ft
produit [] La poussire souleve par le vent ou le souffle retombe sur la table ; la nuit est
pleine de poussire brillante. Pourquoi ce noyau est-il ouvert ? De quel autre sortit la force
quil la fait se fendre ? De quel trsor sommes-nous les espces disperses et dvalues ?
(La Semaison, II, p. 200) Maurice lie considre que la poussire brillante laquelle fait
rfrence le pote est constitue des fragments de paradis parpills sur terre , comme le
disait Hlderlin que Jaccottet cite42 : Le Paradis est en quelque sorte dispers sur la terre
entire, diffus partout, / et cest pourquoi il est devenu si mconnaissable. 43
Limage de la poussire, dans son travail paradoxal de construction, apparat dans
plusieurs fragments potiques. Elle semble couvrir44 lensemble du paysage construit, afin
den cacher les significations, ou bien elle devient une poussire allume 45 correspondant
la cendre parfume pour apparatre aussi comme limage dun temps rvolu46. Tout
comme la poussire est une matire sur laquelle le pote travaille, les nuages remplacent le
blanc du papier se livrant lcriture cleste : (Quelquun crit encore pourtant sur les
nuages.) ( Aprs-coup , Ce peu de bruits, p. 525) La main sera son tour remplace par la
lumire, cette dernire acqurant des caractristiques scripturales : Si ctait la lumire qui
tenait la plume, / lair mme qui respirait dans les mots, / cela vaudrait mieux. ( Ce peu de
bruits , Ce peu de bruits, p. 530)
Lemploi de la poussire traduit en mme temps la loi potique qui gouverne la
cration pratique par Philippe Jaccottet : partir du rien. L est ma loi. Tout le reste :
fume lointaine. (La Semaison, II, p. 195) Cette loi potique serait, selon Michael Bishop,
Plus aucun savoir qui suffise. Tous ont lair de parler sans peine, et tranchent ; moi, jai presque perdu ma parole en pays tranger, dans
mon propre pays, dans moi-mme. Il ny a presque pas un mot qui ne soit vid de sa substance, qui nchappe lusage, ou alors ils nont pas
de lien entre eux. Je voudrais crire selon le cours des paroles les plus simples, et je ne le peux pas. Quest-ce qui est arriv lhomme ?
Atteint par une flche invisible, sans nom. (La Semaison, III, p. 338)
41
Vassilia Coraka, op. cit., p. ix-x.
42
Maurice lie, art. cit.
43
Philippe Jaccottet, Observations et autres notes anciennes, (1947-1962), Paris, Gallimard, 1998, p. 68.
44
Transhumance. Troupeaux sur le mail, lune croissante, blements accords sa lumire. nes attachs au mur. Bliers, leurs combats,
les btes formant cercle, scne sacre. Le soir tombe. Poussire. (La Semaison, I, p. 115)
45
Vrit, non-vrit / se rsorbent en fume / Monde pas mieux abrit / que la beaut trop aime, / passer en toi, cest fter / de la poussire
allume / Vrit, non-vrit / brillent, cendre parfume ( Fin dhiver , Airs, p. 126)
46
Fruits avec le temps plus bleus / comme endormis sous un masque de songe / dans la paille enflamme / et la poussire darrire-t /
Nuit miroitante / Moment o lon dirait / que la source mme prend feu ( Fruits , Airs, p. 152)
40
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Michael Bishop, The Contemporary Poetry of France, Eight Studies, Amsterdam, Rodopi, 1985, p. 61.
La lumire est btie sur un abme, elle est tremblante, / htons-nous donc de demeurer dans ce vibrant sjour, / car elle sentnbre de
poussire en peu de jours / ou bien elle se brise et tout coup nous ensanglante. ( Le locataire , LIgnorant, p. 45)
49
Celui qui crit aura fait comme sil remplissait une coupe avec toute la lumire de lt, tout ce quil y a eu dans lt, puis, il laura
souleve pour la faire briller dans sa main avec tout ce quil y a dedans quil faudra avoir dit avant que le gel ne gagne ses doigts. Car
dj se replie lventail du jour. (La Semaison, IV, p. 367)
50
Suzanne Allaire, Parole dincertitude : le questionnement de Jaccottet : LEffraie, LIgnorant, Leons (Posie/Gallimard) ,
LInformation Grammaticale, no. 100, janvier 2004, p. 51.
51
Pages, paroles cdes au vent, dores elles aussi par la lumire du soir. Mme si les a crites une main tavele. ( Notes du ravin , Ce
peu de bruits, p. 520)
52
Une main trop froide pour tre encore de ce monde. ( Notes du ravin , Ce peu de bruits, p. 519)
53
( crire simplement pour que cela chantonne. Paroles rparatrices ; non pour frapper, mais pour protger, rchauffer, rjouir, mme
brivement. [] Jusquau bout, dnouer, mme avec des mains noues. ( Notes du ravin , Ce peu de bruits, p. 522)
54
Dans ces proses, partir dune rencontre que je pourrais dire gnralement illuminante, jai essay de cerner avec les mots ces
moments vcus comme de petites piphanies, souvent trs modestes, mais qui mont paru receler une sorte de parole tout fait essentielle.
Ces moments taient ceux de promenades sans but, sans intention littraire bien videmment, qui me mettaient en contact immdiat avec le
monde naturel. Jtais tonn par lintensit de lmotion que cela produisait en moi, au dbut tout fait surprenante, puis ensuite un peu
moins puisque que cela se rptait. Mon criture se singularise dailleurs peut-tre par le creusement de cette exprience, la fois pour la dire
et pour la faire rayonner. Il me parat essentiel de faire rayonner ce qui vous a t donn, pour des raisons profondment et essentiellement
humaines, notamment pour contrer le nihilisme. Par consquent, il est devenu pour moi absolument indispensable de dire cette exprience et
parce que je ne suis pas quelquun dextatique mais plutt de pondr et de rflchi , dessayer de comprendre ce que tout cela signifiait,
de dterminer sil tait vraiment lgitime daccorder tant dimportance la rencontre dune fleur ou dune prairie. (Philippe Jaccottet,
Entretien ralis par Mathilde Vischer, art. cit.)
48
515
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lespace clair ( Lhiver , LIgnorant, p. 33) Lexpression potique a ainsi des vertus
salvatrices, elle claire la vie, en laffirmant dans sa beaut resplendissante et en triomphant la
mort55.
Ce dcollage se fait pourtant aux dpens de ltre qui se livre un travail
deffacement. La formule rimbaldienne Je est un autre se traduit dans le cas de Philippe
Jaccottet par Leffacement soit ma faon de resplendir 56, formule que Jean-Pierre Richard
retient comme tant le mot dordre du pote57. Rester dans lombre 58 reprsente une
autre version de cette formule, comme nous pouvons lidentifier dans une note potique de
Philippe Jaccottet.
En conclusion, la posie de Philippe Jaccottet se donne lire comme une tentative
permanente de rendre prsents les instants vcus, de les inscrire dans la matire de la posie et
des mots. Pour accomplir cette tche le pote cherche cette vitalit dans des images du monde
des surfaces, du monde sensible et visible, de ce monde sr et certain quil peut figer en
images, ides et concepts. Dgot pourtant des belles mais fausses mtaphores, Jaccottet
embrasse la posie pauvre , inacheve, selon le modle des hakus japonais, proposant une
posie qui ne parle que de ces minuscules et fugitives manifestations dune certaine
prsence : Cent fois je laurai dit : ce qui me reste est presque rien ; mais cest comme une
trs petite porte par laquelle il faut passer, au-del de laquelle rien ne prouve que lespace ne
soit pas aussi grand quon la rv. Il sagit seulement de passer par la porte, et quelle ne se
referme pas dfinitivement. (La Semaison, II, p. 196)
Bibliographie :
Jaccottet, Philippe, Paysages avec figures absentes, Paris, Gallimard, NRF, (1976)
2006.
Jaccottet, Philippe, LEncre serait de lombre Notes, proses et pomes choisis par
lauteur 1946-2008, Paris, Gallimard, NRF, 2011.
Jaccottet, Philippe, Entretien ralis par Mathilde Vischer, Grignan, le 27 septembre
2000, disponible sur le site http://www.culturactif.ch/entretiens/jaccottet.htm (consult le 29
novembre 2014)
Allaire, Suzanne, Parole dincertitude : le questionnement de Jaccottet : LEffraie,
LIgnorant, Leons (Posie/Gallimard) , LInformation Grammaticale, no. 100, janvier
2004.
Bachelard, Gaston, Lintuition de linstant : suivi de Introduction la potique de
Bachelard par Jean Lescure, Paris, Denol, (1932) 1985.
Bishop, Michael, The Contemporary Poetry of France, Eight Studies, Amsterdam,
Rodopi, 1985.
Y aurait-il des choses qui habitent les mots / plus volontiers, et qui saccordent avec eux / - ces moments de bonheur quon retrouve dans
les pomes / avec bonheur, une lumire qui franchit les mots / comme en les effaant et dautres choses / qui se cabrent contre eux, les
altrent, qui les dtruisent : / comme si la parole rejetait la mort, / ou plutt, que la mort ft pourrir / mme les mots ? ( Parler , Chants
den bas, p. 253)
56
Vers extrait du pome Que la fin nous illumine , Posie 1946-1967, Paris, Gallimard, 1998, p. 76.
57
Seffacer, cela pourra vouloir dire teindre sa rflexion, se laisser navement tre, mais aussi soublier soi-mme, souvrir sans arrirepense linfinie vrit externe du rel. [] leffacement dans lexistence et le langage apporte une solution. Il me confirme que cest en
ntant pas ou en tant le moins possible que finalement je serai, ou je serai un peu. Mort, et pourtant vivant, le pote soblitre donc luimme : cest un tnbreux, une ombre. Sa modestie revt ainsi une valeur mtaphysique: mais quel orgueil, quel espoir, quelle prire
aussi peut-tre en son dernier mot dordre : Leffacement soit ma faon de resplendir. Jean-Pierre Richard, Philippe Jaccottet , Onze
tudes sur la posie moderne, Seuil, Pierres vives , 1964, p. 338-339.
58
De ce dimanche un seul moment nous a rejoints, / quand les vents avec notre fivre sont tombs : / et sous la lampe de la rue, les
hannetons / sallument, puis steignent. On dirait des lampions / lointains au fond dun parc, peut-tre pour ta fte / Mois aussi javais cru
en toi, et ta lumire / ma fait brler, puis ma quitt. Leur coque sche / craque en tombant dans la poussire. Dautres montent, / dautres
flamboient, et moi je suis rest dans lombre. ( La semaison, notes pour des pomes, XIII , LEffraie, p. 22-23)
55
516
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Cady, Andrea, Measuring the Visible : The Verse and Prose of Philippe Jaccottet,
Amsterdam, Rodopi, 1992.
Campion, Pierre, Dieu perdu dans lherbe. Lexprience du sacr chez Philippe
Jaccottet , in Olivier Millet (d.), Travaux de Littrature, La spiritualit des crivains, TL
XXI, ADIREL, 2008.
Compagnon, Antoine, La qute du lieu , in J.-Y. Tadi (sous la dir. de), La
Littrature franaise, dynamique et histoire, vol. II, Paris, Gallimard, 2007.
Coraka, Vassilia, Yves Bonnefoy et Philippe Jaccottet : Approches parallles, Bern,
Peter Lang, 2007.
lie, Maurice, thique et potique de Philippe Jaccottet , Noesis [En ligne], 7 |
2004, mis en ligne le 15 mai 2005, consult le 29 novembre 2014. URL :
http://noesis.revues.org/25
Grimaldi, Nicolas, Le Dsir et le temps, Paris, PUF, 1971.
Gusdorf, Georges, Les critures du moi, Lignes de vie 1, Paris, d. Odile Jacob, 1991.
Lpront, Catherine, Confrences de Tunis, Tunis, Institut franais de coopration,
2001.
Lthi, Ariane, Pratique et potique de la note chez Georges Perros et Philippe
Jaccottet, Paris, ditions du Sandre, 2009.
Monte, Michle, Nymphes, barques et autres lieux dans luvre de Philippe
Jaccottet , Babel [En ligne], 2 | 1997, mis en ligne le 11 juin 2012, consult le 29 novembre
2014. URL : http://babel.revues.org/2719
Onimus, Jean, Philippe Jaccottet : une potique de linsaisissable, Seyssel, Champ
Vallon, 1982.
Pollicino, Simona, Traduire la posie pour Philippe Jaccottet ou lidal de la
transparence , La main de Tht, n1 (2013) - Genre et traduction, mis en ligne le 04/11/2013,
consult le 29/11/2014. URL : http://e-revues.pum.univ-tlse2.fr/sdx2/la-main-dethot/article.xsp?numero=1&id_article=Simona_Pollicino-739.
Richard, Jean-Pierre, Philippe Jaccottet , Onze tudes sur la posie moderne, Paris,
Seuil, Pierres vives , 1964, p. 315-339.
Samson, Hlne, Le Tissu potique de Philippe Jaccottet, Sprimont, Pierre Mardaga
diteur, 2004.
517
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Abstract: Fanus Neagus short stories have always drawn attention on the interesting
combination of fantasy or absurdity with real or seemingly real facts, on the apparent refusal
of the discourse to follow the logics coordinates of daily language, to observe the rigors of
mimetic narration. For instance, in the short story The fountain by Fanus Neagu, the
discourse itself seems to be more important than its real referent, therefore, the author
weaves a poetic narration characterized by ambiguity, a poetic prose in which the abstract
gains concreteness, the metaphor and the metonymy compel the reader to use symbolic keys
for reaching the true meaning of the story and the incantatory discourse projects the profane
world into universality. Life itself becomes myth when it is narrated, thus, the teller is able to
reconstruct his destiny, using a network of archetypal symbols which is often reinterpreted.
The Word is able to change life, so that the man can rewrite his fate using the language as
long as he has a special talent to fantasise; sometimes the word twists upon itself reinventing
and devouring itself in a text situated at the boundary of transitivity and self-referentiality.
Keywords: archetype, language games, imagery games, discourses, mythologizing.
Lumea pe care o construiete Fnu Neagu nu e total diferit fa de cea real sau cea a
operelor altor prozatori, e ns incantaie magic, e basm de spus la gura sobei cnd ninge
tulbure, e lume privit prin ochii copilului care simte nevoia s fabuleze (ca-n Izvor cu dropii
sau Covorul violet) sau prin cei ai primitivului care intuiete substana universului i o
exprim metaforic sau metonimic ntr-un limbaj n care concretul i abstractul se
amalgameaz.
Se produce astfel o mitizare a existenei prin discurs, cci discursul despre viaa
personajelor devine mai real dect viaa nsi. Astfel n povestirea Fntna, ca i n Dincolo
de nisipuri, cutarea apei este echivalat cu descoperirea esenei lumii, apa este substana
sacr a universului, asemntoare celei ce se regsete n Sfntul Graal. De altminteri,
arhetipurile culturale universale i cele specifice spaiului romnesc se ntretaie i creeaz un
univers magico-simbolic, o lume n care tainele cosmice se reflect n omul cu suflet-fntn.
Structurile iterative capt i ele o valoare ritualic, lanurile simbolice se ntretaie pe tot
parcursul istorisirii lui Scarlat Cahul care evoc episoadele-cheie din viaa sa ca o justificare
de a avea acces nemijlocit la universul etern.
Scarlat Cahul se pregtete s moar: i mulumesc, doctore, c-ai pus s m scoat n
chiocul sta de vi-de-vie. Aici pot s mor linitit. Este un sicriu viu cel n care se plaseaz:
chiocul este n sine o creaie uman, reprezentnd materialitatea brut, pe cnd vi-de-vie
este un simbol al vieii venice, al esenei divine i al euharistiei. n discursul lui Scarlat
Cahul sunt cteva simboluri care se repet, esnd o reea de imagini la grania dintre mit i
poezie: toamna, negura, cifrele trei i patru, via-de-vie, fntna, bostanul, luna i soarele,
porumbelul, inima pmntului, iepurele i celul pmntului.
518
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Dac n alte texte1 ale lui Fnu Neagu capacitatea limbajului de a modifica lumea (de
a avea efect asupra timpului i a spaiului) este exprimat explicit, n Fntna, ideea este
ilustrat prin discursul personajului principal, dar i prin reproducerea dialogului dintre acesta
i iganul Ll, mai degraba un alter ego al su, umbra sau latura pmnteasc a celui ales s
izbndeasc n cutarea sa. Pn unde mergem, nea Scarlet?, ntreab iganul i se refer la
ct de adnc sap, dar spatul e cltorie nu doar spre adncul pmntului, ci i una magic de
iniiere, nu e doar coborre, ci i deplasare, adic evoluie, schimbare a condiiei, iar rspunsul
lui Scarlat este pe msur: Pn n fundul pmntului. n fundul pmntului, se ajunge, n
mitologia romneasc, printr-o prpastie sau printr-o fntn, acolo este trmul de dincolo
care ascunde ns minuniile lumii, bogia, norocul sau nelepciunea. Comoara cutat de
cei doi este apa, dar nu va fi orice ap cea care va ni din adncuri, ci una care amintete de
izvorul curcubeului (apa strlucea n zeci de culori, iar porumbelul pe care Ll l zrete n
oglinda magic a fntnei are i el gua stropit cu toate culorile de pe pmnt), chintesen
a tainelor lumii, licoare magic avnd puterea de a preschimba lumea: cine trece pe cmpia
noastr i bea, cnt i iubete pn la sfritul zilelor. De aceea, Ll crede, poate, c acolo,
n adncuri, pot s dea peste o balt cu broate jocul verbal se genereaz din dubla
conotaie a sintagmei, ironic i mitic: sensul depreciativ e dat de coborrea sacrului n
prozaic (prinderea broatelor, cu amnuntele acestui pescuit i de utilizarea termenului ntro expresie idiomatic: spune-i lui taica s nu mai trag ndejde ca broasca de pr), cellalt
simbolic este dat de asocierea tradiional a broatelor cu universul acvatic i cu cel al
fntnilor, avnd funcie de a cura apa, de a anuna ploaia sau, n unele mituri, de a
participa la actul cosmogonic, ajutnd la separarea uscatului de ape2.
Lumea pare rsturnat, cci naltul nu mai atrage dect n msura n care ia natere din
adncurile pmntului, simbolurile ascensionale fie sunt refuzate, fiind privite ca aparinnd
unei lumi ostile sau de neneles (cazul salcmului care amintete de moarte, fiind purttor al
suflului lumii de dincolo), fie devin semne ale coborrii, idealul cutat se ascunde n
adncurile pmntului, e inima-pmntului, iar miezul ei e moale, alb i amar ca a nucilor
crude. Asocierea inimii disprute cu miezul nucii crude reflect transformarea sentimentului
n intelect i nlocuirea iubirii cu discursul reflexiv pe tema acesteia. Altfel spus, cel care
descoper inima pmntului este cel sortit s aduc fericire cci miezul ei presrat n fntni i
face pe oameni s cnte i s iubeasc pn la sfritul zilelor, dar cel care i mparte
norocul cu toi oamenii nu mai poate cunoate iubirea dect n vis. n felul acesta, fntnarul
Scarlat Cahul poate fi asociat omului primordial sacrificat pentru a da natere lumii. Inima
pmntului pe care o mparte cu toi este, de fapt, inima sa, cci fntnile apar din dragostea
imens pe care Scarlat o transmite lumii, el este pmntul ale crui izvoare le caut.
Coborrea n adnc este i sondare a incontientului, dovad i ntlnirea miraculoas a Ianei,
figur fantasmatic desprins din visele sale. De aceea, pmntul nsui este vzut ca fiin
vie, despicat ntr-un act sacrificial, regenerator, iar apa ca substan vital, ca snge al lumii:
Am tcut i am nfipt cazmaua, rsucind-o. Apa a nit prin despictur, glgind cum
nete sngele cnd mplni cuitul n beregata porcului. Cu deosebire c sngele e cald.
Trecerea n derizoriu (o detensionare a momentului) se face prin referirea la tierea porcului,
conceput aici ca act sacrificial legat de nnoirea periodic a timpului, cci izvorul nseamn
nceput, renatere.
n Zeul ploii, de exemplu, exist o exprimare clar a transformrii cosmice sub impactul cuvntului sau dimpotriv a absenei acestuia:
Stai! Se rzgndi ea, i Btrnul nepeni la jumtatea drumului, speriind un stol de vrbii care ciuguleau gze din mciuliile unui ciulin cu
brae de candelabru. Fu o clip de tcere ncremenit n care toate elementele ieir din ordinea logic i intrar sub seducia despreunrii de
timp i sub seducia magic a Tulpinei remorcherul clcnd apa spre ostroave (...) se opri; lipovenii (...) scpar sticla de votc de-o
plimbau din mn-n mn i sticla atrna, mirat, ntre capetele lor; oile i iepurii i cprioarele (...) ascultau, cu botul vrt n und, cum se
scarpin vntul, Fnu Neagu, Dincolo de nisipuri, Editura Academiei Romne, Bucureti, 2007
2
Ivan Evseev, Dicionar de simboluri i arhetipuri culturale, Editura Amarcord, Timioara, 1994, p. 25
1
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Pauzele descriptive devin i ele relevante pentru acest proces de mitizare a existenei:
Colo sus e prea mult tcere. Dintr-un capt n altul fumeg neguri, i att. E linite, cci
omul e zidit s se ntoarc la rdcin, n pmnt., sub vi. Aici bate vntul. Coboar de pe
struguri i-mi mngie faa. Lipsete de aici orice modalizator al incertitudinii, trirea sub
semnul miticului i al puterii magice a cuvntului este caracteristic acestei lumi n care
timpul subiectiv, interior devine timp cosmic, exterior. Universul imaginar e unul n care
structurile limbajului nceteaz s mai fie percepute conotativ. De aceea, naltul se
opacizeaz, se nchide i drumul spre moarte este unul spre sine, spre adnc. La captul
existenei, singura modalitate de a-i da sens acesteia este prin naraiune, omul i povestete
viaa i ese n povestirea aceasta fire de amintiri laolalt cu fire de gnd i de visare, n felul
acesta se prezint pe sine ca tot. n fa, n sus simboluri ale evoluiei n-a mai rmas dect
negura, semn c drumul s-a ncheiat, n jos ns, n sine, comorile continu s strluceasc, iar
sufletul-fntn al omului este cel care le pstreaz. ntoarcerea la rdcin, n pmnt, este
rentoarcere ritualic spre origini, ctre Mume, acolo unde totul este posibil, unde timpul
istoric nu mai are nicio valoare, este revenire la valorile sacre primordiale. Asocierea cu
timpul nceputurilor este dat i de prezena strugurilor, simbol al sferei (perfeciune, spaiu
nchis, univers in nuce) sau, poate, al mrului din Genez, ispit a eternitii, a cunoaterii.
Vntul este spiritul, suflul divin care anun separarea sufletului de materie, trecerea ntr-o
alt etap a vieii.
Descrierea creeaz o atmosfer n care nostalgia i mpcrea, armonia interioar par
s coexiste. Scarlat reface o lume, pe care nu o mai poate cunoate, prin intermediul
imaginaiei i al visrii: Miroase a mure coapte vntul, e pojar de mure pe cmp, nu-i aa?
Toamn bogat. Numai pepeni i iepuri n-au fost anul sta. Pepenii se fac muli cnd e
secet.... Murele sunt o metafor a ispitei, a erosului care se dezlnuie i care-i rmne lui
Scarlat inaccesibil, iar toamna exprim un final de existen mplinit. Scarlat a adus apa, e un
zeu al acvaticului i al pmntului n esen, dar pierde ansa de a descoperi pepenii i iepurii
pe care amintirile sale i leag de episodul erotic al ntlnirii cu Iana. Toamna este timpul
magic al regsirii de sine, dar i al sfritului, toamna se produce descoperirea inimii
pmntului, a apei vieii, toamna o ntlnete pe Iana i tot toamna i presimte sfritul. Este
vremea trecerii dintr-o lume n alta, din plan terestru n plan mitic (catabaz), din lumea real
n cea a viselor, din via n moarte, dar i un moment al mplinirii. Dragostea apare n
existena lui Scarlat trziu, cum singur remarc, nu mai e tnr i intrarea n declin este, la fel
ca n piesa lui Eugen Ionescu, Regele moare, proiectat asupra mediului exterior n care
toamna ese laolalt firul abundenei cu cel al morii.
Ieirea din timp se face prin intermediul cuvntului care se transform n simbol i
reface realitatea transpunnd evenimentele ntr-o atmosfer mitic, n anistoric. Astfel
descrierea realizat din perspectiva lui Scarlat accentueaz ideea de armonie, de ncremenire,
dar pune idealul sub semnul cutrii, al drumului de parcurs, prin simbolistica potcoavei: s-a
limpezit zarea, i luna - tot pe cer. E ct o jumtate de potcoav i a nlemnit deasupra
salcmului de pe hotar. n acest context, metaforizarea limbajului este un mod de a da
concretee ideilor, de a sugera derularea timpului n sens invers, spre nceputuri, de a accentua
nostalgia tinereii, ndeprtndu-se de prezentul n care idealurile se pierd, dispar asemenea
rndunelelor (Vd cum se torc pe sus fire de pianjen i-mi amintesc de cntecul sta care
spune despre rndunelele ce se duc i se pierd n rotocoalele de negur ca iglia n ochiurile
unui ciorap. Un cntec dulce i blnd, care-i d sntate...), de a transforma deprtrile ntrun cadru familiar, n care omul se poate regsi i n care poate fi eroul propriului destin.
Pn la descoperirea apei, Scarlat nu numete locul fntn, sunt puuri, gropi, numele
capt valene sacre este destinat doar universului magic, paradisului ascuns n adncuri.
Ordinea lumii este rsturnat, semn al remodelrii acesteia n funcie de propriile idealuri.
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Sunt frecvente asocierile lumii de jos cu imaginea paradiziac. De aici i antiteza dintre lumea
suprateran i cea subteran, dintre pmntul sterp i aria de la suprafa, dintre iadul care
pare s se fi extins n lumea de sus (pmntul tare ca o copit de drac) i raiul din adncuri
(dar pe dedesubt curge o grl). Lumii de dedesubt i se asociaz imagini ale universului
vegetal sau animal, ale vieii care nete ctre lumin, dar, de fapt, i creeaz propria
strlucire: apa fonete ca lstarul de plop , apa suia ntr-un singur uvoi, tremurtor ca
trestia, era ca o prigorie, parc a fi but must de iarb dulce, cci lumina se rsfrnge n
curcubeu. Acolo n adncuri lumea este mai pur, dovad copilul care se oglindete n apa
fntnii i tot ce se vede este frumuseea acestuia, e puritatea din ochii lui trecut prin oglinda
apei ntr-o lume a ideilor, a esenelor. De aici i mitizarea pe care o face i iganul Ll n
momentul n care acest univers i se reveleaz, discursul su ese o poveste despre pasrea din
adncuri, un porumbel (mesager divin prin excelen, dar i pasre a dragostei) cu gua n
toate culorile de pe pmnt i care face ou ca alea de Pati. Vopsite n coaja crora biatul
s-ar putea plimba prin anuri, cnd plou. Dar adncul pmntului lipsit de ap este i el
gur de iad la fel ca suprafaa ncins de razele soarelui (ntuneric i cald, parc intrasem
ntr-un sac cu fin oprit. Spam i sudoarea curgea de pe mine), numai apa are capacitatea
aceasta de a transforma universul subteran ntr-unul mitic.
De altminteri, caracterul autoreferenial al textului este pus n eviden ca i n alte
scrieri ale lui Fnu Neagu prin fraze-cheie care asigur punerea n abis: Vezi coarda de
ieder care atrn goal de pe streain? (...) Dac m-ar mai ine puterile, doar att a vrea s
mai fac: s m atrn de ea i s alunec n joc pn ajung pe fundul unei fntni., completate
de concluzia: sta a fost darul meu pe lume: s gsesc ap i s-i dau cep s curg ca unui
butoi cu vin. Naraiunea se genereaz prin sondarea adncurilor, a sufletului uman. Iedera
este simbol ascensional prin excelen, este pus n relaie cu imaginea viei-de-vie, un alt
simbol al vieii venice. Aici ns planta apare, mai degrab, cu simbolistica sa strveche
dect ca reflectare a celei cretine. Iedera este simbol al lui Dionysos, exprim senzualitate,
feminitate i masculinitate totodat, dar este asocialt i cu Osiris, zeul lumii de dincolo, al
subteranului. A cobor pe fundul unei fntni pe o coard de ieder, ducndu-i cu sine i
cazmaua, este ncercare de a sparge barierele lumii, de a lua n stpnire o lume a nemuririi,
dar i de a-i afirma dreptul de a tri o poveste de dragoste care i-a fost refuzat. Naratorul
caut n sine, n propria imaginaie ceea ce i lipsete lumii pe care o cunoate i demersul su
se transform n rentoarcere ritualic la origini.
Caracterul iniiatic al experienelor lui Scarlat Cahul este marcat ca n basme prin
reluarea cifrei 3 (3 sptmni sap pn d de ap, 3 zile petrece n compania Ianei), prezent
n ambele experiene cu valoare ontologic, prima este cea a cutrii tainelor lumii i a
descoperirii de sine, a doua a confruntrii cu visurile proprii i cu ispita Erosului.
ntlnirea cu Iana se face tot sub semnul viei-de-vie, a strugurelui zdrobit, adic sub
semnul metamorfozei luntrice. Asemenea apariiilor din basm sau din poemele romantice i
aceasta pare una intermediat de cufundarea n somn i-n vis. Dublul pmntesc al lui Scarlat
(iganul Ll) doarme i Scarlat reacioneaz ca i cum voina i este mpietrit (putea s
sparg ua pentru a iei, dar alege s priveasc exteriorul pe fereastr). Iana este asociat n
mitologia romneasc cu Iana Snziana (posibil Diana sau Persefona) care locuiete n
prundul mrii, zeitate acvatic i selenar (e sora Soarelui). Iana locuiete ntr-o vale, un
spaiu ambiguu, loc sacru protejat, ascuns sau, dimpotriv, unul infernal, n Biblie (Isaia,
22:7) apare i ca expresie a aspiraiei ctre perfeciunea spiritual, dar o aspiraie care are ca
punct de plecare universul material, senzorial. Valea aici este un spaiu oniric, dar i unul
iniiatic, o vale cu flori, cu fntni (toate creaii ale lui Scarlat spune Iana) cu marginile
prbuite. Sunt poate visurile de tineree ale personajului sau aspiraiile sale spirituale care
ntlnesc erosul. Descrierea gospodrii const n enumerarea unor elemente banale, un
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conov (amintind de calul pe care-l stpnete Iana la prima ntlnire), o cuc n care e
nchis un iepure (n care Scarlat vede celul pmntului) i fntnile cu o ap de un albastru
nefiresc. Imposibilitatea de a transpune n cuvinte coloritul acesta al apei amestecate cu pelin
strivit, red caracterul personal al experienei prin care trece Scarlat Cahul: Soarele ruginea
n asfinit, dar apa n care se sclda Iana tot albastru scnteia. De vin era pelinul. Cnd se
sclda, Iana cobora n fntn doi snopi de pelin, juca cu picioarele pe ei, i zdrobea, i izvorul
cpta culoarea aia de vis, care mi-a rmas pentru totdeauna i nu semna nici cu sineala, nici
cu obrazul cerului. Numai eu singur mi-o pot nchipui, cci eu am stat la Iana trei zile.
Universul n care triete Iana justific dubla ei natur, zeitate selenar, a nopii, a
viselor i sor a soarelui (a raiunii) pe care-l stpnete prin eros. De altminteri pelinul este
asociat descntecelor, iar rolul su ca mediator erotic este clar evideniat de Iana. Greeala
personajului pare s fie aceea de a folosi pelinul uscat (bun pentru vin sau apa fntnilor) n
locul celui verde n ncercarea de a da curs tentaiei erotice. Pelinul pus n fntn poate
aminti de trasformarea apelor din scenele escatologice, Scarlat Cahul pare s fie prins ntr-un
joc ce amintete de cel al ielelor (s nu uitm de prezena celului pmntului i de asocierea
lui cu hora nebuneasc a ielelor), are viziunea unei lumi guvernate de magie i eros, dar se
confrunt i cu riscul pierderii contiinei. De altminteri, Iana i apare la ceasul cnd se
deteapt ielele, iar revenirea contiinei lui Scarlat, trezirea lui Ll i ncercarea de a-l gsi
coincid cu dispariia Ianei i distrugerea spaiului care-i aparinuse: Iana a lepdat rochia i a
cobort n fntn. Apa s-a revrsat peste margini i s-a tras ndrt, ntr-o zvcnire de fulger.
nspimntat, calul a nechezat i a lungit botul n lun. Bostanii de lng u s-au prbuit
singuri, c-un uruit prelung, i s-au rostogolit pe vale. Ua a nit din ni, fereastra a czut
n ndri, i-n cuca lui a ltrat de moarte celul-pmntului. n aceast destrmare a
visului, e interesant simbolistica bostanului, semn al abundenei, al regenerrii i al
imortalitii, element ambivalent cci este uneori asociat cultului morilor, dar reprezint i
inteligena i lumina solar. Prezena lor justific asocierea Ianei cu Persefona/Kore, fiind
expresie a bogiei pmntului, dar i a lumii de dincolo. Caracterul funebru al bostanului este
dat de utilizarea sa ca element al claustrrii: nainte de a pleca n cmpie, btea cte patru
scnduri, de-a curmeziul, pe u i pe fereastr. Mai nla n dreptul uii o grmad de
bostani. Casa n care este nchis Cahul amintete de imaginea sicriului, iar bostanii redau
metaforic pmntul care l acoper. Caracterul straniu al naraiunii este dat i de
reinterpretarea mitului strvechi, pentru c Scarlat apare el nsui n ipostaza de
Kore/Persefona (catabaza i anabaza eroului l ajut s se confrunte cu sine i s oglindeasc
n sufletul su un arhetip arhaic), este rpit, inut cu fora ntr-un inut al adncului, petrece
aici 3 zile (timp echivalent celor 3 luni de trai subpmntean n cazul zeitii htoniene), este
supus tentaiei erotice i, dei conduce apa vie ctre suprafa, el va gusta din apa morii:
Oamenii vin, scot din ele ap vie i rcoroas, i nu tiu c vinele de ap moart, cte au fost,
numai pentru Scarlat Cahul au fost... De aceea, ntr-o oarecare msur Iana nu este dect o
expresie a dublului su feminin, o reflectare n lumea etern a sa. ntlnirea Ianei este prob
de cunoatere de sine prin reflectare n oglind i nelegere a menirii sale. Odat cunoscut
lumea etern, nostalgia clipelor petrecute n spaiul iniiatic revine, e nostalgie a paradisului
pierdut, a originilor.
Numele Iana ns poate fi i o prelucrare a lui Ianus, pzitor al porilor, cel care
privete spre trecut i viitor deopotriv, zeu al nceputului i al transformrilor. Atributele
acestea par s fie caracteristice i pentru Iana, pentru c ntlnirea cu ea are valoare iniiatic,
marcheaz o metamorfoz sufleteasc, este sintez a trecutului i anticipare a viitorului.
Experiena pe care Scarlat nu a putut-o tri n lumea real, o ncearc n vis, iar apropierea de
moarte l ajut s-i regseasc sinele, se transform pe msur ce povestete n zeitate ce
rstoarn universul, l destructureaz, lumea pe care el a creat-o prin cuvnt, prin mitizarea
propriei existene dispare odat cu el: Dar ce groaznic scrie cumpenele! (...) S-a rupt
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lanul i gleile cad, izbindu-se de tuburile de piatr. Atunci se ridic i negura, cci se
produce ieirea din universul visului, revenirea la lumin, dar nu e rentoarcerea n contingent,
ci trecere permanent n spaiul sacru. Se produce o rsturnare a lumii, soarele devine bostan
n imaginaia lui Scarlat Cahul, rostogolit la vale de Ll. Prin aciunile lor, cei doi, odat
iniiai, au dreptul de a stpni universul, care este, evident, unul ficional, dar la fel de
important ca i cel real.
Finalul pstreaz aceeai ambiguitate a discursului artistic: Ct de strini am trecut
noi doi prin lume! Ap vie, ap moart, nimeni nu ne-a cunoscut!... Tematica alteritii
capt aici o nou semnificaie, cci, pentru cel neiniiat, devine imposibil distingerea
omului de umbra sa, a caracterului pmntesc, lumesc, de latura sacr a sufletului, de ceea ce
este peren. Exclamaia este ambigu i prin aceea c termenul strini poate fi privit ca o
apreciere a oamenilor obinuii care nu pot ptrunde sensul acestui demers iniiatic sau ca o
apreciere proprie, cei doi nu au reuit s se cunoasc nici ei cu adevrat n urma attor
peregrinri prin lume, omul este strin de el nsui, n sensul c poate s-i intuiasc
adevrata natur, dar aceasta i va rmne necunoscut pn n clipa morii, pentru c spiritul
i materia sunt strns legate, orict de diferite ar prea, se amestec asemenea vieii i morii.
De aceea devine greu de trasat o limit ntre apa vie i apa moart. Darul oferit de Scarlat
lumii ar putea s fie apa vie, a iubirii i a fericirii, aa cum sugereaz textul sau, aa cum pare
s se noteze n finalul acestuia, apa moart, cci le deschide apetitul pentru viaa iluzorie i i
face s uite de cea adevrat, sacr, a ideilor.
Fntna este un text n care jocul verbal i cel imagistic dau acel plurisemantism
naraiunii att de caracteristic prozei fantastice a lui Fnu Neagu. Simbolurile arhetipale se
integreaz firesc ntr-o poveste care se desprinde de banal tocmai prin capacitatea deosebit a
naratorului de a proiecta n mit existena uman. Pe msur ce istoria este relatat personajele
i modific dimensiunile, se desprind de universul material i trec grania n lumea visului,
naratorul fiind astfel un demiurg, cci povestea tinde s fie adesea mai real dect realitatea
nsi.
Bibliografie
Bachelard, Gaston, Apa i visele (Eseu despre imaginaia materiei), Editura Univers,
Bucureti, 1987
Bachelard, Gaston, Psihanaliza focului, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 2000
Bachelard, Gaston, Pmntul i reveriile odihnei, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1999
Bachelard, Gaston, Aerul i visele (Eseu despre imaginaia micrii), Bucureti, 1997
Clinescu, Constant. Puterea naraiunii: Fnu Neagu n: Viaa romneasc, nr. 10,
octombrie 1988, p. 75-78
Cndroveanu, Hristu. Povestirile lui Fnu Neagu, n Romnia literar, nr. 10, 7
martie 1974, p. 4
Cndroveanu, Hristu. Un liric prin excelen: Fnu Neagu, n Albina, nr. 7, iulie
1978, p. 7
Chevalier, Jean i Gherbrant, Alain, Dicionar de simboluri, Editura Artemis,
Bucureti, 1994
Durand, Gilbert, Figuri mitice i chipuri ale operei (de la mitocritic la mitanaliz),
Editura Nemira, Bucureti, 1998
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Abstract: Being placed between allegorist and philosopher-traveler type, according to Tzvetan
Todorovs terminology in the We and the others study, Octavian Paler is a keen observer
penetrating into the essence of things. He performes in his travel journals a series of reflections,
assessments and cultural considerations, comparisons between cultures and civilizations rousing
surprising analyzes to the thinker. Caminante is not just a travel book as it looks at the first glance,
but a decryption / a reinterpretation, through Palers own experiences in the lands once mastered
by the Aztecs and Mayans, of the contradictions, of the struggle between civilizations, of the
different cultures, or of the mentality differences facilitating an intercultural dialogue with the
European classical models.
This paper aims to follow how is the other perceived in relation to his own identity and cultural
formation.
Keywords: otherness, journey, intercultural dialogue, Aztec, European models
I. Repere teoretice
Substantivul alteritate pare a desemna o calitate sau o esen, esen a celuilalt. Pe de
alt parte ns cellalt desemneaz lucruri foarte diferite : pe omul cellalt, pe aproapele nostru,
pe Cellalt.
Alteritate este antonimul identitii. Scriem Cellalt cu majuscul pentru a desemna o
poziie, un loc n cadrul unei structuri. n filozofie i antropologie ns, alteritatea este utilizat
mai mult pentru a desemna un sentiment, o influen, un regim : exist ceilali, care sunt diferii ;
sunt eu oare semenul lor ?
Tema alteritii a devenit o obsesie n Europa de astzi, ca rspuns la ascensiunea curentelor
xenofobe n lumea occidental. (Baudrillard, 2002: 5)
Aceast obsesie a dat natere la numeroase opere literare. Jocul care exist, nc de la
Platon, ntre Acelai i Cellalt ca genuri ale Fiinei (Sofistul, Tiamaios) apare la Moderni ca joc
ntre eu i non-eu. Este posibil ca textele consacrate astzi altului (l'autre) fie el strin,
imigrant sau marginal s fie un fel de travaliu de regenerare n faa unei componente care, n altul,
ar fi disprut sau e pe cale de dispariie. Putem numi aceast component aa cum a numit-o J.
Baudrillard, alteritate radial. Pentru a spune lucrurile n mod simplu, n fiecare altul exist Cellalt,
ceea ce nu este eu, ceea ce este diferit de mine, dar pe care-l pot nelege, chiar asimila i exist,
de asemenea, o alteritate radical, inasimilabil, incomprehensibil i chiar inimaginabil. Iar
gndirea occidental nu nceteaz s-l ia pe altul drept Cellalt, s-l reduc pe altul la Cellalt. A-l
reduce pe altul la Cellalt e o tentaie cu att mai dificil de evitat, cu ct alteritatea radical
constituie mereu o provocare i cu ct e mai hrzit astfel reducerii i uitrii n analiz, n
memorie, n istorie.
O condiie pentru cunoaterea alteritii este cltoria n acest sens Tzvetan Todorov face n
studiul su Noi i ceilali, o clasificare a cltoriilor, ncepnd cu secolul al XIX-lea.
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a) Asimilatorul : este cel care cltorete pentru a asimila cealalt cultur, deci pentru a o
converti n realitate. Fie c e vorba de misionarul cretin sau de marxistul actual, ei sunt n
misiune ideologic, economic sau de orice fel..
b) Profitorul: este negutorul. Este cel care cltorete fr s aib vreun raport cu cellalt n
originalitatea i autenticitatea sa. El nu este, de fapt, pentru cellalt, dect alibiul unei alte
legi, cea a valorii, ceea ce e cu totul diferit.
c) Turistul este o categorie foarte complex pe care aproape fiecare a practicat-o.
d) Cltoria impresionist : este oarecum frumoasa cltorie din secolul al XIX-lea. Este o
cltorie n care intuiia, sensibilitatea conteaz, ba chiar i viziunea despre o ar. Fr a
ine seama de faptul c subiectul este cel care vorbete, care cltorete, cu viziunea sa
despre lucruri. El nu are pretenia s extrag din cltorie reguli universale, ci se bucur de
ea. Se bucur de diferen: prin asta este impresionist. El nu caut s universalizeze ceea ce
vede.
e) Asimilatul: n acest caz nu mai este vorba de asimilator, ci de cel care ptrunde cu adevrat
ntr-o cultur, care adopt un mod de via; este ntr-o anumit msur imigrantul. Deci, la
limit, este un cltor care nu mai este un cltor sau care nceteaz foarte repede s fie.
f) Exotul (l'exote): este cltorul, dup Segalen. Exotul este cel care pstreaz o distan, care
caut s menin o distan de strintate delectndu-se cu aceast diferen. Exist o
strategie a delectrii, a seduciei, care permite salvarea distanei; nu trebuie nicidecum s
ncerci s intri, s te confunzi, sau s te dezidentifici. Trebuie s menii distana i s cultivi
o tactic a acestei distane.
g) Exilatul: i el se afl la limita cltoriei. Poate fi cazul lui Descartes, care, aa cum tii, a
trit practic toat viaa n afara Franei, mai ales n Olanda.
h) Alegoristul: ia strinul ca metafor critic, el cltorete metaforic. Nu se afl niciodat cu
totul n ar strin, ci rmne n raport cu propria sa cultur, dar ntr-un raport critic. Altfel
spus, cealalt ar i servete de alegorie, de figur, pentru a emite o judecat, pentru a lua o
distan fa de propria sa teritorialitate. Este, aadar, ntr-o anume msur, un cltor
inteligent, dar care nu se descentreaz cu adevrat. El rmne centrat pe propria sa cultur,
nu-i pierde rdcinile, nu se exileaz nici mcar mintal, ci scoate din asta o mare
complexitate.
i) O alt variant / versiune a alegoristului este dezabuzatul, care nu cltorete dect pentru a
verifica pretutindeni superioritatea propriei sale culturi. Numeroase colonii franceze sau
americane n-au dect un discurs, cel al mizeriei acestei culturi americane: oriunde ar merge,
lucrurile sunt la fel.
j) Ultima categorie este cea a cltorului-filosof. Prototipul pentru el, este Montaigne. Este
o categorie oarecum ideal, un ideal-tip, i ne putem ntreba dac el exist cu adevrat. Filosoful
este ntr-adevr universalist, prin destinaie; ceea ce-l intereseaz este diferena n universalitate, n
principiu el nu este etnocentric. Scopul su este verificarea varietii, a diferenierii infinite a
valorilor, a culturilor i tentativa de conciliere ntr-o viziune universal a lucrurilor. ( Todorov,
1995: 45)
ncadrat conform acestei clasificri ntre cltorul de tip alegorist i cltorul-filosof,
Octavian Paler realizeaz n jurnalele sale de cltorie analize i comparaii i interpretri ale
diferitelor culturi.
II.
Octavian Paler este un scriitor pentru care cltoriile sunt doar un pretext de meditaie
profund asupra existenei actuale i trecute. Indiferent de specia sau de fomula literar pe care o
adopt, fie ea jurnal de cltorie: Drumuri prin memorie, Caminante, dezabatere, polemic,
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Intrarea n acest lume n care trecutul dialogheaz cu prezentul se realizeaz treptat, erudiia
sa cultural jucnd un rol esenial deoarece ideile sale obinute n urma lecturii i a formrii
intelectuale se confrunt cu realitatea trecut i prezent a Mexicului. Acesta, privit prin ochii si
este o mpletire de mit, istorie i puin realitate, condimentat cu propriul sine. La nceput
contientizeaz c ederea sa mexican corespunde celor 13 zile ale calendarului aztec, care are n
centrul sau soarele i care reprezentau zilele destinate ritualului de ncheiere a unui secol aztec de
52 de ani, exact vrsta la care autorul face cltoria. Cltoria se dovedete, astfel, una de formare,
de descoperire i redescoperire. Ritualul presupunea o procesiune grandioas pe vechiul platou al
Tenochtitlnului unde ateptau ca steaua Aldebaran s treac peste firmament. Dac o facea,
cataclismele erau amnate nc 52 de ani. Pentru aceasta era nevoie de un sacrificiu uman, iar Paler
descoper din ce n ce mai mult acest civilizaie a sacrifiului i a cruzimii n numele existenei
umane: Zeilor azteci, bestiali i enigmatici, le plcea s troneze peste altare i cranii i s asculte
iptul rguit al vulturilor venii s devore viscerele celor sacrificai, aezate n vrful piramidei, pe
Piatra Inimilor. Preoii jupuiau cu propriile lor mini pielea victimelor i mprocau cu snge cald
imaginea zeului. ( Paler, 2010: 38) Omul n-a creat lumea, dar de el depindea ca ea s dureze au
nu. Ea exista ct vreme oamenii erau n stare s urce piatra sacrificiilor, cci totul se obinea prin
durere, prin suferin. i numai moartea putea ine dreapta balana vieii i a lumii. ( Paler, 2010:
39) Preuirea acordat jertfei de snge este marcat de autor prin observaia c n cronicile aztece,
semnul pentru snge e nlocuit adesea cu emnul pentru piatr preioas sau cu cel pentru
floare. A ucide un prizonier pe cmpul de lupt era de neconceput. El trebuia sacrificat pe
piramid, dup ritual. ( Paler, 2010: 39) Comparaia cu propria cultur este iminent Dar nainte
de a-i condamna pe azteci, s-ar cuveni s ne ntrebm dac noi suntem judectorii potrivii. Cel puin,
aztecii i svreau crimele pe fa i nu le negau. Dimpotriv, le ddeau un neles tragic. Preoii
lor dansau nbrcai n pieile celor sacrificai, nu-i arrau mnile curate ca Pilat din Pont. ( Paler,
2010: 40-41)
Att de important este sacrificiul, nct la reunirea zeilor dup eecul celor patru lumi, zeul
Nanahuatzin se arunc n flcri determinndu-i i pe ceilali s-l urmeze ca luna i soarele s
reapar. Zeii aztecilor n-au gsit aadar, alt soluie mpotriva morii dect moartea nsi ( Paler,
2010: 43) Sacrificiul iniial trebuia mereu rennoit pentru a ntreine ordinea cosmic. Sperana
nsi ntemeindu-se pe cruzime. ( Paler, 2010: 43).
Imaginea oraului Ciudad de Mxico dimineaa care ... pare istovit de fiest. Strzile
atrn ca nite brae inerte golite de snge. O linite friguroas apas zidurile. ( Paler, 2010: 45)
creaz prilejul de a evoca imaginea Tenochtitlnului, construit pe insule, n mijlocul unui lac, i s
aminteasc de zeul Quetzalcatl cruia aztecii dimineaa i dedicau dou picturi din sngele lor,
dar i de ntlnirea dintre Moctezuma i Cortez n timpul conquistei se finalizeaz cu uciderea
conductorului aztec, drmarea, ruinarea i incendierea treptat a Tenochtitlnului. Nimic nu mai
amintete astzi de oraul ngropat de spanioli, aa cum se ntmpl la Roma sau n Grecia.
Cuceritorii s-au dovedit, n acest caz, mult mai cruzi Spaniolii au fost mai nemiloi dect vizigoii.
Ei nu au cruat nici laguna, nici piramida, nimic. Au hotrt s construiasc o capital nou, s
transforme vechea istorie n deert. ( Paler, 2010: 46)
Paler consider i pe bun dreptate c exist orae care triesc pe baza unui mit, a unei
fantome, aa cum se ntmpl cu Elsinor, unde cltorul vine s-l caute pe nefericitul i
melancolicul prin al Danemarcei. La Ciudad de Mxico n locul Marii piramide sunt acum zgrienori, n locul brcilor din lagun automobile. Totui fantoma trecutului stpnete mprejurimile.
Dei aztecii considerau c venirea spaniolilor este un semn de la zei, Moctezuma l primete
pe Cortez ca pe zeul Quetzalcatl, ntors de pe mare, portretul su semnnd foarte mult cu cel al
entitii, i-i nchin cetatea fr rezisten, Paler critic violena i nepsarea cu care acetia
distrug orice rmi a civilizaiei strvechi. De aici i dualitatea existenei mexicane att la nivel
interior spiritual ct i la nivel exterior existenial, ntrebndu-se care este adevrata sa identitate.
E spaniol? E indian? Scriitorul evoc n acest moment o legend despre Moctezuma care pus n
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faa unei decizii ce privete destinul unui copil cu dou capete afirm c imperiul su, asemenea
acelui copil, nu-i va gsi niciodat unitatea. ( Paler, 2010: 50) Peste timp, europeanul, strin de
aceste locuri, vede adevrul din cuvintele marelui aztec: Dar nu e simplu s trieti cu un suflet
scindat. Mexicanul aspir s-i recucereasc trecutul [...] Pentru c el nu mai poate fi nici spaniol
nici indian. ntr-un sat care e aproape un cartier al capitalei mexicane, pe muntele Milpa Alpa, se
vorbete nc... nahuatl, limba folosit de tolteci i azteci; vechile poeme ale lui Nezabualcoyotl,
prinul Texcoco, se recit la civa pai de zgrie-norii din Ciudad de Mxico; se cnt din chirima,
un instrument cu sunete ascuite pe care-l foloseau toltecii [...] E n cutarea unei mpcri luntrice
ntre cuceritor i cucerit, care s vindece pn la capt ruptura svrit de spanioli n sufletul
indian. ( Paler, 2010: 50-51) Totul pare s se afle n Mexic sub semnul dualitii arpelui naripat.
Zpezile acoper focul vulcanilor, stelele ard peste urletele acalilor din jungl iar pdurile
toreniale ale tropicelor se ntlnesc cu stepe pline de cactui [...] La rndul sau sufletul mexican e
un amestec de pasiune i reticene. Pasiunea l trte n afara sa, iar reticenele l fac s se
replieze. ( Paler, 2010: 56) ... exist dou Spanii. Una care i-a dat lui Columb, dintr-un tezaur
secatuit, sume importante pentru a achita cu ele costul expediiei. Alta care i-a dat lui Don Quijote
doar un cal, un scutier i o iluzie. Una care a amestecat crima cu rugciunea i n-a cunoscut mila.
Alta care n-a cunoscut consolarea. Una creia Columb i Corts i-au adus mii de tone de aur. Alta
creia blndul, uscivul i ncpnatul Don Quijote i-a dat ceva care nu se poate cntri. ( Paler,
2010: 25) i este surprins pentru c descoper asemnarea cu propriul sine Mexicul m-a facut s
reflectez la condiia mea de intelectual nscut ntr-un sat din care am plecat n plin copilrie.
Attor rupturi care exist n luntrul meu li s-a adugat una care le lmurete, poate, i le rezum pe
toate. Din ce n ce mai limpede am neles c tot ce e conservator n mine mi-a complicat
melancoliile i greelile. ( Paler, 2010: 58) Numai un suflet scindat poate pricepe zbuciumul
interior mexican i demonstreaz nc o dat c ceea ce ne nconjoar i se manifest este perceput
conform formrii, tririi i simirii noastre interioare. Poate c Mexicul nu e aa i l-am vzut
astfel numai pentru c eu sunt un personaj scindat. Sau este i m-am apropiat de el tocmai pentru c
mi seamn att de mult. ( Paler, 2010: 228)
Un alt aspect al duritii conquistei spaniole este surprins n momentul n care viziteaz
nchisoarea din san Juan de Ula, lng Veracruz. Fortreaa las urme adnci n sufletul
vizitatorilor, aa cum apa calcaroas prelins pe ziduri a lsat cicatrici. Starea de disconfort este
accentuat de ploaia care nu nceteaz s mai cad, o ploaie care macin i putrezete. Aici istoria
a renunat la nuane. Cel care ucidea i cel care ateapt s fie ucis se aflau fa n fa i se priveau
n ochi. ( Paler, 2010: 111) Asprimea i groaza inspirat de acest loc n-ar fi putut fi exprimat mai
bine dect n Spania, a crezut aici c istoria este un os ce poate fi zdrobit, o gur creia i se poate
pune clu, o minte care aiurnd, nu va mai protesta. i c justificrile, dac va fi nevoie de ele, vor
fi gsite. ( Paler, 2010: 112) i-l face s afirme Simt c dac mai stau mult ntre aceste ziduri ma
vindec definitiv de dragostea mea pentru Spania. ( Paler, 2010: 112). Oroarea nchisorii i ptrunde
i-i posed ngreunndu-le corpul i spiritul Ca s fii cu totul moral aici, ar trebui s simi c ochii
i ies din orbite, c nu mai poi respira, c i vjie capul, i dintre toate zgomotele univesului nu
mai auzi dect picturile de ap prelingndu-se pe perei; s nu mai existe cer, s nu mai existe
mare, s nu mai existe pmnt i arbori, ci numai o piatr, o piatr rece de peter pe care curge apa
[...] n loc de asta, ns, i spui c tu n-ai nicio vin pentru ce s-a ntmplat. Nu eti dect un
trector cumsecade care la un moment dat simte nevoia s nu mai aud dect ploaia de afar. (
Paler, 2010: 113) dar le d i prilejul de meditaie, i cum Paler este european referina sa este
filosofia greac Plecnd de la San Juan de Ula, mi-a fost greu s gsesc cusururi unei vorbe pe
care alt dat o socotisem prea rutcioas. Mizantropul e cel care reproeaz oamenilor c sunt
ceea ce sunt. ( Paler, 2010: 115).
Dar Paler nu ne ofer numai efectul Corts asupra civilizaiei vechi, ci se las ademenit,
tocmai pentru a contrabalansa, de civilizaia aceasta ascuns privirii celui neiniiat. Accesul nu este
facil nici pentru el fiind reticent la nceput, ns i cand ncepe a deslui tainele existenei mitice, nu
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se poate desprinde de formarea sa cultural i de Europa care l-a format. Face cunotin cu zeul
suprem aztec, Quetzalcatl, prin intermediul unei piese de teatru Quetzalcatl, tragedie
antropocosmic care-i nfieaz istoria zeului Tulei ce se sacrific pentru binele omenirii, fiind
incendiat pe o luntre, ns inima lui zboar spre cer i devine luceafrul de diminea. Dei i
dorete s nu mearg la spectacol totui particip convingndu-se c uneori pierdem fr s tim ce
ans am risipit. ( Paler, 2010: 53) i c n mituri regsim nelesuri pe care cuvintele noastre nu
le mai poate exprima ( Paler, 2010: 53). Quetzalcatl i reamintete i c arborele universului are
dou brae. Unu bra al dragostei. Altul al durerii. ( Paler, 2010: 53). Nu nelege iniial piesa i-i
provoac uneori zmbete pentru c mintea mea de european, nvat cu alt gen de mituri, cu zei
care petrec n Olimp i nu se dau napoi de la adultere, nu era pregtit s neleag un zeu care s-a
trt n rn printre tufele de nopal pn i-a luat zborul spre cer dup ce a fost rege respectat i
nelept vestit la Tula. ( Paler, 2010: 54), ns contientizeaz c pentru a cunoate Mexicul,
trebuie s te adresezi mitologiei naintea istoriei. ( Paler, 2010: 54)
Incursiunea mitologic continu cu prezentarea zeiei cu fust de erpi Coatlicue, n urma
unei descoperiri arhiologice. Sculptura are trei metri nalime i dou tone greutate fiind considerat
cea mai fioroas, dup gustul european, din Olimpul aztec. Bestial i hipnotic. n loc de obraz,
ea are dou capete ngemnate de erpi. Pe piept i atrn un colier facut din mni tiate i din inimi.
Fusta de erpi dispus ntr-o reea romboidal, simboliznd pmntul, e prins cu o centur nchis
cu un cap de mort i cu doi erpi nodai n fa. ( Paler, 2010: 64) Portretul teribil al zeiei intr n
antitez cu plsmuirea ginga a zeilor greci Cum s i-o nchipui pe Coatlicue alturi de Venus
din Milo? Chiar dac adevrul e tot mai puin comparabil cu frumosul, e greu s nu le dai dreptate
grecilor care i-au fcut zeii frumoi i i-au atras spre plcerile omeneti. ( Paler, 2010: 65) n
aceeai idee este amintit i zeul Frumuseii i al Tinereii, Xochipilli, Prinul Florilor care este
reprezentat cu un cap de mort crispat ntr-o grimas nfricotoare. ( Paler, 2010: 66) La ntrebarea
care-i scopul acestor nfricotoare chipuri?, cltorul i gsete singur rspuns tot printr-o
ntrebare: Au urmrit aztecii s obin curajul prin team aa cum au vrut s obin ordinea
universului prin durere? ( Paler, 2010: 66) Dar s nu-i judecm pe sculptorii azteci dup criteriile
noastre. ( Paler, 2010: 67) Diferena cultural este punctat prin alte dou comparaii: n vechiul
Mexic, chipeul Paris ar fi rmas un simplu cioban anonim. Nicio zei nu l-ar fi cutat s-l fac
atributul frumuseii, ntruct frumuseea nu-i interesa pe acei zei. ( Paler, 2010: 67)
Zeul ploii Tlloc zeul care poart o masc de jad i are n pr o pasre quetzal cu pene
verzi somptuos revrsate. Trupul i e acoperit de coliere i bijuterii iar din mini cad pe pmnt
picturi de ploaie. ( Paler, 2010: 77) este cel ce patroneaz o bun parte a regiunilor mexicane fie
prin ploi nesfrite, violente, furtunoase la Veracruz, fie prin ploi mrunte i confuze, fie prin secet
prelungit n Yucatn. Comparaia cu mitologia greac se face i la acest nivel Prometeu, n
Yucatn, nu s-ar fi urcat n cer s fure focul, ci s lege norii sau ar fi spat ftni. Cci apa este aici
mai important dect focul. ( Paler, 2010: 177)
Dup cum se observ arpele este simbolul suprem fiind prezent att n aspectul zeitilor, n
arhitectur, n basoreliefuri, ct i n credina oamenilor.
Diferenele culturale se extind i la nivelul piramidelor care spre deosebire de cele egiptene
nu sunt pzite de sfinci ci de vulcani, sunt mai tinere cu aproape trei milenii i nu sunt necropole ci
temple de sacrificiu disprute astzi, ns la fel ca i celelalte sunt nvluite n mister, nimeni ne
tiind cum, cnd i cu cine s-au construit. A fost, oare, Teothuacnul capitala unui imperiu
necunoscut? i ce s-a ntmplat cu populaia sa? ( Paler, 2010: 73). Unii cred c Teothuacnul a
fost abandonat n plin dezvoltare. Arhiologii nu au descoperit n ruine niciun semn de decaden.
( Paler, 2010: 74)
Imaginea zeilor se mpletete cu celebrarea morii. Moartea este un element care face parte
din sacrificiul mexican reprezentnd de fapt mijlocul de purificare. Att de puternic este credina
n moarte nct ea este srbtorit: Obinuit s m tem de moarte, m-am mirat s-o vad, n Mexic,
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srbtorit. Sigur, mi-am dat seama destul de repede c e vorba de o ncercare de a exorciza frica,
de a o readuce la proporii care pot fi ndurate... ( Paler, 2010: 62). Prjitura n form de cap de
mort i pinea adevrat a morilor, care se fabric n apropierea srbtorii, vin s confirme acest
lucru. Cadourile care se fac persoanei iubite, sicriul de zahr cu numele ncrustat, serbrile din
cimitir, l fac pe Paler s se nspimnte dar s i realizeze c fr un sceptru ironic, moartea ar fi
de nendurat ( Paler, 2010: 63). Moartea este un act de curaj aa cum reiese i din secvena cu jocul
de pelot. Pe pajitea dintre ruinele de la Chich Itza, ntlnete o aren de fotbal Basoreliefurile
din zidurile care mrginesc arena nfieaz cele dou echipe separate de discul morii. ( Paler,
2010: 210). Echipa care pierde meciul va trebui s fie sacrificat, cpitanul echipei victorioase
decapitndu-l pe cellalt cpitan pentru a recreea lupta dintre Quetzalcatl i Tezcatlipoca.
Senintatea condamnatului surprinde, ns e un act de curaj. Fluturele care st pe securea
execuiei reprezint nsi moartea, moarte care demonstreaz c Nu suntem pentru totdeauna pe
pmnt: doar puintel aici, zice un cntec vechi, dar acest puintel aici este singura bogie de
care dispunem. ( Paler, 2010: 212) i-l determin pe cel ce experimenteaz acum cunoaterea s
emit o certitudine: Cu siguran, nicieri n-am putea gsi un loc unde jocul cu moartea s fie
amestecat cu atta soare i unde chiar fluturii de piatr fac, parc, zgomot din pricina acusticii
speciale. ( Paler, 2010: 212), Fluturele, seor este spiritul morilor ntors ntre cei vii. ( Paler,
2010: 145), Aadar, lupttorii purtau un fluture pe piept nu pentru a fi aprai, ci pentru a fi mai
agresivi. ( Paler, 2010: 147)
Astfel prezentul se sprijin pe credina inexplcabil a trecutului. Dei detaliile despre trecut
abund, prezentul este vag conturat desprinzndu-se din fragmente disparate. De exemplu la ieirea
din Ciudad de Mxico observ cldirea unei bnci ce ntruchipeaz o piramid ce vines contrasteze
cu piramidele Soarelui si a Lunii, strnindu-i o serie de ntrebri: M ntreb ntreb, ce-au vrut s
sugereze arhitecii? Soliditatea? Faptul c banii vor nvinge timpul? C ei reprezint singura
mitologie prezent azi? ( Paler, 2010: 70). Cltoria cu trajinera din Xochimilco, Veneia
mexican ntr-un labirint lacustru, la lsarea serii i creaz iniial cltorului senzaia de parodierea
Veneiei, la limita farsei, regizat pentru uzul amatorilor de pitoresc. ( Paler, 2010: 79) ns pe
parcurs incertitudinea pune stpnire pe el i-i creaz senzaia de irealitate. Vizitarea nocturn a
casei lui Dolores Olmedo pentru admirarea tablourilor lui Digo Rivera i aduce n atenie trei
sculpturi Dansatoarea n repaos, Dansul pmntului i Dansul Soarelui subliniind nc o dat
importana dansului la mexicani.
Experiena sa mexican se continu cu o ntrecere ce charros ceva, dup cte nelg, ntre
corid, turnir medieval i serbare de cowboy. ( Paler, 2010: 83) pentru c aa cum fiecare ar este
cunoscut dup o prejudecat aa i Mexicul este cunoscut pentru sombrero, fiesta i pasiune, iar cel
mai bun mijloc de a le prezenta i ntruchipa este aceast ntrecere. Manifestarea este descris n
amnunt plecnd de la charro care este mbrcat cu pantalon i vest brodate cu fir de aur i argint
i, binenele, un sombrero somptuos, pn la mulimea euforic n care nu-i gsete locul e prea
vesel toat lumea din jur ca s nu fiu stingherit c nu pot intra n atmosfer. Fr ndoial sunt un
ru spectator. ( Paler, 2010: 85) Prezentarea i permite s rememoreze att vremea lui Cotez i
importana calului atunci i acum, n rzboi i parad, ct i desfurarea cestui tip de manifestare
care pare desprins dintr-un ritual religios n care amfitrion este preotul.
Un alt aspect sesizat este mncarea tradiional mexican, tortillia i butura pulque care
dezleag limbi.
Descoperirea oraului i se pare dificil, punndu-se att n ipostaza de gazd ct i n cea de
oaspete. Ajunge la concluzia c sunt orae n care trieti i orae care te gzduiesc temporar pe
cele din urm reuind s le cunoti oar din strad. Dorina de linite i teama de zonele
aglomerate este subliniat iar, atunci cnd plecat n vizitarea oraului alege s scape de agresiunea
traficului trecnd prin parcul Alemeda, parc ce-i prilejuiete o alt meditaie la diferena dintre
Frana, Spania i Mexic, plecnd de la comparaia facut de Unamuno ntre Frana i Spania:
Frana e rztoare i senzual. Spania e aspr i trist. Nu ai altceva mai bun de facut n Spania
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dect s te gndeti la moarte, n vreme ce Frana totul ndeamn la superficialitate. Despre Mexic
ca amestec ntre cele dou consider Bnuiesc c dincolo de superficialitate regseti mereu
pasiune care ezit ntre tristee i nevoia de spectacol. ( Paler, 2010: 92)
Descoperirea oraului i se pare dificil, punndu-se att n ipostaza de gazd ct i n cea de
oaspete. Ajunge la concluzia c sunt orae n care trieti i orae care te gzduiesc temporar pe
cele din urm reuind s le cunoti doar din strad. Dorina de linite i teama de zonele
aglomerate este subliniat iar, atunci cnd plecat n vizitarea oraului alege s scape de agresiunea
traficului trecnd prin parcul Alemeda, parc ce-i prilejuiete o alt meditaie la diferena dintre
Frana, Spania i Mexic, plecnd de la comparaia facut de Unamuno ntre Frana i Spania:
Frana e rztoare i senzual. Spania e aspr i trist. Nu ai altceva mai bun de facut n Spania
dect s te gndeti la moarte, n vreme ce Frana totul ndeamn la superficialitate. Despre Mexic
ca amestec ntre cele dou consider Bnuiesc c dincolo de superficialitate regseti mereu
pasiune care ezit ntre tristee i nevoia de spectacol. ( Paler, 2010: 92)
n faa vulcanilor contientizeaz sentimentul de singurtate, pe care l asociaz mexicanilor
Singurtatea lor seamn cu singurtatea ranilor care-i cur pmntul npdit cu tufe de
nopal. Violena cu care, oricnd, se pot trezi nu e strin de caracterul mexicanilor. ( Paler, 2010:
97) ns, n cazul su, vine din focul su luntric Linitea unui vulcan mi inspir o team confuz
i am impresia c n ea exist ceva perfid. i totui, nu m tiu a fi fricos (... ) Imaginea vulcanilor
deteapt n instinctele mele, poate, o fric special, primar, pe care nu m simt n stare nici s-o
explic. Poate i fiindc impresiile seamestec. ( Paler, 2010: 96-97)
Descrierea mexicanului obinuit se face trziu prin intermediul oferului, Enrique, care-i
nsoete n cltorie Cu prul negru, lins, cu ochii sumbri i melancolici, artndu-i dinii albi de
cte ori zmbete ( i zmbete des), Enrique e ceea ce s-ar putea numi un mexican obinuit.
( Paler, 2010: 131) Din relaia cu el se vede clar c simpatia are un rol important n relaiile unui
mexican cu strinii, c exist i n oameni ceva din misterul acestui pmnt crucificat ntre soare
i ploi.(Paler, 2010: 132).
Familia de mexicani este observat ntr-o zi torid la Uxmal. Femeile sunt vzute aproape ca
nite zeie coborte din templele maya, iar brbaii sunt un exemplu de putere i duritate stpnind
femeia Mai nti brbatul, adpostit sub un sombrero impuntor. El reprezint evident fora i
orgoliul. Se uit undeva n fa, ca i cnd nu l-ar interesa drumul pe care merge, ci numai problema
orizontului. Apoi, la un pas n urm, femeia i copii. ( Paler, 2010: 180)
Mexicul este astfel un spaiu al contrastelor, ntre ceea ce a fost i ceea ce este astzi, ntre
spaii cu vegetaie luxuriant i spaii n care lipsete apa primordial, ntre aparena i esena tririi
reale, cltoria fiind fcut, ns, de la nceput cu alt scop dect cel obinuit Nu sunt specialist n
civilizaia maya i n-am venit n Mexic ca s aflu ce scrie prin pliante. M intereseaz, mai degrab,
s bnui ceea ce nu-mi poate garanta nimeni c e real sau fals. ( Paler, 2010: 157) Mexicul
prezentat este un Mexic trit, simit, experimentat de nsui cel care-l viziteaz: Am vorbit prea
puin sau aproape deloc despre Mexicul viu, despre Mexicul de azi. Cine-mi va citi jurnalul va
spune, probabil, c n-am fost n Mexicul real, ci ntr-un Mexic al legendelor, al pietrelor, al
fantomelor. i nu va grei prea mult. ( Paler, 2010: 205)
Bibliografie
Baudrillard, Jean, Guillaume, Marc, Figuri ale alteritii, Editura Paralela 45, Bucureti,
2002.
Cristea-Enache, Daniel, Convorbiri cu Octavian Paler, Bucureti, Corint, 2007.
Ferrol, Gilles, Guy, Jacquois (Coord.), Dicionarul alteritii i al relaiilor interculturale,
Editura Polirom, Bucureti, 2005.
Sorescu, Marin, Uor cu pianul pe scri, Editura Cartea romneasc, Bucureti, 1985.
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CONCEPTUL DE ECUMENISM
I. 1.Ecumenismul n secolul XX
Paharul binecuvntrii, pe care-l binecuvntm, nu este, oare, mprtirea cu sngele
lui Hristos? Pinea pe care o frngem nu este, oare, mprtirea cu trupul lui Hristos? C o
pine, un trup suntem cei muli, cci toi ne mprtim dintr-o pine. (Corinteni, 10, 16- 17)
Dac unul este trupul i unul este sngele Mntuitorului, atunci una trebuie s fie i
Biserica. Biserica ntemeiat de Hristos este dumnezeiasc, este una, cci unul este i Hristos,
ntemeietorul ei, i este venic, este un trup i un Duh, o Evanghelie i o Biseric: Un
Domn i o credin, un Botez, un Dumnezeu i Tatl tuturor, care este peste toate i prin toate
i ntru toi (Efeseni 4, 4- 6)1.
n zilele noastre se vorbete din ce n ce mai mult despre ecumenism, micare
ecumenic, dialog interconfesional, rugciuni sau chiar slujbe ecumenice. ns, referitor la
ceea ce privete toate aceste accepiuni, apar diferite opinii sau poziii pro dar i contra a tot
ceea ce este legat de ecumenism.
Poziiile pro ecumenism se regsesc n locurile unde convieuiesc oameni de diferite
etnii. Pstorii lor trebuie s arate nelegere unii fa de ceilali pentru a le putea transmite i
pstoriilor ncrederea i nelegerea necesar pentru o mai bun convieuire. Aceste fapte sunt
transmise sau mai bine spus preluate mai departe, n ierarhii, pentru a ajunge la o posibil
turm i la un singur pstor.
ns nu peste tot se ntmpl acest lucru. Astfel apar i opinii contra ecumenismului.
Cele mai vehemente idei mpotriva acestuia se ntlnesc n rndul monahilor, care numesc
ecumenismul ca fiind cea mai mare erezie a veacurilor.
Dac stm bine i ne gndim ambele poziii sunt de acceptat, pentru c fiecare o
complecteaz pe cealalt. Dac antiecumenitii tind s se izoleze, acceptnd ca fiind dreapt
doar calea pe care ei au ales-o, cei care sunt de partea ecumenismului pot cdea n alt
extrem, cea a neclaritii, netiind exact de care parte vor s aparin, sau care religie e cea
mai potrivit.
1
Protosinghel Ioanichie Blan, Cluz ortodox n Biseric , Sf. Mnstire Sihstria, 1992, pag .10
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Astzi nu se poate tri fr dialog, acest lucru nsemnnd s trim izolai. Astfel,
putem spune c nu putem s nu fim ecumeniti, ns trebuie s cutm s-l transformm n
ceva benefic pentru noi. Sensul ecumenismului este de a apra viaa oamenilor i chipul lui
Dumnezeu care se afl n fiecare om de pe planeta noastr.
Astfel, ecumenismul nu se poate trata cu indiferen, el presupune deschidere spre cel
de lng noi, aceasta realizndu-se prin acceptarea dialogului i prin acceptarea aproapelui ca
partener de dialog. Ne vom referi mai departe la diferitele accepiuni ale ecumenismului
pentru a-l nelege mai bine.
I.2.Sensurile ecumenismului
Prin ecumenism putem nelege universalitatea unui sinod al Bisericii cretine
universale, adic existena unei singure Biserici cretine. Acest termen provine din gr.
Oikoumene, ceea ce nseamn pmnt locuit, lumea. Termenul este folosit i pentru
micarea ecumenic, ceea ce nseamn totalitatea propunerilor, dar i aciunile organizate
pentru realizarea unitilor cretine, n funcie de necesitile Bisericilor.
Un prim sens al ecumenismului ar fi acela de ncercarea tuturor confesiunilor cretine
de a colabora pentru nvarea cuvntului Evangheliei i de a ncerca nlturarea ereticilor.
ns aceast ncercare nu a avut un prea mare succes, ncepnd chiar de la Marea Schism,
datorit faptului c fiecare confesiune lupta pentru propria identitate, i mai mult, lupta pentru
o eventual atragere a celor mai slabi.
ns astzi, cei care ntradevr au neles adevratul sens al ecumenismului au realizat
i faptul c acolo unde sunt doi sau trei adunai n numele Meu, acolo voi fi i eu.(Matei 18,
20)
Un al doilea sens al ecumenismului l-ar putea reprezenta cunoaterea cretinilor
aparintori diferitelor confesiuni. Acest cunoatere reciproc ar putea duce la aplanarea sau
chiar eliminarea diverselor conflicte ntre diversele confesiuni, ea putndu-se realiza prin
diferite activiti la care pot participa reprezentani ai acestora i care au ca scop rezolvarea de
probleme morale i religioase.
Cel de-al treilea sens al ecumenismului ar putea fi colaborarea reprezentanilor
diverselor confesiuni pentru a soluiona probleme sociale. Reprezentanii Bisericilor au ajuns
astzi la concluzia c deosebirile ce exist ntre ele, pe linie de mrturisire a credinei, s nu
mai fie un act care mereu s produc tensiuni, ci s-i doreasc s-i ndrepte activitatea spre
un front crora le este comun: srcia, abandonul colar, avortul, abandonarea copiilor,
fenomenul morii albe(drogurile) i multe alte probleme i provocri la care este supus
societatea uman astzi.
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Pr. Prof. Dr. Ion Bria, Tratat de teologie dogmatic i ecumenic, Editura Romnia Cretin, Bucureti, 1999. p. 243).
Pr. Prof. Dr. Ion Bria, Ortodoxia n Europa, Editura Mitropoliei Moldovei i Bucovinei, Iai, 1995, pag. 119.
Idem, pag.120
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existente ntre cretini, acest lucru putndu-se realiza prin rugciuni i manifestri comune,
reuniuni cu caracter spiritual.
Mitropolitul Antonie Plmdeal, cu referire la Consiliul Ecumenic, spunea c acesta
i Micarea Ecumenic se organizez n funcie de ideile susinute de ecumenism, iar n
Consiliul Ecumenic, fiecare Biseric i pstrez identitatea intact. E condiia sine qua non
pe care o cer toi cei care i se afiliaz. Fiecare vine i rmne cu tezaurul su de dogme i
tradiii i nu se las nici absorbit, nici reprezentat de Consiliu. Consiliul e doar un
catalizator.6
Existnd i contestatari ai acestei micri, unul dintre acetia afirma: Curatul i
adevratul ecumenism se exprim prin spiritul misionar al dorinei din toat inima i din tot
sufletul de a aduce toat lumea la Ortodoxie7.
I.4. Dimensiunile ecumenismului
Putem afirma c ecumenismul este de trei tipuri: ecumenism teologic, ecumenism laic
i ecumenism spiritual.
Ecumenismul teologic este cel care se refer la dialogul ntre teologii diferitelor
confesiuni cretine, adic dialogul ntre diferitele Biserici. Din acest tip de ecumenism fac
parte toi care l invoc pe Dumnezeu n Treime i l mrturisesc pe
Iisus Hristos ca Domn i Mntuitor. n cadrul ecumenismului teologic se ridic o
ntrebare: ecumenismul ar putea sau nu rodi dac l legm de eclesiologie? Un rspuns posibil
ar putea fi: existena unei eclesiologii acceptate de toi cretinii ar duce probabil la nflorirea
ecumenismului i la rezolvarea problemelor care se ivesc zilnic ntre reprezentanii diverselor
religii.
Ecumenismul laic se refer la relaia cretinilor folosit pentru a ajuta, prin activiti
diverse, la rezolvarea unor probleme ale oamenilor. Astfel, aici, se pune accentul pe felul cum
cretinii se mobilizeaz n sprijinul omului i deci al omenirii. Nu putem da natere unei lumi
doar prin inovaii tehnice i tinifice, ceea ce d via unei lumi, civilizate mai ales, este
credina n Dumnezeu, Cel care d acestei lumi pace, dragoste i adevr. Ecumenismul laic
este cel care urmrete mpcarea Bisericilor.
Ecumenismul spiritual reprezint transformarea interioar a omului. Acest
transformare interioar poate fi realizat doar printr-un singur mod i anume prin rugciune.
n cazul nostru vorbim de rugciunea ecumenic. Aceasta reprezint o ntrunire a frailor i
surorilor n Hristos, unde se mrturisete ceea ce se spune n Evanghelie, de ctre
Evanghelistul Matei Tatl vostru unul este, Cel din ceruri. Cu toate c fiecare i reprezint
propria religie, acetia se roag pentru unitate, cu toat sperana lor. Dar nu ne putem referi la
rugciunea ecumenic doar n sensul unei reuniuni a mai multor credincioi aparintori
diferitelor religii, ci trebuie s ne referim i la rugciunea individual, la convorbirea
individual a omului cu Dumnezeu, n care trebuie s regsim preocuparea pentru aproapele
nostru indiferent crei religii aparine. Astfel, putem spune c acest rugciune este jertfa pe
care o poate aduce un om lui Dumnezeu Tatl, prin Hristos Fiul, n Duhul Sfnt.
Antonie Plmdeal, Cuvnt nainte la P.I. David, Ecumenismul, factor de stabilitate n lumea de azi, Editura Gnosis, Bucureti, 1998,
pag. XIII.
7
Patrik, Barnes, Non-ortodicii. nvtur ortodox despre cretinii din afara Bisericii, Editura Egumenia, Galai, 2007, pag. 163
6
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oamnenii predestinai ajung s se mntuie. Acesta este respins de Biserica Ortododox, iar
Biserica Romano-Catolic i-a anatemizat pe toi care susin acest lucru.
Concluzia la care s-a ajuns, n ceea ce privete dialogul teologic ntre cele trei Biserici,
este c prin dialog, curaj i speran toate problemele pot fi depite.
Pr. Prof. Dr. Ion Bria, Ortodoxia n Europa, Editura Mitropoliei Moldovei i Bucovinei, Iai, 1995, pag. 124
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http://www.nistea.com/blog/index.php/2007/09/20/36-patriarhul-daniel-ma-consider-a-fi-un-ortodox-realist-fara-teama-de-dialog
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Abstract: The purpose of this study is to highlight the phenomenon of demystifying the
ancient myths of the exemplary heroe in the postmodern imaginary. The pages of this study
try to demonstrate the differences between the man from the past and the present one,
emphasizing the idea of metamorphosis of the nowadays imaginary. Current imaginary is a
source of knowledge and a source of reappraisal of the past as questioning issues long
forgotten, it reconstructs on this basis a new cultural matrix, which is characterized by
originality and authenticity. Today the myth of exemplary hero represents an endless matrix
because, due to its transformation over the time, it gives to the artist the possibility for
ingenious combinations. This paper focuses on demonstrating how the ancient myth
interpenetrate in postmodernism, where we are the witnesses of the intertextuality show. Seen
from a particular perspective, the power of text regeneration - as it is perceived by the
postmodern - proves the mythical regeneration power of the creative imaginary. The study
brings in the foreground critical visions upon postmodern imaginary of personalities such as
Northrop Frye, Ihab Hassan, Lyotard, Baudrillard, Jacques Derrida, writers in whose
opinion the postmodernism is a synonym for decentralization, deconstruction, fragmentary
issues, and on the other hand, writers like U. Eco, G. Vattimo, G. Durand, John Barth, who
consider the demystification a new postmodern myth. The focus of this paper is also directed
towards the phenomenon of the mythical insertion in postmodern text and towards the
typology superman table, bringing into discussion the myth of the birth of the hero, from
Otto Rank or Joseph Campbell, to postmodern antihero.
Keywords:
myth,
deconstruction.
heroe,antiheroe,
imaginary,
postmodernism,
demystification,
Un prim sens care se poate stabili al cuvntului mit este acela de povestire
fabuloas cu caracter sacru, despre originea Universului, eroi legendari sau zei. Dac lum n
considerare faptul c n Grecia antic mythos nsemna sunetul articulat de gur i reflectm
asupra cuvintelor Genezei La nceput a fost Cuvntul i Cuvntul era Dumnezeu, mitul ar
putea fi interpretat drept o metafor a ascunsului, a necunoscutului. Ceea ce este cert este
faptul c de-a lungul timpului, mitologia a fost pus n relaie direct cu disciplinele filologice
i n mod special cu literatura, dar i n conjuncie direct cu psihologia, psihoistoria,
etnologia sau sociologia.
E.B.Taylor cel care propunea teoria animist a mitologiei n Cultura primitiv,
James Frazer Creanga de aur, sau Adolf Bastian cu teoria ideilor primordiale, pot fi
considerai drept deschiztorii de drumuri ai mitologiei. Emile Durkheim, Franz Boas, ori
Bronislaw Malinowski au denunat importana societii n transmiterea mitului, relevnd
importana difuzrii acestuia n snul unei societii, mitul fiind socotit drept o adevrat
codificare a religiei primitive i a nelepciunii practice, nefiind o poveste gratuit, ci
dimpotriv, o for de mare intensitate activ; nu e o explicare intelectual sau o imaginare
artistic, ci o cart pragmatic a nelepciunii primitive (Myth in primitive psychology). De
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amintit ar mai fi aici i teoria ariilor mitice culturale a lui Leo Frobenius, n viziunea cruia
exist zone culturale care se nrudesc prin mit, aa-numitele zone mitogenetice, realiznd o
repartiie geografic a tipurilor de gndire mitic.
Pentru structuralistul Claude Levi-Strauss, mitul reprezint un sinonim al narativului
actului ritual, acesta legitimndu-se doar prin celebrarea ritualic i fiind o form a
primitivului de raportare la lumea n care triete. n Totem i Tabu, Sigmund Freud aplic
psihanaliza ca principiu al analizei mitului, identificnd o legtur strns ntre acesta din
urm i strile nevrotice, mitul fiind un vis colectiv al umanitii produs de nevroza activat
de complexele sexuale.
C. G. Jung consider mitul o expresie a incontientului colectiv, arhetipurile sale
putnd fi reperate n mitologia tuturor popoarelor. O expresie binecunoscut a arhetipului o
constituie mitul i basmul n care arhetipul se manifest n form specific cristalizat,
mitul precednd incontientul individual, cruia i-ar impune simbolurile sale arhaice. n
Amintiri, vise, reflecii1, acesta defineste ,,numinosul (concept al lui Rudolf Otto echivalent
cu sacrul): ,,ceea ce este inexprimabil, tainic, nspimnttor, cu totul altfel, nsuire
hrzit divinitii i nemijlocit experimentabil i arhetipul drept ,,structur fundamental
nereprezentabil, existent n stare latent n incontientul colectiv2. ,,Conceptul de arhetip
deriv din observaia adesea repetat c, de exemplu, miturile i povetile literaturii universale
conin anumite motive care reapar mereu si pretutindeni. Aceleasi motive le ntlnim n
fanteziile, visele, delirul si obsesiile indivizilor din ziua de azi. Aceste imagini si conexiuni
tipice sunt denumite reprezentri arhetipale.
Pentru Roland Barthes, mitul este un sistem semiologic secund n raport cu limba,
mitul fiind un metalimbaj, o poveste adevrat i n acelai timp ireal care transform
istoria n natur3. i Ernst Cassirer nelege mitologia ca form simbolic de gndire, mitul
avnd o for atotcuprinztoare fa de care celelalte categorii ale contiinei i cunoaterii
umane sunt secundare i abstracte. Prin mit, omul i construiete propria sa reprezentare
asupra lumii n care triete. Conform lui Franz Boas, fiinele mitice preexist ordinii actuale
a lumii, miturile cosmogonice sunt rezultatul unor reflecii despre originea lumii i ale
uimirii respectuoase n faa unor achiziii culturale i fa de nelesul riturilor sacre
(Mythology and Folklore).
Despre exemplaritatea miturilor vorbete i Mircea Eliade. Istoric al religiilor pasionat
de studiul miturilor de pretutindeni, acesta consider c funcia principal a mitului este de a
revela modelele exemplare ale tuturor riturilor i ale tuturor activitilor omeneti
semnificative, mitul viupovestete o istorie sacr; el relateaz un eveniment care a avut
loc n timpul primordial, timpul fabulos al nceputurilor (...). E aadar ntotdeauna
povestea unei faceri : ni se povestete cum ceva a fost produs, a nceput s fie. Mitul nu
vorbete dect despre ceea ce s-a ntmplat realmente. (...) n fond, miturile descriu diversele
i uneori dramaticele izbucniri n lume a sacrului (sau a supranaturalului)4.
n Iluziile literaturii romne5, Eugen Negrici circumscrie cteva dintre miturile unei
forma mentis romneti precum Mitul Vrstei de Aur, Mitul Paradisului Pierdut. De
asemenea, aplicaii ale mitului la actul literar, reflecii ale acestuia n mitocritic i n exegeza
mitic i arhetipal realizeaz N. Frye n Anatomia criticii, sau antropologia imaginarului a lui
Gilbert Durand, Mituri i semantism, n Structurile antropologice ale imaginarului; Decorul
1
2
Op.cit. p.403
Roland Barthes : Mitul astzi, n Mythologies; trad. rom. n Romanul scriiturii,. Ed. Univers, Bucureti, 1987, pp. 94-112
4
Mircea Eliade: Aspecte ale mitului. Ed. Univers, Bucureti, 1978, pp. 5-6
5
Eugen Negrici: Iluziile literaturii romne. Ed. Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 2008
3
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mitic al Mnstirii din Parma; Figuri mitice i chipuri ale operei, ori psihocritica lui Charles
Mauron - Des mtaphores obsdantes au mythe personnel.
n lucrarea Mitul naterii eroului, Otto Rank ncearc o abordare a metodei
psihanalitice la mitologia comparativ n baza asemnrilor cros-culturale ntre diferitele
mituri ce proiecteaz imaginea eroului, considernd legenda naterii acestuia ca o constant a
culturii tuturor popoarelor. Incursiunea sa n universul mitului naterii eroului are la baz un
demers comparativ al analizei miturilor eroice universale. Analogia stabilit de Rank este
aceea dintre ego-ul copilului i imaginea eroului mitic, aceasta din urm reprezentnd o
proiecie a fantasmelor retrograde ale copilriei, exemplaritatea lui datorndu-se n mare parte
frustrrilor copilriei, cci Suntem convini c miturile, cel puin la origine, sunt structuri ale
facultii umane de imaginare, care la un moment dat au fost proiectate din anumite motive
asupra cerului i se poate s fi fost transferate n mod secundar asupra corpurilor cereti, cu
fenomenele lor enigmatice. Semnificaia urmelor inconfundabile pe care acest transfer la imprimat miturilor nu trebuie subestimat ctui de puin, dei este posibil ca originea
acestor figuri s fi avut un caracter psihic, fiind fcut ulterior baza a calculelor astronomice
i astrologice, tocmai datorit acestei semnificaii. n afar de concepia astral, ideea rolului
jucat de viaa psihic trebuie creditat cu aceleai drepturi pentru formarea miturilor, iar
aceast cerin va fi justificat amplu de rezultatele metodei noastre de interpretare. Avnd
acest obiectiv, vom lua nti materialul legendar pe care se va ncerca o astfel de interpretare
psihologic pentru prima oar la o scar mare i vom selecta din marea mas a acestor mituri
eroice pe acelea care sunt cunoscute cel mai bine.6De asemenea, n viziunea aceluiai
cercettor, se pare c mitul eroului exemplar se datoreaz fenomenului de migraie sau
mprumut.
Desigur, continund linia de cercetare freudian, studiul lui Otto Rank reprezint un
punct de plecare n evidenierea unor legturi comune, care au stat la baza naterii mitului
eroului din Antichitate i pn n zilele noastre, ns acest demers al lui Otto Rank nu mai
poate fi considerat aplicabil pentru imaginarul culturii actuale, azi cnd discutm tot mai des
despre o dezontologizare a lumii, despre o desacralizare a miturilor de odonioar, o societate
raportat la gndirea slab, cum ar spune Giani Vattimo.
Pentru David Adams Leeming, mitologia este considerat drept o expresie n
simboluri i imagini a psihicului uman7. Realiznd o incursiune n aventura simbolic a
eroului universal, acesta stabilete opt etape ale monomitului eroului: etapa I- naterea
uimitoare, miraculoas a eroului; etapa II copilria un stadiu incipient al iniierii, n care
eroul primete un semn divin; etapa III pregtirea i meditaia eroului, incluznd aici i
tentaiile lumii la care este supus eroul; etapa IV- agonia nspre viaa de adult; etapa a -V-a
confruntarea cu moartea, la fel de unic precum naterea eroului; etapa a VI-a descinderea
n Infern i confruntarea cu forele rului; etapa VII - continuarea misiunii de ap ispitor,
nvingerea morii; etapa a-VIII-a ispirea, unirea cu cosmosul, devenirea.
Una dintre viziunile pertinente asupra mitului eroului i aparine lui Joseph Campbell.
Mitologul american propune o gril de interpretare care permite studiul miturilor reperate n
interiorul oricrei societi. n viziunea sa, eroul este un construct social care a parcurs trei
mari etape n devenirea sa ca model cultural. Aceste etape devin adevrate rituri de trecere
simbolice ale eroului: separarea de lumea profan, iniierea i n cele din urm rentoarcerea
sau metamorfozarea acestuia. Luke Skywalker, eroul trilogiei Star Wars este un exemplu
semnificativ al parcurgerii acestor etape ale devenirii eroicului.
6
7
Otto Rank : Mitul naterii eroului. Edit. Herald, Bucureti, 2000, p.7
David Adams Leeming: Mythology, The voyage of the hero. New York, Oxford University Press, 1998, p.146
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n viziunea lui Campbell eroul este brbatul sau femeia care a fost n stare s-i
depeasc limitele personale i istorice, ajungnd la formele umane normale i general
valabile (...) eroul a murit ca om modern, dar ca om etern, perfect i universal, a fost renscut.
A doua lui sarcin solemn este ca el s se ntoarc la noi, transformat i s ne predea lecia pe
care a nvat-o despre viaa renscut8. Fie c vorbim despre Prometeu, Ulise, despre marii
rzboinici ai omenirii, eroul ca sfnt, sau ca salvator al lumii, se pare c acceast aventur i
figur a eroului de odinioar a disprut, fiindc, aa cum spunea Zarathustra al lui Nietzsche,
acum Toi zeii sunt mori!, azi faptele eroului nu mai sunt cum erau n secolul lui Galileo,
fiindc nu numai c nu exist ascunzi pentru zei n faa telescopului i microscopului, dar
nu se mai gsete azi nicio societate dintre cele pe care zeii le susineau cndva. 9 Campbell
consider faptul c povestirea mitic are la baz diferitele arhetipuri ale eroilor exemplari,
care au parcurs un itinerariu iniiatic. Vorbind n ansamblu despre mitologie acesta red patru
dintre cele mai importante funcii ale acesteia: funcia mistic, cosmic, pedagogic i
sociologic. Raportat la aceste funcii, misiunea eroului exemplar este aceea de a aduce n
snul societii o pild vie, de a-i determina pe indivizi s se identifice cu experienele sale,
sau ca ntregul su itinerariu s aib efect moralizator. Azi, cnd se vorbete tot mai mult
despre o criz a valorilor,10 ipoteza lui Campbell asupra devenirii eroului pare s devin o tot
mai evident necesitate.
Pentru societatea postmodern eroul din textele clasice a murit. Locul su a fost luat
de supra-omul de mas despre care vorbete Umberto Eco, sau de anti-eroul postmodern
anunat de Ihab Hassan, o alt ipostaz a fragmentrii i multiplicitii lumii actuale. Personal,
vd n postmodernitate o vrst a multiplicitii ce se caracterizeaz prin abandonarea
linearului n favoarea asimetriei, diferenei. Michel Maffesoli identific, de altfel, o moarte a
eroului grec, Prometeu, simbol al tehnicii sau al progresului modernist, locul su fiind luat de
repetatele rencarnri ale lui Dionysos11. Acest schimb de roluri focalizeaz un erou
postmodern negativ i hedonist.
Identitatea postmodern deriv din supremaia unui soi de instrumentalism de tip
tehnologic care susine o combinatorie a semnului convertit n hiperreal. Contiina
postmodern se face remarcat printr-o viziune fragmentarist asupra lumii, printr-un joc
asumat al deconstruciei ce declaneaz un travaliu al pulverizrii asumate, iar n cazul
eroului, acesta a devenit el nsui o fptur cu o identitate pulverizat.
O carte de referin pentru tema adus n discuie este Sfierea lui Orfeu12 a lui Ihab
Hassan, care anuna, de altfel, marea criz a modernitii: incapacitatea limbajului de a mai
exprima ntr-o lume care i-a pierdut semnificaia, drept pentru care, literatura a experimentat
metafora tcerii prin operele lui Kafka sau Beckett. Aceast form a tcerii nu este dect un
semn al rupturii, un semn incipient al post-modernismului care aduce n prim plan disoluia
eului, anularea raiunii, fragmentarismul, dar i naterea de noi (hiper) realiti.
Tot Ihab Hassan este i cel care circumscrie figura antieroului, analizat ca atare n
Radical Innocence: clovnul, criminalul, alienatul, apul ispitor, rebelul fr cauz. Se pare
c astfel, omul societii contemporane i-a pierdut ncrederea n eroii homeric, iar dac eroul
epocilor trecute reprezenta o utopie a omului real, atunci antieroul devine o imagine distopic
a individului n societatea contemporan.
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Idem, p.86: Mulimea miturilor unei populaii e o noiune care ine de discurs.
Jean-Jacques Wunenburger : Imaginarul. Ed. Dacia, Cluj, 2009, p.18
17
Roland Barthes: Romanul scriiturii. Antologie. Trad. de Adriana Babei i Delia epeean -Vasiliu. Edit.Univers, Bucureti, 1987, p.174
15
16
18
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centralitatea, marc a viziunii tradiionale asupra operei literare. Dei se prezint ca o ruptur,
spaiu declanat n interiorul textului, cititorul va fi cel care va realiza irizarea sensului, ntrun joc intertextual propus de ceea ce nelegem prin statutul operei aperta. Logocentrismul
este abandonat n favoarea pluricentrismului. Acest joc al irizrii de sens este specific i
eroului postmodern, un erou care se legitimeaz prin tot attea posibile decantri de
semnificaie n msura n care acesta este aa cum spunea Salvatore Battaglia n Mitografia
personajului, copleit de povara lui Sisif: toate entitile istoriei i ale existenei, care mai
nainte colaborau cu el, au devenit nite stnci ce se prvlesc independent, n afara lui i n
afara existenei sale.19
Cu Mitologii Barthes realizeaz o fresc a miturilor noi ale societii de consum. Pe
urmele lui Barthes, civa cercettori Gilles Lipovetsky, Bernard Pivot, David le Breton,
Jrome Garcin20 au ntreprins un demers similar. Rezultatul: o mic antologie de mituri ale
societii actuale ntoarse cu faa spre tehnologizarea i virtualitate a lumii contemporane.
Cteva titluri sugestive n acest sens ar fi: Noua Ev, Noii ndrgostii, iPod, Zidane, Star
Academy, Telefonul mobil.
Dup Grard Lutte noiunea de erou, n sensul de model, reprezint reflecia dorinelor
i ateptrilor individului social, proiecia unui ideal imaginar al sinelui. Dac mediul familial
ofer primele modele de-a lungul existenei sale, aceste modele intr n confluen cu
influenele unor personaje mai mult sau mai puin populare din perimetrul sportului, sau al
scenei muzicale. Exemple de acest gen ar putea fi reperate n fenomenul Beatlemania, sau
Backstreet Boys ori Spice Girls, care marcheaz o zon a inflenei culturii pop. De asemenea,
fiecare generaie n parte i-a creat propriile star-uri, precum Elvis Presley, Jim Morrisson,
Madonna, Justin Biber.
Dac analizm cu atenie specificul cyberspace-ului, putem constata faptul c, n plin
er a tehnologiilor, acesta se legitimeaz deja ca o agor virtual21 ce adpostete o
comunitate cyber. Colectivitatea on line nu doar c reproduce structurile reale, ci le sporete
posibilitile, iar hyper-discursivitatea acestei lumi se legitimeaz cu aceleai noiuni cheie ale
postmodernismului: mbriarea discursului multinarativ, descentralizarea, fragmentarea.
Aducnd n discuie paradigma unui nou tip de erou, Scott Bukatman22 face referire la
denumirea convenional a unei noi subiectiviti pe care o impune ecranul computerului,
realiznd un demers comparativ asupra literaturii science fiction actuale i proieciile
filosofice ale lui Fredric Jameson, Donna Haraway, sau Jean Baudrillard, dar i abordri din
perimetrul mitologiei, Bukatman identific, astfel, un nou prototip al identitii n era
informaticii. Pe de o parte, acesta vorbete despre o criz a subiectului postmodern, dar
totodat i despre naterea unui subiect virtual. Putem s afirmm deci, c eroul postmodern
nu este doar un construct social, ci este i rezultatul unei proiecii nscute n snul agorei
virtuale, o societate cel puin paralel cu lumea real, capabil ea nsei de construcia unor
noi mitologii, sau eroi / antieroi, o lume a simulacrului n sensul lui Baudrillard.
Eroul timpului nostru este un produs al societii de consum, un supra-om de mas
destinat noii formule comerciale. Supraomul de mas se nscrie pe linia supraomului
nietzschenian, Zarathustra, sau acela al lui Dumas, Edmond Dantes; numai c n
postmodernitate acesta capt noi semnificaii, devenind un produs destinat unei mese de
cititori, construit n funcie de noua formul comercial a romanului de consum, ca o poveste
contradictorie n care chestiuni ideologice, logica structurilor narative i dialectica pieei
editoriale se ntreptrund ntr-un ghem problematic deloc uor de descurcat23. Alturi de
Salvatore Battaglia - Mitografia personajului. Traducere de Alexandru George. Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1976, p. 433
Jrome Garcin (coord.): Noile mitologii, Bucureti, Edit.Art, 2009
Steven G. Jones : Virtual Culture. Identity and comunication in Cybersociety. London, Sage Publications, 2002, p.89
22
Scott Bukatman: Terminal Identity. Duke University Press, 1993, p.206
23
Umberto Eco: Supraomul de mas. Edit. Pontica, Constanta, 2003, p.6
19
20
21
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eroii amintii, Eco realizeaz o analiz complex a structurilor narative din proza lui Fleming,
considerndu-l pe James Bond drept un astfel de produs artistic al unui autor care a ales
calea basmului ce cere s fie consumat ca adevr, cci, Fleming e reacionar, tot aa cum e
reacionar la origini basmul, orice basm; e ancestralul i dogmaticul conservatorism static al
povetilor i al miturilor ce transmit o nelepciune elementar24.
Literatura fantasy, benzile desenate, dar i jocurile digitale fac abstracie de
discursul slab i consacr fel de fel de super-eroi, precum Harry Potter sau Frodo. Este
evident faptul c acetia se distaneaz de tipologia eroului clasic ntruct, eroul actual rescrie
mitul eroului salvator, identificat n constructe precum Batman, Superman, Spider-Man, XMan.
n discursul su asupra specificitii eroului postmodern, Joseph Campbell atrage
atenia asupra schimbrii postulatului eroului de la o perioad la alta, astfel nct, dac n
perioada premodern este posibil s recunoatem cteva transformri substaniale n tipologia
eroului trecerea de la eroul fabulos la eroul uman apropierea fa de cultura noastr ne
permite s constatm o transformare important n tipologia eroilor privilegiai de cultura
modern i postmodern cci, acolo unde am observat un erou exemplar constructiv, pozitiv
(pentru societatea sa) ...vom regsi din ce n ce mai mult un erou postmodern hedonist i
negativ ...diferiii eroi postmoderni nu sunt altceva dect reprezentri tot att de diferite ale lui
Dionysos.25
Dup un discurs de elucidare a devenirii i investirii figurii eroului n mentalitatea
social, Danny Fingeroth26 se ntreab n studiul su care au fost motivele pentru care eroul a
fost nlocuit de ctre super-erou? Sau, de ce avem nevoie de mai muli super-eroi i nu ne este
suficient doar unul singur? Intreaga nedumerire a autorului amintit nu e neaprat legat de
preocuparea sa nspre explicarea fenomenului de abandonare a eroului clasic n favoarea
super-eroului, ci, studiul su e focusat, mai degrab, pe explicarea nevoii de adoptare a unui
adevrat cult al super-eroului asumat de ctre societatea postmodern : suntem contieni c
avem un cult al super-eroului. Desigur, acest cult pare s se extind la nivelul ntregii planete
i poate c, ntr-un mod straniu, super-eroul este mult mai influent dect orice religie sau
substitut al acesteia. Dintr-un punct de vedere optimist, poate c super-eroul poate s unifice
lumea transgresnd graniele entice, religioase sau naionale.27
Din acest punct de vedere, s fie oare acest super-erou un construct cultural marc a
unei culturi globalizatoare ?
Eroi de azi, eroi de demult ... indiferent de axul timpului, omului i este mereu
specific ncercarea de a-i crea singur noi mitologii n care s cread, iar postmodernismul se
pare c exceleaz n reconstrucie mitic.
Revenind, ns la tipul de erou virtual, ar mai fi de subliniat faptul c, dup David
Lyon, nlocuirea crii tiprite cu ecranul T.V. sau al monitorului, e un indiciu al trecerii de la
logocentrism la iconocentrism28. Cultura postmodern a depit inclusiv acest stadiu dominat
de iconocentrism, e o cultur a virtualului, iar acest lucru e sesizabil i n ceea ce privete
statutul eroului n interiorul lumii virtuale, dar i ncercarea de virtualizare a lumii. n prezent,
exist programe sau jocuri computerizate care reproduc lumea, funcioneaz ca simulacre ale
realitii i ca lumi compensatorii prin intermediul crora user-ul poate s devin ceva cu totul
diferit de ceea ce este n lumea real, cci odat cu internetul lumea noastr a intrat ntr-un
labirint virtual potenial infinit, pe care dac l parcurgem construim un gnd n eter.
24
Idem p.163
Joseph Campbell : Puissance du mythe, Edit. Oxus, Paris, 2009, p. 259
26
Danny Fingeroth: Superman on the Couch. What Superheroes Really Tell Us about Ourselves and Our Society. Ed. The Continuum
International Publishing Group, London, 2004, p.15
27
Idem: p. 20
28
David Lyon: Postmodernitatea, trad. de Luana Schidu, Editura Du Style, Bucuresti, 1998, p.40.
25
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29
http://www.moebiusonline.eu/fuorionda/labirinti.shtml
Ion Manolescu: Noiuni pentru studiul textualitii virtuale. Editura Ars Docendi, Bucureti, 2002, p.156
31
Bolter Jay David: Writing Space: Computers, Hypertext, and the Remediation of Print, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000, p.147
32
Alice Bell: The Possible Worlds of Hypertext Fiction. Palgrave Macmillan. UK.. 2010, p.3
30
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11. Eliade, Mircea - Aspecte ale mitului. Ed. Univers, Bucureti, 1978, 310 p.
12. Fingeroth, Danny - Superman on the Couch. What Superheroes Really Tell Us about
Ourselves and Our Society. Ed. The Continuum International Publishing Group,
London, 2004, 278 p.
13. Foucault, Michel: Cuvintele i lucrurile. Edit. Univers, Bucureti, 1996. 189 p.
14. Garcin, Jrome (coord.): Noile mitologii, Bucureti, Edit.Art, 2009, 178 p.
15. Jones, G. Steven - Virtual Culture. Identity and comunication in Cybersociety.
London, Sage Publications, 2002, 458 p.
16. Jung, C. G. - Amintiri, vise, reflecii. Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1996, 512 p.
17. Hassan, Ihab - The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature.
New York, Oxford University Press, 1971, 389 p.
18. Le Breton, David- Passions du risque, coll. Traverses, Paris, Mtaill, 1991, 206 p.
19. Leeming, David Adams Mythology, The voyage of the hero. New York, Oxford
University Press, 1998, 234 p.
20. Lyon David- Postmodernitatea, trad. de Luana Schidu, Editura Du Style, Bucuresti,
1998, 345 p.
21. Maffesoli, Michel - L'ombre de Dionysos : contribution une sociologie de l'orgie.
coll. Sociologie au quotidien. Paris, Librairie des Mridiens, 1985, 358p.
22. Manolescu Ion: Noiuni pentru studiul textualitii virtuale. Editura Ars Docendi,
Bucureti, 2002; 289p.
23. Negrici, Eugen - Iluziile literaturii romne. Ed. Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 2008,
412 p.
24. Rank, Otto Mitul naterii eroului. Edit. Herald, Bucureti, 2000, 156 p.
25. Wunenburger, Jean-Jacques- Utopia sau criza imaginarului. Editura Dacia, ClujNapoca, 200, 293 p.
26. Wunenburger, Jean-Jacques : Imaginarul. Ed. Dacia, Cluj, 2009, 212 p.
http://www.moebiusonline.eu/fuorionda/labirinti.shtml
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Abstract: This paper aims to examine how language is depicted as a characteristic of modern
literature in Virginia Woolfs Mrs. Dalloway, Orlando and The Waves by means of describing
the aspect of time, both objective and subjective.
The idea of the novel as "a direct impression of life" comes from Henry James, implying a
filtering of experience through an individual sensibility (29). Regarding modern novels, the
modern subject was the nature of man and the growth of human consciousness. That
represented the main form of writing in the modern tradition, a form that was dependent upon
sensibility.
Narrative in the modernist novel typically follows the passage of time as it is experienced
within the minds of its characters, rather than the straightforwardly forward-moving plot of
standard realism. Time is conceptualized as an ordered arrangement of defined events, rather
than as an endless flow of experience in an indivisible continuity. The intellect analyzes time
as having measurable duration, but, according to Henry Bergson (1859-1941), the flow of
real time can only be known by intuition.
Time appears on various levels as the different characters in turn recall the past or look
towards the future, and often the only unifying element among these people is the moment of
time which brings them together. In her novels, Virginia Woolf uses the striking of a clock to
denote both the hours of an actual day and the shift from one figure to another and the
consequent change in her system of time.
Clocks and time take on a life of their own in Mrs. Dalloway, and their way of marking time
stands in contrast to the characters experiences of time, particularly in their relation to
memory. The one- day structure of the novel also reveals the exploration of an ordinary
mind in an ordinary day. For instance, mental time does not progress steadily forward, like
the clock time. This aspect is illustrated by the protagonist of the novel, Clarissa Dalloways
arrival at the flower shop in the morning. The present time is expressed by the moment when
Clarissa Dalloway sees the flowers, which brings her back to memories and sensations from
her past. Therefore, her novel becomes a modality of retracing life, of experimenting, of
exploring time, space, memory and consciousness, the concept of self, whether private or
public with an impact on the creation of identity.
Virginia Wools characters of Orlando provide an example for the distinction between
interior and the exterior time. There is often a dissimilarity between the short time that passes
in the fictional world and its correspondent in the characters minds, as they are able to
recall memories from various periods of time, or they are even able to transcend trough time,
as it will happen with the main protagonist in Orlando. Living to be approximately three
hundred and fifty years, Orlando, the main protagonist of the novel with the same name,
becomes a literary symbol of the continuity of each individual and the representation of a
fictional character able to transcend temporality and to win the battle with external time,
measured by the clock.
The inner consciousness voyage is expressed in Woolfs novel, The Waves as it takes the
form of a portrait representing the interlaced lives of six friends: Bernard, Neville, Louis,
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Jinny, Susan, and Rhoda. The novel is divided into nine sections, each of which corresponds
to a time of day, and, symbolically, to a period in the lives of the characters. Also, the
fragmentation of the self is suggested in the unusual form of the novel, which consists of the
soliloquies of 6 characters which express their inner experience with little or no reference to
the external events that would constitute the plot. In the novel mentioned, the characters are
constructed both by their own voice and by all the other ones voices, as they describe one
another in the course of the book.
All in all, one might consider that Virginia Woolfs novels represents the continuity of both
time and individual existence in contrast with the segments of chronological time as measured
by an inflexible clock. For Virginia Woolf, the past and present flow together and are as one.
The main concern of the Modernist novel is the existential discovery of a deeper,
mythical, more human self of identity. The exploration of a sensibility replaces the Victorian
purpose of telling a story. The Modernist novel contains a story which may be elaborate and
minimal, but it serves only as a vehicle for the exploration of sensibility on the part of the
author, which helps the reader discover himself. The Modernist novel liberates the reader
from the author's authority and gives him an autonomous condition, to shape the action and
determine the meaning in his or her own mind.
The idea of the novel as "a direct impression of life" comes from Henry James,
implying a filtering of experience through an individual sensibility (29). Regarding modern
novels, the modern subject was the nature of man and the growth of human consciousness.
That represented the main form of writing in the modern tradition, a form that was dependent
upon sensibility.
Time plays a crucial meaning in modernist representations. The novelist's concern
with time is a natural branch of the modern subject, a conscious awareness of the separateness
and unity of events that give density and meaning to the pattern of experience. One of the key
examples with which Henry Bergson expressed his theory of the fundamental incompatibility
between the intuitive and rational self was the experience of time.
Time, as it is lived freely by the consciousness, is very different from time as the main
figure of the clock and the calendar. Through subjective consciousness, time transforms into a
continuum in which past and present melt into each other. Bergson calls this la dure or
duration. Duration involves the experience of continuous pure memory from an awareness of
the present moment The rational mind, however, can only comprehend time by organizing it
into a linear sequence of measurable units, spatialising the real time of duration into
clock-time (Parsons 112). For Bergson duration and clock time are not separate phenomena,
because time only exists as duration. Bergsons theory of duration is simultaneously linked to
his concept of memory. In Matter and Memory (1896; 1911), mirroring the distinction he
makes between clock-time and real time, he argues that there are two kinds of memory:
habit memory, in which the mind consciously repeats to itself the scene of a previous event
or experience, and pure memory or contemplation, which is unconscious, imageless and
only revealed in dreams or moments of intuition.
The temporal heterogeneity highlighted in the modern narrative finds its theoretical
complement in the work of Mikhail Bakhtin. Conceptions of time and space, or chronotopes,
Bakhtin emphasizes, are representative of literature; they not only define generic distinctions,
but also determine the image of a person in literature as well. The novel makes the experience
of real historical time perceivable through the chronotopes embodied in its characters, forms,
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and languages; as new senses of the relation of time and space prevail historically, new forms
arise to replace those that have literally become anachronistic.
According to Bergson, real time cannot be analyzed mathematically. To measure time
is to try and create a break or disruption in time. In order to try and understand the flow of
time, the intellect forms concepts of time as consisting of defined moments or intervals. But
to try and intellectualize the experience of duration is to falsify it. Real duration can only be
experienced by intuition. Time is conceptualized as an ordered arrangement of defined events,
rather than as an endless flow of experience in an indivisible continuity. The intellect analyzes
time as having measurable duration, but the flow of real time can only be known by intuition.
The main modern subject revealed in the modernist novels concerns the nature of man
and the growth of human consciousness. Consciousness is a persons measurement for the
nature and duration of time, as memory and history are its accumulation. The modern novelist
is alert to that time sense which runs through all, giving awareness of the relations between
fact and meaning, objects and ideas, outward appearance and inner reality; and he tries to
make the form of the novel in order to correspond to his perception of reality.
The modem writer has followed the course of science in the discovery of new methods
for ordering the element of time. It was Bergson who first pointed the direction away from the
calendar sense in fiction, with his theory of the fluid nature of reality and his emphasis upon
intuition rather than reason as a means of sensing its duration.
The novelist's concern with time is a natural outgrowth of the modern subject, a
conscious awareness of the separateness and togetherness of events that give density and
meaning to the pattern of experience. Also, the developments in the technique of the modern
novel are those relating to the problem of time.
Virginia Woolf is concerned with two experiments-one with the characters of the
novel and the other one with time. She does not trace the stream of consciousness as an end in
itself, moreover, she suggests the distinction between clock time and time as it is recorded in
the human mind. The form in which she creates her novels represents a poetic opening out of
the inwardness of the narrative and a new voyage into consciousness. The outlines of the
world in her novels are not fixed but are constantly merging into dreams or visions, while the
outer world is dissolved by the intensity of emotions or deliberately set aside in favour of an
inner world.
Time appears on various levels as the different characters in turn recall the past or look
towards the future, and often the only unifying element among these people is the moment of
time which brings them together. In her novels, Virginia Woolf uses the striking of a clock to
denote both the hours of an actual day and the shift from one figure to another and the
consequent change in her system of time.
According to Malcolm Bradbury, Woolfs sense of life was quite vivid, clear and
subjective; it was a shift from mind to mind. The novelists task was to dematerialize what
was material, to make the novel as a self creating species, writing a composition as well as a
decomposition (Bradbury 181). The new method in writing a novel has the specific structure
drawn from interior rather than historical time, this feature leading to the creation of the
psychological and experimental novels.
In Woolfs vision, the modern novelist was free from the traditional views of time,
identity and reality. The novel is able to manifest a new mode of perception by revealing the
real spirit of life, which for Virginia Woolf was nothing but a luminous halo (Bradbury
184). For Virginia Woolf, consciousness is flowing among and above the characters that also
share a common symbolic connection, such as the waves or the light-house.
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Virginia Woolf is concerned with the immediacy of experience in time, with the
complete experience of moment by moment and the change from one moment to another and
with the relative action of time on diverse personalities. Her art is in the first place
impressionistic; its aim is a vivid sense of present reality. The other marked influence on
Virginia Woolf's novels comes from seventeenth-century English writers, such as Donne,
Browne and Taylor.
Consciousness is constantly interposed between the world and the individual subject,
creating a new kind of contemplation, mixing the sensitivities of art and form with intensity in
the personal relationships of the characters, all these features representing the novelty of
writing fiction.
The very act of writing represents at times an attempt to escape the real world, or at
other times a sort of coming to terms with oneself, with the past, memories, longings, fears.
To Virginia Woolf writing became a therapy, a modality of exploring the existential labyrinth,
a disclosure of her inner states in the hope of finding a way to escape the labyrinth.
In her novels, consciousness is seen as the perceptual consciousness of the characters
in the present moment, in a world where time is divisible into a series of isolated parts. For
Virginia Woolf, consciousness represents a complex mixture between memory and
perception, while time is expressed as the mixture between past and present.
Virginia Woolf views time as highly personal, subjective and variable, in contrast to
the one measured by the clock, which represented the main concern of the traditionalist
writers. She rebels against clock time's being imposed upon human beings since, for them,
time based on observations of physical science is not natural. According to clock time, every
day measures the same length and every hour contains exactly one twenty-fourth of this
interval. This concept of time is expressed as a consequence in motion. Just as clock time is
based on the repetition of a spatial nature, so time in the human mind increases from its
repetitive nature, but on a personal level. Virginia Woolf s original interest is to express time
as a flux.
Mrs. Dalloway, originally called The Hours is set over seventeen chimed hours
(Bradbury 186) of one day in London in 1923.
For Virginia Woolf, London is meant to be a desirable place of writing, in which the
echoes of Big Ben can be reflected in her fiction in order to express the link between the
subconscious time and the mathematical one, measurable by the clock. As Laura Marcus
points out, London becomes a spectacle that reveals Virginia Woolfs fascination towards
the relation between the stream of consciousness and the city (Marcus 62).
Clocks and time take on a life of their own in Mrs. Dalloway, and their way of
marking time stands in contrast to the characters experiences of time, particularly in their
relation to memory. The one- day structure of the novel also reveals the exploration of an
ordinary mind in an ordinary day.
Virginia Woolfs technique of creating the novel contains the dissolution of traditional
limits of plot and character, the breakup between the human mind and the world from the
outside, her focus being on the apparently insignificant details about the external world.
Secondly, we should follow Bernard Blackstones concept that describes Virginia
Woolfs novel, Mrs. Dalloway, as an experiment with time. It is a mingling of present
experience and memory, for the most part in Mrs. Dalloways mind (71). Therefore, the
emphasis is on the concept of time as a constant flow; this time is the present but also the
past; it is linear and discontinuous.
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Mental time does not progress steadily forward, like the clock time. This aspect is
illustrated by Clarissas arrival at the flower shop in the morning; her senses are taken to the
evening time as she thinks:
There were flowers: delphiniums, sweet peas, bunches of lilac; and carnations, masses
of carnations. There were roses; there were irises. Ah yesso she breathed in the earthy
garden sweet smell as she stood talking to Miss Pym who owed her help, and thought her
kind, for kind she had been years ago; very kind, but she looked older, this year, turning her
head from side to side among the irises and roses and nodding tufts of lilac with her eyes half
closed, snuffing in, after the street uproar, the delicious scent, the exquisite coolness. And
then, opening her eyes, how fresh like frilled linen clean from a laundry laid in wicker trays
the roses looked; and dark and prim the red carnations, holding their heads up; and all the
sweet peas spreading in their bowls, tinged violet, snow white, paleas if it were the evening
and girls in muslin frocks came out to pick sweet peas and roses after the superb summers
day, with its almost blue-black sky, its delphiniums, its carnations, its arum lilies was over.
(Mrs. Dalloway 13)
This passage exposes the idea of the interconnection between the past and the present.
The present time is expressed by the moment when Clarissa Dalloway sees the flowers, which
brings her back to memories and sensations from her past. Therefore, her novel becomes a
modality of retracing life, of experimenting, of exploring time, space, memory and
consciousness, the concept of self, whether private or public with an impact on the creation of
identity.
As Laura Marcus suggests, Virginia Woolf uses the narrative vehicles (70) in order
to explore the process of modernity, with its specific symbols- the motor care and the
airplane:
The violent explosion which made Mrs. Dalloway jump and Miss Pym go to the
window and apologize came from a motor car which had drawn to the side of the pavement
precisely opposite Mulberrys shop window. Passers-by who, of course, stopped and stared,
had just time to see a face of the very greatest importance against the dove-grey upholstery
() The motor car with its blinds drawn and an air of inscrutable reserve proceeded towards
Piccadilly, still gazed at, still ruffling the faces on both sides of the street with the same dark
breath of veneration whether for Queen, Prince, or Prime Minister nobody knew. The face
itself had been seen only once by three people for a few seconds. Even the sex was now in
dispute. But there could be no doubt that greatness was seated within; greatness was passing,
hidden, down Bond Street (Mrs. Dalloway 15-16)
In Mrs. Dalloway, the car, as well as the airplane represent the forms of social
organization, the state and commerce, with both connected and disrupted social consciousness
and collective life. The car and those who are in it symbolize the state, the nation animated by
the pedestrians, and a patriotic pride which the narrator reveals in its fluctuation. The
emotions and feelings stirred by the passing of greatness are meant to create the image of
the present seen from the perspective of the future, this present eventually becoming
prehistoric:
The enduring symbol of the state which will be known to curious antiquaries, sifting
the ruins of time, when London is a grass-grown path and all those hurrying along the
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pavement this Wednesday morning are but bones with a few wedding rings mixed up in their
dust and the gold stopping of innumerable decayed teeth. The face in the motor car will then
be known. (Mrs. Dalloway 20)
The sift of temporal perspective appointed in this paragraph suggests the
representatives of power as chronologically misplaced, and all they stand for- England, The
Empire, The Monarchy, the legacy of Victorianism and the denial of World Wars
consequences and the inevitable and unchangeable old form of order.
Clarissa Dalloway develops a linear sense of time that is her past, her present and her
projection of the future. The ongoing of the time as it is passing by increases her fear of
getting old, the agedness being compared with the icy claws that are threatening her youth,
as she has just turned fifty two.
Through the use of the indirect discourse, the narrator reports the thoughts from the
past and transposes them into present moments of the characters minds, as the basic form of
narration. A relevant example is the section of the novel describing Peter Walshs walk from
Clarissas house towards Regents Park: Where there is nothing, Peter Walsh said to himself;
feeling hollowed out, utterly empty within. Clarissa refused me, he thought. He stood there
thinking, Clarissa refused me. (Mrs. Dalloway 53-54)
While Big Ben reminds Clarissa of her oldness and her mortality, St. Margarets
serves another purpose. With St. Margarets, Virginia Woolf presents a time that appeals
more to the human spirit.
Ah, said St. Margarets, like a hostess who comes into her drawing-room on the very
stroke of the hour and finds her guests there already. I am not late. No, it is precisely half-past
eleven, she says. Yet, though she is perfectly right, her voice, being the voice of the hostess, is
reluctant to inflict its individuality. (Mrs. Dalloway 54)
Time changes everything, whether it is the spiritual level, physical, historical or the
social one. For Septimus Warren Smith, time is associated with death, with his memories that
are connected with his experience during the war and his alienation.
It is time, said Rezia. The word time split its husk; poured its riches over him;
and from his lips fell like shells, like shavings from a plane, without his making them, hard,
white, imperishable words, and flew to attach themselves to their places in an ode to Time; an
immortal ode to Time. He sang. Evans answered from behind the tree. The dead were in
Thessaly, Evans sang, among the orchids. There they waited till the War was over, and now
the dead, now Evans himself For Gods sake dont come! Septimus cried out. For he
could not look upon the dead. But the branches parted. A man in grey was actually walking
towards them. It was Evans! But no mud was on him; no wounds; he was not changed. I must
tell the whole world, Septimus cried, raising his hand (as the dead man in the grey suit came
nearer), raising his hand like some colossal figure (Mrs. Dalloway 77)
Time flows in uninterrupted succession and it is incapable of being measured by the
symbolical representations of hours, days, or months. A writer cannot refer accurately to such
arbitrary divisions as past, present, and future; yet, through the use of memory, the individual
is able to travel back and exist in the past before being swept along towards the future.
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Virginia Woolf expressed the idea that time exists only within the individual, therefore she
often chose experimental patterns of time for writing her novels, as it is the case of Mrs.
Dalloway.
Considered to be the longest and most charming love letter in literature (Goldman
65), and dedicated to her friend Vita Sackville-West, Orlando, the novel, is meant to represent
a diversion after Virginia Woolfs writing her experimental novels.
Virginia Wools characters are revealed through the stream of consciousness
technique, as it has been detailed and exemplified in the previous chapter. She uses this
technique in a prolific manner, calling it a tunneling and describing it as being: how I dig
out beautiful caves behind my characters: I think that gives exactly what I want; humanity,
humor, depth. The idea is that the caves should connect and each comes to daylight at the
present moment (A Writers Diary 59).
Virginia Wools characters provide an example for the distinction between interior and
the exterior time. There is often a dissimilarity between the short time that passes in the
fictional world and its correspondent in the characters minds, as they are able to recall
memories from various periods of time, or they are even able to transcend trough time, as it
will happen with the main protagonist in Orlando.
Living to be approximately three hundred and fifty years, Orlando, the main
protagonist of the novel with the same name, becomes a literary symbol of the continuity of
each individual and the representation of a fictional character able to transcend temporality
and to win the battle with external time, measured by the clock. The idea for such a novel
came to Virginia Woolf after she read Knole and the Sackvilles, a family history of a good
friend, Victoria Sackville-West. By creating one person, Orlando, who was to pass through
the Elizabethan, Restoration, and Victorian Ages, Virginia Woolf illustrates continuity in a
concrete manner by creating the figure of a hero in which time is dissolved.
The book follows Orlando from a young man during the Elizabethan Age to a woman
in October, 1928, the "present time." Orlando emphasizes a series of highlights which
combine the individual being created by history, and carrying forward the past into the
present.
Orlando, the writer, reflects upon the concept of time, through the use of the interior
monologue, comparing letters with nature, while he enjoys his loneliness in concordance with
it. Time seems to be suspended as everything follows its course in the nature, still, the
protagonist is not able to anticipate what will happen to him, what he will become and how
many years he will live:
Nature and letters seem to have a natural antipathy; bring them together and they tear
each other to pieces. The shade of green Orlando now saw spoilt his rhyme and split his
metre. Moreover, nature has tricks of her own. Once look out of a window at bees among
flowers, at a yawning dog, at the sun setting, once think 'how many more suns shall I see set'
() Orlando naturally loved solitary places, vast views, and to feel himself for ever and ever
and ever alone. (Orlando10-11)
The idea of temporality as an entity that in the end will stop is connected with the
ordinary people, the mortal ones, meanwhile Orlando, the poet, possessing a free and
independent spirit, will become immortal: Girls were roses, and their seasons were short as
the flowers () He was young; he was boyish () he was no lover of garden flowers only;
the wild and the weeds even had always a fascination for him. (Orlando 16)
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As times goes by, Orlando becomes a fictional character that transcends every notion
of time and century, travelling around the world, knowing new people from different
continents and eras. As a poet in love, time passed with difficulty as he no longer wanted to
hide his feelings for the Russian Princess Marousha Stanilovska Dagmar Natasha Iliana
Romanovitch: Indeed, as the days passed, Orlando took less and less care to hide his
feelings.() Thus began an intimacy between the two which soon became the scandal of the
Court. Soon it was observed Orlando paid the Muscovite far more attention than mere civility
demanded (Orlando 24-25). But time keeps its own course without affecting Orlando while
he was making plans to live with the Russian Princess: Time went by, and Orlando, wrapped
in his own dreams, thought only of the pleasures of life; of his jewel; of her rarity; of means
for making her irrevocably and indissolubly his own(Orlando 29).
Orlando is able to transcend time without any obvious changes on his physical aspect,
when he is sent to Constantinopole: Orlandos day was passed, it would seem, somewhat in
this fashion. About seven, he would rise, wrap himself in a long Turkish cloak, light a
cheroot, and lean his elbows on the parapet. (Orlando 71)
In Virginia Woolfs novel, time produces changes in the aspect of the human being
sex, because Orlando becomes a woman, without having its manners and personality affected:
Orlando looked himself up and down in a long looking-glass, without showing any signs of
discomposure, and went, presumably, to his bath () Orlando had become a woman- there is
no denying it. But in every other respect, Orlando remained precisely as he had been.
(Orlando 83) Further on, we are facing with the female representation of Orlando. Lady
Orlando, did not seem to be mesmerized by the change of her sex: Young, noble, beautiful,
she had woken to find herself in a position than which we can conceive none more delicate
for a young lady of rank. (Orlando 84) Though, she was proud and happy of the change of
hers ex: Praise God that Im a woman! she cried, and was about to run into the extreme
folly. (Orlando 96)
Orlando transcends history by moving from one century to another. Through the use
of the geographical and architectural hints, Virginia Woolf relates the passage of time and
creates a clear distinction of what has been, what is yet to happen in Orlandos life and what
will remain in the end. Time becomes an invisible fluid, an antagonistic force, though
defeated by Orlando, who becomes a hero in the battle with the clock:
As the ninth, tenth and eleventh strokes struck, a huge blackness sprawled over the
whole of London. With the twelfth stroke of midnight, the darkness was complete. A
turbulent welter of cloud covered the city. All was dark; all was doubt; all was confusion. The
Eighteenth century was over; the Nineteenth century had begun. (Orlando 133)
In Orlando, both time and individual existence are in contrast to the measured
segments of chronological time as quantified by an inflexible clock. For Virginia Woolf, the
past and the present flow together and are as one. A character may change by contact with the
past as well as by contact with the present. Orlando, for example, symbolizes the continuous
imposing of the past into the present.
Living throughout centuries, Lady Orlando is able to make a distinction between the
present century and the previous one, because There was something definite and distinct
about the age, which reminded her of the eighteenth century, except that there was a
distraction, a desperation (176). Her life is compared with an immensely long tunnel in
which she seemed to have been travelling for hundreds of years widened (177).
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able to open up their feelings to each other, as Susan suggests: Though my mother still knits
white socks for me and hems pinafores and I am a child, I love and I hate. (The Waves 7)
their strong friendship is demonstrated by Bernard statement, as he recalls the need of unity:
But when we sit together, close, said Bernard, we melt into each other with phrases. We are
edged with mist. We make an unsubstantial territory.
The passing of the time is revealed by the description of the sea at the end of each part
of the novel: The sun rose higher. Blue waves, green waves swept a quick fan over the
beach, circling the spike of sea-holly and leaving shallow pools of light here and there on the
sand. (The Waves 11) The characters seem to grow as another tide hits the shore, the parallel
between their development and the images of the sea being relevant: Now, said Bernard,
the time has come. The day has come. () I am going to school for the first time. () This
is my first night at school, said Susan(The Waves 24-126).
Bernard seems to be the one who desires to preserve the time, as he is expressing his
desire to become a writer that is able to leave something behind:
I note the fact for future reference with many others in my notebook. When I am
grown up I shall carry a notebooka fat book with many pages, methodically lettered. I shall
enter my phrases. Under B shall come Butterfly powder. If, in my novel, I describe the sun
on the window-sill, I shall look under B and find butterfly powder. (The Waves 28)
Meanwhile, Susan recollects her past memories and shows an excitement towards the
passing of the days:
For how many months, said Susan, for how many years, have I run up these stairs,
in the dismal days of winter, in the chilly days of spring? Now it is midsummer. We go
upstairs to change into white frocks to play tennisJinny and I with Rhoda following after. I
count each step as I mount, counting each step something done with. So each night I tear off
the old day from the calendar, and screw it tight into a ball. () I have torn off the whole of
May and June, said Susan, and twenty days of July. I have torn them off and screwed them
up so that they no longer exist, save as a weight in my side. (The Waves 30-32)
Time passes as an overflow of imperceptible moments, as the characters statements
suggest: Now, too, the time is coming when we shall leave school and wear long skirts, says
Jinny. The metaphor which Rhoda creates is meant to represent the symbol of her growing
compared with one of a tree, the impossibility of being immortal and suspending the time,
while Bernard announces their growing and the years of childhood that will disappear forever,
as they may have separates ways in life.
According to Malcolm Bradbury, The Waves is a prose, a poem, a flow, a novel
beyond the novel, a work where every atom is saturated, a combination of thought, sensation,
the voice of the sea, a book written to a rhythm, not a plot (189). Each character of the novel
is the representation of a moment that flows in time, their thoughts and statements being able
to suggest and to give hints about their growth, their maturity, their transition from childhood
through teenage and adulthood. Their thoughts and recollections of the past acts like an
interior monolog, an inner diary in which every aspect of their life, every emotion and
perception of the world is put down.
Bernard acts like a prophet able to anticipate what will happen in the future and he
presents the philosophical aspect of a human beings life. He sees more profoundly what life
gives him and he reflects upon it:
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Time has whizzed back an inch or two on its reel; our short progress has been
cancelled. I think also that our bodies are in truth naked. We are only lightly covered with
buttoned cloth; and beneath these pavements are shells, bones and silence. () it that I may
have children, may cast a fling of seed wider, beyond this generation, this doom- encircled
population, shuffling each other in endless competition along the street? My daughters shall
come here, in other summers; my sons shall turn new fields. (The Waves 63)
So it happens to Louis, as he reflects upon the passing on the time with its changes,
Percivals death, Susan becoming a mother. He compares their life with the clouds that
constantly change in the sky: Percival has died (he died in Egypt; he died in Greece; all
deaths are one death). Susan has children; Neville mounts rapidly to the conspicuous heights.
Life passes. The clouds change perpetually over our houses. (The Waves 64) Susan also is
able to perceive the flow of time and to feel the changes that occur: Summer comes, and
winter, said Susan. The seasons pass. The pear fills itself and drops from the tree. The dead
leaf rests on its edge. (79)
In Virginia Woolfs novel, nature is in concordance with the time and the characters
life. Time changes, so as nature and the human beings. The description of the nature is able to
suggest what will happen in the life of the characters: Some petals had fallen in the garden.
They lay shell-shaped on the earth. The dead leaf no longer stood upon its edge, but had been
blown, now running, now pausing, against some stalk. () And time, said Bernard, lets fall
its drop. () I have lost my youth. (The Waves 82)
Time follows its usual and monotonic course but the thoughts of the characters have
no longer identity, as the unity of feelings, emotions, reflections is created. It seems that
everybody thinks the same: Another day; another Friday; another twentieth of March,
January, or September. Another general awakening (The Waves 231). The characters are
about to end their journey in time, because the ultimate enemy will defeat them, the death:
And in me too the wave rises. Against you I will fling myself, unvanquished and unyielding,
O Death! The waves broke on the shore. (The Waves 254)
In The Waves, Virginia Woolf attempts to convey the idea of some continuous stream
of consciousness. Six characters flow along the stream, traveling from their childhood to
middle age. Different periods and events in their lives form the crests of waves, like moments
in contrast to the flux of time. Therefore, each wave represents the pattern of each character's
existence, from an initial period of growth and expectation to the culmination of the wave, or
fulfillment, and finally, to disillusionment and decline.
The novel becomes the expression of six identities that merge into a common lyrical
rhythm (189), as Malcolm Bradbury suggest. In The Waves, Virginia Woolf is concerned
with immediate experience. She records moment by moment the flux of consciousness, using
intensity as the basis of choice. Also, she marks the transition from one moment to another.
Life goes on against the steady beats of the clock because the existence of the subjective time
annihilates the measurable one. We are able to find out about the natural course of time
through the description of the waves and through the characters thoughts and inner
monologues.
Memory plays a central role in this process of becoming a self. The use of the present
tense focuses the attention on the characters and their thoughts as they are expressed at the
present moment, as a continuous overflow of inner monologues in relation to the passing of
the time. The description of the sun phases and the sea are related in the past tense, in order to
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create the image that the characters have been there, on the beach, next to the sea and they
bring about the images of what that they saw, from their memories.
The Waves time is conceived of as a succession of individual moments, an overflow of
soliloquies, as Susan Dick suggests in her article entitled: Literary Realism in Mrs.
Dalloway, To the Light House, Orlando and The Waves (Sellers 68), in which the
conventional time is measured only at the subjective level, by the representation of thoughts
and interior monologues. Virginia Woolf had set out to annihilate the lines between
mathematical units of time and to convey time as a continuous stream, an unbroken unity;
therefore, the characters ideas and feelings laid down in the past continue to live in the
human mind of the present.
As a conclusion, one might say that multicultural dialogue and historical transition can
be achieved in literature, as well. With such fictional characters shaped by Virginia Woolf,
whether discussing about Mrs. Dalloway, Orlando and The Waves, time intertwines with
culture, stream of consciousness, history and monologue in order to create a specific language
characterized by a defying temporality.
Bibliography
A. Primary Sources
Virginia Woolf. Mrs. Dalloway, London: Penguin Books, 1996.
---. Orlando, London: Wordsworth Editions Limited, 1995.
---. The Waves, New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
---. Collected Essays, Ed. Leonard Woolf, vol. 2. London: Hogarth Press, 1966.
B. Secondary Sources
Childs, Peter. Modernism. London: Routledge, 2000.
Ciugureanu, Adina. Modernism and The Idea of Modernity. Constanta: Ex Ponto,
2004.
Currie, Mark. About Time: Narrative, Fiction and the Philosophy of Time. Edinburgh:
Edinburgh University Press Limited, 2007.
Daly, Nicholas. Modernism, Romance and Le Fin de Sicle. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2004.
Dick, Susan. Literary Realism in Mrs. Dalloway, To the Light House, Orlando and
The Waves. The Cambridge Companion to Virginia Woolf. Eds. Sue Roe and Susan Sellers.
New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000. 50-71
Bergson, Henry. Time and Free Will. New York: Harper Torchbook, 1963.
Blackstone, Bernard. Virginia Woolf: A Commentary. London: Hogarth Press, 1973.
Bradbury, Malcolm. The Modern British Novel. London: Secker and Warburg, 1993.
Briggs, Julia. Reading Virginia Woolf. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006.
Cantor, Norman F. Twentieth-Century Culture: Modernism to Deconstruction. New
York: Peter Lang, 1988.
Goldman, Jane. The Cambridge Introduction of Virginia Wolf. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 2006.
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James, Henry. The House of Fiction. Essays on the Novel. London: Mercury Books,
1962.
Marcus, Laura. Writers and Their Work: Virginia Woolf. Plymouth: Northcote House,
1997.
Nicholls, Peter. Modernisms: A Literary Guide. London: Macmillan, 1995.
Onega, Susan. Narratology: An Introduction. New York: Longman Group Limited,
1996.
Parsons, Deborah. Theorists of the Modernist Novel: James Joyce, Dorothy
Richardson, Virginia Woolf. New York: Routledge, 2007.
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my advisor, Professor Dr. Adina
Ciugureanu, who has been a tremendous mentor for me. I would like to thank her for
encouraging my research and for allowing me to grow as a research scientist.
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Abstract: Much has been written about the ideological, political and cultural confrontations
of the Romanian interwar period and about the collective apprehension of the Iron Guard,
but less about the Fascist Italys, and especially Benito Mussolinis public and cultural
perception reflected by the Romanian newspapers, cultural magazines and books. Apart from
Alexandru Marcus extensive work, which will be thoroughly analyzed in my paper, Id like to
dedicate a few entries to Mussolinis perception in the Romanian interwar media by
contextualizing it with the intricate religious, intellectual and social ideas and fears of the
period. For instance, while the Fascist Italys social and architectural programs are highly
appreciated by many Romanian reformers, while a great number of Romanian intellectuals
Mircea Eliade is the best example had vivid connections with the great Italian scholars of
the period (Evola, Papini, Regazzoni etc.), Mussolinis political ideas about an allegedly
truncated Hungary raised skepticism in Bucharest. Italys interwar Romanian perception
is rather complex than enthusiastic, especially when we take into consideration the subtle
anti-Latin cultural trend of the period, heralded by leading intellectuals like Lucian Blaga.
The paper intends to provide a comprehensive understanding of a major cultural, social and
political item, by integrating it in the dominant intellectual dialogue of Romanias interwar
years.
Keywords: Mussolini, Fascism, Italy, Romania, interwar ideology and culture.
Uman: iat cuvntul. Cci ceea ce face din Benito Mussolini o figur singuratic i
unic n zona politic a veacului nostru e tocmai umanitatea. O umanitate vast de latin care
creeaz politica fr a se lsa alterat de ea, privete n adncurile vremii i, tot urmrind o
pmnteasc biruin, nu uit c biruina aceasta nu poate fi o adevrat biruin dect
numindu-se: Ideal. De aici, sensibilitatea, nelegerea, lrgimea de viziune ce au fcut din
acest aprig revoluionar o renviat personificare a echilibrului clasic. Ciudat, vor spune
muli... clasic, acest adversar al trecutului? Clasic, acest drmtor de principii? i totui,
aa este... Benito Mussolini iubete trecutul i valorile lui; ceea ce atac atunci cnd atac
trecutul, sunt ncremenirile nostre n trecut. Astfel, paradoxul e numai aparent; ca i atunci
cnd, democrat de ras pur, atac o fals democraie. Fiindc e fals1.
Scond din ecuaie orice background futurist esenial revoluionar i axat pe
distrugerea sensului tradiiei, a instituiilor istorice, culturale i morale i orice incongruen
ntre fascism i democraie, ceea ce demonstreaz discursul apologetic de mai sus al lui Ovid
Densuianu-Fiul, traductorul ctorva dintre scrierile lui Mussolini, printre care aceast
Ovid Densuianu-Fiul, Prefa, n: Benito Mussolini, O via (Vita di Arnaldo), traducere de Ovid Densuianu-Fiul, Editura Cugetarea,
pp. 8-9
1
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biografie a vieii lui Arnaldo Mussolini i Jurnalul su de rzboi2, este fabuloasa imagine de
care se bucura liderul fascismului italian n spaiul romnesc interbelic. Umanitatea cel
dinti pilon al elogiului lui Ovid Desnsuianu-Fiul i dovedete selectivitatea nc de la
palierul subordonrii ei la Ideal, ns eueaz graie aciunilor militare i politice ale Ducelui.
Ct despre redimensionarea valorilor ncremenite ale trecutului care, n viziunea multora
dintre admiratorii lui Mussolini, i-au justificat aciunile , punctul nevralgic rmne
mprirea sferelor de putere din epilogul Primului Rzboi Mondial. Astfel, n Mrturii
strine asupra rzboiului italian. 1915-19183, lucrare aprut n 1933 n romnete, dar
tiprit la Editura Novissima din Roma, Benito Mussolini apreciaz c Italia a fost
nedreptit n discursul despre jertf al Marelui Rzboi i avertizeaz fotii aliai de
poteniala ncrctur amenintoare pe care resentimentul, puterea i eroismul o pot genera.
Voalata ameninare este lansat cu o consecutiv aciune preventiv, Mussolini negnd c
prefaa sa la volumul generalului Adriano Alberti ar echivala cu o declaraie de rzboi.
ns, declaraia de rzboi nceteaz s mai fie paradoxal exprimat n 1935, cnd,
acionnd n aceeai sfer a reconsiderrilor valorilor trecutului, Mussolini pune pe tapet,
odat cu invadarea Abisiniei, problema imperialismului colonial. Ironic, gestul demonstreaz
probabil canonicitatea clasic a colonialismului n ecuaia de putere a unei epoci n care el i
anuna disoluia revoluionar. Departe de a nelege raionamentele recuperative ale Italiei
mussoliniene, Liga Naiunilor, garantul principal al geopoliticii de dup Primul Rzboi
Mondial, reacioneaz negativ i impune sanciuni, susinute aproape autodistructiv de Marea
Britanie, ns dezavuate de state precum Germania i Japonia.
Rzboiul din Abisinia ocup multe pagini din periodicele romneti ale epocii.
Vremea, de exemplu, consacr nenumrate articole subiectului, acompaniate de fotografii i
caricaturi. n numrul 401, Felix Aderca4 diagnosticheaz lucid miza extraafrican a
conflictului i apreciaz c ceea ce urmrete d. Mussolini nu se deosebete prea mult de
ceea ce ndemnase pe ntii navigatori fenicieni s porneasc n mici corbii pn n insulele
de Miaz-Noapte ale Angliei, pe Cristofor Columb s caute Indiile spre Apus i s loveasc
cu botul Santei Lucia rmul neateptat al Americii. Conflictul european pe chestia Abisiniei
purcede din ntrzierea Italiei, care dac n-ar fi fost nfrnt n mijlocul veacului trecut, iar
soldaii ei mcelrii pn la unul, ar fi domnit astzi la Addis-Abeba ca Anglia la Bombay i
Frana la Fez, fr ca vreunul din principiile actuale ale dreptului popoarelor s fi fost
jignit.
n viziunea autorului acestui articol, scris la debutul conflictului abisinian, gestul lui
Mussolini demonstreaz, pe de o parte, persistena spiritului de cucerire n istorie, i, pe de
alt parte, imposibilitatea unor state de a face fa la echilibrul de fore al lumii, chiar i atunci
cnd ele se bucur de protecia Ligii Naiunilor, cum era cazul Abisiniei. Altfel spus,
darwinismul esenial justific totul ntr-un tablou politic n care state precum Abisinia nu
intereseaz pe nimeni, iar oameni de stat precum Mussolini strnesc admiraie graie
refuzului de a se lsa intimidai de ameninrile unei falimentare Ligi a Naiunilor.
Raionamentul darwinist opereaz i ntr-o analiz comparativ a potenialului energetic de la
palierul liderilor angrenai oficial n conflictul abisinian. Sub semntura aceluiai Felix
Aderca, Frontul abisinian5 descrie un mprat negru i anemic, fr nicio ans n faa
energiei agresive a unui Mussolini. Articolul apare ntr-un numr al revistei Vremea
consacrat acestui conflict, mpnzit cu fotografii i caricaturi, cu articole descriptive (cum este
Benito Mussolini, Jurnalul meu din rzboi. MCMXV MCMXVIII, traducere de Ovid Densuianu-Fiul, Cugetarea=Georgescu Delafras,
Bucureti
3
Id., Mrturii strine asupra rzboiului italian. 1915-1918. Prefa la cartea generalului de Corp de Armat Adriano Alberti, Novissima,
Roma, 1933, p. 14
4
F. Aderca, Prefa la Abisinia, n Vremea, nr. 401, 18 august 1935, p. 3
5
Id., Frontul abisinian, n Id., nr. 412, 3 noiemvrie 1935, p. 2
2
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Abisinia. Obiceiurile i cultura ei6, prezentare lipsit de iluzii i idealizri a unui spaiu
suspendat ntre sclavagism i standardele democratice ale Ligii Naiunilor, scris de Ieronim
erbu) sau de analiz politic, n care slbiciunile Ligii Naiunilor sunt deseori subliniate,
precum i cu discursuri centrate pe colonialism. n ultima categorie intr Italia i Liga
Naiunilor7, semnat de Anton Holban, convins c n viitor se va pune din nou problema
mandatelor coloniale i se va ajunge la ideea c nu un popor singur are dreptul de a civiliza
i administra teritoriile Africei i Asiei, ci acesta este un drept european, colectiv, care se va
exercita de colectivitatea populaiilor europene, reprezentate prin Liga Naiunilor, aspect
care, n viziunea romancierului, ar garanta pacea perpetu.
Contient de propensiunea romnilor de a admira personalitatea energic a Ducelui,
dar ceva mai prudent n administrarea ei, Aderca ia n considerare potenialele efecte ale
invaziei abisiniene asupra Romniei ntr-un articol8 publicat n numrul 403 al revistei.
Interesele Romniei n Abisinia amendeaz entuziasmul unora, explicabil prin
superficialitatea abordrii virtualelor consecine ale schimbrii raportului de fore n Europa.
Cu toate c nelege participativ efervescena suscitat de un rzboi colonial, al crui epilog ar
fi diseminarea civilizaiei mediteraneene la gurile Nilului, i nu ezit s-l plaseze pe Mussolini
n Marea Carte a istoriei, alturi de Hamilcar Barca, Cezar i Napoleon, Aderca ntrezrete
i posibila arie de periclitare n care ar intra Romnia n contextul noii ecuaii de putere i n
virtutea acceptrii unui precedent. Potrivit raionamentului desfurat de autor, propus cu titlu
de avertisment cititorilor romni admiratori ai Ducelui, integritatea i independena Abisiniei
sub protectoratul Ligii Naiunilor garanteaz pacea ntre popoare i respectarea integritii
statale, orice nclcare deschiznd calea ctre o suit de alte tentative la adresa unitii
naionale, implicit la adresa integritii teritoriale a Romniei. Astfel, seducia imaginarului
eroic devine inoperant sub aciunea impulsului patriotic.
Pe fondul acestui conflict, dincolo de legitimitatea lui i de reacia Ligii Naiunilor,
revine n atenia cititorilor i problema rasei, amplu dezbtut i de publicaiile romneti. Un
comentator, constrns de atmosfera inflamat a diplomaiei internaionale s pun sub semnul
ntrebrii viabilitatea organismului de la Geneva, este Mircea Nicolescu, ntr-un articol
intitulat Abisinia i conflictul intereselor9, publicat n numrul 399 din Vremea. Autorul
observ faptul c invadarea Abisiniei ncapsuleaz n fond o recidiv a imperialismului,
menit s consolideze prestigiul de mare putere al Italiei, n vreme ce reaciile demonstreaz
acutizarea problemei raselor n prima parte a secolului XX, simptomatic n acest sens fiind, nu
incidena rasismului european, ci invers, impulsul oamenilor de culoare de a se coaliza i
de a adera la problema Negusului. Comparaia, n cazul acestei regrupri intrarasiale n faa
unei ameninri externe, vine (uor marcat de ironie) dinspre perimetrul iudaic: Se tie c
un progrom ndreptat mpotriva evreilor umple sinagogile [...] n simpatia artat de oamenii
colorai Abisiniei este vorba tot de ras; o ras care, ns, n momentul cnd ia contiin de
sine, nu se ntoarce la Dumnezeu, ci se duce la Addis-Abeba.
Tonalitatea ironic se menine i n discursul lui E.A. Poulopol, din numrul 404 al
Vremii10, Homer n Abisinia, graie unei ludice suprapuneri a elementelor epopeii homerice
cu scenariul invaziei abisiniene, unde invocarea zeilor se traduce prin apelul la Liga
Naiunilor, iar comicul este asigurat de aventura concesiei petroliere a lui F.W. Rickett n
Abisinia, privit de unii comentatori drept o manevr politic menit s ntrzie aciunea
italian. Miza se configureaz n jocul intereselor Angliei i n ambiiile coloniale ale Italiei
565
SECTION: LITERATURE
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mussoliniene, conflictul abisinian fiind din start impropriu numit, mai ales dac avem n
vedere faptul c n cadrul su rolul cel mai nensemnat l joac abisinienii.
Abisinia. Conflictul italo-abisinian11 al lui Al. Doboi reprezint un studiu amplu, ce
integreaz teorii privind originea populaiilor din arealul abisinian, precum i istoria aventurii
politico-militare a statului african. El se desfoar pagini ntregi sub auspiciile unei
obiectiviti tiinifice impecabile, dar sfrete ntr-o justificare a invaziei mussoliniene.
Primul ei argument ine de resentimentele trecutului, acelai trecut pe care Mussolini l-a
invocat n repetate rnduri ca fiind nedrept cu italienii. Un al doilea argument rezoneaz la
limita dintre teoriilor malthusiene i cele ale spaiul vital: cine cunoate strile din Italia i
d seama de necesitatea de expansiune a acestui popor, dintre cele mai prolifice (ajunge o
plimbare printr-un ora italian ca s vezi marele numr de copii). tim c nu exist aproape
ora mare de glob, unde s nu gseti un napolitan12. n sfrit, al treilea argument este
accentuatul sentiment naional al Italiei mussoliniene.
La polul opus, Realitatea ilustrat titreaz Rzboi sau pace pe coperta numrului
454, din 2 octombrie 1935, aplaud curajul trupelor abisiniene care ateapt confruntarea, n
ciuda precarei lor pregtiri militare, i apreciaz c salvarea ar putea veni din partea flotei
britanice din Mediterana; imaginea de pe copert arat civa soldai abisinieni i, pe fundal,
flota britanic, n vreme ce, n paginile revistei exist o serie ntreag de fotografii ce surprind
scene din viaa familiei imperiale abisiniene i scene de via cotidian, menite s
demonstreze bogia i varietatea civilizaiei abisiniene, impulsurile sale meritocratice i
propensiunea ei spre progres. Numrul consecutiv al publicaiei propune scenariul sumbru al
unui posibil rzboi ntre Anglia i Italia13, acompaniat de o impresionant colecie de hri cu
operaiuni militare, i apr opera constructiv-civilizatoarea a mpratului Hail-Selassi ntrun elogios portret intitulat n slujba Negusului14. Europa i imput multe constat autorul
acestui text nesemnat i greutile ntmpinate n ziua admiterii Etiopiei n Liga Naiunilor
au fost mai mari ca oricnd [...] Totui, trebuie s recunoatem ceea ce a fcut [...], a
motenit o ar slbatic, iar n timpul de fa domnete asupra unei ri pe jumtate
civilizat. Aceast oper constructiv el a trebuit s-o nfptuiasc atunci cnd n fiecare zi, la
fiecare ceas, se puneau la cale tot felul de uneltiri contra lui, fie de vasali, fie de prieteni i nu
rareori chiar de familia lui. Le-a cunoscut pe unele, s-a ndoit de altele i, n tcere, a cutat
s nbue totul15. Bogat ilustrat, numrul 456, consacrat btliei de la Adua, ctigat fr
drept de apel de italieni, dezbate interesele coloniale n subtextul unui articol despre Bogiile
Abisiniei16, prilej cu care este pomenit i Rickett, prezumtivul beneficiar al concesiunii asupra
petrolului, pgubit de invazia italian.
Acelai numr gzduiete o anchet realizat de Alex. F. Mihail n liceele bucuretene
Anchet prin licee17 privind legitimitatea rzboiului din Abisinia, ncercnd s obin
parametrii imagologici n care se plaseaz Mussolini i ipotezele privind viitorul politic i
militar al Europei. Explicit provocatoare prin ntrebrile puse, ancheta genereaz rspunsuri
diferite: multe circumscriu o legitimitate conflictual bazat pe legea evoluiei, pe impulsul
expansionist justificat de lcomia marilor puteri, n vreme ce alte rspunsuri sunt pacifiste,
susin rolul de arbitru jucat de Liga Naiunilor i anatemizeaz agresiunea mussolinian,
accentuat atunci cnd operant pare a fi identificarea de rol a Abisiniei cu Romnia. Destul de
des, anatema se extinde i asupra Angliei, acuzat de aceleai impulsuri imperialiste ca i
Italia mussolinian. La o privire mai atent, se observ c profesorii sunt infinit mai prudeni
Al. Doboi, Abisinia. Conflictul italo-abisinian, n Gazeta ilustrat, nr. 9-10, 1935, pp. 107-114
Ibid., p. 113
13
Un Strateg Necunoscut, Ce ar fi un rzboi ntre Anglia i Italia, n Realitatea ilustrat, nr, 455, 9 octombrie 1935, pp. 4-6
14
n slujba Negusului, n Id., pp. 8,18
15
Ibid., p. 18
16
G.R., Bogiile Abisiniei, n Id., 456, 16 octombrie 1935, pp. 4-5
17
Alex. F. Mihail, Anchet prin licee, n Id., p. 7-9
11
12
566
SECTION: LITERATURE
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i mai puin speculativi n formularea opiniei dect elevii limitndu-se la precizri de ordin
istoric i geografic i mult mai preocupai de virtuala evoluie a conflictului abisinian i de
influena acestuia asupra climatului politic i strategic mondial. Un posibil scenariu finalizat
cu victoria italian sfrete ntr-o Europ masiv influenat de ideile fasciste, mai cu seam
de dezirabilitatea unui singur om cu voin tare18 la crma statului. Orict de improbabil,
alternativa adic victoria abisinian ar echivala cu discutarea rolului funest al dictatorilor.
Numerele consecutive ale Realitii ilustrate funcioneaz ca un adevrat reportaj n
imagini. Fotografiile, hrile strategice i comentariile succinte sunt evident favorabile cauzei
abisinienilor, dar nu n mod necesar i anselor ei. Febrilitatea cu care este redat orice
informaie despre cultura i civilizaia Abisiniei (inclusiv un articol despre Woezero Manen,
Mata-Hari abisinian19) trdeaz anxietatea produs de spectrul unei alte conflagraii de
proporii i pune n dezbatere legitimitatea i limitele aciunilor lui Mussolini, chiar i atunci
cnd Ducele apare abia n planul secund al discursului. n opinia unui martor la realitile
economico-politice ale Abisiniei, Alexandre Grosjean20, artist care a petrecut un an i
jumtate la curtea imperial, o invazie italian ar avea multe anse s sfreasc precum
campania lui Napoleon n Rusia. O prognoz negativ privind ansele Italiei, de data aceasta
pe scena economico-politic a marilor puteri, ofer n acelai numr o analiz21 a efectelor
sanciunilor aplicate de Liga Naiunilor Italiei i apreciaz c ntreaga chestiune nu se poate
sfri dect n termenii capitulrii totale a Italiei.
Schimbnd registrul, un admirator fervent al lui Mussolini se dovedete a fi italienistul
Alexandru Marcu. Profesor la Universitatea din Bucureti, membru corespondent al
Academiei Romne, subsecretar de stat la ministerul propagandei n guvernul Antonescu.
(Moare n nchisoarea Vcreti, n 1955). ntr-un articol publicat n revista Familia (1
decembrie 1935, pp. 23-27), cu titlul Actualiti italiene22, el discut reaciile la invadarea
Abisiniei, nregistreaz cu entuziasm regruparea poporului italian pe fondul sanciunilor
generate de invadarea Abisiniei (operativ fiind n acest caz reacia de strngere a rndurilor
n faa unui inamic extern). n trena acestor reacii solidare are loc plecarea unor personaliti
italiene, precum Marinetti, eful colii futuriste, n Africa, ecou ludabil al gestului similar al
lui dAnnunzio, din Primul Rzboi Mondial. i dac tot este vorba despre predecesori pe
scena marilor gesturi patriotice, o alt figur plasat de Alexandru Marcu n backgroundul lui
Mussolini este Giosu Carducci, srbtorit cu fast la Bologna, n absena unui Papini bolnav.
Dincolo de instinctul patriotic rafinat al lui Mussolini, un alt temei de admiraie vizeaz
arhitectura mussolinian, realizri precum Cit Universitaria i Forul Mussolini, acum Foro
Italico, creaii ce indic solicitudinea musolinian pentru cultur.
Conferinele radiofonice, articolele i lucrrile consacrate de Alexandru Marcu lui
Mussolini, aprute deseori n condiii grafice de excepie, trdeaz simpatia organic a
autorului lor pentru Duce. Ameninat de unidirecionalitate, ea apare adeseori justificat prin
latinitatea confratern a romnilor i italienilor, dar i prin unele comentarii italiene pe
marginea scrierilor savanilor romni i, n consecin, de ecoul spiritului romnesc n
perimetrul italian. Un astfel de comentariu i aparine lui Mussolini nsui, subiectul su fiind
un studiu publicat de A.D. Xenopol n Rivista italiana de Sociologia, XIII, fasc. II, marzoaprile, 1909, intitulat Le leggi dellevoluzione sociale. n Xenopol discutat de Mussolini.
Extras din Studi italiani VII23, Alexandru Marcu reproduce varianta original integral a
18
Ibid., p. 9
R., Mata-Hari abisinian, n Id., nr. 458, 30 octombrie 1935, p. 9
20
Alexandre Grosjean, Un an i jumtate la curtea Abisiniei, Id., pp. 10-11
21
Un Strateg Necunoscut, Puterea i slbiciunea sanciunilor economice contra Italiei, n Id., pp. 21-22
22
Alexandru Marcu, Actualiti italiene, n Familia, nr. 9-10, decembrie 1935, pp.23-27,
23
Id., Xenopol discutat de Mussolini. Extras din Studi italiani VII, Bucureti, 1940
19
567
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Ibid., p. 7
Ibid., p. 6
26
Ibid., p. 8
27
Vladimir Dornescu, Omul nou, n Vremea. Om nou, Crciun 193, p. 3
28
Petru Comarnescu, Om nou n Italia, Germania i U.R.S.S., n Id., p. 11
29
Alexandru Marcu, Mussolini, Colecia Universul literar, 19, Institutul de Arte Grafice Universul, Bucureti, 1941, p. 7
30
Ibid., p. 9
25
568
SECTION: LITERATURE
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realitilor cu idealul31. Atenuat funcional n ultima seciune a paragraful citat, plasarea lui
Mussolini n aria Idealului amintete de exclusivitatea de care ea se bucur n elogiul lui Ovid
Densuianu-Fiul, redat la nceputul acestei analize. n economia conferinei radiofonice pe
care o discutm, o alt referin cultural prestigioas n conturarea imaginii mussoliniene
este Dante, care, n Divina Commedia, vorbete despre marea Carte a Destinului i
profetizeaz apariia unui Dux, unui Duce ndrumtor32. De aici pn la Providen nu e
dect un pas, iar discursul apologetic al lui Alexandru Marcu l face.
Deloc surprinztor, oamenii provideniali genereaz adeseori pelerinaje. n acest caz,
avem de-a face cu pelerinajul lui Alexandru Marcu n Romagna i, mai cu seam n
Predappio, locul copilriei lui Mussolini, descris ntr-o elegant ediie aprut n 1940 i
dedicat Ducelui: A voi Duce, mentre la Romania legionaria in marcia, riconsacra,
volutamente oggi, questa memoria del suo pellegrinaggio di devozione alle Collina di
Predappio 193733. Este istoria ilustrat, liric pe alocuri, i absolut admirativ, a
pelerinajului, cu insisten asupra locurilor n care tnrul Mussolini a locuit (precum Forli),
cu detalii privind casa natal, atelierul tatlui, ruinele unei ceti din apropiere (Roca delle
Caminate), camera celor doi biei (Benito i Arnaldo), n care troneaz simbolic i profetic
portretului lui Garibaldi: Singura podoab pentru ochii lor de copii este portretul, n culori,
al lui Garibaldi, pe scrinul de zestre al mamei. nc de atunci s-a aprins astfel n ochii i
imaginaia aceluia care avea s mbrace cmaa neagr a fasciilor de lupt pentru o Patrie
nou, roul aprins al cmii aceluia care, n fruntea a O Mie de bravi voluntari, i-a fost
nainta i deschiztorul de cale34. Revine obsesiv n discurs centralitatea muncii n
ideologia mussolinian i n conduita italienilor din epoca lui Mussolini. Ultima parte a
jurnalului echivaleaz cu o tandr incursiune n istoria drumurilor care legau Roma de Dacia,
intersectate i fizic, dar, mai cu seam simbolic, cu drumurile pe care se plimba n copilrie
Mussolini, dovad c simpatia romneasc pentru Mussolini se poate arma retrospectiv prin
iele trecutului latin.
Mai puin apologetic, generalul Al. Corneanu, n Reflexiuni asupra discursului Dlui Mussolini inut la Milano la 1 Nov. 1936, lucrare parcurs de noi graie unui exemplar
dedicat manuscris lui Al. Lapedatu, analizeaz mai degrab sceptic fiecare punct al
discursului alarmant35, consecin a reaciei internaionale la invadarea Abisiniei (mai ales
a Ligii Naiunilor), decriptnd necesitatea de narmare a romnilor n perspectiva unui iminent
rzboi. Aliana germano-italian, cursa narmrii, febrilitatea diplomatic a marilor puteri i
rzboiul oratoric reprezint, n orizontul analizei generalului Corneanu, suficiente semnale
funeste.
Un argument suplimentar n favoarea narmrii Romniei ine de implicaiile unei
sintagme folosite de Mussolini pentru a descrie statutul Ungariei marea mutilat36 (n
urma Primului Rzboi Mondial). La fel de negativ i se pare autorului absena din discurs a
oricrei referiri la Romnia i Cehoslovacia. Virtuala ameninare a politici italiene la adresa
unitii statului romn, l determin pe autor s solicite Ducelui o redimensionare a interesului
politic vremelnic n favoarea unei judeci obiective a istoriei, a promovrii pcii ntre naiuni
i a activrii contiinei originii latine mprtite att de ctre italieni, ct i de ctre romni.
Analiza aloc un spaiu destul de generos eecului Ligii Naiunilor n gestionarea sanciunilor
consecutive invadrii Abisiniei, precum i reaciilor britanice la politica internaional i la
agresiunile Italiei, graie discursurilor lui Anthony Eden, prim-ministrul britanic. ns, dincolo
31
Ibid., 11-12
Ibid., 12
33
Id., Predappio Mussolini, Monitorul Oficial i Imprimeriile Statului, Imprimeria Naional, Bucureti, 1940, p. 5
34
Ibid., p. 24
35
Al. Corneanu, n Reflexiuni asupra discursului D-lui Mussolini inut la Milano la 1 Nov. 1936, Institutul de Arte Grafice Astra,
Braov, 1936, p. 3
36
Ibid., p. 7
32
569
SECTION: LITERATURE
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de jocul diplomatic, scenariul cel mai optimist i se pare generalului Corneanu pacea
armat37, unica form de pace posibil n climatul tensionat al epocii.
Un ecou retrospectiv al raionamentului lui Al. Corneanu l gsim n paginile
Vremii din 1935, unde E.A. Poulopol apeleaz la preceptele politologiei renascentiste
pentru a descrie atmosfera tensionat a Europei: Guicciardini spunea c o bun diplomaie e
aceea ce pregtete Principelui aliane n vederea rzboiului i-l ajut mai ale s ncheie o
pace favorabil38. Altfel spus, scopul diplomaiei nu pare a fi garantarea pcii, ci pregtirea
rzboiului, iar invadarea Abisiniei de ctre trupele mussoliniene demonstreaz acest lucru.
Pacifismul afiat al lui Mussolini n timp ce invada Abisinia devine subiectul unei
ficionalizri ludice la rubrica Humor din aceeai publicaie periodic. Aici, Radu Costea
imagineaz un savuros Discurs Mussolinian39 n care adun ntreaga gam de paradoxuri
ideologice i aciuni politico-militare din arsenalul Ducelui, ncepnd cu doctrina mea, o tii
cu toii, este pacifist, de aceea sunt sigur c nu mi se va opune rezisten pentru ca s nu
calc acest principiu, continund cu iubirea sa pentru democraie (mai ales, democraia
celorlalte state occidentale) i cu afirmarea dorinei italiene de a poseda colonii. Autorul
sfrete apoteotic, printr-o butad: pacifist, dar un rzboi mic nu stric.
37
Ibid., p. 15
E.A. Poulopol, Utile i nutile controverse diplomatice, n Vremea, nr. 397, 21 iulie 1935, p. 2
39
Radu Costea, Discurs Mussolinian, n Id., nr. 401, 18 august 1935, p. 4
38
570
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Abstract: The social- historical context of the birth of Dada potentates the anger of young
Dadaists revolted against the bourgeois society, that they deem responsible for the tragedy of
the war and denounces the absurdity of the world around them, healing the absurd by
deepening the crisis in the artistic plan. Dadaist echoes overcome the poetic space and can be
found in other areas and even different parts of the world allowing the measurement of the
size of dada phenomenon.
Keywords: war, absurd, young, dada, art.
Fiecare pagin trebuie s explodeze, prin seriozitatea adnc i grea, prin vrtej,
prin ameeal, nou venic, prin gluma strivitoare, prin entuziasmul principiilor sau prin felul
cum e tiprit(Tristan Tzara, Manifest Dada 1918)
571
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LDMD 2
Victor, Macarie, Dada: Un nume bine cutat, Caietele lui Tristan Tzara, nr.2-4, Editura Vinea, Bucuresti, 2000, p. 111
F. Picabia Manifeste cannibale dada, Bulletin Dada No. 6, 1920, n Dada, Zurich-Paris, 1916-1922, p. 213
572
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ateptat, ci dorete eliberarea de sub tirania dogmelor: Eu vorbesc mereu despre mine pentru
c nu vreau s conving. N-am dreptul s trsc pe alii n fluviul meu, nu oblig pe nimeni s
m urmeze. Fiecare i furete arta sa, n maniera sa, cunoscnd fie bucuria de a urca ca o
sgeat spre repausuri astrale, fie pe aceea de a cobor n mine unde mbobocesc flori de
cadavre i de spasme fertile. () Aa s-a nscut DADA, dintr-o nevoie de independen, de
nencredere fa de comunitate. Cei ce sunt cu noi i pstreaz libertatea. Noi nu
recunoatem nici o teorie. Ajunge cu academiile cubiste i futuriste, laboratoare de idei
formale. Arta servete la acumulat bani sau la a-i gdila pe drguii burghezi?5
Prezena constant a absurdului n programul dadaist este liantul care leag produciile
literare i artistice ale vremii din zone i coluri diferite ale lumii, pentru c dimensiunea
acestui fenomen nu este limtat nici din punct de vedere artistic, nici din punct de vedere
geografic, tentaculele sale se ntind n avangarda european. Micarea dadaist a fost
exportat la Berlin cnd n Germania nc era rzboi, la Hanovra i Clologne ntr-o ar
distrus traversat de multe idealuri revoluionare , la Barcelona i New York orae libere i
nu n ultimul rnd la Paris dup rzboi dup care mai cunote un al doilea ecou prin mediile
constructiviste precum Bauhaus Weimar, revistele De Stijli MA Budapesta-Viena ,
chiar Olanda sau Tokyo prin Murayama i revista Mavo.
La Berlin micarea dadaist poate fi considerat poate mai mult de natur politic,
pentru Richard Huelsenbeck fiind destul de uor s gseasc repede adepi ideilor sale
,materializate n prima manifestare dada de la 12 aprilie 1918 si atingdu-i punctul culminant
n jurul anului 1920 n care acelai autor public Dada sigt, Deutschland muss untergehen
, Enaunt Dada si Almanach Dada, ultima fiind o culegere de texte din operele a douzeci
de autori dadaiti. Kurt Schwitters , neacceptat de Huelsenbeck ns aprobat de Tzara
reconstruiete Dada singur extrgnd silaba Merz etalon pentru noua orientare Merz
urmrete nlturarea oricrui obstacol pentru a putea forma artistic. Libertatea nu nseamn
licen nfrnat ci produs al unei riguroase discipline artistice () Un artist trebuie s aib
dreptul, de exemplu s fac un tablou numai asamblnd hrtii sugative, dac tie s
formeze() Elementele artei poetice sunt literele , silabele cuvintele , frazele.6Prin aceasta
viziune personal dada, Kurt Schwitters creeaz o micare n sine , o ramura a dadaismului lui
Tzara .
New Yorkul primeste n 1915 un Marcel Duchamp cunoscut deja prin celebrul Nud
cobornd pe trepte i pe Francis Picabia care reuete aici s realizeze operele mecanice ce
vor fi mai apoi transpuse n opera sa poetic. 391 este revista condus de Picabia , care s-a
ngrijit ca fiecare text s fie nsoit de un relief propriu, acesteia adaugndu-se i unica New
York Dada n colaborare cu Man Ray .
Prezena constant a absurdului n programul dadaist este liantul care leag produciile
literare i artistice ale vremii din zone i coluri diferite ale lumii, pentru c dimensiunea
acestui fenomen nu este limtat nici din punct de vedere artistic, nici din punct de vedere
geografic, tentaculele sale se ntind n avangarda european.
La Paris, dup finalul rzboiului se ntlnesc o serie de artiti sub mna crora
fenomnul va cunoate o foarte mare expansiune, aprnd revistele Cannibale, Dadaphone,
Proverbe, Projecteur, Le Philhaou-Thibaou, Dadaglobe. Micarea dadaist a fost exportat la
Berlin cnd n Germania nc era rzboi, la Hanovra i Clologne ntr-o ar distrus traversat
de multe idealuri revoluionare, la Barcelona i New York orae libere i nu n ultimul rnd la
Paris dup rzboi un al doilea ecou prin mediile constructiviste precum Bauhaus Weimar,
5
6
573
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Marc Dacy, apud Kurt Schwitters ,Dada revolta artei, Editura Univers , n traducere de Irinel Antoniu, seria III, vol. III, p. 47
574
SECTION: LITERATURE
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5. Marc Dacy, apud Kurt Schwitters ,Dada revolta artei, Editura Univers , n traducere
de Irinel Antoniu, seria III, vol. III
575
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Abstract: The idea of a drum-narrator appears in Heinrich Heines Ideen. Das Buch Le
Grand, in which a French drum major tells a German boy the heroic stories about Napoleon
and the changes to come in the history of humanity. By beating the drum, the barrier of
language is surpassed, the communication of the two protagonists being established in the
rhythm of the instrument, which becomes a vector of communication.
More complex significations receives the drum in the novel The Tin Drum by Gnter Grass.
Beside the role of a story-teller it becomes a witness of the personal and collective history, the
trustful repository of Oskar Matzeraths memory, which, like an umbilical cord, nourishes
Oskars story with memories of the past. It nourishes also the consciousness of the people
around him, influencing them in a positive or a negative manner. Oskars tin drum is the vivid
link between his past and present and between unconsciousness and consciousness.
Keywords: birth, consciousness, drum, umbilical cord, unconsciousness.
Volker Neuhaus, Gnter Grass, 3. aktualisierte und erweiterte Auflage, Verlag J. B. Metzler, 2010, Stuttgart, S. 39.
Heinrich Heine, Ideen. Das Buch Le Grand, S. 47
576
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
und so ganz vorzglich trommelte.3 Der Tambour sprach nicht Deutsch, doch konnte er sich
sehr gut mit Hilfe seiner Trommel ausdrcken. Das Wort libert vermitteilte er dem
Burschen durch das Trommeln der Marseiller Marsch, das Wort egalit mit Hilfe eines
anderen Liedes, usw. Der Bursche verstand sofort, nicht die Sprache, sondern der Geist der
Sprache, und diesen lernt man am Besten durch Trommeln.4
Das Trommeln wird in dieser Erzhlung, und spter in dem Roman Die Blechtrommel,
von Gnter Grass, ein wichtiger Vektor der Kommunikation, besser gesagt, der
Metakommunikation. Die Sprache bekommt eine wenig wichtigere Rolle und die Hauptrolle
der Kommunikation ist von dem Trommeln bernommen. Die Sprache ist oft begrenzt, oft ist
sie Ursprung der Missverstndnisse. Die Trommel wird der Trger des Geistes der Sprache
und ist immer gut verstndlich. Bei Heine ist die Trommel der Liant zwischen zwei Menschen
verschiedener Muttersprachen, der eine, ein Kind aus Deutschland, der andere, ein
Erwachsener aus Frankreich, und noch ein Eroberer, ein Feind, dazu. Und doch verstehen sich
die Beiden, weil sie gemeinsam die universelle Sprache der Musik sprechen. Ihre Herzen
schlagen in dem einen Rhythmus, von der Trommel aufgezwungen, der Rhythmus der
napoleonischen Mrsche. Monsieur Le Grand trommelt dem Jungen die neuen geschichtliche
Ereignisse Europas vor. Die Trommel aus Heines Erzhlung erwhnt den Geist der Zeit am
Anfang des XIX. Jahrhunderts, als die Vlker Europas mit vielen Erwartungen an Napoleons
Frankreich blickten. Die Franzsische Revolution war damals der Anfang einer Reihe von
wichtigen Vernderungen, die in Europa und in der Welt stattfanden. In der Zeit war
Napoleon in den Augen der Deutschen der Reprsentant der Franzsischen Revolution und
der Vernichter der alten Feudalordnung.
Die neuen Rhythmen der Geschichte, getrommelt von dem Tambour, beeindrucken
sofort den Jungen. Sie lauten hoffnungsvoll in den Ohren des deutschen Burschen aus
Dsseldorf, ein Bursche der viel Acht fr den franzsischen Kaiser hatte, und ihm zuehren,
sehr leicht das Trommeln lernte: Ist nun das Trommeln ein angeborenes Talent, oder hab ich
es frhzeitig ausgebildet, genug, es liegt mir in den Gliedern, in Hnden und Fssen, und
uert sich oft unwillkrlich.5
Die Trommel des Tambours Le Grand ist ein Kommunikationsmittel, aber auch ein
Verbindungselement zwischen zwei Kulturen. Sie erzhlt die Heldentaten der franzsischen
Armee, die den Wind der sozial-konomischen Fortschritte in ihren Mrschen quer durch
Europa, mit sich brachte.
Die Trommel behlt ihre Rolle als Erzhler in Gnter Grass Roman Die
Blechtrommel. Oskar Matzerath, die Zentralfigur des Romans blickt zurck in die Zeit,
whrend er sich in einer Heil- und Pflegeanstalt befindet, wo er seine Lebensgeschichte
schreibt und diese seinem Pfleger, Bruno vorliest. Schon auf der ersten Seite des Werkes ist
der Leser in einer von Ambiguitt beherrschten Narration eingeleitet. Von Anfang an wissen
wir, gleich aus Oskars Gestehung, dass er ein unzuverlssiger Erzhler ist, teilweise, weil er
lgt: Der Gute scheint meine Erzhlungen zu schtzen, denn sobald ich ihm etwas
vorgelogen habe, zeigt er mir, um erkenntlich zu geben, sein neuestes Knotenbilde6 und
teilweise weil ihn sein Gedchtnis manchmal im Stich lsst. Der Erzhler ist von Anfang an
unzuverlssig, so wie auch die Perzeption der Realitt ist. Dieter Stolz ist der Meinung dass:
Das akute Krisenbewusstsein des Erzhlers, () ist nur das uere Zeichen dafr,
dass die Welt(geschichte) keinen erkennbaren Sinn hinter sich hat, die als heillos zersplittert
3
Ebd.
Ebd., S. 52
5
Ebd., S. 53
6
Gnter Grass, Die Blechtrommel, Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 2008, Mnchen, S. 9.
4
577
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
erfahrene Wirklichkeit insgesamt fragwrdig geworden und damit naiv realistisch erzhlend
nicht mehr adquat zu vermitteln ist.7
Zum Glck hat Oskar seine Blechtrommel dabei, die er mit Erlaubnis der Anstalt
tglich drei, vier Stunden sprechen lassen darf, sodass er Dank seinem Blech, ein reicher
Mensch, mit nachweislichen Grosseltern8 ist, weil die Trommel auch ber langvergangene
Zeiten, aus der Jugend seiner Grosseltern zu berichten kann. Als er sich der Genauigkeit
seiner Erinnerungen unsicher ist, fragt Oskar seine Trommel, die alles besser wei als er: Ich
habe heute einen langen Vormittag zertrommelt, habe meiner Trommel fragen gestellt, wollte
wissen, ob die Glhbirnen in unserem Schlafzimmer vierzig oder sechzig Watt zhlten.9
Die Trommel ist also ein zuverlssiger Zeuge der frheren Vergangenheit, eine
Stimme, die Ereignisse aus dem Leben seiner Vorfahren hervorbringt. Sie ist nicht nur ein
einfacher Erzhler, so wie in Heines Werk, sondern auch der Liant zwischen Gegenwart und
Vergangenheit. Durch sie bleibt Oskar in Verbindung mit seinen Uhrahnen und mit dem
Gedchtnis der Geschichte, weil sie die Rolle eines Triebriemens spielt. Durch sie kommen
die Informationen aus der Vergangenheit hervor. Man knnte auch sagen, dass sie die
Funktion einer Nabelschnur hat, weil sie die Gegenwart mit den Ereignissen der
Vergangenheit ernhrt. Die Gegenwart existiert auf Kosten der Vergangenheit, von ihr
ernhrt.
In der Szene in der Oskar seine eigene Geburt beschreibt, sagt er, dass als er das Licht
dieser Welt entdeckte, war seine geistige Entwicklung schon bei der Geburt
abgeschlossen10 und sein Hren recht hell, so dass er die Gerusche und Gesprche die
ringsherum ihn stattfanden, hren konnte. Sein Vater versprach ihm das bernehmen des
Familiengeschfts und seine Mutter versprach ihm am dritten Geburtstag eine Blechtrommel.
Whrend seine Eltern ihre Diskussionen weiter fhrten, lauschte der Neugeborene das
Flattern eines mittelgroen, haarigen Nachtfalters, der ringsherum der Glhbirnen flog. Oskar
war nicht in dessen Lichter- und Schattenspiel interessiert, sondern in sein Flattern, die er es
mit dem Trommeln assozierte. Der Falter trommelte.11 Oskar gesteht, dass der Nachtfalter
sein erster Meister im Trommeln war. Das kleine Insekt wei auch alles ber die Welt
Bescheid, so wie der kleine Oskar es wei und er schnattert, als ob er es eilig htte sein
Wissen loszuwerden12, als ob er seines kurzen Lebens bewusst sei. Oskar ist tief von dem
Falter beeindruckt, fhlt Empathie mit ihm. Er findet seine Eltern gar uninteressant und fhlt
sich neben ihnen einsam und unverstanden.13, so dass er sich mit dem Nachtfalter
identifiziert, der mit seinem Flattern an den Glhbirnen Oskars Leben prophezeit. Nicht nur
das Trommeln, sondern auch das zerbrochene Glas wird sein Leben begleiten. Oskar
entscheidet in dem Augenblick den Falter nachzuahmen und sein weiteres Leben mit dem
Trommeln verbringen. Der Nachtfalter und nicht das Horoskop hat ihm sein Schicksal
bestimmt. Oskar htte gern zurck in der embryonalen Kopflage14 gekrochen, doch die
Perspektive eine Blechtrommel zu besitzen und gleich dem Falter zu trommeln, hat ihn daran
gehindert, diesen Wunsch auszudrcken. Auerdem war es schon zu spt, weil er schon
inzwischen abgenabelt wurde.
Dieter Stolz, Gnter Grass zur Einfhrung, Junius Verlag, 1999, Hamburg, S. 128.
Gnter Grass, Die Blechtrommel, Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 2008, Mnchen, S. 23.
9
Ebd. S. 51.
10
Ebd. S. 52.
11
Ebd. S. 53.
12
Ebd.
13
Ebd. S. 54.
14
Ebd. S. 55.
7
8
578
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
Die Assoziation zwischen dem Schnattern/ Trommeln des Falters und der Abnabelung
Oskars ist nicht zufllig. Die Funktion der Nabelschnur, zu ernhren und das Leben zu
besorgen, ist in Oskars Leben von der Trommel bernommen. Die Nabelschnur verbindet im
Mutterleib die Gebrmutter und das Embryo. Die Trommel ist eine Nabelschnur in Oskars
Leben. Nicht nur dass sie die Vergangenheit mit der Gegenwart verbindet, aber sie bringt aus
den Tiefen von Oskars Gedchtnis seine Erinnerungen hervor. Durch sie trommelt Oskar sein
Wissen vor, so wie der Nachtfalter es tut. Die Trommel ist ein Vermittler zwischen Oskars
Unbewusstsein und seinem Bewusstsein.
Die Gebrmutter ist das Unbewusste, das Ungeschaffene, und das Embryo, in diesem
Fall, ist das Bewusstsein Oskars. Die Trommel ist ein lebendiger Organismus, der Gefhle
und Gedanken aus dem Unbewusstsein zu dem Bewusstsein Oskars vermittelt. Die Trommel
schlgt rhythmisch, so wie der Pulsus in den Blutadern schlgt. Das Schnattern des Falters hat
Oskar an die Gerusche, die er im Leib seiner Mutter bis vor kurzem, gehrt hatte, erinnert.
In den meisten Kulturen der Welt ist die Trommel nicht nur ein in den Kriegen
benutztes Instrument, sondern auch ein Symbol der Weiblichkeit, assoziiert mit der Grotte,
der Hhle, dem Uterus. Die Laute der Trommel sprt man in dem Bauch. (Se poate aadar
spune c, n toate culturile, toba este o cratofanie uranian, masculina sau htonian, feminin,
fiind n acest ultim caz, asociat cu simbolismul peterii, al grotei, al uterului: se spune despre
sunetul tobei c-l simi n burt.15)
Die Trommel ist der Speicher von Oskars Erinnerungen, sie wei alles, manchmal viel
mehr als ihr Meister. Der Trommler wei auch schon alles in der Stunde seiner Geburt und ist
gar nicht neugierig darauf, was ihm diese Welt noch anzubieten habe. Sein Wissen ist
essentiell, es ist das wichtigste und traurigste Wissen das ein Mensch haben kann, und zwar,
es ist die Tatsache, dass das Leben ein Ende hat. Dieses Wissen ist nicht eine Folge von
Lebenserfahrungen, sondern etwas, das Oskar mit sich aus der Welt des Ungeborenen bringt.
Der Keim des Bewusstseins ist schon vorhanden und besitzt das ganze Wissen, dass ein
Mensch in einem Leben besitzen kann. Er will dieses Wissen, gleich dem Falter, schnell wie
mglich austrommeln, will ihm loswerden, um dann wieder ins Nichtsein zurckzukehren.
Das Trommeln ist die Manifestation seines Wissens. Deshalb hat er die Nostalgie des
Nichtseins, deshalb bleibt er eng mit seiner Trommel verbunden, als ein Surrogat der
Nabelschnur, als eine Garantie, dass er den Weg zurck ins Paradies wieder finden wird. So
wie er es weiter im Roman bekennt, Oskars Ziel ist die Rckkehr zur Nabelschnur.16 Die
Trommel hlt ihn zusammen mit dem paradiesischen Zustand des Nichtseins verbunden. Er
befindet sich in einem Intervall, zwischen dem Unbewussten und dem Bewussten, beide mit
der Nabelschnur, das heit, mit der Trommel zusammen verbunden.
Dieter Stolz meint, dass:
Oskar ist und bleibt der gegen seinen Willen ins Geschehen Geworfene. Er ist
gezwungen, ein Leben im Ei zu fhren, ohne den ber den dadurch vorgegebenen Horizont
hinaussehen zu knnen.17
Oskar bleibt im Ei weil er unter den Glhbirnen der Welt keine Rolle bernehmen
will. Jede Handlung verweigert er. So bleibt er wegen dieser Nichthandlung in sich selbst
verkrmmert, passiv, wie ein Embryo. So unbeeinflubar ich als Embryo nur auf mich
Jean Chevalier, Alain Gheerbrant, Dicionar de simboluri, mituri, vise, obiceiuri, gesturi, forme, figuri, culori, numere, Editura Artemis,
1993, Bucureti,vol. III, p. 359-360.
16
Gnter Grass, Die Blechtrommel, Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 2008, Mnchen, S. 229.
17
Dieter Stolz, Gnter Grass zur Einfhrung, Junius Verlag, 1999, Hamburg, S. 134.
15
579
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
gehrt und mich im Fruchtwasser spiegelnd geachtet htte, so kritisch lauschte ich den ersten
spontanen uerungen der Eltern unter den Glhbirnen.18 Aus dieser Perspektive betrachtet,
ist Oskar noch nicht geboren. Er hatte das Unglck gehabt geboren zu werden und will mit
dem Sein nichts zu tun haben, sodass er im Ei der Passivitt bleibt.
Obwohl er passiv im Leben bleiben will, kann Oskar den Proze des Werdens seines
Bewusstseins nicht verhindern. Es geschieht ohne seinen Willen. Dieter Stolz meint, dass:
das ewige Sein durch den endlosen Proze des Werdens abgelst [wird].19 Dieser endlose
Proze kann auch als Geburt betrachtet werden.
Otto Rank hat in seinem Buch Das Trauma der Geburt und seine Bedeutung fr die
Psychanalyse gezeigt, dass die seelische Menschheitsentwicklung mit dem Unbewusstsein
im engen Zusammenhang steht. Aus dem Unbewusstsein kommt das Bewusstsein hervor.
ber diese Geburt hat Erich Neumann in seinem, im Jahre 1949 erschienenen Buch,
Ursprungsgeschichte des Bewusstsein, geschrieben, dass:
In der ontogenetischen Entwicklung hat das Ich-Bewusstsein des Einzelnen die
gleichen archetypischen Stadien zu durchstreiten, welche innerhalb der Menschheit die
Entwicklung des Bewusstseins bestimmt haben. () Normalerweise werden die
archetypischen Stadien strungslos durchlebt, und die Entwicklung des Bewusstseins erfolgt
in ihnen ebenso selbstverstndlich wie die physische Entwicklung in den Stadien der
krperlichen Reifung.20
So wie seine Kollegen und Vorgnger in dem Bereich der Psychanalyse, beginnend
mit Freud, hat Neumann, als Ausgangspunkt und Argumentation fr das Aufbauen seiner
Theorie, die Mythologie gewhlt. Die Frage ber den Ursprung des Bewusstseins ist synonym
mit der Frage ber den Ursprung des Universums. Diese Frage hat der Urmensch, ganz gleich
auf welchem Teil der Erde er gelebt hat, ob es in Europa, Asien, Afrika, oder Amerika war,
verschiedensweise geantwortet, von den Mythen der Kreation, bis zu der Kosmogonie. Die
Antworten der Mythologie waren Symbole, die man spter in den Reprsentationen der
verschiedenen Gottheiten findet. Als Symbol der Urwelt am hufigsten findet man den Kreis
oder die Sphre, oder das primordiale Ei, das Kern aller Ursprnge, aus dem dann die Welt,
das Universum entsteht. In diesem Kern ist alles vorhanden, alles, was man nach der
Kreation im Universum findet, ohne eine Differenzierung zu haben. Die Materie ist gemischt:
Wasser mit Erde und Himmel, Licht mit Dunkel, Wrme mit Klte, usw. Es ist ein Zustand,
in dem es auch keine Dimensionen der Zeit oder des Raumes gibt. Es herrscht Chaos, bis
pltzlich etwas Dramatisches passiert und der Wille eines Gottes das Ganze organisiert und
das Universum entsteht.
Erich Neumann macht eine Analogie zwischen den kosmogonischen Mythen und die
Geburt des Bewusstseins aus dem Unbewusstsein. Er meint, dass das Unbewusste
undifferenziert ist, similr dem Zustand vor der Entstehung des Weltalls. Es hat keinen
Beginn und kein Ende und es enthlt alles, was man dann nachher im Bewusstsein
wiederfindet. Als Symbol fr diesen Zustand hat Neumann den Uroboros vorgeschlagen, eine
Schlange, die sich aus ihr selbst ernhrt und zugleich sich selbst vernichtet, indem sie sich den
eigenen Schwanz isst. Das heit, dass das Unbewusstsein sich selbst gengend ist, Autonomie
hat und dass es sein eigener Ursprung ist. Leben und Tod sind zugleich vorhanden und die
eigene Regenerierung findet stndig statt. Im kollektiven Unbewussten lebt schon der Keim
Gnter Grass, Die Blechtrommel, Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 2008, Mnchen, S. 52.
Dieter Stolz, Gnter Grass zur Einfhrung, Junius Verlag, 1999, Hamburg, S. 130.
20
Ebd, S. 4.
18
19
580
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
des zuknftigen Bewusstseins. Der Keim ist die ursprngliche Form des zuknftigen Ich. Er
lebt ins Unbewusste wie im Paradies. Es ist ihm warm und gut, er wird ernhrt, er hat gar
keine Verantwortungen, keine existentielle Fragen, er schwimmt glcklich im dunklen Ozean
des Nichtseins. Diese Lage ist gleich der Lage des Kosmos vor der Entstehung des
Universums. Es herrscht Chaos und Ambiguitt, Dunkel und Licht, Hhen und Tiefen, es gibt
keine moralischen Prinzipien, alles ist erlaubt, alles wird verzeiht. Wie gesagt, der Keim des
spteren Ich befindet sich aber dort, irgendwo im Unbewussten und nach der Geburt wird sich
das von jetzt an ins Licht tretende Ich, immer nach dem Urzustand des Nichtseins erinnern
und es wird lange Zeit noch die Nostalgie nach dem Nichtsein haben.
Die Analogie mit dem embryonalen Leben des menschlichen Wesens ist sehr deutlich.
Der Foetus lebt im Mutterleib beschtzt, so wie das Bewusstsein im Unbewussten lebt. Nach
Neumann, befinden sich in der embryonalen Phase Leben und Psyche zusammen. Nicht nur
dass sie geschtzt und ernhrt sind, aber sie haben auch keine Unannehmlichkeiten. Ein
wahres Paradies, das aber, leider, mit der Geburt, zu Ende kommt.
Wir sprechen von zwei Arten von Geburt: die eine, konkrete, physische Geburt eines
neuen Menschen, die andere, Abstrakte, die Geburt des Bewussten aus dem Unbewussten.
Die physische Geburt geschieht nur einmal und ist traumatisch, sowohl im physischen, als
auch im psychischen Sinne, so wie es Otto Rank beschrieben hat. Das Neugeborene kommt
aus einer Welt voller Angenehmheiten herein in eine ambivalente Welt, wo Leid und Freude
zugleich vorhanden sind. Dieses Trauma ist, nach Rank, der Ursprung aller anderen ngste
mit der sich der Mensch dann im Laufe des Lebens konfrontiert und deswegen versucht er es
immer wieder zu berwinden. Die zweite, abstrakte, Geburt findet nicht nur das eine Mal,
sondern stndig statt. Das Bewusstsein entwickelt sich und ernhrt sich aus dem
Unbewusstsein. Dort, in den dunkeln, tiefen Hhlen des Unbewusstseins befindet sich der
Ursprung des Bewusstseins. So wie das Neugeborene noch eine Zeitlang von seiner Mutter
abhngig bleibt, so ist auch das Bewusstsein abhngig von dem Unbewusstsein, und die
Beiden sind undifferenziert, bis zu dem Entstehen der Selbst-Identitt. Ein Individuum zu
werden ist ein schmerzhafter Prozess. Dieses Werden kann man auch als Geburt betrachten.
Und so wie die physische Geburt sowohl als ein physisches, aber als auch ein psychisches
Trauma betrachtet wird, kann man auch die Geburt des Bewusstseins aus dem Unbewussten
als Trauma betrachten. Man wird in die Welt der Realitt geschickt, eine Realitt voller
Gefahren und Unangenehmenheiten. Das Werden des Bewusstseins, des Ich, bedeutet die
Trennung von dem Unbewussten. Es bedeutet die Verbannung aus dem Paradies. Das Ich
wird von dem kollektiven Unbewusstsein differenziert. Das heit, dass es sich von nun an in
der schwierigen Lage befindet, Verhltnisse mit der Auenwelt und mit der eigenen Psyche
anzuknpfen. Diese Aufgabe ist nicht immer leicht und es ist kein Wunder, dass das
Individuum immer wieder den Wunsch hat, in das Stadium des Uroboros zurckzukehren.
Neumann meint, dass dieser ein normaler Wunsch des Menschen und keine Fixation ist.
Dieser Wunsch wird aber von dem Drang nach dem Bewusstsein ausgeglichen.
So ist es der Fall auch mit unserem Helden, Oskar. Er will sich nicht von dem
Mutterleib trennen, er will nicht hinaus ins Licht. Der Keim des Ich ist aber vorhanden und er
beschreibt seine eigene leibliche Geburt, als wre er schon auf der Welt gewesen. Oskars
Bewusstsein wurde vor Oskars Geburt geboren und befindet sich im Laufe des Romans im
Prozess der stndigen Geburt. Oskar steht in Verbindung mit dem Unbewusstsein aber auch
mit dem Bewusstsein. Er befindet sich zwischen den Beiden und verbindet sie durch die
Trommel-Nabelschnur. Dieter Stolz meint, dass: Der mythische Kosmos hrt auf zu
existieren, das geschichtliche Chaos beginnt, das tragikomische Drama nimmt seinen
absurden Lauf.21
21
Dieter Stolz, Gnter Grass zur Einfhrung, Junius Verlag, 1999, Hamburg, S. 62.
581
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
Oskar rebelliert gegen das Leben in dieser Welt und diese Rebellion drckt er in
seinem Trommeln aus. Er trommelt seine Verzweiflung, dass man ihn, ohne seine
Einwilligung, in die Welt hinausgeworfen hat. In eine Welt, ber die er schon vor seiner
Geburt Bescheid wei, dass es eine absurde ist. Man ist geboren, um zu sterben.
Der Trommler bringt auch ein bisschen Chaos in seine Umgebung herein. Er ruft
durch sein Trommeln das Gute oder das Bse in das Benehmen seiner Mitmenschen hervor.
Er bringt ihnen das Gute oder das Bse aus den Tiefen des Unbewusstseins hinauf in das
Bewusste. Man knnte sagen, dass, aus dieser Hinsicht, Oskar, mit seiner Trommel, die Rolle
einer Hebamme spielt. Er hilft mit seiner Trommel bei der Geburt besonderer Gefhle in den
Herzen seiner Zeitgenossen, gleich ob es gute Gefhle sind, wenn er als Jazzmusiker sein
Publikum beeindruckt oder schlechte Gefhle sind, wenn er sich schelmig benimmt. Oskar ist
sich dieser Fhigkeit bewusst. Er definiert sich selbst mit den folgenden Worten: () war
Oskar ein kleiner, das Chaos harmonisierender, die Vernunft in Rauschzustnde versetzender
Halbgott.22
Bibliographie
Chevalier, Jean, Gheerbrant, Alain, Dicionar de simboluri. Vol. I, II, III, Editura
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Analytical Psychology, edited by Gerhard Adler, Tavistock Publications, London, first
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in
1961
http://books.google.hu/books?id=uHk9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA29&lpg=PA29&dq=geburtssymb
ol&source=bl&ots=qhB9CZ6LZ&sig=UZEYgZfbBzx1p0fYjcZLZzJkthk&hl=hu&sa=X&ei=D7kLUP74M4nK0QXbxsTC
Cg&ved=0CFQQ6AEwBDgo#v=onepage&q=geburtssymbol&f=false Zuletzt aufgerufen am
22.07.2012.
Heine, Heinrich, Ideen. Das Buch Le Grand
http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/buch/386/1 Zuletzt aufgerufen am 15. 06. 2013.
Neumann, Erich, The Origins and History of Consciousness, Princeton University
Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1995
22
Gnter Grass, Die Blechtrommel, Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 2008, Mnchen, S. 423.
582
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583
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Abstract: This paper aims to establish an onto-epistemological connection between the realm
of animals and the realm of human beings within the context of the narrative discourse of the
novel Life of Pi. The binary and essential oppositions between reason and imagination,
atheism and religion, human and non-human, subject and object, culture and nature are
deconstructed in order to reveal a unity of homogeneous dichotomies. The concept of
Material Ecocriticism is applied to this work with the goal to highlight the fact that the
ethical energies of doing are pragmatically and semantically situated between the ontology
of being and the epistemology of knowing. These shallow contraries ought to be
comprehended through and within the larger context of immanence in which all beings and
objects share the same existential substance and in which they are axiologically equal. Thus,
the human and societal agencies encounter the agentive forces of Nature, which partially
reshape and renegotiate the cultural discourse. The main character, Pi, represents the
cosmopolitan thinker in terms of his multicultural and religious background. Through the
agency of imagination, he unifies the plane of immanence with the mythical and religious
state of the unconscious, and the ecology of society with the forces of animals and Nature.
Keyeords: Material Ecocriticism, immanence, agency, religion, Life of Pi.
Introduction
The novel Life of Pi displays a cultural journey towards a spiritual fulfilment, the
action gravitating around the main character, Piscine Molitor Patel. Etymologically and
semantically thinking, the word culture, with its Latin origins, means to nurture, to
cultivate, to grow, to eat, to educate, to worship, to inhabit. From a materialecocritical point of view, the cultural domain shares its semantics both with the ecology of
civilization and with the ecology of the environment, due to the fact that the human being
cultivates ones soul through education and the space of dwelling through physical work. The
neo-materialist renaissance (Iovino; Oppermann Material Ecocriticism: Materiality,
Agency, and Models of Narrativity 75) paradigm sublimates the linguistic-structuralist
approach, by which reality is a linguistic construct, and the postmodern-poststructuralist view,
by which the same reality is socially constructed. In cognitive terms, it rejects the dualities of
mind and body, culture and nature, psyche and reality, knowing and being, discursive and
material, human and animal, reason and imagination. Herewith, the generic culture does not
constitute a departure from the natural environment, but a continuance from and towards its
ancestral wild cognate.
In the light of this relationship between civilization and wilderness, another distinction
ought to be made between specific and alien cultures and religions, in this manner, three steps
of integrating cultural-theological alterity into the original religious space being defining for
Pi. The first is the multicultural aspect, which comprises distinct cultural groups with equal
social status; they exchange societal behaviors and features, but the final integration is
shallow. The second consists in the cross-cultural aspect, in which there is an obvious
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The family represents the origin point from which ones identity is structured in terms of
cultural and religious tenets. Being a socially constructed Hindu, acknowledging, in this way,
his locus in the vast universal ecology, the main character also displays personal freedom, by
which he rejects the overwhelming power of blind faith. Keeping a reasonable equilibrium
between the ethical karma, related to the intentional and teleological causalities of deeds, and
the Dharmic Rta, related to the universal logos of Cosmos, the cultural-religious-natural
opposition might be bridged. The cycle of birth and rebirth is imagined as a temple, a sacred
cosmic womb, a place where everything is born (49)
This sense of belonging to a specific religious place is connected to the feeling of
home: I owe to Hinduism the original landscape of my religious imaginationholy
mountains and deep seas where gods, saints, villains and ordinary people rub their shoulders,
and, in doing so, define who and why we are (48). The universal womb or the native land
represents the sacrosanct locus of transcendent imagination and platonic religion, the place in
which the demarcation between here and there, shallow and deep, ordinary and saint, evil and
good are overcome. All persons, objects, phenomena and places are fragmented parts, yet
consubstantial, of the same material reality, sharing a communion between identity and
alterity, and between cause, effect and scope. The contiguity of higher realms of existence to
the concrete and material subsistence is mirrored by the Trimurti deity Vishnu, the Preserver,
and his incarnated avatar, Krishna (52-3). Situated between Brahma the Creator and Shiva the
Destroyer, this god has a rhizomatic role in the universe and he has no beginning or end; it is
always in the middle, between things, interbeing, intermezzo (Deleuze, Guattari 25).
Described as a deity related to the color blue and clouds full of water, Vishnu
hypostatizes himself in the form of the ocean. The sea, as a pulsating nonhuman agent,
functions as a vital force (Models of Narrativity 81). Pis ethic, fictional and religious
imagination takes shape in order to from a cultural and theological influence on the
environment; conversely, the sacred nature carries out an agentive force over the human
discourse and behavior, especially in the moments of existential angst. This is the time of
religious awaking, when the fragments of truth, both of created environment and nature, are
reunited, when the ascetic and mystical powers of the human being are revitalized in order to
sublimate the immediate reality, when the sadhu reminds oneself that the inner atman
coincides with the ubiquitous Brahman. The former represents the personal soul, who tries to
deliver oneself from this elusory world, whereas the latter represents the supreme reality, who
(which) is here, there, within and beyond at once. It is interesting to highlight the fact that the
nothingness of the material reality is its true nature, and the ultimate deity only transcends the
immediate possibility of comprehension, but Ones existence is intrinsically linked to this
world; thus, the immanent materiality comprises both transcendent beings and inferior
creatures.
This transcendence within immanence, of course with a subtle paradigmatic shift, is
theologically translated into Christian tenets by the same Pi, who sees an evident resemblance
of a Hindu temple with a Catholic church, which is full of icons and statues, iconographic
symbols of the religious materiality of Christianity. Like any religious system, telling a
fictional story needs commitment and faith on the part of the listeners, this conformity having
biblical roots; even Christ used parables in order to convey His message: For we walk by
faith, not by sight (2 Corinthians 5:7); So then faith cometh by hearing, and hearing by the
word of God (Romans 10:17). On these lines, the conceptual category of faith is not
distributed vertically by transcendent revelation, but it has a horizontal and immanent nature,
feature that assures the conveying of the spoken reality from one human being to another. In
other words, ones imagination is fictionally heard and read in the same plane of existence
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and this also constitutes the reason for the power of faith; the story and its telling occur in the
same spatial-temporal continuity.
Alongside faith, there is a more important act, namely the virtue of love: Hold fast
the form of sound words, which thou hast heard of me, in faith and love which is in Christ
Jesus (2 Timothy 1:13); And now abideth faith, hope, charity (love), these three; but the
greatest of these is charity (love) (1 Corinthians 13:13); For God so loved the world, that he
gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have
everlasting life (John 3:16); He that loveth not knoweth not God; for God is love (1 John
4:8). There is an affinity between the creation of Man in His image (of personal Logos) and
the creation of Nature in the image of logoi. In this sense, we can say that the world is
logically articulated or ecological created. Because of the fact that the reason of creation is
the intra-trinitarian love, which coincides here with logos and power, this logical love is
pervasive through the entire ecological system. Its manifestations include every possible
relation: the love between human beings, between animals, between humans and
environment, and even the elemental love, between a plant and its ecosystem or between and
an atom with another atom within a molecule. Therefore, this logic love constitutes the
intrinsic reality, the mesh or the animating force in which and by which all living and nonliving entities exist. As Pi says, Life is so beautiful that death has fallen in love with it, a
jealous, possessive love that grabs at what it can (Martel 6).
There is also an ascending force, of humanity, which is ecstatically (relationally, by
exiting energetically the essence) trying to give back the divine love. Doing so, throughout an
ascetic and contemplative act, the human beings appropriate liturgically the natural
environment, in order to sanctify it and to unite with God, becoming gods. In this manner,
Nature is not seen as a tool of exploitation, but an affectionate mode to jointly transcend to
God. This ascetic-mystical movement is possible due to the incarnation of Christ, who has
become part of this material reality. The agentive forces of Cosmos, having been again
hallowed and transfigured by the hypostatic union, have influenced the human religious and
cultural discourse in order to better integrate the human being into the larger ecology of
Nature. When Pi met Jesus Christ (48), He has already been a Man, who experienced the
cycle of birth and rebirth and who has recapitulated into His person the divine, the human and
nature. Thus, the ethical co-extensive agentive forces between the cultural discourse and the
natural text represent realities which cannot be denied.
Another monotheistic religion, which, nevertheless, radicalizes the Christian and
Trinitarian discourse of Domine-Deus and of the dominion of man over nature, is Islam.
The Takbir expression Allahu akbar (81), translated as God is great, represents the formal
short prayer for displaying faith; in other words, as having seen, faith is the means by which a
reality from beyond could be comprehended and conveyed as a fictional story. The devotional
Alhamdulillah consists in Praise be to Allah, Lord of All Worlds, the Compassionate, the
Merciful, Ruler of Judgment DayThis is an outbreak of divinity (123). This religious
mysticism, remotely related to the Islamic-Sufism of Lataif-e-sitta and to Hindu Chakra,
canalizes the believers energies towards extracting the intrinsic signs of Nature, in order to
find its divine beauty; conversely, the divine Signifier signals His presence and power
through the physical world. The material contingence means that the human being,
encouraged by mutual love, can meet ones Creator in this natural order.
The Islamic oikos, the encounter between God and ones creation, equals to the
locus of mosque, which was truly on open construction, to God and to
breeze.Immediately, it felt like a deeply religious contact (58). Feeling home inside a
cultural construction or in Nature represents the same sense of belonging to a consubstantial
nature, in which everybody and everything lives and occurs on the same level of existence.
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The openness does not allow closed spaces of solitude and essential oppositions between
various individuals and objects, in this sense, a continuity of space being epistemologically
constructed. The religious contact is possible through the agency of faith, the believer
taking for granted its theological characteristics of touching the untouchable through
imagination and the touchable through ones physical senses. The animistic breeze has
obviously agentive powers, influencing the act of faith, the human discourse, processes of
consciousness and unconsciousness. The devotional deepness directly relates to the deepecological and ontological threads that we share with the natural environment.
The Sky Is Here
The last Pis religious bond consists in Judaism, his academic research being related to
the cosmogonic vision of Lurianic Kabbalah (3), an esoteric and mystical school of thought,
which explained the relationship and also the distinction between the apophatic and a priori
Ein Sof, apprehended as God before any spiritual or material creation, and the finite universe,
in which all higher or inferior being live. The ship Tzimtzum, which moved with the slow,
massive confidence of a continent (98), amplifies the previous idea because it semantically
extends the Hebrew understanding of the act of creation. By contracting ones infinite light,
God allowed space and created light to exist, and, doing so, an empty space of free will could
be possible. In this way, the transcendent and ubiquitous deity is simultaneously absent and
present, within a post-spatial exile and immanent to the sephirotic energies of creation.
Symbolically speaking, the ship represents a metaphor for prohibiting the mono-cultural or
the simplified metanarrative of one single religion: all religions are true (chapter 23). The
myth of flood and of a reborn cultural hero, regardless of the Sumerian-Mesopotamian
Gilgamesh, the Puranic-Hindu Mann, warned by the avatar of Vishnu, or the HebrewChristian-Islamic Noah, represent, in essence, the same fictional hero, who sacrifices himself
in order to deliver humanity from death and to metaphorically marry the realm of the human
civilization, with its inner conflictual states of being, to the realm of wilderness, animals and
nature, in general.
Following the same theological perspective of inter-religious communion, one can
assert that the Hindu religion(s) encourage polytheism and, doing so, there is no problem in
accepting the religious connection of the other; nevertheless, the monotheistic religions face
multiple issues of hierarchies of power and domination, matters that could be shaded to a
certain extent. On this line, it is important to emphasize an ancient, post-Sumerian and
Semitic deity, called El, who, in the Canaanite religion, represented the Father of Creation,
humanity and all creatures. In the Hebrew tradition, El remained for a long time and, later,
it was translated as Yahweh, which means "El who is present, who makes himself
manifest", "he causes to be", or Elohim, which means God, Gods, powers. The plural
shows that the ancient deity of Judaism was conceived as being multiple and living
energetically within the created Nature. This biblical name was also taken by the Islamic
tradition, with Semitic, Arabic or non-Arabic origins, as Allah, which means the God,
having almost the same meanings as previously shown.
Concerning Christianity, Elohim was recognized as a divine name, Christ used the
words Eli (Matthew 27:46), but the religious multiplicity has been extended. In Ones
essence, God is one, but in Ones Trinity, God is multiple, existing and energetically
manifesting through the agency of three persons. These faces or theatrical masks
represent more than one prosopon, persona or hypostasis and fictionally tell a story
about the love between deities or between gods and humans. There is one god and multiple
culturally and historically constructed manifestations according to the multiplicity of
identities, civilizations and cultures: Why cant I be a Hindu, a Christian and a
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Muslim?...One nation in the sky?...Yes. Or none (Martel 79); Jesus, Mary, Muhammad and
Vishnu, how good to see you, Richard Parker!...Vishnu preserve me, Allah protect me, Christ
save me1 (95). Pis ecology of mind (Bateson 1) tries to maintain a homeostasis (354)
between his multiple religious systems and between the divine, human, cultural, natural and
animal realms of consciousness. The divine ought to be embedded into the human domain and
the human being embedded into the natural environment, all of them incorporated in the same
plane of pure immanence (Deleuze, Guattari 282).
This natural equilibrium is acquired through the agency of Pi and his consubstantial
foil, Richard Parker through multiple processes of identitary deterritorialization and
reterritorialization (Deleuze, Guattari 63), by which nature is married again to culture and
religion: we need to apprehend the world through interchangeable lenses of the three
ecologies: social ecology, mental ecology, environmental ecology (Guattari 134).
Symbolically speaking, from a judicial point of view, his name relates to the word plaintiff,
the person who initiates a lawsuit before a court, meaning that he defies the metanarrative of a
single objective truth, God or the perceived reality. Secondly, from a biological point of view,
it relates to the osmotic pressure, which enables the liquid equalization of two sides in the
cellular processes and it means the homogeneity of the dichotomy reason-culture and
imagination-religion-fiction-nature. Thirdly, from a physical point of view, it relates to
subatomic particles, which consist in one quark and one antiquark, and it means that, within
the same plane of existence, contraries inherently exist, like Pi and his tiger. Fourthly, from a
mathematical point of view, it represents the proportion of circumference over diameter of a
given circle and it is an irrational number and a universal constant. The meaning is that the
constant roundness relates to the unity of nature and its irrationality relates to the lack of
fixity, becoming of existence and the co-existing of contrary realities within the same
individual; the truth is fragmented and fictionally negotiated.
Thus, Pi tells his story by distancing from himself and from the monadic truth and,
doing so, the reader does not fully discriminate which version is true. The effect is intentional
and its purpose is to stress the importance of imagination and the importance for not choosing
a definite narrative: Isnt telling about something using words, English or Japanese
already something of an invention? (Martel chapter 99). The material imagination represents
the human perspective on the material nature, yet both the imagining person and the imagined
reality are parts of the same environment; imagination itself becomes immanent and material.
The natural environment projects itself as text, becoming an agentive force which influences
the human discourse: The agency of matter, the interplay between the human and the
nonhuman in a field of in a field of distributed effectuality and of inbuilt material-discursive
dynamics relates to narrativity (Models of Narrativity 79). Nonetheless, the process of
anthropomorphism does not mean that the realm of nature and animals is linguistically and
culturally conditioned by the human psyche; in fact, it stresses the horizontality of
communication in the same plane of existence, an approach which is obviously antianthropocentric and biocentric.
In this sense, the storied matter (83) unfolds its own meanings and, in the process of
becoming a text, displays a textual continuity and communion between the apparently
heterogeneous discursive-material fragments of religion, culture, imagination, animals,
objects, particles. All subjectivities become part of Pis material self (83) and the corporeal
dimensions human and nonhuman agenciesare inseparable from the very material world
within which they intra-act (84). Hence, Richard Parker and other hybrid animals take shape
within the materiality of the same fictional discourse, which is both imaginative and real: It
was not a question of him or me, but of him and me. We were, literally and figuratively, in the
same boat. Here, the conjunction and coordinates two parts at the same level of
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objects, particles, cultural and natural discourses and texts are incorporated in the same
immanent and material reality. The means by which the epistemic observer fuses with the
ontic observed, and vice-versa, consists in the ethical praxis of doing; the extent by which
the human discourse influences nature equals to the influence of discursive Nature on culture.
Bibliography
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Bookchin, Murray. The Ecology of Freedom. The Emergence and Dissolution of
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Deleuze, Gilles. Guattari, Flix. A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987.
Gosling, David L. Religion and Ecology in India and Southeast Asia. London:
Routledge, 2001.
Guattari, Felix. The Three Ecologies. New Formations 8 summer (1989): 131-147.
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Iovino, Serenella. Oppermann, Serpil. Theorizing Material Ecocriticism: A Diptych.
ISLEInterdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment 19/3 (2012): 448-475.
Iovino, Serenella. Material Ecocriticism: Matter, Text, and Posthuman Ethics. In:
Literature, Ecology, Ethics. Ed. Timo Mller and Michael Sauter. Heidelberg:
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Iovino, Serenella. Steps to a Material Ecocriticism: The Recent Literature about
theNew Materialisms and Its Implications for Ecocritical Theory. Ecozon@--European
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Iovino, Serenella. The Human Alien. Otherness, Humanism, and the Future of
Ecocriticism. Ecozon@--European Journal of Culture, Literature and Environment 1/2010:
53-61.
Martel, Yann. Life of Pi. Orlando: Harcourt, Inc, 2007.
Yannaras, Christos. Person and Eros. Brookline: Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 2008.
http://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org
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Abstract: The termite hill of the novel constitutes a labyrinth that the creative self uncovers
in building it out of its own substance. The alluvial wandering into the intro-projective
dimensions (reality-hallucination-dream) is rigorously guided by the genetic code of the text
which encapsulates the information transmitted to the self through a system of signs. These
signs are transcribed within the gaps and the whole of the labyrinth. In its searchconstruction, the self tries the significant power of the gaps into the labyrinthic veil of
illusion. Thus, the self submits to their rolethat of transporting it towards the blinding
light of the core of the core of the mind. The act of emerging towards oneself, towards the
book with covers of light, represents a process and a result at the same time. It is an
endeavor which involves the characters who create their author, the past events which have
become a prey to memory, dream and hallucination.
Keywords: Self, self-configuration, text, gap, light.
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fant a lui Nichita Stnescu: nenscut din Sine nsui, omul-fant e omul-absen, este starea
de tranziie, perfect ncremenit n provizoratul ei. Aa cum observ Mircea Martin, fiina se
suprapune cu Marele Tot, ntr-o identificare contient cu sine (Martin: 1969, 11-12).
Urmrind reeaua de noduri i semne a poemului, se remarc o analogie vdit cu
modalitatea de configurare a spaiilor identitare din Orbitor: la nceput, eul este pre-textual,
construit nainte de a se nate, din trecutul celor care i-au pre-existat: Omul-fant are
ndeprtate origini./El vine din afara:/din afara frunzelor,/din afara lumii protectoare/ i
chiar/din afara lui nsui. Apoi se textueaz, capt substan semnificant: Ia fiin
venind./Astfel, el se umple/cu imaginile diforme/atrnnd loase de marginile/existenei,/sau,
pur i simplu,/el adulmec existena/i ia natere lsndu-se/devorat de ea. Opacizarea
aceasta prin imaginare, re-prezentare, ngurgitare a existenei, asumare i transcendere a ei, i
d posibilitatea s ntrevad perfeciunea i s se lase contopit n ea: El se apropie, se
apropie/ntlnete sfera,/i are vederea aerului/i a simunurilor.. Apoi realitatea este reprodus, re-dat ei nii sub form secund, de poveste: mnnc frunza pe dinluntru,dar
nu se tie cine mnnc pe cine el exist numai ct s ia cunotin de existen, Nu se
tie dac ntre ochiul lui i ochiul lucrurilor/exist vreun spaiu pentru vedere. Devenind una
cu totul, el devine totul, dedublarea nefiind dect consubstanialitate cu necunoscutul, cu
alter-ego-urile sale: Retina omului-fant e lipit de retina lucrurilor/Se vd mpreun,
deodat,/unul pe cellaltunii pe ceilali/ceilali pe ceilali/Nu se tie cine l vede pe cine.
Eul crtrescian face incizii n estura realitii, o sfie i o mestec, o trece prin
sine. El face incizia, el creeaz fanta, el nsui devine fant. Puterea semnificativ a inciziilor
se refer la capacitatea lor de a decoda informaia din afar, de a transporta informaia
dinuntru spre n afar. Obiectele, fiinele, aerul ceos dintre multiplele ntre-zriri ale eului n
ntregul su, totul devine instrument, proces i rezultat n acelai timp. Nu exist preferine
ntre parte i ntreg, ntre sine i cellalt, ntre tot i nimic, ntre gol i plin, ntre lumin i
ntuneric, poziiile fiind permanent interanjabile, situaie explicit n text, n care intrarea i
ieirea sunt tot una: Orice carte putea fi o intrare orice tablou, orice gnd (Crtrescu: AS,
374). Scopul fiinei, n cutarea de sine, este de a gsi exact intervalul dintre loc i ne-loc,
ntredeschiderea: Trebuie s caui ieirea, acesta este scopul vieii tale() memoria care
preced memoria. Smna din care-am ieit i care este Ieirea (Crtrescu: AS 383).
Simbolul explicit al acestui demers este oglinda specularitate i speculativitate:
oglinda spaiu al recuperrii prin simultaneitate obiect re(con)stitutiv. Ea nu confirm, ci
scandalizeaz, frustreaz, deschide noi orizonturi de ateptare: Avansau mereu ctre centru,
printr-un tunel ce strbtea carnea gelatinoas a sferei, strbtnd mereu alte sli() ntr-un
trziu tunelul se nfund cu o poart de oglind limpede i pur. Curnd naintar att de mult,
nct lumina care-i orbise nainte devenise ntuneric adnc fa de cea din fa. (Crtrescu:
C, 352-353).
A te proiecta n oglind nseamn a trece de partea cealalt, a iei din tine, a perfora
lumi i a genera labirinturi pentru a crea identitatea lui unu n sine nsui, construcie i
constructor n acelai timp. Fereastra camerei lui Mircea devine instrument de recuperare prin
intensificare: Spaiul galben al camerei devenea i mai galben adncindu-se-n uriaa
fereastr (Crtrescu: AS, 9). Desprind golul exterior de acela interior, fereastra reflect
spaiul luminat dinuntru, crend o falie n ntunericul de afar, dublnd, aruncnd n abis i
astfel intensificnd spaiul apropiat, interior.
ntlnirea cu geamnul nseamn autocunoatere prin specularitate la puterea a doua,
rupere a sinelui de sine i aruncare a sa n abisul identitii Celuilalt: Lumea noastr devenea
schizoid, cci ce se ntea cu adevrat acolo era Duplicarea, Ruptura. Suprafaa oglinzii ntre
doi embrioni vistori, fa-n fa, atingndu-i aproape frunile boltite enorm, privindu-se cu
ochi fumurii. Aveau s vin pe lume gemeni monozigoi, dar nstrinarea avea de fapt s se
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nasc() i deodat Victor simi o durere copleitoare() parc orb fiind de cnd se tia, i se
deschiseser brusc ochii, i o cascad de lumin pur, intens, alb ca heroina, i nghease
instantaneu creierul la vederea fratelui su, pe care pn-atunci l privise doar per specula in
enigmate,i pe care acum l zrea fa ctre fa(Crtrescu: AD, 568).
Labirintul, spaiu de locuire i auto-definire a eului, este creat prin perforarea lumilor
suprapuse: vis, imaginaie, memorie. Revenirea repetat la noduri (sau instrumente ale
perforrii) evenimente, fiine, obiecte - nu are rolul de a umple goluri, rezolva indeterminri,
ci de a re-poziiona, ex-poziiona, insolita i ntri semnificaii. Totul poate deveni fant,
fisur ntre aceste lumi n lumi: amurgul e un portal, liftul - o enigmatic poart spre vid
(Crtrescu: C 25), mama - era marea mea poart de trecere.Doar prin dreptul mamei se
putea iei, aa cum ieim, n clipa morii, prin locul din cretet, dintre patru oase-mbinate
(Crtrescu: C37).
Somnul poate genera spaima de abisul interior, vzut ca o falie n eul contient, n
suprafaa lui continuu perceptibil. Cderea n infernul subcontientului se realizeaz prin
gurirea imaginarului, trecerea dincolo de acesta: Ruptura de continuitate a eului meu mi
provoca o strngere acid n plexul solar. ce-aveam s m fac dac, tot cobornd i
cobornd n catacombele imaginarului, aveam s-i perforez adncul i s m trezesc ntre
idolii ngrozitori, mnjii de snge i sperm, ai arhetipurilor? (Crtrescu: AS, 32).
Reconfigurarea sinelui din deconstruirea realitii, reactualizarea sa n genomul unic i
repetitiv presupune vzul n ambele direcii de aici rolul mediator al obiectului-fant i al
fiinei-fant, de deschidere spre dou universuri diferite, dar complementare, incluzndu-se
unul pe altul prin medierea de ctre un al treilea fanta. Este procesul numit de Stphane
Lupasco dualism antagonic un dinamism n stare de potenializare i un altul n stare de
actualizare: actualizarea unuia implic potenializarea celuilalt (LUPASCO: 1983, 63).
Rezultatul este o fecund ntreptrundere a golului cu plinul, a exteriorului cu interiorul, a
cunoscutului cu necunoscutul, a ntunericului cu lumina: Era att de dulce s te dizolvi n
bezn. S fii bezna, fr de margini, fr de amintiri, bezn nuntru i n afar. Atunci
simeai ct de accidental, de inutil, de improvizat era lumea, unde orice lucru, orice istorie,
orice form i orice gnd ar fi putut fi i altfel, sau ar fi putut s nu fie. n acele clipe de vis
copilul iubea ntunericul total i aseptic, att de curat n smna lui c, de fapt, nu putea fi
deosebit de lumina total, orbitoare, a fiinei. Cci aici ochiul, organul care ne vorbete despre
lumin, trivializnd-o-n limba grosier a senzaiilor, era cu desvrire exclus. Nu de acea
lumin era vorba, i nu de acel ntuneric. Ci de bezna orbitoare, de lumina adnc a celor cu
cecitate psihic, cei ce nu-i pot imagina ce este vzul. Sau de felul n care un mort poate
percepe lumina i bezna. Sau o piatr, sau un nenscut. Bieelul se sclda-n ntuneric, l lsa
s-i curg nuntru i n afara trupului, vieii, minii, destinului su. Foarte trziu se smulgea
din starea aceea de plcere nelimitat i-i continua cltoria. Deschidea ua opus i se afla
pe coridor, clcnd pe preul moale de crpe, acum golite de culoare. Tios i oblic, pe un
perete, cdea lumina de lun. Deschidea ua camerei lui i rmnea n prag, cu ochii larg
deschii, pregtit s nfrunte intolerabilul (Crtrescu: AD, 98).
Fanta este i filtru orice discurs despre sine este o interpretare, o filtrare a
semnificaiilor, o verificare a puterii acestora de a recupera realul i a-l transforma n adevr
al fiinei. Timpul i spaiul copilriei devin astfel de filtre: fiecare vrst i fiecare cas este
un filtru deformndu-le pe cele anterioare, amtestecndu-se cu ele, fcndu-le benzile mai
nguste i mai eterogene (Crtrescu: AS, 17).
ntmplrile exterioare fiinei, golurile i plinurile spaiilor pe care memoria le
strbate, nu sunt dect imagini ale sinelui contemplndu-se avid n oglinzile nscute prin
595
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596
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deodat cu o for distrugtoare, topind totul n jur, volatiliznd personajele iluzorii ale crii
ce tocmai se termina, zburnd n ndri edificiul de cristal, spulbernd pmntul, constelaiile
i galaxiile ultrandeprtate, anihilnd structura spaiului, a timpului i a cauzalitii, aa nct
faa cealalt a covorului, doar contiin i numai lumin, izbucni i se reinstal acolo unde
fusese ntotdeauna, acolo unde n-avuserm ochi de vzut ca s-o vedem i urechi de auzit ca so auzim, nu n afar, ci n interior, nu n jurul estei, ci nuntrul ei, ntr-o lume dens, ntr-o
lumin dens, arznd orbitor, orbitor, orbitor (Crtrescu: AD, 571).
BIBLIOGRAFIE:
CRTRESCU, Mircea, Orbitor, vol. Aripa stng (AD), Corpul (C), Aripa dreapt
(AD), Bucureti, Humanitas, 2008.
Burgos, Jean, Pentru o poetic a imaginarului, Traducere de Gabriela Duda i Micaela
Gulea, Prefa de Gabriela Duda, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1988.
HEIDEGGER, Martin, Ontologie. Hermeneutica facticitii, Traducere din limba
german de Christian Ferencz-Flatz, Bucureti, Humanitas, 2008.
Lupaco, Stphane, Dialecticile energiei, n Logica dinamic a contradictoriului,
Cuvnt nainte de C-tin Noica, Selecie, traducere din limba francez i postfa de Vasile
Sporici, Ed. Politic, Bucureti, 1983.
Maingueneau, Dominique, Le Contexte de luvre littraire , Paris, Dunod, 1993.
MARTIN, Mircea, Generaie i creaie, Bucureti, EPL, 1969.
Samuels, Andrew, Shorter, Bani, Plaut, Fred, Dicionar critic al psihologiei analitice
jungiene, Traducere din englez i studiu introductiv de Corin Braga, Editura Humanitas,
2005.
Acest articol a fost redactat ca activitate tiinific n cadrul proiectului CCPE
POSDRU/159/1.5./S/140863, Cercettori competitivi pe plan european.
598
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Octavian Paler este scriitorul prin excelen confesiv, care i rostete fiina i destinul
n cuvntul totodat meditativ i liric. Fie c vorbim despre Aventuri solitare, fie de jurnal sau
de Deertul pentru totdeauna, scriitura sa este una care atrage prin decupajul de memorie i
prin amalgamul de triri receptate de critica literar destul de sumar, poate i datorit
contextului postcomunist, ct i unei coerene confesive, aflat n detrimentul operei. Totui,
Nicolae Manolescu evideniaz latura profund de a fi a autorului: i place s se refere la
Montaigne care i scria eseurile n biblioteca din turnul unde se retrgea, care avea ns
ferestre de jur mprejur. Dac scrisorile sunt adresate apropiailor ntru iubire, singurtate i
nelepciune, precum Unamuno sau Camus (de la Paler a deprins, mai degrab dect de la
Montaigne, pe lng unele idei, arta nsi a eseului),1
Scrisori imaginare este un volum de 21 de scrisori fictive, adresate unor personaliti
de seam ale culturii i literaturii. Nicolae Oprea este de prere, c aceste scrieri nsumeaz a
serie de epistole fictive adresate unor spirite afine2
Volumul Poeme este un volum de poezii, care apare i n varianta individual, fr
eseurile din Scrisori imaginare, dar volumul de epistole nu apare separat fr poeziile
alturate.
n aceast lucrare vom dezbate o analiz descriptiv-analitic asupra volumului de
poezii Poeme i celui de eseuri Scrisori imaginare, propunnd o lectur comparativ a celor
dou opere.
Aceast interdependen este poate o caracteristic foarte aparte n literatura romn.
Astfel analiza noastr va viza cele dou volume mpreun. Necesitatea analizei n paralel
asupra acestor dou volume este confirmat de nsui autorul lor:
1
2
Nicolae, Manolescu, Istoria critic a literaturii romne 5 secole de literatur, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2008, p. 1176.
Nicolae, Oprea, Opera i scriitorul, Colecia Deschideri, Seria Eseuri, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2001, p. 113.
599
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atracie, druire i nevoie de posesiune fa de persoane, valori culturale, fiine sau lucruri,
conducnd la elaborarea creatoare a valorilor i la destinuirea individului, prin nzuina de
identificare cu realitatea i intuirea armoniei universale9, putem evidenia c numai pentru
Octavian Paler principalul element de referin este iubirea, ci, i pentru ali autori,
teoreticieni. n procesul de crearea a lumii n devenire un element unificator este iubirea,
deoarece prin acesta s-a creat din Haos, Cosmos.10 Dac avem n vedere teoria lui Jose Ortega
y Gasset atunci ajungem la concluzia c prin iubire, care este un elan care se ivete din cea
mai adnc subteran a persoanei noastre11 ajungem la esen. Pornind din aceste teorii
ajungem la concluzia c n toate cele 21 de scrisori tema general-valabil este iubirea, pentru
c solitudinea poate fi combtut prin iubire, acceptare, iar nelepciunea nu-i poate atinge
apogeul fr iubire.
Primul eseu se ntituleaz ntia iubire Scrisoare domnului Unamuno; n aceast
scriere Octavian Paler remarc faptul c, Miguel de Unamuno n cartea lui, Viaa lui Don
Quijote i Sancho Panza pornete n cutarea mormntului cavalerului. Cei doi scriitori au
avut o admiraie aparte pentru Don Quijote, acest lucru fiind recunoscut n multe scrieri ale lui
Paler:
s declar c-l iubesc tot att de mult ct i dumneavoastr pe Cavalerul nostru. Al
nostru, adic al celor care, n fond, nu l-am dispreuit niciodat, chiar cnd am greit
ndoindu-ne de el, i n-am socotit c ar trebui internat ntr-un spital pentru a fi vindecat de
iluziile sale.12
Cu aceast admiraie pornete analiza ideilor lui Paler i Unamuno i ajung la un
moment dat la analize multiple:
Vorba dumneavoastr, domnul Unamuno, acela care sufer triete i cel care triete
iubete i sper chiar dac deasupra porii sale scrie Lasciate ogni speranza. i, poate, ceea ce
ni se cere n primul rnd nu e att curajul de a ridica piramide, ct curajul de a crede n
ele.13Aceast credin este tocmai ceea ce unete admiraia celor doi scriitoti pentru cavaler
i cutarea identitii a stelei strlucitoare, ceea ce Don Quijote a gsit deja, iar odat cu
gsirea acestei strluciri ar putea oricare individ, iubi cu adevrat aa cum a reuit personajul
lui Cervates, pentru c O dragoste adevrat e mai mult dect o iluzie.14
Dup acest eseu este plasat poezia, Aceeai vrst, n care poetul se identific cu
vrsta lui Don Quijote: Am exact vrsta la care Don Quijote i-a nceput aventurile,/ am
aceeai vrst i iubesc lumea la fel [. . .] Am aceeai vrst cu Don Quijote i drumul mateapt/ i n afar de un scutier, de Rosinante i de morile sale de vnt/ nu-mi mai lipsete
nimic.15 Prin aceast confesiune poetul i nsuete statutul de cltor, i asum din nou
condiia de cltor, pentru care cltoria nseamn autocunoatere, confruntare cu sine icu
dilemele sale.16, care crede n aventuri, n strlucirea interioar, n drumul ales i e contient
de faptul, c orice aventurier are nevoie de speran pentru a putea duce la bun sfrit
Ion, Biberi, Eros, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1974, p. 33.
Cf. Carmen, Mirela, Bleaunu, Eros i Thanatos n proza fantastic romneasc, Editura TipoMoldova, p. 13.
11
Jose Ortega y Gasset, Studii despre iubire, Traducere de Sorin Mrculescu, editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1991, p. 62.
12
Octavian, Paler, Scrisori imaginare, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2010, p. 10.
13
Idem, p. 17.
14
Idem, p. 19.
15
Idem, p. 22.
16
Nicolae, Oprea, op.cit., p. 113.
9
10
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misiunea. Misiunea lui ca i poet este poate de a rspndi strlucirea din adncul inimii sale
prin care oricine poate primi o frm de speran i iluzie.
Ultimul vers al poemului aduce o noutate fa de ideile anterioare i anume faptul c
poetul mrturisete c totui i lipsete ceva fa de Don Quijote. Faptul c el s-a nscut dup
Descartes, poate sugera c nu poate rmne un aventurier n toat puterea cuvntului pentru
c, pe lng statutul lui de aventurier, el este i un gnditor, un om raional, i nu n ultimul
rnd, un om care din cnd n cnd se mai i ndoiete, conform lui Descartes, avnd i anumite
vise pe care le va realiza prin intermediul urmtoarelor concepte: Cogito ergo sum,
autoanaliz, indoial, iubire, speran, autoreflectare, aventur.
Al doilea eseu este A doua iubire Scrisoare domnului Hlderlin, aici nu avem eseul
propriu-zis doar poezia, n care Octavian Paler ncepe cu o ntrebare retoric citat din opera
lui Hlderlin: Ai scris undeva ntr-un vers: La ce bun poetul, n vreme de secat?.17 La
aceast ntrebare Octavian Paler rspunde adevratul curaj al poeziei nu este s cnte ploile
cnd toat lumea le vede, adevratul ei curaj e s vad cerul prjolit i s spere. i nainte de a
fi ploaie adevrat care ud cmpiile, ploaia s fie speran i cntec.18 Poetul are menirea de
a da ploaie, de a oferi omenirii sperana, poetul trebuie s fie un profet al speranei 19 i
poezia lui s se transforme ntr-o form a speranei. Metafora ploii are valene multiple
deoarece ntr-un studiu, Maurice Blanchot susine, c Hlderlin, vrea s scape de forma sa,
de limitele sale, pentru a se uni cu natura.20 Aceast unire poate fi perceput la nivelul
materiei originare al apei, dttoare de via, care la Hlderlin poate fi atribuit naterii, adic
nu numai la nivel primordial, ci, i la nivelul acelei ape, care constituie locul natal. Aici avem
contactul direct cu Octavian Paler pentru care Lisa natal este acel loc care e sursa tuturor
simbolurilor.
Unirea cu natura este vzut de ctre Gaston Bachelard, o iubire n totalitatea ei, fr
s tim de ce, sentimentul pentru natur este att de durabil n anumite suflete, tocmai pentru
c, n forma sa originar, el este la originea tuturor sentimentelor. E sentimentul filial. Toate
formele de iubire cuprind un element de iubire fa de o mam. Natura este pentru omul adult
[. . .] o mam atoatecuprinztoare, etern i proiectat n infinit. Sentimentul, natur este o
proiecie a mamei21. Astfel unirea cu natura este un lucru firesc pentru orice creator de art.
Pentru Octavian Paler natura este strns legat de simbolul apei, care e elementul originar,
care pentru poet poate fi interpretat ca natura mam dttoare de via, i n acelai timp e i
spaiul sacru al naterii, satul natal, Lisa.
Principalele coordonate ale poeziei lui Octavian Paler intitulate, Scrisoare domnului
Hlderlin sunt: poetul are menirea de a cnta sperana prin poeziile sale, aceasta speran
poate fi atribuit simbolului apei. Din aceea cauza tocmai apa este elementul predominant,
pentru c apa are foarte multe ipostaze, in multe scriei ale autorului: apa-mam, apaelementul primordial al creaiei, apa-sperana pur, apa-hran pentru toate fiinele lumii, apahran sufleteasc-speran.
Ca i concluzie, n poemul Scrisoare domnului Hlderlin, de accea trebuie ca tocmai
poetul s cnte ploile pentru c creatorul de art este poate singurul care are harul de a da o
und de speran omenirii prin arta pur, prin opera de art, care poate oferi adevratul
catharsis al sufletului omenesc.
Al treilea eseu A treia iubire Scrisoare domnului Camus, se concentreaz asupra
mitului lui Sisif, fiind unul din miturile cele mai preferate de Octavian Paler i, tocmai de
17
Idem, p. 23.
Idem, p. 23.
Idem, p. 23.
20
Maurice, Blanchot, Spaiul literar, Traducere de Irina Mavrodin, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 2007, p. 357.
21
Gaston, Bachelard, Apa i visele, Eseu despre imaginaia materiei, Traducere de Irina Mavrodin, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1995, p. 131.
18
19
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aceea, se adereseaz prin aceast scrisoare, tip eseu lui Albert Camus pentru, c i el s-a
ocupat de Sisif, n lucrarea Mitul lui Sisif. Consultnd orice dicionar mitologic, aflm c Sisif
avea o inteligen extraordinar i aceata l-a ajutat s obin numeroase beneficii n toate
aspectele vieii. n schimb, Albert Camus vede n Sisif eroul absurd, deoarece este condamnat
s urce nencetat o stnc n vrful muntelui i apoi s i atepte coborrea. Repovestind mitul
lui Sisif, Camus creeaz o imagine extrem de puternica cu o for imaginativ care nsumeaz
intr-un mod emoionant coninutul discuiei intelectuale care o preceda n carte. Ni se spune
ca Sisif este eroul absurd, att prin pasiunile sale, ct i prin torturile sale. Dispreul su fa
de zei, ura sa fa de moarte, i pasiunea sa pentru via i-au adus acea ngrozitoare pedeaps
n care ntreaga sa fiin este muncit fr nici un rezultat22. Sisif este contient de acest
blestem, i tocmai n aceasta const tragedia sa. Nu e adevrat c, n timpul coborrii, el
nutrea sperana c va reui totui, c munca sa l va elibera de chinuri. ns Sisif este n mod
evident contient de dimensiunile propriei sale nefericiri. Tocmai aceast contientizare lucid
a destinului su transform chinul su ntr-o victorie. Aceasta trebuie s fie o victorie
deoarece nsui Camus spune:
l prsesc pe Sisif la baza muntelui. ntotdeauna cineva i poate gsi din nou povara.
ns Sisif ne nva ce nseamn adevrata fidelitate care neaga zeii si nalt stncile. i el de
asemenea trage concluzia c totul este bine. Universul de acum nainte fr stpn nu i mai
pare nici steril, nici inutil. Fiecare atom al acelei stnci, fiecare col mineral al acelui munte
ntunecat constituie o lume n sine nsui. Lupta nsi nspre nlimi este suficient pentru a
umple inima unui om. Trebuie s ni-l imaginm pe Sisif fericit.23 Viaa i chinul lui Sisif
sunt transformate ntr-o victorie, concentrndu-se asupra libertii sale, asupra refuzului de a
spera, i asupra contiinei absurdului acestei situaii. n acelai mod, Dr. Rieux este un erou
absurd n Ciuma, deoarece i el este condamnat la moarte, i el este prins ntr-un chin fr
sfrit i, asemenea lui Sisif, el continu s ii fac datoria, indiferent ct de nesemnificativ
este aciunea sa. n ambele cazuri conteaz puin pentru ce motiv anume ei continu s lupte
atta vreme, ct aceasta mrturie este pentru ncrederea omului n om i nu n abstracii i
absoluturi.
n Mitul lui Sisif se pot identifica bazele filosofice ale strinului, doctorului etc.
Acesta constituie punctul de plecare pentru gndirea lui Camus. El este preocupat aici, ca si in
alte opere ale sale, de oamenii i lumea lor, de relaiile dintre acetia, si de relaiile dintre
oameni i istoria lor personal. n Mitul lui Sisif, el se opune raionalismului filosofiei clasice,
care caut adevrurile eterne i universale sau o ierarhie de valori care este ncoronat de
Dumnezeu; el crede c adevrul se poate gsi printr-o intensitate subiectiv a pasiunii; el
susine ca individul este ntotdeauna liber i nconjurat de opiuni; el recunoate c oamenii
exist n lume i sunt legai n mod natural de aceasta; el este adnc preocupat de semnificaia
morii, de caracterul su inevitabil i de finalitatea sa. Absurdul este o revolt mpotriva zilei
de mine i astfel se mpac cu clipa prezent. Sinuciderea consimte c absurdul este final i
fr limite, n timp ce revolta este o lupt nencetat cu absurdul i aduce cu sine mntuirea
omului.
Putem vedea acum de ce Sisif este eroul absurd. El este contient de dificultatea
situaiei sale? Dispreul su fa de zei, ura sa fa de moarte, i pasiunea lui pentru via i-au
adus condamnarea de a rostogoli o stnc n vrful muntelui pe vecie, i el nu apeleaz nici la
speran i nici la vreun zeu nesigur. El este absurdul ultim, deoarece nu exist moarte la
captul luptei. Totul nu este haos; experiena absurdului este dovada unicitii omului i
fundamentul demnitii si libertii sale.
Albert, Camus, Faa si reversul, Nunta, Mitul lui Sisif, Omul revoltat, Vara, trad de Irina Mavrodin, Mihaela Simion, Modest Moraru,
Editura Rao, Bucureti, 2009, p. 214.
23
Albert, Camus, op.cit, p. 216.
22
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Tot ceea ce rmne este soarta al crei rezultat este fatal. n afara acestei singure
fataliti a morii, totul, fericire sau bucurie, este libertate. Rmne o lume n care omul este
singurul stpn. Ceea ce l leg era iluzia unei alte lumi. Rezultatul gndirii sale, ncetnd s
fie fr speran, nflorete n imagini. Ea se bucura n mituri, cu sigurana, ns miturile cu
nici o alt dimensiune dect suferina uman i de aceea ea, este inepuizabil. Oamenii, ar
trebui, cu siguran, s reflecteze la miturile reconstruite n opera lui Camus. Octavian Paler
redefinete interpretarea lui Camus despre Sisif i adaug iubirea de via, considerat,
principala coordonat a vieii lui Sisif, tiind c vom muri, s gsim aici un argument pentru
a iubi i mai mult viaa24 O alt idee important n eseul autorului este urmtoarea:
M-am ntrebat atunci dac nu cumva e nevoie s suferim ca s discutm serios
despre fericire. Dac nu cumva drumul spre Paradis trece obligatoriu prin Infern. Numai cel
care a cunoscut dezndejdea poate nelege violena luminii din pictura lui Van Gogh. i
poate c Van Gogh ne cere nu att s cunoatem legile artei, ct legile suferinei. Cine a
cobort, o dat n Infern, va ti s preuiasc un rsrit de soare.25
Prin aceast invitaie la meditaie ajungem la poezia Nopile, n care noaptea este
simbolul, metafora central, care poate fi atribuit, Infernului lui Dante. n schimb aici
noaptea, poate fi i ntunericul, care nu are o conotaie tocmai negativ al unui nsingurat, care
se gndete mereu la iubita lui i are impresia c iubirea lor ntotdeauna a fost presat de timp
i de noapte, totdeauna pe ntuneric i ameninai totdeauna,/ mbriai sub ghilotina
mereu,/ totdeauna obsedai de timp i de noapte,.26 Urmtorul vers al poeziei, bntuii de
umbre n care ne recunoatem pe noi ilustreaz existena dual a fiinei omeneti, care
ntotdeauna trebuie s se raporteze la el nsui, dar, ntotdeauna se multiplic prin gnd.
Imaginea Genezei Universului este amintit, n urmtorul vers, care face referiri la prima
noapte a lumii. Aceast prim noapte ne introduce n vremurile primordiale, unde nu a existat
nc lumin. Lumina n toat lirica lui Octavian Paler, poate fi urmrit, ceea ce l face, un
adept al filosofiei blagiene. Antonimiile prima noapte- sfritul iubirii poate sugera
circularitatea Universului, al vieii, de care este de fapt ndrgostit Paler, de lumina vieii, de
mare, de soare , de nisip. Prin aceste elemente, ne cluzete la opera lui, Aventuri solitare,
unde dezbate iubirea lui nemrginit pentru ap-nisip-soare. Dragostea aceasta, care este
prezentat, confrom unei iubiri fat de o iubit, poate fi asociat dragostei de via, care
niciodat nu are limite, dac vorbim de Paler i sperana, care chiar dac ctoodat dispare,
amenint, niciodat nu poate fi suflat din sufletul autorului, care este un romantic nnscut.
Ultimele versuri ale poemului i totui dac va muri vreodat dragostea noastr,/ va muri nu
din pricina nopii,/ ci din pricin c noi nine am ameninat-o prea mult.27 sugereaz c
sperana, iubirea fa de aceast via nu are cum s se termine, iar dac vreodat se va sfri
acesta depinde numai de noi nine, aceste gnduri lirice dobndesc o autocunoatere
desvrit.
Eseul al patrulea din volumul Scrisori imaginare, este A patra iubire Scrisoare
domnului Zweig, unde autorul mrturisete:
c ntreaga mea experien de via m-a adus nu printre cei care au neles viaa, ci
printre cei care o iubesc. [. . . ] Vine o vrst cnd, ne dm seama, c un destin ratat a nceput
24
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totdeauna, prin a nu mai iubi nimic sau prin a iubi ru i, poate, n-avem nevoie de alt
nelepciune, pentru a ne apra de cei, ce pretind c trim ntr-o lume, fr speran i fr
sens; c nu merit s trim dect pentru a dispera pn la capt; i c e timpul, s auzim n
propriile noastre declaraii de dragoste sunetul nisipului. Existm nu pentru a plvrgii
despre absurditatea lumii, ci pentru a ne da o justificare. i uneori, e de ajuns duioia unui cer
de primvar, ca s ne reamintim acest lucru.28
Aceast meditaie, pe tema iubirii, scoate n eviden adevratele valori, asupra crora,
se va dezbate aceast eseu.
Urmtoarele idei, aeaz n relaie de antinomie, anumite stri, personaje literare,
istorice i nu n ultimul rnd interpretrile dilematice ale lui Octavian Paler, adic Ignacio de
Loyola Casanova, pustiu bordel, sfini escroci, nvini - nvingtori. Prin aceste
elemente aezate n contrast, dorete s scoat n eviden, latura romantic a gndirii lui, i
nu n ultimul rnd aspectele eseniale ale unei meditaii subiective. Acestei meditaii
subiective, i putem atribui versurile, care urmeaz acest eseu: Ceilali lupi m-ar sfia dac
ar ti/ c urletul meu e n realitate un plns. 29. n aceste versuri gsim o alt pereche de
antonime: urlet- plns, care accentueaz i mai mult latura romantic a autorului. Titlui
poemului, Impostur, creeaz legtura cu Casanova i Don Juan a cror via la nivel spiritual
poate fi o neltorie, deoarece Octavian Paler, nu consider aceste personaje legendare nite
nvingtori. Are impresia, c doar din punctul lor de vedere sunt nvingtori, sau eventual, din
unghiul de vedere al societii superficiale, care a fost vrjit de magismul acestor personaje,
dar, n realitate, aceti aventurieri erau nite nefericii care nu-i puteau gsi fericirea alturi
de nimeni, pentru c nu puteau tri adncimile vieii.
n urmtorul eseu, A cincea iubire Scrisoare domnului Loti, Octavian Paler
evideniaz latura de aventurier a autorului Pierre Loti, care poate fi comparat cu marii
aventurieri ai istoriei, Don Juan i Don Quijote. Evideniaz asemnrile i deosebirile dintre
autor i cei doi aventurieri, ajungnd la concluzia, c, chiar i Don Juan poate fi trdat i
singura lui justificare, ar fi apropierea lui de Don Quijote, Ar fi ciudat s auzim vorbindu-se
ntr-o zi despre cele 1003 mori de vnt ale lui Don Quijote.30 Prin aceast afirmaie, autorul
las deschis irul gndurilor, asemnrilor i deosebirilor dintre Loti, Don Juan i Don Quijote
lsnd libertate de interpretare cititorului. Dar totui mai altur, i acestui eseu un poem cu
titlul, Jocul. Deja titlul ne poate da o suit de semnificaii i legturi cu eseul anterior,
deoarece eroii, aventurieri amintii, n eseu vedeau lumea, viaa sub forma unui joc continuu,
fr sfrit i inepuizabil din punct de vedere al aventurilor. n primele versuri ale poeziei,
poetul, dintr-o scoic i cteva pietre, dorete s cldeasc o mare i un rm unde s stau pe
nisip31, dar devine contient, de faptul c, aceast ambiie a lui este imposibil. n afar de
aceste cteva elemente, mai are la dispoziie un nume ciudat, care nu este neles de nimeni.
Aici face referire la modul lui de a fi i la modul lui de a gndi ciudat, care nu era receptat
de lumea nconjurtoare tocmai ntr-un mod pozitiv. Poate va ajunge ca nici el s nu se mai
neleag ntr-o zi. Urmtoarele versuri, Srbtoarea s-a terminat,/ mi atept pedeapsa lng
tribunele goale32 pot fi imaginea ultimei zile din viaa real al autorului, cnd nu mai are
speran, din cauza aceea s-a terminat srbtoarea, tribuna e goal, acei oameni, care ar trebui
poate s-l judece lipsesc, dar eu am vzut arznd la amiaz un nor/ i-am auzit cntecul care
ngenunchea caii slbatici,/ i spun, rmul acela nu-i simpl poveste,/ au am vzut norul i-
28
Idem, p. 41
Octavian, Paler, op. cit, p. 49.
Ibidem, p. 60.
31
Ibidem, p. 61.
32
Ibidem, p. 61.
29
30
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am ascultat cntecul/ i inainte de a m nvinge/ soarele m-a fcut fericit.33, aceste versuri
justific, credina poetului, n viaa de dincolo, credina lui, c dup ce sperana de pe acest
pmnt dispare, undeva departe, deasupra acelori nori, pe acel rm va exista fericire,
deoarece exist soare-lumin.
Urmtorul eseu, A asea iubire Scrisoare domnului Burckhart, analizeaz rolul
Parthenonului n istoria culturii, interpretarea acestui monument istoric, i pune foarte multe
ntrebri despre istorie, despre cum au prezentat unii istorici aceste evenimente i se ntreab,
dac ntr-adevr, noi trebuie s ne ghidm, dup analizele lor.
Pe tot parcursul eseului analizeaz evenimente culturale, istorice, mitologice dar
aceast meditaie ntotdeauna ajunge la latura introspeciei, cnd naratorul se autoadreseaz i
i dezvluie adevratele ntrebri la care dorete s primeasc rspuns, dar, e contient de
faptul c rspunsurile se ascund nluntrul su. Are certitudinea c monumentele istorice,
personajele istorice, mitologice, statuele ascund un trecut plin de culoare, marmura nu indic
o monotonie, materia prim al statuetelor este doar o masc ceea ce ascunde o lume cromatic
din toate punctele de vedere.
Octavian Paler afirm, ca i Oscar Wilde, c grecii ne ndemn, s schimbm maxima
spat de ei n marmur, Cunoate-te pe tine nsui!, cu o alta: Fii tu nsui!34, prin aceast
schimbare putem urma sfatul lor i putem descoperi c Pantheonul are un rol n prezent, i
anume, de a ne gndi la noi nine, nu numai la trecut, de a gndi c Afrodita nu este numai
zeia frumuseii, ci i zeia iubirii. Concluzia acestui eseu este transmis prin gndurile
autorului, Astfel neleg de ce toi cei care au vrut s distrug Parthenonul n-au reuit dect
s-l fac s vorbeasc mai limpede. Ca i marea, ca i soarele, el ne determin s privim mai
atent lucrurile din jur. [. . .] Cu ochii orbii de lumin voi spera s aflu un sens Pantheonului,
acolo unde singurii sculptori i arhiteci au fost marea, vntul i timpul.35
Poemul care i se altur acestui eseu este, Venus din Milo. n aceast poezie, apar
elemente primordiale: psrile ip ca la nceputul lumii, oamenii nva primele cuvinte,
naintea cuvintelor i naintea tuturor/ rnilor; trebuie s existe o tcere egal/ cu toate
cuvintele., apa limpede. Aceste elemente ne sugereaz o ntoarcere la Genez unde a
existat cuvntul cel dinti, care avea aceea putere de a spune totul; n acelai timp a existat
i apa limpede, care a avut puterea, de a spla totul, sau, a fost prezent tcerea, care are
egal cu toate cuvintele. Toate aceste elemente primordiale sunt undeva pe o insul, dar
unde exist aceast insul? Credina poetului n existena acestei insule poate fi justificat prin
verbul trebuie. Prin acest verb, poetul dorete s ne conving, de anumite lucruri, dar, n
acelai timp vrea s se conving pe sine. n cutarea acestei insule, prin ntrebrile puse
domnului Gauguin, poetul ne i rspunde tot cu o ntrebare: Unde este aceast insul dac nu
n noi nine? Cutarea de sine, este pentru Paler i n aceast oper un act narcisic, o
autopersiflare prin care poate avea cunotin profund de lume. Urmtoarele versuri se
concentreaz pe ntrebri referitoare la Pantheon i sculptura lui Venus din Milo, dac
omenire e de vin, c aceste obiecte de art au fost concepute, i din acel moment al
conceperii lor, perfeciunea a cptat alte dimensiuni: nu ne d un rspuns meditatorul nostru.
Ultima iubire din ciclul celor apte iubire este, A aptea iubire Scrisoare domnului
Chamfort, acest scriitor francez, neag totul, inclusiv iubirea, iar prin aceast negare, ajunge
s drme totul, S-ar zice c n clipa cnd am uita toate cuvintele i am deveni mui am
ajunge n faa lui Dumnezeu sau am deveni noi nine Dumnezeu. Dar n-am deveni dect nite
33
34
35
Ibidem, p. 61.
Cf. Otavian, Paler, op.cit., p. 70.
Otavian, Paler, op.cit., p. 76.
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oameni fr speran.36. Octavian Paler vrea s rmn un om cu speran, din moment ce,
iubete viaa, marea, soarele, cuvintele, tcerea., Nu tiu dac ai fost vreodat dimineaa
devreme pe rmul mrii, cnd din negurile cenuii ale nopii se desprind treptat i capt
valutile, nisipul, se desprind treptat i capt contur valurile, nisipul, stncile, cerul,
pescruii.37 Concluzia pe care ne-o transmite aceast scrisoare imaginar este: Lumea nu e,
desigur, un produs al cuvintelor i ne putem apropia de lucruri i n tcere. Cu condiia, cred,
s le iubim. Cci a renuna la dreptul de a iubi nseamn, poate, a renuna, chiar s avem
dreptate.38 Poezia alturat acestui eseu este Digul. n acest poem, elementul principal este
apa, deoarece digul este o opritoare a apelor, iar dac vorbim de poetul Octavian Paler avem
certitudinea, c apa este un element esenial al vieii.
Urmtorul ciclu de apte eseuri sunt cele apte singurti, n care autorul se adreseaz
altor personaliti de seam, dup cum ar fi, Rilke, Rousseau, Proust, Pavese, Wilde, Wells,
Kafka.
ntia singurtate, este o confesiune adresat lui Rilke, care pare a fi mai degrab o
ncercare, de a iei din capcana singurtii, prin dialog. Solitudinea, este o tem frecvent, n
opera lui Octavian Paler, semn al unui temperament meloncolic, nclinat s priveasc lumea
din afara ei. O soluie, pentru a putea iei, din ghearele singurtii, propus de autor, este
amintirea, ca experien a recuperrii timpului pierdut, trecut. Axa cea mai important al
acestui eseu este Drumul care ne deprteaz de lume ne deprteaz i de noi nine. Am
nevoie s cred n mine, domnule Rilke, dar tiu c nu voi putea ajunge acolo unde s fiu eu
nsumi dect fiind solidar cu cei care iubesc aceleai lucruri ca i mine. Nu putem tri singuri
i toat singurtatea mea nu m-a nvat dect fiind solidar cu cei care iubesc aceleai lucruri
ca i mine. Nu putem tri singuri i toat singurtatea mea nu m-a nvat dect s caut, chiat
nluntrul ei, nceputul unei adevrate solidariti. Exist oameni singuri, dar nu exist omul
singur. Exilat n munii din suflet, probabil asta ai vrut s ne spunei sftuindu-ne s iubim
pericolele care exist.39
Poemul eseului adresat, lui Rilke i ntitulat Singurtate, strbate ca un ecou propriile
noastre solitudini: Voi care v ntoarcei acas/ i dup ce-ai nchis ua/ spunei bun
seara/ voi nu tii ce-nseamn s intri pe o u tcnd.40
Eseului A doua singurtate Scrisoare domnului Rousseau, i este alturat poemul,
Noaptea Sfntului Bartolomeu, n care poetul se simte bntuit de istorie i atept s
nvleasc vntul n cas,/ s m omoare din pricina melancoliilor mele.41
A treia singurtate, sau Scrisoare domnului Proust, se raporteaz la singurtate din
prisma memoriei, care ar putea fi o posibil salvare din ghearele solitudinii. Aceast
problematic a memoriei, este filtrat, prin viziune proustian i prin alegorizarea anumitor
istorisiri. Tot eseul este o autoreflecie, o autoanaliz pe baza experienelor trite, auzite i
experimentate direct, prin intermediul vieii, sau indirect, prin intermediul lecturii. Analiza
eseului, se nvrte n jurul memoriei, n jurul amintirilor, care pentru Octavian Paler nu par
inocente. ntoarcerea autorului, ctre el nsui, ctre labirintul din el nu este o experien
tocmai fr team. Asemnarea dintre autor i Proust se face pe baza acestei ntoarceri la
labirintul intern al memoriei, unde Proust s-a ntors n cutarea timpului pierdut i a reuit, s
sustrag timpul, care trece nencetat, dar, pentru Octavian Paler memoria seamn cu un lup,
care n orice moment, e pregtit s sar, sau poate c aceast memorie este un destin nedrept.
36
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SECTION: LITERATURE
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ns nu e chiar att de simplu s-i caui sprijin n afara memoriei.42- afirm autorul, care
nopile aude urletele lupilor, dar aceste urlete par a fi doar vocile intrerioare ale eului creator,
care bntuie sufletul lui.
Poemul care se atribuie, acestei scrisori imaginare, este Memorie, unde poetul
mrturisete c o pasre-mi trece noaptea prin somn43, iar aceast pasre are o singur arip,
cealalt s-a transformat n lan. Acest animal nu poate zbura, totui, cu aripa rmas sper, iar
pe cealalt, transformat, trte n zbor noaptea. Dimineaa, aceai pasre, este gsit
rstingit n acelai loc unde seara/ am lsat-o/ lovindu-i lanul cu aripa. Aceast imagine
sugereaz acea dualitate a fiinei umane, care chiar dac, i e foarte greu, sper, ncercnd
ntotdeauna un salt, un progres, dar din moment ce cineva/ ceva ncearc s-l opreasc, prin
nlnuire, nu mai poate mica, rmne static.
Drumul singurtii, este mult mai lung la Octavian Paler, dect drumul iubirii,
deoarece este mult mai anevoios, acest lucru poate fi demonstrat n urmtoarele patru scrisori
ctre Pavese, Wilde, Wells i Kafka unde solitudinea devine apstoare i chiar cteodat
pare, c nu mai exist ansa de ntoarcere din acest cenuiu existenial, unde, parc, a ars ceva
din sufletul autorului. Dac n eseul adresat lui lui Pavese, se vorbete despre sinucidere,
moarte, atunci n urmtoarea scrisoare, adresat lui Wilde, este vorba despre tablourile lui
Goya, care ilustreaz o lume plin de spnzurtoare, de snge, de oameni mpucai, de carne
zdrobit, de nebuni care rd i de alii, care omoar. Dup prezentarea acestei lumi, nu tocmai
plcute, autorul mediteaz pe diferite teme ajungnd s pun ntrebarea Trebuie s facem
experiene dureroase pentru a ajunge la arta cea mai adevrat?44 La aceast interogaie ne
ofer un rspuns Octavian Paler, dar, nu concluzionnd, lsnd libertate cititorului, ne relev
c prin experiena fericirii, putem dobndi curaj, nu avem nevoie de experiene att de
dureroase.
Urmtoarea scrisoare ilustreaz o lume a irealului, a fanteziei, a science- fiction-ului,
care pentru autor este o lume interensant ca obiect al lecturii, dar att i nimic mai mult,
deoarece poate ceea ce este inexplicabil sau imposibil, caut alte explicaii dect explicaii
umane.45
n ultima scrisoare din acest ciclu, adresat domnului Kafka, avem o prezentare
analogic dintre cele dou procese: cel al lui Socrate i cel al lui Kafa, analogie posibil, doar
n planul ideilor, deoarece vorbim de dou universuri dimensionale diferite, unul situat n
planul real, iar cellalt, n planul ficiunii.
Poemele acestor scrisori imaginare, sunt Lecie inutil de logic, Moartea lui Socrate,
Focul i Moartea cuvintelor. n primul poem amintit, poetul descrie drumul vieii, al
destinului, prin care fiecare individ pleac i sosete undeva, acest proces este unul logic,
atunci devine ilogic cnd nu mai sosete nicieri ...Spre ce ne ducem/ dac nu sosim
nicieri?46.
Urmtorul poem, Moartea lui Socrate, prezint solitudinea dat ca o sentin a vieii,
tcerea care mbtrnete sufletul, din acele vorbe, care nu puteau fi spuse, se scutur tcerea.
Ideea iniiat n acest poem este continuat n urmtorul, Focul, unde poetul neag c focul ar
fi fost descoperit, prin lovirea a dou pietre, i susine c ar fi aprut altfel, cnd singurtatea
primului om/ s-a lovit de prima ntrebare/ cnd un om s-a gndit s prefac rnile lui n
speran.47 Concluzia acestei descoperiri este cutremurtoare Poate focul n-a fost dect un
42
Ibidem, p. 137.
Ibidem, p. 138.
44
Ibidem, p. 165.
45
Ibidem, p. 169.
46
Ibidem, p. 152.
47
Ibidem, p. 180.
43
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SECTION: LITERATURE
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mijloc de a lupta mpotriva/ cenuii/ cnd vulturii coboar n noi/ i ne temem. 48 Ideea c
focul ar fi doar un mijloc de a lupta mpotriva cenuii, afieaz imaginea pasrii Phoenix,
autoincendierea acestui personaj mitologic i renaterea lui din propria cenu, poate fi
atribui poetului, care prin catharsis are experiena de autodefinire continu, iar prin aceasta
ajungem la axa central a filosofiei lui Octavian Paler, sperana, autocunoaterea prin
cunoaterea lumii, prin iubire.
Ultimul poem al acestui ciclu, Moartea cuvintelor, n mod simbolic ilustreaz o lume
transformat n nisip, aceast transformare poate fi o ntoarecere la necuvinte, o reiterare pe
drumul iniial al exitenei i n acelai timp a asociere cu opera, Cartea de nisip al lui Jorge
Luis Borges, unde autorul din Buenos Aires ilustreaz un eu- rob al cuvintelor ca i Octavian
Paler.
Ultimul ciclu al acestor scrisori este, Cartea nelepciunilor, unde Paler ilustreaz
conceptul de sophianism tot prin apte scrisori adresate lui Lucius Annaeus Seneca,
Descartes, Erasm, Pascal, Gide, Flaubert i Blaga.
Prima epistol, ilustreaz o problematic mai veche, propus i n alte lucrri ale lui
Paler i anume apropierea de nelepciune i tiranie. n acest eseu, autorul i adreseaz lui
Seneca, foarte multe ntrebri la care el nu gsete rspuns, i prin care, dorete s scoat n
eviden, faptul c, chiar dac Seneca era contient de crimele i viaa de monstru a lui Nero,
totui a stat lng el, parc i-ar fi susinut aceast atitudine bizar a mpratului. Interogaiile
devin din ce n ce mai personale pe parcursul scrisorii i astfel i tensiunea crete, astfel eseul
capt un ton moralizator, ascunznd mesajul unei parabole actuale.
Urmtorul eseu se adreseaz lui Descartes, unde Octavian Paler dezbate ideea
ndoielii, a certitudinii i a raiunii, coordonate pe care le vizeaz Descartes n gndirea sa
filosofic. Se face referire la gndirea raional, la A gndi liber e mare lucru. A gndi
corect e i mai mare lucru49, la libertatea corectitudinii, ca parte a fericirii, la raiunea proprie
a fiecrui individ etc. Prin aceast scrisoare, ajungem la concluzia, c Octavian Paler crede n
raiune, dar el ca i om, creator are menirea de a crede n ideea c omul nu a venit pe pmnt
ca s fie un simplu obiect al morii, ci pentru a avea speran.
Urmtoarea nelepciune, se adreseaz lui Erasmus, nvatului din Rotterdam, acesta
se situeaz n ipostaza nsinguratului nconjurat de cri, astfel parc cei doi se aseamn, dar
Octavian Paler mrturisete c salvarea de nsingurare trebuie descoperit n nsi negarea ei:
dac nu facem nimic mpotriva tristeii, ar trebui s nu facem nimic n favoarea ei.50
Scrisorile patru, cinci i ase sunt niste meditaii pe tema fericirii, iubirea ca pasiune, elogiu
adus suferinei, fidelitatea unei idei, relaia dintre frumos i moral, frumos i drept.
A patra nelepciune e un dialog deschis cu lumea lui Pascal. Dihotomia este principiul
prin care reflecia i gndul ascuns se materializeaz. Vorbim astfel de o deprtare temporal,
cultural fa de Pascal, dar, totodat de o apropiere prin cunoaterea detaliului semnificativ i
metaforic. Sabia, cingtoarea de fier sau cuiele sunt simboluri ale luptei de a nelege o nevoie
de fericire.
Autorul vorbete la numrul plural despre negarea violent a anumitor lucruri care
lipsesc din via. Fa de aceast absen nu poate rmne indiferent. O alt absen, este lipsa
de fericire, astfel el scoate sabia mpotriva fericirii.51 Amintete despre acei oameni care nu
sunt interesai de fericire, acetia doar par a nu fi interesai, dei ateapt tandreea. Legtura
cu Pascal se face prin trimitere la cingtoarea de fier cu cuie dinluntrul lui, prin care acesta
48
Idem, p. 180.
Ibidem, p. 205.
50
Ibidem, p. 228.
51
Ibidem, p. 231.
49
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reuete s menin spiritul treaz la datorie.52Totui omul care purta aceste elemente
ateapt s fie iubit fr s mai fie nevoit s cear el asta 53. Octavian Paler susine c
Pascal a adus servicii incomparabile iubirii, poate i mai mari dect poeii care au redus-o la
suspine n faa nopilor cu lun i la buchete de trandafiri.54 Prin aceste idei, Paler ajunge la
concluzia c i ndrgostiii parc ar fi fost obligai s arunce trandafirii din mn, i conform
zeiei Atena, s ia asupra lor, o lance. Poate aceste instrumente sunt acele obiecte prin care se
poate infiltra tandreea? Nu aflm acest lucru, dar Paler mai menioneaz c pentru a fi iubit
nu este nevoie doar de vorbe tandre, cumini, e nevoie de strigte, S strige cu toat puterea.
Octavian Paler l acuz pe Pascal de contestarea iubirii: Cci contestnd iubirea,
dumneavoastr ai smuls-o din somnolen. Spunndu-ne c brbatul care iubete o femeie l
ucide pe Dumnezeu, ne-ai obligat s nu ntrebm: ce fel de Dumnuzeu e acesta care urte
fericirea oamenilor?55 Ne promite o mprie n ceruri cu condiia s renunm la mpria
de pe pmnt. Lumea cerului devine un nucleu metaforic pentru o alt viziune a realului, care
va stpni, att atitudinalul etic al invidividului, ct i simbolistica timpului. Epistolarul are
curajul de a-i continua aventura exiatenial ntorcnd spatele realitii, att spre livresc, ct
i spre interiorul structurii umane, cum ar spune Nichita Stnescu numai cerul se schimb
deasupra, sufletul niciodat.56 Reveria cosmic, declaneaz i versul amplu dim poemul
Avem timp. Aceeai gam a fericirii, a bucuriei, a tandreii se dezvluie i n versul epuizat de
bocete i de o continu nefericire. Sentimentul speranei, e o promisiune a comuniunii, iar
finalul poemului poate fi o promisiune a desvririi, a realizrii de sine n clipa vieuirii
Avem timp pentru toate57 E o acolad utopic prin care se refuz realitatea prin nsi
concreteea aciunii, n sensul lui Hugo Friedrich este o derealizare a realului i o plonjare n
spaiul celest avem timp s ne facem iluzii/ i s rscolim prin cenua lor mai trziu./ [ . . . ]
avem timp s privim norii, reclamele sau un accident oarecare,58. Eseul dezvluie ntreg
cumulul de triri utopice, o hoinreal a eului, aflat n cutarea sinelui. Apropierea treptat de
viaa lui Pascal, e o ascensiune pe treptele lumii, astfel cutarea sinelui se realizeaz, ntr-un
traseu asimilabil (la nivel simbolic). Se nscrie n paradigma ncrederii, pe care o urmeaz i
Ion Murean, n eseul, nceput asupra bucuriei, sau Mircea Eliade n Fericirea concret din
volumul Oceanografie. Toate acestea sunt marca alteritii, cci fericirea are un sens i un
coninut, numai atunci, cnd o anvizajezi pentru altul59
Concluzia celei de a asea scrisoare adresat lui Flaubert este: ...sunt din ce n ce mai
convins c adevrata zei a frumuseii este Atena. Cea care ridic lancea, avertizndu-ne c
frumuseea nu se nate din spuma mrii, ci din sufletele care ard.60
Ultima scrisoarea, adresat domnului Blaga, are ca tem principal tcerea i rostul
tcerii. Prin aceast espitol, autorul se ntoarce lng muni, unde se simte n largul su, unde
are impresia c triete pe o alt lume, departe ce lumea real, unde parc totul capt sens,
unde simte o fericire deplin, i nu mai are nevoie de cuvinte. Acest loc e adevrata consolare
pentru sufletul lui, aici se poate descurca fr cuvinte pentru c inima lui nelege totul i fr
cuvinte. Golul din sufletul su, aici, se umple cu lumin, n care el devine parc, o umbr pe
acest rm al certitudinii definitive61 Melancolia este sentimentul care predomin la
ntoarcerea n acest sat, care bineneles este Lisa-natal, dar aceast melancolie poate e o alt
form a iubirii, mai complicat dar poate mai lucid, astfel ajunge la concluzia, c
52
Ibidem, p. 231.
Ibidem, p. 231.
54
Ibidem, p. 232.
55
Ibidem, p. 232.
56
Nichita, Stnescu, Fiziologia poeziei, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1990, p. 268.
57
Octavian, Paler, op. cit , p. 240.
58
Ibidem, p. 240.
59
Mircea, Eliade, Oceanografia, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2013, p. 67.
60
Ibidem, p. 254.
61
Ibidem, p. 260.
53
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62
Ibidem, p. 220.
Ibidem, p. 240.
64
Ibidem, p. 255.
63
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Abstract: After the collapse of communism, Romanian writers feel the need to recover the lost
time and to avail oneself of an opportunity to recreate their own writing, their own image and
also the face of the national literature. But the decades of totalitarian regime had a deeper
effect, so the postcommunist literary space is now filled with memorialistic literature, a
subjective form of discourse that betrades the need to recover a whole history. Titus Popovici,
a socialist realism writer, tries to retrieve his name with the novels published after december
1989, but his memorialistic literature comes to explain a personal history, an unique way of
being and becoming in an impossible era. So, a volume of stories (Cartea de la Gura
Zlata- 1991, republished in 1994 under another title Rul uitrii) and an
autobiographical novel which was published postum (Disciplina dezordinii) are not the
confessions of a former communist that feels the urge of redemption, but pages of historical,
psychological, sociological and, first of all, literary interest. Reading these books is an
attempt in reviwing the work of a talented writer and in understanding the mutations that led
him to embrace the communist doctrine, because the lustration is not a solution.
Keywords: memorialistic literature, communism, Titus Popovici, autobiography, autofiction
Odat cu Revoluia din 1989, scriitorii romni au simit nevoia s recupereze timpul
pierdut i s profite de libertatea cu greu dobndit pentru a-i recrea propriul scris, propria
imagine, dar i imaginea literaturii naionale. ns regimul comunist i pune amprenta i
asupra literaturii postdecembriste. Astfel, ntreaga literatur, nu doar din Romnia, ci din toate
rile europene care au trit sub acest regim dictatorial, a fost mpnzit de literatura
subiectiv, de tip confesiv. Fenomenul este explicabil, avnd n vedere nevoia oamenilor de
recupera o ntreag istorie.
Pe de-o parte, cei care au experimentat ororile nchisorilor i-au scris memoriile din
necesitatea de vindecare, de purificare; iar apoi le-au publicat pentru a rmne ca mrturii ale
represiunilor comuniste, contieni fiind de valoarea lor documentar. Pe de alt parte,
scriitorii, fie ei ptai de pactul cu regimul totalitar sau nu, i-au asumat acum rolul de
anticomuniti, realiznd, la rndul lor, c cei 45 de ani de dictatur nu pot fi recuperai doar
estetic, ci i istoric, ceea ce a condus la o reconfigurare a graniei ntre ficiune i nonficiune.
Mai mult dect att, pe lng nevoia scriitorilor specializai sau nespecializai de a (se)
destinui, apare interesul aproape exclusiv al cititorilor pentru literatura confesiv. Se public
i se cumpr jurnale, memorii, autobiografii, unele scrise n clandestinitate, ca literatur de
sertar, altele n exil, iar altele imediat dup recuperarea libertii de exprimare, n anii 90.
Titus Popovici, prozator ce debuteaz i se formeaz n plin realism-socialist, dar i
membru n C.C al P.C.R, este unul dintre scriitorii ptai de ideologia comunist care recurge
dup 89 i la literatura confesiv.
n anul 1991 apare volumul Cartea de la Gura Zlata despre care autorul mrturisete
c a fost redactat ntre anii 1975-1988, ca literatur de sertar. Gura Zlata este localitatea unde
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Titus Popovici i triete marea majoritate a timpului nc din anul 1963, cnd i
construiete o caban ntr-o zon montan, ce-i permite s se dedice celor trei patimi:
pescuitul, vntoarea i scrisul. Astfel, volumul cuprinde, pe lng povestiri ale aventurilor
trite la vntoare i pescuit, istoriile unor oameni care i-au mprtit patima, dar i reflecii
asupra propriei existene, asupra scrisului, asupra trecutului i viitorului.
n 1994, apare o nou ediie a Crii de la Gura Zlata, numit acum Rul uitrii,
creia autorul i mai adaug i subtitlul aparente povestiri de pescuit i vntoare, deoarece
aici sunt surprinse amintirile scriitorului, ale adolescentului intelectual ce credea cu ardoare n
partidul comunist, ale membrului C.C., iar vntorul i pescarul sunt nite simple mti ale
omului care ncearc s uite i s se uite; prin amintire se ncearc o modalitate de purificare,
de nelegere a lumii, de nelegere de sine; rememorarea este, de fapt, pentru Titus Popovici,
o ncercare de uitare, dar care nu este posibil fr o recunotere public i oficial a
greelilor, dup cum singur mrturisete, sau cel puin sper, n povestirea i totui..., care
ncheie volumul: Pcatul mrturisit e pe jumtate iertat.1
Dac nainte de 89 a gustat cu luciditate din apa rului Lethe, rul uitrii, trind n
sibaritism, pe trmul celor mori, unde Rvnita glorie de pescar o umbrise cu totul pe cea
literar2, dup 89 i dorete s guste din nou din apa rului uitrii pentru a reveni pe
trmul celor vii. Scriitorul vrea s ajung din nou n atenia lumii literare, urmnd cursul
rului Lethe din Divina Comedie, spre centrul pmntului.
Volumul Rul uitrii pare a fi un jurnal memorialistic, dar depete aceste granie
prin diversitatea tematic, arta narativ, artificiile compoziionale, galeria de portrete,
minuiozitatea descrierilor etc., ceea ce demonstreaz subtilul limen ntre istorie i ficiune.
Citite n cheie simbolic, dup cum nsui autorul ne sugereaz n subtitlu, povestirile din
acest volum sunt pline de tlc, umor, ironie, sarcasm, prefigurnd cele dou romane postume,
mai acide, n care sarcasmul se ngroa prin satir i parodie. n acelai timp, Rul uitrii
surprinde i drama unei contiine ncrcate care i accept soarta i care parc pare
nerbdtor s-i afle sentina: Nu exist scuze, nici justificri [...] fiecare este stpnul
liberului su arbitru n bine sau n ru. Nevoia de echilibru a existenei cere i aduce
ntotdeauna rsplata sau pedeapsa... Uneori mai curnd dect am fi dispui s suportm.3
Dup 4 ani de la moartea autorului, apare volumul Disciplina dezordinii, rmas n
manuscris, subintitulat roman memorialistic. Cartea vizeaz, ntr-adevr, destinul autorului,
fr a respecta ordinea cronologic a evenimentelor; autorul este i narator, dar nu ntotdeauna
personaj, deoarece, de multe ori, povestirea urmrete evenimente la care autorul a fost doar
martor sau chiar evenimente ce i-au fost relatate de alte instane i care nu au neaprat vreo
relevan n devenirea personal. Deci memoriile surprind att o istorie personal, ct i
istoria societii n care a trit i s-a format autorul. Avnd n vedere clasificarea literaturii
confesive fcute de Lejeune, Disciplina dezordinii s-ar ncadra mai bine n genul
autobiografic, dect n cel al memoriilor: o povestire retrospectiv n proz, pe care o
persoan real o face despre propria existen, atunci cnd pune accent pe viaa sa individual,
ndeosebi pe istoria personalitii sale4.
ns cuvntul roman din subtitlu intrig, deoarece, prin mrturisirea propriilor
amintiri, Titus Popovici i revendic (din nou) statutul de scriitor, poziionndu-i cartea pe
rafturile literaturii (de ficiune). E adevrat c i n Disciplina dezordinii autorul face uz de
limbajul artistic, de tehnicile literare, de expresivitatea estetic pentru a-i explica traseul
existenial, ns pentru Lejeune nu este suficient ca o autobiografie s se transforme n roman,
Titus Popovici, Rul uitrii, Bucureti, Editura Salut 2.000, 1994, p. 407
Ibidem, p. 54
3
Ibidem
4
Philippe Lejeune, Pactul autobiografic, traducere de Irina Margareta Nistor, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 2000, p. 12
1
2
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ci, subliniaz teoreticianul francez, caracterul romanesc ar trebui anunat pe copert. Avnd n
vedere c volumul lui Titus Popovici ndeplinete att criteriul autobiografic, ct i pe cel al
ficiunii, putem spune c Disciplina dezordinii este o autoficiune. Astfel, grania ntre
istorie i ficiune devine i mai sensibil n acest volum, ceea ce presupune i o interpretare a
lui din cel puin dou perspective, deoarece n povestirea aceasta n care naratorul i ia ca
tem propriul su trecut, sigiliul individual al stilului capt o importan special, pentru c
la autoreferina explicit a naraiunii nsi, stilul adaug valoarea autoreferenial implicit a
unui mod singular de elocuie5.
Aadar, expresia autobiografic devine un document att pentru recuperarea unei
biografii, ct i pentru recuperarea unei istorii a epocii comuniste prin ochii unui om din
interiorul partidului. Dar, dup cum bine se tie, orice istorie personal ntr-un regim
dictatorial este, n cea mai mare parte, dictat de istoria social-politic. Titus Popovici este
convertit la comunism i ia parte la viaa unei formaiuni politice de la o vrst fraged, cnd
lipsete discernmntul necesar pentru a distinge ntre bine i ru. Recunoate ns c i-a dat
seama destul de repede de absurditatea regimului comunist, dar nu se desparte de acesta dect
atunci cnd toate pericolele au trecut. Cu toate acestea, povestirea parcursului su politic i a
iniierii mult prea timpurii n comunism nu este, sau cel puin nu poate fi o form de
justificare, deoarece Naraiunea-confesiune, acuznd abaterea de identitate, reneag erorile
din trecut, dar nu-i declin prin aceasta responsabilitatea susinut n permanen de acelai
subiect.6
E adevrat c Disciplina dezordinii a fost citit de multe ori doar pentru dezvluirile
din interiorul vieii politice ceauiste, dar acestea vor conta mai puin cu trecerea anilor, dei e
de apreciat stilul comic-ironic pe care l adopt Titus Popovici n povestire. Mai important
este studiul unui istorii personale, deoarece e revelator n ceea ce privete biografia autorului,
dar, mai ales, n ceea ce privete formarea personalitii acestuia i devenirea sa n lume.
n prim plan va rmne i studiul literar, deoarece Disciplina dezordinii nu este o
simpl autobiografie, ci este autoficiune. Titus Popovici i-a folosit i aici virtuozitatea
literar, dup cum observ i Gheorghe Grigurcu: Nu mai puin, nelegnd a folosi dou
cerneluri precum celebrul Procopius din Cezareea, a dat n vileag, dup ceasul al
doisprezecelea, nevrednicia, impostura, turpitudinea unei crmuiri alturi de care s-a situat din
interes material. Calificarea sa de prozator, cu observaia ager i verbul alert i caustic, dau
acestei mrturii secunde un pre n sine.7
Aadar, literatura confesiv devine, cel puin pentru scriitorii specializai, i un spaiu
literar, cci, intrnd n propriul trecut i n propria interioritate nu nseamn o prsire a
ficiunii, aa cum nici ficiunea nu presupune o mistificare a realitii.
Bibliografie critic i teoretic
1. Grigurcu, Gheorghe, Duplicitatea lui Titus Popovici, n Romnia literar, nr. 47, 29
noiembrie-5 decembrie 2000
2. Lejeune, Philippe, Pactul autobiografic, traducere de Irina Margareta Nistor,
Bucureti, Editura Univers, 2000
3. Lejeune, Philippe, Nelinitea pe care cititorul o ncearc fa de istoria sa
personal..., traducere de Iulian Boldea, n Romnia literar, nr. 31, 3-8 august
2012, p. 23
Jean Starobinski, Relaia critic, traducere de Alexandru George, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1974, p. 87
Jean Starobinski, op. cit., p. 93
7
Gheorghe Grigurcu, Duplicitatea lui Titus Popovici, n Romnia literar, nr. 47, 29 noiembrie-5 decembrie 2000, p. 15
5
6
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Abstract: Hometown for all the benjellounien characters and for the author himself, Fez is
also the symbol of a bygone era, a golden age of Muslim culture. Closed universe, Fez has
symbolically embedded in the walls and in the arrangement of its streets the traces of an
Islamic tradition actively practiced.
Without having a direct opening to the Western civilization that corrupts, Fez acquires, in
Tahar Ben Jellouns prose, a maternal dimension proved by the efforts to teach its children"
the superstitions and the traditional practices of the Islam. It becomes a matrix space, a
source in which the characters return to reconnect with a forgotten or distorted past.
However, the city of Fez returns to the characters an identity that inevitably does not comply
with the conditions of modern life.
Center of the Muslim culture, Fez is also intimately linked to the self expression, making
possible the confessions of the characters. Guardian of the secret, brilliant storyteller and an
extraordinary gifted witch, Fez plays the role of a mother rather sensitive to the link with the
past than the modernity. Fez is surrounded by mystery, cultivates the sacred, and facilitates
the entry into the dreamland until the day when someone comes roam into its streets,
"communicate" with it for the only purpose of delivering his secrets.
Keywords: city space, Fez, the mother-town, the Muslim city, the identity town
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vidente entre la ville qui est enceinte du pass et de la tradition islamique et la ville qui
porte les traces de la modernit.
Le syntagme lire Fass est rcurrent dans la prose de lauteur marocain, car les
personnages essaient de dchiffrer, du point de vue culturel, les indices dune histoire
islamique qui se dvoile devant eux. Il est intressant de souligner que la ville-mre se trouve
sous le signe du ddoublement renforc dans le roman du dbut. Dans Harrouda, le
narrateur-enfant met en valeur deux expriences capitales de la vie dun garon. Dun regard
dtach provoqu par les deux vols entrepris, il dcrit, avec beaucoup de dtails, la visite au
hamman et la circoncision. Ces deux tapes importantes ne peuvent tre franchies que dans un
cadre matriciel, originel, traditionnel tel que la ville de Fs. Le ddoublement fassi est aussi
repris dans la construction des personnages qui se trouvent tiraills entre les deux cultures
opposes :
Lire Fass.
Remonter laxe spatial dun oued, axe de la symtrie insouponne qui crit deux
villes sur cran de terre rouge avec lencre blanchtre et le rsidu gris.
Jai dcid que ces deux villes sont jumelles parce que spares dans une mme
identit par la teinte diffrente, mme si elles se confondent et sinterpntrent en un lieu
circulaire, lieu de la rencontre initiale, espace fig dans ltreinte du saint, fils dun martyr.
On a dit que ce lieu permet la rconciliation de lhomme tourment avec la sagesse du saint
Moulay Idriss. Dire illusoire. 2
Fonde par Moulay Idriss, la ville des villes subit, au fil du temps, des
modifications territoriales importantes encore gardes qui expliquent le dualisme de la ville.
Le narrateur-enfant comprime en quelques lignes lhistoire de la ville marocaine et met en
relief sa dualit prouve par linterpntration de la nouveaut dans la tradition. Les villes
dans les villes dont parle le narrateur ne sont autres que Fs el-Bali, la ville ancienne o
larchitecture respecte les percepts islamiques et Fs-el-Jdid, la ville moderne qui a souffert
des influences essentielles occidentales. La description potique faite par un enfant renforce
encore une fois lide que la ville de Fs reste pour les personnages benjellouniens un espace
privilgi, une source culturelle et un lien qui noue avec un pass lointain. Mme partage en
deux et spare par une construction diffrente, la ville conserve une identit commune
devenue une sorte daxe central qui attache les deux parties et cre un tout entier. Ce lieu,
nomm espace primordial et berceau de la civilisation maghrbine 3par Robert Elbaz,
permet une communication pas tout fait ouverte entre lhomme moderne et lhomme
traditionnel. Les lments modernes ont souvent la tendance deffacer les lments culturels
traditionnels et cet effacement ou plutt cet obscurcissement est un motif pour lequel
linterrelation traditionnel moderne ne se ralise point dune faon harmonieuse. En fait,
comme laffirme le personnage-enfant, cette interrelation choue, car les coutumes activement
pratiques par les musulmans refusent de faire place la modernit qui prche plus de libert.
Ce manque de comprhension et dentente mutuelle est dvoil largement dans le
romanHarrouda, o Fs se transforme dune ville puissante, dune mre aimante et aime en
une ville oublie qui sauvegarde un pass dont peu de gens parlent et que beaucoup dentre
eux prfrent oublier pour vivre selon les conditions modernes. Elle devient une mre qui
perd ses enfants cause de ses voisions mal intentionns :
Fass se dpeuple et sparpille.
2
3
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mais que le personnage respecte beaucoup est un hommage ddi la ville Fass o il ressent
la nostalgie du pass :
O mre ! Tu mas port dans ton ventre ; tu mas port sur ton dos ; tu mas donn le
lait et les perles ; tu mas donn la parole et leau ; mre tant que je nai pas quitt ton corps,
je nai pas connu du chagrin.10
Espace matriciel, la ville de Fs est toujours associe au ventre, au corps fminin dont
le rle essentiel dans la vie est denfanter, de nourrir et dduquer ses rejetons. Cet espace
fonctionne comme une sorte de paravent contre
les afflictions de la vie quotidienne, un
lieu dvasion pour ceux qui narrivent pas trouver leur place dans le nouveau monde. Dans
le cas de Moha, le personnage chappe la douleur corporelle en revenant lorigine de son
peuple.
Dans La Fascination des images, Franoise Gaudin renforce lide dopposition qui se
cre entre un espace qui nourrit lapptit symbolique et culturel du peuple marocain et le
systme impos par le Protectorat franais que Moha stigmatise avec vhmence. Lexgte
affirme que Lespace se trouve rgi par deux forces antagonistes : dune par la Terre, source
de bonheur, de lautre, lordre, le systme, lAbstrait, opposant de toutes les qutes 11. De ce
point de vue le personnage benjellounien lance un appel la terre sacre, la seule qui puisse
sauver son peuple. Sa voix est une porte-parole de tous les autres qui se sentent injustement
traits par les autorits, oublis, inadapts aux nouvelles conditions imposes.
O Toi, Terre sacre do nous sommes sortis, Tu es humble tout en nourrissant toutes
choses ; nous savons que Tu es sacre, et que tous nous sommes parents avec Toi. GrandMre et Mre-Terre fconde, pour Toi il y a une place dans ce Calumet. O Mre, puisse ta
nation savancer sur le sentier de la vie, face aux vents violents! Puissions-nous marcher avec
fermet sur Toi! Puissent nos pas ne jamais hsiter! Nous et tout ce qui se meut sur Toi, nous
envoyons nos voix au Grand-Esprit! Aide-nous ! Tous ensemble nous crions comme un seul :
Aide nous!12
Cet appel adress la ville mre peut il tre vraiment entendu ? Fs peut-elle
restituer ses enfants une identit vole par des vnements malheureux ? Dans son article
Une brve histoire des villes maghrbines, Mohammed Naciri considre que la ville
musulmane intgre intimement lespace et la socit 13, donc la ville devient elle-mme
une carte didentit qui ne peut tre ni vole, ni perdue, car elle se trouve la vue de tous.
Dans La Prire de labsent, Tahar Ben Jelloun met en scne une ville secoue par une
guerre qui balaie tous les espoirs. Fs, la ville mre qui protge ses enfants et qui les duque
dans lesprit de la culture musulmane est oblige de les envoyer ailleurs afin dapprendre
lhistoire de leur pays. Les personnages principaux sont tous les trois des individus en marge
de la socit, car ils sont issus dun monde cach, ni par la culture islamique. Yamma, une
prostitue, Boby, un fou et Sindibad, un amnsique reoivent la mission dinitier un enfant
la culture et lhistoire marocaines. Celle qui confie lenfant aux trois individus est une sagefemme, une grand-mre appele Lalla Malika qui, selon nous, peut incarner la ville-mre. Elle
avoue la fois son statut de mre et la dimension maternelle de la ville : Ainsi, mon enfant,
tu es devenu, tu vas devenir, un autre. Arrach aux entrailles de Fs, tu es remis ses pierres
et sa terre chaude 14. Dans le roman, elle reprsente la voix qui connat bien lhistoire et la
culture du pays marocain et par lintermdiaire de la conteuse Yamma passe ces savoirs au
10
Op.cit., p.140.
Franoise Gaudin, La Fascination des images. Les romans de Tahar Ben Jelloun, Paris, LHarmattan, 1998, p.65.
12
Tahar Ben Jelloun, Op.cit., pp.136-137.
13
Mohammed Naciri, Une brve histoire des villes maghrbines , in Maghreb, peuples et civilisations, dr. Camille et Yves Lacoste, Paris,
La Dcouverte Poche, 2004, p.75.
14
Tahar Ben Jelloun, La Prire de labsent, Paris, Seuil, 1981, p.37.
11
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qui conduit la dcouverte du secret. Dans Lenfant de sable. La Nuit sacre et Les Yeux
baisss, la ville de Fs napparat pas explicitement nomme, mais ses dimensions maternelle
et traditionnelle sont toujours mises en relief par le rapport quentretiennent les personnages
avec lespace. Cest ainsi que dans le diptyque de lauteur marocain, lhistoire du personnage
se situe dans une ville dont lune des rues est appele la rue dun seul 18. Mme si laccent
est mis sur le destin fabriqu du personnage, il est invitable de lire parmi les lignes du texte
linfluence dun espace ferm qui garde entiers des us et des coutumes de la tradition
islamique.
Ces coutumes musulmanes sont suivies la lettre par le pre du personnage
Zina/Ahlmed. Cest pour cette raison quil dcide dlever en garon sa dernire fille. Le pre
cache lidentit du nouveau-n pour se protger contre ses frres dont il revient le droit de
partager la fortune si leur frre na pas un hritier mle. Dun commun accord avec sa femme
et la sage-femme, le pre prpare larrive au monde de la huitime fille qui deviendra, pour
la prosprit de la famille, un hritier mle :
Nous allons sceller le pacte du secret : donne-moi ta main droite ; que nous doigts se
croisent et portons ces deux mains unies notre bouche, puis notre front.[]
Ainsi le pacte fut scell ! La femme ne pouvait quacquiescer.19
partir de ce moment le pre nie totalement lidentit fminine de sa fille qui
commence comprendre son statut privilgi dans une socit qui prfre plutt les hommes
aux femmes.
Larchitecture du roman respecte en quelque sorte larchitecture de la ville ferme en
soi-mme par des portes dont le seuil peut tre franchi si les personnages sencadrent dans la
tradition musulmane. La ville met aussi son empreinte sur le destin des personnages et les
oblige vivre selon les coutumes institues sans accepter des influences du dehors. Ahmed,
mme sil est lhritier de la fortune de son pre, reste enfermer dans la ville natale afin de
protger et de sauvegarder des pratiques ancestrales. Quand il est libr de son secret par le
pre en train de rendre son me, Ahmed retrouve son tat fminin et laffirme haute voix.
Mais pour que cela soit possible il est ncessaire de quitter sa maison, de senfuir de Fs. Une
fois le secret dvoil et les coutumes transgresses, le personnage ne peut plus vivre dans
cette ville, car il devient dj un mauvais exemple, une mauvaise influence occidentale.
Jtais dj une trangre 20 affirme Zahra/Ahmed aprs la mort de son pre qui vingt ans
la oblig(e) daccomplir un faux destin.
La mme chose se passe dans le village o elle arrive aprs son enlvement par le
Cheikh. Gardien de sept secrets, le Cheikh prend la dcision de lui confier les nigmes afin de
lui gagner lamiti. Cependant, la fin de la confession le personnage est forc de quitter le
village, de ne pas se souvenir jamais de cette rencontre, car le dvoilement des secrets
entrane la perte de lidentit et mme de la vie de ceux qui y habitent:
Entre lui et nous il y a un pacte, un serment : ne jamais livrer ltranger nos sept
secrets. Chaque secret quil dvoile est un peu de notre peau qui sen va. Nous perdons les
couleurs sur notre visage, puis les dents, puis les cheveux, puis le sang, puis la raison, puis
lme et enfin la vie.21
La dcomposition graduelle dont parle lenfant villageois peut tre compare la
transformation identitaire que les gens de lislam subissent en relation avec les influences
Dans Giacometti. La rue dun seul, Paris, Gallimard, 2006, Tahar Ben Jelloun parle au dbut de son essai dune rue si troite quil est
impossible de passer plus dune seule personne. Cette rue se trouve dans la ville de Fs et, cause de son troitesse, elle porte le nom de la
rue dun seul . Lauteur marocain fait cette approche grce la sculpture filiforme de Giacometti.
19
Tahar Ben Jelloun, LEnfant de sable, Paris, Seuil, 1985, p.23.
20
Tahar Ben Jelloun, La Nuit sacre, Paris, Seuil, p.1987, p.55.
21
Op.cit. p.49.
18
623
SECTION: LITERATURE
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modernes. De ce point de vue lenfant nest que le gardien dune tradition musulmane qui
assure une identit ses pratiquants. La ville-mre qui, auparavant, offrait une modalit
dvasion du monde rel, voir Harrouda, Moha le fou, Moha le sage, se transforme dans
une mre tyrannique qui refuse ses enfants dautres connaissances que celles qui
proviennent delle-mme. Elle touffe les personnages, les enferme dans un cadre limit et les
oblige vivre plutt dans le pass que dans le prsent.
De la mme faon se construit le roman Les Yeux baisss o la protagoniste Radhia
porte inscrit dans les lignes de sa main un secret qui apportera son village la richesse. Elle
est choisie conduire les villageois sur le chemin vers la dcouverte du trsor cach. Mais
jusqu lge convenu, le secret est sauvegard par la grand-mre de Radhia seul but
dviter les vengeances et lenvie de sa tante Fatouma qui se considre la gardienne du trsor.
La protagoniste est le seul tre qui puisse entretenir une relation harmonieuse avec la terre, car
elle est duque dans la tradition musulmane qui lui confre le droit de toucher la terre
sacre :
Toutes ses pierres sont poses sur une motte de terre trs brune, la substance mme
de notre vie, la terre de notre terre, le sable noir de nos passions, le lit profond dans lequel
reposent nos anctres, cette terre est habite par lesprit de nos parents et de parents de nos
parents ; elle est cendre ; si une main trangre la touche, elle devient braise et brle les
doigts de lintrus [] .22
La main trangre dont il est interdit de toucher la terre reprsente, selon nous, les
autorits franaises qui ont longtemps soumis le pays marocain. La mtaphore voile un fort
avertissement, les trangers qui veulent sapproprier et dtruire les secrets de cette terre seront
chasss. Dans ces affirmations nous lisons le refus vident daccepter les influences
trangres par peur de ne pas pervertir une culture qui rgne des sicles dans ce pays.
Cependant, la fille qui porte le secret se rend Paris avec sa famille aprs la mort tragique de
son frre. Les deux cultures portent leur premire guerre, car Radhia se heurte, ds le dbut,
la division du temps. Le pays marocain ne connat que le lever et le coucher du soleil, tandis
que la France divise la journe en vingt-quatre heures. Ce problme du temps la bouleverse
extrmement, puisque elle narrive pas sadapter.
Aprs vingt ans, Radhia retourne dans son village o elle dcouvre un arrt total, la
terre et les gens sont les mmes : Vingt ans ont pass et toujours la mme terre, le mme
horizon, les mmes questions. La terre, tendue perte de vue, ne prsente aucune
ambigit .23 partir de ce moment Radhia se rend compte que le changement vient delle,
du secret quelle porte et son retour est surtout d la dcouverte de cette nigme. Le trsor
cach dans les montagnes nest pas du tout de lor et de largent, mais il sagit dune source
deau, lune de plus prcieuse chose de la vie des villageois qui attendaient la pluie pour en
avoir un peu. Selon Mohammed Naciri qui fait une brve histoire de la ville musulmane
leau, a donc t, depuis les temps des fondations, le vecteur de lurbanisation et le principe
organisateur de son expansion spatiale .24
Lhrone vit un fort conflit intrieur, car elle est le symbole dune culture ancestrale
caractrise par le secret. De ce point de vue, lmigrante affronte avec difficult les
mandres de lacculturation franaise quelle traverse 25 selon laffirmation de Robert Elbaz.
De retour en son pays, Radhia se rend compte de grandes diffrences qui existent entre la
culture musulmane et la culture occidentale et elle est consciente que son identit musulmane
Tahar Ben Jelloun, Les Yeux baisss, Seuil, Paris, 1991, pp.10-11.
Op.cit.,p.253.
24
Mohammed Naciri, Op.cit., p.76.
25
Robert Elbaz, Op.cit., p.43.
22
23
624
SECTION: LITERATURE
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ne peut pas tre nie mme si elle a subi des influences occidentales. La ville-mre, tout
comme dans La Prire de labsent, exige de ses enfants revenir la maison.
Selon nous, la ville musulmane slecte toujours parmi les protagonistes
benjellouniens un personnage qui devient son porte-parole dans le monde humain. Comme
nous lavons dj vu, la ville devient maison, un espace qui la fois abrite, protge et
duque.
3. Fs - ville prison
La ville prison est bien mise en scne dans quelques romans benjellouniens o les
personnages se sentent enferms comme dans une cage. La ville-mre qui emprisonne, qui
touffe, qui trangle est reprsente dans le diptyque Lenfant de sable. La Nuit sacre et
Lcrivain public.
Zahra/Ahmed est condamn(e) par ses propres parents suivre un destin fabriqu :
tre le mle de la famille et sauver la fortune et limage de bon musulman de son pre. Elle est
emprisonne physiquement et psychiquement dans un monde qui ne lui appartient pas.
duque selon les coutumes des hommes, toutefois elle narrive pas nier sa corporalit
fminine, mme si elle la cache sous des vtements masculins. Si le personnage arrive
tromper les yeux vigilants des ses tantes et de ses oncles, il ne russit pas effacer la
transformation et les instincts de son corps. Zahra est consciente de son statut privilgi dans
un monde o le statut de la femme est infrieur celui de lhomme, mais la lutte quelle mne
est voue lchec, car le corps lui rappelle toujours quelle est une femme : je ralisai
combien ma vie dhomme dguis ressemblait une prison. Jtais prive de libert dans la
mesure o je navais droit qu un seul rle. Hors ces limites ctait la catastrophe 26. Le
personnage se trouve dans limpossibilit de sortir de rets dun destin impos, il a un seul rle
jouer et telle une marionnette il accomplit son numro. Mme aprs la morte de son pre qui
la libre du destin dtourn, Zahra vit son enfermement dans la dtresse et la solitude. Ses
surs lui doivent respect et obissance, mais en fait elles la hassent, car elle a empoch deux
fois de plus la somme dargent que revient une fille aprs la mort de son pre.
Jtais devenue la prisonnire de mon destin 27 devient une sorte de leitmotiv du
diptyque benjellounien, car le personnage se reconnat vaincu, lasse de lutter contre une
araigne qui tisse autour delle une toile de plus en plus paisse. La prison quelle fait cause
de lassassinat de son oncle nest quune autre tape que le destin lui a prpare. Enferme
dans une cellule Zahra vit lemprisonnement un peu plus dtache. Il ne se compare pas ce
quelle a d subir pendant vingt annes cache sous des vtements dhomme En prison je
trouvais la vie naturelle. Joubliais le besoin de libert. Lenfermement ne moppressait pas.
Je me sentais disponible .28 Cependant, elle ne peut pas nier lautre prison qui laccompagne
partout, qui la porte dans sa peau et dans sa raison.
Finalement, le personnage accepte son ddoublement qui, dornavant, fait partie
intgrante de sa vie et, surtout, qui lui offre une autre identit. Lidentit musulmane perdue
est remplace par une autre identit qui tente se plier aux nouvelles conditions de vie
apportes par le Protectorat franais. Zahra avoue quaprs vingt ans elle sest habitue sa
prison, car elle la ressent comme une carapace sur le dos 29 et quelle ne peut pas enlever,
car elle provoquerait la perte totale du personnage.
625
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Selon nous, cette acceptation du destin que lauteur marocain met en vidence par
lintermdiaire de son personnage quivaut un conseil pour le peuple marocain qui refuse
daccepter la prsence franaise dans leur pays et senferme dans la tradition musulmane pour
protger leur identit. La ville de Fs, dans ce cas, est un coffre qui dissimule dans son ventre
des joyaux dune importance culturelle essentielle et dont la cl appartient ceux qui
respectent la tradition qui a souvent une fonction magique , comme laffirme ElenaBrandusaSteiciuc30. Ville intrieure, elle prche le retour aux anctres, car, selon Vronique
Bonnet, Marc Kober et Khalid Zekri, Fs est perue comme un creuset "dauthenticit
marocaine " ou le modle intrieur dune identit nationale .31
Le personnage du roman Lcrivain public conoit aussi la ville de Fs comme une
prison. Enfant malade, il est oblig de vivre plusieurs annes dans un couffin. La rverie est
le seul tat qui laide survivre cette catastrophe. Il sentoure dimages cres partir de
son profond dsir de marcher. Mais ces images renforcent son tat maladif et focalisent le
lecteur sur une vision grotesque de la ville. Selon lenfant, fig dans son couffin, la ville est
un tyran qui profite de sa maladie afin de fermer toutes les portes vers lhorizon :
Toute ville natale porte en son ventre un peu de cendre. Fs ma rempli la bouche de
terre jaune et de poussire grise. Une suie de bois et de charbon sest dpose dans mes
bronches et a alourdi mes ailes. Comment aimer cette ville qui ma clou terre et longtemps
voil mon regard ? Comment oublier la tyrannie de son amour aveugle, ses silences lourds et
prolongs, ses absences tourmentes ?32
Enfonc dans son couffin qui devient, comme laffirme Zahra/Ahmed, une
carapace dans le dos du personnage, lenfant fait une caractrisation dtaille de lespace
qui pse lourdement sur lui. Le rapport de forces nest pas quilibr, car la ville lanantit
dans sa maladie en se transformant dans un monstre prt dvorer son enfant. Il peut se
sauver seulement par la parole que, dailleurs, il manie excellemment. Frustr par le manque
de la capacit motrice, le personnage se venge de sa ville-mre en lui crant un portrait
dogresse :
Mre abusive, fille clotre et infidle quand mme, femme opulente et mangeuse
denfants, jeune marie nubile et soumise, corps sillonn par le temps, visage saupoudr de
farine [..]. 33
La longue proraison sur la ville ne fait que dtourner le regard du lecteur de ltat
maladif de lenfant qui, contrairement ce quil laisse comprendre, sen rjouit. Lenfance
est, par dfinition, une exprience positive et, dans le cas de lcrivain public, elle est enrichie
par le rve. Tous les personnages benjellouniens arrivent un tat onirique seulement quand
ils vivent Fs. Quitter la ville natale signifie abandonner le songe et lenfance, refuser la
tradition et passer la maturit. Le dpart de lenfant Tanger o il cherche sa gurison
quivaut une rupture, un passage une autre tape de sa vie. Cependant cette rupture nest
pas totale, car la ville natale exige toujours un retour : Je sais, on ne quitte jamais la ville
natale. Elle vous poursuit, peuple votre sommeil de cauchemars, de rves prmonitoires, de
rappels lordre et au retour. [ ] Lappel de la terre est inscrit dans la chute du destin. On ne
peut y chapper . 34
Inscrite dans le paradigme de la tradition, la ville de Fs porte le stigmate dune mre
abusive qui oblige ses enfants lobissance et au respect des coutumes musulmanes. Les
destins des personnages sont crs de telle manire que les hros et les hrones bejellouniens
Elena-BrandusaSteiciuc, Horizons et identits francophones, Chiinu, Editura Cartier, 2012, p. 72.
Vronique Bonet, Marc Kober, Khalid Zekri, Introduction , in Lire les villes marocaines, Paris, LHarmattan, 2013, p. 9.
Tahar Ben Jelloun, Lcrivain public, Paris, Seuil, 1983, p.41.
33
Op.cit., p.41.
34
Ibidem, p.47.
30
31
32
626
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627
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Abstract: Frank Russell Capra, the American dream personified1, was one of the best
American movie director and the creative force behind major award-winning films during the
1930s and 1940s. His movies, Mr. Deeds Goes to Town, Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, Meet
John Doe, together with Its a Wonderful Life are often included in the category of the
greatest films ever made. And movies, like religion, with their symbols exerted a profound
influence upon the American imagination. Making from turning movies a profession, a creed,
Frank Capra transformed cinema into a (civil) religion. Film genres are generally defined by
a prominent auteur, and Frank Capras name is nonetheless associated with the populist
comedy movie. Obviously, Capras populism is more cultural than political, but it is no
wonder since his weapons are the reiterating and glorifying the virtues of Americas
symbols and praising the common American. Capras movies can be approached in terms of
civil religion, too. Civil religion deals with such symbols as historic figures (Washington,
Jefferson, Grant, Lincoln, etc) as prophets; sacred places (Grants Tomb, Lincolns Memorial
and others) as shrines; celebrations (Memorial Day, Thanksgiving Day, Fourth of July,
Veterans Day, birthdays of Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln, and so on). Frank Capra
expressed his creed at full in the film language making it crystalclear American perennial
values are the means by which one person can recover his or her moral strength, can help the
community, can help the society, can be a real American, a true believer in the precepts of
civil religion, a patriot. In his movies, Capra kept reminding the Americans of their ideals.
Keywords: Frank Capra, populism, civil religion, symbols, patriotism
INTRODUCTION
A great man and a great American, Frank Capra is an inspiration to those who
believe in the American dream (John Ford)
Considered to be the American dream personified2, Frank Russell Capra was one of
the best American movie director and the creative force behind major award-winning films
during the 1930s and 1940s. The Italian-born American director, writer and producer was
more a patriot then many other American-born citizens.
America in the 1930s, traversing the Great Depression, was facing a time of economic,
political and social hardship. Yet, the 30s were also the era of the great Studios who fulfilled
their role of entertainers the audience went to movie-theatres where screwball comedies,
glamorous musicals and fantasy movies meant to divert the grim realities of the time were
shown. Generally, Hollywood released escapist movies, in optimistic tones and with no
criticism vis--vis society, state authority, government, political institutions, and so on. But
1
2
628
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among the filmmakers of that period, Frank Capra, alongside with very few others, can be
considered an anti-establishment director.
Frank Capras movies, Mr. Deeds Goes to Town and Mr. Smith Goes to Washington,
Meet John Doe, together with Its a Wonderful Life are often included in the category of the
greatest films ever made. These can be watched and enjoyed on a simplistic entertainment
level, but there are also some more things told between the lines, so that they cannot be any
longer mere escapist films, created for mere enjoyment. There are strong issues being dealt
with about man and his relationship within the society he lives in, starting from the most
elemental problems concerning individuals, going to political corruption. There is a pervasive
sensation that city people are corrupt and vitiate all that they come in contact with, whereas
the simple, innocent country people are good-natured and un-perverted. The point is that it is
not the individual that is corrupted, but the society that corrupts the individual. Both
protagonists in the first two above mentioned movies live undisturbed in their small towns.
Things change when they go to city.
As a matter of fact, Capras characters are modelled on the belief that one man can
make a difference and help society, a sort of And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what
your country can do for you ask what you can do for your country.3
Movies, like religion, exerted a profound influence upon the American imagination.
We are surrounded by images. Images are but things representing something else, things
standing for something else. And when images are used to represent, they symbolize, and
symbolizing is the basis for (inter)communication. Cinema is a sort of communication
presenting us with recognizable figures, objects, and situations. And the symbols Frank Capra
used to render his ideas are by far recognizable they all refer to the American mode of
being, to the forefathers of the nation, to the most valuable reference points that marked the
becoming of the United States as it is. So, it becomes quite obvious why the Capra-esque
style won the hearts of the audience back in the 1930s, but not only then. As long as true love
for ones country will exist, and Americans will love their country, no matter what generation
is referred to, such movies will exert a certain influence upon those watching them.
As to the symbol-values Capra praised in his films, since he considered them as being
an important part of the Americas creationist myth, he must have had in mind George
Santayanas words: He who forgets history is doomed to repeat it and paraphrased it: A
country which forgets its past loses its identity, and definitely wanted to deter from occurring
such a thing and thus he brought his modest contribution to the process. Making from turning
movies a profession, a creed, Frank Capra transformed cinema into a (civil) religion.
Film historians and critics analyzed his movies and aligned him with various cultural
movements, such as Transcendentalism/Romanticism, Populism, Modernism, etc. True as it
is, civil religion made its debut in the world of humanities in the 1960s, and Capra stopped
directing in 1961, but nonetheless, Capras movies can be very well approached in terms of
civil religion. Civil religion deals with such symbols as historic figures (Washington,
Jefferson, Grant, Lincoln, etc) as prophets; sacred places (Grants Tomb, Lincolns Memorial
and others) as shrines; celebrations (Memorial Day, Thanksgiving Day, Fourth of July,
Veterans Day, birthdays of Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln, and so on). All the stock is as
well the property of the American state, of the American people, of the American patriotism
too, and, why not, of the American political movements.
Perhaps Capra was not truly a populist, in the political sense of the word, but
definitely he was a true patriot. He loved America and the Americans:
From
famous
President
John.
F.
Kennedys
<http://www.famousquotes.me.uk/speeches/John_F_Kennedy/5.htm>.
3
629
Inaugural
Address
on
January
20th,
1961
SECTION: LITERATURE
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I fell in love with Americans, just fell in love with them. These goddamned Americans
I thought, they were so free on their own, individuals, not taking their hats off to anyone. If
somebody got sick theyd do something about it, I thought Americans were the gods of the
world. 4
Rather abruptly said and on a rough language, but the love he felt oozes through each
and every word, a real love affirmation made in the sincerest and limitless admiring manner.
And he loved America and the Americans not sententiously, not only on a level of making
affirmations, but he proved it to the full with each movie he made. What else such movies as
Why We Fight series5, for instance, or Mr. Deeds Goes to Town or Mr. Smith Goes to
Washington are if not instances meant to remind his fellow country people how great America
is and how they could find support and examples to follow in the great historic past, piled out
with numerous heroic figures?
Although among some critics Frank Capra does not have a reputation equal to those of
other directors, his best films are still popular with the audience. Probably it is his simple
vision, combined with a mastery of the film form itself that has made him so long-lastingly
popular. He will be always remembered and praised for his contribution to the American
thinking about individualism and democracy, for his optimism reflected in his movies
(explained in a way by his background: that of an immigrant who succeeded in climbing the
social ladder, and who sincerely loved his adopted country). Capra expressed his faith in
democracy, his confidence that good people could really reform the society and government,
and make things go well. He expressed his belief in the common man, often referred to in his
movies as the little guy/people.
In his movies, Capra kept reminding the Americans of their ideals.
FRANK CAPRA AND THE POPULISM
The perennial American ism with its roots extended at least as far back as the
American Revolution6 (George McKenna)
All dictionaries define populism as being a political philosophy, supporting the rights
and power of the people in their struggle against the privileged elite; the movement organized
around this doctrine; a political discourse that appeals to the general mass of the population.
However, the term populism derives from the Latin populus, people, in the sense of
nation and not in the sense of multiple individual persons, and, throughout history
populism has been a common political phenomenon.
In the United States of America, the movement has as starting point the principles and
doctrines of the late nineteenth century Populist Party, especially its support of agrarian
interests, opposing large business and financial interests, and combining elements of the left
and right, given its central tenet that democracy should reflect the pure and undiluted will of
the people.
Walter
Karp,
"The
Patriotism
of
Frank
Capra,"
Esquire
95
(February,
1981),
34<
http://xroads.virginia.edu/~Ma97/halnon/capra/capra.html>.
5
When Capra was assigned the mission to make some series which were supposed to motivate the U.S. soldiers, he confessed to have tried
to create "one basic, powerful idea" that would spread and evolve into other related ideas: I thought of the Bible. There was one sentence in it
that always gave me goose pimples: "Ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free."
6
Wes D. Gehring, Populism and the Capra Legacy, apud George McKenna, American Populism, Greenwood Press, 1995, p.1.
630
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Deriving from the political doctrine, the other sense of populism, as seen by Wes D.
Gehring, is that of a celebration of rural and/or small-town life, mythic-like leader sense who
have risen from the people (also reflecting the movements often patriotic nature), an
adherence to traditional values and customs (mirroring the phenomenons strong sense of
nostalgia), anti-intellectualism (in an elitist sense), a faithfulness to honest labour, and a
general optimisms concerning both humanitys potential for good and the importance of the
individual.7
Film genres are generally defined by a prominent auteur, and Frank Capras name is
nonetheless associated with the populist comedy movie, a combination between the power-tothe-people genre and the romantic screwball comedy.
The political involvement is more obvious in Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, starting
with the protagonists name Jefferson Smith (the role being played by Jimmy Stewart), a
combination between the name of the real American hero, Thomas Jefferson and one of the
possible names of any American common man, Smith and going to the populist belief in the
Jeffersonian democracy, the core of the populism, the faith in a rural and small-town
America, with very little need of government interference.
And if Jefferson Smith succeeds in stopping the corruption in the United States
Senate, the protagonist with the same name in Meet John Doe, played by Gary Cooper, stops
a fascist-like organization, whereas Longfellow Deeds (again a combination, this time the first
name being that of a patriotic poet of the people, and the surname being the noun deeds,
describing a man of action), the hero in Mr. Deeds Goes to Town, stops a corrupt banker by
offering his money to the people for building small farms. Moreover, through their political
involvement, Capras protagonists celebrate real American heroes commonsense wisdom,
heroes such as Davy Crockett, Andrew Jackson, Daniel Boone and Abraham Lincoln, the
national treasure and model to be followed by every American. The scenes with Deeds
visiting Grants Tomb and Jefferson visiting Jefferson and Lincoln Memorials, respectively
denotes Capras patriotism, his creed in American tradition and values, and his strong
conviction that children should be educated in the respect of all these and to this purpose he
must have created the memorable scene in Mr. Smith Goes to Washington with the little boy
reading The Declaration of Independence for his grandfather, providing an authentic history
lesson.
Obviously, Capras populism is more cultural than political, he made an apolitical
populism part of his everyday vision, but it is no wonder since his weapons are the
reiterating and glorifying the virtues of Americas symbols and praising the common
American, as he admits:
The strength of America is in the kind of people who can plant a seed and sow the
grass. I wanted to glorify the average man, not the guy at the top, not the politician, not the
banker, just the ordinary guy whose strength I admire, whose survivability I admire. 8
FRANK CAPRA AND THE CIVIL RELIGION
We are a nation formed by a covenant, that is, by dedication to the libertarian and
egalitarian principles of the Declaration of Independence, and those principles comprise the
standard by which we must judge ourselves. 9 (Leo Marx)
7
631
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Religion has been defined in many ways, for instance, starting from the Latin root religere, to bind together, religion is defined as the totality of those feelings, symbols, and
acts that bind a group together. In Denis Fustel Coulanges The Ancient City, as well as in
mile Durkheims The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, it is defined as either a
correlate of the structure of a society or as a projection of the image of society into objective
and sacred symbols.10
As to civil religion, its definition varies; thus, in the case of sociology of religion, civil
religion is the folk religion of a nation or a political culture. As a political philosophy, civil
religion is a ritual expression of patriotism. In terms of sociology of religion, civil religion
comprehends the veneration of the past (political) leaders and of veterans, founding and other
national myths, and the religious manifestations (invocation of God in political speeches,
quotation of religious texts on public occasion or by political leaders) as well; whereas in
terms of a political philosophy, it encompasses parades, the display of the national flag,
singing of the national anthem, inaugural ceremonies, building monuments to commemorate
great leaders and events, the Pledge of Allegiance of the United States. Generally, the
manifestations overlap and include religious elements too.
According to William H. Swatos, Jr. Editor (Hartford Institute for Religious
Research), the notion of civil religion originates in the work of Rousseau, The Social
Contract, with echoes in Tocqueville. On the pages of Rousseaus work the simple doctrines
of the civil religion are outlined, namely the existence of God, the life to come, the reward of
virtue and the punishment of vice, and the exclusion of religious intolerance.
Civil religion began to have a major importance in the social scientific study of
religion when Robert Bellah published the essay, Civil Religion in America, in Daedalus in
1967. It refers both to a form of civic faith within a republic, and to public expressions of
religious faith in cultures where religion is more familiarly categorized as a private affair. In
respect to civic faith, the term derives from a phrase by Benjamin Franklin, when he made
proposals for an educational academy in Philadelphia in 1749 - the study of history, he
argued, would afford frequent opportunities of showing the necessity of a public religion.
Bellahs definition of American civil religion is that it is an institutionalized
collection of sacred beliefs about the American nation, which he sees symbolically expressed
in Americas founding documents and presidential inaugural addresses. It includes a belief in
the existence of a transcendent being called God, an idea that the American nation is subject
to Gods laws, and an assurance that God will guide and protect the United States. He sees
these beliefs in the values of liberty, justice, charity, and personal virtue and concretized in,
for example, the words In God We Trust on both national emblems and on the currency
used in daily economic transactions.
As Robert Bellah asserts, behind the civil religion at every point lie Biblical
archetypes: Exodus, Chosen People, Promised Land, New Jerusalem, sacrificial Death and
Rebirth. But it is also genuinely American and genuinely new. It has its own prophets and its
own martyrs, its own sacred places, its own solemn rituals and symbols. It is concerned that
America be a society as perfectly in accord with the will of God, as men can make it, and a
light to all the nations.11
As religion operates with symbols, civil religion has its own stock: its prophets, saintlike historical figures, such as Grant, Jefferson, Lincoln, Washington, the divinely appointed
10
11
Charles H. Long, Civil Rights Civil Religion: Visible People and Invisible Religion, American Civil Religion, p. 212.
Robert N. Bellah, Civil Religion in America, American Civil Religion, pp. 40 41.
632
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Moses who led his people out of the hands of tyranny 12; its scriptures: the Declaration of
Independence and the Constitution; its sacred places (Grants Tomb, Lincolns Memorial); its
celebrations (Memorial Day, Thanksgiving Day, Fourth of July, Veterans Day, birthdays of
Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln, etc). It is the religion of democracy and, according to Horace
M. Kallen, quoted by Herberg, democracy is the religion of and for religions; politically it
means the Constitution; spiritually, the idealism, which is so characteristically American. In
the civil religious perspective, America is a new order, initiated under Gods will and
flourishing under His benevolent providence.13
Civil religion has five meanings: first is the notion of civil religion as folk religion; the
second meaning is that of a transcendent universal religion of the nation; the third is that of
religious nationalism; the fourth is the democratic faith; and the fifth is that of a Protestant
nationalism.
As concerns Capra, the third and the fourth meanings prove to be the basis upon which
he erected his altar for praising and glorifying America. In the acceptance of the meanings of
religious nationalism, or the religion of patriotism, nation is not the church of national
religion, but the object of adoration and glorification, therefore the civil religion, as
archbishop John Ireland maintains, gives America its majesty, and to patriotism its
sacredness and force.14 And this is precisely what Frank Capra wants to echo in his films.
Nonetheless, movies, like religion, have exerted a profound influence upon the American
imagination.
Civil religion is based upon symbols, and so is patriotism. In his films, Frank Capra
pays homage to American traditions and values. He serves to his audiences from everlasting
veritable history-lessons, re-creating and recalling at the same time, Americas if not great,
at least better and more comprehensible past, expressing his faith in democracy, his
confidence in the good, un-perverted people who are able to alter their society and their
government. Capra tries to present American nation and the realities of the 30s, appealing to
his contemporaries sentiment of patriotism and for this, he uses Americas most valuable
treasures, namely the same symbols civil religion operates with, for developing and
maintaining an American imagined community.
CONCLUSIONS
Civil religion is the celebration of democracy, of the Constitution and national unity,
of social egalitarianism, of religion proper; it is the religionization of the national life and
culture, somehow moulded upon Thomas Jeffersons thought: religion, morality, and civic
responsibility. And that is precisely what Capra suggests in his movies. Even the language he
uses is the American vernacular: democratic, egalitarian, common, more colloquial, closer to
the raw.15 It is as clear as possible the worship of Constitution in America is not due to any
legalistic propensity, but to the fact that the Constitution embodies the principles of the
Declaration of Independence, where the individualistic and humanitarian creed, the faith in
the power of the implemented moral will received its classical statement. In the proportion
12
Idem, p.30.
Cf. Will Herberg, Americas Civil Religion: What It Is and Whence It Comes, American Civil Religion, pp. 78 80. The author alludes to
the one dollar bill. The reverse of the seal on the left features a barren landscape dominated by an unfinished pyramid of 13 steps, topped by
the Eye of Providence within a triangle. At the base of the pyramid are engraved the Roman numerals MDCCLXXVI (1776), the date of
American independence from Britain. At the top of the seal stands a Latin phrase, ANNUIT COEPTIS, meaning He (God) smiled upon
our beginnings. At the bottom of the seal is a semicircular banner proclaiming NOVUS ORDO SECLORUM meaning New Order of the
Ages, which is a reference to the new American era.
14
Donald G. Jones and Russell E. Richey, The Civil Religion Debate, American Civil Religion, p.16.
15
Cf. Donald G. Jones and Russell E. Richey, The Civil Religion Debate, American Civil Religion, p. 8.
13
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America achieved a national consciousness, this creed and the faith became a national
conscience.
And thus, the audience once again are given a history lesson, are given a lecture,
nothing more but a sermon in terms of the civil rights. (Civil) religious faith is not only faith,
but it is faith in the triumph of the good. Besides, Americanism consists not of what
Americans believe to be true, but rather of what they believe in their attitudes, their
sentiments, their hopes and resolves, their scruples and maxims, or what are sometimes called
their valuations. And that is a moral meaning comprised in the civil religious sermon Capra
serves to his fellow country-people.
Frank Capra succeeded in being a poet, a poet of both the passionate American dream,
and the actual expression of the real world as he knew very well. For him, Americas dream
was the finest movements of desire and imagination can find expression in human live.
And for certain, Frank Capra expressed at full in the film language making it crystal
clear American perennial values are the means by which one person can recover his or her
moral strength, can help the community, can help the society, can be a real American, a true
believer in the precepts of civil religion, in other words, a patriot.
(Selective) Bibliography
Brinkerhoff, David B., White, Lynn, K. Sociology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln.
West Publishing Company, 1988.
Carney, Raymond. American Vision: the Films of Frank Capra. Cambridge University
Press, 1986.
Edgerton, Gary. Capra and Altman: Mythmaker and Mythologist, Literature Film
Quarterly_, 1983 no.1, 29
<http://xroads.virginia.edu/~Ma97/halnon/capra/capra.html (April 29, 2012)>.
Gehring, Wes, D. Populism and the Capra Legacy. Greenwood Press, 1995.
Richey, Russell E. and Jones, Donald G. eds. American Civil Religion, Harper &
Row, Publisher, New York, 1974.
Jowett, Garth, The Facts" of the "Censored Film: Theoretical and History
Approaches
<https://journals.ku.edu/index.php/jdtc/article/viewFile/1826/1789 (April 28, 2012)>.
McMath, Robert C., and Foner, Eric eds. American Populism: A Social History: 1877
1898. New York: Farrar, Strauss & Giroux, 1990;Populism. MSN Encarta
<http://encarta.msn..com./index/conciseindex/02/002C3000.htm, November 1, 2000 (March
29, 2012)>.
Olsen, Henry. Populism, American Style. National Affairs. Issue number 4,
summer, 2010 http://www.nationalaffairs.com/publications/detail/populism-american-style
(May 9, 2012).
***Encyclopaedia for religion and Society http://hirr.hartsem.edu/ency/PublicR.htm
(May 13, 2012).
http://www.famousquotes.me.uk/speeches/John_F_Kennedy/5.htm (May 12, 2012).
634
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635
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636
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t. Munteanu, Vasile ra, Istoria limbii romne literare, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1978.
D. Macrea, Probleme ale structurii i evoluiei limbii romne, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1982, pp. 72-81.
637
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638
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filet < din fr. filet: filetul cheii de siguran (p. 219);
filigran < din fr. filigrane: Pe fiecare corp lucios frunzulie de aur desenau un filigran
complicat. (p. 124); filigrane marmorate (p. 155);
garsonier < din fr. garonnire: Toamna trecut am nchiriat garsoniera, n care mam mutat progresiv (p. 94); ua garsonierei de pe terasa blocului vechi i sfrmicios (p.
151);
glomerul < din fr. glomrule: glomerule sudoripare (p. 68);
grifon < din fr. griffon: pe tronul suprem din craniu, ncadrat de grifoni (p. 206);
hialin < din fr. hyalin: ncerca s zreasc ceva prin substana tulbure, hialin. (p.
115); Perla de lng nar crescuse ct o boab de strugure, i n hialinul ei difuzau pnze
vagi, sngerii. (p. 170);
lavalier < din fr. lavallire: Cte o siluet n sutan sau una n costum i lavalier se
artau uneori la fereastra dinspre pode. (p. 173);
legist < fr. lgiste, germ. Legist: medic legist (p. 16);
lustr < din fr. lustre: lustra cu abajururi de stic verzuie (p. 9);
madrepor < din fr. madrpore: copceii ca de madrepor (p. 214);
magie < din fr. magie: toate credinele pmntului adposteau ochiuri fierbini de
magie
(p. 179);
mansard < din fr. mansarde: Stau mai departe pe scaunul meu, n mansarda mea cu
fereastr oval, la marginea unei galaxii. (p. 216);
metabolism < din fr. mtabolisme: chimismul metabolismului nostru (p. 200);
mobilier < din fr. mobilier: Intram n palatul de marmur, gol de orice mobilier (p.
77);
monotonie < din fr. monotonie: monotonia vocilor (p. 326);
morfil < din fr. morfil: zidurile se-nchegar, devenir strvezii-lptoase, apoi mate ca
morfilul
(p. 55);
nadir < din fr. nadir: nlndu-se spre Nadir (p. 323);
neant < din fr. nant: privirile lor, cum stteau acolo sus cap lng cap, delimtau
lumea sigur i civilizat, dincolo de care m-ar fi nghiit neantul (p. 222);
nimb < din fr. nimbe: nimb intens ca flacra ochiurilor de aragaz la ieirea din east
(p. 37); nimburile Dumnezeilor bizantini (p. 322);
noologie < din fr. noologie: ce corespunde punct cu punct cu vrstele teologiei,
noologiei, biologiei, geologiei i nadologiei sale (p. 327);
nostalgie < din fr. nostalgie: lsnd n urm regret i nostalgie (p. 16);
Atunci i chinuitoarea noastr nostalgie va fi ntreag, timpul nu va mai exista,
memoria i dragostea vor fi una, creierul i sexul vor fi una, i noi vom fi asemenea ngerilor.
(p. 61);
ocult < din fr. occulte: motiv ocult (p. 288);
palier < din fr. palier: Fiecare palier avea o alt culoare a dezolrii. (p. 24);
paralizie < din fr. paralysie: ntre timp, paralizia feei mele devenise total. (p.
266);
parc < din fr. parc: parcuri raionale; aleile parcurilor (p. 150);
639
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racord < din fr. racord: Nu era nimic de desluit i totui totul striga dup desluire,
din ductul mistic al liniilor, din rbdarea maniacal a racordurilor, din rafinamentul culorilor
simeai c e ncifrat un mesaj (p. 84);
raport < din fr. rapport: raporturile dintre clase (p. 149);
recif < din fr. rcif: recif de corali (p. 117);
reflect < din fr. reflet: privind n ochi, ca hipnotizat, reflectul meu din oglinda
strvezie a ferestrei (p. 9);
strategie < din fr. stratgie: n condiiile noastre specifice, se impune o strategie la
nivel local. (p. 288);
suport < din fr. support: Galeria era luminat de tore nfipte n suporturi de metal
negru (p. 114);
surpriz < din fr. surprise: fiecare ntmplare se configura ca o surpriz debusolant
(p. 239);
torsiune < din fr. torsion: torsiuni spaiale (p. 192);
troglodit < din fr. troglodyte: troglodiii ce ieeau din grota sumbr a
cinematografelor
(p. 186);
verand < din fr. vranda: casa alb, cu verand i marchiz multicolor (p. 118);
versant < din fr. versant: Adunndu-i puterile, cum sttea n vrful scrii cu cte un
picior pe fiecare versant al ei, mpinse violent n umrul stng (p. 152);
vid < din fr. vide: vid insuportabil (p. 79);
vitrin < din fr. vitrine: Am ieit cu ea de mn, am traversat oseaua nzpezit i iam privit prul albastru n lumina vitrinelor de la farmacie (p. 11);
vitrinele pline de inscripii colorate (p. 198).
Dintre adjectivele neologice utilizate de scriitor n Orbitor identificm:
aerian < din fr. arien: De un rang mai nalt dect ngerii, aceti supra-veghetori i
ainteau din palatele lor aeriene privirile de acvil asupra muuroaielor de furnici (p. 275);
agresiv < din fr. agressif: ncepusem, de la o vreme, s i scriu poeme, unde, ntre
attea versuri gracile, feerice i agresive, m trezeam insernd uneori, fr nici o necesitate,
cte un pasaj de neneles, care-mi fusese dictat parc de cineva i care, cnd l reciteam, m
ngrozea ca o profeie mplinit. (p. 17);
arhitectural < din fr. architectural: Dincolo de acest al doilea rnd de cldiri, oraul
se-ntindea pn n zare, acoperind jumtate din fereastr cu un amestec tot mai mrunit, mai
confuz, mai indistinct, mai aleatoriu de vegetal i arhitectural, cu fleele plopilor nind din
loc n loc i cupole ciudate arcuindu-se ntre nori. (p. 12);
bizar < din fr. bizarre: crendu-i alt bizar baz organic (p. 58); bizare capricii
ale vreunui demon interior (p. 232); Fascinat de invocaia sa bizar (p. 332);
excitant < din fr. excitant: parfumul de hrtie prfuit, cel mai excitant parfum de pe
pmnt (p. 27);
fluorescent < din fr. fluorescent: reclame fluorescente (p. 12); un gaz uor
fluorescent ar fi umplut arcul gingiilor de cauciuc (p. 23);
iradiant < din fr. irradiant: coloana iradiant (p. 322);
monoton < din fr. monoton: plvrgeala monoton (p. 36);
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opalescent < din fr. opalescent: Verdele stins, veninul opalescent devenea tot mai
dens, urletul mpietrit tot mai universal (p. 154);
ntr-o baie cu un lichid opalescent plutea, buhit, un fetus cu nelepi ochi orientali.
(p. 339);
opalin < din fr. opalin: Trista ntrebare se disipa atunci n golul opalin al ldoiului
colonial (p. 177);
ornamental < din fr. ornamental: arbutii ornamentali (p. 152); brdui
ornamentali
(p. 157);
previzibil < din fr. prvisible: viitorul previzibil(p. 22);
rectangular < din fr. rectangulaire: ntr-o noapte dup ce m condusese prin galeria
unei vile cu ferestre susinute de putti i ghirlande, apoi pe culoarele rectangulare cu nie n
care dormeau urne pntecoase, am ajuns ntr-o camer n ruine, prin fereastra fr tocrie i
plin de buruieni a creia ardea luna. (p. 77);
suplu < din fr. suple: corpul suplu al mainii de cusut (p. 122);
temporal < din fr. temporal: s-ar fi dizolvat n stnca osului temporal (p. 237);
stnca temporal ca roata mare a unui parc de distracii (p. 267);
terifiant < din fr. terrifiant: imaginea terifiant a tatlui meu (p. 14);
n legtur cu verbele neologice prezente n roman, frecvena acestora este una relativ
mare:
accentua < din fr. accentuer: Globii ochilor ti i vor accentua convergena. (p.
338);
a aciona < din fr. actionner: [] se-ntreba iar ce resort sau ce prghie s acioneze
pentru ca muchii cervicali ai fetei s se contracte i ea s-ntoarc privirile spre el (p. 203);
arbora < din fr. arborer: Rbufniri de vnt cald agitau prul i balonzaidele
trectorilor la intersecii, trozneau steagurile roii arborate pe faade, zburau plria cte unei
femei mai elegante n rsetele grupurilor de ucenici. (p. 186);
complota < din fr. comploter: comploteaz unii contra celorlai (p. 235);
concentra < din fr. concentrer: m concentram din toate puterile spiritului meu (p.
26); bezna se concentra n camer, nfurndu-m cu tristee (p. 236);
defila < din fr. dfiller: Defilau acum pe ecran nite armate. (p. 162);
detecta < din fr. dtecter: s-ncerce s detecteze din vreme victima (p. 176);
strduindu-se s detecteze nu tiu ce reflexe (p. 266);
developa < din fr. dvelopper: abia las loc unui strop de lichid scnteietor, de
gndire limpede, n care se developeaz rna structurat a lumilor (p. 63);
epuiza < din fr. puiser: Carnea e pmntul n care a fost sdit i pe care-l va epuiza
de resurse (p. 61);
eroda < din fr. roder: Val dup val, montrii izbeau dreptunghiul ghimpos al
falangei, l erodau, i smulgeau soldaii i-i trau n bezn. (p. 46);
escalada < din fr. escalader: escaladar mormane de moloz (p. 134);
estompa < din fr. estomper: Stteam aa pn se fcea complet ntuneric i oraul, ca
ntr-o ilustraie din vechi cri pentru copii, se estompa delicat sub norii de argint i de lun.
(p. 259);
exersa < din fr. exercer: ca s aib cu cine exersa-n timpul zilei (p. 248);
641
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filtra < din fr. filtrer: Seara, lumina care se filtra prin feretile proprietarilor era roz
i plpitoare, ca-n vis. (p. 108);
inventa < din fr. inventer: mi se construia viaa, un artist metafizic inventa secund de
secund miliardul de amnunte (p. 82);
Vom inventa fiina ce-o s ne inventeze, dar nu va fi din lumin pur. (p. 336);
orienta < din fr. orienter: naintam prin flcri cu ochii strni, rnii, ncercam s m
orientez, aproape sigur c o luasem n direcie greit. (p. 87);
persecuta < din fr. perscuter: rzbunare a satului mpotriva unui Dumnezeu care i
persecuta (p. 34);
profila < din fr. profiler: Cte-o statuie se profila cafenie pe zaul nc glbui de la
orizont. (p. 111);
progresa < din fr. progresser: Priveam cum progreseaz nserarea de septembrie
(p. 249);
proiecta < cf. fr. projeter: avea s mi se interzic de-acum accesul la tot ce
proiectasem
(p. 13); Tot acest vis fetia ni-l proiectase ntr-un fel direct n creiere, de
parc noi nine l-am fi visat (p. 248);
refugia < din fr. rfugier: M-am desclat, mi-am scos cciula ud de zpad i
paltonul i m-am refugiat, ca de obicei, n camera mea din fa. (p. 25);
regresa < din fr. rgresser: a regresa, a te ntoarce, a cobor n miezul arhaic a minii
tale (p. 219);
relaxa < din fr. relaxer: androginii [] se reped spre grmezile de fibre striate, le
contract i le relaxeaz, le-ndreapt ctre ce vrea fiina noastr adnc, i degetul se mic, i
muntele se arunc n mare. (pp. 211-212);
simboliza < din fr. symboliser: Statuile de sus, din arcadele nroite de lun,
simbolizau vicii sau virtui. (p. 77);
transfera < din fr. transfrer: Vedem lumina cu nite ou cornoase pline de jeleu, o
transformm n implusuri electrice i-o transferm unei grmezi de mucilagii umede dintr-o
cochilie de calcar. (p. 213);
traversa < din fr. traverser: Trebuia s traversez oseaua i s m-nfund pe strduele
cartierului de vizavi. (p. 73);
trepida < din fr. trpider: Sala ntreag, cu popoarele adpostite n ea, trepida n
cutremur, cutremurare. (p. 344).
Referitor la rolul mprumutului lexical n sistemul limbii romne literare, Th. Hristea
este de prere c frumuseea unei limbi este dat, n primul rnd, de bogia, varietatea
vocabularului ei, de continua sporire a inventarului lexical, iar modificrile care au loc n
cadrul lui sunt, cel mai adesea, direct ori indirect legate de progresul societii umane, n
ansamblul ei, i n mod special de transformrile care se petrec n viaa material i spiritual
a unei colectiviti lingvistice12.
References
Theodor Hristea (coord.), Sinteze de limba romn , ediia a II-a, revzut i mult mbogit, Bucureti, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic,
p. 31.
12
642
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643
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644
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Abstract: After the sedimentation of the experiences suggestive of a decadent era, Vlad
Zografi (b. 1960, Bucharest) illustrates the attraction and separation of cultures in Petru sau
petele din soare [Petru or the Solar Spots], the difference aiming both at a Soleil Couchant,
but also at a Soleil Levant. From the perspective of the Romanian space strategic,
transitory and suggestible one may note the dialogue between cultures (in the dramatic
time), translated into a complex discourse, which reveals characters projected in accordance
with the determination of history, memory, and identitary configuration.
Keywords: era, drama, culture, dialogue, imaginary
645
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pentru debut al Uniunii Scriitorilor, n care a fost inclus i piesa Petru sau petele din soare,
ce a obinut, la rndul su, premiul Asociaiei Internaionale a Criticilor de Teatru, seciunea
romn. Reeditarea operei n 2007 la editura Humanitas presupune, pe coperta a patra, n
mrturia autorului, o nsumare de aspecte privind actul de facere a textului, precum i grile
de lectur i de receptare. Dup o decantare a experienelor6, scris n primvara lui 1995,
ntr-un timp scurt, cam o sptmn, piesa nu vizeaz ciocnirea civilizaiilor n ciuda
punerii fa n fa a dou lumi, a Occidentului i a estului Europei, ci evideniaz ntr-o
manier dramatic original, n schimb, specificitatea fascinant a fiecrei arii culturale
nfiate, perspectiva de creaie fiind cea a avocatului fiecrui personaj. Buna primire a
piesei a condus, pentru un anumit timp, la ideea continurii subiectului n variant ntoars,
prin aducerea francezilor n Rusia. Aceasta ar fi fost n viziunea lui Zografi ca un fel de
Rambo II sau Greu de ucis II , ceea ce l-a determinat s nu o mai scrie, contient fiind de
faptul c filmul las o amprent foarte puternic asupra imaginarului colectiv. Astfel, de
atunci, Petru a rmas o insul baroc, luxuriant i paradoxal, pierdut n mijlocul oceanului.
i, pentru mine, un capt de drum.
Avnd la baz vizita arului Rusiei n Frana, textul dramatic n dou acte prezint
cursul unei cutri continue a sinelui, a identitii (PETRU: Nu tiu cine sunt7, parc privind
n gol), a umanului, pn la urm, ntruct grotescul i comicul nghea, fcnd loc
meditaiei8. Fr intenia de a trata tematic istoria care este o femeie prea atrgtoare i mult
prea vicioas9, n ciuda referinei temporale precise din preambulul piesei (7 mai 1717) i a
utilizrii vorbelor adevrate ale lui Petru (Ei, da, trei vorbe... sau dou... Dar a trebuit s
scriu asta, c doar n-o s fac, aa, ca Eugen Barbu...), sustrgnd ncadrarea piesei, deci, n
categoria teatrului istoric, dar i a celui documentar, autorul precizeaz: Da, sigur, am citit
cartea lui Henri Troyat, apoi memoriile lui Saint Simon (...). Orice scriitor se sprijin i pe
altceva dect pe imaginaia lui10, menionndu-i n acest sens pe Dostoievski, ce i-a
conceput operele pornind de la cronicile de tribunal publicate, i pe Cervantes, ce a vizat
romanele cavalereti. De altfel, didascaliile iniiale, n afar de stabilirea cronotopului,
puncteaz un dialog textual. Pe lng portretul lui Petru ce nfieaz un brbat foarte bine
fcut, purtnd pecetea inteligenei, cel al lui Nikita Zotov, prinul-pap i mscriciul
acestuia, este conform descrierii abatelui Dubois: un pitic btrn (...), diform, de o urenie
insuportabil i cu un glas care aduce cu orcitul broatelor11.
Lista de dramatis personae, difereniat cultural (rui, francezi), ilustreaz plasarea lui
Petru pe prima poziie, ceea ce face trimitere la reamintirea lui Marian Popescu din cadrul
interviului anterior menionat, respectiv c n formele incipiente ale teatrului romnesc
aceasta se numea lista obrazelor. Cum obrazul sugereaz faa social, distinct de cea
personal / interioar, sunt relativ anticipate: reversibilitatea feelor, masca preferat de
ctre ar, respectiv afinitatea acestuia pentru deghizare, pentru diversiune. Jocul de rol stabilit
vizeaz rsturnarea poziiilor, asemenea celei din Prin i ceretor, cci, dac Zotov este
prezentat francezilor ca fiind arul Rusiei, Petru i asum statutul de marinar, al unui brav
punerile lor n scen, n Florescu, Judy, Dou lansri de carte n FNT, Ziarul Metropolis, 30 octombrie 2014, disponibil online:
http://www.ziarulmetropolis.ro/vlad-zografi-doua-lansari-de-carte-in-fnt/.
6
Eu, dou ri cunosc mai bine (...). n Frana am stat doi ani i jumtate iar n Rusia vreo apte sptmni (...). Iraionalul acesta rusesc i
tulbur (...). De-asta mi s-a prut mie subiectul att de interesant pentru o pies de teatru., n Popescu, Marian, Interviu cu Vlad Zografi:
Eu nu pot s scriu teatru dect despre o epoc decadent... i, de fapt, toate epocile sunt decadente., Semnal teatral, 5-6 (9-10), Ed.
UNITEXT, Bucureti, 1996, p. 8, 17.
7
Zografi, Vlad, Petru sau Petele din soare, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2007, p. 23.
8
indrilaru, Florin (coord.), O istorie a prozei i a dramaturgiei romneti, vol. II, Perspectiva personajului literar, Casa Crii de tiin,
Cluj-Napoca; Paralela 45, Piteti, 2011, p. 908.
9
Zografi, Vlad, Petru sau Petele din soare, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2007, p. 60.
10
Popescu, Marian, Interviu cu Vlad Zografi: Eu nu pot s scriu teatru dect despre o epoc decadent... i, de fapt, toate epocile sunt
decadente., Semnal teatral, 5-6 (9-10), Ed. UNITEXT, Bucureti, 1996, p.15.
11
Zografi, Vlad, Petru sau Petele din soare, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2007, p. 7.
646
SECTION: LITERATURE
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lup de mare. Cum nfiarea i difereniaz net, confuzia planeaz asupra nobilimii franceze,
dezvluind ns beia, nebunia sau spiritul ludic al lui Petru (Gsii-mi minile prieteni...
(...) Hai, hai, scotocii peste tot!12). Furnd ceasul din corsajul unei contese, acesta conchide,
rznd cu poft: Nu mai e ceasul! Am abolit timpul! Decret imperial: nu mai exist timp!13.
Scoaterea mselei funcionarului Jean, deoarece avea falca stng umflat, dezvluie natura
i pregtirea plurivalent a arului, totul pentru a ndeprta plictiseala, de altfel deplns de
galici (Eu sunt dulgher! (...) i artilerist. i pompier. i artificier. i boxer. i trage un pumn
zdravn celui de-al treilea conte care rmne ntins.14). Colecionar de mecanisme a cror
funcionalitate nu o nelegea ntotdeauna, pasajul inveniei inutile n interiorul creia se afla
un om fiind edificator n acest sens, Petru invadeaz lumea academic francez,
descoperind ns c soarele are pete, asemenea viziunii din opera lui Jonathan
Swift :PETRU: E un fel de boal a pielii soarelui, nici astronomii dumneavoastr nu pot
spune cu precizie dac boala e fatal sau trectoare... Dar mi-e team c nu exist scpare...
(...) M tem c ne aflm n faa unui zid peste care nu putem trece... Nici mcar minile
luminate...15. Deconcentrarea privind personalitatea lui Petru este sugerat i de schimbul de
replici dintre spionii aliapin i Smirnov care, obinuii s cerceteze planurile oraelor de
cucerit, se afl acum n cutarea anacronicului Pierre de la Manque, recomandat de Leibniz,
fostul consilier intim al arului: ALIAPIN: Auzi ce nume! (...) Nu-i nici un cinic n... (Se
strduiete s pronune corect:) Paris. (Se trntete pe jos.) (...) Petru azi d un ordin i mine,
dup ce bea o gleat de vodc, nu-i mai amintete nici cine e Delamac al tu16. Cinismul,
curent filozofic mort de dou mii de ani rezid n maniera existenial a acestuia, unul din
academicienii consultai punctnd: Era de la nceput ceva putred cu cinicii tia, prea se
mndreau cu propria lor mizerie. Czuser n exhibiionism. tii, sire, Antistene, un grec care
a trit cu patru secole nainte de Cristos, umbla mereu cu o manta gurit numai ca s atrag
atenia. De altfel, Socrate i-a dat o replic usturtoare. ntr-o bun zi, i-a zis lui Antistene:
Vd prin gaura mantalei tale toat vanitatea ta 17. Hegemonia cultural a Franei este
neneleas de ctre cei doi, cci, n agitatele hale ale Parisului, constat c brnza i
parfumurile put groaznic, vinul prnd a fi sirop de coacze:
ALIAPIN: Strintate blestemat! Ah, Rusia mea, Rusia mea! tia vodc n-au?
(...)
SMIRNOV: Ce i-o fi venit lui Petru? S m bat Dumnezeu dac ara asta merit s
fie cucerit.18
Deziluzia conductorului continu, pentru c filosoful, refuznd mutarea n spaiul
rusesc, spre deosebire de metresa Coco, enun imposibilitatea schimbrii oamenilor:
PIERRE: Fii pragmatic, Petru, tu n-ai nevoie s-i schimbi pe rui. (...)
PETRU: Dac nu pot schimba Rusia, atunci la ce bun s cuceresc lumea?
PIERRE: Dac i-ai schimba pe rui, atunci n-ai mai putea cuceri lumea19.
Dac ultima parte a existenei filosofului s-a desfurat n cimitirul Pre Lachaise20, de
la mori aflnd istoria Franei, separarea civilizaiilor este exprimat att prin spusele arului:
12
Idem, p. 25.
Idem, p. 23.
14
Idem, p. 24.
15
Idem, p. 115.
16
Idem, pp. 14, 49-50 (subl. a.).
17
Idem, p. 45.
18
Idem, pp. 12-13.
19
Idem, p. 62.
20
Autobiografismul este vizibil, dup rspunsul dat n Popescu, Marian, Interviu cu Vlad Zografi: Eu nu pot s scriu teatru dect despre o
epoc decadent... i, de fapt, toate epocile sunt decadente., Semnal teatral, 5-6 (9-10), Ed. UNITEXT, Bucureti, 1996, p. 14.
13
647
SECTION: LITERATURE
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La noi craniilor le e fric s vorbeasc, au czut ntr-o muenie care m ngrijoreaz (...) 21,
ct i prin dialogul personajelor exponeniale celor dou spaii :
PETRU: Tu crezi c mie-mi place Europa?... Nu, Pierre, eu am detestat ntotdeauna
Occidentul. Dar mi-e team c e necesar...
PIERRE: La fel de necesar ca ploaia care cade peste cimitir. Hai, Petru, fii rus pn la
22
capt! .
Susinerea inflexibilitii umane i va aduce celui din urm moartea, pentru ca,
ulterior, Petru, n timpul diseciei, s caute rspunsul prin mruntaiele-i, amintind de scena
shakespearian de lng craniu, sau de cea din nger btrn, a lui Alexandru Sever.
Afeciunea nu prea exist pentru barbarul ar, cci, pltind-o prost pe Coco, i retrage
promisiunea fcut: Pe Evdokia, prima mea soie, am trimis-o la mnstire, am s-o trimit i
pe Ekaterina. Mnstirea e un loc foarte sigur, am impresia c arinelor le place...23.
Umorul dezvoltat la nivelul discursului dramatic este nsoit, printre altele, de
caracterul reflexiv ce vizeaz aspecte problematice ale existenei, totul putnd fi redus la ideea
unui Soleil Couchant, dar i a unui Soleil Levant24, cci, dac n final Zotov, obosit i
dezamgit, accept resemnat ntoarcerea n Rusia (Tristeea lui Zotov se transformn
disperare), Petru, fire energic, n ciuda senzaiei trite de moarte succesiv, simbolic,
prevede reluarea cutrilor: Las c mai trecem noi pe-aici25. Asemenea lui Caligula al lui
Camus, manifestrile lui Petru sunt consecine ale frmntrii interioare, astralul, universalul
unindu-i prin disoluie, ntruct ntr-o autoanatomie, acesta numete pmntul o
prelungire a sa, fiind creaia lui Dumnezeu, fiul Lui iubit, deci, pmntul e al meu...26
Elementele de metatextualitate nu lipsesc din text, ducele, ca un alter ego auctorial,
preciznd: Totul e improvizaie, prieteni! Textul piesei pe care o jucm nu conine suficiente
indicaii de regie. Chiar i autorul piesei, Creatorul nostru, improvizeaz fr ncetare... Sunt
convins c nici n clipa asta nu tie exact ce se va ntmpla peste dou minute. Urmrete doar
cteva principii vagi, cteva idei...27. n cadrul apart-ului, lui Zotov toate i se par decoruri
ale unui teatru ambulant rtcit ntre pmnt i ap28. Astfel, privat de funcia mimetic
iniial, la care s-a renunat n teatrul modern, decorul are caracter tridimensional i ocup
spaiul dramatic n totalitatea sa, fiind alctuit din elemente picturale i arhitecturale29.
Astfel, se constat nc o dat dualitile teatrului presupuse att de spaiul concret i cel
sugerat, ct i de timpul real i cel convenional, de timpul dramatic i cel scenic. Pentru a
exemplifica, n aceast privin, Marian Popescu punea n discuie dificultatea redrii
decorului actului I: Dar, o pia, aa cum ai imaginat-o tu n deschiderea piesei, este greu de
realizat pe scen. Se fac strigri, toat lumeaa strig, fiecare ce vinde, e mult populaie
scenic, iar apoi, n restul piesei, ea nu mai apare. Rspunsul lui Zografi vizeaz i relaia
dramaturg-regizor: E adevrat, dar nu sunt multe personaje. Mie mi-ar plcea ca un regizor
s vad n piesa mea i altceva, nu doar att ct se vede la prima vedere, iar dac a putea s
fiu un fel de regizor secund eu l-a ajuta s vad mai mult30.
Despre personaj, Zografi, numit fie c ar fi filorus, fie filofrancez, menioneaz:
Devine, relativ, simpatic. Ct despre final, ntr-adevr, se ntlnesc dou lumi, lumea rus, cu
Zografi, Vlad, Petru sau Petele din soare, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2007, p. 58.
Idem, p. 63.
23
Idem, p. 54.
24
Ghiulescu, Mircea, Istoria literaturii romne. Dramaturgia, Editura Academiei Romne, Bucureti, 2007, p. 808.
25
Zografi, Vlad, Petru sau Petele din soare, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2007, p. 120.
26
Idem, p. 26.
27 I
dem, p. 78.
28
Idem, p. 82.
29
Milea, Doinia, Metamorfozele dramaturgiei romneti. Note de curs, Biblioteca Universitii Dunrea de Jos, Galai, p. 6.
30
Popescu, Marian, Interviu cu Vlad Zografi: Eu nu pot s scriu teatru dect despre o epoc decadent... i, de fapt, toate epocile sunt
decadente., Semnal teatral, 5-6 (9-10), Ed. UNITEXT, Bucureti, 1996, p. 10 (subl. a.).
21
22
648
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649
SECTION: LITERATURE
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http://www.kmkz.ro/de-pe-teren/interviu-dezvaluiri/vlad-zografi%C3%83%C2%A2%C3%82%C2%80%C3%82%C2%9Eelvetia-e-o-tara-in-care-ti-vine-sate-sinucizi%C3%83%C2%A2%C3%82%C2%80%C3%82%C2%9C/.
Ciocan Ioana-Tatiana, Didascaliile- puni de legtur ntre nivelul textual i cel al
reprezentrii unei piese de teatru
http://www.upm.ro/facultati_departamente/stiinte_litere/conferinte/situl_integrare_eur
opeana/Lucrari5/IETM5_Part23.pdf.
Constantinescu, Marina, E o crim s ai idei, Romnia literar, Nr. 24, 1999
http://www.romlit.ro/e_o_crim_s_ai_idei.
Florescu, Judy, Dou lansri de carte n FNT, Ziarul Metropolis, 30 octombrie 2014
http://www.ziarulmetropolis.ro/vlad-zografi-doua-lansari-de-carte-in-fnt/.
Grbea, Horia, Vlad Zografi: Cine poate schimba oamenii?, Jurnalul.ro, 7 mai 2009
http://jurnalul.ro/cultura/arte-vizuale/vlad-zografi-cine-poate-schimba-oamenii506690.html.
Martin, Matei, Vlad Zografi: dramaturg & editor, Dilemateca, anul VII, nr. 71, 25
aprilie 2012
http://dilemaveche.ro/sectiune/dilemateca/articol/vlad-zografi-dramaturg-editor.
Oprea, Maria, Vlad Zografi: Este foarte emoionant s vezi locurile de unde au venit
ai ti, Asociaia Liga albanezilor din Romnia, nr. 156, octombrie 2014
http://www.alar.ro/n85/literaturac603/interviu_cu_scriitorul_vlad_zografi_este_foarte_emotionant_sa_vezi_locurile_de_unde_
au_venit_ai_tai-s1106.html
Zografi, Vlad, Nu m intereseaz modele, nu m conformez lor, Romnia literar, nr.
26, 2007
http://www.romlit.ro/vlad_zografi_nu_m_intereseaz_mdele_nu_m_conformez_lor.
650
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Abstract: The paper will focus on the writers versatility, taking into consideration the fact
that he has various pursuits: poetry, prose, essay, journalistic activity, literary criticism, etc.
Although he lived in exile, like Aron Cotru, Stefan Baciu, and Horia Stamatu, he made his
debut with a volume of poems in Romanian language. Vintil Horia is a representative writer
within the Romanian literature of exile, a writer of the past and the present. His journalistic
activity is remarkable, having written articles for Sfarm-piatr magazine, his creations
tackling different areas and directions (literary/ musical/dramatic chronicles, external
chronicles, interviews, translations). A personality with a vast culture, Vintil Horia remains
one of the controversial writers of the exile period.
Keywords: versatility, prose, poetry, journalism, exile.
D., [Preocuprile actuale ale Dlui Vintil Horia...], n ,,Destin. Revist de cultur romneasc, Madrid, caietul nr. 11/1959, p. 262.
Horia Vintil n dialog cu Gelu Ionescu, n ,,Apostrof, anul I, nr. 2/1990, Cluj, p. 25 (Interviu transmis n cursul anului 1988, n cadrul
Actualitii romneti, la postul de radio EUROPA LIBER).
3
Angela Martin, Interviu cu Vintil Horia: Gndesc n limba romn, azi, ca i ntotdeauna..., n ,,Romnia literar, anul XXIV, nr.
38/joi 19 septembrie 1991, p. 7.
1
2
651
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
Apud. Constantin Ciopraga, Un cavaler al spiritului, n ,,Jurnalul literar, serie nou, an III, nr. 27-30/octombrie 1992, p. 7.
Angela Comnne, II Vintil Horia n vol. Rencontre de dernire heure avec les crivains VIRGIL GHEORGHIU Montral et Paris et
VINTILA HORIA Madrid, Humanitas nouvelle optique, Canada, 1993, p. 51 : ,,Poet, jurnalist, romancier, Vintil Horia, figur
predominant n literatura romn de influen spaniol i francez din secolul nostru, a avut o influen important asupra generaiilor fiind
un maestru. Printre altele menionm lupta mpotriva comunismului, deoarece, el scria n 1990 rezumatul Mai bine mort dect comunist
(trad. DMV).
6
Apud. Cornel Ungureanu, Vintil Horia. Spiritul vienez, n ,,Jurnalul literar, serie nou, anul III, nr.23-26/septembrie 1992, p. 7.
7
Ion Rotaru, Vintil Horia, n vol. O istorie a literaturii romne de la origini pn n prezent, Bucureti, Editura Dacoromn TDC, 2006,
p.578.
8
Vintil Horia, Cetatea cu duhuri, Poem, Cu un portret al autorului de Claudia Cobizeva, Editura librriei Pavel Suru, Bucureti, 1939, p.
28.
9
Cecilia Lati, Autobiografismul lui Vintil Horia i renvierea imaginativ a lumilor traversate n vol. Polifonii creatoare, Editura
Universitii din Suceava, 2003, p. 107.
4
5
652
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
Dup 18 ani va publica un nou volum de poezie Viitor petrecut, aprut iniial n
Spania (1972), iar apoi a fost reeditat la Editura Europa din Craiova. Autorul apare aici izolat
de cei dragi, eul liric este mcinat de un conflict interior foarte puternic.
Vintil Horia este autor de referin pentru literatura exilului romnesc, un scriitor al
trecutului i al prezentului: ,,...un prozator cu merite indiscutabile nu numai n perspectiva
trecutului, reprezentnd linia unui simbolism mitic al istoriei i deci al personalitii istorice
(nu numai al istoriei romneti, ci i spaniole: Un mormnt n cer i unele eseuri din Destin),
ci i a prezentului; el este un scriitor a crui for nsufleete cteva bune romane i propune
cititorului, inclusiv celui strin (cci aceste cri au fost publicate mai nti n francez sau
spaniol), o viziune coerent, explicit, asupra istoriei i destinului european al romnilor.10
Opera sa epic este compus din peste douzeci de scrieri care se afl la grania dintre
povestire i eseu. Publicarea Trilogiei exilului (Dumnezeu s-a nscut n exil, Cavalerul
resemnrii i Salvarea de ostrogoi) ofer o imagine asupra exilului vzut din mai multe
perspective. Protagonitii romanelor sunt exilai din diverse motive i obligai s se adapteze
ntr-un spaiu care-i priveaz de o via obinuit. Moartea morii mele este un volum n care
sunt reunite nuvelele publicate de scriitor n revistele literare ale vremii. Vintil Horia se
impune ca prozator prin nuvele, opera sa aflndu-se la grania dintre cerebralitate i
sensibilitate. Prin proza de tip fantastic a reuit s se afirme ca un prozator excepional, la fel
ca i Cezar Petrescu i Victor Papilian: ,,Un fantastic, ns foarte departe de cel crescut din
rmiele de spaim preistoric, - aa cum l cultiv germanii. Ci un mod de intuire i de
reliefare linitit a unor perfecii de vis n relitatea brut.11
Romanul Dumnezeu s-a nscut n exil s-a bucurat de un succes rsuntor prin
atribuirea Premiului Goncourt, premiu care a generat un ntreg scandal: ,,Romanul acesta se
substituie oarecum propriului su destin de exilat, identificat prin poetul Ovidiu, n trista lui
izolare de la Tomis. Dar e ceva mai mult: urmrind viaa poetului latin, cu detaiile i
peripeiile ei ntre sciii localnici i ostaii romani, asistm la naterea poporului romn,
precum i la procesul de ncretinare. Exilul lui Vintil Horia a nsemnat prilejul sfnt de a-i
descoperi n faa lumii, zmislirea Neamului n chiar clipa ncretinrii, ceea ce reprezint o
plmdire de spiritualitate unic n istoria umanitii. Pentru aceast carte, la decernarea
premiului Goncourt, au srit asupra lui toate haitele comuniste din ar i de la Paris cu
falsuri i denigrri pentru iubirea lui de ar, o mare ruine pe piaa literar a vremii) peste
care el a trecut printr-un gest de superb cavalerism.12
Opera lui Vintil Horia ar putea fi asemnat cu cea a lui Mircea Eliade, o oper care
abordeaz ideile de fiin, sens i adevr13, o cale de a purcede spre cunoatere.
Volumul Credin i creaie (ediie ngrijit i prefa de Mircea Popa, Editura Eikon,
Cluj-Napoca, 2003) i propune s valorifice publicistica lui Vintil Horia. Culegerea de
eseuri nsumeaz trei capitole unitare: Cuvinte pentru alt nceput, Figuri romneti i Siluete
europene.
Eseurile lui Vintil Horia sunt de mici dimensiuni, dar cu toate acestea reuesc s
surprind probleme de istorie, sociologie i etic: ,, ncadreaz destinul unei ri unde,
totui, marile probleme au fost de ordin pragmatic i nu programatic, ci nerbdarea cu care se
fac judecile, suficiena tinereasc cu care se opereaz clasificrile, refuzurile, opiunile.14
Eseul Despre o nou nelegere a fantasticului prezint negarea ideii de art vzut ca
mimesis, arta reprezentnd de fapt un simbol. Arta cea mai important este fantasticul, o
Mircea Anghelescu, Vintil Horia, eseist, n ,,Adevrul literar i artistic, anul XIII, nr. 707/ 9 martie 2004, p. 13.
Ovidiu Papadima, Cronic literar. Vintil Horia: Procesiuni, n ,,Gndirea, anul XVII, nr. 2/ februarie 1938, p. 106.
12
Pan M. Vizirescu, Evocarea scriitorului gndirist Vintil Horia, n ,,Gndirea, serie nou, an II, nr. 2/10 ianuarie 1993, p. 7.
13
Mircea Eliade. Prefa n vol. Nostalgia originilor. Istorie i semnificaie n religie, traducere de Cezar Baltag, Bucureti, Humanitas,
1994, p. 5.
14
Mircea Anghelescu, Vintil Horia, eseist, n ,,Adevrul literar i artistic, anul XIII, nr. 707/ 9 martie 2004, p. 13.
10
11
653
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
evadare din lumea real, scriitorul face referire la opera lui Pavel Dan, V. Bene i Victor
Papilian: ,,Arta e descoperirea unui simbol. Misiunea artistului se poate asemna cu aceea a
omului din culise care ridicnd cortina dezvluie lumea nebnuit a scenei, o lume de
nelesuri limpezi i de fapte luminoase, pe care le ine n umbr perdeaua obinuit a vieii.
Artistul care copiaz realitatea nu face dect s redea faldurile i desenele fade ale cortinei.
Artistul care transfigureaz, care recreeaz realitatea imprimndu-i legile originale ale
propriului su suflet, mplinete misiunea adevrat a supraomului.15
Activitatea publicistic a lui Vintil Horia este una nsemnat. Din 1935 ncepe s
publice n Sfarm-piatr16. Mircea Popa remarc preferina sciitorului pentru regimurile
totalitare (majoritatea populaiei era lipsit de drepturi i liberti): ,,multe dintre ideile sale
sunt contaminate de spiritul ce domnea pe atunci n redacia acestei reviste de dreapta i c
uneori pledoaria sa politic mergea nspre regimurile totalitare din Spania, Italia i
Germania.17 n aceast revist pot fi ntlnite poziii antisemite, la Vintil Horia nu se poate
vorbi de aa ceva, poziia acestuia fiind una naionalist. Perioada comunist este aspru
pedepsit, fiind considerat o ,,glgie de javr jidoveasc a lui Karl Marx.18 Publicaiile
scriitorului sunt diverse, lsndu-se influenat de diverse direcii i abordnd mai multe
domenii: cronici literare, dramatice, muzicale (Matei Caragiale craiul ntunericului, II, nr.
15/1936; Romanul unei evoluii, II, nr. 53/ 1936; Imn pentru o vioar, II, nr. 55/1936; Cartea
iubirii, III, nr. 58/1937; Mateiu I. Caragiale, III, nr. 66/1937; Rposatul Sadoveanu, III, nr.
72/1937; Georges Duhamel sau elogiul burgheziei, III, nr.77/1937; Poemul revoltei, III, nr.
101/1937; Romanul lui Alain Fournier, IV, nr. 111/1938; ,,Lilioar. Poeme de Teodor
Muranu, IV, nr. 135/1938 etc.), traduceri (Fiul Tatlui de G. Papini, IV, nr. 124/1938),
poezie (Od pentru omul nou, II, nr. 13/1936; Rstignire n timp, II, nr. 20/1936; Timp, II, nr.
42/1936; Rug pentru ara noastr, III, nr. 63/1937 etc.), cronica extern (Conflictul dintre
Thailanda i Indochina francez, VII, nr. 63/1941; Portugalia n actualitate, VII, nr. 81/1941
etc.), interviuri (De vorb cu d. Petre G. Papacostea despre viaa i moartea marealului
Averescu, IV, nr.136/1938 etc.).
n 1939 va fi fondatorul revistei Meterul Manole, unde se simea ca acas. n paginile
revistei se regsesc mrturii despre menirea scriitorilor de a contribui la dezvoltarea culturii
europene, precum i efortul pe care trebuie s-l depun pentru a rspunde anumitor exigene.
Scopul revistei era aducerea unui spirit de moralitate, dar a avut un tiraj redus pn n 1940.
Vintil Horia se remarc i ca un foarte bun traductor. A contribuit i la propagarea
literaturii romne n limba spaniol. Traduce n spaniol opere ale unor autori francezi,
italieni, germani i romni: Panait Istrati (Ciulinii Brganului, 1973) sau George Usctescu
(Oamnei i realiti ale timpului nostru, 1961) etc. A tradus de asemenea dialogurile lui
Francisco de Holanda cu Michelangelo (1956), dar a realizat i prefeele unor opere scrise de
autori spanioli: Jos Lus Martin Abril, El banco sin respaldo, 1966 i Ramos Perera, Uri
Geller al descubierto, 1975.
Activitatea de critic literar a lui Vintil Horia este consemnat n cadrul revistelor La
Nacin, Sexto, Continente, Histonium, fondnd chiar i revistele Nouvelles dArgentine (Veti
din Argentina) i La Rumania (Romnia). A publicat mii de articole, studii i eseuri n diverse
publicaii din ntreaga lume, fiind considerat un critic literar excepional: Introducere n
literatura secolului XX (1976), Consideraii asupra unei lumi mai reale (1978), Poezia i
libertatea (1959), Prezena mitului (1956) i Literatur i disiden (1980) etc.
15
654
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
n Consideraciones sobre un mundo peor (1978) scriitorul reia unele nume deja
menionate (Raymond Abellio, James Joyce, Dostoievski), caut un concept care s-l
nlocuiasc pe acela de umanism, adic un concept care s se opun cretinismului.
Scriitorul e preocupat n Poesa y liberdad (1959) de relaia care se stabilete ntre
literatur i politic, de poezia metafizic francez (Pierre Emmanuel, A. Bosquet, Pierre Jean
Jouve). Se pot remarca i preocuprile pentru literatura rus (La rebelda de los escritores
soviticos, 1960; Literatura y disidencia. De Mayakowski a Soljenitsin, 1980).
n Buenos Aires, Vintil Horia, va fi profesor de literatur romn, acest statut este
datorat numeroaselor scrisori de recomandare pe care le avea de la prietenul su Giovanni
Papinni. Comunitatea romneasc din Buenos Aires se va ocupa de integrarea scriitorului n
societatea argentinian. O carier universitar nfloritoare va avea n Spania, la coala
Oficial de Jurnalism, care a devenit Facultatea de tiine ale Informaiei, Unversitatea
Complutense. ntre 1980-1986 este profesor de Literatur Contemporan la Universitatea
Alcal de Henares.
Filosoful Vintil Horia public lucrarea Introduction dans lHistoire de la philosophie
roumaine moderne / Introducere n Istoria filosofiei romneti moderne prin care i dorea s
asigure o oper de sintez realizat din perspectiva exilului. Vintil Horia era pasionat de
lecturile filosofie, cum mrturisete, acesta fiind punctul de plecare pentru propria oper
filosofic: ,,Am fut adevrate pasiuni, nti pentru filosofia istoriei (pentruSpengler,
Toynbee, Ortega y Gasset, Jaspers, mai tziu pentru Sfntul Augustin i Vico); apoi pentru
psihologie, n special pentru Jung; am trecut apoi la filosofia tiintelor, graie att lui tefan
Lupacu, ct i ntlnirilor cu Heisenberg, Gonseth i alii ; pentru a afla n studiul
spiritualitii tradiionale i mai ales n esoterismul lui Ren Gunon i al lui Raymond
Abellio (cu acesta am fost prieten pn la moartea lui) o ncununare a efortului meu
gnoseologic.19
Bibliografie:
Anghelescu, Mircea, Vintil Horia, eseist, n ,,Adevrul literar i artistic, anul XIII,
nr. 707/ 9 martie 2004.
Caftangioglu, Vintil V., Don-quijotescul Cervantes, n ,,Sfarm-piatr, an I, nr. 4 /
1935.
Ciopraga, Constantin, Un cavaler al spiritului, n ,,Jurnalul literar, serie nou, an III,
nr. 27-30/octombrie 1992.
Comnne, Angela, Rencontre de dernire heure avec les crivains VIRGIL
GHEORGHIU Montral et Paris et VINTILA HORIA Madrid, Humanitas nouvelle
optique, Canada, 1993.
D., [Preocuprile actuale ale Dlui Vintil Horia...], n ,,Destin. Revist de cultur
romneasc, Madrid, caietul nr. 11/1959.
Eliade, Mircea, Nostalgia originilor. Istorie i semnificaie n religie, traducere de
Cezar Baltag, Bucureti, Humanitas, 1994.
Angela Martin, Interviu cu Vintil Horia: Gndesc n limba romn, azi, ca i ntotdeauna..., n ,,Romnia literar, anul XXIV, nr.
38/joi 19 septembrie 1991, p. 7.
19
655
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Horia Vintil n dialog cu Gelu Ionescu, n ,,Apostrof, anul I, nr. 2/1990, Cluj, p. 25
(Interviu transmis n cursul anului 1988, n cadrul Actualitii romneti, la postul de radio
EUROPA LIBER).
Horia, Vintil, Cetatea cu duhuri, Poem, Cu un portret al autorului de Claudia
Cobizeva, Editura librriei Pavel Suru, Bucureti, 1939.
Horia, Vintil, Credin i creaie, ediie ngrijit i prefa de Mircea Popa, Editura
Eikon, Cluj-Napoca, 2003.
Horia, Vintil, Cu Karl Marx la ceai dansant, n ,,Sfarm-piatr, an II, nr. 18 / 19
martie 1936.
Lati, Cecilia, Polifonii creatoare, Editura Universitii din Suceava, 2003.
Martin, Angela, Interviu cu Vintil Horia: Gndesc n limba romn, azi, ca i
ntotdeauna..., n ,,Romnia literar, anul XXIV, nr. 38/joi 19 septembrie 1991.
Papadima, Ovidiu, Cronic literar. Vintil Horia: Procesiuni, n ,,Gndirea, anul
XVII, nr. 2/ februarie 1938.
Rotaru, Ion, O istorie a literaturii romne de la origini pn n prezent, Bucureti,
Editura Dacoromn TDC, 2006.
Ungureanu, Cornel, Vintil Horia. Spiritul vienez, n ,,Jurnalul literar, serie nou,
anul III, nr.23-26/septembrie 1992.
Vizirescu, Pan M., Evocarea scriitorului gndirist Vintil Horia, n ,,Gndirea, serie
nou, an II, nr. 2/10 ianuarie 1993.
This work was partially supported by the strategic project PERFORM, POSDRU
159/1.5/S/138963, inside POSDRU Romania 2014, co-financed by the European Social FundInvesting in People.
656
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Abstract: The study takes into account the Romanian literature during the communist regime,
for which it offers a panoramic view, bringing into question the phenomenon of propaganda
and censorship, as essential prohibitive factors that disturb the natural course of literature.
At the same time, the image of the Romanian prose is focused, proving that it existed beyond
compromises and disagreements, a permanent concern of the writers to enlighten the socialrealist aspirations pattern. In this context there are briefly presented the works of the writers
Marin Preda and George Bli, who support the idea of aesthetic value in a scenery
suffocated by the imposed schematism of the communist period. Finally, there are, works that
foreshadowed a new paradigm in the Romanian prose, following a sinuous course from
socialist realism to the modern narrative techniques, which assured a relative normality of
the literary creation.
Keywords: communism, socialist realism, prose, Marin Preda, George Bli.
Unul dintre paradoxurile ncheierii celui de-al Doilea Rzboi Mondial este reprezentat
de doctrina comunist, care a acaparat nu numai teritorii i indivizi, ci i mentaliti,
pervertindu-le prin fora, deja, celebrelor msuri de reeducare. Arta, n genere i literatura, n
particular, au reprezentat puncte de interes pentru regimul comunist, care le dorea supuse
obiectivelor sale, dincolo de raiunile proprii acestora, de ordin estetic, artistic etc., etc.
Propaganda este un element esenial al regimului totalitar, iar n sprijinul acesteia literatura
este vzut ca un instrument care, dirijat corect, poate aduce beneficii partidului. Dintr-o
astfel de concepie, nu se poate nate o literatur cu pretenia autenticitii, pentru c direct
sau indirect, totul este replic, reacie, ripost, repliere defensiv, disperat sau inventiv,
statagem de supravieuire1. Literatura romn sub comunism este vzut de Eugen Negrici
drept un peisaj bizar, n culori sumbre, cu valene clieizante, pstrnd simulacrele
normalitii. n construirea acestui peisaj au existat mai multe etape, fiecare cu un rol precis i
cu repercusiuni care au marcat, inevitabil, oameni i texte, astfel c dac n primul deceniu
de comunism aparatul a impus o literatur numai de tip propagandistic, menit s sprijine
direct regimul, dup aceea, mimnd, vreme de nc trei decenii, normalitatea, el a continuat
s-i ndeplineasc i altfel misiunea, controlnd nu numai producia editorial, ci i
contiinele scriitoriceti nu foarte greu de sedus i de manipulat. Cumprnd contiinele gata
a fi cumprate, folosindu-se de mediocritatea grafoman i de oportunismul etern intelectual,
el a fost activ n organizarea de atrape, de piste false, de deturnri de energii 2. Primii ani ai
regimului comunist au impus literaturii un caracter propovduitor, cu scopul precis de a
convinge, de a adiiona ct mai muli partizani, ct mai multe contiine i, prin urmare, []
singura literatur acceptat oficial i difuzat cu vigoare prin toate mijloacele imaginabile a
1
Eugen Negrici, Literatura romn sub comunism. Proza, Editura Fundaiei Pro, [Bucureti], 2003, p. 11.
Ibidem.
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fost cea de propagand i agitaie. Ea avea un repertoriu unic, hotrt la Moscova i dictat
de acolo. Oricare alt form de literatur ar fi fost avenit numai n msura n care putea servi,
propagandistic, elurilor partidului unic i respecta preceptele ideologiei i esteticii
comuniste3. Oricrui tip de analiz ar fi supus aceast form a literaturii pe care preferm s
o numim, cu un termen specific anatomiei, vestigial, nu ar releva alte valene dect cele strict
circumscrise scopului pentru care a fost creat i anume acela de a le [] insufla viitorilor
soldai ai credinei comuniste cultul sfinilor martiri (soldatul sovietic eroul civilizator;
comunistul care s-a jertfit pentru fericirea noastr), cultul apostolilor credinei (Lenin, Stalin,
Gheorghiu-Dej), cultul bisericii ocrotitoare (Partidul), cultul regatului ceresc paradisul
drepilor (Uniunea Sovietic), cultul omului nou, exorcizat, izbvit, mntuit prin dreapta
credin, vigilent, nfruntnd tentaiile pgne, trecutul ruinos, ncarnrile viclene ale
dumanului, bucurndu-se de trezirea la viaa cea nou (de la orae i sate) i rvnind la
beatitudinea, la fericirea promis i etern a dreptcredincioilor (raiul comunist)4. Cultul
sfinilor martiri, cultul apostolilor credinei (al conductorilor), cultul omului nou, cultul
regatului ceresc Uniunea Sovietic sunt expresii echivalente pentru metafora unei noi
religii n care literatura reprezint doar o roti i un urub, iar textele ablonarde un
instrument eficace de a inocula maselor calea cea dreapt. Cu un instrumentar frust, din care
se ivesc texte aflate la limita dintre patetism, ridicol i bizar, o asemenea literatur a existat i
s-a manifestat cu o vigoare aparte. Din acest punct de vedere, Eugen Negrici conchide c
nu fr amar ironie dac adunm anii n care, n U.R.S.S. i n rile ei satelite s-a
practicat, cu o tenacitate demonic, acest gen de art, s-ar putea spune c a fost unul dintre
cele mai lungi exerciii retorice de ilustrare a unor teme date din istoria literaturii europene5.
Amplul proces de furire a noii lumi presupune, pe lng propovduirea noilor precepte, i
nlturarea celor duntoare, adic ceea ce este cunoscut sub numele de cenzur. ntr-un
cmp semantic lrgit, acestui cuvnt des uzitat i se pot aduga ntr-o ordine aleatorie
vocabule de tipul control, suprimare, supraveghere, prohibire, blam, reprimare, fiecare
fiind o expresie a ceea ce reprezint impunerea unui hotar dur ntre adoratio i imprecatio.
Fenomenul cenzurii se nscrie n gama de practici prohibitive ale regimului, o for ubicu,
dispunnd de mai multe mijloace pentru a-i ndeplini sarcinile, acestea incluznd aciuni
tentaculare i, uneori, friznd absurdul. Exist numeroase studii care trateaz aceast
problematic a aparatului de control comunist, ns pentru materialele ilustrative coninute i
mrturiile celor care au avut experiene directe cu cenzura, menionm volumul colectiv
aprut n 2012, sub coordonarea lui Ilie Rad, Cenzura n Romnia. Chiar dac nu ne-am
propus un demers care s epuizeze problematica literaturii sub comunism, se poate sublinia c
propaganda, cenzura, teama, oprelitile de soiul i compromisurile contureaz peisajul bizar
al literaturii ntr-o form vestigial, care rezid n texte stereotipe, golite de esen artistic,
repetnd doar formule de slav i mulumire, adresate partidului sau conductorului.
Ceteanul ideal al societii comuniste reprezint, n esena sa, o fiin muncitoare,
preocupat de progres, nu o fiin gnditoare, cu preocupri nesntoase. n aceast
nelegere, intelectualul devine un periculos duman al clasei muncitoare, ceea ce edific
faptul c puterea comunist a debutat i s-a consolidat pretutindeni prin divorul radical cu
individul de valoare, n general, dar, mai cu seam, cu intelectualii"6. ntr-un astfel de climat,
literatura se scrie sub impulsul presiunii politice, scriitorii aflndu-se ntr-o poziie ingrat,
ntre art i compromis. ntreg fenomenul literar intr sub incidena constrngerii politice,
rezultnd adesea texte departe de dezideratele estetice, ns n limitele abordrii de fa este
supus ateniei proza, o parte a peisajului care dovedete c realismul socialist a existat i
3
Ibidem, p. 17.
Ibidem, p. 19.
5
Ibidem.
6
M. Niescu, Sub zodia proletcultismului, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1995, p. 357.
4
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SECTION: LITERATURE
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manifestat prolific, dublat fiind, cu toate acestea, de abile digresiuni ale autorilor. n aceast
ordine de idei trebuie menionat faptul c alturi de cedri i concesii, notabile sunt apariiile
care ncercau s menin o linie a normalitii, pentru care cu infinite dificulti, au putut fi
tiprite cteva romane (Bietul Ioanide, 1953; Toate pnzele sus!, 1954; Moromeii, 1955;
Strinul, 1955; Cronic de familie, 1957; Groapa, 1957) care preau c prelungesc tradiia
prozei noastre interbelice i pe care autoritile le numeau, nu ntmpltor, realist critice
(adic demolatoare ale societii burgheze). Sporadic, cte un volum de versuri (cum au fost
cele ale lui Tudor Arghezi, dup ridicarea interdiciei de publicare n 1955) reuea s
depeasc nivelul elementar al poeziei militante recomandate de partid. Neagreate, dar
tolerate de partid din pricina prestigiului literar sau politic al autorului sau din dorina
conducerii de a-i reface credibilitatea n rndul intelectualitii, sugernd nelepciunea i
generozitatea clasei muncitoare, apariiile de acest fel au un caracter cu totul excepional7.
Pe un coridor restricionar, ntre clieu i resurecie, proza romneasc rezist datorit
preocuprilor unor scriitori de a depi schematismul epocii, astfel c se disting opere care
eludeaz preceptele vremii, fiind ceea ce am putea numi digresiuni ale realismului socialist,
abile eludri ale normei impuse de doctrina comunist. Nu puine sunt exemplele n acest
sens, dar ne vom opri asupra a dou dintre ele: Marin Preda i George Bli. Primul
reprezint un etalon al prozei romneti din acea perioad (i nu numai), apreciat fiind mai
ales pentru construcia narativ a Moromeilor, o oper creia Eugen Negrici i atribuie,
dincolo de inerenta valoare literar, valoare documentar, pstrnd totodat regretul c [...]
generaiile postdecembriste nu vor putea nelege niciodat impactul pe care l-a avut aceast
carte asupra tritorilor acelor vremuri, nfometai de literatur adevrat, cu att mai mult cu
ct situaiile din roman, atmosfera i mentalitatea eroilor le devin din ce n ce mai strine. Ca
monografie a satului de cmpie din preajma celui de-al Doilea Rzboi Mondial, romanul se
nscrie, alturi de alte proze, n categoria crilor care vor da mrturie viitorimii despre o lume
care s-a stins8. Marin Preda reuete s impun un model, s ofere, aadar, o mostr de
literatur adevrat, ntr-un context nefavorabil, miznd pe surprinderea realitii, cu toate
transformrile ei, prin prisma unui personaj devenit un exponent al timpului su pe care l
triete cu o contin vie, filtrnd fiecare etap a devenirii istorice. Mrturie a ceea ce a fost,
dar i o oper de referin a literaturii romne, cartea lui Preda a rezistat timpului, ns n
contextul de fa importana ei este dat i de faptul c se plaseaz n contra direciei realist
socialiste, reuind s marcheze brea ctre firescul creaiei.
Cel de-al doilea scriitor avut n vedere, George Bli, se nscrie n aceeai linie,
surprinznd critica cu un volum de proz scurt, Conversnd despre Ionescu (1966), pe baza
cruia se pot catagrafia tehnici narative conducnd ctre o anume modernitate a scriiturii.
Cele zece texte ale volumului sunt veritabile demonstraii de stil, miznd pe surprinderea unor
aspecte din realitate, devenite pretexte pentru a studia ceea nseamn tehnica de construcie a
personajelor sau naraiunea ca suport al lumii ficionale. Inseriile cu accente ironice, ludice
sau psihologice sunt o alt caracteristic a prozei lui Bli, care l ndeprteaz de formatul
epocii. Continund pe acelai tipar,
George Bli va publica i ample construcii
romaneti, care n epoc trec drept digresiuni ale realismului socialist (Lumea n dou zile 1975, Ucenicul neasculttor - 1977), astfel c autorul subliniaz: Am reuit atunci s nel
vigilena oficial. Ironia este vehiculul care transport aici tragicul. Travestit i el deseori n
grotesc. A fost s ias, partea norocoas a aventurii. Fiindc sistemul comunist suspecteaz i
n cele din urm condamn ironia. Rsul i chiar sursul nfurie oficialitatea, cu toate c mo
Marx recomandase c trebuie s te despari de trecut rznd9. Lumea n dou zile reuete,
7
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10
Ibidem, p. 152.
Idem, Copilul e vrjitor i filozof, interviu consemnat de tefan Agopian, inclus n op. cit., p. 402.
12
Eugen Negrici, op. cit., p. 400.
13
Emil Cioran, Schimbarea la fa a Romniei, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, [2007], p. 38-39.
11
660
SECTION: LITERATURE
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BLI, George, Opere III, Marocco (II), Cronologie de Marilena Donea, Editura
Polirom, [Iai], 2011.
CIORAN, Emil, Schimbarea la fa a Romniei, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti,
[2007].
NIESCU, M. Sub zodia proletcultismului, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1995.
NEGRICI, Eugen, Literatura romn sub comunism. Proza, Editura Fundaiei Pro,
[Bucureti], 2003.
PISTOLEA, Vasile, Generaia 60 i redescoperirea modernitii/modernismului,
Editura Timpul, Reia, 2001.
PREDA, Marin, Moromeii, vol. II, Editura pentru Literatur, Bucureti, 1967.
RAD, Ilie, (coord.), Cenzura n Romnia, Editura Tribuna, Cluj-Napoca, 2012.
Acknowledgement: Aceast lucrare a fost cofinanat din Fondul Social
European prin Programul Operaional Sectorial pentru Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane
2007 2013, Cod Contract: POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140863, Cercettori competitivi pe plan
european n domeniul tiinelor umaniste i socio-economice. Reea de cercetare
multiregional (CCPE).
661
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Abstract: Written from 1975 to 1991, Lucia Demetriuss Memoirs were handed to Miron
Bergmann, being published only in 2005, 13 years after the passing of their author. In the
dense pages of the memoirs, Lucia Demetrius oscillates between the multiple stances of the
self, thus sketching an identitary project meant to save, culturally-wise, a conscience marked
by the tragic guilt of assuming a circumstantial rhetoric specific to the literature written
during the communist era. The image of childhood is complemented by that of a youth spent
amidst interwar cultural values, and rounded off with that of a woman who gets sincerely
engaged in the idealist programme of communism and ends up bitterly disillusioned. Writer
Lucia Demetrius binds the memories of these ages to various identitary projections (daughter,
prose writer, playwright, wife, and teacher), in a self-reflexive discourse which aims at a
return to self through writing therapy. The figures that inhabit the space of memory are called
out to indirectly reconstruct a fate which covers ages marked by significant socio-cultural
changes.
Keywords: memoirs, identity, memory, self-reflexivity, tragic guilt
662
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663
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care i-o predasem, Teatrul Naional mi respinsese n 1939 o pies pe motive care nu stteau
n picioare. () Aa c acea epoc azi numit proletcultist care venea cu alte hibe nu era
mai rea pentru un scriitor dect cea dinainte de 23 august. Ba dimpotriv, cu toate scielile
la care era supus, exista o nou stim pentru scriitor, pentru artist n general. Se fceau Case
de Creaie, n care s se poat lucra n linite, se acorda spaiu n plus creatorului, n acea
mare lips de locuine, se creaser premii, decoraii. Erai chemat uneori la Comitetul pentru
Art sau la secia cultural a C.C.-ului, s fii ntrebat dac eti sntos, dac ai nevoie de ceva,
la ce lucrezi i ce planuri ai8. O astfel de naivitate este greu de neles i de suportat pentru
memoria cultural romneasc a acelor vremuri. Este de neexplicat cum o scriitoare lansat n
climatul literaturii intimist-autenticiste nu nelege c artistul adevrat nu are nevoie de spaiu
exterior, ci de libertate interioar, c acele aa-zise ,,condiii favorabile i atenii acordate de
mai-marii puterii erau de fapt modaliti de control abuziv. Mrturisiri ca cele de mai sus ale
Luciei Demetrius i amprenteaz tragic imaginea cultural, mai ales c scriitoarea nu resimte
nicio urm de cin, respingnd ceea ce Paul Ricur numete la repentance: ,,()
Spectacolul cinei publice uimete peste msur. () A mrturisi nite excese fr a
transmite nimic din convingerea de a fi avut dreptate, nseamn a folosi n cel mai economic
mod regulile jocului mrturisirii9 (trad. mea, E.F.).
Prin urmare, Memoriile Luciei Demetrius prezint interes i ca ,,dosar de existen,
document ce ar putea facilita recuperarea unui nume, n limitele demnitii i onestitii
morale i culturale revendicate n permanen de profilul uman i artistic pe care i-l
construiete scriitoarea pe parcursul celor peste 500 de pagini ale crii: ,,() Vreau s rmn
eu nsmi, s am cel puin meritul onestitii, autenticitii mele10. Memoriile ncep cu cteva
delimitri programatice, prin care autoarea insinueaz sugestia unei autoculpabilizri
nedublate ns de resentimente sau cin, ci asumate ca dat al condiiei memorialistului
generic: ,,Amintirile nu se pot obiectiva cu adevrat, ele sunt ale cuiva care, orict
s-ar strdui, a vzut cu ochii lui proprii, vede i trecutul cu aceiai ochi influenai de
personalitatea lui, de nclinrile lui, de receptivitatea lui, de credinele lui, de patimile lui. i
d osteneala s fie drept, s nu nfrumuseeze i s nu ureasc, dar e totui victima propriei
lui optici11. O victim a propriei sale optici a fost pn la urm i Lucia Demetrius, nu doar
ca memorialist, ci ca scriitoare a crei biografie traverseaz ,,dou rzboaie, o revoluie, o
evoluie social care ntemeiaz alt sistem i tinde spre alte eluri12.
Pentru Lucia Demetrius, scrisul memorialistic se situeaz n siajul scrierii operei
artistice:
,,() Las mereu amintirile pentru momentul n care nu voi mai putea scrie
literatur13. Scrise ,,pe apucate, ca substitut al preocuprilor literare, aceste memorii i ofer
autoarei spaiul compensator al valorificrii unor posibile nuclee artistice, inspirate din
realitatea nconjurtoare a vieii sale. Astfel, nu o dat, n Memorii citim despre episoade,
scene, oameni i mprejurri nfiate cu regretul c n-au fost descrise ntr-o nuvel, ntr-un
roman14. A scrie despre ceva echivaleaz pentru Lucia Demetrius, dup mrturisirile sale, cu
8
664
SECTION: LITERATURE
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,,o luare n posesie a ceea ce iubeti, iar a face literatur e ,,un act de iubire15, astfel c avem
de-a face cu o scriitoare lucid, contient pe deplin de rostul su artistic.
Alunecarea n ficiune, literaturizarea memoriilor reprezint pentru Lucia Demetrius
un risc asumat de la bun nceput, inerent condeiului unui scriitor-artist de vocaie: ,,Dac voi
luneca prea mult n povestirea celor trite de mine i a ecoului strnit n mine de aceste
evenimente, va fi ca i cum a scrie o nuvel, un roman al crui personaj principal voi fi eu, i
poate c aceste Memorii vor semna cu o bucat literar nchegat, n care ns nimic nu va
fi scornit, pe care n-o va mpodobi nici o (sic!) nscocire sortit s umple un gol sau s creeze
echilibru acolo unde a fost vreodat dezechilibru. n ce bucat literar scriitorul nu se
strecoar i pe sine, camuflat ntr-un chip sau altul?16. Aceast mrturisire retoric plasat la
nceputul crii n discuie ne ndreptete demersul de a ncerca o recuperare a imaginii
morale i artistice a Luciei Demetrius, aa cum a fost proiectat prin grila memoriei personale
n aceast ultim oper, considerat, dup cum i mrturisete lui Miron Bergmann, ,,cartea
crilor sale, ,,a doua mea via nevzut de nimeni, romanul meu secret, poate cel mai fragil
dintre crile mele17. Autoarea i transform amintirile evenimenial-autobiografice n
pretexte de analiz ale unei identiti care se vrea reabilitat memorialistic, contient de
riscurile compromisului artistic comis asupra operelor scrise n perioada comunist.
Asumndu-i rolul de cronicar al altor vremuri, Lucia Demetrius selecteaz prin
mecanismele memoriei figuri reprezentative ale epocilor evocate sau ale unor oameni
obinuii, dar importani la nivelul istoriei sale personale. Galeria este imens, de la scriitori,
critici, actori i actrie, la profesori, oameni politici sau funcionari de stat. Portretele acestora,
realizate cu miestrie artistic, completeaz de multe ori o imagine cultural acceptat, chiar
dac adugirile memorialistei sunt puternic subiectivizate: de exemplu, lui Tudor Arghezi i
este nfiat o latur mai puin ludabil, cci se pare c n prietenia ce-l lega de Vasile
Demetrius, tatl scriitoarei, investea resurse personale (sufleteti sau de alt natur) limitate.
n orice caz, portretele celorlali, dincolo de valoarea documentar, sunt n msur s
mrturiseasc, indirect, ceva despre autoarea lor, cci beneficiaz de lumini i umbre fcute
de un ochi artistic ndreptat mai mult spre nuntru dect nafar.
Demersul recuperator al istoriei personale prin mecanismele fireti ale memoriei
presupune reprezentarea stratificat a vrstelor n ordinea autobiografic a scriiturii: copilria,
adolescena i tinereea Luciei Demetrius sunt evocate ca repere ale unei epoci arcadiene,
dominate de figura idealizat a tatlui. Vasile Demetrius, supralicitat de fiica iubitoare ca
scriitor, era cunoscut n anii interbelici ca autor al unor romane tradiionaliste (de exemplu,
romanul Monahul Damian a primit n 1930 un premiu al Societii Scriitorilor) i ca director
al coleciei ,,Biblioteca pentru toi, prieten cu Gala Galaction, Tudor Arghezi i N.D. Cocea.
n Memorii, Lucia Demetrius i fixeaz portretul n efigia miticului: ,,() i-a pstrat pn la
btrnee privirea cald i luminoas, uurina n micri, glasul tnr, chipul slab i frumos
modelat, i chiar cnd viaa l-a grbovit sub griji i amrciuni, era destul s aib o scnteie
de bucurie sau de speran, ca s rsar din el adolescentul strlucitor i jucu, cu spatele
drept, cu ochi scnteietori, cu frunte limpede18. n spaiul scriiturii memorialistice, autoarea
compenseaz de fapt o deficien a scriiturii sale artistice, cci se pare c imaginea tatlui a
bntuit-o ca schi de personaj literar, imposibil ns de concretizat. Explicaia acestei limitri
n ceea ce privete sublimarea realitii n estetic este imensa dragoste filial, din cauza creia
o figur a realului, revendicat adesea de ficiunea artistic, nu a putut trece niciodat pragul
suficient de puternic, personajele reale ale unei epoci n personaje care au relevan, personaje memorabile, proprii literaturii. Simion,
Eugen, Genurile biograficului, vol. I., Fundaia Naional pentru tiin i Art, Bucureti, 2008, p. 20.
15
Demetrius, Lucia, op. cit., p. 25.
16
Ibidem, p. 6.
17
Apud Bergmann, Miron, op. cit., p. XXIV.
18
Demetrius, Lucia, op. cit., p. 9.
665
SECTION: LITERATURE
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dintre cele dou lumi; tatl Luciei Demetrius a rmas pentru ea un model obiectiv de cinste,
devotament, sinceritate i demnitate uman: ,,Am ncercat de cteva ori s prind n literatur
chipul lui, dar n-am izbutit. Unele pagini le-am rupt, altele au aprut, sunt inexpresive. N-am
putut s-l cuprind, s-l desenez. L-am iubit prea mult i poate c m-am temut de lips de
obiectivitate. i aici, cnd l descriu, am impresia c l srcesc. A fost cel mai mare noroc al
meu c l-am avut tat, i cea mai mare surs de lumin din viaa mea. M-a nvat dragostea
pentru oameni, mila, onestitatea. Nu l-am auzit pe tata niciodat minind, nici n glum, i nam auzit un cuvnt urt ieit din gura lui. Era de o buntate fr margini. Putea s se nfurie
uneori mpotriva nedreptii, necinstei sau prostiei, dar buntatea, iertarea, rzbeau. Putea fi
uor nelat. Credea oamenii pe cuvnt. Din marea lui nevoie de cinste i de omenie, i
nchipuia dat pe brazd cel mai mare ticlos cunoscut, dac acela i spunea privindu-l n ochi
c lucrurile stau altfel19. Sugestia mai adnc a acestui portret idealizat poate fi, ntr-o lectur
n cheie psihanalitic, transmiterea pe cale ereditar a unor trsturi exemplare de la tat la
fiic. Decupajul de mai sus din Memorii ar reprezenta astfel o proiecie identitar oblic, o
imagine de sine indirect conturat a scriitoarei, menit s-i justifice, tot indirect, partizanatul
ideologic cu un regim politic utopic, cci portretul tatlui cuprinde afirmaii cu caracter
aparent general, precum: ,,Foarte muli oameni naivi nu sunt nerozi, ci muncii de o mare
dorin de frumusee pe lume20. Paul Cernat remarc, de asemenea, c n unele interviuri din
anii 60, Lucia Demetrius ,,() nu-i reneag, oedipian, tatl real (pe care l-a divinizat), ci l
revendic, postum, n sprijinul adeziunii la politica partidului-printe. Din doliul psihanalitic
dup cel disprut, autoarea se salveaz proiectnd imaginea patern asupra unui tat ideal,
fragilitatea ei extrem are nevoie de un sprijin absolut cruia s i se devoteze21.
Elementul de continuitate care asigur coerena profilului identitar configurat n
paginile Memoriilor este sentimentul acut al alteritii, al diferenei tipologice fa de ceilali,
prezent la toate vrstele evocate printr-un complex al superioritii mrturisit ns cu
modestie: ,,ncepusem s am sentimentul c sunt altfel dect celelalte, mai bine sau mai prost
nu tiam, dar eram convins c simt cu alt intensitate, c neleg lucruri pe care ele (colegele
sale, n.n. E.F.) nu le pricepeau22. nelegem astfel cum ,,() identitatea poate supravieui n
plin paradox, adic rmnndu-i siei fidel i definindu-se totodat prin opoziia fa de
alii, dar totodat acceptnd s se schimbe i nglobnd alteritatea23. Privirea ndrt a
scriitoarei ajuns la vrsta senectuii recheam n memorie chipul copilei de altdat i scrisul
autoconfesiv recompune n oglinda timpului imaginea unei fete funciar melancolice (stare
numit de memorialist la un moment dat ,,tristeea mea din natere24), ,,slab, uric nc
din cursul primar, palid, cu mari cearcne sub ochi, prea scund25. Preocuprile culturale
ale acesteia aveau, pe lng nnobilarea fiinei, i scopul ascuns de a despgubi dezavantajele
aspectului fizic, potenate de o timiditate ieit din comun. n timp ce colegele de aceeai
vrst nvau secretele mondenitii (tenis, patinaj, ceaiuri dansante), Lucia Demetrius
frecventa cu tatl ei expoziiile de pictur, citea Baudelaire, DAnnunzio i Jules Laforgue.
Prieteniile din tineree sunt legate n funcie de aceste preocupri, astfel nct un portret ca cel
al Cellei Voinescu, prietena pe via a scriitoarei, recheam indirect o proiecie n oglind a
imaginii de sine, inclusiv n ceea ce privete dragostea pentru tatl adorat: ,,i ea citea i
recita din Baudelaire, nici ea nu se ddea n vnt dup tenis i patinaj i se emoiona n faa
unui amurg colorat (). Era scund ca mine () gata de extaz i exaltare ca mine. () i din
fericire dragostea ei pentru tata era mare, aa c i aici ne nelegeam26.
19
Ibidem, p. 14-15.
Ibidem, p. 15.
21
Cernat, Paul, op. cit., p. 99.
22
Demetrius, Lucia, op. cit., p. 52.
23
Deciu, Andreea, Nostalgiile identitii, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 2001, p. 9.
24
Demetrius, Lucia, op. cit., p. 81.
25
Ibidem, p. 52.
26
Ibidem, pp. 52-54.
20
666
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Ibidem, p. 114.
Ibidem, p. 129.
29
Ibidem, p. 121.
30
Ibidem, p. 132.
31
Ibidem, p. 133.
32
Ibidem, p. 138.
28
667
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
spectacolului, nc o mai chinuia: ,,Cel care a clcat n viaa lui pe scen, fie i puin timp, ca
actor, ca regizor, chiar c sufer, nu uit niciodat mirosul culiselor, al cabinei, al scenei. E un
miros alctuit din duhoare de vopsea, clei i praf al decorurilor, din fard, parfum, fiare de
frizat ncinse, a cabinelor, de flori uneori tot din cabine, de puin duhoare omeneasc, un
miros care trezete numaidect amintirea emoiei dinainte, din timpul spectacolului, acea
febr de care nu scap nici cabotinul33. Dar, cu o luciditate exemplar, Lucia Demetrius se
desparte definitiv de jocul pe scen i refuz cteva propuneri care ar fi propulsat-o poate ca
actri, recunoscnd c tracul ar putea fi la un moment dat mai puternic dect ea i n-ar mai
putea ntr-o zi s ias n lumina rampei. Aa c opteaz s slujeasc teatrul din culise, ca
autoare dramatic sau ca regizoare. Dar abia dup Al Doilea Rzboi Mondial i se joac prima
pies, Turneu n provincie, deoarece n perioada tulbure dinainte, Liviu Rebreanu, director al
Teatrului Naional, refuz s-o primeasc spre reprezentare, din cauza originii evreieti a
scriitoarei (din partea mamei).
O alt ipostaz a Luciei Demetrius surprins n Memorii este cea de profesoar. Victor
Ion Popa, director la Teatrul Munc i Lumin, i propune n 1944 s predea lecii de actorie
i de istorie a literaturii dramatice la un Conservator Seral Muncitoresc. Aceast experien,
desfurat pe parcursul a patru ani, e aureolat n spaiul memoriei autoarei de lumina
pasiunii pentru meseria de dascl: ,,Foarte des consider acei ani, din 1944 pn n 1948 (dac
nu cumva chiar 1949) dintre cei mai fericii ani ai vieii mele. Meseria de profesor mi se
potrivea ca odinioar tatii aceea de nvtor. Motenisem de la el dragostea pentru tineret,
rbdarea, un sim pedagogic nnscut, o dorin aprig s detept n cei care tiau mai puin
dect mine interesul pentru cultur34. Incorigibil idealist, tnra profesoar va reui s se
apropie de elevii si, muncitori din echipele artistice sindicale, unii mai n vrst dect ea, s-i
disciplineze, s le rspund la ntrebrile existeniale care i frmntau, s le contureze o
educaie artistic. Evocat pe pagini ntregi, aceast experien e aezat la baza
devotamentului ulterior al Luciei Demetrius fa de mecanismul emanciprii comuniste: ,,()
Mai trziu am vzut biblioteci n fabrici, ale cror cri erau citite i rscitite pn la uzur.35,
afirm cu mndrie memorialista, revendicnd i pentru sine un merit n sensul culturalizrii
maselor muncitoreti.
Cel care o iniiaz pe Lucia Demetrius n misterele doctrinei marxiste i i faciliteaz
intrarea n partid este Nicolae Moraru, cunoscut n 1945, la Sindicatul Ziaritilor. n 1947,
scriitoarea se druiete ,,fr ovieli, cu fidelitate i statornicie, ,,complet i cu elan36,
intereselor Partidului Comunist.
,,() Adeziunea, care i va aduce premii de stat, ordine, decoraii i autoritate, are
semnificaia unei ntoarceri a refulatului. Dup o ndelungat ateptare, teatrul comunist ofer
Luciei Demetrius () mult-rvnita fuziune dintre art i via ntr-un moment n care arta i
viaa sunt vampirizate de modelul unic al realismului socialist37. Dar scriitoarea care n anii
interbelici scria o proz subiectiv-autenticist, individualist pn la egofilie ncrncenat, se
vede n stare i s sublimeze prin scris grandioasele prefaceri ale societii comuniste. Noua
ideologie la care ader cu toat sinceritatea nu este pentru Lucia Demetrius dect confirmarea
unor aspiraii umanitare mai vechi, motenite poate de la tatl su. Astfel nct atunci cnd
este solicitat s mearg pe antierul Salva-Vieu pentru a culege pe viu material faptic pentru
crile sale, se conformeaz fr ezitare. Experiena dur prin care trece (cazarea nghesuit
ntr-o barac, ria, hrana puin, frigul, oarecii etc.) e prezentat fr cosmetizri inutile, dar
i fr acuzaii.
33
Ibidem, p. 152.
Ibidem, p. 285.
Ibidem, p. 288.
36
Ibidem, p. 312.
37
Cernat, Paul, op. cit., p. 97.
34
35
668
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Piesa Trei generaii, scris n 1955 i avnd premiera n anul urmtor, a fost jucat
apoi cu mare succes de fiecare dat: ,,Trei generaii s-a jucat la aproape toate teatrele din ar
i la gale n limba maghiar i german. Cnd veneau strini, oameni de teatru n ar, erau
dui la Trei generaii. Unii plecau cu textul sub bra (Comitetul pentru Art tradusese textul i
n limbile francez i rus), hotri s-o recomande pentru a fi jucat n ara lor38. Impactul
pozitiv al piesei s-a datorat, probabil, trecerii n plan secund a mesajului tezist: ,,() Accentul
cade, ca n teatrul cehovian, pe atmosfer i pe sentiment, pe moravuri i tipologii, pe relaiile
umane din mai multe epoci39. Chiar dac i se mai fceau tot felul de icane de ctre
reprezentanii noii puteri, Luciei Demetrius i sunt jucate la Bucureti i n ar multe piese,
pentru care primete tot felul de premii i distincii. n teatrul scris dup 1947, autoarea
ncearc s mpleteasc temele vremii (rsturnarea clasei burgheze, triumful proletariatului,
naionalizarea marilor ntreprinderi) cu proiecia interiorizat a dilemelor condiiei umane, n
sperana, poate, a salvrii propriului efort creator. ,,() Admirat, cndva, de autenticitii
interbelici pentru misticismul ei erotic, autoarea nu se mulumete cu dogma proletar, cu
lozincile ritualice, vrea, dincolo de cuvinte, mistica socialismului real, arderea de tot n
furnalele iubirii de Partid ()40. Aa c, atunci cnd este izgonit din partid n 1950, pentru
c tradusese cndva Suferinele tnrului Werther, scris de ,,un neam, i alte cteva astfel
de pricini absurde, Lucia Demetrius sufer sincer: ,,() Cred c afar de moartea tatii, nimic
nu m lovise mai crunt n via pn atunci41. Abia dup zece ani e reprimit n graiile
partidului, i pn atunci, recunoate i ea, a fost martora unei perioade cumplite pentru
societatea i cultura romneasc: ,,Acei ani i cei urmtori au fost ani grei pentru scriitori.
Ceea ce ieea din mna i din capul nostru era judecat de oameni fr cultur n general, fr
pregtire, fr sensibilitate42. Cenzura comunist funciona fr gre, erau sancionate chiar
i scrierile ,,sincere, realizate n urma unei meticuloase documentary: ,,Fceai eforturi, cu cea
mai bun-credin din lume s scrii o literatur care s se adreseze ct mai multora, s fie
neleas de ct mai muli i n acelai timp s rmn literatur, s nu devin lecie 43. Ceea
ce nu nelege Lucia Demetrius este c aceste aspecte sunt n fapt incompatibile, i d dovad
de o mare naivitate artistic dac i mai pune problema unei posibile reevaluri estetice a
scrierilor sale angajate: ,,() nu tiu dac scrisul meu e vrednic de tcerea care l
nconjoar44.
Ca soie, Lucia Demetrius se reprezint cu discreie, dintr-un acut sim al pudorii, dar
i pentru c s-a cstorit trziu, la 42 de ani, cu C. Cristel (actorul Constantin Crstel), pe care
l-a cunoscut la Teatrul din Bacu, fiind convins c a fost cel mai nelept lucru pe care l-a
fcut vreodat. Episodul este relatat fr idealizri inutile, fiind ncadrat n retorica ,,moralei
comuniste: scriitoarea e nevoit s se ntoarc la Bucureti pentru c fusese vzut
plimbndu-se pe malul Bistriei mpreun cu C. Cristel, nefiind nc oficial cstorii. Cei doi
devin astfel actori ntr-o pies absurd, regizat de o gndire totalitarist-dominatoare, dar
scriitoarea nu-i sesizeaz mecanismul perfid.
Un gest simbolic pentru scriitura autoreflexiv practicat n paginile Memoriilor gsim
spre sfritul crii: n ziua cnd mplinete 75 de ani, Lucia Demetrius se privete n oglind
i i asociaz chipul cu unul din btrnii lui Rembrandt. I se pare c expresiv mai este doar
,,tragicul obosit al privirilor45. Din subcontient se insinueaz convingerea c ,,trecutul e
trecut i tot ce lumina fie i cu suferin aceast via s-a stins definitiv46. Veritabil topos
38
669
SECTION: LITERATURE
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670
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to analyze Joy Nozomi Kogawas treatment of
Japanese language in Obasan, Naomis Road and Itsuka. Her protagonists are indicative of
the different attitudes adopted by the Japanese-Canadians subjected both to the Internment
and to the later policy of dispersal. The use of Japanese words is aimed towards signaling
cultural difference. It facilitates placing the white reader in contact with an unprivileged cone
of marginality similar to that previously experienced by Japanese Canadians. However, this
is not done excessively. In most cases the author accompanies these words with translations
and explanations, aiming at including, rather than Othering the Eurocentric reader. I would
like to analyze whether her linguistic choice is the result of desire to promote understanding
of the Japanese within Canadian society or to indicate that literature is not homogenous and
that linguistic and cultural distinction can constitute a barrier in decoding the text. I would
also like to show how various characters attitudes towards their multicultural heritage can
be traced in their choice of using or rejecting the Japanese language.
Keywords: Japanese Canadians, Othering, Japanese Language, Linguistic Barrier, Cultural
Difference.
671
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
policy of dispersal. Joy Nozomi Kogawas work centers on protagonists who primarily bow
to the stereotypical constructs associated with the Japanese by the white segment of the
population. Her 1981 novel Obasan is the first narrative focusing on the Internment of
Japanese Canadians during World War II. It was adapted as a childrens book in 1986, under
the title of Naomis Road. Itsuka was initially intended to be published under the name of
Emily Kato, its eponymous protagonist. It originally appeared in 1992 and was republished in
revised form in 2005. The differences in the two editions are indicative of the political
particularities of the periods in which they appeared, illustrating different degrees of interest
in the question of citizenship and socio-cultural affiliation. The latter novel is representative
not only for the identity struggle of Japanese Canadians, but it also focuses on problems
originating within the Japanese community itself.
Regardless of what level they experience isolation and Othering, her protagonists exert
different adaptive mechanisms to respond to their social circumstances. Obasan becomes
ossified in her silence, bred both by her proclivity to accept difficulty as the guise of shikataga-nai3 and by her inability to speak English. Thus, she can communicate neither with the
mainstream, nor with her Nisei nephew and niece, Stephen and Naomi. The latter, raised to
become model Canadian citizens, go to English-speaking schools and barely speak Japanese.
Thus Obasan . . . does not dance to the multicultural pipers tune or respond to the racists
slur. She remains in a silent territory, defined by her serving hands." (Kogawa Obasan 226).
She is described as having turned to stone (198) and that "the language of her grief is
silence" (14). She remains trapped in her inarticulateness when Stephen and Naomi leave and
her last - and what Naomi describes as her only - extreme and extravagant gesture (Kogawa
Itsuka 91) is to await for Stephen to come to see her on her deathbed. In the end, her long
waiting becomes another long last loneliness (91). Thus Obasan deals with the continuous
oppression by accepting it as unavoidable and unquestionable, hence her silence and retractile
tendencies in social interactions. Her dialogue interventions consist entirely of native words
and fragments of broken English, indicating the difficulties she had in communication
throughout her personal history as an immigrant.
On the contrary, Emily Kato, her sister, contrasts the practices of restraint and
propriety expected of, and thus artificially constructed as the image of, the Japanese woman.
She provides a much required counter-balance to the Obasan syndrome. She challenges longstanding stereotypical constructs of silence, being defined as a fluke of nature (117), a
megaphone (118) who never apologizes for anything (108) and a member of the get-thework-done-and-let-em-howl school, which earns respect but not much love (198). She is
the embodiment of free-will and initiative-driven individual that mainstream accused the
Japanese of being incapable of. But because of this, she is sometimes frowned upon by the
members of the Japanese community, even by her niece who considers her tiresome and
moves away from her apartment. For her both Japanese and English seem to come with ease.
Not only that, she has come to accept her multicultural identity as an integral part of her
identity, rather than a mere circumstantial development. Thus, she can militate for her rights
as a Canadian citizen without letting her Japanese-ness become a hindrance or a source of
bitterness. Her attempt to harmoniously integrate both becomes a source of amusement or
embarrassment for her interlocutors, depending on her choice of linguistic puns: Fee, fie,
fiddle-i-o/ Strumminon the old benjo (Itsuka 18) or O Susannah/ Cry all you want for me,
/For I come from British Columbia with /a benjo on my knee (Itsuka 19).
Naomi, their niece is described by Emily as a mere observer: Naomi Watcher Nakane
youre turning into a statue. The world is for living in, not for staring at (109) and a: Nonny
The expression is literarily translated as It cannot be helped and it signals a renunciation of the self to a destiny which lies outside the
influence of individual action.
3
672
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
mouse (174). In Obasan, she is unable to develop adequate coping mechanisms to take her
outside the cone of mediocrity and marginality Obasans teachings have consigned her to. In
Naomis Road she again exhibits a tendency to react rather than act in getting answers to her
questions. At the beginning of Itsuka she is still silently staring at the world (12) and
generally avoids interactions that would imply relevant decision-making processes. Thus,
when she finally participates to the JACL activity her aunt keeps urging her to get involved
in, she feels insignificant as: the cardboard box in her backseat, taken along in case I might
be useful (111). Morty, the editor of the Japanese Canadian publication Bridge recognizes
this as a pathology in her: People like you, Naomi, they really disappeared you good (121)
and urges her to action: Come to a meeting of our Democracy group. Get undissapeared for a
change (121). Thus, initially, she is unable to integrate in either her cultural or mainstream
community. As a second generation Japanese Canadian she was raised to fit in with her
generational segment. Being perceived as different led her to experience racial shame and
reject her heritage: Im not really part of the community, I say hesitantly. Its my guess that
we dont really have a community at all. After all, as Aunt Emily puts it, we were all
deformed by the Dispersal Policy and grew up striving to be the only Jap in town. No, I
dont speak Japanese, wed say proudly (Itsuka 126). Naomi understands Japanese, as she
often acts as a mediator between the Issei and the reader. Although she does not speak it, she
attempts to ease the difference between herself and her generational segment for example by
explaining the etymology of some of the words used to describe the minority group she
belongs to: Nisei, which means second-generation Japanese-Canadian, is pronounced knee
say and sansei, third-generation, is son say (Itsuka 59).
Regardless of the degree of alienation Naomi experiences, it is implied that Stephen
was the most deeply affected by the Internment and the racial prejudice he faced long before
Pearl Harbor. He desires to escape his community bonds and the isolation it implied and
acquire what he believes to be the image of a cosmopolitan lifestyle: living in hotels,
appearing on television as a success story, becoming detached from everything but his
personal aspirations. He was an adolescent during Internment, and thus shared in the older
Niseis fear at the time that their future prospects would be compromised. Naomi sees him at
the beginning of Itsuka as walking the tight-rope of adolescence buffeted by the winds of a
fierce emptiness (20). After the Internment he remains in the rubble (22) and becomes
quick to anger (22), a trait highly uncharacteristic for the Japanese. He starts having
discriminatory tendencies. At first, he stops associating with those with Narrow and slanted
Japanese eyes (38), and later he will hate everything Japanese. Our horsetail hair. The way
we fold paper (39). However, like all such metonymic and minimalistic approaches - his
pursue of a successful career and maintaining the appearance of a high-end lifestyle his
choices alienate him from his ancestral community.
He is later portrayed as distinctly unable to achieve a sense of belonging: For
Stephen, the rootlessness must be even worse. Ive managed to be potted in the sticky prairie
soil, but hes wandering the world, a cut flower drinking in the fleeting applause of concert
tours (53). It is repeatedly suggested throughout the text that Stephen is the embodiment of
the maladapted individual, rather than of a successfully integrated multi-cultural personality.
He becomes a mere passenger in the life of the Japanese community, carrying its visual
markers but profoundly rejecting its form and content. Thus, he ignores his sisters pleas for
him to return to his aunts deathbed and Emilys suggestion that he help with the redress
movement. He refers to the latter as the result of a North American pathology (221) and
refers to the so-called little liberation movement (221) [as h]e waves his hand dismissing
us(221-222) as the absurdity of A bunch of myopic crybabies (222). He becomes alienated
from both communities, rejecting one and never to be fully accepted in the other. Even to his
sister Naomi, he becomes: so aloof that he`s vaporized himself onto a glass screen and at the
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flick of a switch he vanishes. He`s turned himself into one of those unreal TV people. There
he was, like so many of them, wearing a decapitated rose on the lapel of his jacket. No stem.
No thorn. No roots (292). He limits his contact with his ethnic group to the bare minimum
and obstinately refuses to use the Japanese language in his interactions.
Thus, the protagonists perception of ethnic dissonance can be tracked to a certain
degree in their choice to employ native words within various communicational circumstances
in order to signal cultural difference. While the author does wish to signal cultural difference,
she does not wish to allow this to interfere with the reception of the text. In order to do that
she generally accompanies the native words with translations within the same sentence or
paragraph. I consider this as an acknowledgement of difference, but at the same time, an
indicative of a desire towards inclusion, rather than exclusion of the mainstream white reader.
She is aware that cultural difference can constitute a barrier, but that it ultimately should not
impede communication. Instead, she chooses to indicate her cultural heritage without placing
her readers in a cone of marginality. This is done perhaps to avoid generating feelings of
displacement similar to what she herself had experienced but also to minimize the perception
of cultural duality by doing what Linda Hutcheon refers to as absorbing the margin into the
center (The Canadian Postmodern 11).
Besides her obvious employment of native words, the author attempts to draw
attention to other elements relevant to Japanese dialogism and synergy. Thus, Obasan begins
by raising awareness to the omnipresence of silence: "There is a silence that cannot speak.
There is a silence that will not speak" (preceding 1). Japanese immigrants to North America
were circumstantially led to perpetuate a nonverbal mode of apprehension summarized by
the term attendance (Gayle 34). Attendance in the case of the Issei and the Nisei takes the
form of silence, represented by communicational anxiety or voicelessness which evinces
different attitudes towards the mainstream and the Japanese minority group. According to
King-Kok Cheung these silences can be: oppressive, inhibitive, protective, stoic and
attentive (26). They are identifiable to different degrees in the interactional patterns adopted
by each generation of Japanese immigrants towards members of both the Uchi4 and the Soto5
groups.
When the Internment uprooted and relocated the entire Japanese segment of the
population of Canada and The United States, the authorities faced a cooperative group,
adhering to their given label of model minority. This was translated as lack of assertiveness
and race-specific docility, being later perpetuated as justification for the Isseis refusal to
discuss the matter. As a people, the Japanese favor: Indirect communication, which is
achieved through tacit understanding (Iritani 90). Furthermore the Japanese rely on phatic
communication almost as much as they do on the semantic element, leading to a form of
dialogism which cannot be fully understood outside the sphere of the contextual. Thus,
Obasan manages to communicate more than a mere acceptance when she nods her silent
non-answer (Kogawa Itsuka 66). She indicates Gaman6 and Enryou7, the honed forms of
endurance and stoicism. When she does choose to speak English, she uses it to illustrate the
The term refers to ones closest group. Translatable as home or inside, it defines the group whose actions reflects most on the
individual, and at the same time, the group whose face the individual is trying to uphold. It is usually comprised of relatives and very close
friends, and in some cases, of members of ones institutional affiliation.
5
The term refers to everyone besides ones closest group. It is translated as outside and it comprises all those outside ones inner group.
6
The concept is derived from the practices of Zen Buddhism. It encompasses behaviors such as endurance, tolerance and self-denial, and
refers to facing difficulties with patience and dignity.
7
It is translated as hesitation or reserve. It is the hesitation of speaking in a manner or taking a course of action that would inconvenience
the people around you. At the same time it is the forethought or foresight characteristic to ones social position in a complicated
hierarchical system based on age, gender, social class, the Uchi-Soto dichotomy, etc., and the awareness of social consequences in case of a
failure to act according to ones station. It is quintessential to the Japanese system of thought and offers a manner to avoid conflict by
practicing self-restraint.
4
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Japanese-specific sense of On8 and Giri9. The word she chooses to repeat: Thank you.
Obasan says her all-purpose response. Thank you (you are kind). Thank you (I do not know
what you mean) (ibid 68) is indicative of her yasashii10 and her tendency to placate, rather
than impose. As Arigato, arigato. Its the constant habitual word of the issei (Itsuka 149),
she does nothing more than maintain the liaison with her generational segment which is
primarily distinguished from the generally more assertive mainstream by means of an
apparently (by contrast) behavioral passiveness. Through their choice of actions, the Issei are
described as those who seek to serve. Limited by their inconsequential knowledge of English,
they resort to a language of gestures and offering. Thus, in the case of Obasan: Even in her
last days, her hands, confused in the air, still tremble to serve (Itsuka 85). Mrs. Makino,
another Issei: makes bobbing bows as she approaches. Such decorousness. The dance of
humility and peace (147). An old issei they visit: offers his half-eaten bun offers and
offers in the way of the issei. Like my obasan in Cecil, he will offer all the way to the end of
the road (Itsuka 147). The language of offering and non-verbal communication thus become
just as important aspects of dialogism as verbal interaction. It makes the reader, much like
their interlocutors, never quite able to penetrate the sound barrier behind which the issei
move, nodding attentively, eyes politely downcast (Itsuka 37). This is why I consider it to be
just as relevant for signaling cultural difference as actual incorporation of native words is:
How well I know the issei, who will never ever complain. It's their code of honour
requiring them to gaman, to endure without flinching, that makes them the silent people of
Canadian nursing homes. From their early childhood in Meiji Japan, they witnessed the
poverty and the beyond-exhaustion labour of their fellow villagers, who bore suffering
without words, for the love of old parents, for the honour of ancestors, for the sake of the
whole. 148
The choice to employ native words rather than equivalents in the mainstream language
is both linguistic and cultural. Either one language does not have expressive mechanisms that
the author considers adequate vehicles for his ideas or one wishes to draw attention to the
presence of cultural heterogeneity. Rather than a source of interpretative difficulty for the
reader, these elements are seen as necessary to convey a particular cultural formation and
heritage. Thus they became staples of texts with multicultural background. Muna Shafiq,
referring to several texts which employ native words considers that this strategy obliges the
unilingual dominant language reader to seek meaning outside the dominant language (8). It
also signals the presence of the heterogeneous element within the socio-political
homogenizing framework. Furthermore, it allows multiple interpretations of discourse
depending on the degree of familiarity the reader has with the Japanese linguistic and cultural
element. As Diana Fuss points out: there is no natural way to read a text: ways of reading
are historically specific and culturally variable, and reading positions are always constructed,
assigned, or mapped (35).
Arun P. Mukherjee underlines that this strategy is aimed at promoting the readerships
awareness to the multi-cultural environment of which they are a part. It also presents diversity
as a necessary tool for improving acceptance of ethnicities and minorities on the one hand and
the leveling out of excessive arrogance and smugness about ones own culture (Teaching
Ethnic 170). Reading thus becomes an increasingly active process because the signs will not
reveal themselves according to traditional patterns of interpretation. The choice to encode the
text with native words represents the writers active attempt to indicate his distinct cultural
heritage. While complete and accurate decoding of the entire message thus may become
Translates as the debt of gratitude and implies a social obligation to return a favor.
Translates as the moral Duty or Obligation one inherently has towards elders, authority, spiritual deities, family, etc.
10
Translates as calm, composed and warm-hearted.
8
9
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impossible for a reader who is not a member of the authors cultural background, the practice
of incorporating words from the authors native language remains a wide-spread mechanism
of indicating cultural difference and at the same time fighting against the socio-political
elements which try to condemn them to silence.
For example, in the work of Joy Kogawa, Obasan presents several instances of such
linguistic incorporation. The title of the work itself provides a first barrier to understanding
the novel. In translation, the word obasan approximates the English word aunt. Because
of the Japanese languages minimal grammatical inflexion and the fact that there are no
flectional ways of indicating plurality, obasan can be used to refer to either one of Naomis
aunts, or to both of them. At the same time, through extension obasan can be used to refer to
all women, either in the novel or outside it, which leads to multiple possibilities of
interpretation. Yasashi, a characteristic repeatedly associated with Naomis mother
indicates one of the most important characteristics of the ideal Japanese woman incorporating
the notions of tenderness, kindness and gentleness. These characteristics can be distinguished
to a certain degree from the depiction of her actions. However, the entire dimension of this
personality trait will remain hidden for the reader who is not familiar with Japanese culture.
The title Itsuka can literally be translated as someday. It is foreshadowed in Naomis
Road as the time when the Japanese Canadians will have regained their rights. But the notion
of itsuka involves more than mere expectation for change. It means endurance and the
ability to distance oneself from present circumstances, a behavioral trait which prompts one to
acknowledge the cultural gap between the Japanese and the mainstream:
The difficulty Pastor Jim has with the Issei seems to have something to do with a
sense of time. For Pastor Jim, the moment is now. Now () is the hour of decision. The
past with its sorrows is to be redeemed in the present. Truth is spontaneous. We are to stand
straight, look forthrightly in each others eyes and the more transparent our feelings, the more
we are trusted. But the issei! To them such demonstrations are aggressive, arrogant and, at
least, extremely rude. Pastor Jim, I suppose, must think they are mentally retarded or
emotionally dead. I know, however, that they are acutely sensitive and that their feelings are
all the more intense for being contained. It isnt that their emotions are being denied in the
present. Its that theyre not being squandered. The moments joy is being conserved, like
everything else, for tomorrows need. The moments pain is being attended to in light of
times healing. Itsuka, someday, things will be all right. We can endure. The slow-rolling
locomotive of their emotions bears a made in Japan label on it (37-38)
These emotional patterns become all the more relevant when reconstructing intended
meanings through a language of ambiguity and enclitics. Naomis half answers to Hanks
invitations for example are the perfect example of the use of Japanese specific evasiveness
and non-imposition. Her: Uh,() which is neither yes nor no (49) as well as her
acknowledgement Nh. Ive never been adept at the art of conversation (39) may seem the
result of indecision. However, if one were to analyze the Japanese language specific patterns
of ambiguity in formulating an invitation and answering to it, one would notice constructs
aimed at putting neither speaker nor interlocutor in a delicate position. For the Japanese,
Hanks invitation would seem to direct, too familiar and consequently, slightly improper. For
Naomi, so used to being in a position of communicational inferiority as a Japanese woman, it
is unusual, even difficult, to rapport to Hank as an equal. She does not wish to offend him but
at the same time, she is hesitant for fear that her behavior is too conspicuous within the rigid
social regulations of Japanese society. She describes her feelings at being invited out as an:
impulse is to look over my shoulder to see if anyone is in hearing distance. Im feeling
mildly mortified though I cant think why I should (Itsuka 49).
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However, the reader is not always fortunate enough to receive a detailed depiction of
the thought process behind such an apparently ambivalent response. When asked to give an
opinion, the Japanese start off with and often limit themselves to an exhaling
onomatopoeia like: Maa (Itsuka 140) or Saa (69), described as: A punctuation sound. A
beginning of a thought. Or an ending (ibid). The latter in particular is used extensively to
mark an acknowledgement of what is being said and as a substitute for an argumentative
answer. It signals the interlocutors desire to keep silent over his thought process. To prompt
for further information would be considered impolite.
Kogawa also employs equivalents of sensory onomatopoeia in her texts. These are
words characteristic to the Japanese language which, without being directly imitative, indicate
ones perception of physical events, or the emotional impact a specific event carries over to
the interlocutor. Such examples are most obvious in Naomis Road, where there are several
instantiations of such attempts at translation: Clackity clack, clackity clack, clackity
clack (92), Bumpitty bump (93), Rumble rumble (93), Croak breep, Croak breep
(100), Plip, plop (101)
Kogawas use of the Japanese linguistic element serves as a marker of difference but
also as a necessary statement of cultural variability. Her texts, emblematic for the Japanese
immigrant prairie fiction, do meet the readers horizon of expectation by focusing on
characters with stereotypical, and thus predictable, shortcomings. I am primarily referring to
Obasan, Naomi (in Obasan) and Stephen. However, she also presents characters who
challenge stereotypes and are capable of liberating themselves from the constraints imposed
by cultural specific linguistic and behavioral practices. In this respect, Aunt Emily and, in the
latter part of Itsuka, Naomi exhibit a resourcefulness and assertiveness which challenged preconstrued notions of racial docility and passiveness. They represent cultural amphibians,
capable of operating with relative efficiency within their multicultural environment. Although
Naomi initially risks falling in the same self-imposed linguistic fast as Obasan and despite her
socially-retractile tendencies, she eventually manages to overcome her racial and gender
related inhibitions. Aunt Emily is the epitome of entrepreneurship and fluidity, contrasting the
Yasashii construct of the traditional Japanese women.
While these characters can cautiously be considered examples of multicultural success
stories, Obasan and Stephen fail in managing both perspectives their socio-cultural
circumstances would entail. Obasan, while loyal to Canada, fails to learn English and to adopt
the set of mentalities characteristic to the white mainstream. Because of this, she remains
isolated, but not at all begrudging her ostracism. For her circumstances are the result of
shikata ga nai, and because of this they are simply best forgotten. On the other hand, Stephen
chooses to abandon his community and deny involvement in any form of political action. He
considers that a radical break with his ancestry would allow him to better integrate within the
mainstream. While Obasan could barely speak English, Stephen refuses to speak Japanese.
They remain in this respect, Outsiders, on the margins of one group or other. The authors
choice in depicting their linguistic patterns also indicates the severe limitation of their
multicultural perspectives. Naomi and Aunt Emily are able to employ both communicational
codes are also comfortable with their amphibian/ multicultural identity. They are best able to
gauge the success and perspectives offered by the Redress movement. While the latters
desire to achieve citizenship as a Japanese Canadian becomes almost an obsession, it can
hardly be considered as having the same debilitating effect on her as the lack of multicultural
porousness had on Obasan and Stephen.
In conclusion, Joy Nozomi Kogawa portrays characters with different attitudes
towards the Japanese language and their distinct cultural heritage. In extreme cases, they
employ the Japanese language to indicate belongingness or reject it altogether in the hopes of
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escaping prejudice. Middle ground representatives illustrate the best adaptive strategies and
are thus capable of successfully function within the mainstream, despite pervasive cultural
differences. Just as in the case of Stephen and Obasan, language represents a barrier, the use
of native words in the text aims at showing that cultural distance does exist in spite of
overarching homogenizing tendencies. It signals difference, identity assumption, as well as
successful integration of the margins in the center, without sacrificing the distancing effect
characteristic to multicultural literature.
Bibliography:
Cheung, King Kok. Articulate Silences: Hisaye Yamamoto, Maxine Hong Kingston,
Joy Kogawa. New York: Cornell University Press. 1993.
Fuss, Diana. Essentially Speaking: Feminism, Nature and Difference. New York:
Routledge. 1989.
Gayle Fujita. To Attend the Sound of Stone: The Sensibility of Silence in Obasan.In
MELUS. Volume 12. Issue 3. 1985. Pp. 33-42
Hutcheon, Linda. The Canadian Postmodern: A Study of Contemporary EnglishCanadian Fiction. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1988.
Iritani, Toshio. Group psychology of the Japanese in wartime, Great Britain: T. J.
Press Ltd., Padstow, 1991.
Kogawa, Joy. Itsuka. New York: Anchor Books, 1992.
---. Naomis Road.
---. Obasan. Toronto: Penguin, 1983.
Mukherjee, Arun P. Teaching Ethnic Minority Writing: A Report from the
Classroom. In Verduyn Christl (Ed.). Literary Pluralities, Ontario: Broadview Press, 1998.
pp 162-171.
Shafiq, Muna. Linguistic Hybridity in Gloria Anzaldua's Borderlands, Antonia
d'Alphonso's Avril ou L'anti-passion, and Hiromi Goto's Chorus of Mushrooms. In
Gonzales, Madelena and Tolron, Francine (Eds). Translating Identity and the Identity of
Translation. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars P. 2006. Pp. 319.
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Abstract: The case of Othello as a tragic character becomes especially problematic in the
light of a racial discourse. Not only is Othello a tragic character, but he is a black tragic
character as well. The implications of his blackness upon himself (and those around him)
are equally important in bringing about his tragic fall. Yet, his tragedy cannot be limited only
to the problem of his skin-colour. As far as Othellos identity is concerned, it is clear from
the text that it undergoes a continual process of changes before the hero arrives at a final
state of awareness of himself as what he is. Before his tragic collapse, there are only moments
of self-identification on the background of a general inner crisis determined by the same fact
that Othello lacks identity and struggles to build one. This process exerts intolerable pressure
on the heros life especially because of his colour and race, and because Othello is the
instrument of two different cultural contexts and beliefs. The central aspects I discuss in this
paperOthellos race, status and identity ultimately turn to be important elements of an
algorithm that would describe the tragic characters existence in-between two opposite
cultures.
Keywords: tragic, race, status, identity, cultural conflict.
The Tragedy of Othello can be included among the plays in which the protagonists
identity and its perception have a major role in the development of the tragedy as such. It is
important to understand that Othello becomes tragic in the context of a world where he
pretends to be something that he is not. But who is Othello after all? He can be regarded as
the instrument of two opposing cultures: one from which the hero comesa dark, primitive,
savage worldand the European civilizationeducated, sophisticated, elegant.1 Within this
cultural captivity, Othello is involved in a protest of his own being, present in his attempt to
annihilate the savagery and integrate into the civilized world. Being the instrument of
both savagery and civility, the Moors identity is to be sought between the two.
Othellos process of identity forging is only one aspect of a much more complex
problem, and the Moors tragedy cannot and should not be reduced strictly to the issue of
race. My intention is to use the concepts of race, status, and identity in order to show that, as
a tragic character, the protagonist cannot be fully portrayed in the absence of these external
features or labels. In fact, whoever he is inside, for the audience, as well as for the characters
in the play, Othello remains a black man. In writing this tragedy, Shakespeare has sealed for
ever Othellos fate as being the Moor of Venice, and thus incarcerated him within this vision
of Moors. Othello, the Moor of Venice, cannot truly become part of Venice. His jealousy is
rooted in this fact and in his difference from Desdemona, a difference that Iago plays upon in
order to accomplish his evil pursuits. Among other things, in Shakespeare criticism Othello is
The idea of tragedy as a war of cultural forms is first presented in Codrin Liviu Cutitarus article, Tragedia ca Razboi cultural, published in
Vatra, nr. 6-7, 2013.
1
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often regarded as ultimately embodying the stereotype of Moorish lust and violence, being a
jealous, murderous husband of a Christian lady.2
The problem of identity concerns Othello as a tragic character because it isolates him
as foreign to the European system. Not belonging to the class, he is always aware that he is
apart. Yet, Othello desperately has to fit in a society within the borders of which he is thought
not to belong to. Because the title of hero is something tangible, it offers him a sense of
identity. Although happy with his military role, the title of general and of hero is insufficient
to offer him an identity within the civilian realm, where his image remains that of a barbarian.
Throughout the play, Othello remains the Moor, surrounded by suspicion, prejudice, fear
and hatred. Being aware of this fact, and at the same time trying to ignore it, Othello attempts
in vain to be accepted in a European society. Since Othellos image of himself is largely
constructed by others, he constantly needs somebody to appreciate his merits and thus keep
his identity alive. The two pole-characters in this sense are Desdemona and Iago. Therefore,
the Moors tragedy holds in itself, to a great extent, the tragedy of a black man, caught inside
the Empire, but not belonging there. As A. C. Bradley wrote at the beginning of the twentieth
century, of all Shakespeares tragedies, Othello is the most painfully exciting and the most
terrible.3
Othellos identity is considerably designed from the outside by all those characters
that the Moor comes in contact with. That is why critics have often regarded Othellos social
and textual construction as a collective activity, or a community project, in Imtiaz Habibs
words4. Indeed, Othellos image is differently built by various characters in the play. Thus,
for the Duke, for instance, the Moor general is the strength of rulership, the image of power
with which authority savages its subjects that the Duke needs while for Brabantio, Othello
stands for the heathen with potions and charms that exercise mind control, the secret power
that the senator seeks.5 In the context of post-colonial criticism, Othello becomes the
completely re-written subaltern subject. [] the blank that Venices nationhood needs to
complete itself. 6
Proper names play a significant role in fixing a sense of identity.7 In Othellos case
this identity is unfixed when he says, Thats he that was Othello. Here I am. One way or
another, Othello unnames himself. He no longer identifies with his former person, and still he
holds within himself both he and I. Othello speaks of himself in the third person even
earlier, when he announces Othellos occupations gone (III. 3. 362) and in the Brothel
Scene when he said,
I cry you mercy, then.
I took you for that cunning whore of Venice
That married with Othello.
(IV. ii. 88)
Thus, Othello puts a distance between himself and his name. The self is divided.
After the murder of Desdemona, he refers to himself again as Othello:
Very many studies of Othello are dedicated to the problem of jealousy, and in the context of a racial discourse it is tightly connected to
Othellos origin and race. Some texts in Renaissance England spoke about lust and jealousy as well as black skin as being the result of a hot
climate.
3
A. C. Bradley. Shakespearean Tragedy. p. 74.
4
Imtiaz Habib, Speak of me as I am: T.S. Eliot, Othellos Subaltern Voice and the Politics of Ethnic Mimesis. Shakespeare and Race.
Postcolonial Praxis in the Early Modern Period. New York: University Press of America, 1999.
5
Habib Imtiaz, p. 136.
6
Ibidem.
7
James A. Calderwood. The Properties of Othello. Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1989. p. 50.
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Ibidem.
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James A. Calderwood. The Properties of Othello. Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1989. p. 26.
Ibidem, p. 29.
10
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society. In post-colonial criticism, Iago is regarded not only as the generalized vehicle of the
irrationality of racism, but also the particular metaphor of Elizabethan colonial discourses
clueless writing out of its black other. Iagos writing of Othello is his erasure of Othello.11
In the end, Othello proves capable of violent and destructive feelings, which seem to
have been hidden by the accepted military forms. In this context, Robert Heilman describes
Othello as having the kind of mind which cannot penetrate the secret of its violence because it
has gone rigid with self-approbation.12 To Othello, all men, including himself, are what they
seem to be. After all, if one seems to be a hero, if all ones community agrees one is a hero,
the awareness of this title can give him positional assurance, to use one of Robert
Heilmans terms. The flaw that is identified here by the critic is that the soldier fails to
recognize that the title of hero does not cover all of him as a human being. How Othello
finally chooses to act upon the supposed infidelity of his wife becomes a measure of his
failure, not simply as soldier, but as man.13
As is common in tragedy, Othello is his own worst enemy. By the end of the play he
sees himself as such. A final moment of identification is realized before he commits suicide.
Not only does he identify with Venices traditional enemy, the Turk, but with that Spartan
dog, Iago:
And say besides, that in Aleppo once,
Where a malignant and a turband Turk
Beat a Venetian and traduced the state,
I took by th throat the circumsized dog,
And smote himthus. [stabs himself.]
(V. ii. 352-356)
Othello cancels his title of hero in a reunification with himself, only after he has
murdered Desdemona. He commits suicide being consoled by the fact that I have done the
state some service, and they knowt. (Act V, ii.). Therefore, he reconciles with himself
nurturing the idea of at least a partial affiliation to the culture of civility, even though he
ultimately identifies with a malicious Turk he once killed in Aleppo.
All in all, along the play, Othello is involved in a process of identity forging that takes
place within the boundaries of two conflicting cultural representations, savagery and
civility. The Shakespearean tragic character remains trapped, confined in the area of
interaction of both these cultural forces, the insoluble contradictions of which overcome him
to the point of collapse. In other words, these two conflicting dimensions contain him.
Moreover, he cannot dispense with either as well as he cannot identify with either. None of
them is to be annihilated, the only possible solution out of their deadly grapple entailing the
destruction of the protagonist. Being at the same time the hero and the barbarian, the Moors
tragedy lies at least to a certain extent in this failed act of self-creation.
Within Shakespeare studies, Othello is often regarded as a victim of cultural and racial
discrimination.14 Although, due to his military skills, Othello earned the title of general,
culturally speaking the Moor of Venice remains an outcast. In this sense, Europe becomes for
11
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him a hostile and alien place where, beyond the superficial shining of political glory, his basic
perception is that of a barbarian. In an educated, sophisticated, elegant Venice, Othello is
regarded as a dark, primitive savage. Thus, the tragedy of Othello turns into a nightmare of
racial hatred and male violence15 where its protagonist is not only the product of a cultural
milieu but also a maker of cultural meanings.16
Bibliography
Primary Source
SHAKESPEARE, William. Othello. Ed. Kenneth Muir. London: Methuen, 1985.
Secondary Sources
BRADLEY, A.C. Shakespearean Tragedy.(3rd edition). London: Macmillan, 1992.
BROWN, John Russell. Othello: Sexuality and Difference. Shakespeare: The
Tragedies. New York: Palgrave, 2001.
CALDERWOOD, James L. The Properties of Othello. Amherst: The University of
Massachusetts Press, 1989.
HABIB, Imtiaz. Speak of me as I am: T.S. Eliot, Othellos Subaltern Voice and the
Politics of Ethnic Mimesis. Shakespeare and Race. Postcolonial Praxis in the Early Modern
Period. New York: University Press of America, 1999.
LOOMBA, Ania. Othello and the Racial Question. Shakespeare, Race, and
Colonialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
PROSER, Matthew N. Othello and Coriolanus: The Image of the Warrior. The
Heroic Image in Five Shakespearean Tragedies. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965.
VAUGHAN, Virginia Mason. Othello: A Contextual History. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1994.
15
16
Ania Loomba. Shakespeare, Race and Colonialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 32.
Virginia Mason Vaughan. Othello: A Contextual History. Cambridge: Cambridge U. P., 1994, p. 27.
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Abstract: A new perspective on the relationship between Eminescu and German world is
found in the study by Constantin Cublesan Mihai Eminescu ciclul schillerian. The
contribution of Constantin Cublesan in this area is a major one. The value of his work lies in
the fact that he does not identify banal influences of a classic poet in the work of M.
Eminescu. He highlights the translator side of Eminescu personality, a side which has been
avoided with finesse or confused with plagiarism. Translations, falling into a program
creation, have a unique value and prove Eminescu originality and universality.
Keywords: Constantin Cublean, Eminescu, Fr. Schiller, German world, translation
Un alt mod de abordare a legturilor dintre Eminescu i lumea german este dat de
Constantin Cublean n lucrarea Mihai Eminescu ciclul schillerian. Lucrarea cu un titlu nu
foarte promitor, datorit asocierii nefondate, reuete s contureze o latur a personalitii
eminesciene, mai puin reliefat de restul criticii, aceea de traductor, menit a fi un nou
argument pentru unicitatea i originalitatea lui Eminescu.
Criticul ncepe prin expunerea unor elemente biografice sau afiniti, care au
determinat apropierea lui Eminescu de lumea german i n special de Schiller. coala de la
Cernui se arat ca o instituie cultivatoare a spiritului romantic german. Exegetul susine c
profesorul Neubauer i-a insuflat tnrului elev dragostea pentru poeii romantici germani. Ca
o exemplificare practic l citeaz pe Ioan Massoff care afirm: Eminescu tia s recite pe de
rost, cu mul simire, buci ntregi din Fr. Schiller, poetul favorit al profesorului.1 Or,
alturarea lui Schiller i a poeilor romantici genereaz un mare semn de ntrebare: Cum a
ajuns Schiller s fie considerat romantic?! La fel ca i predecesorii si (G. Bogdan Duic, Zoe
Dumitrescu Buulenga) vede lectura liricii schilleriene ca o preocupare constant a tinereii
eminesciene. Autorul omite, ns, c acest elan pentru creaia clasicului german aparine,
numai i numai, perioadei de tineree, mai apoi dezavundu-l chiar n scrierile sale, dup cum
dovedete i Bogdan Mihai Dasclu pe urmele lui G. Clinescu.
n calitate de bun cunosctor al limbii germane nc de mic i avnd o predispoziie
sufleteasc pentru natur, Eminescu este bnuit c i-ar fi citit n adolescen pe E.T.A.
Hoffmann, Goethe, Keller, Heine, .a. Bnuiala se transform n siguran doar atunci cnd
apare numele lui Friedrich Schiller. Autorul mprtete opinia lui Dan Mnuc,
fundamentat pe cercetrile lui Frisch, conform creia lirica german din secolul ala XIX-lea
i era perfect cunoscut lui Eminescu, la toate nivelurile.
Exegetul analizeaz apropierea dintre Eminescu i Schiller prin prisma idealismului
sentimental al poetului german i din perspectiva unei aa-numite afeciuni. Pe aceasta din
urm, dac nu se refer strict la perioada tinereii, trebuie s o dezaprobm complet. i,
deoarece, percepe acest lucru ca pe o afinitate, se refer la ntregul sistem al gndirii i
creaiei eminesciene. Scrierile n care Eminescu a gsit lirica de idei, ce l-a marcat, sunt
1
685
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urmtoarele, dup prerea lui Cublean: Die Gtter Griechenlands, Die Knstler, Der
Spaziergang, Die Worte des Glaubes, Votivtafeln. Ca nainta ce a mai ntreprins o analiz pe
linia influenelor ca urmare a unei afeciuni l amintete pe Ilarie Chendi, cu paralela dintre
Eminescu i Lenau. Ne ntrebm oare de ce nu a menionat-o pe Zoe Dumitrescu Buulenga
care prin termenul afiniti elective exprima acelai lucru. Ce-i drept, studiile sale sunt de o
real importan, i nu pot fi coborte la nivelul dezbaterii raporturilor dintre Eminescu i
Lenau. O astfel de legtur nu poate fi dovedit plauzibil, din orice unghi ar fi privit. i s-ar
putea spune la fel i despre raportul Eminescu Schiller, pn aici. ns modalitatea de
abordare din perspectiva traducerilor lui Eminescu din Schiller, arunc o nou lumin asupra
problematicii. Autorul nu caut nruririle lui Schiller n opera eminescian, lucru extrem de
incert, de altfel, ci abordeaz munca de traductor, ajungnd la o concluzie generalizat,
surprinztoare.
Prima poezie analizat este Sperana, aprut pentru prima dat n 1866, n Familia.
Ea este privit ca o adaptare dup Hoffnung de Schiller. Clinescu, citat n lucrare, nu
respinge nici aceast posibilitate, dar mai adaug, ca variante, influenele lui Herder sau
Brger. Amprenta originalitii eminesciene i face simit prezena n leit-motivul inexistent
n poemul schillerian: Cum mngie dulce, alin uor / Sperana pe toi muritorii!. Exegetul
este de prere c poezia trebuie citit, ca un prim manifest al atitudinii patriotice exprimat
prin mijloace poetice creia gazetarul Eminescu, de mai trziu, i va fi credincios o via
ntreag.2 Sperana particularizeaz sugestiv o tem comun. nelesul profund al titlului este
amplificat de regsirea acestui termen de apte ori n text. Autorul dorete s dovedeasc
faptul c poemul nu este o imitaie stngace a unui nceptor i nu poate trece neobservat n
multitudinea poeziilor nedesvrite, din prima etap a creaiei. Astfel, pe urmele lui Iulian
Boldea, susine implicaiile filosofice ale temporalitii date de pluralul timpuri. Acesta are
funcia de a-l apropia de sfera umanului, a multiplului i a curgerii.3 Exaltarea tipic a liricii
romantice este dat de gingaele clipe de afeciune sau de metafore ce sugereaz subtila
nfiorare. Idealurile umanitare, sentimentele de trire febril i druire pasional, Constantun
Cublean, le consider preluate de la Schiller. Apreciaz iniiativa lui Cristian Livescu de a
pleda pentru o lectur de subtext a poemelor publicate n Familia n vederea descoperirii
substratului metaforic. Pentru argumentarea utilitii unei astfel de lecturi aprofundate, cazul
poemului Sperana, este elocvent. Doar aa se poate deduce c textul schillerian a constituit
un stimul i se poate stabili o ndeprtarea ideatic4 de el. Constantin Giurescu vede
Sperana ca pe o influen, Iorga ca pe o prelucrare. Constantin Cublean susine c
Sperana, chiar dac e raportat la modelul schillerian, de care, oricum, nu poate fin
disjunct, prezint suficiente argumente artistice n favoarea unei liberti creatoare ce va
deveni la Eminescu un mod de apropiere, de asumare a unor teme i motive din autori strini,
pe care i le va ncorpora propriei viziuni, pn la pierderea, adesea, a identitii originale a
acestora, 5 El este de prere, c traducerile, n general, la Eminescu, devin nite creaii prin
capacitatea sa genial de a recepta i re-crea prin prisma unei gndiri filosofice ample.
Citndu-l pe Ion Gherghel, cu studiul su Schiller n literatura romn, evideniaz c din
alte 7 persoane care au tradus poemul Sperana n romn, doar Maria Cunan (1906) are o
tlmcire ce se poate considera reuit. Cublean nu se ndoiete c Eminescu ar fi dorit s-l
traduc integral pe Schiller. Subliniaz i spusele biografilor, cum ar fi G. Clinescu, care,
atest prezena la loc de cinste n geamantanul de cri al poetului, a volumelor lui Schiller.
ns, trebuie inut cont de schimbarea ulterioar a lui Eminescu. Urmtorul poem dezbtut
este Resignaiune, traducere ce dateaz din 1867. Dac Il. Chendi o consider nereuit, D.
Constantin Cublean, Mihai Eminescu ciclul schillerian, n Conferinele bibliotecii Astra, Nr. 91/2010, Sibiu, p. 18 19
Iulian Boldea, Ambivalena timpului la Eminescu, n Eminescu 2000. Studii i cercetri, Caiet aniversar editat de revista Trnava, Trgu
Mure, 2000, p.21
4
Constantin Cublean, Mihai Eminescu ciclul schillerian, n Conferinele bibliotecii Astra, Nr. 91/2010, Sibiu, p. 23
5
Ibidem, p. 25
2
3
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Vatamaniuc o vede mult superioar, mai ales lund seama de ncercrile de pn atunci: n
timp ce Eminescu o traduce integral, Maria Cunan nu reuete dect 15 strofe din 18. G.
Clinescu atrage atenia asupra implicrii personale n transpunere. La fel Ibrileanu, sau C.
Dobrogeanu Gherea, i ca un susintor febril Constantin Cublean, insistau asupra
spiritului de independen fa de modelul tradus, asupra implicrii personalitii i
originalitii n traducere. Un sistem de percepere a lumii similar, ce poate fi amplificat l
determin pe exeget s alture Resignaiune i Sperana, intuind chiar un program de creaie
axat pe acest model. Cublean accentueaz grija cu care Eminescu transpune elementele de
versificaie n limba romn, acordnd un rol esenial perfecionalismului prozodic, la fel ca
Fr. Schiller. Dou exemple ar putea fi Sperana cu versul dactil de 9 silabe i Mnua, cu
ritm trohaic de 16 silabe.
Din acelai program al traducerilor schilleriene face parte Hektors Abschied / Ector i
Andromache. Mult mai fidel originalului dect altele, poezia prezint idealuri clasice, n care
eroul se angajeaz cu patos romantic: imperativul sacrificiului pentru cauza general, e
desigur o tez a clasicismului, dar gesticulaia larg i patosul cu care eroul se angajeaz n
misiunea sa e, fr ndoial romantic6
Urmtoarea traducere dezbtut pe larg este Der Handschuh / Mnua. Geneza ei este
foarte important. Ea a fost cerut lui Eminescu, de consulul german de la Bucureti, Eduard
Grisebach, pentru publicarea n jurnalul Der Schalk de la Lipska, unde a aprut n 12 limbi.
Subiectul baladei propuse spre traducere i se potrivea perfect lui Eminescu, dezgustat de o
lume n plin decaden moral. Cublean realizeaz o comparaie ntre lucrarea lui Eminescu
i a predecesorilor C. Morariu, t. O. Iosif, I. Cassian Mtsaru, admind neta superioritate
a traducerii eminesciene: Eminescu red n limba romn ntreaga rapiditate, dinamica
aciunii, dnd, economic, dar sugestiv, culoarea de epoc tabloului i fixeaz n dialogul
condensat ideea moral, tlcul parabolei, i nu mai puin tipicitatea personajelor.7
Conchiznd, criticul privete ciclul schillerian ca pe o constant a preocuprilor lui Eminescu.
Aportul adus de Constantin Cublean n acest domeniu este unul major. Valoarea
lucrrii sale rezid n faptul c nu dorete s identifice banale influene ale unui clasic n opera
poetului romn. El pune n lumin latura de traductor a personalitii lui Eminescu, o latur
care pn acum a fost ocolit cu finee sau confundat cu plagiatul. Traducerile, care se
ncadreaz ntr-un program de creaie, au o valoare unic i dovedesc originalitatea, dar i
universalitatea eminescian.
Bibliografie
Academia romn, Institutul de Istorie i Teorie Literar G. Clinescu, Corpusul
receptrii critice a operei lui M. Eminescu, Secolul XIX, vol. I - III, Bucureti: Editura
Saeculum, I.O., 2002
Academia romn, Institutul de Istorie i Teorie Literar G. Clinescu, Corpusul
receptrii critice a operei lui M. Eminescu, Secolul XIX, vol. I - XXIX, Bucureti: Editura
Saeculum I.O., 2004 2011.
Boldea, Iulian, Ambivalena timpului la Eminescu, n Eminescu 2000. Studii i
cercetri, Caiet aniversar editat de revista Trnava, Trgu Mure, 2000
Clinescu, G., Opera lui Mihai Eminescu, vol. I, II, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1976.
Cublean, Constantin, Mihai Eminescu ciclul schillerian, n Conferinele bibliotecii
Astra, Nr. 91/2010
6
7
Ibidem, p. 38
Ibidem, p. 47
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688
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Abstract: This article proposes to envisage the side of the theorist of translation, which has
been Fundoianu-Fondane. Considering it was an assiduous practitioner of translation
(especially of poetry, translating from Yiddish dialect, German and French) and, moreover,
not stopping only to translate, Fundoianu-Fondane submitted the act of translation of
profound reflections. It is this intimate dialogue between practitioner and theorist, who has
made possible the birth of important theoretical reflections. Therefore, to configure the
translation theorist portrait, we have chosen to present chronologically, first with the
Romanian period of Fundoianu, and especially starting from the article 'Heine Translators'
published in Mntuirea. At the end of our article we mentioned the most important theoretical
reflections, that can be seen as preliminary to the modern theory of the translation of poetry,
being developed with great talent in Potique du traduire by the poet-translator-theorist
Henri Meschonnic.
Keywords: theorist, practitioner, translation, poetry, theoretical reflections.
Antoine Berman affirmait, dans son livre, qu Aucune theorie du traduire ne serait
necessaire si quelque chose ne devait pas changer dans la pratique de la traduction. 1
Dici nous pouvons dduire le fait que la thorie nest pas une recette conceptuelle qui
reste extrieure la situation traductive. Elle est le miroir o se reflet la pratique traductive ;
dans ce cas, nous parlons dun processus inductif : de la pratique vers la thorie. Et, bien sr,
la thorie productive pour lensemble des pratiques traductives.
Fundoianu-Fondane est la fois praticien et thoricien de la traduction. Ce dialogue
intime tabli entre le praticien et le thoricien de la traduction, cette harmonie interne et
productive a donn naissance plusieurs rflexions thoriques importantes sur la traduction
de posie.
Essayons desquisser dans les pages qui suivent le portrait du thoricien de la
traduction, partir de la priode roumaine de Fundoianu.
1.1. La priode roumaine de Fundoianu
En 1919, Fundoianu publie dans la revue sioniste Mntuirea, larticle Traductorii lui
Heine2 [Les traducteurs de Heine], divis en quatre partis. Dans cet article Fundoianu
commente avec finesse les traductions faites daprs Heine. videmment que sa pratique
traductive de la posie allemande constitue un avantage. Dans la premire partie de larticle,
Fundoianu affirme que Heine a t publi pour la premire fois, en traduction roumaine, dans
la revue Albina Pindului, patrone par Grigore H. Grandea. Cette revue continuait la tradition
1
Antoine Berman, Lpreuve de ltranger. Culture et traduction dans lAllemagne romantique, Gallimard, 1984, p. 39.
B. Fundoianu, Traductorii lui Heine (I), Mntuirea, Bucureti, I, 152, 19 iulie, 1919, p. 1 ; II : I, 152, 19 iulie, 1919 ; III : I, 163, 30
689
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Ibidem
Marlena Braester, Les mots se meurent de changer de bouche : Fondane et lcriture de traduction, article publi dans la revue Les
Ibidem
Ibidem, p. 72.
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Dans un autre article publi en 1920 dans la revue Rampa8, Fundoianu prend comme
point de dpart lintention de son ami-crivain Gala Galaction de retraduire la Bible. Il
souhaiterait : o Biblie pentru respiraia moral a plmnilor contemporani. [une Bible pour
la respiration morale des poumons contemporains]. Une Bible la porte de tout le monde.
O traducere fcut [] cu fraza de azi i vocabularul de azi [Une traduction faite []
avec la phrase et le vocabulaire daujourdhui] (Cest nous qui traduisons). Est-ce une
bonne solution ? Fundoianu, dans ce sens, donne un exemple propre. Il dit quil a la maison
une Bible enfin explique par plusieurs amoniers de S.M.L.R.D.P. (de Sa Majest Le Roi
De Prusse). Bien quelle soit explique par plusieurs amoniers, en ralit, cest luvre
anonyme de Voltaire. Ce qui attire lattention dans cette Bible est le fait que chaque
vnement est attentivement examin, contredit et pniblement ironis. Les explications
donnes par Voltaire, lui semble vraiment inutiles. Les interventions de lauteur du conte
philosophique Candide ou lOptimisme, prouvent imoralitatea istoriei [ limmoralit de
lhistoire]. Il conclut larticle par dire quil prfre la place dune Bible retraduite pour la
morale, la Bible dj explique de Voltaire pour Sa Majest le Roi de Prusse. (Cest nous qui
traduisons)
En outre, dans la revue Rampa9, dans un autre article publi en 1922, Fundoianu ne
reste pas neutre et indiffrent laffirmation faite par Aderca dans sa brochure la plus rcente,
intitule Personalitatea10. Soutenant que luvre dart peut trouver dans une traduction un
quivalent parfait, il trouve que les vers de Heine : Im wunderschnen Monat Mai,/ Als alle
Knospen sprangen , sont aussi bien exprims dans la traduction roumaine : n mai cnd
mugurii nfloresc/ i rde toat firea. Fondane trouve que cette affirmation faite par Aderca
est une erreur. Aderca ignore la puissance de suggestion de limage Als alle Knospen , qui
dsigne : o ntins privelite de belug, pe care i rde toata firea. [une vue tendue
foison o rit toute la nature] (Cest nous qui traduisons). Fundoianu conclut par dire que la
traduction roumaine ne fait que dtriorer limage du vers original.
1.2. La priode franaise de Fondane
Dans le bruillon de son article sur Bachelard destin aux Cahiers du Sud,
aprs avoir oppos Bachelard, qui privilgie limage et le rve, Paulhan qui voit dans
le lieu commun la source du langage littraire, il interroge : Entre Paulhan et Bachelard,
quel choisirais-je ? - Ni lun ni lautre, assurment. Car Fondane ne peut non plus rejoindre
la position de Bachelard, pour qui limage est llment essentiel de la posie. Or, pour
Fondane, la posie demeure essentiellement ce quon ne peut pas traduire. Et ce sont
ces lments intraduisibles qui sont les lments potiques premiers. 11 (Cest nous qui
soulignons)
Selon Fondane la posie reste intraduisible. La rponse est directe et tranchante. La
posie demeure essentiellement ce quon ne peut pas traduire. Et ce sont ces lments
8
B. Fundoianu, Traducerea Bibliei, Rampa, 28 iunie 1920, pp. 1-2, apud B. Fundoianu, Imagini i Cri, Editura Minerva, Bucureti,
B. Fundoianu, Critica Probleme vechi (III), Rampa, 5 martie 1922, p. 1, apud B. Fundoianu, Imagini i Cri, Editura Minerva,
Ibidem, p. 182.
Monique Jutrin, Rflexions autour d'un panorama de la posie 1933-43, article qui peut tre visualis sur le site :
http://www.benjaminfondane.com/un_article_cahierAutour_d%E2%80%99un_panorama_de_la_po%C3%A9sie_fran%C3%A7aise_1933_43-183-1-1-0-1.html
691
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Ibidem
13
14
Ibidem, p. 70.
15
Ibidem
16
17
Ibidem
692
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strictement littrale, presse, oublieuse de ses rythmes originels, sans le moindre quivalent
lexique et musical des trouvailles de loriginal. 18
Physiquement parlant, une phrase potique un vers a une vie que le traducteur ne
devrait pas ignorer : elle est faite de sons, de rythmes, de respirations, de coupures, cest-dire de signification porteurs dune syntaxe potique. 19 Henri Meschonnic affirmera plus
tard que Le rythme transforme le mode de signifier. 20
Concernant la traduction de la posie en vers, Fondane crit en 1943 : les vers
doivent rester des vers , Ce que les thoriciens de la traduction rpterons jusqu
aujourdhui en potique du traduire : le rythme en syntaxier , le Rythme est pivotal
Cest sur un point de rythme que tout peut basculer , pour ne citer que le pote-traducteurthoricien Henri Meschonnic, quelques dizaines dannes plus tard. 21
Dj nous pouvons tirer quelques conclusions. Nous pouvons esquisser une thorie
propre Fondane, visant la traduction de posie ; visant la potique du traduire.
a. Pour Fondane la posie demeure essentiellement ce quon ne peut pas traduire. Et
ce sont ces lments intraduisibles qui sont les lments potiques premiers.
b. Le rythme est pivotal. Une traduction qui nglige le rythme, nest quune prose
frelate.
c. Les vers doivent rester des vers.
d. Aux yeux de Fondane, traduire limage, la mtaphore, ne signifie pas encore traduire
la posie du texte. Et nous avons vu que la prsance attribue limage, la
mtaphore souligne dans la posie son seul lment traduisible ; et par l annihile le
discours potique dans ce quil a dessentiel.
Dans la posie tout est important et rien par hasard. Une mtaphore nest jamais une
figure isole : elle appartient un systme mtaphorique, un ou plusieurs rseaux
mtaphoriques. Chaque mtaphore est un lment constitutif du texte littraire total.22 Le
rythme est un lment essentiel du style dun auteur.
Ces traits inhrents contribuent la coagulation dune potique du texte, qui est
dfinie, selon Henri Meschonnic comme limplication rciproque des problmes de la
littrature, des problmes du langage et des problmes de la socit 23 et lhistoricit qui
fait quune uvre littraire soit durable travers le temps et dfinie non comme une
situation chronologique, mais la tenue des tensions entre le prsent pass passif et linvention
de modes nouveaux du voir, de dire, de sentir, du comprendre telle que cette invention
continue dtre invention bien aprs le temps, de sa trouvaille parce quelle est une invention
continue de sujet. 24
Ces lments potiques de prosodie devraient tre harmoniss dans la traduction. Et le
traducteur devrait tre conscient de cette tche.
18
19
Ibidem, p. 69.
20
21
22
Paul Bensimon, Ces mtaphores vives La traduction des adjectives composs mtaphoriques, p. 83. Cet article a t publi dans la
Ibidem, p. 140.
24
Ibidem, p. 29.
693
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e. Luvre dart ne peut pas trouver dans une traduction un quivalent parfait. Eugne
A. Nida25 affirmera plus tard que la traduction devient impossible si par la notion de
traduction on comprend la reproduction absolue de tous les sens possibles de
loriginal. Lance Hewson, soutient quen ralit, lquivalence est un leurre, car le
concept dtourne lattention de lessentiel, le fait que chaque traduction est le rsultat
dune interprtation qui sincarne dans une deuxime langue-culture. 26 Quand
Fundoianu soutient quAderca ignore la puissance de suggestion de limage Als alle
Knospen , qui dsigne une vue tendue foison o rit toute la nature 27,
videmment que cette observation vient de son propre acte de lecture.
Aprs ce travail, nous sommes arrives la conclusion que les rflexions thoriques
de Fundoianu-Fondane sur la traduction, peuvent tre vues comme des prliminaires pour
toute une thorie sur la traduction de posie, dveloppe quelques dizaines dannes plus tard,
par le pote-traducteur-thoricien de la traduction Henri Meschonnic.
Bibliographie :
1. Atelier de traduction, numro 19/ 2013, Suceava.
2. Bensimon, Paul, Ces mtaphores vives La traduction des adjectives composs
mtaphoriques, publi dans la revue Palimpsestes, no. 2, Presses de la Sorbonne
Nouvelle, 1999.
3. Berman, Antoine, Lpreuve de ltranger. Culture et traduction dans lAllemagne
romantique, Gallimard, 1984.
4. Braester, Marlena, Les mots se meurent de changer de bouche : Fondane et lcriture
de traduction, article publi dans la revue Les Cahiers Benjamin Fondane, no. 7/
2004.
5. Fundoianu, B., Imagini i Cri, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1980.
6. Fundoianu, B., Traductorii lui Heine, Mntuirea, Bucureti, 1919.
7. Jutrin, Monique, Rflexions autour d'un panorama de la posie 1933-43, article qui
peut tre visualis sur le site :
http://www.benjaminfondane.com/un_article_cahierAutour_d%E2%80%99un_panorama_de_la_po%C3%A9sie_fran%C3%A7aise_1933_43183-1-1-0-1.html
8. Meschonnic, Henri, Potique du traduire, ditions Verdier, 1999
9. Nida, Eugene, Traducerea sensurilor, Studiu introductiv, interviu, traducere si note de
Rodica Dimitriu, Institutul European, 2004.
25
26
Eugene A. Nida, Traducerea sensurilor, Studiu introductiv, interviu, traducere si note de Rodica Dimitriu, Institutul European, 2004, p. 31.
Atelier de traduction, numro 19/ 2013, Entretien Lance Hewson (Suisse) avec Mugura Constantinescu (Roumanie),
694
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Abstract: The study is focusing on the performance Oidip, directed by Silviu Purcrete,
premiered at the Radu Stanca National Theatre in Sibiu, in the spring of 2014, after the
texts King Oidip and Oidip at Colonos, by Sophocles, in a new translation from ancient
Greek, for the first time in prose. Aspects of literary and theatrical creation were noted, the
way the myth was rediscovered myth and what Purcrete has kept from it. I noticed how, from
the many versions of the myth, Purcrete has especially chosen those related to universality,
themes which remain valid over time. Thus, assuming that destiny chooses its victims by
chance factor, I saw the meanings that his Oidips destiny gain in relation to the myth, to
Sophocles play and Purcrete's show.
Keywords: aesthetics of the text, destiny, guilt, flah-back, flash ahead.
De ce Oidip?
Studiul de fa urmrete trecerea de la mitul oedipian la textele dramatice (Oedip
rege i Oedip la Colonos) ale lui Sofocle, de la textele lui Sofocle la scenariul original semnat
de Silviu Purcrete, i de la scenariu la reprezentaia teatral, cu titlul Oidip, aflat n
repertoriul Teatrului Naional Radu Stanca Sibiu.
Un aspect foarte important ine de faptul c spectacolul Oidip marcheaz rentoarcerea
lui Purcrete la tragedia greceasc, dup o pauz de aisprezece ani. Prima ntrebare care se
impune este: ce s-a ntmplat n aceti aisprezece ani n teatru, n general, i n teatrul
romnesc, n special, dar, mai mult, care au fost schimbrile din societatea romneasc, cum
ne-a fost influenat viaa i n ce direcie, i care a fost impactul acestor modificri asupra
felului n care spectatorul recepteaz actul teatral? Toate aceste ntrebri ne conduc la
ntrebarea central legat de valabilitatea mitului, a temelor propuse, pentru spectatorul
contemporan. Acest spectator contemporan care este foarte greu de ocat, ntruct povestea
lui Oidip n primul rnd ocheaz. Spectatorul contemporan triete ntr-o lume a
informaiilor i a imaginilor violente, o lume a nevrozelor, n care teme precum crima,
paricidul, infanticidul, fratricidul, sexualitatea, incestul au devenit redundante. i atunci ne
ntrebm dac pot avea aceste fapte (pe care spectatorul le consider fictive) efect asupra
spectatorului, din moment ce el este contient de jocul teatral, de ficiunea propus n cadrul
unei experiene teatrale. Pot ele provoca groaza, teama, mila, catharsis-ul?
O singur tem nu a fost elucidat de mii de ani: moartea tabuul morii; i aceasta va
fi tema central a spectacolului nostru.
Oidip este cel mai recent spectacol al lui Silviu Purcrete, realizat la Teatrul Naional
Radu Stanca Sibiu, dup un scenariu original, semnat de regizor i realizat pe baza textelor
Oidip rege i Oidip la Colonos, de Sofocle. Spectacolul beneficiaz de o traducere nou din
greaca veche, pentru prima dat realizat n proz, semnat de o echip de experi n greaca
veche: Constantin Georgescu, Simona Georgescu i Theodor Georgescu.
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Titlul spectacolului este sugerat de traductorii celor dou texte. Iniial, aceast pies
era numit simplu Oidip. Ulterior, dup ce a fost compus Oidip la Colonos, pentru a fi
distins de aceasta din urm, opera a primit numele de Oidip rege. Numele personajului
principal este n greac , transliterat Oidipous i citit (n epoca clasic) Oidipus. Dat
fiind faptul c n tradiia romneasc a fost ncetenit numele Oedip, dar pentru a respecta
totui originalul, noi am ales soluia de compromis Oidip.
Estetica textului dramatic
Ideea fundamental care strbate ntreaga pies este legat de cele dou principii
complementare: binele i rul. La Sofocle, binele i rul se identific cu rezultatele, cu
efectele, i nu cu faptele sau voina persoanei care le-a svrit.
Oedip nfptuiete rul cel mai ngrozitor pe care ni-l putem nchipui, un ru care ne
nfricoeaz, ne oripileaz, acela de a profana n chipul cel mai grav legturile de familie. El
ncalc dou dintre tabuurile fundamentale ale existenei umane: crima (mai mult dect att,
paricidul, i-a ucis tatl, iar ntr-un stat patriarhal acest fapt era de neegalat) i incestul (urmat
de procreaie), astfel c a dat peste cap tot ceea ce nsemna legea firii, legea zeilor i
ornduiala lumeasc. Cetatea a devenit o lume pe dos. Toate acestea s-au ntmplat ns fr
ca voina i contiina lui s fie ctui de puin amestecate1.
Muli l-au numit pe Oedip, vinovat fr vin, adic fr a fi contient de faptele sale,
de repercusiunile lor i de culp.
Efectul pe care l urmrete Sofocle prin tragedia sa este acela al unei emoii
puternice, care s nlocuiasc groaza cu mila. Efectul pe care i-l propune Silviu Purcrete
este efectul de miracol, miracol al existenei i, n special, al morii.
Scenariul i redescoperirea mitului
Pentru crearea scenariului dramatic, Purcrete se folosete de dou procedee, flashback i flash-ahead, realiznd o incursiune n procesul devenirii lui Oidip.
Piesa ncepe cu Oidip la Colonos i l vedem cum poposete n crngul sfnt al
Eumenidelor, condus de Antigona ochii i paii lui, care i descrie o atmosfer linititoare,
n timp ce spectatorii vd un loc pustiu i anost, semn c fiica lui dorete s-i ndulceasc
btrneile i s l protejeze. Dar foarte curnd, realitatea i se nfieaz sub forma sa cea mai
violent. Universalizarea mitului lui Oidip se face simit nc din momentul n care acesta
pomenete de neamul Labdacizilor, cci corul format din localnici reacioneaz imediat la
auzul acestui nume blestemat i prin injurii vor s l alunge de pe acest pmnt sfnt:
Ucigaule! Spurcciune! i-ai omort tatl i te-ai culcat cu maic-ta!!! Afar!. Rspunsul
lui Oidip este nsi esena piesei: Faptele mele, mai mult le-am ndurat dect le-am svrit.
Aa le-a plcut zeilor, care probabil purtau o veche mnie mpotriva neamului meu. Fcut-am
ce-am fcut, fr s tiu nimic., adic exact principiul vinovatului fr vin. Faptele lui Oidip
sunt repercusiuni ale unor decizii care nu i-au aparinut sau ale unor fapte svrite de alii i
care s-au abtut asupra lui fr ca el s poat face ceva.
Urmeaz un flash-back care ne situeaz n Theba, n palatul lui Oidip i al reginei
Iocasta, n mijlocul unei scene casnice, n care regina i ateapt regele, care va intra
victorios pe u; Iocasta deschide o sticl de ampanie din care se revars coninutul, aluzie la
lichidul seminal, dup care urmeaz un dans al pasiunii. Aceast atmosfer idilic este
ntrerupt brusc de corul care nvlete peste ei pentru a le vesti izbucnirea epidemiei de
cium i pentru a cere regelui s salveze, din nou, cetatea.
Ciuma, n spectacolul lui Purcrete este personalizat, e o artare feminin, o momie
plin de ml. Regizorul strecoar semne nc de la nceputul spectacolului. Ciuma este alturi
1 Ren Girard, Violena i sacrul, traducere de Mona Antohi, Bucureti, Editura Nemira, 1995., pp. 84-85
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care a fcut o prostie, aceasta l ia la pieptul ei i n acelai timp i provoac plceri sexuale
pentru a-l calma. n clipa aceea, n Iocasta, apare succesiv, cnd imaginea soiei, cnd
imaginea mamei, cnd ambele suprapuse.
Urmtoarea scen este una casnic, n care cei doi iau micul dejun, ceai, pine prjit
i miere, iar discuiile despre uciderea lui Laios continu, Oidip vrnd s afle tot mai multe
detalii. Povestea auzit din gura Iocastei i trezete memoria afectiv a propriei poveti,
despre naterea lui i despre uciderea unui strin la ntretierea a trei drumuri. Dei oracolul
din Delphi i-a prezis c urma s svreasc paricid i incest, iar povestea cu uciderea regelui
Laios la ntretierea a trei drumuri era aceeai cu a lui, dei Teiresias i-a confirmat acest lucru,
Oidip nc refuz s cread. Refuzul de a crede este de fapt refuzul de a recunoate.
Purcrete ne arat acest lucru printr-un semn scenic plin de emoie i foarte puternic ca
sens: acelai simbol ciuma i servete regelui micul dejun. Pe msur ce Oidip ncearc s
gseasc tot felul de explicaii prin care s i justifice nevinovia, ciuma contiina i
contiena, nu i d voie s uite. i provoac un ru fizic, o grea inexplicabil, migRen, de
parc tot corpul se revolt mpotriva acceptrii adevrului. Ciuma le servete micul dejun:
lapte, ceai, unt, miere i pine prjit, le servete adevrul, dei acesta nu este numai lapte i
miere. Ciuma, contiina, contiena, destinul, apare materializat, simit pe corp, n corp,
Oidip o poart agat de propriul spate, precum un ornament, i se urc pn n cretetul
capului, muc animalic din el, parc vrnd s-i ajung la acea parte din creier care conine
adevrul asupra faptelor lui i vrea s l acceseze. Dar dincolo de durere predomin o stare
interminabil de grea, o grea cum doar cel mai mare ru al tuturor timpurilor poate s
provoace.
Dei nu mai are nicio ndoial, Oidip se aga totui, cu ultimele puteri, de cea din
urm speran: Ziceai c ciobanul la a povestit despre Laios c l-au ucis nite tlhari. Deci,
dac va spune acelai lucru, nu eu sunt ucigaul: un singur om nu poate fi totuna cu muli. Dar
dac va vorbi despre un singur cltor, asta nseamn c vina cade pe mine. Odat cu rostirea
ultimelor cuvinte i d seama c a ajuns la adevr, flash-back-uri i flash-ahead-uri se succed
cu repeziciune n mintea lui, iar repercusiunile sunt, din nou, de ordin fizic, declanarea unei
crize de epilepsie, pe care Iocasta o gestioneaz, din nou, cu calm. De data aceasta, ea este cea
care tie adevrul, fr nicio ndoial, ea accept adevrul, accept soarta, cci tie care este
singurul lucru care i-a rmas de fcut.
n urmtoarea scen se produce o rsturnare de situaie, o mic plcere vinovat a lui
Sofocle, pe care Purcrete o exploateaz din plin: sperana deart.
Sosete un vestitor din Corint care le spune c regele Polybos a murit. Oidip
srbtorete din nou cu ampanie, strngndu-i soia la piept, faptul c oracolele nu s-au
mplinit. Bucuria este brusc curmat de acelai vestitor: tii bine c fricile tale n-aveau
niciun rost. C doar Meropa nu i-era mam i nici Polybos tat. Te-au primit cndva n dar
din minile mele. Te gsisem prin vlcelele mpdurite ale Kithairon-ului. Te adusese acolo
un cioban i te lsase prad morii. Gleznele tale ar putea mrturisi ce i s-a ntmplat. Te-am
dezlegat: aveai picioruele strpunse. Iocasta acum tie cu certitudine, iar acest adevr i
provoac i ei un ru fizic, i provoac o criz de claustrofobie, care o determin s caute cu
disperare ieirea din ncpere, dintr-o ncpere care pare s fi rmas fr ui, dintr-o situaie
fr ieire sau cu o singur ieire, ieire cu sens unic. nainte de a pleca, i adreseaz soului ei
ultimele vorbe, ndemnndu-l la uitare, cerndu-i s uite ceea ce amndoi tiau foarte bine:
Nu mai bga totul n seam. Ce-a spus, a spus! Uit tot, c-s vorbe fr rost. Uit totul!
Nefericitule! Fie ca niciodat s nu tii cine eti. Acest niciodat nu dureaz foarte mult, cci
Oidip are nevoie de un ultim pion pentru a reconstrui harta vieii sale: ciobanul cruia i-a fost
ncredinat pentru a fi dat pieirii. Acesta este ultimul din lungul ir al celor care direct sau
indirect, prin semne, l-au condus pe rege spre aflarea adevrului. Fiecare prticic a
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adevrului, care pn acum i-a fost artat pe buci, iese la iveal ca ntreg. Dei ciobanul tia
de prorocirea omorului i a incestului, nu l-a ucis. Oidip are o ultim ntrebare: de ce nu l-ai
ucis? nc mai vorbete despre sine ca despre un altul, dar ntrebarea lui este de fapt: de ce nu
m-ai ucis, pentru a m scuti pe mine de a face acest lucru? Rspunsul lui las n urm tcere,
dar din el se ntrevede sperana ntr-o umanitate care va supravieui: din mil.
Urmtoarea scen, povestit de un vestitor, este cea n care regina Iocasta se sinucide,
iar Oidip i scoate ochii folosindu-se de agrafele soiei sale. Oidip, plin de snge, iese din
palat, n faa cetenilor Thebei pentru c, i de aceast dat, tot el este cel care a dezlegat
misterul crimei regelui Laios.
Prin acest tulburtor monolog al su se face trecerea la Oidip la Colonos.
n prima scen a celei de-a doua pri, Ismena aduce veti din Theba, cum cei doi frai
se lupt ntre ei pentru tron; aceasta i spune un lucru extraordinar, care pare s nu l mire pe
Oidip, i anume c zeii l nal, deoarece rzboiul va fi ctigat de ctre cei de partea crora
va fi Oidip, iar Creon vine dup el deoarece vrea s l ngroape la poalele cetii.
Finalul este unul ciclic, cci de fapt povestea se reia cu prima scen a spectacolului.
Oidip se afl n crngul sfnt al Eumenidelor, unde este ntmpinat de ctre corul format din
localnici, care de data asta cunosc povestea lui Oidip i ntrebrile lor se transform n
exclamaii i dispre fa de faptele lui. Vor s l dea afar din cetate, pentru c prin faptele
comise murdrete cetatea. ns Oidip i ofer regelui Theseu un cadou nepreuit: strvul lui,
cu condiia de a-i oferi mormnt, cci Apollo a prezis c cetatea n care Oidip va fi ngropat
va ctiga rzboiul.
Un aspect foarte important este cel legat de viitorul mormnt al lui Oidip i de motivul
pentru care nu poate fi ngropat n Theba, ci doar la poalele cetii. Unul dintre cele mai
importante tabuuri era cel legat de mori; criminalul era automat exilat pentru c prezena lui
n interiorul cetii aducea cu sine mnjirea acesteia. Dei crima era cunoscut, odat ce pea
n alt cetate, acesta nu mai era considerat pngritor n ea, pentru c faptele sale nu aveau
legtur cu noul spaiu. Acesta este motivul pentru care cadavrul lui Oidip nu putea fi
ngropat n Theba, ci doar n afara ei, n timp ce n Atena putea fi ngropat.
Urmtoarea scen este cea mai ngrozitoare din ntreg scenariul. Este scena n care fiul
mai mare al lui Oidip, Polyneikes, vine pentru a-i cere s fie de partea lui n rzboiul pe care l
duce mpotriva fratelui, promindu-i c l va duce n cetate i va sta lng tronul su. Dup ce
l izgonete, acum are nevoie de ajutorul lui. Lui Polyneikes i spune Oidip cele mai
ngrozitoare vorbe pe care le-a rostit vreodat. Aflndu-se n preajma morii, nrit i acrit,
acesta i blestem copiii s se ucid ntre ei; este cel mai aspru blestem pe care ar putea
vreodat s l rosteasc vreun printe. Aceste vorbe ale lui ne umplu de groaz mai mult dect
faptele svrite: Pleac, nemernicul nemernicilor, ia cu tine blestemele astea: s nu nvingi
la Theba. S cazi n snge, fr onoare, ucis de frate-tu i el de mna ta. S v nghit pe
amndoi ntunericul morii, cci nu suntei copiii mei. Acum c-ai auzit acestea, du-te i anun
tebanilor i aliailor ti credincioi ce fel de daruri a fcut Oidip fiilor lui.
Dup acest moment de furie necontrolat, care a scos ce era mai ru dintr-un printe,
urmeaz ultimul monolog al lui Oidip, plin de lumin i de mister. Acesta pete de bunvoie
pe drumul spre moarte, pentru a se ascunde n mpria morilor, iar locul mormntului su
trebuie s rmn un mister pentru eternitate. Ultimele sale cuvinte sunt o nou prorocire: O
s v amintii de mine cnd n-oi mai fi!. Despre cine este vorba? Despre tebani, despre
atenieni, despre greci? Despre oameni, n general, cci de mii de ani oamenii i aduc aminte
de soarta lui Oidip i i vor aduce, pn la sfritul timpurilor.
Scenariul se ncheie cu Antigona cuprins de dorina de a vedea mormntul tatlui su,
dei tie c acest lucru nu i este permis, dei Ismena i spune c acesta nu are mormnt, c a
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murit fr a avea loc de veci. Antigona este cuprins de o criz de isterie, ce ar putea anuna
debutul epilepsiei, dorindu-i moartea alturi de tatl ei: M-a cuprins dorina s vd, s vd
lcaul de sub pmnt. Du-m acolo i ucide-m! Ducei-m acolo i ucidei-m!
Dup cum am vzut, Silviu Purcrete a pstrat structura mitului, de care nu se
ndeprteaz foarte mult nici Sofocle, acesta adugnd de la sine doar episodul cu Oidip la
Colonos, care contrazice toate celelalte variante ale mitului. Oidip nu ajunge niciodat la
Colonos, el moare n Theba, pe care nu o prsete nicicnd, continund s domneasc orb.
Purcrete surprinde, prin scenariul su, esena mitului fiina uman i complexitatea
simirilor sale, durerea, dezndejdea, dar mai ales sperana. Cltoria lui Oidip la Colonos
este o ampl meditaie asupra morii. Oidipul lui Purcrete a murit din momentul n care
adevrul i-a aprut clar conturat, pn atunci s-a agat cu disperare de orice speran, c
totui nu el este acela, nu este el cel mai blestemat dintre oameni. La Colonos am vzut doar
un cadavru viu, care i cuta locul de veci, cci odat pierdut sperana, e pierdut i viaa.
Sensurile destinului sau despre factorul hazard
Miturile i ritualurile se strduiesc s ne atrag atenia asupra factorului hazard n
alegerea victimei, dar nou ne este foarte greu s le nelegem limbajul. S reamintim c
Oedip se declar fiu al lui Tyche, hazardul, al sorii celei darnice.
n anul 420, Sofocle scrie Oidip rege, la vrsta de aptezeci i cinci de ani. n 405, la
vrsta de nouzeci de ani, reia, sub o alt form, aproape acelai subiect, ca i cum ar ezita
nc asupra deznodmntului pe care i-l dduse, i atunci scrie Oidip la Colonos. Avnd acest
detaliu, poate deveni explicabil subiectul celui de-al doilea text, apropierea de moarte a adus
cu sine i o meditaie asupra a ceea ce va urma, asupra necunoscutului; neputndu-i explica
fenomenul morii, Sofocle decide c moartea lui Oedip trebuie s rmn un mister. El vrea s
mearg pn la captul gndirii sale, vrea s tie, la urma urmelor, dac zeii pot s
pedepseasc un nevinovat.
Un om i asasineaz tatl, fr s tie c este tatl lui i se cstorete din ntmplare
cu mama sa. Zeii l pedepsesc cu i pentru aceste crime, pentru care ei l destinaser nainte
chiar ca el s se fi nscut. Oidip se acuz de aceste greeli proclamnd nelepciunea divin.
Aici zeii i spectatorii se contrazic, moralitatea i contiina spectatorului nu i dau voie s l
acuze pe Oidip de aceste fapte de care el nu a fost contient i care i-au fost dictate de
dinainte. Dar legile zeilor sunt diferite de legile lumeti, aa cum afirm Andr Bonard:
stranie religie, moral suprtoare, situaii neverosimile, psihologie arbitrar2.
Dar cum poate persista credina ntr-o astfel de lume nedreapt, n care zeii se joac cu
suferina unui om nevinovat? Sofocle a selectat aspecte ale mitului care l-au interesat pe el,
autorul nu dorete ca spectatorul s neleag pe deplin logica lucrurilor ntr-o lume guvernat
de zei.
Sofocle pune accent doar pe faptele lui Oidip, dar pentru a nelege cu adevrat
aciunile zeilor, trebuie s ne ntoarcem la mit, i mai ales la faptele lui Laios. Una dintre
versiunile mitului relateaz un episod din viaa lui Laios, de dinainte de cstoria cu Iocasta.
Se pare c Laios nu numai c a ncercat s i ucid propriul copil, dar era i un pederast.
Potrivit mitului, Laios a fcut o pasiune pentru Chrysuppus, fiul cel mic, un fiu bastard al
regelui Peloponeziei i al nimfei Danais. L-a ademenit i l-a violat. Urmarea ne este relatat n
mai multe variante. Una dintre ele ar fi c acesta s-a sinucis. Urmare a acestei ntmplri,
Apollon l-a blestemat pe Laios s nu poat procrea, iar dac i se va nate un copil, acesta s
i ucid tatl i s se cstoreasc cu mama lui. Dup violarea lui Chrysippus, Laios s-a
cstorit cu Iocasta i a devenit rege n Theba.
2 Andr Bonard, Civilizaia greac, vol. II, traducere i note de prof. univ.dr. Iorgu Stoian, Bucureti, Editura tiinific, 1967, p. 81
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ntorcndu-ne la textul lui Sofocle, putem remerca cum fiecare moment tragic din
viaa lui Oidip recreeaz de fapt vina lui Laios. Sinuciderea Iocastei repet sinuciderea lui
Chrysippus, victima seduciei lui Laios. Sterilitatea copiilor lui Oedip este de fapt o moned
de schimb la nclcarea de ctre Laios a interdiciei de a procrea. Strpungerea de ctre Oedip
a propriilor ochi corespunde cu strpungerea gleznelor sale de ctre Laios.
Pentru a nelege al doilea mod prin care se manifest destinul, trebuie s ne ntoarcem
la Iocasta soia lui Oidip. Iocasta este instrumentul prin care divinitatea i trimite lui Oedip
dou semne care s-l conduc la aflarea adevrului. Regina intervine n disputa care
izbucnete ntre soul i fratele ei, vrnd s-l calmeze pe rege, s-l liniteasc n privina
declaraiilor lui Teiresias. Ea crede c va reui n aceast direcie dndu-i o dovad izbitoare a
zdrniciei oracolelor exact indiciul de care Oedip avea nevoie pentru a i se strecura
ndoiala n suflet: odinioar un oracol i-a prezis lui Laios c va pieri de mna fiului su. Or,
acest rege a fost asasinat de bandii, la o rspntie a trei drumuri, n timpul unei cltorii pe
care o fcea n afara cetii, iar singurul fiul pe care l-a avut fusese dus n muni, pentru a muri
acolo, la trei zile dup naterea sa. Aceast poveste spune totul despre ncrederea pe care
trebuie s o avem n oracole.
Tot Iocasta a dat n ceea ce privete moartea lui Laios unul dintre acele detalii aparent
neimportante, fr ca aceasta s se gndeasc n mod special la ce spune: a spus, n treact, c
Laios a fost asasinat la ntretierea a trei drumuri. Acest detaliu s-a scufundat n
subcontientul lui Oidip i a scos la suprafa o serie de amintiri refulate. Regele a revzut
dintr-o dat acea (aceeai) rscruce de pe vremea unei vechi cltorii, acea (aceeai) ceart pe
care a avut-o cu conductorul atelajului, pe acel btrn care l lovise cu biciul, mnia care l-a
cuprins i gestul final, lovitura care l-a condus la crim.
Odat cu trezirea acestei amintiri, Oidip nu mai contenete cu ntrebrile, spernd s
gseasc n omorul pe care i-l povestete o mprejurare care s nu se potriveasc cu omorul
ce-i amintete acum c l-a comis. Unde era aceast rspntie? Locul se potrivete. La ce dat
a fost acest omor? Vremea se potrivete. Cum era acel rege? Ce vrst avea? Iocasta rspunde
ca i cum i d seama de acest lucru pentru prima oar: la chip aducea puin cu tine. Exact n
acel moment att Iocasta, ct i Oedip tiu adevrul, iar celelalte dovezi sunt doar un protocol
pentru a ncheia procesul destinului su, aa cum se cuvine: Dintr-o dat Iocasta a neles.
ntr-o strfulgerare, ea unete cele dou oracole mincinoase ntr-o singur profeie
adevrat.3 Surprindem aici puterea ironiei tragice i a destinului...
Un amnunt totui nu se potrivete. Singurul slujitor scpat din masacrul de la
rspntie a declarat (noi tim c el a minit pentru a se dezvinovi) c stpnul su a fost ucis
de o ceat de bandii, iar Oidip tie c era singur: el pune s se caute acel slujitor, agnduse de acest amnunt greit, n timp ce spectatorul ateapt de la aceast ntlnire, catastrofa.4
Aceast dur ironie, acest joc al destinului este mult mai nendurtor dect toate
faptele lui Oidip svrite fr voia sa, iar spectatorii nu pot accepta aceast fapt a divinitii.
Dac zeii i bat joc de Oidip nevinovat sau vinovat din vina lor cum s nu resimim soarta
eroului ca o jignire adus umanitii? din acest moment, n sentimentul demnitii noastre
rnite, ne nsuim tragedia pentru a face din ea un act de acuzare mpotriva divinitii, un
document al nedreptii care ni s-a fcut.5 Dar nu avem dreptul s i condamnm pe zei, din
moment ce Oidip nsui nu i condamn. Noi i acuzm c au lovit un nevinovat: nevinovatul
se declar vinovat. Acceptarea aciunii zeilor de ctre Oidip, supunerea sa fa de autoritatea
lor n ncercarea n care l-au aruncat, ne avertizeaz c el a neles i a acceptat sensul
3 Idem, p. 88
4 Idem, p. 86
5 Idem, p. 91
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destinului su i prin asta invit i spectatorii s descopere aceste sensuri alturi de suferina
lui.
n spectacolul lui Purcrete, ispirea const n chinuitoarea etap n care Oidip reface
filmul propriei existene.
nc din prima scen l vedem plin de snge, n crngul sfnt al Eumenidelor.
Demersul lui Purcrete este, n prim faz, unul analitic, ndreptat nspre trecut. Odat cu
ridicarea cortinei, odat cu nceperea spectacolului, aciunea propriu-zis a piesei este deja
ncheiat, i ceea ce vedem pe scen este repercursiunea ei Oidip n ultimele clipe de
dinaintea morii. Apoi, prin procedeul flash-back-ului (ne ntoarcem tot n trecut), Oidip nu
face altceva dect s rememoreze faptele care l-au adus n punctul n care se afl acum. Aa
cum am vzut n capitolul cinci, flash-back-ul, privirea n urm, aduce cu sine moartea n
viitor. Aceast teorie este demonstrat n spectacolul lui Purcrete.
ntregul demers al lui Oidip este acela al reconstruirii unui trecut i mai ndeprtat, a
unui trecut decis pentru sine, de ctre zei. Odat cu evoluia aciunii, acesta se ndeprteaz
din ce n ce mai mult de prezentul vorbirii, apropiindu-se, paradoxal, de trecut, i n acelai
timp, de viitor, cci odat ce ajunge s neleag originea naterii sale, are i revelaia morii.
Oidip duce o lupt permanent ntre acceptarea i negarea adevrului, iar modul n
care adevrul i se arat, treptat, cnd evident, cnd ascuns, cnd prin semne, cnd prin
mrturii, reprezint de fapt procesul violent al judecrii unui vinovat fr vin. Oidip este
rspunsul la tot ce i se ntmpl tatlui su, Iocastei mama i n acelai timp soia sa, cetii
i celor patru copii. Asupra cetii se abate ciuma, a crei soluie este el. Oidip este cel care a
adus-o n cetate, cci ciuma este pedeapsa paricidului, ciuma a luat natere n casa lui, n patul
pe care l mparte cu Iocasta. O vedem personalizat, un permanent locatar al lor, un al
cincilea copil, care cnd se cuibrete ntre ei ca un prunc, cnd st tolnit pe jos ca un cine
i regele se mpiedic de ea, cnd este servitorul care le aduce micul dejun, cnd devine un
parazit care se lipete de el, cnd se confund cu nsi persoana lui Oidip. Astfel, Oidip,
regele, trimisul zeilor pentru a proteja cetatea, se transform n cel care i aduce pieirea, este
n acelai timp cel care a adus ciuma i cel care trebuie s scape cetatea de ea. Dar cum s
fac acest lucru, dac ciuma este un fel de extensie a lui? Nu o poate face dect prin eliberarea
cetii de sub blestemul care a czut asupra ei, adic prin prsirea cetii.
Ciuma e o trimitere direct ctre pcatele svrite n cminul conjugal; este o
pedeaps pentru incest i procreare, iar pedeapsa este sterilitatea i moartea. Din aceeai
procreare incestuoas vine i pieirea neamului su, cci cele dou fete ale sale, Antigona i
Ismena vor muri sterpe, blestemul lui Oidip extinzndu-se i asupra lor. Acelai blestem cade
i asupra fiilor lui (de data aceasta aruncat chiar de ctre tatl lor): s nu nvingi la Teba. S
cazi n snge, fr onoare, ucis de frate-tu i el de mna ta. S v nghit pe amndoi
ntunericul morii, cci nu suntei copiii mei.
Oidip se schimb n urma procesului violent la care este supus, i apare sub o cu totul
alt form n Oidip la Colonos. n primele scene avem de-a face tot cu un Oidip fundamental
malefic. Spre final ns, odat cu apropierea morii, se produce o schimbare remarcabil:
Oidip rmne periculos, chiar nspimnttor, dar devine i foarte preios. Viitorul lui cadavru
constituie un fel de talisman pe care Colonos i Theba i-l disput vehement.
i n final, cnd n sfrit i gsete lca pentru mormnt, se produce un miracol, are
parte de un fel de ispire cretin, e plin de lumin i linite i l vedem n drumul su spre
moarte, cum duce n spate crngul sfnt ca pe o cruce.
Oidip nu este vinovat n sensul modern, n nelesul modern al vinei, ci este
responsabil pentru nenorocirile cetii i ale celor din jurul lui. Rolul su este al unui veritabil
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ap ispitor uman. Nimeni nu are de dat socoteal nimnui, cu excepia lui Oidip,
bineneles.
Valoarea pozitiv a tragediei i pozitivitatea spectacolului reies din atitudinea lui
Oidip: dei poate fi socotit drept cel mai nenorocit dintre oameni, faptele pe care le-a comis
reprezentnd cel mai mare ru pe care o fiin putea s l svreasc, acesta nu i acuz pe zei
pentru ceea ce i s-a ntmplat i, prin asta, ne oprete i pe noi de la a-i condamna. Prin acest
tip de atitudine, Oidip ne transmite mesajul c viaa e frumoas pentru c e unic. Acest tip de
abordare a propriei existene ne provoac nou, spectatorilor sentimente religioase, sentimente
de ispire. Sentimente cretine.
Bibliografie:
BERLOGEA, Ileana, Istoria Teatrului, Bucureti, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic,
1981.
BONARD, Andr, Civilizaia greac, vol. 1, vol. 2, Bucureti, Editura tiinific,
1967.
BONTE, Pierre, IZARD, Michael, Dicionar de etnologie i antropologie, Bucureti,
Editura Polirom, f.a.
DOMENACH, Jean-Marie, ntoarcerea tragicului, Bucureti, Editura Meridiane,
1995.
DRIMBA, Ovidiu, Teatrul de la origini i pn azi, Bucureti, Editura Albastros,
1973.
FRENKIAN, Aram, nelesul suferinei umane la Eschil, Sofocle i Euripide,
Bucureti, Editura Pentru Literatura Universal, 1969.
GIRARD, Ren, Violena i sacrul, traducere de Mona Antohi, Bucureti, Editura
Nemira, 1995.
PANDOLFI, Vito, Istoria teatrului universal, vol. II, vol. III, Bucureti, Editura
Meridiane, 1971.
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Abstract: Prosper Mrimes novella Carmen (1845), particularly with the myth of Carmen
herself, has evolved into literary and visual constructions of novel, opera, and cinema. These
constructions have allowed for a variety of reactions from the public that adhere to
presenting either a positive or negative image of the female figure, Carmen. It is through this
female figure that racial, gender, and sexual motifs, to name a few, have served as a reminder
of the various interpretations that the actual work has built upon. This essay explores themes
of the above mentioned concepts and also emphasizes how both male and female genders can
be subject to marginality and dichotomies of destruction of the other, as with Carmen.
Starting from this questionable dichotomy in literary and artistic representations of the
Rroma, the paper aims to examine the intrinsic duality of the stereotype in what the artistic
figure of Carmen is concerned. The indispensable freedom of the Roma "lifestyle" seems to be
the dominant and recurring theme of the fictionalizing and appreciating discourses around
the legendary Gipsy woman, created by Prosper Merimee while its opposite, i.e., the constant
primitivism of this mysterious figure, appears as the leitmotif of all the denigrating
discourses.
In the context of identifying the sources of an ambivalent cultural stereotype on the Roma
people, the history of multiple mystifications and of the circulation of certain fictions by
various types of discourse (anthropological, political, literary) pointed to an extremely
remarkable case that does the most to illustrate the creation of the modern myth of the
freedom/primitivism of the Roma people: the case of the birth of the most famous fictional
Roma character in history, Carmen.
Keywords: Prosper Mrime, Carmen, Roma people, Gipsy women.
The fundamental topic and the question that led to this article can be expressed
cocisely as follows: Why does the modern cultural imaginary generate a set of contradictory
representations of the Roma people, which, on the one hand, primitivize and belittle this
ethnic/racial group and, on the other, exalt and idealize the ethos of freedom inherent to the
lifestyle of the Roma people? As we see in Clark and Ivanics theory, the imagery largely
depends on the coercive practices of the dominant culture and its intrinsic discourse:
Society is not homogeneous; it is made up of different social classes and groups with
competing and often conflicting interests and ideologies operating, as we see it, in a
hierarchy. The dominant ideologies are those that have the power to project particular
meanings and practices as universal, as `common sense'. This power operates either by
winning the consent of others (hegemony, in Gramsci's terms) or, in moments of crisis and
instability, by coercion, forcing others either to follow or to avoid certain practices; the
ultimate coercion being the threat of imprisonment or death.1
See R. Clark and R. Ivanic, The Politics of Writing ,London: Routledge, 1997, p. 21.
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Starting from this questionable dichotomy in literary and artistic representations of the
Rroma, the paper aims to examine the intrinsic duality of the stereotype in what the artistic
figure of Carmen is concerned. The indispensable freedom of the Roma "lifestyle" seems to
be the dominant and recurring theme of the fictionalizing and appreciating discourses around
the legendary Gipsy woman, created by Prosper Merimee while its opposite, i.e., the constant
primitivism of this mysterious figure, appears as the leitmotif of all the denigrating
discourses.
In the context of identifying the sources of an ambivalent cultural stereotype on the
Roma people, the history of multiple mystifications and of the circulation of certain fictions
by various types of discourse (anthropological, political, literary) pointed to an extremely
remarkable case that does the most to illustrate the creation of the modern myth of the
freedom/primitivism of the Roma people: the case of the birth of the most famous fictional
Roma character in history, Carmen.
The worldwide popularity achieved in the social imaginary by the story of the Gitana
of Seville and the fact that this character continues to hold the leading position in the cultural
surveys related to the Roma people in 21st century mass media makes the mythogenesis of
the most famous fictional Roma character extremely relevant for the dichoyomy in artistic
representations of the Roma woman, as, on the one hand, the notoriety of the character
massively contributed to the stereotype concerning the intrinsic freedom of the Roma people
and, on the other, the history of the multiple origins of the myth perfectly illustrates the
mechanism by which the high intellectual discourses of the European modernity produced, in
the 18th and 19th centuries, a contradictory cultural construct, both anti-Roma and philoRoma.
Therefore, the retrogressive study of her ancestral descent in texts that established
Carmen as a central character in the culture and social imaginary of Europe is the major
sustaining factor of my theory. However, beyond the texts, what ultimately matters is the contexts and sub-texts that made the myth of Carmen possible and, at the same time, generated a
highly persistent cultural stereotype regarding an alleged wild/savage and free essence of the
Roma identity. Although fascinating in itself, the intertextual history that starts with Bizet's
opera and goes, through Mrime, down to the rather unknown origin of the Carmen character
in Pushkin's poem The Gypsies, is actually relevant primarily because it reveals the cultural
and intellectual contexts in which modernity fictionalizes the Roma identity, inventing a myth
of gypsies as the wildlings within the European continent. From this viewpoint, the aim of the
descent into the sub-texts of the myth of Carmen surpasses the limits of a historical interest in
the intellectual origin of a fictional story or in the reconstruction of the biographic and literary
circumstances in which Pushkin's poem, Mrime's story or the libretto of Bizet's opera were
created. As literary characters, `Gypsies' seem to be particularly appealing to Western
authors, almost as if they were endowed with an intrinsic aesthetic quality, a figurative
connotation that makes them, parodying Levi-Strauss' noted expression, `good to be written
about'. 2 The deeper goal is to show how an agenda of philosophical and identity-related
concerns of the Enlightenment is in fact transferred into the Romantic discourse with its
fascination with the idea of gypsy freedom, although it may look like the Romantic philoRoma attitude displaces the anti-Roma representations of Enlightenment anthropology.
Quoting a relevant piece of writing:
the [written] sign reflects social struggle - not just in terms of class, [... ]but also in
terms of gender, ethnicity and all contested areas of social life - and is itself a site of
struggle.3
2
3
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To the extent that the research topic involved revealing the multiple origins of the
myth of Carmen and of the stereotypes on the freedom/primitiveness of the Roma people, the
analyses could have been organized either in ascending chronological order, from the
Enlightenment and Romantic roots of the myth to its relevance still persisting in collective
representations nowadays, or vice versa, regressively, from the contemporary relevance of
Carmen's image to the sources of its creators in the 18th and 19th centuries.From the
contemporary readings of Carmen's story to the intellectual context in which the libretto of
Bizet's opera was written, then to the exoticizing and primitivizing context of the story of
Mrime and finally to the meanings of Pushkin's poem and the Enlightenment and
orientalizing Romantic sources of the creation of The Gypsies, each and every aspect proves
to be significant in the build-up of the Carmen-phenomenon.
Even nowadays, in the 21st century, we still seem to put to work, in our portrayals of
the Roma people, the inherited logic of this contradictory cultural construct to the same extent
that we are still the inheritors of the cultural construct of our own modern identity, that is, of
an identity that has changed its agenda so often as to become complex and contradictory.
Narcissistically obsessed with the question "Who are we?" rather than "Who are they?",
modernity projected the successive agendas of its own identity-related preoccupations in this
form of a radical but convenient alterity (convenient because familiar owing to its social and
geographic proximity). The mythogenesis of the wild gypsy freedom, on both sides of the
myth, accumulates successive layers of anti-Roma and philo-Roma fictional representations
that mirror, first of all, and more than anything else, the relationship of the modern non-Roma
identity to the idea of freedom and the concept of civilization.
By representing a particular definition of reality as if it were the actual real thing,
written texts are likely to influence and guide the behaviour of individuals and help support
what Foucault calls a `regime of truth', which sanctions and enforces a particular set of values
and beliefs considered functional to the institutions in power. 4
To the extent that the wildness/savageness and freedom that the cultural stereotype
attaches to the Roma people primarily refer to a body, i.e., to the "uncivilized" or "hard-tocivilize" spontaneities of the individual bodies and to the essential freedom of the Gypsy
social body, the metaphors by which the modern cultural discourses attempt to grasp the
ungraspable identity of an alleged Roma ethos always refer not to a different spirituality, but
to a different corporeality. In other words, the metaphors describing the alterity of a (nonEuropean, non-civilized, non-adhering to the norms of modern society) way of living always
resort to corporeality: whether envisaged as an undisciplined individual body (in point of
drives, sexuality, hygiene, behavior) or as an uncontrollable social body (as it is either
nomadic or incapable of being politically disciplined because of the assumed inherent
freedom of the Gypsy ethos), the fictional portrait of the Roma people drawn by the European
modernity seems to put forth, with both repulsion and fascination, the idea that Roma people
experience their bodies in a different way than the civilized man, whose manners and norms
of coexistence remain unknown to these inherently free savages - either to the political
exasperation of the authorities, to the pseudo-scientific contempt of racist anthropologies or to
the exoticizing enthusiasm of the philo-Roma behaviours of Romantic descent.
Obviously, the plausibility of the assumption concerning the fascination and repulsion
that the free and undisciplined Carmen-figure exercises on the civilized man and on the
disciplined modern subjectivity needs to be tested beyond the limits of the texts that governed
the birth of the myth of Carmen, but these texts can surely be also read in light of this
assumption.
4
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As I will show, it was under the ideological regime monopolized by the Gage (nonRoma) that stereotypical representations of the `Gypsies' emerged as the only unchallenged
repository of the `truth' about this alleged `mysterious' people. With the words of Liegeois I
emphasize that stereotypes and legends concerning `Gypsies', far from being confined to the
literary sphere, permeate almost every area of public discourse, giving rise to a `constant and
repellent caricature of the nomad'.5
Prosper Mrime's novella Carmen is a blatant manifestation of the 19th-century
European fascination with the foreign and the exotic. The setting of the story in Andalusia (in
southern Spain) creates a colorful backdrop for the focus on the clash of cultures between
Europeans and Gypsies, an ethnic group that was widely despised in the public sphere but
romanticized by the popular imagination and the arts. The encounter with difference - leading
to both attraction and violences - is a theme that Mrime explores on many levels in Carmen.
The title and the plot imply that the novella revolves around the story of Carmen and Don
Jos, both members of minority populations, Gypsy and Basque, that were marginalized in
Spain.
However, Carmen is also a narrative of adventures abroad experienced by the French
narrator who recounts the tale, a scholarly traveler whose erudition, ironic detachment, and
well-informed outsider's perspective on Spain suggest a resemblance to none other than
Mrime himself, a learned civil servant and academician who traveled widely for his work
and his research on architecture and history. Mrime's six-month trip to Spain in 1830
initiated a lifelong friendship with the aristocratic Montijo family, including the daughter,
Eugenia, who married Emperor Napoleon III of France in 1853. Carmen apparently originated
in an incident recounted to Mrime in 1830 by her mother, the Countess Montijo.
Carmen blends the genres of travelogue, adventure story, and romantic novel in an
intriguing hybrid of fantasy and nonfiction. Mrime first published Carmen in 1845 in the
predominantly nonfiction journal Revue des deux mondes ("Review of the Two Worlds"),
without any indication that it was a novella rather than a travelogue like his four Lettres
d'Espagne ("Letters from Spain") of 1831-33. The narrator's classical allusions and eye for
details of topography, local customs, and language endow the narrative frame with an aura of
realism, and his agency (aiding Don Jos's flight from justice, succumbing to Carmen's
charms) obscures the boundary between the frame and the central plot.
Mrime's decision to shift the conclusion of the story from Don Jos's words
absolving himself of responsibility for the fate of Carmen:'The Cal are to blame, for
bringing her up as they did.' to the narrator's philological reflections reinforces the central
importance of language in the novella, which begins with a misogynistic Greek epigram:
Every woman is as bitter as gall. But she has two good moments: one in bed, the other in
death.and ends with an enigmatic Romany proverb: A closed mouth, no fly can enter.6
While the narrator sprinkles his account liberally with linguistic erudition, only
Carmen masters the art of language as persuasion, using Basque, Romany, and Spanish to
manipulate those around her. Her name, from the Latin carmen, which can mean a song,
poem, or magic spell - appropriate for a character associated with song, dance, and seduction
as well as with "Gypsy magic."
Carmen is not an epic tale of battles and thrones won and lost, though it is as filled
with sex, doom, and bloody incident as Macbeth, more explicit than I would have believed
possible for a novella published in 1845. Either Mrime was the Tarantino of his day or the
5
Jean-Pierre Liegeois, Gypsies and Travellers: Dossiers for the Intercultural Training of Teachers
Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 1987, p. 132.
6
Prosper Mrime, Carmen Paris: Pocket, 2004
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literature of the time was a good deal more lively than we suspect. Its certainly more exciting
to read than Hugo.
Describing Carmen, the author immediately will put her in between two worlds, we
witness a contradictory cultural construct, both anti-Roma and philo-Roma:
I seriously doubt whether Seorita Carmen was of the pure breed; at all events, she
was infinitely prettier than any of the women of her nation whom I had ever met. No woman
is beautiful, say the Spaniards, unless she combines thirty sos; or, if you prefer, unless she
may be described by ten adjectives, each of which is applicable to three parts of her person.
For instance, she must have three black things: eyes, lashes, and eyebrows, etc. (See
Brantme for the rest.) My gypsy could make no pretension to so many perfections. Her skin,
albeit perfectly smooth, closely resembled the hue of copper. Her eyes were oblique, but of a
beautiful shape; her lips a little heavy but well formed, and disclosed two rows of teeth whiter
than almonds without their skins. Her hair, which was possibly a bit coarse, was black with a
blue reflection, like a crows wing, and long and glossy. To avoid fatiguing you with a too
verbose description, I will say that for each defect she had some good point, which stood out
the more boldly perhaps by the very contrast. It was a strange, wild type of beauty, a face
which took one by surprise at first, but which one could not forget. Her eyes, especially, had
an expression at once voluptuous and fierce, which I had never seen in any mortal eye. A
gypsys eye is a wolfs eye is a Spanish saying which denotes keen observation. If you have
not the time to go to the Jardin des Plantes to study the glance of a wolf, observe your cat
when it is watching a sparrow.7
Soon after meeting the narrator, she admits to sorcery and dealings with the Devil. The
writer, who admits to dabbling in it himself in his school days, in intrigued and wishes to see
her practice her art.
The bulk of the novella is the third part, the prison interview, as Don Jose tells the
story of his downfall to our author. Much of it will be familiar to fans of the opera, with the
fracas at the cigar factory and Carmen convincing the lonely young corporal to let her escape
before they reunite after his demotion and spell in the guardhouse. But there are several meaty
tales after Don Jose deserts that are disposed of or condensed by Bizet, elaborating on his
downward spiral that turns into a death-dance with Carmen. From the duel with his lieutenant
on, sin plucks on sin, as Shakespeares Richard noticed. Don Jose and Carmen join a small
band of smugglers, mostly bringing English goods in from Gibraltar, but when desperate or
when opportunity presents itself, they turn to robbery. He descends from smuggling to
robbery to outright murder, egged on by his lover. Theres little honour among thieves, and
the two best scenes are a running gunfight with the military where the bands dreadful leader
kills a wounded comrade by discharging a blunderbuss into his followers face, and a knife
fight between Don Jose and Carmens husband, the same leader who killed one of his
followers and then settled down to a game of cards. These incidents, the business of Egypt
as Carmen phrases it, are quite well-told and would stand up well against any of the authors
more frequently discussed here at Black Gate.
Meanwhile, Carmen grows increasingly distant and fatalistic, for her fortune-telling
keeps revealing that she must die, then Don Jose shortly after.
Its easy to forget what its like to be a stranger in a strange land in our world where
you can be both everywhere and nowhere. Don Jose, as an exile (he owes his army enlistment
to a knife fight after a tennis match in his youth), is urged into throwing away his rank over
7
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something as minor as a few words in his home tongue, albeit atrociously pronounced. The
novella does a great job of handling tribalism, whether its that of the Gypsy smugglers, the
military, the women at the cigar factory where Carmen works, or the church and aristocracy.
The fights and escapades, in their small-scale grit and sweat, convey an authenticity
that impresses. When you have a man whipping off his hat to use it as a shield in a fight
involving folding knives, the stakes of a bandits campfire seem every bit as great as a clash
of empires. Carmens alley escape introduces us once again into the exotic escapism of the
era:
At that moment we were passing one of the narrow lanes of which there are
so many in Seville. All of a sudden Carmen turned and struck me with her fist in the breast. I
purposely fell backward. With one spring she leaped over me and began to run, showing us a
fleet pair of legs! Basque legs are famous; hers were quite equal to them-as swift and as well
moulded. I sprang up instantly; but I held my lance horizontally so as to block the street, so
that my men were delayed for a moment when they attempted to pursue her. Then I began to
run myself, and they were at my heels. But overtake her! there was no danger of that, with our
spurs, and sabres, and lances! In less than it takes to tell it, the prisoner disappeared. Indeed,
all the women in the quarter favoured her flight, laughed at us, and sent us in the wrong
direction. After marching and countermarching, we were obliged to return to the guard-house
without a receipt from the governor of the prison.8
Mrime manages to cram a great deal of flavor into a few words, especially when
describing the busy, narrow streets of the cities and the dusty, lonely roads of the hills and
mountains. So on the rare occasions he resorts to a paragraph of description, it has all the
more significance.
And last, Carmen is a supreme example of an independent woman in a period,
patriarchal society (including that of the Romani, who dont let their women engage in
outright prostitution and frown on a woman taking lovers). Though theres no nonsense about
her being a match for a skilled man in a knife fight, shes worth any three men of the
smuggling band for her brains, audacity, and skill. Even Don Jose in his jail cell, though he
frequently calls her a devil, grants her that. Sex is both a tool and a pleasure in its own right
for her. While shes not a hostage to her loins, they do betray when she returns to Don Jose
multiple times when she might be rid of him. Her sexuality, to my mind, is more of a symbol
of the freedom she holds so dear. I would rank Carmen with Mitchells resourceful Scarlett
OHara or Austens uncompromising Elizabeth Bennet as one of the most memorable women
of literature.
The tale of deceit and intrigue in exotic Spain titillated readers.
I doubted whether that girl ever said a true word in her life; but when she spoke, I
believed her; it was too much for me. She murdered the Basque language, yet I believed that
she was a Navarrese. Her eyes alone, to say nothing of her mouth and her colour, proclaimed
her a gypsy. I was mad, I paid no heed to anything. I though that if Spaniards had dared to
speak slightly to me of the provinces, I would have slashed their faces as she had slashed her
comrades. In short, I was like a drunken man; I began to say foolish things, I was on the
verge of doing them.9
When observed thus at a safe distance, Carmen fascinated nineteenth century readers.
The novella did not merely seek to tell a tragic tale of bohemian Spain since, as Corry
Cropper notes, whether Mrimes narratives are set in the past or in an exotic world [...]
8
9
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their intent is to uncover what is being ignored in contemporary France.10 When treated as
more than just a novella, then, Carmen becomes a metaphor for the sometimes dangerous
influence and power of the marginalized Other. Mrimes narrative structure, however,
manages to mitigate the shocking immorality in the tale, and tames Carmen with a masculine
narrator, and a passionless, scientific context to neutralize her enticing danger and
seductiveness. Thirty years later, though, Georges Bizet eliminated safety from the narrative,
presenting the savage, seductive Carmen in all her exotic glory, complete with non-traditional
music. This rapprochement of the previously distant Other unsettled the Parisian audiences in
a way that few works had done before. Sorcery can and should be utterly mundane, at least
occasionally. In Carmen, beyond the frequent fortune-telling, theres a good deal of talk of
love charms and when will I see him again devices resorted to by desperate young lovers
that Romani and their ilk are only too happy to use in fleecing the gentiles. Take inspiration
from daytime television advertising. We can make our own sorcerers a little more believable
by having them continually sought for help (or desperate enough to earn some coin),
intervening with love lives, anti-aging remedies, help with finances and profitable
employment, seeking installation of or relief from pregnancy, and other everyday crises.
Prosper Mrime sets up a narrative duality in his novella by switching narrators and
frameworks several times. At the outset of the novella , an archeologist narrates from
Andalusia, where he and his guide, Antonio, encounter a man with a strange accent, and soon
discover him to be Don Jos, a notorious bandit. Antonio decides to turn Don Jos in, so the
narrator wakes him and warns him, and the chapter ends with Don Joss escape. This first
section introduces the reader to the Andalusian setting, creating an authentic expository
moment, emphasized by the lack of translation of foreign words. When Mrime references
an Andalusian or Basque word, he leaves the reader with only context from which to glean
the meaning. For instance, when the narrator and Antonio accompany Don Jos to a hotel, he
begins to sing and play the mandolin, and the narrator remarks, [s]i je ne me trompe, lui disje, ce nest pas un air espagnol que vous venez de chanter. Cela ressemble aux zorzicos que
jai entendus dans les Provinces , et les paroles doivent tre en langue basque. 11
Throughout the first three sections, Mrime s tactic of leaving the reader to guess the
meaning of the unknown words heightens the exotic verisimilitude of the setting , and causes
the reader of the novella to experience the same disorientation that affected the operatic
audience many decades later. The author subjects
them to a series of unfamiliar, foreign sounds that they must attempt to decipher
unaided. Because the narrator himself approaches the language from a standpoint of doubt, he
and , [I]I f I am not mistaken, I said to him, it was not a Spanish air that you just sang. It
resembles the zorzicos that I heard in the Provinces, and the words must be in Basque . 12
By extension, his audience are deprived of the essential aspects of communication,
language and meaning ,which might make a foreign Other considerably less unsettling and
more relatable. The narrators description of Don Joss music further highlights the very
same sense of unfamiliarity. He characterizes the voice as, rude, mais pourtant agrable,
and the song itself as, mlancolique et bizarre[.] 13 Mrime makes the reader privy to his
own point of view in his role as a scientist investigating a culture. This objective viewpoint,
coupled with the cultural authenticity of the language, infuses the first sections of the work
with the feel of an almost historical account of the Archeologists travels. Mrimes Don
Jos differs notably from his later operatic counterpart, partly. By virtue of the timing of his
introduction to the audience. The appearance and demeanor of the Don Jos of 1845 already
Corry Cropper , Prosper Mrime and the Subversive Historical Short Story, Nineteenth Century French Studies 33 ,1/2, 2004, 69
Prosper Mrime, Carmen (Paris: Pocket, 2004), p.25.
12
Idem. ,p. 35
13
Ibidem, p. 35
10
11
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bear the signs of all the troubles Carmen has brought upon him. The narrator first describes
the darkness of his once fair features, and goes on to note that, sa figure, la fois noble et
farouche, me rappelait le Satan de Milton. 14 The comparison to John Miltons Satan, the
epitome of the romantic anti-hero, only darkens the image of Don Jos further, giving the
reader little indication of whether they should trust or dislike this mysterious bandit. This
reference also echoes his description of Carmen as a servant of the devil, foreshadowing their
connection. This dynamic of Carmen as the inferior character disappears in the opera, in
which her character dominates the plot. In the second chapter, the narrator experiences the
culture of Cordoue (Crdoba) more intimately, at once including himself in it and separating
himself from it. Throughout the initial descriptions of the chapter, he primarily employs the
pronoun on ,meaning one. This relates him directly to the culture in question, while
establishing him definitively apart from them, maintaining a relative distance15. At the outset,
he witnesses a group of women bathing in a river, and describes, des cris, des rires, un
tapage infernal. [C]ries, laughter, an infernal racket . 16 Here again Mrime draws
attention to the disagreeable sounds created by the foreign characters. This chaotic sound of
the bohemian Other, even when not musically represented , speaks to an underlying
uneasiness surrounding the unavoidability of marginalized groups such as these women . It is
in this setting that the narrator encounters Carmen for the first time: Un soir, lheure o
lon ne voit plus rien, je fumais, appuy sur le parapet du quai, lorsquune femme, remontant
lescalier qui conduit la rivire, vint sasseoir prs de moi. Elle avait dans les cheveux un
gros bouquet de jasmin, dont les ptales exhalent le soir une odeur enivrante... lobscure
clart qui tombe des toiles, je vis quelle tait petite, jeune, bien faite, et quelle avait des trs
grands yeux.
One evening, at an hour when nothing was visible, I was smoking, resting on a
parapet of the quay, when a woman, climbing back up the stairs that led to the river, came to
sit near me. In her hair she had a large bouquet of jasmine, whose petals emitted an
intoxicating odor into the night...in the dim clarity coming from the stars, I saw that she was
small, young, good-looking, and that she had very large eyes. 17
In contrast with his later descriptions, the narrators first impression of her is purely
sensory (visual and olfactory, the most evocative of the senses). He sees a pretty, young
woman of alluring presence, and creates an almost innocent image of her at their initial
meeting. He describes her clothing as simple and black, and he sees her face as her mantilla
(scarf/shawl) slides to her shoulders. Her large eyes and small frame do little to betray her
duplicitous nature. This rather dispassionate description notwithstanding, the narrator clearly
finds Carmen s presence.
Alluring as he describes the intoxicating smell of the jasmine in her hair , further
eroticizing her. Having invited her to go get ice cream with him, he soon learns her identity,
and his description of her quickly changes, as her reputation has preceded her. He now refers
to her as, une servante du diable./ a servant to the devil.18 Even so, Carmen entices him
all the way back to her home, where they are surprised by her lover, Don Jos, who, despite
this betrayal, shows mercy on the man who previously allowed him to escape the authorities.
Only after leaving does the narrator realize Carmen has stolen his watch. Her deceptively
sweet appearance draws him in, but turns out to belie her nature. Therein lies a thinly veiled
metaphor for the exotic Other, suggesting that it seduces but cannot be trusted. Mrime
leaves little of this appearance to the imagination as he provides his readers with a [A]
Prosper Mrime, Carmen ,Paris: Pocket, 2004,p. 42
Evlyn Gould, The Fate of Carmen, Baltimore&London: Johns Hopkins UP, p.81
Prosper Mrime, Carmen ,Paris: Pocket, 2004 , p. 43
17
idem, p. 34
18
Mrime , op. cit. , p. 36
14
15
16
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servant of the devil. In the image, the two occupy a room in disarray, and Carmen clings to a
much taller Don Jos, who simultaneously dominates the frame in centrality and stature and is
mostly overshadowed by Carmen. Mrime thus depicts Jos as the protagonist, but suggests
Carmens exotic allure attempting to overpower him. This watercolor demonstrates the
importance both of Jos as the main focus of the narrative and of Carmens effect on him.
The Oriental Other, Carmen, seeks to undermine the dominance of the central,
Western, character of Jos. Having learned that Don Jos has been imprisoned and having
gone to visit him, the narrator agrees to listen to his tale, and in chapter 3 , we begin to hear
Don Jos s story straight from his own mouth .This portion is the only part of Mrimes
novella that corresponds directly to the opera. Don Jos describes being stationed in Seville
near a cigarette factory full of alluring women who, se mettent leur aise, les jeunes surtout,
quand il fait chaud.69 . One of these exotic, uninhibited women is Carmen, with whom he
falls madly in love , and for whom he abandons his military duty. In Mrimes tale, unlike
in the opera, Carmen is already married to one of the bandits in the troupe she leads. The
Carmen of 1845 is much more deceitful, wild and faithless than Bizets later character, who
still shocked audiences, despite being a more tame, civilized version of her literary
counterpart.
The third chapter ends abruptly when Don Jos murders Carmen, and vows that, [c]e
sont les Cal qui sont coupables pour lavoir leve ainsi. [I]t is the cal who are guilty for
having raised her this way. 19According to Don Jos, the entirety of the blame lies with her
gypsy upbringing; the savage culture in which she was raised formed her treacherous nature.
The coming into public view of the the Carmen character tends to provoke feelings of
admiration, surprise and amazement.20 Such is the appearance of Carmen at the beginning of
the homonimous short story by Prosper Merimee. J'etais donc le nez sur ma chaine, quand
j'entends des bourgeois qui disaient: Voila la gitanilla! Je levai les yeux, et je la vis.C'etait un
vendredi, et je ne l'oublierai jamais21 Unable to govern his desire, the male character
seems indeed to be possessed by a demon. Similarly, in Merimee's Carmen Don Jose cannot
help falling in love despite himself: `J'etait fou, [... ] J'etait comme un homme ivre' (I was
crazy, I was like a drunken man). 22Carmen, for her part, displays an astonishing awareness of
her power over her lover. The intentional nature of Carmen's seductive behaviour is essential
to understand the textual functions performed by `Gypsy' female characters. There is a great
deal of audacity in Carmen's beauty and she seems to exploit her sexuality as a sort of
weapon, a challenge to the male's capacity to impose his will upon her. Like Pushkin's
Zemfira, she prefers to die rather than to give up her freedom: `Tu veux me tuer, je le vois
bien, dit-elle; c'est ecrit, mais tu ne me feras pas ceder [... ] Carmen sera toujours libre. Calli
eile est nee, calli eile mourra'. 23 This attitude of mockery and defiance contrasts with that of
non-'Gypsy' women. In Bizet's Carmen, for example, we are presented with an opposition
between the shy, innocent Micaela and the insolent, malicious `Gypsy', underlined by the
contrast between the former's fair beauty and the dark beauty of the `Gypsy'.
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The appearance of Micaela, a pretty, shy creature with tresses of fair hair, is very
different from the bold attitude of Carmen, as we read in the libretto. The emotions aroused
by `Gypsy' women represent the negative term of the manichean opposition between good
and evil, life and death. Such passions are always extreme, dangerous or even lethal; they
defy any rational order and may lead to a man's damnation and to his social death, that is, his
exclusion from civil society. What lesson can the reader learn from the tragic ending of a non`Gypsy"s love for a `Gypsy' woman? This negative finale could be interpreted in moral terms,
as the consequence of an infringement of well-established rules and conventions. On the other
hand, beneath the surface of this moral condemnation, we may detect a deeper message.
Passions involving `Gypsies' are not merely 'devilish: they are also highly `anti-structural' :
their violent and destructive nature is in symbolic opposition to more `constructive' forms of
love - i. e. marital love - which are officially sanctioned and recognized by the majority
society. A threatening and anti-structural character by definition, the female `Gypsy' is the
target of ambivalent feelings of attraction and revulsion. She is the object of an immoderate
desire, which stems from her own lack of restraint and morality: she represents a breach in the
hegemonic social and moral structures. In this sense, she epitomizes the condition of her
ethnic group, perceived as marginal and dangerous by the dominant society: the wild nature
of `Gypsy' lifestyle and customs is presented as a sign of their radical diversity and
incompatibility with the dominant social system. The readers may indeed sympathize with
these tragic heroines for their determination to defend their freedom at the cost of their life -a
form of celebration of the free spirit of the `Gypsy'. It is clear, however, that these
characters' heroic status is not meant to exceed the limits of the text: it is the outcome
of a textual fiction of the `Gypsies' which is ultimately functional to the reassertion of their
position as outsiders. From this point of view, the death of the `Gypsy' character may be
likened to a sort of expiatory rite which confirms the validity of the hegemonic order.
It is interesting to note that the status of `Gypsies' as outsiders granted them the right
of abode among other literary `deviants'. For instance, the fictional `Gypsy' bears significant
similarities with the character of the picaro, and, more in general, with the ranks of vagrants,
thieves and beggars dominating the `literature of roguery', 24 whose status was surrounded by
an unfavourable attitude (see the negative connotation of the picaro in the mid-sixteenth
century). It is not accidental then that the `Gypsy' characters should be found in genres which
are considered `alternative' to mainstream, classical literature such as comedy, burlesque
poetry, and the comic epic in macaronic. Neither is it surprising that the monstrous, hybrid
character of the `Gypsy' is located in experimental texts enacting an apparent reversal of the
hegemonic order and a triumph of the `carruvalesque' and the `grotesque'. In his work on
Rabelais, Bahktin emphasizes that in carnival, life is represented as turned `inside out': the
laws, prohibitions, and restrictions that determine the structure and order of ordinary, that is
non-carnival, life are suspended during carnival: what is suspended first of all is hierarchical
structure and all the forms of terror, reverence, piety, and etiquette connected with it - that is,
everything resulting from socio-hierarchical inequality or any other form of inequality among
people. 25
In the final analysis, the conclusion of this study is that the story of the Spanish gitana
achieved universal notoriety and imposed Carmen as a paradigmatic Roma figure - defined by
24
See F. W. Chandler, The Literature of Roguery London: Boston, Mass: Archibald Constable,
Houghton, Mifflin, 1907, A. Parker, Literature and the Delinquent: The Picaresque Novel In Spain
And Europe, 1599-1753 Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1967,
See also R. Alter, Rogue's Progress: Studies In The Picaresque Novel Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1964, R.Bjorson, The
Picaresque Hero in European Fiction Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977,
and H. Sieber, The Picaresque London: Methuen, 1977
25
M. Bakhtin, Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,
1984, pp. 122-123.
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freedom from/resistance to the norms of modern society - for the very reason that the myth
was created in the wake of certain cultural representations of the Roma people that were
already combining, in the late 19th century, the motif of the gypsies' freedom with that of
their resistance to civilization. The public success of the story not only feeds on the deep
rooting of the ambivalent stereotype concerning the Roma people in the social imaginary, but
also decisively fuels this stereotype, consolidating an equally fictional, yet resilient, a
contradictory, yet persistent hetero-identitarian cultural construct.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
I would like to thank the POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652 Project entitled Sistem integrat
de mbuntire a calitii cercetrii doctorale i postdoctorale din Romnia i de promovare a
rolului tiinei n societate for its substantial financial support in my research.
BIOGRAPHY:
1. Alter, Rogue's Progress: Studies In The Picaresque Novel Cambridge, Mass: Harvard
University Press, 1964
2. Bakhtin, M, Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics Minneapolis, University of Minnesota
Press,1984
3. Bjorson, R., The Picaresque Hero in European Fiction Madison: University of
Wisconsin Press, 1977
4. Chandler, F., W., The Literature of Roguery, London: Boston, Mass: Archibald
Constable,Houghton, Mifflin, 1907
5. Clark and Ivanid, The Politics of Writing, Routledge, New York, 1997
6. Cropper , Corry, Prosper Mrime and the Subversive Historical Short Story,
Nineteenth Century French Studies 33 ,1/2, 2004
7. Foucault, M., Power/Knowledge ,Brighton: Harvester, 1980
8. Gould, Evelyn, The Fate of Carmen, Baltimore&London: Johns Hopkins UP, 1987
9. Jean-Pierre Liegeois, Gypsies and Travellers: Dossiers for the Intercultural Training
of Teachers, Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 1987
10. Merimee, P., Carmen at autres nouvelles, London: Harrap, 1962
11. Mrime, P., Carmen ,Paris: Pocket, 2004
12. Parker, A., Literature and the Delinquent: The Picaresque Novel In Spain And
Europe, 1599-1753, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1967
13. Sieber, H, The Picaresque London, Methuen, 1977
14. C. Levi-Strauss, La pensee sauvage ,Paris: Plon, 1962
15. Toninato, Paola, The Rise of Written Literature among the Roma: A Study of the Role
of Writing in the Current Re-Definition of Romani Identity with Specific Reference to
the Italian Case, University of Warwick Centre for Translation and Comparative
Cultural Studies, March 2004
714
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Abstract: The present paper focuses on the function of epiphany as an aesthetic category in
James Joyces poetics. Our reading aims at finding and relating the fragile moments of
awakening in Joyces Portrait and short-stories, their meaning for the reconfiguration of
the subject and the undermining of the emplotment implied by the emergence of the moment.
Our comparative approach quotes Walter Pater and the Romantics as sources of the temporal
shift from the narrative development of the chronos to the intense immobility of the kairos.
The Greek distinction, chronos/kairos revived by Frank Kermode in his Sense of an Ending
shows useful in emphasizing the similarities between Conrads moments of vision, V.
Woolfs moments of being and Joyces epiphany. It is this family portrait that we are
going to study thoroughly in order to delineate what Roger Griffin, in Modernism and
Fascism: the Sense of a Beginning under Mussolini and Hitler, calls the aesthetic
modernism.
Keywords: epiphany, chronos, kairos, James Joyce, aesthetic modernism.
Scotto, Robert, M., Visions and Epiphanies: Fictional Technique in Paters Marius and Joyces: Portrait, James Joyce Quarterly,
Vol. 11, No. 1 (Fall, 1973) University of Tulsa, p. 47.
1
715
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smulge virtutea din vrtejul Fortunei. n caz contrar, n locul vieii virtuoase apare figura
funest a metanoiei sau Penitenei, femeie cu chip ntunecat de melancolie i remucare2.
Odat cu primele semne ale secularizrii, cu accelerarea timpului istoric i
intensificarea contiinei subiective a timpului, reapare tensiunea dintre chronos i kairos.
Goethe reinventeaz kairos-ul numindu-l Augenblick, termen cu nsemntate metafizic n
idealismul german, dar i la Kierkegaard, Augenblick sau ieblik (Kierkegaard). Clip de
graie, prins fugitiv cu coada ochiului, n care trecutul, prezentul i viitorul se contopesc ntrun fel de totum simul accesibil omului. Dac pentru Goethe, Hlderlin sau Heidegger,
Augenblick reprezint un moment transcendent, literatura cunoate, nc de la autori timpurii
precum Montaigne sau Rousseau, semne ale unui regim temporal care promite luarea n
posesie a timpului liniar printr-o amplificare a simurilor i intensificarea, pn la electrizare,
a experienei subiective. Apare distana dramatic dintre timpul trit i timpul ceasornicelor,
msurat prin ncordarea imaginaiei i a memoriei de a spaializa i locui timpul cronic.
Romanticii englezi, Baudelaire i de Quincey formuleaz, n scrierile lor, posibilitile de a
experimenta eternitatea la scar uman. n al patrulea volum al Studiilor despre timpul uman,
intitulat Msura clipei, Georges Poulet3 observ trei forme prin care imaginaia, n colaborare
cu memoria, anuleaz succesiunea i instaureaz simultaneitatea: fenomenele paramnezice
(senzaia de dja-vu), pe care autorul francez le identific la Shelley si Coleridge, memoria
afectiv, capabil s renvie trecutul, altfel ters, la o intensitate comparabil momentului n
care a fost trit prima oar, la Doamna de Stal i Wordsworth i acel Augenblick goetheean,
anunat de pasaje din Rousseau i formulat n cteva din scrisorile lui Keats. Nu putem s nu
evideniem distana dintre fora retoric sau de aciune a kairos-ului antic, dimensiunea
moral a supunerii Fortunei de ctre virtute n cretinism i valoarea estetic a timpului
kairotic n romantism. Pentru romantici, posibilitatea de a cumula timpurile se datoreaz
imaginaiei, singura facultate capabil s citeasc unitatea n multiplicitate: Aux yeux de
Coleridge, la facult coadunative ou imagination, permet lesprit dchapper certains des
effets du temps, et, en particulier, la successivit radicale et la pulverisation, qui est un des
caractres les plus nfastes de la vie temporelle. Elle rduit le succesif linstantan , o, pour
employer encore une autre expression de Coleridge elle combine une multitude de
conjonctures en un seul moment de conscience4. Ce s nsemne aceast pulverizare dac nu
o reluare a dispersiei augustiniene, teama de moarte, de timpul cotidian i paloarea obiectelor
czute sub atenia unei sensibiliti teite? Reinem aceast aspiraie ctre experiena extatic
de sintez a timpurilor sub magnetismul senzaiilor exacerbate. Sub puterea imaginaiei, o
nou teurgie e re-inventat de romantici, de Blake, Baudelaire i de Quincey, timpul devine
panoramic, se spaializeaz: Dac pentru Baudelaire profunzimea spaiului este o alegorie a
profunzimii timpului, aceasta se datoreaz n primul rnd faptului c timpul este aici un
timp etalat, ale crui pri simultane, toate, se continu unele ntr-altele ca i pri ale
spaiului; precum i faptului c acest timp baudelairian, despuindu-se de mai toate
caracteristicile lui specific temporale succesiune, schimbare, discontinuitate, ireversibilitate
i substituindu-le caliti specific spaiale, nu-i pierde, cu toate acestea, n ochii lui
Baudelaire, calitatea lui proprie, esenial, de timp, aceea de a fi trit de ctre o fiin uman,
de a avea drept substan o experien uman5.
Cu scrierile lui Joseph Conrad i mai cu seam, teoretizrile din prefaa la the
The Nigger of Narcissus (1897), ne apropiem de modul n care Joyce nelege i folosete
2
Wittkower, Rudolf, Allegory and the Migration of Symbols, Thames and Hudso, 1977, pp 97-112.
Poulet, Georges, tudes sur le temps humain, IV, Mesure de linstant, Pocket, Paris, 1990, p. 160.
Ibidem, p.170.
5
Poulet, Georges, Metamorfozele cercului, traducere din limba francez de Irina Bdescu i Angela Martin, Ed. Univers, Bucureti, 1987, p.
383.
3
4
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Conrad, Joseph, The Nigger of the Narcissus. A Tale of the Sea, edite by Robert Kimbrough, WW. Norton, New York, 1979.
Griffin, Roger, Modernism and Fascism, Palgrave Macmillan, Londra, 2007, p. 63.
8
Woolf, Virginia, Moments of Being, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985, p. 67.
9
Woolf, Virginia, Eseuri alese. Arta lecturii, , traducere, prefa i note de Monica Pillat, Ed. Rao, 2007, p. 80.
10
Griffin, Roger, op. cit., p. 63.
7
717
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sau ritual, ci ip. nvers, pe calea senzaiilor exacerbate i a imaginaiei vii, corporalizate11.
Cderea vlului aezat peste simuri, limbaj i lume deopotriv i revelarea lacrimilor din
lucruri sunt posibile de acum la scar uman, ntr-o clip efemer asemenea existenei
omului. Dac experiena epifanic este una pur estetic, o percepie strbtut de fascinaia
propriei intensiti12 sau dac, dimpotriv, ea deschide orizontul unei transcendene create
dup chipul i asemnarea omului: Modernists had spontaneously rediscovered an ancient
vision of reality capable of erecting a new canopy woven from a fabric of a strictly monist,
this-worldly sacrality.13, rmne o problem deschis i foarte incomod pe care o vom
dezbate i n demersul nostru, cercetnd sub lentil poeticile lui Joyce.
El credea c este de datoria omului de litere s consemneze cu cea mai mare
grij aceste epifanii, innd seama de faptul c ele sunt momente dintre cele mai delicate i
efemere. (James Joyce, Stephen Eroul)
Epifanii joyceene
Joyce a nceput s noteze de timpuriu (nc din 1898) momente semnificative, frnturi
de conversaii, erori capabile s dezvluie trsturi ascunse, dar ncrcate de semnificaie ale
unor oameni i situaii din jurul lui. Multe dintre aceste notaii au fost rescrise i inserate n
Stephen Hero i Portrait, dup cum arat cu acribie A. Walton Litz14.
n Stephen Hero, accepiunea epifaniei este tomist, urmnd cele trei etape ale
experienei prin care obiectul devine, n contiina subiectului, strlucitor, radiant, de vreme
ce-i dezvluie esena, acea quidditas de care vorbea Sfntul Toma. Treptele aprehensiunii
estetice sunt mprumutate, din ce n ce mai critic i mai creativ de ctre Joyce, din esteticile
medievale ale proporiei i luminii: integritas, consonantia, claritas sau cunoatere,
recunoatere, satisfacie. Att n Stephen Hero, ct i n Portrait of the Artist as a Young
Man, teoretizrile estetice ale lui Stephen Dedalus sunt ritmate de aceste trei momente, ns,
dac le comparm cu atenie, mutaia este semnificativ, iar funcia epifanic adncit i
complicat cu accente din estetica romantic de secol XIX.
Astfel, n Stephen Hero, epifania este epifanie a obiectului deja re-cunoscut: After
the analysis which discovers the second quality the mind makes the only logically possible
synthesis and discovers the third quality. This is the moment which I call epiphany. First we
recognise that the object is one integral thing, then we recognise that it is an organised
composite structure, a thing in fact: finally, when the relation of the parts is exquisite, when
the parts are adjusted to the special point, we recognise that it is that thing which it is. Its soul,
its whatness, leaps to us from the vestment of its appearance. The soul of the commonest
object, the structure of which is so adjusted, seems to us radiant. The object achieves its
epiphany15. Vedem cum, n Stephen Hero, nu este nc vorba despre elaborarea unor
strategii de epifanizare a realului prin fora imaginaiei artistice, aa cum se va ntmpla n
Potrait, ct despre o aprofundare a concepiei tomiste n care se mai meninea nc un raport
de similitudo ntre cunosctor i cunoscut. Altfel spus, subiectul contempl jocul facultilor
perceptive i unitatea minii sale ncordate n actul (n trei timpi) contemplaiei estetice. ntre
procesul aprehensiunii estetice i raporturile subtile ale materiei sensibile i inteligibile
dispuse cu un scop estetic [Art, said Stephen, is the human disposition of sensible or
intelligible matter for an esthetic end]16 se stabilete o relaie de asemnare sau analogie :
Starobinski, Jean, Lil vivant II. La relation critique, d. Gallimard, 1970, p. 184.
Bohrer, Karl, Heinz, Instants of Diminishing Representation: the Problem of Temporal Modalities, n The Moment. Time and Rupture in
Modern thought, Edited by Heidrun Friese, Liverpool University Press, 2001, p. 115.
13
Griffin, op. cit., p.128.
14
Litz, Walton A., James Joyce, Princeton University, Twayne Publishers, Inc., New York, 1966.
11
12
15
16
Joyce, James, Stephen Hero, Ed. Theodore Spencer. New York: New Directions, 1944, p. 213 apud Litz, op.cit., p. 45.
Joyce, James, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, Penguin Books, London, England, 1996, p. 235.
718
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Lucrul este ontologic predispus s fie considerat frumos, dar pentru a fi declarat ca atare este
nevoie ca beneficiarulrealiznd proporia ntre cunosctor i cunoscut, precum i relevnd
toare corespondenele organismului desvrit s se bucure deplin i liber de strlucirea, care
se ofer ochilor si, a acestei depline perfeciuni. Claritas este din punct de vedere ontologic
limpiditate n sine i devine limpiditate pentru noi, strlucire estetic, atunci cnd o viziune se
pronun asupra ei17. nsi aceast asemnare este epifanic, moment sintetic de maxim
intensitate care oglindete deopotriv armonia alctuirii omului i a lumii contemplate: En
rsumant trs rapidement cette interdependence entre limage et le diaphane dveloppe par le
Stagirite (principalement dans le De anima et le De sensu), nous dirons que la constitution de
limage est determin (1) par le regard dcouvrant la visibilit de lobjet convoit, (2) par la
presence de lobjet dans la lumire (ou plus prcisment dans un milieu lumineux) et (3) par
la mise en acte dune relation () qui dcouvre, dvoile la communaut dvidence
lumineuse existent aussi bien dans lobjet du regard que dans lil et dans lintellect, et qui
assure travers cette evidence de similitude piphanique le tranfert vers laltrit continue
(montre ou dsigne) dans limage de lobjet18. Rolul artistului va fi, n gndirea lui Joyce,
de mediator ntre the world of experience i the world of dreams. n acest non-spaiu
intermediar, diafan, a-diafan, un fel de mediu transparent prin care se propag acel flux
luminos pe care Sfntul Bonaventura l numea lumen (ipostaz a luminii diferit de lux i
splendor sau color), intervine imaginaia artistului, care distruge ntr-un singur gest expresiv
lumea n familiaritatea ei lipsit de strlucire i instituie haosul unui poem ciclic (Shelley).
Dac, ns, am pomenit noiunea de imaginaie, ne-am ndeprtat deja de sistemul tomist
(Sfntul Toma nu menioneaz nicieri, n sistemul su teologico-estetic, imaginaia, aa cum
observ Umberto Eco) i de estetica din Stephen Hero pentru a ne apropia de experimentele
din Dubliners i de nuanrile subtile din Portrait.
Odat cu povestirile din Dubliners, Joyce ncearc s transforme epifania n formul
narativ, altfel spus, s gseasc, pentru avatarurile teoretice ale momentului epifanic,
contrapartea cea mai expresiv i mai exact. Observm, n aceast etap a elaborrii esteticii
lui Joyce, originala sintez dintre resuscitarea imaginaiei de tip romantic i tentaia clasicist,
principiul impersonalitii operei de art19. Chiar dac epifania este un moment de maxim
intensitate, artistul va cuta, n mod paradoxal, o sublimare a emoiei i o suspendare a
propriei personaliti, de vreme ce opera, iar nu personalitatea autorului, este important.
Patetismul emoiei dobndete for i semnificaie universal tocmai atunci cnd este fixat
ntr-o expresie de ghea. Aceast paradoxal adecvare amintete de corelativul obiectiv
formulat de T. S. Eliot n celebrul eseu despre Hamlet. Articularea explicit a personalitii
autorului n oper ar slbi, n concepia lui Joyce, fora expresiv i simbolic a situaiilor
narative, a personajelor, a momentelor epifanice. Atunci cnd alege impersonalitatea
autorului, tipizarea situaiilor i a personajelor, Joyce nu este numai clasicist, aa cum
precizeaz Stephen n Stephen Hero: A classical style, he said, is the syllogism of art, the
only legitimate process from one world to another. (...) The romantic temper...is an insecure,
unsatisfied, impatient temper which sees no fit abode here for its ideals and chooses therefore
to behold them under insensible figures. (...) The classical temper on the other hand, ever
mindful of limitations, chooses rather to bend upon these present things and so to work upon
them and fashion them that the quick intelligence may go beyond them to their meaning
which is still unuttered20, ci i un artist-meteugar al lumii medievale, pentru care literatura
Eco, Umberto, Arta i frumosul n estetica medieval, traducere din limba italian de Cezar Radu, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1999,
p.116.
18
Vasiliu, Anca, Du diaphane. Image, milieu, lumire dans la pense antique et mdivale. Vrin, 1997, tudes de philosophie mdivale ,
p. 279.
19
Eco, Umberto, Poeticile lui Joyce, Traducere din limba italian i prefa de Cornel Mihai Ionescu, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2007, p.
54.
20
Joyce, James, Stephen Hero, Ed. Theodore Spencer. New York: New Directions, 1944, pp 78-79, apud Litz, op.cit., p. 44.
17
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este ars, ns, ar preciza Joyce, dincolo de orice scop practic (spre deosebire de Sfntul Toma
pentru care un ferstru de cristal nu este oper de art, fiindc nu-i ndeplinete funcia
practic), ci doar cu un scop estetic (tocmai de aceea, n speculaiile ironico-scolastice ale lui
Stephen din Portrait, un cap de vac nu este oper de art) : The artist, like the God of
creation, remains within or behind or beyond or above his handiwork, invisible, refined out of
existence, indifferent, paring his fingernails21. Epifaniile din Dubliners nu mai sunt momente
privilegiate n care subiectul unic i armonios se recunoate n coerena cosmic a lumii, ci
momente simbolice n care sunt denunate vidul i inutilitatea existenei22. Joyce intuise deja
trecerea la un nou mod de gndire, marcat de acea dez-ontologizare a imaginii23, de dispariia
orizontului metafizic i, odat cu aceast schimbare fundamental, ntregul spectru de
probleme pe care ntoarcerea imaginii artistice la statutul de fantasm, neleas platonician, l
presupune. El a cntrit estetic i filosofic limitele i atuurile unei atari mutaii i a ncercat s
evite tentaia nihilist, umbra crescnd a neantului care amenin arta odat cu
modernitatea. Joyce a neles c arta va prelua, n acest context, funcia sprititualizant,
simbolic a experienei umane. Ne apropiem de tezele artistice din Portrait i de epifanie ca
staz estetic: To speak of these things and to try to understand their nature and, having
understood it, to try slowly and humbly and constantly to express, to press out again, from the
gross earth or what it brings forth, from sound and shape and colour which are the prison
gates of our soul, an image of the beauty we have come to understand that is art24.
Astfel, o povestire precum Araby surprinde tocmai echilibrul fragil dintre momentele
radioase ale existenei i ofensiva neantului, dintre nclinaia ordonatoare a omului i vocaia
labirintic a lumii, echilibru pentru care arta trebuie s gseasc expresia cea mai artistic i
semnificativ cu putin. Lumea copilului ndrgostit de sora lui Mangan este vrjit, fraza
este poetic i eufonic, o litanie. Copilul i nchin fetei adevrate ceremonii erotice, i repet
numele, pe care, de altfel, noi nu l cunoatem, ca pe o rugciune pe care o poart cu el n
locurile cele mai potrivnice sentimentului erotic, ca pe o cup, citim. Bazarul Araby este
solemn ca o biseric, iar casa n care locuiete copilul mpreun cu unchii si are un fel de
grdin paradisiac cu un mr mare n mijloc. Doar c sub acest mr se afl o pomp de
biciclet ruginit, iar pelerinajul n perechea referenial a bazarului nu se aseamn celui
conceput n imaginaie, ci este coborre ntr-un loc ntunecos, spaiu al rtcirii, animat de
frivolitatea unei frnturi de conversaie ori de sunetul meschin al monedelor aruncate pe o
tejghea. Experiena epifanic nu este att un pol mistic, ct o fractur n textura cotidianului,
nelegem din ambiguitatea prin care ironia submineaz poeticitatea frazelor, pe care pagina
artistic ncearc s o sustrag vidului, transformnd-o n coninut semnificativ.
Dezvoltarea acestui complicat i extrem de personal sistem estetic i afl expresia cea
mai citat n Portrait. Distana dintre radiance i claritas va fi aici cu adevrat semnificativ.
Concepia joycean despre art i literatur, n spe, devine tot mai centrat pe experiena
subiectiv, prin urmare, ponderea influenei romantice crete. Chiar dac reia, n linii mari,
afirmaiile din Stephen Hero, accentele sunt dispuse, de aceast dat, diferit. Stephen
pornete, n dicuia cu Lynch, nu de la atributele obiectului, ci de la nelegerea aprehensiunii
estetice, adic a modului n care funcioneaz imaginaia. Analogia cu treptele adevrului i
nelegerea proceselor intelective sugereaz o posibil valoare epistemologic atribuit
literaturii, ns Stephen, sedus de ideea autonomiei estetice, nu trece dincolo de pragul simplei
analogii: Truth is beheld by the intellect which is appeased by the most satisfying relations
of the sensible. The first step in the direction of truth is to understand the frame and scope of
21
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the intellect itself, to comprehend the act itself of intellection. () The first step in the
direction of beauty is to understand the frame and scope of the imagination, to comprehend
the act itself of esthetic apprehension25. Sensibilitatea modern nu se mai poate ncrede ntrun orizont transcendent, divin, capabil s rzbat prin bezna materiei pn la gruntele de
spirit omenesc. Suspiciunea lui Stephen fa de aceast accepiune a lui claritas, n care
romanticii, ultimii, poate, mai credeau nc, este formulat explicit: The connotation of the
word (claritas, n.n.), Stephen said, is rather vague. Aquinas uses a term which seems to be
inexact. It baffled me for a long time. It would lead you to believe that he had in mind
symbolism or idealism, the supreme quality of beauty being a light from some other world,
the idea of which the matter is but a shadow, the reality of which is but the symbol. I thought
he might mean that claritas is the artistic discovery and representation of divine purpose in
anything or a force of generalization which would make the esthetic image a universal one,
make it outshine its proper conditions. But that is literary talk26. Pentru Stephen ns,
momentul radios este reinut de imaginaia artistului atunci cnd imaginea estetic este pentru
prima dat conceput n integritatea ei strlucitoare. Trimiterea la Shelley i la imaginaia care
se aseamn unui tciune care se stinge deschide calea unei noi concepii despre epifanie. Mai
mult, aa cum observ U. Eco, n Portrait noiunea de epifanie nici nu mai apare, de vreme
ce epifania survine, iar Stephen este interesat de modurile n care imaginaia epifanizeaz
artistic realul: n acest moment, Joyce renun la termenul nsui de epifanie pentru c, n
fond, amintea prea mult un moment de viziune, n care ceva se arat; n vreme ce acum l
intereseaz actul prin care artistul arat el nsui ceva (subl.a.) prin intermediul unei elaborri
strategice a imaginii27. Strategia este similar celei teoretizate de Shelley n Defence of
Poetry, o de-familiarizare a obiectelor i ordinii familiare, vinovate de teirea sensibilitii
omeneti i re-crearea unei ordini noi, sub regia inspirat a poetului vizionar. Calea poetului
legislator este indicat i de interpretarea lui Eco, ns noi credem c Joyce este mult mai
precaut n formularea i aplicarea literar a tezelor sale artistice. i este specific experienei
artistice, ntr-adevr captarea, explorarea i restituirea momentelor de intensitate pierdut
(influena lui Walter Pater este aici transparent), topite, altminteri, n indistincia fluxului
cotidian, ns ele rmn experiene subiective pe care artistul poate ncerca numai s le
comunice ntr-o form deopotriv general i expresiv (de unde utilizarea joycean a
simbolului i alegoriei). Tocmai de aceea, epifania este o staz, iar intensitatea momentului
autentic nu trebuie confundat cu vertijul provocat de false estetici, dornice s prind
individul n delirul unui discurs al ocului ori seduciei, de unde condamnarea artei didactice
i pornografice: Beauty expressed by the artist cannot awaken in us an emotion which is
kinetic or a sensation which is purely physical. It awakens, or ought to awaken, or induces, or
ought to induce, an esthetic stasis, an ideal pity or an ideal terror, a stasis called forth,
prolonged and at last dissolved by what I call the rhythm of beauty 28. Lumea des-vrjit mai
poate fi nc spiritualizat, ns numai n contiina individual, printr-o ntrziere i o
insolitare a proceselor percepiei n aa fel nct imaginaia s aib rgazul i materia necesare
instituirii propriului regim. Acest regim artistic i epifanic poate fi ns falsificat, ocultat i n
cele din urm uitat, dac esteticile parazit scurtcircuiteaz treptele contemplaiei estetice:
The desire and loathing excited by improper esthetic means are really no esthetic emotions
not only because they are kinetic in character but also because they are not more than
physical. Our flesh shrinks from what it dreads and responds to the stimulus of what it desires
by a purely reflex action of the nervous system. Our eyelid closes before we are aware that the
fly is about to enter our eye29. Radiance devine prin urmare staz luminoas i tcut a
25
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plcerii estetice, btaia vrjit a inimii. Comentatorii joyceeni au citit aici o reconsiderare a
noiunii aristotelice de catharsis, printr-o sublimare a sentimentelor de mil i groaz ntr-o
stoic ntoarcere ctre ritmurile interioare ale fiinei. Aceast teoretizare a momentului radios,
care se sustrage timpului cronologic printr-o ciclicitate ritmat, un fel de micare pe loc, este
magistral redat artistic n epifania fetei-pasre. Chiar dac extazul epifanic se consum n
timp, pe dou pagini, noi citim parc un singur moment atemporal, fiindc ritmul curenilor
interiori se nfoar n jurul experienei extatice, configurnd-o. Intensitatea emoiei este
surprins ntr-o manier muzical, incantatorie, ea ne amintete de una dintre refleciile
estetice ale lui Stephen Eroul: Pentru el, un cntec de Shakespeare care pare att de zglobiu
i firesc, att de ndeprtat de orice scop premeditat, se dovedete a fi rostirea ritmic a unei
emoii altfel incomunicabile n orice alt mod sau cel puin nu att de bine30. La fel cum, n
alt parte, n Portrait, limba i se ngreuna i ochii deveneau oglinzi reci pe care privirile
celorlali alunecau fr s-l ajung, nici n scena fetei pasre niciun cuvnt i niciun sunet nu
vine s tulbure puritatea extazului, asemnat unui trandafir care-i deschide petalele iar i iar
sau cu o maree luminoas care inund succesiv paradisul cu o putere tot mai mare.(observm
imagini simbolice, colorate erotic i religios, ns totodat ale unei ritmiciti perfect dozate)
n cele din urm, starea cea mai apropiat momentului radios este somnul, n care Stephen se
va afunda ca ntr-un alt fel de staz.
Ar fi insuficient s spunem c, odat cu Ulise, epifania estetic va fi abandonat
n defavoarea complicatei scheme alegorice, att de complicat nct Hermann Broch o
numete ezoteric31. O serie complex de simboluri i corespondene, o construcie
modular care-i escamoteaz schelria pe msur ce se scrie32 vine s ia locul vechii estetici
formulate n Stephen Eroul i Potretul artistului. Deja n Ulise, Stephen i amintete cu
ironic melancolie ambiia sa din tineree de a nota momentele epifanice: i aminteti
epifaniile tale pe verzi file ovale, nebnuit de profunde, copii de trimis n caz de moarte
tuturor celor mai mari biblioteci din lume, inclusiv celei din Alexandria?33. ns dac citim
cu atenie formulrile lui Stephen Daedalus, definiia pe care o d epifaniei cu cele dou
volete ale sale: manifestare spiritual neateptat, fie prin banalitatea vorbirii sau a
gesturilor, fie printr-o stare memorabil a minii nsei (subl.n.) descoperim c ea se
regsete cu prisosin pe antierul romanului Ulise. Nu gsim n Ulise toate bolgiile vieii
cotidiene ntr-un fel de eternitate suferind de prolixitate, dup Borges i nu avem acces la ea
prin acele instane de contiin deghizate n personaje? Dac privim strict tehnic, fr
judeci de tip auratic, aceast concis definiie a epifaniei, ea nu dispare n noua poetic alui
Joyce, cel din Ulise i Veghea lui Finnegan, principiul ei este la fel de activ. Promisiunea
kairotic, acel totum simul accesibil contiinei, este desfurat acum nu ritmic i erotizant ca
n scena fetei-pasre din Portret, ci prin mozaicul de stiluri i corespondene. Totui aceast
simultaneitate deseori obscur i halucinant, este compus, aa cum remarca H. Broch din
serii de simboluri care nfloresc ntr-un fel de plant mistic a sunetului, a muzicalitii, a
limbajului nsui34 pentru a se rentoarce la funcia sa intermediar i a trimite la alte serii ntrun flux fr nceput i fr sfrit. Contopirea celor dou fee ale epifaniei se realizeaz n
Ulise35 prin meteugite strategii i mijloace artistice mprumutate de la o ntreag tradiie
cultural, ns nu rmne totui ne-exorcizat spectrul incompatibilitii dintre barbaria vieii i
timpului cotidian i simurile peste msur ascuite ale artistului, nerbdarea lui de a confisca
o form superioar de cunoatere, ns de jos n sus, estetic, dinspre senzaiile corpului spre
Joyce, James, Stephen Eroul, traducere din limba englez de Mihai Miroiu, Ed. Rao, 2012, p. 96.
Broch, Hermann, Cration littraire et connaissance. Essais, dition et introduction de Hannah Arendt, traduit par lallemand par Albert
Kohn, Gallimard, 2007, p. 197.
32
Eco, Umberto, Poeticile lui Joyce, p. 115.
33
Ibidem, p. 82.
34
Broch, op. cit., p. 196.
35
Eco, Umberto, op. cit., p. 127.
30
31
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afirmarea spiritului i certitudinea vieii?36. Dac arta este un con i n vrf este poezia, iar la
baz prpastia scrierilor uitate, s fie oare suficient stilul clasic, armtura homeric, pentru a
reinventa ordinea i a asigura trecerea de la un univers la altul37?. (Opera artistului, orict
de original i nonconformist, de apropiat vieii nsei38 tinde s ajung la periferia
umanitii existente39, aruncat sub ochii nesplailor ignorani, smn care se
rspndete pe orice fel de pmnt40. Astfel, ipoteza lui R. Griffin potrivit creia modernitii
epifanici ncearc s eas o nou bolt spiritual ntr-o epoc de criz a valorilor i
credinelor ne apare ndreptit, chiar i din perspectiva primejdiilor care amenin prbuirea
unui asemenea proiect. Exaltarea aparent romantic a lui Stephen atunci cnd atribuie
poetului un rol vital i o libertate nemsurat n faa semenilor si ne apare de acum ntr-o alt
lumin: Poetul este centrul fierbinte al vieii epocii sale, fa de care el se afl ntr-o relaie
mai important dect oricare alta. Numai el este capabil s absoarb viaa i s o reverse apoi
n lume, n mijlocul muzicii planetare. Cnd fenomenul poetic se face cunoscut n ceruri,
exclama acest eseist plutind n sferele nalte, este timpul ca judecile criticilor s in seama
de el. Este timpul ca ei s admit c aici imaginaia a scrutat profund adevrul existenei lumii
vizibile i c astfel s-a nscut frumosul, splendoarea adevrului. Epoca fie i dac se ngroap
n formule i mecanisme, are nevoie de aceste realiti care numai ele pot genera i menine
viaa, i ea (epoca) trebuie s atepte de la aceste nuclee vitale fora de a tri, certitudinea
vieii care i poate veni numai de la ele. n acest mod, spiritul uman se afirm ncontinuu41.
Bibliografie:
Bibliografie primar:
1. Joyce, James, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, Penguin
Books, London, England, 1996;
2. Joyce, James, Dubliners, Penguin Books, London, England, 1996;
3. Joyce, James, Stephen Hero, Ed. Theodore Spencer. New York:
Ner Directions, 1944:
4. Joyce, James, Ulysses, with an introduction by Cedric Watts, London, 2010
5. Joyce, James, Stephen Eroul, traducere din limba englez de Mihai
Miroiu, Ed. Rao, 2012
Bibliografie critic:
1. Bohrer, Karl, Heinz, Instants of Diminishing Representation: the
Problem of Temporal Modalities, n The Moment. Time and Rupture in
Modern thought, Edited by Heidrun Friese, Liverpool University
Press, 2001;
36
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724
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725
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Abstract: The current paper aims at defining the rapports between the Romanian literary
avant-garde and experiment, but equally at identifying the error sources with regard to the
frequent confusions, within the literary theory, between the avant-garde and the
experiment(alism), on the one side, and experiment and experimentalism, on the other side.
The paper focuses on a gradual passage from general theory, from theoretical approaches
existent within the world literature, toward those applied particularities of the Romanian
culture. The approach of the paper is in consonance with two relevant taxonomies: Brger
and Guglielmi. Furthermore, the paper highlights the role that the literary experiment, with
its possible expressions, may play upon the cultural changes and its relationships with the
literary avant-garde. This particular aspect of the paper is intended to clarify concepts and to
bring analytical insights only in case of those zones of the Romanian literature in which the
avant-garde and/or the experiment led to the production of visual literature.
Keywords: avant-garde, experiment, experimentalism, visual literature, misunderstandings
1. Avangarda i avangardismul
1.1 Avangarda. Termenul avangard poart n sine o form de mpotrivire oricrei
intenii de definire. ncercarea de a surprinde aceast manifestare artistic de frond, n
limitele clasice de definire, prin apel la un gen proxim i la diferena specific, echivaleaz cu
o situare n afara spiritului avangardist, care impune ruptura de canon. De altfel, pentru o
poziionare corespunztoare n raport cu avangarda, indiferent de posibilitatea sau
imposibilitatea surprinderii n structura gen proxim + diferen specific, exist dou
modaliti de apropiere: dinspre iniierea fenomenului i modul n care acesta se produce n
raport cu fluxurile neturbulente ale curentelor literare/artistice, respectiv dinspre finalitatea la
care manifestarea n sine conduce, dinspre obiectivele ndeplinite sau parial ndeplinite ale
acesteia. Un cunoscut teoretician al avangardei, Peter Brger (1984:l-li), asociaz cele dou
modaliti de apropiere unor teorii care au fost avansate de conaionalii si: o teorie pozitiv a
avangardei, n care aceasta este perceput n raport cu avansul fa de mainstream, la Adorno
- the avant-garde as the most advanced stage of art, respectiv una negativ, n care este
pus n eviden decadena, la Lukcs.
Avangarda nu a fost definit din interior i nici mcar nu s-a pus problema unei
asemenea definiii. Mai mult, afirma Ion Pop (1969:9), ncercarea de a defini micarea de
avangard ar prea promotorilor ei de odinioar un sacrilegiu, dac nu chiar un atentat la
viaa ei. Chiar dac literatura avangardist abund de manifeste, delimitarea terminologic
nu este precis, nu este consistent i se caracterizeaz prin formulri subiective. n acest
context, situarea n limitele novitismului prin ruptur, opoziie, subminare, decaden, revolt
nu nseamn definirea cii, ci clamarea programatic prin manifest, ntr-o form care mbrac
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haina literaritii, care n sine poate fi frecventat ca literatur (Marino, 1973:200). Aadar,
manifestnd o important contiin autoreflexiv, literatura avangardist, n special ceea ce
poate fi numit literatura manifestelor, cum prefigura Ion Pop nc din 1969, se vede
incapabil de a ndeprta vlul ideologic care, n mod programatic, o nfoar, pentru a se
aeza obiectiv n peisajul literaturii.
n aceste, condiii, actul de numire n sine a reprezentat un gest de angajare radical.
Termenul avangard provine din rndurile tiinelor militare i desemneaz, n tactic, de
pild, formaiunea precursoare. Originea ntrebuinrii termenului militar, provenit pe filier
francez din avant-garde, n cmp literar/artistic se datoreaz socialistului utopic Henri de
Saint-Simon, care l-a utilizat cu sensul de avans n raport cu epoca, n planul creaiei
umane, cupol sub care a fost inclus elita artitilor, oamenilor de tiin i industriailor
care aveau s fie liderii noii ordini sociale (Pricop, 2009:32). Termenul i-a pierdut treptat
nelesul prim, fiind asociat curentelor artistice din preajma Revoluiei de la 1848, unde
trimitea tot la avansurile n plan creativ fa de fluxurile artistice ale vremii
Pornind de definiia militar i de la asumarea termenului, avangarda poart spre
cmpul semiotic al literaturii nu numai nelesul rolului de precursor, ci i cel al formei de
instituire, al raporturilor cu exterioritatea (ostil, n nelesul curent). Dat fiind i aceast
ncercare de ptrundere n profunzimile sensurilor pe care termenul avangard le angajeaz
naintea staturii raportului metareferenial, de trimitere la sine ca fiind avangard, putem
nelege c se reliefeaz aceleai dou ci deja amintite de configurare terminologic, n
limitele formei combative de expunere a avansului n fluxul literar al vremii, respectiv n
limitele noului intenionat, a ineditului ca form de expresie:
(...) avangarda sugereaz, cum se vede, promovarea a dou atitudini fundamentale,
dialectic legate ntre ele. Prima e, desigur, aceea a detarii, ndeprtrii, rupturii, traduse ca
act de negare i contestare a grosului trupei care este mulimea de scriitori-artiti fideli
tradiiei, conveniilor ca i unanim acceptate, prestigiilor trecutului. A doua sugereaz,
desigur, gestul novator, invenia, construcia inedit, deschiderea permanent spre zone
nefrecventate ale creaiei. (Pop, 2007:7)
Dar nu putem trece mai departe fr a sublinia asocierea imagologic a avangardei cu
dimensiunea sa polemic, chiar distructiv. Mai mult, chiar o atitudine autodistructiv,
degenerativ preexist n avangard. Brger (1984:20-23) definea avangarda ca instan a
artei, ce se critic nu doar pe sine (o atitudine degenerativ direct i explicit formulat n
manifestele nceputului secolului trecut), ci, mai ales, contextul instituional care i-a permis s
existe. Aceast atitudine a instaurrii prin eroziune produce un gol greu de surmontat de
traiectele literare i artistice lineare. n afara acestei direcii, trebuie menionate cteva nuane
n definirea avangardei. Motenitoare a unei naturi activiste din originea sa militar,
avangarda are rolul de a crea value not previously existent (Poggioli, apud Strong,
1997:23), de a nceteni spiritul critic i de a promova atitudinea critic n folosul schimbrii,
sau, mai mult chiar, de a se institui ca un experiment in transforming social life into art
(Hollier, apud Strong, 1997:24). Noul angajat presupune nu doar modificarea unei
perspective estetice, nu doar modificare a gustului, ci i educare a maselor, angajare a maselor
n art. Avangarda coboar, prin urmare, arta la nivelul simului comun.
1.2 Avangardismul. n intenia definirii, mai exact a delimitrii terminologice
riguroase - n cadrul creia nu se opereaz totui distincii lipsite de echivoc ntre avangard
i ncrctura ideologic a acesteia, adic avangardism micarea literar care face obiectul
studiului nostru poate fi surprins n urmtorul cadru restrictiv:
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Am vorbit despre fondul experimental i scientist al artei contemporane, prezentat cu mult succes de ctre Huizinga, analistul lui Homo
ludens, i artam c ismul se deosebete de stilul n cadrul cruia apare n mod contient, ca rezultat al unei voine anume orientat spre o
finalitate i nu ca ivirea unei puteri culturale ce acioneaz prin om (Cirlot, 1969:25-26)
1
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existe n raport cu o asemenea list de creatori n afara aceluia de scriitori romni din secolul
XX, gselnia lui Mincu, umbrela experimentalist explicnd o simpl punere mpreun a
unor nume care dau seama de o culegere de texte de critic foiletonistic. Experimentalismul
poetic romnesc este mai degrab o justificare a unei abordri particulare, servete interesului
lui Marin Mincu n propria afirmare ca teoretician al textualismului i avangardei i nu poate
fi luat n seam ca element de reper n proiecia studiului literaturii experimental(ist)e din
Romnia.
3.2 Posibile ci de analiz. n loc de concluzii. Mainstream-ul literar postbelic i
trage seva din parcursul avangardist romnesc, pe care l are ca model. Literatura romn
postbelic nu ncepe de la zero. Scriitorii experimentali i experimentalitii sunt cei care
marcheaz puncte de cotitur n traseul mainstream-ului (a se avea n vedere Nichita Stnescu
i generaia sa, inclusiv imitatorii i calchiatorii, respectiv generaia 80, cu valurile i
reverberaiile generaioniste ulterioare). Dar, dac experiment(alism)ul se caracterizeaz prin
schimbarea parcursului prin oper, nu prin fundamentarea teoretic, avangarda i micrile de
frond se caracterizeaz printr-un suport teoretic puternic, fr ca acesta s fie susinut i de o
oper important. De aceea, poate, nelegnd optzecismul drept micare de frond, drept
micare de opoziie n raport cu direcia anterioar (a se vedea manifestul lui Muina), ns de
pe alte poziii, care nu impun beligerana avangardei, putem asocia acesteia o form de
reeditare a avangardei istorice mai degrab dect una experimentalist. Un alt argument n
acest sens este dat de faptul c n cazul manifestrilor de avangard conteaz fiecare dintre
poeii/autorii care contribuie la instituirea/codificarea sistemului literar cruia i aparin, n
timp ce n cazul experimentului conteaz doar acele nume care au schimbat parcursul literar.
Experimentul literar este cel care vindec, practic, de isme, o literatur care i caut
parcursul de sincronicitate, n timp ce experimentalismul este deja angajant (n raport cu
termenul lui Brger, neoavangard) prin proiectul ideologic care i st la baz. De aceea
putem considera c, per ansamblu, a existat un parcurs avangardist care a inclus o form a
noii avangarde (revista de sintez Integral, opunndu-se ismelor i realiznd sincretismul
tendinelor), respectiv un parcurs experimental debolist, incluznd o form a angajrii
partizane, n nelesul lui Gianni Vattimo, mai exact optzecismul.
Experiment(alism)ul/neoavangardismul romnesc s-a concretizat prin voci solitare,
att n perioada manifestrii valurilor avangardiste autohtone, ct i n primele trei decenii
postbelice. De exemplu Ion Barbu, a prefigurat noua avangard integratoare i s-a distanat de
impulsul nihilist, contestatar al Contimporanului care l promova cu obstinaie, iar Nichita
Stnescu, a reformat semantic raporturile autorului cu propria-i oper i s-a plasat n
anterioritatea verbalizrii, ntr-un stadiu n care realitatea este prefigurat prin cuvntul nc
nenscut. Odat cu declinul modernitii, s-a nscut experimentalismul de grup, al generaiei
80, cu reverberaii decadiste ulterioare, generaie care s-a manifestat mai puin contestatar
dect avangarda istoric, dar s-a poziionat contestatar, totui, fa de un parcurs anterior
nesatisfctor. Problema principal a abordrii noastre este c, ntruct nici avangarda istoric
nu a fost complet integrat n contiina public, experimentalismul/neoavangarda nu sunt
acceptate n acest neles, ci n raport cu mainstream-ul, pe care l influeneaz la nivelul
poeticii impuse i al proieciei lingvistice aferente.
Bibliografie:
Boldea, Iulian. (2002). Simbolism, modernism, tradiionalism, avangard. Braov:
Aula.
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Dac a contempla nseamn a privi n chip admirativ un detaliu din natur, iar acest
lucru poteneaz eludarea criteriilor spaio-temporale, de sorginte factual, atunci definiia i se
potrivete lui Vasile Lovinescu, n maniera n care, pentru el, atitudine contemplativ
presupune tocmai retragerea din faa cotidianului i, deci, respingerea realului. Rezultatul l
constituie preocuparea contemplatorului pentru o dimensiune abstract ce se nal din
vestigiile concretului. Orice detaare de lume presupune o nchidere n sine nsui, adic,
implicit un proces de anamnesis, prin care se recupereaz particulele fundamentale ale
fiinrii proprii, dar i celei colective. Pentru aceasta din urm, un rol major l joac
principalul depozitar de amintiri al unei naiuni folclorul.
Spre folclor se ndreapt i Vasile Lovinescu, atunci cnd i d seama c el este
singura posibilitate de salvgardare a unui neam i de pecetluire a identitii spirituale a
acestuia. n plus, Funciunea Tradiional, apanaj al folclorizrii etnice i culturale, poate
deveni vehiculul care aduce adevrurile primordiale din zona nceputurilor pn n zilele
noastre. De aici, importana folclorului pentru analistul flticinean i, mai ales, grija lui pentru
conservarea datelor pe care acesta le imanentizeaz i care, generic, poart numele de tiine
Tradiionale. Acestea, dup prerea sa, sunt ameninate de caracterul distructiv al istoriei,
sinonim cu timpul cronologic, concret, asociat prezentului desacralizat. Astfel, fragmente din
marele ansamblu spiriual colectiv ajung evanescente n marele tumult al civilizaiei actuale.
ntr-o asemenea situaie, nici puterea tmduitoare a amintirii, cu valene nostalgice, nu-i mai
face efectul. Acest fapt este semnalat i repudiat de Vasile Lovinescu, prin ntreaga sa oper i
prin atitudinea manifestat. De aceea, el se transform ntr-un constant aprtor al folclorului
i al adevrurilor ancestrale, spre care se ndreapt ntotdeauna nvluit de melancolie i
arbornd o atiudine contemplativ.
Altfel spus, melancolia, dublat de nostalgie i de contemplaie, reprezint starea de
graie care contribuie la recuperarea unui timp pierdut, prin intermediul procesului de
rememorare. Or, acest lucru este exprimat i de crezul artistic i estetic al lui V. Lovinescu,
din care aflm ce anume mijlocete ntoarcerea spre origini i, mai ales, la ce este ea benefic.
Autorul unei astfel de teorii spunea urmtoarele: ,,Vrjmaul nostru de cpetenie este apatia
mental, cenua format de cadavrele noiunilor sedimentate de secole. Straturile lor au
nbuit n omul modern Amintirea, Anamnesis-ul, Dorul, Nostalgia obriilor1. Secretul
1
Lovinescu, Vasile, Creanga i creanga de aur, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1989, p.5.
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bsmuirii s-a pierdut odat cu destrmarea tiinelor tradiionale, ele nsele decupate dintr-un
cod sacru, specific nceputurilor. Reminiscene ale acestora ,mitul pstreaz nc puritatea
iniial, avnd un caracter autarhic i fiind saturat cu valenee simbolice. Considerat de
Lovinescu drept o epifanie a transcendentului sau a nemanifestatului, mitul este i o relevare a
adevrurilor primordial. ns, pentru a-l devoala, este nevoie de perspectiva unei gnoze oculte,
impregnate cu elemente soteriologice, coextensive nostalgiei i melancoliei. Acestea capt,
n gndirea lovinescian, funcia de recuperare a unitii piedute n sinteza desvririi.
Atras de pluridimensiunea cultural i spiritual a mitului, Vasile Lovinescu
mrturisete, n virtutea felului su de a fi, c ,,simul realitii m oblig s mitologizez
totul2. Pentru el, aadar, realitatea nsi impune condiia alteritii, unde sinele se refugiaz
ntr-o lume coextensiv dorinelor latent ale unui temperament melancolic.
Deci, pentru V. Lovinescu, tiinele tradiionale, ncorpornd folclorul, prin recursul la
mit, mister i simbol, ofer calea de propensiune spiritual, dup care tnjete eul scindat al
individului ancorat n modernitate. Istoria nseamn anularea trecutului mistic, dup cum
civilizaia presupune nlocuirea cutumelor ancestrale cu principii tiinifice demonstrabile. La
nivel social, consecinele poart, generic, numele de evoluie industrial, tehnologizare, ntrun cuvnt, progres tiinific, rspunztor de sucombarea tradiiilor primoridale, precum i de
schimbarea statutului empiric al vectorului mundan ntr-unul theoretic, ce st la baza
funcionrii noii lumi. ns, n aceast lume, nu toi indivizii se simt confortabil, aa c
spiritele decimate ale se rentregesc n urma unui amplu proces de cutare a armoniei
primordial. Este dorul metafizic dup puritatea i linitea nceputurilor, ce nu pot fi recuperate
dect cu ajutorul anamnezei, deci, printr-un efort relexiv, care nu exclude contemplarea,
meditaia i, chiar, melancolia.
Se poate vorbi, n acest fel, de o interrelaionare a categoriilor meditative cu registrul
elegiac ce le susine, precum i cu centrul lor de greutate comun evocarea unui trecut ct
mai ndeprtat de timpul prezent, cu care l pune, de altfel, n opoziie. Antiteza astfel creat
are rolul de a sublinia calitile incontestabile i infailibile ale dimensiunii paseiste originare.
Dup aceasta, duc dorul cei mai muli dintre cei ce atest o ncrctur melancolic aparte,
care, la nivel livresc, se transform n surs de inspiraie i, ulterior, de analiz. Aa stau
lucrurile i n cazul lui Vasile Lovinescu, cel care, prin felul lui meditativ, privete lumea
printr-o optic a melancoliei, de unde tonul de lament i registrul elegiac n care se nscriu
toate observaiile sale. Aa iau natere observaii de felul: ,,Timpul trece, cerurile sunt
nchise Aa c mi creez insule de amintiri, n care timpul este suspendat3sau ,,M opresc
o clip pentru c m simt npdit de tandre pn la extinciune4, ceeace nseamn c
autorul acestor fraze era contient de valenele melancolice ce au pus stpnire pe fiina lui i
n virtutea creia, i-a modelat un fel de-a fi. n acest sens, Vasile Lovinescu exclama retoric:
,,Eu, cu melancholia mea de exilat!5, explicndu-i confesiv starea despirit: ,,Singur, la masa
mea, rsfoesc o carte cu gravuri alchimice. Singur? Melancolia mea nlucete un umr stng
sprijinit pe umrul meu drept i o fa urmrind ieroglifele la fragment de secund 6, ceea ce
nseamn c semnatarul acestor rostiri a gsit o oarecare voluptate n restriciile sociale
impuse de melancolie, transformnd-o ntr-un modus vivendi, care i asigur materia prim
pentru modelarea universului fantasmagoric, pe care l proiecteaz condiionat de starea de
descumpnire sau chiar de depresie ce l caracterizeaz. Efecte directe ale melancoliei, strile
acestea i impun fondatorului de universuri virtuale coordonatele pe care trebuie s le urmeze:
n primul rnd, izolarea de lume, n al doilea rnd, retragerea n propriul ego, iar, apoi,
Lovinescu, Vasile, Scrisori crepusculare, Editura Rosmarin, Bucureti, 1997, p. 128.
Lovinescu, Vasile, op. cit., p. 160.
Ibidem, p. 47.
5
ibidem, p. 108.
6
Ibidem, p. 128.
2
3
4
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meditaia cu rol curativ, pentru purificarea sufletului, dar i pentru recuperarea unor date ce
provin din lumi foare ndeprtate. Toate aceste consecine au fost confirmate i de crezul
estetic lovinescian, prin care autorul recunotea c ,,m simt la punctual de interferen a unor
lucruri stranii care se nvlmesc n mine fr mcar s catadicseasc s-i dezvluie
identitatea. n orice caz, pot s te asigur c este tot ce poate fi mai dezagreabil i depresiv 7.
Probabil c inefabilul de care pomenete Lovinescu transpare n caracteristicile semantice ale
melancoliei, aceasta fiind cea care, prin accepia peiorativ a termenului, conduce la
dezagreabil i la depresiv.
Toate aceste mrturisiri ale flticineanului reunite ntr-un volum, el nsui intitulat
sugestiv, Scrisori crepusculare, au menirea de a oferi un portret spiritual al lui Vasile
Lovinescu. Din acest punct de vedere, adjectivul crepusculare capt accepia de spaiu
intermediar ntre via i moarte, ntre realitate i fantezie i, chiar, ntre cele dou sensuri ale
cuvntului melancolie ,,tragic i desfttoare deopotriv8. Astfel, V. Lovinescu se
plaseaz cu scrisul su la interferena dintre dou lumi a trecutului anistoric, cruia spiritul
su meditativ i simte acut lipsa, i prezentul imund, deposedat de sacralitate. Pentru eludarea
coordonatelor desacralizate, soluia o constituie plonjarea temporal, dar i aceasta, la rndul
ei, se face pe baza unui exerciiu ascetic, de meditaie profund. Aceast strategie este
adoptat i de Lovinescu, n cazul cruia, melancolia reprezint rezultatul opresiunii
nedeliberate asupra contiinei sinelui, materializat ntr-o trauma ce-i va croi un loc
permanent n eul su abisal, marcndu-i felul de a gndi i privi lumea, ct i scriitura ca
modalitate de reflectare a silogismelor sale. De aceea, ntr-o scrisoare din 7 martie 1981,
autorul ei preciza urmtoarele: ,,Cred c fac o melancolie, din fericire cu rezistene care sunt
un fel de colac de salvare. Este o senzaie de vid, n sensul sinistru al cuvntului, un fel de
quoi bon? care m bntuie9, de unde reiese una din temele recurente universului livresc
lovinescian, i anume teama de vid. Dac prin vid nelegem nucleul experienei mistice
abordate de hermeneutul flticinean, atunci pmntul natal simbolizeaz convertorul
energiilor vitale, n care Lovinescu i gsete salvarea spiritual. Acesta este motivul pentru
care el face un adevrat elogiu peisajelor paradiziace din locul su de obrie, demonstrnd c
acesta este pstrtorul unor elemente tainice i iniiatice.
Moldova, ca inut natal, este idilizat i hiperbolizat la maximum, att n gndirea lui
V. Lovinescu, dar, mai ales, n scrierile sale, ajungndu-se, astfel, s se vorbeasc de
moldovenismul operei sale. Fr a fi, ns, acuzat c ar fi prtinitor, interpretul colindelor i
ghicitorilor din folclorul romnesc extinde discursul su laudativ, cu vdite accente
naionaliste, la ntreg spaiul carpato-danubiano-pontic, strduindu-se s demonstreze c aici
s-ar afla matricea spiritualitii europene. Astfel, Dacia Hiperboreean ar reprezenta un fel de
axis mundi, care, din fericire pentru emitentul teoriei, s-ar afla n chiar ara noastr, ceea ce,
din punct de vedere spiritual, ne-ar conferi un statut aparte. Acest trm sacru, devenit
obiectul de contemplaie al hermeneutului, care vede n spaiul mioritic un spaiu mitic,
imanentizeaz elemente realiste, dar i fabuloase, n egal msur. Aa s-ar putea explica
descrierea pe care nsui Lovinescu o face ntr-una din Scisorile sale crepusculare: ,,M
ntorceam de la o plimbare n plin fabul; pduri de argint, de fagi, de stejari, cu poiene n
care pteau cerbi i ciute. O mas enorm de tcere ncremenit, s-o tai cu cuitul. Simeam
aburul rsuflrii licornei i bourului alb, dar nu-i vedeam. Poate c mai trziu10.
Produsul fanteziei lovinesciene pare livrat din asocierea deloc ntmpltoare dintre
melancolie i contemplaie. Coroborate, cele dou ajut protagonistul s coboare n timpuri
imemoriale i s refac lumi disprute de mult. Astfel, se ajunge la crearea de dimensiuni
7
Ibidem, p. 22.
Pleu, Andrei, Pitoresc i melancolie, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2009, p. 70.
9
Lovinescu, Vasile, op. cit., p. 5.
10
Ibidem, p. 32.
8
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virtuale, n care locul raiunii este luat de cel al fanteziei, cu ajutorul creia spiritul i gsete
desvrirea. Este i cazul lui Vasile Lovinescu, pentru care, att melancolia, ct i
contemplaia sunt prghii de care se folosete pentru a evada din contingentul auster ntr-un
mediu saturat de valori spiritual, necesare redempiunii la care aspir. Astfel, detaarea de
lume nseamn, de fapt, o ruptur de aceasta, cu attt mai mult cu ct izolarea i ofer
meditativului ansa de a se refugia ntr-o lume care nu beneficiaz de autonomie proprie i,
deci, nu are reguli proprii de funcionare, ceea ce nseamn c fiecare i poate institui un
sistem normativ spiritual, dup care s i ghideze existena.
Scrisul lovinescian ni-l prezint pe autorul acestuia ca pe iubitor de exil, un nsingurat
sau, aa cum nsui se caracteriza un capricant. Reies aceste trsturi morale i din Jurnalul
alchimic, pe care Lovinescu a ales s l in, nu pentru a consemna date cronologice, de natur
factual, ci pentru a-i exprima gndurile intime, frmntrile spiritual, meditaiile de
neneles pentru ceilali. Singura mrturisire obiectual despre felul su de a fi vizeaz tocmai
izolarea de lume i fuga de sine nsui: ,,O via ntreag am fugit de mine nsumi. Dar e prea
simplu spus. Am fugit de complexele mele de inferioritate, de spatial naturii mele. Asta e
adevrat, dar nu complet adevrat. n fond, fug de ocazia de a m gsi fa n fa cu
adevratul meu eu, cu Sinea11. Nempcarea cu propria condiie este o dovad a
incompatibilitii ntre ego i Sine, dou entiti complementare, dar ireconciliabile, ceea ce
poteneaz felul de a fi, de a gndi i de a scrie al lui Vasile Lovinescu. Astfel, pentru o
corect evaluare a operei acestuia, analiza ar trebui s porneasc de la structura sa
temperamental, unde att melancolia, ct i contemplaia sunt pilonii de susinere ai
universului su creator. De altfel, exegeza sa considera c melancolia a luat natere din
sentimentul zdrniciei fiinrii sale pragmatice12, de unde i obsesia ratrii pe plan social
tem frecvent utilizat de reprezentanii generaiei 30. n privina lui Vasile Lovinescu, exist
varianta n care aceast tem s fi avut corespondent chiar viaa lui private, dac lum n
calcul acea perioad a scriitorului cnd acesta, neavnd o slujb stabil, financiar, era
ntreinut de soia sa, Steliana Punescu. Aceasta, la rndul su, a avut o mare contribuie la
realizarea operei hermeneutului cu pretenii de simbololog, n sensul acceptrii demersului de
permanent cercetare i reflecie a acestuia, fr a-i reproa lipsa de activitate fizic sau
prelungitele edine meditative, cu scopul clarificrii unor chestiuni de origine esoteric.
Chiar faptul de a fi stat o vreme fr o ocupaie social (nici cnd a fost n cmpul
muncii, nu a urmrit, prin meseria sa, atingerea vreunui el professional!) are legtur cu
detaarea sa fa de lume, demonstrnd dezinteresul pentru aspectul pragmatic al existenei i,
totodat, aplecarea sa ctre un univers interior, mcinat de ntrebri de nedesluit. Se adaug
acestui exemplu preferina pentru consemnarea strilor spirituale n locul celor pragmatice, n
propriu-i jurnal, numit simbolic alchimic. Probabil c alchimia se refer tocmai la
transformarea activitilor factuale n uniti spirituale, care s-i asigure ntregirea armonic a
sinelui, n virtutea creia s-i coordoneze destinul dup principiul carpe diem. n acest sens,
ntr-una din paginile Jurnalului alchimic, autorul nota: ,,Tot ce e dat imediat e discontinuu,
deci divin, cci discontinuul e clipa. S dm mare importan, s privim ca pe oaspete regal
orice mirare, orice surpriz sufleteasc ce strbate pcla care ne desparte de lumea cauzal.
M gndesc la ocul ce ni-l d un peisagiu, orict de cunoscut ar fi el, cnd l privim brusc,
fr premediare13.
De altfel, melancolicul i contemplativul Lovinescu recunoate c a fost mereu
fascinat mai mult de aspectele transubstaniale ale omenirii, dect de problemele concrete ale
acesteia, mrturisind c, n timp ce dramele umane l lsau rece, un mit l putea sensibiliza
11
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pn la lacrimi. nseamn c adevrata existen pentru iubitorul de mituri este dus dincolo
de contingent, n parametrii contiinei individuale, format din pasiunea i studiul aprofundat
pentru folclor. Aa iau natere convingerile estetice, convertite n principii ontice de
funcionare a universului intim, care, n cazul lui Vasile Lovinescu, se afl la confluena
dintre doctrin, carte i destin individual. Acestea din urm, unite, indic traseul spre originea
spiritualitii, iar fondatorul acestei teorii a fost gnditorul francez, Ren Gunon, al crui
discipol a fost i flticineanul att de atras de folclor, precum i de toate chestiunile esoterice
ale acestuia. ncecnd s le dezlege, s le neleag i s i le asume, simbolologul cu viziune
de hermeneut este, practic, obligat la o atitudine contemplativ, n afara creia meditativul nu
ar avea acces la resorturile esoterice camuflate n niele realitii. Aa se explic lipsa
activitii fizice, propriu-zise, a contemplativului, care, niciodat, nu ar puteafi ncadrat n
tipologia lui homo faber. Acesta din urm este eroul activ, fptuitor, care nu ar putea, sub
niciun chip, s fie livrat melancoliei14. n perimetrul acesteia, ptrund doar acei indivizi care
au cultul contemplaiei i care, din punct de vedere temperamental, sunt ori melancolici, ori
flegmatici. Pentru acetia, activitatea propriu-zis este mai puin important n raport cu
edinele prelungite de meditaie, pentru explicitarea unor aspecte ce nusunt la ndemna
oricui. Ei sunt cei care au capacitatea ,,de-a sfini clipele cele mai banale ale existenei, ceea
ce nseamn mult mai mult dect a le ritualiza, reprezentnd suprema smerire n faa Minunii
i a Miracolului care ne ateapt oricnd pentru a transmute viaa i a o apropia de moartea
iniiatic15.
Se poate spune, c att melancolicul, ct i contemplativul transfer energia specific
exerciiilor fizice celor mintale, cu menirea clar de alimentare optim a centrului
spiritualitii individuale. De aceea, concluzia ar fi c accentul cade, mai degrab, pe
activitile interioare ce definesc preocuprile melancolicului. n virtutea acestora, V.
Lovinescu pleac de la atitudinea contemplativ, afiat la exterior, pentru a ajunge la
sublimarea introvertirii sale, ce-i condiioneaz felul de a fi i de a gndi. Cele dou stri sunt
complementare, fuzionnd cu personalitatea hermeneutului, astfel nct, pentru acesta, o
simpl plimbare pe dealurile Flticeniului ar simboliza un rit iniiatic de cutare a Graalului.
Deci, natura nu este doar element peisagistic, ce genereaz reacii admirative, ci
provoac ample procese meditative, la captul crora se proiecteaz iniierea spiritual. Pentru
Vasile Lovinescu, de exemplu, inuturile sale natale sunt loc de poveste, convertit ntr-un axis
mundi al propriului destin. Zon cu reverberaii fabuloase, Moldova a reprezentat pentru muli
scriitori o un punct de plecare, dar i un punct terminus pentru operele lor. De fapt, ,,n cultura
romn, Moldova a reprezentat aripa sentimental, melancolia, interesul pentru filosofie,
pentru poezie, o oarecare pasivitate n faa vieii16. n aceeai ordine de idei, eseistul
flticinean scria ntr-un articol despre meleagurile sale natal c ,,Lirismul peisajului
folticenean e constituit din suma senzaiilor oamenilor care l-au iubit i l-au nsufleit n i
prin jocurile copilriei, sau prin plimbrile de maturitate de-a lungul i de-a latul lui. Ce mod
mai direct i mai existential de identificare cu ambiana, cu o livad sau cu un huci, dect
integrarea simbolic n ele a unui hagialc, sau a luptelor ntre zei i titani, cu alte cuvinte,
ncierarea ntre haiduci i neferi, sau proiectarea oului lumii n toate direciile spaiului n
jocul oinei? i cnd n maturitate revii pe pajitile i n pdurile copilriei, vechile competiii
se rezolv ntr-un murmur armonic, zvon de pe cellalt trm17.
Nostalgia copilriei nu este altceva, n realitate, dect o extensie a nostalgiei dup
vremurile primordiale. De aici, ncrctura elegiac, tonul de tristee i atitudinea melancolic
a celui care le evoc, la care se adaug i procesul de contemplare, ca parte integratoare a
Apud Pleu, Andrei, op. cit.
Stanca, Dan, Contemplatorul solitar, Editura Institutul European, Iai, 1997.
16
Eliade, Mircea, Lpreuve du labyrinthe, Entretiens avec Claude-Henri Roquet, Paris, Pierre Belfond, 1978, p. 14.
17
Pagini bucovinene, Anul II, Nr. 5 (17), Mai, 1983.
14
15
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activitate dezinteresat, contemplaia nu este o stare vegetativ, ci este premisa unei stri
creatoare, ce-l silete pe individ s-i asume dezamgirile i s le purifice.
Efect direct al contemplativitii, melancolia contribuie, de asemenea, la purificarea
suleteasc a meditativului, fcndu-l s disocieze corect ntre laturile componente ale
existenei. Este i cazul lui Vasile Lovinescu, cel care, prin scrierile lui, se angajeaz ntr-un
lung proces introspectiv ce are ca baz observarea cu atenie a realitii nconjurtoare, pe
care a ncercat s o exploreze pe vertical i n spiral. Astfel, a avut ocazia coborrii pn n
strfundurile spiritualitii naionale, fie prin intermediul creaiilor literare populare, fie prin
analiza miturilor i a simbolurilor. Concluzia c acele timpuri erau superioare prezentului,
precum i convingerea c acestea sunt iremediabil pierdute au fcut ca tonalitatea scrierilor
lovinesciene s migreze de la trist la elegiac, de la regret la melancolie. De aceea, n opera lui,
se regsesc acordurile grave ale unui imn al dezndejdii, care i face simit ecoul prin crezul
estetic al autorului, dar i prin sfera semantic cel mai frecvent uzitat n text. Aa iau natere
convingeri artistice concretizate n fraze precum: ,,ntr-o perioad de ntunecare ciclic,
anumite funciuni spiritual central, a cror perpetuitate de-a lungul secolelor nu este dect
oglindirea eternitii Principiilor pe care le reprezint le nsumeaz n lumea Generrii i a
Morii se oculteaz dar nu pot disprea, mpcnd astfel taina i actul de prezen. Pe lng
ocultarea simpl, se adaug n unele cazuri i anumite scderi, cum este somnul, amoreala,
ineria, o ran mereu deschis i fr evoluie23. De altfel, tonul de lamento se propag n
toate aseriunile flticineanului, n cadrul crora apar sintagme ca dureroas elaborare,
arivism feroce, jertf sever, pcatele lor venic rennoite, nechemare incurabil, nobil
dezinteresare, prin care autorul i proclam tristeea metafizic, jalea cosmic, lamentaia
empiric triri ascetice diluate n melancolie i contemplaie.
Bibliografie:
o Cureu, Ioan-Pop, Magie i vrjitorie n cultura romn, Editura Cartea
Romneasc, Polirom, Iai, 2013.
o Eliade, Mircea, Lpreuve du labyrinthe, Entretiens avec Claude-Henri
Roquet, Paris, Pierre Belfond, 1978.
o Lovinescu, Vasile, Creang i creanga de aur, Editura Cartea Romneasc,
Bucureti, 1989.
o Lovinescu, Vasile, Eseuri i amintiri, Ed. Pontifex, Bucureti, 2005.
o Lovinescu, Vasile, Incantaia sngelui, Editura Institutul European, Iai, 1993.
o Lovinescu, Vasile, Scrisori crepusculare, Editura Rosmarin, Bucureti, 1997.
o Pleu, Andrei, Pitoresc i melancolie, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2009.
o Stanca, Dan, Contemplatorul solitar, Editura Institutul European, Iai, 1997.
o (coord. Verescu Z., Ahile), Discipoli gunonieni n Romnia, Editura Civitas,
Bucureti, 2012.
o Pagini bucovinene, Anul II, Nr. 5 (17), Mai, 1983.
Lucrarea a beneficiat de suport financiar prin proiectul cu titlul SOCERT. Societatea
cunoaterii,
dinamism
prin
cercetare",
numr
de
identificare
contract
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132406. Proiectul este cofinanat din Fondul Social European prin
23
Idem, p. 13.
742
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743
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Abstract: Radu Petrescu is an outstanding novelist of the Romanian 20th literary century,
remarcable for the particular way of defining diary, all through his hard personal prose. The
inner eye of the master excelled in each manner of choosing the best way to write down the
sincere thoughts, expected critcs or the right call of his heart. Hidden emotions for the birth
of a great novel, Matei Iliescu, so closely watched by other testimonies, diaries kept in a
mirror of the mind and soul, Berenices Hair and The Third Dimension. The warmth of the
family and the light in the childrens smile are a true exam for that writer who used to give us
a serious perspective of his own personality, even when he exposed feelings nobody could
ever guess, thus, finding the best way to confess, only with the help of the diary. So much
beauty in so few lines, such a pleasure to read about the joy and the sorrows of a monument
of understanding, wisdom and gentle blow coming from a silent past.
Keywords: Radu Petrescu, diary, family, innocence, perspective.
744
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ntors. Pentru cititorii zilelor noastre, experiena este aidoma celei trite de prinii notri,
fascinai cndva de ntlnirile ori corespondena fireasc a marilor interbelici. Dup ploaie, la
5 sunt la Tudor ., lng biserica magnificului Filimon, s-i napoiez Unele nsemnri ntr-un
mic roman, cartea citit mie la Herstru acum doi ani i recitit de mine zilele acestea cu
mult interes. n mod cert, Ocheanul ntors este retrospectiva primei tinerei, poate cea mai
frumoas parte a vieii maestrului, fiind, cel puin teoretic, mai lipsit de griji, dei mai
provocatoare prin multe situaii inedite primul loc de munc, plecciunile la Bucureti
pentru un transfer, prima (i ultima) mare dragoste. Amintiri precum czutele frunze de
toamn din Cimigiul iubit. mpliniri ori dezamgiri, exuberante momente ori eecuri
neforate. Teama de a tri, de a trda viaa, spaima negrit fa de ceea ce ar putea fi dincolo.
Un respiro de tineree anticipnd vizionar viitorul nesigur.Tehnica circular a mersului prin
via, nu pentru a cuta perfeciunea, ci pentru a evita monotonia, rspunztoare de acte
deseori vorace. Tot optimismul moderat i justificat prin munc al scriitorului poate fi
sinonim cu mari nedumeriri i cu tristei existeniale: Viaa mea, vai, e fcut din elanuri i
blbieli, din ignoran i veleiti. De ce a ascunde asta? De ce m-a feri? Ea este tot att
de insignifiant ca i notele acestea. ...Norii, culise n micare. Rsritul soarelui, cdere de
cortin. Spectacolul st sub legea tcerii, a abstraciei... ( p. 219, 373) Descoperim un mare
admirator al artei plastice i o bunvoin a cultivrii acestui gust. i pstreaz preferinele,
dar evolueaz, firesc, ajungnd n stadiul de critic de art, prea ndrgostit de frumuseea
exterioar. Parc pentru a evita superficialitatea, se face urmtorul pas. Este i o
autorecunoatere a palprii valorii, o coal personal pe care a frecventat-o diligent toat
viaa i care a tiut s-i ntoarc frumoasa datorie, la timp. Expoziiile Luchian i Grigorescu
vzute de diminea. Cel din urm este, ntr-adevr, un mare desenator... ...n Vatr la Rucr
st, sub o foarte subire coaj, toat lumea de vibraii a lui Luchian. Capul de iganc, de
Luchian, vzut de nenumrate ori la Simu, abia azi l neleg intens, cci vd ct de larg se
mic pensula ntr-un desen... (Ibidem, 42) Plcerea folosirii culorii s-a transferat, ca nite
note bacoviene, n scris. Simbolistic() sau nu, decodificarea semic a acestora ine de
confidenialitatea condeiului. Poate c ar fi mai simpl proiecia mental pe o pnz aezat
neaprat pe un evalet, spre a asigura perspectiva corect i dorit. Nu este exclus s fi fost
chiar acesta scopul, tiindu-se c imaginea ideal poate ine loc miilor de cuvinte i are, n
plus, avantajul universalitii. Impietate s ncerc s traduc, dar remarc scrisul nud, din acest
punct de vedere, pentru zile ntregi.
n 28 decembrie, la final de an, o pagin ntreag n italian, tradus n subsolul
paginii, din respect pentru cititor. Iat, exemplul clar c vorbim o alt limb. Text din
Leopardi, natural. Romantici incurabili romnii, nu-i aa? Biei vistori, pierdui pe meleaguri
trace. i finalul lui 1957 previzibil, n conformitate cu ntregul jurnal de peste an, bilan de
plumb: 30 decembrie. Anul se sfrete cu noroi, dar i cu jalnice rmie de hermin pe
lng vreun gard mai ferit, ntr-o curte nevzut de soare. Cerul totui nu e albastru, ci
mut.31 decembrie. Astzi la fel. 1958. Teoretic, anunul iniial ne previne c jurnalul ine din
ianuarie pn n decembrie, practic este la fel de scurt ca precedentul. Forma literar tinde s
se deliterarizeze i atinge nivelul jurnalului propriu-zis. Nimic nu mai anun ficiunea, ci
geometria pur cu care ne ameninase cndva Radu Petrescu. Dac privim cartea n paralel, de
pild, cu jurnalul lui Alice Voinescu, ajung din nou la concluzia redactrii unui antijurnal,
care mi place, pe care l gsesc spectaculos prin ndrzneala pionieratului i care, nici sub
aspectul formei, nici sub cel al coninutului, nu poate fi plagiat. De ce un antijurnal? Dac tot
am luat n calcul posibilitatea susinerii unui manifest, atunci modalitatea aleas nu putea fi
dect aceasta, ca form a unui disident.
Scriitura continu s fie sobr i amar, pstrnd registrul anterior. Stilul complex i
negru, pe alocuri, taie neierttor, ori de cte ori se dorete formularea unui autorepro sau a
unui teribil regret. Dominanta acestei pri de confesiuni mi se pare a fi lipsa umorului.
746
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apariie de la Dipa. (pag. 115) Nu mai recunoatem nimic din exuberana anilor trecui. De
parc cineva sau ceva l-ar fi obligat s schimbe totul, printr-o semirotaie de 180 de grade.
Pare a fi contient i ne insufl teama parcurgerii ntregului cerc. Parc experimenteaz,
curios s vad ct mai poate, pn unde mai poate ajunge. Nu este clar dac numai lipsurile
cotidiene pot produce o atare sincop, dac dezgustul luntric se va fi cristalizat numai prin
presiune extern, social, independent de voina sa. Ca i cum ar fi contactat o boal, fr si dea seama, pe care trebuia s o poarte cronic i n mod stoic. Plimbrilor relaxante le-a luat
locul privelitea steril, dar strident: Privit apusul soarelui, de pe podul Izvor, rou, peste
Dmbovia albastr... Lume pestri i totui pasiv, gunoi descrcat, aventurieri i
mechere, n fond imbecili, pe care apusul i umbrelele i nnobileaz trector. (pag. 142)
Cum rmne cu preocuprile intelectuale? Lungi drumuri prin anticariate, n cutarea lui
James Joyce (gsete, n final o ediie, nu n limba romn i noteaz ntr-o manier de care
ne era dor: traduc, domnule, primele fraze, din care rmne s ghicesc restul crii),
coresponden mplinit la Cluj, relaii fructuoase cu traductori fini, lectur vag, dar de
calitate. Se ascute, n schimb, acelai spirit critic, iar referirile pe care le face exaspereaz,
raportndu-ne la aceeai cenzur, care, nclinm s credem, ori n-a mai existat, ori nefericitul
n-a neles nimic din jurnal: Cazul Eugeniei Costea, roman ratat din punct de vedere al
construciei, dar att prima parte, ct i ce urmeaz sinuciderii lui Costea e foarte sugestiv.
Greeala lui Sadoveanu e de a nu-i fi dat seama c eroul principal, acolo, e Agripina.
Patele blajinilor place la nceput, apoi scriitorul parc s-a plictisit. (pag. 215)
Se confirm faptul c Radu Petrescu triete. Se poate amuza pe seama
observaiilor sale aparent deocheate i i ngduie cte un flirt, poate pentru a nu ne lsa nou
impresia c brbatul nu iubete frumosul, cnd e frumos, cu att mai mult, cu ct, tim, un
scriitor este totdeauna scuzat. Material de lucru, s zicem. Nimic obraznic ori, invers,
misogin, n notaiile sale, totui, att de mgulitor, pentru a lmuri lucrurile i n aceast
privin. Atitudinea este transparent, aezat sub o zodie de tipul... i lui Dumnezeu i
place. Pe Victoriei, ...vd naintea mea o brun cu picioare nalte, goale, n nite espadrile
ortopedice fr clci, cu o scurt fust bleumarin, peste care cdea, pn la jumtatea
feselor, o vest alb de ln; foarte fardat i remuant, ns cu adevrat frumoas i
deconcentrat, ceea ce-i ddea picantul naivitii. (pag. 146) n drum spre staia
troleibuzului, remarc o tnr femeie pe trotuarul cellalt i am impresia c sunt i eu
remarcat. M opresc n staie. Surpriz! i ea se oprete n staie. Eram doar noi doi. O
privesc ca din ntmplare. Foarte amuzant, o femeiuc, quelque admirablement bati, cu
mult caracter, decent mbrcat, toi brbaii care trec n autobuze i n automobile ntorc
capul dup ea i se uit la mine cu invidie. (pag. 175)
Finalul anului l gsete n verv creatoare. Scrie asiduu i pare mulumit, zbovete
multe ore la biblioteca de lnga Dalles, se bucur de calitatea desenelor maestrului (doamna
Adela Petrescu), pe care l primete constant n vizit, ncepe s vad din nou preaplinul vieii
prnzuri bogate n familie, Tolstoi delectant. Cumpr de la anticariat texte inedite,
aparinnd lui Balzac ori De Sanctis, ceea ce i produce infinit plcere. Din pcate, aceste
momente nu sunt recurente. O alt notaie, care va readuce n prim-plan coala de la
Trgovite: C.O. e foarte bolnav. ...Dei foarte bolnav, O. mi-a adus Povestirile sale, n care
admir abilitatea folosirii numelor proprii, mai cu seam n Un american n provincie.
Ultima parte a jurnalului, cuprinznd anii 1959 i 1960, este i cea mai scurt, relund
temele de interes cunoscute, dar dintr-o perspectiv mai binevoitoare. Cel puin la nivel
psihologic, criza acomodrii bucuretene pare s se disipeze. Fericirea de a-i urmri etapele
creterii lui Iorguu se amestec, inerent, cu constanta lectur formativ ori cu ntlnirile cu
celebritile nerecunoscute ale vremii, din domeniul cultural. Cu puin nainte de 11 ianuarie,
cnd l-am srbtorit pe Iorguu (20 de persoane), care a mplinit un an, am citit mult din
748
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Lucien Leuwen (ediie din 1950) i, normal, reiau acum Le Rouge et le Noir. (pag. 203)
Subiectiv, Radu Petrescu a pus bazele unui cenaclu la distan, prin vizitele de lucru, s
spunem, i prin coresponden. Revine la munca asidu, documentarea de bibliotec, ntru
reuita deplin a capodoperelor de mai trziu. Ct de constant autodidact se menine! Nume
mari, pentru noi icoane ale timpului, l nconjurau. Arghezi, Blaga, Sadoveanu, Clinescu.
Simion, Olreanu, Creia, opa, Breban, Ivasiuc, Buzura, oiu, Bli, D.R. Popescu.
Celebri, fie c schimbau cri sau manuscrise, bucundu-se de o critic sincer receptat i de o
prietenie irepetabil. Plic de la S. despre Sinucidere: ceea ce este nou i perfect realizat n
cartea asta mi se pare compoziia... M viziteaz P.C. Lucreaz la Nori. A citit olohov,
Alexei Tolstoi etc. Entuziasmat de Tragedia optimist a lui Vinevski. Regret din nou c nu
fac versuri. Trece o femeie pe lng noi i l ntreb, artndu-i-o: ct cost? (p. 265) Blaga
public ntr-o revist din Cluj poezii foarte frumoase, cam de felul Olarilor din Nebnuitele
trepte, din 1943. (p. 301) n lipsa greilor, scriitorul cerea, ocazional, opinia surorii, dar cel mai
des se consulta i i acorda ncredere absolut soiei sale. Lucrnd la propriile opere, avea
permanent nevoie de confirmri. i consolidase un public restrns, de calitate. Construcia
personal l-a preocupat permanent. Continuarea lecturii profunde se desvrea cu Croce,
jurnalul lui Goncourt, aa cum ne obinuisem, dar i cu reluarea Iliadei. Dac ceva nu i
atrgea atenia n mod deosebit, nota sec: Bel-Ami. Cnd descoper ntr-un anticariat un titlu
mare, clasic, pe care nu l avea acas, simte c rsare soarele pe toat planeta. Cumpr, spre a
reciti, noua ediie a lui Ion, prilej cu care se rentoarce i la lectura Hortensiei Papadat. l
gsete surprinztor pe Champfleury, rsfoiete cu devotament Universul i Contemporanul,
iar uneori face o critic literar acerb, dar strict n spiritul lui Koglniceanu abordeaz,
evident, cartea, nu persoana. Continu s scrie la roman, dar nu este niciodat satisfcut de
Matei, acuznd ruperea foilor, foarte des. Proza scurt, aflat n stadiul nsutitei reevaluri,
merge mult mai bine.
Micile obsesii, de tip Ulysse-le lui Joyce, nu-l prsesc i, n lipsa unei ediii ntr-o
limb cunoscut pe deplin, se mulumete cu studii literare ale altora, despre carte. Drumurile
la Biblioteca Academiei sunt mai numeroase ca oricnd, documentarea maestrului fiind
copleitoare. Participrile literar-mondene sunt de notorietate, iar ratarea unora dintre ele l
ntristeaz sincer: C. a trecut pe la 2, lsndu-mi o invitaie pentru srbtorirea lui M.S. la
Academie. Vorbete i G.C. Nu m pot duce la Academie, dar m emoioneaz gndul c,
dac a putea s m duc, l-a auzi din nou pe G.C. (pag. 308) Nostalgiile nu-l mpiedic s
devin obiectiv i acid, cnd este vorba despre aceeai mare personalitate a vremii: Oniria lui
G.C. apare azi rectificat, n Contemporanul. Forma prim era mai simpl, aici se vede
lipitura. Procedeul e amuzant pentru cine le cunoate pe amndou i le cunoate toat
lumea. (pag. 283) Referirile religioase sunt evidente, ntr-o perioad imposibil de ncadrat, din
acest punct de vedere. Dei nu mai noteaz nimic n jurnal de la Crciunul din 1959, pn la
Patele din 1960, nu evit s creeze astfel legtura ntre cei doi ani: buna dispoziie nceput
n Smbta Mare continu. Cenzura i este eminamente strin, minunat nepsare! Notele
bacoviene revin cu regularitate i se nscriu ntr-un registru, pe care l gsim codificat,
transpunnd stri sufleteti: Alb. Verde-olive. Bleu. La nivelul proieciei plastice, ultima dintre
culori, care apare spre finalul jurnalului, este cea a cerului senin din perioada transilvnean.
Lumina interioar crescendo a nuanelor se produce odat cu mbuntirea att de ateptat a
strii financiare, ntr-o perioad fast, cu foarte puin timp naintea unui eveniment major
petrecut n viaa familiei: Totui am fost numit. S-a fcut. Prof. S. mi-a dat decizia, sunt
ncadrat ca bibliograf, cu 900 de lei pe lun, care vor fi de fapt cam 950. Nu-mi vine s cred,
ns... (p.251) Scepticismul i dezamgirile cotidiene vin i din observarea unor chestiuni de
fapt divers, cu siguran nenregistrate de presa vremii. Noteaz rpirea unui copila, al unui
cunoscut, de ctre un pervers sau o explozie aberant care ucide doi soi; se minuneaz de
lipsa comunicrii cu vecinul din cas, pe care, totui, l respect i a crui dispariie ulterioar
749
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l mic. La 33 de ani, Radu Petrescu acuz o oboseal cronic, justificat, dar care l sperie
zile n ir din jurnal consemneaz gradual acest fapt, fie c se afl la institut, fie c ncearc s
mai scrie ceva acas. D semne certe de mbtrnire, albete, slbete, fumeaz mult, se
plictisete i nu mai gsete verva-i binecunoscut, spune c se urete, prilej cu care i
recapt umorul citadin din trecut: Suntem amndoi ca dou umbre. Ea ns rmne
frumoas, eu devin respingtor. Am avut totui norocul s nu m nasc chior, surd, blbit,
chiop, pederast, cleptoman. (pag. 320)
Un alt mare ctig al jurnalului l constituie relatarea venirii pe lume al celui de al
doilea copil. Cu cteva zile nainte de naterea Ruxandrei, scriitorul insist asupra unor scene,
n care Iorguu acord mult atenie unei fetie, n obinuita-i joac, n parc. Pentru acele
timpuri, putem nota acest fapt drept un semn revelator. Mai mult, timpul acordat lui Iorguu,
cu care merge la plimbare sau pe care l urmrete prin curtea casei, i permite s observe
interesul juniorului pentru copaci, la numai un an i jumtate, ceea ce ar putea fi o premoniie
pentru cariera sa viitoare. Ruxandra pare s aduc pace i mplinire n casa scriitorului,
nchide parc un cerc ghinionist i ofer posibilitatea continurii binelui de altdat. Vineri,
14 august. La 8 fr 5 seara, ea a nscut o feti. La 8,20 le-am vzut pe amndou. ...Vin
acas cu cmaa ud n spate, obosit i dorind s dorm. (pag. 258)
Dei un prieten l felicit uor ironic pentru naterea copilei, reamintindu-i c Freud
era convins c fetele i iubesc mai mult taii, Radu Petrescu nu pierde nicio clip i ne
demonstreaz, ori de cte ori este cazul, ct de mult bucurie i aduc ambii copii, pe care,
lucru rar, cei doi soi intelectuali i cresc singuri, cu foarte puin ajutor din partea bunicilor.
Cu Iorguu, coala era deja fcut i lucrurile mergeau deja pe un fga cunoscut la Ruxandra.
Ca orice feti, ns, ea este deseori mai perspicace sau mai viclean i, dei mai mic dect
Iorguu, reuete s pun piciorul n prag - prilej de real ncntare pentru tatl aflat n postura
de neutru observator. l distreaz momentul cnd i aduce pachetul de igri, e cucerit de
zmbetu-i larg, ador fotografiile cu ea, trimise de la Cmpulung i se amuz cnd grija lui
Iorguu devine copleitoare nu-i ofer ceva din mncarea lui, ca s nu fac burta mare.
Nicicnd maestrul nu se plnge din pricina copiilor, dei, urmrindu-i preocuprile culturale,
e imposibil s nelegi cum a reuit s le mpace pe toate.
Stilului telegrafic i codificat din prima jumtate a jurnalului i rspunde echilibrat cel
al paginilor integrale, larg respirnd, din cea de-a doua parte. Recunoatem n spatele marelui
om-copil pe femeia puternic, dei fragil, n ochii maestrului, diplomat i, conform spuselor
sale, foarte rbdtoare. Perioada sarcinilor i cea a primelor luni dedicate creterii copiilor au
mpiedicat-o pe soia sa s rmn strict iubita de odinioar, dar nu i-au diminuat farmecul i
nici nu au afectat relaia unic dintre cei doi. Mai mult, nsui scriitorul este pus n postura de
a-i transfera o parte din dragostea necondiionat pentru soie, ctre cei doi copii, ceea ce i
nnobileaz capacitatea de a mpca spiritul artistic cu dificultile inerente, de dragul celor
mici. Tragem linie, concluzionm. Multe notaii despre familie, despre tot ceea ce se ntmpl
sau s-ar putea produce. Apar doamne vrstnice, cu siguran vecine ori prietene ale
bunicuelor. Este foarte des invocat Adela, mai ales n postura de mam ducnd un copil la
teatrul de marionete, desennd un rac, dar i n cea de critic atipic nu-i plac Macedonski i
Valery, i consider aproape triviali, cteodat, pe Iosif i Cerna sau, n domeniul su, se
distreaz cnd Ressu l face ramolit pe Arghezi, pentru c nu st locului, spre a-i realiza un
portret. Ruxandra este micul nou cadou, iar jurnalul se mplinete cu plusul informativ
constant despre Iorguu. nvat deja cu aceast formul de patru, cel mai greu pare s-i fie
maestrului vara, cnd ntreaga familie pleac n vacan la Cmpulung, fapt compensat
ulterior. Strile sufleteti astfel dezgolite sunt cteodat vindecate de pastelul artistic al
cuvintelor, pregtit ns numai pentru sezonul toamn-iarn: frig, ceruri de rubin stins printre
pomii goi, largi crduri de ciori. Lapidaritatea jurnalului poate fi pus i pe seama deciziei de
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a acorda importan maxim prozei originale. Transcrie mult din O moarte n provincie, reia
Ce se vede, se consult cu cei cunosctori n privina Sinuciderii... Munc susinut pentru
ceea ce avea s fie capodopera sa, Matei Iliescu, am vzut, i cu bune i cu rele, n demersul
cel mai greoi, dar i cel mai sigur pentru definitivarea celei considerate ulterior a sa opera
magna. Este extraordinar, aadar, aceast abordare paralel i permanent a tuturor
lucrrilor, fapt care a condus i la omogenitatea valoric a operei. Finalul jurnalului surprinde
prin notaii din perioada srbtorilor cretine, zile care lipseau n anii mcinai de tristei
nespuse. Ajunul l gsete la Oper, grozav pseudopagin monografic despre acele timpuri
n Romnia. De Crciun merge din nou la Biblioteca Academiei, ca o ncununare a
numeroaselor ore de documentare petrecute acolo peste an, probabil pentru c este o zi
calendaristic obinuit. i la propriu, i la figurat, plou i ninge, ceea ce anticipeaz notaia
ultimei zile din an i din jurnal: Toat ziua bureaz subire i rar. Pe ntuneric, oraul este
sinistru. (pag. 327)
Rersritul vieii. Prul Berenicei este constelaia maestrului, pentru c rmne
martorul naterii capodoperei sale, romanul Matei Iliescu. Interesant pentru noi, i pentru c
este publicat numai cu un an nainte de marea plecare a scriitorului, n 1981, cu siguran
revzut n acea perioad, fie i ca scuz redacional. O dovad o reprezint inserarea
ocazional a unor pagini din caietele sale, datate din 1979, excelent prilej comparativ pentru
cititori. Destul de consecvent, cum eram obinuii, Radu Petrescu ne propune notaii din
ianuarie pn n decembrie pentru anii 1961, 1962 i 1963. Ultimul an inclus sub aceast
titulatur se sfrete n data de 17 iunie, cea n care ne anun finalizarea lui Matei al su,
cum deseori l va numi, exact n maniera n care ne ntiinase i n legtur cu naterea
copiilor si. Tonul general este unul preocupat, al unui intelectual determinat, focusat n
limbaj american, s-i duc munca la bun sfrit. Parc este un Gaudi truditor i venic
sacrificat, rspltit finalmente glorios de soart, pentru rbdarea demonstrat timp de mai bine
de 10 ani. O adevrat fabric s-a dovedit a fi Matei Iliescu. Tot ceea ce a citit autorul su,
pn n clipa ncheierii ultimului capitol, toate obsesiile literare, culturale, dar i refugiile
sentimental-paterne ori conjugale, totul a devenit coala paralel dezvoltat ntru finalizarea
romanului iubit. Nu cred s fi scpat cineva din anturajul su, n sensul cererii unei opinii
mai mult sau mai puin avizate. i aici era interesant critica receptat, pentru c romancierul
nelegea nonreaciile unora sau inea cont de ale altora. Confraii deveneau oricnd lmuritori
i se autosusineau temeinic, ea era purttoarea avizului suprem, iar ceilali sora sa, unele
cunotine arbitrare puteau avea orice lips a vreunei temeinice afirmaii, i acest lucru
conturndu-se drept o confirmare a unei valori, nededate oricui. Un lucru este cert, toat
lumea era pus n tem cu activitatea maestrului i toi erau pregtii pentru un drum destul de
lung. Iorguu nsui l ntreab, la un moment dat, exasperat, ce o s fac tatl su cnd el va
crete i e destul de neierttor cnd afl c va continua s scrie: dar o s fii btrn... Aa
cum l tim, foarte exigent cu sine, lund n calcul i greutile traiului familial n regimul
acum al lui Gheorghiu-Dej, post-stalinist (descris ntr-un jurnalul anterior), scriitorul pare s
fie pentru prima dat mplinit profesional i mulumit de eforturile sale, odat cu finalizarea
romanului. nsi ntreruperea n aceeai zi a volumului de fa comentat constituie o
recunoatere a acestei stri de graie i un omagiu autoadresat. Un ajutor evident au fost pacea
sufleteasc pe care i-o ddea tihnita via de familie, dar i modestia celui care se mulumea
cu puin, nu rvnea i nu invidia, dei avea ocazia s intre n case mari i s aspire la ceea ce
aveau i alii, mai puin nzestrai. Starea material relativ superioar anilor acomodrii
bucuretene i-a permis s renune la o parte dintre umilinele care l ngenuncheaser n trecut.
Chiar dac nici acum nu-i permite ...s cumpere o mare lucrare plastic (a ei) sau a oricrui
alt titan, tie s se bucure cnd merge la o expoziie, la oper sau cnd le cumpr jucrii celor
mici. Mai mult, ncepe s-i respecte concediile (noroc cu copiii, a spune, pentru c nu s-a
abtut niciodat de la a le oferi surprize), ducndu-se anual la mare, n special la Costineti,
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prilej cu care nu uit s realizeze cteve portrete literare unor pitoreti necunoscui, fie ei turci
sau romni. Este nsoit uneori de maestru (soia sa, att de interesant depersonalizat, de
dragul artei), care picteaz grozav mai ales la cherhana. Accept s mearg i n excursii
organizate la Institut, iar acest minim confort, adugat, repet, celui familial, esenial pentru
reuita scriitoriceasc, a contribuit decisiv la fericita finalizare a operei sale. Nendoielnic, i-a
pstrat bunele vechi obiceiuri, respectnd incredibila rutin intelectual nmagazinat din
prima tineree: citete enorm, i construiete personalitatea consecvent i autodidact, prin
lecturi alese. Este la curent cu tot ceea ce este nou i acest fapt ramne o rar calitate.
M gndesc ct de uor i-a fost acestui francofil prin excelen, oricum, latin declarat
(a se vedea i patima pentru Croce) s se ndrgosteasc de Btrnul i marea aparinnd
ndrtnicului i, pe deasupra, americanului Hemingway. i asta fr s comenteze nimic (se
vor fi rsculat Clinescu i Sadoveanu), din contr, declarndu-se ulterior interesat de Pentru
cine bat clopotele. Confirmarea ne vine din fericitele inserri, paranteze de tip
camilpetrescian, din 1979, cnd Radu Petrescu dovedete a fi ajuns la maximum de maturitate
creatoare. Fraze nobile, condei desvrit, critic fin, nelepciune creativ, filosofie vestic
diluat n filon tradiional viguros. Un exerciiu viu, realizat peste timp, ca o poveste (sau ca
un nceput de alt roman experimental), pre de peste 15 ani de privire n oglinda retrovizoare
(un altfel de zolism), cnd aflm de cltoria sa n Londra i de comparaia remarcabil cu
Parisul. 1 ianuarie 1961. Pastel literar, familial i profesional, premoniial pentru ntregul an:
...umblu repede, gonit de singurtate, lsnd n urm cupola de cea vag luminoas de
deasupra aeroportului, nemulumit c nu sunt cu ea i cu copiii, nerbdtor s citesc hrtiile
luate n serviet, s termin, cu o pagin lsat pentru noaptea aceasta, povestirea nceput ...
Partea bun a acestui serviciu situat att de departe de cas i supus permanent dorinei de a fi
mbuntit, lsat pentru un transfer mai bine pltit, o constituie oferirea posibilitii de a mai
scrie n unele clipe libere - cnd nu erau necesare edinele ori deplasrile ori, i mai bine n
timpul nopii, cnd se ntmpla s fie obligatorie vreo gard. Cteodat apar remarci
referitoare la colegii de serviciu, iar acestea sunt notate cu discreie ori duioie, ceea ce ne
creeaz impresia unui mediu prietenos i plcut scriitorului. Un lucru este cert, aa cum
rezult din mai vechiul citit printre rnduri, att n relaiile cu superiorii, ct i n cele cu
persoanele aflate la acelai nivel, angajatul se bucur de un respect neascuns. Preocuparea
pentru scris poate produce transformri iremediabile n structura unui om de litere. Exist,
probabil, o specializare a celui nscut s scrie jurnal, roman, nuvel, ca s nu mai vorbim de
poezie. S-a druit aventurii paralele a jurnalului scris n timpul conceperii romanului i invers,
ceea ce a condus la un dublu consum. Sau, pentru a ne mpca pentru pierderea sa timpurie, s
admitem c a trit dublu, ca intensitate creatoare, n sensul propriu al cuvntului. l
redescoperim, recunoscnd: Pericolul jurnalului. Autorul inventeaz un personaj, apoi ncepe
s semene cu acel personaj. Este foarte explicabil de ce. ns artistul ca om se confund cu
opera, ori nu mai are de ce face art. S facem, deci, jurnal, ns distrugndu-l mereu, pe
toate cile, instalnd printre altele, peste tot, oglinzi... Personajul se ivete mereu i trebuie
ters de fiecare dat cu acizi, astfel nct s nu depeasc nivelul crii. (pag. 25) Aceast
declarat profesiune de credin se va obine greu, dincolo de sacrificii, boli, insomnii, munc.
ntr-o lume mult prea cuminte, este rechemat adulterul gndului: Am mers ctva timp
mpreun. Era o sear de var. Ea era ca i n zdrene dar, pstrndu-i toat feminitatea,
avea ceva ca de erou roman din Plutarh. ...Cnd ne-am desprit, i atunci ne-am desprit
pentru totdeauna, era acoperit de un frunzi bogat, prin care nu i-am mai putut distinge
faa. ... Nu regret dect timpul pierdut. (pag. 18)
1 februarie 1961. Trei pagini de jurnal, adic foarte mult, ai zice c este ziua de natere
a scriitorului (nefast observaie, va fi chiar cea a comemorrii, peste ani), pe care niciodat
nu a punctat-o, nici nu i-a acordat vreo importan. Ceva l determin s-i fac un bilan al
reuitelor sau al nereuitelor literare. Se bucur de procurarea pe sub tejghea a nuvelei lui
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Hemingway, ulterior ecranizare de Oscar, pe care o i citete de dou ori, chiar n acea zi,
realiznd o paralel ironic, n defavoarea sa, cu Sinuciderea. Achiziie neinspirat, pentru c
o mai primete cadou din dou pri, bineneles, fr s precizeze motivul bucuria celor din
jur, de a-l vedea fericit. Comic inventar de recunoatere a valorii sale. (Poftim, domnule
scriitor, de trei ori acelai btrn i aceeai mare...) Acord interes unor perioade petrecute
alturi de soia sa, rememoreaz o excursie n care i gsete o vin i comenteaz elogios
desenele ei, pe care le i pstreaz n mape, aa cum va face ulterior i cu cele ale lui Iorguu
ori ale Ruxandrei. Bilan. Arta l-a preocupat permanent i l-a inspirat deopotriv. Scriitorul
este urmrit permanent, se bucur de prezena sa n familie deseori, i urmrete avid
reuitele. l ntlnim n toate paginile jurnalelor sale, de altfel, fie la cte un vernisaj, fie cnd
finalizeaz un nud (piatr de ncercare a artitilor plastici) sau cnd propune discuii
specializate. Van Gogh reprezint o preferin declarat. Are privilegiul s vad dou tablouri
n expoziii bucuretene, cu dou ocazii diferite, probabil n cadrul unui schimb cultural ntre
ri. Pallady rmne, n schimb, referina absolut. Alturi de ea, merge deseori s vad
Luchian, Grigorescu, Petracu, tocmai pentru c poate avea i punctul de vedere avizat. ntr-o
astfel de atmosfer elegant plsmuit, ct de cumplit ne mai apare nvalnica impostur
comunist din viaa tinerei familii? Iat un exemplu dureros, care putea deveni exacerbat,
dac maestrul ar fi fost i martorul finalului anilor 80: Se drm muzeul i casa Simu.
Iorguu mi spune c va scrie pe o tabl Nu e voie (cum se scrie n parcuri Nu e voie s rupei
florile), apoi c va scrie el asta pe o hrtie i apoi, gndindu-se probabil c nu tie s scrie :
tata, s scrii tu pe o hrtie c nu e voie s drme muzeul. Miliianul va amenda pe
drmtori... De ce, drag biete? (pag.107)
Strigt disperat al adultului, prin ochii disideni ai copilului i ne ntrebm cu aceeai
spaim, cum de a scpat aa ceva la cenzur. i ca s ne fie tuturor clar, fie c suntem sau nu
absolveni de Litere, fie c plngem sau ne prefacem c nu putem: Drm i casa lui
Maiorescu. Meritm, ntr-adevr? Zdrobit, dorm ca un lein multe ore i nu m trezesc dect
pentru a scrie o foaie i jumtate n Matei al meu i a dormi din nou. (pag. 110) Pe fondul
acesta mobilizator, mai apar i inerenii nori negri ai grijei zilei de mine: Se ateapt noua
schem, redus. Am spus ctorva c mi este egal dac voi fi sau nu printre cei scoi. (pag.
114) i atunci, ce-i mai rmne de fcut nvatului? S i continue asidua documentare la
BAR, s traduc din Croce Goethe, Ariosto, Shakespeare, Corneille sau, ceea ce tie cel mai
bine, s scrie. Cnd i trece suprarea, are plcerea de a merge la Oper. Apar dou notaii
pentru Maetrii cntrei, la un an distan, de unde deducem c l ncnta Wagner. Astzi,
spectacolul nu mai este n repertoriul Operei Romne. Nu rateaz Oedip, nici Falstaff i nici
Orfeu la Ateneu, lsndu-ne marcat invidioi, cnd aflm de participarea Elenei Cernei. Cu
alt ocazie, ne mrturisete c s-a lsat furat de farmecul balerinei Liciu, care, prin familie,
era att de legat de lumea scriitorilor. Interesant este faptul c toate aceste evnimente
culturale nu erau ntmpltoare, ele producndu-se n preajma unei zile de natere a cuiva, nu
a sa, a Crciunului ori a Anului Nou. Descoperim o politee excesiv la Radu Petrescu, n
detrimentul su i uneori i al familiei, care i-a deschis unele pori, probabil, n jungla rea a
capitalei, dar care l-a i privat de foarte multe alte lucruri. Riscul prea bunei creteri conduce
spre timiditate, apoi spre frustrri i reineri, iar n cele din urm, la profunda nemulumire de
sine. A avut, totui, norocul s triasc n mijlocul unor intelectuali veritabili, care nu au
profitat de slbiciunea sa. Oare cum ar fi rezistat maestrul zilelor noastre? S ne gndim, de
pild, la ceea ce l-a mcinat att de mult, la imposibilitatea de a avea o ediie comprehensibil
din Ulysse-le lui James Joyce. La fiecare 20-30 de pagini de jurnal apare un drum n
anticariate n acest scop. Gsete i nuvele ale aceluiai Joyce, tot n german, cum tim c
gsise anterior i Ulysse, le cumpr i... alt chin cu traducerea. N-ar fi putut apela la unul
dintre prieteni? Din fericire, l salveaz Tudor opa, care i spune unde poate gsi o ediie n
francez a crii mult cutate i att de folosite ca material didactic pentru Matei. Dac nu
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greim, prima ediie n limba romn a crii, tradus direct din englez, a aprut n anii 80 i
triesc sentimentul nefast c maestrul nu a apucat-o. La un alt palier, elegana aceasta
caracteristic celor nobili, aa cum s-a dovedit Radu Petrescu, a condus i ctre o metafor
generalizat, care i-a guvernat viaa. Perspectiva cam aceasta era, i pentru cnd se supra cu
ea, i cnd l enerva prostia omeneasc de aiurea pe strad, la serviciu, chiar i la Academie,
dar mai ales cnd interpreta, ca orice printe ndrgostit i fascinat, gesturile copiilor.
Ruxandra, n picioare n patul ei de lng bibliotec, ncearc s prind cu mna dreapt
raza de soare care-i supr ochii. Dar pn s ne dm seama de ce st cu mna dreapt n
sus, Iorguu ntreab: Ce vrea Ruxandra? Luna, i rspund i el caut repede printre
biscuiii lui, gsete unul n form de lun i l ine suspendat deasupra degetelor ei ridicate
n aer. (pag.12) De aceea, fiecare cuvnt stlcit, pronunat de cei doi, oricare gest mrinimos,
inexplicabil la un adult, toate ntrebrile fr vreun rspuns, care i se adreseaz, se transform
n poezie pur.
Revenim n 1961. An negru pentru literatura romn, cnd au disprut Barbu, Blaga,
Sadoveanu, motiv de ncrctur emoional covritoare pentru Radu Petrescu. Lui Blaga i
admir poeziile publicate postum n Contemporanul, iar la marele povestitor consemneaz:
...Trec pe la Ateneu, unde o mare mulime ateapt s poat intra s-l vad pe Sadoveanu.
...Cer nalt. Prin urmare, n via n-au mai rmas dect Arghezi, Clinescu i Al. Al.
Philippide i literatura romn este aproape decapitat. Muzeul Simu nc n-a expirat, poate
vor fi nevoii s-l dinamiteze. (p. 108) Ceea ce s-a i ntmplat, am vzut, spre consternarea
general. Dintre cei mari ai vremii, mai apar consemnai B., apoi un mare profesor a crui
dispariie ulterioar o deplnge, C., cu care se ntlnete deseori, un amic, cruia i duce
manuscrise la facultate, V., Horia Bernea i M.H.S., ca s-i numim pe cei apropiai, nu doar
simplu invocai.
Romanul de suflet este devorator. Uneori, slbiciunile i sunt sancionate de ea i
partea scris deja se reface. Alteori, mulumit, admite un sentiment de imens relaxare.
Omnisciena se confund cu opera i cu viaa nsi, ntr-un tablou nesigur de predat elevilor
hotri s neleag fenomenul obiectivrii autorului, n raport cu naratorul desemnat: Ieri nu
tiam c Matei va fi gata s adoarm ascultnd-o pe Dora. Integrare total n miezul aciunii,
aventur miraculoas, ca un joc de-a v-ai ascunselea, pentru cel instruit s scrie,
descoperindu-se mnat de necunoscutele ie ale propriei creaii. O ateptare nfrigurat,
surprinztoare i dorit, totodat. Una-dou pagini pe zi, consemnate pur i simplu, deseori
dublate de o stare de nervozitate obiectiv explicat: Mama consider c enervarea mea, cnd
las ua deschis, e o suceal i de aceea are grij s-o lase totdeauna deschis. ...Aproape
dou pagini. Mergnd n ritmul acesta, voi termina prima redactare a crii la patruzeci de
ani. A publicat-o cnd avea 43... Zile cnd recunoate c nu scrie nimic sau cnd un minim
efort cere o atenie i o ncordare deosebite. Apoi retorismul sincer, implicarea agitat
emoional, interpelarea propriei contiine de autor neinspirat. Organizarea specific
scriitorului responsabil, curiozitile menite s duc la cele mai bune alegeri. Procedeul
fostului domn profesor este unul al metodelor moderne de predare, formative, atunci cnd
ntrebrile construite nu sunt dect prilej de invitaie la o demonstraie pe care o bnuieti.
Construcia personalitii personajului intereseaz n cel mai nalt grad, iar grija aceasta este
din ce n ce mai evident. Ce trebuie inclus, ce nu trebuie omis, ce ar putea fi revelator sau,
din contr, inutil i banal. Consistena gndurilor amestecate, nelinitea fireasc deseori
provocat de un suspans, un impediment narativ vor fi, n cele din urm rspltite. Procedeul
este ns unul dureros, deoarece implic un timp nebnuit i rezultatul este, la prima vedere,
unul incert. Urmarea, deconcertarea ateptat, care apare tot premoniial, naintea altui
moment de graie. Merge la Costineti, de ziua Ruxandrei, cu ntreaga familie, ntr-un deja
obicei al casei. Se las prad deliberat artei plastice, semn al linitii sufleteti redobndite:
Peisajele de la Cmpulung ale maestrului, deosebit de frumoase. Culori foarte subiri i
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s-ar uita, prietenoi, la mine. (pag. 264) Altminteri, o scen, la care scriitorul pare s in
extrem de mult, vorbete de la sine despre lumina incandescent cald din casa sufletului
frumos al familiei Petrescu, despre fericirea trit de copii, dincolo de toate lipsurile
regimului, alturi de prinii lor: Iorguu i Ruxandra freac oglinzile cu brnz de vaci i
Ruxandra l freac pe Iorguu cu brnz pe spate, pe bluz. Trebuie s fiu sever, dei
spectacolul m azvrle ntr-al noulea cer... (pag. 296) n prima zi a lui 1963, maestrul se
strduia s-i alunge sentimentul c anul a nceput ru, dar nu se va fi nelat, de vreme ce
fusese mai tot timpul bolnav i nu reuise s finalizeze romanul. Tipurile de intermezzo din
1979 ne confirm dureri abdominale puternice, plecri urgente la spital, n noapte, fr vreo
finalitate fericit trei ani mai trziu l vom pierde pentru totdeauna. Graie acestui artificiu
compoziional, aflm de aprecierea sa pentru nume mari, oameni pe care i-a ntlnit ori pe
care, pur i simplu, i-a admirat sincer: Tia erbnescu (al crei roman Mai multe inele i
amintete de Blaga), Gheorghe Iova (cruia i se adresa cu apelativul domn, ca o recunoatere
a preuirii sale, dei era mai tnr, i pe care l apreciaz pentru c i ncredineaz
manuscrisele, naintea publicrii lor) pictorii Horia Bernea i foarte celebrul astzi Ion
Grigorescu (cel care, din vizit n vizit, i-a devenit ginere), Sorin Mrculescu, Mircea Horia
Simionescu (despre care aflm c a terminat Breviarul n 19 noiembrie) sau Emil Brumaru.
Fascinant plecarea la Londra, cel puin pentru nchiderea cercului obsesiei de-o via, James
Joyce: n faa grii Victoria, noaptea, sosind la Folkestone, unde un timp, a locuit Joyce...
Bibliografie
Mircea Benea, Radu Petrescu-Farmecul discret al autoreflexivitii, Editura Dacia,
Cluj-Napoca, 2000.
Radu Petrescu, Prul Berenicei, Editura Cartea Romnesc, Bucureti, 1981.
Eugen Simion, Sfidarea retoricii, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Editura Cartea
Romnesc, Bucureti, 1985.
Alexandru George, Petreceri cu gndul i inducii sentimentale, Editura Cartea
Romneasc, 1986.
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757
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ntrebri vechi i foarte vechi, de cnd e lumea, dar venic actuale, nu-l ncearc dect foarte
rar i am putea spune prin accident. Reacioneaz, n schimb, firesc la evenimentele de ordin
biografic. O amintire, o cltorie, o anumit situaie inedit sau analog uneia cunoscute
anterior, i declaneaz emoia. Deseori, aceast emoie este rezultatul unui flash-back n
memoria involuntar a scriitorului care transform gndurile sale ntr-un mini-univers specific
liricii lui Aurel Gurghianu. Evocarea unei ntmplri petrecute ntr-o anumit etap a vieii
sale, a unui episod sau a unei mprejurri de acelai ordin, capt un reazim n momentul
aternerii acelor gnduri pe hrtie. Strnit, emoia se rentoarce asupra elementelor ce au
provocat-o, tinznd s le valorifice semnificaia. Dup ce i-a pulverizat sonoritatea
anterioar, care era expresie a unei trasfigurri n diafan a existenei, dintr-un exces de
pudoare, poezia lui Gurghianu i-a impus curajul sinceritii dar nu ca pe o simpl disciplin
sau terapeutic sufleteasc, ci ca pe o ncercare de a proba posibilitile i virtuile limbajului
ca instrument poetic.Fiind sincer cu sine,cu depozitele ascunse ale lumii sale interioare,poetul
era, n acelai timp,sincer cu ntreaga lume i mai ales cu ansa exprimrii ei prin cuvnt
Nu putem spune c poeii contemporani ofer viitorului lor exeget atta material
documentar ct ofer Gurghianu Biografiilor sentimentale. Acestea, ca i n volumele
anterioare, cuprind referiri exacte la natura temperamental a scriitorului, la trecutul lui i al
familiei sale, la relaiile lui prezente, la cltoriile sale prin diferite coluri ale rii sau
cltorii n strintate. Din ultima plachet, cititorul afl, astfel, c poetul s-a nscut ntr-un
sat transilvan (Comuniune), c are prul nainte de timp, c n vara eliberrii patriei era
proaspt recrut, colindnd pridvoarele rii (Retrospecie n August), c nc tnr a fost
nvtor n sat, purtnd haine rneti ciudate care ar sta bine azi ntr-un muzeu al familiei
(Acolo), c mama i seamn la chip i poart broboad neagr nc din vremea tinereii
(Restituire), c tatl la patruzeci de ani a fost n prima conflagraie mondial ctana
mpratului, avea prul aidoma feciorului su mai mic, mini de aur nvate cu pligul i cu
coasa, i-i plcea s nchine cni de pmnt pline cu vin (Evocare), c cele trei surori au
preluat n cas sarcinile ce-i reveneau primului nscut n linie brbtreasc i apoi s-au
risipit, crendu-i fiecare cminul i propriul univers (Trei), c fratele mai mic perpetueaz
prin timp sufletul duios al prinilor (Fratelui), c unul dintre nepoi poart acelai nume ca
poetul (Urmaul), c un unchi, comandant de nav, a czut undeva pe Dunre, cmd vasele
romneti ntoarser prora spre apus (Pe o teras nalt la mare), c o fptur din alt spi
i de pe alte meleaguri, o Laura, ivit mai trziu pe alt rostire-n spiral e prezent
nencetat n gndurile lui (Celei prezente), c, n fine a vizitat hidrocentralele de pe Arge i
de pe Bistria, a vzut podul ce unete trmul romnesc de cel bulgar, a admirat frumuseea
mrii i, n fiecare var, triete sentimentul neuitatelor plaiuri natale. Luate n sine, putem
nelege aceste date informative pe care ni le ofer Aurel Gurghianu i totodat putem deduce
faptul c familia a nsemnat enorm pentru poet, nsemna totul, conform celor mrturisite de
soia scriitorului.
ncercarea lui Aurel Gurghianu de a transforma faptul biografic n materie liric,
generatoare de emoii cu adevrat ptrunztoare o mai ntlnim i la ali poei precum George
Cobuc n Mama sau la Octavian Goga n Btrnii, Apostolul sau Dsclia. n cazul poeilor
enumerai acetia reuesc s nu scrie nite biografii mai mult sau mai puin sentimentale, ci
adevrate autobiografii, n care sunt nsumate o suit de sentimente profunde, o micare
psihologic, un adevr moral, o realitate temperamental. De exemplu, Cobuc, evocndu-i
mama, o surprinde ntr-o stare menit a sugera drama ateptrii (i George nu mai vine!...)
i, simultan n ceea ce-l privea, drama omului nstrinat. Privite din acest unghi, biografiile
lui Gurghianu au tendina de mrginire la nregistrarea unor detalii exterioare, cronologice, s
sublinieze din cnd n cnd cteva trsturi caracteriologice, s descrie, s afirme existena
dintre poet i familia sa, fr a rscoli n straturile adnci ale contiinei, ale sentimentelor clar
definitorii pentru fiecare membru din familia sa.
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ibidem
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limitele unei anumite inute o prestan interioar pe care forul subiectiv era atent s o
respecte. Privind lucrurile din perspectiva momentului actual, se pare c s-ar putea vorbi
despre o anumit convenie liric n poezia lui mai veche;uznd de posibilitile oferite de
cuvinte o anumit convenabilitate a lirismului,niciodat pogort in zone de infern niciodat
lipsit de ceea ce s-ar putea numi o costumaie acceptabil pentru iesirea n lume,dei erau
destule semne c la subsolul proceselor afective,de sensibilitate i contiint, ale eului poetic,
ar zcea ascuns un univers de umbre.S-ar fi putut specula,pe aceast direcie tematic,ceea ce
critica noastr n-a fcut,totui,n jurul proceselor interne care raporteaz i determin,unul
printr-altul, cele dou teritorii, cel de lumin,esut muzical al versului scris, cel de
umbr,tinuit din pudoare,poate, al simirii.S-ar fi putut gsi,in acest caz sursa poeticii lui
Aurel Gurghianu n actul convertirii la convenabil frumusee a unui depozit dramatic
ntunecat,iar atunci,aspectul uneori comun al versului su ar fi aflat justificare n ceea ce ar fi
putut prea adevrata micare poetic, nescris n cuvnt, dar detectabil n procesul alchimic
al poeziei,n convertirea dramei n frumos diafan i pur. Poetica lui ar fi presupus deci un
exces de pudoare sau,i mai bine,o pudoare cu virtui transfiguratoare.
Ultimele dou volume, aprute, unul la editura Eminescu (Poarta cu sgei), cellalt la
editura Dacia (Temperatura cuvintelor), cu tot decalajul apreciabil dintre ele, pun piatr de
hotar unei cotituri decisive n poezia lui Aurel Gurghianu. Cea dintai impresie de lectur a
celui dinti volum amintit gsete deschise porile spre subterane;universul cu semnul minus
al suferinei i proceselor obscure, ne nconjoar: tema mai veche,a naintrii n vrst,
cunoate acum modulaii grave pn la terifiant,iar din vers se ridic,brutal n sinceritatea-i
brbteasc,ateptarea rece nspimntat a morii: ''Unde voi merge eu \ va veni si vremea cu
mine \ purtndu-m pe roi de ''floarea soarelui''\ca vara stins\ avnd pe ochi o dulce
gngveal\din glasul bocitoarelor \de-acut mil'' ;la fel, modulat pe registre grave , de
fapt, reluat n ipostaze de contratem,poezia nu mai presupune procesul diafanizrii
sentimentelor,i atitudinilor, ci deschiderea lucid a unui rece ochi asupra nelesului de
suferin al dragostei:Clipa rupe zilnic din mine \cte-o celul\ pe care nu i-o mai pot
drui``.n rest, versul, contorsionat dup profilul unui zbucium interior,abund n
solilocvii,viziuni de comar,exerciii pe portativul grotescului i al umorului negru.Pentru
acest capitol din poezia lui Gurghianu motto-ul cel mai potrivit ar fi urmtoarele versuri: e o
nopate a duhurilor\ care m caut...''Cea mai notabil realizare, Cai cu panaele negre, desen
oniric nfiorat de nu-tiu-ce semeie interioar a eului liric care-i gsete, ntr-o astfel de
imagine orgolioas, corespondent i punct de sprijin: Au trecut azi-noapte peste\ Siutghiol\
cai cu panaele negre \ca nite heruvimi\ ai adncurilor\lovind valurile cu potcoave-deargint.\Duceau brbai necai\ de pe plajele lumii\ i multe star-uri\ cu gturi de lebd\i cu
manteluri uoare\(Trecea i-o dragoste foarte veche \ de-a mea\risipindu-i seminele in aer\
ca o pstaie prea coapt.)Caii,\caii cu panaele negre!\Infuzia sngelui meu\i trecea
dincolo,\cu marea lor greutate,\ petrecndu-i, cu lacrimi n ochi,\n transcendent!''
Ce s-a petrecut,de fapt,cu poetica lui Aurel Gurghianu? Acelai volum din care am
citit pn acum ne arat nu numai schimbarea de decor pentru un act dramatic i sumbru, dar
mai ales o privire a lucrurilor (nelese fiind, sub acest cuvnt, marile teme poetice precum
istoria, moartea sau dragostea, deci lumea ntreag)dintr-o perspectiv de profunzime
subconstientic nocturn. Expresia foarte fericit, prin care noua ipostaz a eului liric,se
definete,ca somnambul al istoriei, ne indic nu o ndeprtare de real,de contingen ci o privire
a lui din interior,o scormonire a dimensiunilor i trmurilor ascunse. Contiina
istoriei,sentimentul participrii,al consubstanialitii cu un destin colectiv rmne;noua
perspectiv chiar l ascute, investindu-l cu mai largi posibiliti de cuprindere n nelesuri:
Oasele de mult mcinate\ i sting lent\ fosforescena lor ultim-n mine''. Sau grandioasa
imaginede comar uria i grotesc:'' De oboseal,\ braul legat i atrn greu\ca o reptil
umflat\pe care ade veacul si plnge''. Rezultatul final, pe care tocmai poezia final a
760
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Mircea Tomu, Istorie literar i poezie, Editura Facla, Timioara, 1974, pag.194
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
Aurel, Gurghianu, Ascult strada, Editura Tineretului, Bucureti, 1969
Aurel, Gurghianu, Temperatura cuvintelor, Editura Dacia, Cluj- Napoca 1972
Aurel, Gurghianu, Curenii de sear, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1976
Aurel, Gurghianu, Drumuri, Editura De Stat Pentru Literatura i Arta, Bucureti
1954
Aurel, Gurghianu, Zilele care cnt, Editura Tineretului, Bucureti, 1957
Aurel, Gurghianu, Linitea creaiei, Editura pentru literatura, Bucureti, 1962
Aurel, Gurghianu, Biografii sentimentale, Editura Tineretului, Bucureti, 1965
Aurel, Martin, Poei contemporani, Editura pentru literatur, 1967
Mircea, Tomu, Istorie literar i poezie, Editura Facla, Timioara, 1974
Victor, Felea, Poezie i critic, Cluj-Napoca: Dacia, 1971
762
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Abstract: The Romanian Post-Avangarde developed between two clusters, the Surrealist
circle and the group of poets grouped around the short-lived "Albatros. The magazine and
the group itself did not impose a certain type of discourse, but it encouraged freedom of
expression, novelty, originality, authenticity and, moreover, the insurgence, in a charming
disarray of lack of any rules. The insurgent discourse brings all these different poetical
sensibilities together and, thus, creates a star: Geo Dumitrescu, the groups defiant and
impudent leader, whose poetry would create a true poetical school, inherited by Marin
Sorescu and most of the Romanian Postmodern poets.
Keywords: discourse, irony, insurgence, defiance, anti-poetry.
Geo Dumitrescu face parte din generaia pierdut ori, cu alt nume, generaia
rzboiului, alturi de Constant Tonegaru, Ion Caraion, Dimitrie Stelaru, sau, altfel spus,
grupul de la Albatros. Impunndu-se ca lider al grupului. n 1941 (la 10 martie), Geo
Dumintrescu scoate, mpreun cu un grup de amici (Dinu Pillat, Al. Cerna-Rdulescu, Tib.
Tretinescu, Marin Srbulescu, printre alii), revista Albatros, suprimat dup doar 7 numere.
Poezia contestatar promovat aici vizeaz dou aspecte: pe de o parte, ea exprim oroarea
fa de rzboi, pe de alta, neag vechile tehnici poetice.
Caracteristic tuturor le va fi ns percepia direct a unei realiti demitizate, nelese
polemic, n contradicie cu tendina eroizant, patriotard a poeziei acelor vremuri. Procesul
de refocalizare a realitii este extins i asupra subiectului liric, eroul principal n poezia lui
Geo Dumitrescu sau Ion Caraion. De altfel, lirica poeilor de la Albatros mizeaz pe
dominanta subiectiv1. Total diferit va aprea i perspectiva discursiv, unde poetul
exploreaz trmuri noi ale lirismului, cutnd temele considerate nepoetice i cuvintele
impure, ignobile ale limbajului cotidian. Geo Dumitrescu i generaia rzboiului nu se
mulumesc s fac poezie, ci suspecteaz nsui modul n care aceasta e creat, precum i
fundamentele ei. Bnuit de filistinism, de capitulare i afiliere la burghezie n nelesul dat
de Baudelaire i simboliti -, poezia va suferi asaltul revoltei tinerilor poei: teme, formule,
stiluri vor fi toate dinamitate.
Faptul c aceast modernitate zbuciumat se regsete n poezia generaiei pierdute
motiveaz o alipire a acesteia la avangardismul definit de Nicolae Manolescu. Aceast
apropiere este posibil cu att mai mult cu ct singura adevrat intoleran a acestui tip de
avangard este academismul, arta instituionalizat, mpotriva creia lupt i gruparea de la
Albatros. De asemenea, eliberarea formelor subiectivitii este mai mult dect evident n
poezia liderului de generaie Geo Dumitrescu, precum i varietatea registrelor stilistice. n
sprijinul acestei nrudiri vine i componenta etic a avangardismului lui Manolescu, ce se
extinde nu numai asupra literaturii n genere i asupra poeziei n spe, ci asupra ntregii
realiti. Substana poeziei lui Geo Dumitrescu este una etic, va scrie Manolescu, dar n mai
1
Coord. Gheorghe Crciun, Istoria literaturii romne pentru elevi i profesori, Editura Cartier, Chiinu, 2004, p. 733
763
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mare msur, i social, filosofic.2 Geo Dumitrescu resimte acut realitatea scoas din
ncheieturi. Ironia va aciona de multe ori ca un scut menit s apere sensibilitatea febril a
unui sentimental deghizat ntr-un teribilist nonconformist, ce sufer privind la spectacolul
lumesc greit din juru-i. Poezia va deveni astfel o ncercare de ndreptare a lui. Mimnd
indiferena, poetul va atinge problemele cele mai acute, ncercnd s scuture amoreala,
ineria ce mpiedicau bunul mers al lucrurilor.
Avangarditii pe linia descendenei baudelairiene sunt poeii culturii citadine, primii
heralzi ai vieii moderne3. Aici poate fi depistat o diferen ntre avangardismul istoric i cel
al gruprii de la Albatros. Cel din urm cultiv biografismul i realismul, primul, o realitate
pigmentat exotic cu un sim al spectacolului i senzaionalului. Sensul n care realul va fi
descoperit n poezia noastr din ultimul deceniu [deceniul 9, n.n.] nu va fi cel de la Tzara i
Bogza, ci cel de la Geo Dumitrescu4. O alt diferen ntre poezia lui Geo Dumitrescu i
avangarda istoric este mai clara implicare politic a poetului. Valorile - negate ori afirmate erau rareori direct politice n avangarda interbelic; erau, mult mai des, morale i sociale. Iar
fa de poezia de dup a sa, aceea a lui Geo Dumitrescu are n mult mai mare msur spiritul
furios, negator, al avangardei istorice. De aceea spuneam c n-o putem situa nici n
modernitate, nici n postmodernitate, ci mai degrab, n trecerea de la una la alta5. La fel va
privi i Mircea Crtrescu aceast generaie pierdut, gsind n poezia ei semne de
postmodernism i ncercarea, n acelai timp, a liricii romneti de a rmne sincron cu lirica
occidental6.
Oarecum n continuarea tradiiei avangardiste, Geo Dumitrescu vine, mpreun cu un
D. Stelaru sau un Constant Tonegaru, ntr-o a doua avangard s se rfuiasc, plin de avnt,
cu literatura ,,trecut, fad, cu ,,poezia ce moare de prea poezie7, ntrind deja o format
tradiie a frondei i a noutii8. Gh. Grigurcu vorbea, astfel, de un avangardism cronic,
manifestat ca dispoziie difuz de a epata, de a fi mpotriva curentului, un sentiment al
nnoirii,9. Din acest punct de vedere, contaminat de cronicizarea frondei, poetului i-ar fi mai
potrivit formula de avangardism popular, scrie Gh. Grigurcu, calchiat dup
suprarealismul popular, eticheta atribuit lui Jacques Prvert. Specific i-ar fi o vulgarizare a
unei experiene a avangardei, diluat i asociat unei bonomii cursive, unei comunicabiliti
sporite i chiar unei tendenioziti la limita jurnalismului, manifestat ncepnd cu Aventuri
lirice10.
Atacat deja de prima avangard, poezia n formele ei tradiionalizate, nchistate,
deformate la nivel de formule goale de sensibilitate sau viziune poetic va fi din nou luat
cu asalt de generaia '40. Gradul de realism, de autenticitate al expresiei lirice se va evalua
acum, scrie Ion Pop, n funcie de vitalitatea sau de uzura limbajelor motenite, avnd ca
rezultat o nou infuzie de realitate, dar i o mostr de antipoezie11.
Cea mai evident trstur a poeziei va fi fronda, ca i dorina de discreditare n prima
plachet de versuri, Aritmetic, i n antologicul Libertatea de a trage cu puca. Unghiul de
percepie, oricum generos la Geo Dumitrescu, va fi conjugat cu o sensibilitate ulcerat.
Scufundat n concret, poezia trebuia s uite att de abstraciuni, ct i de literaturizrile
excesive cu care ea i celelalte genuri copleeau realul. n acest sens vorbete i Petru Poant
Nicolae Manolescu, Metamorfozele poeziei, Editura pentru literartur, Bucureti, 1968, p.123
Nicolae Manolescu, Despre poezie, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1987, p. 166
4
Ibidem., p. 232
5
Nicolae Manolescu, Despre poezie, ed.cit., p. 228
6
Cf. Mircea Crtrescu, op.cit.
7
Geo Bogza, Gherasim Luca, Paul Pun, Poezia ce vrem s o facem, apud Ion Pop, Jocul poeziei, Casa Crii de tiin, Cluj-Napoca, 2006,
p. 195
8
Cf. Gh. Grigurcu, Teritoriu liric, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1972, p. 36
9
Gh. Grigurcu, Existena poeziei, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1986, p. 47
10
Ibidem, p. 48
11
tefan Aug. Doina, Poei romni. Incursiuni n lirica romneasc, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1999, p. 380
2
3
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despre o resurecie dubl, artistic i social. Poezia i literatura n general nu sunt separate de
via la Geo Dumitrescu i nu au voie s se ascund n turnuri de filde. Dimpotriv, arta
trebuie s fac parte activ din via i s nsoeasc mersul firesc al evenimentelor. Tocmai
de-aici vine sperana, ca i nevoia de certitudini, c, odat schimbat poezia, va putea urma
firesc i-o schimbare a realitii. Din aceast funcie existenial pe care trebuie s o aib
poezia la Geo Dumitrescu a ajuns Nicolae Manolescu la o negare a ironiei ca principiu
fondator i marc individual a poetului: s-a confundat spiritul su sarcastic i vehement cu
acela ironic i ngduitor al modernitilor12. Mai mult, criticul continu, distanndu-l pe Geo
Dumitrescu de modalitile umorist-democratice ale lui Adrian Maniu, Ion Vinea sau G.
Toprceanu13, pentru c e lipsit de tolerana glumea a celorlali autori numii de Grigurcu,
toi mai mult sau mai puin nite hedoniti i nite estei, gata s se amuze de orice, mandarini
ai gratuitii ludice. Din contr, ceea ce sare numaidect n ochi la Geo Dumitrescu este lipsa
umorului. El este un ptima, un fanatic, din spea crora se aleg marii dogmatici, un
sarcastic necrutor (nicidecum un ironic detaat), chiar dac stpnit, un polemist14. Tipic iar fi lui Geo Dumitrescu, aadar, sarcasmul i nu ironia, ns Manolescu vorbete, cu toate
acestea, despre poezii antifrazice, ca Libertatea de a trage cu puca sau Scrisoare nou, or
antifraza e marca cea mai transparent i evident a ironiei.
Ironia nu e i nici nu poate fi la Geo Dumitrescu doar o figur retoric de emfaz, de
mbogire i mpodobire a discursului, i nclinm s credem c n acest sens i neag criticul
ironia lui Geo Dumitrescu (ca, de altfel, i lui Marin Sorescu, a crui figur distinctiv n-ar fi
ironia, ci distanarea). Ironia nu se rezum ns la un ir strlucit i ludic de emfaze gratuite i
poate avea inte dintre cele mai serioase, dictnd o strategie a insurgenei i avnd,
necrutoare, rol demascator i satiric. Ironia poate fi mai mult dect jucria unui adolescent
rebel, devenind i arm i strategie demn de un lumpen al literaturii. Dac sarcasmul neag
totul, nendurtor, biciuind i descalificndu-i subiectul, ironia e mai ireat i mai
constructiv: pe de o parte, ea neag, discredintnd i zeflemisind, dar plasnd n locul
discursului promovat un altul, pe dos sau doar diferit, l promoveaz, indirect, pe aceasta.
Negaia ei nu e niciodat total i nici efectul de vacuum al materiei asupra creia se aplic nu
e complet, pentru c ironia aaz cu necesitate un alt sens n locul celui negat. Chiar atunci
cnd va satiriza i va lovi fr mil, fie din dorina de a corecta, fie de a sanciona, ea va oferi
i alternativa. Aceasta e plus-valoarea ei i avantajul pe care l are asupra sarcasmului. Or, la
Geo Dumitrescu nu se gsete o negaie pur, nici cnd e vorba de o retoric a negaiei, ca n
poezia nceputurilor. Cu Aventuri lirice, Nevoia de cercuri i Jurnal de campanie,
dimensiunea direct afirmativ va deveni tot mai evident, ironia se va calma i se va mblnzi,
pstrndu-i ns o prezen constant, fie de mediere a unei sensibiliti i-a unui patos care
nu se mai ascund dup deget, fie de discreditare a unor stri de lucruri sau mentaliti
nchistate.
Lucian Raicu recunotea n Geo Dumitrescu un ,,spirit demitizant prin vocaie, plictisit
de mitologie, nclinat s-i arate faa grotesc15. n poezia Aventur n cer, o surs de ironie
este pentru el cerul, spaiu predilect al evaziunii lirice. naintea specialistului n tablouri cu
lupa sa demistificant din poezia lui Marin Sorescu, Geo Dumitrescu va privi cerul printr-o
lunet crud, ce nu las loc de iluzii. Nimic din ceea ce oamenii i nchipuie despre cer nu
este adevrat. Demitizarea nu e numai crud, ci ajunge pn la grotesc. Prin intermediul
lunetei, eul liric ptrunde n intimitatea cerului, fapt nepermis pn acum nici unui muritor. i,
dup cum se va vedea, indecena i actul su de curaj i vor cere preul.
Nicolae Manolescu, Literatura romn postbelic. Lista lui Manolescu, vol. I. Poezia., Editura Aula, Braov, 2002, p. 51
De care l apropiase, ns, Gh. Grigurcu
14
Nicolae Manolescu, Literatura romn postbelic. Lista lui Manolescu, vol. I. Poezia., ed.cit., p. 51
15
Lucian Raicu, Structuri literare, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1973, p. 187
12
13
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16
17
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18
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nflcrate, iar noile aventuri lirice vor fi traduse ntr-un vers amplu, curgtor i impetuos n
limbuia lui munteneasc.
Mai aproape de un sim al absurdului va fi poetul n poemele care au ca subiect direct
rzboiul. Acolo ia cunotin de o realitate golit de sens, de un prezent ce nu poate fi integrat
n logica normal a cauzalitii, a principiilor fireti ce guverneaz i aranjeaz percepia
realului, pentru c nu exist categorii pentru aceast realitate belic i belicoas.
O ironie mai dur va aprea n Jurnal de campanie, unde absurdul va fi generat tot de
rzboi i exprimat n limbajul agramat al colonelului, figur aproape expresionist prin
dorina de a-l face simbol negativ i ridicol. Poemul ncepe prin sugestia unui peisaj grotesc,
pustiit de noua condiie a omenirii, incompatibil cu inefabilul naturii: Pleac, fluture, du-te,
niciodat/ nu ieim din rzboi sau al artei: nu mai citesc, nu mai scriu. Starea eului e parc
de permanent veghe, de perpetu pregtire pentru rzboi, devenit condiie fireasc, gesturile
obinuite sunt toate suspendate, iar aciunile sunt reduse la mecanica fr sens presupus de
rzboi (dorm i eu mbrcat, mereu, cu rania-n spare,/ dorm pe mine, dedesubtul meu,
ngropat/ n cartuele trase,/ n cartuele lumii, mi frate..., lampa n-o mai sting, n-o mai
aprind). Adresarea e direct, iar fraternitatea invocat la modul ironic de un amar mi
frate.... Culmea absurdului se atinge prin strigtele ridicole i inepte ale colonelului, jalnice
ordine contradictorii i de-o retoric ilogic i gunoas: V ordon,/ trecei grla, trecei
grla albastr!, - Dar ns totui! Rcni colonelul -/ suntem oameni! Nu v lsai! V
ordon,/ trecei grla, treci grla amar -/ oameni suntem, v ordon tuturor, fr excepie,
Triasc Alfa i Omega, Cubitus i Radius,/ i celelalte constelaii surori! V ordon:/ nu v
lsai! V ordon: nu v lsai/ barb, ori lsai-v barb, v ordon:/ facei cum vrei!....
Cartuele goale vor ngropa, ncet, lumea i pe colonel odat cu ele, n malul ce urca mereu,
vznd cu ochii,/ n malul de cartue trase,/ fumegnde, fierbini,/ cartuele lumii, mi
frate.... Sarcasmul mizeaz pe o redundan ce transform comunicarea n zgomot, n simple
rcnete, deturnnd-o uneori n persiflare prin ordinele absurde i transformnd libertatea de
aciune n obligaie, la fel de belicoas i ea. Ironice expresii uzuale subliniaz grotescul
rzboiului, oameni suntem invoc i colonelul, mi frate va exclama i eul liric.
Comunicarea frizeaz cotele nebuniei, prin cntecul de lume nocturn i n netire, pierdut,
deuchiat, antagonic i sfietor pn la distrugerea posibilitii de comunicare: o,
draaaaga mea, iubiiita mea,/ o, viiiisuriiileee meelee sau: Eulampia/ singur s-a stins...,
pn cnd eul liric va ajunge s repete, mainal, ordinele aberante ale colonelului, lundu-i
locul, ntr-un trist i aberant rol: v ordon, trecei grla, trecei grla amar,/ prin toate
cartuele lumii, mi frate!....
n legendara Libertate de a trage cu puca, absurdul i gsete o exprimare sarcastic
i aproape antiliric. Poezia, tiprit iniial cu titlul Luna de la Trebizonda, n ,,Kalende, nr.
3, martie 1943, e generat de marea conflagraie care marcase att de multe sensibiliti
artistice. Poemul nu vizeaz un conflict anume; ajunge s spui ,,rzboi c s nelegi
,,absurd. Imaginile de la nceput sunt de altfel ndeajuns de gritoare: ,,n groapa neagr,
oamenii, ,,prietenii mei narmai, adic tot attea virtuale morminte, stau de vorb pe
ntuneric, ,,murdari, slabi i patetici ca n Shakespeare. Trimiterea livresc nu e aici
literaturizare a vieii, ci dimpotriv, materializare a tragicului i dramaticului din art.
Ndjduind ,,un atac peste noapte, oamenii nu mai reacioneaz ritualic la rsritul lunii
,,fr casc, de undeva din bezna ghimpat: ,,n-au czut cu feele la pmnt. Vremurile de
trire autentic, de comuniune primordial cu o Epoc de Aur au apus odat cu ,,belicizarea
naturii. Rzboiul ucide nu numai inocena omului, ci i pe a naturii. Dezabuzai, oamenii ,,au
prins igrile discutnd despre libertatea de a trage cu puca/ rezemai comod n groapa neagr
sau poate chiar pe cte-o piatr de mormnt". Nimic nu e surprinztor, nu mai exist mirare n
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faa lumii, pentru c nu mai exist o ordine fireasc i pentru c iluziile lor au fost ucise de
libertatea total.
Printre ei se regsete i poetul care ,,nu e tnrul de 20 i civa ani, ci avea autorul
scriind aceste versuri, ci veteranul istoriei beliciste a umanitii, simbol al condiiei ei
bezmetice19. Autoironizndu-se, poetul intete att n realitatea iraional a conflictului, ct
i n literatura eroizant i patriotard, ce ncerca s motiveze ceva n afara firii; la asediul
Trebizondei, ,,ca un erou din Sadoveanu, eram viteaz i crud", la Waterloo, el se regsete
,,rostandiznd pe pragul unui veac,/ viteaz i inutil i graseiat la culme". Dup povestea
mcelurilor trecute, nlate eroic n vorbe sforitoare i rupte de realitate n literatura cazon,
oamenii se ntorc tot n ,,groapa neagr. Pentru a sugera c nimic nu s-a schimbat, c lumea
nu i-a revenit nc din stupiditatea total a rzboiului, poetul jur ironic pe ce are mai sfnt ,,pistolul cu douzeci i patru de gloane- c parc luna nsi e ,,aceeai/ cu care am
participat la asediul Trebizondei".
i Geo Dumitrescu va adopta libertatea de a trage cu puca i va trage mult, la modul
liric ns, n poezie, deoarece pentru a demasca realitatea, trebuia s demate nti literatura.
Confruntarea cu absurdul pe care l descoper sub forma unei realiti fr de sens,
aceea a rzboiului, i uneori, chiar a unei literaturi fr sens valoric, l aduce rareori pe Geo
Dumitrescu fa n fa cu nihilismul. Din contr chiar, atitudinea sa e anti-nihilist, cci
poetul crede n valori i tie c ele pot reaprea, n via ca i n literatur. Postura dezabuzat
a plachetelor de nceput poate fi apropiat de a aceea a unui nihilism de tip revoluionar, ce
incit fervent la schimbare, ce vrea s mite din temelii lumea i poezia, dar revolta sa e una
ce i simte ct se poate de reale ansele de reuit. Geo Dumitrescu e un poet care are
ncredere, att n oameni i-n poezie, ct i n ansa lor de a realiza o schimbare, iar demersul
su devine tot mai persuasiv cu fiecare nou formul poetic ncercat. Poezia revoltat a
nceputurilor va deveni o poezie social, cu o ideologie sincer pe care poetul o va
mprti prin poezia nu att din convingeri politice, ci estetice, ca sentiment poetic al lumii.
Lumea liric a lui Geo Dumitrescu nu e, ce-i drept, strin de unele accente ideologice
politice, dar poezia sa nu e tezist i nici instrument al propagandei politice. Ea e ideologia
poetic sincer a poetului, modul su de construi lumea i de a o reda apoi la modul liric.
Nihilismul su de la nceputuri nu e, astfel, dect un mijloc de respingere a nonvalorilor i de triere, apoi, a valorilor, demers realizat la umbra unei ironii teribiliste sau
muctoare la nceput, devenit apoi tot mai transparent n aciunea sa afirmativ, pn cnd
poetul va ajunge chiar s-i mrturiseasc strategia de auto-aprare, prin metaforizarea lui
Degringo, urmat apoi de confesiunea iremediabil solidar: ,,Cci cinele Degringo/ se afl
acum, credincios, nedesprit,/ lng ua mea,/ poate chiar undeva n mine.../ Firete,/ a fi
putut s nu v spun acest lucru/ de pe acum,/ i s v silesc s-l inei minte/ pn cnd v va
fi, poate, de folos -/ dar voi tii,/ de mult vreme tii c nu m pricep s mint/ i din aceast
pricin n-am s pot scrie niciodat/ pe poarta inimii mele:/nu intrai, cine ru! (Cinele
de lng pod). Dar nihilism autentic nu se va regsi la Geo Dumitrescu, poet ce crede sincer
n valori, n poezie, n oameni, n schimbare i care va rmne neclintit n credina sa,
devenind tot mai nflcrat i mai locvace n misiunea sa de poeta vates. Pus n faa
absurdului rzboiului, va ncerca s-l anihileze prin solidaritate i s-l previn prin
propovduirea poetic a unor alte valori, vdind, astfel, o ncredere nezdruncinat n poezie.
Bibliografie
Dumitrescu, Geo, Aventuri lirice, Editura pentru literatur, Bucureti, 1963
19
Vl. Streinu, Poezie i poei romni, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1983, p. 430
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Abstract: In the pages of inter-war religious calendars one could find, besides the
acknowledged columns, a rich lyrical variety of religious inspiration. Along with other
contents of these publications, the aim of poetry was to make the Christian readers more
sensitive, to drow them near faith through affectionate, full of grace lines, which raised the
spirit, taking it closer to God.
The selected poets of this study, Zorica Lacu Teodosia, Florea Murean and Vasile Militaru,
are among the confessing saints of communist prisons, real practitioners of Christian
religion, whose work was intensely promoted through Christian publications as calendars,
but which was later forbidden, forgotten or ignored by the literary criticism.
Besides their doubtless literary value, the religious poems written by these poets influenced
the moral-religious profile of orthodox believers and raised from the desire of serving the
people asa fair guide on all virtues ways
Keywords : inter-war period, religious poetry, orthodox calendars, moral profile, Christian
religion
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Motivele par a fi mai mult de ordin politic i ideologic dect valoric.Cu toate acestea Zorica
Lacu a fost considerat o poet minor.
Dei pus ntr-un con de umbr de critici, poezia Zorici Lacu este primit cu
admiraie i preuire de ctre reprezentanii Bisericii ortodoxe, fapt dovedit de publicarea
creaiilor sale n calendarele emise de episcopiile ortodoxe, de cea din Cluj n special.
Calendarul cretinului de lege rsritean pe anul 1947 public dou din poeziile
sale Pne i Spovedanie n paginile sale, care vor aprea anul urmtor n volumul Osana
Luminii.
Poemul Pne aparine volumului Osana Luminii care devine metafora central a
textelor, menit s ptrund misterul, taina rugciunii, relevndu-se permanent n vpaia
focului Iubirii fa de Cel ce este Iubire.Taina cea mare a Euharistiei, mprtirea cu Pinea
i Vinul cele mntuitoare, devin simboluri ale Poeziei. Simbolurile nu sunt n sens propriu, ci
taine ale lumii cretine ndumnezeite, ce se cer descoperite i implicit trite.i nu o trire
oarecare, ci o trire mistic, care presupune ardere luntric, eliberatoare.
Versurile transpun poetic ntruparea Mntuitorului prin Fecioara Maria a crei
castitate este plastic exprimat n sintagma :Maic nenuntit. Compararea rodului divin
matern cu rodirea pmntului prin forele naturii nu face altceva dect s aduc n lumin
Harul lui Dumnezeu ca dttor de via.
Jertfa lui Iisus are pe de o parte sensul bobului de gru care, pentru a aduce roade
nsutite, trebuie mai nti s putrezeasc.Aceasta este, n primul rnd, roada vertical, ce se
aduce pentru desvrirea personal a omului ce se sacrific. De aici vine sfinirea i
ndumnezeirea omului.Dar, pe de alt parte, aceast jertf, pe lng desvrirea personal
mai aduce road orizontal, cci gruntele de gru odat putrezit i apoi crescut,i multiplic
boabele . 1
O alt modalitate de interpretare i are originile n credinele populare: Dup
credina ranilor notri din unele regiuni, dac te uii mai aproape la boabele de gru bagi de
seam c pe fiecare boab de gru e nfiat faa lui Hristos.2
Ovidiu Papadima n cartea sa O viziune romneasc a lumii arat rolul grului n
spiritualitatea romneasc i mentalitatea plugarului romn : grul e i el o fiin care i are
sufletul ei i chiar contiina c vine cu jertfa ei n lumea de legi a universului. Analog,
Hristos, prin asumarea jertfei devine izvor de via pentru ntreaga omenire: i-ai hrzit
fiina Ta zdrobit,/ Acelor muli, cari venic flmnzesc.
Omenirea, n ateptarea venirii unui Mntuitor, i-a hrnit spiritul cu ndejdea vieii
venice, a mai rtcit calea, dar a cutat n permanen semne divine cluzitoare:
Smerii, cu slabe mini nesioase.
n ruga lor din veci te-au ateptat,
Cerind mereu frme luminoase.
Adresarea devine vie, autentic, simboliznd aceeai Tain mare a Euharistiei :
Cu snge i cu lacrimi frmntat,
n focul dragostei Te-ai copt, Hristoase,
i spre viaa venic Te-ai dat.
O alt poezie pe care o regsim n calendare este poezia Spovedanie. Trirea n
mediul mnstiresc dezvolt o poetic adnc ancorat n viaa duhovniceasc. Pcatul este o
1
2
Arhimandritul Paulin Lecca, Adevr i Pace, Tratat teologic,Editura Bizantin, 2003, pp.222-223
Lucian Blaga, Spaiul mioritic, n vol. Opere, 9, Trilogia culturii, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1985, p. 194
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desvrit, poteneaz i mai mult misterul i profunzimea gndului. Toate aceste caliti i
recomand poeziile ca pe nite comori spirituale pe care stenii erau invitai s le descopere n
calendarele religioase.Astfel, dup cum spunea i Maria-Daniela Pnzan4, poezia ei i-a
mplinit menirea: a ndumnezeit lumea, l-a adus pe Dumnezeu n sufletul credincioilor i i-a
nvat cum s-L vad i s-L iubeasc.
Florea Murean
Prezena creaiilor literare ale protopopului Florea Murean n publicaiile Episcopiei
Ortodoxe de la Cluj este urmarea fireasc a bogatei sale activiti literare, publicistice,
culturale n general.
Protopopul dr. Florea Murean a trit vremurile care au cerut jertfe Bisericii Ortodoxe.
A fost unul dintre spiritele luminate ale Clujului de odinioar. Slujitor de prim mn, dascl
iscusit, predicator avntat, misionar neobosit, omul acela masiv, cu un suflet ginga adpostit
ntr-o statur puternic, era i un purttor de cultur umanist n cel mai cuprinztor sens al
cuvntului; n biblioteca sa personal puteau fi vzute nu numai cele vreo zece volume din
opera Sfntului Ioan Hrisostom, ntr-o ediie de limb francez, dar i operele marilor clasici
ai literaturii naionale i universale.5
A colaborat la revistele Renaterea, Viaa ilustrat de la Eparhia Clujului,
Tribuna Ardealului, n anii de ocupaie (1940 - 1945), unde a fost redactor cultural. De
asemenea a fost membru n Societatea Scriitorilor din Romnia, filiala Cluj i n colectivul
Catedrei de Filosofie de la Universitatea Victor Babe Cluj.
Protopopul Florea Murean l-a sprijinit pe Victor Papilian i cenaclul su literar,
punnd la dispoziie casa parohial din str. Bisericii Ortodoxe nr. 10, unde locuia. La edinele
cenaclului participau personaliti ale elitei culturale clujene: Lucian Blaga, Victor Papilian,
Valeriu Anania, Ion Luca, Zorica Lacu, Valentin Raus, Ionel Bolboac, I. Crja-Fgdaru,
Victor Ilieiu, Iosif Maienan, C. Munteanu i alii.
Valeriu Anania, participant la edinele cenaclului din locuina protopopului prof. dr.
Florea Murean, i prezint acestuia portretul astfel: Om aezat, blajin i harnic, foarte iscusit
i cult, apoi activitatea: i puse numele pe o frumoas ediie a Cazaniei lui Varlaam, dar
treburile parohiei, multe i contiincios mplinite, i descurajau proiecte viitoare, de editor, pe
care i le-ar fi vzut dat n jurul unor pietre de temelie ale vechii noastre culturi.6
Prin alctuirea sa sufleteasc, Florea Murean s-a remarcat ca un preot i profesor cu
mare vocaie. Cu nelimitat credin i jertfelnicie a slujit Biserica, potrivindu-i viaa dup
nvtura Sf. Evanghelii, innd cu sfinenie la rnduielile Bisericii strmoeti.
Acest lucru transpare i din alctuirile sale versificate. Le numim astfel ntruct
poeziile sale par mai degrab interpretri ale printelui la pericopele evanghelice. De aici i
denumirea Tlcuiri cretineti sub care sunt reunite versurile sale:
Dumnezeu creind pe om, i-a dat dou mini i-o gur
Tu, dac vrei s fi om, ia i de-ac nvtur:
Nici odat s nu mnci, mai mult dect ai lucrat
Sau s lucrezi totdeauna, mai mult dect ai mncat.
Vorba e ca o sgeat
Maria Daniela Pnzan, Poezia religioas romneasc.Eseu monografic, Alba Iulia, Editura Rentregirea, 2006, pp.153-154.
Bartolomeu Anania, Cuvnt nainte, Grai i suflet romnesc, Editura Arhidiecezana, 1997, p. 23.
6
Valeriu Anania, Rotonda plopilor aprini, Ediia a II-a, Bucureti, 1995, p. 133.
4
5
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George Enache, Printele Florea Mureanu i calea simplitii n Ziarul Lumina, vineri, 8 ianuarie, 2010
ibidem
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Calendarul din 1943 aduce n atenia stenilor asfel de creaii n scopul formrii lor
morale:
Dac ceri pe ceretorul cruia o pine-i dai,
Raiul nu e pentru tine, nici tu nu eti pentru rai...
Miere chiar de i-ai da astfel, nu e fapt de cretin,
Cci, pn s-i guste mierea, i-ai turnat n ea pelin!
Cnd eti sus pe scara lumii, i crezndu-te om mare
Te uii jos la biata turm, cu dispre i cungmfare,
Nu uita c, sus pe munte de-ai ajuns chiar pn la nori
Legea firii e nenfrnt: ai suit? va s cobori.
Dup moarte, - nesfrit, te va cere iari viaa,
Cum, dup ce dormi o noapte, deschizi ochii, dimineaa,
Iar n viaa viitoare, vei avea sau nu dureri,
Dup binele sau rul svrit n via ieri!
Dup acelai model redactorii calendarului pe 1944 includ alte Vorbele cu tlc :
F-l n cea mai mare tain, cnd vrei s faci binele;
Lantunerec i lucreaz, mierea lor albinele!
Cnd te-a ridicat minciuna , - te drm orice rm ;
Adevrul cnd tenal,- nimeni nu te mai drm!
Ct de mare, bogia prin necinste adunat,
Niciodat, pe-a ta frunte nu e stem, ci o pat,
Care, ori ct ai spla-o, nu se terge niciodat.
Acelai calendar propune spre lectur cititorilor rugciuni al cror autor este tot Vasile
Militaru. Acestea fac parte din broura intitulat Spre mpria lui Iisus care cuprinde
rugciuni pentru diferite vrste, stri i ocazii: rugciunea colarului i a copilului bun, a
orfanului i a sracului, a bolnavului i a plugarilor; rugciuni de diminea, dup mas i
sear, pentru iubirea aproapelui, pentru iertarea pcatelor, pentru prini, pentru luminarea i
mntuirea sufletului.
Rug pentru ertarea pcatelor nchipuie starea cretinului aflat la spovedanie. Tonul
poeziei ns este lipsit de gravitate, mprumutnd din inocena copiilor care recunosc greelile
fcute, dar tiu c Dumnezeu ca un printe nelegtor i iubitor i iart:
Dumnezeule ndurate,
Iart multele-mi pcate
i-mi ajut, pe-al Tu plac,
Altele s nu mai fac!
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Abstract: My communication aim at the way how in response to the official Soviet ideology
the Lucian Blagas creation becomes a kind of totem-intertextemma. During the 60s and
70s, the Bessarabian poetry makes of the Romanian predecessor's Pantheism the very
complementary ideology in which his archetypal symbols becoms true "semantic intertextual
attractors": The Silence, The Old / Archaic Things, The Light, The Star, The Longing, The
Zodiacal Signs, The Dusk, The Mystery, The Seed, The Blood, and The Four Stihiale Elements
(The Dust, Fire, Air and Water), as revived Expressionism items.
Keywords: The Bessarabian poetry in the broader Romanian literary context, Lucian Blaga,
semantical intertextuali attractors, Pantheism, resistance through culture
Ion Simu, Cele patru literaturi // Romnia literar, an XXVI, nr. 29/28, iulie-3 august 1993, p. 3-4
Dup cercettorii rui K. Sidorenko i V. Mokienko, intertextema cuprinde segmentul relaional al structurii coninutului implicat n
legturile dintre texte, de exemplu gramatical (derivare morfo-semantic, morfologie, sintax), lexical, prozodic (ritmico-intonaional),
strofic i compoziional, . ., . . , , ., - .-. ; -, 1999, . 22
2
3
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Dar Marele Anonim are legea la cel ce s-arat / doar numai cu dar pentru lume, / i
dup ce-l las la poart / ascunde i urme i urme (Leo Butnaru). Anume despre zdrnicia
unei asemenea aventuri se lamenteaz i Ion Hadrc:
n zadar te mistui sub icoana sfnt,
Frumuseea lumii nainte-i, sus
Pn-i dibui chipul, rtceti cuvntul,
Pn-aduni cuvntul, anii i s-au dus
(Frumuseea lumii),
chiar dac experiena o triau, toto coelo, i predecesorii lui lirici, tovari egali ntru
experien poetic i canon estetic pe linia anxietii de a fi influenat emis de ctre criticul
american Harold Bloom:
E o frm de mister (...)
C vrem s-l bnuim n toate ...
Chiar tu eti o enigm-a mea
Pe care tare nu a vrea
Nici s-o dezleg, nici s-o destinui,
Ci-n tain lasu-te s-mi dinui,
Liviu Deleanu, Enigm,
Pstrm n noi o lume / nchis cu zvoare.
Mai bine tim s-ascundem / Dect a ine-afar,
Gheorghe Vod, Cine,
Aflu c i universul are orizonturi, (...)
dau pdurile la o parte,
mi croiesc drum prin muni,
apoi pesc peste dou postate de nori,
dar orizontul tot fuge de mine,
Ion Vatamanu, Orizont,
La suflet i-adevruri
mi umbl, la mistere.
La moarte dnsul umbl,
Dar zice c la miere,
Grigore Vieru, Poetul.
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Pe seminele ce zboar
ntre ceruri i pmnt!
(Gr. Vieru, Fptura mamei),
Cum treci prin lunc, nu pui toat talpa,
Calci iarba ceea lin, i n tcere,
de parc te ai teme pn-i ei
ca nu cumva s i provoci durere
(N. Dabija, Acas).
Ali autori (aptezeciti) preiau motivul cu mai mult detaare, orientndu-l n direcii
mai mult sau mai puin explorate de prima linie. E cazul lui Iulian Filip, care ulterior se va
distana de liderii aptezeciti n favoarea unui stil post-modernist:
psri stau n aer, / contururi desennd
la pomul nc smbur, / visndu-i crengi n vnt,
Spaiu lng smn,
... tocmai cnd pmntul e cald
i bun de ncercat cu bobi de road
n-ai gsit alt timp s-mi iei n drum,
copil cu ochi negri i de prad?
Timp cu vrji.
Nu sunt rare nici emulrile blagiene trecute, iniial, de vama poetic a lui Grigore
Vieru:
Roditoare i att / ar fi livezile, / obinuite ar fi, / dac n-ar
mai fi copiii-poei ce cred / c primvara,-n nopi de mare
tain, / peste ochi de viin / i muguri de cais / plou cu
lapte dulce, / fcndu-i s-nfloreasc
(Leo Butnaru, Copiii-poei),
O s-i creasc, zice lumea,
Gru de-a dreptul din fereti [...],
Gru de-a dreptul din perei [...],
Gru de-a dreptul peste prag [...].
i trziu, la ochiul stelei,
Pe cnd ploaia contenea,
Casa mea, strbuna cas,
Cu cmpia semna.
(Vasile Romanciuc, Trec ploi peste casa-mi),
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Lucian Blaga i poezia basarabean: temelii folclorice // Literatura romn postbelic: Integrri, valorificri, reconsiderri (sub
red. prof. M. Dolgan). Chiinu: Tipografia Central, 1998, p. 182-183; Botnaru T. Poetul gorunului blagian // tiina
(ARM),1995, nr. 4, p. 11
9
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Clopotul necntat,
Copacii stau zgribulii n lumin,
ca ntr-o zpad de fluturi.
Iubito, vino aproape,
s-i sufr lumina n aceste inuturi,
Vine lumina.
Aa cum e i cazul textului Trecerea prin vad a lui Vsevolod Ciornei, ce trebuie
neles, probabil, ca pe o subtil profanare a consacratei formule blagiene: E ca abecedarul
simpl / aceast trecere prin vad; din toate cte mi se-ntmpl / doar moartea nu mi s-antmplat.
Registrul unui Departe amenintor (Tu taci. i mi se pare c nu te-am ntrebat./ Tu
nu apari i-mi pare c n-are rost s apari) l predispune pe eroul liric la o angoas
cosmologic previzibil:
Uite, plec din lume cnd s-ar prea c vin,
m risipesc n toate cu gndul s m-adun.
Vom remarca, pe post de observaie final, c basarabenii i asum prin rolul lor de
vitregii ai sorii calitatea de intermediari estetici ctigai din confruntarea estetic a celor
dou culturi europene, aa cum constata nc reformatorul liricii ruse Velimir Hlebnikov n
poemul Eu pentru voi sunt o stea10 (1908-1909):
Oh, dostoevskul nor rebel!
Oh, pukin sleit-amiaz-a zilei!
i noaptea pare fix ca Tiutcev, cel
Legat de nepmnteasc noastr fire.
Bibliografie general
a) n romn, francez i rus
Barthes, Roland, Texte (theorie du) / Enciclopaedia Univiversalia, vol. XV, 1968
Bncil, Vasile, Lucian Blaga, energie romneasc, Timioara: Editura Marineasa,
1995
Derrida Jacques, L ecriture e la difference, Paris: Seuil, 1967
Eminescu, Mihai, Strngerea literaturii noastre populare, mss 2257, f.61-62
Simu, Ion, Cele patru literaturi // Romnia literar, an XXVI, nr. 29/28, iulie-3
august 1993
10
, !
, !
, ,
.
791
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. ., . . , ,
., - .-. -; -, 1999
b) Corpus belestristic autori basarabeni i cernueni
Brldeanu, Lucreia, Rou de cuvinte, Chiinu: Editura Literatura artistic, 1988
Butnaru, Leo, Smbt spre duminic, Chiinu: Editura Literatura artistic, 1983
Bou, Pavel, Scrieri alese, Chiinu: Editura Literatura artistic, 1983
Cibotaru, Arhip, Spaii, Chiinu: Editura Cartea Moldoveneasc, 1971
Cibotaru, Arhip, ntre lume i cuvnt, Chiinu: Editura Cartea Moldoveneasc, 1976
Chiriac, Teo, Lucrare de control, Chiinu: Literatura artistic, 1987
Cioclea, Eugen, Numitorul comun, Chiinu: Editura Literatura artistic, 1989
Cioclea, Eugen, Alte dimensiuni, Chiinu: Editura Literatura artistic, 1990
Ciornei, Vsevolod, Cuvinte i tceri, Chiinu: Editura Literatura artistic, 1989
Dabija, Nicolae, Ap nenceput, Chiinu: Editura Literatura artistic, 1986
Dabija, Nicolae, Zugravul anonim, Chiinu: Editura Literatura artistic, 1980
Dabija, Nicolae, Arip sub cma, Chiinu: Editura Literatura artistic, 1985
Damian, Liviu, Inima i tunetul, Chiinu: Editura Literatura artistic, 1981
Filip, Iulian, Nempcatul meter, Chiinu: Editura Literatura artistic, 1978
Filip, Iulian, Hulub de pot, Chiinu: Editura Literatura artistic, 1983
Meniuc, George, Vremea Lerului, Chiinu: Editura Cartea Moldoveneasc, 1969
Meniuc, George, Florile dalbe, Chiinu: Editura Literatura artistic,1979
Popa, Nicolae, Timpul probabil, Chiinu: Editura Literatura artistic,1985
Romanciuc, Vasile, Genealogie, Chiinu: Editura Cartea Moldoveneasc, 1974
Teleuc, Victor, Scrieri alese, Chiinu: Editura Literatura artistic, 1985
Tulnic, Vitalie, Culori i anotimpuri, Chiinu: Editura Cartea Moldoveneasc, 1974
urcanu, Andrei, Cmaa lui Nessos, Chiinu: Editura Literatura artistic, 1988
Vatamanu, Ion, La mijlocul ierbii, Chiinu: Editura Lumina, 1967
Vatamanu, Ion, Ora psrii, Chiinu: Editura Cartea Moldoveneasc, 1974
Vieru, Grigore, Un verde ne vede, Chiinu: Editura Literatura artistic, 1976
Vieru, Grigore, Taina care m apr, Chiinu: Editura Literatura artistic, 1983
792
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Abstract: In this paper, we propose a research on the role that female character plays in the
shaping of the fantastic element, without pursuing a pretension of exhaustiveness in the
analysis of the phenomenon, but an overall crossing, in a random perspective, through a
number of authors and texts where the woman plays an important role in dealing with the
fantastic. Thus, we will structure the article around three forms of textual game with the
symbolism of the female: the games of darkness (the devil-woman), the games of attraction
(the seductive-woman) and the games with the fear (the monster-woman). Also, this paper
will try demonstrate that the demonic perspective about the feminine gender in fantasy prose
is not all the time a general theory.
Keywords: fantasy, female gender, prose, devil.
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fiind vzut prin genul feminin. nfptuind pcatul strmoesc i mncnd fructul oprit,
femeia cade prad viciului i devine adjuvant al Diavolului. Acesta e primul element care
diabolizeaz genul feminin: prima mam a pcatului(Delumeau, 1986: 216), femeia este
arma Necuratului. Alte caracteristici negative care au transformat genul feminin ntr-un nefast
sunt: faptul c femeia ispitete brbaii chemndu-i spre pcatul sexual, vrjitoria i
farmecele, agent al idolatriei(Delumeau, 1986: 194), fcndu-l pe brbat s uite de alte
credine, ignorana, orgoliul i superficialitatea feminin, femeia-adulter etc. Toate aceste
aspecte au declanat apariia unei pctoase literaturi misogine, scrieri n care genul feminin a
fost denigrat i plasat sub semnul Satanei. Tot acest dispre rutcios, vehiculat pn n ziua
de astzi, este rezultatul, credem, al unei frici nscute n faa misterului unui gen complicat,
greu de neles de ctre brbat, care a ales mereu s l ignore i s l eticheteze cu cele mai
negative atribute. Aceasta este i cauza conturrii n literatur a unor multiple mti feminine
creatoare de fantastic, cci fundamentul oferit de istoria nefast a acestui gen este nelimitat
pentru a creiona poveti ct mai neobinuite.
Catalogul tematic fantastic propus de ctre Roger Caillois permite i cuprinde n toate
punctele sale o situaie concret de text n care regsim dezvoltat tema femeii creatoare de
cadru fantastic: pactul cu Diavolul (n Taina n care s-a pierdut Sonia Condrea de Laureniu
Fulga), sufletul chinuit care pretinde pentru odihna sa ca o anumit aciune s fie ndeplinit
(Aranca, tima lacurilor de Cezar Petrescu; Strania Domnioar Ruth de Laureniu Fulga),
strigoiul condamnat la o rtcire venic i fr el (Vera de Villiers de l'Isle Adam,
Domnioara Cristina de Mircea Eliade), moartea personificat, aprnd n mijlocul celor vii
(Masca morii roii de Edgar A. Poe), lucrul de nedefinit i invizibil, dar apstor, care este
prezent, care ucide sau care face ru (poate n Berenice de Edgar A. Poe), vampirii (Moarta
ndrgostit Th. Gautier), statuia, manechinul (Venus din Ille de Prosper Mrime;
Hierogamie de Vladimir Colin), blestemul unui vrjitor, care atrage o boal ngrozitoare
(Fitul mturii, seara de Vladimir Colin), Femeia-fantom, venit din lumea cealalt,
seductoare i ucigtoare (Galben i negru de Vladimir Colin, Lacrima i Femeia din
ntuneric de Victor Papilian), intervertirea domeniilor visului i realitii (Ultimul cer a lui
Sebastian de Vladimir Colin) etc.
Ne propunem astfel o analiz a felului n care este surprins genul feminin n proza
fantastic, el nsui productor de element neobinuit prin simpla sa prezen, structurnd
cercetarea de fa pe trei forme de joc textual cu simbolistica femeii: jocurile ntunericului
(femeia-diavol), jocurile atraciei (femeia-seductoare) i jocurile cu frica (femeia-monstru).
Trebuie s recunoatem c n majoritatea cazurilor cele trei mti invocate se ntreptrund,
genul feminin fiind n permanen un cumul de pulsaii diverse, misterul care l caracterizeaz
permind libertate total n manifestare.
2. Jocurile ntunericului: femeia-diavol
Aa cum aminteam i n prima parte a lucrrii, femeia este cel mai des asociat cu un
adjuvant al Diavolului, reiternd pcatul original i practicnd artele ntunericului. Astfel, nu
e nici un motiv de surprindere s vorbim despre vntoarea de vrjitoare i frica provocat de
ctre ideea existenei acestor creaturi. Interpretat ca o vast conspiraie mpotriva Bisericii
(Delumeau, 1986: 293) magicienii au reuit s suprvieuiasc de-a lungul timpului, n ciuda
pedepselor cu arderea pe rug, datorit/din cauza faptului c ei moteniser dintr-un trecut
deprtat formulele i liturghiile (nocturne) capabile s aduc fertilitate ori s loveasc n
dumani(Delumeau, 1986: 297). n paralel cu aceste idei, putem face referire la textul lui
Vladimir Colin, Fitul mturii, seara, pentru a discuta raportul ce se stabilete n acest caz
ntre vrjitorie i fertilitate. Descris ca un personaj macabru, o mturreas btrn arunc n
casa unei femei o pu hidoas din crp, motivnd c obiectul ciudat a czut de la geam: -E
a ta, rnji. A czut adineauri, i-am aruncat-o, ia-o!. nc din incipitul nuvelei avem clar
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conturat o imagine clieu a vrjitoarei cu mtur, care arunc obiecte magice n casa
oamenilor spre a perverti locul sfnt. Hidoenia ppuii nu o mpiedic pe femeie s o
pstreze i s o aeze cu grij pe patul su. Acceptarea elementului vrjit n propria cas e una
din condiiile principale ale ndeplinirii magiei, iar femeia plimb, ca ntr-o trans, ppua
prin toate camerele locuinei sale vorbind cu aceasta i prezentndu-i noul cadru. Al doilea
element al realizrii vrjii st n izolarea de ceilali: magia se produce n absena unor martori.
Femeia realizeaz c e singur n cas, groaza o cuprinde n totalitate i n tot acest spaiu al
solitudinii, magia se produce: ppua din mna ei dispare, ia rn ultima camer apare un copil
(Odaia era la fel de rece ca toate cele vzute pn atunci, dar pe covor, n mijloc, zcea pe
spate un prunc gol.). Interpretnd n cheia fertilitii vrjitoarelor, acest bebelu poate fi chiar
modul prin care se realizeaz continuitatea acestei grupri oculte: plasarea parazitar a
urmailor n familii n care s creasc n afara oricrui pericol.
Vorbind despre o anumit familiaritate cu moartea(Delumeau, 1997: 44), Jean
Delumeau crede c singura fric provocat de gndul apropierii morii este cea nscut nu din
sfrirea vieii, ci cea fa de pcatul svrit pe parcursul vieii i mntuirea pe care e posibil
s nu o primim. Cercettorul e de prere c exist un anumit discurs macabru(Delumeau,
1997: 50), care ne poate pregti pentru a accepta, cu mplinire spiritual, moartea. Indiferent
de aceste aspecte, credem c omul a resimit i va resimi ntotdeauna o anumit team n faa
nimicniciei pierderii n moarte. Din aceast fric ascuns a omului se nate i nuvela Masca
morii roii de E. A. Poe. Trebuie s mai precizm nc un aspect important: moartea a fost
perceput mai mereu la genul feminin. Astfel, baricadndu-se n castel de frica Morii Roii,
prinul Prospero organizeaz un bal extravagand care s l fac att pe el, ct i pe invitaii s
uite de apropierea sfritului. Cele apte sli n care se desfura petrecerea, decorate ntr-un
amestec de gotic i fantastic, reprezint cadrul nchis al creionrii situaiei neobinuite:
apariia unei mti care avea chipul unui cadavru nepenit, cu vemntul vopsit n snge,
iar fruntea ei larg i trsturile obrazului fuseser stropite cu acea grozav culoare
purpurie(E. A. Poe, 1992:56). Moartea Roie, personajul care nu era invitat la bal i care
sosise pe drum de noapte, ca un tlhar, ajunge s transforme petrecerea ntr-un ceremonial al
morii. Aceasta e o alt form de fantastic care se nate din conturarea femeii ca adjuvant al
Diavolului, devenit Moarte roie i lund sufletele oamenilor pe lumea cealalt.
Femeia-diavol care i macin sntatea i care te conduce spre nebunie i crim este
cea care apare atent creionat n Berenice de E. A. Poe. Boala fr leac de care sufer
personajul eponim pare a fi un fel de posedare diavoleasc: o boal cumplit s-a abtut ca o
vijelie peste trupul ei; i chiar n timp ce o priveam, duhul ru al prefacerilor a rpit-o,
cotropindu-i minile, depinderile i tulburndu-i n chipul cel mai viclean i mai groaznic felul
de a fi(E. A. Poe, 1992: 8). Apelnd la pcatul erotic, Berenice i seduce vrul, care face o
obsesie pentru dinii albi ai acesteia. Dup moartea femeii-diavol, tnrul pare a deveni i el
posedat i sub impulsul obsesiei ajunge s profaneze mormntul lui Berenice i s i scoat cu
mult sadism toi dinii din gur. Tot acest joc al prezenei clare a Diavolului n om, a posedrii
i al dezumanizrii este rezultatul integrrii n text a genului feminin ca element catalizator al
fantasticului.
3. Jocurile atraciei: femeia-seductoare
Cntecul de siren al femeii-seductoare, care corupe brbaii n pcatul trupesc i
care anuleaz orice urm a religiosului i sacrului din lume, reprezint o alt masc pe care
genul feminin a primit-o de-a lungul timpului. Jocurile atraciei femine reprezint, poate, cele
mai intense i ampe forme care pot fi topite ntr-o proz fantastic. Femeia, nger demonic,
apeleaz la farmecele sale, la frumuseea i graia sa, la talentul ei matern i subjug brbatul,
care e att de slab n faa misterului feminin.
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n textul lui Vladimir Colin, Ultimul cer a lui Sebastian, ntr-un joc al cosmogoniei
magice, a realizrii de ceruri suprapuse n culori ct mai diverse, Sebastian ntlnete o
prezen magic, feeric: femeia mrii, o prezen graioas i misterioas care l vrjete i l
face s cad prad erosului. Fiind un element al nefatului, aceast prezen feminin i va
aduce personajului principal moartea, prin prbuirea din naltul cerurilor i anularea creaiei
prin visare. Iluziile lui Sebastian sunt destrmate de iluzia femeii cu plete de muchi verde.
ntr-un alt text, prozatorul romn dezvolt aceeai tem a pierderii n moarte prin cderea sub
jugul femeii-seductoare. n Galben i negru personajul masculin devine obsedat de o femeie
cu aripi frnte, care merge din farmacie n farmacie, cutnd Luminal. Acest nger ce
vieuiete printre oameni ajunge s devin o obsesie erotic, iar srutul pe care i-l vei fura s
fie unul al morii. Spaima i durerea contactului carnal l conduc pe brbat pe patul de spital,
ntr-o operaie din care nu reuete s scape cu via.
Dama de trefl este femeia din ntuneric pentru avocatul din nuvela cu acelai nume,
scris de ctre Victor Papilian. Jocul de cri este un alt viciu cotat drept pcat capital. Tocmai
din ndeplinirea pcatului se nate forma diavoleasc a femeii-seductoare: o femeie
misterioas, numit femeia din lumin, atrgtoare, a crei prime apariii este o iluzie n
oglind (care, dup cum tim, expune n general forme demonice, dintr-o alt lume). Ulterior,
ajunge s o ntlneasc i sub form carnal, ntr-un parc. Numit de ctre brbat femeia
fatal, acest demon al oglinzii i se druiete avocatului, care are impresia c totul se produce
n vis. Rentlnind-o, n preajma unor martori, femeia i mrturisete c nu e proiecia pe care
el o vzuse n oglind, ci doar o simpl fat care i s-a druit pentru a-i nela soul i pentru
a-l pedepsi. Dar pentru c avem o femeie care e dublu nscut din oglind, avocatul ajunge s
fie mpucat de ctre o alt femeie misterioas (care, conchide el, e una i aceeai femeie,
femeia unic, femeia fatal). n textul Lacrima, Victor Papilian dezvolt aceeai idee a
coruperii unui brbat de ctre o prezen feminin fantomatic, plsmuire a imaginaiei.
Proeicie a reginei Nefert-Iti i/sau a Criei Mitan, femeia din aceast nuvel este tot o for
malefic care tulbur gndirea i viaa personajului principal.
Textele n care alteritatea feminin, sub forma seductoarei, este ilustrat cel mai bine
i cel mai complet sunt, poate, dou nuvele ce i aparin scriitorului romn Laureniu Fulga:
Strania Domnioar Ruth i Taina n care s-a pierdut Sonia Condrea. n primul text, masca
femeii-seductoare i aparine personajului eponim, domnioara Ruth, damnat s i plng
sear de sear, prin cntecul viorii, iubitul mort ntr-un accident de tren. Sunetul viorii este un
sunet al subjugrii, al vrjirii brbailor, care cad prad magiei femeii: Domnioara Ruth e
blestemat, n vioara Domnioarei Ruth st nchis, ca o tain, propria noastr sentin; s
rmnem, adic, venic pe loc i s n-avem niciodat parte de alte orizonturi(Fulga, 1942:
34). Strinul care poposete pe meleagurile vrjite de cntecul viorii, ajunge s nu mai
prseasc acest loc i s se ndrgosteasc de femeia blestemat. Vioara devine obiectul
posedat de sufletul fostului proprietar, iubitul mort la domnioarei Ruth, prin care aceasta este
controlat, a crei via este mcinat de obiectul parazit: vioara lui i existena Domnioarei
Ruth, departe de a fi definite una de alta prin vreo grani i nici ncrucindu-se doar
temporar, ajunseser s realizeze un acelai corp comun i absolut, care se interzicea cu
vehemen altora(Fulga, 1942: 51). Dei femeia gsete n strin un dublu al fostului iubit,
prin care i poate finaliza marea dragoste, att prin act carnal, ct i prin sentiment, ea alege
s se sinucid, realiznd c aceasta e singur acale spre fericire. Fora malefic i maladiv de
seducie a genului feminin este explorat n toat putrea cuvntului, realizndu-se atmosfera
fantastic i creionndu-se o poveste nclcit, misterioas, care ine lectorul ncordat i
nsetat de aflarea finalului povetii. n cel de-al doilea text, personajul feminin eponim este,
aa cum observ chiar naratorul, o form de fantastic i real cu o detaare de fptur de
miracol i de aceea, n multe privine, inaccesibil oricui(Fulga, 1942: 316). Sonia Condrea
este femeia-seductoare care nu i propune s i ndeplineasc rolul, ci acioneaz potrivit
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unui vechi blestem: prinii ei mori i prinii personajului principal mpart un blestem, care
le-a marcat existena. Furtul umbrei Soniei pare s i confere acesteia statutul de nelumit, de
mort-viu, cci numai oamenii au umbr. Pactul cu Diavolul pe care l face tatl personajului
principal, marcheaz destinul Soniei, fr voia acesteia. n ciuda acestui fapt, ea rmne o
masc a seductoarei, dar a aceleia care este ghidat de ctre Satana, fr voin proprie.
Salvarea i mntuirea fetei are loc prin moarte, dup un an de la furtul umbrei.
4. Jocurile cu frica: femeia-monstru
Aa cum remarc i Jean Delumeau, teama de damnare a fost resimit cu mai mare
duritate de sfini dect de oamenii obinuii(Delumeau, 1997: 382), dar acest fenomen nu a
mpiedicat apariia n literatur a unor numeroase texte n care se fac referiri la morii-vii,
aceti montri osndii s nu cunoasc lumea de dincolo, ci s bntuie printre cei vii.
Cercetorul dedic, n volumul din 1986, un capitol ntreg strigoilor, afirmnd c epidemia de
frig de strigoi, i mai ales de vampiri, s-a rspndit la sfritul secolului al XVIIlea(Delumeau, 1986: 137). Vorbind despre aceste personaje fantastice, autorul crede c ei
nu sunt nemuritori, ci mai degrab a-muritori o bucat de vreme; aceast amortalitate este
prelungirea vieii pentru o perioad indefinit, dar nu neaprat etern(Delumeau, 1986: 137).
Femeia nu a scpat nici din plasarea sub masca acestei categorii att de diverse a morilor-vii:
vampiri, strigoi, fantome, poltergeist etc.
Postularea contesei Aranka sub titulatura unei creaturi populare (tima lacurilor1), n
nuvela cu acelaii nume scris de ctre Cezar Petrescu, nu urmrete, credem, directa
simbolistic a divinitii acvatice invocate, ci una mult mai dezvoltat. Este adevrat c
Aranka devine stpn a Lacului turcilor, dar scopul ei nu este acelai cu cel al timei
lacurilor: ea nu urmrete necarea oamenilor pe care i ntlnete, ci dorete s-i fie
descoperit corpul ngropat n mlatin. De asemenea, apariia poltergeist-ul este cauzat de
blestemul ce urmrete familia Kemny i din care nu se poate scpa dect prin rit cretin.
Aranka este att o apariie fantomatic, ct i o creaie a spaiului demonic n care i
desfoar activitatea. Pentru c e vorba de un blestem, Diavolul i canalizeaz forele i
asupra contesei. n dezumanizarea fetei identificm toate formele care i-au afectat pe
strmoii ei: omorrea unor animale la vntoare, culminnd cu omorrea a doi soldai, boala
nelmurit, este bntuit de un poltergeist (vedenia alb de pe coridoare), atracia fa de
mlatinile din Lacul morilor aducndu-i sfritul: ultima dat a fost vzut seara, nainte de
apusul soarelui, cu barca(C. Petrescu, 2007: 173). Ultima imagine a fetei amintete parc de
cltoria spre Infern pe rul Stix sau de povetile japoneze, n care o fat conduce o barca cu
care transport spiritele spre Iad, fapt ce pune iar n eviden o supralicitare a fantasticului, o
simbolistic divers, amestecat, poate uor forat, dar care se plieaz adecvat, ca o pies
ntr-un puzzel. La rndul ei, va deveni stafie i va bntui castelul familiei Kemny. Avem,
astfel, o prim masc a femeii-monstru, o ntrupare fantomatic care i caut linitea etern.
Aceeai cutare necontenit a linitii i salvrii e regsim i n textul Domnioara Christina de
Mircea Eliade. Fr a mai insista pe analiza textului, trebuie s punctm totui apariia n
acest caz a unui strigoi, monstru care lrgete sfera mtilor pe care le poart femeia n proza
fantastic.
i n textului lui Villiers de l'Isle Adam, Vera, descoperim prezena unui strigoi sau a
unei fantome, mult mai slab sugerat ca prezen i ca identitate fantastic. O poveste despre
1
Cunoscut sub diverse denumiri: Stima Apelor, Femeia Garlei, Valva Apei etc., aceasta este o divinitate autohton a apelor dulci, o replic
romneasc a zeielor naiade de la Greci. Stima Apelor este o reprezentare mitic feminin, stpn a apelor, care se face vzut i simit
pe timp de noapte. Ea este o femeie alb i rece, st n ap i are piepii aa de mari c i d pe spate. Ca statur, este nalt i mbrcat n
alb. Ea apare i ca siren (jumtate pete i jumtate om), poate fi femeie, dar i brbat. Cnd iese la suprafaa apei, pe vreme rea i n
noptile cu luna, se scutura, umbla pe ulita ca un nor, se scald. Dac-i dai pace, nu zice la nimeni nimic, dar de nu, te muete, te sluete.
Umbl pn la miezul nopii, cnd ncep cocoii a cnta. Ea trage pe om la nec zicnd: Ceasul a sosit,/Omu n-a venit!, citat din articolul
tima apelor, de pe site-ul http://traditiidinromania.ro/legende/stima-apelor.html
797
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dragoste i moarte, al continurii iubirii i dup sfritul tragic al femeii, care nu reuete s
treac pe lumea cealalt, fiind nc prins de lanul iubirii. n acest caz nu putem vorbi de o
intenie neaprat malefic a personajului-monstru. Sergiu Pavel Dan remarc, referindu-se la
fantoma femeii, faptul c fiina ei plutete n odaie, dar el o vrea total dezrobit de legturile
Invizibilului; fanatic al unicei sale religii, el i sprijin exasperata credin n resurecia
fericirii pe armura sublimelor dogme ale pasiunii(Pavel Dan, 1975: 21).
Dac e s discutm despre femeia-monstru, nu trebuie s uitm de una dintre cele mai
amintite i mai controversate apariii ale acestui fenomen: vampirul. Hrnindu-se numai cu
snge i avnd mai mereu o puternic ncrctur erotic, aceast prezen fantastic este
foarte bine surprins n Moarta ndrgostit de Th. Gautier. ndeplinind i celelalte dou
roluri (agent al lui Satana i de femeie-seductoare), vampirul din acest text ncearc s
corup un preot i s l determine s renune la calea pe care i-o alesese. Hrnindu-se cu
sngele acestuia i bucurndu-se de trupul lui, femeia-vampir ajunge s fie renegat de ctre
brbat, care ncearc s o omoare, n cele din urm. Dup cum putem observa, nici aceast
alteritate din proza fantastic nu a fost ocolit de ctre genul feminin, mtile sub care putnd
fi plasat acest gen fiind multiple.
O alt ntruchipare a femeii-monstru este statuia, femeia de piatr ori manechinul:
aceast creatur inuman, care prinde via, se animeaz i atrage brbaii ntr-un joc al
morii. Un exemplu concret al acestui fenomen bizar este oferit n Hierogamie de Vladimir
Colin. Atras de misterul cercului mort, personajul principal ajunge s descopere un loc al
spaimei i al extazului: un portal n care, scufundndu-se, trezete la via statuia de piatr a
unei superbe femei, de care se ndrgostete subit i pentru care e dispus s i ofere viaa.
Femeia-monstru, nscut din adncul pmntului, un loc diabolic n care ncearc s i atrag
i prada. Salvarea brbatului vine de la btrnul care i spusese de locul magic al cercului
morii. Singura ran care i rmne tnrului din jocul cu moartea, este zgrietura provocat
de ghiarele femeii de piatr, pe mna creia vede, nainte de a disprea, sngele su.
Atunci cnd vorbim despre statuia animat, trebuie neaprat s amintim i de textul lui
Prosper Mrime: Venus din Ille. Minunata statuie descoperit ca adevrat artefact, prinde
via n urma atarii inelului. Este clar o prezen a diavolescului, a unor puteri negative ce
nu pot conduce dect spre moarte i suferin. Groaza pe care o poate provoca o astfel de
imagine reprezint, credem, nodul central al fenomenului n sine.
5. Despre un joc fantastic permanent
Indiferent de mtile pe care le ia genul feminin n proza fantastic, trebuie s
recunoate fora incredibil cu care aceasta reuete s contribuie la realizarea neobinuitului
i a supranaturalului. Din puinele exemple pe care le-am oferit n cercetarea de fa reuim s
creionm fora creativ pe care o poate reprezenta inseria elementului feminin n literatura
fantastic, jocul pe care l pornete n text fiind unul original, care i are rezervele i
fundamentul n tocmai istoria complicat a perceperii femeii n societate.
Putem, astfel, s vorbim despre un joc fantastic permanent n care femeia devine un
catalizator, fiind mai mult dect un simplu personaj. Cu toate acestea, observm c marea
majoritate a mtilor surprinse iau o form negativ, vechia percepie repulsiv asupra femeii
rmnnd neschimbat. Chiar i aa, este de apreciat fora cu care acest gen i-a impus
prezena ntr-o literatur att de complicat i att de frumoas, precum nsi frumuseea fr
margini a femeii.
Bibliografie primar
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***, 1982, Proz fantastic francez, vol. I, II i III, Editura Minerva, Bucureti.
Colin, Vladimir, 1970, Un pete invizibil i 20 de povestiri fantastice, Editura Cartea
romneasc, Bucureti.
Fulga, Laureniu, 1942, Straniul paradis, Editura Cartea romneasc, Bucureti.
Papilian, Victor, 1988, Lacrima. Nuvele fantastice, Editura Minerva, Bucureti.
Petrescu, Cezar, 2007, Aranca, tima lacurilor, Editura Minerva, Bucureti.
Poe, E. A., 1992, Masca morii roii, Editura Orion, Bucureti.
Bibliografie secundar
Brion, Marcel, 1970, Arta fantastic, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti.
Caillois, Roger, 1975, Eseuri despre imaginaie, Editura Univers, Bucureti.
Delumeau, Jean, 1997, Pcatul i frica. Culpabilizarea n Occident, vol. I, Editura
Polirom, Iai.
*,1986, Frica n Occident. O cetate asediat, vol. I i II, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti.
Gregori, Irina, 1996, Singura literatur esenial. Povestirea fantastic, Editura
DUStyle, Bucureti.
Pavel Dan, Sergiu, 1975, Proza fantastic romneasc, Editura Minerva, Bucureti.
799
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Abstract: In Jane Eyre, Charlotte Bront addresses feminist issues that reflect the social
background of nineteenth-century British society. This paper analyses the novel from a
feminist psychoanalytic perspective, revealing the manner in which Victorian women were
supposed to display themselves in order to please the ones watching: men the gender
oppressors who established chauvinistic rules by which they judged womens selfpresentation. Moreover, the analysis is also based on the reading of Jane Eyre as a woman
who fears motherhood and whose nightmares reflect the anxieties that most Victorian women
experienced in relation to this issue. The protagonists dream accounts take the form of
expression and, alternatively, that of repression. As the novel is widely considered
fundamentally confessional in nature, the heroines maternity-related fears are meant to be
read as journeys into the unconscious of the Victorian authoress herself. In addition, the
description of Janes sketches can also be regarded as valuable material for psychoanalysis
because it suggests her desire to have a powerful visual impact on the man she loves with the
esthetic beauty of her paintings which compensates for her plain-looking physical aspect. To
a certain extent, the need to be admired points to Bronts own frustration with herself falling
short of the Victorian version of feminine ideal. The protagonist paints sublime images that
reflect her innate qualities and unique inner life. Nevertheless, they are also indicative of her
lower middle-class social status that sets her culturally apart from inferior classes (that
cannot create or appreciate art). All in all, dream accounts, art description and relevant
scenes in the novel are insightful not only in terms of dissecting the writers repressed wishes,
but also regarding the main characteristics of the class membership of the average white
Keywords: feminist perspective, psychoanalysis, Victorian woman, feminine ideal, social
status.
In Jane Eyre, essential aspects of the social status of the lower middle-class Victorian
woman are depicted in the protagonists dreams, art and self-presentation. The dreams can be
analysed from a feminist psychoanalytic perspective achieved through the reading of Jane as a
woman who fears marriage (a form of imprisonment and annihilation of identity and
autonomy) and motherhood which is alluded to in the nightmares reflecting anxieties related
to maternity. Similarly, Janes paintings and sketches are suggestive of the manner in which
Victorian women were supposed to display themselves in order to please the ones watching:
men (the gender oppressors) who established chauvinistic rules by which they judged
womens self-presentation. Therefore, her art can also be analysed from both critical
perspectives.
800
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Cf. Godfrey, E., Jane Eyre, from Governess to Girl Bride, SEL, 45.4, 2005, 853-874 and Seelye, J., Jane Eyres American Daughters:
from the Wide, Wide World to Anne of Green Gables a Study of Marginalized Maidens and What They Mean, University of Delaware Press,
2005, pp. 83-4 apud. Lemaster, T., M/Othering the Children: Pregnancy and Motherhood as Obstacle to Self-Actualization in Jane Eyre,
http://www.genders.org/g47/g47_wright.html, February 2, 2010, paragraph 5
2
Cf. Lemaster, T., M/Othering the Children: Pregnancy and Motherhood as Obstacle to Self-Actualization in Jane Eyre,
http://www.genders.org/g47/g47_wright.html, February 2, 2010, paragraphs 1-24
3
Cf. ibid., paragraph 3
4
Bront, C., Jane Eyre, page 231 apud. Lemaster, T., M/Othering the Children: Pregnancy and Motherhood as Obstacle to SelfActualization in Jane Eyre, http://www.genders.org/g47/g47_wright.html, February 2, 2010, paragraph 3
5
Cf. Lemaster, op. cit., paragraph 4
6
Bront, C., Jane Eyre, Penguin, 1994, p. 279
7
ibid., p. 280
1
801
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In both dreams, Jane must endure an obstacle that prevents her from moving/travelling
freely: the child appears as weight that hinders progress. Her physical exhaustion and constant
carrying of the child evoke pregnancy.8
The hindrance (the child) that prevents Jane from moving in her dream is connected to
her famous soliloquy that touches upon feminist issues such as restraints against womens
social advancement:
Millions are condemned to a stiller doom than mine, and millions are in silent revolt
against their lot. [] Women are supposed to be very calm generally: [] it is narrowminded in their more privileged fellow creatures to say that they ought to confine
themselves to making puddings and knitting stockings, to playing on the piano and
embroidering bags.9
This connection is suggestive of Janes fear of pregnancy which she believes would
prevent her from experiencing life freely. The protagonists reflection on womens lack of
freedom indicates that she is painfully aware of a limit which women cannot overpass. This
limit is a stationary mother role. The fact that Jane complains about the hardships of
motherhood (in this scene) is suggested by the allusions to maternity that her feminist speech
contains: the cooking of puddings (food edible for babies) and the knitting of stockings
(which is also a reference to motherly duty). The millions to whom the protagonist refers in
her soliloquy is such a great number that it must also include mothers.10 Furthermore, Jane
compares her own imprisonment to the confinement that mothers must endure and she
realises that their confinement is even greater: millions are condemned to a stiller doom than
mine.11 This realisation is also suggestive of the heroines fear of becoming a mother.
Therefore, the freedom that Jane desires (and mentions in her monologue) is unavailable,
primarily, to mothers and, as a result, the protagonist regards pregnancy (and, subsequently,
maternity) as a state which is dangerous for a womans selfhood (sense of self).12
The fear of motherhood expressed through dreams is indicative of the necessity of not
only feminist but also psychoanalytic readings. Janes dreams are authentic journeys into the
depth of the (protagonists/novelists) unconscious, such an achievement being rarely
encountered in Gothic novels at that time. In addition, the use of the heroines dream accounts
sometimes takes the form of expression and sometimes of repression, becoming the ideal
material for psychoanalysis.13
Charlotte Bronts daydream was to become a writer and one of her recurrent dreams
was the one in which her dead sisters (Maria and Elizabeth) became fashionably dressed and
criticised Charlotte (just the way upper class ladies would). The dream of becoming a writer
and the nightmares she often had are strongly connected and seem to be reflected in Jane Eyre
in which Bront tells the story of a young woman who like her sisters in the dream becomes wealthy and independent after lowly beginnings.14
The fact that Charlotte Bront created a heroine whose destiny involves the fulfilment
of the novelists repressed wishes suggests that she did exactly what Freud claimed that
Seelye, J., Jane Eyres American Daughters: from the Wide, Wide World to Anne of Green Gables a Study of Marginalized Maidens and
What They Mean, University of Delaware Press, 2005, pp. 83-4 apud. Lemaster, T., M/Othering the Children: Pregnancy and Motherhood
as Obstacle to Self-Actualization in Jane Eyre, http://www.genders.org/g47/g47_wright.html, February 2, 2010, paragraph 5
9
Bront, op. cit., p. 111
10
Cf. Lemaster, T., M/Othering the Children: Pregnancy and Motherhood as Obstacle to Self-Actualization in Jane Eyre,
http://www.genders.org/g47/g47_wright.html, February 2, 2010, paragraph 13
11
Bront, op. cit., p. 111
12
Cf. Lemaster, op. cit., paragraph 13
13
Cf. Thomas, R., The Advertisement of Jane Eyre, in Charlotte Bronts Jane Eyre: a Casebook, Edited by E. B. Michie, Oxford
University Press, 2006, pp. 47-77
14
Cf. ibid., pp. 47-77
8
802
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writers do (in Creative Writers and Daydreaming): she obtained relief from a repressed desire
(of acquiring independence and wealth) by experiencing a fantasy/daydream through writing
the story that she would have liked to live. Bronts desire to acquire higher social status and
financial control over her own life manifested itself repeatedly in her dreams and, according
to Freud, only repressed wishes are expressed by means of dreams. Moreover, the fact that
she often had the same dream suggests that the tension caused by the unfulfilled desire was
overwhelming for her. This points to the dignity and self-control of the authoress who
successfully repressed her impulses for a long period of time and did not express them
directly. According to Sigmund Freud, fulfilling ones desire by means of creative writing is
socially acceptable (because it is achieved in a disguised form), whereas fulfilling it through
evident daydreaming is not. The way in which Bront satisfied her needs (through writing) is
proof of her disciplined mind and soul.
Bront was, in a sense, conscious of the relief that dreams can provide and, as a result,
allowed her heroine to escape tension by dreaming. Moreover, the writer was also aware of
the fact that accepting ones dreams (by verbalising their contents) is important for
overcoming the obstacles/the challenges that one faces in life. Therefore, she instinctively
knew that expressing the wishes and anxieties that manifest themselves in dreams is the
equivalent of acknowledging ones hidden (even forbidden) desires and also of refusing to
deny personal aspirations and true identity. This is why Jane Eyre feels the need to describe
her dreams in contrast with Bront who felt reluctant to tell her dream about the disturbing
change undergone by her two dead sisters.15 The heroine insists on making her dreams known
to others: Jane manages to tell Rochester the dreams she has despite his active interference. In
relation to this, (in a certain scene) the readers can notice the heroines refusal to yield to her
future husbands demand that she stop talking about her saddening dreams:
Look wicked, Jane I would rather be incensed than saddened. [] I thought, Jane,
you had told me all.
The disquietude of his air, the somewhat apprehensive impatience of his manner,
surprised me: But I proceeded.16
The most significant dreams in the novel are the ones Jane wishes to describe to
Rochester before their failed attempt to get married. The first one is strikingly meaningful (it
is full of hidden meanings):
I was burdened with the charge of a little child: [] I thought, sir, that you were on
the road a long way before me; and I strained every nerve to overtake you, and made effort on
effort to entreat you to stop but my movements were fettered, and my voice still died away
inarticulate; [].17
The child that Jane has charge of in the dream seems in its inarticulate wailing to
warn Jane against following Rochester and suffering Berthas fate. [] The thing that Janes
dream-self and her dream-infant have in common is their inability to speak authoritatively and
articulately.18
The second dream that Jane wishes to describe to Rochester is really an elaboration of
the first, an expression of the desire that her voice not die away without articulating her own
15
803
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independence, financial and psychological.19 This dream reflects an inner conflict: the
heroine wishes to maintain control over her own life, but, at the same time, she is tempted by
Rochesters mastery over her (she wants to follow him down the road he travels). The cost of
yielding to the temptation of being with Rochester would be the loss of the baby (whose
destiny is identified with that of Jane), which would mean that she would lose control over
her own destiny. As a result, Janes desire to retain possession of this child (of her own life)
exceeds her wish to stay by her loved ones side.20
The heroines dreams seem to be what Freud claimed dreams, generally, are: an
expression of fears and repressed desires. The second dream described to Rochester is an
expression of two repressed desires: the wish to let a man control her life and the desire to
rebel against her status by abandoning the fulfilling relationship she has with Rochester in
order to satisfy a need that a Victorian woman should not admit to the need to be
completely independent. The dream also expresses the fear of losing her own voice to that of
her future husband. The anxiety and the wishes identifiable in the dream are also noticeable in
Janes restlessness before the wedding: she feels that Rochester attempts to offer her
expensive gifts against her will in order to transform her into one of his former lovers (whom
he treated this way) and change her identity. Jane wants to enjoy Rochesters gifts at the
expense of her own independence, but also wishes to become the opposite of the ideal
Victorian woman a female individual who rebels against social conventions and chooses not
to be submissive. Because both desires are shameful each from a different perspective
they are censored by the conscious part of the psyche and, therefore, they become repressed
wishes that manifest themselves in dreams. Moreover, the fact that, in her dream, Jane sees
Rochester lessening as he is farther and farther away, suggests that Jane wants him to
become less of a man and less of a rich upper-class gentleman in order to be able to marry
him without having to bear the thought that he is superior to her and can, therefore, dominate
her:21
I dreamt another dream, sir: [] I saw you like a speck on a white track, lessening
every moment. [] I was shaken; the child rolled from my knee, I lost my balance, fell, and
woke.22
Another meaningful dream in the novel is the one Jane has after she has discovered
that there is a Mrs. Rochester who makes her marriage impossible:
My daughter, flee temptation.
Mother, I will.
So I answered after I had waked from the trance-like dream.23
At this point in the novel, the heroine has only two options: to leave Thornfield (and
escape temptation) or to become Rochesters mistress. The dream she has helps her make a
decision. Janes account of the dream she has ends with the words I will (Mother, I will 24)
that could be spoken as a wedding vow to Rochester, but, instead, declare her independence
and power because psychologically they bring her into possession of herself. Janes vision
of herself (as a mother figure) in this dream is gradually formed in her unconscious and
19
ibid., p. 64
Cf. ibid., p. 64
21
Cf. ibid., p. 64
22
Bront, C., Jane Eyre, Penguin, 1994, p. 280
23
ibid., p. 316
24
Bront, loc. cit.
20
804
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anticipated in her paintings (which, as any form of art, draw their material from the
unconscious):25
Admiring and Displaying Art
The purpose of the protagonists paintings is to excite admiration and amazement,
which is obvious in the gazers reaction. Bessie states that Janes artistic talent is a ladylike
quality and Mr. Rochester is surprised at the protagonists ability to achieve such uncommon
paintings:
As I saw them with the spiritual eye, before I attempted to embody them, they were
striking;
[] The drawings are, for a schoolgirl, peculiar. [] And what meaning is that in
their solemn depth?26
[] A drowned corpse glanced through the green water. The second picture contained
[] a womans shape to the bust. [] The third showed [] a head a colossal head. []
To paint them, in short, was to enjoy one of the keenest pleasures I have ever known.27
Janes painting and sketching reflect the desire to display as well as the need to watch.
For instance, Jane takes pleasure in the fact that Rosamond wants to show her painting to her
father, but also enjoys being able to analyse and copy a model such as the young and beautiful
Rosamond. Besides the desire to look and be looked at by the man she loves, Jane
(indirectly) expresses another wish that of having her paintings admired. Therefore, to the
active form of looking and the passive form of exhibiting (the pleasure of being watched by
Mr. Rochester), a more suitable way of sublimating and satisfying exhibitionist impulses is
added through Janes art. Nevertheless, her sketching and painting are not announced as a
form of display in the novel. On the contrary, they are represented in terms consonant with the
domestic feminine ideal.28 Her painting is represented as a private, solitary pastime. We learn
only incidentally that her work is displayed over the chimneypiece at Lowood; she agrees to
show her portfolio to Rochester only when, tipped off by Adle, he imperiously demands it of
her; and Rosamond Oliver discovers her sketches while rummaging in Janes drawers and
cupboards.29
All in all, Janes art is displayed in a discreet manner and is, consequently, represented
as different from Blanches art the performance at the piano which is meant to excite
admiration. Moreover, Janes manner of watching others and displaying herself is essentially
different from that of Mrs. Ingram. The latter thrives on other peoples attention, displays
herself in an unfeminine manner (that repels Mr. Rochester) and is not able to notice others
(as she fails to acknowledge Rochesters disapproval of her own behaviour).
The impulse to look as well as exhibit should not be analysed in sexually reductive
terms. This wish can be placed in the context of desire as psychoanalysis conceives of it, 30
but the issues of watching and displaying in Jane Eyre should not be analysed only from a
psychoanalytic perspective. They are connected to Bronts depiction of the concept of
Cf. Thomas, R., The Advertisement of Jane Eyre, in Charlotte Bronts Jane Eyre: a Casebook, Edited by E. B. Michie, Oxford
University Press, 2006, p. 67
26
Bront, op. cit., pp. 126, 128
27
ibid., p. 127
28
Cf. Newman, B., Excerpts from Subjects on Display, in Charlotte Bronts Jane Eyre: a Casebook, Edited by E. B. Michie, Oxford
University Press, 2006, p. 158
29
ibid., p. 157
30
ibid., pp. 157-8
25
805
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Victorian femininity which should be discussed in feminist terms as well. Janes artistry is
meant to signify in social terms and to reflect Bronts exploration of the Victorian ideal
femininity. Through her painting and sketching, Jane displays her social status while avoiding
direct display of her person.31
The manner in which Jane Eyre displays herself reflects her innate qualities, her social
status as well as the Victorian version of ideal femininity (which she embodies). Janes art is a
means of displaying her innate qualities as well as a way of asserting her class membership.
Jane tries to paint the sublime and the subjects she chooses reflect the unique interior depths
(of the protagonist) which compensate for her plain physical aspect. Moreover, the paintings
are proof of the heroines nondomestic (even anti-domestic) impulses which also suggest the
uniqueness (distinctiveness) of her nature.32
As previously mentioned, Janes paintings are also indicative of her social status as art
fulfils the social function of legitimising social differences and pointing out the separateness
between the individuals who are able to appreciate (and understand) art and the ones who are
not (and belong to the lower social classes). Janes artistic creations indicate her radical
difference not only from those socially beneath her, but also from those belonging to the
upper classes who, unlike the heroine, create automatically and effortlessly. 33 Therefore,
Janes paintings set her apart from ladies such as Blanche whose purely performative [] art
seems distinctly soulless and brittle.34
Victorian Female Self-Presentation
The way female characters display themselves and are watched by men (particularly,
by Rochester) in the novel can be understood only if placed within a specific social context.
Credit depended on reputation and middle-class enterprise depended on credit.
Creditworthiness was indicated by signs of dress, speech and etiquette that displayed family
wealth in order to consolidate social ties. This social context accounts for the contradictions
between the negative and positive social meanings of display (that are identifiable in the
novel): Mr. Brocklehurst lectures the girls at Lowood against the display of physical beauty,
but his wife and daughters arrive at the school dressed fashionably and made-up. By placing
this contradiction within Victorian social context, it can be explained in terms of the divided
ideal of social duty that required wealthy women to maintain their families social position
through costly dress and self-presentation (through personal display) while requiring lowerclass women to respect the ideal of Christian duty which entailed humility and spirituality.35
Therefore, for upper-class women, personal displaying was a social duty. However,
even at this level, there is a contradiction: besides the negative and positive meanings of
social display already mentioned, there is another dissociation between positive and
negative self-presentation. Newman discusses this (second) contradiction/dissociation by
pointing out the difference between Blanches and Janes manner of displaying (themselves).
Jane does not enjoy being the centre of attention and prefers to be modest, refusing
Rochesters expensive gifts, whereas Mrs. Ingram likes being watched by others, but fails to
realise that her indiscreet manner of presenting herself is what repels Mr. Rochester:36
31
806
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Miss Ingram was very showy, but she was not genuine; [] To watch Miss Ingrams
efforts at fascinating Mr. Rochester, to witness their repeated failure herself unconscious
that they did fail [] was to be at once under ceaseless excitation and ruthless restraint. 37
Further on in the novel, Jane renounces the exhibitionistic display that her future
husband tries to impose on her (by asking the protagonist to wear jewellery and fashionable
items of clothing that he attempts to offer to her as gifts). It is this very quality (visible in the
heroines attitude) that makes Rochester love Jane. He admires the fact that the heroine is
different from the other women he has met (Bertha, Cline, Giacinta, Clara and Blanche) who
have displayed their charms in an indiscreet manner and have, finally, proven to be unworthy
of a gentlemans love. Janes originality (which seems to attract the man she loves) is
constructed as the Victorian version of ideal femininity: the protagonist embodies the ideal
domestic woman (who knows how to present herself) in contrast with Rochesters former
mistresses who appear as shamelessly exhibitionistic.38
Therefore, the second disassociation between positive and negative display (of
oneself) is related to the opposite manners in which a lady may choose to present herself:
discreet or indiscreet. Nevertheless, this perspective on Victorian womens self-presentation
can be considered a chauvinistic one since the way they display themselves is judged by the
ones who are looking/watching: men. As a result, the Victorian social duties (and the entire
mentality) previously presented may be regarded as directly connected to gender oppression.
However, aside from Victorian social context (which accounts for the feminist perspective on
female self-presentation), Jane Eyres wish to watch others and display herself can also be
placed within the context of desire as psychoanalysis conceives of it.39
In contrast with Blanche Ingram (who is showy and wants to be the centre of
attention), Jane Eyre does not wish to be noticed - she attends the party held at Rochesters
house trying to escape attention: I sit in the shade; [] the window-curtain half hides me.40
In this scene, Jane seems to fear being watched (or even noticed) by others. The protagonists
shyness/fear of attention is caused by her discontent with her social status and physical
aspect: she dislikes the fact that she is just a governess and not a beautiful/attractive lady such
as Blanche Ingram.41
Despite her fear of being noticed, Jane also seems to desire to be looked at by
Rochester: I feared or should I say, hoped? the allusion to me would make Mr. Rochester
glance my way; and I involuntarily shrank further into the shade: but he never turned his
eyes.42 Besides this socially inadequate wish to enjoy the attention of Mr. Rochester, Jane
also proves capable of a desire to watch which exceeds what can be satisfied in acts of moral
supervision. She takes great pleasure in watching Rochester at the party and she looks at him
in a compulsive and undisciplined manner:43
My eyes were drawn involuntarily to his face; I could not keep their lids under control.
[] I looked, and had an acute pleasure in looking a precious yet poignant pleasure []
with a steely point of agony. 44
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*This work was supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652, cofinanced by the European Social Fund within the Sectorial Operational Program
Human Resources Development 2007 2013.
45
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Abstract: Constantin Fntneru is a forgotten writer of the generation of the 30s, whose
diary, edited by Aurel Sasu in the collection Restituiri, takes shape into a fascinating
discourse about the writers doom. Far from the Romantic pathos, we are faced with a mature
confession that hardly allows access into the depth of the being; the hardships of life cured
the writer of any illusions and inaccessible dreams. A classical structure, accustomed to
severe self-education exercises, the diarist reveals himself vaguely, slowly, in a concentrated
text, having in its core the need to write.
Keywords: author, diary, discourse, confession, doom.
Eugen Simion n volumul I din Ficiunea jurnalului intim, ed.cit., p. 20, face trimitere la el i cteva sumare observaii cu privire la aceast
carte, considernd-o ...confesiunea unui om cultivat [...] srac lipit pmntului, nfricoat [...] marginalizat...
2
n Literatura romn ntre cele dou rzboaie mondiale, (Ediie revzut) volumul I, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1982, p. 496, spunea
despre romanul Interior c Dei scris prost, cu grele opinteli verbale [...], e o carte interesant ca document intelectual. Amendabil este
partea de final a paginilor dedicate scriitorului, mai ales c, fiind n via, a putut citi observaiile lui Crohmlniceanu: Pn a i se ntuneca
mintea complet, C. Fntneru a mai publicat lucrarea de critic: Poezia lui Lucian Blaga i gndirea mitic (1940), precum i volumul de
versuri Rsul morilor de aur (1940)., p. 498.
3
n Cealalt fa a prozei, ed. cit., pp. 173 174, n analiza prozei lui Max Blecher, autorul face trimitere i spre romanele lui Fntneru i
H. Bonciu, susinnd c Fa de paginile lui Blecher, paginile acestor autori atest cel mult coincidena de timp, iar Gesturile aberante ale
eroului neurastenic din romanul lui Constantin Fntneru se consum i ele n gratuitul pur.
4
Mircea Crtrescu, Postmodernismul romnesc, Postfa de Paul Cornea, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1999, p. 293.
5
Apud. Constantin Fntneru, Cri i o alt carte, Ediie critic, prefa, ngrijirea textului, note, bibliografie i indice de Aurel Sasu, S. C.
Editura Minerva S. A., Bucureti, 1999, p. 6.
6
Ibidem.
1
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810
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necesari supravieuirii i-l vor reintroduce n cercul de scriitori printre care ocupa un loc de
frunte n anii 30, nainte de a se mbolnvi. n acelai timp, pare contient c acest lucru nu se
va ntmpla curnd (va veni o vreme), de unde i nota pesimist, suficient de bine
camuflat, ca s nu deranjeze cititorul, care, la o lectur superficial ar putea interpreta
observaia citat ca o manifestare a vanitii. Fiind i victima unei nefericite ntmplri,
victima ignoranei unor confrai cercettori, cei de la Editura Enciclopedic Romn, care, n
1969 solicit Primriei din Leordeni date despre scriitor, precum i data morii sale,
Fntneru, suficient de lucid pentru a realiza c acest lucru nseamn practic faptul c pentru
ceilali el nu mai exist, simte nevoia de a reveni, mai avnd lucruri de spus pe scena
literaturii romne. Din punct de vedere uman, a fost probabil un oc destul de mare s
contientizeze faptul c unii l cred mort, prin urmare efortul de a nvia i de a se face auzit
prin intermediul creaiei sale revine aproape obsesiv n ntreg coninutul jurnalului.
Recitindu-i lucrrile sau pri din ele oscileaz mereu ntre satisfacie i nemulumire,
uneori ceea ce scrie l mulumete, alteori l face s se ndoiasc de capacitile sale creatoare.
Se ncpneaz ns i continu munca, n ciuda absenei ochiului critic extern, ce ar putea
judeca scriitura i confirma sau infirma propriile ipoteze, precum i n ciuda lipsei sprijinului
moral, att de necesar n anumite momente. Prin urmare, fraza citat este lipsit de orice urm
de arogan sau vanitate, este doar expresia unei nevoi refulate de a fi citit i apreciat ca
scriitor. Se pare c intuiia nu l-a nelat, dac inem cont c romanul su a fost reeditat de
curnd (sub ngrijirea Simonei Popescu) pentru a patra oar, numele su figureaz n toate
dicionarele de scriitori (mai puin n cel manolescian unde numele su apare doar n rnd cu
ai si confrai din generaia 30, fr a i se acorda vreo atenie deosebit) i ncepe s fie
redescoperit i de critica literar, dar mai ales de cititori.
Reeditarea ntregii sale opere sub un titlu pe care-l avea n vedere nsui autorul n
ultimii ani de via, permite cititorului o viziune de ansamblu asupra a ceea ce considera
Fntneru c-l va scoate din anonimat. Debutul, n 1932 cu romanul de factur gidian
Interior, i-a asigurat un loc destul de precis n literatur, situndu-l printre primele ncercri
de renovare a genului n direcia autenticitii. Impresia de artificialitate, sinceritatea brutal,
ipostaza reflexiv, dar i evanescena biografiei personajului sunt pe rnd amendate apoi
apreciate, ajungnd astzi a-l socoti pe autor un precursor al postmodernismului romnesc:
...prin cartea scris la douzeci i patru de ani i rmas unica lui oper n proz [publicat n
timpul vieii, n.n.], Constantin Fntneru este un precursor incontestabil al postmodernismului
romnesc.8
Fcnd parte dintr-o generaie de elit a culturii romne (Eliade, Noica, Eugen
Ionescu), avnd acces la clasicii greci i latini prin intermediul celor dou limbi pe care i le-a
nsuit pe parcursul studiilor sale, Constantin Fntneru se formeaz ca personalitate creatoare
ntr-o atmosfer propice, care ns, n cazul lui, se transform din interiorizare n complex,
apoi din eec n boal, renscnd creator spre finalul vieii dup ce, pe lng cltoria n
infern dintre anii 1942 1948, suferise i dezaprobarea societii n care tria ca un ters
profesor de limbi strine.9 Prin urmare, nevoia de a reintra n cercul literailor din care s-a
desprins involuntar prin izolarea la ar apare ca fireasc, fr a fi nsoit de infatuarea
aferent unei asemenea dorine. Interesante sunt sursele din care-i extrage fora necesar
scrisului. O surs important ar fi nevoia de reabilitare dup cele scrise despre el de
Crohmlniceanu: i trebuie neaprat s reapar ca s m reabilitez n contiina ntregii
familii, n urma aprecierii lui Crohmlniceanu. Amintirea mea s nu fie o ruine pentru toi
Mircea Crtrescu, op. cit., pag. 293.
La nceputul romanului autobiografic Slujba din hol, red cu umor ncercarea unui vr de a-l nsura cu fata popii din Topoloveni. ncercarea
se soldeaz cu eec, deoarece popa se ntlnete cu nvtoarea din Buditeni, care-l edific pe viitorul socru de probitatea pretendentului:
era un scriitor, prin urmare o paria a societii, o ruine a satului, nedemn de niciun fel de atenie.
8
9
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aceia care vor purta numele Fntneru.10 Nevoia de a nota o astfel de observaie ine de un
resort intern guvernat de acea latur a fiinei pe care Jung a denumit-o anima. Aici ns nu
este vorba de starea de reverie de care vorbea Bachelard, pentru c Jurnalul, n ansamblul su,
are o arhitectur bine definit, o fraz nchegat, iar fragmentarismul inerent unei opere
diaristice se ncheag ntr-un discurs ferm, onest, fr efuziuni sentimentale sau lamentaii
adolescentine. Avem de-a face cu un scriitor matur, a crui experien de via l-a vindecat
probabil de ateptri nejustificate sau de autoiluzionri dearte, pe care s le verse n paginile
jurnalului.
Opera sa ficional se ncadreaz perfect n intimismul interbelic pe linia Blecher,
jurnalul, dimpotriv, aparent se situeaz la polul opus operei, fiind guvernat de raiune i
spirit. La o prim lectur, degaj impresia c raiunea primeaz, c scriitura obedient este
stpnit cu uurin, iar scriitorul ptrunde n mrejele creaiei ca un stpn absolut. Aflm c
traduce mult, din diferite limbi concomitent, ceea ce i ordoneaz gndirea, mai ales c el face
traducerile pentru sine i nu e constrns de niciun termen sau vreo alt cauz exterioar. Ieri
tradus un fragment din Caligula de Camus (II, 14), cu mult interes intelectual i cu gndul la
copilul crescut n tabra armatelor de la Rin (fiu al comandantului) i rsfat de soldai
(sndlu), cum l prezint Tacitus. Ajuns mprat, avea s devin teoretician i practician al
filosofiei absurdului! Ca ntr-un roman modern! Scriitorii francezi tiu s interpreteze cu folos
istoria. Teoria omului revoltat m-a interesat.( 3 ianuarie, 1969, p. 421) i totui, iat c
interesul intelectual e nsoit de gndul la copilul prezentat de Tacitus. Astfel de detalii, ce
compenseaz excesiva raionalizare a scriiturii, strecurate ntre rndurile jurnalului fr
posibilitatea de a putea fi lsate n afar de editor apropie scriitura i, implicit eul scriitor de
arhetipul feminin ce guverneaz acest tip de creaie. Preocupat de teoria omului revoltat, de
felul n care scriitorii francezi tiu valorifica istoria, diaristul gsete rgaz s numeasc
apelativul viitorului mare mprat, un diminutiv fr mare nsemntate, reinut, totui, fr
niciun fel de legtur cu restul textului. Astfel de inserii vom mai gsi, i acestea sunt doar
cele care s-au strecurat ntre impresiile generale, deoarece informaiile personale
nesemnificative, spune Aurel Sasu, mai cuprind date cu privire la activitatea didactic,
notaii cu caracter gospodresc, minore ntmplri de familie, scrisori primite i trimise soiei,
mici evenimente locale, exerciii de traducere din poezia universal sau ciudate cugetri
despre reptila malign i spiritul demoniac al numelui de oprobriu.(p. 15) Toate acestea
au fost lsate pe dinafar de editor, i considerate nerelevante pentru ansamblul operei
scriitorului.
Lumea exterioar a diaristului se rezum n prima parte la satul natal, cu ulie pline de
noroi, n care automobilul nu poate ptrunde, cu o cas n care este permanent alternat
prezena soiei cu absena ei, dar care l solicit pe scriitor mai mult dect i-ar dori la
ngrijirea gospodriei. Orizontul se lrgete apoi prin mutarea la Piteti pentru scurt timp i se
completeaz spre final cu o vizit la Bucureti. Cam aceasta ar fi schema dup care se mic
diaristul n cei trei ani narai, dar toate observaiile referitoare la realitatea nconjurtoare sunt
consemnate doar n msura n care au o legtur cu viaa sa interioar.
Notaia din 21 august, 1969, este concludent n acest sens: Iar singur.[s.n.] Zina a
stat aproape toat vara la tefneti. Are acolo pe Sftic, sora ei care, dei mai n vrst, duce
cu succes gospodria, ceea ce permite Zinei s se odihneasc, fr grij, cnd tie c
altcineva, competent, dirijeaz treburile. Sunt de acord c la Buditeni este trud mare, de
dimineaa pn seara, n aciuni de nimica: hran la psri i la porc, gtitul la buctrie,
lucrri de sezon n grdin i livad, i c toate aceste solicitri epuizeaz, fr satisfacia
spiritual a unei munci productive. neleg c Zina prefer s stea la tefneti fiindc acolo
se odihnete. Rmn la Buditeni cu sor-mia, Marioara, mai mic dect mine cu paisprezece
10
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ani, deci nc apt de munca fizic, dar nu pot lsa tot greul pe dnsa. Astzi am btut prunii
cu prjina, am cules i am crat la butie.(p. 439) Sunt puine astfel de informaii n carte.
Jurnalul nu ne lmurete nici cu privire la relaia dintre soi, nici cu privire la cea dintre frai.
Ceea ce tim din mai multe notaii este c soia lipsete des, iar acest lucru provoac fie stri
de solitudine eului diarist, fie momente de ngrijorare, n cazul n care absena se prelungete
neanunat. Despre ndeletnicirile din viaa de zi cu zi, n afar de cea de la masa de lucru, tim
c i par o pierdere de timp, o consumare de energie n detrimentul crii. Nevoia de a crete
animale i a munci grdina i livada se nasc din raiuni economice, dar produc o permanent
frustrare11. Scriitorul, dei nscut la sat, nu se va obinui niciodat cu traiul agrest, dar nici
oraul nu-l atrage mai tare, vom vedea acest lucru atunci cnd se va muta pentru o vreme la
Piteti. n sat este aproape un anonim, uneori o ruine, tocmai pentru c este scriitor, iar
alteori inta unor rfuieli ascunse, neasumate: Nu sunt respectat n sat i localnicii tineri sau
btrni i arat cum pot desconsideraia. (p. 447) n aceste condiii este de mirare cum
reuete s-i menin echilibrul sufletesc, dat fiind faptul c societatea n care triete l
exclude, iar cea spre care aspir l crede mort. Particip la muncile din jurul gospodriei din
necesitate, fr s aprecieze nimic din ceea ce Blaga descoperise n satul tradiional. Este
adevrat ns i faptul c n Buditeni, prin ochiul scriitorului, nu descoperim nicio trstur
ce l-ar putea apropia de satul blagian. Este un fel de nchisoare ce-l ine prizonier n anonimat,
i consum o parte din energia necesar pentru a scrie, i provoac stri de angoas, practic l
exclude din viaa adevrat. La Buditeni anul se msoar cu sezonul estival, - cldur,
optimismul vegetaiei, belugul grdinii i livezii. Iarna, n general, nsemneaz frig, noroaie,
solitudine i maladii: rceal, grip, stri depresive de tot genul.[...] Consider iarna la ar o
nefericire. Personal nu pot lupta mpotriva ei i o ndur ca un damnat la o detenie absurd,
injust.(pp. 445-446) Despre bucuria i belugul verii ns nu gsim nicio consemnare, ceea
ce primeaz este acea stare decent exprimat de deprimare pe care i-o provoac venirea iernii,
stare ce se va repeta i n anul urmtor, concretizat n boala ce-l va mpiedica din a scrie.
Momentele de evadare din sat sunt notate i ele doar ca evenimente ce se leag de
viaa interioar. Consemneaz numrul la care se gsete redacia revistei Arge, fiindc
este identic cu al Zinei din tefneti, i m-am gndit c mprejurarea poate s-mi fie de bun
augur.(p. 456) Descrie felul n care arat oraul pentru a motiva absena notelor din jurnal:
ntrerupt de mult scrisul i nici n Jurnal nu am notat sistematic. M aflu ntr-o perioad de
acomodare cu oraul. ederea ndelungat la ar, lipsa de conversaie, neparticiparea la
circulaia urban, la zgomote i semnalizri, tocirea sensului vieii colective pe care l d
strada cu traficul vehicular, coloritul vitrinelor i semnificaia economic a firmelor au avut
influen asupra mea...(p. 458). Observ i descrie strada pe care st Matei Alexandru pentru
c nu s-a schimbat deloc n treizeci de ani: Sosit nainte de unsprezece dup mult bjbial
prin cartierul Bucuretii Noi, pn s gsim strada Duru, care, de fapt, nu este strad, ci o
uli desfundat cu noroi i bltoace, cum era acum treizeci de ani, cnd s-a construit casa, pe
cmp!( pp. 479 480)
Cam acestea sunt observaiile pe care le regsim n Jurnal, despre spaiul exterior n
care se mic autorul. Ele devin utile doar n msura n care se leag de anumite triri, explic
o anumit atitudine sau conduce spre vreo generalizare.
O prim coordonat ce strbate scriitura din Jurnal, asigurnd unitate textului, este
rbdarea, din care deriv atenia pentru detalii, pe care Ioana Em. Petrescu o extrgea din
natura specific feminin, un fel de transfigurare n spirit, plecat de la aplicarea rbdtoare a
Miercuri, 15 iulie, 1970, el noteaz: Stri depresive cu tendine de permanentizare, din cauza lipsei totale de satisfacii. Trebuie s-mi
pierd vremea dnd de mncare la boboci de ra, la pui de gin i la porci. Acestea nu sunt activiti, ci irosire a timpului! Mi-am simplificat
existena n mod tragic: nu cer dect s fiu lsat la masa mea din camer s pot citi, scrie i organiza publicarea operei. Nu mi se permite ns
nici aceast posibilitate., Jurnal, ed. cit., p. 444.
11
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mpletirii dantelelor12 tim din chiar prima pagin de jurnal c scriitorul traduce din diferite
limbi, fr iluzia de a publica vreodat aceste traduceri. Continu s le realizeze n ciuda
tuturor dezaprobrilor, (soia crede c fac o munc zadarnic p. 422), din diferite motive:
pe Valery l traduce pentru c Fac un simplu exerciiu pentru a-l nelege mai bine pe autor,
pentru a m informa, n amnunt, asupra ideilor acestei celebriti mondiale.(pp. 422-423),
din Alfred Jarry traduce pentru a nelege ce nsemneaz bufonad n literatur ca gen, la
Camus l intereseaz teoria omului revoltat, epistola Ad Pisones a lui Horatiu o traduce pentru
a o interpreta, chiar dac Dup dou mii de ani, cred c s-a scris atta despre aceast epistol,
nct ar cuprinde un raft de bibliotec. (p. 425). Legtura cu poetul englez Keats este de alt
natur. Poetul m intereseaz dintr-un punct de vedere asemntor cu al meu. A scris cu
contiina c are puin de trit, la fel ca i mine!(p. 429) (Raportul cu timpul este definit aici,
o alt coordonat de baz a textului, dar pn la a discuta acest raport merit amintii cel puin
civa dintre autorii pe care i mai traduce.) Kenneth Allot va fi tradus n timpul amiezii, n
locul orelor de somn pentru cunoaterea modului de a gndi poetic n Anglia
contemporan., cunoatere ce se impune mai ales c autorul a tradus buci reprezentative
din poeii francezi contemporani lui, deci o punere n paralel este binevenit. Mai exist
numeroase trimiteri spre traducerile fcute, am inventariat doar o mic parte a numelor cu
scopul de a evidenia situaia n care se afl scriitorul. Retras din lumea literar din motive
independente de voina sa, triete ntr-un sat n care nu se poate ajunge cu automobilul i
citete i traduce literatur contemporan parc mai asiduu dect numele sonore ce se afl n
primplanul vieii cultural literare. Cunotinele sale din celelalte arte, despre care aflm doar
tangenial din conexiunile pe care le face, vorbesc despre o solid erudiie consolidat dup
ani de studiu, despre care nu muli dintre contemporanii si aveau s afle. n aceste condiii,
rbdarea este un atribut de baz ce l-a inut activ n ultimii ani de via, cnd a fost permanent
mnat de dorina de a reveni pe scena literar. Din luna septembrie (1968) m-am pornit pe
activitatea febril a scrisului pe baza pensiei acordate de Uniunea Scriitorilor, care mi asigur
existena, nota el, n 19 februarie, 1969 (p. 429). O cauz exterioar iat, l ine departe de
scris, de luxul pe care s i-l poat permite doar la aizeci i unu de ani, dup mai mult de
treizeci de ani de cnd a debutat. Iar acum se afl n plin lupt cu sine i cu timpul, cu
necesitatea de a scrie i, n acelai timp cu dorina de a fi cunoscut i apreciat. Este o lupt
contra cronometru, deoarece se simte btrn i oscileaz mereu ntre a-i aprecia munca i a o
considera inutil. Remarcat nc din liceu pentru ambiia cu care a cutat mereu s-i nving
timiditatea, Fntneru scrie n fiecare zi fr a avea certitudinea c ceea ce scrie este valoros
i, implicit publicabil. Pregtete cu mult minuiozitate materialul (cel puin trei sute de
pagini), i ateapt un moment favorabil pentru a-i scrie lui Noica, (pe care-l cunotea din
tineree i cu care a fost n relaie de amiciie), cel care, credea el, l va ajuta s revin n viaa
literar. Pn la urm reuete s publice cu ajutorul lui Gheorghe Tomozei, n revista
pitetean Arge.
Ieirea din anonimat mi-ar da n primul rnd prestigiu la masa de lucru i mi s-ar
respecta condiiile necesare muncii de creaie. Dar aceasta pare s constituie o problem mai
grea dect creaia nsi.(p. 434) Exist muli scriitori pentru care condiionarea exterioar
st n calea operei. Att pe plan intern ct i n context mai larg, european sau mondial avem
numeroase exemple n care scriitori mcinai de constrngerile sociale, triesc la limita
subzistenei i sunt nevoii s-i sacrifice energia pentru a-i asigura traiul de zi cu zi. Fiecare
caz este special i diferit, aa cum fiecare personalitate creatoare este unic. Fntneru se
plnge foarte rar de acest lucru, dar frustrarea este mereu prezent, deoarece luciditatea i
permite o apreciere pertinent a propriei opere, de unde i nevoia unui ochi extern, care s-i
confirme sau, dup caz, s-i infirme supoziiile. Zbaterea permanent ntre Zi de mulumire:
Edgar Papu, Inventivitate i exactitate, n Portret de grup cu Ioana Em. Petrescu, volum realizat de Diana Adamek i Ioana Bot, Editura
Dacia, Cluj, 1991, p. 8.
12
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815
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construiete mai mult de dragul celor din jurul su, dup ateptrile lor. Adevrata fa a
diaristului se contureaz prin tehnica detaliului semnificativ, dar trsturile sunt att de
disparat plasate n text, nct necesit un real efort pentru a le descoperi. Orice pagin scris n
jurnal se supune unui singur deziderat: efortul de a crea Opera, care s poat fi publicat
pentru a-l readuce pe autor pe scena vieii literare. Notaia aproape zilnic n jurnal este i el
un exerciiu de autodisciplinare, autorul mrturisind adesea c rndurile nu au calitatea
necesar unei scrieri deoarece sunt redactate seara, cnd este deja obosit, neatent sau incapabil
de a se concentra. Interesant este c la majoritatea scriitorilor diariti, jurnalul apare n
sincope de creaie, dar nu i la Fntneru. Acesta cnd nu scrie n jurnal nu scrie nici altceva,
de cele mai multe ori din cauze externe (este solicitat n gospodrie sau este bolnav).
ntrerupt scrisul i nici n Jurnal nu am notat sistematic., mrturisea la data de 14 februarie
(p. 458), cnd se mut pentru o perioad scurt la Piteti. Scrisul se desfoar dup un
anumit ritual (diferit de cel rebrenian, totui), autorul are deja o vrst la care tabieturile
formate i cer dreptul, prin urmare a redacta jurnalul este pn la urm a redacta oper, iar
aceasta necesit atenie i dedicare. Cu o alt ocazie mrturisete: ntreruperea scrisului i la
jurnal i n paginile romanului...(p. 437), de aceast dat generat de nemulumire i de o
senzaie acut de oboseal: Este un soi de suferin aproape neomeneasc!...Se datorete,
cred, situaiei anormale n care m aflu de a nu fi publicat nimic de atta vreme, de a fi socotit
mort de enciclopediti, de a nu fi dat nimnui s citeasc din literatura [s. a.] mea att de
nou! Consider ca un drept al meu s termin, s m odihnesc i s zic cineva c am fcut un
lucru bun.(p. 437) Prin intermediul acestei mrturisiri facem cunotin cu toate
nemulumirile scriitorului, adunate ntr-o singur fraz, dar care leag ca un fel de cordon
toate cele puin peste aizeci de pagini ale jurnalului. Scrie consecvent, dar nu public nimic,
deci este considerat mort, pentru c nu-l citete nimeni i, prin urmare, nu este apreciat. Cam
aa s-ar putea traduce notaia de mai sus a diaristului, cu ajutorul creia depistm cteva
coordonate din universul su luntric, ntre care, la loc de frunte se afl sentimentul acut al
singurtii: Zic existen tragic [s. a.] pentru c aa am fost, singur, de cnd m tiu pe
lume.(p. 449) Perceput acut uneori (Sunt tot singur, mereu singur, iar n jurul meu
ntmpin doar neajunsuri i motive de indispoziie p. 446 ), resemnat alteori (ncolo,
singurtate i tcere p. 441 ), singurtatea guverneaz multe din gesturile scriitorului. Se
grbete s publice deoarece, spune el, nici nu are cui s lase manuscrisele sale. Petrece att
de mult timp singur i n tcere, nct atunci cnd ajunge n ora, nevoit s susin o
conversaie, se teme c nu i va gsi cuvintele. ncurajarea confrailor literai l va scoate
pn la urm din amoreal i-l va face s spere c i va vedea opera tiprit. Puinele sale
momente de satisfacie intelectual sunt strns legate de acest aspect, completat de momentele
de mulumire la finalizarea vreunui capitol, de reuita re/transcrierii sau de mulumirea de
ordin fiziologic generat de somn i de bucuria de a visa. n momentul de fa somnul este,
aadar, singura mea desftare complet.[...] Cu alte cuvinte, n vise triesc n general
coninutul scrierilor mele, de aceea spun c somnul a rmas singura mea voluptate,
nepericlitat, pn acum, de nici o schimbare inerent naintrii n vrst.(p. 451) Perceput
ca evadare dintr-un cotidian neprielnic ntr-un univers compensatoriu parc de factur
romantic, visarea este pentru Constantin Fntneru, un lux pe care i-l poate permite.
Despre celelalte plceri nu pot s spun nimic cu aceeai preciziune. Plceri vestimentare nu
am. Plimbri, excursii, cltorii nu am putin s fac. La spectacole, restaurante, vizite,
ntruniri, edine, nuni, banchete, nu particip. Bucuria alimentaiei n cas mi este de
asemenea ngrdit de maladia hipertensiv.(p. 451)
Motivate parial de lipsa banilor, parial de starea sntii, ngrdirile pe care le
enumer autorul n aceste rnduri trimit, inevitabil spre constatarea lui Eugen Ionescu: eul nu
se simte confortabil nici mcar n singurtatea parial autoimpus. n complicitate cu aceast
singurtate ns, i va concepe opera de maturitate, o oper valoroas ce se restituie pas cu
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pas cititorului pentru care a i fost scris, dar care apare mult prea trziu pentru a-l mulumi pe
autorul ei. Cu gndul la marea revenire pe care i-o promite Gheorghe Tomozei (mi va face o
reintrare n literatur cu fastul cuvenit), Fntneru muncete nentrerupt, dup cum reiese din
ultima parte a jurnalului, scrie i transcrie, furnizeaz materiale, vrea s lrgeasc sfera
publicaiilor la care ar putea colabora i ncepe s-i scrie memoriile. Scriitorul renate la
gndul c opera i va fi publicat n timpul vieii, chiar dac i apar doar zece dintre Naraiuni
n revista Arge. Se mut la Piteti pentru o perioad, cltorete la Bucureti pentru a se
ntlni cu Matei Alexandru, care-i solicit memoriile, cunoate noi scriitori, este invitat la
diferite ntlniri i chiar membru n comisia de premiere a revistei Arge unde s-a vorbit
despre el mai elogios dect despre autorii premiai. Toate acestea hrnesc optimismul
scriitorului pentru a-i vedea cartea publicat, dar nu-i modific percepia despre lume, care sa conturat deja pentru cititorul jurnalului pn n acel moment. Ceea ce se schimb este
factura notaiilor: sunt mai scurte, se transform n simple consemnri tot mai laconice i se
ncheie brusc, dar rotund, la data de 10 august, 1973, ntr-o zi de vineri, cu promisiunea unei
reveniri superioare calitativ, care nu se va mai realiza ns. Autorul moare doi ani mai trziu,
fr a-i vedea opera tiprit. Din aceast perspectiv, avem n acest jurnal mrturia unei
sperane dearte, care a generat ns Opera i a repus n circulaie un nume devreme disprut
de pe harta literaturii ntr-un sat argeean, pentru a crete boboci de ra, a bate prunii i a
culege flori de tei. Sperana este alturi de singurtate, o alt coordonat de baz a jurnalului
ce confer unitate i coeren textului care, dac se citete fr atenia distras de
calendaritate, are o unitate interioar bine definit. Trecerea de la data de 19 septembrie,
1969, la 28 februarie, 1970, de exemplu, se face pe nesimite, cititorul neatent la dat nu
sesizeaz nicio schimbare de tonalitate sau de nuan ce poate lua natere din absena
nsemnrilor aproape o jumtate de an. Astfel, raportul cu timpul este lmurit. Timpul, n
jurnal, se msoar cu o unitate aparte: Opera. Adevrul este c lucrez ca s pot muri linitit.
mrturisete la 23 aprilie, (p. 433), 1969, stabilind clar c singura modalitate de a-l nvinge
este creaia. Trimiterile temporale au relevan doar n msura n care sunt legate de lucru.
Am trecut de jumtatea verii [...], dar n-am ajuns pn acum la capitolele eseniale...(p. 438)
sau n septembrie mplinesc anul de cnd lucrez la roman(p. 438), sunt doar cteva din
mrturiile n acest sens. Despre felul n care se raporteaz la moarte, tem inevitabil a
oricrui jurnal, sunt practic doar cteva rnduri creionate propriu-zis, toate trimiterile
subsumndu-se eforului creaiei. n 27 ianuarie 1971 noteaz ca esenial, s vorbeasc despre
lipsa temerii abjecte de moarte, ce pare s derive din optimismul generat de sigurana c-i
va vedea opera publicat. Astfel, situaia de a fi fost socotit deja mort i-a provocat o angoas
mult mai mare dect constatarea c are aizeci i patru de ani i poate oricnd s-i ncheie
viaa terestr, fr s [se] poat afirma c acest sfrit obtesc s-a produs pe neateptate.(p.
453) Tema morii deci, chiar dac exist, e att de slab reprezentat de indici lexicali nct se
subsumeaz total temei creaiei. Eul exist i se manifest n funcie de ceea ce scrie.
Chiar dac este extrem de restrns, din punct de vedere compoziional jurnalul analizat
s-ar putea divide n trei pri: o prim parte ce cuprinde impresii de lectur i observaii pe
marginea traducerilor, un jurnal de idei completat cu un jurnal de lectur practic, o a doua
parte confesiv, n care eul i expune angoasele, i raporteaz existena la sine i la ceilali n
funcie de creaiile pe care le concepe, expune preri despre moarte, lume i din nou despre
sine, i o a treia parte, o mrturie deschis despre necesitatea ca opera s-i poat fi publicat i
eforturile canalizate n aceast direcie. Aceast a treia parte cuprinde timida revenire pe scena
literar, care ns readuce sperana autorului de a fi citit, precum i confirmarea c ceea ce
scrie se ridic la exigenele valorice pe care i le-a impus.
Cunoscut mai degrab pentru statutul su de meditator al lui Noica, numele lui
Fntneru i rectig pe zi ce trece locul n literatur, iar prin reeditrile succesive, crile
sale devin tot mai cunoscute publicului larg. Contient de tnr de capacitile sale, public un
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roman ndrzne n scriitur, versuri originale i, iat, un jurnal i pagini memorialistice care
s lmureasc ntregul su univers. Cele aizeci i trei de pagini ale jurnalului se construiesc
ntr-un discurs diaristic ce merit atenia lectorului nu numai pentru mrturia omului de
dincolo de scris, ci i pentru stilul aparte ce nglobeaz o experien de via i de scriere
profund originale.
Bibliografie
1. Barthes, Roland, Plcerea textului, Traducere de Marian Papahagi, Postfa de Ion
Pop, Editura Echinox, Cluj, 1994;
2. Blanchot, Maurice, Spaiul literar, Traducere i prefa de Irina Mavrodin, Editura
Minerva, Bucureti, 2007;
3. Clinescu, George, Fals jurnal, Cronicile optimistului, Editura Pentru Literatur,
Bucureti, 1964;
4. Clinescu, George, Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn n prezent, Ediia a
doua, revzut i adugit, Ediie i prefa de Al. Piru, Editura Minerva, Bucureti,
1982;
5. Crtrescu, Mircea, Postmodernismul romnesc, Postfa de Paul Cornea, Editura
Humanitas, Bucureti, 1999;
6. Crohmlniceanu, Ovid S. Literatura romn ntre cele dou rzboaie mondiale,
(Ediie revzut), volumul I, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1982;
7. Fntneru, Constantin, Cri i o alt carte, Ediie critic, prefa, ngrijirea textului,
note, bibliografie i indice de Aurel Sasu, S. C. Editura Minerva S. A., Bucureti, 1999;
8. Fntneru, Constantin, Interior, Ediie ngrijit i studiu introductiv de Simona
Popescu, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2006;
9. Fntneru, Constantin, Slujba din hol, Ediie i ngrijirea textului de Aurel Sasu i
Arabela Prodan, Cuvnt nainte de Arabela Prodan, Editura Limes, Cluj-Napoca, 2009;
10. Freud, Sigmund, Scrieri despre literatur i art, Traducere i note de Vasile Dem.
Zamfirescu, Prefa de Romul Munteanu, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1980;
11. Lejeune, Philippe, On Diary, edited by Jeremy D. Popkin & Julie Rak, Katherine
Durnin, Translator, A biography monograph, Published for the Biographical research
center by the University of HawaiI Press, 2009.
12. Lejeune, Philippe, Pactul autobiografic, Bucureti, Traducere de Irina Margareta
Nistor, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 2000.
13. Papu, Edgar, Inventivitate i exactitate, n Portret de grup cu Ioana Em. Petrescu,
volum realizat de Diana Adamek i Ioana Bot, Editura Dacia, Cluj, 1991;
14. Simion, Eugen Ficiunea jurnalului intim, volumul I, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 2001;
15. Simion, Eugen, Ficiunea jurnalului intim, vol. I Exist o poetic a jurnalului?, vol. II,
Intimismul european, vol. III, Diarismul romnesc, Editura Univers Enciclopedic,
Bucureti, 2001.
16. Simion, Eugen, Genurile biograficului, Bucureti, Ed. Univers Enciclopedic, 2002.
17. Zamfir, Mihai, Cealalt fa a prozei, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1988;
818
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Abstract: Whoever controls the media, the images, controls the culture, said Allen
Ginsberg. Those born in the 20th century have the luck to enrich their minds with literary
masterpieces belonging to their predecessors. A novel or a poem is worth reading when it
boosts ones imagination, leading to introspection. I pause, while reading, to ponder over an
idea that impressed me; at the same time Im thrown back to various states and memories. Its
unbelievable what we discover about ourselves by simply reading.
Great writers have been inspired especially by classics. In the gothic genre we run across
Matthew Lewis, Anne Radcliffe or Edgar Allan Poe; at first, one would be surprised to learn
that novels Jane Eyre and Wuthering Heights include elements of the gothic. Illtempered characters wight for their loved ones and for their principles. Women silence men,
supporting their points of view; an image unbearable in the first half of the 19th century.
Novels belonging to the Bront sisters hold the same energy as they did a century ago. No
wonder they are avant-la-lettre and thought provoking.
Horror writer Anne Rice admits she was influenced by the Bronts; her vampires possess the
same force and cruelty like negative characters Heathcliff and Mr. Brocklehurst. They owe
supernatural powers, destroying everything around them. Moreover, misfit Catherine
Earnshaw resembles Rices creatures. They cannot find inner peace, struggling with dual
personalities. Catherines volcanic temper ends in no spiritual reconciliation; shes stuck
between her nature and patriarchal pressures. She belongs to Heathcliff for eternity, but
marries Linton.
Jane Eyre fights for freedom of speech, trying to win over mans authority; stubborn, smart,
she rejects St.Johns marriage proposal or Helens spiritual limits. Like Lestat (Interview
with the Vampire), she is willing to enforce her status in society in order to be accepted by
the mob. Thus, mentalities can be shaped slowly but surely in order to reach that particular
aim.
Keywords: passionate character, transcendental love, vampire, spiritual seclusion, crossing
boundaries.
What makes a skillful writer? Each one of us has someone they look up to; especially
when it comes to choosing your path in life. Writers influence each other a great deal. A work
of fiction sends energy to each and every reader. He/she, in turn, passes it on to another.
Popular novels like Jane Eyre and Wuthering Heights have been subjects of
discussions throughout decades. From constructing feminism and ones true identity to
rejecting patriarchal models and morals. Horror writer Anne Rice was inspired by the
Bronts characters; they reflect a passion for living, struggling to reach their aims.
The Bronts had a strict upbringing just like Rice did. She was raised as a Catholic and
that made her feel trapped, with no freedom. She was faithful to God until the age of eighteen,
when she decided to be an atheist. She wanted to see the world with her own eyes, with no
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restrictions from God; she felt she had to put away God in order to grow up and see the world
as is. On the other hand, the Bronts had to cope in a male dominated society, in which the
woman was forbidden to hold her speech. This way, their novels picture secluded dwellings
in which characters must survive one with the other; the silence of the surroundings is
deafening and hard to bear. Women are held prisoners by dominating men who abuse their
power. In Jane Eyre, Mr. Brocklehurst, at Lowood school, is portrayed as a monster who
torments pupils both physically and psychologically.
Characters in Rices novels reflect their grief for having lost God; they have no hope
in salvation, rebelling against their state. They see it as unfair, like a curse. After thirty-eight
years of being an agnostic, Rice turns to God; she was proud to admit it, but she loved and
needed God all those years. However, a short while after embracing Church, she dismisses
any organized religious group. She believes in God and is a secular humanist at present. She
left the Catholic Church because of its fight against same sex relationships and against the use
of condoms in Africa.
If in most gothic tales, the settings used are remote castles, the Bronts use households
in this scope. Normal families are made up of adults hard to deal with, having nightmarish
childhoods.
Rice reached to the vampire as a metaphor of her Christ haunted self. She felt
abandoned and had to cry her disappointment through her characters. The Bronts felt
silenced by abusing males the way Rice felt silenced by the Church and its norms.
Mystery is a must when making up a story; there has to be some secrets, regardless the
genre of that piece of writing. No one knows about Heathcliffs past; he is described as
resembling a gypsy, being found in Liverpool by Mr. Earnshaw. As a newcomer and slavelike, he is humiliated and laughed at due to his condition; like Armand (The Vampire
Armand), he is tormented by the powerful and the rich. They take advantage of their position,
to inflict violence on the weak ones. Shockingly enough, even today, one observes the silent
hierarchy of power in all types of groups; from pupils to peers at the workplace. We act like
beasts, identifying the alpha and trying to defeat him/her.
Kidnapped from his Russian background, Armand is taken as slave by merchants,
overseas. He is believed dead by his family and suffers from loss, pain, until is bought by
Marius. Just like Heathcliff, he finds hard to adapt to the new lifestyle; the Renaissance
celebrated the beauty of life, the human body and the world. A tormented soul, Armand cant
grasp the others joy and approach to life. Unable to adapt, Heathcliff leaves Wuthering
Heights, knowing he has no reason left to stay here; thats because he overhears Catherines
discussion with Nelly. Disappointed by Catherines apparent unrequited love, he flees to start
anew.
Armand is taken too young into immortal existence. He plunges into a senseless,
savage world of people and supernatural creatures alike. Thats because they all act like
animals, hunting something that provides peace for a while. However, Heathcliff has to bear
humiliation and cruelty imposed by Hindley Earnshaw. He has patience, bearing it all, as long
as Catherine shared his pure, strong love for her.
Jane Eyre experiences, as well, moments of distress and disappointment. As
governess, she cant be closer to Mr. Rochesters ward; for, shes not a relative. But she isnt
viewed as distant as a servant is. Faced with rejection and lack of love, she explodes with
crisis and screams like any other child would do. After years of humiliation with the Reeds
and at Lowood school, she is unable to tolerate anymore contempt from anyone. Feeling
inferior, useless, she rebels against the morals of the time; it seems as if her job as a teacher
and governess is but a mechanical action done by a marionette. She feels like a prostitute,
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having reached the ultimate level of low esteem. This way, she associates with mad Berths,
believing it is normal to feel that way. Thus, she sees herself at the margins of society. In the
end, it is Mr. Rochesters inner light that brings her hope; other characters interfere as well,
showing her kindness and encouragement. For example Mrs. Fairfax, St. John Claire and his
sisters. Still, all the while, Jane held her head up, kept going. No one around could have
assumed she is distressed. She stood up for her point of view and didnt give up believing in
equality between men and women.
When it comes to gender, Rice reverses patriarchal roles; she destroys healthy
principles such as traditional family, promoting homosexual relationships in her novels. She
sees no difference between males and females. Nor does Emily Bront. Both are fierce and
willed when expressing their ideas. Whereas Charlotte Bront is milder. Wuthering Heights
is encrypted and mysterious to most of us, even today. But why try to solve a puzzle, if there
wasnt any puzzle from the start? Wuthering Heights can be viewed as a state of mind, a
troubling tune that slowly ceased, ending peacefully.
Rices and Bronts works abound in lack of empathy, pain, terror and torment.
Characters are troubled by their other selves that come to surface. Lestat (Interview with the
Vampire) is unsatisfied with the 21st century world he is living in. He asks from recognition
from humans and wants to be all knowing. His selfishness and superiority suddenly disappear
when confronted with Gods image on St. Veronicas veil. He is wounded by divine light, not
having believed in Christ. Vampires search for the ray of light, for the answer that there is
inner peace and divinity. Louis and Armand feel bitters living as immortals among humans.
Furthermore, Heathcliff and Catherine are orphans craving for the light of hope, just like
Rices vampires do.
Jane earns a status in Victorian society and in Rochesters heart, but Heathcliff and
Catherines love ends tragically. Love transcends material world in both cases; while alive,
the two couldnt reunite. She was distracted by Lintons morality and was stubborn to belong
to the superficial, outer world. Still, in the end, she yearned for Heathcliffs affection.
Caludia (Interview with the Vampire) rebels against her two vampire companions
(Lestat and Louis) just like Jane rebels against men and the morals of the time. Claudia feels a
woman trapped in the body of a girl; for, she was made a vampire at a young age. She is
stubborn, feeling suffocated by her fathers care. Blaming Louis and Lestat for her condition
she decides to kill the latter. For, she was closer to Louis. On the otherhand, the woman is in
the way of homosexual relationships. Jealous on the little one, Armand decides to destroy
Claudia in order to get closer to Louis. Unfit in her position, she is killed in order to reestablish order among male vampires.
The absence of a mother proved a disaster for most characters in Brontss novels. But
for Rices characters, a mother is meant to increase the childs dependence on her. Its meant
to reduce the males masculinity; his over-identification with the mother leads to his
homosexual identity.
Lestat acquires a comic feature just like Heathcliff. The latters harsh tone and
appearance prove a bit funny when associated with Lockwoods uneasiness and confusion.
Lestat always appears safe and sound when believes him dead or gone. Ironic and selective as
usual, he acts like a spoilt brat. His ill-temper and liveliness are similar to Jane Eyres.
Numerous novels evolve around his vitality to steal the show and stand in the public eye.
Writers like the Bront sisters and Anne Rice, bring discussions to the table. They
dont judge or point the finger at someone or something; a writer achieves public recognition
if he/she offers readers thought provoking themes. Among many domains, Rice searched
mythology, the histories of Egypt or Italy in order to complete her novels. At the same time,
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Emily Bront was inspired by Novalis, Goethe, Schlegel, Hoffmann in order to create the
action in Wuthering Heights. Such authors are gifted because they practiced the use of the
supernatural, integrating it in our day to day busy lives.
Bibliography
Bront, Charlotte, Jane Eyre, Penguin Popular Classics, Great Britain, 1994.
Bront, Emily, Wuthering Heights, Wordsworth Classics, 1992.
Doane, Janice, Hodges, Devon, Undoing Feminism: From the Preoedipal to
Postfeminism in Anne Rice's Vampire Chronicles, in American Literary History,Vol. 2, No.
3
(Autumn,
1990),
pp.
422-442,
Oxford
University
Press
,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/489948, accessed on 12.09.2013, at 04:32.
Glen, Heather, The Cambridge Companion to the Bronts, Cambridge University
Press, UK, 2002.
Michie, Elsie B., Charlotte Bronts Jane Eyre. A Casebook, Oxford University Press,
New York, 2006.
Rice, Anne, Interview with the Vampire, Ballantine Books , New York, 1989.
The Vampire Armand, Random House , New York, 1998.
Stoneman, Patsy, New Casebooks. Wuthering Heights, Contemporary Critical Essays,
The Macmillan Press, UK, 1993.
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Abstract: At the time when the theoretical concept of chronotope was introduced, the issue of
space and time and their indissoluble link was put into question, leading to multiple
interpretations. If Bakhtin highlights the temporal dimension in literature, the 20th century is
influenced by Michel Foucaults concepts of space and simultaneity. Starting from these
theoretical references, we will try to identify in this paper, the time and space configurations
in Mircea Nedelcius novel Zmeura de cmpie.
Keywords: Mircea Nedelciu, novel, time, space, place, heterotopias.
Teodor N. rdea, Petru V. Berlinschi, Anatol I. Eanu, Didina U. Nistreanu, Vitalie I. Ojovanu, Dicionar de Filosofie i Bioetic, A-Z,
Chiinu, 2003, pp. 275, 297-298.
2
Gaston Bachelard, Poetica spaiului, Seria Studii socio-umane, trad. Irina Bdescu, pref. Mircea Martin Gaston Bachelard ca educator,
Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2003, p. 40.
1
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superioritatea fizic pe care o poate folosi n acel moment pentru a-i domina asculttorul ce
pare a se prbui sub rafala de vorbe ale nverunatului povestitor.
Autobuzul, alt mijloc de transport n comun sau o alt etichet?16 de ce nu, a
regimului comunist , prezent n proza lui Mircea Nedelciu drept laitmotiv, simbolizeaz
contactul silit, din orice evoluie personal, cu socialul.17 Aceast forare a personajelor de a
lua contact cu mediul social este dezvluit de parcurgerea spaiului dinspre ora spre sat,
respectiv, de la sat la ora. Scindarea identitar se produce asupra personajelor tocmai prin
constanta navet ce poate fi vzut drept o strmutare a ranului de la sat pentru a lucra n
fabricile de la ora i a oreanului, ce reprezint intelectualul profesorul, inginerul,
agronomul, doctorul etc. , la sat. Aceast pendulare dintre sat-ora i ora-sat cu autobuzul
vzut ca instituie, capt diferite conotaii, n funcie de direcia de mers, i anume, atunci
cnd transport brbaii din satele ilfovene spre uzinele din capital, acesta devine o agora n
care exist mulumii, nemulumii i indifereni, n care critica este direct sau nvluit n
metafor sau deghizat n simpl glum18 ce ne trimite cu gndul la stilul mucalit i profund
al unui Ilie Moromete, ns adaptat subt vremi. Atunci cnd direcia de mers este dinspre
autogrile bucuretene spre satele din apropiere, se transform ntr-o ciudat sal de edine
n care se confrunt opinii i concepii, se fac schimburi de experien sau se tace
semnificativ. Datorit zgomotului produs de motor, discuiile nu sufer de prolixitate, ci snt
esenializate19, fcnd trimitere, de ce nu, la limbajul de lemn propagat de partid. Aceast
instituie nu este evitat de personajul Zare, care n capitolul D. Despre numere matricole
despre nume i eroi, sub titlul (DRUM), n scrisoarea adresat profesorului Valedulceanu,
analizeaz accepiunile acesteia ce nu poate fi nimit(, n.n.) obiect pur i simplu.20 Aceeai
presiune i mostr a existenei a momentului socio-istoric, este identificat de personaj,
amintindu-i funcii dintre cele mai diverse. Astfel, autobuzul:
poate fi luat drept fiin (drag i mult ateptat; rupi petale de margaret i te ntrebi:
vine nu vine, m iubete, nu m iubete?) i drept instituie (ce dac e pe patru roi? e destul
s se pun n micare i-l i auzi pe ofer: aici eu conduc!) i drept forum (am auzit ieri n
autobuz c...) etc. etc.21, n spatele cror ipostaze se remarc fina i, de ce nu, dureroasa
ironie a autorului.
ntre autobuzul, cu diverse ncrcturi semantice rata, cursa , ce transport categorii
sociale de colo-colo i camionul pe care tineri precum Zare l conduceau pentru a transporta
cereale sau materiale de construcie exist similitudini. Dac cel de-al doilea a avut un mare
rol n construirea socialismului22, primul a participat intens, alturi de jeepul GAZ, la
rspndirea lui (socialismului, n.n.).23 n sine, aceste obiecte devin mijloacele prin care
imaginarul colectiv este schimbat i adaptat la noile norme i reguli ale sistemului sau devin
obiecte utile de propagand.
cazul nostru, regimul comunist, ce se impune cu toat pleiada de credine i reguli ce trebuie respectate necondiionat. n mod mult mai
restrns, Subalternul este reprezentantul forelor Securitii ce i arat superioritatea, inclusiv fizic, prin insistena cu care i domin
interlocutorul. n Noi i ceilali. Despre diversitate, traducere de Alex. Vlad, colecia ,,Texte de frontier 29, Editura Institutul European,
Iai, 1999, p. 464.
16
O traversare, din volumul Mircea Nedelciu, Opere 1. Aventuri ntr-o curte interioar; Efectul de ecou controlat, vol 1, Seria Opere, Ediie
ngrijit i prefaat de Ion Bogdan Lefter, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2014 p. 171.
17
Cf. Jean Chevalier, Alain Gheerbrant, Dicionar de simboluri. Mituri, vise, obiceiuri, gesturi, forme, figuri, culori, numere, vil I, A-D,
Traducere de Daniel Nicolescu, Doina Uricariu, Olga Zaicik, Laureniu Zoica, Irina Bojin, Victor Dinu Vldulescu, Ileana Cantuniari,
Liana Repeeanu, Agnes Davidovici, Sanda Oprescu, Editura Artemis, Bucureti, 1993, p. 161.
18
O traversare, op. cit., p. 172.
19
Ibidem, p. 173.
20
Mircea Nedelciu, Zmeura de cmpie (roman mpotriva memoriei), ed. cit., p. 42.
21
Ibidem.
22
O traversare, op. cit., p. 172.
23
Ibidem.
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827
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n concluzie, spaiile heterotopice amintite sunt nvestite n proza lui Mircea Nedelciu
cu multiple semnificaii ce se rsfrng asupra identitii personajelor.
Bibliografia operei:
NEDELCIU, Mircea, Zmeura de cmpie (roman mpotriva memoriei), Editura
Militar, Bucureti, 1984; ediia a II-a, Prefa de Sanda Cordo (Cine snt fiii acelor tai?),
Editura Compania, Bucureti, 2005.
NEDELCIU, Mircea, Tratament fabulatoriu roman cu o prefa a autorului, Editura
Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1986; ediia a II-a, Editura ALL, Bucureti, 1996; ediia a IIIa, Cuvnt nainte de Sanda Cordo (Un obiect util), Avertisment la ediia a II-a 1996
(Mircea Nedelciu), Editura Compania, Bucureti, 2006.
NEDELCIU, Mircea, Proz scurt - Aventuri ntr-o curte interioar, Efectul de ecou
controlat, Amendament la instinctul proprietii, i ieri va fi o zi, prefaa de Sanda Cordo
(Mircea Nedelciu i proba clasicismului), Editura Compania, Bucureti, 2003.
NEDELCIU, Mircea, Opere 1. Aventuri ntr-o curte interioar; Efectul de ecou
controlat, vol 1, Seria Opere, Ediie ngrijit i prefaat de Ion Bogdan Lefter, Editura
Paralela 45, Piteti, 2014.
Bibliografie critic selectiv:
AUG, Marc, Non-Places: Introduction to An Anthropology of Supermodernity,
Trans. John Howe, Verso, London, 1995. (1st edition published in French as Non-lieux.
Introduction Une Anthropologie de la Surmodernit, 1992).
BACHELARD, Gaston, Poetica spaiului, Seria Studii socio-umane, trad. Irina
Bdescu, pref. Mircea Martin Gaston Bachelard ca educator, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti,
2003.
BACHELARD, Gaston, Poetica reveriei, Traducere de Luminia Brileanu, Editura
Paralela 45, Piteti, 2005.
BAUMAN, Zygmunt, From Pilgrim to Tourist or A Short History of Identity, In
Questions
of Cultural Identity, Stuart Hall and Paul du Gay, eds. London: Sage, 1996.
CHEVALIER, Jean, GHEERBRANT, Alain, Dicionar de simboluri. Mituri, vise,
obiceiuri, gesturi, forme, figuri, culori, numere, Traducere de Daniel Nicolescu, Doina
Uricariu, Olga Zaicik, Laureniu Zoica, Irina Bojin, Victor Dinu Vldulescu, Ileana
Cantuniari, Liana Repeeanu, Agnes Davidovici, Sanda Oprescu, Editura Artemis, Bucureti,
1993.
FOUCAULT, Michel, Of Other Spaces. Heterotopias.
On-line
at:
<http://foucault.info/documents/heteroTopia/foucault.heteroTopia.en.html>, [accesat, 12 nov.
2014]
RUTI, Doina, Dicionar de teme i simboluri din literatura romn, Ediia a II-a
revzut i adugit, Editura Polirom, Bucureti, 2009.
TODOROV, Tvetan, Noi i ceilali. Despre diversitate, traducere de Alex. Vlad,
colecia ,,Texte de frontier 29, Editura Institutul European, Iai, 1999.
TUAN, Yi-Fu, Topophilia: A Study of Environmental Perception, Attitudes, and
Values, Columbia University Press, New York, 1990.
828
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829
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Abstract: One of the paradoxes of modernist literature is that, after the Great War also
known as the War of Nations, national identity is confirmed not by validating a tradition
based on a rediscovered ethnic coherence of a given cultural space, but by proposing a
utopian alignment of folklore, literary precedents, and linguistic innovation into a post-ethnic
metaphor. Hugh MacDiarmids poetry in synthetic Scots can be considered an intellectual
fantasy about an emancipated, polydiscursive, but idealized mindset. The paper aims to show
that synthetic vernacular, a result of mythopoeis just like the national myth, marks the end of
the latter in the very process of representing it, and MacDiarmids case illustrates this.
Keywords: folklore, syzygy, utopia, Scots, national myth
If we are to believe Freud well into another century, we need to play, and we need
fantasy. And artists need to write just as much as their readers need to delve into a book every
now and then and lose themselves in somebody elses fantasy looking for a familiar persona
to identify with. The need to escape reality leads to looking for efficient ways to induce and
maintain a trance, and all nations and cultures have their preferred methods, more or less
ritualistic, more or less democratic: shamanic practices, religious fervour, spiritual grace,
artistic practices, the use of drugs or even alcohol. All have now been recognized as
invariably legitimate ways to look for a parallel order of things, whether in individual
attempts or collectively. If the former have the privilege of subjectivity, personal freedom and
unrepeatable instances of artistic expression, the latter become prominent when intertwined
with some political interest. Nationalism is an old reality, albeit a recent theoretical concept,
but its underlying narrative invariably comes down to a product of fantasy. 1 Communities
bound by a common language, commensality, a given territory, a common form of worship
and a shared set of traditions identify themselves with a myth at a collective rather than
individual level. This myth may include references to some particular aspects in the life of
those communities, ie. personal relationships, social dynamics, a set of values and a pantheon
of ancestors, but its main purpose is to set apart a group of people by special features that
differentiate them from any other group at any given time.
Long before the time when the word nation took Ernest Renans meaning and before
the first theories of nationalism, the idea of national identity justified territorial claims, wars,
inheritance rights, cultural purism, and claims of (at least) cultural superiority. Still, as
Manning Nash shows in his book The Cauldron of Ethnicity in the Modern World,2 it was
more than mere commensality and shared beliefs: a community was considered a nation if it
also shared loyalty to the same authority ruler.3 Scotland first became a united kingdom in
850 AD. Before King Kenneth I (MacAlpin), the territory was divided between small
kingdoms with a mixture of populations of diverse origins and languages. In order to justify
1
Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities. For reasons of space limit, this is not the place to elaborate on the theories of nation and
nationalism The idea of imagined unity is important, see p.184 in particular.
2
An extract of this book features in John Hutchinson, Ethnicity, pp. 24-28.
3
Susan Reynolds, Kingdoms and Communities in Western Europe (900-1300), p. 253.
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territorial claims and alliances with the Catholic Church and other Christian kingdoms, king
Constantin II (900-943) decided it was now time to take measures to create a national identity.
He commissioned his bards to put together a text that was designed to be delivered as a
national myth. The myth traces an Egyptian princess named Scota, daughter of Pharaoh
Ramses II, who left Egypt shortly after the Israelites crossed the Red Sea. She wandered for
1,200 years in the deserts of the eastern Mediterranean, before crossing to Sicily and making
her way through the Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar), through Spain and then across to
Ireland. In her baggage she brought the block of sandstone, weighing 152 kilograms, which
was reputed to have been used as a pillow by Jacob when, according to Genesis 28, he had his
celebrated dream about Jacobs Ladder (I am the Lord God of Abraham thy father, and the
God of Isaac: the land whereon thou liest, to thee will I give it, and to thy seed). From the
east coast of Ireland, Scota beheld her own Promised land Scotland and crossed over to it
with Jacobs sacred Stone.4
This was just the earliest record of royal mythopoeis, with a clear political purpose in
mind. Other attempts followed in the Middle Ages (the Bruce, William Wallace), the
Enlightenment (Bonnie Prince Charlie), in Romanticism (the Antiquarians and bards), and in
modernism.
The modernist period saw a search for those elements that illustrate continuity in
literary tradition. The first myth of Scottishness is a historical and political fantasy, but the
interwar Scottish revival saw an antagonistic co-existence of a nostalgic fantasy and a
reaction to it by means of an intellectual fantasy of what Scottish culture should be. But the
latter was as much of a fantasy as the former.
Technically speaking, the term fantasy is used in strict reference to a genre of fantastic
imagery and population. It derives its characters from mythology and relies heavily upon
allegory. If the first national myth of Scotland easily ticks the categories of fantasy, the
subsequent national revivals are represented by texts which do rely upon fantasy and
mythology, but where the former is a form of nostalgia, and the latter is historical mythology.
Heroes are hyperbolized avatars of real people, whereas enemies are equally magnified
reflections of historical villains. There is a difference though between folk mythopoeis (for
instance, ballads and stories about the likes of Bruce, Mary Queen of Scots, Bonnie Prince
Charlie, and Robert Burns himself!) and its intellectual counterpart. With direct reference to
Scottish literature, the second includes some famous cases of literary and social forgeries 5
based on a pre-existing corpus of literature not necessarily originating from the same, or a
homogeneous, cultural space. The Ossianic series is based on other poems which were edited
and complemented with James Macphersons own verse. Another historic example is Sir
Walter Scotts staging King George IVs visit to Scotland in 1822. 6 As a consequence of
moving the Scottish Parliament to London within the framework of the 1707 Act of Union,
the network of traditions and etiquette around the Scottish monarchy and Parliament had gone
into oblivion. In desperation, Sir Walter Scott, baronet, then appointed to organize a pageant
for the occasion, resorted to the existing Romantic literature on the Highlands (including his
own).
These two examples illustrate a wider interest in myth which goes beyond
Romanticism. In fact, Scottish mythopoeis continues well into modernism. But with Hugh
MacDiarmid it took a different turn as he reacted against previous lyrical effusions the
Magnusson, Scotland. The History of a Nation, p. 41. Constantine II himself provided the name Scota and a husband, Gaedel Glas
(Gathelos), a prince of Scythia and ancestor of the Picts. This addition was designed to connect the Picts genealogy to the Scottish
bloodline. It invited the Picts under the Scottish umbrella of the noble origin and gave them a history and an identity as a brotherly gesture
while putting a kings authority over them.
5
I use the term forgery as defined in the Dictionary of Literary Terms & Literary Theory, p. 465.
6
Michael Lynch, Scotland, A New History, p. 354.
4
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Kailyard writers and the Burns worshippers.7 The problem at the time was a declared
insurmountable national antisyzygy a split between mind and spirit, referring to the Scottish
writers inability to produce great Scottish literature in Scots.8 Despite a living tradition of
folklore (demonstrable in tradition, linguistic patterns, folk songs and stories, and costume
albeit debatable) and a constant preoccupation for writing about all things Scottish (not only
about the Highlands), the efforts to produce a national literature were blocked by a perceived
poverty of local material to draw upon, diglossia, and a sense of cultural inferiority as
compared to English literature. This explains the peculiar myth-making fervour around Robert
Burns, but only to the extent to which it fulfills a spiritual need to celebrate something which
is thoroughly Scottish. The problem, as Hugh MacDiarmid identified it, was that such forms
of worship were schizophrenic because, as long as the Scottish language could not be restored
at all levels of society and knowledge, the tradition, such as it was, was bound to remain stuck
in a myth.9 In other words, the heroes, otherwise real historical and literary figures, were fast
becoming legend material simply because there were few people left to read Scots and
capitalize on it. In fact, as he pointed out, his generation was barely able to read Robert Burns
in original.10
At this point, the Scottish antisyzygy was a metaphor for the gap created by the
English system of education between the job-seeking and the folk-promoting, a social pattern
which generally coincided with the gap between urban and rural communities.11 The two
possible solutions to close this gap attempted a reconciliatory representation of Scottish
culture: to write about Scotland in English for the sake of the contemporary English-speaking
audience in Scotland and elsewhere (which prevailed in the end), or to revive the pre-English
treasures and educate the younger readers in the tradition of their elders.
The history of Scottish literature shows that, in the early 20th century, many young
writers start with the second solution from a sense of patriotic duty, but then some of them
shift to the first.12 Young Hugh MacDiarmid (Christopher Murray Grieve) felt the main
priority in creating the premises for a representative Scottish literature was to start from a
unified base where there was none. Historically, Scotland is the home of many ethnic
minorities of diverse origins, local or immigrant.13 The language itself shows the same
characteristics. Consequently, how can we establish a pre-English canon in this context? Of
course, pre-English is not necessarily the same thing as Scottish, for that too is a historically
agreed convention. MacDiarmid came up with a revolutionary solution: a synthetic Scots
derived from all the linguistic sources within the established convention,14 plus literary
precedents and poetic imagery. His first two books of poems under this pen-name are
representative for this stage: Sangschaw (1925), and Penny Wheep (1926). He continued to
use Scots after that, but gradually turned to English to write his maturity works.15
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The poems collected in Sangschaw and Penny Wheep seem to have found a bridge
between rural imagery and the outer space (the moon, rainbow, planets), and the atmosphere
is intimate, with a familiarity suggested by the playful use of language. The apparent
familiarity comes also from the variety of stanza and rhythm patterns that are easily found in
the folk tradition of ballads and songs. In fact, these two volumes were initially mistaken for a
fresh continuation of the Scottish crusade abandoned midway by the Kailyard writers (J. M.
Barrie, Ian Maclaren, S. R. Crockett).16 The perception was that MacDiarmid ransacked
John Jamiesons An Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language (Edinburgh:
University Press, 1808) because he needed more words to be able to accurately express
feeling and thought. In other words, synthetic Scots was considered the Scottish revived
vernacular, and the initiative was saluted as another attempt of continuing the tradition of
Robert Burns.
This is a cultural symptom of fantasy in anticipation in the sense that a poet is in fact
expected to search through dictionaries in order to create folklore, and the Doric 17 language
was equivalent to proper folklore. This, in turn, indicates a profound fracture in the readers
mental framework, the original meaning of the Caledonian antisyzygy: proper folklore is
conspicuously kept separate from contingent expression; it is fantasy in the Freudian sense, it
fulfills the need to play and delve in some form of art as a pleasure separated from rational
behaviour. They feel entitled to ask for their right to daydream, and poets must oblige.
Sangschaw and Penny Wheep lyrics come with diminutives, the predictable bonnie,18 a
sharp wit and the expected glossary also a sign of tradition, for collections of written
folklore literature had been glossed since the Antiquarians.
The themes in the early lyrics are constant features in MacDiarmids entire work (the
poets mission, nationalism, intellectualism, higher levels of perception, death, love, creative
energy, universalism, primordial myths etc.), but the synthetic Scots stage is significant for a
number of issues that MacDiarmid explains in many places. As shown above, the poet
promotes himself as different from mere Scottish Vernacularists. His first poems are written
in English the Grieve stream19 as they are called because they were written before the
persona Hugh MacDiarmid was firmly established and, apart from the predictable
nationalist view, they prepare the way for a shift to synthetic Scots. 20 The choice itself for the
change in language is a poetic decision. A well-established part of Scottish literary tradition is
the prolonged use of two styles in direct connection with language. Ever since the Makars, the
higher or noble themes had been rendered in anglicized words (or English by the time of
Robert Burns), whereas Scots was reserved to the lower-ranking topics and characters. By the
turn of the 20th century it was therefore a general understanding that literature in Scots was
the realm of rural, second-class, rough, primitive, parochial life outside the range of English
education and administration. However, this is a simplistic label even for MacDiarmids
contemporaries. To expect the Sangschaw and Penny Wheep poems to sound rural in the
name of tradition is to seriously overlook the heterogeneous nature of the Scots language. In
their own writings and translations, the Makars felt it necessary to borrow not only from
dialects, but actually from other European languages (French, Latin),21 which literally means
An article in The Courier-Mail Brisbane, of 26 January 1935, Contemporary Scottish Poetry (p.12), praises precisely the familiarity in
these first two volumes in contrast to the exclusivist language developed in later poems. The year and place are important because, at the end
of MacDiarmids Scots period and more than ten years since Sangschaw and Penny Wheep, when the poet expected his readers near and far
to understand his language and his fellow Scottish writers to follow suit, the first impression still prevails.
http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/35864381 (28.11.2014)
17
Generally used interchangeably with other two terms Lowland Scots and Lallans.
18
Iain Crichton Smith, Hugh MacDiarmid: Sangschaw and A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle, in Studies in Scottish Literature: Vol. 7:
Iss. 3, p. 169-179, http://scholarcommons.sc.edu/ssl/vol7/iss3/5 (28.11.2014), p.172.
19
John Baglow, op. cit., p. 27. The earliest poems published in the Northern Numbers, the Scottish Chapbook and in other periodicals
prepare the Sangshaw and Penny Wheep, and even at that time indicate a heavy reliance upon dictionaries.
20
Kenneth Buthlay, Adventuring in Dictionaries, in Nancy Gish, Hugh MacDiarmid: Man and Poet, p. 147-148.
21
Roderick Watson, The Literature of Scotland, p. 29 and the next.
16
833
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834
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to operate changes in the glossary of the revised edition of Collected Poems (1967) and again
to make them suitable for the American readers. The poetic material had become difficult to
read even for educated readers (despite the continuous reiteration of his poetics and varying
ideas about national culture and literature). It started from a tradition that was largely
unfamiliar to its public, and was distorted beyond recognition, to a point where any
generation of Scottish readers would find it impossible to play / daydream within the
rearranged folklore. In fact, the only familiar tradition remains the homogeneous pocket of
parochial songs and customs practiced in the same space by the same tribe. The difficulty for
the Scottish traditionalists was that even their vernacularism was cosmopolitan by default.
After the future Scottish poetry was imagined in Sangschaw and Penny Wheep, it was even
further reduced to an echo, for the unintelligible sound of something familiar29 was what the
poet aspired to, which in turn put an end to mythopoeis itself, as it reduced the process to just
hearing, but not producing anything coherent regardless of the legitimacy in borrowing from
linguistic, literary, or mythological sources.
Bibliography
Anderson, Benedict, Imagined Communities, New York, Verso, 1998.
Baglow, John, Hugh MacDiarmid, the Poetry of Self, McGill-Queens Press MQUP,
1987.
Carswell, Catherine, The Life of Robert Burns, Edinburgh, Canongate, 1990.
Cuddon, J. A., The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory,
Penguin Books, 1999.
ODonoghue, Heather, English Poetry and Old Norse Myth: A History, Oxford
University Press, 2014.
Gish, Nancy, Hugh MacDiarmid: Man and Poet, Edinburgh University Press, 1993.
Hart, Matthew, Nations of Nothing but Poetry: Modernism, Transnationalism and
Synthetic Vernacular Writing, Oxford University Press, 2010.
Hutchinson, John, Anthony D. Smith (eds.), Ethnicity, Oxford University Press, 1996.
Lyall, Scott, Hugh MacDiarmids Poetry and Politics of Place. Imagining a Scottish
Republic, Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 2006.
Lyall, Scott, Margery Palmer McCulloch (eds.), The Edinburgh Companion to Hugh
MacDiarmid, Edinburgh University Press, 2011.
Lynch, Michael, Scotland A New History, London, Pimlico, 1998.
MacDiarmid, Hugh, Collected Poems, The Macmillan Company, New York, and
Collier-Macmillan, London, 1962.
MacDiarmid, Hugh, Selected Poems, London, Macmillan and Co., 1934.
MacDiarmid, Hugh, Lucky Poet, Alan Riach (ed.), Manchester, Carcanet, 1994.
MacDiarmid, Hugh, The Uncanny Scot. A Selection of Prose, London, Macgibbon &
Kee, 1968.
Magnusson, Magnus, Scotland. The History of a Nation, London, HarperCollins
Publishers, 2001.
Reynolds, Susan, Kingdoms and Communities in Western Europe (900-1300), Oxford
University Press, 1997.
29
Matthew Hart, Nations of Nothing but Poetry: Modernism, Transnationalism and Synthetic Vernacular Writing, p. 57 and the next.
835
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836
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Abstract: This essay examines Radu G. eposus volume of criticism,The life and opinions of
the characters1, which describes the evolution of the Romanian literature. The special case
in this discussion is the relation between author, narrator and character.
Presenting the way the character of the Romanian novel evolves, beginning with the puppetlike character and finishing with the new age character in the writings of the 60s Generation,
one that has its own life, at the boundary of reality and fiction, Radu G. eposu also analyses
the authors strategies of shaping the novel and the development of the genre.
Moreover, using the theory of the three stages of the narrative process, the Romanian critic
divides the novel into three categories: transitive, reflexive and meta-novel.
Although very similar with Nicolae Manolescus book,Noahs Ark2, reaching the same
theme, with alike structures, what makes this volume unique and urges the need to be
brought into attention, as it deserves, is the different vision that Radu G. eposu uses.
Key words: character, author, narrator, transitive novel, reflexive novel, meta-novel.
Radu G. eposu, Viaa i opiniile personajelor, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1983.
Nicolae Manolescu, Arca lui Noe: Eseu despre romanul romnesc, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1980-1983.
3
Nicolae Manolescu, Emanciparea personajului, n Romnia literar, an XVII, nr. 2, 12 ian 1984.
1
2
837
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838
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Ibidem, p. 51.
Ibidem, p. 135.
9
Ibidem, p. 150.
10
Ibidem, p. 13.
11
Ibidem, p. 16.
12
Ibidem, p. 18.
8
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i schimba destinul. mprtind opinia lui George Clinescu, Radu G. eposu vede o
oportunitate a personajului de a fi devenit un erou de seam, avnd n vedere lecturile din
Machiavelli i Cezar, i dorina acestuia de evoluie, ncercri ns curmate din start i
transformate n parvenire de ctre narator. Rezultatul este unul uor de intuit, impresia de
lume artificial n care lecturile personajului- un model literar frizeaz cu ridicolul i nonsensul.
Dup o prim semnalare a unei confruntri directe ntre narator i personaj, n Mara
de Ioan Slavici atitudinea naratorului este uor ndulcit, fr a prsi prerogativele
omniscienei. Radu G. eposu evideniaz importana scrisorii din 3/15 septembrie 1874 prin
care Slavici i dezvluia lui Iacob Negruzzi proiectul de a scrie un roman care s combine
elemente din Dionisos al lui Eminescu i din Platon; destinuiri ce trdeaz interesul
scriitorului de a crea un personaj puternic cu abiliti de conductor al unei comuniti pe care
s o domine i s o educe. Naratorul i supravegheaz personajul cu scopul precis de a l
ajuta s triumfe n final, omnisciena prnd o form de dragoste printeasc pentru personaj,
deoarece i d mn liber protagonistei s se formeze, s i ctige ncrederea n propriile
aciuni i s i manifeste autoritatea dobndit, devenind: primul nostru personaj realist.13
Tnase Scatiu al lui Duiliu Zamfirescu reprezint o nou etap n evoluia
personajului deoarece manifestarea omniscienei este diminuat. Dei, pe alocuri exist
comentarii nengduitoare care ntrerup curgerea relatrii, evoluia naratorului este clar.
Devenind ludic, registrul este impregnat de oralitatea pe care protagonitii o afieaz pe
parcursul ntregii desfurri a aciunii, discursul este unul dinamic i firesc: Nu mai avem
aici mai nimic din morga aristocratic a naratorului din Viaa la ar[...] E vorba de o
adaptare a naraiunii la aciune, a stilului la caracter.14 Criticul observ ca fiind remarcabil i
nceputul de formare i autodefinire a personajului a crui personalitate se construiete i din
relaia cu ceilali protagoniti, astfel c, Tnase Scatiu are un complex de inferioritate care nu
este impus integral de ctre narator, o parte a acelor izbucniri fiind rezultatul
comportamentului boierului Dinu Murgule, pe care personajul nu l accept ca pe o stare de
fapt, manifestndu-se verbal brutal i apostrofnd la rndul su pe Costea. Lipsa apatiei i a
resemnrii att de prezente n romanele discutate anterior, asumarea individualitii, avntul
spre revolt, obsesia personajului sunt primele semne ale emanciprii i trezirii la via a
acestuia. Totui, ceea ce reproeaz Radu G. eposu acestui roman este faptul c efortul
depus pe toat desfurarea acestuia pentru a crea ceva superior este alterat prin finalul n care
personajul este omort cu maxim violen de rani, mecanism prin care autorul ine s
sublinieze triumful boierimii.
Criticul semnaleaz aceast fuziune a eroului cu naratorul i n romanul lui Liviu
Rebreanu- Ion. Pornind de la cei doi poli majoritari ai criticii, atunci cnd vine vorba de
personajul romanului lui Liviu Rebreanu i anume, Ion ca exponent al individului devenit
sclav al dorinei de a avea pmnt i Ion ca personaj construit de instana auctorial pentru a
servi drept simbol, Radu G. eposu demonstreaz c adevrul s-ar afla undeva la mijloc,
personajul n discuie fiind unul dintre precursorii emanciprii de sub tutela nchistatoare a
autorului. Tocmai pentru a nu crea un roman pur demonstrativ, naratorul din romanul Ion e
un narator-actor care fuzioneaz cu personajele, plictisit parc de aerul conveional al
povestirii.15
Dac expoziunea i desfurarea aciunii devenirii personajului le-au reprezentat
romanele deja amintite, exegetul plaseaz n punctul culminant romanul Craii de Curtea
Veche de Mateiu I. Caragiale i romanul camilpetrescian Ultima noapte de dragoste, ntia
13
Ibidem, p. 34.
Ibidem, p. 36.
15
Ibidem, p. 53.
14
840
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noapte de rzboi, unde personajele sunt i naratori, iar importana comunitii este nlocuit
de primatul propriei persoane. Un pas nainte se face i prin interesulul pentru convenie,
detaare ce urmrete i afirmarea propriului eu. Naratorul pare c i schimb frecvent
mtile pentru a intra n pielea unui alt personaj ceea ce subliniaz existena unui nceput
rudimentar de fuziune ntre protagonist i narator: Personajul are o existen aburoas; face
impresia mereu c e n prim plan dar se retrage dendat, lsnd cocreteea realului pe seama
celorlali.16n ceea ce privete Ultima noapte de dragoste, ntia noapte de rzboi, dup o
succint caracterizare a personajului-narator care struie un timp considerabil asupra dramei
interioare, criticul puncteaz semnele definirii acestuia: existena propriei contiine, a unui
conflict interior, ezitarea n luarea unei decizii care se imprim i asupra naratorului.
n eseurile referitoare la Adela de G. Ibrileanu i Creanga de aur de Mihail
Sadoveanu, Radu G. eposu nu identifific elemente de evoluie a personajului, de aceea
alege s realizeze o caracterizare n amnunt a protagonitilor, n timp ce n ntmplri n
irealitatea imediat de Max Blecher subliniaz tendina de a continua pe aceeai linie
identificat n romanul lui Camil Petrescu.
Bietul Ioanide al lui G. Clinescu marcheaz nceputul unei noi etape a romanului
romnesc i anume metaromanul, unde criticul remarc o alian personaj-narator n care cel
din urm pare c formuleaz ceea ce personajul gndete. Rolul de observator intransigent al
naratorului a fost nlocuit de un spirit critic, naratorul devenind un comentator ce judec
personajele.
Incipitul acestei noi etape este scurtcircuitat de analiza Moromeilor, moment de
ntoarcere la fuziunea naratorului cu personajul. Aici Radu G. eposu identific i o evoluie
intern a romanului la nivelul naraiunii care trece de la explicitarea replicilor personajului n
primul volum, la independea personajului fa de narator n volumul cu numrul doi. Totui,
manifestari timide ale subminrii povestitorului omniscient sunt prezente n ntreg romanul
prin substituiri ale vocii naratoriale cu cele ale protagonitilor, crendu-se astfel efectul de
autenticitate prin oralitatea discursului.
Prin romanul lui Alexandru Ivasiuc-Vestibulul i ngerul a strigat de Fnu Neagu, se
marcheaz primele indicii indubitabile ale emanciparii personajului prin mecanismele
monologului. n acest tip de roman criticul identific o mutaie ce s-ar putea rezuma n
Privirea naratorului a slbit, fiind nlocuit cu ochiul minii.17 La D.R. Popescu vocea
narativ se multiplic, sporind ambiguitatea prin oferirea unor multiple ipoteze i posibiliti
deorece autorul i duce existena transcriind n registre ceea ce aude, ceea ce i este mrturisit
de naratorii capabili s i problematizeze propriile afirmaii.
Etapa metaromanului iniiat prin Bietul Ioanide capt deplintate cu Ucenicul
neasculttor al lui George Bli, Bunavestire de Nicoale Breban i Cartea milionarului de
tefan Bnulescu: Ultimele analize detaliaz din ce n ce mai vizibil, n concordan cu
obiectul lor, raporturile artistului cu scriitura, ale retoricii romanului cu realitatea lumii, ale
ideologiei cu istoria; personajele nsele erijndu-se n metafore ale mutaiilor. Concluziile sunt
i aici elocvente; La Nicolae Breban <lumea nu mai este ns o proiecie aa-zis epic, ci una
pur narativ. Parabola este noul mod de existen a romanului. Naratorul creeaz o lume doar
spre a-i arta limitele>18
Dac pe parcursul analizei direcionare ctre rolul i evoluia personajelor, maniera
critic utilizat putea fi zrit discret printre rnduri, capitolul ultim al acestei lucrri,
Emanciparea personajului, cu rol de postfa, expune o mbinare perfect ntre un proces
16
Ibidem, p. 57.
Ibidem, p. 134.
18
Mihai Botez, Radu G. eposu: Viaa i opiniile personajelor, n Ateneu, nr XXI, nr.5(174), mai 1984.
17
841
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rezumativ al analizelor anterioare, unul de clarificare i trasare a unor linii generale asupra
cmpului naratologiei i romanului romnesc i un demers al expunerii metodei critice
aplicate textului.
ncadrarea spaiului romanesc n cele trei direcii; tranzitiv, reflexiv si metaroman este
precedat de un scurt istoric al slbirii gradate a puterii auctoriale pn la abdicare pentru ca
mai apoi, Radu G. eposu s reconstruiasc personajul noului roman al generaiei60 pe
vechile baze i s declare maniera critic aleas n analiza emanciprii personajului. Criticul
braovean realizeaz o legtura clar ntre metafizic i universul literar: Din planul mare al
relaiei <fiin-transcendenta>, criticul coboar metamorfozele n planul intra-literar,
realiznd o paralel a emanciprilor. Tipologiile romanesti in, n fond, i sunt determinate,
chiar dac nu imediat, de mutaiile din metafizic.19
Drumul de slbire a controlului pe care autorul l parcurge n proz i are obria n
atitudinea negatoare a lui Nietzsche privind divinitatea: Elanul negativist din planul
existenei s-a rsfrnt i n cel al literaturii, cu scopul fi de a suprima orice instan
dictatorial20 Refuzul controlului capt proporii urieeti atingnd pragul unei revolte
violente, urmat de forme ale sfidrii prin atitudini ironice i parodice.
Mutarea conflictului din planul spiritual n cel social a fost urmat de o revolt n
planul artistic unde se urmrea reducerea autorului la tcere, deposedarea acestuia de control
i putere, ns demersul s-a dovedit a conine o miz cu accente utopice deoarece n urm a
rmas lupta pentru putere dintre narator i personaj. Bineneles c ncetarea oricrui conflict
este urmat de un alt rzboi ficional: Masacrul nceput de Nietzsche, n plan filosofic i
continuat de teoreticienii noului roman, n plan artistic, nu s-a potolit ns odat cu ncercarea
de expulzare a autorului. O alt victim a venit la rnd- personajul21 cruia i s-a cerut
prsirea locului central.
Pornind de la analiza descrierii cafetierei lui Robbe-Grillet de ctre Jean Ricardou ale
crei concluzii vizeaz statutul de povestire, act narativ al cafetierei i expunndu-i
nemulumirea, pe alocuri, fa de limitele teoriei franceze a textului, Radu G. eposu i
creeaz propria metod de analiz prin comparaia personajului cu ideea de text: Dac textul
nu este suma unor reprezentri, ci semnificarea, printr-o procesualitate critic, a acestora, tot
astfel personajul nu este copia unui model empiric, ci constituirea analitic a unei structuri
dinamice aflate ntr-un permanet efort al definirii. Reprezentrii i se opune deci comentarea
i, precum textul e o continu structurare, i personajul e o continu devenire22 Caracterul de
construct, rezultat al efortului propriu i al aciunilor exterioare, pe care personajul l capt n
accepiunea criticului respinge radical receptarea acestuia ca tipologie sau caracter deoarece sar reduce la tcere potenialitatea determinarii i autodeterminrii, protagonistul unui roman
nefiind, n accepiunea exegetului, o tipologie, ci mai degrab o fenomenologie. Ducnd mai
departe teoriile textologiei franceze, criticul analizeaz romanul i personajele prin prisma
retoricii existenialiste care presupune un dublu caracter al obiectului supus analizei fiind
creat de text, dar explicat prin raportarea la existenial: eposu i numete metoda <retorica
existenial>, contnd pe faptul c <orice semnificaie din planul textului trece, n mod
inevitabil, n sfera mai larg a viziunii existeniale>i legnd <procesul scriptural>de o
<trans-semnificaie>.23
Emanciparea personajului marcheaz o evoluie nu doar la nivel retoric prin eliberarea
de sub autoritatea autorului, ct i o rupere a barierelor restricionale la nivel de coninut cnd
Al. Cistelecan, Radu G. eposu, n Cultura, nr. 323, 12 mai 2011.
Radu G.eposu, op.cit., p. 184.
Ibidem, p. 186.
22
Ibidem, p. 187.
23
Al. Cistelecan, op.cit.
19
20
21
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eroul respinge categoriile metafizice, sociale i spirituale, o eliberare de sub orice tipar,
tendina evolutiv a personajelor fiind caracterizat de autodefinire i formare prin natura
relaiilor cu celelalte personaje, rsturnnd astfel toate premisele romanului.
Caracterul de neofit n tainele ficionale este imprimat personajului nc de la nceput
de ctre autorul care ofer potenialitatea metamorfozei personajului su deoarece creeaz un
erou fr personalitatea, ca o fil n alb pe care apoi o umple. Asumarea evoluiei prin negaie
atinge punctul forte n metaroman, unde personajul trece la chestionarea propriei existene, la
problematizarea propriei ficiuni. Negarea tuturor datelor din plan real a atras cu sine o
absena care trebuia completat, care necesit nlocuirea cu modele, problematic care i-a
gsit rezolvarea n actul imitaiei n plan abstract.
eposu identific existena a dou tipare n mecanismul imitaiei ca mecanism al
emanciprii. Pentru primul tip de imitaie, exemplul cel mai evident pe care criticul l alege
este cel al lui Dinu Pturic care are ca subiect al imitaiei modelele livreti preluate din
lecturile sale din Cezar, Plutarh si Machiavelli, ns ceea ce i lipsete protagonistului este
revolta. Cel de al doilea tip de imitaie surprinde parodierea modelului din dorina
personajului de a se detaa. Radu G. eposu atrage atenia n acest ultim capitol asupra
fenomenului de nlocuire al crizei printr-o noua criz pe msura ce slbesc categoriile
existenei, ceea ce nseamn emancipare a personajului, prolifereaz categoriile artei, ceea ce
nseamn o criz a personajului[...[ La captul emanciprii sale personajul descoper drama:
suprimarea iluziei atrage nevoia acesteia. Va trece, prin urmare, de la minciuna romantic la
adevrul romanesc.24
Nonconformismul personalitii dominate de dinamism a criticului, istoricului i
eseistului Radu G. eposu se difuzeaz asupra crii sale. Exegetul, care jongleaz ireproabil
cu melancolia ce i are izvorul n existen i atutidinea ironic plin de nerv, este greu de
atribuit unei categorii, de fixat nr-un tipar, mai ales c stilul discursului su ncearc s
surprind spontaneitatea, trirea din interiorul literaturii i a textului, miznd pe racordarea
vieii i a scriiturii.
Viaa i opiniile personajelor, o panoramare a romanului romnesc urmrit n evoluie
reuete, demonstrnd extraordinarul bun sim critic, credibilitate i obiectivitate a criticului,
s fac fa probei trecerii timpului, rmnnd o lucrare de referin n peisajul critic
romnesc.
Bibliography:
Botez, Mihai, Radu G. eposu: Viaa i opiniile personajelor, n Ateneu, nr.5(174),
mai 1984
Cistelecan, Al., Radu G. eposu, n Cultura, nr.323, 12 mai 2011.
Manolescu, Nicolae, Arca lui Noe: Eseu despre romanul romnesc, Bucureti, Editura
Minerva, 1980-1983.
Manolescu, Nicolae, Emanciparea personajului, n Romnia literar, an XVII, nr.2,
12 ian 1984.
Pera Cosmin, Rafinament i intuiie, Bucureti, Editura Muzeul Literaturii Romne,
2012.
eposu, Radu G., Viaa i opiniile personajelor, Bucureti, Editura Cartea
Romneasc, 1986.
24
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844
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Abstract: The moment Eugen Ionescu started to be a disputed literary voice coincides with
the publication in 1934 of his collection of essays Nu. Influenced by Lovinescus literary
views, the critics reacted virulently to Ionescus irreverent treatment of the prominent literary
figures of the time. On the other hand, some young writers tended to assimilate his negating
work with the Generation of 27, although Ionescu had already started to distance himself
from the movement, before the iron curtain separated him completely from the Romanian
literary environment.
In 1972, Ionesco is officially banned from the stages of his fathers country. Moreover,
under the menace of the censorship, his work was quite sporadically mentioned by the
Romanian critique. However, the 7th decade brings the publication of his Romanian play (in
Secolul 20 magazine, 1965) and the translation of the most important French plays (1968).
Thus, the critical discourse had time to adjust its direction and started to analyze his
innovations especially at the language level - from the perspective of the aesthetic
modernism. Despite his obvious polymorphism, the playwrights image, as reflected by the
Romanian critique, seemed to freeze in a more and more cryptic effigy.
The years 1991-1992 represent a new reception of Ionescu in the Romanian literary space.
The re-publishing of Nu (1991), the creation of anthologies for his journalistic essays give
birth to a renewed critical discourse, which repositions the writers Romanian debut in the
local historical and literary context.
The current study offers a comparative analysis of the three successive reception matrices of
the playwright within the Romanian cultural space, while placing them in the political and
ideological contexts that originated them.
Keywords: history of reception, Eugen Ionescu/ Eugne Ionesco, Romanian avant-garde
La nceputul lunii mai 1934, cteva dintre cotidienele vremii anunau apariia
volumului de critic fantezist i dramatic Nu, scris de unul din cei mai originali critici ai
tinerei generaii (Facla, 1934,11 mai) i preluat de Editura Vremea, dup ce Editura
Fundaiilor Regale l respinsese din cauza atitudinei necrutoare () fa de o bun parte
din scriitorii notri (Facla, 1934, 26 aprilie). Apariia crii fusese ns pregtit de autor cu
mai bine de un an n urm, iar atitudinea sa nu avea cum s fie o surpriz pentru cititorii
obinuii ai genului. Poziia scriitorului fa de critica literar, anti-lovinescianismul i
respingerea canonului modernist erau deja notorii. Studiul destinat lui Arghezi apruse n
paginile revistei Floarea de foc, nc din 1932 i provocase primul val de reacii, atrgndu-i
cronicarului apelativul de Brutus literar. n cotidianul Facla, ntr-un interviu din toamna
aceluiai an, 1933, tnrul publicist deconspira chiar cte ceva din alchimia viitoarei cri,
oferind cititorilor un ghid practic de orientare n pseudo-epica lui Nu:
845
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iau hotrrea, de pild de a declara, pe timp de ase luni, c toate crile care mi
cad n mn sunt proaste. Pe alte ase luni c toate sunt geniale. Cum oriice se poate spune n
critic, pretind c pot dovedi, c-mi pot susine afirmaiile cu cea mai perfect dialectic
critic. Triez subire. i aceasta nc dovedete c critica nu-i dect un joc. Nu se poate tria
dect la joc. (Facla, 1933 nr. 813, 12 octombrie)
Seria repudierilor lui Nu este iniiat de Ionel Jianu, n paginile revistei Rampa i
completat de nume sonore. n articolul Eugen Ionescu - sau marioneta propriei vaniti,
Pompiliu Constantinescu l suspecteaz pe junele critic de o incurabil vanitate, presupus
cauz a unei fatale distopii i conchide triumfal - E. Ionescu nu este critic, este un biet om
ntr-o situaie extrem de critic n domeniul criticii literare - iar cartea lui, cea mai autentic,
mai ntristtoare comedie a generaiei sale. (Vremea, 1934, 24 iunie ) Dac seriosul,
temperatul P. Constantinescu, scos din fire (Simion, 2009: 81) de impertinena lui Nu, l
redusese pe Ionescu la statutul unui biet tnr nscut din scandal literar, erban Cioculescu,
unul dintre cei doi membri ai juriului care au votat mpotriva premierii, adopt post factum un
ton ceva mai ponderat, traversat de o ironie patern. El recunoate talentul de umorist savuros
al scriitorului, dar condamn punerea lui n serviciul brfelii, ca i atitudinea sa de
colegian neemancipat de apucturi puerile. (Adevrul, 1934, 23 august)
Micarea literar din mainstream, marcat de lovinescianism, recuz, aadar, fr
drept de apel volumul Nu i pe autorul su, cu argumentele autoritii academice i ale rigorii
critice.
Reprezentativ pentru ntreaga dezbatere pro i contra Nu, este poziia ambigu a lui P.
Comarnescu, care, simindu-se suspectat de lumea literar c ar fi votat pentru premierea
volumului dintr-o neneleas solidaritate de generaie, scrie n sptmnalul Vremea un
articol de justificare i se dovedete cu adevrat sceptic n privina destinului crii. Autorul
afirm c votul de ncredere acordat volumului ionescian vine din nevoia de a aduce la lumina
tiparului acest antidot pe msura mic i meschin a lumii de la noi, pentru a submina,
astfel, mitul ionescian ce sttea s se nfiripe n rndul tinerilor intelectuali, prini n mrejele
unui negativism gunos. Totui, Comarnescu i recunoate crii condamnabile din
perspectiva atitudinii academice, noua viziune experenialist att de preuit azi i
afirm c ar fi gsit n ea toate calitile i defectele unei atari perspective, caliti i defecte
care merit s fie ct mai bine cercetate, selecionate i corectate. (Vremea, 1934, 27 mai)
Astfel este ipostaziat imaginea incomplet pe care interpreii interbelici ai crii i-o
creaser, nereuind s concilieze cele dou registre ale sale, cel de analiz critic anticanon i
cel confesiv, al jurnalului de influen experienialist, care hrnete, salvnd de la
mortificare, marele corp.
Scriitorii generaioniti, civa dintre ei cu veleiti de cronicari literari, salut apariia
crii lui Eugen Ionescu, revendicnd-o noii direcii autenticiste. Octav uluiu va considera
volumul un interesant punct de plecare (Reporter, 1934, 13 iunie), promindu-i i un
rspuns - Ba da!
Pentru Mircea Vulcnescu, Nu este o carte foarte serioas a unui mare timid,
singura carte tragic citit. Cea mai entuziast cronic va aprea, ns, n paginile revistei
Facla. Cronicarul, George Ghidu, realizeaz un portret antologic al tnrului scriitor, acest
om sucit i mic la stat, pe care nu l-ai vzut nici la Academie, nici la Universitate, nici la
S.S.R, nici pe Calea Victoriei la Capa sau la Corso (Facla, 1934, 14 iunie) i invit
publicul s-l cunoasc, citind rnd cu rnd, de la prima la ultima pagin confesiunea critic
Nu (Facla, 1934, 14 iunie).
Concentrndu-se asupra laturii sale de studiu critic, condeiele consacrate nu aveau
cum s nu sancioneze gestul distructiv al lui Eugen Ionescu. Privind exclusiv aspectul de
846
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jurnal netrucat, tinerii scriitori din generaia autenticitilor se regsesc pe alocuri n acest
exerciiu istovitor de sinceritate. Nici una dintre lecturile, evident trunchiate, nu va putea
clarifica opera. Lupta real se ddea deja n alt parte, pe terenul alunecos al schimbrii de
receptare i perspectiv propus de autenticiti, la siajul dintre generaii, iar Nu, anarhie sau
manifest, devenea, n cele din urm, doar un pretext.
Totui, privit n ansamblu, diagrama acestei polemici pune n relief i o neobinuit
interanjabilitate. n toiul confuziei cronicizate de receptare, a vehementelor afilieri sau
distanri, criticii de profesie tind s-l catalogheze pe Ionescu drept un eseist facil, rtcit fr
busol n limbul analizei literare. Cioculescu anticipeaz de cteva ori un posibil succes la
ramp, dac se decide s atace comedia (Revista Fundaiilor Regale, 1934, sept.: 655),
recunoscndu-i caliti scriitoriceti precum simul dialogului, poanta, ghiduia bufon. i
Streinu nclin s cread c Nu e mai valoros prin farmecul de scriitor i ascuiul peniei i
deplnge faptul c pentru atitudinea de respingere nostim a ctorva scriitori, E. Ionescu nu
prea e luat n serios. i e pcat att de inteligena sa jucue, ct i de poetul subtilelor Elegii
pentru fiine mici (Gazeta, 1935, 20 august). De partea cealalt, practicienii autenticismului
i-l revendic, dar ca pe un critic veritabil al generaiei lor. Vulcnescu vede n Nu o
maieutic a actului cu adevrat critic (Vulcnescu, 1996: 168), Ilovici l pomenete adesea
n cartea sa congener, Negativismul tinerei generaii, drept singurul contemporan cu o
posibilitate critic lucid (Ilovici, 1934: 33), admirndu-l (i pastindu-l) mai mult n
aceast calitatea dect n cea de poet. n fapt, nici unii, nici alii nu reuesc s se identifice
pn la capt cu butaforica sa utopie. Istoria literar va pstra, din aceast prim faz a
creaiei sale, n cteva rnduri, profilul studios, vioi, dar fr nici o convingere n seriozitatea
criticii (Lovinescu, 1998: 60) i mirarea lui George Clinescu de a nu mai ntlni de la o
vreme n publicistic pe tnrul cu talent de polemist, cu fraza alert i franuzeasc, cel
care a opus celei mai bune literaturi actuale, ntr-o carte trengreasc, un formidabil Nu.
(Clinescu, 1982: 915)
Ionescu va rspunde acuzelor aduse, ntr-o cronic de final de an, recurgnd la aceeai
savuroas (auto)ironie:
Acuzaiile ce ni se tot aduc, c am face pe deteptul, c luciditatea noastr lichefiaz
sau dizolv realitile, c nu iubim, c suntem cretin, c suntem copil teribil, ne-au intimidat
uneori, mai cu seam c ne-a plcut s ne lsm intimidai; cci ntr-adevr, dect s fii
singurul care vezi just situaia extrem de grea, de obositoare i de total intolerabil, este mult
mai reconfortant s accepi a fi singurul care se neal. () o! Doamne, ce fericire, ne-am
iluzionat, ne-am nelat oare? nu eti, prin urmare, negru-n cerul gurii; i exist un cer? o
gur? (Critica, 1935, 1 februarie)
Se delimiteaz de generaia sa, n special de criterioniti, chiar dac mparte obsesia
apartenenei la o cultur mic i sentimentul paricid (Petreu, 2001: 37) fa de generaia
precedent, intervine n polemica generat de articolul lui Zaharia Stancu, Generaia n
pulbere, de partea acestuia din urm i mpotriva lui Mircea Eliade, cu argumentul c tinerii
scriitori nu i-au gsit o realizare a expresiei culturale (Facla, 1936, 4 iunie) i continu
nestingherit s scrie cronic literar, pn la plecarea temporar, ca doctorand, n Frana.
La nceputul anilor 40 Eugen Ionescu prsete definitiv Romnia, dar continu s
provoace de la distan un nou scandal, prin articolul Fragmente dintr-un jurnal intim,
trimis revistei Viaa Romneasc. Criticile aduse armatei i vor atrage scriitorului
desolidarizarea comitetului de redaciei, un val nestpnit de injurii n presa de gen
(Dreptatea, Glasul armatei, Scnteia .a) i o condamnare n contumacie, la unsprezece ani
de nchisoare corecional i cinci ani de interdicie. n timp ce la Paris, Ionesco trecea drept
un cetean simbolic est-european (M. Clinescu, 2006: 57), un reacionar mpotriva
orientrii marxiste a tinerilor intelectuali francezi, consolidndu-i totodat i statul de
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dramaturg, n ara tatlui, devenit peste noapte un oarecare Ionescu, poet ratat i
dezechilibrat, intra aproape n anonimat.
Cronicile dedicate lui Eugen Ionescu sunt reluate timid n perioada dezgheului i
rmn tributare viziunii marxiste. Vladimir Streinu public, n Gazeta literar, un articol de
tranziie despre Rinocerii, opera unui Aristofan modern, stabilind legturi cu filmul lui
Hitchcock i demonstrnd, cu argumentele criticului, identitatea Ionesco-Brenger. ns foarte
curnd demonstraia sa prsete, printr-un artificiu scriitoricesc, zona analizei estetice, pentru
a se ndrepta spre cea a ideologiei politice. ntrebndu-se, firete retoric, dac n-ar fi fost mai
legitim ca eroul ionescian s opteze pentru organizarea rezistenei, Streinu pledeaz pentru o
societate activ, care, lund chiar exemplu lui Brenger, ar lupta mpreun pentru a salva
contiina de om i-l interpeleaz, cnd cu tandree persuasiv, cnd cu suspiciune acuzatoare
pe erou:
aciunile de mas organizate anume ca s asigure identitatea omului, sporesc pe
individ. Nu e aa, iubite Brenger? () Nu e aa c apolitismul, prin nepsare n faa
catastrofei, e nc un fel al societii burgheze de a favoriza rinocerita? () Ce altceva este
carabina pe care pui mna cu ntrziere dect o arm politic? Te-ar fi diminuat sau falsificat
n identitatea dumitale, prezena oportun a altor carabine? (Gazeta literar, 1964, 9 aprilie)
Aceast ncercarea de a integra profilul solitarului revoltat n angrenajul mecanismului
social bine uns, fr a impieta operei, devine reprezentativ pentru noul limbaj critic.
n primul numr al anului 1965, revista Secolul 20 public articolul Eugen Ionescu
inedit. Debutul Cntreei chele, semnat de P. Comarnescu, urmat de micua pies
Englezete fr profesor. n textul de ntmpinare Comarnescu insist asupra descendenei
dramaturgului, preciznd c folclorul romnesc i-a fost un bun sftuitor, autorul amintindui pe romnete de geniul limbii i de infinitele ei posibiliti (Secolul 20, 1965, ianuarie:
58). Evenimentul editorial trece discret n planul doi al presei culturale. ntr-o alt cronic a
aceluiai an, schimbnd complet registrul, Romul Munteanu l admonesteaz pur i simplu pe
dramaturg pentru c ar fi ostil fa de dramaturgia tradiional, ca i fa de unele aspecte ale
literaturii dramaticecontemporane. Pentru a-i ntri afirmaiile, criticul recurge cu oroare la
un inventar de eroi i teme desprinse din dramaturgia ionescian:
senili n stare de delir liric sau atini de o stranie amnezie, obsedai, masochiti,
femei-monstru, asasini, nevrozai, cadavre care cresc, case invadate de burei, mobile care
prolifereaz, acestea ar fi simboluri sau metafore cu care opereaz scriitorul n teatrul su,
parabolic sau alegoric i care pun n lumin mecanismele dereglrii de contiin.
(Contemporanul, 1965, septembrie)
Cnd nu este dat drept pild a degringoladei n care se afl teatrul burghez sau supus
rechizitoriului n scopul unei simbolice reeducri, dramaturgul, este pur i simplu reinventat.
n Tribuna aceluiai an, Emil Manu reactualizeaz activitatea literar a lui Ionescu, din
perioada sa bucuretean. Considernd cel mai interesant articol de critic i estetic literar
al lui Eugen Ionescu cuvntul introductiv pe care acesta l realizase volumului de poezie
rural-social Gloata, cronicarul acuz caracterul contradictoriu al prefeei lui Ionescu,
punnd faptul pe seama lipsei sale de informaii, deoarece nu citeaz pe nimeni. Nu cunoate
pe Maiakovski i nici pe ali poei de valoare. Pierde din vedere atitudinea antitradiionalist
pe care Ionescu o afieaz n amintita prefa, artnd c, din umbra paradoxurilor sale, acesta
ar susine de fapt poezia angajat:
Citite cu atenie, articolele lui Eugen Ionescu, printre rnduri, trdeaz ns o
concepie idealist mai puin tranant. n primul rnd, el accept o poezie social sub forma
de poezie de inspiraie social, n care s predomine emoia, ideologia fiind un element
intrinsec (Tribuna, 1965, nr. 44)
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Mistificarea operei n scopuri propagandistice era, dup cum se tie, o practic curent
n comunism, iar piesele franceze ale lui Ionesco vor fi, n puinele cronici publicate n
prima decad a anilor 60, adesea reajustate pe divanul procustian al ideologiei marxiste.
Dar teatrul lui Ionesco era cunoscut n Romnia, n ciuda anilor de interdicie i a
cortinei de fier. Toate aceste intervenii, care ncearc s-l potriveasc pe dramaturg n
relieful noii ideologii, au cel puin rolul de a-l menine n actualitatea cultural de la noi. ntre
1964 i 1969 sunt reprezentate, pe diverse scene din ar, aproape toate piesele de pn atunci
ale lui Ionesco.
Pe fondul relaxrii cenzurii, discursul critic se repliaz pe linia modernismului estetic.
n 1967 Ov. Crohmlniceanu readuce n discuie importana volumului Nu, punnd problema
limitelor abordrii critice din interbelic i avanseaz ideea unei mutaii n actul receptrii:
Analizele ionesciene, prin rezultatele lor anihilante, nu demonstreaz c poezia lui
Tudor Arghezi sau lui Ion Barbu e proast, ci c modele criticii, aplicate a o valorifica, sunt
falimentare (Steaua, 1967, iulie: 47)
Al doilea moment de ruptur ntre Eugne Ionesco i ara natal se produce n iunie
1972, cnd piesele sale sunt scoase din repertoriile teatrelor romneti i mediatizarea lor
interzis. Rar, i cu pruden, cteva articole s-au publicat i dup aceast nou interdicie.
Revista Manuscriptum gzduiete un documentat i frumos ilustrat articol al lui Nicolae
Florescu, despre perioada interbelic a lui Eugen Ionescu, n care poeziile sale, polemicile,
dar i prietenia cu uluiu sau mariajul cu Rodica Burileanu sunt puse ntr-o lumin
nostalgic. (Manuscriptum, 1973, nr 2: 152-156). Confesiunea lui B. Brezianu, strecurat la
rubrica Valori romneti n univers, a unui ziar central, din aprilie 1973 o succesiune de
flash-uri din tinereea interbelic a generaiei n pulbere surprinde poate cel mai bine
imaginea scriitorului n epoc:
ne vedeam aproape zilnic, fie la barul automat de sub Cercul Militar, fie la
restaurantul popular cu autoservire Herdans. Eugen Ionescu era profesor de francez la un
liceu, dar pe la orele prnzului i fcea apariia la barele de aram de la geamurile cafenelei
Capa, din Edgar Quinet, unde generaia i avea sediul legiuit.() A plecat apoi n Frana
i anii rzboiului au ridicat un zid de plumb ntre noi. n preajma anilor 50, ntlnindu-l pe
Nicki Burileanu, mi-a spus c Eugen i Rodica au o feti, c o duc greu, grija cea mai mare
fiind pentru ei hrana copilului, ntr-o lume ulcerat de dezastrele rzboiului. (Flacra, 1973,
21 aprilie, nr. 17)
Imaginea dramaturgului pare c se ndeprteaz din ce n ce mai mult de mediul
romnesc, pentru care acesta rmne autorul unui teatru neconvenional, de limbaj, insuficient
asimilat, un autoexilat n jungla capitalist.
1991-1992 este perioada unei noi i efervescente ntmpinri a lui Ionesco. Reeditarea
lui Nu, i reunirea n volum a tuturor textelor semnate Eugen Ionescu provoac un nou val de
reacii. Vocile critice ale postmodernitii refac arcul peste timp cu presa interbelic i reaaz
n contextul istorico-literar autohton debutul romnesc al scriitorului. Afilierea sa la
generaia 27, dar i legturile cu avangarda romneasc sunt temele predilecte ale noii sale
receptri. Ionesco/Ionescu, nume simbolic repatriat, revine n atenia vieii literare romneti,
actualizat, fiind un caz atipic de scriitor ale crui texte interbelice sunt analizate prin grila
postmodernitii.
Pseudo-biografia Viaa grotesc i tragic a lui Victor Hugo i paginile de jurnal
cuprinse n volumul Eu, sunt privite acum, din vecintatea autoficiunii, ca experiment antimodernist, aflat n cutarea unei expresii proprii sau ca anticipare a prozei autorefereniale:
Scriind despre Hugo, mpieliatul biograf nu face dect s se proiecteze pe sine n
pagin, lund distan de la altitudinea unei luciditi att de acute, nct putem spune c e una
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corporal, asimilat pn la stadiul visceral. () Dac autorul l-a preferat totui pe Hugo,
poate fi i pentru c, dincolo de orice alt considerent, tnrul Ionescu era totui un frondeur
prea contient de limitele punk-ismului su avant la lettre. (Contemporanul. Ideea
european, 1991, nr. 11)
Tema interbelic acea vulnerabilitate ontologic de care vorbea N. Manolescu
tratat n maniera carnavalescului comic i absurdist nu avea cum s nu ating coarda
eclectismului rafinat (M. Crtrescu, 1993: 259) din epoca noii sale receptri. n linia
reinterpretrilor n cheie postmodern, O. Soviany vorbete chiar de o redare fragmentat a
eului, n prozele ionesciene de tineree.
Reeditarea lui Nu i apariia celor dou volume de publicistic romneasc sub titlul
Rzboi cu toat lumea vin pe fondul acestei schimbri de perspectiv n receptarea scrierilor
din tinereea dramaturgului. Contestatar al canonului modernist n epoca sa, Ionesco se
ntlnete n spirit cu micarea cultural a anilor 90, aflat ntr-un moment de reaezare a
canonului literar. Odat cu schimbarea de paradigm i acceptarea subiectivitii ca ipotez
critic, volumul de egocronici Nu (Simion, 2009: 60) e acum citit ca un act pasional de
criticism desprins de tradiia junimist, sau, n linia anunat de Crohmlniceanu n anii 60,
ca o afirmare a necesitii unei altfel de judeci critice (Luceafrul, 1991, nr. 37). Din
turbulent i impertinent, Nu devine tulburtoare, este cartea pe care chiar criticul de curs
lung o citete cu implicare, surprinzndu-i ipostaziate minuios inerentele ndoieli. Din
scandaloas, Nu devine confesiunea denudat de mtile autoritii i de armtura discursului,
care trdeaz o angoas a criticului de ieri i de azi, confruntat cu dificultatea de a judeca
infailibilul i cu sentimentul umilitor de a construi, cu efort, castele pe nisip. (Romnia
literar, 1991, nr. 27), o carte fr vrst a ncntrii i a supliciului de a fi critic literar.
Dac articolele din presa vremii, paginile de jurnal i amintitul Nu l recomandau ca pe
un exponent al generaiei lui Eliade, cotitura din cariera sa artistic ctre o form de teatru
care adesea a fost numit noua avangard i determin pe criticii anilor 90 s ia n calcul o
posibil filiaie cu enclavizata avangard interbelic i s pun respingerea paradigmei
lovinesciene pe seama rezonrii sale la un alt gen de sensibilitate. Ion Pop, Adrian Marino, H.
Zalis .a rescriu istoria tinereii ionesciene, n datele avangardei romneti. Dezrdcinatul
Ionescu, alturat grupului de la Unu i Meridian, are viziunea despre lume a unui
impresionism trecut prin prestidigitaia avangardei (Contemporanul, 1991, 11 octombrie),
procedeaz la o demistificare ndrznea a conveniilor, fie ele ale artei i literaturii, fie ale
existenei nsei,vzute ca fars, cum va afirma Ion Pop (Tribuna, 1991, 1 februarie), e
dominat de un narcisism care nu este numai al generaiei lui, ci devine, n mod particular,
apanajul unui tnr scriitor aflat pe lungimea de und a avangardei europene (Jurnalul
literar, 1990, 27 august).
Situat ntre dou limbaje literare, aflate n egal msur n cutarea autenticului
netrucat, adevratul Eugen Ionescu (Contrapunct, 1992, nr.28) se resemnific i se reaaz
n noul peisaj literar romnesc.
Istoria literar a anilor 2000 va ntregi profilul scriitorului, acum, n fine, clar conturat,
printr-o viziune mai detaat a epocii i a generaiei sale:
Nu se poate spune c generaia 27 suferea de un respect exagerat fa de naintai
ori fa de consacrai. Opera acestor tineri era una de decanonizare i semna bine cu aciunea
junimist din anii 60-70 ai secolului XIX i cu aceea a generaiei 2000 de astzi .
(Manolescu, 2008: 876)
Astfel, ntmpinat n urma noii sale receptri, cu entuziasm i promisiunea unei lecturi
prolifice, cronicarul nonconformist devine, n cultura romn, un etern avant la lettre, un
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scriitor ale crui intuiii au prefigurat direcii noi, nu doar n dramaturgie, ci i n limbajul
criticii sau al ego-ficiunii.
Bibliografie:
BREZIANU, Barbu (1973 Eugen Ionescu, n Flacra, nr. 17, 21 aprilie
CLINESCU, George (1982) Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn n prezent,
Bucureti, Editura Minerva
CLINESCU, Matei (1993) Cinci fee ale modernitii, Bucureti, Editura Univers
CIOCULESCU, erban, (1932) Cronica literar, n Adevrul, 27 februarie
CIOCULESCU, erban (1934) Operele premiate ale scriitorilor tineri needitai, n
Revista Fundaiilor Regale, septembrie
COMARNESCU, Petru (1934) De ce am votat Nu, n Vremea, 27 mai
COMARNESCU, Petru (1965) Eugen Ionescu inedit. Debutul Cntreei chele, n
Secolul 20, nr. 1
CONSTANTINESCU, Pompiliu (1934) Eugen Ionescu - sau marioneta propriei
vaniti, n Vremea, 24 iunie
CROHMLNICEANU, Ovidiu S. (1967) Eugen Ionescu, critic literar, n Steaua,
nr. 7, iulie
Facla (1934) 11 mai, Bazar
Facla (1934) 26 aprilie, Bazar
FLORESCU, Nicolae (1973) Eugen Ionescu sau teribilismele unui sentimental
timid, n Manuscriptum, nr. 2
GHIDU, George (1934) Eugen Ionescu: Nu, n Facla, 14 iunie
GRIGURCU, Gheorghe (1991) Eugen Ionescu ntre absurd i junimism, n
Contemporanul. Ideea european, nr. 41, 11 octombrie
ILOVICI, Mihail (1934) Negativismul tinerei generaii, Bucureti, Editura Gruparea
Intelectual Litere
IONESCU, Cornel Mihai (1965) Metafora alienrii n Luceafrul, nr.18, 28 august
IONESCU, Eugen (1935) Anul literar 1934 i alii n Critica, nr. 1, 1 februarie
IONESCU, Gelu (1991) Anatomia unei negaii, Bucureti, Editura Minerva
LEFTER, Ion Bogdan (1992) Adevratul Eugen Ionescu, n Contrapunct, nr 98
LOVINESCU, Eugen (1998) Istoria literaturii romne contemporane, Chiinu,
Editura Litera
MANOLESCU, Nicolae (1991) Jurnalul de lectur al unui adolescent furios, n
Romnia literar, nr. 27, 4 iulie
MANOLESCU, Nicolae (2008) Istoria critic a literaturii romne, Piteti, Editura
Paralela 45
MANU, Emil (1965) Eugen Ionescu criticul literar, n Tribuna, nr. 44
MARINO, Adrian (1990) Cnd Eugen Ionescu debuteaz n Romnia, n Jurnalul
literar, an I, nr. 34, 27 august
MUNTEANU, Romul (1965) Eugen Ionescu, n Contemporanul, 10 septembrie
PANAITESCU, C. (1933) Azi ne vorbete dl. Eugen Ionescu, n Facla, nr. 813,12
octombrie
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852
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Abstract: Confined to her sanctum in the Dames du Prcieux Sang monastery, Sister Julie de
la Trinit experiences with great intensity what seems to be religious ecstasy. In fact, as in
most of Anne Hberts writings, the meaning of religious symbols and christian rites is
inverted and parodied. Her memories take us to mount B., during the nights of the Witches
Sabbath, where the dreadful couple Adlard and Philomne perform pagan services in front
of an audience, avid of spirituality other than that of Christianity. Attempting an analysis of
gestures and religious rites, we discover that beyond a parody which brings out the
counterpart of an often oppressive and alienating spirituality towards the realm of creativity,
the author unearths a common background of the ancestral sacred, carrying the reader to the
source of spirituality and its manifestation in the life of man.
Keywords: rewriting, sacred, ritual, spirituality, religion
Dans un spectacle de danse indienne, ce qui frappe dabord le spectateur est le rythme.
Cest un rythme trange, inconnu aux non-initis, car on ne retrouve rien de semblable dans
les danses europennes ou mme africaines. La parcimonie apparente des gestes, un certain
manque de dynamisme et les lments chorgraphiques presque gomtriques et trs styliss
donnent limpression de mouvement non-humain, du rythme tranger au mode des mortels.
Cette manire du corps de sexprimer, presque surnaturelle, est en fait une allusion au rle de
la danse : elle a toujours une dimension religieuse, rituelle et spirituelle. La danse indienne
tablit de nouvelles relations entre le rythme, la musique, le corps et la gestualit, des
relations esthtiques qui valorisent ltre humain un autre niveau que celui de lexistence
quotidienne. Limage dune danseuse indienne est celle de lharmonie des gestes, dune
parfaite matrise du corps et, implicitement, dune profonde connaissance de soi. La danse
indienne est une vritable technique corporelle et son apprentissage suppose un entranement
physique complexe, un systme esthtique mmoriser. Devant la danseuse indienne, le
spectateur sera toujours dans un tat de fascination, hypnotis.
Dans ce rseau communicationnel et esthtique, le geste a le rle dintgrer ltre
humain et de lengager corporellement dans un vritable rituel, car la danse a une origine
divine, accompagnant aux temples les rituels religieux, et matrialise lexaltation spirituelle
du croyant dans laccomplissement des offices sacrs. Certains gestes ont dpass le cadre
purement religieux pour se manifester dans lart, comme les moudras, positions codifies et
symboliques des mains et des doigts, ayant le rle dassurer la transmission des nergies, de
faire vibrer dans le mme rythme le corps et lme, dassurer la communion de lhomme avec
lunivers et la fusion de lme individuelle dans lme cosmique (brahman). Dans les danses
indiennes, les moudras peuvent complter esthtiquement ou remplacer les mots, la parole.
Avec des gestes habiles et dlicats, la danseuse peut voquer un oiseau, un fleuve, la
rencontre des deux amoureux, la lutte entre dieux et dmons. Le rle des mains est dautant
plus important quelles sont le reflet du corps et de lesprit humain et que les positions
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rituelles de la main symbolisent la relation qui existe entre les vies intrieure et extrieure de
lhomme1. Cette valorisation du corps humain dans les rituels religieux est renforce, dans la
tradition indienne, par la communication constante qui existe entre ltre humain et le cosmos,
entre le macro et le microcosme. Non seulement le corps humain, mais aussi tout corps, tout
lment constitutif de ce monde est charg de sens et de son existence dpend lharmonie
universelle. La reprsentation des divinits indiennes sous diverses formes est une vidence
de cette conception totalisante du monde. Les dieux et les desses apparaissent au croyant
sous diffrents aspects, une divinit assumant plusieurs visages. Les images composites et
anthropomorphes refltent la croyance que la divinit runit les lments les plus disparates,
et justifient laspiration de lindividu vers une connaissance globale du cosmos, du monde
matriel et spirituel. Inscrit dans une dimension religieuse, le geste devient sacr, geste de la
prire, de la liturgie, de la dvotion, qui marque le passage de lespace-temps profane
lespace-temps sacr, qui ouvre le dialogue avec la divinit. Pendant la liturgie chrtienne, la
gestualit des croyants et du prtre reprend le sacrifice suprme divin, et, en ractualisant les
passions christiques, ils deviennent conscients de luvre divin et du changement opr de
Dieu, le Pre, en eux. Cette adhsion du croyant aux rythmes de lunivers sacr pendant les
crmonies et les services religieux est la raison dtre de toute gestualit sacre codifie.
Nanmoins, pour une crivaine comme Anne Hbert, la gestualit liturgique, avec ses
multiples facettes, a perdu son sens premier au sein de lglise. Pour lauteure canadienne, les
prescriptions corporelles pendant les messes et les services liturgiques se sont vides de sens,
elles sont des formes sans contenu spirituel ou motionnel, gestes rigides accomplis par
automatisme. Lglise savre incapable doffrir une rponse significative et adquate aux
questions et aux besoins de la communaut. Par contre, elle impose des comportements
codifis, soutenus dun discours excessivement moralisateur, qui offre limage dun Dieu
terrible et vindicatif et celle dun tre humain coupable, ds sa naissance, prisonnier de la lutte
dchirante entre son me et son corps. Lattitude accusatrice de lcrivaine qubcoise envers
les pratiques de linstitution clricale prend la forme dun discours parodique et critique. Dans
Les Enfants du sabbat elle synthtise le destin des fidles, hommes ou femmes, pris dans le
pige dun discours religieux alinant, qui ngocie le salut avec lhabilet dun marchand:
Nous sommes lis par les promesses et les interdictions. Nous sommes soumis la duret du
climat et la pauvret de la terre. Nous sommes tenus par la crainte du pch et la peur de
lenfer.2 Cest contre une autorit religieuse nocive que lauteure se rvolte, contre un systme
qui, sous lapparence de la conscration et du consentement divin, prend la lettre la
mtaphore du troupeau des fidles de Nouveau Testament. Lindividu na aucune valeur en
soi, ni mme lintrieur des espaces sacrs, le couvent ou lglise. Au couvent des Dames du
Prcieux Sang, observe la mre suprieure, la rcolte est abondante, car : Chaque anne
apporte sa cargaison frache de postulantes tries sur le volet. Une fille, deux filles, parfois
trois sont prleves par famille.3 Sur Julie de la Trinit, confronte lappel violent de la
vie, dsir de devenir pour lternit une religieuse comme les autres, me perdre parmi les
autres et ne plus donner aucune prise aucune singularit. Une petite nonne interchangeable
parmi dautres petites nonnes interchangeables, alignes, deux par deux, mme costume,
mmes gestes, mmes petites lunettes cercles de mtal4. La vie contemplative au service
divin implique en fait la mutilation du corps et de lme.
La contestation de cette autorit religieuse sassocie, chez Anne Hbert, une
dmarche plus audacieuse : celle de chercher ailleurs un autre type de spiritualit qui puisse
Flicie Artaud, Les mudras. tude des gestes sacrs, Mmoire de fin dtudes sous la direction de Jetty Roels et Eric Pauwels, Octobre
2002, p.5
1
Anne Hbert, Les Enfants du sabbat, ditions du Boral, Qubec, 1995, p.119
Ibidem, p.31
4
Ibidem, p.18
2
3
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rpondre aux besoins profonds de lindividu. Peu importe si cette tentative savre sacrilge,
cruelle ou immorale. Ce qui est essentiel cest ressusciter la vie dans les corps et les mes
devenus insensibles, cest regagner ce corps meurtri pour un dieu qui reste muet aux
supplications des mortels. Sur Julie a cette conviction quand elle exclame : Je dfends ma
vie ! Je suis sre que je dfends ma vie !5
Cette qute de la vie saccompagne dune valorisation de ltre humain dans sa
totalit, une ide peu commode aux prceptes religieux qui imposent la mortification de la
chair et lattitude contemplative de lme. Dans Les Enfants du sabbat, la liturgie chrtienne
soppose la liturgie noire de la montagne de B. La gestualit et, implicitement, le corps,
vids de sens, du monde clos du couvent, sopposent la violence et la passion du corps, au
dynamisme du geste dans les rituels sacrilges.
Lauteure dcouvre dans le corps la possibilit dune libration, vivre dans son corps
reprsentant une manire de vivre compltement. Pratique frquente dans le christianisme, la
mortification corporelle atteste une certaine attitude envers le corps, conu comme une prison.
Pour assurer son salut, ltre humain doit chapper cette enveloppe de chair et dos, la proie
du dmon, et fortifier son me, premire redoute dans la lutte contre Satan, par une
mortification continuelle. La mise lpreuve du corps par des plerinages, des jenes et des
souffrances reprsente pour le fidle une manire de se rapprocher du sacr, de Dieu,
dassurer, aprs la mort et la dcomposition du corps, laccs de lme au Paradis Cleste. La
mortification du corps est la preuve de son dvouement, de sa renonciation tout ce que
reprsente le dsir, et laffirmation de sunir, en esprit, avec la divinit. Pour saint Paul, le
croyant doit glorifier Dieu dans tout son tre, dans lme (qui institue lhomme dans sa
vritable condition de vivant) et dans sa chair (sa condition de mortel, celle qui abrite
limpuissance de lhomme de faire la volont de Dieu, donc source de pch). Si, dans ce cas,
le corps nest pas apparemment laiss de ct dans luvre du salut, il nest pas, non plus, un
lment valoris dans la qute de labsolu. Avec lincarnation de Dieu, le salut (qui nest pas
dni du corps mais possibilit de traverser lesclavage de la chair pour ouvrir un avenir au
corps6) suppose la transfiguration de la chair, revenant ainsi au rle secondaire du corps.
En concordance avec cette vision chrtienne du corps, sur Julie de la Trinit est ds
le dbut du rcit, prsente au lecteur comme une prisonnire. Pour la mre suprieure, pour
laumnier Lo-Z Flageole et les autres religieuses, elle est la prisonnire du diable, qui, en
profitant de la faiblesse de sa chair, sest empar de son me. Pour sur Julie, la prison est sa
cellule, le couvent, ensuite son corps meurtri et rendu insensible par les mortifications
rituelles au nom dun salut qui ne rpond plus ses besoins spirituels et son dsir de vivre.
Dans sa tentative dsespre de se librer, sur Julie fera appel toutes ses ressources, aux
mensonges, aux soumissions dissimules, tout un arsenal de diableries et de rituels qui
plongeront le couvent dans le chaos.
Le roman est construit ainsi sur lopposition entre le couvent, espace clos et suffocant
o le temps scoule dans le rythme des liturgies et des prires, et la cabane de la montagne de
B., espace ouvert, o les habitants sadonnent des rituels sacrilges, violents et incestueux.
Au centre de ces crmonies se trouve le corps, comme objet dadoration/mortification et
agent dans laccomplissement des gestes rituels.
Conu comme lieu de lexprience religieuse, le corps est vid didentit. Au cours de
lexprience mystique, il est habit par un Autre (Jsus, Dieu), accentuant le sentiment
dalination que sur Julie prouve dj et qui marque le dbut de sa crise spirituelle. Les
Anne Hbert, Les Enfants du sabbat, ditions du Boral, Qubec, 1995, p.22
Jean-Daniel Causse, Le corps et lexprience mystique. Analyse la lumire de Jacques Lacan et de Michel de Certeau, Cahiers dtudes du
religieux. Recherches interdisciplinaires 13/2013, p.8
5
6
855
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
mortifications quelle simpose ou qui lui sont imposes ont le but dinfliger sa chair les
mmes souffrances qu la chair de Jsus, pour la ramener ainsi plus proche de Dieu : Que je
forme une croix, bien droite, avec tout mon corps endolori ! Que pas une jointure ne flanche
et ne craque ! Dieu lui-mme ne peut men demander davantage. Rduite ma forme de
croix, concentre sur leffort physique de durer en croix, je nai plus le loisir de penser moimme, ni au monde, ni Dieu, ni mon frre, Joseph. Personne. Rien. Mon corps seul
persiste. () Bien compter les Pater et les Ave. Surtout ne pas baisser les bras. Regarder,
bien droit devant moi, la lampe du sanctuaire, signe de la prsence relle de Dieu dans le
tabernacle. () Toutes mes forces ramasses en un seul point. Rester en croix le temps
prescrit.7Quand mme, malgr cette mortification corporelle qui est dcrite ds le dbut du
rcit (Tant que dura la vision de la cabane, sur Julie de la Trinit, immobile, dans sa
cellule, les bras croiss sur la poitrine, dans toute lampleur et la rigidit de son costume de
dame du Prcieux Sang, examina la cabane en dtail, comme si elle devait en rendre compte,
au Jour du Jugement dernier8) sur Julie ne parvient pas communier vraiment avec les
souffrances christiques. Les passions du Christ, vcues corporellement, sont le sacrifice rituel
qui permet le salut, Jsus tant la victime expiatoire qui assure la relation avec Dieu sur la
base de la Loi. Julie se mortifie en vertu dune promesse, mieux dit dun march avec Dieu,
qui, en change de son corps et de son isolement, devrait protger son frre, Joseph, parti la
guerre : Jai promis de rester dans ce couvent jusqu la fin de mes jours. Je lai promis. Se
plier la rgle, subir la loi. Je lai promis. () Je marche pour mon frre Joseph qui est la
guerre. () Que Joseph se repose un peu pendant que je mets pniblement un pas devant
lautre.9
un niveau parodique, le corps de Julie sera quand mme la preuve de la
manifestation de la divinit. Sa chair portera les marques qui rappellent les stigmates des
mystiques : la lettre J en majuscule grave lintrieur de ses paumes, les pieds et les jambes
griffs et gratigns10. Linitiale J, contrairement aux rumeurs du couvent, nest pas pour
Jsus sinon pour Joseph, son frre et sa passion incestueuse.
Par contre, sur Gemma semble passer par une mortification spirituelle et corporelle
qui donne la mre Marie-Clotilde lespoir que lune de ses filles sera canonise et rachtera,
avec ses souffrances, les pchs du couvent : Cest la cuisine quon a besoin de sur
Gemma. Cest de son dgout et de son horreur que nous viendra sans doute le salut. ()
Lconomie du salut. Le corps mystique du Christ. Sur Gemma souffre mille morts
quotidiennes. Son dgout est extrme, comme si on lavait prcipite dans un tas de fumier
pour y vivre et pour y mourir.11
Lexprience mystique transforme le corps dans une nigme, marquant la prsence de
lAutre en soi. Ce que lon a de plus intime, le corps, devient le lieu de la manifestation de
lesprit divin. La femme mystique, image prsente et parodie dans le roman, a ses sources
dans limage de la pit mariale, la dvotion de Madeleine, la diffusion des motifs fminins
comme la maternit spirituelle. La mystique fminine sappuie sur laffectivit, elle est
directement lie lmotion, comme possibilit daugmenter lefficacit de la grce divine et
du sacrement. Lintense motion qui accompagne lexprience mystique est ressentie au
niveau physique (sous la forme des souffrances: larmes, pleur, saignements, stigmates) et au
niveau spirituel, psychique. Elle prolonge la tradition asctique qui, en martyrisant la chair,
essaye de retrouver Dieu et lui permettre dagir, selon sa volont, dans le corps du croyant.
Anne Hbert, Les Enfants du sabbat, ditions du Boral, Qubec, 1995, p.26
Ibidem, p.7
9
Ibidem, p.23
10
Ibidem, p.122
11
Ibidem, p.136-137
7
8
856
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
Rien de semblable chez les Dames du Prcieux Sang. On a, en effet, limpression dtre en
prsence des femmes mystiques, mettant leur corps la disposition de lesprit divin, pour
quelles prouvent la jouissance mystique et que les pchs du monde soient ainsi rachets.
Mais ce nest quune ruse. Les stigmates de sur Julie, ses saignements intempestifs ne sont
que les signes dun amour incestueux. Les pnitences quelle simpose nont aucune
efficacit, et bien quelle suive les prescrits (rester debout, les bras croiss, ou genoux et
immobile, le regard fixant lautel et implorant la prsence de Dieu), cest une trinit
malfique, et non la Sainte Trinit, qui sempare delle. La gestualit rituelle rigoureuse qui
accompagne ses prires ne peut pas neutraliser les pulsions dun corps qui veut vivre : Sur
Julie, toujours genoux, les bras en croix, termine les Pater et les Ave de sa pnitence sans
aucune trace de fatigue, sauf un trs lger flchissement de ses bras. Sur sa face ple, une
vague lueur malfaisante.12 De son ct, Sur Gemma participe aux liturgies, le corps et
lesprit pntrs dune grande dvotion. Pour les autres religieuses, elle na ni beaut, ni clat.
Elle na plus dapparence. Cest quelle porte nos pchs. Elle est transperce cause de nos
pchs. Cest par ses blessures que nous vient la gurison. Ce sont nos maladies quelle
porte. Ce sont nos douleurs qui psent sur elle13. En ralit, les souffrances de sur Gemme,
loin de jaillir dun amour et dun complet abandon au Christ, sont la manifestation dune
arrogance dmesure, du dsir datteindre la puret et la saintet. Son corps ne porte pas les
marques dune communion divine, sinon dune surexcitation nerveuse qui la pousse
demander sans cesse Dieu les signes de Sa prsence visible qui la librent de toute
souffrance prouve dans son office la cuisine du couvent: Que je devienne vite une sainte
et que cela finisse ! Je veux mourir dans une apothose de roses blanches, sans pines,
lodeur suave. Vite ! Trs vite, mon Dieu ! Je nen puis plus. Je suis bout de larmes et
deffroi. () Ah, Dieu de mon enfance, Pre, qutes-vous devenu ? Et la blancheur de mon
me, au jour de mon entre au couvent, la voici prsent semblable une hostie miette,
pose sur une nappe sale.14 Cest sur Julie qui dnoncera cette imposture. Aprs des jours
de souffrances, sur Gemma sera dcouverte stupide et gare, comme au sortir dune
profonde ivresse. Elle est assise au bord de son lit, jambes pendantes, cuisses ouvertes,
dgoulinantes de sang. Elle mastique avec effort une bouche de viande crue, la passant dun
ct lautre de sa bouche dente.15 Son dsir de mourir comme une sainte, blanche et
transparente, ne peut pas se raliser. On retrouve ici, invers et parodi, le sacrement de
leucharistie, le corps et le sang du Christ, qui, au lieu dapprocher en esprit le croyant de
Dieu, macule la puret de lme. La posture de sur Gemma est, elle aussi, une parodie de la
gestualit qui accompagne la sainte communion. Le croyant se trouve genoux devant le
prtre, le corps et lme pntrs du dvouement et dhumilit, car le sacrement ractualise le
sacrifice du Christ en vue du salut. La religieuse, par contre, est dans un tat divresse, donc
inconsciente de limportance dun pareil geste sacr, dans une posture corporelle sacrilge et
offensante, ingurgitant la chair crue, symbole de ce qui est le plus vif et, la fois, de ce qui est
le plus vulnrable aux tentations du diable.
Les aspects que prend la femme mystique dans le couvent des Dames du Prcieux
Sang nous permettent de la ranger du ct de la folie, du dlire ou de la psychose collective.
Les surs, identifiant leur corps souffrant celui du Christ martyris, avec ses plaies, sa
crucifixion, dsirent incarner ces passions, permettant Dieu de semparer de leur corps sans
rgles ou limites. Mais leur exprience mystique prend une allure abjecte o la jouissance
prouve se conjugue lhorreur ou labjection. Il sagit alors de se livrer un Dieu sans
limites qui peut exiger nimporte quoi dans le domaine sacrificiel et dont, aprs tout, on
Anne Hbert, Les Enfants du sabbat, ditions du Boral, Qubec, 1995, p.30
Ibidem, p.82
14
Anne Hbert, Les Enfants du sabbat, ditions du Boral, Qubec, 1995, p.137
15
Ibidem, p.146
12
13
857
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
pourrait tout aussi bien faire une figure du diable.16 Tout le couvent semble sombrer dans la
folie et dans le gouffre de lenfer. Les souffrances des surs malades de linfirmerie,
dpourvues de calmantes, saccompagnent de jurons, de blasphmes, des cris enrags vers la
divinit, des supplications: Sur Sophie, qui est plaine de plaies purulentes de par tout le
corps, rpte, tout essouffle : () Mon Dieu, ayez piti de moi. () Sur Angle, qui a vingt
ans, pelure doucement, presque tendrement, dune voix nasillarde, lancinante, sans jamais,
sarrte : Je ne veux pas mourir, pas toute de suite. Je ne veux pas .17
Lexprience mystique inscrit ainsi dans le corps le dpouillement de soi, le corps se
voit dpourvu de son sens, de ses traits essentiels, devenant un dchet, une souillure, les
prdicats inessentiels de ltre.18
Par contre, les rituels de la montagne de B., violents et sacrilges, se fondent sur une
valorisation du corps comme lment essentiel de la qute humaine du sens et
daccomplissement. Ltre humain nest plus peru comme lentit indfinie dune
communaut spirituelle, un corps parmi dautres, porteur du masque de la pit et dhumilit,
qui soffre, dans loubli de soi, Dieu, pour devenir lieu de Sa manifestation. En revanche, il
acquiert son individualit et la conscience de soi lors des rituels, qui lui forgent lidentit et
lui dvoilent la raison dtre. Les rituels sacrilges inscrivent Julie dans une ligne, ils gravent
sur son corps la descendance mystique qui constitue son pass et son avenir. Si la tradition
chrtienne et les rgles conventuelles obligent Julie renoncer son corps, donc son
identit, et vivre isole du monde, les rituels de la montagne de B. lui enseignent se
percevoir comme le ple dun systme de relations avec le cosmos, comme une srie de faits
naturels raccords aux rythmes organiques. Le type de spiritualit pratique par les habitants
de la cabane et par leurs acolytes se rattache une vision du monde qui reconnat, non
seulement dans ltre humain, mais aussi dans nimporte quel tre biologique, lexistence
dune force immanente, dun principe vital qui les animent et les mettent en communication.
La sorcellerie pratique par Philomne se fonde sur cette interdpendance dans le monde
vivant, ce qui la justifie conjurer, par exemple, les Puissances de lOmbre, les Dieux du
Nord, de lEst, du Sud et de lOuest19. Cette conception dynamique et complexe du monde
permet lofficiant de saisir les correspondances entre le micro et le macrocosme et de
contrler les forces vitales qui facilitent la transcendance de ltre humain. la fois, les
rituels magiques de la montagne de B. sont une manire de faire face langoisse existentielle
et au sentiment dalination, de compenser le vide spirituel creus par la religion catholique.
Les postures corporelles des participants renvoient aux rituels orgiastiques, la sexualit tant
lie, ds lAntiquit, aux cultes de la fertilit et la recherche de la totalit : Cette nuit-l,
grce longuent de Philomne () les chmeurs amis connurent le banquet et la fte de
leur vie. Ils communirent sous les deux espces, rendirent hommage la sorcire, dansrent
et forniqurent jusqu laube.20 Les rituels sont chargs de cette corporalit touffante, la
chair se dvoilant dans toute son organicit. Linitiation de Julie se fait premirement
travers le corps, glorifi et sacrifi la fois. Pour quelle devienne lgal de sa mre et de son
pre, le couple tnbreux de sorciers, elle doit subir une mortification rituelle du corps
accompagne du viol incestueux. La crmonie initiatique est une suite de gestes, symboles,
postures du corps et paroles qui parodie la liturgie chrtienne (le corps du Julie tant, lui
aussi, une image inverse du corps christique), tout en gardant la signification premire dune
spiritualit plus proche de la vie et des cycles naturels. Je suis nue sur la table de la cuisine,
Jean-Daniel Causse, Le corps et lexprience mystique. Analyse la lumire de Jacques Lacan et de Michel de Certeau, Cahiers dtudes
du religieux. Recherches interdisciplinaires 13/2013, p.2
17
Anne Hbert, Les Enfants du sabbat, ditions du Boral, Qubec, 1995, p.77
18
Jean-Daniel Causse, Le corps et lexprience mystique. Analyse la lumire de Jacques Lacan et de Michel de Certeau, Cahiers dtudes
du religieux. Recherches interdisciplinaires 13/2013, p.4
19
Anne Hbert, Les Enfants du sabbat, ditions du Boral, Qubec, 1995, p.69
20
Anne Hbert, Les Enfants du sabbat, ditions du Boral, Qubec, 1995, p.44
16
858
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
couche sur le dos, la tte sur les genoux de ma mre. Il y a un cercle de carie blanche
dessin sur le plancher, tout autour de la table. Les quelques fidles () me fixent de leurs
yeux exorbits. Consentante et livres, je serai le cur de leur extase.21 Dans le cas du
chamanisme ou des rites initiatiques de certaines socits animistes, les souffrances
corporelles ou les tats induits par la transe et les drogues provoquent une rorganisation du
corps et de lesprit qui permet laccs au divin et une meilleure connaissance du sacr. Cest
aussi le cas de Julie qui avoue comme : Philomne me fait boire de grandes gorges dans la
tasse rouge. Je menchante du bruit de mon sang, entre mes cuisses, qui sloigne de moi,
avec une plainte douce et chantante.22 Cest une crmonie qui fait penser au rituel de la
danse indienne, fonde, comme celui-ci, sur le rythme, les gestes surs et stylise, la posture
presque inhumaine du corps, la fascination hypnotique du spectacle : Murmures dans
lassemble qui se met chanter plus fort, plus vite, avec violence, battant des mains, se
contorsionnant le corps23. Dans la danse indienne, le centre vers lequel converge lattention
est la danseuse, dont lexpressivit faciale, surtout les yeux, joue un rle essentiel. Cest le
regard de sur Julie qui fait peur et hypnotise, puisque, selon elle : jai les yeux jaunes,
comme ma mre et comme ma grand-mre. Toute une ligne de femmes aux yeux viprins,
venues des vieux pays.24 La pupille de son il est horizontalement fendue, comme celle des
loups.25 Les rfrences parodiques lArbre de la Vie sont frquentes dans le roman,
associes au diable, incarn par Adlard, et une seconde naissance de Julie, cette fois-ci
dans le monde de la connaissance sacre. La transmission de cette connaissance se ralise par
lintermdiaire de la dcouverte, violente, de la sexualit : Cest lArbre de Science, lArbre
de vie, le serpent qui a vaincu Dieu qui se trouve prsent plant dans ton corps, ma
crottinette moi. Tu es ma fille et tu me continues. Le diable, ton pre, ta engendr, une
seconde fois.26 La corps de la danseuse indienne est, lui aussi, assimil larbre, ce qui largit
le champ dinterprtation, larbre tant un symbole ancien qui renvoie lHomme, au cosmos,
et, par sa verticalit, aux ponts qui stablissent entre le monde matriel et spirituel, sacr,
donc une voie de connaissance. Le costume revtu par Adlard (cornes sur la tte, torse nu,
toffe noire cachant le bas du visage) renvoie non seulement au diable, mais aussi aux
divinits cornues, esprits de la nature et de la fertilit. Le mme symbole de la fertilit est le
geste que Julie voudrait accomplir aprs le viol: Je veux faire la roue devant le soleil, les
jambes ouvertes pour que lon voie ma blessure et que lon mhonore pour cela.27 La roue du
soleil avec laquelle se confond Julie, appartient une tradition spirituelle primordiale et
reprsente dans la tradition hindoue les cycles de la vie : naissance, vie, mort, renaissance,
mais aussi ltre humain, capable de runir le ciel, la terre et la lumire cratrice.
Si le corps sacrilge de Julie se construit sur ce riche symbolisme, le corps chrtien se
fonde sur une absence inaugurale. Labsence du corps du Christ dans le tombeau sest
continue dans le mpris envers le corps et labsence de Dieu qui tourmente les croyants.
ceux qui recherchent la prsence (prsentiam) de Dieu et soupirent aprs elle, la mmoire
(memoria) de Dieu est proche et douce ; cependant ils ne sont pas combls la recherche
de la prsence de Dieu, cest--dire une prsence qui comblerait le manque, Dieu rpond en
donnant la memoria, cest--dire une prsence qui est aussi absence, une prsence qui est en
creux28. Labsence de Dieu provoque lhystrie collective dans le couvent, au point de
substituer la prsence du Satan celle de la divinit. La prire collective devient sujet de
21
Ibidem, p.64
Ibidem, p.67
23
Ibidem, p. 67
24
Anne Hbert, Les Enfants du sabbat, ditions du Boral, Qubec, 1995, p. 92
25
Ibidem, p.91
26
Ibidem, p.69
27
Ibidem, p.65
28
Jean-Daniel Causse, Le corps et lexprience mystique. Analyse la lumire de Jacques Lacan et de Michel de Certeau, Cahiers dtudes
du religieux. Recherches interdisciplinaires 13/2013, p.5
22
859
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
moquerie, les chants sacrs sont interrompus par des clats des rires, les surs teignent les
cierges au cours de la liturgie (signe vident dune possession dmoniaque, semble-t-il),
tandis que la prire individuelle prend la forme des cris enrags vers Dieu, des menaces, de
ngociations ou dinvocations malfiques, ignorant la gestualit spcifique qui accompagne
linvocation du nom du seigneur : Elles viennent la nuit de prfrence sans rompre le silence
conventuel, ni mme sarrter. A peine un lger ralentissement de leurs pas dans le corridor.
Le temps de se concentrer. Elles supplient tout bas Dieu ou le diable. Aucune importance.
Pourvu quon les entende et quon les exauce ! Lavidit insatiable de celles qui ont renonc
tout, dans lespoir du miracle ternel29.
Ni mme les gestes essentiels du christianisme, le signe de la croix et le geste de
bndiction, ne gardent leur saintet. Parmi les moudras indiennes, lAbhaya-moudra
ressemble au geste chrtien de bndiction, assurant au fidle bienveillance et protection. La
Varadra-mudra, symbole de la compassion et de la charit est, elle aussi, rencontre dans le
christianisme, sous la forme de la bndiction divine (Jsus bnissant les bons chrtiens de la
main droite). Mre Marie-Clotilde fait usage de ces gestes, mais dune manire automatique,
vide de sens : debout, toute droite, contemple avec stupeur ses grandes mains, comme
spares de son corps30. Les bras en croix sur la poitrine ou la main sur le cur sont des
gestes symboliques forts dans le christianisme, semblables la moudra dincorporation de
Bouddha. La poitrine est, mtaphoriquement, le lieu de lintriorit du corps, partie la plus
intime de la chair. La personne subit une transformation de soi-mme lors de la contemplation
religieuse. Sur Julie nous apparait plusieurs fois dans cette posture, mais ce nest pas vers
Dieu que tout son tre se dirige, sinon vers la montagne de B., le seul endroit o elle a t
vraiment libre. Le geste chrtien est ainsi transfr une dimension religieuse considre
illicite, tout en oprant la mtamorphose spirituelle ncessaire sur Julie. Dans la personne
de sur Julie, mme limage de la pit et les gestes qui laccompagnent sont inverss. Les
mains sont dans la tradition indienne le symbole du corps, mais surtout de lorgane sexuel o
se trouvent les nergies lmentaires. Au sein du couvent, toute allusion la vie, et
implicitement la sexualit, doit tre bannie, les mains gardant le symbolisme instaur par les
images chrtiennes : la main de Dieu qui bnit, apaise les blessures et gurit les maladies.
Sur Julie russit rintroduire ce symbolisme ancien de la main, attach la sexualit. En se
rfrant son frre Joseph, son amour incestueux, sur Julie le substitue Jsus et le
considre : plus infiniment beau aussi. Cest lui que jadore en secret. () Jeffleurerai
doucement, avec ma main, son squelette sensible sous la peau nue, tendue. Jadoucirai toutes
ses douleurs. Je mettrai mes doigts, tel un baume, dans la blessure de son cur. () Je
recoudrai la blessure de son cur avec mes doigts.31
Utilisant la parodie, le sarcasme, lironie et parfois le rire, lcrivaine qubcoise jette
un regard critique sur le discours moralisateur catholique et linstitution clricale. Les
inversions et la rcriture parodiques visent non seulement des extraits bibliques, des
structures narratives ou des personnages des mythes judo-chrtiens. Par la rcriture et la
ractualisation des gestes dans un registre parodique, lauteure russit critiquer une religion
qui savre oppressive et ouvrir le champ des interprtations, permettant au lecteur de
dcouvrir dans la gestualit et la posture corporelle des personnages la manifestation dune
spiritualit primordiale.
Anne Hbert, Les Enfants du sabbat, ditions du Boral, Qubec, 1995, p.124
Ibidem, p.22
31
Anne Hbert, Les Enfants du sabbat, ditions du Boral, Qubec, 1995, p.24
29
30
860
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
*This work was supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652, cofinanced by the European Social Fund within the Sectorial Operational Program Human
Resources Development 2007 2013.
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uvres littraires cits:
Hbert, Anne, Les Enfants du sabbat, ditions du Boral, Qubec, 1995
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Artaud, Flicie, Les mudras. tude des gestes sacrs, Mmoire de fin dtudes sous la
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Boquet, Damien, Corps et genre des motions dans lhagiographie fminine au XIIIe
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Causse, Jean-Daniel, Le corps et lexprience mystique. Analyse la lumire de
Jacques Lacan et de Michel de Certeau, Cahiers dtudes du religieux. Recherches
interdisciplinaires 13/2013
Eliade, Mircea, Initiation, rites, socits secrtes, Paris, Gallimard, 1959
Fournier, Laurent Sbastien, Jeux collectifs et socialisation du corps dans les ftes
religieuses, Cahiers dtudes du religieux. Recherches interdisciplinaires 11/2013
Perifano, Alfredo, Le corps du diable entre thologie et sciences dans les textes contre
la dmonoltrie aux XVe et XVIe sicles, Cahiers dtudes du religieux. Recherches
interdisciplinaires 13/2013
Restif, Bruno, Le corps en prire des fidles catholiques, daprs les catchismes
imprims en France lpoque moderne, Cahiers dtudes du religieux. Recherches
interdisciplinaires 12/2013
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Abstract: Although all institutions were monitored by The Single Party. Because of this
constraining, the artistic side was very affected, namely literature from the communist period,
1947 - 1989. This crossing, "Freeze - thaw - freeze", resulted in retreat of intellectuals to
realist-socialiste precepts, some of them passing from Party converting the creative tools in
promoting the image of the tyrant, others fighting for freedom, supporting the treatment of
censorship. Changes that took place on the literary over the years 1947 - 1989 did nothing to
revive Romanian literature and benefit from "informal agreement" of the communist regime.
Remarkable moment of this period would be 1946 when there is subordination to the
Communist nation. 1964 is important because of the test to recover the past, the
diversification of prose and poetry, the assertion of several young artists on the literary level.
Another crucial moment from the communist culture is the indoctrination of people with a
nationalistic form of communism since 1971.
Keywords: communist regime, censorship, literature, creative freedom, writer position.
n Romnia, regimul comunist a fost cel care a pus stpnire pe tot ce se afla pe
teritoriu romnesc, acesta avnd n subordine toate instituiile statului precum i membrii
acestora. Pietrele de kilometraj ale literaturii scrise n comunism sunt: 30 decembrie 1947,
1953, 1956, 1964, 1971, 1981. (Eugen Negrici, Literatura romn sub comunism. 1948
1964, 2010: 14) Din punct de vedere cultural se disting trei perioade ale regimului comunist:
1947 1960 dogmatismul stalinist, o societate de tip totalitar, dictatorial, 1965 1971 - o
etapa de dezghe al literaturii romne din perioada comunist i 1971 1989 aa numitul
al doilea nghe al literaturii.
Literatura avea menirea s reflecte societatea comunist ntr-un chip tezist, astfel nct
valorile comuniste s fie n mod obligatoriu bune. Literatura perioadei realist-socialiste se
materializeaz printr-o poezie general epic care va pune n eviden categoriile sociale ce
construiesc comunismul, n primul rnd clasa muncitoare, i este atacat vechea ornduire
burghezo-moiereasc. Tot n aceast perioad sunt atacate fundamentele literaturii romne
nlocuind valoarea estetic cu propaganda.
Perioada ce urmeaz dogmatismului socialist, cea a dezgheului (1965 1971), este
una de nflorire a literaturii, avnd drept scop recuperarea literaturii romne i refacerea
experienelor interbelice. Acum, n aceast perioad de liberalizare, s-a ncercat o readucere n
prim plan a valorilor care se pierduser: structuri narative ale romanului francez, traduceri din
literatura european de ultim or, unele personaliti (ca n cazul lui Nichita Stnescu care i
extinde orientrile poetice spre al doilea val avangardist) tind s se perfecioneze spre o
anumit direcie novatoare.
n vara anului 1971, Nicolae Ceauescu pleac n delegaie n China, i revine n ar
cu alte idei ce vor schimba orientarea pe care o susinuse pn atunci, principii care vor
subordona din nou cultura regimului comunist. Dictatorul ine un discurs n faa Comitetului
862
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Executiv al PCR prin care propune o mutaie care presupune o form fundamentalnaionalist de comunism, aceasta privilegia ideea c Romania i romnul sunt considerai
superiori celorlalte naionaliti protocronismul.
Prin intermediului protocronismului romnesc, erau ilustrate originalitatea i
capacitatea de creaie i invenie a romnului, el fiind iniiatorul de principii literare romneti
i n strintate; de la creatorii notri naionali se inspirau scriitorii din Occident i nu invers,
compatrioii notri fiind autentici i originali. Propaganda dorea ca protocronismul s devin
principala direcie a criticii i istoriei literare pentru aservirea politicii naional - comuniste.
Protocronismul, ca fenomen, a evideniat [] chiar lupta pentru controlul definirii valorii
literare. (Eugen Negrici, Iluziile literaturii romne, 2008: 269) Artitii care au ncercat s se
afirme n acea perioad au simit pe propria piele efectele regimului prin intermediul cenzurii.
Dei multe documente nu au fost fcute publice, foarte muli scriitori povestesc modul n care
erau tratai atunci cnd nu aveau de gnd s publice ceva ce putea fi pe placul conductorului.
Teroarea comunist definit prin intermediul Propagandei i a Securitii i cenzura alturi de
instituiile de guvernmnt au avut menirea de a tirbi spiritul creator tocmai pentru a crea o
ar conform dorinelor tiranului. Minciuna care promova dictatura ceauist era dus mai
departe i prin intermediul revistei securitii Sptmna, condus de Eugen Barbu.
A treia etap a culturii din perioada comunist (1971 1989) a reprezentat un al
doilea nghe, o alt ncercare de a atrage scriitorii de partea regimului astfel nct imaginea
lui Nicolae Ceauescu ajungnd s fie adulat la modul extrem, agresiv, iar principiile
comuniste s fie transmise din nou cetenilor prin intermediul culturii. Literatura
propagandistic a reprezentat pentru cea necontaminat un obstacol; scriitorii care nu au
cedat insistenelor dictatoriale fiind nevoii s creeze constant opere prin care s i apere
principiile literar-artistice. Tot ce se afla sub tutela comunist, n ceea ce privete arta literar,
nu a fost un act voluntar al creatorilor ci a fost o reacie disperat de a supravieui.
Comunismul romnesc suprapune i ideea socialist a cultului personalitii lui Nicolae
Ceauescu, modalitate prin care imaginea tiranului era omagiat, dedicndu-i-se poeme,
fcndu-i-se portrete. nsui Ceuescu devine scriitor de cri filozofice i istorice devenind
un geniu cultural alturi de soia sa, Elena, care ajunge membr a Academiei Romne,
doctor n chimie, autoare de cri publicate n diverse limbi.
Dup liberalizarea din anii 1960 1971, considerat a fi o etap de reconciliere,
sistemul comunist redevine la formele iniiale de exploatare a laturii artistice, ajungnd s
verifice necontenit publicaiile din librrii, anticariate i biblioteci, chiar i scrierile de mic
ntindere, cele mai multe dintre ele fiind respinse de cenzur. ncepuse un nou episod de triere
a operelor literare i de exterminare a scriitorilor acestora, n special acelora din exil; numai
faptul c erau exilai era suficient pentru a le respinge crile. Se cerea creatorilor s
promoveze imaginea politicului romnesc, s conceap nite principii care s reprezinte o
form de lupt pentru o cultur militant n crearea individului socialist model. Acesta a
fost momentul de lefuire a intelectualilor dup normele idelogiei socialiste, mai exact dup
chipul i asemnarea conductorului, noile creaii ilustrnd poziia superioar, totalitar a
Partidului.
n Cartea neagr a comunismului, carte aprut dup ce regimul comunist a fost
nlturat de la putere, erau trecute toate faptele i evenimentele considerate de Securitate
neadecvate sistemului rii. n ciuda faptului c muli artiti nu s-au lsat influenai de sistem,
unii au cedat presiunilor i s-au pretat cerinelor, ajungnd astfel s scrie mpotriva voinei lor,
preamrind conductorul i modalitatea acestuia de a conduce statul, ns pe lng acetia se
aflau i scriitori care au slujit regimul comunist din proprie iniiativ, fr a fi forai de
nimeni. Propaganda urmrea controlarea individului n totalitate, n special modul acestuia de
a gndi i simi prin documente i scrisori de partid, Securitatea tortura intelectualul att fizic
863
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865
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i-au nteles drepturile i accept politica partidului, fapt care a i fost demonstrate, singura
cale de ieire fiind acceptarea propagandei. Membrii cenzurii susineau faptul c ei nu
verific autorul, ci opera lui, ns efectele erau simite n principal de ctre autor prin tortur
fizic, dar i distrugerea operei n ntregime. n aceast situaie, scriitorul care nu s-a pretat
cerinelor Partidului nu mai avea anse de reuit, ntmpinnd piedici pe tot parcursul
carierei.
Partidul a intervenit n activitatea cenzorilor literari sftuindu-i s nu mai denatureze
ideile scriitorilor pentru c n acest mod ei nu vor mai putea niciodat s ating obiectivele
propuse de acesta n crearea unei imagini dictatoriale ideale. Pe lng aceste propuneri,
partinitorii comunismului urmreau i readucerea n prim plan a trecutului, dorind s
reconecteze idealurile autohtone. n cadrul acestei micri, s-au remarcat personaliti ca:
Mihai Beniuc, Eugen Barbu, Ion Brad, Marcel Breslau, Aurel Baranga, Ovidiu
Crohmlniceanu, Dan Hulic.
n ceea ce privete poezia anilor 1947 - 1962, la nivelul versificaiei, ea s-a aflat sub
tutela epicului, a baladei populare mai exact, iar mai trziu s fie mprumutate tehnici i teme
ale unor poei ca Vasile Alecsandri sau George Cobuc, sau chiar caracterul autobiografic i
descriptive, alturi de meditaie. Un grup de scriitori pregteau, n acelai timp, o form de
protest mpotriva deciziei luate, dorind ca manifestele i lucrrile lor n domeniul criticii i
istoriei literare s depeasc graniele naionale, s fie receptate i n afar tocmai pentru a
face ncercarea lor de ctigare a libertii posibil. Astfel se resimt efectele ncercrilor
scriitorilor de a aduce schimbarea, observndu-se o predare de armistiiu din partea
cenzurii, unele cri fiind publicate fr a mai fi verificate de lectorii cenzuratori. n ultima
vreme se remarc faptul c cele mai multe din observaiile care nu au caracter obligatoriu nu
se efectueaz de ctre edituri i redacii. (Radu Marin Mocanu, Cenzura comunist, Editura
Albatros, 2001: 50).
Un efect al interveniei PCR-ului n activitatea scriitorilor a fost acela al crerii unui
melanj dintre poezie i proz, al unui hibrid lirico-epic, deoarece poezia se dorea a fi de
natur narativ. Poezia devine tot mai agresiv, atacnd progresiv regimul comunist, i asta
pentru c poeii erau indignai de imaginea pe care o avea ceteanul n societatea sa dar i
peste hotare. Idealul poeilor consta n eliberarea de sub robie socialist a individului,
scriitorii tnjeau dup libera exprimare, doreau acceptarea adevrului i vizau n special
dezmeticirea poporului, instigndu-l la lupta pentru individualitate i libertate.
Poezia adopt o nou viziune artistic prin readucerea n prim plan a temelor
fundamentale ale lirismului: iubirea, natura depolitizat, trecutul voievodal i, mai mult dect
att, imprudena poeilor de a pune n centrul creaiilor trupul gol i voluptos al iubitei.
Proza, la fel ca poezia, a suferit un tratament dur de dezinfectare. Ajuni la saturaie,
prozatorii aveau ca surse de inspiraie imaginea dezumanizant a societii i individul
subjugat socialismului, puterea exercitndu-i dreptul de decizie absolut asupra ntregului act
creator. i totui, dup acea ncercare de liberalizare din anii 60 - 71, li s-a permis prozatorilor
ca personajele operelor lor epice s aib i defecte, conflictele creaiilor s fie mai complexe,
implicite, cadrul de desfurare al aciunii s fie unul cotidian epocii n care se scria, subiectul
s fie unul realist i nu fantastic ca n basm. n concluzie, genul epic devine mai diversificat.
Mesajul operei n sine trebuia s promoveze bogia inepuizabil a realitii, dar se afirm
repetat c scriitorul este dator s prezinte esena realitii, care, se ntelege, are caracter de
clas, este o esen de partid. (Eugen Negrici, Literatura romn sub comunism. 1948
1964, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 2010: 253)
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868
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Abstract: One of the chtonic reasons of our postwar poetry is the feeling of our connection
with nature, revived in the postwar period by Horia Ion a Transylvanian poet. In his poetry
stands out his joy for nature`s harvest, for the universe, for the emotional states which are in
line with the passing of seasons. Ion Horea`s nature is full of sap and its contemplation emits
either enthusiasm or melancholy, but always with a sense of fulfillment and vitality.
Keywords: nature, fertility, poetry, seasons, earth
Unul dintre motivele htonice ale poeziei noastre interbelice e sentimentul nfririi cu
natura, resuscitat, ns n perioada postbelic de poetul ardelean Ion Horea, a crui creaie e
izvort dintr-o fibr teluric. n poezia sa, se remarc disponibilitatea pentru bucuria
roadelor, pentru universul agrest, pentru strile de afectivitate aflate n deplin consonan cu
succesiunea anotimpurilor. Prin imaginarul naturist, poetul e n viziunea criticului Al.
Cistelecan un Pillat de Ardeal , care retriete un nou ciclu al reveriilor campestre i al
nostalgiilor iluminate.1
n studiul de fa ne-am propus printr-un demers tematic i hermeneutic s reliefm
ipostazele pe care le iau elementele naturii n spaiul imaginar al poeziei lui Ion Horea. Vom
insista att asupra ipostazei erotizate a naturii, ct i asupra simbolisticii roadelor pmntului,
considerate de Gaston Bachelard resurse poetice ale reveriei.
Poezia bucolic romneasc nu este ntotdeauna pur descriptiv, iar originalitatea lui
Ion Horea rezid tocmai n maniera sa de a realiza peisaje, astfel anul de studiu la Institutul de
Arte Plastice din Bucureti nu a rmas fr ecou. Pornind de la afirmaia celebr a lui Henri
Frdric Amiel care consider c peisajul este o stare a sufletului, constatm c n versurile
dedicate naturii poetul nu e un simplu spectator care contempl o realitate fizic, ci triete
ntr-un spaiu interior care i d senzaia de comunicare intim cu elementele firii. Existena
unei legturi strnse dintre interiorul uman i cel al naturii e confirmat de esteticianul
Rosario Assunto care consider c n momentul cnd contemplm un peisaj, suntem n acel
peisaj; i aa cum existena noastr este viaa pe care o trim, existena noastr n peisaj este o
trire n peisaj.2 n poezia Agreste asistm la o contopire dintre uman i vegetal, poetul
fiind contaminat de tririle nfiorate ale copacului: Ascult, i-n pacea nopii m nfior i tac,/
i-mprejmuit de umbre i de bucate coapte,/ Desvrit n sine-mi m simt ca un copac,/ Sub
lun petrecndu-mi cu psri mari de noapte. (Agreste) Gestul identificrii cu elementele
firii nu este artificial, ci se svrete firesc, neceremonios, pe nesimite, ca i cum omul ar
mbrca de cnd lumea fie saric mioas, fie coaj de copac.3 Dac ar fi s gsim ilustraii
plastice versurilor dedicate iernii, sugestive ar fi celebrele peisaje ale pictorului flamand
Bruegel: La noapte o s ning. Spun semne din amurg,/ Deasupra noastr fluvii de ciori
Al. Cistelecan n prefaa Ardeleanul definitiv la volumul antologic: Ion Horea, Bataia cu aur, ediie de autor ngrijit de Eugeniu
Nistor, Tg-Mure, Editura Ardealul, 2009, p. 12.
2
Rosario Assunto, Peisajul i estetica, vol. I, traducere de Olga Mrculescu i prefa de Dan Grigorescu, Bucureti, Editura Meridiane,
1986, p. 219.
3
Ion Oarcu, Prezene poetice, Bucureti, Editura pentru Literatur, 1968, p. 136.
1
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flmnde curg,/ i marginilor lumii parc le dau ocol./ Bisericile-s pline de ciori ca de
nmol. Tririlor afective li se confer astfel o corporalitate aparte, determinat de micarea
imens de panouri cu care lucreaz poetul.4
n poeziile n care apar exprimate sentimentele celor patru anotimpuri, criticul Emil
Manu identific o curgere sentimental egal, cu un comentariu al opulenei economice,
plasticizant prin metafore care definesc n esen un cosmos erotic.5 Pentru Ion Horea,
toamna nu e anotimpul stingerii, ci e un anotimp plenar, al pasiunilor n plin combustiune6,
cnd rsar iubirile rvnite i visul ndrzne. Instalarea anotimpului bahic aduce cu sine
suscitarea unor reacii senzoriale: Pesemne iar-i toamn mi-am zis i a fi vrut/ n clipa
ceea sfnt s-ncerc s te srut (Fonea lumina serii) sau, chiar afective: s-i spun ct se
poate, n ceaa/ ce cade pe noi ntr-o zi,/ s-i spun ct se poate iubi (Ct a fi vrut) n
imaginarul erotic al poeziei lui Ion Horea, ceaa constituie elementul iubirii, mediul bachicei
comuniuni sau simbolul ei.7: Din toamn-n ceaa dus de ploi s mai rmn (Mi s-a
prut) Mai ntodeauna, spectacolul iubirii se joac odat cu lsarea amurgului, cnd
umbrele alunec i aerul pare de foc i de platin. Nu doar toamna e un anotimp revelator
pentru vrstele iubirii, ci i celelalte anotimpuri, pe care poetul le personific prin atribuirea
unui comportament erotic. Fertilitatea primverii este solidar cu cea feminin, amndou
cunoscnd miracolul creaiei, n timp ce vara e nfiat cu senzualitate asemenea unei femei
voluptoase, care i desface bluza s-i spele snii goi. (Sentimentul verii). Iarna e un
anotimp simfonic n care reveria poetului, n mirajul saniei cu cai, ce zboar, amestec
elementele existenei n curgerea lor ireversibil, colorate totui cu melancolia erotic8: Hei,
coame negre, coapse i pulpe, voi, buiece,/ Cine v-a plans de mil c vremea voastr trece.
(Sentimentul iernii) Nu de puine ori, fiorul dragostei fuzioneaz cu elementele naturii, cu
timpul, cu materia aflat ntr-o stare perpetu de aciune: M-mbrieaz timpul, i-acum s
nu te mire/ Dac-i rspund deodat cu tot ce-mi dai iubire,/ Dac-n frunziul galben vd prul
tu i strngu-l,/ Eu, uneori sfiosul i orbul i natngul. (Hotar) Natura e erotizat, iar
frumuseea iubitei se developeaz din frunziul galben, ceea ce sugereaz sentimentul unei
comuniuni intime cu natura.
n economia imaginarului naturist al poeziei lui Ion Horea o not aparte o au
mirosurile roadelor, resurse ale reveriei, care deschid calea de acces spre trmul patriarhal.
Nscut din grne, din fn, din cucuruz, Ion Horea eman mireasma pmnturilor sfinte
ale Cmpiei Transilvaniei, rescriind cu nostalgie un spaiu bucolic n care reveria se
desfoar cu voluptate descriptiv ntr-un cadru natural ce-i precizeaz contururile din
relevana detaliului i din atmosfera evocatoare.9 Poetului i e de-ajuns s nchid pentru o
secund ochii pentru a adulmeca mirosurile dragi, ce i-au mblsmat copilria. Retras din
miezul tumultos al cotidianului, Ion Horea tie s respire trecutul i evoc cirezile de vaci i
aromele de lapte, mirosul de cimbru, tutunul de sub streini, mirosul de uic ce sentinde pn-la drum, i a carelor ncrcate cu borhot. Atunci cnd memoria inhaleaz aceste
miresme tari, ele devin plcute. Hotarul cu lanurile de gru i porumb, livada, anotimpurile
sunt depozitare de mirosuri pe care Ion Horea le pstreaz n recipientele memoriei olfactive
i din cnd n cnd le elibereaz pentru a-i deschide poarta spre lumea de altdat. Iarna lui
Ion Horea e nvluit de mireasma dovlecilor, a mmligii i a laptelui: Acele nopi de iarn
se-ntorc, acele nopi/ Cnd aromeau n cas din ler bostanii copi/ i parc lemne-n sob
pocnesc s mai anune/ Cum fierbe de cu sear i oala de grune /... / Cnd mmliga-n abur
cdea pe crptor / i laptele din oal i varza cu ulei ... (Remember), iar gerul nprasnic e
Andraoni, Dumitru, Poezii, 1967 n Steaua, XIX, 33 (218), martie, 1968, p. 101.
Emil Manu, Umbra plopilor n rev. Viaa romneasc, XVIII, 10, octombrie, 1965, p. 171.
6
I. Negoiescu, Scriitori moderni, Bucureti, Editura pentru Literatur, 1966, p. 436.
7
Ibidem, p. 437.
8
Emil Manu, op. cit., p. 173.
9
Iulian Boldea, Metamorfozele textului, Trgu-Mure, Editura Ardealul, 1996, p. 10
4
5
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cirezile de vaci i aromele de lapte, cu jocul de boabe i psti ntr-un anotimp superb,
cnd zilele de aur le-auzi n bui cum fierb, e bucuria unui poet care i iubete sincer
melegurile natale: Aceast contopire de via i sublime / Cnd ne vedem n toate, din ce n
ce mai des, / Redai mereu tot altui i altui neles. (Sentimentul verii) Dragostea pentru
peisajul cmpenesc, pentru pmntul natal topophilia15 e exprimat uneori cu o doz de
patetism. ntr-un poem din volumul Coloan n amiaz denumit, nu ntmpltor Agreste,
poetul ne transmite emoiile sale prilejuite de lumea predilect a satului, fiind evidente tonul
confesiv i ncercarea de autodefinire prin aceleai elemente ale naturii: Hotarului asemeni,
mi-e sufletul prea plin / De lumea vegetal, de psri i insecte,/ De forma animal spre care
m nclin / Mereu n cutarea micrilor perfecte. // M-am ridicat alturi de plopul fonitor,
din umbra cltinat a slciilor pletoase, / mbrind azurul nalt, tremurtor / i transparent,
ca luna de forma unei coase. // M-am scuturat de greieri, i-ascult-i n amurg / Cum tremur
din aripi uoare i nguste! / Prin sufletul meu grne n valuri albe curg / i-n umbra lui
coboar verzuile lcuste. Criticul Dumitru Micu remarc la Ion Horea maniera de a poetiza
peisajul rural fr a evita componentele prozaice, vorbind nu numai de fntni, stupi, psri,
vi de vie, ci i de grajduri, anuri, nmol, mortciuni elemente ce transcriu ntr-un registru
plastic sentimentul thanatic: Atta ploaie cade c suntem mai btrni/ i cumpenele parc se
tem lng fntni./ Praiele vin tulburi i intr prin ogrzi/ i iau la vale garduri i mortciuni
i lzi,/ Nmolul peste anuri se-ntinde ca un pod/ i grajdurile-s prinse-ntr-un muget de
prohod/ i dealurile toate le vezi cum se topesc/ i curg mpuhoiete dintr-un trm ceresc./
Porumburile sure-s culcate sub noroi./ Din stupi, n vara asta n-a mai ieit un roi./ i holdele
sunt coapte de mult i-au mucezit/ Trifoiu-n brazde-i putred, de cnd nu a fost cosit. (ntr-un
trziu) Poezia lui Ion Horea are drept corespondent Lacustra lui George Bacovia conform
afirmaiei lui Al. Cistelecan i reprezint cel mai convingtor simptom al firii sale adnc
rneti: viziunea imersiunii lumii n acvatic de ntretie cu ngrijorarea subteran pentru
cataclismul agricol.16
Prin urmare, de-a lungul creaiei sale, poetul i pstreaz specificul ardelenesc, iar din
larga varietate a tematicii abordate poetul rmne un pastelist cu alonj alecsandrinian,
mbogit de Ion Pillat cu sentimentiul plasticitii senzoriale, i de Fundoianu cu intuiia
puterilor genezice ale materiei.17
Bibliografie critic selectiv:
Andraoni, Dumitru, Poezii n rev. Steaua, XIX, 33 (218), martie, 1968.
Assunto, Rosario, Peisajul i estetica, vol.I, traducere de Olga Mrculescu i prefa
de Dan Grigorescu, Bucureti, Editura Meridiane, 1986.
Bachelard, Gaston, Poetica reveriei, traducere de Luminia Brileanu, Piteti, Editura
Paralela 45, 2005.
Boldea, Iulian, Metamorfozele textului, Trgu-Mure, Editura Ardealul, 1996.
Cistelecan, Al., Poezie i livresc, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1987.
Al. Cistelecan n prefaa Ardeleanul definitiv la volumul antologic: Ion Horea,
Bataia cu aur, ediie de autor ngrijit de Eugeniu Nistor, Tg-Mure, Editura Ardealul, 2009.
Craia, Sultana, Orizontul rustic n literatura romn, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu,
1985.
Prin intermediul conceptului de topophilia, filosoful i geograful chinez Yi-Fu Tuan definete legtura afectiv dintre om i loc n lucrarea
Topophilia: A Study of Environmental Perception, Attitudes, and Values, New York, Columbia University Press, 1990, p. 4.
16
Al. Cistelecan, Poezie i livresc, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1987.
17
Mihail Petroveanu, Traiectorii lirice, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1974.
15
872
SECTION: LITERATURE
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873
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
Abstract: Built in the spirit of the Literary Circle from Sibiu, Dominic Stanca will implement
in his artistic creation the cosmopolitanic characteristic of this group . Analyzing the
volume of poems " The street that riches the sky "or the story "Veselin's mill", and
,,Walderoda, unfinished text, we can see the outline of a province where life is consumed
with discretion, a world encrypted, but directed towards the Occident.The image of the
province is shaped idyllic. In the early twentieth century the city becomes a space of
tolerance, the conflicts, too small to change the quiet city, will turn off immediately. It is a
world of cafs, of beerhouses, of the salon where you can hear arrangements of Beethoven's
music, but also the world of those long walks on the streets. This transylvanian"Belle
Epoque" is unique in the Romanian literary landscape , the author manages to create an
ideal stronghold , a space of a cultural diversity, dominated by the desire to Westernization,
which according to the members of Sibiu's literary circle , could not suceed without the
German culture
Keywords: the town of province, cospomopolitanism, ideal stronghold, Dominic Stanca, Belle
Epoque
Spaiul periferic este puin abordat n literatura romn. Prin volumul de poezii Strada
care urc la cer, prin ampla povestire Moara lui Veselin, dar i prin Walderoda, text
nefinalizat, Dominic Stanca ilustreaz ntr-o manier original, atmosfera linitit patriarfal a
burgului transilvnean la nceput de secol XX. Nscut n Cluj-Napoca, ntrun ora multietnic,
aflat la interferena unor culturi diverse, Dominic Stanca i va forma idealurile adolescine sub
influena gndirii membrilor Cercului literar de la Sibiu, prin intermediul crora va lua contact
cu spiritul german.
Ortia copilriei autorului va prelua rolul de spaiu matrice, loc al paradisului
terestru, evocat att n poezie ct i n proz. Potrivit lui Ovid. Crohmlniceanu ,, Dominic
Stanca face s triasc literar o lume ardelean care prelungete efectiv, urbanistic, cutumiar
i spiritual, universul europocentral.1
n poezie imaginea oraului-himer, vzut ca utopie estetic, i va gsi similitudini cu
scrierile lui Gottfried Keller prin descrierile pitoreti ale burgurilor sale. Spaiul poetic descris
este cel al strzii, loc al evenimentelor fcute fr nimic spectaculos, al forfotei anodine de
fiece zi. Oraul este reprezentat prin imaginea strzii care de cele mai multe ori depete
cadrul concret i devine perimetrul unui ireal posibil, spaiu al desfurrilor fabuloase n
preajma oraului alb. Strada ,,care urc la cer./ Urc, urc i ntmpin cerul/ Ca o ieder
alb urc la cer. / Urc voioas i ntmpin cerul va fi martora micilor conflicte care vor
nsuflei oraul.
874
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Lumea fantast a Strzii care urc la cer, cu amalgamul ei de figuri atipice, i va gsi
corespondent n Moara lui Veselin ,, mica enciclopedie a vieii transilvane de nceput de
secol2 Firul epic este simplu: n prejma Patelui notarul Dumitru Vulcan i ateapt fiica s
vin acas de la pension. Deoarece trenul nu oprete la Ortie, ci numai la Simeria, notarul
trebuie s mearg cu trsura dup tnra Anicua. Pe drumul spre cas, acetia vor fi speriai
de Culai al lui Sonsolu, care la porunca avocatului Marcovinovici se deghizeaz n fantom.
Planurile avocatului sunt deturnate de contabilul Siminie Vlad care i va aplica o corecie
fizic pseudofantomei, i astfel se va nfiripa o idil ntre Anicua i tnrul salvator, dar
totodat va izbucni un conflict direct ntre avocat i contabil. ntr-un plan secundar, ne sunt
aduse la cunotin evenimentele care se vor succeda din cauza morii lui Veselin i a cutrii
unui nou proprietar pentru moara pe care o avea n arend acesta.
Lirismul poeziilor lui Dominic Stanca se va prelungi pn n firul epic al prozei, astfel
identificm aceeai candoare n descrierea strzii pe care locuia Siminie Vlad ,, strada
Dealului Himmelsberggasse cum o numeau saii, ceea ce pe romnete s-ar tlmci mai
potrivit:strada Dealului care urc n cer! i zu aa ! Cine a urcat odat strada Dealului, dac-a
avut fericirea s-o urce la o vrst tnr, a cunoscut n culmea ei un col din rai. Eu unul, cel
puin, n-a da-o nici pentru Mariahilferstrasse din Viena, nici pentru Poteca filosofilor din
Heidelberg, nici pentru Unter den Linden din Sibiu!3 Observm cum viziunea poetului se
suprapune cu cea a prozatorului, iar strada nu este doar loc al desfurrii cotidianului, ci i
spaiu care fascineaz ochiul contemplator. Burgul transilvnean pare a fi mai degrab sat
cetate ,,Aici n prejma oraului alb/ ntre ziduri czute, ntre slcii amare, / unde via de vie se
urc pe deal / i iedera verde se furieaz-n pridvoare...unde seara, spit coboar domol... cu
ppdii aurii, cu zvon de tlnci, / cu cele cteva capre care vin de pe deal. Observm cum
citadinul este invadat de elemente rurale, ,, cum urc la cer / strada prin smocuri de fn i
urzici, / pe sub prispele albe, de lemn sau de stei. Metropola este nlocuit cu micul ora
periferic cu ,, strdue vechi, mrginae,/ prin ziduri de piatr cu prag i prichici, / printre
casele scunde, cu porile-nalte, / cu glastre de flori n ferestrele mici. Strada, drumul prfuit
strjuit de cei o mie de stejari sdii n anul 1898, este locul gesturilor cavalereti ale lui Vlad,
spaiu al nfiripirii idilei dintre acesta i Anicua. Tot aici l vom gsi pe tnrul locotenent
Csiki care mpreun cu taraful lui Petric Tari ,,alint pe strune o serenad...sub fereastra
domnioarei Vulcan4, i tot aici tnrul nobil maghiar, printr-un gest de bravur, i va spla
umilina mpucnd calul care i gsise ntr-un moment delicat s l fac de ruine. Cetatea
ideal va fi veghet de depate de moar cea care macin nu numai grul, ct i destine
individuale i colective. Moara ,, ... macin i astzi grul bogat din mnoasa cmpie a pinii.
De-o parte e rul i zvoiul, de cealalt, elinele moi, livezile cu viini i gardul podgoriei.
Toate urc pe deal, spre culmea numit Olimp ( da, chiar aa!). n jurul ei se rsucete via de
vie i florile liliachii de viin o mpodobesc i astzi de jur mprejur. De sus, se vede orul, se
rumenete i, dac-l priveti de acolo, seamn c-o sfnt prescur.5
Oraul de provincie este cetatea n care viaa se consum cu discreie, scurgerea
timpului aduce n prim- plan realiti socio-culturale, evenimente mondene i conflicte mai
degrab insignifiante. Strzile pietruite l duc pe cititor n cafenele, berrie, saloane, sli de
licitaie, maialuri i magazine n care se pot gsi produse n ton cu moda vienez. Cu alte
cuvinte, strada surprinde o umanitate aflat ntr-o continu agitaie n jurul unor evenimente
banale. Ni se dezvluie o Ortie a bunului gust i a prosperitii, cu oameni gospodari care au
case aranjate i ncptoare: ,, O poart mare de lemn se ddu n lturi i trsura fcu zgomot
n curte. Toate curile sunt pietruite la Ortie, ca i strzile dealtfel. Chiar i dincolo de piaa
Ion Vartic, prefa la Timp scufundat, Dominic Stanca, Ed. Eminescu, Bucureti, 1981 p.XXIII
Dominic Stanca, Timp scufundat, Dominic Stanca, Ed. Eminescu, Bucureti, 1981 p. 306
4
Ibidem. p. 303
5
Ibidem. p. 286
2
3
875
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LDMD 2
de fn, n mahala, cel mai umil gospodar i are curtea pavat cu pietre, ferit de noroi. 6
Prosperitatea comunitii este reflect de locuinele oraului, astfel casa avocatului
Marcovinovici ,,era o cas respectabil ( este i astzi ) c-un singur rnd, dar at de
ncptoare nct se aranjau adevrate baluri n saloanele ei.7
Potrivit lui Dominic Stanca, Ortia din preajma anului 1909 este o lume cosmopolit,
gsim o mic burghezie nfloritoare, tulburat doar de pasiuni i vicii minore, un univers
patriarhal dominat de tihn i armonie. Ortia nchide n ea o minimonografie a spaiului
transilvnean, model de cetate ideal pentru gndirea membrilor Cercului literar de la Sibiu.
Astfel, Sibiul, loc al mplinirii idealurilor cosmopolite, deci occidentale, ale ardelenilor
nevoii s se refugieze din Cluj-Napoca, va fi transpus artistic n Ortia subiectiv a lui
Dominic Stanca. Este o lume suficient siei, dar nu nchis, legtura cu exteriorul n cazul
nostru raportarea la Viena ca model occidentalizant se face prin preluarea anumitor tabieturi
zilnice. Remarcm, astfel, c n micul ora provincial regsim tot ceea ce este de trebuin
unei lumi moderne, orientat nspre civilizaia Occidental. Viaa ortenilor se desfoar
aproape monoton, i regsim jucnd biliard la Coroana, berria sasului Schulleri, fcnd
cumprturi la ,,cel mai nzestrat i modern magazin din partea aceea...unde gseai vigurile
cele mai bune, mtsurile cele mai fine, i plriile cele mai cu ic, fr s pierzi dou sau
poate chiar trei zile pe drum8. Pe lng magazinul lui Ulpiu Corvin, care era la concuren cu
magazinele nemeti din Sibiu i Braov, deci respecta trendul vienez, viaa cetii nu se
ndeprteaz de tradiiile autohtone romneti: udatul fetelor a doua zi de Pate.
n micul burg transilvnean trebuie remarcate multitudinea de personaje. Straniile
figuri din balade vor prinde via n universul prozei, astfel plrierul, croitorul, pantofarul,
precupeaa, nvtorul, lutarul, doctorul, ceasornicarul, cntreaa, avocatul, preotul,
negustorul etc vor fi alt faet a locuitorilor Ortiei. Figurile care populeaz acest spaiu
sunt dintre cele mai diverse: de la ranii romni Veselin, Nastasia, Filimon, Palaghia, ologul
Samoil Vinan, nvtorul Branga, doctorul Tincu, gazetarul Munteanu, studentul Tma,
lutarii Petric Tari i Duma, vizitiul Gavril, gospodarul Turdan pn la avocatul Oscar
Marcovinovici (,,amestec necurat de snge muntenegrean i austriac... compromis austromuntenegrean 9), notarul Dumitru Vulcan i familia acestuia, contabilul Siminie Vlad, hangiul
Picu, Schulleri ( sas ), Schelker cel care a cldit o moar ( sas), Muller a construit o baie
comunal (sas), evreul comerciant ,, unul singur n tot judeul, dar care ,, se bucura de stima
concetenilor si romni pentru c se numea Avram Iancu, locotenentul Csiki, Ulpiu
Corvin, baronul Ion Nopcea, Osvad - directorul bncii, medicul veterinar Gonczi, colonelul
pensionar Willi Rost, cpitanul de poliie Szolosi, judectorul Balogh i nu numai.
Naratorul se dovedete a fi un fin observator al lumii nconjurtoare, pare c nu i
scap nici un detaliu i ceea ce i privete pe cei din jurul lui. Astfel, sunt surprinse cele mai
neateptate caracteristici ale locuitorilor Ortiei: aflm c avocatul Marcovinovici avea nite
,,ochi mici neastmprai, venic lunecnd dup fuste...amesteca n aceeai oal fetele de
familie cu servitoarele, nevestele cele mai delicate cu precupeele. i numai dac interesul o
cerea se dedica unei singure cauze.10. n acelai registru plasm i descrierea prefectului Ion
Nopcea, cel care a motenit obiceiurile bunicului de a fi ispravnic i tlhar n acelai timp,
care ,, a jefuit-o i pe nevast-sa ntr-o bun noapte, pe drum11. Nepotul motenete nu numai
metehnele bunicului, dar vine n peisaj i cu alte slbiciuni care vor face din el un personaj cu
totul excentric: ,,Dup cum tia Samoil Vinan, cel beteag, prefectul ar fi avut la Bcini
6
Ibidem. p. 290
Ibidem. p. 292
8
Ibidem. p. 298
9
Ibidem. p.292
10
Ibidem. p. 292
11
Ibidem. p.299
7
876
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
Ibidem. p.299
Ibidem. p. 297
14
Ibidem p. 299
15
Victor Felea, Tribuna, nr. 48, an XXI, 1 decembrie 1977, p.2
16
Dominic Stanca, op.cit. p. 299
17
Ibidem. p.294
13
877
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
Ibidem. p. 300
Ibidem. p. 306
20
Ibidem. p. 343
21
Ibidem. p.307
19
878
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
cavaler a crui orgoli este lezat. Totui, spiritul jucu al autorului taie din elanul micilor
cavaleri din provincie, el construiete nite eroi fr fapte eroice. Figurile masculine ale
Ortiei sunt nite pseudoeroi privai de contexte n care s i manifeste calitile, astfel
eticheta devine singurul bastion care trebuie aprat. Ortia este un spaiu al armoniei, astfel
c eroismul, faptele de bravur sunt nlocuite cu mici gesturi de multe ori artificiale, i mai
degrab comice: Vlad va fi salvatorul care se lupt cu o pseudofantom, infantilul Culai, cel
pus de avocatul Marcovinovici s o sperie pe Anicua ca dup aceea el s o poat salva i
astfel s o cucereasc, locotenentul Csiki fiind umilit i va mpuca fr nicio remucare calul
Bandi care ,,nu era un cal oarecare!...un pursnge alb, cumprat din herghelia lui Kendeffy...
descendent direct din armsarul mpratului Iosif al II-lea22 , iar ofensatul Marcovinovici l
provoac la duel pe Vlad, dar tot el gsete diferite pretexte pentru a amna momentul
confruntrii.
Locuitorii Ortiei sunt oameni harnici i responsabili, iar msura bunstrii este s ai
,, o cas cu dou rnduri, o trsur Sandlaufer, o iap alb i una blat, un cine SaintBernard i doi copii: un biat i o fat. Nimic mai mult nu-i trebuia unui cetean nstrit pe
vremea aceea...23, cu alte cuvinte, o lume aproape idil, un paradis casnic modern.
Sintetiznd, putem afirma c cetatea ideal este una multietnic, nu exist rivaliti
majore, spectaculosul d un pas napoi n favoarea cotidianului, iar obiceiurile din Imperiu
sunt preluate cu strictee i n provincie, dar fr a altera spiritul autohton.
Dup cum am mai afirmat anterior, burgul transilvnean este nvluit mai degrab n
armonie i toleran etnic, dar o analiz mai atent relev anumite aspecte ce in de o istorie
recent a romnilor ardeleni. Nicieri n text, nu exist referiri cu privire la existena vreunui
conflict ntre romni i sai, de obicei cei din urm sunt comerciani, iar romnii, indiferent de
categoria social din care fac parte, par a-i respecta. Lucrurile se schimb n ceea ce privete
relaia cetenilor romni cu cei maghiari, astfel autorul surprinde o realitate socio-politic din
Transilvania de la nceputul secolului XX. n primul rnd, este ilustrat procesul de
maghiarizare: proprietarul Barcsai este un fost Brcianu, Adam Kis ,, maestru de dans al
oraului care ,,dei purta nume maghiar, era romn greco catolic, unul dintre puinii greco
catolici aciuii la Ortie24 iar ,,Niculaie Cndea se numea n acte Kendeffy Miklos, dar s-a
numit cndva cu adevrat Cndea. Urmaii lui s-ar numi i astzi la fel, dac un strmo de-al
lor nu se vindea Angevinilor pentru o diplom i cteva privilegii, acum ase sute de ani.
Pentru romni ns, el a rmas tot Niculaie Cndea i chiar n inima lui numele era scris
romnete, cu toate c-n snge mai pstra cteva picturi din albstreala pe care Sigismund
ntiul o turnase cndva n vinele strbunicului su...25
Un alt aspect prin care l putem suspecta pe autor de prtinire naional, i cu asta de o
uoar ndeprtare de gndirea cerchitilor, este ilustrat din faptul c inima Anicuei este
ctigat de un romn, n defavoarea unui maghiar, umilit profund, i a unui austriacomuntenegrean. De asemenea, Nastasia dup ce cltorise n Iad i n Rai, vine la notar, la
ndemnul soului mort aflat n Iad deoarece a pctuit cu o unguroaic n Vinerea Mare, i i
spune c trebuie s vnd moara unui romn.
n aceeai ordine de idei, autorul mbrac haina eruditului, ne amintete pe alocuri c
cetatea transilvnean este spaiu al latinitii, deci a formrii i continuitii poporului romn,
iar celelalte etnii au gsit aici un spaiu propice dezvoltrii. Astfel aflm c Marcovinovici
este ,,advocat, derivat din latinescul ad voco26, c ,, brudina este un cuvnt de origine
22
Ibidem. p.295
Ibidem. p.298
Ibidem. p. 309
25
Ibidem. p. 315
26
Ibidem. p.285
23
24
879
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LDMD 2
dac...E bine i chiar sntos s ne aducem din cnd n cnd aminte c suntem daci27 iar ,,
Aperitivul a ajuns acolo n Regat o adevrat plag social. n Ardeal ns, se numete
pur i simplu gustare pstrndu-se inalterat termenul gustare din limba latin i nu se
servete dect n mod civilizat, n familii.28
Dup lecia lingvistic, autorul se simte dator s ne reamintesc anumite aspecte din
istoria Transilvaniei, astfel aflm c:,, Saii au venit aici n 1224, colonizai de Andrei al IIlea. Ei i-au cldit biseric, coal i case cu prvlie la strad...29, c la Coroana a poposit
generalul Averescu i Octavian Goga n drumul lor spre ebea, i c Aurel Vlaicu avea s
zboare ,,cu o main numit helicopter.
Concluzionnd, putem afirma c prin texte amintite n debutul articolului, Dominic
Stanca se apropie de cosmopolitismul citadin ardelean promovat de cerchiti, iar autorul nu
este doar ,, cronicar al ortiei ardelene30, ci i cel care reuete s creeze spaiul matricial, n
care problema aparteneni la o Europ cosmopolit este soluionat.
Bibliografie
Crohmlniceanu, Ovid. , Cercul literar de la Sibiu i influena catalitic a culturii
germane, Ed.Universalia, Bucureti, 2000
Stanca, Dominic, Timp scufundat, Ed. Eminescu, Bucureti, 1981
Felea Victor, Tribuna, nr. 48, an XXI, 1 decembrie 1977
Vartic Ion, Prefa la Dominic Stanca, Timp scufundat, Ed. Eminescu, Bucureti, 1981
27
Ibidem. p. 290
Ibidem. p. 319
29
Ibidem. p. 294
30
Ion Vartic, op.cit, p XV
28
880
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
Abstract: Retired by the force of things to huean platitude, the young Costache Olreanu,
seems to yearn from spiritual effervescence, in special the two, Mircea Horia Simionescu i
Radu Petrescu, remained good friends in the letters and others, though the life divided them.
Their correspondence proves that.
Keywords: friendship, literature, letter, city, new.
Retras prin fora lucrurilor n platitudinea huean, unde cu toii sunt nite (...)
adormii (prere exagerat, evident), tnrul Costache Olreanu pare s tnjeasc dup
efervescena spiritual trgovitean, n special a celor doi, M. H. Simionescu i Radu
Petrescu, rmai buni prieteni ntr-ale literelor i nu numai, chiar dac viaa i-a desprit. Iar
corespondena lor o dovedete:
n scrisorile viitoare i vom trimite mai mult material pentru revista ta i celelalte.
De-o bucat de vreme in discursuri ntregi asupra poeziei nou ( ) P.S. Trimite revista lui
Lzrescu iar el mie. (Dans un tour du monde !)1
n scrisoarea, datat 20.IV. 1946, ora 9 dim., Olreanu este preocupat de forma
poeziei sale care pare s-l nemulumeasc i pe amicul su trgovitean.
Frmntrile scriitorului n a obine simplitatea versului sunt evidente:
Vei spune: versul trebuie sintetizat, trebuie s aib precizie !
Da ! ( ) dar, peisagiul sufletesc pe care eu trebuie s-l redau este vast, foarte vast,
de milioane de kilometri. ( )
S nu crezi c nu revin asupra poeziilor mele. ( )
S nu crezi c sunt un copil pierdut al cauzei poeziei nou. Nu !!
Sunt dou chestii care m frmnt i anume:
1) valabilitatea pentru mine a poeziei pe care o fac acum i
2) nevalabilitatea poeziei mele de acum pentru ceilali.2
Dei luna mai i revars razele i albastru-i infinit peste spleen- ul poetului,
limpezindu-i gndurile, starea, tensiunile din familie, certurile, n special cu tatl, nu
contenesc.
Nu lipsesc nici disensiunile i pauzele de comunicare cu Radu Petrescu, fa de care
sunt lucruri care l apropie i lucruri care l distaneaz. Se resimte, ns, suferina lui
Costache, cauzat de tcerea prietenului su, nu odat acesta implorndu-l pe trgovitean s
revin la vechile sentimente, scriindu-i, ceea ce se va i ntmpla n viitorul apropiat.
1
2
881
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
3
4
5
6
Ibidem, p. 162
Ibidem, p. 173
Ibidem, p. 187
Ibidem, p. 183
882
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
7
8
883
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
Abstract: We propose a rediscovery of the slums in the contemporary novel from two different
perspectives: on the one hand, a sensitive writing, born of a sympathetic , participative
attitude of a prose writer with an impressive stylistic confidence (Tudorel Urian), on the other
hand, a text written with verve and overflowing humour, a false novel of rumours and
mysteries, the way the author subtitled it. Put face to face, Antoniu si Kawabata, Iolanda
Malamens fascinating text, and Dan Lungus Raiul Gainilor recompose neighbouring
realities in different, but equally interesting manners. If the first novel offers an individual
form of salvation through artistic expression, the second text is successful in exorcism
through laughter. Both of them highlight the potential of the same thematic zone: the
marginal, the peripheric.
Keywords: slum/ outskirts, dysfunctional family, tramp, city, mirror.
1
2
Doru Pop, Cum ne mbolnvesc povetile altora, n Apostrof, Cluj-Napoca, nr. 10 (209), anul XVIII, 2007.
Malamen, Iolanda, Antoniu i Kawabata, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 2007, p. 14.
Ibidem, p. 105.
884
SECTION: LITERATURE
LDMD 2
rde n fa destinului sau n oglind propriei imagini de care l desparte brutal o dubl
pierdere: a iubitei i a tatlui.
Istoria celuilalt Antoniu se las ateptat i se dezvluie primului Kawabata ntr-o
mrturisire atent amnat. Tnr dintr-o familie educat i cu posibiliti materiale peste
medie pare predestinat unui traseu elitist. Suicidul mamei transform relaia celor doi brbai
(tatlun medic celebru i fiul-adolescent ambiios) ntr-o form de autism auster4.
Triete la 23 de ani o dragoste devoratoare pentru o femeie cstorit i mai n vrst, Ema,
dublul imaginii materne prin trimitere la personajul lui Gustave Flaubert. Iubirea vine dup o
perioad n care desconsiderase i evitase relaiile profunde i de lung durat pe care le
percepea ca piedici n calea realizrii profesionale. Inevitabil, aceast iubire are un
deznodmnt tragic: Antoniu pierde n acelai timp cele dou fiine care i centreaz
universul interior, tatl i femeia iubit devenit i amanta primului. Descoperirea este cu att
mai ocant cu ct trebuie s nfrunte o lovitur pe mai multe planuri, moartea celor doi i
contientizarea trdrii.
Alegerea lui Antoniu este o form de a supravieui unui oc emoional: refuznd
trecutul i afundndu-se n lumea mizer i nesigur a ceretorilor depete nebunia unei
realiti pe care nu o poate accepta. n dialogul cu Plcinica, ceretorul fixeaz aceast
diferen dintre el i Kawabata: Era un suflet cruia, la un moment dat, nu i s-a mai oferit
dect ansa minii ntinse i nu a mai avut de ales. M simeam ntr-un fel superior lui. Eu
alesesem. El nu. Aveam un ascendant i o detaare.5 Vagabondajul ca form de
supravieuire i ca efect al relaiilor intergeneraionale apare i n cazul personajului Mite
Cafanu din Amantul Colivresei, romanul lui Radu Aldulescu.
Iertarea nu vine, sentimentele refulate zeci de ani, ngropate ntr-o existen mizer n
care supravieuirea este condiionat de cerit, rbufnesc vii, incontrolabile ntr-un chinuitor
dialog cu cei vinovai: De ce te-ai sinucis mam, cnd aveam atta nevoie de tine? De ce
a trebuit s mori tat, numai fiindc ai violat cu slbticie ncrederea mea n tine i m-ai
nelat ca ultimul derbedeu?6
Textul ncepe, fr a le termina, numeroase poveti, avnd ca liant fragmente, piese
dintr-un puzzle ce reface n anumite puncte destinul personajului principal. Sertarele pe
care le deschide romanul ar putea fi fragmente din tot attea cri ale cloardului. Nevoia de
poveste tradus n dublu sens, de a spune i de a asculta, este o modalitate onorabil de
salvare din realitatea oraului diform cu excrescene monstruoase. Totui, ceretorul se
simte profund legat de viaa acestei capitale prfuite, murdare: Antoniu i iubete oraul. S-a
nscut aici, a copilrit aici, s-a maturizat i va muri aici. Este legat ombilical de el, ca un ft
de pntecele matern. N-a conceput niciodat c ar putea tri altundeva. Ideea asta l
scandalizeaz de-a dreptul.7
Aderarea Romniei la Uniunea European, momentul cheie n care este plasat
aciunea romanului, trezete dup mult timp atenia ceretorului Antoniu asupra realitii
istorice de la care se deconectase n mod contient. Iniial, i face sperane, iar apoi nelege
c pentru cei n situaia lui acest eveniment istoric nseamn pericolul evacurii i nu ansa
redempiunii: Uniunea European e o amgire i, nu tiu cum, dar dintr-odat, eu, care
Ibidem, p. 18.
Ibidem, p. 90.
Ibidem, p. 263.
Ibidem, p.169.
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iubeam amgirile ca pe nite fiine n carne i oase, nu le mai suport, nu mai vreau s tiu de
ele.8
Ghetoul, spaiu blestemat , dar singurul acas la care se ntoarce personajul este
descris ca un apendice al oraului, care nu primete din partea autoritilor dect nume de
strzi, n mod ironic parfumate, pentru a acoperi mirosurile pestileniale, mizeria, srcia i
violena: ghetoul este o republic cu dezvoltare spectaculoas i cu legi bine definite. Cine-i
calc teritoriul i se consider locuitorul ei are toate ansele i toate drepturile democratice
s fie egal n disperare, srcie, boli, gunoaie, obolani i insecte cu cellalt. Baraca de pe
strada Ppdiilor nr. 8 este refugiul n care Antoniu i Kawabata i mpart puinul ctigat din
ceretorie, unde fostul student eminent la Filologie i scrie cartea, unde personajele se
salveaz prin povestire. Spaiul acesta, dei crescut ntr-o curte a gunoaielor este o floare de
mucigai, pentru c aici se regsesc valori precum prietenia, iertarea. ntr-o lume n care
butura, pungile cu aurolac i sexul sunt singurele forme de evadare, n locuina improvizat
a Profesorului aceste neltoare surogate ale plcerii sunt interzise. De aceea este posibil
prietenia cu a dou ipostaz a lui Kawabata, Plcinica, care reprezint chipul copilriei,
luminos i nepervertit, dublul ndeprtatei lui copilrii.9 Acest lujer vagabond i naiv
care sufer de Boala ngerilor definit ca o incapacitate de a percepe rul , urtul, ba chiar
mai mult de a le transfigure n ceva luminos, senin, are ansa resureciei sub o nou identitate:
reporteria cu nume pretenios, Genoveva. Dac n plan social este o o evoluie, n plan
sufletesc este o involuie, efectul unui pact diavolul, care i anuleaz unicitatea. Antoniu o
recunoate, dar Plcinica se preface iniial c nu tie cine este ceretorul pe care l
intervieveaz. Pierderea lui Kawabata, prin moartea btrnului cloard i prin transformarea
fetei, este definitiv i n absena destinatarului povestitorul i pierde sensul.
Exist totui ansa salvrii prin scrierea crii, proces cathartic, chiar dac autorului nu
i este recunoscut valoarea. ncercnd s-i publice scrierile, Antoniu este acuzat de tnr
redactoare c a furat manuscrisul. Treptat vocea lui ajunge s se confunde cu cea a autoarei:
n cele din urm, ficionalizarea este cauzatoare de moarte, pentru c Antoniu, dup ce iese
din oralitate i reuete s i scrie Cartea, trebuie s dispar. 10
Raiul ginilor, cealalt oglind romanesc contemporan a mahalalei la care ne vom
opri n lucrarea de fa, se leag de romanul Iolandei Malamen i prin fascinaia pentru
ritualul povestirii. Subintitulat fals roman de zvonuri i mistere textul lui Dan Lungu
urmrete apetena pentru poveste a unei mahalale dintr-un ora de provicie. De data aceasta,
nu mai e lumea ficional care izvorte din imaginaia bogat i rafinat prin lectur a
cloardului care a citit peste 2000 de cri, dar zvonurile i misterele care anim viaa
oamenilor de la periferie sunt expresia unei nevoi acute de a suplini srcia unei existena
banale. Pe strada Salcmilor, asfaltat doar pe jumtate (i acest aspect este dezvoltat ntr-o
micropovestire despre nunta Bucuretencii) faptul minor devine prin amplificare i
distorsionare eveniment demn de atenia micii comuniti.
Primul text de dimensiuni mai mari al autorului i permite s construiasc o lume
coerent, s-i dea o identitate, s alctuiasc, din frnturi de poveti i din gesturi mrunte o
lume real i o lume fictiv n acelai timp.11
Oameni cu origine modest, personajele lui Dan Lungu, devoreaz poveti noi i
vechi (mai ales din perioada comunist) cu plcerea pe care i-o ofer alunecarea din realitatea
8
Ibidem, p.165.
Ibidem, p. 104.
10
11
Constantin, Ctlin, O strad pe jumtate asfaltat, n Romnia literar, Bucureti, nr. 22, 2004.
886
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monoton. Viaa strzii urmrit din faa ferestrei devine un spectacol gratuit, la fel de
interesant ca filmele sau emisiunile difuzate la televizor (dup revoluie). Aurora Sptaru este
cea care transform privitul la fereastr ntr-o adevrat art de a surprinde lumea n care
triete implicndu-se doar pe jumtate. Fereastra ofer privitorului, pe lng privilegiul
urmririi n direct (un fel de reality-show) o distan protectoare, reconfortant: eti martor,
nu i participant.
Eantionul de realitate cu care ne nvecinm cotidian12 ofer o umanitate divers,
personajele conturndu-se printr-o trstur ngroat . Aproape toi locuitorii de pe aceast
strad sunt foti oameni ai muncii, lucrtori n uzinele i fabricile patriei. Excepiile sunt rare
i acceptate ca nite ciudenii: Colonelul care are i cea mai mare cas de pe strad, Hleanda
nebuna care anunase cderea comunismului i familia Socoliuc marginalizat din cauza
femeii ce zcea bolnav de mai mult vreme n camera cea bun 13. Vila Colonelului
rmne un spaiu nchis ochilor flmnzi i curioi ai vecinilor, n care nu ptrunsese dect
Milica, pentru a da un telefon la ambulan. Ulterior, femeia povestise i repovestise n
nenumrate rnduri aceast ntmplare, ncercnd de fiecare dat s gseasc un nou amnunt
spectaculos pentru oamenii dornici s vad , mcar prin ochii altora ceea ce li se refuza.
Tractorul ifonat, bodega lui Ticu Zidaru, reprezint locul de ntlnire al brbailor,
unde se spun, uneori fr perdea povetile care le condimenteaz existena. Ca n Hanul
Ancuei ingerarea licorii bahice face parte din ritualul povestirii, iar povestitorul este premiat
pentru darul su. Se apeleaz nc din primele rnduri ale romanului i la tehnica anunului
publicitar, menit s capteze atenia cititorului: Ct era de lung strada Salcmilor, ntr-o
jumtate de zi, ntmplarea fcu ocolul tuturor curilor cu dou excepii14. Dac n volumul
sadovenian a doua povestire a comisului Ioni rmne nespus, ntmplarea la care se refer
naratorul n incipitul romanului este dezvoltat n capitolul VII. n finalul romanul, invazia
rmelor, elementul ieit din comun care mcinase imaginaia i curiozitatea unei periferii
nsetate de mister, primete o explicaie tiinific, banal. Visul premonitoriu al lui Relu
Covalciuc, descrie n manier suprarealist un rai al ginilor i declaneaz meditaia
personajului asupra propriului destin ntr-o not ridicol, comic: N-o s v vin a crede sau
o s zicei c-s oleac icnit, da parc-mi prea ru c nu-s i eu gin. Simeam c mi-ar fi
plcut n ipoteza asta de gin.15
Fie c este vorba despre raiul domestic din romanul lui Dan Lugu, fie c este
refugiul unui autoexilat, periferia i dovedete nc potenialul literar rmnnd n zona de
interes a scriitorului, dar i a cititorului de astzi.
Bibliografie
1. Constantin, Ctlin, O strad pe jumtate asfaltat, n Romnia literar,
Bucureti, nr. 22, 2004.
2. Cristea-Enache, Daniel, Romanul peltea, n Romnia literar, Bucureti, nr.
32, 2005.
3. Gherghior, Gabriela, Poeziaghetoului, n Romnia literar, Bucureti, nr.
37, 2007.
4. Lungu, Dan, Raiul ginilor, Bucureti, Ed. Polirom, , 2012.
12
Ibidem.
13
14
Ibidem, p.5.
Ibidem, p.141.
15
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888
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Abstract: The work proposes to present the way in which Caragiales characters relate to the
events from the Romanian society from the 19th century. We shall analyse the common places
established from sapiential structures, from an intertextuality perspective (sayings, redes,
proverbs), common scripts, stylistic and linguistic structures. We shall show that such
elements, besides the function of contextualisation, fulfil a function in characterising the
characters, too.
Keywords: comic, character, intertextuality, architextuality, polyphony.
Kristeva, J., Problemele structurrii textului n Pentru o teorie a textului, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1980, p. 266-272
Moeschler, J., Reboul, A., Dicionar enciclopedic de pragmatic, Editura Echinox, Cluj, 1999, p. 303-326
3
Vianu, T., Studii de stilistic, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1968, p. 244
Manca, M., Limbajul artistic romnesc modern. Schi de evoluie, Editura Universitii din Bucureti, Bucureti, 2005, p. 191-192
4
Eco, U., Lector in fabula, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1991, p. 118-119
5
Anscombre, J.Cl, Proverbe et formes proverbiales: valeur videntielle et argumentative, Langue franaise, no.102, p 95: Dentre, on se
heurte lobstacle (souvent signal)de la dfinition du proverbe. De ce point de vue, les dfinitions des dictionnaires sont de peu daide.[]
On se trouve confront une srie de termes proverbe, maxime, adage, aphorisme, dicton, , prcepte, sentence dont on se sent
confusment quils ne sont pas synonymes, sans pouvoir cependant tayer cette intuition.
Ruxndoiu, P, Proverb i context, Editura Universitii din Bucureti, Bucureti, 2003, p. 6-7
1
2
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sentine, pentru a-i etala aa-zisa cultur, n timp ce personajele cu un statut social modest
apeleaz la zictori i proverbe din fondul popular.6
Maximele au rolul de a pune n eviden contrastul dintre aparenta inteligen i
cultur a personajelor i realitatea care dezamgete. Autorul exploateaz ironia i efectul
polifonic produs de aceasta, pentru a releva tarele sociale. n complicitate cu cititorul, autorul
se amuz de greelile de limb ntlnite n exprimarea celor din clasele sociale nalte.
Categoria social cel mai bine reprezentat sub acest aspect este a politicianului demagog,
care i consolideaz argumentele prin apelul la o persoan important sau personalitate
marcant. De obicei, citatul este fie incorect din punct de vedere lingvistic, fie referina este
greit: Ric: box populi, box dei (123) n loc de vox populi, vox dei; Caavencu: oneste
bibere (215) n loc de honeste vivere; Scopul scuz mijloacele, a zis nemuritorul Gambetta
(191) cnd de fapt citatul i aparine lui Machiavelli; Zoe: bon entendeur salut (185).
O alt categorie de maxime e constituit de cele create de personaje, artnd modul de
gndire i valorile acestora: Trahanache: Adevrat, bine zice fiu-meu de la facultate: unde nu
e moral, acolo e corupie, i o soietate fr prinipuri, va s zic c nu le are.(181) (ntr-o
soietate fr moral i fr prinip, nu trebuie s-o iei cu iueal, trebuie s ai puintic
rbdare(164); Caavencu: Istoria ne nva anume c un popor care nu merge nainte st
pe loc() c legea progresului e aa, c cu ct mergi mai iute, cu atta ajungi mai departe.
(214) ntr-un stat constituional un poliai nu e nici mai mult nici mai puin dect un
instrument! ((190); Leonida: mai ales cnd e republic, dreptul e sfnt: republica e
garaniunea tuturor drepturilor. (138)
Proverbele i zicerile se ntlnesc n special n exprimarea personajelor cu un statut
social inferior. Acestea au o puternic valoare argumentativ, pentru c se bazeaz pe
nelepciunea popular. Pornind de la autoritatea proverbelor, personajele caragialiene i
argumenteaz punctul de vedere: Jupn Dumitrache: Las, Zio, zic, i gseti tu norocul, na intrat zilele-n sac! Acu e vremea ta! Lac s fie, c broate destule! (80) Leonida: i de
colea pn colea, tura- vura, c-o fi tuns, c-o fi ras, l-a pus pe Galibardi de i-a botezat un
copil.(134) Da o s-mi zici c cu ncetul se face oetul, ori c mai rabd, c n-a intrat zilelen sac. (137) Pristanda: Tot vorba bietei neveste, zice: Ghi, Ghi, pup-l n bot i pap-i
tot, c stulul nu crede la l flmnd (158)
Referinele culturale i sociale
Acestea au rolul de a ancora personajele n contextul epocii. Se observ c cele mai
multe referiri se fac la evenimente politice i istorice precum republica de la Ploieti, reforma
agrar, revizuirea constituiei, dar i la mentalitatea vremii. Climatul general este conturat prin
referire la personaliti precum Giuseppe Garibaldi, papa, Gambetta, Metternich, la romane
populare precum Dramele Parisului sau romane precum Portretul de George Sion.
Farfuridi face referire n discursul politic la plebiscitul iniiat de Al. I. Cuza i M.
Koglniceanu n 1864, prin care s-a aprobat reforma agrar i la problema revizuirii
constituiei i a legii electorale: Ce ziceam dar? la 1864, vine, m-nelegi, ocaziunea s se
pronune poporul printr-un plebiscit(208) Cnd zicem dar 64, zicem plebiscit, cnd zicem
plebiscit , zicem 64 (209) Iat dar opiniunea mea. Din dou una, dai-mi voie: ori s se
revizuiasc, primesc! Dar s nu se schimbe nimic; ori s nu se revizuiasc, primesc! Dar
atunci s se schimbe pe ici pe acolo, i anume n punctele eseniale Din aceast dilem
nu putei iei Am zis! (211) Modul n care personajul percepe evenimentele pune n eviden
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Moeschler, J, Dire et contredire, Pragmatique de la ngation et acte de rfutation dans la conversation, Thse de doctorat, Peter Lang,
Berne - Francfort / M, 1982, p.137
7
Cazimir, ., Caragiale. Universul comic, Editura pentru Literatur, Bucureti, 1967, p. 126-130
Eco, U., op. cit., p. 112-123
10
Sorescu, R., Metamorfoze ale liricii erotice n Structuri tematice i retorici-stilistice n romantismul romnesc (1830-1870), Editura
Academiei, Bucureti, 1976, p. 93-145
8
9
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- sinuciderea din dragoste: Chiriac: Nu mai voi s tiu de nimic, nu mai tiu cine sunt!
Am vrut s m omor adineauri n curte, dar i-am vzut trecnd umbra peste perdeaua de la
fereastr, -am vrut s te mai vz o dat. ncai s mor lng tine, cum am trit. (99)
- nebunia, pervertirea simurilor i suferina din dragoste: Chiriac: Da! Sunt nebun,
firete c sunt nebun; m-ai nnebunit dumneata; dumneata s-mi tragi pcatul (99) Ric: ()
Sunt nebun de amor: da, fruntea mea mi arde, tmplele-mi se bat, sufr peste poate, parc
sunt turbat.(104) Mia: Nae! Nae, pe care l-am iubit, pe care l-am adorat pentru eternitate,
pn la nebunie(262) Veta: Ce folos ct fericire am avut un an, dac ntr-o zi mi-am plnso toat! (98)
- gelozia extrem: Pampon: () i sunt turbat de gelozie! Toat noaptea n-am
dormit Mia: Ah! Mi-mi spui ce-i gelozia? Numai o noapte n-ai dormit? Nu tii nimic! Cte
nopi! (269)Veta: () Brbatu-meu sufere grozav de gelozie i e n stare a fi capabil s te
omoare. (107)
- dorina de rzbunarea pe fiina care a provocat suferina: Mia: () O s m
rzbun O rzbunare teribil! (272)
- motivul persecutrii de ctre destinul implacabil: Ric: Destinul m persecut
implacabil(117)
Se face apel inclusiv la imagistica floral, asociat cu delicateea femeii, aa cum
apare n versurile lui Ric: Eti un crin plin de candoare, eti o fragil zambil. /Eti o roz
parfumat, eti o tnr lalea! (89)
Scenariul politic se regsete n piesele O scrisoare pierdut, O noapte furtunoas i
Conul Leonida fa cu reaciunea. Locurile comune sunt: originea latin, patriotismul,
democraia, suveranitatea poporului, libertatea. Acestea se regsesc n discursurile
politicienilor, n articolele din gazete sau n discuii:
- afirmarea mndr a originii latine i apelul la Europa: Farfuridi: pentru ca s dm
exemplul chiar surorilor noastre de ginte latin (211) Leonida: Ei, giant latin, domule,
n-ai ce-i mai zice. (135)
- patriotismul: Caavencu: Ca orice romn, ca orice fiu al rii sale n aceste
momente solemnem gndesc la rioara mea la Romnia la fericirea ei!... (220)
Dandanache: n sntatea alegtorilor cari au probat patriotism i mi-au acordat asta
cum s zic de!... zi-i pe nume de!... a! sufradzele lor; (250) Ric: Da, familia e patria cea
mic, precum patria e familia cea mare; familia este baza societii. (126)
- democraia: Ric: Democraiunea romn, sau mai bine zis inta Democraiunii
romne este de a persuada pe ceteni, c nimeni nu trebuie a mnca de la datoriile ce ni le
impun solemnaminte pactul nostru fundamentale, sfnta Constituiune(84)
- suveranitatea poporului: Ric: Noi n-avem alt credin, alt speran, dect
poporul. Noi n-avem dect suveranitatea poporului; de aceea, n lupta noastr politic, am
spus-o i o mai spunem i o repetm necontenit tuturor cetenilor: Ori toi s murii, ori
toi s scpm!(123-124)
- libertatea: Leonida: Scoal, cocoan, i te bucur, c eti i dumneata mum din
popor; scoal, c-a venit libertatea la putere!(134) Ric: Cetene, suntem sub regimul
libertii, egalitii i fraternitii: unul nu poate fi mai sus dect altul, nu permite
Constituia. (125)
Concluzii
Articolul a urmrit prezentarea modului n care comediile caragialiene se raporteaz
contextul epocii. S-a observat prezena locurilor comune, forme de intertextualitate, prezente
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believes that vice is an individual mischance, not an inevitable fate that threatens the human
nature. The sexual wanderings of Istratis characters were not his obsession, they were simply
part of his human inventory. Besides, in spite of the appearances, the Eros has a secondary
part in Istratis work, his ideals are: freedom, friendship, justice, that all bear the visible marks
of manliness.
In Istratis literary writings there is terrible sufferance and also love crimes. Through
the reference to "the four categories of love, with eight or ten shades, established by Stendhal
in De l'Amour: l'amour passion, l'amour-got, l'amour-physique and lamour de vanit, we
can recognize at Istrati his predilection for the former, in perfect agreement, as a matter of
fact, with his passionate nature, sometimes with the minor registry of physical love and,
maybe, only once, a special shade of love from vanity1 as it shows the exegetist GabrielaMaria Pintea in her monography dedicated to the writer.
The patriarchal and cosmopolitan world from Braila at the end of the 19th century
seems a setting taken from The Arabian Nights. Born from one of the three wives of a
Turkish father, the owner of an inn from Braila, Chira was particularly beautiful, made for the
life in the Serai, in other words for a voluptuous and refined cloister. Married by her father to
a blunt craftsman, the odalisk is not able to fulfill her duties as a wife so she improvises a
harem. After she has escaped from the excessive authority of her father, Chira realizes that
her husbands authority is no longer total, especially when she inherits the fortune. The only
right her husband has over her is to beat the living tar out of her, and her revenge is to keep
partying even more passionately. The more severely he beats her up the more euphoric the
parties are. Finally when her beauty fades away she is disqualified from Serai, and then,
unable to find a reason to live, she commits suicide. Unfaithful wife and a distorted mother,
Chiras behavior is immoral according to the social rules, amoral according to the divine rules
and perfectly normal according to her fatalistic belief that ignores the notion of the sin:
God has created me for lust, the way as He created the mole to live hidden from the
sunlight.()You, Chira, if, I suppose, you are not meant to live in that pureness that comes
from God and bring happiness, dont be a honest hypocrite, dont act as a virtuous. Dont fool
around with God, instead be what he made you to be: live your life the way you feel it, be
even a whore, but a kind-hearted whore! It is better this way2.
Even though she abandons her children, the readers and the critics still sympathize
with the courtesan and not with her honest husband. Attacking the authorities, Chira is
looking for an antinomical freedom. Having a passionate nature, like Cosma has, she wants to
live only for her pleasures. Chiras hedonism is her nature itself. Later, her daughter
Chiralina, will take after her mother, a predestined victim, the toy of a world of savage
morals. Chira Chiralina is a volutary odalisk, but at the same time she is also vulnerable. Her
dream of being free ends in a harem. When she becomes leader of the outlaws (hadouk),
lover and also mother of an outlaw (hadouk), Floarea-Codrilor practically takes over the
legacy from Chiras brother. The femme hadouk sees the state of an outlaw as a state of
freedom, but also as a warrant.
The figure of the mother is a recurring motif in Istratis work and it has, up to a
point, as a real model, Joia herself, the very mother of the author. In Codin, the 12 years old
Adrian Zograffi is the son of a laundress single-mother, similar to Istratis childhood
situation. But this laundress is acting as some exiled princess: she is distant, proud, decent,
interiorized and resigned in front of her fate. She constitutes the first model for Adrian, who
Gabriela-Maria Pintea, Panait Istrati, Bucharest, Publishing House Cartea Romneasc, 1975, pg.153.
Panait Istrati, Selected Works, 1st vol. The stories of Adrian Zograffi. Chira Chiralina, selected works, foreword and notes by Al. Oprea,
translated by Eugen Barbu, Bucureti, Publishing House:Editura pentru Literatur, 1966, pg.137.
1
2
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will be different from the other children from Comorofca, the most notorious slum from
Braila.
At the beginning of the novel the Placement Office Adrian Zograffi, the alter-ego
character of Istrati, leaves his mother and begins his odyssey around the world, but not
without heartache. If, in his childhood Adrian Zograffis mother is an exception sacrificing
herself for her son and distancing herself from the world, when he becomes an adult, she
becomes the exponent of the society who imposes severity. She is not pressuring her son she
is just expressing her reproaches and her inducements. Her inducements aim everything that
Adrian loves rambling and his friendship with tramps. The price of freedom is the double
suffering of his mother: first because he is leaving her, then because of his revolting attitude.
Attacking the forgiving person of his mother, Adrian becomes alike the prodigal son
who left the citadel. Still, his mother is the anteriority that he needs for reference.
What is interesting about Istratis wrinting is the incapacity of the female characters to
nurture maternal feelings, as Gabriela-Maria Pintea remarks: Besides Joita, a formless figure,
but with an obssessive occurence, dominating the authors entire work, the other heroines,
except the insignifient Lucia from Le bureau de placement, they are distorted mothers3.
Codins mother is a monster, Nerantulas mother is confused by the appearence of her
child as if it were a miscalculation, and Chira and Floricica are missing maternal vocation.
In Neranula, both the Eros and the friendship are under the sign of fatality. The
beautiful servent, that receives the nickmame Neranula ( in Greek meaning bitter orange, but
at the same time the name of a song and of a dance of Greek origin) kisses and loves both
boys ( Marcu and Epaminoda), who will like each other, but in the presence of the girl their
jealousy will be triggered. In the absence of Neranula, who embodies their ideal for both of
them, the two rivals become in a fatal way friends. For five years their common life it is
nothing but the search and the evocation of their lover from childhood. When they find her in
a brothel in Constantinopol, the rivalty between them revives. Neranula embodies the
ingenue woman. From the point of view of the two lovers, although she is admiting the sort of
activities that she is performing in the brothel, Neranula remains the same childish girl she
once used to be, pretty, pure, with innocent eyes. She will have a dramatic ending the moment
when Epaminonda, jealous, pulls her underwater and they both die together.
Istratis feminine ideal is the passionate woman, who celebrates the carnal love: I like
the woman when she is seething of passion. I give myself in with phrensy, without thinking4.
His predilection for thin waisted women, elegant, refined coquetry suggest the
authors taste for women with a stylized appearence. Chira and Neranula on the one hand,
Floricica and aa Minca on the other hand, define two distinct images of eternal feminine
according to Istratis view. The first two are fascinating because of their temperament. They
are erotic characters similar to those from the Thringer House, embodying the female
incontinence incapable of true feelings, because these imply a representation, and the
representation implies reflection. Their emotional life reduces to basic instincts. The power of
these characters is in their ability to keep their feminity pure, rejecting any alloy that might
modify the substance.
Floricica and aa Minca are the rational characters, capable of feelings and also to
control them, even though they can represent their hapiness, they will not manage to be
happy. They want to influence their destiny but they only manage to have a sinuous history,
with plenty attempts to adapt to the actual situation, and finally all their attempts fail.
3
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Floricica realizes that the biggest enemy of the happiness is the absolute: I am the one who
wished absolute happiness, without any boundaries, who wanted to dream looking at the sun
with opened eyes and Ive got my eyes burnt! You Cosmo were my sun for a moment from a
memorable night, and you are the one who thought me to clearly see in the real life. Since
then I am following my own path, carrying my cross, I have learnt many things and I am
returning to you more guileless than ever: I do not want bounderless happiness, the whole of
it, just for me5.
As much different they are the characters that populate the Istratian femenin gallery,
their role compared to that of the men is most of the time evil, embodying the fatal woman or
the dionysian woman(...) is projected as a threat to the masculine indentity(systemic,
apollonian, rational). The wives of Mo Anghel or Kir Nicola, the lovers of Codin or Cosma,
Nerranula, Floricica and Isaacs fiancee they all cause desisters. This is the reason why the
the sublime heroes are chaste.
On the other hand, the same way as Octavio Paz shows: the erotism is, first of all,
thirst for alterity6. Without The cOther, the Istratian heroes are incomplete. The lust for love
becomes a perpetual thirst, a poetic metaphor of self pursuit / discovery . This is in our
opinion the sense of the multiple sides of the Istratian Eros and of the femininity hypostases
drawn from the writers work.
Whether they are called Anastasia, Adela, Chira or Floarea, they all show free and
absurd hatred towards their children, they are atypical and as also Kim Song Sou shows it
contrary to the stereotypical image that maternal figure may have, the mothers from Istratis
work do not belong to the category of those who always sacrifices themselves for their
children" but they embody the "abandonment of motherhood ".
The symbolism of these names support their metaphoric or metonymic value. Thus, as
Cristian Ionescu shows, the name Adela "is of Germanic origin and had a clear meaning,
since it corresponds to the German word adal (germ. Adel 'nobility', Edel 'noble'). The
metonymic negative suggestion is obvious, as mother Adela determines in her relationship
with Neranula an unfair report of forces: fear, terror, anguish and anxiety determining an
obedient behaviour of the child to the brutality of her mother.
Codin's evil mother, Anastasia, has an old name, of Greek origin, "based on a
technical ecclesiastical term, anstasis, used also in pre-Christian era with the meaning of
'resurrection from the dead', but consecrated by the Church to denote 'Resurrection of Christ '.
The Greek noun is formed from the verb anasta-anistnai 'to stand up, to raise' and consists of
ana 'up' and * -sta- an Indo-European radical, represented in almost all languages of this
family (lat. stare i rom. a sta, gr. histnai, v.sl. stati, sanscr. stha-) ". It will bring death to her
only son, pouring hot oil down on his throat, but she will also free herself of the immense
hatred acquired and thus symbolically it will rise again.
Mother Chira leads a passionate life, being her own master, despite her husband's
violence. She lives as she wishes, right in front of her two young children (Chira and
Dragomir), inciting them to take after her: "I must say that, in my mother's house, I was living
in the hell of love. Everything was love: the two women, their lovers, the toilets, as well as
Panait Istrati, Selected Works, 2nd vol.Adrian Zograffis stories. Mo Anghel, selected works, foreword and notes by Al. Oprea, translated
by Eugen Barbu, Bucureti, Publishing House: Editura pentru Literatur, 1966, pg.287.
6
Octavio Paz, Duble flame. Love and erotism, translated from Spanish by Cornelia Rdulescu, Bucharest, Publishing House : Humanitas,
2003.
5
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the liqueurs, perfumes, songs and games. Even the funny and dramatic escape of the
courtesan seemed voluptuous and passionate; it had begun a life full of parties, pleasures and
wild love, that I was witness to and that my father could not prevent inspite all his brutality".
The Hypocoristic Chira entered the Romanian language in the XVth century, through
Slavic intermediary, but its etymology can be found in ancient Greek, where " krios means
'patron, master' and was often used as an epithet for various deities, especially for Zeus (as it
appears since Pindar); in Judeo-Hellenistic and then Christian period, Krios Theos becomes
identical with Thes God." The metaphorical meaning of the name of the two characters,
mother and daughter, is eloquent. Both Chiras (mother and daughter) become true masters of
physical pleasures.
This aspect of femininity, courtesan, excited the most the imagination of men.
Desired and blasphemed, adored and cursed she would always remain a challenge, no matter
what form it would take: the splendor of old times, involving beauty, grace and spirit,
triviality and vulgarity. In this sense,
Simone De Beauvoir shows that: "For the timorous puritan, the prostitute embodies
the evil, shame, disease, damnation, she inspires fear and disgust; does not belong to any man,
but gives herself to all and earns her living from this; through this she founds the redoubtable
independence of the goddesses - primitive mothers and embodies the Femininity that the
male society has sanctified , which remains full of evil powers". But the man needs the
woman's evil power, spell and curse in order to project on her screen those shadows of
mystery that surrounded the story of the passion and death of the soul thirsty of the nostalgic
androgynous reunification.
Floricica Floarea Codrului she also gives up her son, Irimia, when he is only two
years, abandoning him in a forest. Specific to the Romanian antroponymy, the feminine
Floarea is a local creation. Floarea is attested in Romanian language as early as the beginning
of the sixteenth century
continuing the latin form Flora (there is no historical or phonetic
impediment), which, moreover, is a 'Christian' name.
In Latin onomastics the names Florus, Flora are attested long before the Christian era
and are closely related to the well-known name of the goddess Flora from the Roman
mythology, goddess of flowers and vegetation. Similar meanings are assigned to this name
both by Domnia Tomescu, quoting Al. Philippide, tefan Paca and N. Drganu and Aurelia
Blan Mihailovici. By repeating the radical Flor- also in the diminutive Floricica it is
emphasized the metaphorical value of the characters name who becomes the mistress of a
nobleman after being the lover of an outlaw, then finally she will return back to her life in the
forest. The nickname Floarea Codrului emphasizes the beauty of the woman and her social
role, becoming, after the death of Cosma (at the end of the story Mo Anghel), captain of the
outlaws, aspect that is found plenary.
The only protective and loving mother who sacrifices her own happiness in favor of
his son, is Joia devoided of sensuality, eroticism and selfishness excerbates of the other
Istratian hypostasis of motherhood. As in other writers case (Ion Creang, Gorky) this is
modeled after the very real mother of the author. Autobiographical transcripts, including his
mother's real, support the documentary value and also the authenticity of the pages dedicated
to her: Mihai, The Placement Office, In The Mediterranean World, Sunset. The old form of
the hypocoristic Joia dates from the fifteenth century and came to us through Slavic
intermediary. The metonymic connotation suggests the etymological meaning of the name
Zoe, whose folkloric and diminutive is this name of "Indo-European origin, gr. zoe belongs
to the same family as it falls gr. bios ( Zenobia) ), lat. vita and rom. via".
898
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899
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900
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Abstract: In Eugen Ionescu's theater, comic and tragic are two sides of the same absurd.
Both in terms of semantics and axiology, between the two there is no antinomy but
interference, contiguity and overlap. However, these two elements will not melt into one
another; they coexist and repel each other. What seems to be a paradox is actually a
commonplace. Located beyond the landmarks, a priori, the comic becomes a source of tragic.
Simultaneously, the tragic finds its double in comedy in farce and parody. In Ionescus works
co-exist dual entities which interfere and there can be spotted a series of dual symbols from
the diurnal regime of images, marked by the postural dominance - symbols derived from the
model provided by Gilbert Durand in his work The Anthropological Structures of the
Imaginary (E.g. evanescence vs. weight, t contingent vs. metaphysical, comic vs. tragic.) In
what concerns rknyi Istvn, although less known as he didnt wrote in an international
language, his works had an echo throughout Europe and the United States also, his parts
being reviewed in periodicals such as The Washington Post or The New York Times and
played on the great stages of the world. The worldwide recognition had been attained with
the staging of the The Toth Family play which gained Le grand prix d humor noir in
Paris,1970."Drowning" comic into tragic and vice versa, coincidentia oppositorum,
dialectical antagonists, visionary vs. mimesis, ostranenie ("estrangement") and the "dance
macabre" of the absurd with the conscience that wont identify with the mechanism -are just
some of the common points of the two authors. Bringing rknys play into discussion is
designed to restore a mirror version of a gesture (adapted to the context) Eugen Ionescu
did when sketching in his work Notes and counter notes the Portrait of Caragiale. In the work
mentioned above, Eugen Ionescu stated that unfortunately Caragiale didnt write in a
language of international circulation therefore " he is probably the greatest of unknown
dramatic authors.
Keywords: absurd, tragicomic, paradox, estrangement, body language
n teatrul lui Eugen Ionescu, comicul i tragicul constituie dou fee ale aceluiai
absurd. Att din punct de vedere semantic ct i axiologic, ntre cele dou categorii nu exista
un raport antinomic ci unul de contiguitate ce tinde spre interferen, suprapunere dar nu
confundare, ntruct: mi-am intitulat comediile anti-piese, drame comice, iar dramele mele
pseudo-drame sau farse tragice, cci, mi se pare, comicul este tragic, iar tragedia omului e
vrednic de luat n rs. () Totui, aceste dou elemente nu se topesc unul n cellalt, ele
coexist, se resping n permanen unul pe cellalt; se pun n relief unul prin cellalt; se
critic, se neag mutual, putnd constitui astfel, datorit acestei opoziii , un echilibru
dinamic, o tensiune.1
Astfel, ceea ce pare un paradox este de fapt un loc comun: Eu n-am putut niciodat s
neleg diferena care se face ntre comic i tragic. Comicul, fiind intuiia absurdului, mi pare
1
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mai disperant dect tragicul. Comicul nu ofer nici o ieire Spun disperant, dar n
realitate, el este dincolo sau dincoace de disperare sau de speran2.
Sustrgndu-se ncercrilor de conceptualizare sau ierarhizare, situat dincolo de
repere, apriori, comicul devine surs a tragicului. Concomitent, tragicul i gsete dublul n
comedie, n fars: Tragedia nu vine din zona de unde ne-am atepta, () ci din extremitatea
opus fiindc i gsete noua surs n comic, n sfera cea mai de jos a comicului, cea mai
opus solemnitii tragice, farsa i parodia3
n piesele sale co-exist o dualitate a entitilor ce interfereaz, putnd fi reperate o
serie de simboluri schizomorfe din regimul diurn al imaginilor, marcate de dominanta
postural simboluri ce pot fi deduse din modelul oferit de Gilbert Durand n lucrarea sa
Structurile antropologice ale imaginarului (ex: evanescen vs. greutate; metafizic vs.
contingent; comic vs. tragic).
Dualitatea caracterizeaz opera lui Eugen Ionescu nc de la debut, volumul aprut n
1931 fiind structurat pe dou pri: Elegii pentru fiine mici, crora le opune contrapunctic
Elegii groteti constituindu-se o compoziie ironic, n sensul c fiecare element se reflect
n cellalt4. Aceeai structur o dobndete deopotriv publicistica sa n Note i contranote.
Dincolo de dualitate, intuim imaginea circular a tragicomicului ce i revendic
arhetipul n Ouroboros (dualitatea complementar). Dup cum observa Martin Esslin n Le
thtre de l absurde, nsi structura pieselor din noul teatru este circular, iterativ.
Imaginile i cuvintele reluate obsesiv n stilul sporovielii caragialiene relev vidul, prezena
golului, a absenei, ntruct limbajul golit de semnificaie trdeaz non-comunicarea: Cel
mai adeseori personajele mele spun lucruri foarte plate pentru c banalitatea este simptomul
non-comunicrii. n spatele clieelor, omul se ascunde.5 Avalana verbului genereaz la
Eugen Ionescu deconstrucia clieelor de gndire i limbaj, parodie, ironie, ludic i comic.
Alturi de limbaj, cellalt agent al tragi-comicului l reprezint corporalitatea.
Personajul fr nsuiri, posesor al unui nume irelevant: Jean sau Branger triete
mecanic, vorbete mecanic, gesturile i mimica sa denot reificare. Potrivit lui Henri Bergson
rigidizarea corpului viu devenit ca o main.6 constituie una dintre sursele generatoare de
comic.
Personajele reificate, friznd grotescul, relev marile obsesii/ angoase 7 (teme) ale
scriitorului. Cu toate acestea, grotescul nu deformeaz niciodat personajele pn la a nu mai
putea fi recunoscute n umanitatea lor.
Angoasa primordial a dramaturgului i a personajelor sale este moartea.
Am fost ntotdeauna obsedat de moarte. De la vrsta de patru ani, de cnd am tiut c
voi muri, nelinitea nu m-a mai prsit. E ca i cum a fi neles dintr-odat c nu era nimic de
fcut de scpat de ea i c nu mai era nimic de fcut n via. Pe de alt parte, am avut mereu
impresia unei imposibiliti de a comunica, a unei izolri, a unei ncercuiri; eu scriu ca s lupt
mpotriva acestei ncercuiri; scriu i pentru a-mi striga teama mea de moarte, umilirea mea
prin faptul de a muri. Nu e absurd s trieti ca s mori, aa este 8
Din viziunea deriziunii vieii i a iminenei morii deriv i celelalte obsesii:
izolarea, claustrarea, singurtatea, falsitatea, vacuitatea, nesigurana, banalul.
Ibidem
Jean-Marie Domenach, ntoarcerea tragicului, p.245
4
Alexandra Hamdan, Ionescu, nainte de Ionesco, p. 68
5
Eugne Ionesco: Note i contranote, 1992, p.233
6
Henri Bergson, Rsul, Eseu despre semnificatia comicului, p.38
7
Eugne Ionesco: Note i contranote, 1992, p.146
8
Ibidem, p. 233
3
902
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Ibidem, p. 157-158
Washington Post, January 23, 1976: The Tot Family is theatre-of-the absurd of the grotesque Hungarian style. Its American bow at the
Kreeger reveals a play of scampering, bitter wit ()
11
New York/ May 1, 1978: Catsplay is the best new play of the season: full of aching laughter and mocking heartbreak, both equally
exhilaratingCatsplay: charm, depth
12
Alexandru Balaci, Cuvnt nainte, n rkny Istvn, Nuvele-minut; Expoziia de trandafiri, 1982, p.5
13
Ibidem, p.6
10
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Cea mai cunoscut dram a sa, Familia Tt, depete realismul i grotescul, sondnd
limita dintre raional i iraional, fapt prefigurat prin Ouroboros-ul simbolic din motto-ul
piesei: Dac un arpe (ceea ce constituie o raritate) se autodevor, ce rmne n urma lui: un
gol de un arpe? i exist oare putere care s-l constrng pe om s-i devoreze pn la ultima
frm firea sa de om? Exist? Nu exist?, Exist?...14
Prezena autorului n text i prefigurarea voit a destinului unor personaje prin
intermediul a ceea ce Derrit Cohn numea n studiul su Transparent minds narrative modes
for presenting consciousness n fiction psycho narration, situaie n care autorul/naratorul
nareaz contiina personajelor sale: La Mariska schimbarea a avut loc ncetior, treptat, la
gika, dimpotriv, cu viteza aceea imposibil de urmrit cu ochiul liber cu care trsnetul i
alege victima ()15, quoted monologue, procedeu prin care naratorul citeaz din contiina
personajului : Tt, constatase: M tem c nu se va sfri cu bine, drag Mariska, el i
prefigura cu o cutremurtoare clarviziune propriul destin sau narrated monologue, stilul
indirect liber converg toate ctre o depire a modernismului.
Segmentarismul, discontinuitatea, intertextul, colajul de genuri i specii literare,
dramatizarea (o particularitate a dramelor lui rkny Istvn este aceea c s-au nscut din
nuclee epice, dramatizate ulterior), finalul deschis, figurile retorice, relativizarea, inseria i
amalgamul de referine istorice, politice i psihologice prefigureaz postmodernismul.
necarea tragicului n comic i a comicului n tragic, coincidentia oppositorum,
dialectica antagonitilor, vizionarism vs. mimesis, procedeul de insolitare i dansul macabru
al absurdului cu contiina ce nu se identific cu mecanismul sunt numai cteva dintre
punctele comune celor doi autori.
Alte zone de interferen sunt: obsesia morii i reflexia acesteia n gndire, limbaj i
trup, (reprezentarea schemei duale: via vs. moarte, linite vs. forfota teluric, neschimbare,
definitiv vs. dezvoltare, variaie) ludicul, imprevizibilul, grotescul, parodia i ironia,
deconstrucia prin denunarea stereotipilor, a conformismului i a clieelor.
Ambii scriitori au manifestat o atracie deosebit pentru senzorial i surprinderea
contorsionrilor sufleteti i corporale ale unor personaje comune dar concomitent abisale,
anxioase, panicate, indecise, care au revelaia absurdului.
n aceeai ordine de idei, cei doi scriitori au desfurat o ampl i prolific activitate
literar ce nu se rezum la drame, ci nglobeaz proz i versuri, eseuri critice, publicistic.
n ceea ce privete diferenele, cea mai pregnant este modul de construcie a
limbajului. Dac la Eugen Ionescu exist o avalan a verbului ca principiu revelator al
absurdului, la rkny Istvn se contureaz laconismul expresiei i dialogul cu cititorul. Cel
din urm devine parte integrant a diegezei, participnd activ la dialog, acceptnd provocarea
lansat de autor n desluirea conotaiilor textului.
Fr a fi un demers exhaustiv, lucrarea i propune s reliefeze mecanismul i rolul
comicului n opera lui Eugen Ionescu, de numele cruia se leag metonimic nsui teatrul
absurd i rknyi Istvn un autor cu mai puin notorietate, raportat la scriitorul romn
dar care s-a bucurat de o oarecare recunoatere mondial, n pofida faptului c a scris n limba
maghiar, o limb fr circulaie internaional. Demersul meu de aducere n discuie a operei
lui rknyi vizeaz reluarea n oglind a unui gest desigur, adaptat la context a lui Eugen
Ionescu, care n Note i contranote public Portretul lui Caragiale, despre care afirm c
scriind () din pcate, ntr-o limb fr circulaie mondial, este, probabil, cel mai mare
dintre autorii dramatici necunoscui.16
Motto-ul dramei Familia Tt, versiunea n lb. romn, n Gloria/Jocul de-a pisica/ Familia Tt, 1976, p.212
Ibidem, p. 285
16
Eugne Ionesco: Note i contranote, 1992, p. 153
14
15
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n 1970, rkny Istvn obinea la Paris Le grand prix d humour noir cu piesa de
teatru Familia Tt. Eugen Ionescu afirma n studiul invocat anterior, c: O singur
demistificare rmne adevrat: cea care e produs de umor, mai ales dac e negru; logica se
dezvluie n ilogismul absurdului de care ai devenit contient; rsul e singurul care nu
respect nici un tabu, care nu ngduie construirea unor noi tabuuri, antitabuuri; comicul este
singurul n msur s ne dea puterea de a suporta tragedia existenei17 un motiv n plus,
pentru a descoperi universaliile i diferenele ce transpar din mecanismului aparent
paradoxal al comicului celor doi scriitori i raportul acestuia cu absurdul.
Bibliografie:
BALACI, Alexandru, Cuvnt nainte, n rkny Istvn, Nuvele-minut;Expoziia de
trandafiri,1982
BERGSON, Henry: Rsul. Eseu despre semnificaia comicului. Edit. Universal Dalsi,
Bucureti 1997
DOMENACH, Jean-Marie, ntoarcerea absurdului, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti,
1995
DURAND, Gilbert: Structurile Antropologice ale imaginarului, Editura Univers,
Bucureti,1977
ESSLIN, Martin: Le thtre de l absurde, Paris, ditions Buchet / Chastel, 1963
HAMDAN, Alexandra: Ionescu, nainte de Ionesco, Editura Saeculum I.O,
Bucureti,1998
IONESCU, Eugen: Elegii pentru fiine mici, Editura Jurnalul Literar, Bucureti, 1990
IONESCU, Eugen: Teatru I, Editura Minerva, Bucureti 1970
IONESCU, Eugen: Teatru II, Editura Minerva, Bucureti 1970
IONESCU, Eugen: Note i contranote, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1992
RKNY, Istvn: Gloria/ Jocul de-a pisica/ Familia Tt, Editura Univers,
Bucureti,1976
RKNY,
Istvn: Nuvele-minut/ Expoziia de trandafiri, Editura Univers,
Bucureti,1982
RKNY, Istvn: Drmk I-III., Palatinus, Budapest, 2001
17
Ibidem, p. 158
905
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Abstract: The study analyses already known facts about Mircea Eliade's destiny from a fresh
perspective, demonstrating that his Indian itinerary was a labyrinth. India was for Mircea
Eliade not only a geographical labyrinth, but a labyrinth within the writer himself, with
profound consequences on his future destiny. India is and will remain in the destiny of Eliade
the man, the scientist and the writer a templum-tempus of profound inner experiences: his
love for Maitreyi, visiting ashrams and dwelling for more than half a year in one of them, his
introduction to yoga and Tantra, and, above all, his belief in pursuing his own destiny
regardless of the consequences.
Keywords: destiny, experience, India, labyrinth, Mircea Eliade
Itinerarul indian al lui Mircea Eliade este analizat n diferite volume, studii i articole,
avndu-se ca punct de plecare lucrrile gndite sau publicate de el n timpul anilor petrecui la
Calcutta i dup ntoarcerea la Bucureti, de la articole pn la textele ficionale: volumul
India (1934), o colecie de articole ce descriu locuri, peisaje din itinerarul geografic, teza de
doctorat Yoga. Essai sur le origines de la mistique indienne (1936), romanele Isabel i apele
diavolului (1930), Lumina ce se stinge (1934), Maitreyi (1933), antier roman indirect
(1935) ficionalizarea unor pasaje din jurnalul indian, Soliloquii (1932), volum de filozofie
personal, derivat din caietele de nsemnri indiene. La acestea se adaug convorbirile radio i
scrisorile.
n toamna anului 1929, Mircea Eliade pleac n India pentru a studia sub ndrumarea
profesorului Surendranath Dasgupta, de la Universitatea din Calcutta, filosofia indian.
Itinerarul indian dezvluie ns mult mai mult dect studiu academic; este o perioad de
puternice conflicte interioare, de cutri, nehotrre, iluzii i deziluzii, amgiri i dezamgiri.
India se dezvluie drept un itinerar plin de ncercri labirintice diverse, care l formeaz
profesional, personal, spiritual: A fost o perioad de trei ani de aventuri, de cutare
spiritual i de descoperire, de activitate ndreptat spre un scop i de experimentare
cuteztoare1.
Intrarea n labirint se produce, nti, pe un palier cultural i spiritual pe care pete
chiar din anii liceului, cnd descoper treptat orientalismul, alchimia, istoria religiilor. n
timpul studiilor universitare, se detaeaz de ceilali pentru c era singurul preocupat i
pasionat concomitent de Orient i istoria religiilor: Vechiul Orient ca i Orientul modern.
Gandhi precum i Tagore sau Ramakrishna [...]2. ncepe s investeasc timp i bani n
studiul limbilor ebraic i persan (cumpr cri de gramatic, de exerciii). Nu este doar
simpla dorin de a descoperi noi orizonturi culturale, ci cutarea n diversitate i dincolo de
ea, a omului esenial, exemplar, paradigmatic. Intuiete existena unor surse profunde, a
unor rdcini care coboar n preistorie, precum i marea importan a acestor izvoare uitate,
Mac Linscott Ricketts, Rdcinile romneti ale lui Mircea Eliade, vol. I, Bucureti, Criterion Publishing, 2004, p. 327.
Mircea Eliade, ncercarea labirintului. Convorbiri cu Claude-Henri Rocquet, Traducere din francez de Doina Cornea. Bucureti, Editura
Humanitas, 2007, p. 26.
1
2
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907
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suprapune concepiei indice post-vedice, conform creia [...] orice experien e dureroas
prin nsi natura ei dinamic i pasager. Aadar, existena n toate nelesurile i limitele ei
e o vale a plngerii, pentru c experienele neplcute ntrec cu mult pe cele plcute, iar rarele
ceasuri de plcere sunt dureroase pentru c nu sunt eterne, ci urmate de alte stri mentale,
iar ncetarea unei plceri e o durere; plcerea e aadar o durere potenial19.
Itinerarul cultural poate fi, de asemenea, catalogat drept labirintic, pentru c st sub
semnul incoerenei, al fragmentarului. Tnrul nvcel trece cu nonalan de la studiul
asiduu al limbii sanscrite, la paginile de literatur (care se vor concretiza n dou romane
finalizate Isabel i apele diavolului i Lumina ce se stinge), de la pasiunea descifrrii unui
simbol tantric la scrierea Jurnalului. Aceste salturi de la un domeniu la altul provoac
deprimare i nasc invidie: De ce pasiunea aceasta incandescent pentru un lucru care mi
apare ntotdeauna, dup un rgaz mai mult sau mai puin lung, inutil, caraghios, strin? De
ce nu m pot fixa, s ajung i eu ntr-o zi un orientalist ca Tucci, ca Bogdanof? Ct de mult
nu invidiez eu cteodat creierele acestea monovalente, care nu sunt tentate dect de un
singur lucru, dar care ajung cu timpul s-l cunoasc, s-l stpneasc, s-l asimileze
total...20. Finalmente, labirintul limbii sanscrite se dovedete unul uor de strbtut pentru un
tnr cu o putere de munc extraordinar, cu o voin pe msur, ascultnd orbete sfaturile
lui Dasgupta: Asta a durat vreo trei-patru luni, pn ce am simit c ncep s m orientez n
ceea ce mi se prea pe atunci labirintul gramaticii sanscrite21.
Labirintul interior se dovedete ns itinerarul care i provoac cele mai puternice
zvrcoliri, urcuuri i coboruri, ezitri, ntrebri etc. Ajunge a tri obsedat de propriul
dualism: [...] dualismul meu, acest binom ipotetic care se desface i reface cnd la stnga,
cnd la dreapta soluiilor mele. Cteodat, asist la o adevrat simultaneitate dramatic:
orice gndesc, mi se pare c ar fi tot att de just contrariul22. Zbaterea interioar este legat
de cele mai diferite probleme existeniale. Timpul i curgerea lui dureroas sau ieirea din
mediocritate, de exemplu, i provoac adevrate crize sufleteti, l obsedeaz pn la
neurastenie. Salvarea, firul Ariadnei, este ntrezrit la modul retoric, n punctele eterne,
absolute, stabile. Altfel, impresia este de cutremurare n faa trecerii inexorabile ori de
nebunie: Cnd capt contiina timpului [...] m cutremur. Mi se pare c ori nnebunesc
ori trebuie s fac, urgent, o fapt mare23. Treptat, aceast fapt se va dovedi a fi dorina
lui de a se integra Indiei, pn la contopirea total cu istoria, cultura, felul de a fi i de a tri al
indianului.
Tulburarea i disperarea provocate de lipsa banilor (care ntrzie s soseasc, att din
ar, ct i din partea maharajahului) ori de lipsa scrisorilor, n anumite perioade, i sugereaz,
ca soluie pentru regsirea echilibrului i a linitii sufleteti, viaa de mnstire, rugciunea,
umilina, traiul simplu etc.24. Contientizeaz faptul c vrsta lui este un atuu pentru ceea ce
i-a propus cunoaterea sufletului indian. Profesorul Dasgupta consider c tinereea i ofer
ansa de a ghici lucruri eseniale, care au scpat europenilor maturi, sosii n India dup ce se
formaser, mpiedicai de erudiie sau de sentimentalism, n ncercarea lor de a se apropia de
sufletul asiatic. Aceste aprecieri l mping ntr-o munc istovitoare, pentru a-i mplini visul:
Ct de mult a vrea s ajung un indianist, s fiu cel mai bun elev al lui D.; i totui, n
acelai timp, m ntreb dac nu e zadarnic tot ce fac eu, toat munca mea...25 Cade
permanent n disperare, analizndu-i cu luciditate modul de a lucra, de a gndi i
contientizndu-i defectele ce l mpiedic a atinge scopul propus, mrturisind incapacitatea
Idem, Erotica mistic n Bengal, ed. cit., p. 166.
Idem, India. Biblioteca maharajahului. antier, ed. cit., p. 373.
21
Idem, Memorii, vol. I, ed. cit., p. 176.
22
Mircea Eliade, India. Biblioteca maharajahului. antier, ed. cit., p. 373.
23
Ibidem, p. 264.
24
Ibidem.
25
Ibidem, p. 326.
19
20
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de a renuna: Nu, nu, e inutil toat munca mea, toat voina mea e zadarnic. [...] Ca s
ajung un bun indianist, ar trebui s renun la patima mea de hoinreal, la multilateritate, la
gndire [...], la personalitate i la libertate. Prea mult...26 Nu va renuna la multe dintre
elementele enumerate, dar va nva n India lecia renunrii. Labirintul su interior nseamn
zbatere, gol interior, sil (de timpul risipit), incapacitatea de a nelege pe cei din jur sau de a
se face neles, un conglomerat de sentimente i stri, creatoare de confuzie i rtcire,
scrb de idei, sentimentul pustiului, al unei inutiliti universale27.
Exist, pe itinerarele strbture, ntmplri sau oameni care i arat drumul spre
centru. De exemplu, ntlnirea cu profesorul de englez de la Presidency College, care a dus
la creterea sufletului lui Mircea Eliade prin sperana pe care a sdit-o n el. Cunoscndu-l
i ascultndu-l, scriitorul a contientizat c omul poate traversa un itinerariu spiritual
complet atta timp ct exist perfecta conformitate ntre gnd i fapt28. Dar gndurile lui
rmn contradictorii, scond n eviden o scindare sufleteasc major. De la dorina de a
deveni indian trece la dorina de a rezista ispitei Indiei, despre care tie c are puterea de a-l
converti spiritual, printr-un ceva fascinant i demoniac, mpotriva cruia simte c trebuie s
lupte, s reziste, fiindc altfel ar putea fi anulat sufletete, divizat sau transformat substanial.
ntre fericire i nefericire, ncearc o autoprotejare mpotriva Indiei i a aventurii pe care
simte c o triete: S m pzesc de toat aceast magie din jurul meu. De la limba pe care
o nv la filozofia pe care o gndesc i la decorul al crui ritm mi-l nsuesc, totul e strein,
profund strein sufletului meu. [...] Aventura este o arm cu dou tiuri; de aceea mi i place
att29. Labrysul (securea cu dou tiuri) trimite direct ctre labirint i sugereaz astfel c
Mircea Eliade a parcurs itinerarele labirintice, contientizndu-le semnificaia faptul c ele
pot forma i transforma omul substanial: Eu i zic aventur, dar ndeobte se cheam via
liber. Orice via liber poate suprima un om, l poate anula sufletete, dar l i poate
diviniza, transforma substanial. M pot pierde sau m pot mntui [] S nu uit c m simt
prea bine aici, ca acest confort sufletesc s nu fie magic30.
Itinerarul iubirii l conduce labirintic de la carne la suflet i de la suflet la carne, de la o
iubire care a crescut i s-a mplinit aa cum i era destinul, pentru c a fost un lung,
beatific i totui terifiant vis de noapte de var31 alturi de Maitreyi, la vieuirea n carnal
alturi de Ruth sau Jenny. Dorina de umilire, de macerare, de pcat este perceput deopotriv
ca o tendin demoniac (strigtul ntunericului din mine) sau ca un balsam (dulce ca un
instinct pur)32. Minotaurul este el nsui, ncercnd s se elibereze de tot ceea ce percepe
drept ameninare, de imensa slbticie cu care se umilete: [...] procedez ca o adevrat
fiar cu mine nsumi, cu sufletul meu, cu memoria mea. Eram att de aproape de
combustiunea final, de extincia definitiv a crnii mele, a omeniei mele33.
Iubirea se dovedete finalmente un labirint care l coboar n Infern, ntr-o suferin
cumplit, dup cum va mrturisi n Memorii, o suferin declanat odat cu pierderea fetei
iubite ce nseamn, de asemenea, pierderea Indiei: Sufeream cumplit. Sufeream cu att mai
mult cu ct nelesesem c, odat cu Maitreyi, pierdusem India ntreag. Tot ce mi se
ntmplase pornise din dorina mea de a m identifica cu India, de a deveni cu adevrat
indian. [...] Aceast Indie pe care ncepusem s o cunosc, la care visasem i pe care atta o
iubisem, mi era definitiv interzis34. Infernul sufletesc presupune ur, risipire,
26
Ibidem, p. 267.
Ibidem, p. 271.
28
Ibidem, pp. 275 277.
29
Ibidem, p. 326.
30
Ibidem.
31
Idem, Memorii, vol. I, ed. cit., p. 202.
32
Idem, India. Biblioteca maharajahului. antier, ed. cit., p. 363.
33
Ibidem.
34
Idem, Memorii, vol. I, ed. cit., p. 203.
27
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descompunere, rzbunare mpotriva propriului eu, pe care simte c l poate domina prin
extazul pcatului: Cu ce poft mi bat joc de M., tvlindu-m n paturi streine, cu ce ur
mi ajut toate ororile s ias la lumin, s creasc, s m sufoce. Simt un adevrat extaz al
rului, al pcatului. Simt c numai pe acest drum mai pot ndjdui o experien final, ca
cea de ast var. Drumul drept, drumul luminos, mi-a fost nchis. Pe alt drum, de mijloc, nu
pot merge35.
Alungat din casa familiei Dasgupta, torturat de remucri, vlguit de insomnii, Mircea
Eliade experimenteaz un descensus ad inferos care echivaleaz morii i renvierii, pentru c
l va ajuta s sfie pnza esut de My, redevenind liber, senin, invulnerabil: Verificam
[...] credina c un exces de suferin strnete setea de eliberare, c, n fond, cu ct te simi
mai pierdut cu att eti mai aproape de mntuire, adic de eliberare; c situaia cu
adevrat tragic este cea a fericitului i mulumitului de sine36. Aadar, scinziunea
sufleteasc i gndurile contradictorii dovedesc o coborre n Infern, un Infern care l pune
fa n fa cu Minotaurul din el, un Minotaur nvins n repetate rnduri, dar niciodat rpus
definitiv. De ce? Pentru c Mircea Eliade rateaz atingerea centrului.
Ce anume poate dobndi valoare de centrum n experiena indian a tnrului Mircea
Eliade? Centrul experienei indiene se afl, fizic, n Himalaya37, iar spiritual echivaleaz cu
eliberarea sufleteasc i integrarea n India etern. Chiar dac, fizic, Mircea Eliade se situeaz
n centru, spiritual nu a reuit s l ating, nu a ajuns la acea emancipare sufleteasc prin care
sufletul se re-cunoate: [...] liberarea se confund cu emanciparea sufletului, cu acea
maieutic spiritual prin care sufletul ia cunotin de sine38. De ce rateaz? Pentru c nu
este capabil de renunare total. Chiar dac, pentru o vreme, se ndeprteaz de preocuparea
esenial studiul, nu reuete nici fixarea n spaiul puritii absolute, al ascezei 39, al
controlului total, nici depirea dorinelor i eliberarea de durere.
Centralitatea este, n viziune indian, purificarea simurilor i a minii, precum i o
form de coincidentia oppositorum, pentru c tman este jos i sus, napoi, nainte, la
dreapta, la stnga, iar cel care a depit dorinele i e eliberat de durere realizeaz acea
glorie a lui tman prin puritatea simurilor i a minii40. Revelaia sufletului presupune
eliberarea de dorin, de pcat, de team, de orice presupune experien mental sau fizic:
El e detaat de orice e sacru, dup cum e detaat de orice e pctos; pentru c el e atunci
deasupra oricrei dureri41. Aceast detaare nu echivaleaz cu ineria, ci cu transcenderea
tututor oscilaiilor psihice i cu atingerea unui echilibru vid de nsei principiile binelui i ale
rului.
Atingerea centrului se afl, aadar, sub semnul revelaiei interioare, al convertirii
sufleteti care anuleaz limite, valori, legi, impunnd iluminarea contiinei i integrarea ei n
firescul existenei, indiferent de forma pe care o ia acest firesc n diferitele concepii
religioase sau filozofice (n India echivaleaz cu integrarea n ritmul contiinei universale).
Svarga-ashram este spaiul n care simte c se poate regsi, pentru a putea ulterior s
experimenteze yoga tantric prin care spera s reueasc s se elibereze nu prin jertf, ci
prin transfigurarea vieii. Alturi de profesorul Dasgupta studiase suficient filozofia indian
pentru a ti ct e de greu s te eliberezi de iluzii, s te trezeti din vis. [...] M lsasem legat
Idem, India. Biblioteca maharajahului. antier, ed. cit., p. 363.
Idem, Memorii, vol. I, ed. cit., p. 207.
37
n capitolul Simbolismul Centrului (pp. 33 63), din volumul Imagini i simboluri, Mircea Eliade evideniaz valoarea de centrum a
muntelui.
38
Mircea Eliade, Erotica mistic n Bengal, ed. cit., p. 40.
39
Impresioneaz n Memorii fragmentul ce descrie atitudinea btrnei sihastre care ghicete din priviri faptul c Mircea Eliade alesese o alt
cale, diferit de ascez: Am neles c drumul pe care apucasem, dei exaltat de atia maetri spirituali indieni, i repugna profund.
Btrna mea cenureas desigur nu credea c exist alt drum n afar de cel al ascezei i rugciunii, pe care-l alesese ea (Mircea Eliade,
Memorii, vol. I, ed. cit., p. 210).
40
Idem, Erotic mistic n Bengal, ed. cit., p. 81.
41
Ibidem, p. 82.
35
36
911
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i fermecat de miraje. Iluzii i miraje de care nu se poate desprinde dect sfind pnza
esut de my i redevenind liber, senin i invulnerabil42.
n acest spaiu al muntelui, consacrat n toate tradiiile drept centru al lumii, Mircea
Eliade ncearc s se integreze Indiei eterne, acelei Indii n care, dup cum tia din
convorbirile cu R. Tagore, important este viaa spiritual pentru c e bucurie, e voluptate i
dans, [...] e inocen i e libertate, e dram i e extaz43. Abdic de la primatul spiritualului
prin intrarea ntr-un joc periculos: cade prad unei ispite magice pe care my i-o scoate n
cale i accept o cunoatere lucid i detaat, ngduit doar iniiailor, a trupului lui Jenny.
Rateaz astfel ansa de a se integra Indiei eterne, transistorice, pentru c nu exist beatitudine
i eliberare final dect prin renunare la capriciile pasionale, efemere, la simplele tulburri:
i, nc o dat, ignorana sau nepriceperea mea mi nchisese nc un drum ctre India cu
care voiam s m identific. Ratasem adoptarea mea de ctre Dasgupta i, deci, India
istoric. Iar, acum, n urm, ndat dup plecarea lui Swami Shivananda, pierdusem i
ansa de a m integra Indiei eterne, transistorice44.
Nu vom aluneca pe fgaul presupunerilor, imaginnd ce ar fi putut nsemna n
destinul scriitorului atingerea centrului din perspectiva integrrii n India transistoric. Ceea
ce scap ns oricrei incertitudini este constatarea c, ratnd centrul acesta, al integrrii n
spiritualitatea indian, Mircea Eliade i-a mplinit destinul de istoric al religiilor i a atins
astfel centrul altcumva i altundeva. Ratarea a reprezentat o lecie de via care l-a fcut s
contientizeze c locul unde posibilitile de creaie se pot manifesta cu adevrata lor for nu
este India, ci ara n care a crescut i s-a format. A neles c menirea lui n lume este aceea de
creator, iar limba i cultura romn reprezint terenul fertil n care elanul su poate rodi:
Ceea ce ncercasem eu s fac, i anume s renun la ereditatea mea occidental i s-mi
caut o cas sau o lume ntr-un univers spiritual exotic, echivala ntr-un anumit fel, cu
renunarea, nainte de vreme la toate posibilitile mele de creaie. N-a fi putut fi creator
dect rmnnd n lumea mea, care era n primul rnd lumea limbii i culturii romneti. i
n-a fi avut dreptul s renun la aceast lume dect dup ce mi-a fi fcut datoria fa de ea,
adic dup ce-a fi istovit posibilitile mele creatoare. A fi avut dreptul s m retrag
definitiv n Himalaya la captul activitii mele culturale, iar nu la nceputul ei. A crede c,
la 23 de ani, a fi putut sacrifica istoria i cultura pentru absolut era nc o dovad c nu
nelesesem India. Vocaia mea era cultura, nu sfinenia (s. n. M. C.-A.)45.
Ieirea din labirint se produce treptat, la fel ca intrarea. ntors n Calcutta, Eliade se
dedic studiului i se ndreapt ctre alte izvoare ale inepuizabilei Indii: [...] aceast
perioad se deosebea de celelalte faze ale vieii mele n India. [...] De data aceasta, nu mai
ncercam s devin un altul, imitnd un model indian, ci m lsasem atras de misterul attor
aspecte obscure sau neglijate ale culturii indiene46. Adun material pentru teza de doctorat,
dar i pentru lucrri pe care intenioneaz a le scrie, se dedic studiului n profunzime a unor
domenii dintre cele mai diverse: tantrism, alchimie indian, folclor, arheologie, religii
primitive etc. i are a doua tentativ de nvare a limbii tibetane (tot nereuit), sprijinit de
42
912
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prietenul su, Johan van Manen, secretarul Societii asiatice din Bengal. Toate aceste
preocupri i amintesc i, mai ales, i dovedesc c destinul su este legat de creaie, de cultur.
Pe lng preocuprile tiinifice, un alt fir al Ariadnei, ce l ajut s gseasc ieirea
din labirint, l constituie capacitatea de a uita, fapt ce presupune, pentru el, vindecare de tot
trecutul: M gndesc c, dup muli ani, voi uita tot din aceast Indie prodigioas voi uita
chiar i cele mai intime revelaii, nebuniile mele i drumurile. Ruth mi va aprea atunci un
nume ce nu evoc nici mcar o figur; M., o fat stranie, care m-a torturat i mi-a lmurit
cele mai nefireti bucurii, Franck, Van Manen, Jim, Bogdanof, D., Sen, Tagore nume,
cteodat figuri, cteodat idei47. Un fir care l va detaa de zbaterea vieii, indiferent de
perioada la care ne raportm.
Prin intermediul acestei capaciti de a terge trecutul, intuiete viitorul: un viitor ce va
dezvlui un Mircea Eliade care a uitat sau a ngropat n uitare India. Rndurile din Prefaa
fragmentelor din jurnalul indian publicate sub denumirea antier roman indirect:
Publicam hrtiile unui mort, despre fapte i oameni care acum nu mai sunt adic sunt
prea departe justific i explic atitudinea pe care Mircea Eliade o va avea jumtate de
secol mai trziu, cnd Maitreyi l viziteaz la Chicago. Chiar dac Maitreyi exist, chiar dac
a ajuns fizic din nou lng el, ea a rmas departe pentru totdeauna, iar ceea ce cndva fusese
dragoste se convertete n misticism, n sensul pe care Mateiu I. Caragiale l-a dat acestei
metamorfozri a iubirii [...] nu pe Wanda nsi o mai iubesc, nu fptura ei care, dac mai e
pe lume, e schimbat, ofilit, mbtrnit, ci amintirea, nespus de duioas i de dulce 48. A
ncerca s renvii o iubire mistificat i se pare lui Mircea Eliade de prost gust49. Modificarea
sufleteasc este asumat tot n antier: Nu m recunosc aproape nicieri n paginile sale50,
mrturisete autorul n 1935, structural altul, diferit de tnrul care plecase n India.
Ieirea propriu-zis din labirint este, pn la un punct, o abdicare: motivul imediat i
de natur exterioar al acesteia l constituie chemrile tatlui n ar, argumentate prin
dezonoare, ceea ce reprezint pentru familia unui militar o grav abatere. O plecare forat de
un tat speriat de planurile fiului, pe care scrisorile trimise n Romnia le dezvluiau puternic
legate de lumea Orientului. Conform opiniei lui Mircea Itu, motivul real al ntoarcerii sale n
Romnia l-a reprezentat nceperea carierei tiinifice dup acumularea experienei practice i a
unui bagaj de lecturi51.
Firul Ariadnei l cluzete ns i dup ntoarcerea n ar. Transfigurarea realitii n
ficiune i scrierea romanului Maitreyi reprezint un alt mod de a aboli trecutul i de a se
elibera de mrejele Indiei. De ce scrie romanul? Doar pentru un premiu i suma 52 pe care
acesta o aducea implicit? Categoric, nu. Transfigurarea realitii n ficiune (ct de puternic
este aceasta va rmne definitiv un mister, avnd n vedere c replica dat de Maitreyi Devi
n deceniul al optulea al secolului trecut confirm i infirm deopotriv povestea din
Maitreyi) reprezint o modalitate de eliberare de un un trecut pe care l dorete efectiv i
definitiv transformat n a fost odat: [...] simeam c trebuie s retriesc, ca s pot
consuma definitiv, aceast dram care-mi schimbase radical viaa silindu-m s renun la
toate proiectele pe care le fcusem n legtur cu ederea mea n India53. Scriitura l
salveaz de obsesia Indiei i confirm, o dat n plus, c Mircea Eliade nu a reuit s se
integreze nici Indiei pmnteti, nici Indiei eterne.
Idem, India. Biblioteca maharajahului. antier, ed. cit., p. 379.
Mateiu I. Caragiale, Craii de Curtea-Veche, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1975, p. 75.
49
Mircea Eliade, Jurnal. 1970 1985, ediie ngrijit de Mircea Handoca, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2004, p. 102. Curnd dup aceea
ntlnire cu M. Dup aproape patruzeci i trei de ani. Totul mi se pare neverosimil, ireal, fals i, ntr-un anumit sens, de prost gust.
50
Idem, India. Biblioteca maharajahului. antier, ed. cit., p. 247.
51
Mircea Itu, Mircea Eliade, Bucureti, Editura Fundaiei Romnia de Mine, 2006, p. 11.
52
20000 de lei, puin mai mult dect salariul lunar al unui lector universitar.
53
Mircea Eliade, Memorii, vol. I, ed. cit., pp. 257 258.
47
48
913
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Actul scriiturii este guvernat de contient (a dorit s scrie acest roman), dar i de
partea ascuns a fiinei sale, de subcontient: am constatat c, fr tirea mea, o fcusem n
parte, afirm Eliade despre modul n care a folosit toate aceste fapte i toi aceti oameni n
ceea ce se numete lucrri literare54. Cum altfel am putea explica conservarea numelor
reale, regretat ulterior de ctre scriitor? Dei peste ani, n Memorii, Mircea Eliade va
mrturisi c scrierea romanului se scald ntr-o baie de impersonalitate i reprezint doar o
mrturie in aeternum, c nu a scris nici pentru el, nici pentru Maitreyi55, considerm c, prin
retrirea iubirii i ficionalizarea ei, Mircea Eliade a scris tocmai pentru el i pentru a iei
din labirintul trecutului. Chiar dac, n decembrie 1932, cnd a nceput redactarea
romanului, nu a contientizat consecinele acestei decizii, hotrrea de a scrie Maitreyi i-a
anulat ultima ans de se rentoarce cndva n India56. n schimb, l-a eliberat: Redevenisem
liber57, mrturisete el, referindu-se la momentul martie 1933, cnd depune, la timp,
exemplarele pentru participarea la concursul Techirghiol-Eforie.
n concluzie, experiena trit n India este cea mai important i de adncime 58, iar
ea l-a maturizat pe Mircea Eliade din multiple puncte de vedere, chiar dac, dup cum
consider unul dintre cei mai importani discipoli, nu s-a schimbat radical n cei trei ani
petrecui n India59. Corespondena cu unul dintre prieteni dezvluie ns o schimbare
radical din perspectiva tnrului Eliade: De acum, triesc pentru cunoatere, pentru
propria cunoatere. Cred c am depit definitiv sentimentalismul. Elimin din contiin i
dizolv din subcontient toate reziduurile unei adolescene neemancipate de romantism, de
fecunditate, de retoric i mediocritate60.
India conine, in nuce, multe dintre ncercrile labirintice ce i vor marca destinul.
Istoricul religiilor i nva leciile fundamentale aici, iar notiele pe care le ia n timpul
popasului indian vor fi completate, detaliate, dezvoltate ulterior, devenind volumele tiinifice
ce l-au fcut celebru. i celebritatea scriitorului se datoreaz tot Indiei. Romanul Maitreyi,
care i-a adus faima i admiraia publicului (pe lng premiul n bani), are la baz o experien
de via ce l-a marcat profund; a transformat-o n ficiune tocmai pentru a se elibera de ea i
pentru a iei din labirintul n care se simea captiv. Niciuna dintre operele de ficiune create
ulterior nu va cunoate un succes similar.
Tot n India se afl i germenele destinului politic al lui Mircea Eliade. Admirator al
revoluiei spirituale iniiate de Gandhi, tnrul devine sensibil la politic. Civa ani mai
trziu, aceast sensibilitate l trdeaz i l arunc pe orbita unei micri de dreapta, ca
simpatizant sau legionaroid61, ulterior membru i susintor al acesteia.
India l-a transformat pe tnrul Eliade ntr-un alchimist62 care a adunat n sine
leciile eseniale ale unui spaiu cultural, spiritual profund, din care au nit ulterior operele
Idem, India. Biblioteca maharajahului. antier, ed. cit., p. 248.
Idem, Memorii, vol. I, ed. cit., p. 260.
56
Ibidem, p. 258.
57
Ibidem, p. 268.
58
Mircea Itu, op. cit., p. 13.
59
Mac Linscott Ricketts, op. cit., vol. I, p. 523.
60
Mircea Eliade i Mihail Sebastian n coresponden cu Petru Comarnescu, n revista Manuscriptum, anul IX, nr. 4/1978 (33), p. 166.
Fragmentul face parte dintr-o scrisoare trimis, din Calcutta, de Mircea Eliade lui Petru Comarnescu, datat 22 aprilie 1929.
61
Cf. Virgil Nemoianu, Mircea Eliade ntre Bucureti i Chicago, n Romnia i liberalismele ei, Bucureti, Editura Fundaiei Culturale
Romne, 2000, pp. 27 43.
62
Eliade nsui se ipostaziaz n alchimist, n antier: Sunt zile cnd mi simt creierul, inima, trupul ntreg, ca o uzin stranie n care se
adun substane vrjmae, culese din vzduh, din arbori, din cri substane care sunt necontenit prefcute, asimilate, toat aceast
alchimie pe care o ghicesc n carnea i n creierul meu. Nu tiu cum s exprim mai precis, fr nimic liric, alimentarea aceasta uria a
ntregei mele fiine. Parc a avea mii de guri i mii de brae, care culeg totul, adun totul, amestec totul i transform toate aceste
substane, streine mie, ntr-un snge i o inteligen care sunt ale mele. Firete, rndurile acestea sunt aternute n grab, i spun prost ceea
ce a putea spune frumos i simplu ntr-un alt moment. Dar sunt dator s nsemn acum, cnd o simt la lucru, activitatea aceasta de absorbie
a ntregei mele fiine. Am stat astzi mult vreme lungit n chaise-longue, i simeam cum intr n mine cicloane de lumin, de cldur, de
clorofil. Cteodat am impresia net c easta mea primete concret toate crile pe care le nghit, toate gndurile cu care m lupt, tot
haosul cruia ncerc s-i dau o form (India. Biblioteca maharajahului. antier, ed. cit., pp. 320 321).
54
55
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Abstract: The poetesses of the eighties generation masculinize the femininity. In our research
paper we propose an interpretation of Mariana Marins poetry based upon the horsewomens
myth. We depart from the premise according to which the feminine identity always implies
plurality, thus explaining the alteration of the self. Our interpretation focuses on solving the
masculine/feminine dichotomy which appears in the first volume published by the author, A
100 years war.
Keywords: feminism, femininity, myth, horsewomen, dichotomy
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ea nsi, ca femeie care vrea s se confunde cu poezia.11 Tabloul poate fi ncheiat prin
invocarea logicii aristotelice. Se tie c Aristotel rezerva femeii un loc inferior.
ntr-un dicionar aprut la Institutul European din Iai se pot remarca cteva notaii
despre imaginarul feminin, pus n opoziie cu cel masculin, dominant. De exemplu se
consider c sexualitatea feminin este adesea un ecou al celei masculine, iar ,,identitatea
feminin presupune presupune totdeauna pluralitate i se construiete n jurul unei ,,diferene
implicite, n sine ea este mereu Cellalt. Aceast particularitate, de a fi ,,fluid, ambigu i
deschis constituie o ameninare pentru ,,stabilitatea ideal a ordinii simbolice masculine:ea
merge n toate direciile n care el este incapabil a discerne coerena unui sens.12 Aceste
configurri regsite ntr-un dicionar despre postmodernism pot fi remarcate n poezia
Marianei Marin, a Martei Petreu, dar i a celei semnate de Angela Marinescu. Dup 1965 se
constat o prezen masiv a poetelor n literatura romn. Sunt diferene de substan liric
ntre veteranele Maria Banu, Nina Cassian, Ioana Banta i poetele generaiei `60: Ana
Blandiana, Constana Buzea, Gabriela Melinescu, Ileana Mlncioiu, ntre vocile celor din
generaia `70: Carolina Ilica, Daniela Crsnaru, Grete Tartler, Doina Uricariu i ultimele, dar
nu cele din urm, ale optzecistelor Marta Petreu i Mariana Marin. La aceste poete asistm la
masculinizarea feminitii. Ne propunem n studiul nostru ca, n raport direct cu aceast
supratem a feminitii, grila de receptare a liricii Marianei Marin s porneasc de la mitul
amazoanelor. Optm pentru aceast abordare pornind de la premisa c identitatea feminin
presupune totdeauna pluralitate, implicnd constant alteritatea eului. Astfel, interpretarea
vizeaz soluionarea dihotomiei masculin/feminin n volumul de versuri de debut: ,,Un rzboi
de o sut de ani(utopii i alte poeme de dragoste) ale poetei Mariana Marin.Titlul volumului
anticipeaz conflictul iminent i ipostaza autoarei de lupttoare, adic o metamorfoz
amazonian. n mod implicit, masculinizarea feminitii este echivalent cu o ntrupare a
amazoanelor, spirite de lupt surprinse n rzboi. Intenia este amplificat i de faptul c n
literatura contemporan prototipul lupttoarei renvie surprinztor de firav.
Povestea ,,lung i nclcit a amazoanelor, oferit de Adriana Babei este
copleitoare prin pluralitatea semnificaiilor ei, genernd multe reprezentri, idei ale condiiei
lupttoarei.13 n diacronie, autoarea a mobilizat ,,toate toposurile rzboinice ale literaturii,
ncepnd cu btliile din epopei i pn la nfruntrile nevzute ale sufletului i trupului, pe de
o parte, i de la strategiile seduciei puse la cale de ndrgostii, pn la ,, ctigarea unui joc
sau chiar a unui sens ntr-o disput, pe de alt parte. Platon considera, n antichitate, c ntre
meseria strategului i cea a rapsodului nu exist nicio deosebire. Mariana Marin declar
,,rzboi unui regim concentraionar, excluznd posibilitatea salvrii lumii prin art: ,,Tu tii
c zpada nu poate salva un rzboi de o sut de ani. (Apel n sala de disecie) n final, biruie
adevrul lui Socrate, care crede c poetul i rapsodul, spre deosebire de strateg, nu stpnesc
un meteug, o tiin, o metod, ci au un har, fiind inspirai de zei. n art, zice Socrate, totul
ine ,,de puterea divin. Ea pune n micare fapta rapsodului, nu chibzuita lucrare a minii,
cum i se ntmpl strategului pe cmpul de lupt. Toi susin c arta literelor i cea a armelor
se aseamn i i mprumut una alteia din legi. Adriana Babei concluzioneaz: ,,Cuvntul
i croiete-precum spada- calea spre victorie ntr-unul i acelai fel:ncepnd urzeala ordonat,
cu minte limpede i cazon disciplin, ca la rzboi, printr-un exordiu.14 Aceste similitudini
sunt susinute pn ctre zilele noastre.
Adriana Babei dezbate i etimologia
cuvntului - amazoan, cu accepiunile sale i un istoric al prezenei acestui personaj n
literatur.15 Din biografia mitic a acestora reinem: tatl lor a fost zeul rzboiului, Ares.
11
Idem.
Sorin Prvu (coord.), Postmodernism. Seria Dicionare. Iai: Editura Institutul European, 2005, pp. 273-274.
13
Adriana Babei, Amazoanele. O poveste. Editura Polirom, Iai, 2013.
14
Ibidem, p. 20
15
Primul care le pomenete n Iliada e marele Homer, apoi mai toi poeii i istoriografii le numesc aa:amazoane sau amazonide(Pindar,
Vergiliu). Strabon amintete:alizoane, alazoane, a- prefix privativ, dar i al unitii; i face pe cei care coboarla obria cuvintelor s-i
12
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Mama e incert, iar legendele vorbesc despre mpreunarea lui Ares cu o zei,o nimf sau
chiar o muritoare.Spaiul n care ele ar fi trit este vast 16. Hermeneuii epopeilor homerice
limpezesc amnuntele referitoare la Ares-fiul cel urt de prini. Fr a ne ncurca n hiuri
etimologice, Adriana Babei dezleag mitul n aceast cheie: ,,Ares vorbete voalat despre
subterana agresiv din noi, freamtul destrmtor al prii de thanatos din noi. Acest frison
al distrugerii l nsmneaz zeul n clocotitorul snge al fiicelor sale, amazoanele, femei
nsetate de lupt, nfiorate de voluptatea morii.17
Aceast,, subteran agresiv, pe care Ares a transmis-o fiicelor sale, se regsete i la
condiia poetei Mariana Marin, mai ales n volumul su de debut. Poemele incluse aici ofer
impresia cititorului c a nimerit ntr-un spaiu dominat de tensiune i crispare unde poeta
nsi este o ciudat, pus mereu pe punctul de a purta o lupt de hruial cu un inamic
nevzut, ca ntr-un ,,rzboi al terorii, n care rareori rzbat gesturi ale feminitii, puse, i ele,
sub semnul autoironiei. Interpretarea critic a primului volum al autoarei capt i alte
conotaii mai trziu, prin Radu G. eposu18 care abordeaz ,,biografia luntric a poetei ca
pe un ,,spectacol al exorcismului demonic. Discursul liric modern are multiple semnificaii,
criticii dezvluind faete noi ale acestuia. Pentru c Mariana Marin este angajat n acest
,,rzboi de o sut de ani, imaginea interioritii este proiectat n ,,secvene contorsionate,
dominate de violen. Radu G. eposu postuleaz o estetic a rului, a lumii interioare n
cdere, n descompunere, cu rezonane baudelairiene. Poeta refuz identificarea cu sine:
,,Putreziciunea regsirii de sine, /-artndu-i colii de lapte;/ i pe cei de argint i de aur- am
spus.(Bruta). Orice detaliu al unei biografii luntrice este extirpat cu cinism i metamorfozat
n viziuni ncrncenate. Aceasta este o alt realitate, se poate numi ,,ntoars pe dos,
alimentat de ironii tioase. Imaginarul poetic este tulburat de aceste ,,contemplaii seci ale
alteritii. Punctul culminant al acestor viziuni contorsionate este atins de ,,autoscopie, acea
confesie,, deghizat... ntorcnd interioritatea pe dos, ca pe o mnu.19 Toate simurile par
devorate de privire, imaginile se deruleaz n panorame sarcastice. Fiina uman nsi este ca
o entitate mecanic, hilar i tragic: ,,Vorbeti, vorbeti/ -i mai ales umbli pe strzi fr
ttine, doar cu o uoar bial a capului/ i cu multe(oh, foarte multe)/bune intenii pentru
prima zi a anului.../i monstruozitatea poate fi contemplat! (Un mr dulce, dulce).
A intra n spaiul ficional al poemului presupune i surprinderea materialitii i
,,corporalitii discursului20, o caracteristic a discursului liric modernist. Mariana Marin este
n cutarea permanent a expresiei de sine i a lumii. Poezia sa produce o percepie rsturnat
a lumii: ,,Lentila se ntoarce mpotriva ochiului/- privirea se acoper cu pagini nescrise.../Gura
mea ronie un cuvnt lene, de iarn.(Ppua spnzurat). Poeta este nsi vzul, auzul,
mirosul, pipitul: ,,un orb i amintete gustul ierbii (Fericit), ,,Ah, prietene/Nebunia de a
gusta trandafir/ atrnai cu o ureche de rozul bun sim (Nebunia de a gusta un trandafir).
Aceast viziune asupra cuvntului ne readuce aminte parc lirica stnescian, poeta miznd
adesea pe dematerializarea concretului i materializarea abstractului. Astfel la Mariana Marin
cuvintele, noiuni din sfera abstractului, devin agresive, i ,,arat colii, sau, invers, o masc
de gaze are ,,memoria crpat; moartea este i ea reprezentat n chip hidos: ,,Vrei s treci
nchipuie amazoanele ca pe nite femei fr sn sau cu o singur mamel(mazos n greac nseamn ,,sn, ,,fr sn la figurat, pentru c
sub strnsura platoelor pieptul era de-a dreptul strivit. Despre ,,ama- muli nvai susin c ar fi adevratul prefix, nseamn ,,cu sau
,,mpreun cu, poate fi adugat unui alt cuvnt ncrcat de poveste, zone- ,,centur. Amazoanele sunt cele ce poart centur.
16
ara fr margini unde ar fi trit i luptat aceste femei- Amazonlandia- reprezentau zecile de trmuri, unele aflate la grania dintre mit i
realitate, unde anticii credeau c ar fi trit i luptat aceste femei.ara fr margini s-ar fi ntins, cu tot cu povetile ei din Libia n Sciia i din
nordul Turciei pn n Caucaz, din Tracia n Boemia, ba chiar peste mri i ri, n cele dou Indii. Grecii le trimiteau cu nchipuirea pe
aceste femei brbtoase dincolo de hotarele lumii lor civilizate, n negurile barbariei alturi de oameni ciudai. Ba chir alturi de montri.
17
Adriana Babei,Amazoanele. O poveste, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2013, p. 41.
18
Radu G. eposu, Istoria tragic &grotesc a ntunecatului deceniu literar nou, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1993, pp. 83-84.
19
Idem
20
Mircea Zaciu, Marian Papahagi, Aurel Sasu (coord.), Dicionarul scriitorilor romni (M-Q), Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 2001.
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21
Victor Felea, Aspecte ale poeziei de azi III, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1984, pp. 169-173.
Este citat n interiorul poemului un fragment din Jocul cu mrgele de sticl, de Hermann Hesse, n care se evideniaz rolul acelor grupe
izolate de artiti i oameni de cultur care au salvat ,,un grunte din tradiia sntoas, n timpul acelor decenii de tranziie. Ei au dovedit
spirit scuit de autoanaliz, ntr-o etap a unei aparente autoabandonri din contextul cultural. Al doilea poem, prin titlul sugestiv ,,O nuia de
sticl rmne n consonan cu titlul citat de autoare.
23
Adriana Babei,. op. cit, p. 176.
22
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27
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Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to analyse Graham Swifts poem Rush Hour as situated
at the intersection of Imagism, traditional Japanese haiku, and Romantic lyrical poetry. Swift
is a contemporary writer whose poem can be analysed in relation to Ezra Pounds In A
Station of the Metro, to Virginia Woolfs moments of vision, and in relation to moments in his
own novels especially in relation to his own theory of capturing immediacy. By studying this
poem in particular, we can reach a better understanding of what makes up contemporary
poetry.
Keywords: poetic language, deviation, travelling, meditation, concrete imagery.
Introduction
The apparition of these faces in the crowd;/ Petals on a wet, black bough is the
entire text of Ezra Pounds poem titled In A Station of the Metro. Pounds poem is an example
of Imagism and brings to mind Japanese haiku, as it has a powerful visual effect despite being
composed of only two lines.
Ezra Pound was an integral part of the Imagist movement, which continues to
influence poetry today. Kao (2011) states: Although the Imagist movement was cut short by
World War I, Imagism has had a strong influence on Modernist poetry and beyond (Perkins,
1987). She believes that good poetry should show, not tell, and contain concrete and
specific imagery that forms a deeper meaning in the poem (Earnshaw, 2007). (Kao 2011)
This is what Pound and Swift achieve.
Graham Swifts poem titled Rush Hour is longer than Pounds A Station of the Metro.
However, he uses only a few lines in order to create very vivid images, bringing to mind
Pounds poem. For instance, the beginning lines The fog of their massed breath,/ The stillsleepy glitter of their eyes. looks a lot like contemporary English haiku. The rule 5-7-5
syllables is often omitted in contemporary English haiku, which try to adhere to the traditional
style of Japanese haiku, which is meant to be said in a single breath. These lines, like
Pounds, do not form a complete sentence. Swifts first line, just like Pounds, is focused on a
common noun (apparition in Pounds poem, fog in Swifts). In the second line, we have in
both poems a common noun accompanied by two adjectives (wet, black bough in Pounds
poem, and still-sleepy glitter in Swifts poem) as well as an alliteration: the b sound in
black bow and the s sound in still-sleepy. The very title of Swifts poem, Rush Hour,
suggests transportation and crowds, which are also present in Pounds poem.
Good poetry uses concrete imagery (like Swifts travellers in common means of
transportation) which is bound closely to an emotional aspect. This idea is part of Kaos
hypotheses (2011) regarding her definition of good professional poetry. The role of syntax in
creating the poetic experience was explained by Cureton: Syntax (i.e., the structure of words,
phrases, clauses, and sentences) is one of the major determinants of poetic experience.
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Curetons observations bring to mind Jakobson's projection principle, which treats poetic
syntax primarily as an instrument of parallelism and therefore of textual divisioning and
semantic coupling (Jakobson 1987: 117-266, Levin 1962, Lotman 1977).
Leech and Short drew attention to the use of parralelism and deviation in poetry.
These effects are achieved through syntax, semantics or pragmatics. There is no exact
definition of poetry, according to Leech and Short. The distinction they draw between poetic
and ordinary language is that Poetic language may violate or deviate from the generally
observed rules of the language in many different ways, some obvious, some subtle. Both the
means and motives for deviations are worth careful study. (1991: 5) They say that poetic
language is characterized by its standing out. Throughout the ages poetic language has been
used in many ways, which is why it needs to constantly reinvent itself. They believe, for
instance, that poetic language can include archaic words. Any deviation from expected
patterns of linguistic behaviour will bring about a reaction of disorientation and surprise
(Leech and Short 1991: 10). In his poem Rush Hour, Swift deviates from the usual short
haiku, while at the same time he preserves some of its features. The first two lines bring to
mind Japanese haiku through the juxtaposition of two images. However, a Japanese haiku is
traditionally composed of three lines, 5-7-5 syllables, with a dash that breaks the two ideas
and with a kigo, a reference to a season, which is missing in Swifts poem. The fog is a
reference to a natural phenomenon; it can also be interpreted as figurative when combined
with human breath: The fog of their massed breath. If we think of the figurative meaning,
we think of a crowd where individuals do not count, where differences are blurred. If we think
of the literal meaning, we think of the way they breathe when it is cold outside. Even this
literal interpretation of fog serves to make differences between people in a crowd blurred; it
makes their faces hard to distinguish. Figurative language, personification or metaphor, is
inadmissible in Japanese haiku, even though it is common in the poetry of our own culture.
The link between fog and breath would, in Japanese haiku, not be obviously stated but
implied indirectly through concrete imagery. We notice the absence of a verb in the two
opening lines of Swifts poem. Usually haikus make use of the present tense and the absence
of a verb is a sign of skillful craft.
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Although Pound explains what he meant to achieve when he wrote his poem, readers
are still left to freely visualize and make use of their own imaginations. This is a feature of a
haiku poem. While offering visual images to the readers, relationships between and
interpretation of these images are left to the readers imagination. The Japanese custom of
writing haikus is for a group of students and their teacher to go out for a walk in nature, then
to express their impressions in haiku poems which afterwards will be discussed. The poems
will be analysed anonymously and then the authors will be revealed and the best poems will
be chosen. A haiku is written in the middle of nature in a moment of insight and inspiration.
For Ezra Pound, the moment of insight and inspiration does not come in nature but in the
metro in the city. He does use references to nature, though. The words petals, wet, and
bough create a visual image on which the image for faces and crowds is juxtaposed. Swift
makes use of references to nature first to express figuratively and visually the idea of crowds:
The fog of their massed breath. The smoky-blue dawn is an image connected to the idea
of dreams, as we see from the next lines. By leaving out connecting elements and the
expected verb in a sentence, Swift creates images that seem to remain still, to be part of the
poets impressions. Another effect achieved is that the reader is made to stop and watch these
images. One of the characteristics of haiku is the use of very few verbs usually in the
present tense or gerund. Haiku is written to preserve the essence and the force of the
phenomenon the poetic persona observes. Haiku is always about the present and ephemeral
moment; it is also a meditation on mans destiny in the middle of nature, of the world with its
phenomena, in this universe. Both Swift and Pound juxtapose images of nature with images
from city: men living in, and traveling through crowded places. Swift explicitly invites his
readers to see something deeper in these images: So this is their life, what they do every
day,/ [...] No, no, look again. Its not what it seems. Common incidents are reinterpreted
through the use of poetic language. This is also in line with Swifts novels, which deal with
the extraordinary in ordinary. Rifaterre believes that a poem says one thing and means
another (p. 1) (quoted in Culler 1981: 89). His theory adds to the understanding of Swifts
poem. When keeping this theory in mind, readers notice that a poem may at first appear to be
about one thing, but with further consideration they will see that it is actually about something
else. (Culler 1981: 89)
The crowds
Although Pound offered us his interpretation of his poem, readers are free to interpret
it in many other ways and to notice details which would place those images in another
context.
In Pounds poem, the faces are apparitions since they are not seen in detail by the
observer. The faces may not be distinct, as they lose themselves in the crowd. The focus is on
the crowd, not on any individual face. Then the observer moves from general to particular, as
he notices the detail of petals on a wet black bough. The movement can also be from inside to
outside, from the interior metro station underground to the outside where there are elements
of nature, such as rain and the bough. If the bough is black, it may be that the day is cloudy
and rainy, that the dark atmosphere from the underground is preserved in the overcast sky.
Moreover, the dark atmosphere, the lack of detail in the crowd's faces, and the fact that
the ones in the crowd are described as apparitions (suggesting a lack of substance) suggest
the loneliness and isolation of the observer in the city. He seems not to care for those in the
crowds - they are mere apparitions. Apparitions also suggest a kind of illusion, of being
surrounded by people but feeling lonely, since the observer cannot connect with anyone there.
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People in big cities pass by crowds everyday, but in the end they do not connect and remain
lonely. The dark atmosphere reflects a dark mood. The underground and the bough might
remind the reader of the inferno. When one is depressed, one feels that one goes through the
inferno. Figuratively speaking the poem can be about going down, in the underground, in the
subway, where one feels like one is in hell due to one's loneliness. Depressed people often
have difficulty connecting with others, or finding the energy or empathy to spare for others,
and the others are thus apparitions without substance, difficult to see in detail. There is some
emotional detachment implied in not noticing details of the faces in the crowd. Also, the
speaker feels isolated and discriminated against - he is alone, while the others are united in a
crowd. From another viewpoint, the black bough and the metro (underground) are both dark
places and help us focus on details such as petals and faces. The black bough works as a
background for the petals; we imagine the petals as luminous in the dark. The same pattern of
patches of light against a black background is applied to the faces in a dark metro station.
The poem can also be about one of those quick glimpses as one walks or as one finds
oneself inside the moving metro. One sees crowds and then focuses briefly, in a flash, on the
details, on some flowers being held by a passenger in the metro. It is about busy city life, with
the high speed of living. There is beauty in those instants of everyday life in a busy city. The
author captures those moments of beauty just like in a haiku.
Baig offers a dark interpretation of the poem by Pound and compares it to The Love
Song of J. Alfred Prufrock by T.S. Eliot:
Both, Eliots Prufrock Song and Pounds Metro Poem, deal with the similar
contemporary issues in a critical tone. These poems launch a stark comment on the modern
man living in moral world of immoralities, darkened with the evils of capitalism, hypocrisy,
indifference, emotional and aesthetic downfall and social alienation. (Baig 108)
Everyday modern human life is compared to life in an inferno:
Eliots primary concern in the Prufrock Song is that of the hell to which human
beings are subjected every day of their lives. The Epigraph to this song has been taken from
Dantes Inferno. [] This hell of Prufrock is not his alone; it is shared by every human
being who ever lived. In Pounds view this could be interpreted as the hell of Usura in the
modern world, from where theres no escape for the modern man. The faces at the station
of the metro that Pound comes across are all searching their way out of the material hell,
however, theyre unable to pluck themselves off the wet, black bough. (Baig 108)
Despite the dark associations which would usually come to mind, the beauty of the
images remains. It is suggested by poetic language just like in Swifts poem. Petals on a wet,
black bough can only suggest, after all, an image of the beauty of nature. Swifts poem
shows us that the people in the crowd do not just go to work every day. The poem shows us
that their lives go beyond what seems at first sight: This smoky-blue dawn/ That hasnt yet
torn them from dreams,/ These lights on their faces. Swift suggests that there is a beauty to
life: a beauty that goes beyond routine. Once you visualize these images as a reader you move
beyond the level of interpreting the crowds and modern city life in a negative way, or of
merely thinking of their isolation.
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Conclusions
Swift expresses moments of visions in his poems, reminding us of Japanese haiku.
The focus on life in the city and moments of beauty replaces the traditional meditation on the
beauty of nature in Japanese haiku. Swift follows Virginia Woolfs footsteps in focusing on
the beauty of the city. Readers are familiar with the beginning of Mrs. Dalloway, the title
characters walk through London and her enthusiasm when experiencing moments of vision.
It reminds us in turn of one of Wordsworths sonnets. In Composed Upon Westminster
Bridge, Wordsworth presents London on the one hand as idyllic, on the other hand as dehumanized. According to Pike, the lines: The beauty of the morning; silent, bare/ Ships,
towers, domes, theatres, and temples lie/ Open unto the fields, and to the sky, show London
on a beautiful morning. In the last lines, London is not alive but lying still with its mighty
heart. Different perspectives of London show us that reality is fragmented, reflecting the
characters inner worlds and of their personalities. Their personalities are in a process of
change and evolution. This is the way the Romantics view the self in lyrical poetry:
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the romantics were fascinated with a particular view of the self, the self that Emerson
(1990) described as "that science baffling star [...] without calculable elements [which are] at
once the essence of genius, of virtue, and of life, which we call Spontaneity" (pp. 160-161).
The self is not rational and calculating, it is expressive and processual. (Streeter 2010: 238)
The fragmented reality does not reflect a rational view of the self, but an expressive
and processual one. Swifts poems are thus a mixture of Japanese haiku and of Romantic
moments of vision which view personality as changing through the characters observation of
present reality. Graham Swifts reflections on the novel1 are in line with this idea:
Todays news, which may be yesterday's anyway, will be eclipsed tomorrow.
One of the principal things novels can do is depict and explore this very transitoriness.
Theyre there to take the long view, to show change and evolution, human behaviour worked
on by time. But none of this means that novels, which can never be strictly of now, cannot
have their own kind of newness or have something which actually out-thrills the thrill of the
merely contemporary. They can have immediacy. (Swift 2011)
Swift shows the novels focus on character evolution and how the time separating us
from the time the characters live in becomes irrelevant, since the novel deals with universal
issues. What is more, he focuses on immediacy in his novels, just like in his poems. Rush
Hour depicts a transitory moment: that of travelers in a common means of transportation.
Some form of this moment will repeat almost every day, as many of these people travel back
and forth. However, the poets insight, and the connection between the travelers which creates
lyrical mood, is far more ephemeral. Although theoretically repeatable, this moment will not
have the same effect on the lyrical personas perception at all times. Swift refers to his
experience of this moment as this one, unrepeatable scene. To others such a moment may
pass unnoticed. The relation of this poem to Swifts novels is given by his concern with the
extraordinary in the ordinary. According to Lindsay, Swifts novels
deal with the extraordinary in the ordinary. His novels are about ordinary events in the
lives of ordinary people. However, in their voices Swift ponders some of the bigger issues of
life - death, birth, marriage and sex - as well as the everyday politics of relationships and
friendships. His intricate narrative patterns raise questions about the relationship between
personal histories and world events, between personal and public perceptions. (Lindsay 2002)
The extraordinary in the ordinary (about which Swift also writes in his poem
Unlooked-for: Ordinary moments that arent so ordinary at all) has to do with depth of
observation and situates Swifts poem Rush Hour in-between Imagism, Japanese haiku and
Romantic lyrical poetry. What the Romantics called moments of vision can go hand in hand
with the ideas of Japanese haiku. Both suggest a deeper level to reality. Imagism also borrows
from Japanese haiku the brief and concrete images which often suggest a deeper level than
just that of pure descriptive observation.
How is it possible to talk about haiku in a poem that is not written according to its
rules of form? Genre is a matter of the readers interpretation. This is how Jonathan Culler, in
1
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his book on semiotic approaches to literature, The Pursuit of Signs (1981), introduces one of
Todorovs theories. Although the theory focused on the fantastic literary genre, Todorovs
approach can explain the operations readers do with any literary genre. The fantastic genres
striking feature is figurative language; in a similar way, the haiku has features which remind
readers of this kind of experience of special moments in everyday life) which gain their
attention. The reader must perform imaginative transformations on the various things seen
and heard, Culler (1981: 76-77) describes the readers analysis of Blakes poems. Readers
imagine and interpret. They do not stop at what they expect to be there or at what seems to be
there. They are drawn into imagining a genre which is only suggested by Swifts poem. The
first two lines of Swifts poem Rush Hour are perceived as a haiku. In an interview with
Catherine Bernard, entitled Graham Swift ou le temps du rcit (1996), Swift confirms this
when he explains his intentions when writing: much more important for me is the emotional
side of fiction. Whether or not they can say theyve discovered some truth by reading my
book, I want my readers to have had an experience, I want them to be emotionally involved. If
its not about truth, then fiction is about compassion. (1996: 13). Provoking emotion through
imagery is, after all, the purpose of haiku poems.
References
Baig, Mahrukh. A Comparative Analysis of Ezra Pounds In a Station of the Metro
and T.S. Eliots The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock, M. Phil Applied Linguistics, Lecturer
English University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan.
Culler, Jonathan. 1981. The Pursuit of Signs, Cornell University Press.
Graham Swift on contemporary novels, in The Guardian, 4 June 2011.
Graham Swift. Interview with Catherine Bernard. Graham Swift ou le temps du rcit.
Eds. Michel Morel, Jean-Jacques Lecercle, Jean-Louis Picot and Marc Pore. Paris: Editions
Messene, 1996. 9-18.
Kao, Justine T. 2011. A Computational Analysis of Poetic Craft in Contemporary
Professional and Amaetur Poetry. A Thesis submitted to the Department of Symbolic Systems
of Stanford University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelors of
Science with Honors.
Leech, G., Short, M. 2007. Style in Fiction, London and New York: Longman.
Lindsay, Cora. 2002. Graham Swift, <www.contemporarywriters.com>
Streeter, Thomas. International Journal of Communication 4 (2010), Feature 237-240,
Body, the Romantic Self, and the Internet, University of Vermont.
Swift, G. Shuttlecock. London: Picador, 1997.
Swift, Graham. Making an Elephant. Writing from Within, New York: Alfred A.
Knopf, 2009.
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Abstract: Already renowned, although he is only 27 years old, Mircea Eliade publishes in
1934 three books, completely different from each other, in point of both structure and
composition: ntoarcerea din Rai [The Return from Paradise], Oceanografie
[Oceanography] and India.
The volume India, published three years after his oriental experience, represents the travel
notes of the young Romanian student, a form of exotic literature, written both as a confession
and as a collection of essays, in which Indias spirituality and magical practices are recorded
with amazement and satisfaction by the European conscience of a man coming from a
marginal culture. Disappointed by the European existential model, which he discusses in his
tririst (roughly, philosophy of life) novels, Eliade is in search of a model of spiritual
existence in India, and discovers that, in this space unknown to the Europeans, the philosophy
of life may encounter the mythical, in a dialogue which he is willing to reveal to the whole
world.
Keywords: exotic literature, trirism (philosophy of life), orientalism, dialog, confessional
writing
1
A se vedea i Milea, Doinia, Mircea Eliade. Intelectualul. Exiluri, transferuri, identiti, comunicare susinut n cadrul sesiunii
tiinifice cu participare internaional cu tema Centenar Mircea Eliade i Mihail Sebastian, mai 2007, organizat de Centrul de cercetare
filologic i dialog multicultural - din cadrul Universitii 1 Decembrie 1918 din Alba Iulia. Publicat n Annales Universitatis Apulensis,
Philologica 8, tom1, ISSN 1582 5523.p.9-12.
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n momentul in care are contactul direct cu lumea indian, Eliade nu poate dect s
intuiasc lecia Indiei, pe care ulterior o va transpune n teza sa de doctorat despre yoga,
publicat mai trziu cu titlul Yoga. Essai sur les origins de la mystique indienne, pentru ca
abia dup zece ani de la plecarea din India s nceap lucrul la Prolegomene la o istorie a
religiilor indiene, lucrare care va deveni n timp opera sa tiinific de referin.
Publicnd n 1934 volumul India, Eliade ofer cititorilor din interbelicul romnesc
imaginea unui Orient fabulos i erudit un amalgam strivitor de tradiii i peisaje, de
obiceiuri, ntmplri i oameni, care e el nsui doar un fragment din creuzetul imens i att de
puin cunoscut al unei Asii contemporane. [Ciurtin, 2007: 8] Orientul lui Eliade este,
tematic, diferit de cel al paoptitilor, Alecsandri i Bolintineanu, care au surprins n scrierile
lor Orientul musulman, rspndit ntre Africa de Nord i strmtoarea Bosfor, dar tnrul
indianist are n comun cu predecesorii si romantici apetena pentru descrierile de natur,
superbe i patetice. ntlnirea cu Ceylonul are un puternic impact asupra tnrului cltor
care nu precupeete cuvintele n descrierea pictural pe care o face acestui spaiu pe care
niciodat nu-l va uita: Iat fii de stnc, lespezi rupte de cutremure, muni rsturnai, care
i arat rnile lor mpietrite, semnele strivirilor i detunturilor din alte ere. O nuditate
surprinztoare pentru ncletrile vegetale din jur. Lespezi pure, albe, fumurii, peste care apa
alearg n mii de vine, ap ce scald numai coaja. Ies cteodat din nvlmeala junglei i se
arat n soare, nude i moarte, fr s-o umileasc, fr s-o acopere sub iureul ei, pzind-o n
acelai timp de fraii haini de alturi, plantele, care ateapt cu mii de ochi s-o striveasc, s-o
treag de pe faa luminii i s ridice deasupra ei o jungl nou. [Eliade, 2007: 22] Dac n
scrierile epice, Eliade consider descrierile drept fragmente care paraziteaz coninutul
romanului, pe care i-l dorete spiritualizat, n eseurile i notele de jurnal care compun
volumul India, tnrul cltor, pus fa n fa cu mreia peisajului indic nu-i cenzureaz
impresiile. [Simion, 2011: 347]
Aplicarea conceptului de orientalism asupra unora dintre scrierile eliadeti, impune
aducerea n discuie a altor doi termeni: alteritatea i exotismul. Cltorind din Ceylon i pn
n Himalaya indian, tnrul Eliade experimenteaz exotismul oriental, dar nu ca pe o stare
caleidoscopic specific turistului i spectatorului mediocru, ci ca pe o reacie de oc, vie i
curioas, a unei individualiti puternice mpotriva unei obiectiviti pe a crei distan o
percepe i o degust [Victor Segalen apud Antofi, 2008: 86]. Confesiunile consemnate n
jurnal evideniaz dimensiunile multiple ale primei sale experiene indiene, precum i bogia
cultural a unei tri care pn la el nu mai fusese literaturizat de nici un alt romn. n afara
romanticilor paoptiti, scriitorii romni, n majoritatea lor, nu au fost interesai de
transgresarea propriilor frontiere. Mircea Eliade, n timp ce citea la Roma o carte a lui
Surendranath Dasgupta, afl despre o remarcabil ofert de-a studia n India, graie unei burse
generoase oferit de maharajahul Manindra Chandra Nandy. n mod cert, diferit fa de
colegii si de generaie, Eliade, descoperind aceast oportunitate, ia hotrrea de-a pleca n
India n vederea realizrii unei teze de doctorat axat pe studiul filosofiei yoga, fiind atras de
ideea de diferen spiritual dintre lumea occidental i cea oriental, ncercnd prin aceast
cercetare s-i justifice n faa contiinei propria esen, adic s-i ndeplineasc un vis
secret, acela de a totaliza contrariile. [Eliade, 1990: 37] Richard Reschika, monograful
american al lui Eliade, e de prere c interesul crescnd al acestuia pentru spiritualitatea
indian se explic prin pasiunea lui pentru existenialismul european. El are n vedere, att
existenialismul german, reprezentat n principal de Heidegger, ct i existenialismul francez
i trirismul romnesc din anii treizeci: Dup Eliade, gndirea indian putea s intereseze
Europa sub trei aspecte: mai nti tratarea feluritelor determinri ale omului, apoi elaborarea
problemei temporalitii i a istoricitii umane i, n fine, cutarea unei soluii la spaima i
disperarea care apar o dat cu contiina temporalitii. [Reschika, 2000: 20] Dup experiena
indian, Eliade ajunge la concluzia c existenialul a fi n situaie, adic a fi supus
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India, o preocupare tot mai mare pentru documentarea sistematic i, din dorina unei
cunoateri complete, i asum o iniiere autentic n legile i credinele hinduse n momentul
n care pleac n explorarea acestei ri, pornind din insula Ceylon spre Himalaya indian,
trecnd prin India central, Sikkim i
pasul Kaiber. Orientul lui Mircea Eliade este n primul rnd un spaiu geografic
deosebit de pitoresc, dublat ns frecvent de un spaiu mental, generat de facultatea
imaginaiei. Plecnd de la ideea c n acest spaiu nou, contiina sa este pus n faa a dou
lumi, una imediat i alta mediat prin amintire, Eliade nelege c se afl la o rscruce: pe de
o parte descoper o civilizaie mai veche, aprtoare a unei Weltanschauung anistorice i
asociale, dar spiritualiste [Ghi, 2013: 42], i, pe de alt parte, pstreaz n minte o
civilizaie mai nou, aprtoare a unei Weltanschauung istorice i sociale, dar raionaliste.
[Ghi, 2013: 42]. Din aceast conjugare permanet dintre cele dou lumi care-i disput
supremaia n contiina tnrului cercettor, se profileaz n penumbr alteritatea ca dorin
metafizic care tinde ctre cel absolut altul [Lvinas apud Ghi, 2013: 44] Acest dialog
permanent care se stabilete ntre cele dou spaii culturale dau via unei lumi spiritualizate,
ilustrate n eseurile acestui volum care transpun ntr-o manier eteroclit portretul unei lumi
necunoscute () n care miticul i existenialul triesc ntr-o conjugalitate monstruoas
[Simion, 2012: 349]
Dac ar trebui s definim spaiul literar de apartenen, ar trebui s pornim de la
prefaa crii, n care autorul atrage atenia c India nu e nici un jurnal de cltorie, nici un
volum de impresii, nici unul de amintiri [Eliade, 2007: 19], ci mai degrab o nsumare de
reportaje i povestiri care dau textului un caracter fragmentar i voit autentic, real. Dincolo de
impresia general de autenticitate, textul se supune ntr-o oarecare msur regulilor ficiunii,
dat fiind faptul c la fiction assure cet espace, le lieu du texte et de la condition humaine, o
lcrivain, narrateur parfois, revit les images de sa propre vie, de son propre trajet dans le
monde, de sa jeunesse. [Milea, 2010: 176] Contrar celor spuse de autor n avantextul
volumului, India este n egal msur alctuit din toate aceste negaii, ntruct n paginile ei
pot fi identificate clauza calendaritii, subtitlul jurnal i identitatea dintre eul social i eul
creator. n acelai avantext, autorul precizeaz c volumul n discuie nu este o carte unitar
asupra Indiei [Eliade, 2007: 19], afirmaie care se confirm n timpul lecturii, ntruct
scriitura, n parte eseistic, n parte diaristic, nu las loc abordrii necesare unei viziuni
unitare. Lectura fiecrei pagini dezvluie cititorului nu att omul care a plecat n India s scrie
o carte, s fac o tez de doctorat sau o carier, ci pe acela care a avut afiniti prestabilite cu
India [Ioanid, India n Ramuri, 1934 apud Dosarul Eliade IV, 2000: 166], care trdeaz o
mare dragoste pentru sufletul Indiei, pentru spiritul ei religios i metafizic i o mare
nflcrare pentru vegetaia, pentru fauna, pentru clima i pentru toate celelalte contingene
cosmice capricioase i luxuriante, sublime i fatale ale acestei tri. [Martinescu, India, in
Munca literar, 1934 apud Dosarul Eliade IV, 2000: 162]
Bibliografie
Antofi, Simona, Proza paoptist i postpaoptist. Reevaluri critice, Europlus,
Galai, 2008.
Ciurtin, Eugen, Anii biseci i seciunea ntre dou lumi, prefa la Mircea Eliade,
India. Nopi la Serampore. Secretul doctorului Honingberger, Cartex 2000, Bucureti, 2007.
Eliade, Mircea, ncercarea labirintului, Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1990.
Eliade, Mircea, India. Nopi la Serampore. Secretul Doctorului Honigberger, Cartex
2000, Bucureti, 2007.
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Abstract: The seductiveness exercised by the figure of the Other often becomes encapsulated
into a special concern with women. And, as a series of postcoloni alism theorists from
Edward Said to Gayatri Spivak have emphasised, the Other is always gendered. The image of
the Gypsy woman has historically occupied an important place in non-Roma works of fiction,
such as novels and films. At the end of the nineteenth century the allure of Gypsies,
Bohemians or Tsiganes emerged as a twin sister to the Orientalism and primitivism
popular among the European aristocratic and educated elites. In Central Europe at that time
the entertainment of the nobility and the military was invariably accompanied by choirs and
troupes of passionate Gypsy musicians. The literature, operas and operettas of the same
period evoke the enamoured fascination with Gypsy women on the part of men from nonRoma high society. The imagery of the warmblooded Gypsy, momentarily defying male
domination by her personal choice of a partner (a non-Gypsy, or Gadjo, possibly) is the basis
of a narrative structure found equally in Romantic writers like Prosper Mrime or Alexander
Pushkin and in realists such as Leo Tolstoy, and even much later in the work of contemporary
filmmakers like Emir Kusturica and Tony Gatlif. The Gypsy woman is thus constantly
presented as steeped in mystery and erotic passion thanks to sexual and psychological
qualities that are presumed exceptional.
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With their big, black, round eyes, the girls of the tribe have a dignified look and a
slender bearing; they clap their hands against their bewitching hips with a clink of necklaces,
earrings and bracelets.1 The seductiveness exercised by the figure of the Other often becomes
encapsulated into a special concern with women. And, as a series of postcolonialism theorists
from Edward Said to Gayatri Spivak have emphasised, the Other is always gendered. The
image of the Gypsy woman has historically occupied an important place in non-Roma works
of fiction, such as novels and films just as the passionate Gypsy musicians.2
The literature, operas and operettas of evoke the enamoured fascination with Gypsy
women on
the part of men from non-Roma high society. The imagery of the warmblooded
Gypsy, momentarily defying male domination by her personal choice of a partner (a nonGypsy, or Gadjo, possibly) is the basis of a narrative structure found equally in Romantic
writers like Prosper Mrime or Alexander Pushkin and in realists such as Leo Tolstoy, and
even much later in the work of contemporary filmmakers like Emir Kusturica and Tony
Gatlif. The Gypsy woman is thus constantly presented as steeped in mystery and erotic
passion thanks to sexual and psychological qualities that are presumed exceptional.
In this article, I examine the particular form that the gendered image of the Gypsy
Other takes in literature Gypsy' female characters, they are represented as having divining
faculties, as experts in the magic arts. They are frequently depicted as exotic creatures with a
diabolic ability to bewitch non-`Gypsy' males, who cannot help falling madly in love with
them' against their will. In the next part I will focus in particular on the stereotype of the
`femme fatale', which emerged in nineteenth-century European literature and greatly
contributed to shape the imagery of the Gage about `Gypsy' women. The role played by
`Gypsy' female characters in works by non-'Gypsy' artists appears to follow a recurrent
pattern. In many works, the `Gypsy' is at the centre of some intricate plot, often entailing child
stealing, the use of magic or various forms of trickery. `Gypsies' are here perceived as
synonymous with ruse, deception and double-dealing: they are ambiguous, mischievous
characters by definition. Female figures in particular are portrayed as malicious and
treacherous. In addition to hatching evil plots and harbouring hostile feelings against non`Gypsies', they are also employed to give the narration a magic connotation. This is
particularly evident in literary works by nineteenth-century authors, where the presence of
`Gypsy' female characters is generally surrounded by a magnetic aura.
The appearance of the `Gypsy' character on the scene tends to provoke feelings of
admiration, surprise and amazement. Such is the appearance of Carmen at the beginning of
the homonimous short story by Prosper Merimee In Victor Hugo's Notre-Dame de Paris,
Esmeralda appears as a supernatural creature, a dazzlingly beautiful 'vision':
Dans un vaste espace laisse libre entre la foule et le feu, une jeune fille
dansait. [... ] Elle n'etait pas grande, mais eile le semblait, tart sa fine
taille s' elanciat hardiment. Elle etait brune, mais on devinait que le jour
sa peau devait avoir ce beau reflet dore des Andalouses et des Romaines.
[... ] Ses cheveux noirs, ses yeux de flamme, c'etait une surnaturelle
1
2
Zaharia Stancu,atra [The tribe], Editura Militar , Bucureti, first edition 1968, 1986, p 91
As explained in Henriette Asso, Les tsiganes, une destine europenne, Gallimard, Paris, 1994.
936
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creature3
Everybody seems completely absorbed in the contemplation of the `Gypsy' girl `Autour d 'eile tous les regards etaient fixes, toutes les bouches ouvertes' (around her,
all eyes were fixed and all mouths agape) - as if under a magic spell. Preciosa seems to
have an analogous effect on her audience:
El aseo de Preciosa era tal, que poco a poco fue enamorando los Ojos de cuantos la
miraban. De entre el son del tamborin y castanetas y fuga del baffle salio un rumor que
encarecia la belleza y donaire de la gitanilla, y corrian los muchachos a verla, y los hombres a
mirarla.4
This way of looking at `Gypsies' was quite widespread in nineteenth-century European
literature and contributed to establish Romani art as a recurrent literary trope. References to
`Gypsy' musical talent may be found in a wide range of authors, such as Cervantes,
Dostoevsky, Hugo, Tolstoy, Garcia. Lorca and many others. 5This is how Hugo describes the
singing talent of the young bohemienne:
`C'etait indefinissable et charmant; quelque chose de pur, de sonore, d 'aerien, d 'alle';
`eile semblait chanter, comme l 'oiseau, par serenite et par insouciance'. 6
But besides the vague atmosphere of enchantment created by their talent as dancers,
`Gypsy' girls seem to excite rather insane passions among the non-`Gypsies'. In Notre-Dame
de Paris, Frollo (a priest and alchemist) is devastated by his passion for Esmeralda. The
features of this love are unmistakenly described by the victim himself as the result of a magic
spell with terrible consequences:
Oh! quelle desertion de toute vertu! quel abandon desespere de moimeme!
Docteur, je bafoue la science; gentilhomme, je dechire mon nom;
prete, je fais du missel un oreiller de luxure, je crache au visage de mon
Dieu! tout cela pour toi, enchanteresse! pour titre plus digne de ton
enfer! 7
In Romantic literature starts from an opposition between the autonomy and the
resistance of Gypsies to authority - these are the characteristics of the underlying symbol of
freedom the figure of the Gypsy . They are treated as a community who loves and keeps its
freedom and political resistance , despite all the shortcomings and persecution . The most
representative in this regard was Pushkins e great poem Gypsies 8; written in 1824 , the hero
of which, Aleko became a favorite in the whole nineteenth-century Russian literature . He
became a prototype for " the superfluous hero " later . Aleko escapes from the civilized world
3
`In a huge space left free between the crowd and the fire, a young girl was dancing. [... ] She was
not tall, but so boldly erect was her slim figure that she looked it. She was dark, but you could tell
that in the daylight her skin must have had that lovely golden sheen of Roman or Andalusian women.
[... ] Her black hair, her fiery eyes, she was indeed a supernatural creature'. V. Hugo, Notre-Dame de
Paris (Paris: Gallimard, 1975), pp. 62-63; trans. by J. Sturrock.
4
`Preciosa was so attractive that as time went on she won the hearts of everyone who clapped eyes
on her. Amid the sound of tambourines and the castanets, and the flurry of the dance, praises of the
beauty and grace of the little gipsy girl brought the lads running to see her and the men to gaze at her'.
M. de Cervantes, Vovelas Ejemplares (Madrid: Ediciones Ctedra, 1980), p. 64; trans. by C. A. Jones.
5
On the theme of Gypsy art and music within the body of European literature, see Djuric's article
`Rome Sinti nella letteratura', in Lacio Drom 3-4 (1993), pp. 18-32.
6
`It was both enchanting and indefinable: something pure, resonant, aerial and winged, so to speak;
[... ] she seemed to sing like a bird, out of serenity and a light heart'. From V. Hugo, Notre-Dame de
Paris, p. 86; trans. by J. Sturrock.
7
'I have abandoned all virtue, have abandoned myself in despair! I am a doctor but I sneer at
learning, a gentleman but I dishonour my name, a priest, but I have made myself a pillow of debauchery, I spit in the face of my God! All
this for you, you enchantress! To be worthier of your
hell! ' V. Hugo, Notre-Dame de Paris, p. 468; trans. by J. Sturrock.
8
A.D.P. Briggs, "Did Carmen come from Russia?" in English National Opera Programme., 2004
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into an uncivilized existence : he chooses a nomadic Gypsy community for the scene of his
survival .The Rroma Vaida gladly accepts him , allowing him to share everything with them.
Only later does Aleko find out that the Gypsies are not only outside society, but also outside
historical time: once they had provided shelter to Ovid, during his political exile , act for
which the Gypsies have received the Orphic Songs , as a symbol of gratitude. Aleko falls in
love with the Vaidas daughter, Zemfira , who shares his feelings , so everything seems
perfect until we learn the secret of any Gypsy : they , free natures of birth,cannot become the
property of anyone, just like their love cannot be owned by anyone. Aleko cant bear the
girls unfaithful behaviour-a girl who would drive any man crazy with her beauty - and
becomes a murderer . The Vaida casts them out from his world , a world where no human
life nor love can become someone's property . Aleko yearned for his own liberty at the price
of Zemfiras freedom, which is unacceptable , so it is compulsory for him to return to where it
ran away from.
For the Romantic aesthetics bizarre impressions spiced with grotesque elements were
the long awaited expression of Otherness of the Gypsy in this case. The antagonism
between the bourgeois existence and the Gypsy intoxicates in the bud any attempts of
dialogue between the two groups . It is possible that Victor Hugo's novel Notre Dame de
Paris,9 written in 1831 to be the most successful example in this regard. Esmeralda is a street
dancer of Gypsy origins who is full of charm and compassion from birth, staying natural no
matter what she does . She is the center of the human drama of the story. Each and every
citizen of Paris is watching her incessantly, while she experiences the volatile moods of the
masses : at first, she is worshiped for her exceptional dance moves ,then w hated and despised
for being a witch; after which being praised for her dramatic rescue of Quasimodo . When the
king decides for her to be executed , he is firmly convinced that the Parisian crowd wants her
death. Esmeralda , the charming Gypsy girl is not able to make herself understood by the
people around her , though she fascinates them all, and everyone who comes into contact with
her, becomes a victim of her charms. In a world full of primitive superstitions , in which each
protagonist lives a world of obsession and hallucinatory visions, running towards a
predestined death Esmeraldas being a Gypsy is free ticket to the witches club . A highly
revealing twist in the plot of the novel is that she is not even a Gypsy , she was only
kidnapped and raised by them. The fact that she became a " Gypsy Witch " is due solely to
her surroundings and education - an issue worthy of the famous debate between Noam
Chomsky and Jean Piaget . 10 Her tragedy is the tragedy of a Gypsy Esmeralda . With a
similar catastrophe ends the love story between Don Jose and Carmen in the novel by
Prosper Merimee.
Unable to govern his desire, the male character seems indeed to be possessed by a
demon. Similarly, in Merimee's Carmen Don Jose cannot help falling in love despite himself:
`J'etait fou, [... ] J'etait comme un homme ivre' (I was crazy, I was like a drunken man).
Carmen, for her part, displays an astonishing awareness of her power over her lover. The
intentional nature of Carmen's seductive behaviour is essential to understand the textual
functions performed by `Gypsy' female characters. There is a great deal of audacity in
Carmen's beauty and she seems to exploit her sexuality as a sort of weapon, a challenge to the
male's capacity to impose his will upon her. Like Pushkin's Zemfira, she prefers to die rather
than to give up her freedom: `Tu veux me tuer, je le vois bien, dit-elle; c'est ecrit, mais tu ne
me feras pas ceder [... ] Carmen sera toujours libre. Calli eile est nee, calli eile mourra'. 11
9
Victor Hugo, The Hunchback of Notre Dame, Translated by John Sturrock. Penguin Classics, London, 1978
Language and Learning: The Debate Between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980
`You want to kill me, I can see that - she said - it is written, but you will never make me submit.
Carmen will always be free. Calli she was born, Calli she will die'. P. Merimee, Carmen at autres
nouvelles (London: Harrap, 1962), pp. 67-68; my translation.
10
11
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This attitude of mockery and defiance contrasts with that of non-'Gypsy' women. In Bizet's
Carmen, for example, we are presented with an opposition between the shy, innocent Micaela
and the insolent, malicious `Gypsy', underlined by the contrast between the former's fair
beauty and the dark beauty of the `Gypsy'.
The appearance of Micaela, a pretty, shy creature with tresses of fair hair, is very
different from the bold attitude of Carmen, as we read in the libretto. The emotions aroused
by `Gypsy' women represent the negative term of the manichean opposition between good
and evil, life and death. Such passions are always extreme, dangerous or even lethal; they
defy any rational order and may lead to a man's damnation and to his social death, that is, his
exclusion from civil society. What lesson can the reader learn from the tragic ending of a non`Gypsy"s love for a `Gypsy' woman? This negative finale could be interpreted in moral terms,
as the consequence of an infringement of well-established rules and conventions. On the other
hand, beneath the surface of this moral condemnation, we may detect a deeper message.
Passions involving `Gypsies' are not merely 'devilish: they are also highly `anti-structural' :
their violent and destructive nature is in symbolic opposition to more `constructive' forms of
love - i. e. marital love - which are officially sanctioned and recognized by the majority
society. A threatening and anti-structural character by definition, the female `Gypsy' is the
target of ambivalent feelings of attraction and revulsion. She is the object of an immoderate
desire, which stems from her own lack of restraint and morality: she represents a breach in the
hegemonic social and moral structures. In this sense, she epitomizes the condition of her
ethnic group, perceived as marginal and dangerous by the dominant society: the wild nature
of `Gypsy' lifestyle and customs is presented as a sign of their radical diversity and
incompatibility with the dominant social system. The readers may indeed sympathize with
these tragic heroines for their determination to defend their freedom at the cost of their life -a
form of celebration of the free spirit of the `Gypsy'. It is clear, however, that these characters'
heroic status is not meant to exceed the limits of the text: it is the outcome of a textual fiction
of the `Gypsies' which is ultimately functional to the reassertion of their position as outsiders.
From this point of view, the death of the `Gypsy' character may be likened to a sort of
expiatory rite which confirms the validity of the hegemonic order.
This is how Carmen charms him with a sexuality that makes her the constant center
of attention , and an icon of femininity at the sheer frontier of immorality.
Carmen, through her attitude, allows herself to be independent , and in the meantime
to avoid becoming the property of anyone , as stated by Sidiya V. Hartman :
Just like Zemfira couldnt bear any kind of chain around her ankles and couldnt be
owned by anyone, Carmen-in the same way- couldnt be enslaved by any love affair. Rather
the men around them are possessed by the devil after coming into contact with these charming
Gypsies. 12Both men are whites in trapped and fascinated by the beauty of the Gypsy ,
enslaved beauty and exoticism . Their greatest sin is trying to bind a freedom loving Gypsy .
How is the distance between Self and Other constructed through the use of a different
device, that of conceptualising the Other through its female figures? For the Gadjo, the Gypsy
and especially the Gypsy woman becomes a fantasised character and allows the imagining
of the Other. The question is why the female Roma is considered the most appropriate for
displaying this fiction of the Other. One might ask whether the practice of dressing up like
the women of the Other, as performed by Gadje, does not represent the expression of a vision
according to which, whatever they do, women cannot seriously endanger the foundations of
the political order. One might say, in this case, that transgression does not threaten the inter12
Saidiya V. Hartman , Scenes of Subjection: Terror, Slavery, and Self-Making in Nineteenth- Century America.,New York: Oxford
University Press, 1997, p. 82
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SECTION: LITERATURE
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ethnic boundary. At the same time, we observe how crossdressing, completely de-sacralised
and de-ritualised, is transformed under certain conditions into a type of fashion, becoming the
out-and-out instrument of the dominant Gadje ideals and ideology. It is in this way that
Gypsy fashion, consisting of numerous clinking jewels, flounced skirts, brightly coloured
cloth and so on, is presented in Western ready-to- wear catalogues as associated with a
hypothetical nomadic lifestyle and the wind from the steppes. So the Gypsy de luxe
featured by one of Jean-Paul Gautiers collections in 2005 is associated with a rekindling of
passion in the warm-blooded Gypsy woman. Winking an eye to the hippy years, chic Gypsy
style sets the latest trend.13
Female clothing is indeed strongly highlighted throughout all kinds of non-Roma
representations of Roma. To give one example: in Zaharia Stancus novel (1986/1968) the
only character privileged with being described in bright colours (all the others are dark,
obscure, grey) is the young Lisandra, a Gypsy who defies her husband by loving his rival:
The woman, knowing down to the last detail what lay in store for her (a public beating) had
put on a yellow cotton skirt and a white silk blouse; her waist was narrowed by a belt and her
hair fastened behind her neck by a blue ribbon.14 The same is visible in filmic representations
of Roma, such as Emil Loteanus,15 where the main erotic scene centres on the interminable
removal of her skirts by the main female character Rada an act of undressing that never
extends to nudity.
How does one explain this stress on womens clothing in non-Roma representations of
the Roma, and in particular on skirts? A psycho-sexual mystery seems incarnated by skirts,
and they are also extremely important to the Roma themselves. Among the Kaldarari with
whom I worked, skirts (rotkia) constituted an object of prime importance. They are seen to
protect the pure environment from the pollution contained in the genitalia (mij). The ways in
which they are worn, washed or destroyed
trace the lines of demarcation between the pure and impure symbolic areas delimited
on the body (the lower part is polluted, the upper part is pure). Skirts evoke metonymically
the boundary between Roma and Gadje and this is why they are such an important item in
womens dowries.
This two in one female body the separation and yet unavoidable connection
between the two halves evidenced by the compulsory use of the skirt seems to be portrayed
also by the mermaids which often figure in acrylic mural paintings inside Kaldarari houses
throughout Romania and sometimes also on the faades of houses or on carts. These paintings
are remarkable for their good sense of composition and symmetry, albeit without always
respecting the rules of perspective. Bare-breasted mermaids called Pharaonnes more often
than not with blonde hair, hybrid and fantastic, languish in larger-than-life grandeur in
landscapes dotted with little lakes covered with water-lilies, or on seas with sailing ships
floating on the horizon. The Pharaonnes are centrally positioned and immediately visible on
the wall opposite the entrance of a house, or else on the outside, above the door. In the overall
composition, they seem to reign over luxuriant and peaceful paradise worlds. If it is true that
Kaldarari see Roma women as mermaids in a broader and metaphoric sense, so do the Gadje.
Although the Gadje have no knowledge of Roma ideas about the female body and the role of
the skirt, they nonetheless erotically emphasise Roma womens breasts and their enigmatic,
troubling, hidden lower body. In Loteanus film, Rada is repeatedly shown bare-breasted and
Lisandra and the other girls of the Gypsy tribe are said to have little breasts, like apples.16
13
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Elsewhere in Stancus novel the two halves of the body are reversed and the world is
turned upside down (signifying the war which overthrows the status quo). Thus Lisandra,
after having been beaten by her husband in front of the whole tribe, appears as follows in the
eyes of others (and of the author): Spread across her shoulders and back, her black, shiny hair,
wet and
mixed with mud and blood, covered like a piece of strange and barbaric clothing the
whole of her upper body. The other part, with its curves, remained totally naked.17
One should note this allegory, so explicit for a patriarchal reading: the endangered
world order is announced by a rebellious woman; an adulteress, beaten half to death, stands
up, the two halves of her body interchanged from the viewpoint of the mermaid whose lower
part of her
body is normally uncovered. Likewise the character of Sabina in the film Gadjo
18
Dilo shows complete nudity only as prelude to a catastrophe: the Romanians set fire to
Roma houses after Sabina is seen washing her hair, her breasts naked and skirts covering her
lower body. It is worth mentioning that the main characters in all these various
representations are males, as are the authors.
Just as in large numbers of images depicting colonial situations (postcards or press
pictures), in the media that I am discussing here the women of the Other are fantasised and
displayed as aesthetically attractive and hence sexually desirable. But representations of
Roma women are very different from the colonial images that emphasise the domestication of
women,19 or display them nude for pornographic purposes.20
Roma/Gypsy women by contrast are draped in coloured clothing that appears to come
straight from the theatre, the carnival or bacchanalia. But this scenario contains the classic
elements of sexual attraction vis--vis the Other. Depicting Gypsy women as mermaids, on
the other hand, appears more a question of seduction than of rape (which, for the subjects of
colonisation, takes the form of the pornographic image). This seduction, which opens the door
to a kind of theatrical fiction-world, has a strong erotic dimension. Mircea Eliades fantasy
short story illustrates this stress on seduction very well.21 Its protagonist is spiritually initiated
by a mysterious encounter with Gypsy women: they appear as creatures of dream, attracting
and bewitching, testing the hero and leading him like spiritual guides or misleading as
mermaids do! Out of the dream, the question arises of taming this woman of the Other:
washing her, dressing or undressing her, while still observing her natural beauty. These
paternalistic views and practices toward the Others women reveal a typical relation of
domination.
Despite this, I see no contrast between Gadje fantasies and Roma practices centred on
femininity, but rather a continuity that needs to be emphasised. For Roma, as much as for
Gadje, the lower part of the female Roma body remains hidden from sight as the taboo half.
The particular eroticisation of the Gypsy woman by the Gadje meets the Roma image of
femininity. One could state that skirts precisely institute Otherness in this figure of the
mermaid. This continuity between representations does not obliterate the interethnic boundary
but, on the contrary, constantly works to reiterate it. The representations of Roma and Gadje
17
Ibid, p 31
Tony Gatlif, Gadjo Dilo (France/Romania), 1997
19
Eric Savaresse, Montrer la Fminit, Figurer lAltrit.Le Corps des Femmes Indignes dans lImaginaire
Colonial Franais Partir de lIllustration (19001940), in Le Corps dans tous ses tats : regards anthropologiques , Gilles Botsch and
Dominique Chev, CNRS, Paris, 2000, pp 3952
20
Boris Wastiau, Les Plaques Sensibles de la Mmoire Ethnographique. Congo Belge 18901930, in
Xspculations sur limaginaire et linterdit , Marc-Olivier Gonseth, Jacques Hainard and Roland Kaehr, MEN,
Neuchtel, 2003, pp 23965
21
Mircea Eliade, La ignci,Pe strada Mntuleasa, At the Gypsy Womens Place.On Mantuleasa Street, Humanitas, Bucuresti (first edition
1969), 2003
18
941
SECTION: LITERATURE
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women do not coincide but significantly overlap and help to reinforce a cultural politics that
is unfavourable to the aspirations of Roma to achieve the prerogatives of citizenship freely
granted to other Romanians. These registers accord Roma both a ritually marginal place and
the function of answering a bacchanalian need,22 rather than considering them as part of an
overarching and effectively shared culture. And the museum is only one example of the
representation of the Gypsy Other at work in other cultural institutions, both formal and
informal. Every cultural form that I have discussed (the fair and museum, fantastical or realist
novels and feature films) ceaselessly proclaims a Roma/Gypsy femininity turned into a
fantasy by the Gadjes coordinates of the unconscious: they emphasise a costumed, fictional
Gypsy heroine, herself a disguised form of seduction in all its meanings. In modern times, in a
more oblique way, as we have seen, romantic poetry and fashion all connive at a similar
attitude towards Gypsies. Although the modes of expression are not the same in all the
cultural products concerning Roma that have been mentioned here, it seems to me that it is a
question each time of the same poetics of the Other, based on a semantic configuration in
which the categories woman and Gypsy are closely related. The Gadje way of thinking
about Roma through their womenfolk is also related to the absence of women in the museumbased discourse of Nation and Peasant. To de-poeticise, in order to politicise, as Anik Imre
puts it, does not seem part of the vision underlying institutional thinking for the immediate
future, either in the Museum or in other Romanian institutions. In her words, poetry and
irony function to distance ideal femininities from actual women and to silence the gender
politics of representation.23
In this sense and more generally one might reflect that the way in which the female
body is imagined is mirrored by the role that society accords to women in politics.24 This also
relates to more general paradigms: the control of the Other is achieved through the
manipulation of the image of his women.25 this institution exploits stereotypes of Gypsies to
project an image that is oneiric, absurd and carnivalesque, and it does so at least in part
through the utilisation of women and images of femininity. Beyond the continuities between
representations of the Roma/Gypsy woman by both Roma and Gadje, what is at stake is the
unquestioned creation of a depoliticised system of thought that works to ghettoise the Roma
in the Romanian imagination and self-conceptualisation.
At the heart of this representational system resides the female body and its appearance:
the Gypsy costume is dislocated and instrumentalised in an elitist Gadjo world. In other
words, the cultural use of the body in the context of dislocation appears to utilise to perfection
the means offered by the system of Rom meanings translated into a pure objective: that of
domination. This coherence as concerns the representation of the feminine is an efficient
means of maintaining the status quo of gender in Gadje and Roma societies and of conserving
the inter-ethnic boundary.
Bhattacharyyas tales titled The story of the exotic dancer from her book Tales of
dark-skinned women: Race, gender and global culture. In it, she describes an interpretation of
Salome, whose character can relate to that of Carmens :
The term bacchanalia, originally the feast of Bacchus in Roman antiquity, is a synonym for orgy. This term is used in Mattijs Van De
Port, Gypsies, Wars and other Instances of the Wild: Civilization and its Discontents in a Serbian Town , Amsterdam University Press,
Amsterdam, 1998. Van de Port uses it to speak of the feasts of unreason (lumpovanjie) celebrated by Serbs, who have Gypsy musicians
play in bars.
23
Anik Imre, Hungarian Poetic Nationalism or National Pornography? Eastern Europe and Feminism With a
Difference, in Violence And The Body. Race, Gender and the State , ed Arturo Aldama, Indiana University Press,
IndianapolisBloomington, 2003, pp 3958, p 57
24
As argued in Moira Gatens, Imaginary Bodies, Ethics, Power And Corporeality, Routledge, LondonNew York, 1996
25
As argued in Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Selected Subaltern Studies , ed with Ranajit Guha,
Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1988; and in Laura Nader, Orientalism, Occidentalism and the
Control of Women, Cultural Dynamics , II:3, 1989, pp 32355.
22
942
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Gargi. Bhattacharyya,Tales of dark-skinned women: Race, gender and global culture. London:
UCL Press, 1998. Print., p330
27
Thinking the Difference: For a Peaceful Revolution. Translated by Karin Montin. New York,
Routledge, 1994, p. 14
28
Jayna.Brown, Babylon Girls: Black Women Performers and the Shaping of the Modern,London: Duke University Press, 2008., p.255
29
Doane, Mary Anne. Femme Fatales: Feminism, Film Theory, Psychoanalysis. New York:
Routledge, 1991, p.1-2
30
Colmeiro, Jos F. Exorcising Exoticism: Carmen and the Construction of Oriental Spain.
Comparative Literature. Vol. 54, No. 2 (Spring 2002): p.144
943
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Bades book, Femme Fatale: Images of Evil and Fascinating Women, where he states the
following: Of course wicked women had always existed in art as in life, and there had
always been men who feared female sexuality or who took a masochistic delight in fantasies
of fatal women. The superstitions that women are bringers of ill-luck and that they sap men of
their virility and creativity, that they are tainted with evil and devious and mischiefmaking by
nature are, in more or less primitive forms, universal. 31
She does not want to be subjugated or dominated by anyone. She is showing resistance
and is not afraid of the consequences. The Roma woman embodies the heroic defiance of free
spirit, desire, and natural instinct over the social governing modernity. She is the idealized
image of the bohemian. But for those same reasons she also represents a symbolic threat. Her
natural freedom warrants her autonomy, as she will not be tied to any man, and this
constitutes a permanent threat to the confused identities of don Jos, the French narrator, and
ultimately Mrime
But Gypsies , girls and women are not only provocative and victims of fate, they are
also spokespersons of destiny . It seems that the most recognized occupations of Gypsies are
thievery and fortunetelling. Taken any appearance of them in literature, Gypsies seem to be in
extremely good relations with the future, which can be based on the fact that they are outside
historical time . As in Baudelaire 's poem about nomadic Gypsies or Bohemians , they are
uprooted in the present moment, but feel at home in the future.
while Carmen incarnates the principles of freedom espoused by bohemians, her
independence threatens the male dominated social and narrative order 32 It is not surprising
that Carmen fails to conform to any mans orders. She does not want to yield to anyone and
refuses to change or be saved With regards to possession, Saidiya Hartman states: The
disregard of sexual injury does not divest slave women of gender but reveals the role of
property relations---the possession of the enslaved---and racial subjugation in the constitution
of gender and sexuality. Possession occurs not via the protections of the patriarchal family
and its control of female sexuality, but via absolute rights of property. Therefore terms like
protection, domesticity, and honor need to be recognized as specific articulations of
racial and class location. The captive female does not possess gender as much as she is
possessed by gender---that is, by way of a particular investment in and use of the body. 33
Although Carmen does not wish to be held captive by anyone, she allows her body to
be used for the purpose of gaining fame, luxuries, and envy. She refuses to be possessed and
wants to be free. Following Luce Irigarays premise on love, The elevation of love to its
human and divine identity is, from the point of view of the genesis of our culture, womens
concern. And when women are banished from love or dispossessed of it, when their divinity
as lovers is forgotten, love once more becomes drives that verge on animality, disembodied
sublimation of them, or death 34 Carmen and don Joss love-hate relationship, cause an
obsession with one other, but yet, a resistance towards ownership and consumption. In his
book , The Scene of Harlem Cabaret: Race, Sexuality, Performance, Shane Vogel discusses
modes of nightlife performance that parallel with the scene of the cabaret. One argument that
coincides with the relationship between the Roma girl and the Gadje male is their actual
interaction with one another. They seem so close, yet so far from each other, and both resist in
31
Patrick. Bade, Femme Fatale: Images of evil and fascinating women. London: Ash & Grant Ltd.,
1979,p.9
32
Colmeiro, Jos F. Exorcising Exoticism: Carmen and the Construction of Oriental Spain.
Comparative Literature. Vol. 54, No. 2 (Spring 2002), 138
33
Hartman, Saidiya V. Scenes of Subjection: Terror, Slavery, and Self-Making in NineteenthCentury America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997, p.100
34
Luce, Irigaray, An Ethics of Sexual Difference. Translated by Carolyn Burke & Gillian C. Gill.
New York: Cornell University Press, 1993, p.95
944
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Shane,Vogel, The Scene of Harlem Cabaret: Race, Sexuality, Performance. Chicago & London:
The University of Chicago Press, 2009, p.63
36
Speculum of the Other Woman. Translated by Gillian C. Gill. New York, Cornell University, Press, 1985, p.15
37
Jos F., Colmeiro, Exorcising Exoticism: Carmen and the Construction of Oriental Spain.
Comparative Literature. Vol. 54, No. 2 Spring 2002, p. 139
38
Jayna , Brown. Babylon Girls: Black Women Performers and the Shaping of the Modern.
London: Duke University Press, 2008, p.99
39
Idem, p.60
40
Jos F., Colmeiro, Exorcising Exoticism: Carmen and the Construction of Oriental Spain.
Comparative Literature. Vol. 54, No. 2 Spring 2002, p. 128
945
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the feminine myth. It is through both male and female protagonists that issues of race,
marginality, sexuality and resistance unfold to arrive at a state of reconfiguration through the
other,17 possession and consumption. It is through the death of the other that the male gender
can arrive to a utopian state of mind because he is able to possess the highest of his ideals.
Don Jos clearly symbolizes bourgeois honor, duty, and possessiveness, yet he also
embodies the fatal attraction to the life of freedom outside of bourgeois conventionality
offered by Carmen 41. In order to free himself, as well as Carmen, he must end her life. With
this act, consumption and possession has been fulfilled.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
I would like to thank the POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652 Project entitled Sistem integrat
de mbuntire a calitii cercetrii doctorale i postdoctorale din Romnia i de promovare a
rolului tiinei n societate for its substantial financial support in my research.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. Asso, Henriette, Les tsiganes, une destine europenne, Gallimard, Paris, 1994
2. Bade, Patrick, Femme Fatale: Images of evil and fascinating women. London: Ash &
Grant Ltd., 1979
3. Bhattacharyya, Gargi, Tales of dark-skinned women: Race, gender and global culture.
London:UCL Press, 1998
4. Briggs, A.D.P. "Did Carmen come from Russia?" in English National Opera
Programme., 2004
5. Brown, Jayna , Babylon Girls: Black Women Performers and the Shaping of the
Modern. London: Duke University Press, 2008
6. Colmeiro, Jos F., Exorcising Exoticism: Carmen and the Construction of Oriental
Spain. Comparative Literature. Vol. 54, No. 2 Spring 2002
7. Doane, Mary Anne. Femme Fatales: Feminism, Film Theory, Psychoanalysis. New
York:Routledge, 1991
8. Eliade, Mircea, La ignci, Pe strada Mntuleasa, At the Gypsy Womens Place.On
Mantuleasa Street, Humanitas, Bucuresti (first edition 1969), 2003
9. Gatens, Moira, Imaginary Bodies, Ethics, Power And Corporeality, Routledge,
LondonNew York, 1996
10. Hartman, Saidiya V. Scenes of Subjection: Terror, Slavery, and Self-Making in
Nineteenth-Century America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997
11. Hugo, Victor, The Hunchback of Notre Dame, Translated by John Sturrock. Penguin
Classics, London, 1978
12. Imre, Anik, Hungarian Poetic Nationalism or National Pornography? Eastern
Europe and Feminism With a Difference, in Violence And The Body. Race, Gender
and the State , ed Arturo Aldama, Indiana University Press, Indianapolis
Bloomington, 2003
13. Irigaray, Luce, An Ethics of Sexual Difference. Translated by Carolyn Burke &
Gillian C. Gill, New York: Cornell University Press, 1993
41
Idem, p. 136
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14. Language and Learning: The Debate Between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky,
Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980
15. Merimee, P., Carmen at autres nouvelles , London: Harrap, 1962
16. Nader,Laura, Orientalism, Occidentalism and the Control of Women, Cultural
Dynamics , II:3, 1989
17. Port, Mattijs Van De, Gypsies, Wars and other Instances of the Wild: Civilization and
its Discontents in a Serbian Town , Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam, 1998
18. Savaresse, Eric, Montrer la Fminit, Figurer lAltrit.Le Corps des Femmes
Indignes dans lImaginaire Colonial Franais Partir de lIllustration (1900
1940), in Le Corps dans tous ses tats : regards anthropologiques , Gilles Botsch
and Dominique Chev, CNRS, Paris, 2000
19. Speculum of the Other Woman. Translated by Gillian C. Gill. New York, Cornell
University, Press, 1985
20. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty, Selected Subaltern Studies , ed with Ranajit Guha,
Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1988
21. Stancu, Zaharia, atra [The tribe], Editura Militar , Bucureti, first edition 1968,
1986
22. Thinking the Difference: For a Peaceful Revolution. Translated by Karin Montin. New
York, Routledge, 1994
23. Vogel, Shane,The Scene of Harlem Cabaret: Race, Sexuality, Performance. Chicago
& London: The University of Chicago Press, 2009
24. Wastiau, Boris Les Plaques Sensibles de la Mmoire Ethnographique. Congo Belge
18901930, in Xspculations sur limaginaire et linterdit , Marc-Olivier Gonseth,
Jacques Hainard and Roland Kaehr, MEN, Neuchtel, 2003
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The Hallipas Cycle is constituted of the novels that have the members of Hallipa familiy in the center of their plot: Fecioarele despletite
(The Dishevelled Maidens - 1926), Concert din muzic de Bach (A Concert of Bachs Music - 1927), Drumul ascuns (The Hidden Road 1933), Rdcini (Roots - 1938). The edition used for all citations is: Papadat-Bengescu, Hortensia, Opere, vol. 1-3, Bucharest, Fundaia
Naional pentru tiin i Art, Romanian Academy, 2012.
1
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abroad and obtain University degrees which they would make use of later when they came
back in Romania.
Such was the case for Elena Drgnescus child since she was the wife of a deputy.
She had instilled strict rules for her boy, Ghighi, whom she had rationalized the food, the air,
the recreation (The Dishevelled Maidens, vol. 1, p. 563). Dia, Norys sister, had also been
raised and educated by her Swiss mentor teacher, Mado. Dia had attended schools abroad for
a long time in Geneva. Prince Maxeniu had also benefited from an English nurse who had
taken pity on him for being the son of a dishevelled maiden Zaza, the French cabaret star.
Each and every Hallipas child had gone abroad to obtain a diploma Hallipas Twins had
gotten a degree in Pharmacy and Bacteriology in Germany, Mika-L had been at Notre-Dame
de Paris, Coca-Aime and Elena had been in Switzerland. Marcian, Prince Maxenius cousin,
was the son of a nurse and under her disciplining influence he had become a worldwide
famous musician.
Young ladies got married to whom their fathers ordered them to or they feared they
might have become spinsters (e.g. Aneta Pascu, Tana, Gramatula). Elena got married to
Drgnescu in order to save her legacy and signed the cession her father asked her to. Dia
obeyed her fathers will Boyar Dinu and got married to Vranas son who was bankrupt but
possessed a social title. Coca-Aime got married to her mothers husband Dr. Walter in
order to avoid poverty, and Dr. Walter had observed his wifes pray to help Coca-Aime with
this. Marrying out of love or searching for love was a rare case and mostly it was meant to fail
one way or another: Elena took many years with interruptions and highs and lows in relating
to her lover, Marcian; Mika-L never found love no matter how many relationships she had
tried; Mini was divorced of her rich husband.
Partnerships between man and woman were started out as trades. Ada Razu married
Prince Maxeniu for the sake of his title of nobility and he wanted to save his lands with her
money. Dr. Walter had based his fortune on Salemas riches. Ada married Lic in order to
push him into politics and gain advantages out of his position she had gained ownership on
the Princes horses and stables and was using them for races to drain her money.
Thus Elena now lived in the only house in Bucharest where all the taps worked and
Mini also benefited from the warm running water to take long pleasant baths with a sponge in
a tub. Elena owned the only store with musical instruments in Bucharest and she was able to
organize concerts with artists: The music shop, shadowy and cool there behind, under the
stairs leading to the upper floor, was crowded and noisy towards the entrance and at the desks.
That autumn, the Opera held the record of solicitations as well as it used to hold it some other
time for the symphonic poems (A Concert of Bachs Music, p. 683). Bach was preferred out
of snobbism and a tendency to project a serious image onto the society, although Mozart was
perceived as jolly and pleasant ladies loved Dr. Rims play of Don Juan on a violin,
admitting they had grown tired of that lugubrious atmosphere their whole life was
impregnated with.
Dr. Rim used to play chamber music once a week at the Schmidts. There, Mr. Schmidt
a pharmacist played the double bass, Dr. Rim played the violin or the flute, Mr. Tuchte,
owner of a model dairy, played the cello and Mrs. Schmidt played the piano. Together they
formed a perfect quartet and they had fun.
Elenas house, as well as Dias, was open to visits for coffee and tea at certain
hours, a fix time of the day, complying to a strict program and rules. Dia was in charge with
taming the servants (Roots, vol. 2, p. 469). Visitors were served sweet wines and various
cookies (The Dishevelled Maidens, vol. 1, p. 565). Dias fix program of meals bothered Nory
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who had not been raised into such a noble environment as Dia, and used to eat at any time of
the day, whenever she felt hungry.
Dia and Elena held accounting books, they checked things up, they knew how to
handle their familys finances.
The upper class representatives all spoke foreign languages such as French, English,
German. Ada addressed Lic in French in the street although she was actually insulting him.
Dia wrote letters in French. Elena knew English. The writer uses neologisms to designate the
newest aspects of technology in the Romanian language wattman (for the tramcar driver),
hall, golden party, bob-sleigh, sex-appeal, sandwich etc.
In Lascr Catargiu Avenue houses were still rare and newly built. Elenas house in
Lascr Catargiu Avenue included a music chamber (room) where people gathered and
listened to classical music be played on piano, violin etc. Furniture was made mainly out of
walnut and Cordoba leather (The Dishevelled Maidens, vol. 1, p. 562). Her husband came
from a family of publicans who sold a lot of wine and had big deposits in Dealu Spirii (a
place in the very centre of Bucharest).
Men offered financial help to the whole family and to the extended family inclusive of
sisters, sisters in law etc. Elena kept on living together with her sister in law, Tana, even after
Drgnescus death as well as Dia kept on sharing her life with her step mother, Cornelia,
with her sister in law Ms. Deleanu after Deleanu died. Strangers felt obliged out of
principles to help poor unhappy persons who were innocent victims of fate: Mika-L got a
dowry from Gramatula who was no consanguineous relative of hers, then Tana wanted to
offer her another big dowry and arrange a family life for her and her child. Dr. Walter married
Coca-Aime his wifes daughter only to keep his promise to his wife and to help her, to
protect her without going to bed with her because he did not appreciate her as a wife or as a
human though she was an ideal of physical beauty.
These people showed respect towards ancestors and hung their portraits on the walls
of their palaces. At his house the Barodin Palace next to Calea Victoriei, Dr. Walter had
Salemas portrait right at the entrance. Salema had been his mistress though she was old and
fat and a bankers wife and he owed her the construction of the sanatorium at the end of
Kiseleff Highway and the whole fortune of his becoming a famous physician, owning his own
private clinic too. While his lover Salema was still alive he had acquired lots of costly objects
of art paintings, bibelots, furniture, carpets (The Hidden Road, vol. 1, p. 847) bearing
notorious names like Lalique, Van Beers etc. The sanatorium was also a museum at the same
time, it was equipped with state of the art technology and a laboratory where he studied and
searched for new toxic substances. He did not enjoy going to clubs and coffee shops, he hated
social gatherings, he hated showing off. He had the latest automobiles a Rolls, a Buick and
a Chrysler. Coca-Aimes friend, Cora Persu, used a Buick to travel inside Bucharest. Elena
also had a fancy automobile, a Lincoln. Dia had a Chrysler and the coachman had been sent to
a driving school.
Doru Hallipa kept his mothers portrait at the entrance hall of Prundeni house.
As regards the future, that is marriage, pensioners were true modern bourgeois and
had in mind three kinds of candidates: the tennis comrade, the billionaire producer and the
nobleman with a title but no money left in his pockets (The Hidden Road, p. 866). For such
purposes young ladies went to clubs, e.g. the Sports Club. There one could see how pairs got
to link and split (id., p. 1034). Cora Persu attracted Coca into a dangerous game. They got out
of the car and walked in the street flirting with different kinds of men. The fun was to study
their reactions and those reactions depended on each type of a man that was being mislead
young wolves, old dirty lewd jerks, don juans, workers etc. The girls quickly and suddenly
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climbed back into the car. Yet, at times rape was one step away from happening because the
young lady was unprotected by an adult of the family, out in the city the driver himself was
a danger even though he was employed by that very young ladys family (Coca-Aime).
Coca-Aime took her mother out at the opticians on Calea Victoriei (Victorys
Avenue) to buy a lorgnette so that they could go to the horse races and watch them. At
painting expositions men wore monocles: there were two categories of monocles: the
diplomatic monocle and the snobbish monocle (The Dishevelled Maidens, vol. 1, p. 573).
These people went to balls where they could hear all kinds of variants of style and
tone: polite sentences, compliments more or less skilful, discussions, complicated or careless,
cancans, jokes (...) and the young peoples jargon young club members friends (The
Hidden Road, vol. 1, p. 979).
For such parties or for auctions people mostly ladies but men, too went out to buy
certain materials such as taffeta or laces or satin or crepe de Chine, silk etc., then went to the
tailors to have them made. Dia went to a fashion house in the centre to renew her wardrobe.
Lics tailor is very busy with famous clients and earns a lot of money out of this business.
Right after his marriage with Ada, he went to have some sport suits tailored, and Prince
Maxeniu wore a sportsman suit in order to please Ada though he was not keen at all on sports
and horses. The race course was a place where high-society loved to gather around and
socialize Coca-Aimes young friends (Zossima, Pejan, Bubi, The Persus Sisters etc.),
Lenora, Lic, Ada, Maxeniu etc. Ada took great care of her horses and had hired specialized
personnel for them.
Ada took Prince Maxeniu out in the city in their dog-cart so that everybody could
notice them better and acknowledge her as a Princess since she came from a tradesmans
gipsy family and now she had climbed up the social ladder. They also had a car but the dogcart provided more visibility out in the city. As a counterexample, Dr. Walter always travelled
in his automobile with the windows closed so that nobody could see him.
The Hallipas also owned a dog-cart which they used to travel everywhere. Mini, a
friend of the family, used their dog-cart to get back to Bucharest where she felt best. She
loved the Live Citadel especially for the comfort it brought.
The wealthy families employed coachmen, drivers, gardeners, land administrators who
were agricultural experts. Drgnescu died at Walters clinic of heart failure. Rich people
only were the clients of Dr. Walter.
Dia had the most modern suitcases. She cared a lot about her furniture and allowed no
one to wipe them from dust. She had a house at Izvor and used to have another one in
Plantelor Street. The furniture was Empire style. Dr. Walter furniture was Empire, too. Dia
kept inside goblins, embroidered pillows, brocade etc. Her second husband had been killed on
a national feast day by a knife, in front of the Athenaeum, for a low mean reason adultery
but the public opinion had speculated that it was a political assassination. Dia and Mado had
the habit of watching the shop windows in Paris or in Bucharest in order to memorize
models of blouses and knit or sew them later from memory.
Dias house in Plantelor Street was built in the Renaissance style. Hortensia PapadatBengescu adds that most of the buildings of our capital were built in this style: this style used
to be the jewel of our capital before the war (Roots, vol. 2, p. 514) (i.e. World War One).
Dia also used to own a stable of race horses which she used to rent and make money out of it.
We are also told about a baroness who switches off the lights in order to save money.
(Roots, vol. 2, p. 511) The rest of the country was not electrified, but in the capital the richest
people had even electric bulbs. Nory daydreamed and her vision contained a Venetian
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lantern (id., p. 481). Even the richest had debts and we hear that the real estate prices were
rising.
Women had their secrets they kept from the men in their families and they had a hard
time disclosing them to men. These secrets referred to diseases that affected the feminine sex
womb cancer, haemophilia etc. Lenora feels ashamed to confess her bleedings to her
husband, Dr. Walter as well as she had felt ashamed to avow Doru Hallipa that she had been
raped by the Italian painter and decorator. Madona also feels ashamed to tell her husband, Dr.
Caro, that she was suffering from haemophilia. She confessed it to Nory when her death came
closer and in the meantime the whole relationship with her husband got ruined because she
refused to make sex with him and thus they suspected each other of cheating and both were
acting jealous towards each other.
Men went to nightclubs where women danced and sang half naked.
There was a new fashion in the city: the woman had to be slim, hipless as the
mannequin de Maison Lys: without the pelvis of life, created not to bear children but the last
models of Premet, some silk scarf on an inexistent body, wearing a tiger fur, with a small
insolent head that was painted in such a way that the life of the skin should not be felt (The
Dishevelled Maidens, p. 464). Eliza, Doru Hallipas second wife, was not shaped according
to the newest model (The Dishevelled Maidens, vol. 1, p. 513), according to this new
fashion, she was a bit fat.
The middle class was in full ascension and it referred mainly to physicians, artists or
others who gained access to the high society.
Dr. Lina Rim was native of Tecuci, a province town. She had access to rich clients and
had thus gathered a nice amount that allowed her at least in theory to buy a beautiful,
artistic house that her husband, Dr. Rim, appreciated and longed for. They were actually
living in a poor house with poor furniture that was poorly decorated. It was Linas peasant
furniture that she had brought from Tecuci. She felt compelled to give up her child, Sia,
whom she bore without being married, in order to be able to graduate from Faculty of
Medicine and become a respected and wealthy gynaecologist.
Mr. Ipolit Persu was a member of scientific commissions but his house had almost no
furniture and the furniture was scarce, poor and cheap. His daughters did not benefit from a
high education and lost their time with uneducated young people, and were quite cunningly
towards everybody. They went to the Sports Club to access the high society, they were
manipulating Coca-Aime to bring Dr. Walters Lincoln (automobile) and played wicked
games on young men in the street, endangering Coca-Aime. Boyar Dinu Dias and Norys
father used to attend the Royal Club (Roots, vol. 2, p. 515).
Dr. Caro started out poor. When they lived in Berthelot Street, his wife Madona used
to do the laundry for other people to earn money and they had bed-bugs in that flat. Madona
complained that the campaigns against bed-bugs were inefficacious. He gradually grew rich
and bought a Chrysler automobile. He got to be a lecturer at the faculty, too. He decorated his
cabinet and bought state-of-the-art devices such as the radioscopy equipment (Roots, vol.
2, p. 475) in order to please his high-life clients ladies who needed abortions, or needed
help in child labour, or needed appendectomy etc. As Dr. Lina, he practiced gynaecology and
surgery and this proved to be an inspired choice from the point of view of the financial future.
As midwife Mari complains that people had given up midwives services and started
to ask for physicians only for such cases. Now midwives grew poor because they were losing
all their clients.
Dr. Rim was a professor at the Faculty of Medicine, he also had artistic
preoccupations such as collecting paintings and stamps, playing the violin and the flute but he
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did not gain as much as his wife. The Hallipa Twins were working in the facultys laboratory,
in the underground, doing a work of research, and they hardly gained anything since they had
to fight their father, Doru Hallipa, at the court of law, in order to win a mere house where they
could live.
Dr. Caro and Dr. Rim had also benefited from a musical education, they both played
the violin and other instruments.
Lic feels tempted to go to the Stock Exchange that had just appeared in our country at
that time but he heard that people committed suicide and the atmosphere in there was
extremely crowded and stifling. Jobless people like Lic tried to earn money out of fortune
games (playing cards etc.) or by misleading others in trades and negotiations. He also felt free
to have a rest in other the gardens of other people.
New jobs had entered the market at that time. These were deemed as honourable:
tram ticket seller, shop assistant or fiddler (Roots, vol. 2, p. 503), typewriting and
manicure (The Dishevelled Maidens, p. 518): The suburbian girl had disappeared and was
exotic, and the new professions, the urban ones, typewriting and manicure, had shaped the
form of the suburb. The driver was the quintessence of the suburban boy moulded by
mechanics as by fire, to take a form that yesterday still used to lead to anything (id., p. 518).
The electrician had new perspectives ahead.
Fiddlers had replaced their old romances with the chimmy and the Mon home (id., p.
516). The modern troubadours wore long waistcoats, long shoes, shaved faces, rare hair with
no haircut, forced movements, rigid walk, disgust and laziness, true or fake exhaustion to let
one know that their temperament was the lack of temperament. They did not know that their
partners had to be scanty mannequins; on narrow busts they had to wear breasts that
scabrously pointed out in an unsuccessful attempt as any voluptuous form, meaningless faces,
exaggerated eyes, lanky arms. Models that had been created for the new dances or out of the
ferment of the ultimate ideas of extreme civilization. It was the European model, whose
structure had emerged of the slow transformation phenomenon, in conflict with the sudden
accidents. (id., p. 516).
Mothers educated their children according to the heroes they had met in books or on
the silver screen, at the cinema.
Nory Dias younger step sister and Boyar Dinus bastard daughter had been taken
to the schools in Bucharest (Roots, vol. 2, p. 563). She had gone to Pitar Mo Nuns School,
then she had graduated two faculties Law (Political Economics) and Philology. She became
a feminist and helped women by providing her services to a non-profit woman assistance
organization. She worked at the Palace of Justice that was extremely crowded.
Eleven years younger Aneta Pascu gives Nory the impression that students in her
(Norys) generation were not garbage and they paid their taxes, their rent, their meals
(Roots, p. 398), they did not go begging for money to strangers.
Aneta inherited her obsession of coming and living in Bucharest from her mother in
Vaslui who remained with her eyes stuck on the window for hours and hours. She was the
daughter of a bailiff and the sister of a magistrate who worked at the Palace of Justice. She
wanders through Bucharest a lot and through her eyes we can get a more detailed image of
our capital. We learn that the best cheese pies in Bucharest were sold by Dragomirs.
The streets were full of eating houses and pub houses one next to another. One
fashionable tavern was in Piaa Teatrului (Theatres Square) (id., p. 313). There was an
Atheneum in the Tei area, too, except for the one we still know nowadays.
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Nory remembers that she and her student fellows used to invade the confectioneries on
Elisabeta Avenue and they paid the bills by turns. As she walked in the street with Aneta, the
air was full of smoke and it smelled like fried fat.
In Elisabeta Avenue there was also a cafeteria where students could come and have
lunch. Groups of dancers were gathering there after having an edible meal. They removed
three or four tables in the middle of the hall and then someone was playing a cottage piano
and the others began to dance in pairs. The others were talking and watching and getting
friends with each other. It was at this place that students from the faculties of Medicine or
Law or Mathematics were roaring their verses, political ambitions, aspirations to the Nobel
Prize, they played their musical compositions romances.
Madona was a poor person, from a poor, numerous family, student at Philology, and
she sewed her own gowns and she taught her younger brothers.
Students in Norys generation had fun trying to enter the concert room at the National
Theatre free of charge. They normally got their free places but once they came in too big a
number. Yet, they still asked for their places and made such a noise that some lady thought a
revolution had started. The police came but then they erased the whole thing as if nothing had
happened.
At that cafeteria professional issues were discussed and big decisions were taken.
They decided upon the topics of the conferences, they drew artistic programs for the benefit
of the sports club of the students of Medicine. Dr. Caro loved to sing in a tenor voice and to
play football, too.
Lic has an apartment in the Pake Protopopescu area, he bought it after marrying Ada
but it looks quite poorly furnished and he barely lives there anyway.
Aneta goes to pay a visit and brings bonbons to the lady of the house but the lady
midwife Mari was not at home, in tirbei Avenue, so Aneta came back to the student hostel
and shared them with her colleagues. Bonbons were quite a luxury.
There was a student hostel in Diaconeselor Street, a pension in Blcescu Street.
(Roots, vol. 2, p. 322). There were lots of hotels: Metropol Hotel (id., p. 322), Boulevard
Hotel (The Dishevelled Maidens, vol. 1, p. 490). In Grivia Street there were many hotels. At
the corner of tirbei Avenue one could find whores (Roots, vol. 2, p. 596).
The Association for Womans Assistance where Nory worked was located in
Amzei Square.
Calea Victoriei was preferred by everybody for walks. But Aneta had no clothes to
wear. And she was always hungry. She hardly had any money to pay her rent at the student
hostel. She had come to Bucharest against her parents will who were ashamed that their
daughter would be a student, so they refused to send her money. The mentality was that
Bucharest had ruined lots of geese girls (Roots, vol. 2, p. 467) and being a female student
meant becoming a lost woman. From time to time her mother sent her cozonac cake that
she baked at home, in Vaslui, and she sent her some small amounts of money.
Aneta went to the Court of Law to look for her brothers help with money but he also
felt ashamed with her and chased her away. The Court of Law looks like an inferno, full of
people. But one can have a meal there, too. Nory carried sandwiches in her purse.
There were confectioneries on Calea Victoriei. There was one on Academiei, too. A
rich exhibition of sweets were tempting passers-by: shelves of bonbons, fruits, ice-creams,
pies and mysterious creams, cakes, chocolates, biscuits.
Slicing devices for ham existed, too, at that time, and people could buy small
quantities of Prague ham. (Roots, vol. 2, p. 503).
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At Iancus they sold raw meat, beef, calf, pork. And the place was full of people. On
alleys they sold hot sausages, livers, hot meatloaves, burgers and other traditional specialties.
Bakery specialties were sold by pedlars at the Palace of Justice.
Next to this Palace, in front of a hospital, a new bridge was planned to be built over
Dmbovia River the dirty water(id., p. 774). A new avenue was planned in the same area,
too (id., p. 774).
The clock at the University was fascinating for Aneta. She found Bucharest as a
paradise, and its dwellers as miraculous beings (id., p. 339).
The streets were full of taxis, coaches, automobiles, dog-carts and trams.
We find out that the tram had its final station at the end of Pake Protopopescu Avenue.
Brtianu Square was woven in a network of trams and policemen were everywhere the
place watching the traffic (Roots, vol. 2, p. 512).
Aneta travels by tram a lot. Men have a habit of pinching ladies butts. Aneta tries on a
frotteur experience and the people in the tram take her for a hooker, so they call the police and
then Nory has to take Aneta to Dr. Caro to prove that Aneta is still a virgin.
People tried to enter the cinema without paying tickets, at that time, too. Aneta went
there to find a lover and many times she entered for free (Roots, vol. 2, p. 638). In the halls of
the cinema groups of women approached single men. Photos and pictures on the walls of the
cinema halls were nice (id., p. 647).
At sunset, in halls, next to shops, on the platform of the tram station or next to houses,
at the tables of restaurants and coffee shops, men and women were waiting. Many were late.
Many did not come at all to meet their dates (id., p. 632-633).
Because she walked too much all around Bucharest, Aneta had remained without
shoes, too, and she dreamt of wearing Kayser stockings like one of her colleagues at the
student hostel.
Small desks selling stamps could be found in the streets.
At the Atheneum painting expositions were held. Famous painters such as Blaa sold
their paintings there. Visitors came, looked stunned at his paintings and bought them only
because he was famous.
The newest art streams had arrived in our capital, too. Mika-L tried to launch herself
into the prismatic art. Dr. Rim collects stamps showing naked women and he is so passionate
about it that he gets very anxious when losing one notebook full of precious stamps.
Bucharest was a crowded place which Mini missed if she had to go outside of it even
for one day. She was so happy to recognize Cercul Militar, just by seeing it she was sure that
she was home, in the Live Citadel.
Summer rains never put a sad face to the city. The shop-windows were colourful like
beautiful ladies and the Citadel was steamy and fresh with washed gardens and fat land (The
Dishevelled Maidens, p. 553).
She could go and choose jewellery and watches Schwartz even. They went to Capa
even if it rained. There they could meet Prince Maxeniu.
Mini reports one cold winter night when she had to go to the North Station (Gara de
Nord). Trains were not heated and people got frozen inside them. The heating pipes were
frozen, too, as well as the waiting room of the chief of station. Fog looked like the Polar
atmosphere. The Citadel was surrounded by a yellowish light (id., p. 464). The Citadel was
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noble, big, luminous (id., p. 468). It was a charming city (id., p. 473). Mini was afraid of
unfamiliar places in Bucharest but her fear was mixed with pleasure (id., p. 481).
She loves the National Theatre area where Cmpineanu Street and Matei Millo Street
come across. At this theatre high-life gentlemen came dressed up in tail-coats and military
decorations and they put up serious, gloomy, anxious faces. (Roots, vol. 2, p. 402).
Nory was in love with cities, too. Bucharest, Galai, Oradea, Arad were all the same to
her commercial and industrial centres because feminism could thrive there.
After rains, the capital was stained by small mudholes. In the afternoons, the
inhabitants were all asleep in their high quiet mansions. (The Dishevelled Maidens, vol. 1, p.
561).
Doru Hallipa had become a citizen of Bucharest after marrying Eliza. Upon his first
wifes request, he reluctantly became a driver of his own car whose engine he inspected
complying to a ritual, so that it could work properly. The smell of burnt gasoline was
unpleasant though (id., p. 536).
Houses were unique by their rez-de-chausee (ground floor); beautiful gardens with
climbing plants and fir-trees were transplanted, balconies gave the impression of a white,
elegant, perfumed lady; new modern buildings had popped up and gave an impression of
disproportion. (id., p. 537).
At night Bucharest looked like an emanation of its citizens souls. Sentimental
emanations that sometimes smelled of drunkenness and at other times exhaled volatility as
lyricism (id., p. 592). Inhabitants were dissipated like separate individuals, like dismembered
spare-parts that later were to become each at its turn an initial spring of new activities (id., p.
592).
The Live Citadel looked like a thousand small lights in the dark. Mini thinks that
the Live Citadel cannot have been built by a shepherd, no, once a traveller had wanted to
seek a shelter for his lover, so he had built the first nest (id., p. 593).
Behind the windows ladies were judgemental and imagined they understood the lives
of their neighbours. This is the example of Vera who lives right across Linas house and
watches Lic visit Sia and kiss her in the street (A Concert of Bachs Music, vol. 1, p. 794).
The opinion of the Swiss nurse Mado was that Bucharest is a city composed of all the
provinces of your country. It has no specific face yet, which one could make up a new
homogenous paste (Roots, p. 773).
Either poor, or rich, what diseases did the inhabitants of Bucharest fear the most?
Pneumonia and lung tuberculosis seem to keep the record of deaths among men at that
epoch. Pneumonia killed Doru Hallipas mother, Calliope, in The Man Who Passed By. She
had merely gone out on a torrential rain and got pneumonia. Drgnescus sole brother died of
lung tuberculosis when young. Ghighi, his son, survived pneumonia when being a child.
Prince Maxeniu struggles with lung tuberculosis and dry pleuresies ever since he was a
young boy but a period of physical strain puts him down to bed to never recover again.
Cerebral chills (Roots, p. 760), as they called the meningitis, was a fatal disease, too,
along with typhus. Paralysis and heart failures killed mostly men. Zazas husband, Prince
Maxenius father, died of a stroke. Drgnescu died of heart failure due to a congenial
malformation.
Haemophilia killed Madona, Dr. Caros young wife. Womb cancer killed Lenora after
the first successful attempt to remove the tumour. Breast cancer killed Maxenius mother
because she was reluctant of having her breasts resected in order to have her life saved.
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People also died of accidents as is Norys case. She is eaten inside by an anxiety
caused by her womb malformation which makes her an outcast, as a hermaphrodite, and
prevents her from having a sex life with her husband at all. Her first sexual act was felt like a
rape.
Neurosis killed the teenager Ghighi he committed suicide after registering strange
symptoms in the throat area.
Women fainted, they were consumed by neurosis: e.g. Lenora fears to admit to her
husband Doru that she was raped because she wants to avoid losing him. She also feels
ashamed of admitting the womb cancer symptoms to her third husband, Dr. Walter. Madona,
Dr. Caros wife, fails to inform her husband about her anaemia caused by haemophilia for the
same reason the fear of losing him. Neurosis consumes her, too, when she puts up jealousy
scandals. Lenora had set the bed on fire causing burns to her skin. Her first husband had shot
himself to death out of jealousy or for financial distress. Mika-L threatens with suicide and
commits suicidal acts. Her first new-born got born dead because she was beaten during her
pregnancy she was not married and her mother hated her because she was the product of a
rape.
Aneta, consumed by a long struggle with neurosis, wanted to imitate the wattmans
getting off the tram in an elegant curved movement but she succeeded losing her legs.
Abortions killed women like Sia. She was a special case, though, because she had a
two-way vagina another malformation. Hallipa Twins had been born as identical twins that
were surgically set them apart by doctors at birth.
Some people at that time healed themselves with homeopathic remedies. Cornelia,
Norys mother, is given Nux vomica (Roots, vol. 2, p. 528). Urticaria and eruptions on skin
(occurred after the ingestion of homeopathic remedies) are considered hygienic and cleansing
according to the homeopathic principles (The Dishevelled Maidens, vol. 1, p. 432).
Before getting married, Nory is happy about being a virgin and she goes having sex
for the first time when approaching her midlife, because thus she can avoid abortions,
haemorrhages, hysteria that come altogether with marriage (Roots, vol. 2, p. 798). She was a
passionate feminist and saw many women suffer for these reasons in hospital. When she
finally wanted to become a woman after refusing to be neither man, nor woman she
ironically discovered her hermaphroditism.
Dr. Rim suffers from rheumatism and hypochondria.
These were the people who populated Bucharest between the World Wars from
Hortensia Papadat-Bengescus perspective. Many of their manners got lost on the way to us
as did street names, buildings, trades and businesses, diseases, mentalities and means of
transportation, architectural styles, occupations.
Bibliography:
Bucuretiul interbelic 1935. [Articles on Bucharest published in the weekly
magazine ,,Realitatea ilustrat, 1935], Bucharest, Tritonic, 2009.
Cernat, Paul, Modernismul retro n romanul romnesc interbelic, Bucharest, Art,
2009.
Chioaru, Dumitru (coordonator), Oraul i literatura, Bucharest, Art, 2008.
Craia, Sultana, Feele oraului, Bucharest, Eminescu, 1988.
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Manolescu, Nicolae, Arca lui Noe. Eseu depre romanul romnesc, vol. 1 & vol. 3, 2nd
edition, Bucharest, Eminescu, 1991.
Manolescu, Nicolae, Istoria critic a literaturii romne. 5 secole de literatur, Piteti,
Paralela 45, 2008.
Olteanu, Radu, Bucuretii n date i ntmplri, Bucharest, Paideia, 2002.
Papadat-Bengescu, Hortensia, Opere, vol. 1-3, Bucharest, Fundaia Naional pentru
tiin i Art, Romanian Academy, 2012.
Rpeanu, Valeriu, Scriitori romni dintre cele dou rzboaie mondiale, Bucharest,
Cartea Romneasc, 1986.
Tuvene, Silvia, Cinci fee ale Bucuretiului n romanul interbelic, University of
Bucharest, Faculty of Letters, 2012 (PhD thesis).
958
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Abstract: The present article aims at revealing through Michael Cunninghams novel The
Hours the backbone of Virginia Woolfs work. This American writer had the intuition of this
organizing principle and brought it into contemporaneity. Still, Cunningham not only
emphasized the elements of this structure, but also highlighted the strong connection between
Woolf, her characters and her readers, each of them living the same life. Last but not least,
Cunningham, willingly or not, succeeded in writing about Wolf in Wolfs uniquely feminine
and sensitive style.
Keywords: feminism, Virginia Woolf, Michael Cunningham, modernism, sexuality
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serene and peaceful, but deep down in its chore, precisely like a volcano, rest smouldering
emotions, raw feelings, instincts.
In just a few hours, Cunninghams novel tells the story of Virginia Woolf, Clarissa
Vaughn and Laura Brown. A few hours that enclose the essence of their beings and
encompass all their lives. Cunningham brings Woolf into his territory; or he moves his
territory closer to her. He shares Woolfs literary creed of portraying life in art, life in all its
facets and colours; life and death (time), life and ugliness (mental disorder), life and attraction
(love), life and loneliness (alienation), life and the way in which it structures Woolfs fiction.
In an interview for BOMB Magazine, Michael Cunningham pinpointed the core of Virginia
Woolfs work: Its difficult to imagine anyone more acutely aware of the simple wonder of
being alive. Thats what Mrs. Dalloway is, after all. Its a testament to the terrors and marvels
of the everyday.
Life and time. The lives of the three female protagonists are intermingled and closely
connected, though they occur in different temporal dimensions. They are so alike that the
worlds of each protagonist are peopled by the same individuals; same voice, different names,
different identities. Cunningham uses concrete, exact temporal limits, not to help us fix the
events in a particular temporal dimension that separates he protagonists, but, on the contrary,
to help us see the powerful connection between characters despite physical boundaries.
1921, 1949, 1999 three temporal dimensions constantly intermingled in
Cunninghams novel. Three destinies that merge together into one pure and authentic
dimension, namely life, since from both Cunninghams and Woolfs novels life transpires
victoriously. All temporal boundaries are erased because what matters is the intimate
connection between human beings and their emotions, feelings, impressions.
Life and mental disorder. Woolfs Septimus and Cunninghams Richard are victims
of lifes ugliness, even Woolf experienced lifes ambivalent and contradictory character and
transferred it to her protagonists.
This theme is closely connected to the one of alienation. Virginia, Septimus and
Richard Brown represent the alien, the obscure. Their lives are permanently echoed by voices,
headaches and disillusions. Still, in the midst of chaos, sufferance and despair, they feel a
more accurate, keener sense of Life.
Virginia Woolf carefully constructed a web-like structure for her characters. She
placed them on the edges of the web and they slowly move towards the centre until the
structure becomes intricate and all the threads meet in the centre, be it Clarissas party,
Percival, Mrs Ramsay etc. Michael Cunningham placed in the centre of his novel the complex
relationship between Clarissa Virginia Laura.
Septimus Warren Smith and Richard Brown are outsiders. They are not part of the
web since they have, voluntarily or not, removed themselves from the physical world. Instead,
they have their own internal worlds which offer deaths safety.
As Virginia herself experienced, the farther one is from the centre, the closer he
actually is from the meaning it encloses, from its powerful energies. Hence, Virginia,
Septimus, Richard Brown and, indirectly, Clarissa Dalloway (when, at the party, she
identifies herself with Septimus choice) are closer to the centre of the web by being at a
considerable distance from it. In this way, the distance offers them safety and allows them to
have a multiple perspective on life: Death was defiance. Death was an attempt to
communicate, people feeling the impossibility of reaching the centre which, mystically,
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evaded them; closeness drew apart; rapture faded; one was alone. There was an embrace in
death.1
They are more sensitive and sensible than other characters; their senses are more
responsive to lifes amalgam of sheer impressions. As an example, in the first pages of
Cunninghams novel, Virginia Woolf, though she had already taken the decision to commit
suicide, cannot stop to sense life:
She walks purposefully toward the river, certain of what shell do, but even now she
is almost distracted by the sight of the downs, the church, and a scattering of sheep,
incandescent, tinged with a faint hint of sulphur, grazing under a darkening sky2
Or Richard who, in the midst of chaos, in the heart of pain and misery, is much more
aware of lifes cruelty than any other character:
But there are still the hours, arent there? One and then another, and you get through
that one and then, my god, theres another. Im so sick. [] Ive felt it for some time now,
closing around me like the jaws of a gigantic flower. Isnt that a peculiar analogy? It feels the
way, though. [] Its a sort of juicy, green, thriving progress. Toward, well, you know. The
green silence. Isnt it funny that, even now, its difficult to say the word death?3
Or Septimus who perceives a forceful feeling of lifes cruel ambivalence: It was at
that moment (Rezia had gone shopping) that the great revelation took place. A voice spoke
from behind the screen. Evans was speaking. The dead were with him. [] Communication is
health; communication is happiness. Communication, he muttered4
Jeremy Hawthorn observes the fact that Septimus is a sort of hero manqu, who
willingly accepts death in order to preserve his own existential unity5 It can thus be said that
they all chose deaths freedom over life. Like the fools from the classical dramatic writings,
they utter absurd words; words that seem meaningless to the outside world; from the powerful
vortex of life, they articulate sounds that cannot be understood by others. Still, as absurd as
they may seem, they are, in fact, close to life.
Life and love. In all the three dimensions from Cunninghams novel, the women
experience lesbianism or feel attracted towards female sensibility, voluptuousness and
intimacy. These elements appear in Woolfs novels too, be it Nevilles attraction to Percival,
or Clarissas love for Sally, but in Cunninghams book they are emphasized (for example, the
complex relationships Louise Richard Clarissa Sally) so as to express Woolfs
endeavour to stop all conventionalism and shyness in art since they are all part of life:
Kitty nods against Lauras breasts. The question has been silently asked and silently
answered, it seems. They are both afflicted and blessed, full of shared secrets, striving every
moment. They are each impersonating someone. They are weary and beleaguered; they have
taken on such enormous work.
Kitty lifts her face, and their lips touch. They both know what they are doing. They
rest their mouths, each on the other. They touch their lips together, but do not quite kiss6
Still, life and love do not imply only sexuality, but motherhood as well, and her
characters seem to be endowed with negative feelings towards motherhood, perhaps because
Woolf herself could not have children on account of her precarious condition: One cannot
bring children into a world like this. One cannot perpetuate suffering, or increase the breed of
1
961
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these lustful animals, who have no lasting emotions, but only whims and vanities, eddying
them now this way, now that7 In the same manner, Laura Brown feels that: Here, then, is
daily transition. With her husband present, she is more nervous but less afraid. She knows
how to act. Alone with Richie, she sometimes feel unmoored. [] she loses direction. She
cant always remember how a mother would act.8 Therefore, for them being a mother is
another mask they have to wear; a mask that separates them from their souls; that divides their
selves.
Last but not least, one of the elements that constitute the backbone of Woolfs fiction
is the characters incapacity to express their love. For example, Richard Dalloway finds it
difficult to utter his feelings:
The time comes when it cant be said; ones too shy to say it, he thought, [] to say
straight out in so many words (whatever she might think of him), holding out his flowers, I
love you. [] But he could not bring himself to say he loved her; not in so many words. []
She understood, she understood without speaking; his Clarissa.9
Furthermore, apart from highlighting the pattern of her fiction, Michael Cunningham
illustrates in The Hours Virginia Woolfs complex personality: a woman of such brilliance,
such strangeness, such immeasurable sorrow; a woman who had genius but still filled her
pocket with a stone and waded out into a river.10
The ending of the novel is remarkable since it encloses Woolfs literary creed. Laura
Brown is, in fact, Richards mother. Richie becomes Richard, and Laura becomes part of
Clarissas dimension; the reader enters the world of the protagonist. One notices, once more,
the strong, complex and yet beautiful caves behind the characters; the intimate connections
established between Woolf and her readers, Woolf and her protagonists, her readers and her
protagonists.
Come in, Mrs. Brown, she says. Everythings ready.11 Laura Brown. The same
Mrs. Brown that patiently waits for everything to be ready; for the evolution of British
literature; for the Georgian writers to rescue her. The same Mrs. Brown of which Virginia
Woolf wrote in an essay entitled Mr. Bennett and Mrs Brown: There she sits in the corner
of the carriage that carriage which is travelling, not from Richmond to Waterloo, but from
one age of English literature to the next, for Mrs. Brown is eternal, Mrs. Brown is human
nature, Mrs. Brown changes only on the surface, it is the novelists who get in and out.
Woolf invites us into her art and, implicitly, into her life. She lays it down before us,
leaving to our appreciation whether to embark on this journey or not. Michael Cunningham
engaged in this quest without hesitation and his great revelation, his epiphany is:
Yes, Clarissa thinks, it's time for the day to be over. We throw our parties; we
abandon our families to live alone in Canada; we struggle to write books that do not change
the world, despite our gifts and our unstinting efforts, our most extravagant hopes. We live
our lives, do whatever we do, and then we sleep it's as simple and ordinary as that. A few
jump out of the windows or drown themselves or take pills; more die by accident; and most of
us, the vast majority, are slowly devoured by some disease or, if we're very fortunate, by time
itself. There's just this for consolation: an hour here or there when our lives seem, against all
odds and expectations, to burst open and give us everything we've ever imagined, though
everyone but children (and perhaps even they) knows these hours will inevitably be followed
962
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by others, far darker and more difficult. Still, we cherish the city, the morning; we hope, more
than anything, for more.
Heaven only knows why we love it so.12
Bibliography:
Bennettt, Joan, Virginia Woolf: her art as a novelist, second edition, London,
Cambridge University Press, 1964. Print
Cunningham, Michael, The Hours, New York, Picador USA, 2002. Print
Hawthorn, Jeremy, Divided Selves in Harold Bloom (ed), Alienation, Blooms
Literary Criticism, New York, Infobase Publishing, 2009. Print
Spring, Justin, Michael Cunningham in BOMB Magazine, No. 66, New Art
Publications, pp. 76-80, 1999, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40425918, 13/11/2014, 10:48. Web
Woolf, Virginia, Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown, Collected Essays, Leonard Woolf
(ed.), Vol. 1. London: Hogarth, 1966. 319-337. Print
Woolf, Virginia, Mrs. Dalloway, London, Penguin Books, 1996. Print
12
Ibidem, p. 225
963
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Abstract: In Lucian Blagas poetry the reader discovers a village placed in the world s
center, in the cosmic burnt forest but it has also mythical prolongations .
Blagas village has four different images: the first one is the wonders village with his
natal Lancram full of Gods flavors, with a unique and small spring, left under the clod;
the second one is the childhoods village, a image of the lifes heaven recalling his infinite
memories ; the third one is the uninhabited village that brings him after twenty years, the
undesirable situation of being estranged; the fourth and last one is the image of the village
as a grave, where he wishes to be buried, in accordance with his lyrical testamentary wish,
after he would be casted out from this life.
Keywords: Blaga, village, Lancrm, heaven, testamentary
Creznd c venicia s-a nscut la sat, Lucian Blaga considera c omul satului
triete n jaritea cosmic, pe linia de apogeu genial, a copilriei. El mitizeaz izolarea i
arhaitatea satului romnesc. Aceste observaii ale lui Ov.S. Crohmlniceanu pot fi
completate cu altele asemntoare1, toate ducnd la concluzia c satul este, pentru Blaga,
centrul lumii, ce se prelungete n mit, n timp ce oraul e locul unde omul i pierde
sentimentul cosmic. Patru ipostaze ale satului se pot descoperi, aprofundnd poezia lui Blaga:
satul minunilor, satul copilriei, satul nelocuit i satul-mormnt.
1. SATUL MINUNILOR. Poetul propovduia, la un moment dat, o cruciad a
copiilor, ndemnndu-i s se risipeasc prin sate, prsind marile orae. El gsete suficiente
motive pentru ca aceia care au plecat s se ntoarc la vetrele lor:
Eu cred c vejnicia s-a nscut la sat.
Aici orice gnd e mai ncet,
i inima-i zvcnete mai rar,
ca i cum nu i-ar bate n piept,
ci adnc n pmnt undeva.
Aici se vindec setea de mntuire
i dac i-ai sngerat picioarele
te aezi pe un podmol de lut.
Uite, e sear.
Sufletul satului flfie pe lng noi,
ca un miros de iarb tiat,
ca o cdere de fum din streini de paie,
1
Ov. S. Crohmlniceanu, Literatura romn ntre cele dou rzboaie mondiale, vol.II, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1974, p. 224 i urm.
964
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965
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Ibidem, p. 129.
Ibidem, p. 162.
966
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.Ibidem, p. 878.
968
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ntr-un poem intitulat Cuvntul din urm, Blaga se simte alungat de drumuri, prsit
de semeni, ameninat de psri, blestemat, i crede, asemenea unui rzboinic nfrnt, c se va
afla, dup moarte, n preajma Domnului:
Cu cnele i cu sgeile ce mi-au rmas
m-ngrop,
la rdcinile tale m-ngrop,
Dumnezeule, pom blestemat.
Satul blagian este, de fapt, o realitate a unui alt trm, descoperit trziu, dup aprige
confruntri n contiin10. Avem de-a face cu un sat- necropol, misterul lui e misterul
nopii.
*
Satul miracol, satul copilriei, satul nelocuit, prsit, ori satul mormnt. n oricare
dintre aceste ipostaze ar fi, satul are, n alctuirea sa, meri, arini, brazi sau plopi pe sub care
umbl ursul cu crin, tmduitor, cerbul cutndu-i ciuta disprut, ce parc vrea s bea
din ap, numai cerul, mnzul negru ca ogorul, sltnd n ocol, ori taurul nenjugat,
printre coarnele cruia soarele vine n sat. Este satul peste care zboar ciocrlia, Hristosul
psresc ce descnt pcatele/ peste toate satele, i puiul de cuc, noul voevod,/ fiul
pdurii, i mierla neagr. Plugarul, stihuitorul, olarul sau zugravul trec dinspre primvara
n care sun ramul, sun glia, n care pomii simt dureri de muguri i n care nc-odat iar
i iar/ a iubi e primvar, n care risipei se ded florarul, spre vara cu moale cldur,
cnd pmntu -ntreg e numai lan de gru/ i cntec de lcuste cci acestea dou se pare c
erau anotimpurile preferate ale poetului.
Satul blagian, vzut de la cumpna apelor sau din ndeprtatele curi ale dorului,
fascineaz cititorul prin detaliile memorabile.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. *** Lucian Blaga interpretat de.... (1981). Studiu, antologie, tabel cronologic i
bibliografie de Emil Vasilescu.
Bucureti: Editura Eminescu, colecia
Biblioteca critic.
2. Blu, Ion. (1986). Lucian Blaga. Bucureti: Editura Albatros.
3. Blaga, Lucian. (1995). Poezii (introducere, tabel cronologic, comentarii i note
critice de Marin Mincu). Constana: Editura Pontica.
4. Clinescu, G. [1941]. (1982). Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn n
prezent. Ediia a II-a, revzut i adugit. Ediie i prefa de Al. Piru. Bucureti:
Editura Minerva.
5. Crohmlniceanu, Ov. S. (1974). Literatura romn ntre cele dou rzboaie
mondiale, vol.II. Bucureti: Editura Minerva.
6. Gan, George. (1976). Opera literar a lui Lucian Blaga. Editura Minerva,
Bucureti: Editura Minerva.
7. Gheorghior, Ioan. (2011). Ipostaze ale satului n poezia lui Lucian Blaga.
Vatra veche, nr. 5: 9-10.
8. Simion, Eugen. (1978). Scriitori romni de azi, vol.II. Bucureti: Editura Cartea
Romneasc.
10
Ibidem,.p. 163.
969
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Abstract: The paper entitled History of post-war journalism from Iai aims to identify and
to make a chronology of literary magazines appearance from Iasi, especially after the Second
World War to the present. For each publication, in part, I reviewed the editorial staff
composition and the literary and artistic specific of the publications which approached at that
time. There will be not missing the names of the most important collaborators of that time.
Keywords: history, journalism, Iai, post-war, magazine.
970
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sau fragmente de romane5 ce aparin unor autori ca: Dumitru Alma, Costache Anton, Mira
Iosif .a. Despre critica publicat n revist, Dicionarul noteaz c este bine reprezentat i
amintete numele lui: Nicolae Barbu, Constantin Ciopraga, Dimitri Costea, Lucian
Dumbrav, Iorgu Iordan, Al. Dima. Traducerile ocup i ele un loc ct de ct reprezentat doar
de cele ale literaturii sovietice ori din alte literaturi ce aparineau ,,lagrului socialist i foarte
rar din Schiler (Al. A. Philippide) ori Lenau (Labi i aomir). Mai este menionat pe final
un aspect de ordin tehnic, Dicionarul subliniind c revista preia maniera de structurare a
rubricilor de la ,,Viaa Romneasc.
n concluzie, revista ,,Iaul nou este socotit de D.G.L.R. drept ,,o publicaie tipic
pentru primul deceniu al literaturii proletcultiste din Romnia6.
,,Iaul Literar, revist a Uniunii Scriitorilor din R.P.R., apare la Iai, ncepnd cu
luna august 1954, pn n luna aprilie 1969. De la numarul 8/1965, apare cu subtitlul ,,Revist
a Uniunii Scriitorilor din Republica Socialist Romnia. D.G.L.R. consemneaz: ,,n 1957
comitetul de redacie este alctuit din Andi Andrie, N. Barbu, Dimitrie Costea, Florin Mihai
Petrescu, Horia Zilieru, Liviu Leonte, Dan Bdru, redactor-ef fiind N. Barbu, care de fapt
conduce publicaia de la nceput pn n 1966.7 Publicaia lunar continu ,,Iaul nou, care
i-a derulat existena din mai 1950, pn n martie 1954, conform I. Hangiu. Tot el amintete
de urmtorii colaboratori ai primului numr din 1954: Nicolae Labi, Otilia Cazimir, Andi
Andrie, Al. Dima, D. Corbea, Gh. Mrgrit, C. Ciopraga. Primul numr al revistei prezint n
Cuvnt nainte un elogiu adus vechiului Almanah Iaul nou, care i ncetase apariia,
subliniindu-se faptul c acesta ,,are meritul de a fi promovat scriitori tineri care s-au afirmat
prin lucrri valoroase n literatur.8
ns, n acelai Cuvnt nainte, va exista i o critic fa de ceea ce nu a reuit s fac
vechiul colectiv de redacie care, ,,(...) insuficient orientat politic i ideologic, a ocrotit
manifestri strine de spiritul partinic, de care trebuie s fie adnc ptruns literatura noastr
nou. Prin publicarea unor versuri cu vdite reminescene formaliste, cu un pronunat caracter
idilic sau apolitic, precum i a unor bucai de proz care ddeau o imagine fals realitii,
sectorul de poezie i proz al almanahului s-a ndeprtat de temele pricipale ale actualitii.
(...) noua revist ,,Iaul Literar se angajeaz s fie o tribun adevrat, pus n slujba maselor
largi de cititori, constructori ai socialismului n patria noastr i neclintii aprtori ai pcii.
(...) Scriitorii notri au neasemuita fericire de a tri i a cunoate o epoc fr precedent n
istoria omenirii epoca biruinelor socialismului, (...). Avem datoria sfnt de a fi la nlimea
acestei epoci, de a crea opere realist-socialiste.9
ncepnd cu 1960 este semnalat de ctre D.G.L.R., acelai autor, I. Hangiu, prezena
unor rubrici permanente: ,,Versuri i proza, ,,Medalioane, ,,Cronica literar, ,,Recenzii,
,,Revista revistelor. Vor colabora la paginile cu versuri: loan Alexandru, Andi Andrie, Al.
Andrioiu, Tudor Arghezi, Camil Baltazar, Lucian Blaga (Catrenele fetei frumoase, 4/1961),
Demostene Botez, Radu Boureanu, Radu Crneci, Otilia Cazimir, Const. Th. Ciobanu, tefan
Aug. Doina, Mihu Dragomir, Victor Eftimiu (Fr.Villon recit balade, 9/1957), Ovidiu
Genaru, Nicolae Labi (Marul celor puternici, 1/1954, Dac toate acestea fi-vor uitate,
12/1957), George Lesnea, Mircea Micu, Mihai Negulescu, Simion Stolnicu, Corneliu Sturzu,
G. Tutoveanu (Vou celor tineri, 1/1956), N. aomir, N. Tutu, Haralambie ugui, Horia
Zilieru. Proza i va avea i ea reprezentani de seam n paginile revistei: G. Clinescu
(Scrinul negru, fragment, 2/1958), Ion Istrati, Ion Lncrnjan, Mihail Sadoveanu (Nada
florilor, fragment, 10/1955), George Bli, tefan Bnulescu, Eugen Barbu, Eusebiu
Academia Romn, Op. cit., p. 557.
Ibidem
Academia Romn, Op. cit., p. 556.
8
Hangiu, Ion, Op. cit., pp. 203-204.
9
Ibidem
5
6
7
971
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Camilar, Mircea Radu lacoban, Aurel Mihale, Traian Coovei, N. Tic, V. Voiculescu (Zahei
orbul, fragment, 1/1967). Sandu Teleajen apare cu fragmente din ,,evocarea dramatic I.L.
Caragiale (6/1962), iar articole de critic i istorie literar semneaz: Al. Dima (Problema
tipicului la Ibrileanu, 1/1955), I.D. Ludat (Activitatea lui Ibrileanu la presa progresist
dintre 1890-1900,1/1955), Gavril Istrati (Dou variante ale Mioriei, 4/1957), Al. Andriescu
(Probleme artistice ale limbii literare, 8/1960), Tudor Vianu (Observaii asupra metaforei
poetice, 10/1961), N.A. Ursu (Cntarea Romniei, oper a lui N. Blcescu, 12/1961), Tiberiu
Rebreanu (nceputurile literare ale lui Liviu Rebreanu, 3/1961), Agatha Grigorescu-Bacovia
(Bacovia, student la Iai, 12/1961), Al. Oprea (nceputurile literare ale lui Panait Istrati,
1/1961), Adrian Marino (Critic i semnificaie, 12/196, Clasic i modern, 6/1968), Al. A.
Philippide (Insemnri despre romantism, 3/1969), Dan Mnuc (Maiorescu i critica literar
de pn la 1867,7/1967). n acelai timp, semnalm i prezena n paginile revistei a
numeroase cronici literare, note i recenzii, semnate de Gh. Agavriloaie, I. Damaschin,
Constantin Ciopraga N.I. Popa, Val Panaitescu, Liviu Leonte, Mihai Drgan .a. Printre
recenzii prezentate, amintim Tablou geografic de Geo Bogza (2/1955), Aventur n Lunca
Dunrii de Mihail Sadoveanu (3/1955), Primele iubiri de Nicolae Labi (11/1955), Moromeii
de Marin Preda (1/1956). n revist sunt publicate i medalioanele Bogdan Amaru (9/1956) i
G.M. Zamfirescu (10/1956), de asemeni articole consacrate omagierii scriitorilor Ion
Agrbiceanu (10/1962), Tudor Arghezi (5/1965), Mihai Codreanu (7/1956), Friedrich Schiller
(5/1955), C. Dobrogeanu-Gherea. Sunt amintite de D.G.L.R. i necrologuri, de exemplu:
Camil Petrescu (5/1957), G. Tutoveanu (9/1957), La moartea M. Codreanu (10/1957), M.
Sadoveanu (10/1961). Sunt publicate i texte sau scrisori inedite: Ion Pillat, Pagini inedite de
coresponden (3/1963), Scrisorile lui G. Toprceanu ctre G. Ibrileanu, publicate de
Grigore Botez i Mihai Bordeianu (7/1963). Traducerile, ocup i ele un loc nsemnat, G.
Mrgrit traduce din P. Neruda, C. Teodorescu din Maiakovski, G. Lesnea din Esenin. Iaul
Literar a nsemnat i locul unde au debutat poei, prozatori i critici: Adi Cusin, Corneliu
Sturzu, Dan Mnuc, Mihai Drgan .a. Printre alte nume de rezonan care au fost
colaboratori i ai acestei reviste, amintim: Ioana Postelnicu, Florin Mihai Petrescu, Lucian
Raicu, Ov. S. Crohmlniceanu, D. Micu, Gh. Bulgr, Maria Platon, V. Adscliei, Ctin.
Parfene, Emil Manu.
Revista ,,Cronica apare la lai n 12 februarie 1966, ca sptmnal politic, social i
cultural, editat dc Comitetul de Cultur i Educaie Socialist al judeului lasi. Revista va
fiina pn n 1989. Directori, care au condus redacia acestei reviste, sunt: C. Ciopraga
(1966-1970), Liviu Leonte (1971-1979), Ion ranu (1979-1989). Aceasta ,,continu tradiia
revistelor ieene antebelice, dar i propune s reflecte o actualitate cultural mult mai larg,
pe linia ideologic de rigoare. Rubricile sunt grupate tematic (,,Cronica artelor, ,,Cronica
literelor, ,,Cronica actualitii, ,,Cronica tiinelor, ,,Cronica ideilor, ,,Opinii,
,,Interferene etc.); rubricile ,,Un poet, ,,Un prozator sunt destinate tinerilor scriitori. Se
organizeaz anchete, reportaje, mese rotunde (,,Tradiie i inovaie n proza actual, 1971,
,,Momentul actual n critic si istorie literar, 1972)10, dup cum este precizat n
Bibliografia esenial a Literaturii Romne. Primul ,,colegiu de redacie al publicaiei, care a
funcionat cu mici modificri peste dou decenii, era compus din Otilia Cazimir, Alexandru
Dima, Ion Creang, Ilie Grmad, Dan Hatmanu, Gavril Istrate, George Lesnea, Petre
Mlcomete, Cristofor Simionescu, Achim Stoia, Nicolae aomir11, noteaz D.G.L.R.. Ali
colaboratori cunoscui nc de la apariia primului numr sunt: Petru Comarnescu, Nicolae
Barbu, tefan Oprea, Constantin Ciopraga, Corneliu Sturzu, Adi Cusin, Mircea Radu Iacoban,
Mihai Drgan. Numrul 1, din 12 februarie 1966 cuprinde un Cuvnt nainte unde apare
Bibliografia esenial a Literaturii Romne, Scriitori/ Reviste/ Concepte, coordonator, Dan Grigorescu, Editura Enciclopedic, Bucureti,
2003, pp. 263-264.
11
Academia Romn, Op. cit., vol. 2-C/D, p.494.
10
972
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notat: ,,La Iai ideile generoase i sentimentele nltoare n-au lipsit; o strlucit tradiie, n
acest sens, constituie un imbold de viitor. Contribuind la valorificarea ntregii bogii a
tradiiei culturale romneti, vom continua drumul exemplar al publicisticii ieene, reprezentat
n trecut de ,,Dacia literar, ,,Propirea, ,,Convorbiri literare, ,,Contemporanul, ,,Viaa
romneasc, ,,nsemnri ieene ()12 dup cum apare i n I. Hangiu. Valentin Tacu, n
D.G.L.R. face adugiri la formatul colectivului de redacie iniial, amintind i de redactori-efi
adjunci: Nicolae Barbu, Corneliu Sturzu, Corneliu tefanache, iar pe postul de secretar de
redacie, pe M. R. Iacoban. La zece ani dup apariia revistei ,,Cronica, n a 5-a edin a
Cenaclului literar Junimea, perioada postbelic a acestuia, din 30 ianuarie 1976, poetul
Corneliu Sturzu este invitat a-i prezenta o autobibliografie, dup cum noteaz memorialistul
muzeograf, Constantin Parascan; aici, poetul va puncta i despre importana, n acea vreme, a
publicaiei respective, spunnd: ,,Apariia ,,Cronicii acum 10 ani a fost un eveniment
ntr-adevar fundamental pentru destinele culturii i ale literaturii ieene. Spun aceasta din mai
multe motive. (...) Pentru noi, cei care am fcut parte din prima redacie a ,,Cronicii, a
constituit un moment crucial nu numai n destinele noastre de scriitori, dei i ,,Cronica a
avut rolul ei n stimularea activitii noastre creatoare, de romancieri, de poei .a.m.d. (..)
gazetari, publiciti, scriitori care-am pornit la drum cu urmtoarea deviz: Aceast revist s
fie o revist a tinerilor talente din Iai. i ntr-adevr, atta vreme ct am lucrat acolo i atta
vreme ct exist aceast revist ea se menine ca o tribun de afirmare a scriitorilor tineri
(...)13. D.G.L.R. mai noteaz c nc de la primele numere ale revistei, aceasta s-a adresat
majoritii personalitilor culturale i din ar, amintind de Adrian Marino (Cluj), Iorgu
Iordan (Bucureti), Demostene Botez, Aurel Ru, Dumitru Radu Popescu, Marin Sorescu .a.
Poeii publicai, n general, sunt din Moldova: Emil Brumaru, Horia Zilieru, Ioanid
Romanescu, Mihai Ursachi, Ion Chiriac, Nicolae Turtureanu, Ovidiu Genaru, Ana Mlea,
Aura Muat, Haralambie ugui, iar despre poetul George Lesnea, Dicionarul subliniaz c ,,e
prezent n paginile revistei pn la sfritul vieii sale, fiind un fel de simbol al publicaiei.14
Dicionarul mai noteaz c privind proza i dramaturgia colaborrile sunt mai puin
numeroase, ns nu pot fi trecute cu vederea scrierile lui Corneliu tefanache, Gerorge
Bli, M. R. Iacoban, tefan Oprea, Ion ranu, Andi Andrie, Ion Istrati .a. Critica este i
ea reprezentat ,,cu seriozitate de ctre Al. Andriescu, Liviu Leonte, Mihai Drgan, Zaharia
Sngeorzan, Magda Ursache, Florin Faifer, Ioan Holban .a. Implicarea politic a revistei este
considerat cea ,,impus n toat ara15.
,,Convorbiri literare va fi ultima revist literar i de cultur din perioada postbelic
ieean, pe care o vom avea n discuie. ,,Convorbiri literare, revist literar editat de
Uniunea Scriitorilor, apare la Iai din 1970, n continuarea revistei ,,Iaul Literar i ca serie
nou a C.l. (1867-1944): lunar (1970-1971), bilunar (1972), apoi lunar (1973-1989), dup
cum apare n Bibliografia esenial. Revista este are la fiecare apariie un redactor-ef, dup
cum urmeaz: D. Ignea (1970-1971), Corneliu tefanache (1972-1976), Corneliu Sturzu
(1977-1989). Conform I. Hangiu, primul colectiv redacional, condus de D. Ignea, are n
structura sa pe: Andi Andrie, Horia Zilieru, Ion Istrati, Florin Mihai Petrescu. Iar printre
colaboratori ai primului numr din mai 1970, sunt amintii: G. Lesnea, N. I. Popa, N. aomir,
Ion Brad, Al. A. Philippide, George Macovescu, Corneliu Sturzu, Dumitru Radu Popescu, Al.
Dima, Adi Cuzin, C. Ciopraga, Nina Cassian, M. Ursachi, L. Leonte, Dimitrie Costea, D.
Irimia, Radu Negru etc. Tot n primul numr al C.l., redacia public un editorial, avnd titlul
,,Continuitate: ,,Dou decenii, revista ,,Iaul literar a ritmat creaia scriitoriceasc din
vechea cetate, a lansat nume, a ctigat adeziuni, a contribuit la ntregirea configuraiei
12
973
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974
SECTION: LITERATURE
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Adrian Oprina (C. Pricop), George Pruteanu, Corneliu tefanache, Al. Clinescu, Val
Condurache, Al. Dobrescu, Constantin Pricop, Nicolae aomir, Ion Gheorghe Pricop, Vasile
Mihescu, Horia Ursu, Constantin Matei, Dan Mutacu, Cicerone Sbanu, Virgil Cuitaru,
Florin Pietreanu, P. George (G. Pruteanu), Al.I. Fridu, I.P.-Sireteanu, H. ugui, Constantin
Coroiu, Val Gheorghiu, D.N. Zaharia, D. Scrltescu, Ovidiu Nimigean, M. Vicol, L.
Dumbrav, Ioan Herescu, Victor Mitocaru, Natalia Cantemir, D. Diaconu ()19.
,,Ediia special din decembrie 1989 () marcheaz ncheierea i, concomitent,
nceputul unei noi etape.20 dup cum apare i n D.G.L.R..
n final, se cuvine a preciza c, att revista ,,Cronica, ct i ,,Convorbiri literare, au
reprezentat nu doar pentru Iaul postbelic, ci pentru mult mai mult din cultura i literatura
romn, un segment de pres care a oscilat permanent ntre o ,,aliniere la ideologia
regimului politic existent pn n 1989 i o ,,acoperire a unor coninuturi care aveau un cu
totul alt scop dect urmrirea unei ,,linii trasate de partid. Echilibrul, ns, ca orice echilibru,
a fost, poate, de multe ori prea fragil. Rmne ns de luat n calcul depozitul literar de
valoare (poezie, proz, dramatugie, critic i istorie literar), girat, din punct de vedere
cultural, de aceste reviste ieene postbelice, care, credem, cu greu poate fi contestat ulterior.
Bibliografie:
Academia Romn, Dicionarul general al literaturii romne (D.G.L.R.), coordonator
general) Eugen Simion, volumele 2-C/D i 3-E/K, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti,
2005.
Bibliografia esenial a Literaturii Romne, Scriitori/ Reviste/ Concepte, coordonator,
Dan Grigorescu, Editura Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2003.
Hangiu, Ion, Dicionar al presei literare romneti (1790-1990), ed. II, revizuit i
completat, Bucureti, 1996.
Hangiu, Ion, Presa romneasc de la nceputuri pn n prezent. Dicionar cronologic
1790-2007, volumul III, 1945-1989, Comunicare.ro, Bucureti, 2008.
Parascan, Constantin, Istoria Junimii postbelice 1975-1990, Editura Timpul, Iai,
2011.
Petcu, Marian, Istoria jurnalismului din Romnia n date. Enciclopedie cronologic,
Editura Polirom, Bucureti, 2012.
Rad, Ilie, Incursiuni n istoria presei romneti, Editura Accent, Cluj-Napoca, 2009.
Sitografie:
http://convorbiri-literare.ro/
http://convorbiri-literare.dntis.ro/MANUCAaug.html
http://convorbiri-literare.ro/?p=2995
19
http://convorbiri-literare.ro/?p=2995
Academia Romn, Op. cit., p. 371.
20
975
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976
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Adrian Marino, Hermeneutica lui Mircea Eliade, Cluj-Napoca, Ed. Dacia, 1980, p.352.
3
4
Ibidem.
George Usctescu, Ontologia culturii, Bucureti, Ed. tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1983, pp.142; 144.
Mircea Eliade, Proz fantastic, vol. III, Bucureti, Ed. Fundaiei Culturale Romne, 1991, p.65.
977
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urte6 spune, prin personajele sale, Mircea Eliade iar opera sa literar este consacrat n
bun msur structurii epifanice a existenei umane ce se desfoar n mijlocul unor lucruri
aparent banale, dar care privite cu atenie dezvluie semne cu ajutorul crora receptorul are
acces la tainele universului ordonat simbolic. Aceast piatr sau aceast bucat de lemn sunt
pentru mine o lumin i privind aceast piatr, sau poate pe cealalt, mi vin n minte multe
lucruri care mi lumineaz sufletul afirma Johannes Scotus Eriugena n secolul al IX-lea
ca premise ale unui silogism prin care ajunge la concluzia care permite comparaia de mai
sus: Dac eu, privind piatra, fac aceste consideraii i altele asemntoare, ele devin pentru
mine lumin, iar aceasta nseamn c ele m lumineaz. Aceste afirmaii, potrivit
interpretrii estetice a lui Werner Hoffmann (complementar acelora din domeniul
antropologiei imaginarului) ilustreaz c pentru cel ce caut prin percepia senzorial
altceva, vrnd s cunoasc ceva ascuns, fiecare dat al percepiei va avea o dimensiune
suplimentar7.
n cutarea i observarea acelui altceva n actul percepiei se ntlnesc dimensiunea
religioas i estetic a experienei artistice (i acesta, consider, este unul dintre postulatele
viziunii centrate pe epifanie a fantasticului realist eliadesc), iar cnd percepia devine
receptare i creaie artistic, privitorul sau artistul, aa cum sesizeaz Hoffmann poate
desigur s ajung la un compromis ntre nevoia sa de simboluri i lumea perceptibil i s
ncerce s slujeasc doi stpni. Mai mult, el poate s ajung i la concluzia c tendina
iluzionist de imitaie ndeprteaz de ceea ce e propriu i nvluie semnificaiile
simbolice, pe care nu le poate accentua ndeajuns. Pe baza acestor convingeri apare cu
necesitate nevoia de a dispune de noi convenii formale8.
Or, discursul n termeni simbolici despre teatru i n egal msur dramatizarea (i
estetizarea) simbolului religios n scrierile literare eliadeti se nscrie n tendina acestui
proiect recuperator i totodat nnoitor al artei moderne, de cutare a unor noi convenii
formale. Astfel, de exemplu, n experimentele dramaturgice pe care le propune Eliade n
opera literar (cu deosebire n Nousprezece trandafiri), deopotriv actorii care interpreteaz
personajele i spectatorii se transpun n personajul colectiv, identificndu-se cu acesta. Este
formula teatrului ca mister i ritual pentru care au optat mari dramaturgi i regizori ai
secolului XX, iar actorul i spectatorul romn i pot aminti o astfel de experien trit n
stagiunea 1990/1991 a Teatrului Naional din Bucureti. n Programul trilogiei antice
regizate atunci de Andrei erban, dup numele actorilor din distribuie se poate citi c
Publicul este invitat s urmreasc aciunea piesei deplasndu-se mpreun cu actorii dintrun spaiu n altul, n funcie de desfurarea aciunii i s-i ocupe locurile pe scaune n
momentul n care acest lucru le va fi indicat de actori. Este evident afinitatea ntre o astfel
de opiune regizoral i ipoteza pentru care opteaz Eliade, dezvoltnd-o mai ales n nuvele : a
teatrului ca iniiere, ca spectacol sacru, ca prelungire n actualitate a ritualurilor arhaice.
Astfel nu numai actorii, dar i cei din public retriesc momente din trecut, iar aceia care
reuesc s se identifice cu ceva din timpul spectacolului trec prin aceeai experien final
cunoscut n practica yoga,
concentrarea total, avnd ca rezultat identificarea
nentrerupt a celui care mediteaz cu ceea ce el mediteaz.
Revenind, ca i Nousprezece trandafiri unde autorul i exprim prerea c
spectacolul reflect structura istoriografiei, nuvela Adio (ntre altele) are totodat un
pronunat caracter autobiografic: autorul care intenioneaz s scrie piesa al crei proiect este
redat n nuvel este istoric al religiilor; ar vrea s exprime un neles simbolic, dar nu pleac
6
Mircea Eliade, Proz fantastic, vol. IV, Bucureti, Ed. Fundaiei Culturale Romne, 1992, p.82.
Werner Hoffmann, Fundamentele artei moderne, Bucureti, Ed. Meridiane, 1977, p.109.
Ibidem.
978
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de la o idee precis, dup cum el nsui o declar. Un lucru ns este clar: Adio, acest
cuvnt, ca i gestul coborrii cortinei simbolizeaz amndou moartea lui Dumnezeu
proclamat de Nietzsche9. n final, acest personaj dublu se hotrte s nu mai scrie piesa,
pentru c imaginndu-i cum ar decurge reprezentaia, ajunge la concluzia (de fapt testeaz
ipoteza) imposibilitii de a descrie taina, care chiar atunci cnd este intuit, este imposibil
de explicat. Acest mod transparent al simbolului de a fi enigmatic n percepia actului
artistic n care se mbin dispoziia filosofic, estetic i religioas deopotriv se nscrie n
demersul formal tipic postmodern pe de o parte de regsire a valorilor discreditate de
modernitate i pe de alta de afirmare a unor coninuturi noi. Prin urmare, pe de o parte, dac
prin acest discurs despre o pies de teatru Eliade reitereaz ntr-o nuvel adevrul universal
religios c Taina trebuie trit de fiecare, c ea nu poate fi explicat pe de alta, din punct
de vedere estetic aduce un detaliu inovator care dincolo de o concepie scenografic i
regizoral transmite un mesaj filosofic: cortina, ntr-o prim instan, semnific grania dintre
sacru i profan. Autorul textului literar vrea s transmit un mesaj religios cu ajutorul unui
simbol artistic. Pe de alt parte, purtat de un simbol artistic i condus n conlucrarea dintre
autor i cititor spre o decodificare religioas n actul lecturii, mesajul transgreseaz grania
dintre estetic i profan.
Astfel, ntr-un mod ambivalent i enigmatic Mircea Eliade i ncurajeaz cititorii
s vad i n spectacolul teatral, paradigmatic ca form de art ritual, o tain. O
reprezentaie teatral presupune c spectatorii vd o parte din adevr, vd spectacolul ca
rezultat al unei aciuni foarte complexe. Cortina se coboar (cu excepia unor cazuri de
experiment teatral foarte recente) pentru ca spectatorii s nu vad chiar totul; adic felul n
care se pregtesc i se schimb decorurile, cum se pregtete actorul s intre n scen sau s ia
o pauz; pentru c sunt multe lucruri pe care spectatorul, chiar dac le-ar vedea, nu le-ar
nelege, sau nu i-ar folosi n receptarea actului artistic. Pentru iubitorul de art este suficient
vizionarea spectacolului.
Este aici i o parabol despre cunoatere i credin: tot astfel Dumnezeu, fctorul
celor vzute i nevzute ne arat att ct este necesar pentru a crede, pentru a ne mntui, din
mreia i frumuseea Creaiei, fiecare lucru, fiecare act i conine propria-i cortin. Aceasta
este o alt formul a hierofaniei, care arat i ascunde n acelai timp i sub acelai raport,
care ncalc logica obinuit. Din acest punct de vedere, teologii, filosofii, oamenii de tiin
sunt criticii de teatru ai Creaiei. Ei nu se mulumesc doar cu plcerea estetic sau cu
bucuria duhovniceasc a spectacolului divin, ncercnd s-i explice motivaiile
regizorului sau scenografului, sensul textului i al jocului actorilor. Se pare c dintre
cei interesai de Creaie numai artistul i misticul sunt oarecum inoceni n privina judecrii
operei dumnezeieti, a transmiterii corecte a mesajului acesteia care trebuie s se realizeze la
nivelul creaturilor, n imanen.
n nuvela Uniforme de general problema receptrii este tratat din aceeai
perspectiv a funciei religioase pe care o preia spectatorul n condiiile n care artistul i-a
trdat adevrata sa vocaie, aceea de a-i sluji i omagia pe zei10. Schimbarea termenilor
relaiei act artistic-receptare, nu nseamn ns i suprimarea mesajului religios al artei: actorii
cnt i interpreteaz pentru ngerii din om11. Ieronim Thanase (cu acest nume predestinat,
sintez ntre numele personajelor Ieronim i Euthanasius, tnrul clugr i sihastrul din
nuvela Cezara de Mihai Eminescu, acest protagonist apare i n nuvela Incognito la
Buchenwald i n romanul mai scurt Nousprezece trandafiri) descoper sensul mntuitor al
spectacolului, n nelesul c jocul teatral transformnd obsesia i nenorocul n spectacol12
Mircea Eliade, Proz fantastic, vol. III, Bucureti, Ed. Fundaiei Culturale Romne, 1991, pp.71; 72; 74.
Mircea Eliade, Proz fantastic, vol. IV, Bucureti, Ed. Fundaiei Culturale Romne, 1992, p.22.
11
Ibidem, pp.24-25.
12
Ibidem, p.35.
9
10
979
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Ibidem, p.61.
Mircea Eliade, Noaptea de Snziene, Bucureti, Ed. Minerva, 1991, vol.II, pp.278-279.
15
Mircea Eliade, Nousprezece trandafiri, Bucureti, Ed. Romnul, 1991, p.78.
16
Ibidem, p.76.
17
Ibidem, p.66.
18
Ibidem, p.29.
19
Ibidem, p. 18.
20
Mircea Eliade, Patanjali i Yoga, Bucureti, Humanitas, 1992, p. 24.
21
Ibidem, p. 105.
22
E.R. Dodds, Dialectica spiritului grec, Traducere de ctrinel Pleu, Bucureti, Ed. Meridiane, 1983, p.173.
14
980
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981
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desprinde o tipologie n funcie de transparena sau opacitatea la semnele sacre ale acestei
lumi. Personajele deschise ctre experiena sacrului au aceast intuiie fundamental: pentru
a fi suportat, realitatea nu trebuie mistificat. Este suficient s fie privit cu atenie
jumtatea vizibil a simbolurilor care i sunt consubstaniale, pentru a reconstitui, cu
mijloacele imaginaiei, partea lor invizibil. Dac simbolurile religioase pot fi intuite i
exprimate, se poate spune c ele ndeplinesc o funcie artistic. Dac stau pentru lucruri din
regimuri diferite, dar a cror legtur exist n absolut i poate fi reconstituit cu mijloacele
intelectului, atunci ele ndeplinesc o funcie filosofic-discursiv.
Coleg de generaie cu Mircea Eliade, Eugen Ionescu la rndul su opta pentru un
teatru nu simbolist, ci simbolic; nu alegoric, ci mitic; avndu-i sursa n angoasele noastre
eterne; un teatru n care invizibilul devine vizibil, n care ideea se face imagine concret,
realitatea sau problema se ncarneaz26 dup cum observa Jacques Le Marinel. Acest gen
de teatru n care imaginea scenic joac rolul determinant este o replic la criza limbajului,
manifestat n trecerea de la cuvnt la discurs, de la drama reprezentrii, consecin a
socializrii limbajului, la pierderea sinelui n aparenele jocurilor de limbaj. Crizei
limbajului artei teatrale i s-a rspuns prin umor ca mod de creaie privilegiat cu o veritabil
dimensiune poetic dar dincolo de acestea Ionescu urmrete cercetarea unei realiti
eseniale, uitate, nenumite (Cf. Notes et contre-notes), iar n aceast cutare, limbajul
cuvintelor se cere depit, pentru a gsi alte coduri, precum acelea ale picturii sau ale
muzicii27.
Artnd c depirea crizei limbajului artei dramatice poate veni i din utilizarea
codului limbajului religios i filosofic, Mircea Eliade pledeaz n nuvelele sale pentru teatru
ca simbol, iar discursurile personajelor axate pe simbolistica religioas comunic sensurile
existeniale i adevrurile fundamentale pe care le realizeaz spectacolul teatral. Este vorba pe
de o parte, aa cum am artat, despre rennoirea limbajului prin rentoarcerea la simbolurile
religioase n actul teatral, n jocul actorilor, n scenariu, n regie. Iar pe de alta, despre teatrul
nsui ca simbol.
2. Teatrul ca simbol. Funcia destinal a spectacolului
Calitatea spectacolului teatral de sugestie a umanitii i a absolutului n efemer, de a
ntruchipa ntr-un timp limitat o idee care se repet la nesfrit, dar care nu se va mai repeta
niciodat n forma acestui timp al jocului d msura actului unic ce se petrece la un moment
dat pe scen i se nscrie totodat n marele timp, al repetrii. Aceast concepie a dramatizrii
simbolului religios la nivelul reprezentaiei scenice deschide posibilitatea unei abordri
antropologice, avndu-i ca protagoniti pe omul arhaic i omul modern sau omul
religios i omul estetic. De repetat, se repet doar modelul pentru c actorii, dei
interpreteaz mereu aceeai pies, o fac mereu altfel. Este probabil ca interpretul muzical s
regseasc de mai multe ori la rnd aceeai armonie i este probabil ca actorul s regseasc
de mai multe ori la rnd aceeai modulaie a glasului, aceeai expresivitate n totalitate a
chipului i a gestului. Cu toate acestea, jocul lui nu rmne mai puin unic i paradoxal, pentru
c el revine ritmic, la acelai rol, n timp ce viaa lui nainteaz n timpul istoric. El triete n
dou lumi, n lumea spectacolului i n lumea ca spectacol, spre deosebire de omul arhaic
participant la spectacolul ca nsoind cultul i identificndu-se cu el ntr-o lume care doar
minimal delimiteaz planul spiritual de cel existenial i cu att mai puin diferitele activiti
spirituale ntre ele28. Raportat la credina cretin, ceea ce deosebete fundamental discursul
artistic al dramei teatrale de discursul religios ritual, poate fi rezumat prin dou scurte
26
Jacques Le Marinel, La mise en question du langage dans le nouveau thtre, Presses Universitaires de Lille, 1981, p. 277.
27
Ibidem, p.387.
Ion Ianoi, Neart-art, Bucureti, Ed. Meridiane, 1983, p. 143.
28
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poveti: a) Au fost odat ca niciodat personaje care au trit ntmplri extraordinare i care
au murit ntr-un mod exemplar, dup ce au spus lucruri memorabile. Dar ele renvie mereu pe
scen sau n imaginaia noastr, n actul lecturii i al reprezentrii. Renvierea lor const
n imitarea actoriceasc a vieii lor, ntr-un mod mai mult sau mai puin fidel fa de text, sau
mai personal interpretat; b) A fost mai nainte de toi vecii Fiul lui Dumnezeu care s-a
nscut din Fecioar, care dup ce a trit ca un om obinuit, a nceput s-i nvee pe oameni
lucruri greu de acceptat n condiie pmntean, care a fcut minuni, care a fost ucis, dar a
renviat n realitate i s-a nlat la ceruri. i care se jertfete i renvie n realitate o dat cu
fiecare Sfnt Liturghie.
Dac destinul este poriunea de timp pe care ne-o ngduie istoria i totodat un
aspect dramatic al timpului funcia spectacolului este aceea de a exorciza destinul (...), a-l
sili s se manifeste lng tine, pe scen, ntr-un timp concentrat, i tu s scapi, s rmi
spectator, s iei din Timp (...)29 dup cum spune Dan Bibicescu din Noaptea de Snziene.
Ca i Eliade care mrturisete n Jurnal intenia de a intitula nuvela anurile, Btlia de la
Oglindeti (s.m.), acest personaj scrie o pies de teatru despre ntoarcerea de la Stalingrad.
Ceea ce este un mod de a spune c teatrul fiind o form de manifestare a memoriei
colective cu mijloacele artei, face posibil abolirea prezentului, participarea la alte
evenimente dect acelea care se petrec n realitatea imediat i, prin aceasta, are el nsui
funcia de a genera realitate. Reprezentaia teatral, ca gest de eliberare de timpul istoric, este,
pentru Eliade, o atitudine fa de destin, echivalent cu dominarea temporalitii prin creaie.
Loc de realizare a coincidenei contrariilor, teatrul ca eveniment ce se desfoar n timp,
dar se poate repeta la nesfrit, n plin istorie linear ca o culme a rafinamentului cultural
pe care, ca odinioar la vechii greci, l poate realiza oricnd istoria este o viziune
temporal n care istoria linear i istoria ciclic se ntlnesc, n care oamenii devin nemuritori
pentru c renasc o dat cu fiecare spectacol, n timpul reprezentaiei (viziune ciclic a istoriei)
cnd se pot ntlni oameni din timpuri diferite, personajele i spectatorii. n teatru istoria
trecut triete ntr-o istorie prezent, viei care s-au ncheiat renvie cu fiecare spectacol, se
repet; de aceea teatrul este un simbol al destinului i un simbol de gradul doi al istoriei.
Este, ntr-un anumit fel, o concepie apropiat de viziunea teatral despre lume tipic baroc, n
care teatrul este neles ca imagine i simbol perfect al vieii care la rndul ei este privit ca
spectacol nentrerupt, ca reprezentaie.
Dar contemplarea istoriei ca spectacol nu elimin rostul iniiatic, transfernd drama
n domeniul gratuitii. A vrea s evadezi din istorie prin spectacol, s te salvezi ca actor prin
joc i ca spectator prin contemplaie nu presupune numai un spaiu artificial, dar i un spaiu
ritual; nu numai un timp artistic, dar i un timp mitologic reintegrat: acolo unde gndurile
i gesturile se purific de determinaiile reale, care sunt ale omului istoric al momentului
i n acelai timp ale personajului anistoric. Este un joc care devine prin reluare realitatea
autentic n care actorul/omul, fiina czut n condiia istoric abolete timpul, preia roluri
demiurgice sau profetice, personific destinul. Spaiul de joc este un spaiu al identificrii
planului raiunii cu planul faptei, a obiectului cu subiectul meditaiei; act i contiin a
actului; dramaturgie i demiurgie.
Experimentele teatrale propuse de Mircea Eliade prin discursul personajelor nuvelelor
i romanelor sale (exersarea proprie n arta dramatic fiind un alt subiect) arat c istoricitatea
omului acumulat prin trecerea timpului ncrcat de evenimente profane condiioneaz n mod
pozitiv capacitatea de creaie n sensul c dac nu ar exista obstacolul de depit (teroarea
istoriei), omul nu ar rmne altceva dect un diletant al paradisului, cum se exprim ntr-un
loc Emil Cioran.
29
Mircea Eliade, Noaptea de Snziene, Bucureti, Ed. Minerva, 1990, vol.II, p. 279.
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La vremea redactrii textelor literare eliadeti pe care le-am avut n vedere, nu numai
n studiile de antropologie a imaginarului era analizat componenta religioas a spectacolului
teatral, dar i n studiile de estetic. De exemplu, A. Villiers vorbete despre funcia sacr a
actorului n Formes de lart, formes de lesprit30. De aceast funcie sacr ine i rolul
actorului de inspirator pentru autor, despre care vorbea Jean Girardoux: Actorul nu este
numai un interpret, el este un inspirator, el este manechinul viu prin care atia autori
personific cu toat naturaleea o viziune31.
n plus, dimensiunea religioas a spectacolului teatral sugereaz implicarea
transcendenei n istorie, iar prin aceast recuperare a istoriei ntr-o form teatral
(Domenach) efectele tragice i absurde sunt purificate: Totdeauna limbajul teatral a fost
mbinat cu limbajul esenial al vieii, dar n epoca recent, el a invadat toate domeniile att de
mult, nct a provocat un fel de teatralizare a Istoriei32. Ceea ce inseamn, pe de o parte, un
mod de a privi istoria real ca reprezentare total realizat cu mijloacele regizorale,
scenografice i actoriceti, dar i o transpunere n toat complexitatea ei (inclusiv
metadiscursiv) n spectacolul propriu-zis, pentru a fi retrit i pentru a exorciza tragicul
istoriei, cci o istorie din care a fost izgonit interpretarea tragic scenic purificatoare, risc
s retriasc drama n realitate. Aceast funcia exorcizant ndeplinit de o trup de teatru
experimental i-o imagineaz i Mircea Eliade n romanul Nousprezece Trandafiri :
Spectacolul ilustreaz modul de a fi al evenimentelor istorice i totodat structura
istoriografiei(). Personajul Serdaru mrturisete c nu l-a citit pe Hegel, dar crede c-i
nelege sistemul de gndire pentru c l-am trit de attea ori,n viaa de toate zilele, i mai
ales l-am retrit repetnd anumite spectacole sub direcia lui Ieronim33. Pentru a reflecta
structura istoriografiei, spectacolele respective, concepute ca exerciiu de anamnez, ncep cu
celebra expresie (devenit replic) hegelian Prin Napoleon,Spriritul Universal a intrat clare
n Istorie (expresie pe care de altfel o invoc i Domenach), continu cu dialogul dintre
Hegel i reprezentanii istoriografiei contemporane, revenind ntr-un mod cu nimic mai
fantezist dect cel filosofic la evenimentele exemplare i pluralitatea semnificaiilor
acestora i, pe de alt parte, la rolul accidentelor cauzativ importante n istoria unui popor.
Legat de mesajul prin care Eliade i ncurajeaz cititorii s vad i n spectacolul
teatral o form de art ritual sau chiar de iniiere, o tain eliberatoare n contextul n care
discursul actorilor este centrat pe ideea abolirii istoriei i a libertii n cadrul unui regim
concentraionar prin intermediul spectacolului dramatic, Nicolae Steinhardt i scria lui Mircea
Eliade: Am citit Nousprezece Trandafiri (). N-ai cunoscut, din fericire, nchisoarea. Dar
intuiia artistului e tot att de puternic i de precis ca experiena existenial a unui om de
rnd. Ai neles perfect c liberatatea absolut nu ne este accesibil dect atunci cnd nu
mai avem nici un fel de libertate. Dar absoluta libertate nu poate fi dect n nchisoare sau
ntr-o situaie analog, n total nelibertate. Am resimit o ciudat emoie citind nuvela unde
se afl cuprins fraza despre libertatea absolut. Ca acea bucuroas emoie pe care, mereu,
mi-o strnete rostirea de ctre un altul a unui adevr ce mi se prea tinuit n adncul cel mai
intim al fiinei noastre34.
A. Villiers, La fonction sacre de l'acteur, n Formes de lart, formes de lesprit, Ed. par Ch. Lalo. Et. Sourriau, PUF, 1951.
Jean Girardoux, Girardoux par lui-mme, cf. Odette Aslan, Lart du thtre, Paris, ditions Seghers, 1963.
32
Jean-Marie Domenach, ntoarcerea tragicului, Traducere de Alexandru Baciu, Bucureti, Editura Meridiane, 1995, p135.
30
31
33
Nicolae Steinhardt, Nicu Steinhardt ctre Mircea Eliade, n Postlegomena la felix culpa. Mircea Eliade, evreii i antisemitismul,
Volumul I, Culegere de texte de Liviu Borda, Ediie ngrijit de Mihaela Gligor i Liviu Borda, Cluj-Napoca, Presa Universitar Clujean,
2012, pp.115-116.
34
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Altfel spus, privitorii ca la teatru se recunosc sub semnul unei teologii a nostalgiei
(Carl Olson)35 i aceasta este o dovad n plus c abordarea teatrului i a artei speciale a
actorului formulat n discursul personajelor eliadeti reprezint una dintre modalitile
privilegiate de a valorifica prin limbajul artistic problema timpului i a variantelor epifanice
ale binomului hermeneutic sacru-profan i, legat de acestea, ideea abolirii istoriei i a
eliberrii prin intermediul spectacolului dramatic revelator al destinului.
Referine bibliografice
1. Domenach, Jean-Marie, ntoarcerea tragicului, Traducere de Alexandru Baciu, Bucureti,
Editura Meridiane, 1995.
2. Dodds, E.R., Dialectica spiritului grec, Bucureti, Ed. Meridiane, 1983.
3. Eliade, Mircea, Solicvii, Bucureti, Humanitas, 1991.
4. Eliade, Mircea, Forgerons et alchimistes, Paris, Flammarion, 1977.
5. Eliade, Mircea, Proz fantastic, vol. III, Bucureti, Ed. Fundaiei Culturale Romne,
1991.
6. Eliade, Mircea, Proz fantastic, vol. IV, Bucureti, Ed. Fundaiei Culturale Romne,
1992.
7. Eliade, Mircea, Noaptea de Snziene, Bucureti, Ed. Minerva, 1991.
8. Eliade, Mircea, Nousprezece trandafiri, Bucureti, Ed. Romnul, 1991.
9. Eliade, Mircea, Patanjali i Yoga, Bucureti, Humanitas, 1992.
10. Eliade, Mircea, Jurnal, Volumul I, Bucureti, Humanitas, 1994.
11. Eliade, Mircea, ncercarea labirintului, Cluj-Napoca, Ed. Dacia, 1990.
12. Eliade, Mircea, Images et symboles, Paris, Gallimard, 1952.
13. Eliade, Mircea, Insula lui Euthanasius, n Mircea Eliade, Drumul spre centru, Bucureti,
Ed. Univers, 1991.
14. Eliade, Mircea, De la Zalmoxis la Genghis Han, Bucureti, Ed. tiinific i
Enciclopedic, 1980.
15. Girardoux, Jean, Girardoux par lui-mme, n Odette Aslan, Lart du thtre, Paris,
ditions Seghers, 1963.
16. Hoffmann, Werner, Fundamentele artei moderne, Bucureti, Ed. Meridiane, 1977.
17. Ianoi, Ion, Neart-art, Bucureti, Ed. Meridiane, 1983.
18. Marino, Adrian, Hermeneutica lui Mircea Eliade, Cluj-Napoca, Ed. Dacia, 1980.
19. (Le Marinel), Jacques La mise en question du langage dans le nouveau thtre, Presses
Universitaires de Lille, 1981.
20. Steinhardt, Nicolae, Nicu Steinhardt ctre Mircea Eliade, n Postlegomena la felix
culpa. Mircea Eliade, evreii i antisemitismul, Volumul I, Culegere de texte de Liviu
Borda, Ediie ngrijit de Mihaela Gligor i Liviu Borda, Cluj-Napoca, Presa
Universitar Clujean, 2012.
21. Usctescu, George, Ontologia culturii, Bucureti, Ed. tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1983.
22. Uscatescu, Jorge, Time and Destiny in the novel of Mircea Eliade, Filosofia Oggi, Anno
X, N. 1, 1978.
35
Carl Olson, The Theology and Philosophy. A search of the Center, Hampshire and London, MacMillan Academic and Professional LTD
Houndmills, 1992.
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Abstract: Entitled Between universal and national features in Eminescus sonnet, this study
proposes the analyse of the most illustrative of Eminescus sonnets, classified according to
the major themes as Love, Time and Poetry. This analyse aim is to find out the national
features which every literary work possesses in the same time being universally, as Lucian
Blaga says in The Trilogy of Culture.
A brief history of the sonnet as a lyrical species sounding Love with delicacy, from its origin
the old Arabian love poetry( qasid), then passing through different epochs, points out that the
sonnet keeps up structural constants and themes, also receiving original characteristics,
integrated in literary ideologies, national features and in the own vision of the authors.
According to Evolutionism statements, there are universal themes in Art, constants coming
from fundamental human experiences, but we cant ignore Culturalism ideas that confer to
every culture a specific style represented by cultural patterns as the stylistic matrix of
Lucian Blaga.
In the case of Eminescus sonnets, there are studied the layers: phonetic, lexicological, that of
images, of poetic ideas and the metaphysical one, having in view to find elements belonging
to this Romanian stylistic matrix.
Sonnets principal constant (besides the fixed form) being the theme, this is which will dispose
into categories the eminescian sonnet.
Love, the major theme of the sonnet, having profound implications into the other themes,
presents the whole gamut of feelings, phases of Eros in Platos philosophy of The Banquet.
Grouped together in two great categories according to the reaching degree of perfect
initiation, the sonnets will set off the Love as an understanding act and also the spiritual
Love.
Love as a contemplation is identified in the sonnets Im staying in your veranda and To love
in secret, suffering Love in the sonnet Thinking at you, by reaching in the end the last step
of Absolute Beauty revealing in the sonnets When itself the voice... and Its autumn outside.
Afterwards, the theme of Time can be divided depending on the attitudes adopted by the
creator: resignation or struggle. The ephemeral human condition is stated in the message of
the sonnet Time passed on, and the struggle against the Time appears in The deep sea.
The theme of Poetry, with its saving role, includes both the creators profession of loyalty
followed in the sonnet Iambus, as well as the Poetry in the battle against Time, aided by
eternal Love in the sonnet There are many years....
After analyzing the layers of the most valuable eminescian sonnets, it is ascertained the
interweaving of the universal elements such as: the Love Myth, Platos philosophy,
Schopenhauers philosophy, the Poetry Myth, - with elements belonging to the Romanian
stylistic matrix: the ineffable longing, the Dacian Myth, the life attitude, the rhythm of the
Romanian space, the formative aspiration and the Childhood Myth.
Structural method leads both to the universal and national dimension exploration of a literary
work, from evolutionist and culturalist anthropological perspective.
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teoreticienii Wellek i Warren, se vor studia straturile: fonetic, lexical, imagistic, ideatic (al
lumii, universului liric) i cel al calitilor metafizice, urmrind elemente aparinnd matricei
stilistice romneti, aa cum a fost ea definit de Lucian Blaga n Spaiul mioritic.
Tema iubirii, tema major a sonetului ca specie literar, cu implicaii profunde n
celelalte teme, are o gam ntreag de reprezentri, prezentate ca faze ale sentimentului erotic
n Banchetul lui Platon, a crui filosofie despre iubire st la baza mesajului att n Renatere
ct i n Romantism.. Principalele reprezentri ale iubirii pot fi grupate n dou mari categorii:
iubirea ca act de cunoatere i iubirea spiritualizat.
Aparinnd primei categorii, i anume cutrii frumosului fizic, una din treptele
platoniciene ale iniierii desvrite, este sonetul Stau n cerdacul tau. Analiznd stratul
sonor al sonetului, observm alternana tonurilor grave (o, u) cu cele alerte, vioaie (e, i),
opoziie fonic ce sugereaz complexitatea sentimentului uman, ntre nostalgie i speran.
Aceast alternan corespunde ntru totul dorului mioritic, sentiment inefabil romnesc: Stau
n cerdacul tu.Noaptea-i senin. / Deasupr-mi crengi de arbori se ntind, / Crengi mari
n flori de umbr m cuprind / i vntul mic arborii-n grdin.
Stratul lexical cuprinde cuvinte aparinnd registrului cosmic,natural : stele, lun,
lumin, ntuneric, vntul, ninsoare. Este o viziune romantic, potrivit totodat spiritului
romnesc, ce caut originile, reintegrarea n elementele eterne, cosmice, sau altfel spus,
conform lui Lucian Blaga, aspiraia transorizontic.
Planul imagistic, cu epitetele cu rol de emblem: umeri de ninsoare, sugernd
puritatea iubitei, aspiraia spre cunoaterea spiritual, se complinete cu planul universului
poetic, dezvluind viziunea auctorial. Prezenta lunii, astrul refleciei romantice, mpreun cu
simbolismul imaginilor, confer sonetului eminescian Stau n cerdacul tu valene ale
sacrului, categorie estetic omniprezent n lirica sa de dragoste. Sentimentul iubirii este
ridicat la altitudinea de sens suprem al vieii. Alternana lumin / ntuneric imagini
simbolice (fiin / nefiin) ce deschid, respectiv nchid universul acestui sonet, reflect
aceeai concepie despre iubire, vzut ca fiind unicul motor al vieii, n lipsa ei
nemairmnnd dect Thanatosul.
Este ilustrat mitul iubirii ca realizare uman suprem 2, aspiraie continu spre
transcendent, nemurire. Iubirea este sens al vieii, iar sacralitatea sentimentului aduce cu ea
categoria estetic tradiional a sublimului. Accentul axiologic pentru via i atitudinea
anabazic, ascendent, caracteristici ale matricei stilistice romneti, sunt cuprinse n aceast
viziune auctorial eminescian.
Alt sonet eminescian ce dezvolt motivul iubirii-contemplaie este Iubind n tain. Din
nou muzicalitatea versurilor este realizat prin opoziii fonice vocalice, corespunztoare
ritmului mioritic al spaiului ondulat.
Iubirea trece pe nesimite spre o nou etap platonic a iniierii desvrite,
cunoaterea moral, cutarea frumuseii sufletului: A celui suflet ce pe al meu tie.
Aspiraia spre comunicarea erotic prin privire, la Eminescu mbrac o form lipsit de
ornamentri, cu excepia epitetelor de mare putere de evocare simbolic: duioaselor
mistere (epitet evocativ moral) sau dulcea-nvpiere (dulce - epitet specific eminescian,
investind cu intensitate sentimentele, exprimnd apropierea interioar 3). Epitetul antitetic,
oximoronul ucigtoare visuri de plcere creeaz emoia tipic eminescian, osciland ntre
durere i voluptate 4, care se potrivete cu ritmul mioritic i sentimentul dorului.
Mihai Cimpoi, Spre un nou Eminescu, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1995, p.186.
Edgar Papu, Concentrarea intensiv dulcele eminescian n Poezia lui Eminescu..Elemente structurale, Editura Minerva, Bucureti,
1971, pp.93-94.
4
Tudor Vianu, Epitetul eminescian.Categoriile estetice ale epitetelor n Mihai Eminescu, Editura Junimea, Iai, 1974, pp.199-211.
2
3
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Intensitatea tragic a iubirii, purificarea realizat prin ardere, confer iubirii dulcenvpiereacelai sens absolut al vieii.
Atunci cnd iubirea, ajuns n faza cunoaterii morale, ntlnete dezacordul dintre
real i ideal, ea se transform n suferin. Acestei categorii, iubire-suferin, i aparine
sonetul Gndind la tine, n care vizualul contemplaiei trece n faza reflexivitii, privirea
devenind gndire, viziune.
Muzicalitatea se mbogete cu o imagine auditiv: De ce n noapte glasul tu
nghea?, imagine ingenios compus prin acordarea unei nsuiri tactile unei realiti din
sfera auditivului.
Perechea de epitete, evocativ: clipa de dulcea i apreciativ: amar etern, creeaz
la Eminescu antiteza ideal / real, i nc o dat sensurile adnci ale dulce-amarului, emoie
tipic eminescian, de provenien mioritic, dar i romantic (Romantismul fiind caracterizat
prin antiteze).
Sacrul i sublimul universului liric cuprins n sonetul Gndind la tine const n
aspiraia continu spre plenitudine, nostalgia apropierii, credina n via: Cci dorul meu
mustrri o s-i tot spuie / i srutndu-te am s te cert / Cu dezmierdri cum n-am spus
nimruie. Sunt cele dou faete ale dorului romnesc, deprtarea luntric, jalea,
dezamgirea exprimat prin atributul termic rece din al doilea catren, i nostalgia
apropierii (Edgar Papu, Poezia lui Eminescu), care se concretizeaz n senzaiile tactile din
acelai catren i din ultima terin.
Ultima treapt a procesului de iniiere desvrit n dragoste, dup filosofia
platonician, este dezvluirea frumosului n sine, spiritualizarea sentimentului erotic.
Absolutul iubirii cunoate doua forme de concretizare n sonetul eminescian: iubirea-amintire
venerat i iubirea salvatoare.
Sonetul Cnd nsui glasul este strbtut de motivul iubirii ajuns amintire venerat.
Adecvarea limbajului la mesaj reiese chiar din stratul fonetic, n primul rnd prin sugestia
vocalic, alternnd constant tonurile grave cu cele vioaie, armoniznd cele dou reprezentri
ale dorului.
Sonetul prezint n plus i o muzicalitate intern, reieit din intensificarea sugestiei
ecoului, intensificare realizat prin repetiiile: aproape, mai aproape, ce pregtesc fericirea
ntlnirii spirituale. Este o atitudine anabazic, n timp ce transcendentul coboar, prin apariia
sacr a iubitei.
Muzica tactilitii 5 atribuie sonetului sublimul senzorial al atingerii imateriale a
iubirii din ultima terin: Cu geana ta atinge-m pe pleoape.
Stratul lexical cuprinde cuvinte din sfera religiosului i oniricului: evlavii, pace, blnd,
vis, corespunznd perspectivei sofianice asupra vieii, nelepciunea constnd n cutarea
divinitii.
n planul imagistic, dobndirea nelepciunii prin cunoatere desvrit a iubirii
spiritualizate, Eminescu o exprim valorificnd fora simbolic a epitetelor evocative, ce
invoc categoria estetic a sacrului. Aa este dulci evlavii epitet rar, evocativ fizic pentru
termeni morali, asociind sublimul mplinirii prin epitetul dulce cu sacrul sens al iubirii ca
trire major creia i s-a ridicat un altar; sau blnd nsenina-vei unde epitetul stereotip
blnd primete o for de evocare a dimensiunii angelice a iubitei.
Sublimul apare aici n dimensiunea metafizic, sacr, conferit iubirii, dar i n
perfeciunea senzorial a comunicrii spirituale cu amintirea venerat.
5
Edgar Papu, Eminescu ntr-o nou viziune, Princeps Edit, Iai, 2005, pp. 60-61.
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Lucian Blaga, Geneza metaforei i sensul culturii n Trilogia culturii, Editura pentru Literatur Universal, Bucureti, 1969, pp.267-270.
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Stratul lexical prezint aciunea timpului prin antiteza dintre efemeritatea condiiei
umne i perenitatea elementelor naturii, cmpul semantic al naturalului primordial, al
cosmicului (mare, lun, stele) predominnd.
Tehnica imagistic eminesciana apeleaz la imagini vizuale sugestive ce redau
ravagiile timpului, simbolic nfiat ca element primordial, marea: i mic lumea ei negrumrea.
Perenitatea elementelor naturii este simbolic reprezentat n fora evocatoare a
epitetelor adnca mare i antica mare , n cel din urm antica fiind similar epitetului
frecvent eminescian vechi , ce indic durabilul.
Faptul c n ultima terin din Adnca mare , marea primete noile atribute umane
indiferent, solitar, evideniaza mesajul eminescian profund de contemplaie sceptic
pn la identificare cu cosmicul, transcendentul. Arma eminescian contra timpului este
exprimat implicit, prin intermediul contemplaiei estetice, surs a imaginaiei creatoare.
Contemplaia estetic este cellalt remediu schopenhauerian la suferina vieii, i Eminescu o
armonizeaz cu nirvana (neleas acum ca Absolut), creia i adaug elemente panteiste i de
animism, caracteristice concepiei populare romneti despre lume i via. Mai mult, n
simirea eminescian putem identifica aceast aspiraie transcendental, reprezentat prin
mare , cu ritmul mioritic al spaiului ondulat, al unui anume melancolic sentiment al
destinului, () alternan de suiuri i coboruri 7 .
Datorit concepiei renascentiste care elogia fora creatoare a omului, arta i n spe
poezia, devenea purttoarea sacrului, n timp ce geniul creator avea atribute ale divinitii.
Este o concepie vehiculat i de Romantism i ea se concretizeaz n tema poeziei, ce
exprim rolul orfic al poeziei, puterea acesteia de a lupta contra timpului.
Motivul referitor la exigena estetic i modul de constituire al actului creator, poate fi
urmrit n sonetul Iambul. Muzicalitatea eminescian cunoate i o manifestare intern,
semantic, prin imaginile auditive ce sugereaz modul de adecvare al ritmului, element al
formei poetice, la coninutul ideatic: exprimarea dragostei - iar cu dulce glas i mple
gura, a inspiraiei folclorice - De poi s-auzi n el al undei opot , sau a sentimentelor
patriotice Ce aspru mic pnza de la steaguri.
Din punct de vedere lexical i imagistic, Iambul conine, n centrul primului catren,
cuvntul-cheie mierea , ce simbolizeaz miezul lucrurilor, esena 8, adic profunzimea.
Aceast esen pune n eviden tehnica exterioar de mare for sugestiv la care ajunsese
Eminescu n perioada maturitii artistice, prin folosirea epitetului necesar 9. Comparnd un
element al formei, msura versului, cu mierea, poetul romn atrage atenia asupra rostului
semnificantului de a fi perfect adecvat semnificatului, exprimnd esena ideii poetice.
Epitetele blnd i puternic, asociate versului, i confer proprieti caracteristice
dorului romnesc i patriotismului romantic.
Valoarea programatic d fora sublimului, iar universul ideatic se compune din ideea
prevalenei ideii poetice, autentic (sentiment, revolt) i folcloric autohton, asupra formei.
Poezia n lupta contra timpului este tema sonetului Sunt ani la mijloc, ilustrnd
indisolubila legatur dintre Iubire, Poezie i Timp, ca teme ale sonetului. Iubirea este eterna
surs a artei, arta n chip de elogiu suprem al iubirii constituind singura arm uman
contra timpului.
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10
11
G.Clinescu, Opera lui Mihai Eminescu, vol.II, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1976, p.231.
Lucian Blaga, Spaiul mioritic n Op.cit., p.257.
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specifice, cea metanoietic. ns caracterul naional se relev chiar prin modul de asimilare al
universalului, i acest aspect nu poate fi ignorat.
Bibliografie
1. Blaga, Lucian, Trilogia Culturii, Editura pentru Literatur Universal, Bucureti,
1969.
2. Clinescu, G., Opera lui Mihai Eminescu, vol.II, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1976.
3. Cimpoi, Mihai, Spre un nou Eminescu, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1995.
4. Durand, Gilbert, Structurile antropologice ale imaginarului, traducere de Marcel
Aderca, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1977.
5. Mihu, Achim, Antropologia cultural, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 2002.
6. Papu, Edgar, Eminescu ntr-o nou viziune, Princeps Edit, Iai, 2005.
7. Papu, Edgar, Poezia lui Eminescu.Elemente structurale, Editura Minerva,
Bucureti, 1971.
8. Vianu, Tudor, Mihai Eminescu, Editura Junimea, Iai, 1974.
9. Weinberger, Teodora Elena, Influene shakespeariene n sonetul eminescian,
Editura Citadela, Satu Mare, 2013.
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birth in pain and obey her spouse4, while Adams sin affects Creation in its entirety: cursed is
the ground because of you; in toil you shall eat of it all the days of your life; thorns and
thistles it shall bring forth to you; and you shall eat the plants of the field. In the sweat of your
face you shall eat bread till you return to the ground ()5 .The enmity between man and
nature is established ; divinity condemns Adams progeny to a life of strife, of effortless
attempts at placating an adverse, unruly nature.
Thus, to the fore of religious doctrine is the tragedy of Adam and Eve - that of having
inflicted upon all of mankind the stigma of original sin. The Western obsession with man as
measure of all things, so deeply embedded in the fabric of modernity since Renaissance, has
neglected to disseminate a balanced account of the creationist Christian myth.
Anthropocentric readings of the Bible fail to notice that there is, indeed, a difference between
nature before and after the fall. The exile from Eden coincides with the exile from a state of
natural grace for both the human and the non-human, who inhabit their ekos as peers, not
enemies. Paradise lost represents the loss of home for man and nature alike. After the flood,
God decides mans original sin (evil from his youth) is to blame for his repeated
transgressions, and vows never to put an end to Creation again:
() the Lord said in his heart, I will never again curse the ground because of man, for
the imagination of mans heart is evil from his youth; neither will I ever again destroy every
living creature as I have done. While the earth remains, seedtime and harvest, cold and heat,
summer and winter, day and night, shall not cease.6
Nature should not be made victim to the transgressions of man; fallen nature, however,
is subjected, in its turn, to the dominion of man. Noahs righteousness prevents the complete
extinction of humankind, and the aftermath of the flood sees divinity outline, once more, the
terms of a pact between man and his maker, a pact that reinstates mans dominion over all
living things:
And God blessed Noah and his sons, and said to them, Be fruitful and multiply, and
fill the earth. The fear of you and the dread of you shall be upon every beast of the earth, and
upon every bird of the air, upon everything that creeps on the ground and all the fish in the
sea; into your hand they are delivered. Every moving thing that lives shall be food for you;
and as I gave you the green plants, I give you everything.7
The second chapter of Genesis contains, however, a description of a significantly
dissimilar relationship between Man and Nature from the one pictured above. During the first
day of Creation, preceding the forging of all non-human life, God creates man out of dust and
breathes life into him. God singles out man for Eden8, to till it and keep it9, while the rest of
Creation follows as his companions and helpers10.The prophecies that announce the second
coming of God and the final salvation of man from mortality the return to the Edenic
condition make even clearer the paradisiacal state of harmony within Creation: The wolf
shall dwell with the lamb, and the leopard shall lay down with the kid, and the calf and the
lion and the fatling together, and a little child shall lead them. 11 The Darwinian theory of
struggle for the survival of the fittest is dismantled; predator and victim dwell in peaceful
togetherness marking the end of history and of violence: The suckling child shall put his
()your desire shall be for your husband, and he shall rule over you., Gen. 3.16
Gen. 3.17-19
6
Gen. 8.20-22
7
Gen. 9.1-4
8
Gen. 2.8-9:And the Lord God planted a garden in Eden, in the east; and there he put the man whom he had formed. And out of the ground
the Lord God made to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight and good for food, the tree of life also in the midst of the garden, and the
tree of knowledge of the good and the evil.
9
Gen. 2.15
10
Gen. 2.16: It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make a helper fit for him.
11
Isaiah 11.6.
4
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hand over the hole of the asp, and the weaned child shall put his hand on the adders den.
They shall not hurt or destroy in all my holy mountain.12
But before a recolonization of the original ekos be possible, the human and the nonhuman are cast into a world of hardship. As Dwight Eddins points out, the animal realm and
its struggle for survival are, for Ted Hughes, exponents of the Schopenhauerian will13, the
vitalistic animus central to all things living. The animal poems from Lupercal and Wodwo
belong to a web of pre-Christian mythology that embraces nature and violence. Hughes is
admires the non-human that fights claw and tooth for its survival, oblivious of the
rationalizations of the modern mind. Hawk Roosting (Lupercal) proposes the point of view of
the eponymous bird, a perfect specimen of Creation flawlessly designed to kill. There is no
falsifying dream/Between my hooked head and hooked feet, for the sharp anatomy of beak
and talons is the hawks only possible destiny, redemptive of mans many choices that may
prove falsifying instead of liberating. The legitimacy of the predators license to kill is
based on purity of instinct: I kill where I please because all is mine./There is no sophistry in
my body:/ My manners are the tearing off of heads ()14. In Pike15, the submarine of
delicacy and horror is another example of perfect Creation, unchanged, unabated from its
purposes since its emergence into existence: Killers from the egg; the malevolent aged grin,
The jaws hooked clamp and fangs/Not to be changed at this date;/ A life subdued to its
instrument. In Thistles (Wodwo), the harshness of the Nordic land, nourished by the
underground stain of a decayed Viking16 is transposed into the resilient stalks that renew
cyclically, with the stubbornness of warriors: Mown down, it is a feud. Their sons appear,
/Stiff with weapons, fighting back over the same ground. The vegetal counterparts of the
fanged hawk and pike, the thistles embody natures overpowering will, a nature that will even
survive man.
For Hughes, the embodiment of this healthy prehistoric vitality is the non-human in
the guise of the animal, while for Thomas this vitality dwells in the landscape. A bestiary
(otter, thrush, wolf, skylark, fox, hawk) of predators populates Hughes poetry in praise of the
diversity of the natural, but this gives way to the anarchic principle embodied in Crow, the
ultimate scavenger of the cityscape. Hughes is careful to choose this particular bird as a
symbol of inadequacy and randomness despite the darkness of its plumage, crow is a
debased variant of the raven, without majesty, superficial. His propensity for shiny, glittery
things is well-known. The pessimism, nihilism and controversy of Crow (1970) explore the
mysterious entities that escape both human and divine control. Hughes describes the human
condition at its most vulnerable, subject to randomness, very dissimilar to a Christian, New
Testament God of love and forgiveness. Crows is a world that has not been created from
chaos into order by an all-knowing, almighty divinity, but one projected from chaos onto
chaos, misbegotten, thwarted, an accident of creation.
Crow engages with Christian doctrine as a means of critiquing and deconstructing the
seminal grand narrative of Western thought. According to Ryan Hibbet17, Hughes inverts the
phallocentric orientation of Christianity, by restoring the feminine and the demonic to
consciousness, while Paul Bentley18 explains the abundance of dismembered body parts of
Crow by way of the Bahktinian theory of the carnivalesque. Crow or the fallen modern
Man, for that matter is reduced to the state of a child before the mirror stage, when he
12
Isaiah, 11.8-9
Dwight Eddins, Ted Hughes and Schopenhauer: The Poetry of the Will, Twentieth Century Literature,(1999), 45: 1, p. 94
14
Ted Hughes, New Selected Poems 1957-1994, (London: Faber and Faber, 1995), p.31
15
Idem, p. 41
16
Idem, p. 55
17
Ryan Hibbet, Ted Hughess Crow: An Alternative Theological Paradigm, Literature & Theology, 17:1 (2003), p. 18
18
Paul Bentley, Depression and Ted Hughes's Crow, or Through the Looking Glass and What Crow Found There Twentieth Century
Literature, 43:1 (1997), pp 29-30
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becomes aware of a coherent self, distinct from others. By rewriting Genesis, Hughes finds a
way of accommodating Nature in midst of theology, which he perceives as rejected by the
masculinist Christian tradition:
The subtly apotheosized misogyny of Reformed Christianity is proportionate to the
fanatic rejection of Nature, and the result has been to exile man from Mother Nature - from
both inner and outer nature. The story of the mind exiled from Nature is the story of Western
Man.....Since Christianity hardened into Protestantism, we can follow nature's underground
heretical life, leagued with everything occult, spiritualistic, devilish, over-emotional, bestial,
mystical, feminine, crazy, revolutionary, and poetic. (The Spectator, pp. 81-83)19
Crow, then, embodies Christianitys other, a rejection of the theory of divine design
and order. Faced with Crows blunders, God is a father overcome with pity and helplessness
in educating his inadequate progeny. Hughes, thus, proposes a Resistance Type A 20 reading
of the Bible, attempting to embed the others of Christianity in its very fabric.
Lineage opens with In the beginning was Scream. The ultimate expression of trauma
is preferred to the Biblical Word of Revelation. In Genesis, the speech of Divinity is
performative, for the commands of God (Let there be light) coincide with their enactment.
By degrading the creative power of logos to the inarticulate primitivism of scream, Hughes
offers his view of man and his likeness to God. There follow fourteen lines introduced by
who, paralleling the lineage of Adam who follows in the book of Genesis. The subsequent
births are violent, mortal ones, metaphors of the birth of man after the fall, of Eve begetting in
pain: the scream begets Blood, Eye, Fear, then Wing, Bone, Granite, then Violet, Guitar and
Sweat proceeding finally to Adam, Mary and God. He, in his turn, begets Nothing, the
originator of Never/ Never Never Never who, in due course, is parent to Crow. The byproduct of this lineage and heir to Man and God, Crow reinstates the cyclicality of death and
the doom of the human condition, reiterating the scream for Blood from the first two lines of
the poem. However, the ambivalence of blood as both symbol of life and token of a violent
severance of life endow the poem with a circular quality, of civilization held prisoner between
a violent inception and a similarly tortured agony. The progeny of this orgy of pain demands
that it be fed with Blood/Grubs, crusts/ Anything a pathetic underling Trembling
featherless elbows in the nests filth. Like the rest of Creation, Hughes seems to say, Crow
hasnt asked to be born he is an accident, just as the rest of mankind, surviving on the
discarded scraps of modernity.
The gospel according to John, the most poetic and beautifully written of the gospels,
opens with the same formulae as Genesis In the beginning but the act of creation per se,
the use of the verb-establishing agency in God created the heavens and the earth is replaced
by sheer presence: In the beginning was the Word. In the Bible, thus, the Word inhabits,
dwells, occupies space, being one with divinity, being divinity itself. The gospel goes on: He
was in the beginning with God; all things were made through him, and without him was not
anything made that was made. In him was life, and the life was then light of men. The light
shines in the darkness, and the darkness has not overcome it.21 The antithetical pair
light/darkness is consistently used oxymoronically by Hughes in Crows Fall, a parodic
parallel to Lucifers fall. White in the beginning, Crow becomes jealous of the suns
brightness, attracted by brightness (as by all things that glitter) upsettingly similar to his own,
Quoted by V. Madhukumar, in Ted Hughes's Poetry - The Problem of the Evil of Self-Consciousness, Language in India, 11: 3 (2011), p
392
20
In the Introduction to Greening Paul. Rereading the Apostle in a Time of Ecological Crisis (Waco, Texas: Baylor University Press, 2010),
the authors embark on a survey of ecotheological thought. Attitudes towards green readings of the Bible are classified as follows: theories of
Recovery or Retrieval (the Bible has been misinterpreted/mistranslated, it is not originally anthropocentric or mysogynistic) versus
theories of Resistance(of types A - some biblical texts are, indeed, counter-ecological and must be exposed and resisted, and B the Bible
is rightfully andro- and anthropo-centric, ecology is rejected). p 31
21
The Gospel According to John, 1.1-5
19
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and attacks it, to the effect of crows charring, justifying his idiotic behaviour by claiming that
Up there, ()/ Where white is black and black is white, I won.
Crows awkward stupidity exposes the absurd futility of order-bestowing myth. The
Crow and the Birds, for instance, enumerates in deceivingly lyrical tone the diversity of
ornithological creation taking possession of a man-made cityscape. The eagle soars through a
dawn distilling of emerald, while the curlew trawled in seadusk through the chime of
glasses the metaphors pertain to analogies in the sphere of trivial human activity, the
distilling of wine, the dark green glasses of the bottles in which the alcohol will be stored, its
implied consumption between dawn and dusk, the vapid clinking of glasses touching. The
birds criss-cross in flight the residual noises of urban modernity, trying to extricate
themselves: And the bluetit zipped clear of lace panties/ And the woodpecker drummed clear
of the rotovator and the rose-farm/ And the peewit tumbled clear of the laundromat. Crow,
unaware as always of the deeper significance of things, and emphasizing the very lack of any
significance, abstracts itself from the fate of his fellow birds, ransacking the rubbish of the
city: Crow spraddled head-down in the beach-garbage,/ guzzling a dropped ice-cream.
Nature and religion are akin, in the sense that, confined by language, they are both
inadequate at encompassing divinity thus, they both make use of metaphors to express the
inexpressible:
A poet must be able to claim... freedom to follow the vision of poetry, the imaginative
vision of poetry. . . . And, in any case, poetry is religion, religion is poetry. The message of
the New Testament is poetry. Christ was a poet, the New Testament is a metaphor, the
Resurrection is a metaphor; and I feel perfectly within my rights in approaching my whole
vocation as priest and as preacher as one who is to present poetry; and when I preach poetry I
am preaching Christianity, and when one discusses Christianity one is discussing poetry in its
imaginative aspects. The core of both are imagination as far as I'm concerned.. . My work as
poet has to deal with the presentation of imaginative truth.22
Opposed to Hughes theology of resistance, Thomas functions along irretrievably
Christian patterns. Despite occasional oscillations between faith and doubt, Thomas is
essentially a rehabilitator of theology, sharing with Hughes an abhorrence of modernity and
the machine. In his early poetry, informed primarily by the beauty of the Welsh hills where
God teases his poet-priest in a game of hide-and-seek, of alternating presence and absence,
Thomas offers a rather anthropocentric view on Creation. Nature is praised as the ultimate
proof of divine craftsmanship, but the voice of the poet-priest is superior, self-conscious,
masculinist. The peasants and their wives are barred from the ministers transcendent insights.
The priest-poet deplores the lack of imagination of the human dwellers of Gods creation, the
backwardness of Prytherch, who fails to raise his eyes from the land and search for the higher
order of things. As if plucked directly from an Old Testament primitivism, Iago Prytherch
resembles an Adam or a Cain without self-consciousness (A Peasant : There is something
frightening in the vacancy of his mind23), the essential man of dust, spending his life
grappling with the land that gave life to him and will receive his body after death. It is a life
of hardship in a landscape that repays toil with the thorns and thistles of Gods banishment
from Paradise: This is the land where men labour/In silence, and the rusted harrow/Breaks its
teeth on the grey stones.(The Minister24). Forest Dwellers25 speaks of Men who have hardly
uncurled/from their posture in the/ womb. Naked. Heads bowed, not/ in prayer, but in
contemplation/of the earth they came from,/that suckled them on the brown/milk that builds
Cf. William V. Davis, R. S. Thomas: Poet-Priest of the Apocalyptic Mode, South Central Review, 4:4 (1987), p. 92
R. S. Thomas, Selected Poems, The Stones of the Fields (1946), p. 1.
24
Idem, The Minister (1953), p.7
25
Idem, Between Here and Now (1981), p. 145
22
23
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bone not brain. This primitivism is not redemptive, neither is the opposite world, governed
by the almighty machine. The priest-poet alone seems to be able to communicate with the
Maker. Thomas treatment of the feminine is also significant. When he does relinquish the
masculine, intellectualized existential concerns and probe the otherness of femininity, it is
often a portrait that pales when compared to that of the man. In Anniversary26, the
communion between man and wife is ambiguous. They open the door /To friend and
stranger, but who opens the womb/Softly to let enter/The one child/With its huge hunger.?
Is it God, is it the husband? It is both husband and wife? The woman is seen only in the
posture of vessel/passive recipient, just like nature, to be filled with the life-giving agency of
creative masculinity. The womb, the female body27, is not useful unless given purpose by
the agency of God, the husband or the poet priest. There are no women who think, ask
questions, (nor are men, for that matter, except Thomas who does all the thinking and asks all
the questions on behalf of the congregation) or simply exist except as a counterpart or helper
for man. In The Woman28, God justifies the creation of Eve in terms of the generations that
would navigate/by those great stars. Her lot is domesticity: Hers is the clean apron, good for
fire, /Or lamp to embroider as we talk slowly/in the long kitchen, While the white
dough/Turns to pastry in the great oven29(Farm Wife). We do hear Walter Llywarchs
perception of the spouse (Walter Llywarch30: I took instead, as others had done/ Before, a
wife from the black pews), Gods or the priests, but never the womans.
The moors are essentially edenic, paralleling Gods incomprehensibility to the human
mind, but their inhabitants are not. God himself, in the later poetry of R.S.Thomas, is
imagined as a crafty technocrat, operating the destiny of humanity behind an elaborate
switchboard (God smiled. The controls/ were working: the small /eaten by the large, the
large/ by the larger B.C, p.208)/;The mythology of a species:/ Jesus Christ? Muhamad ?
But only/the wind is real. We have tried /personalizing it as divine breath, / but the answer of
the universe /is OM! OM!31. Hughes prefers the theological alternative of nature as
instinctual goddess, fertile and perseverant, the vital energy that will ultimately prevail,
surviving even the destructiveness of man, a force of post-natural propensity in its democratic
embracing of creation and destruction, life and death. Thomass Christian model, while
praising creation, subjects it to Almighty Divinity one cannot be too sure whether nature is
praiseworthy in itself, or just because it is the expression of Gods majesty. The moor
becomes a Church, the farmers toil for a living in the field as temporary tenants of Gods
estate, the land is a canvas on which the Makers brush continuously paints an already
completed scene. Thomas allows nature to inhabit the poems, but the lyrical voice that utters
the praise is that of the priest-poet: he blesses the moors, with their sinful and righteous alike,
but he rationalizes/intellectualizes the non-human.
500 years after Luther, theology in Western civilization undergoes a postmodern
reformation by meeting ecological concerns half-way and embracing the ethics of ecothought. Ecotheology and ecocritique propose revisionist readings of modern civilization that
oscillate between the rejection of anthropocentricity and the inevitable return to an all too
human perspective. Ted Hughes and R.S. Thomas, while voicing anti-modern stances and
bemoaning the usurpation of spirituality by technology, are also makers of poetry, thus
inherently occupying, God-like, a superior plane in their relationship with nature. The crux for
26
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both is to be able to forge viable alternative spiritual models without succumbing to the
rationalizing arrogance of Fallen Man. By denouncing, in Crow, the debased Creation of
industrialized modernity, Hughes expresses a primordial yearning, almost a death-wish, for
the return to paradisiacal Nature. The raw, instinctual predators of the volumes preceding
Crow (The Hawk in the Rain, Lupercal, Recklings, Wodwo) are no longer a spiritual refuge
for the seeker of authenticity. In Crow, the most pessimistic of Hughess volumes of poetry,
nature is contaminated beyond repair: it has become post-nature, a wasteland witnessing the
predictable agony of fallen man and fallen nature. For R.S. Thomas, though, nature preserves
its redemptive quality despite its quintessential inscrutability: like God himself, nature is
enigmatic and compelling for reasons that exceed mans capacity of understanding, a thing
the poet-priest occasionally struggles to accept. The Christian pattern embraced by Thomas
interprets Creation as the irrefutable proof of divine almightiness, but not without frustration
at its capricious elusiveness of a God that sometimes seems to inhabit the fields, like a
Church32, while at others the moors bear witness to an overwhelming absence33. Despite its
rhizomic branching, ecocritique seems to be developing along counter-postmodern lines,
endorsing a return to a unitary worldview that, surpassing solipsism and fragmentariness,
acknowledges and respects otherness. The interconnectedness principle of ecocriticism can
be identified in current critical trends, following a postmodernity that allows feminism,
postcolonialism, New Historicism, Cultural Studies not only to co-exist democratically, but
also engage with one another in interdisciplinary fashion.
Bibliography:
Bentley, Paul, Depression and Ted Hughes's Crow, or Through the Looking Glass
and What Crow Found There Twentieth Century Literature, 43:1 (1997), pp 27-40
Brown, Tony, Eves Ruse: Identity and Gender in the Poetry of R.S. Thomas,
English: The Journal of the English Association, 49:195 (2000), pp 229250
Davis, William V., R. S. Thomas: Poet-Priest of the Apocalyptic Mode, South
Central Review, 4:4 (1987), pp. 92-106
Eddins, Dwight, Ted Hughes and Schopenhauer: The Poetry of the Will, Twentieth
Century Literature, 45: 1 (1999), p. 94
Hahn, Claire, Crow and the Biblical Creation Narratives, Critical Quarterly, 19:1
(1977), pp 43-52
Hibbet, Ryan, Ted Hughess Crow: An Alternative Theological Paradigm, Literature
& Theology, 17:1 (2003), p. 18
Horrel, David G., Hunt, Cheryl and Southgate, Christopher, Greening Paul. Rereading
the Apostle in a Time of Ecological Crisis (Waco, Texas: Baylor University Press, 2010)
Hughes, Ted, New Selected Poems 1957-1994 (London: Faber and Faber, 1995)
Madhukumar, V., Ted Hughes's Poetry - The Problem of the Evil of SelfConsciousness, Language in India, 11: 3 (2011), p 391-400
The Moor: It was like a church to me./ I entered it on soft foot, /Breath held like a cap in the hand. It was quiet./ God made himself felt,/
Not listened to, in clean colours/ That brought a moistening of the eye,/ In movement of the wind over grass., Piet, p.61
33
J. D. Vicary, Via negativa: Absence and Presence in the Recent Poetry of R. S. Thomas
32
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Perry, Sam, Hoping for the Reciprocal Touch: Intimations of the Manus Dei in the
Poetry of R.S. Thomas, Literature & Theology, 21:2 (2007), pp 178-97
Santmire, H. Paul, Ecology, Justice, Liturgy: A Theological Autobiography, Dialog:
A Journal of Theology 48:3 (2009), pp 267-78
Scigaj, Leonard M., The Ophiolatry of Ted Hughes, Twentieth Century Literature,
(1985), 31:4 pp 380-98
The Holy Bible (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971)
Thomas, R. S., Selected Poems (London: Penguin Books, 2004)
Vicary, J. D., Via Negativa: Absence and Presence in the Recent Poetry of R. S.
Thomas, Critical Quarterly, 27:3 (1985), pp 41-51
Westover, Daniel, A God of Grass and Pen: R.S. Thomas and the Romantic
Imagination, North American Journal of Welsh Studies, 3:2 (2003), pp 19-38
White, Lynn Jr., The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis, Science: New Series,
155:3767 (1967), pp. 1203-1207
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Abstract: The Symbole of the Absolute, seen through the ambivalence of the feminized Sacred,
theoretized and poetized brings us in the proximity of anthropological strucutres of the
imaginary. The existencial archetipology of the primordial unity, between the human being
and the Being, argues the dual isomorphism as an archetip and Symbol in the mythic Systems.
The mystery of the feminized Sacred represents a presence of the undefinable and
unquantifiable totality through an inner-self balancing of the self reflexing. The
inexpresssible limit in the poetic language uses reporting to the transcendence/ light, to the
mystery space in the poetry of the silence, where the silence becomes an absolute mystery to
everyone, communicable through the fervor of elementary living.
Keywords and phrases: the feminized sacred, the dual isomorphism, the poetry of the silence.
Sacrul i dezvluie chipul parial, vzut, auzit, n general trit, respins sau acceptat,
dar nicidecum echivalat prin cuvinte care ar putea uza de o anumit ostentaie n ncercarea de
a dialoga cu Absolutul. Poetul modern i propune, ca obiect ultim al discursului, tocmai
dezvluirea esenei sacrului pentru care imagineaz diferite ipostaze echivalente, metaforice.
De aici i femininul sacru, avnd ca temei textul biblic (Galateni 3). Chipul venicului, prin
care poetul distinge sensibilul naturii firave a destinului uman, chipul femeii iubite, creatoare
de valori, relativizeaz obsesia spiritului, sentimentul de ncredere i plenitudine, o revelaie a
tainelor Marii Creaii.
Dat fiind faptul c dintotdeauna sfinenia i creaia s-au exclus, poetul rmne, mereu,
el nsui i i construiete propriul semnificat saturat de originar, de arhaic. Sacrul, n opinia
artizanului de cuvinte, reprezint variabile i nu constante ale tuturor religiilor, iar emoia
religioas se reduce la ira deorum uneori, alteori se regsete ntr-o form tulburtoare, o
sensibil nrudire cu mistuitoarea org, generat de iubirea a crei for este manifestat
printr-o mnie stins. (Otto 1996: 29) Pe de alt parte, ipostaza de sacru feminizat reduce la
tcere limbajul comun, degradat, devitalizat, surs de alienare i reinventeaz un limbaj
poetic. Are loc regresiunea spre o tcere decadent. Tcerea i Cuvntul ajung la o coabitare
simultan antagonic i intercondiionat. Pentru c nu se dezvluie dect fragmentar n zonele
verbului, tcerea continu s fie asaltat de cuvnt, iar cuvntul se ncpneaz s ptrund
zonele tcerii. Tcerea se manifest impasibil, provocnd n felul acesta cuvntul care
ncearc s i-o nchipuie sub diferite forme, strns legate de fiina uman. Asistm pe
parcursul discursului liric la un dublu joc: unul, de feminizare a sacrului care provoac verbul
i cellalt, de chip tcut al cuvntului, strnit de imaginile feminizate ale veniciei.
n alchimia sacrului, aa cum apare n creaia lui Tudor Arghezi, Dumnezeu - femeiaidee, din Psalmul de tain sau psalmul dragostei, demonstreaz ncrctura sentimentului
religios, preocuparea poetului pentru relaia sufletului cu Dumnezeu prin prisma femininului
ca latur existenial. Tensiunea dintre cuvnt i tcere reclam o combustie uimitoare i,
atunci, poetul religios prefer prezena unui sacru feminizat de care se poate apropia mult mai
real n fidelitatea rostuirii cuvntului. Cele dou ipostaze ale femeii, metafore opuse ca
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reprimate. ntreaga poezie penduleaz ntre mai multe instane personale: eu/ea (Eu zac/ Ea
cnt. Ea cnt/ eu ascult) sau ntre mai multe categorii ale fiinrii: trup/suflet (eu/trup, ea
suflet). Momentul descoperirii iubirii, a valorii ei existeniale i a semnificaiei metafizice
creeaz imagini n care senzualitatea este amestecat cu idolatria. Imaginea copilei presupune
ntoarcerea la vrsta inocenei (obrazul copilei), simbolizat i de sintagma ntielor stele;
o inocen stilizat, un hieratism atitudinal; surprinderea vrstei n asociere cu sentimentul
nevinoviei, al neputinei (Lacrimi s-au artat), marcheaz imperfeciunea umanului n faa
zdrniciei clipei. Imaginea sincron a lacrimei de la nceputul i sfritul poemului,
articuleaz un ciclu perpetuu al vieii, o coborre pentru a desvri urcarea ctre Nenelesul
misterium al existenei. Se identific, astfel, o tristee care nu este metafizic precum la Blaga,
ci moral, dezvoltnd o stare enigmatic, atitudine ce nstrineaz, oarecum, umanul de divin.
Focul divin, element purificator, este exprimat prin metafora buzelor calde, sugernd
puterea pasiunii erotice surprins n clipa iubirii ce marcheaz o existen. (Bachelard 2000:
84-85); buzele calde ale iubitei fac parte din simbolistica mitic a focului, care deine un loc
esenial n imagistica iubirii ca fenomen vital cosmic sau personal. (Doina 1980: 61)
Salvarea sufletului prin funciile eului incorporat (...), concentreaz n sine semnele totalitii
cosmice (Pop 1981: 86) i reprezint o ipostaz a corporalizrii divinului, cu energie i
vitalitate supranatural. Cerul feminizat, roul aprins, ivit din intensitatea unor triri
interioare, trimite la un afectiv extatic. Spaima extatic a sacrului, un tremendum fascinans se
revars peste pmnt ca ntr-o oglind i devine umbr a unui cer contorsionat. Dac n
poezia lui Blaga, umbra deine toate calitile tensiunii metafizice, fiind nvestit cu nsemnele
ironiei tragice (fr dorini, fr mustrri, fr cini/ i fr-ndemnuri, numai trup/ i numai
lut), la Adrian Maniu, umbra i lumina au aceeai origine i converg mpreun, protejnd
umanul; umbrei i corespunde imaginea vlului vechitestamentar, un myster, urmat de un
tremendum fascinans. Umbra ca i vlul, ambele ascund n ele formele reale ale existenei i
le scufund n tcere. Experiena dureroas a zidului, pe care umbra l ridic ntre fiina
uman i absolut, i afl expresia n poetica tcerii, capabil s emit metafore revelatorii
despre Cuvnt prin cuvnt: Poezia se nate din cuvnt dar i datorit unei anume rezerve fa
de cuvnt. Poetul creator se vede pus n n rivalitate cu demiurgul, devine un personaj asaltat
de interogaiile de tot soiul, invadnd sinele, blocat de umbrele care i interzic s descifreze
taina nenelesului pentru a depi dilema ntre cuvnt i tcere.
Sacrul feminin aduce, n imaginarul poetic, chipul durut al tririlor i tainelor
luntrului, cu tot ce ine de refuzul rostirii n detrimentul unei interiorizri fecunde. Poezia
tcerii ia chipul nfirii universului, transferndu-i atributele chipului fiinei umane, n
manifestrile ei obiective, favoriznd imagini n sine pur poetice. Accentul cade, aadar, pe
fiina uman, aflat n situaia de a se ndoi de harul divin, fr de care, cuvntul omenesc,
nlat pn la rangul de concurent al Cuvntului, nu ar putea parcurge transcendena, obligat
s se retrg n tcere. Cuvntul, considerat inexpugnabil, este nlocuit cu tcerea ca element
al numinosului. Tcerea devine universul de minuni care se petrec n afara cuvintelor. Fiina
contempl universul sinelui sub diferitele aparene, fr s apeleze la cuvinte. Rolul tcerii
este de a incita, se poate spune, cuvntul omului, ns nu pentru a da curs dialogului ateptat
cu ardoare. Ceea ce urmeaz tcerii, Cuvntul, se manifest sub dublu aspect: ca principiu i
ca ntruchipare; deformeaz sau ascunde sensul sentimentului n sine: ceea ce nu se spune este
mai adnc dect ceea ce s-a spus.
Prin feminizarea sacrului, se stabilete o conexiune de natur sacerdotal, unde fiorul
veniciei polarizeaz o bucurie iraional, o trire a desvririi n mister, cu un mereu ritmic,
aducnd scenariul iubirii ingenue, contemplarea timpului, n contextul unui spaiu fascinant,
cu iradiante declanri ale sublimului spiritual i afectiv, o suferin dureros de dulce.
Concepia sofianic, potrivit creia transcendentul coboar n imanent, atrage revenirea
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Abstract: Behind every concept and literary movement or change of direction, there are the
people that theorized and nurtured them. The history of Romanian literature is ripe with such
changes and movements and the people behind them went on in history, as the pillars of
Romanian culture. From Nicolae Iorga to Eugen Lovinescu and from George Clinescu to
Nicolae Manolescu, these are the people that had a radical influence over the field of
literature, culture and literary history. The last in this line of imposing figure is Nicolae
Manolescu, a name sure to create controversies and to polarize the opinions in the Romanian
literary world. The purpose of this short study is to analyze the effects of Manolescus
theories and published work in the Romanian literary community and to identify the changes
and influences of what has been defined as the Manolescu moment, through his works. This
study is proposing an overview of the most defining of Manolescus activity and published
works, both through the eyes of detractors and admirers, so, at the end, we could get a
broader view of the meaning of the Manolescu moment in the Romanian literature.
Keywords: moment, postmodernism, influence, chronicle, literature.
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acestor trei decade revista fiind sub conducerea lui Gheorghe Ivacu. Dup 1990 accede n
funcia de director i de editorialist al Romniei Literare. Din 1997 este membru
corespondent al Academiei Romne, iar din 2005 este preedinte al Uniunii Scriitorilor din
Romnia. n 2006 a fost numit n funcia de ambasador al Romniei la UNESCO1.
Pe plan publicistic, debuteaz n 1966 cu volumul Lecturi infidele. 1968 vede apariia
a dou volume, pe deoparte Metamorfozele poeziei, un studiu deosebit de valoros, de sintez a
poeziei interbelice romneti, iar pe de alt parte i apare volumul Poezia romna modern de
la George Bacovia la Emil Botta. Antologie, volum care va fi ns retras din librrii la scurt
timp de la apariie i distrus. Volumul n cauz va fi re-editat abia dup 1990. n 1970 va fi
publicat o reluare i o completare a tezei sale de doctorat, sub titlul Contradicia lui
Maiorescu. Volumele publicate n 1986, monografia critic Introducere n opera lui
Alexandru Odobescu i ceea ce va consacra monografiile atipice n stil manolescian
Sadoveanu sau utopia crii, marchez un punct de cotitur n scrierile lui Manolescu, i o
concentrare a ateniei sale aproape obsesive pentru romanul romnesc i evoluia acestuia2.
Aceste dou volume publicate n 1986 vor fi, ntr-un fel, punctul de pornire pentru
cele trei volume publicate ntre 1980 i 1983, Arca lui Noe. Eseu despre romanul romnesc.
Andrei Terian, n volumul su aprut la Editura Muzeului Naional al Literaturii Romne, n
2013, sub titlul Critica de export, considera aceste eseuri ale lui Manolescu drept fiind unul
dintre scrierile critice romneti care pot fi distribuite cu succes n afar, deoarece cuprind o
viziune global asupra romanului romnesc i o ncercare de ncadrare a acestuia n cadrul
unor tendine mai mari, europe sau chiar globale, mai degrab dect o viziune pur regional
sau chiar naional. Aceste eseuri sunt, crede Terian, poate cele mai cuprinzatoare sinteze
privind romanul romnesc3.
Manolescu consacr n aceste trei volume o nou tipologie a romanelor romneti,
preluat n linii mari de la academicianul american Wayne C. Booth din Retorica romanului a
acestuia, considernd c exist trei vrste n istoria romanului romnesc. El preia tipologia
coloanelor greceti pentru a denumi aceste trei vrste, numind astfel vrsta doric, vrsta
ionic i vrsta corintic. n prima vrst, Manolescu introduce romanele clasice i pe cele
realiste sau omisciente, asociindu-le coloanei greceti dorice, uimitoare prin simplitate i
durabilitate. Vrstei ionice, o vrst care continu s consacre frumuseea n durabilitate i
consisten, dar care i adaug i o parte ornamental prin capitelul n form de papirus, i
corespunde romanul la persoana I. Romanele lui Camil Petrescu sunt definitorii dar nu
singulare n aceast categorie.
n fine, vrsta corintic caracterizat de un bogat stil ornamental dus aproape pn la
o suprancrcare a formelor, este apanajul romanului postmodern, de la Nicolae Breban la
Augustin Buzura i de la Constantin oiu la tefan Agopian.
ntre 1977 i 1981, i apar apte volume de Teme, care cuprind eseuri i criticfiction. n
1995 public Crile au suflet, care reia o serie din ideile din Teme.
Se remarc la Manolescu o tendin de reluare a vechilor idei prin republicare i
revizuirea continu a unor volume. n aceeai categorie se ncadreaz a doua ediie din Despre
poezie, reluat n 1987, n care face o introducere profund n analiza poeziei cu toate speciile
literare ale acesteia. n acelai spirit public a treia ediie la Contradicia lui Maiorescu n
20004.
1 Laszlo Alexandru, Criticul literar Nicolae Manolescu, Editura Dacia, 2003; ediia a doua, revzut i adugit, Editura Paralela 45, 2009,
pp. 19-23.
2
Ibidem, p. 29.
3
Andrei Terian, Critica de export, Editura Muzeului Naional al Literaturii Romne, Bucureti, 2013, pp. 123-126.
4
Idem, CRONICA LITERARA/ Nicolae Manolescu public i privat, 25 martie 2010, Ziarul de Duminic accesat pe 9 noiembrie 2014.
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nivel de autor antologat i nu la nivel de curent literar aa cum s-ar fi cuvenit. O alt critic la
adresa lui Manolescu vine din ncercarea aproape obsesiv a acestuia de a demonta mitul lui
Eminescu, sub justificarea, oarecum raional, c orice form de cult e mortificant.
Tudor Cristea l nvinuiete pe Manolescu de tendina criticii sale de a fi mereu pus pe har,
apostrofrile, punerile la punct aproape retorice se observ mai mult ca n alt parte, mpreun
cu superficialitatea abordrilor i cu aspectul foiletonistic. Respingerea obstinat, spune el, a
ideii unui Eminescu plutonic (i ieit din aria biedermeier) este parte component a acestui
demers. Lund n considerare eventualul gust al tinerei generaii vzut cu asprime n postfa,
criticul mut accentele, punnd Antropomorfism n locul textelor grave i Mai am un singur
dor , o poezie evident important, considerat ns adevrata capodoper, n loc de Od. (n
metru antic), ilustrativ, spune Manolescu, pentru poezia de concepte goale. Pe de alt
parte, criticul pare a se certa cu toat lumea care crede altceva despre Eminescu, condamn
exegezele ca pe ceva pedant i inutil, iar cnd e de acord c I. Negoiescu a dat, alturi de
Maiorescu i Clinescu, o interpretare valabil, se strduiete s-o contrazic la fiecare pas7.
O alt critic la adresa lui Manolescu, vine din periodizare. Saltul pe care acesta l face
de la romantism la modernism este considerat de unele voci precum Tudor Cristea sau Paul
Cernat ca fiind prea brusc. Manolescu acord Modernismului perioada zbuciumat cuprins
ntre 1889 i 1947, amestecnd n acealai uria ceaun al Modernismului deopotriv
simbolismul, tradiionalismul, realismul, naturalismul i micrile de avangard n toat
desfurarea lor, de la dadaism la expresionism i de la integralism la suprarealism . Sau dup
cum spune Ion Bogdan Lefter, n cazul modernismului, sub umbrela conceptual a marelui
curent literar i cultural, i gsesc locul i simbolismul, i parnasianismul, i
instrumentalismul, i prerafaelismul, i decadentismul i poezia pur, i avangardele, ca i
poriunile nonreziduale ale smntorismului, poporanismului i mai ales ale ortodoxismului,
ale criterionismului i ale tradiionalismului mai neutru8.
Trecnd peste ideea c modernismul ar fi nu doar un curent cultural, dar i unul literar,
ar fi de observat, mai nti, c, la noi, utilizarea acestul concept creeaz oarece confuzii,
ntruct, n afara unui modernism n sens larg care nu este, ns, chiar aa de primitor nct si nglobeze i pe Gherea, i pe Cobuc sau Goga, i pe Galaction, pe Nicolae Iorga,
Delavrancea, Hoga, Iosif, Al. Davila sau Ronetti-Roman, exist i unul n sens restrns
orientarea de la Sburtorul. Explicaia opiunii pentru poriunile nonreziduale ale
smntorismului sau poporanismului este ns aceea c Manolescu evit, prin acest aproape
sofism, a se ocupa tocmai de smntorism i de poporanism. Plasnd sub umbrela
modernismului dou epoci literare destul de diferite, dar mai ales reprezentani ai unor curente
i orientri distincte, dei nrudite, autorul Istoriei critice... renun la o observaie clar pe
care o fcea G. Clinescu , observaie pe care a preluat-o fidel ns n Metamorfozele poeziei,
conform creia tradiionalismul interbelic, n care am putea include chiar i ortodoxismul este,
spre deosebire de cel de la nceputul secolului, tradiionalism al lui Cobuc, Iosif sau Goga,
dar i al lui Galaction, Hoga ori al primului Sadoveanu, tot o form de modernism9.
Ultima parte a Istorie Critice..., dedicat Contemporanilor, are o ntindere aproape la
fel de mare precum cea a volumelor dedicate restului epocilor literare romneti. Dei acelai
Tudor Cristea gsete de cuvin s critice nu numai ntinderea acestei pri dar i
periodizarea sa, de la 1949, pn n 2000, dac discuia despre valoarea calitativ asupra
literaturii romne scris n aceast perioad este nc deschis, simpla valoare cantitativ a
acesteia necesit un studiu de cel puin aceeai amploare ca cele dedicate literaturii romne
care a precedat aceast perioad.
7
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Nicolae Manolescu, Istoria Critic a Literaturii Romne, Editura Paralela 45, Bucureti, 2008, p. 69.
Tudor Cristea, Op. cit..
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Daniel I. Puia Dumitrecu, Istoria Cenaclului de Luni, tez de doctorat, Universitatea Transilvania din Braov, 2013.
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9.
10.
11.
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Abstract: Dejunul pe iarb deals with memory that prefigurates the center of life. Structured
in many parts by critics, the essence of the novel consists in the exploration of an universe
where memory figures in order to give a meaningful sense of life. The narrator apparently
relates facts without any significance. Sorin Titel succeeds in creating an unique world and
writing a story in which the protagonist establishes his own position in the world through the
mirage of memory. Thus, memory is not only a presentation of life or a narrative technique
adopted by the author, but also a matter of living in a microcosm in which the others
means an annihilation of the ego.
Keywords: memory, living, life, ego, world
Nimic ne este mai surprinztor n romanele lui Sorin Titel, Femeie, iat fiul tu,
Lunga cltorie a prozonierului, Clipa cea repede etc. dect felul n care scriitorul acord o
mare importan redimensionrii perspectivei universului ficional n ceea ce privete
viziunea despre lume prin alternana halucinant a lumilor paralele. Cu ajutorul memoriei se
cldete o lume n care pot fi atinse substraturile cele mai sensibile a fiinei umane pentru a se
ajunge la o revelaie.
Un roman care are drept miz memoria ca centru al vieii este i Dejunul pe iarb.
mprit n multe pri de critic (Elisabeta Lasconi), cartea exploreaz o lume n care
memoria i coordonatele sale fixeaz un sens n via. Sorin Titel reuete s creeze un
univers unic i s scrie povestiri n care protagonistul i stabilete propria poziie n lume
datorit mirajului memoriei. Astfel, memoria nu este numai un mod de prezentare a vieii sau
tehnic narativ, ea este un fel de a tri ntr-un microcosmos n care ceilali nseamn o
anihilare a eului.
Citatul din Scrisori ctre Regina de Soren Kirkegaard care deschide cartea Dejunul pe
iarb nu este ntmpltor; el anticipeaz rolul rememorrii : Pentru mine orice contact
armonios al idealului cu viaa se transform, se transifigureaz instantaneu ntr-o reamintire
i, n vreme ce se apropie de mine trecutul cel mai ndeprtat, acest contact mpinge napoi cel
mai recent trecut, ca s-l prezinte n clar-obscurul reamintirii. Dei clipa ne refuz astzi
ajutorul, dei scriind aceste rnduri ora n-a sosit nc, mi amintesc toate acestea ca un trecut
ndeprtat, n care durerea i pierde ghimpele i-n care melancolia i pstreaz toat dulceaa
ei. Al tu S. K1.
n prima parte a romanului este prezentat istoria unei familii. Ana este o femeie
atipic n ceea ce privete concepia general a lumii din mediul rural. Ea are un brbat, Paul,
de paisprezece, pleac de acas i revine dup doi-trei ani mbracat ca un brbat cu cizme
nalte, pieptar unguresc, vorbindu-se despre ea c ar fi devenit hoa de cai. n roman se
povestete despre biatul lor, Dumitru, obligat s se cstoreasc cu o femeie pe care nu o
iubete, dar care se ntoarce acasa dup moartea copilului lor, Titus, dup care se recstorete
1
Sorin Titel, Opere, 1. Schie i povestiri, Nuvele, Romane, Editura Fundaiei Naionale pentru tiin i Art, Bucureti, 2005, p.458
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cu o regean de la Caracal, Veta, avnd cu aceasta doi copii pe Caius i Veta. Apoi, se
rentoarce acas cu Dumitru, fiul su. Este prezentat relaia lui Dumitru cu fiul su, Caius,
cruia i povestete i i d anumite sfaturi; n alt parte se relateaz despre lamentaiile lui
Simion, care a fost pe front i soia sa, Ana; nimic deosebit care s atrag atenia cititorului la
prima lectur.
n cea de-a doua parte este expus naterea misterioas a eroului prin care se
stabilete statusul su de ales: Abia cu aceast natere ns lucrurile ies din aproximaie i
legend i sub picioarele lui pmntul ncepe n sfrit s existe, ca apoi s vin un anotomp
n care s nceap s fie contient de existena a acestui pmnt pe care a fost aruncat cu
uimire i, pentru un timp, i pentru un timp poate prea scurt, s triasc n armonie cu el, s-i
neleag culorile i mirosurile, ntr-un cuvnt, s-l ating cu amndou minile; cci poate s
aib pentru o scurt vreme iluzia c se afl n centrul acestui pmnt primitiv. 2 Este vorba
aici despre ncercarea lui de a nelege lumea n care nebulozitatea, straniul, misteriosul devin
dominante.
Venirea pe lume a eroului este o etap important. Prima parte din aceast cltorie,
care este viaa, e populat de mo George, baba Cuca, maica Ana cu propriul lor univers:
grajdul, calea ferat, fabrica, cantonul de la Temereti, flori albastre i galbene, uncile
rocate, revistele vechi ronite de oareci, teancuri cu Monitorul Oficila, oglinda, pdurea
spart cu cioburile rmase printre cri, cldura mare, coala, coridoarele reci, ciment murdar,
dormitorul internatului din Lugoj, tiatul porcului, plecatul dup lemne n pdure. Toate sunt
coordonate ale copilului care compuneau viaa de zi cu zi a oamenilor. Se face remarcat o
monografie a satului cu toate nelinitile, bucuriile, plictisul, rutina, dar i entuziasmul intact al
oamenilor.
Prin memorie se evideniaz o lume cu coordonatele satului tradiional: satul era
cenuiu i posac, un frig neprietenos strecurndu-se sub haina veche i larg a tatei, i satul e
att de pustiu, doar maica Ana casc din cnd n cnd cu mult zgomot, ntovorindu-i
cscatul de un oftat adnc.3 Aceast lume oglindit n memoria e una dur, rece, plin de
frisoanele timpului care nu schimb nimic, nu d viaa.
Amintirile se succed n continuu, unele fiind de o rapiditate exuberant, bulversnd
mintea cititorului: o aglomerare centrifug de mici ntmplri, o lume n care niciun accident
nu se ntmpl, nimic ieit din comun, doar o lume n care se moare uor, dei oamenii i-au
pus sperana n ea; o lume cenuie, n care timpul trece destul de repede i care nu las nicio
amprent n sufletul eroului.
Istoria influeneaz destinul protagonistului: Poate admite c rzboiul s-i intervin
brutal n aceast lume, n care el crede, un rzboi care arunc deodat copilria n istorie,
creia ncercase s i-o sustrag, pentru c el aude prima dat de rzboi din gura altora i
pentru el rzboiul se petrece se va petrece undeva acolo sus, un rzboi oarecum homeric,
dincolo de oameni; asta pentru c primul film vzut din viaa luiera cu avioane... .4
Femeia contureaz lumea din partea a patra a romanului, iar anihilarea eului atinge
cote maxime: Mna ncet s-l mai asculte i micarea de a duce ceaca cu cafea la gur e
imposibil de fcut. Senzaie destul de ciudat, aceea de a simi prezena celorlali n timp ce
pe el nsui ncepe ncet, ncet s se ignore: un fel de anestezie total; nti mna stng, apoi
cea dreapt, nceteaz s mai existe, gur, ochi, gt, picior, piept, un fel de a iei din el, cnd
toate n afara lui continu, nvlesc spre el, se fac prezente cu brutalitate, nimic altceva ns
dect nite lucruri, golite de ceea ce el, existnd, ncerca s fac din ele, de acea rezonan
2
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interioar, care le ddea logic.5 Lucrurile sunt semnificative atta timp ct dau fru
memoriei pentru a forma o lume paralel aparte n care nici eul nu mai este valabil. Sorin
Titel a ntrezrit n modul su vivace moartea eului. Ceilali i lucrurile care l nconjoar
formeaz universul n care se triete cu adevrat.
Memoria formeaz o lume paralel n care eroul nostru ncearc s se regseasc, s-i
gseasc un pilon de supravieuire n viaa anost pe care i-o contest cu frenezie: Dar
pentru el ceilali existau, ceilali i toate lucrurile de care ei erau nconjurai. Existau prin ceea
ce sunt n stare s recheme n memorie.6 Antieroul triete ntr-un cerc nchis,el singur cu
lumea sa, dar are de ales ntre el, cu lumea lui fr niciun orizont, sau ceilali care, prin
memorie, au un sens n viaa lui. Odat ieit din propriul univers, el nceteaz s mai existe,
iar ceilali i lucrurile prind contur. El nu a nvat sau nu tie cum s triasc alturi de
oameni, ci numai prin ei; n acest lucru const drama lui existenial.
Pentru a-i rechema memoria, el devine dependent de ceilali care sunt un mijloc de ai tri viaa: ncercarea lui dea uita totul ct mai repede cu putin, de a ignora totul, de a
participa n mod real la viaa care se desfura n jurul lui. Sperana c pn la urm prezena
extraordinar a lumii s bruscheze aceast durere. Efortul de a prelungi un gnd destinul celor
din cafeneaua ultraplin, de a ncrca vorbele lor cu semnificaii! Ar fi vrut s se simt salvat,
eliberat prin aceast posibiltate, de a intra cu bruschee n existena altora.7
Singurtea grii, a nopii, amintirea femeii cu care i-a petrecut la un moment dat
timpul fac parte din universul multicolor al memoriei sale cu ajutorul creia i exprim starea
emoional sau depneaz amintiri pentru a gsi un sens n viaa sa. Oamenii care l
nconjoar, toate obiectele au un rol atta timp ct l determin s-i aminteasc sau s-i
formeze judeci: O voce care totui este o voce omeneasc, orict de ireal ar fi ea, orict de
impersonal! i el st acolo n ntuneric i-o ascult. Ptrunde n el vocea celuilalt om.8El
caut un trecut n care s se oglindeasc, s-i regseasc sensul n via pentru a putea tri,
i nu numai a exista n coordonatele unui timp sau spaiu. Eroul ncearc toate tertipurile pe
care le are la ndemn pentru a-i gsi un mijloc de supravieuire: Citise odat nite versuri
frumoase, care reueau ntr-un fel s exprime sentimentele lui de-acum.(Uneori, ne vine foarte
uor s intrm n pielea altuia, cu impresia fals c-am continuat s rmnem n propria noastr
piele, o anumit nclinaie n noi spre clovnerie, spre mimare exterioar.9
n Dejunul pe iarb amintirea mamei este completat de cea a copilului : ... i cum
fuge nepstor prin aceast lume nins, tot aa cum fuge, fr s o opreasc fuga acestui copil,
fr s-o poat ns opri el, el fuge undeva n faa lui pe poteca ngust printre snzienele albe
i galbene i el nu vrea s se opreasc cu toate c tie c poate nici nu tie c prin oprirea lui
timpul s-ar opri i el, dar el fuge, fr s se ntoarc o singur clip privirea, fr s ezite o
clip, fr s priveasc napoi, fuge fr tristee sau nostalgie, fr s simt oboseala i nici
prin gnd nu-i trece s se opreasc aa c nimeni nu poate s-i vad sursul, pemtru c surde
n el, nuntrul lui, naintea lui e drumul, poteca ngust, lcustele verzi care i sar din cnd n
cnd n fa, un copil care acolo, din nou acolo10. Copilul este mai mult dect o amintire,
este o stare a fiinei sale pe care vrea s-o recupereze, e un moment de mult uitat, dar care
rzbate n interiorul su, e scnteia care-i lumineaz viaa, or lumea adevrat se afl
ntotdeauna n mijloc, n Centru .11ntoarcerea la copilrie, la paradisul uitat anuleaz
profanul i nvestete existena cu o funcie sacr. Copilul devine centrul universului a crui
5
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12
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Abstract: The last volume of Sfrit de mileniu, Sub zero grade by Radu Tudoran is one of the
best novels of the cycle. The freedom gained after December 1989 allowed the writer to
change the perspective from the other volumes with a new vision upon the social and political
reality, id est the Soviet ocupation from the years 1944-1953, covering both the climate of the
times and the charachters products of the political regime. By continuing the story of the
Alcibiade family, the writer follows the ramifications of exterior pressure on the family
environment and on the individual and outlines the general abjection. Radu Tudoran
caricatures, blames and delineates an episode from Romanian history through scenes of the
grotesque, or, on the contrary, of the tragic which embeds the specific of abnormal times.
Keywords: history, communism, grotesque, tragic, family.
n anul 1978 cnd aprea romanul Casa domnului Alcibiade, primul din ciclul epic
denumit iniial Cronic la sfritul mileniului, simplificat ulterior n Sfrit de mileniu, Radu
Tudoran inteniona s scrie o dare de seam, declaraia sa de martor la evenimentele
secolului al XX-lea. Dup apariia a nc cinci volume, ultimul n anul 1989, ciclul urma s se
finalizeze cu un epilog, date fiind circumstanele socio-politice ale vremii. Astfel, romanul O
sut una lovituri de tun se ncheie cu memorabilul 23 august 1944. ntmplrile din
decembrie 1989 marcheaz un punct de cotitur n evoluia ciclului Sfrit de mileniu. Intenia
iniial a scriitorului era ca, dup finalizarea celor ase romane deja aprute, cronica s se
ncheie cu un epilog, ns libertatea de expresie ctigat dup revoluia decembrist l
impulsioneaz s continue saga familiei Alcibiade i descrierea secolului XX, n sperana de a
aduce naraiunea la zi cu momentele sfritului de mileniu. Anul morii (1992) l surprinde
lucrnd la aceast continuare, scriitorul dorete s prelungeasc biografia eroilor si, intenie
enunat n volumul al aptelea: Lsnd la o parte morii, Teofana, Toma i Traian, toi
disprui n chip tragic, ceilali din familie nu i-au terminat rolul, ei vor alctui firul principal
al acestei cri, i al urmtoarelor, pn la sfritul mileniului1. Din pcate, ambiia lui
Tudoran s-a materializat ntr-un singur roman Sub 0 grade, moartea sa mpiedicnd
finalizarea altor volume, rmase n stadiu de proiect i nepublicabile, conform ultimelor
dorine ale autorului, cuprinse n prologul din volumul final: Interzic, cu limb de moarte, s
se publice orice n-a fost tiprit pn astzi, n afar de volumul al aptelea (Sub 0 grade) din
Sfrit de mileniu, neterminat, avnd 430 pagini, aflat pe biroul meu2.
Naraiunea din acest ultim roman colport zbuciumul luntric al scriitorului de a se
deprinde cu o libertate nou ctigat. Libertatea n gndire, mrturisete Tudoran, se nsuete
cu mult mai mult dificultate dect libertatea politic, exprimndu-i astfel ngrijorarea pentru
redactarea romanului n conjunctura socio-politic postdecembrist.
n pofida rezervelor autorului, volumul al aptelea este un ctig pentru ntregul ciclu,
mbogit prin relatarea care surprinde foarte bine teroarea ocupaiei sovietice. Naraiunea
1
2
Radu Tudoran, Sub 0 grade, Editura Arta grafic, Bucureti, 1994, p.17.
Ibidem, p. 6.
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scruteaz anii dintre faimoasa ntoarcere a armelor mpotriva Germaniei i moartea lui
Stalin i reliefeaz concludent climatul anilor 1944-1953.
Ponderea istoriei n naraiune este gradat de la un roman la altul; planul istoric, la
nceput doar fundal pentru planul ficional, se ealoneaz n relatri tot mai cuprinztoare,
pn la punctul n care, n Sub 0 grade, istoria mic, familial, este n totalitate invadat i
dominat de marea istorie. Viaa individual sau de familie poart amprenta comunismului
stalinist i este denaturat, deconstruit de programul ideologic. Mecanismul micro i macro
social este avariat de dictatura infiltrat n toate aspectele vieii i d natere unei societi
degradate, lipsit de valorile umane normale. Anormalitatea se insinueaz la toate nivelurile,
ca un proces de mbolnvire de la exterior spre interior, ncepnd cu planul macrosocial i
culminnd cu psihologia individului, puternic alterat prin ndoctrinare.
Atmosfera haotic este amplificat de trimiterea intertextual la romanul 1984, de
George Orwell. Distopia guvernat de Big Brother, id est Stalin, nu este dect o variaie pe
aceeai tem, o alt imagine a realitii politice din Romnia anilor 40-50.
Personajele menite s ilustreze ororile regimului politic i climatul inerent sunt Titus
i Tadeu, doi dintre fiii domnului Alcibiade. Asemenea lui Victor Petrini din Cel mai iubit
dintre pmnteni al lui Marin Preda, Titus i Tadeu, profesori de matematic, sunt demii de
la catedra facultii din Iai, respectiv Cluj. Destinele celor doi surprind singurele soluii de
evadare dintr-un mediu corupt: moartea sau rezistena prin opoziie.
n cazul lui Titus este urmrit un proces cumplit de dezumanizare, impus de
rsturnarea sistemului de valori. Sunt eradicate consecutiv toate reperele individuale,
ncepnd cu planul profesional, apoi viaa familial i culminnd cu resorturile interioare ale
personajului. ntors de pe frontul rusesc, de unde scpase ca prin minune, Titus este
confruntat att cu degradarea profesional, ct i cu moartea soiei sale Alga, necinstit i
ucis de soldaii rui din ar, prezen obinuit a vremii. Sunt anihilate astfel dou repere
vitale ale personajului care, numit profesor de limba rus i de gimnastic ntr-o coal rural,
cade ntr-o rutin dezumanizant, nstrinat de vechea lui pasiune matematica. Este
imaginea unui regim politic inhibator, unde orice nvtur n afara doctrinei comuniste este
descurajat sau chiar nbuit.
Rmas fr opiuni care s nu i pericliteze integritatea moral (i fizic la o adic),
Titus plnuiete s fug din ar mpreun cu prietenul su Honoriu, prin intermediului
ambarcaiunii Hercule. Iar cnd planul lor este descoperit de autoriti i evadarea devine
imposibil, Titus alege moartea n focul cathartic al varniei din localitatea natal, gest care
traduce momentul de revolt (singura posibil), a omului ajuns n pragul aneantizrii.
Un alt fapt determinant n decizia personajului este descoperirea trdrii lui Tiberiu:
singurul care cunoate inteniile lui Titus, n afara celor implicai, este fratele su. Cnd Titus
descoper c plecarea fusese sabotat de un membru al familie sale, valorile umane sunt
dezechilibrate n totalitate i familia i pierde semnificaiile.
Cunoscut din celelalte romane ca un ins cu trsturi blamabile, n Sub 0 grade, Tiberiu
devine imaginea fidel a oportunistului. El recurge la tertipuri variate pentru a fi acceptat n
rndul comunitilor: se cstorete cu Ana Passionaria, comunist fanatic, i convinge
familia s adopte noua ideologie, numindu-i burghezi pe cei care o refuz, i trdeaz fratele,
totul cu scopul de a-i asigura o poziie confortabil de favorit al regimului.
Prin Ana Passionaria, Tudoran creeaz o caricatur a femeii comuniste. Aceast antieroin se situeaz la antipodul Anei Odeta, protagonista din Dunrea revrsat, i ea o
ipostaz a tovarei. n romanul din 1961, concesiile fcute regimului politic sunt foarte
evidente. Nimic din elanul muncitoresc al Anei Odeta nu are o conotaie negativ, dimpotriv,
munca pe antierul naval este un proces de catharsis prin care protagonista este reintegrat n
1019
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societate. Dac n Dunrea revrsat statutul de femeie este inferior celui de tovar i
presupune o oarecare egalitate e sexelor, fr a duna feminitii eroinei, n Sub 0 grade,
tovara Ana Passionaria, contrar numelui su, este antiteza tandreii feminine. Nu exist
pasiune n afara regimului comunist, iar alctuirea ei feminin servete numai la atingerea
idealului politic. Ana Passionaria este o reprezentare exacerbat a ndoctrinrii, a individului
dedicat trup i suflet programului comunist. Instituia cstoriei i relaia de cuplu sunt
deconstruite i transformate ntr-o imitaie ridicol: Nu snt fecioar, dar n-am fcut nici o
greeal fa de partid. n numele lui Marx, Engels, Lenin i Stalin, i druiesc fecioria mea
politic. Jur c n-ai s neli niciodat partidul!3. Declaraia rizibil a femeii nu este scutit
de ironia acid a naratorului: Era sublim! Nu cerea credin pentru sine, ci pentru marea sa
familie!4. Aceeai atitudine este evident n continuare, cnd gestul erotic este ndeplinit ca o
munc de partid sub supravegherea tovarului Stalin al crui portret atrn deasupra patului.
Idila Anei Passionaria cu Gheorghe Buzatu, tovarul prim, frizeaz grotescul i
arjeaz devalorizarea fundamentelor umane. Personajul feminin i onoreaz numele numai
prin voluptatea cunoscut odat cu alturarea momentului erotic a unui scop politic,
intensificat de funcia partenerului: Tovarul prim o electriza de la prima atingere, fiind
copleit de importana rolului ei n clipele acelea, cnd n ea parc i revrsa fora ntreg
judeul5.
O nfiare a defeminizrii este i portretul Anei Pauker. Analizat dintr-o perspectiv
dubl a lui Tadeu i a personajului narator, fizionomia tovarei prilejuiete comentariile
caustice ale naratorului: Tadeu se gndea c grumazul ei era tocmai bun pentru ghilotin. n
ce m privete, nu mi-am scpat prerea nici astzi, cnd ea nu mai triete. Cnd o vd n
fotografii, sau n filme de arhiv o proiectez imediat cu faa n jos, legat pe bascula mainii
de tiat capete6.
Opusul personajului oportunist este Odor. El ntruchipeaz convertitul naiv, deoarece
adopt ideologia nu din dorin de parvenire, ci din ncredere n progresul ctre o societate
superioar. Abilitatea partidului de a spla creiere i de a manipula este cuprins n gestul
neateptat al lui Odor. Dup convertirea la noua credin, el d foc manuscriselor adunate
ntreaga via. Imaginea ndoctrinrii sugerat de pervertirea personajului cu cele mai solide
principii cu greu ar putea fi egalat de o alt reprezentare.
Teroarea politic se infiltreaz i n destinul lui Tadeu. Deportarea Fridei, soia sa, i a
mamei acesteia n lipsa brbatului nu este dect o pies infim din puzzle-ul perioadei
comuniste, ns contureaz elocvent specificul vremurilor. La fel ca Titus, Tadeu este un
inadaptat, dar spre deosebire de fratele su, el alege o alt formul de rezisten i finalul
romanului l surprinde n rndurile partizanilor. Intenia declarat a scriitorului este s fac din
Tadeu un personaj simbol, ntruchiparea mpotrivirii, mobilizat exclusiv de acest impuls: Nam vrut s-i mai atribui lui Tadeu nici un fel de sentimente. Am vrut s fac din el un om fr
suflet, o main condus de o singur idee, incapabil s raioneze n afara acesteia, cci pentru
a raiona e nevoie de mai multe idei, sau mcar de dou, ca s poat fi puse una n corelaie cu
alta. Ideea lui Tadeu era s se mpotriveasc7. Extrapolnd, aceast tipologie poate fi aplicat
i personajelor produse de regimul comunist, mainrii politice care funcioneaz ntr-o
singur direcie: aplicarea directivelor i atingerea scopurilor partidului. Procedeul utilizat de
Tudoran trimite nc o dat la societatea absurd, populat de personaje la fel de aberante.
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Ibidem, p. 413.
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Abstract: The short story of the Romanian writer, tefan Bnulescu, The Boars were mild
[Mistreii erau blnzi] is transgressed, intended or not, by symbols which can also have
meanings in pre-Christian or Christian mythology, some of them in both. Even though the
geography of the village form the Danube Delta seems hidden under the layers of mythology,
in fact, it is a very real, cruel society, no different from another by & through its adulterous
people, aggressiveness, lack of empathy and common sense, rejection of Otherness etc.
Keywords: tefan Bnulescu, short story, Christian elements, pre-Christian elements, symbol
Mistreii erau blnzi deschide volumul de nuvele Iarna brbailor (1965) i este
considerat de Nicolae Manolescu o remarcabil naraiune de sine stttoare 1. Istoria
prezentat este cea a unui tat care dorete s i ngroape copilul i nu gsete o limb de
pmnt uscat, totul petrecndu-se n timpul unei furtuni apocaliptice. Istoria contureaz un
eveniment real, verosimil, dar sub straturile cruia ntlnim la tot pasul elemente ale
cretinismului sau ale unei lumi arhaice, traversat i transgresat de credine.
Nuvela ncepe cu imaginea personajului principal, Conradt, care vslete n mijlocul
unei naturi dezlnuite: De coastele brcii se lovesc buci de ghea i crengi rupte,
amestecate cu plavie, cu frunze vechi i cu pene de cormorani i de strci. Furtuna trte apa
n vrtejuri printre copaci i hiuri.2. Personajul se afl n antitez cu aceast furtun:
aproape nu se observ [] micrile linitite3 ale acestuia. De fapt, pare mai degrab
deconectat de lumea real. Aflm acest lucru prin apariia urmtorului personaj aflat lng el,
n barc burduhnosul diacon, care i vorbete, dar care nu primete nici un rspuns.
Chiar din incipit suntem inserai n lumea plin de superstiii a oamenilor Deltei
Dunrii (pentru c acesta este locul unde marea furtun se dezlnuie). Diaconul, numit de
soia lui Conradt printele Ichim, ncearc s porneasc o discuie cu Conradt vorbindu-i
despre un stejar btrn i solitar ( nici un copac nu se mai afla n jurul lui pe o distan de vreo
sut de metri) care a fost smuls de furtun. Acest stejar se uscase de foarte muli ani (30), dar
oamenii nu vroiau s-l taie, pentru c ziceau c era viu, doar pentru c sttea drept ca
lumnarea. Pare frica omului primitiv fa de natura pe care nu o nelege pe de-a-ntregul, iar
din aceast cauz o venereaz. Diaconul e vocea raiunii prin constatarea faptului c, stejarul
era putred i gol pe dinuntru, iar oamenii care credeau c e viu sunt proti4. Acesta pare un
moment al adevrului, desacralizarea stejarului, punctarea faptului c, de fapt, oamenii nu
aveau de ce s-l ocoleasc.
Manolescu, Nicolae, Iarna brbailor n Literatura romn postbelic. Lista lui Manolescu, vol. II Proza. Teatrul, Ed. Aula, Braov,
2001, p. 145.
2
Bnulescu, tefan, Mistreii erau blnzi n Iarna brbailor, Ed. Eminescu, Bucureti, 1979, p. 11.
3
Idem, p. 12.
4
Bnulescu, tefan, Op. cit, p. 12.
1
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suferinele lor. Vica este persoana ideal pentru acest lucru, pentru c nu i se cunosc originile,
nu este acceptat n comunitate. Atunci cnd Vlase o alung din sat, nvinuind-o de toate
problemele lor (mbolnvirea vacii lui Vlase, atacurile hoilor), parc am asista la procesul
unei vrjitoare din Evul Mediu, aflat n faa unui inchizitor nemilos i care, oricum s-ar
apra, nu ar avea nicio ans. Poate tocmai pentru c nu face parte din comunitate, ea
reprezint vitalitatea, voina de a supravieui acestei catastrofe. Ea se afl pe o bucat de
pmnt uscat cu cei alei, iar Fenia, soia lui Conradt, simte cum Vica eman o cldur la
dogoarea cruia ea se poate nclzi.
Putem vedea n ea i mitul Mariei Magdalena, a unei femei care se ciete: cnd i cere
lui Conradt s o protejeze de furia satului analog vuietului apei. Ideea de femeie deczut o
anun fratele lui Conradt, tot prin intermediul Feniei (primind i ea astfel un rol de
medium), pentru c o numete pe Vica iepotin (pe care i el o dorete), care s-a iubit cu
Gur Spovidu, un ho din mprejurimi; iar Fenia o numete stricat cnd o vede n
apropierea dunelor albe unde vor s nmormnteze copilul.
Din orice perspectiv am privi-o pe Vica, ea este nconjurat de o aur legendar cu
cntece proprii, care prezint naterea i copilria ei mitizat (originea necunoscut, natur
care protejeaz i o hrnete pentru a supravieui, un tat legendar care a fost omort de mai
multe ori i nviat de ape), la fel ca n cazul oricrui erou. Tot ea este prezentat ca avnd
puteri magice i este asemnat cu paparudele.
Un element ce se deplaseaz din perioada pre-cretin n cea cretin este motivul
ngroprii celui mort n pmnt. Credina n necesitatea ngroprii celui mort este arhaic,
aprnd n diferite culturi la triburi africane, n China sau la grecii antici, la care este
nrdcinat convingerea c soarta sufletelor depinde de ndeplinirea de ctre cei vii a
ritualurilor cuvenite fa de cadavrul mortului. Sufletul mortului lipsit de nmormntare nu-i
gsete tihna n viaa de apoi. Grecii acordau o mare importan mplinirii ultimei datorii fa
de cel mort. Nimic din religia greac nu ocupa un loc att de important i nu afecta att de
profund starea de spirit a credincioilor ca atitudinea fa de cei mori. Moartea n sine nu
insufla grecilor o fric deosebit, dar ideea c dup moarte cadavrul ar putea s rmn
nengropat i s fie dat prad cinilor li se prea groaznic10. Necesitatea ngroprii mortului
influeneaz pn i natura. n momentul n care se hotrsc s ngroape copilul n dunele de
nisip, parc i furtuna se potolete, vntul se linitete i plou din ce n ce mai rar, parc
sufletul celui mort i-ar gsi, n sfrit, linitea. Hotrrea de a-l ngropa, se pare, nu ajunge
pentru c vuietul apei, abia auzit un timp, ncepu s creasc din nou11: Interesant este c
instrumentul ngroprii copilului este Vica. n timp ce prinii sap cu disperare o groap n
nisipul alb, barca este luat de apele desctuate, iar Vica sare n barc i o conduce spre unul
din cele dou spaii uscate ale satului, spre coal (pmntul i casa lui Vlase fiindu-le
refuzate), unde, mpreun cu nvtoarea dup cum afl prinii de la oamenii satului se
pregtete s ngroape copilul. La aflarea vetii, Conradt ridic ochii i vede mistreii venind
cu apele. Vederea lor i provoac rsul (form de eliberare, desctuare), care devine hohot i
este urmat de steni. Este pentru prima oar cnd Conradt va vorbi i va fi despre / ctre
Vasile, mistreul acela btrn i chior, de parc venirea mistreilor anun eliberarea lui din
rolul de luntra, de Charon i preluarea rolului de ctre Vica, o Sibyll a Deltei n aceast
ipostaz. n mitologia greac, Sybilla parcurge cu Enea drumul lui Charon n sens invers, spre
lumea celor vii, restabilind ordinea. n acest rol, ea este acceptat de ctre comunitate, care
parc s-a mblnzit, la fel ca mistreii.
Printre elementele pre-cretine gsim simbolurile animaliere sau cele patru elemente
primordiale care dein locuri de cinste n toate culturile / religiile lumii.
10
11
Tokarev, Serghei Alexandrovici, Religia n istoria popoarelor lumii, Ed. Politic, Bucureti, 1976, p. 382.
Bnulescu, tefan, Op. cit., p. 30.
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Simbolul psrii apare sub multiple forme n text de la pasrea din visul printelui
Ichim la cioara neagr. Acest simbol are semnificaii variate n diferitele culturi ale lumii
reprezentnd legtura dinte cer i pmnt, avnd rolul de mesager sau de ilustrnd sufletul
omenesc. Ca mesager ceresc, apare n literatura chinez, iar n Islam este simbolul ngerilor,
astfel prezicerea cntului i zborului lor este egal cu interpretarea mesajului divin. Pasrea
migratoare apare n Upaniade ca referire la credina n migrarea sufletului din trup n trup
pn la zborul final spre acel cuib n care i va gsi n sfri adpost mpotriva pericolelor
transmigrrii12. Imposibilitatea gsirii acestui loc de odihn este sugerat de printele Ichim
prin referire la condiiile istorice: ai s vezi, cocorii n-au s mai vin de la sud n primvara
asta. Peste Grecia i Italia cte psri au s poat trece? Rommel e nc n Africa. O s
rmnem numai cu vrbiile13, suferina local dilatndu-se n global.
Pasrea se afl n relaie i cu Geneza cretin la nceputurile Facerii (1,1), duhul
lui Dumnezeu se purta ca o pasre, deasupra apelor primordiale14 i nu numai. n visul
printelui Ichim apare pasrea alb care, prin aciunea ei de a bea lapte, contribuie la crearea
unei lumii, sacre prin puritatea ei, unde diaconul dorete s se mute mpreun cu soia sa
pentru c acolo n-o s ne mai nece apa n fiecare an15.
Pasrea ca simbol al nemuririi sufletului16 sau al sufletelui-pasre poate fi
relaionat i cu fiul lui Conradt, pentru c psrelele reprezint adesea nu numai sufletele
morilor, adic sufletele eliberate, n drum spre patria lor din ceruri unde i ateapt
rencarnarea, ci i sufletele copiilor17. Sufletului lui i caut locul dup cum tatl su caut
un loc pentru a-i ngropa corpul loc care, n mitologiile centro-asiatice, siberiene i
indoneziene este copacul, pentru c sufletele-psri se aeaz pe crengile Arborelui
lumii18.
Un simbol al morii sunt ciorile care se aflau n vrful dunei i nu vor s plece nici
cnd Conradt se apropie de ele. Cnd le lovete, ele se ridic, dar nu zboar prea departe, ci
fac cerc n jurul lui. Cioara este un simbol ambivalent, avnd conotaii negative (din cauza
coloritului), dar i pozitive. Valenele ei funerare sunt ilustrate n credinele populare, dar i n
unele religii.
Cioara mai este cunoscut i pentru alte semne prevestitoare. Astfel, ea este
prevestitoare a belugului casei, a recoltei bune, pentru c atunci are de unde fura. Cioara mai
este cunoscut i ca pasare care prevestete schimbrile meteorologice, anunnd, n special,
vremea rea i, important din punctul nostru de vedere, ploaia19.
Simbolul mistreului este de origine strveche, el ntruchipnd autoritatea spiritual.
Aceast simbolistic poate fi valabil i datorit proprietii mistreului de a dezgropa i de a
se hrni cu fructele stejarului arborele sacru, axis mundi20. Un aspect al simbolisticii
mistreului rezid n caracterul su hiperborean, deci primordial. El este avatarul sub care
Vishnu a readus pmntul la suprafaa apelor i l-a organizat21. Prezena lor masiv din final,
venirea lor cu apele simbolizeaz purificarea locului, reorganizarea lui, un nou nceput
(animalul reprezentnd i ciclicitatea). Acetia pot fi interpretai i ca degradarea umanului n
sub-uman deoarece porcul slbatic este i simbolul desfrului i a brutalitii22 (fratele lui
12
Chevalier, Jean, Gheerbrandt, Alain, Op. cit ., vol. III, P-Z, p. 24.
Bnulescu, tefan, Op. cit., p. 13.
14
Chevalier, Jean, Gheerbrandt, Alain, Op. cit ., vol. III, P-Z, p. 25.
15
Bnulescu, tefan, Op. cit., p. 14.
16
Chevalier, Jean, Gheerbrandt, Alain, Op. cit., vol. III, P-Z, p. 25.
17
Idem, p. 26.
18
Chevalier, Jean, Gheerbrandt, Alain, Op. cit., vol. III, P-Z, p. 26.
19
Srbu, Georgiana, Psrile prevestitoare. Cioara i cucul n Cultura, nr. 274 / 20.05.2010.
20
Chevalier, Jean, Gheerbrandt, Alain, Op. cit., vol. II, E-O, p. 306.
21
Ibidem
22
Ibidem
13
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Conradt, oamenii satului fa de Vica). Imaginea mistreilor agresivi, n stare s atace omul
chiar pe teritoriul lui, subliniaz simbolistica lui n cretinism, unde este vzut ca demon,
asociat patimii i prpdului23. Ei sunt i elementul care declaneaz criza de isterie a lui
Conradt, de fapt, mistreul care se afl n fruntea turmei, Vasile. Este recunoscut de Conradt,
datorit colului lips. Conradt spune c acu zece ani mistreul i-a mncat din mn, dup care
aflm c mistreul acesta a trit i pe timpul tatlui lui Conradt. Prin acest lucru devine un
animal fr vrst, magic, totemic. Comuniunea aceasta dintre animal i om s-a desfcut
datorit pcatelor oamenilor, iar mistreii au devenit agresivi, dumanii oamenilor, iar
refacerea echilibrului este posibil doar n moment de criz, cnd mistreii se mblnzesc i, n
frunte cu conductorul lor, Vasile, parc i prezint jocul oamenilor, care sunt distrai de
salturile lor i i accept la fel cum Vlase, conductorul oamenilor, se mblnzete la
vederea Vici goal i vrea s o accepte.
Pmntul i apa sunt dou element vitale, primordiale. Emersiunea pmntului din
ape, desprirea celor dou se gsete n miturile genezei aproape tuturor culturilor / religiilor.
O variant interesant este cea din hinduism, unde Vishnu transformat n mistre aduce la
suprafa pmntul, putndu-l ntr-un col. (Re)acoperirea pmntului de ctre ape, n schimb,
este asociat, n general, conceptului de pedeaps a divinitii, glia suport, iar cerul
acoper.[] este complet supus principiului activ al Cerului24. Apele (active) acoper
pmntul, furnd-i omului unul dintre elementele eseniale necesare supravieuirii. Oamenii
satului din Delt nu au pmnt, nu au unde s triasc, unde s-i ngroape morii Asta-i
tot. Nu-i pmnt.[] N-avem unde-i nmormnta copilul! Nu-i pmnt mcar pentru o
groap25. Pn i diaconul, cnd este ntrebat de cei doi lutari igani ce s cnte, el le zice c
ceva cu pmnt i iarb c s-a sturat s aud bocete timp de treizeci de ani.
Simboluri cromatice directe sau indirecte apar legate mai ales de alb sau negru. Albul,
culoare puritii, apare n visul printelui Ichim prin pasrea alb, creatoare a unei lumi tot
albe un fel de pmnt pietros din lapte, grind de lapte tare, de lapte mpietrit, unde
subcontientul lui (pentru c apare n vis) l atrage. Pmntul sacru visat de Ichim se
materializeaz n nisipul alb n care se vrea nmormntat copilul i pe care stau ciorile (negre),
semn al doliului.
Printre elementele de cretinism identificate n text apare ideea de pedepsire a
pcatelor, un motiv care apare de mai multe ori, la diferite nivele, de la micile pcate casnice
(adulterul) se trece, prin cele ale comunitii (izgonirea Vici), la cele globale (rzboiul).
Diaconul ne arat c ne aflm n timpul rzboiului mondial, din aceast cauz nu puteau
ajunge psrile cltoare n Delt: din cauza pcatelor, lumea moare sub o ploaie de ghiulele,
iar natura rupe legturile cu aceti oameni simpli, care nu pot tri dect n concordan cu
ea.
Ideea de Cel Ales are mai multe ipostaze n nuvel. Apare sub forma mitului cretin al
lui Noe, Alesul antediluvian, Conradt aprndu-ne la un moment dat asemenea lui Noe care
caut o bucat de pmnt unde s ancoreze, ntr-o lume a potopului. Aceasta poate fi ipostaza
celui ales de Dumnezeu pentru a supravieui i a ntemeia o lume nou. Alesul Christic poate
fi identificat n imaginea copilului lui Conradt, care urmeaz a fi nmormntat. El reprezint
sacrificiul celui fr de pcate, pentru ca ceilali s poat supravieui, chiar dac acetia sunt i
rmn pctoi. Ideea este accentuat de bocirea copilului de ctre mama sa, mpreun cu o
pctoas (idee sugerat, pentru c Vica bocete, de fapt, respingerea ei de ctre comunitate):
Vica ncepu s boceasc, Fenia ncerc s boceasc mai mult dect ea, s-i acopere celeilalte
23
Idem, 307.
Chevalier, Jean, Gheerbrandt, Alain, Op. cit., vol. III, P-Z, p. 40.
25
Bnulescu, tefan, Op. cit., p. 16.
24
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vocea [] i Fenia fu mulumit o clip de plnsul Vici copilul era astfel omenit cum
trebuie de plnsul tnr al fetei26.
O urm a mercantilismului, regsit i n Biblie, ne este prezentat prin fratele lui
Conradt, singurul care are grdina nc uscat, dar care, atunci cnd i se cere s le dea un loc
unde s-i nmormnteze copilul, se scuz prin faptul c nu ar avea unde s pun nutreul
pentru animale (are ase vaci!). Acesta pare ori un primitiv care lupt pentru supravieuire i
cruia animalele i se par mai importante pentru c reprezint o surs de hran, ori un avar al
zilelor noastre cruia i se pare c srcete dac rmne fr cteva vite. Pare orice, doar un
bun cretin nu! El este indignat i pentru c tatl hoilor, Andrei Mortu i datoreaz viaa apei
blestemate care l-a nviat i astfel poate s-i prade pe steni, lipsindu-i de bunurile lumeti.
Dup toate acestea i vorbete de lucruri materiale cumnatei sale venite s cear o
palm de pmnt uscat, i de faptul c Vica care este considerat de oameni fiica lui Andrei
Mortu vrea s pun mna i pe soul ei. (Aici dm peste alte pcate. Vica nu a sucit doar
capul familitilor, dar se pare c i pe cel lui Hogea din Bagdad, dublu pcat.) Cumnata i
ine partea, dar cnd Vlase vrea s-i arate c apa freatic e mult prea aproape de suprafa,
iese o ap curat, iar ea i sftuiete brbatul s fac fntn. Spune c e pcat s spurce
pmntul ngropnd copilul. Intr n cas i mulumete la icoane pentru apa curat, dup ce
mulumete Feniei c a trecut pe la ei, pentru c altfel nu gseau apa aceasta! Este de fapt
partener egal a soului n aceast situaie.
Consider c nuvela reverbereaz elemente cretine i precretine care, uneori, nu pot fi
disociate, sunt fee diferite ale aceleai monede (exemplul stejarului care este simbol cretin i
precretin totodat) i care, sub stratul mitic, ascunde realiti crude ale societii, cum ar fi
adulterul, agresivitatea, preferina pentru valorile materiale, fa de cele spirituale, lipsa
bunei-cuviine i a empatiei, presiunea comunitii asupra individului, neacceptarea celor care
nu se conformeaz tiparului etc., adic trsturi umane. Iar ieirea din matc nseamn
pedeaps urmat de purificare, ciclicitate, adic un nou nceput, care va avea aceleai
finaliti, pentru c istoria se repet.
BIBLIOGRAFIE:
Bnulescu, tefan, Mistreii erau blnzi n Iarna brbailor, Ed. Eminescu,
Bucureti, 1979.
Chevalier, Jean, Gheerbrandt, Alain, Dicionar de simboluri, Vol. III, P-Z, Ed.
Artemis, Bucureti, 1994.
Manolescu, Nicolae, Literatura romn postbelic. Lista lui Manolescu, vol. II,
Proza. Teatrul, Ed. Aula, Braov, 2001.
Srbu, Georgiana, Psrile prevestitoare. Cioara i cucul n Cultura, nr. 274 /
20.05.2010.
Tokarev, Serghei Alexandrovici, Religia n istoria popoarelor lumii, Ed. Politic,
Bucureti, 1976.
26
Idem, p.34.
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Dictionaries define feminism as a social movement which militates for the equality of
rights between women and men in all areas of activities. Even if she declared: Im not a
feminist1 and she considered that everything is between a man and a woman, a report of
possibility of intellectual work. Women are physically weaker. And because the physical
sustains the intellect, its only natural that she is intellectually placed on a lower level 2,
Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu also signs articles with feminist accents, as we notice in The Veil
Rises (Se ridic vlul), an article addressed to men, in which the writer tries to define the
feminist movement, as well as to establish her role in the literature of this kind: What is
feminism? Its the mystery of a veil. A veil beneath which time covers the woman and one
which hides the light of social realities from her. [] Today the light broke forth triumphant.
The woman only asks what cant be otherwise. [] The feminism, so visible in her main
desires, still fights the shadows of the public opinions bewilderment. [] In the shadows of
the sheltered workshop, where I only ask the chisel to be faithful to the thought, I believe she
asks to take nobodys place. She doesnt want to take she wants to share if it is true that
she shared the concerns and the needs, and even the work. [] Few are those who can carry
the sword and the pen. In the war you carry, Im no chief and no soldier, but still I think that I
am naturally comprised in the peaceful lines of your army. And if out of the absolute retreat
of the literary work, from where I will value your efforts, but from where I dont think I will
exit to the public arena, I will be of no real use to you, maybe I am a small example that one
can work outside the restriction of the household occupations, as well as beside it, without
Dan Petraincu. Viaa de tain a unei scriitore nedreptit de publicul romnesc, in Rampa, year 19, no. 5489 (the 4th of May 1936), page
3.
2
Ibidem.
1
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these activities to become enemies.3 The article is published shortly after the writer had
published her first short prose volume, Deep Waters (Ape adnci).
Even if E. Lovinescu declares that literature is not generally a womans vocation4,
he writes the foreword to the first anthology of this genre, The Evolution of the Feminine
Writing in Romania (Evoluia scrisului feminin n Romnia)5, while feminine literature in the
interwar period was not seen as a notion, nor did it have a good timing with the waves of
feminism; on the contrary, it was even marginalized; Hortensia Papadat-Bengescus writing
leads to a mental pattern of womens literature, as Elena Zaharia-Filipa states, so that we
can detect in Lovinescu the signs of an interest weak and sporadic for us for a theory of
femininity in literature, and even for the definition of what we nowadays call feminine
writing6.
When they gloss upon the theme of womens literature, Nicolae Balot admits that
writers such as Madame de Stal, Virginia Wolf, Katherine Mansfield, Simone de Beauvoir
and, for us, Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu are intellectual writers, fully equal with respect to
their relation to the word with men.7
Although Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu doesnt strike by adopting a definite feminist
position, she tackles with themes and traits that connects her works to those of feminine
literature in general, as the writer Olga Caba observed: The best interwar Romanian writer
was, no doubt, Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu. She had the great worth of creating characters
without necessarily planning to take her place among them by setting aside one or more of
them, replacing them with her corrected I, a typical attitude of the feminine writing.8 When
she glosses upon the specific of feminine prose, Olga Caba states that first of all, the woman
will be deprived of the larger horizon of the masculine spirit. She will necessarily be the
second string. However, first of all, she will try, according to her nature, to seduce through
her writing too, through her personal style, through the absurdity that characterizes her, by the
fact that she thinks of completely different things compared to those men think of, which
leads her prose to whole other meanders, more unexpected.9 In the same interview she gives
to Liana Cozea, the writer makes a comparative study between Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu
and Emily Bront, concluding that they both have common coordinates and they dont
captivate only through style, but also through more substantial qualities which crept into the
art of writing despite their femininity, in whose eyes the treacherous nature dropped,
intentionally or by mistake, an ingredient usually destined to the male. They will not seduce
through style, but they will find the right tone to create real living characters, justified to the
last fiber, and they will take the storyline right from the hands of destiny to spin it on. These
chosen women, these true writers are few. The others are only writers10.
Here is what Emilia Humpel (Titu Maiorescus sister) wrote, a distinct public voice,
generic for the entire plethora of the women that were aware of the fact that change comes
with education: The more solid instructed the woman is, the more her judgment will be more
developed the less she will settle for the conventional quirks of the past to appreciate things
and their placing among the high or the low ones.11 Certainly, from the orientation of women
Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu. Se ridic vlul, in Sburtorul, year I, no. 38 (the 3th of January 1920), pages 282-283.
E. Lovinescu: Aqua forte, Editura Contemporan din Bucureti, 1941, page 317.
5
Mrgrita Miller-Verghy, Ecaterina Sndulescu, Evoluia scrisului feminin n Romnia, foreword by E. Lovinescu, Editura Bucovina,
Bucureti, 1935.
6
Elena Zaharia-Filipa, Studii de literatur feminin. Editura Paideia, Bucureti, 2004, page 5.
7
Nicolae Balot, Arta lecturii, Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1978, pages 349-350.
8
Olga Caba, Specificul prozei feminine, in Familia, series V, year 25 (125), no. 4 (284), (April 1989), page 11, reproduced in Liana
Cozea, Prozatoare ale literaturii romne moderne, Biblioteca Revistei Familia, Oradea, 1994, pages 268-269.
9
Ibidem, page 268.
10
Ibidem, page 269.
11
Emilia Humpel, O ptrime de secol, in Unirea femeilor romne, year I, no. 1 (the 24th of January 1909), page 14, reproduced in Alin
Ciupal. Femeia n societatea romneasc a secolului al XIX-lea, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 2003, page 64.
3
4
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towards education, reading and the study of foreign languages, in the 20th century the feminist
movements in Europe started to grow. With Virginia Woolfs essay from 1929, A Separate
Room, the existence of a feminine literature starts being taken into consideration. Later,
Simone de Beauvoir, along with the philosopher Anne Zelenski, the lawyer Gisele Halimi, the
writer Claire Etcherelli and the actress Delphine Seyrig, launches with a fervent activism the
idea of The Manifest of the 343 (the 5th of April 1971), by which 343 women signed admitting
they had had an abortion. From here to the legalization of the abortion in France (The Veil
Law in 1975) not many steps were made. In 1949 Simone de Beauvoir had created a
revolution by the book The Second Sex, which quickly became a bedside book of feminism.
In those one thousand pages she wrote she circulates sayings such as: We are not born, but
rather we become women or If the woman wants to be equal to the man, she must become a
man, this is why With women we witness, right from the start, a conflict between their
autonomous existence and their request to be something else; they are taught that, in order to
be liked, they must try to be liked, they must turn themselves into objects, to give up on their
self-sufficiency. They are treated like living dolls and they are denied their freedom; this way,
a vicious circle looms, because the less they make use of their freedom to understand, the less
resources they will find in it, the less will they dare to assert themselves as subjects; if they
would be encouraged, they might prove the same living exuberance, the same curiosity, the
same spirit of initiative, the same boldness as men. This often happens when a little girl is
given a manly education; she is then spared of many problems.12
Even if for us the concept of feminine literature starts taking shape with the works of
Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, we must mention that up to her there were other texts too that
tackled with a womans condition in a hostile society. A relevant example is that of Sofia
Ndejde, who defends womens rights and, as Elena Zaharia-Filipa thinks, she is the author
of the first feminine novel13; despite the fact she didnt achieve the same notoriety as other
international supporters, we must mention that Sofia Ndejde appears now in a dictionary that
reunites the offices of the European feminism from the 19th and the 20th centuries14.
With respect to Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, we notice she doesnt write favoring
women, nor does she try to present them in a favorable position. The woman from the early
prose of Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu doesnt follow the road (at least the mental one) that
those times still enforced on her, so she doesnt necessarily dream of marriage and maternity,
but simply of love, whether it feeds out of imagination, as femininity means more than love,
more than maternity: this is why for Bianca Porporata the soft blowing of the wind is an
alluring caress that turns it into the lover to which the feminine character obediently responds:
I have a lover, Juan! He was with me tonight. He came, without me taking any notice,
through the dark garden and he took me from behind my forehead, gentle, as the thin hair
dispersed and the toil of the day scattered. He kissed my neck without me being able to
reprimand him, on my bare neck, where I get upset and I dont want to; he walked without
permission, before I could stop him, and he slowly slipped under the large sleeve up to the
shoulder, he made me shudder when he gripped my breast, he glided along my ankles like a
shiver, through the opaque pores of the coat, he slipped everywhere, young and refreshing,
like a shield bearer from northern lands, and I stood on the spot where he got hold of me and,
defenseless, I let him play as he wished. [] He rarely holds me in deadly arms of
destruction, hits me and banishes me, but tonight I am barely touched by the wind as sly as a
Simone de Beauvoir, Al doilea sex, vol. I, translation by Diana Bolcu and Delia Verde, foreword by Delia Verde, Editura Univers,
Bucureti, 1998, page 274.
13
Elena Zaharia-Filipa, cited work, page 4.
14
Francisca De Haan, Krasimira Daskalova, Anna Loutfi, Biographical Dictionary of Womens Movements and Feminisms in Central,
Eastern and South Eastern Europe, 19th and 20th Centuries, Central European University Press, Budapest & New York, 2006, pages 360362.
12
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squire. (To Don Juan, to Eternity, Writes Bianca Porporata Lui Don Juan, n Eternitate, i
scrie Bianca Porporata).
Glossing upon the fight against the feminine mystery, E. Lovinescu admits that
Hortensia Papadat-Bengescus literature is feminine by the object of its study [], manly by
the strict scientific process, by the tone and by the elimination of sentimentality and
sentimentalism15. Despite this, when she writes about the conception of passion, the reviewer
thinks that however, Mrs.s H.P.-Bengescus heroines are not feminists. Their only concern
is the spasm of the heart, which the writers ear perceives and decomposes, while the eye
pervades to the depths of their souls, unveiling the delicate game of emotions.16 Tudor Vianu
doesnt neglect the subject of feminism in the writers literature either, asking rhetorically:
So: feminine literature? Yes and no. Because, by the intellectual force of the analysis,
Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu surpassed the somewhat narrow frames of what she called, with
the tone of an obvious underestimation, feminine literature.17
Analyzing the aspects of femininity in the writers works, Tania Muina states that no
discussion that has women or femininity as a subject can ignore the roles that women have
with those around them relatives, friends, acquaintances. Because beyond the eternal
feminine there are relations, conflicts with the exterior world.18
In Hortensia Papadat-Bengescus prose, the man is not only the relative, the friend or
the acquaintance, but also the betrothed, sometimes the husband or the lover; there are
situations, namely in the short prose, when the man is a projection that is part of the womans
imagination. Anton Holban emphasizes that in a completely feminine environment the male is
seen as an intruder: The atmosphere in Women, Among Themselves (Femeile, ntre ele) is
completely feminine, whence the boy who comes to invite Mary to play tennis is thrown back
like a ball with an invisible tennis racket.19 The feminine route from the novels is a winding
one, as the character experiences tangled situations of a questionable morality; the roles
follow one after another with great speed from mothers with illegitimate children to women
who marry and remarry, then become lover-wives442w in love or they are only greedy for
wealth.
As Florin Mihilescu remarks, Hortensia Papadat-Bengescus characters impress
right from the start in two apparently contradictory ways: by their unity and by their variety.
Especially in the period of her first creations, the unity was ensured by the quasi-singularity
of the perspective. The storyteller identifies most of the times with the writer herself. The
exterior realities were fully reported to only one consciousness.20 In her first works, the
feminine characters tell their stories either directly, by monologues or dialogues, or indirectly,
by means of letters, but the masculine projections are mostly imaginary.
If femininity defines the overview of features that make the specific of the feminine
nature, the question that inevitably rises is this: what kind of character renders the early works
of Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu?
As in the first works prevails the introspective discourse, we cant always follow the
characters classification in certain typologies, but there are situations in which details about
the socio-economical or socio-cultural position they have are disclosed; for instance, Alina
E. Lovinescu, Scrieri I. Critice, edited by E. Simion, Editura pentru Literatur, Bucureti, 1969, page 344.
Ibidem, page 343.
17
Tudor Vianu, Scriitori clasici romni, anthology, chronology, critical references and bibliography by Ion Nistor, foreword by Ion Biberi,
EdituraAlbatros, Bucureti, 1998, page 259.
18
Tania Muina, Ipostaze ale feminitii n romanele Virginiei Woolf i ale Hortensiei Papadat-Bengescu, Editura Muzeul Literaturii
Romne, Bucureti, 2013, page 134.
19
Anton Holban, Opere, vol. III, introductory study, edited, notes and bibliography by Elena Beram, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1975, page
28.
20
Florin Mihilescu, Introducere n opera Hortensiei Papadat-Bengescu, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1975, page 54.
15
16
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from The Sea (Marea) is a wealthy woman: Then, a friend of mine, Alina, invited me to get
accommodated on her estate, at the towns outskirts, although she was unable to keep me
company, as she only stays there during the six warmer months of the year. Adriana from
Adrianas Novel is also a well-circumstanced woman, even if that is not enough to make her
happy; from the societys elite, the wife of a prefect from a large province, the object of
contemplation, admiration and envy of sixty people that formed the top of parasitism of
provincial nobility, then gradually decreasing to the different classes towards the towns
outskirts, known to everyone because her man was strong and rich and because she was
elegant and proud, one day she eloped with someone unknown, a petty employee, a small
musician who added his insufficient art to his modest job as a clerk in a bank. How? Why?
Since when? Manuela from The Woman in Front of the Mirror (Femeia n faa oglinzii) is
also part of the same high society, she goes to soirees, even if they dont please her: During
the day of the soiree she lounged quietly, because everything that could stop her could not
displease her. She would have gladly given up; that is precisely why nothing ever happened.
In Sultana Craias opinion, the novel characters too cant be placed in a table of elements,
strict and encompassing, but most of them can be inserted. In Hortensia Papadat-Bengescus
literature, women are not angels, nor demons, but only females. Built on canvassing seasoned
with introspection, the novels of this writer have a feminine perspective sometimes also
feminist but not essentially different from that of male writers.21
In Simone de Beauvoirs opinion, the womans way of dressing has a double nature;
it is destined to show the womans social dignity (her standard of living, her wealth, the
environment to which she belongs), but at the same time it materializes the feminine
narcissism; her apparel is a uniform and an ornament.22 Moreover, the woman is defined
through her clothing, she is made complete by it because to care for her beautification, to
dress oneself is an effort which allows her to assimilate her own persona, just like she
assimilates her home through her housework; then her self seems chosen and recreated by
her.23 In Hortensia Papadat-Bengescus novels, the clothes and the ornaments are a subject
that gets a clearer contour than in the short prose: for instance, Ada Razu had rings with
stones as big as a tunics button on her black hands with shivering fingers (The Disheveled
Virgins Fecioarele despletite); Mini Persu is captivated by some jewels in a show-window:
the emerald was truly amazing, the filigree was an ethereal lace, and the bracelet was a hand
cuff of massive gold. A delight for a greedy look at beautiful and expensive objects. (The
Disheveled Virgins Fecioarele despletite), and Lina from the same novel would randomly
buy today a ready and untried dress, usually green or blue, tomorrow a silk or a velvet cloak,
according to the season, and hats that, truth be told, always had red feathers or flowers.
However, we cannot state that in the authors early prose the subject is a totally neglected
one; in her short stories there are some situations in which we observe that the charm of the
character is rendered not only through the description of the womans body, but also through
the pieces of clothing and the accessories; for instance, Mrs. M. wears a purse with a rim of
old silver polished in a strange lizard emblem (Women, Among Them Femei, ntre ele),
while Manuela from The Woman in front of the Mirror (Femeia n faa oglinzii) puts on the
black mousseline dress that encircled only the waist in a netting of small black pearls or
enveloped too in supple fabrics, she softly sways inside the rustling folds. The dark velvet,
that of the small hat, would place a strip on the forehead, whitening it. A sneer would crush
the mouth without breaking its arch, under the short veil that was barely touching her lips. In
the letters in The Sea (Marea) too the author glosses upon the clothing and the accessories:
Last night I wore a black dress. It is not new, on the contrary, but there is something in its
Sultana Craia, ngeri, demoni i muieri, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1999, page 76.
Simone de Beauvoir. Al doilea sex, vol. I, cited edition, page 274.
23
Ibidem.
21
22
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shape that is harmonious. I like black: its like a background canvas on which the face
emerges. One of my own said to me: You have a low cut, arent you going to put something
around your neck? You have a golden thread, with an enamel butterfly, its nice. Yes, its
nice, but I wont put it on. Why? Because an uncovered neck is prouder, its like a swans
neck. On the opposite side we also notice the character that lacks grace not because of her
age, but mostly because she doesnt know how to dress herself, like Lady Ledru from Women,
Among Them (Femei, ntre ele), who has two locks of brown temples, smooth as always, her
coil of well-combed pigtail, her dress with a white collar and her sanguine face. [] Swiss
and a widow. As a Swiss, she dresses disagreeably, as if she intends in every detail of her
apparel to take any charm away from the clothes and from the body.
Of womens age one speaks indirectly24, as the author says, giving the impression that
she is trying a projection of the character who doesnt say her age. Actually, Hortensia
Papadat-Bengescu classifies her heroines from this point of view. Sephora from the short
story bearing the same name is a young girl who is 19 years old, confesses she is 16, and the
person listening to her could swear shes lying and that she is no more than 14. Shes a child!
Shes always laughing lively and the timbre of her laughter is crystalline; about Mrs. M.
(Women, Among Them Femei, ntre ele) the author says: I used to contemplate with
sympathy that odd autumn beauty of hers, apparently even more delicate now, with the tones
of faded petals on her face, with the admirable body under smoky veils, a color adopted by
the simple and deliberately blackened elegance of the lovely woman who seemed to surround
herself with the melancholy of gray clothes to be in harmony with the delicate sunset of life.
When she brings to discussion the subjectivism from Hortensia Papadat-Bengescus
short stories, Anton Holban highlights that the author brings forth theories that find their echo
in the objective texts. She also tries harmless little theories, usually graceful, sprinkled
everywhere, which sometimes may have been agreeable if reduced to a single phrase and
which, however, by the detailed exposure, by the excessive insistence, burdens. 25 Moreover,
he strengthens his statements by some examples drawn from the authors texts themselves.
For instance, The woman and the man do not love in the same way. The woman forgets all
that happened before an excerpt that can be found in Women, Among Themselves (Femei,
ntre ele), as well as in The Woman in Front of the Mirror (Femeia n faa oglinzii); other
times we find the same idea in different words and texts: In the middle of the crowd,
speaking, laughing, I feel alone, I isolate myself and I reflect clearly within myself, I lie in
wait and with an amazing quickness I judge, I weight, I think, I dream and I cannot mix my
life with theirs in a homogeneous paste; something odd always comes off, something with
other substance, which cannot be combined or in the middle of the world you are no longer
the person you are in your intimacy, I almost dont recognize you anymore you have a grain
of misanthropy. You say: I feel great and perfectly well by myself By yourself. Such
flexible words! (The Sea Marea), a theory that can also be found in a fragment from The
Woman in Front of the Mirror (Femeia n faa oglinzii). Manuela was now watching absentminded. From the place she was in, as well as from the middle of the dance, she was watching
as if from a great distance and she was watched the same way. A free circle was mapped
around her, one that separated her from the crowd. And in this isolation there was
contentment, as well as pain.
An opinion at least different from that of those that talk about the subject of femininity
is developed by Sorin Alexandrescu in the article The Slippery, the Feminine Necessary
24
Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, Opere, vol. I, critical edition and notes by Eugenia Tudor, foreword by Constantin Ciopraga, Editura
Minerva, Bucureti, 1972, page 176.
25
Anton Holban, cited work, page 15.
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(Alunecosul, necesarul feminin), in which he starts with the idea of Toril Moi26, according
to which the woman is a biological concept, the feminism a political one and femininity a
cultural one, and he concludes that in the Romanian culture the empowerment of some
specific categories, like that of women, didnt start yet. Moreover, with respect to Romanian
literature, in this case Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, the becoming of the author took the form
of a castration: How else could we name the process by which Lovinescu corrects the
wrong beginnings of Hortensia Papadat-Bengescus first works, bringing her on the right
tracks of the objective prose? A maturation welcomed by the Romanian criticism in the
Romanian why not call it phallocratic culture, but its analysis might reveal unexpected
axiomatic structures in its interpretation, of which we are not even aware (any longer).27
In the interwar period, as well as later on, Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu was
considered, almost without appeal, an antifeminist28, as Bianca Bura-Cernat observes, but the
articles which bring to discussion the woman and her role in society that she published in the
magazines of those times, as well as her works, justify the interest given to the second sex.
Even if the writer didnt assume this role with an exacerbated militancy, when she builds her
characters she keeps the leading role for the woman to the detriment of the man, as he is
rather the element that completes her image.
Bibliography:
Alexandrescu, Sorin, Alunecosul, necesarul feminin, in Secolul XX, no.7-9 (1996),
pages 17-20, reproduced in Identitate n ruptur: mentaliti romneti postbelice, Editura
Univers, Bucureti 2000, pages 306-311.
Balot, Nicolae, Arta lecturii, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1978.
Biographical Dictionary of Womens Movements and Feminisms in Central, Eastern
and South Eastern Europe, 19th and 20th Centuries (Francisca de Haan, Krasimira
Daskalova, Anna Loutfi), Central European University Press, Budapest & New York, 2006.
Bura-Cernat, Bianca, Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu: puin feminism, in Revista 22,
no. 106 (the 24th of May 2011), page 9.
Caba, Olga, Specificul prozei feminine, in Familia, series V, year 25 (125), no. 4
(284), (April 1989), page 11, reproduced in Liana Cozea, Prozatoare ale literaturii romne
moderne, Biblioteca Revistei Familia, Oradea, 1994, pages 268-269.
Craia, Sultana, ngeri, demoni i muieri, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti,
1999.
de Beauvoir, Simone, Al doilea sex, vol. I, translation by Diana Bolcu and Delia
Verde, foreword by Delia Verde, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1998.
Holban, Anton, Opere, vol. III, introductory study, edition, notes and bibliography by
Elena Beram. Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1975.
Humpel, Emilia, O ptrime de secol, in Unirea femeilor romne, year I, no. 1 (the
24th of January 1909), page 14, reproduced in Alin Ciupal, Femeia n societatea romneasc
a secolului al XIX-lea, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 2003, page 64.
Lovinescu, E., Aqua forte, Editura Contemporan din Bucureti, 1941.
Lovinescu, E., Scrieri I. Critice, edited by E. Simion, Editura pentru Literatur,
Bucureti 1969.
Toril Moi, Feminist, Female, Feminine, in The Feminist Reader: Essays in Gender and the Politics of Literary Criticism, edited by
Catherine Belsey and Jane Moore, New York (1989), pages 117-132.
27
Sorin Alexandrescu, Alunecosul, necesarul feminin, in Secolul XX, no.7-9 (1996), pages 17-20, reproduced in Identitate n ruptur:
mentaliti romneti postbelice, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 2000, pages 306-311.
28
Bianca Bura-Cernat, Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu: puin feminism, in Revista 22, no. 106 (the 24th of May 2011), page 9.
26
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1035
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Abstract: The image of war within the Nigerian space erupts with a tremendous potential of
dehumanizing. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie reveals the horrors and the consequences of
watching those horrors from a psychological perspective which defines a particular
worldview, a proposal for understanding not the reasons underlying an act, but the reasons
for the inability to react. When the society collapses, the human being tries to adapt or perish.
In Adichies novels Purple Hibiscus (2003) and Half of a Yellow Sun (2006), the rules of the
game called everyday life have been altered and the characters react in extra-ordinary ways.
Adichies characters are incapable of interiorizing the atrocities and as a result, they cease to
define themselves as products of normality, mediate on a crossway between acting toward
rebellion or toward assimilation and transformation. Adichie is the voice of the wound
inflicted by the Biafran war, a battle asserting the tragedy of believing in balance and the
right to intimacy. The trauma of war, a shattering experience in itself, escalates in social
illness, when inflicted by African on African. Nigerians gained their independence, but the
futility of such a lesson in history is once again proven to be the only stable assertion.
Adichies narrative enterprise is distressing, not by insisting on the substance of horror, but
by describing it minutely, with a rationality that belies the grotesque of the images darkening
her writing. In Purple Hibiscus and Half of a Yellow Sun, Adichie analyses African culturerelated behaviors and artifacts as witnesses of the traumatic history of African wars, stressing
the silence and the distorted voicing of a freedom lost to its own meaning. The representation
of war in Adichies novels is in itself a testimony of desolation and meaninglessness, and its
reverberations in modern African literature are signifiers for a profound social guilt.
Keywords: Biafran war, trauma, politics, African symbol, Igbo heritage
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, African Authenticity and the Biafran Experience, Transition, No. 99 (2008), pp. 42-53, published by
Indiana University Press, <http://www.jstor.org./stable/20204260>.
1
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significance, through striking symbols in which the body and the lack of voicing become
symptoms of an incomprehensible experience.
Half of a Yellow Sun belongs to the genre of contemporary trauma fiction not only
because it focuses on the experience of a historical event, the Biafran war (the Nigerian Civil
War), but because of its characters psychological collapse against the death and starvation
of a million or more Nigerians.2 Whereas Igbo writers strived to redeem the Biafra War as a
cry for liberty, or as a cruel absurdity, nonetheless necessary for the creation of the new
multicultural Nigerian state, Adichie refrains herself from reasoning with the atrocities of the
beligerant darkness. She limits her writing to scenes and episodes harshly delineated, and
from which the horror is allowed to speak for itself, with a sometimes so profound voice, that
history becomes a perpetuated nightmare, in which the power of pen is substituted for the
impotence of soldiers armed only with sticks engaged in fighting well-armed Nigerian
troops.3
In Ropes of Sand: Studies in Igbo History and Culture, Adiele Afigbo4 highlighted the
two-fold event of a foreign traumatic imposition on the autonomy of Igboland: in the late
nineteenth century, with the British imperialism desecrating and misleading by gunboat
treaty the densely-defined Igbo villages, and a second trauma, maybe more profound and
lasting because it was driven by another African culture, Yoruba. Adiele refers to the Biafran
war (1966-1967), a war of secession, a war of delineating two African world views within the
boundaries of the same Nigerian space.
The heroes of Half of a Yellow Sun learn how to survive their traumas, how to redefine
their why with reference to the newly-created state of being. We will attempt to follow
Olanna and Kainene, the rich twins, Ugwu, the subordinate identified with his masters, and
Richard, the writer, in Adichies recourse to her ancestry of symbols invested with the
macabre function of forbidding dark memories.
A core instrument in defining a traumatic experience sublimated in an artifact, as the
subject of pain refuses to absolve itself of the guilt of testimony, the image of the calabash is
carved by Adichie so detailed and flowing like a memory. The calabash becomes more of a
symbol than of a historical representation, as the remembrance of their content will be,
delineating the horrid memory of an ever-present past.
The woman with the calabash nudged her, then motioned to some other people close
by.
Bianu, come, she said. Come and take a look.
She opened the calabash.
Take a look, she said again.
Olanna looked into the bowl. She saw the little girl's head with the ashy-gray skin and
the braided hair and rolled-back eyes and open mouth. She stared at it for a while before she
looked away. Somebody screamed. The woman closed the calabash. Do you know, she
said, it took me so long to plait this hair? She had such thick hair.5
2
Amy Novak, Who Speaks? Who listens?: The Problem of Address In Two Nigerian Trauma Novels, Studies in the Novel, Vol. 40, No. 1/2,
Postcolonial Trauma Novels (Spring-Summer 2008), pp. 31-51, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/29533858>.
3
Chikwenye Okonjo Ogunyemi, The Poetics of the War Novel, Comparative Literature Studies, Vol. 2, No. 2 (Summer, 1983), pp. 203-216,
published by Penn State University Press, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/40246397>.
4
Adiele Afigbo, Ropes of Sand: Studies in Igbo History and Culture, cited in Lily G. N. Mabura, Breaking Gods: An African Postcolonial
Gothic Reading of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie's Purple Hibiscus and Half of a Yellow Sun, Research in African Literatures, Vol. 39,
No. 1 (Spring, 2008), pp. 203-222. Published by: Indiana University Press, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/20109568>.
5
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, Half of a Yellow Sun, New York: Anchor Books, 2006, p. 111.
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Idem, p. 66.
Michael Harris Bond, Culture and Collective Violence: How Good People, Usually Men, Do Bad Things, in Boris Droek, John. P.
Wilson (eds.), Voices of Trauma. Treating Survivors Across Cultures, New York: Springer Science and Business Media, LLC, 2007, p. 46.
8
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, op. cit., 2006, p. 111.
9
Idem, p. 66.
7
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should not have killed him, 10 it is Olannas resolution. Life remains within Gods cognition
and will, even in the chaotic Lagos, where [] the killings were organized, where [] the
Northerners picked out all the Igbo soldiers and took them away and shot them.11 Whatever
mask would they wear, the organized killings remain killings, and Adichie denies them
the potentiality of creating new orders or of establishing new states of equilibrium. For the
Nigerian authoress, the scene of murder is so incomprehensible that it must be reduced,
minimalized and grounded in obscure places of imagination, where only ants could live and
die, because they are killing us like ants. Did you hear what I said? Ants. 12 The witnessing
eyes have seen plenty, as Obiozo says: I saw a whole family, a father and mother and three
children, lying on the road to the motor park. Just lying there.13 Vultures are feeding on the
bodies dumped outside the city walls, and war means to acknowledge what the eyes see:
teachers hacked down in Zaria, a full Catholic church in Sokoto set on fire, a pregnant
woman split open in Kano.14
The reaction of the listener is denial. Denial and the surge of loneliness in the storm of
wording the pointless atrocities. Death must be felt in the private space of the inner self, it
must be altered to a meaning sustained by the reflective thinking of the rationale mind. As
Adichie maintains, this is what war denies to its sufferers, the moment of intimacy with life
itself. Adichies teenager, Ugwu, retreats, because it is too much, words are too heavy and
bloody and their heralds are viciously reiterating them as a newly-bred litany of delusion.
() Ugwu no longer listened.It started in Kano rang in his head. He did not want to
tidy the guest room and find bedsheets and warm the soup and make fresh garri for them. He
wanted them to leave right away. Or, if they would not leave, he wanted them to shut their
filthy mouths. He wanted the radio announcers to be silent too, but they were not. They
repeated the news of the killings in Maiduguri until Ugwu wanted to throw the radio out of
the window.15
In 1993, researchers in the psychopathology of trauma noted: Humans in general
have an inherent need to make sense out of and explain their experiences. This is especially
true when they are experiencing suffering and illness. In the process of this quest for meaning,
culturally shaped beliefs play a vital role in determining [] a particular explanation.16 From
this perspective, Adichie translates the trauma of the Biafran war into a storytelling, a trauma
which must be understood in terms of powerful, even resounding images, colors absolved by
the blood in whose red they nourish the purple of the resilience. As such, African context, and
specifically the Igbo culture, is permeated by a system of beliefs and traditions which,
colliding and coalescing into the siege of the traumatic event, would transform it in the
impetus of resilience. As Moodley and West underlined, cultures provide many alternative
pathways to healing and integration of extreme stress experiences which can be provided by
[] culture-specific rituals, conventional medical practices and community-based practices
that offer forms of social and emotional support for the person suffering the adverse,
maladaptive aspects of a trauma.17
10
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The power of Adichies writing resides in her appeal to visual markers and the
interplay they invoke in their encounter with the frailty of human life. Olanna sees first the
smoke, rising like tall gray shadows, she smells the scent of burning. On the strange,
unfamiliar street, she paused for a moment because of the flames billowing from the roof,
with grit and ash floating in the air.18 She sees the bodies, crumpled like rug dolls in the
derision of the theatrical display, in the ungainly twist, surrounded by the complex universe
which used to be the brain of her uncle, now nothing more than something creamy white
oozed through the large gash on the back of [her uncles] head.19 The cuts on Aunty Ifekas
naked body were smaller, dotting her arms and legs like slightly parted red lips, 20 and the
red of the smile is substituted by the vivid lesions of a desecrated icon. The traumatic event
remains incomprehensible, less it could be reshaped and imagined in the language of the
living. The reaction is visceral, before being rational: Olanna felt a watery queasiness in her
bowels before the numbness spread over her and stopped at her feet.21
The dream-like quality of the scene is amplified by the smoke, within which the
human shapes drift like plumes of smoke, the curtain between acceptance and the refusal to
comprehend the blood-stained grotesque of the axes and machetes the shapes instrument. The
arms transform the obscurity in an artisanship of a monsters mind.
The crime is subject to the same necessity of explanation as the life itself, inasmuch
they nourish themselves from the same questions and collide in the same lack of answers. The
why and the rationality behind it remains at Gods mercy, as His was the will to kill
entire families. And beyond Allahs will Olanna sees so many bodies, like dolls made of
cloth. Abdulmalik, the executioner of the whole family, is, and what an irony, Olannas
uncles friend, once a familiar face, now the mask of the death trade. It was Allahs will,
he calls in Hausa. And Olanna discovers that the once friendly intimate, now a soldier, has
become a killer-soldier, one motivated by a contorted religious belief that Igbo are mystically
ordained to be Yorubas victims. The bodies are merely obstacles which are not for stepping
aside, but for stepping over. A womans headless body, becoming the elongation of the
bodiless head of the child, two images forcefully brought together in an attempt of making
sense of the meaninglessness.
Allah does not allow this, Mohammed said. [] Allah will not forgive them. Allah
will not forgive the people who have made them do this. Allah will never forgive this. They
drove in a frenzied silence, past policemen in blood-splattered uniforms, past vultures perched
by the roadside, past boys carrying looted radios. 22
God is the only one surpassing the trauma and able to retaliate against the perpetrators.
Adichie proposes multiple ways for re-balancing the storytelling and the history making,
because, among others, religion is a way of anchoring the mind to a sense of normality.
Another element of the traumatic process is experienced by Richard, and it is shame,
shame at not feeling anything besides relief that his helplessness in protecting his friends
remained undiscovered, selfish return to the gilt of being an outsider powerless against the
cultural clash between two alien cultures. He could not have saved Nnaemeka, but he should
have thought about him first, he rationalizes his own too humanly boundaries, he knows that
his perception of the present alters in a perception of a false image, one in which he ceases to
18
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be consumed by the others death. He stared at himself and wondered if it really had
happened, if he really had seen men die, if the lingering smells from [] bloodied human
bodies were only in his imagination. But he knew it had certainly happened and he questioned
it only because he willed himself to.23
When Olanna describes the horrors seen and experienced in her escape toward home,
she tries to purge her unbalanced mind by transferring the images into somebody elses
memory. A slight movement of the fingers denies the fact of death, a chimera or the illusory
investment of a frail no said to images too horrible to grasp. The bodies are like a poorly
wiped blackboard, they are objects left behind by the interpreters from a morality with an
implausible title such as Death is forever.
The fact that the traumatic event is periodically remembered, and the real or symbolic
association with the event triggers a psychological re-activation of the memory,24 headless,
bodiless, limbless, this less signifying the loss of something, something that must be
relived, until death comes so close that Adichies characters themselves become less.
That night, she had the first Dark Swoop: A thick blanket descended from above and
pressed itself over her face, firmly, while she struggled to breathe. Then, when it let go,
freeing her to take in gulp after gulp of air, she saw burning owls at the window grinning and
beckoning to her with charred feathers.25
Adichie conjures up bleak colors, or darknesss shadows, creating a scene so obscure
and pervaded by fears that dissolution becomes a solution and a preservation. The Dark
Swoop is a suspended form of existence, from which the choice for life or for death stays
both in the hands of the tormented, and in the hands of the tormentor, balancing on the same
center, the remembrance, again and again. The Dark Swoop is a symptom, a result of their
dissociation from the strenuous events, and impossible to express, less in an opaque silence, a
silence within which any attempt at identifying the wording is futile, the experience is
viscerally felt, so incongruous with the normal flow of human evolution, that possesses
another language, one unknown to normality.
Olanna is initially incapable to recount her Dark Swoops, she wanted to ask
[Odenigbo, her husband] to stop being ridiculous, but her lips were heavy. Speaking was a
labor. When her parents and Kainene visited, she did not say much; it was Odenigbo who told
them what she had seen.26
The reactions to abhorrent trauma reflect the same stillness invoked by Adichie in
expressing the tragic past: Olannas mother collapsed; she simply began to slide down as if
her bones had liquefied until she half lay, half sat on the floor, Kainene cries for the first
time since she and Olanna were children.
In his attempt to bring solace to a grieving family, Richard wants to give meaning to
his presence, to be the magnanimous angel who brought the last hours of their son to them,
in search of his own redemption. But the death of the son takes away any other significance,
the people surrounding the grieving close circle are still shadows, alike shadows pursuing a
tradition rendered meaningless by the loss, because Richards visit is not defined by the last
23
Idem, p. 115.
Ana Muntean, Anca Munteanu, Violen, traum, rezilien, Iai: Polirom, 2011, p. 167.
25
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, op.cit., 2006, p. 117.
26
Ibidem.
24
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hours of their son, it is not a reality of consequence, its only an attempt at understanding the
only reality that mattered: their son was gone.27
Richard, like Olanna, conjures his demons, in purges in which he hopes his memory
would suppress itself, but instead everything took on a terrible transparence and he had only
to close his eyes to see the freshly dead bodies on the floor of the airport and to recall the
pitch of the screams.28 Madness appears to be the expression of a freedom, but the escape is
denied by the lucid mind. A mind enough lucid to write calm replies to Aunt Elizabeth's
frantic letters and tell her that he was fine and did not plan to return to England, to ask her to
please stop sending flimsy air-mail editions of newspapers with articles about the Nigerian
pogroms circled in pencil.29 The foreign press describes the atrocities of the Biafran war as a
result of ancient tribal hatreds, portraying Nigerian people as a sum of violent tendencies,
because Nigerians were so naturally prone to violence that they even wrote about the
necessity of it on their passenger lorries.30 Although the account presented by the Observer
advances the hope in the survival of the Igbos, there was a hollowness to all the accounts, an
echo of unreality.31
But trauma isnt limited to blood, and fragments of the body, it finds expression in the
uprooting of a social group which had interiorized a way of perceiving life as a philosophical
debate, not as a struggle for survival, as an issue opened and closed around the rich tables, in
normal houses, glamorous and civilized. The war affects people and places, all the same, and
houses become as alien as the events destroying them. Such a house could only be part of a
nightmare, and Adichies descriptions assimilate it with the war, its invasion of privacy, the
disruption of the social fabric, the disruption of normality, because there was nothing normal
about the house. The thatch roof and cracked unpainted walls [] the cavernous pit latrine in
the outhouse with a rusting zinc sheet drawn across it to keep flies out. 32
A sense of belonging to a community still circumscribes itself to the lens through
which the new world, the world of trauma, is perceived. People, with different backgrounds,
different worldviews, different ways of expressing the same commitment to the remembrance
of the bloody shadows, join together in small gestures, in duging through the rubble to find a
child who most surely is dead, in covering the body of a woman laid next to a burning car,
her clothes burned off, flecks of pink all over her blackened skin.33 As the smoky smell of
burning brings tears in eyes and the evasion of the singular thinking, Okeoma and Master
join the digging through the rubble, and in this, they cope with the strange and distorted
reality surrounding them, investing at the social level, on which the resilience acquires one of
its core dimensions: compassion enhancement, empathy and active selflessness towards the
others.34 A knock on the door fills with relief, maybe this time, they would sit down and
talk properly,35 would share thoughts and fears, would share an equilibrium so fearfully
necessary within core of the annihilating turmoil of war. But war has the malevolent capacity
of destroying sand castles in the bloody hues of the swollen eyes. Edna came in crying, her
eyes swollen red, to tell her that white people had bombed the black Baptist church in her
hometown. Four little girls had died.36
27
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37
1043
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Idem, p. 247.
Idem, p. 195.
47
Ibidem.
48
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, op.cit., 2006, p. 124.
49
Idem, p. 286.
50
Christie Achebe, Igbo Women in the Nigerian-Biafran War 1967-1970: An Interplay of Control, Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 40, No. 5
(May 2010), pp. 785-811, published by Sage Publications, Inc., <http://www.jstor.org/40648606>.
51
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, Purple Hibiscus, London: Harper Collins Books, 2012, p. 25.
52
Dora Black, Martin Newman, Jean Harris-Hendriks, Gillian Mezey (eds.), Psychological Trauma. A Developmental Approach, London:
Gaskell, Royal College of Psychiatrists, 1997, p. 148.
46
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hurried past, I saw a woman spit at a soldier, I saw the soldier raise a whip in the air. The
whip was long. It curled in the air before it landed on the womans shoulder.53
The voice of violence is, again, an overwhelming presence, and womens abuse by
soldiers is vengeful, petty and illogical. Both combatant parties seem equally dangerous,
and the image a child must not see is the image of a trauma a child must not feel. The whip
signifies both the physical trauma, and the lashes of the politically strained background.
Liberty is a luxury denied in times of social censorship, newspapers are an enemy that must
be silenced, and the images perceived reminded them of pictures from the front during the
civil war.54 The boarding of the publishing house is a killing without a victim, but
nonetheless it calls out for the victims still to fall. In the next edition of the Standard, the
detailed story relates that soldiers shot Nwankiti Ogechi in a bush in Minna. And then they
poured acid on his body to melt his flesh off his bones, to kill him even when he was already
dead.55 The men wearing black masks herald crime as a political interplay, and this time,
Adichie proposes a trauma that must be remembered: Remember the bomb blast at the
airport when a civil rights lawyer was traveling. Remember the one at the stadium during the
pro-democracy meeting. Lock your doors. Remember the man shot in his bedroom by men
wearing black masks.56
The death of Ade Coker, blown to pieces by a bomb delivered when he was at
breakfast with his family, states the installment of terror. The grotesque of Ade Cokers
charred remains spattered on his dining table, on his daughters school uniform, on his babys
cereal bowl, on his plate of eggs57 haunts Kambili in her nightmarish dreams, and
sometimes, Adichies main protagonist becomes the daughter, and her father, becomes the
charred remains. The traumatic event takes place in the same bleak, almost colorless
backdrop as Half of a Yellow Sun, and Adichie reiterates the Nigerian trauma, the beheaded
children, the tortured and raped women, the babies too hungry to move, the houses
resembling a mortuary, but her writing remains a proof of Afigbo's argument that colonial
rule and the Biafra War transformed Igbo society, but they did not destroy Igbo identity or
cultural soul.58 The resilience of Adichies characters resides in their cultural identity, in
their strong societal connections, and in their power to recuperate the vibrations of the past
and transform them in the waves of the future.
References
Books:
Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi, Purple Hibiscus, London: Harper Collins Books, 2012.
----------------------------------, Half of a Yellow Sun, New York: Anchor Books, 2006.
Black, Dora, Newman, Martin, Harris-Hendriks, Jean, Mezey, Gillian (eds.),
Psychological Trauma. A Developmental Approach, London: Gaskell, Royal College of
Psychiatrists, 1997.
Droek, Boris, Wilson, John. P. (eds.), Voices of Trauma. Treating Survivors Across
Cultures, New York: Springer Science and Business Media, LLC, 2007.
53
1045
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Moodley, R., West, W., Integrating traditional practice into counseling and
psychotherapy, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Productions, 2005.
Muntean, Ana, Munteanu, Anca, Violen, traum, rezilien, Iai: Polirom, 2011.
Chapters in books:
Michael Harris Bond, Culture and Collective Violence: How Good People, Usually
Men, Do Bad Things, in Boris Droek, John. P. Wilson (eds.), Voices of Trauma. Treating
Survivors Across Cultures, New York: Springer Science and Business Media, LLC, 2007.
Articles:
Achebe, Christie, Igbo Women in the Nigerian-Biafran War 1967-1970: An Interplay
of Control, Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 40, No. 5 (May 2010), pp. 785-811, published by
Sage Publications, Inc., <http://www.jstor.org/40648606>, accessed 11/16/2014, 03:27.
Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi, African Authenticity and the Biafran Experience,
Transition, No. 99 (2008), <http://www.jstor.org./stable/20204260>, accessed 10/25/2014,
12:03.
Joseph, St., Linley, P.A., Growth following adversity: Theoretical perspectives and
implications for clinical practices, Clinical Psychology Review, No. 26, Elsevier,
<www.science.direct.com>.
Mabura, Lily G. N., Breaking Gods: An African Postcolonial Gothic Reading of
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie's Purple Hibiscus and Half of a Yellow Sun, Research in
African Literatures, Vol. 39, No. 1 (Spring, 2008), <http://www.jstor.org/stable/20109568>,
accessed 10/10/2014, 22:12.
Novak, Amy, Who Speaks? Who listens?: The Problem of Address In Two Nigerian
Trauma Novels, Studies in the Novel, Vol. 40, No. 1/2, Postcolonial Trauma Novels (SpringSummer 2008), pp. 31-51, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/29533858>, accessed 09/27/2014,
1:52.
Ogunyemi, Chikwenye Okonjo, The Poetics of the War Novel, Comparative Literature
Studies, Vol. 2, No. 2 (Summer, 1983), pp. 203-216, published by Penn State University
Press, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/40246397>, accessed 11/22/2014.
1046
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Abstract: The manner of approaching the fantastic in Bartolomeu Valeriu Ananias prose
presupposes imagining a twofold articulated universe: the real and the miraculous, the myth
and the present, which are simultaneous, identical in substance, functioning symbiotically.
The hero of Valeriu Ananias prose faces a dramatic identity crisis, suggesting the need for a
rediscovery of his roots. Our paper analyses the exotic novel The Foreigners from
Kipukua .
Key concepts: identity, search, myth, roots, miracle.
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1048
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cel al capitolului al XIII-lea. El cuprinde istorisirea unei clriri n noapte, de-a lungul
rmului oceanului, rstimp n care naratorul se las sedus de povetile, dar i cntecele pe
care i le mprtete vizitiul Ipu. La sfritul cltoriei, discutnd despre frica pe care
evenimente stranii precum paii de psl ai unui strigoi, femeia preschimbat n oprl sau
arborii care se mic fr vnt o inspir, Ipu comenteaz sec: frica mea era mult mai mare
pe vremea cnd eram viu (s.n.). Personajele i-au conservat intacte puterile ancestrale i-i
presimt rdcinile.
Realitatea e glisant, identitile sunt transferabile, incerte, dup cum incert este dac
aceia care ni se perind n faa ochilor sunt n via sau au murit. Trsturile personajelor,
transferabile de la unele la altele se estompeaz n ultimele pagini ale romanului,
amestecndu-se pn la contopirea ntr-o unic form de umanitate, embrionar. Sunt
nstrinaii care invadeaz stihial4. Ei sunt un fel de rinoceri ionetieni, monstruoi prin
pasivitatea cu care privesc spectacolul distrugerii crngului sacru i a arborelui sfnt ulu,
atacate cu securile. Dar n acelai timp erupe i vulcanul. O privelite sublim se arat,
fiindc arborele ulu arde ca un rug aprins care nu se mistuie. Autorul realizeaz un transfer
de simboluri, apelnd la rugul aprins , transferat din Vechiul Testament n mitologia
hawaian pentru a sugera c c arborele ulu, care pstreaz n el trupul unei jertfe- o fiin
care i-a dat viaa pentru salvarea semenului su- nu poate pieri niciodat. Sacrificiul, similar
cu cel hristic i cheam simbolul corespondent . Spectacolul erupiei vulcanului arat nc
o dat ct de fragile sunt liniile acelei plsmuiri pe care credem c o putem numi realitate.
Metafora timpului e amplificat tulburtor prin cea a genezei i a spectacolului cosmic, ntr-o
simbioz neobinuit de sublim al viziunii i de for simbolic a limbajului5, mai scrie
Aurel Sasu.
Personajele din Strinii din Kipukua gndesc mitic. Pe msur ce se autodescoper,
arat Dumitru Micu, ele dobndesc, prin luarea n posesie a naturii proprii, puteri, se
instaleaz n sacralitate.(). Drama crizei de identitate poate fi depit prin ntoarcerea la
rdcin6. In anul de graie 1979, cnd a aprut romanul Strinii din Kipukua, Valeriu
Anania i lua libertatea de a vorbi Romniei comuniste despre puterea omului de a se
ndumnezei, despre nstinare i cutarea altei patrii, cereti.
Adrian Marino, n Dicionar de idei literare, observa identitatea creatoare dintre
spiritul fantastic i cel poetic, dotate cu una i aceeai capacitate de a stabili raporturi
diferite ntre diferitele imagini7. Valeriu Anania s-a instalat n fantastic, n miezul mitului,
recunoscndu-i acestuia puterea de a elibera un susur, un izvor sau un torent de poezie din
cele mai rafinate i de a fora n interiorul fiinei. Aventura personajelor e o convenie prin
care ele se zidesc pe sine, aducnd la lumin fiina cea mai din adnc, a visului germinal.
Sau, dimpotriv, se surp pe sine, devenindu-i strini. Dar, aa cum zice un personaj, n
fiecare arbore cnt o vioar posibil, sufletul fiecrui om e un sla al Totului n ateptare.
Dac romanul Strinii din Kipukua a fost comparat cu Maytrei a lui Mircea
Eliade (Sorin Titel), cealalt carte de proz fantastic a lui Valeriu Anania, Amintirile
peregrinului Apter, aprut la Editura Cartea Romneasc n 1990 a fost comparat,
graie imaginaiei luxuriante, cu Numele trandafirului a lui Umberto Eco (Fevronia Novac).
Si aici universul este articulat pe mituri sau pe vechi legende esute, de data asta, n jurul
mnstirilor din Oltenia, iar omul este contemporan nu cu istoria, ci cu semnele lumii i
Mircea Zaciu Adrian Papahagi, Aurel Sasu (coordonatori)- Dicionarul esenial al scriitorilor romni, Editura Albatros, Bucureti,
2000, pag.27
4
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1050
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Abstract: The presence of play in the poetical act has been debated by many literary critics.
Those who believe in it tend to see literature as a way of excaping from the strict rules of life.
While they create and write works, authors enter in another dimension. The words here have
other meanings and significance. As a result, the writer has free will to play with them. He is
like a game-designer who conceives his literary world as he wishes. Words are his favourite
toys and due to his ability of combining and using them in diffrent structures, many authors
give the impression that they are playing a childish game. Thinking and writing in a ludic key
offers writers the freedom to express all their thoughts and feelings, even though the play is
bizzare.
Keywords: play, ludic, words, author, freedom
1051
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mbrca o nou form, cu totul strin. Referindu-se la acest caz, Roger Caillois este de prere
c doar acum masca pe care o poart individul uman este parte component a corpului
acestuia i nu un accesoriu. Cu aceast categorie de joc abandonm destinul i ne rentoarcem
la rolul fundamental pe care l are juctorul, n acest caz, interpretul. Influena pe care o va
exercita asupra publicului i succesul i vor fi asigurate doar de calitatea propriei prestaii. n
fine, ultima categorie se bazeaz pe confuzie i dezordine. Teoreticianul atribuie regula
jocurilor de agn i celor de alea. n ceea ce privete celelalte dou categorii, ele sunt vzute
ca o improvizaie. Un rol aparte l joac aici contiina, ea fiind la cote maxime pentru
mimicry. Ilinx-ul cunoate doar disperare i panic, lipsindu-i puterea de organizare i
decizional. Caillois chiar atrage atenia asupra primejdiei care se ascunde n spatele acestor
jocuri. Starea de trans i de panic vor face din juctor un prizonier al unor dispoziii
neltoare, false, n care se crede stpn suprem. Astfel de jocuri sunt categorisite drept
negative.
Dintre toate cele patru categorii doar unul singur este nzestrat cu putere creatoare:
mimicry. Toate celelalte apar drept distrugtoare. Noi suntem de prere c i restul
categoriilor i arat partea constructiv-creativ. De exemplu, competiia agn al poate
determina mobilizarea juctorului n vederea obinerii celor mai bune rezultate. Pentru
aceasta, creativitatea i inventivitatea sporesc.
Sutton-Smith propune o repartizare mult mai diversificat a multiplelor tipuri de joc.
El le clasific n funcie de tipul de activiti pe care fiecare clas o solicit: de imaginaie, cea
desfurat n solitudine (rebus), cea care implic un comportament jucu (pcleli), o
prestaie scenic artistic, festivaluri i celebrri, concursuri.
Dup ce am prezentat clasificarea propus de Caillois, plecnd de la ea am putea
spune c, n cazul poeziei i a domeniului artistic n general, se constat o mbinare a agnului, mimicry-ului i a ilinx-ului. Competiie avem i n actul poetic. E suficient s ne referim
la marile curente literare, dar cel mai potrivit exemplu este cel din perioada avangardist,
competiia fiind dus la extreme. Perseverena este un alt atu al majoritii poeilor. Mimicryul este reprezentat de universul fictiv pe care poetul reuete s-l creeze n cadrul proiectului
su literar, un proiect care poate fi bazat uneori pe ilinx, cum este cazul dezordinii dadaiste.
Am putea spune c n cazul lor intervine la un moment dat i alea.
Aceste patru categorii sunt ncadrate de Roger Caillois n dou modaliti de joac
principale. E vorba de paidia, ea cuprinznd alea i ilinx-ul, i de ludus, el avnd n subordine
agn i mimicry. Prima o preced pe cea de a doua i a fost ntia form de joc cunoscut.
Paidia presupune o joac spontan, haotic, amuzant, creativ i de aceea poate fi vzut ca
nsi definiia distraciei. Singurul inconvenient pe care l prezint este dat de durata relativ
scurt n care se manifest. Odat ce acest gen de joac este invadat de reguli, atunci cnd este
formalizat, el devine un joc. Copiii sunt cei care valorific la cele mai nalte forme specia
aceasta de joac, folosindu-se n acest demers de orice obiect, conjunctur i spaiu. Paidia a
supravieuit i triete prin ei, fiecare avnd maniera proprie de a evidenia manifestrile
spontane ale instinctului de joc. Pn i jocurile de noroc tind s se alture ludus-ului, ele
formalizndu-se din ce n ce mai mult, spontaneitatea disprnd ncet.
n ceea ce-i privete pe poei, ei creeaz att mnai de paidia, ct i de ludus. Se
constat n acest caz capacitatea de a mbrca i de a expune realitatea cotidian printr-o
manifestare natural a unui univers fictiv. Artitii sunt copiii care se joac n curtea din faa
casei, cu tot felul de materiale banale, dar care, pentru ei, reprezint ceva inedit, care
genereaz de fiecare dat o nou viziune a lucrurilor.
Rmne interesant drumul pe care l strbate un joc n evoluia sa. Dar poate c nu se
produce o evoluie ci, din contr, o involuie. Dac urmrim parcursul amintit, orice joc este,
1052
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n prima sa faz, o paidia. Dup ce intervine repetabilitatea, re-jucarea sau re-luarea lui, se
dezvolt anumite tipare, fapt care favorizeaz apariia ludus-lui. Ar rezulta c forma pur,
gratuit a jocului este aceea oferit de manifestrile spontane ale instinctului de joc i nu
poate fi vorba, aadar, despre o evoluie a acestuia. O posibil rentoarcere la paidia se
produce doar atunci cnd un juctor ar nclca regulile sau ar schimba ceva n desfurarea
obinuit a jocului respectiv. Tocmai aici suntem de prere c se plaseaz scriitorii
avangarditi. Stui de prea mult ludus n literatur i n cultur, n general, aceti scriitori nu
fac altceva dect s schimbe jocul, nclcnd regulile i fiind ntr-o permanent cutare a
inovaiei.
Raph Koster are o teorie interesant n ceea ce privete disputa ntre cele dou
categorii ale jocului. El i bazeaz ntreaga tez pe faptul c ntreaga via a individului uman
este guvernat de legi, de la cele mai fragede vrste ale copilriei i pn la moarte. Pornind
de aici i de la ideea c prima form de joc pe care o practicm este paidia, el ajunge la
concluzia c aceast specie este guvernat de mai multe legi dect a doua clas. Ludus-ul i
dezvolt propriile norme n timp ce paidia le mprumut de la viaa de zi cu zi, le modeleaz
i ni le inculc. n ciuda acestor argumente, chestiunea rmne discutabil. Dac paidia este
forma prim a jocului, aprut spontan, acest aspect nu implic existena unor reguli. Abia
dup aceast etap embrionar a jocului el ncepe s fie analizat, dezvoltat i mbuntit,
fiecare micare desfurndu-se dup un anumit set de reguli. ns, din cnd n cnd, juctorii
pot introduce noi elemente n joc, pot aduce inovaii la nivelul acestuia. Experimentnd, i
numai n acest stadiu, paidia revine. Iat i aspectul pe care l mbrieaz i scriitorii
avangarditi. Activitatea lor literar i publicistic graviteaz n jurul experimentului. Iar acest
lucru se rsfrnge i asupra cercului de cititori. Acetia, la rndul lor, sunt antrenai ntr-un joc
continuu. n ncercarea lor de a descifra mesajul textelor, ei nu fac altceva dect s
experimenteze o serie de posibiliti i variante, fiecare dintre acestea fiind o posibil pies
din puzzle-lul propus de artist. Iar dac dezordine este unul din cuvintele utilizate de Roger
Caillois pentru a caracteriza paidia, avem n faa noastr nc un element definitoriu pentru
avangardism.
Privit din perspectiva ludusu-lui i a paidi-ei, regula ne este nfiat diferit. Chiar
dac a doua categorie are n vedere o joac spontan, liber, ea presupune existena unor
reguli, care se contureaz n timpul jocului, pentru a fi perfecionate n cadrul ludus-ului.
Restricionarea manifestrii juctorilor n momentul de joc poate fi perceput ca o
caracteristic negativ a normei. Dar, aa cum afirm i Ion Pop, regula nu face altceva dect
s structureze spectacolul, neatentnd la spontaneitatea i inventivitatea lui.
Indiferent de categoria din care face parte, jocul presupune socializare. Chiar i n
momentul creaiei artistice, cel care creeaz este nconjurat de un public virtual, fapt care l
apropie de mimicry. Dup cum afirm i Gonzolo Frasca, ntreaga disput dintre joac
(paidia) i joc (ludus) se concentreaz n jurul formulei nvingtor-nvins. Jocul, de la nceput
pn la final, mbrac aceast form, n timp ce joaca nu mprtete asemenea obiective.
Frasca nu mprtete principiul clasificator al lui Caillois, argumentnd c o msurtoare a
regulilor presupuse de diferitele jocuri nu poate fi posibil. Singura distincie care se poate
face ntre cele dou forme este oferit de statutul de nvingtor i de nvins pe care l implic
ludus, statut care nu poate fi regsit i pentru paidia. Frasca merge pe drumul deschis de
Aristotel, care presupune ca mai nti regulile jocului s fie cunoscute pentru ca apoi s fie
puse n aplicare de ctre juctori, ca n final s se poat delimita clar ctigtorii i nvinii.
Pentru el, acesta este factorul care poate face diferena, dar aplicabilitatea lui este propice doar
n cazul lumilor cldite pe o structur dihotomic. Cu toate acestea, ambele noiuni implic
inter-relaionarea cu restul participanilor. Dar ele reprezint mai mult dect stabilirea unor
relaii cu cei din jur. n lucrarea Play the Message, Frasca vede joaca drept o activitate de
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nelegere a lumii. Rezult, astfel, dup cum am precizat la nceputul subcapitolului c, att
joaca, ct i jocul reprezint maniere de nelegere i de familiarizare cu mediul socio-cultural.
Dup cum am afirmat nc din deschiderea acestui capitol, activitatea individului
uman s-a aflat n aproape toate circumstanele sub umbrela jocului. n general, prin joc,
respectiv joac se nelege acea activitate specific vrstei infantile. Dar cercetrile au artat
c acest tip de activitate se rsfrnge i asupra adulilor. Avem aici dou aciuni. Una dintre
ele este ntreprins de subieci umani pe care i vom numi adult performers, iar pentru
participanii la cea de a doua vom utiliza termenul de adult spectator. n prima categorie
vom include actorii, sportivii, clownii, artitii, scriitorii. Acetia se folosesc de joc n
activitatea lor cotidian. Ei sunt antrenai fie de agn, fie de mimicry n tot ceea ce ntreprind.
Toi sunt nite practicieni ai ludicului dar, n acelai timp, ni-l mprtesc i nou, publicului.
n acest moment intervenim noi, adulii spectatori. Rolurile se pot inversa chiar dac acest
lucru se ntmpl la scar mic. De exemplu, un grup de indivizi alege s joace mim iar
atunci statutul de spectator este prsit pentru cel de performer. Un joc al fotbalitilor amatori,
desfurat n curtea din spate, este un alt exemplu n acest sens. Diferena ntre cele dou
categorii este oferit de statutul de munc specific primei grupe. Pentru adulii performeri
munca i joaca se confund, n timp ce pentru adulii spectatori ele reprezint dou domenii
distincte. Un doctor nu se va juca niciodat n timpul unei operaii dar va juca o partid de ah
sau alt joc n timpul liber. Operaia privit ca joc este posibil doar atunci cnd ea ndeplinete
statutul de competiie. Robyn M. Holmes, n Play: An Interdisciplinary Syntethis (Joaca: o
sintez interdisciplinar), e de prere c nu poate fi trasat o grani clar, exact care s
delimiteze munca de joac.Robyn M. Holmes consider c exist o interferen reciproc ntre
cele dou domenii. Astfel, chiar i atunci cnd fiina uman se ded jocului, n timpul su
liber, mintea sa, gndul su zboar spre alte probleme.
De cele mai multe ori munca i joaca au fost privite dintr-o perspectiv antagonist.
Aceast teorie a nceput s regreseze datorit contribuiilor aduse de Sutto-Smith sau
Schwartzman. Ambii teoreticieni susin c jocul nu presupune n toate cazurile destindere i
plcere, el putnd fi uneori chiar brutal, manipulativ, n timp ce la locul de munc poi s
ntreprinzi i activiti recreative, care s provoace ncntare. Prin natura sa, prin motenirea
ancestral, omul este dedat jocului. Comunitatea arhaic alterna cele dou activiti, acordnd
aceeai importan amndurora. Mrturie sunt festivalurile nchinate diverselor srbtori
agrare, dar i modalitatea de repartizare a acestora n decursul unui an. Astzi, munca tinde s
acapareze o mare parte din activitatea desfurat de ctre om, iar degajarea care o nsoea n
trecut se pierde treptat, totul fiind normat.
BIBLIOGRAFIE SELECTIV:
1. Clinescu, George, Principii de estetic, Ed. Pentru Literatur, Bucureti, 1968
2. Clinescu, Matei, A citi, a reciti. Pentru o poetic a (re)lecturii, Ed. Polirom, Iai,
2007
3. Cornea, Paul, Regula jocului, Versantul colectiv al literaturii: concepte, convenii,
modele, Ed. Eminescu, Bucureti, 1980
4. Frasca, Gonzalo, Play the Message: Play, Game and Videogame Rhetoric, 2007,
http://www.powerfulrobot.com/Frasca_Play_the_Message_PhD.pdf
5. Huizinga, Johan, Homo ludes, traducere de H. R. Radian, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti,
1998
6. Koster, Raph, A Theory of Fun for Gme Design, Paragliph Press, Phoenix, 2004
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The research presented in this paper was supported by the European Social Fund
under the responsibility of the Managing Authority for the Sectoral Operational
Programme for Human Resources Development , as part of the grant
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652.
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Akachi Ezeigbos Vision and Revision, written in 1998, was challenging the literature
written by female authors for been largely focused on family issues and on the survival of
their husbands and children [] that they have kept to their roles as nurturers. 1 But in order
to construct an integrating, whole, female subject of African literature, one must de-construct
the threefold oppression of the Black woman of Africa: by virtue of her sex, she is
dominated by man in a patriarchal society; by virtue of her class she is at the mercy of
capitalist exploitation; by virtue of her race she suffers from the appropriation of her country
by colonial or neo-colonial powers. Sexism, racism, class division; three plagues2
1
Theodora Akachi Ezeigbo, Vision and Revision: Flora Nwapa and the Fiction of War, apud Marion Pape, Nigerian War Literature by
Women. From Civil War to Gender War, in Flora Veit-Wild, Dirk Naguschewski (eds.), Versions and Subversions in African Literatures 1,
Amsterdam & Union NJ: Editions Rodopi, 2005, p. 233.
2
Awa Thiam, Black Sisters Speak Out: Feminism and Oppression in Black Africa, Pluto Press, 1986, p. 118, cited in Beverly Guy-Sheftall,
African Feminist Discourse: A Review Essay, source: Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity, No. 58, African Feminism Three
(2003), pp. 31-36, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4548092>.
1056
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Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, I decided to call myself a Happy Feminist, interview with The Guardian, 17 October 2014,
<www.theguardian.com/books/2014/oct/17/chimamanda-ngozi-adichie-extract-we-should-all-be-feminists>.
4
Anthonia C. Kalu, Those Left Out in the Rain: African Literary Theory and the Re-invention of the African Woman, African Studies Review,
Vol. 37, No. 2 (September 1994), pp. 77-95, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/524767>.
5
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, Purple Hibiscus, London: Harper Collins Books, 2012, p. 19.
1057
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The incident describes a matter of fact in African society, in which marriages are
characterized by fighting, physical violence, and rape.6 The domestic violence reaches such
levels and frequency that tends to be perceived as a way of normality.
When Papas craziness achieves inhuman levels, when he breaks Jajas arm, but not
the right one, because it is the hand he writes with,7 and could bring fame and pride to his
father, Mama does nothing, except caring Jajas wound. Through her lack of reaction, Adichie
suggests a kind of fatality hovering over the African marriage.
The conflict evolves with subtlety, with small, almost trivial gestures, timid voicing of
a timid conscience coming into being, in its attempts to disrupt the historically establish fabric
of patriarchy. This male gendered ideology is marked, among other features, by the
exclusion of women from male power constructs, and the controlling of women in order to
appropriate from them.8
But this control loses part of its effectiveness in its clash with another powerfully
motivated and anchored construct of female individuation: motherhood. And motherhood,
balanced or imbalanced by the ideological and traditional systems, tends to trespass the
territories primordially deemed to be appropriated by males.
Predictably, at some point, Papa lashes at his daughter, Kambili, with the gestures of a
psychotic break, almost killing his child on a painting crying freedom, upon which he
comments nonstop, out of control, in a mix of Igbo and English, like soft meat and thorny
bones. Godlessness. Heathen worship. Hellfire.9 Mama decides to act, not by trying to push
her husband aside, or invoke a law to protect her and her children, because she knows very
well that in Africa, a woman is yet her husbands shadow, but by eliminating him forever
from her family. Adichie makes recourse to the idea of justified killing, a homicidal case,
ironically, representative for the American justice.10
Another figure, which is marked by firm and enduring brushes by Adichies pen, is
Aunty Ifeomas. Ifeoma is an intellectual, a professor at a college in Nsukka, and Adichie
creates her in contrast with Mama, her sister-in-law. Mama feels that a husband crowns a
womans life. It is what they want. And Ifeoma, a feminist trope-herald and unmarried,
replies: sometimes life begins when marriage ends.11 The death of Papa by the hands of
Mama will prove that this feminist trope could create alternative realities.
In Adichies Half of a Yellow Sun, we see so many types of women, in a generous
spectrum, from traditional to postmodernist and feminist, and these fragments, somehow
shattered pieces of the same puzzle, define, but only together, the future African woman, who
isnt a feminist, isnt a wife, isnt a provider of goods, isnt the subservient shadow of the
African male, but all of this.
How does a girl gain power in the traditional African family? By the disappearance of
the oldest boy. We see, in Half of a Yellow Sun, the character of Anulika coming into power
in place of her older brother.
Perhaps Anulika would be watching them. She was the oldest child in the household
now, and as they all sat around the fire to eat, she would break up the fights when the younger
ones struggled over the strips of dried fish in the soup. She would wait until all the akpu was
6
Marion Pape, op. cit., in Flora Veit-Wild, Dirk Naguschewski (eds.), op. cit., p. 239.
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, op. cit., 2012, p. 73.
8
Ifi Amadiume, Re-Inventing Africa. Matriarchy, religion and culture, London & New York: Zed Books Ltd, 1997, p. 22 .
9
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, op. cit., 2012, p. 103.
10
In approaching Adichies works, we must remember that she studied in USA and at the moment, she is migrating between Nigeria and
America.
11
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, op. cit., 2012, p. 39-40.
7
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eaten and then divide the fish so that each child had a piece, and she would keep the biggest
for herself, as he had always done.12
12
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, Half of a Yellow Sun, New York: Anchor Books, 2006, p. 18.
Idem, p. 22.
14
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, op. cit., 2006, p. 25.
15
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, op. cit., 2006, p. 31.
16
Idem, p. 34.
17
Kalenda Eaton, Womanism, Literature, and the Transformation of the Black Community, 1965-1980, New York & London: Routledge,
2008, p. 2.
13
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Olanna was used to her mother's disapproval; it had colored most of her major
decisions, after all: when she chose two weeks' suspension rather than apologize to her
Heathgrove form mistress for insisting that the lessons on Pax Britannica were contradictory;
when she joined the Students' Movement for Independence at Ibadan; when she refused to
marry Igwe Okagbue's son, and later, Chief Okaro's son. Still, each time, the disapproval
made her want to apologize, to make up for it in some way.18
Self-assertion is associated with ones self, but maybe in the same qualifying range,
with the recognition from the other inhabitants of the range. This is part of the tragic destiny,
at least until now, of the African woman, this lack of acknowledgement from the African
Womanhood. Adichie highlights this element of distortion in defining a new identity for the
African woman by contrasting Miss Adebayo and Olanna. Both are educated, both are eager
to assert themselves, and both are ancestral enemies in winning a man. Miss Adebayo strives
to be identified with the postcolonial Africanism, and considers Olanna
unworthy of the competition, with her unintellectual ways and her too-pretty face and
her mimicking-the-oppressor English accent. [] Perhaps Miss Adebayo could tell, from her
face, that she was afraid of things, that she was unsure, that she was not one of those people
with no patience for self-doubt. People like Odenigbo. People like Miss Adebayo herself, who
could look a person in the eye and calmly tell her that she was illogically pretty, who could
even use that phrase, illogically pretty.19
Olannas sister, Kainene, is also an educated woman. A strong-willed and bright
businesswoman, she seems determined to prove that she is as good as the son her father
regrets he doesnt have. In contrast with Olanna, who, during crises, strongly asserts her
womanhood, Kainene strongly asserts her freely-assumed manhood.
Richard was bewildered by Kainene's busy life. Seeing her in Lagos, in brief meetings
at the hotel, he had not realized that hers was a life that ran fully and would run fully even if
he was not in it. It was strangely disturbing to think that he was not the only occupant of her
world []. Her work came first; she was determined to make her father's factories grow, to
do better than he had done. In the evenings, visitorscompany people negotiating deals,
government people negotiating bribes, factory people negotiating jobsdropped by, parking
their cars near the entrance to the orchard.20
Masters mother represents the past, the tradition, the witchcraft which always has
been womans reign, of the mythical, once again, nurturer of the hearth, the inflexible,
rightful, simple and essential archetypal mother. Anchored in her ancient ways, unwilling to
accept that world moves on, and maybe forward, Masters mother perceives present states as
threatening and abnormal.
I hear you did not suck your mother's breasts, Master's mother said.
Olanna stopped. What?
18
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They say you did not suck your mother's breasts. Master's mother turned to look at
Olanna.
Please go back and tell those who sent you that you did not find my son. Tell your
fellow witches that you did not see him.
Olanna stared at her. Master's mother's voice rose, as if Olanna's continued silence had
driven her to shouting. Did you hear me? Tell them that nobody's medicine will work on my
son. He will not marry an abnormal woman, unless you kill me first. Only over my dead
body!21
Not a typical African ancient mother, because she is a bearer of the godly wisdom; she
is a witch, she is a healer, she possesses the power of plants and prayers, of rituals and masks.
She is the symbol of the lost Africa. Her utmost fear is that her son would marry with a witch
who is controlling him, and the fact that he is still unmarried, while his mates are counting
how many children they have22 is a proof of a witchcraft as powerful as hers. But Olannas
greatest flaw seems to be her education. This liberated, cultivated, immorally beautiful
woman is ruined. Because too much schooling ruins a woman; everyone knows that. It gives a
woman a big head and she will start to insult her husband. What kind of wife will that be?23
And its only normal that, in fighting with her alien enemy, mother should appeal to the
dibia Nwafor Agbada, because any strange appearance is an illness, and an illness must be
treated with the man's medicine [which] is famous in our parts.24 The struggle for selfassertion of the two women is theorized by their agent, the son/lover Odenigbo, albeit
represented by Adichie as a useless radical philosopher, defines the very dilemma in which
postcolonial Africa questions itself:
Nkem, my mother's entire life is in Abba. Do you know what a small bush village that
is? Of course she will feel threatened by an educated woman living with her son. Of course
you have to be a witch. That is the only way she can understand it. The real tragedy of our
postcolonial world is not that the majority of people had no say in whether or not they wanted
this new world; rather, it is that the majority have not been given the tools to negotiate this
new world.25
Americanha is a Bildungsroman. A traumatic, alert and deep series of falls and ascents
between the worlds, the coalescence of puzzling fragments into personalities, each of them
asserting the right to a voice, the right to a unique individuality. Americanha creates
migrating women, the women of African Diaspora, challenging them with ancient patterns of
their source world, and alien frames in which they must adjust. Adichie challenges us with her
hybridization, her characters designed to transgress boundaries and to reshape social and
political prejudices.
Balancing between Africa, United States and England, Adichies women regain not a
gra-gra26 voice, as the intrepid African hustler from Lagos would have wished, but a
language without accent, transparent and fluid, as open to its reshaping. The language
Americanahs women speak is a language without roots, because the Diaspora woman claims
21
Idem, p. 75.
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, op. cit., 2006, p. 76.
23
Ibidem.
24
Ibidem.
25
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, op. cit., 2006, p. 79.
26
Nigerian slang, meaning hustling, violent, aggressive.
22
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the liberty to migrate between her worlds, as the Nigerian intrepid travels from Dubai to buy
gold, to China to buy womens clothing. 27
In Americanah, Adichie returns to an image meant to haunt most of the African
modern writings: rape. But the raped of Americanahs buys condoms, because she is sure she
would be raped wherever she will serve. This act is symptomatic for the colonially-mediated
abused woman. A strange lack of understanding is contorting her face when her repeated
sacrifice is refused. Rape altered into a normality, suggests Adichie, is a consequence of the
patriarchal philosophy, and women exhibit all the symptoms of a Stockholm syndrome, not
very dissimilar with what Kambili, in Purple Hibiscus, feels for her abusive father, and with
what Joseph M. Carver termed the mystery of loving an abuser.28
The religious woman, enthralled in her exclusivist relation with God, asserts her
individuality as a conjuncture in these unending negotiations: She bartered with Him,
offering starvation in exchange for prosperity, for a job promotion, for good health. She fasted
herself bone-thin: dry fasts on weekends, and on weekdays, only water until evening.
[]Everyone tiptoed around her mother, who had become a stranger, thin and knuckly and
severe.29
This image is Adichies critique to the trauma impelled by the colonial period upon
the traditional mystical approach of the African world, but also defines one speck of the
spectrum of the African womanhood self-assertion, in which the powerful religious woman,
sister Ibinado (Americanah) claims her development. Sister Ibinado refuses to negotiate with
God, and her pastor, because she occupies a position of power in her social group.
She pretended to wear her power lightly. The pastor, it was said, did whatever she
asked him. It was not clear why; some said she had started the church with him, others that
she knew a terrible secret from his past, still others that she simply had more spiritual power
than he did but could not be pastor because she was a woman. [] She never laughed but
often smiled the thin smile of the pious. [] Sister Ibinabo, the savior of young females. []
But Ifemelu had always sensed, in Sister Ibinabo, a deep-sown, simmering hostility to young
girls. Sister Ibinabo did not like them, she merely watched them and warned them, as though
offended by what in them was still fresh and in her was long dried up.30
Bitter and hateful, sister Ibinado asserts herself only through the empowerment she
imposes on her male master, revenging her exclusion from the higher ranks of the group in
which she functions. Being refused the beauty and the sexual power of a woman, she tries to
formulate a philosophy of life in which this grey eminence politics would give her identity
substance.
Obinzes mother was a woman who kept to herself and asked no favors, who would
not lie, who would not accept even a Christmas card from her students because it might
compromise her.31 And still, this determined, honest, bright African educated woman would
cheat for her son, because truth had indeed, in their circumstances, become a luxury, and
her son needed the six-month visa to the United Kingdom which had been repeatedly denied
to him.
27
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, Americanha, New York and Toronto: Alfred A. Knopf, 2013, p. 22.
Joseph M. Carver, Love and Stockholm Syndrome: The Mystery of Loving an Abuser, <drjoecarver.makeswebsites.com/clients/49355>.
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, op. cit., 2013, p. 35.
30
Idem, pp. 40-41.
31
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, op. cit., 2013, p. 172.
28
29
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Aunty Uju represents the hybrid woman, more intelligent and sensible than her
husband, and yet a voluntary subject to his agency. Ifemelus reaction to Aunty Ujus
dependency on The General, slaving and shaving for him, always eager to fade his flaws,32
is the urge to shake her into a clear-eyed self, 33 a self which would confer her existence
more than the shadowy bi-dimensionality dutifully glimmering along The Generals contours.
The same lack of substance, as in an unfinished psychological profile, haunts Ifemelus
friend, Jane, whose only landmarks in the development of an identity are the husband, an
unaccomplished Casanova, and her children. Jane inhabits an empty stage on which she is just
a propel.
The same concept of assertive propel is embodied by the dependence of the Black
womanhood on performing for a female public. Such a uniqueness can be achieved only
through the elimination/abstraction of another Black woman. She is one of those black
people who want to be the only black person in the room, so any other black person is an
immediate threat to her.34
Piece by piece, Adichie re-constructs the puzzle of African womanhood, in her
attempt to contradict Kristevas assertion that woman can never be defined, because her
representation goes beyond nomenclatures and ideologies.35 Adichie adds: But not beyond
herself (A/N).
Ifemelu rejects her being known by a man. His complete assuredness triggers her
defeating. How sordid it all was, hat she was here with a stranger who already knew she
would stay. [] She was already here, already tainted. 36 She hates that women all laughed
at the same things and said Gross! about the same things, because its like their roles were
being well choreographed. 37 She hates being perceived like an exotic species,38 a like the
tongue-speaking, strangely colored specimen brought back home by an adventurer.
Ifemelu is in herself an assertion in development. A complex of identities, a puzzle of
memories and assumptions, right or wrong, Adichies female protagonist in Americanah
collects, overtly or in disguise, the characteristics of all Americanahs women. The process by
which her self-assertion comes to fruition is alike some existential equation, hypotheses tested
and rejected, paths challenged, honored or dishonored, and this process of evolving and
devolving
is fundamental to migration [to African Diasporas identity, A/N] as it is fundamental
to Black womens writing in cross-cultural contexts. It is the convergence of multiple places
and cultures that re-negotiates the terms of Black womens experience that, in turn, negotiates
and re-negotiates their identities.39
Ojiugo, the free spirit of the postcolonial African woman, who wore orange lipstick
and ripped jeans, spoke bluntly, and smoked in public, provoking vicious gossip and dislike
from other girls, not because she did these things but because she dared to without having
lived abroad, or having a foreign parent, those qualities that would have made them forgive
32
Idem, p. 64.
Ibidem.
34
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, op. cit., 2013, p. 179.
35
Julia Kristeva, Woman Can Never Be Defined, in Elaine Marks and Isabelle de Courtivron (eds.), New French Feminism, New York:
Schocken Books, 1981, p. 137, cited in Carole Boyce Davies, Black Women, Writing and Identity. Migrations of the Subject, London and
New York: Routledge, 1994, p. 52.
36
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, op. cit., 2013, p. 116.
37
Idem, p. 93.
38
Idem, p. 145.
39
Carole Boyce Davies, Black Women. Writing and Identity. Migrations of the Subject, London and New York: Routledge, 1994, p. 2.
33
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her lack of conformity. [] They smoked and drank publicly together. They created
glamorous myths.40 Has lost her identity in her husbands. She became the subject whose
referentiality resides in the approval of her husband.
She would serve his food, a plate on a tray taken to him in his study or in front of the
TV in the kitchen. Obinze sometimes wondered if she bowed while putting it down or
whether the bowing was merely in her demeanor, in the slump of her shoulders and curve of
her neck. Nicholas spoke to her in the same tone as he spoke to his children.41 Her
sometimes ironic demeanor reminded Obinze of the gaudy theatrics of Nollywood films.42
Adichies intertextuality in Americanah migrates from mythical Africanism to
American woman-ism, and in between Ifemelu assimilates, interiorizes, transfers and
modifies patterns of thinking about her and her Otherness, functioning as a figure of
resistance to specific societal prescriptions and patriarchal assumptions about womans
place.43 She could constitute a matrix for the expression of African feminism, but also a
matrix for a comprehensive worldview, for a perception so translucent that every concept
would be able to find its meaning in it.
In the final invitation of the novel, the African space encounters and gently invades the
personal space of the African woman. Their coalescence signifies the reaching of a
continuous identity, one which assimilates fragments of assertions, including male selfassertion, on the bases of their common Africanism. The postcolonial alienation is finally
shared, and the burden of memory, in Wole Soyinkas words, equals the muse of
forgiveness. And by forgiveness Adichie understands not only the acceptance of Others
self-assertion, but also the shared effort towards a common value system within which each
expression of the Self must proceed and return to the expression of the Other.
Migration becomes, in Adichies acceptance, a trope for denying petrified social
fixities, psychologically inert frames of mind, still views upon a world in a continuous
absorption. We read not the denial of the roots, but the openness of the trope to non-fixity,
anti-essentialism and mobility as resistance44 to bondages of womahoods slavery. The defragmentation of African womans potentiality calls for a re-construction under new laws,
laws based on a multitude of self-assertions.
References
Books:
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, Purple Hibiscus, London: Harper Collins Books, 2003.
-----------------------------------, Half of a Yellow Sun, New York: Anchor Books, 2006.
-----------------------------------, Americanha, New York and Toronto: Alfred A. Knopf,
2013.
Amadiume, Ifi, Re-Inventing Africa. Matriarchy, religion and culture, London & New
York: Zed Books Ltd, 1997.
40
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Boyce Davies, Carole, Black Women. Writing and Identity. Migrations of the Subject,
London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
Eaton, Kalenda, Womanism, Literature, and the Transformation of the Black
Community, 1965-1980, New York & London: Routledge, 2008.
Marks, Elaine, de Courtivron, Isabelle (eds.), New French Feminism, New York:
Schocken Books, 1981.
Sharp, Joanne P., Routledge, Paul, Philo, Chris, Paddison, Ronan, Entanglements of
Power. Geographies of domination/resistance, London and New York: Routledge, 2005.
Veit-Wild, Flora, Naguschewski, Dirk (eds.), Versions and Subversions in African
Literatures 1, Amsterdam & Union NJ: Editions Rodopi, 2005.
Chapters in books:
Atkinson, David, Nomadic Strategies and Colonial Governance: Domination and
Resistance in Cyrenaica, 1923-1932, in Joanne P. Sharp, Paul Routledge, Chris Philo, Ronan
Paddison, Entanglements of Power. Geographies of domination/resistance, London and New
York: Routledge, 2005.
Pape, Marion, Nigerian War Literature by Women. From Civil War to Gender War, in
Flora Veit-Wild, Dirk Naguschewski (eds.), Versions and Subversions in African Literatures
1, Amsterdam & Union NJ: Editions Rodopi, 2005.
Articles:
Awa Thiam, Black Sisters Speak Out: Feminism and Oppression in Black Africa,
Pluto Press, 1986, p. 118, cited in Beverly Guy-Sheftall, African Feminist Discourse: A
Review Essay, source: Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity, No. 58, African
Feminism Three (2003), pp. 31-36, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4548092>, accessed
19/08/2014, 21:34.
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, I decided to call myself a Happy Feminist, interview
with
The
Guardian,
17
October
2014,
<www.theguardian.com/books/2014/oct/17/chimamanda-ngozi-adichie-extract-we-shouldall-be-feminists>, accessed 15/10/2014.
Anthonia C. Kalu, Those Left Out in the Rain: African Literary Theory and the Reinvention of the African Woman, African Studies Review, Vol. 37, No. 2 (September 1994),
pp. 77-95, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/524767>, accessed 21/11/2014, 14:21.
Julia Kristeva, Woman Can Never Be Defined, in Elaine Marks and Isabelle de
Courtivron (eds.), New French Feminism, New York: Schocken Books, 1981.
Joseph M. Carver, Love and Stockholm Syndrome: The Mystery of Loving an Abuser,
<drjoecarver.makeswebsites.com/clients/49355>, accessed 25/11/2014.
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Abstract: The present work aims at identifying and analyzing the main occurrences and
significations of water in two of J.M.G Le Clzios novels, Dsert and Onitsha, whose action
develop several similarities. The analysis will reveal mainly the positive aspects of the water,
because the protagonists closeness to the fundamental elements leads in general to an
organization of their own being around them, going thus far as the characters identification
with them.
Keywords: water, fondamental elements, sea, characters, baptism, ablution.
Grard de Cortanze, J.M.G Le Clzio, Paris, Gallimard, Culture France Editions, 2009, p. 19.
Ibid., 210.
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Maroc, qui choisit daller vivre Marseille sans pouvoir sy intgrer et dcide finalement de
retourner au pays du sable pour accoucher proximit dun arbre, tout prs dune source en
vue de la prservation de la tradition locale et ancestrale. Nour et Lalla sont les noms des
protagonistes autour desquels laction du roman converge.
Quant Onitsha, la premire scne du roman renvoie lembarquement de Fintan et
de sa mre pour le sud du Nigria, pays situ dans louest de lAfrique, trajet pendant lequel
les deux voyageurs alimentent leur vision idalise du pays o ils vont se rendre au bout du
voyage et prennent conscience du fait que leur existence changera jamais ds quils y seront
arrivs. Laccent tombe, tour de rle, sur les msaventures du garon, les exploits du pre ou
les actions de la mre. Leau est, dans Dsert, ainsi que dans Onitsha, llment central du
mode de vie des personnages, cest pourquoi, en tenant compte des tapes qui marquent
symboliquement lexistence humaine, on identifie deux illustrations de la mme ralit, la
naissance et laccouchement de deux enfants, dans le proche voisinage des eaux. Il sagit de la
naissance de Lalla, du moment o elle devient mre son tour et de laccouchement dun
garon dOya sur une pave.
Leau a trois caractristiques essentielles : Source de vie, moyen de purification,
centre de rgnrescence 3 et, loccasion de la mise au monde dun enfant, elle fait voir ses
qualits de matrice de toutes les possibilits dexistence , de fondement du monde
entier , d essence de la vgtation 4. Le fait que Lalla lave le nouveau-n marque la
runion des poques et des gnrations5, tout en assurant une sorte dhygine sommaire, qui,
de faon symbolique, pourrait renvoyer un acte de purification. En observant la manire
dont Lalla fait ce geste, si la jeune fille tait chrtienne, il serait possible doprer un certain
rapprochement entre celui-ci et le baptme ou, de faon plus exacte, de penser une
prfiguration de ce sacrment6 : Lalla tient lenfant dans ses bras, elle coupe le cordon avec
ses dents, et elle le noue comme une ceinture autour du ventre minuscule secou de pleurs.
Trs lentement, elle rampe sur le sable dur vers la mer, elle sagenouille dans lcume lgre,
et elle plonge lenfant qui hurle dans leau sale, elle le baigne et le lave avec soin 7.
Quant Oya, elle accouche sur une pave au milieu de leau infiltre au bord du
navire et nourrit son enfant de son propre lait. En guidant son corps si chtif vers la pointe
de ses seins do coulait le lait 8. Et la scne continue, car [Fintan] entendait encore la voix
dOya, cette chanson quelle tait la seule entendre, une plainte, la vibration lgre de leau
du fleuve qui glissait autour de la coque 9. En ce qui concerne le lait, il est la source de vie
de lenfant, leau que la mre lui donne boire, ce que Gaston Bachelard appelle le premier
substantif buccal 10. En plus, la tte a t depuis longtemps rapproche de lacte sexuel11.
Un autre pisode par lintermdiaire duquel les deux romans peuvent tre rapprochs
et qui souligne encore une fois limportance et la symbolique de leau lintrieur de ceux-ci
revoie dautres rituels de purification.
Jean Chevalier, Alain Gheerbrant, Dictionnaire des symboles, Paris, Robert Laffont/ Jupiter, 1982, p. 165.
Mircea Eliade, Trait dhistoire des religions, Paris, Payot, 1959, p. 165.
Cf. Madeleine Borgomano, Dsert. J.M.G Le Clzio, Paris, Bernard Lacoste, 2005, p. 45.
6
Cf. Liviu Streza, Botezul n diferite rituri liturgice cretine, Tez de doctorat n Teologie, Editura Institutului Biblic i de Misiune al
Bisericii Ortodoxe Romne, Bucureti, 1985, p. 13-17.
7
J.-M.G. Le Clzio, Dsert, Paris, Gallimard, 1980, p. 422.
8
J.-M.G. Le Clzio, Onitsha, Paris, Gallimard, p. 199-200.
9
Ibid.
10
Gaston Bachelard, LEau et les Rves, Paris, Librairie Jos Corti, 1942, p. 134.
11
Roger Caillois, Le mythe et lhomme, Paris, Gallimard, 1938, p. 64-65. A propos dune telle association, Caillois reprend les observations
dEllis Havelok, consignes dans Psychologie sexuelle, III, traduction franaise, 1911, p. 25-26. Il note que la mamelle gonfle []
correspond au pnis en rection, la bouche avide et humide de lenfant correspond au vagin palpitant et humide, le lait vital et albumineux
reprsente la semence galement vitale et albumineuse. La satisfaction mutuelle, complte, physique et psychique de la mre et de lenfant,
par le transport de lune sur lautre dun liquide organique prcieux est une analogie physiologique vritable avec la relation entre un homme
et une femme au point culminant de lacte sexuel .
4
5
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Il y a, dun ct, le moment o Nour et son pre vont la rivire pour se laver avant
les autres : Dans la lumire grise de laube, lhomme et Nour se lavaient selon lordre rituel,
partie aprs partie, recommenant trois fois. Leau des puits tait froide et pure, leau ne du
sable et de la nuit. Lhomme et lenfant baignaient encore leur face et lavaient leurs mains,
puis ils se tournaient vers lOrient pour faire leur prire 12. Ce fragment renvoie de toute
vidence une ablution. Celle-ci doit avoir lieu avant les sacrifices et avant les entres dans
le temple 13 et son rle est, pour les musulmans, pas comme les autres. Une ablution purifie
dun crime, de la prsence nfaste des morts, de la folie, en abolissant les pchs et les
processus de dsintgration physique ou mentale. Qui plus est, elle prpare linsertion de
lhomme dans lconomie du sacr14. Le fait que les deux hommes se lavent avant les autres
peut tre interprt comme la matrialisation de leur dsir de sassurer laccomplissement
total de lablution et de prservation de la froideur et de la puret de leau en eux-mmes.
De lautre cte, dans Onitsha, Geoffroy Allen effectue une recherche des anctres de
Mero et dcouvre, laide dOkawo, la source deau vers laquelle Arsino, le premier tre
qui reoive le signe dHorus et dOsiris, avait conduit son peuple. Au moment de larrive au
bord du lac de vie, il frisonne devant leau qui jaillit comme au premier instant de lunivers.
Il fait froid. Il y a un souffle, une haleine qui vient de la fort. [] Geoffroy traverse leau, il
glisse sur les rochers. [] Okawho lui tend la main et laide se hisser sur les rochers qui
entourent la source. L, Geoffroy lave son visage, il boit longuement. Leau froide teint la
brlure au centre de son corps. Il pense au baptme, il ne sera plus jamais le mme
homme 15. Le narrateur livre les rflexions du personnage au lecteur, afin de lui montrer que
Geoffroy est tout fait conscient de limportance qua, dans son cas, limmersion et quil en
ressent les effets. Leau est considre comme le sige de lesprit divin 16 et dans le
christianisme, le baptme constitue linstrument principal de rgnration spirituelle 17,
car, symboliquement, lhomme meurt travers limmersion et renat, purifi, renouvel,
exactement comme le Christ a ressuscit de sa tombe 18, ce qui justifie la dernire partie de
cette citation.
Qui plus est, lexprience de Fintan va dans le mme sens que celle de son pre ; dans
son cas, le processus didentification au lieu, aux sources tant parachev par son bain dans
leau miab : Fintan sentit une fracheur agrable. [] Leau coulait sur sa peau, il lui
sembla quelle entait dans son corps et lavait sa figure et sa peur. Il y avait une paix en lui,
comme le poids du sommeil 19. De mme, cest toujours lui qui regarde les femmes se laver
dans un endroit secret, plein de rires et de chansons, un endroit o les garons ne pouvaient
pas se montrer sous peine dtre invectivs et battus. Les femmes entraient dans leau, en
dnouant leurs robes, elles sasseyaient et elles se parlaient, avec leau de la rivire qui coulait
autour delles 20, se trouvant dans le voisinage de la rivire dOmerun. Les significations de
llment aquatique senrichissent ainsi dune nouvelle valeur, puisque, selon, Gaston
Bachelard, les baigneuses, dont limage ne se reflte pas dans leau, donnent naissance un
dsir de possession physique et comme la fonction sexuelle de la rivire cest dvoquer la
nudit fminine 21, les femmes qui se lavent seront jeunes et nues.
Aux femmes qui dnouent leurs robes, tout en se laissant entraner dans ce jeu qui
accentue leur fminit et qui se doutent bien quelles pourraient tre regardes par des curieux
J.-M.G. Le Clzio, Dsert, d. cit., p. 21.
Mircea Eliade, op. cit., p. 173.
14
Cf. Ibid.
15
J.-M.G. Le Clzio, Onitsha, d. cit., p. 194-195.
16
Mircea Eliade, op. cit., p. 175.
17
Ibid.
18
Ibid., p.174.
19
J.-M.G. Le Clzio, Onitsha, d. cit., p. 161.
20
Ibid., 68-69.
21
Gaston Bachelard, op. cit., p. 45.
12
13
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sopposent celles de Dsert. Elles arrivent une source deau et se lavent sans se cacher : A
lautre puits, les femmes se lavaient et lissaient leurs chevelures 22. Au jeu des premires se
substitue, dans le cas des deuximes, la prsence de la chevelure qui symbolise leau courante
qui possde des traits minemment fminins23 et cest Lalla dobserver que Naman le
pcheur associe la fminit leau : Naman le pcheur dit que la mer est comme une
femme, mais il nexplique jamais cela 24.
Bien que les deux protagonistes fminins ressentent lappel lmentaire et que leau se
trouve au centre de leur existence, Lalla et Oya ne peuvent pas tre considres de la mme
faon, car leur comportement dans la prsence ou dans la proximit de leau est diffrent.
En allant aux bains publics, Lalla en est la fois heureuse et dgote, ayant honte de
rester nue devant les autres cause de leur aspect physique rpugnant : Quand leau est
tombe du ciel comme cela pendant des jours et des nuits, cest quon peut aller prendre des
bains deau chaude. [] Les premiers temps Lalla avait honte, elle ne voulait se mettre nue
devant les autres femmes 25. Mais son attitude change au moment o elle constate que leau,
si belle, si pure, leau tombe directement du ciel dans la grande citerne, leau est si neuve
quelle doit gurir celles qui ont besoin .26 La possibilit de gurir des malades nous fait
penser la Parabole du paralytique de la piscine de Bthesda (Jean, V, 1-10) par analogie
avec le fait que les malades qui russissaient entrer dans leau aprs le passage de lange sur
elle, se remettaient et, lintrieur du mme roman, lHomme Bleu et Ma el Anine, le
fondateur de la ville de Smara et le prince des gens du sable.
En ce qui concerne Oya, elle est la base dexpriences tout fait diffrentes. Elle est
mre des eaux 27, desse noire [] qui [rgne] sur le fleuve 28 ou objet du rve de
Geoffroy. En plus, par laccouchement dun enfant et le dpart avec Okawho, elle srige en
possible continuatrice de la tradition de son peuple, place sous le signe du soleil qui est
marqu sur son front au moyen du symbole itsi. Rien que le passage dOya par la maison de
Maou dtermine larrive de la pluie : Ctait peut-tre cause dOya que Maou avait appris
aimer la pluie. Les mains ouvertes devant son visage, comme si ctait elle qui ouvrait les
vannes du ciel. Ozo, la pluie qui venait du haut du fleuve la vitesse du vent qui recouvrait la
terre gerce dune ombre bienfaisante. Chaque fin de laprs-midi, aprs le dpart dOya, elle
regardait la pluie arriver 29.
Il faut remarquer que bien que nous ayons insist dans cette tude sur les effets
bnfiques que la prsence de leau peut avoir dans la vie des personnages, il existe galement
des cas o elle acquiert des traits humains et dvient mchante30, bon escient. Lors dun
voyage, au moment o Fintan et sa mre se baignent, le cocher qui les accompagne leur
signale le fait quau mme endroit, une dame anglaise est morte lan dernier. Elle sest
noye 31. En plus, de retour sur le navire, Maou est atteinte par la fivre. Dailleurs, ce sont
les mfaits des hommes qui dterminent le changement dhumeur de leau, cest toujours
les gens qui cherchent la faire changer dattitude envers eux, pour que sa prsence ne leur
nuise pas, mais, une fois courrouce, leau fait preuve dinsoumission.
Mais, indpendamment de ces constations, les exemples que nous avons avancs au fil
du texte reprsentent, notre avis, une preuve de la prminence de llment aquatique sur
J.-M.G. Le Clzio, Dsert, d. cit. p. 17.
Cf. Gaston Bachelard, op. cit., p. 100.
24
J-M.G. Le Clzio, Dsert, d. cit., p. 157.
25
Ibid., p. 161-163.
26
Ibid.
27
J.-M.G. Le Clzio, Ontisha, d. cit., p. 79.
28
Ibid., p. 94.
29
Ibid., p. 153.
30
Cf. Gaston Bachelard, op. cit., p. 140.
31
J.-M.G. Le Clzio, Onitsha, d. cit. p. 44.
22
23
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les trois autres. Cest leau qui fait agir et bouger les personnages dOnitsha et de Dsert,
cest sa prsence ou son absence qui dtermine et justifie le comportement des protagonistes
et la spcificit de leur milieu dorigine ou celui dadoption. Lalla, Nour, les Hommes Bleu,
dun ct, et Fintan, Geoffroy et Maou de lautre en constituent la preuve.
Bibliographie
Le Clzio, J.-M.G., Dsert, Paris, Gallimard, 1980.
Le Clzio, J.-M.G., Onitsha, Paris, Gallimard, 1991.
Chevalier, Jean ; Gheebrant, Dictionnaire de symboles, Paris, Robert Laffont/ Jupiter,
1982.
Eliade, Mircea, Trait dhistoire des religions, Paris, Payot, 1959.
Borgomano, Madeleine, Dsert. J.M.G Le Clzio, Paris, Bernard Lacoste, 2005.
Cortanze (de), Grard, J.M.G Le Clzio, Paris, Gallimard/ Culture France Editions,
2009.
Streza, Laureniu, Botezul n diferite rituri liturgice cretine, Tez de doctorat n
Teologie, Editura Institutului Biblic i de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Romne,
Bucureti, 1985.
Bachelard Gaston, LEau et les Rves. Essai sur limagination de la matire, Paris,
Librairie Jos Corti, 1942.
Caillois, Roger, Le mythe et lhomme, Paris, Gallimard, 1938.
1070
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