Fundamentals of Machining,

Cutting Tools and Cutting Fluids

Lesson Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, students should be able to

understand:
The concept of machining
Cutting mechanism
Chip types and characteristics
Cutting forces and their significance
Cutting tool materials and their properties
Inserts, their advantages and their shape
characteristics
Cutting fluids: advantages, types and applications
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Machining definition:
The process of material removal from the
surface of a workpiece by chip formation

Machining and
finishing processes

Introduction

Some of the more common cutting

processes are as follow:
1. Turning, in which the workpiece is
rotated and a cutting tool removes a layer
of material as it moves to the left.
2. Cutting-off operation, where the cutting
tool moves radially inward and separates
the right piece from the bulk of the blank.
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Introduction
3. Slab-milling operation, in which a
rotating cutting tool removes a layer of
material from the surface of the
workpiece.
4. End-milling operation, in which a
rotating cutter travels along a certain
depth in the workpiece and produces a
cavity.
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Introduction

Figure shows some examples of common

machining operations.

Introduction

Figure shows the schematic illustration of

the turning operation showing various
features.

Introduction
Figure shows the schematic
illustration of a twodimensional cutting process,
also called orthogonal cutting:
(a) Orthogonal cutting with a
well-defined shear plane, also
known as the Merchant model.
Note that the tool shape, depth
of cut, and the cutting speed, V,
are all independent variables:
(b) Orthogonal cutting without
a well-defined shear plane.
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Cutting Model (2D Model)

Fig (a) shows the schematic

illustration of the basic mechanism
of chip formation by shearing. (b)
Velocity diagram showing angular
relationships among the three
speeds in the cutting zone.

1.

Tool move to left at velocity V,

and depth of cut, to

2.

Shearing occurs along shear

plane

3.

Chip is formed

4.

Chip pushed up the rake face

by the chip forming below
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5.

Chip breaks

4 types of chips produced:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Continuous chip
Built up edge
Serrated or segmented chip
Discontinuous chip

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Type of chips produced

1. Continuous chip
Continuous chips usually are formed
with ductile materials, machined at
high cutting speeds (V) and/or high
rake angles ().
Produce good surface finish
Chips tend to tangle around tool
holder, fixtures
Change cutting parameters or use
chip breakers to reduce chip length
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Type of chips produced

2. Built up edge
Workpiece material deposited on tool
tip
As it gets large, it BUE breaks away:
some carried by chip, some deposited
on workpiece
Reduces quality of surface finish and
dulls tool point
A thin & stable BUE can protect rake
face and reduce tool wear
Can be reduced by: Increase cutting
speed, decrease depth of cut, increase
rake angle, use a sharp tool, use cutting
fluid, use cutting tool that has low
chemical affinity with workpiece
material

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Type of chips produced

3. Serrated or segmented
Semi-continuous chips
Occurs in metals with low
thermal conductivity and
strength that decrease sharply
with temperature (eg: titanium)

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Type of chips produced

4. Discontinuous chip
Chip is segmented
May be due to:
Brittle workpiece material, or
materials that contain hard
inclusions
Very low or very high cutting
speeds
Large depths of cuts
Low rake angles
No cutting fluid
Vibration/chatter due to low
stiffness

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Cutting Forces and Power

The thrust force, acts in a direction normal to the cutting speed.

These two forces produce the resultant force, R, as can be seen
from the force circle.
The resultant force can be resolved into two components on the
tool face: a friction force, F, along the tool-chip interface and a
normal force, N, perpendicular to it.
Note also that the resultant force is balanced by an equal and
opposite force along the shear plane and is resolved into a shear
force, and a normal force.
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Tool wear and tool failure

Adverse conditions (due to cutting) affect
tool wear lead to tool failure
Adverse conditions are:
High temp along rake face
Contact stresses

Where
is temp
highest?
Why?

Chip sliding
along rake
face

Localized
stress at tip

Rubbing along
workpiece

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Effects of elevated temperatures

Effect on cutting tool: lower

strength/hardness/stiffness/wear resistence,
plastic deformation change in shape
Effect on workpiece: dimensional change
part accuracy, material properties

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Tool wear and tool failure

Types of tool wear/failure:
1.Flank wear
2. Crater wear
3. Nose wear
4.Notching
5. Plastic deformation of the tool tip
6. Chipping, and gross fracture

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Tool wear and tool failure

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Tool wear and tool failure

1. Flank wear
Due to : high temp and rubbing along workpiece that
leads to abrasive/adhesive wear
Described by the Taylor equation:

VT n d x f y C
speed

tool life depth

of cut

feed

A constant

The time required to

develop a certain wear
stage, VB (allowable wear
land)

2. Crater wear
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Due to: high temp and chemical affinity with workpiece

Tool wear and tool failure

3. Nose wear is the rounding of a sharp tool, due to mechanical and thermal
effects. It dulls the tool, affects chip formation, and causes rubbing of the tool
over the workpiece, raising its temperature and possibly inducing residual
stresses on the machined surface.
4. Notching.
Scale and oxide layers on a workpiece surface contribute to notch wear,
because these layers are hard and abrasive.

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Tool wear and tool failure

6. Chipping, and gross fracture
-A small fragment from the cutting edge of
the tool breaks away.
Small: Microchipping/macrochipping
Large: Gross chipping/fracture and catastrophic failure
-Due to : mechanical shock, thermal fatigue*

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Machinability of materials
Factors that affect machinability of materials:
1. Surface finish and surface integrity of part
Geometric feature

Material properties:
eg: Fatigue life,
Corrosion resistance

2. Tool life most important factor

3. Force and power requirements
4. Chip control

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Cutting Tools
Types of material used
as cutting tools:
Carbon & medium
alloy steels
High speed steel
Cast cobalt alloys
Carbides
Coated tools
Alumina ceramics
Cubic boron nitride
Diamond

Cutting tool properties:

1. Hot hardness: resistance
to permanent deformation
2. Toughness: resistance to
impact. Ability to absorb
energy without failure
3. Thermal shock resistance.
4. Wear resistance
5. Chemical stability: does
not react with workpiece
material

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Cutting Tools

High-speed steel tools are shaped in

one piece and ground to impact various
geometric features such tools include
drill bits and milling and gear cutters.
Fig 22.2 shows the typical carbide
inserts with various shapes and chipbreaker features. The holes in the
inserts are standardized for
interchangeability in toolholders.
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Insert shapes
The figure below shows the relative edge strength and tendency for
chipping of inserts with various shapes. Strength refers to the cutting
edge indicated by the included angles.

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Coated tools
Advantages of coatings:
1. Lower friction
2. Higher adhesion
3. Higher resistance to wear and cracking
4. Acting as a diffusion barrier
5. Higher hot hardness and impact resistance
Types of coatings:
1. Titanium nitride
2. Titanium carbide
3. Ceramics
4. Multiphase coatings
5. Diamond coatings
6. Etc.
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Cutting Fluids
Advantages:
1. Reduce friction and wear, thus improving tool life and the
surface finish of the workpiece.
2. Cool the cutting zone, thus improving tool life and reducing
the temperature and thermal distortion of the workpiece.
3. Reduce forces and energy consumption.
4. Flush away the chips from the cutting zone, and thus prevent
the chips from interfering with the cutting process, particularly
in operations such as drilling and tapping.
5. Protect the machined surface from environmental corrosion.

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Cutting Fluids
Types of cutting fluids:
1.
2.

3.
4.

Oils (also called straight oils) including mineral, animal, vegetable,

compounded, and synthetic oils typically are used for low-speed
operations where temperature rise is not significant.
Emulsions (also called soluble oils) are a mixture of oil and water
and additives, generally are used for high-speed operations because
temperature rise is significant. The presence of water makes
emulsions very effective coolants.
Semisynthetics are chemical emulsions containing little mineral oil,
diluted in water, and with additives that reduce the size of oil
particles, making them more effective.
Synthetics are chemicals with additives, diluted in water, and contain
no oil.
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Methods of cutting fluid

applications
The effectiveness of cutting fluids depends on a
number of factors, such as the type of machining
operation, tool and workpiece materials, cutting
speed, and the method of application:

Flooding
Mist
High pressure systems
Through the cutting tool system

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Summary
Machining: The process of material removal from
the surface of a workpiece by chip formation
When tool moves along a workpiece at a certain
depth of cut plastic deformation and shearing
leads to chip formation.
4 major chip types are continuous chips, built up
edges, serrated chips and discontinuous chips
Studies of cutting forces are important in machine
tool design, workpiece selection and machine tool
selection
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Summary (cont.)
A great variety of cutting tool materials exists with
varying degrees of hardness, toughness, wear
resistance and chemical stability
Inserts allow easy change when worn out. Inserts
with larger included angles are stronger and less
likely to break
Cutting fluids reduce friction & wear, reduce
cutting forces, remove chips and protect workpiece
against corrosion
Cutting fluids must be applied correctly to harness
its advantages
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