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(Peter C. L. Yip (Auth.) ) High-Frequency Circuit PDF
(Peter C. L. Yip (Auth.) ) High-Frequency Circuit PDF
and Measurements
High-Frequency
Circuit Design
and Measurements
Peter C.L. Yip
Department of Electronic Engineering
City Polytechnic of Hong Kong
Hong Kong
mll
Published by Chapman & Hall, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SEt 8HN, UK
Chapman & Hall, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SEI 8HN, UK
Blackie Academic & Professional, Wester Cleddens Road, Bishopbriggs,
Glasgow G64 2NZ, UK
Chapman & Hall GmbH, Pappelallee 3,69469 Weinheim, Germany
Chapman & Hall USA, One Penn Plaza, 41st Floor, New York, NYlO119,
USA
Chapman & Hall Japan, ITP - Japan, Kyowa Building, 3F, 2-2-1 Hirakawacho,
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102, Japan
Chapman & Hall Australia, Thomas Nelson Australia, 102 Dodds Street, South
Melbourne, Victoria 3205, Australia
Chapman & Hall India, R. Seshadri, 32 Second Main Road, CIT East, Matlras
600 035, India
First edition 1990
Reprinted 1991, 1995
1990 P. Yip
Typeset in 10/12pt Times by Best-set Typesetter Ltd, Hong Kong
ISBN-13: 978-0-412-34160-1
e-ISBN-13: 978-94-011-6950-9
DOl: 10.1007/978-94-011-6950-9
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or
criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and Patents
Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in
any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the
publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with
the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK,
or in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate
Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning
reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to the publishers at the
London address printed on this page.
The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the
accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal
responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made.
A Catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data available
Contents
Acknowledgements
Preface
1 Introduction
1.1 Trends in electronic circuits and systems
1.2 High-frequency circuits
1.3 Examples of high-frequency systems
Further reading
ix
x
I
1
2
3
6
7
7
8
10
14
15
18
20
20
24
25
26
26
27
29
3 s-pararneters
3.1 Network characterization
3.2 Scattering parameters
3.3 Measurement of s-parameters
3.4 s-parametets and signal flow graphs
Problems
Further reading
31
31
31
33
34
37
41
4 Impedance Matching
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Concept of operating Q-factor
42
42
42
GJC_-
-I
CONTENTS
.
-~~.-~---------~
Introduction
Transistor equivalent circuit
Input impedance
Output impedance
Gain
Feedback
Small-signal two-port parameters
Understanding high-frequency transistor data sheets
Biasing of high-frequency transistors
Problems
Further reading
43
46
51
59
68
70
71
71
71
74
74
75
75
76
77
85
86
91
92
92
93
96
98
100
102
104
109
113
114
115
117
Power Amplifiers
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Biasing of power transistors
7.3 Power transistor design data
7.4 Power amplifier design
Problems
Further reading
119
119
121
122
128
137
138
L-~~~~~~~~~~~_C_O_N_T_E_N_T_S~~~~~~~~~~~~I ~
8 Oscillators
8.1 General overview of oscillator design
8.2 Conversion of the s-matrix
8.3 Theory of oscillation
8.4 Oscillator design
8.5 Summary of design procedures
Problems
Further reading
139
139
140
142
146
150
157
161
162
162
164
168
173
174
182
184
185
185
185
192
193
195
11
196
196
198
200
204
205
206
206
207
208
208
210
Noise Measurement
11.1 Noise and noise figure
11.2 Effective input noise temperature
11.3 Measurement of noise
11.4 Noise source
11.5 Noise-figure measurement (single frequency)
11.6 Wide-band noise-figure measurement
11. 7 Noise-figure measurement at microwave frequencies
11.8 Single-sideband and double-sideband measurements
11.9 Summary
Problems
Further reading
211
211
211
212
213
Iviii II
CONTENTS
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
Index
217
217
219
220
220
223
224
Acknowledgements
I would first like to acknowledge Dr B. Jefferies, Head of Electronic Engineering, City Polytechnic of Hong Kong, for his encouragement and help in
establishing an elective stream in high-frequency circuit design, which has
resulted in the preparation of this book, in the BEng(EE) programme of
the Polytechnic.
I would like to express my most profound gratitude to two persons in the
City Polytechnic, without whose help the writing of this book could not
have been possible. Thanks are due to Dr T. Lund for patiently reading the
manuscript and making many invaluable suggestions, and to Mr M.W. Luk
for typing out the final manuscript as well as preparing all the computergenerated diagrams.
I would also like to thank Dr J.S. Dahele of the Royal Military College
of Science and Dr S.H. Tan of NTI-Singapore, from whom I learnt about
the subject at different stages of my career.
Finally, I would like to thank Dr B. Lago of Stafford for the happy and
profitable years I spent working under his supervision.
Preface
An elective course in the final-year BEng progamme in electronic engineering in the City Polytechnic of Hong Kong was generated in response to
the growing need of local industry for graduate engineers capable of
designing circuits and performing measurements at high frequencies up to
a few gigahertz. This book has grown out from the lecture and tutorial
materials written specifically for this course. This course should, in the
opinion of the author, best be conducted if students can take a final-year
design project in the same area. Examples of projects in areas related to the
subject matter of this book which have been completed successfully in the
last two years that the course has been run include: low-noise amplifiers,
dielectric resonator-loaded oscillators and down converters in the 12 GHz
as well as the 1 GHz bands; mixers; varactor-tuned and non-varactor-tuned
VCOs; low-noise and power amplifiers; and filters and duplexers in the
1 GHz, 800 MHz and 500 MHz bands.
The book is intended for use in a course of forty lecture hours plus
twenty tutorial hours and the prerequisite expected of the readers is a
general knowledge of analogue electronic circuits and basic field theory.
Readers with no prior knowledge in high-frequency circuits are recommended to read the book in the order that it is arranged.
~______In_t_ro_d_u_c_tl_o_n______~1 ~
1.1 TRENDS IN ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS
Before the mid 1960s electronics to most people meant AM (or FM) radio
receivers and audio amplifiers. 'Electronics', in those days, was all implemented with vacuum tubes; to those who used to play with electronics in
that era, valves like 12AT7, 6BQ5 and 7189 should bring about some sweet
memories. The late 1960s and early 1970s saw the replacement of vacuum
tubes by transistors in AM/FM receivers and audio amplifiers. Television
receivers also began to get into the lives of ordinary people. To 'electronics'
people televisions signified the beginning of problems related to high
frequencies. High-frequency circuits, such as the VHF and UHF circuits
in television tuners, require a lot of tuning in order to achieve frequency
selectivity and impedance matching. In the early days, and even nowadays with low-end AMlFM receivers, tuning was achieved by employing
coils (transformers). The major disadvantage of coil-tuned high-frequency
circuit design is the upper frequency limit of coils; the inductances required
are getting too small to be implemented by traditional core-tuned coilsl
transformers as the frequency increases.
With the introduction of microprocessors in the early 1970s, 'electronics'
has been 'digitized' and has almost become synonymous with the words
'digital' and 'computer'. For a long time since the mid 1970s, 'electronics'
people have been indulging themselves in microprocessors in the era best
described as the (microprocessor) technology-led era. A senior undergraduate in electronic engineering once (around 1983/84) came to seek the
opinion of his professor of a certain electronic system which he had
designed to his own satisfaction. He had wanted to design a 'system' which
was capable of magnifying a time-varying signal. The way he had planned
to implement it, as he told his professor, was first to convert the input
signal into digital form by using an AID converter, then write a certain
multiplication algorithm into a microprocessor and finally convert the
output signal back to analogue form by using a D/A converter. In fact, all
this student wanted was an amplifier which could easily be implemented by
one or two transistors or an operational amplifier. Although this story
~ I~
__________________I_N_T_RO_D_U_C_T_I_O_N__________________~
In this book we are only dealing with the design principles of small-signal
amplifiers, low-noise amplifiers, small-signal oscillators and power ampli-
c===_______E_XA__M_P_L_E_S_O_F_H_IG__H-_F_R_EQ_U_E_N_C_y__Sy_S_T_E_M_S________~I ~
fiers. It is hoped that in a future edition or in a separate volume filters and
some non-linear circuits can be included. Theories for designing power
oscillators employing non-class-A bias of BJTs or FETs are still not well
developed, and it will be some time before they can appear in a text book.
This book was originally written as the lecture notes for the final-year undergraduate course in high frequency circuit design at the City Polytechnic of
Hong Kong, and the lecture hours available in this course tend to set a limit
on the coverage of this book.
ITJI
INTRODUCTION
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
~-------------------------l
Dish
antenna
11.7-12.2GHz
I
I
-----\ss!
1st IF
amplifier
1st local
OUTDOOR
oscillator
UNIT
(1O.7GHz)
L__________________________
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
II INDOOR
-------------------------l
UNIT
I
~~
~I
><
filter
amplifier
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
r-------.J
I
+----+--I~
Limiter
FM demodulator
L ________________ I
~
Fig. 1.1
To video monitor
or TV
RX
VCO
FrO
Duplexer
TX
IVCO
Frequency
synthesizer
Logic
unit
Voice
0 Digital
data
1--..1----<0 Digital
data
..
Voice
Fig.1.2 r.f. Section of a cellular mobile radiophone. MIXI is the first mixer, which down converts the received signal to an IF of, say,
70 MHz. MIX2 is the second mixer which down converts to a second IF of, say, 10.7 MHz. Fl and F2 are bandpass (IF) filters. VCORX
is a voltage-controlled oscillator for receive-channel selection. MOD is a modulator. PA is the power amplifier for transmit.
~~
Carriers in
8()()-900 MHz band
~ ~I
I_N_T_RO
__
D_UC_T_I_O_N__________________~
___________________
FURTHER READING
Douville, R.J. (1977) A 12GHz Low-cost Earth Terminal for Direct TV
Reception from Broadcast Satellites, IEEE Transaction on Microwave
Theory and Techniques, Vol-MIT 25, No. 12, December.
Gibson, S. W. (1987) Cellular Mobile Radiotelephone, Prentice-Hall.
Gould, R.G. (1984) Transmission Standards for for Direct Broadcast
Satellites. IEEE Communications Magazine, 22, No.3, March.
lTV (1982) Provisions for ALL Services and Associated Plan for the
Broadcasting Satellite Service in Frequency Bands 11.7-12.2 GHz (in
Regions 2 and 3) and 11.7-12.5 GHz (in Region /), Appendix 30, lTV
Radio Regulations, Geneva.
Johnstone, B. (1988) Programming better quality TV. Far Eastern Economic Review, 11 August.
Johnstone, B. (1988) Getting a clearer picture. Far Eastern Economic
Review, 11 August.
Rainger, P., Gregory, D., et at. (1985) Satellite Broadcasting, Wiley.
Transmission-line Theory
and Microstrips
[TIC
~--------------------------------
and
d /(z)
dT
2
+ LG)V(z) =
LG)/(z) = 0,
(2.1)
(2.2)
+ jwL)(G + jwC)]'.
(2.4)
~_____________TRA
__N_S_M_I_S_SI_O_N_-L_I_N_E_P_A_R_A_M_E_T_E_R_s_____________~l ~
Similarly, the solution for 1(z) may be written as
re-
I(z) =
re
Yz -
(2.5)
Yz ,
r.
dV
(
dz = - R
~~
or
. )
+ JwL
1
(2.6)
-(G + jwC)V.
(2.7)
Y
+ jwC
V+
(RG ++ jWL)'
jwC .
I
Z _
o- G
Y
_
+ jwC -
(2.8)
v+
Zo = [+
V-
=-r'
(2.9)
and
Zo =
(2.10)
~ ( ~) (loss-free line),
(2.11)
where f3 is called the phase constant and both f3 and Zo are real. Since y is
totally imaginary, the voltage and current wave propagate in the + z and
-z directions without attenuation.
For most microwave transmission lines the losses are very small, i.e. R <.g
wL and G <.g we, and the term RG may be neglected in the following
expression for y.
I
"'" [-w 2 LC
+ jw(RC + LG)l'
"'" jwV(LC)
V(~C) (~
~)
= a
+ jp,
(2.12)
L I_
T~RA_N~S~M~IS~S~IO~N~-~L~IN~E~T~H~E~O~R~Y~A~N~D_M~IC~R~O~S~T~R~IP~S_ _ _
----1
(1 + x)'
~ 1.
The phase constant fJ is the same as that for loss free lines,
and the attenuation constant a is given by
V(LC)
a = -2-
where Yo
fJ = wV(LC),
(RL + G)
1
C
2(RYo + GZo),
(2.13)
V(z) = V+e-i/l z
I(z) = re-i/l z
1= IL =
zor
= V+ and
zor
(2.14)
(2.15)
0,
V = VL = V+
but
V-ei/lz
rei/l z .
V-
(2.16)
(2.17)
r -r
~o (V+
(2.18)
- V-).
Generator
v+ + v-
Z=Z
1= -z .....II---+--......
~ z
z=O
Fig. 2.1
Z V+ + VV+ - V
h -
but
(2.19)
ZL, hence
ZL _ 1 + TL _
Zo - 1 - TL -
L,
(2.20)
V-
(2.21)
TL = V+
Hence
ZL - 1
=--.
ZL + 1
TL =
(2.22)
If ZL = Zo then
or
1
2
= -Re(VI*) at z = 0
IRe(v+r*)
= lyo
2
(2.23)
where ,*, denotes the complex conjugate of the quantity preceding it.
If ZL
Zo, the load is said to be mismatched to the line and a reflected
wave is produced. The power P delivered to the load is given by
"*
= ~Re(Vdt) = ~Re[(v+ +
=
~YoIV+12 (1
V-)(l+ - r)*]
ITLI2).
(2.24)
+ TLV+eij3z
11 + TLe2ij3zl
11 + TLe-2ij3ll,
(2.25)
T_RA_N_S_M_I_SS_IO_N_-_L_IN_E_T_H_E_O_R_y_A_N_D_M_I_C_RO_S_T_R_IP_S_ _ _ _--.J
L I_ _ _ _
III
~
Zo [(1
- Od2)]'.
(2.28)
Equation (2.27) shows that the magnitude of the voltage oscillates back
and forth between maxima and minima in z. For maxima
f31and for minima
f31 -
OL
2OL =
=
nJr
(2.29)
mr
Jr
+ "2'
(2.30)
where n = 0,1,2,3 .... This simply means that voltage maxima occur when
the incident and reflected waves are in phase and that minima occur when
they are 1800 out of phase.
Successive maxima (and minima) are spaced at a distance d = nl{3 =
n)../2n = ),,12, where).. is the wavelength for TEM waves in the medium
surrounding the conductors. The distance between a maximum and a
minimum is ),,14. The plot of the voltage and current waves for ZL = 3Zo is
shown in Fig 2.2.
From (2.27), the maximum and minimum values of Ivi are given by
(2.31)
(2.32)
The ratio of these two values is termed the voltage standing wave ratio, or
VSWR for short,
VSWR = .!.......g.
1-(1
(2.33)
VSWR is an important parameter in a transmission system. At high frequencies, e.g. at microwave frequencies, direct measurement of absolute
~____________T~E~R~M~IN~A~T~E~D~T~R~A~N~S~M~IS~S~IO~N__L~IN~E____________~I ~
1=0
).
1.--
Fig. 2.2
1=0
3Zo.
voltage and current is very difficult if not impossible. On the other hand, it
is possible to construct devices to measure voltage ratio. Hence VSWR is a
readily measurable quantity. From the VSWR the magnitude of r L , i.e. (J,
can be found. A complete knowledge of the load impedance demands the
knowledge of the angle of r L , i.e. (JL, which can be measured by noting
the distance of the first minimum from the load.
At a point z = ~l, i.e. at a distance I from load, the reflection coefficient
r( I) is
or
(2.34)
z:
~l,
[U 14UJ l__u__~_
Z
m
1+
Zin = 1 -
Replacing
have
rL
by (ZL - Zo)/(ZL
rL e- i 2/31
rLe -i2iJl'
1 + r(l)
1 - r(l)
(2.35)
+ jZo tanf31
Zo + jZL tanf3I'
= ZL
......
(2.36)
y =
m
YL + jYo tanf31
Yo + jYL tanf3l"
(2.37)
(2.38)
(2.39)
The first of these is an ideal one-to-one impedance (or admittance) transformer whereas the second one, commonly known as the quarter-wave
transformer, inverts the immittance with respect to the square of the
characteristic immittance.
It can be readily shown that the maximum and minimum of Zin are given
by
Zin(max) = VSWR X Zo
Zin(min) = Z(/VSWR.
(2.40)
(2.41)
SMITH CHART
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
or
= ZL
III
Zo
+ Zotanhyl
+ ZLtanhyl
10
1 + rLe-j2fJle-2al
Zin = Z01 _ rLe j2fJle 2al
(2.43)
00.
(2.44)
T_RA_N_S_M_I_SS_IO_N_-_L_IN_E_T_H_E_O_R_y_A_N_D_M_IC_RO_S_T_R_IP_S_ _ _----'
L I_ _ _ _
Imr
r-plane
Rer
'n = 0
Fig. 2.3
Imr
r-plane
Rer
-1
Fig. 2.4
>
tt
OJ
0::
Fig. 2.5
II
I
s
SO
;?,
SCALE H
SCALE G
SCALE D
~-
SO
';:
Iii
r!
TOWARD LOAD
I (
:':
I'"
Sio
olE
-'10
0::
_ .0:=:
r:
P-t-Y+
'I
c;
iii
- -w:r:-
.:::
d E '~~
I
"
S ::;
I Iii
I,:::
CENTRE
"';:
""
I"
i (
SCALE C
.,i;,
,,",
TOWARD GENERATOR
H"
a o!- H
~ > ~
t;;
<0
o?~
-' _
?;
"cri-vi
v
7. a: Q.,
~
0 ~
" _ rr~
'">
IIOWARD GENFRArOR
.
_
. ....: 0
-'
:..w
- t;;
aQ:.
"5::
~ ":)
w
...: 0 H
1-'
7':=:
IX
::;
-.I
<=:
SCALE F
SCALE E
SCALE B
tv
SCALE A
'
i I I I
"1'1
'!5
~
;:!::!
os:; ~ ;:
;:;
iii
x-
0-
I I'
"c
I
.j..,.
::;
"J>
"
~
2l
g
-J
::;
:lC
:=
:g
'
J'
<3
'I I
.8
r::c
~ ~
~ I~
~ ~
?
~< 0m"
,...
t:g
::0
"
~,...:2~
- i
'"
'" "0
c:E
I
H
eo
:...
- ,...
.
~ I I,I" ~ I
oc
I i i I i~
15
~:;;;
::;. . .
2!
C)
..;
'"
L I_
T_RA_N_S_M_IS_S_IO_N_-_L_IN_E_T_H_E_O_R_y_A_N_D_M_IC_R_O_S_T_R_IP_S_ _ _-----'
(2.45)
= 20log lO s.
(2.46)
-.
(2
(2.47)
L J = 10 IOglO -1- - 2
-(2
(2.48)
which is the ratio in dB of the power of the incident wave to the power
absorbed by the load. The expression of L1 is arrived at by considering
P ab = Pi - P refl
hence
( P.)
Scale D is the line attenuation. Each step stands for the effect of 1 dB
line attenuation loss on the radial scale parameters Q or s. Whether
measured towards generator or towards load depends on the direction in
which the point of interest in the line is moving. Note that the value of Q or
s is always the distance from the centre to the particular step.
~___________M_IC_R_O_S_T_R_IP_A_S_A__T_RA__N_SM__IS_SI_O_N_L_I_N_E__________~I ~
Conducting strip
(a)
(b)
Conducting plane
(c)
Fig. 2.6 Types of striplines: (a) microstrip, (b) slotline and (c) coplanar
waveguide.
L I_
T_RA_N_S_M_IS_S_IO_N_-_L_IN_E_T_H_E_O_R_y_A_N_D_M_IC_R_O_S_T_R_IP_S_ _ _-----"
(0.051
+ jO.015)s.
Then, by using the configuration shown, it can easily be verified that the
characteristic impedance of the AgiS section is equal to 66.7 Q. The calculation is left as an exercise to the readers. It is noted that the Ag/S shunt
section is there to neutralize the imaginary part of Yin, thus leaving a
purely resistive input admittance to be matched to the 50-ohm line via the
31.3-ohm quarter wave transformer.
After the circuit shown in Fig. 2.7 has been designed, with all the
electrical parameters obtained, the main design problem is to evaluate the
physical width (w) and lengths for a given substrate of thickness (h) and
dielectric constant (fr) at a given frequency, as shown in Fig. 2.S.
ST_A_T_I_C_T_E_M_P_A_RA
__M_E_T_E_R_S______________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
I+-- 19/4 - - - + I
50Q
Fig. 2.7
31.3Q
Dielectric
f
= fOfr
Top conducting
strip
Air
Ground plane
(conducting)
1"-----____T_RA_N_S_M_IS_S_IO_N_-_L_IN_E_T_H_E_O_R_y_A_N_D_M_IC_R_O_S_T_R_IP_S_ _ _------1
as the static-TEM method. Parameters so derived are quite accurate up to
a few gigahertz. At higher frequencies the method can still be valid if a
frequency-correction function is incorporated.
~(L)
C
L= _1
vpC'
(2.49)
where Land C are the inductance and capacitance per unit length,
respectively, and vp is the phase velocity given by
v
1
V(LC)'
=--
(2.50)
~( CL
) = eL = _1 ,
eC I
(2.51)
where C 1 is the new capacitance per unit length and L remains the same, as
the change of dielectric does not affect inductance.
Combining the last three equations, we have
Z 0-
1
eV(CC,),
(2.52)
V(LC,) .
(2.53)
~_______________ST_A_T_I_C_T_E_M_P_A_RA
__M_E_T_E_R_S______________~I ~
The capacitance ratio ClC I is termed the effective microstrip (relative)
permittivity, feff' or
(2.55)
With
feff'
(2.56)
For very wide lines such as that shown in Fig. 2.9(a), where w ~ h, nearly
all the electric field is confined in the substrate dielectric, just like in a
parallel-plate capacitor, and we have
for w
feff ~ fr
jl>
(2.57)
h.
For very narrow line such as that shown in Fig. 2.9(b), where w :: h, the
electric flux lines are almost equally distributed in the air and the dielectric
region, hence it may be approximated that
feff
The range of
feff
+ 1) for
2( fr
w ~ h.
(2.58)
is therefore
1
2(fr
1)
(2.59)
= 1
+ q(fr
(2.60)
- 1),
where the new quantity, the filling factor q, has the bounds
1
2::0;
::0;
1.
E,
E,
;7 ~~l
t.-WL2:7.
w
Wide (a) (w
T T
(a)
Fig.2.9
jl>
(b)
OD ,- -I____T_RA_N_S_M_IS_S_IO_N_-_L_IN_E_T_H_E_O_R_y_A_N_D_M_IC_R_O_S_T_R_IP_S_ _ _~
2.8.3 Wavelength Ag and physical length 1
For any propagating wave the velocity is given by the product of the
operating frequency and the wavelength. In free space c = fAo and in the
microstrip vp = fAg, where Ag is the guided wavelength and vp is the velocity
of propagation usually known as the phase velocity. Equation (2.56) can
be written in terms of Ag as
Eeff
Ag
or
(TAO)2
=~
~.
(2.61)
There are many methods to calculate the two static capacitances C and CI .
In this section, the results of one such method are given. The results given
can easily be programmed.
(e
--,;= 8- 4e
where
and
Eeff =
ZOV2(Er
+ 1) +!
119.9
Er + 1 [
-2- 1 -
)-1
1 (In~
2
Er Er
+1
1 Er 2H Er +
(2.62)
'
+ ~In~)
Er
lr
(lr + -zln;.
1 4) J
-2
1 In"2
(2.63)
(2.64)
Note that (2.64) was derived under a slightly different changeover value of
Zo> (63 - Er) ohms.
For wide strips (Zo < (44 - 2Er) ohms)
~= ~[(dt
h
lr
where
- 1) - In(2d, - 1)]
Er - 1
lrE r
d =
t
[In(d f
59.95~
ZoVc; ,
1)
+ 0.293 - 0.517J,
Er
(2.65)
(2.66)
and under a slightly different changeover value of Zo > (63 - 2Er) ohms
~~~~~~~_F_RE_Q_U_E_N_C_Y~D_E_P_EN_D~EN_C_E~O_F_E_e_ff~~~~~__~t ~
Eeff
Er
+1
= -2-
Er -
1(
-2~
h ) -0.555
1 + 10-;:;;-
(2.67)
fro
For wide
(w
Er + 1 [JTe
+ 2JTEr In 2: + In 2h + 0.94
)]}-l
119.9
{In
V2(Er + 1)
[4hw + -y116(~)2
+ 2] _ .!(Er - 1)(ln ~ +.! In i)}.
w
2 Er + 1
2 Er JT
(2.68)
{Eeff
Er
as f ~ 0
as f ~ 00,
Effective
microstrip
permittivity
feff (j)
O~f
Frequency f-'>
Fig. 2.10
Plot of
Eeff(f)
against frequency.
~I
T_RA_N_S_M_IS_S_IO_N_-_L_IN_E_T_H_E_O_R_y_A_N_D_M_IC_RO_S_T_R_IP_S_ _ _ _---'
L ____
(2.69)
A=~
g
Veeff(f) .
(2.70)
than the value calculated (through the value of feff) from Section (2.9).
10
P~R~O~B~LE~M_S_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
L - -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Substrate
Dielectric constant,
fr
Woven PTFE/glass
2.55,2.45,2.33,2.17
Microfibre Teflon
or
Non-woven PTFE/glass
2.33,2.20
-----------------------
Ceramic-filled
PTFE/glass
6.0,10.2
------~--------
9.0 -10.0
Alumina
= 0.0008 to 0.0021
------~
= 0.003
= 0.0001
The term 'dissipation factor' or 'loss tangent (tan 6)' is the ratio of the
energy dissipated to the energy stored in the material when excited. PTFEI
glass substrates are normally supplied with a thickness of 118", 1116", 1132"
or 1164". The thickness of copper cladding is usually described as 10z eu
(or 1I20z or 2 oz). 1 oz of copper is cladded on to 1 square foot on ONE side
of the substrate and is equivalent to a thickness of 0.0014" or 0.03556 mm.
In general, non-woven PTFE/glass substrates are more uniform and have
lower losses than woven PTFE/glass substrates.
PROBLEMS
1. A transmission line is 2.00 wavelength long at its frequency of
operation. It is terminated in a normalized input impedance 0.25 -
j1.80. What is the normalized input impedance of the section if its total
attenuation is (a) zero, (b) 1.0dB, (c) 3.0dB and (d) lOdB?
Ans: (a) 0.25 - j1.8, (b) 0.68 - j1.62, (c) 1.11 - j1.06, (d) 1.08 - jO.17
2. A loss-free transmission line of characteristic impedance Zo = 50 Q is
terminated by a load impedance ZL. Measurements on the line show a
voltage standing wave ratio of 3.0. The distance between successive
voltage minima was measured to be 15 cm. If the load is replaced by a
short circuit, the position of the minima are seen to have moved a
distance of 5 cm towards the generator. Determine the value of ZL by
calculation and by Smith-chart method.
Ans: 50 + j57.7 Q
3. For a distortionless transmission line, LG = RC, prove:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The
The
The
The
[~[
~----------------------------------------------------~
+ Llw,
4JTW)
In -t-
where
t (1
Ll W = :;
or
Llw = -t ( 1
+ In--
JT
for wlh
2h)
t
::0;
1/(2JT)
Devise a program capable of listing wlh against Zo and Eeff for various
values of Er Provide an option for the inclusion of the finite strip
thickness and frequency (2.69) as input parameters.
7. The attenuation coefficient a of a microstrip is given by
where a c is the loss due to finite conductivity of the strip and ad is the
loss due to the dielectric. They may be calculated from
_ 2 73 cr (Ceff
ad-
1)
-"
l)~nu
2.73
CrCCeff -
Ag
Ceff(E r -
1)
-"
tan u
1)
dBm-1
or
ad = -
and
a = 2000
c
Ccff Cr -
In 10 wZo
F_U_R_T_H_ER__R_EA
__
D_IN_G________________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Fig. P.2.1
Wo
Wo
radians per
energy stored
average power loss
Z=~
2
sinh y['
FURTHER READING
Cheung, W.S. and Levien, F.H. (1985) Microwave Made Simple, Artech
House.
Chipman, R.A. (1968) Transmission Lines, Schaum's Outline Series,
McGraw-Hill.
Collin, R.E. (1986) Foundation for Microwave Engineering, McGraw-HilI.
Edwards, T.e. and Owens, R.P. (1976) 2-18GHz Dispersion measurement on 10-100 ohm microstrip lines on sapphire, IEEE Trans. MTT-24,
No.8, August.
Edwards, T.C. (1981) Foundation for Microstrip Cricuit Design, Wiley.
Getsinger, W.J. (1973) Microstrip dispersion model, IEEE trans. MTT -21,
No.1, January, 34-9.
01
~--------------------------------------------------~
~_____s_-_p_a_ra_m__e_te_r_s______~1 ~
3.1 NETWORK CHARACTERIZATION
In the theory of network analysis, it is well known that a network, or to be
more specific a two-port network, can be completely specified by a set of
four parameters. This set of four parameters could be anyone of the set of
y-, z-, h- or ABeD parameters. All these are network characterizations
based on the total voltages and currents appearing on the terminals of the
two-ports. The term 'total' may at first sound strange, but it will become obvious if one relates it to the voltage or current on a transmission
line because of the fact that any voltage or current on a transmission line
can be considered as a combination of a forward and a backward travelling
component.
In high-frequency applications these parameters are seldomly used,
although for historical reasons y-parameters may still be used up to a few
hundred megahertz in transistor circuit design, because of the following
problems at high frequencies.
1. Total voltages and currents are difficult to measure, and even the
definition of these quantities may be questionable in some cases.
2. In the measurement of these two-port parameters, short and open
circuits are required. However, they are difficult to realise over a broad
band of frequencies.
3. Furthermore, most active devices or circuits are not open- or shortcircuit stable.
In general, if these two-port (or, for that matter n-port) parameters cannot
be measured, or readily measured, at high frequencies, they are not
normally employed.
_ _ _S-~P~A~R~A~M~E~T~E__R~S_ _ _~~~-~~~--~-~_-----
~~]
/,
"
"
Two-port
network
r
1'
Fig. 3.1
"
2'
Two-port network.
II
= YII VI + YI2 V 2
= Y2I V I
+ Y22 V2,
(3.1)
+ Vi
I_ Vi - Vi
2 Zo
(3.2)
where the' +' and '-' superscripts refer to whether the travelling wave is
going into or coming out from the two-port network and Zo is an arbitrary
impedance constant normally taken as the characteristic impedance of the
system to which the two-port is intended to be connected or the system
characteristic impedance of the equipment with which the two-port is to be
measured.
On substituting (3.2) to (3.1), we obtain
+ fI2(Y, Zo)Vi
hl(Y, Zo)Vi + f2b, Zo)Vi
VI
Vi
(3.3)
It is important to note that the fijs are functions of the y-parameters (or z
or ABeD or h) and the impedance level Zo chosen.
Equation (3.3) will not change if we divide throughout by
and define
no
---~0
MEASUREMENT OF s- PARAMETERS
b - Vi
ffo
2 -
S12
slla]
S21 a ]
+ Sl2a2
+ S22a 2,
(3.4)
where the SijS are known as the scattering parameters, or simply the sparameters, of the two-port network and they are only uniquely defined if
the system impedance level Zo is fixed.
Note that a], b], a2 and b 2 are the square roots of the incident and
reflected (or scattered) powers at port 1 and port 2, respectively. These
quantities can be related to the total terminal voltages and currents as
al
,(7
2ffo
a2
= ,Vi
( 7 = square
rZo
V2
f h power mc]
dent at port 2
root ate
12 Z o
2ffo
bl
rZo
VI - I]Zo
2ffo
b2
rZo
_ V2 - 12 Z o
(3.5)
2VZ;;
Two-port
network
(Sll
S12 )
S21
S22
...,
,
Fig. 3.2
~b2
Two-port s-representation.
~a2
I
2'
IL-__~~~~~~~~_S_-P_A_R_A_M_E_T_E_R_S~~~~~~~__~~
3.3 MEASUREMENT OF s-PARAMETERS
(3.6)
(3.7)
~_ _ _ _ _s_-P_A_R_A_M_E_T_E_R_S_A_N_D_S_IG_N_A_L_F_L_O_W_G_RA_P_H_S_ _ _ _------11
bi =
b2 =
SUal
S2I a l
+ S22 a2
S12 a 2
(3.8)
Fig. 3.3
bs
Zs
I~b
I
I
Ts
I~a
I
I
(a)
Fig. 3.4
Signal generator.
(b)
~ ~I___________________S_-_PA_R_A_M_E_T_E_R_S__________________~
generator can be described by P avso , defined as the power available from
the source (generator) to be delivered to a load equal to a certain system
impedance Zo, i.e.
P avso =
(z V,+ Z ) 2Zo.
s
(3.9)
r.
S
= Z5 - Zo
(3.10)
Z5+ Z 0'
b
(a)
(b)
~____________________P_R_O_B_LE_M_S____________________~I ~
Zs
Two-port
network
v.
(a)
Ts
(b)
S21
s"rs -
S22rL -
S12S21rsrL
+ S"S22rsrL'
(3.11)
--
--
Ans: (a)Z/(Z + 2), 2/(Z + 2), 2/(Z + 2), Z/(Z + 2); (b) Dual of (a)
2. For a section of transmission line of characteristic impedance Zo and of
electrical length (), determine its S matrix.
Ans: 0, exp( -j()), exp (-j()), 0
3. For the loaded two-port network shown in Fig. P.3.2, find:
~I~____________________s_-_PA_R_A_M__ET_E_R_S___________
bs
(a)
b2
b2
S2!
a!
Us cU
r~'l;
bs
S21
bs
L
1-
bs
Fig.3.7
S2!
1-
SIlTs
1
1 - sIlTs
..
SI2
s12 s 21
(1 -
Evaluation of b 2 /b s '
S22TL
T s TI
SlITs)(l -
(b)
(c)
2
1
1-
S22TL
T Ls 12 T s
1_
bs
lC:r,
snTd
(d)
b2
(e)
I~
PROBLEMS
0
(a)
Fig. P.3.1
50Q
: ~ :
(b)
Two-port
network
Zo = 50Q
lOLO
volts
x=O
Zl = 50
Zo = 50Q
50Q
x =A/8
+ j50Q
Fig. P.3.2
1. Z(O);
2. al (0), b1(0), al (/lIB), b1(/lIB) and a2(0);
3. The average input power at x = 0 and at x
4. S11 (0) and S11 (/lIB).
= /lIB;
= 0.16L - 150
S12
= 0.19L55
S21
= 2.17L55
S22
= 0.55L - 45.
modified s-parameters of the common-emitter transistor-capacitor combination at 1 GHz under the same bias conditions.
~_P_A_RA_M__ET_E_R_S__________________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
THROUGH
SECfION
TEST JIG
Fig. P.3.3
_ - - I (in
Fig. P.3.4
A.g)-----II.~I~I __-
~_________________F_U_R_T_H_ER__R_EA_D_I_N_G________________~I ~
6. For the signal-flow graph shown in Fig. 3.6 (in the text), find the ratio
bl/b s
FURTHER READING
Gonzalez, G. (1984) Microwave Transistor Amplifier Analysis and Design,
Prentice-Hall.
Hejhall, R., RF small signal design using two-port parameters, Application Note AN-215A, Motorola Products Inc.
Hewlett Packard, S-parameter Technique for faster, more accurate network design, Application Note 95-l.
Hewlett Packard, S-parameter design, Application Note 154.
Partha, R. and Sharma, M.L. (1986) design of dielectrically stabilized
oscillators using Feedback Techniques, Proc. of RF Technology Expo
86, pp. 291-6, California.
Roddy, D. (1986) Microwave Technology, Prentice-Hall.
Sander, K.F. (1987) Microwave Components and Systems, Addison
Wesley.
GI'- -__
Im_p_e_d_an_c_e_M_a_tc_h_in_g_------'
4.1 INTRODUCTION
~_______________T_W_O_-_E_LE_M__EN_T__L_N_E_T_W_O_R_K______________~I
one of the functions of a matching network is to provide harmonic
attenuation within certain bandpass specifications.
Matching networks are normally designed for a single frequency, known
as the operating frequency or centre frequency, and the bandwidth
requirement of the network is fulfilled by choosing a proper quality factor
for the network. The quality factor Q of a circuit is roughly equal to the
reciprocal of the percentage bandwidth, i.e.
-.l _ ,1f
(4.1)
Q - fa'
r--------------l
I
IL
Fig. 4.1
______________ I
L-matching network.
[33]
01
IMPEDANCE MATCHING
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
with a reactive element jX2 , so that the series resistance of the (R 2 ,jX2 )
combination has a smaller value than R2 , and X 2 is so chosen that this
series resistance is equal to R I . In so choosing X 2 , X 2 could be positive or
negative, depending on the designer's assignment. Xl is then chosen to be
equal to and opposite in sign to the series reactance of the (R 2 , jX2)
combination, so that the reactive part of the (RbjXI ) combination and that
of the (R 2 ,jX2 ) combination neutralize each other (or resonate) at the
operating frequency. In determining Xl and X 2 , Q has no part to play and
is only a consequence of the circuit designed.
The derivation of the design equations for the L-matching network is left
as an exercise in Problem 4.3 and these equations are given below
Ql
~ (~: - 1)
= Q2 =
=I~:I
Q2 = I~~I
QJ
(4.2)
(a)
(b)
Fig.4.2
L-~~~~~~~T~W~O~-~E~LE~M~EN~T~L~N~E~T~W~O~R~K~~~~~~~~I ~
Example 4.1
Design a matching network to match a 100 Q source to a 1000 Q load at
200 MHz. It is also required that d.c. could be transferred from source to
load through the matching network.
Solution
First of all, it is noted that it does not matter which is source and which is
load. What is important is the impedance level, 10011000, to be matched.
Because of the d.c. requirement, the matching circuit should look like
Fig. 4.3.
L
o~------~~~----~o
r
100
Fig. 4.3
i X2
0-------------------------0
From (4.2)
Ql
Q2
~(\O~~ - 1) = 3
Xl = QIRI
= 3 x 100Q
= 300Q.
IX2 1 =
R2 = 1000
Q2
333Q
X 2 = -333 Q (capacitive).
300
H
2.n(200 x 106 )
= 238.5nH
c= 333 X
1
F
2.n x 200 x 106
= 2.4 pF.
1000
IM_P_E_D_A_N_C_E_MA
__T_C_H_I_N_G________________~
L t_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
T_H_R_EE_-_E_LE_M_E_N_T__MA
__T_C_H_IN_G______________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
(a)
(b)
L-network 2
-rI
rI I Virtual
J,
R
A'
L,J
I
Resistance
B'
~~J-~__---------<}-~--.,,--------~e---o-~
Fig. 4.5
IM_P_E_D_A_N_C_E_MA
__T_C_H_I_N_G________________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
4.4.1 Network A
Q
Q
... T ...
Device to be
matched to R2
r---------l
I
I
1
XLI
1
1--4:)-rv-V--Y
I
I
COUI
1..........- - 1
1----0----,
I
I
1 RJ
I
I
1
1
1
1
1L _.::_______ ..JI
Fig. 4.6 Network A. All X-values are positive.
X cout
(Xcout is -ve)
AR2
XCI
(4.4)
= Q _ A'
where
A =
~[RI(1R: Q2) -
B = R I (1
+ Q2).
1]
(4.5)
~_____________T_H_R_E_E_-E_L_EM
__E_NT__MA
__T_C_H_IN_G______________~I ~
4.4.2 Network B
Device to be
matched to R2
.,.
T
I
I
Q
Q'
Q'
XL
(4.6)
Note that for this network we may have either RI > R2 or R2 > RIo
However, when R2 > Rb the overall circuit Q is not equal to the Q value
chosen, but is equal to
Q' =
~[ :: (Q2 + 1) - 1]
4.4.3 Network C
Device to be
matched to Rz
r-------~
.~.
Network C.
~ ~I_________________IM_P_E_D_A_N_C_E_M_A_T_C_H_I_N_G______________~
Design equation for network C
(4.7)
Note that when V[(R2 - Rd/Rd > Q, the actual circuit Q is V[(R2 - RJ)/Rd.
4.4.4 Network D
Device to be
matched to R2
r--------,
I
I
Co~ I----+-
!
I
I
RJ
Ilrvv!....e>-----<>---,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
L _______ ...l
Fig. 4.9
Network D.
(4.8)
Note that the Q so defined is an approximated value for the circuit Q where
C 1 <2i Cout is assumed. When V[(R 2 - RJ)/Rd > Q, the actual circuit Q is
V[(R2 - RJ)/Rd
D_E_SI_G_N_IN_G_W
__IT_H_T_H_E_S_M_I_T_H_C_H_A_R_T__________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
4.4.5 Network E
Device to be
matched to R2
,--------,
I
Cout
~~I~JV~n
I
I
R]
I
I
IL _______ ..JI
+ X cout
X L2 = R2B
XCI
= Q
+ B'
(4.9)
where
A = R I (1
B =
+ Q2)
~(:2 - 1).
I_M_P_E_D_A_N_C_E_MA
__T_C_H_IN_G
________________~
L l_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Fig. 4.11
Z = Zoo
Z - 1
+1
r= Z
1 + jl - 1
= 1 + jl + 1 = 0.447L63.4.
1/Z, Y =
1/ Z and Yo = 1/Zo,
1
Y = 1 + jl = 0.5 - jO.5
and
r=1- ~=11
+Y
0.5
+ jO.5 = 0 447
+ 0.5 - jO.5
63 40
.
D_E_S_IG_N_I_N_G_W
__IT_H_T_H_E__
SM_I_T_H_C_H_A_R_T__________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
IMPEDANCE
CHART
ADMITTANCE
CHART
Fig. 4.12
X AB
= XB
XA
[81
IMPEDANCE MATCHING
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Fig.4.13
Be - BB
(0) - (-2.0)
+2.0
or
= XB
= Be
XA
- BB
]-X
Be =
1
--:-2
-]
=]'05
. .
D_E_S_IG_N_I_N_G_W
__IT_H_T_H_E__
SM
__
IT_H_C_H_A_R_T----------~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
jlO 0(j0.2)
100
(0.2)
500
(1 )
-j250
( -jO.5)
+j100
(j0.2)
Fig.4.15
~ ~I
I_M_P_E_D_A_N_C_E_M_A_T_C_H_IN_G
________________~
________________
-j30
(- jO.6)
100
(0.2)
+j2S n
(+ jO.S)
50 n
( 1)
+jlO 0
(j0.2)
Fig. 4.16
is associated with a Q-value equal to the ratio of the reactive part (or
susceptance part) to the resistive part (or conductance part) of the
immittance of that point. And the overall operating Q of the circuit is equal
to the largest Q-value of the nodes. Consider the Q-values of nodes A, B
and C of Fig. 4.13 and Fig. 4.15, they are listed below
From Fig. 4.13
QA
= 121
0.2 = 1
QB
Qc
1.41
0.2 = 2
Iii =
= 121
0.2 =
1- .41 2
0 =
QB = 0.2
Qc
Iii
Hence, it is seen that each circuit has its operating Q (=2) determined by
the Q-value at its corresponding point B.
As was seen in the section on three-element matching, the operating Q
needs to be specified, otherwise there will be too many solutions. So, in
using the Smith-chart method for three- (or more) element matching, it is
important that at least one of the nodes (points on the Smith chart) should
have a Q-value equal to the specified Q, whereas the Q-value for all other
nodes should be lower than the specified Q.
In order to facilitate graphic determination of a three- (or more) element
matching network involving the designer's choice of Q, a device known as
the constant-Q curve is plotted on to the Smith chart first. A Q = 5 curve
is plotted as shown in Fig. 4.17.
In Fig. 4.17 it is noted that points of constant Q lie on the arc of two
circles, one on the top half and the other on the lower half of the chart. It is
also noted that these constant-Q arcs are the same for both an admittance
and an impedance chart.
D_E_S_IG_N_I_N_G_W
__
IT_H_T_H_E_S_M_I_T_H_C_H_A_R_T__________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Solution
First draw the arcs for Q = 5 as shown in Fig. 4.18. Choose a convenient
normalizing value of Zo = 75 Q, then
ZI = 0.2 + jO.2
Z2 = 3.
ZI and Z2 are entered on an impedance chart as points D and A,
respectively. It is required that point A, after being transformed by the T-
I_M_P_E_D_A_N_C_E_M_A_T_C_H_IN_G
________________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Fig. 4.18
Example 4.2.
Z2 at point A is moved through constant R to point B which has a conductance equal to that at point I. Point B is then moved to point I through
constant G to point I, and that completes the procedures. The flow of
transforming Z2(A) to Zl(C) is indicated by the direction of the arrows
shown in Fig. 4.18.
To read the reactance and susceptance from Fig. 4.18
XLI = X B
so
LJ
21
15+j15 f!
(O.2+jO.2)
Fig. 4.19
22
225 f!
(3)
T_RA_N_S_M_I_SS_IO_N_-_LI_N_E_MA
__T_C_H_IN_G
__N_E_TW
__O_R_K________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
so
so
C1
_
-
1.13(1/75) _
X 106) - 80pF.
2Jl(30
ODI
IMPEDANCE MATCHING
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Z = ~ + j tan {31
1 + jZL tan {31
y = ~ + j tan {31
1 + jYL tan {31"
In
and
In
00
Zino =
and YL = 0, hence
-
j cot {31
00,
(4.10)
( 4.11)
hence
Zins =
j tan {31
( 4.12)
Y ins =
-j cot{3l.
( 4.13)
In actual matching problems, the Smith chart is widely used. The choice of
series or shunt stubs and shorted or opened stubs is arbitrary and the
Smith-chart method is independent of these choices. The only difference in
these choices is in the last step when the stub length I is read from the chart.
Figure 4.20 shows a single-stub matching scheme which matches a
microwave antenna ZL (Yd to a waveguide Zo (Yo), and its transmissionline equivalent.
T_RA_N_S_M_I_SS_IO_N_-_L_IN_E_MA
__T_C_H_IN_G__N_E_~
__O_R_K________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Stub waveguide
Microwave
antenna
Yo
To find d and 1 for perfect match, Y L = YdYo is first entered into the
chart as shown by point A in Fig. 4.21. The immittance viewed from just
right of the stub towards the load is effectively equal to moving point A
towards the generator a distance d (in A), which transforms ZL (Yd to a
new immittance, shown as point B, ZL (YL) such that
Re(ZL)
= Re(YL) = 1.
I_M_P_E_D_A_N_C_E_MA
__T_C_H_IN_G
________________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
.----f---+_--~~---+_-+'-t---::::ii.'1
Fig. 4.21
Single-stub matching.
--
(b) When impedances are used and the stub is short circuited, then I
is the arc length from E to D'
~
lIs
arc ED'.
(c) When admittances are used and the stub is open circuited, then
lAO =
arc ED'.
(d) When admittances are used and the stub is short circuited, then
~
lAs =
arc FD'.
"'l
;':<1
~.
"'"
N
N
'Tj
NI
::
....
'"S"
II
(JQ
!f
'"2"
cr"
3~
8"
S"
;:r
i
!
(JQ
(")
0
::l
::n
(JQ
::
....
"-
0"
::l
:"
~I
!
"-
NI
r
':<1
;'
NI
II
;'
II
:s
"-
"-
~I
NI
...-
~I
IMPEDANCE MATCHING
~--------------------------------------------~
T_RA
__N_SM
__IS_S_IO_N_-_LI_N_E_MA
__T_C_H_IN_G
__N_E_TW
__O_R_K________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Ld'
Fig. 4.23 Double-stub matching.
--~4----
d - - - - - I
I"-----________I_M_P_E_D_A_N_C_E_M_A_T_C_H_IN_G_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-----"
Example 4.3 is chosen to illustrate how single-stub matching can be
applied in matching the input of a transistor amplifier to a 50 Q source. The
problem is stated in a way that could easily mislead readers who come
across the topic for the first time.
Example 4.3
Design a single-stub network for matching the input of a common-emitter
power amplifier to a 50 Q source. The desired source reflection coefficient,
r s , as seen by the transistor is 0.614L160 on a 50 Q system.
Solution
The problem is better understood with the aid of Fig. 4.25. The required
source admittance is Y s = 2.8 - j1.9 and the required input admittance of
the transistor is thus equal to
Yin
= Y; = 2.8 + j1.9.
+ 1.6.
50
n
Matching
network
Transistor
amplifier
fs=0.614L160
or Ys=2.8-j1.9
Fig. 4.25
T_RA_N_SM_IS_SI_O_N_-L_I_N_E_MA_T_C_H_IN_G_N_E_T_W_O_R_K_ _ _ _
L -_ _ _ _ _
- - - -'I OD
Short circuit
-~
B,=+0.16
Fig. 4.26
50
Fig. 4.27
d.c.
block
0.097.1e
II
~ ~I
I_M_P_E_D_A_N_C_E_MA
__T_C_H_IN_G
________________~
________________
are only calculated for a single frequency and, because of the transmissionline property, electrical lengths tend to be extremely frequency sensitive.
Hence, the calculated operating Q based on a single frequency is not a
valid reference for saying that the network is wideband.
To achieve broadband matching, the double- or triple-stub method can
be used. To achieve narrower bandwidth, lumped reactances can be used
replacing some of the stubs in the appropriate manner.
(b) Quarter-wave transformer
PROBLEMS
1. A load of ZL
1600
characteristic impedance Zo
1. Determine the location (d in Ag) and the length (I in Ag) of a shortcircuited series stub of the same characteristic impedance (400 Q)
~________________P_RO_B_L_EM~S====~__________~I~
QI = Q2 = ~(~~ - 1)
QI = I~:I
Q2 =
I~~I
1
14r--d
Fig. P.4.1
Y L =O.24+jO.63
Fig. P.4.2 Note: The lines and stubs are of the same characteristic impedance and
are lossless.
~ I~
_______________I_M_P_E_D_A_N_C_E_MA__T_C_H_I_N_G______________~
r-----------,
L-Matching
I
I
R]
jX]
L __________ -1
R2
R2>R]
Fig. P.4.3
FURTHER READING
Becciolini, B., Impedance Matching Networks Applied to RF Power
transistors, Motorola Application Note AN-721.
Bowick, C. (1982) RF Circuit Design, Howard W. Sams.
Davies, F., Matching Network Designs with Computer Solutions, Motorola
Application Note AN-267.
RCA Technical Series RFM-430 RF Power Transistor Manual, RCA
Corp., 1971.
Roddy, D. (1986) Microwave Technology, Prentice-Hall.
Transistors at High
Frequencies
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The gallium arsenide field-effect transistor (GaAsFET) and the bipolarjunction transistor (BJT) are the two most commonly used devices in the
design of amplifiers, oscillators and mixers at high frequencies. BJTs used
in UHF and microwaves are usually of planar npn silicon type. The
advantages of silicon planar BJTs over other types of transistors at high
frequencies are that they represent mature technology both in the
understanding of the physics and the device design, low cost and proven
reliability. Compared with its microwave BJT counterpart, the GaAsFET
has high gain and lower noise figure and can operate at a higher maximum
frequency. The difference in frequency-handling capacity between BJTs
and GaAsFET is due to the slower minority carriers in the base region of
the BJT whereas conduction in a GaAsFET depends mainly on majority
carriers. GaAsFETs can be used from below 1 GHz to beyond 18 GHz
whereas the BJTs can operate up to about 10 GHz. Research on high
electron mobility transistors (HEMT) and GaAs heterojunction bipolar
transistors (HBT) in recent years has promised the potential application of
'transistors' at millimetre-wave frequencies.
In this chapter, we shall focus our attention on the BJT, which will be
abbreviated from now on as transistor, with the objective that readers will
know what to look for from a typical transistor data sheet. As for other
types of 'transistors', their a.c. parameters, i.e. the s-parameters and the
noise parameters, can be interpreted and ultilized in the circuit design in
the same way.
III
U
....
r.J..l
'Su
....
'u
....t:
Q)
c;;
>'S
0'"
Q)
....
....0
'Vi
'"t:
....'"
E-
....
r.J..l
II'i
I:lil
~
T_RA_N_S_I_ST_O_R__
EQ_U_I_V_A_L_EN_T__C_IR_C_U_IT____________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
In order to simplify the complicated model shown in Fig. 5.1 so that useful
circuit parameters of the transistor such as the input/output impedances
and the feedback characteristic can be deduced, we may simply ignore the
large feedback resistance 'b'e and transpose Ce from its B-C series
connection to a position in parallel with Ceo The parallel combination of Ce
and the transposed value of Ce is denoted by CT' The simplified model is
shown in Fig. 5.2.
Eo---------------------------~------------------oE
TRA
__N_S_IS_T_O_R_S_A_T_H_IG_H__
FR_E_Q_U_E_N_C_IE_S__________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
The transposed value of Cc can be obtained by the use of the Miller effect
as
Ce, = Ce (1 - j3Rd
(5.1)
Since rce is much larger than the series impedance of the collector-emitter
loop as shown in Fig. 5.2 and rce is in parallel with LE as far as the input
impedance looking into port BE is concerned, therefore, the input
equivalent circuit of the transistor can be approximated by one as shown in
Fig. 5.3.
B
r
Eo-------------------------------~
Zin
:b'e
+ Jwrb'e
C.
T
(5.2)
~_________________F_E_ED_B_A_C_K________________~I~
At low frequencies near d.c., the output impedance is ree' As frequency increases, Ce and Ce will soon determine the output impedance,
together with rb'e at lower frequencies but independent of rb'e at higher
frequencies. The Ce and Ce combination is the main contributor to the
decreasing function (with frequency) nature of the output impedance.
Another contribution is the feedback current through Ce which tends to
increase I B , and hence in turn increase Ie, thus decreasing the output
impedance.
5.5 GAIN
From Fig. 5.1 it is seen that the main feedback elements are rb'e and Ce .
Since rb'e is usually very large and can generally be ignored, feedback is
mainly due to Ce At low frequencies, instability is minimal because the
high reactance of Ce reduces feedback to a minimum. However, at high
frequencies, the impedance due to Ce decreases and Ce provides both a
Power
gain
(dB)
o
Fig. 5.4 Power gain of a transistor.
Frequency
T_RA
__N_SI_S_TO
__
RS__
A_T_H_IG_H__F_RE_Q_U_E_N_C_IE_S____________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
low-impedance path and a phase shift to the input circuit. This phase shift,
together with the phase shift due to other stray reactances, may add up to
the 180 required to render unstable a CE operated transistor.
0
+ YrV2
+ Yo V2,
(5.3)
where the subscripts 1 and 2 denote the input and output ports,
respectively, and the subscripts i, r, f, and 0 specify whether the admittance
is one of the input driving point, reverse transfer from port 2 to port
1, forward transfer from port 1 to port 2 or output driving point,
respectively. Notice that the currents and voltages used in (5.3) are total
terminal quantities, which means that they are the sum of the incident and
reflected currents and voltages, respectively.
Although we will not be using y-parameters for our design in later
chapters, a conversion between the y-parameters and s-parameters will be
most useful. s-parameter design methods can be applied to transistors
whose y-parameters are given in the databook, through conversion
formulas.
It should be noted that the definition of s-parameters depends on the
value of a system impedance Zo, whereas y-parameters are defined without
any reference to Zoo The conversion equations are listed below.
S = -(Yol
or
Sll =
+ Y)-I(y - Yo/)
(1 - Yi)(l + Yo) + M
(1 + Yi )(1 + Yo) - YrYf
-2Yr
512
521
-~2Y~f~_____
= _______
(1 + Yi )(1 + Yo) - YrYf
TRA
__N_S_IS_T_O_R_D_A_T_A__
SH_E_E_T_S______________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ (1 + Yi)(1 - Yo) + M
(1 + Yi)(1 + Yo) - YrYr'
(5.4)
S22 -
where
y = yZo and I
+ S)-l
Sll) + SI2S21 x 1-
Y = Yo(J - S)(J
or
y. = (1 +
I
Y r -
Yr =
Yo =
(1
S22)(1 -
+ sll)(1 + S22)
S12S21
-2s 12
(1
+ sll)(1 + S22)
ZO
-2s 21
SI2S21
xZO
x-
(5.5)
Under this heading are two important 'noise' terms, namely the noise
figure and the associated gain. The noise figure F of a transistor is defined
as the amount of noise added by the transistor, i.e.
F = (S/N)in
(S/N)out
be expressed as
F = Fmin
Irs - r opt l2
Zo I1 + r opt 12 (1 - Irs 12)'
+ 4 Rn
(5.6)
F/i#l HEWLETT
LOW NOISE
TRANSISTOR
a:~ PACKARD
2N6742
(HXTR6102)
Features
LOW NOISE FIGURE
2.5 dB Typical FMIN AT 4 GHz
HIGH ASSOCIATED GAIN
9.0 dB Typical G a
HERMETIC PACKAGE
Description
The 2N6742 (HXTR-6102) is an NPN bipolar transistor
designed for minimum noise figure. The device utilizes ion
implantation techniques in its manufacture and the chip is also
provided with scratch protection over its active area. The
device is supplied in the HPAC-70GT, a rugged metal/ceramic
hermetic package, and is capable of meeting the environmental requirements of MIL -S-19500 and the test requirements
of MIL-STD-750/883.
1.00 (0,039)
MAX
j i=di5L=:::J
0.838 (0033)
Parameter
Collector to Base Voltage
Collector to Emitter Voltage
Emitter to Base Voltage
DC Collector Current
Total Device Dissipation
Junction Temperature
Storage Temperature
Lead Temperature
(Soldering 10 seconds each lead)
Limit
35V
20V
1.5V
20mA
300 mW
300C
-65C to
200C
+250C
0.102 (0.004)
0.533 (0.021)
TVP
Outline HPAC-70GT
Notes:
1. A(-)JC maximum of 245CfW should be used for derating and junction
temperature calculations (TJ = PD x (-)JC + T CASE).
2. A MTTF of 1.0 x 10 7 hours will be met or exceeded when the junction
temperature is maintained under TJ = 200C (based on an activation
energy of 1.1 eV). For operation above this condition, refer to page 10S.
"Reliability Performance of Bipolar Transistors"
Units
Min.
30
3041.1
nA
3036.1
nA
hFE
3076.1-
FMIN
Symbol
BVCES
ICEO
ICBO
Max.
Typ.
500
100
50
dB
150
250
2.8
1.6
3.0
3246.1
Associated Gain
f= 4GHz
2GHz
G.
dB
dB
8.0
9.0
13.5
"""'" -,.....
I
.....
I 1"-..
.....
r-...
ASSOCIATED
-GAIN
(Gal
...
r-...
I
I
I'
1.5
2.0
3.0
12
""
'"
-~
8
~ ~
~
~z
I I I
"'
4.0 5.06.0
:;
u.
11J.
ASSOCIATED
GAlN- r (Gal
I I
I I
MAG
IOI~;:'~URi-
012345678
FREQUENCY (GHz)
S'2
S2'
S"
Freq. (MHz)
Mag.
Ang.
Mag.
Ang.
Mag.
Ang.
Mag.
Ang.
100
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
7000
0.917
0.782
0.635
0.598
0.589
0.570
0.575
0.560
0.548
0.530
0.518
0.500
0.489
0.491
-11
-54
-98
-127
-149
-163
-173
180
173
167
160
152
146
132
7.149
6.277
5.037
3.881
3.148
2.646
2.209
1.948
1.665
1.450
1.346
1.210
1.076
0.897
168
135
113
87
71
59
48
37
29
20
11
1
-7
-23
0.007
0.026
0.037
0.039
0.042
0.042
0.043
0.046
0.049
0.053
0.058
0.060
0.063
0.069
79
54
33
28
26
25
25
25
24
24
23
22
20
15
0.991
0.901
0.787
0.763
0.754
0.760
0.773
0.795
0.816
0.850
0.860
0.880
0.877
0.872
-4
-18
-30
-35
-43
-50
-58
-64
-71
-76
-84
-92
-99
-108
r.
Freq, (MHz)
(MagJAng,)
.480/23'
.450/61'
.410/88'
.425/121'
.475/166'
.530/-164'
.520/-131'
1000
1500
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
RN
(Ohms)
23.31
15.57
15.73
10.72
3.50
2.81
7.23
FMIN (dB)
1.45
1.58
1.72
2.18
2.75
3.67
4.78
Ic
rnA
FMIN
dB
G.
dB
RN
Ohms
3
3
3
0.25
0.50
1.00
2.25
1.87
1.55
8.5
12.7
15.7
60.5
25.5
13.9
I'o
fL
.805/31'
.713/38'
.571/39'
.788/25'
.779129'
.774129'
Mag.lAng. Mag.lAng.
Frequency
1000 MHz
BIAS
VeE
V
Ie
rnA
FMIN
dB
2000 MHz
1500 MHz
G.
dB
0.25
2.25
8.5
3
1.87
0.50
12.7
3
1.0
1.55
15.7
3
F,gure 5. NOIse Performance VS. Frequency and
FMIN
dB
G.
dB
FMIN
2.67
2.06
1.73
BIas.
5.0
9.9
11.7
3000 MHz
dB
G.
dB
FMIN
dB
G.
dB
2.83
2.23
1.79
4.7
7.9
10.2
3.88
2.93
2.38
4.1
6.4
8.1
Mag.
500
1000
1500
2000
3000
.988
.956
.929
.910
.888
VeE
5 21
5 22
5 '2
Ang.
(dB)
Mag.
Ang.
(dB)
Mag.
Ang.
Mag.
Ang.
-22
-42
-65
-81
-112
-6.9
-7.2
-7.5
-7.7
-8.1
.451
.438
.423
.412
.394
152
127
106
89
56
-28.2
-23.1
-20.6
-19.7
-19.3
.039
.070
.093
.104
.108
72
55
38
27
6
.993
.975
.956
.945
.938
-12
-22
-33
-42
-59
.220
.464
.586
.679
.821
Ang.
(dB)
Mag.
Ang.
(dB)
Mag.
Ang.
Mag.
Ang.
-24
-47
-72
-89
-121
-0.8
-1.3
-2.0
-2.5
-3.3
.991
.863
.792
.747
.688
152
128
107
91
60
-28.4
-23.6
-21.4
-20.6
-20.1
.038
.066
.085
.093
.099
70
52
35
24
7
.986
.955
.920
.906
.889
-13
-24
-34
-43
-60
.220
.423
.583
.682
.816
Ang.
(dB)
Mag.
Ang.
(dB)
Mag.
Ang.
Mag.
Ang.
-25
-54
-82
-102
-133
4.4
3.7
2.7
1.9
.77
1.67
1.54
1.36
1.25
1.09
149
125
104
88
59
-28.6
-24.3
-23.1
-22.6
-22.1
.037
.061
.070
.074
.079
66
47
31
23
10
.972
.919
.873
.854
.842
-14
-25
-36
-43
-59
.328
.492
.664
.793
.908
= 3 V, Ie = 0.50 rnA
Freq. (MHz)
Mag.
500
1000
1500
2000
3000
.976
.929
.887
.856
.818
VeE
5"
3 V. Ie
5 21
5' 2
522
1.0 rnA
Freq. (MHz)
Mag.
500
1000
1500
2000
3000
.952
.884
.821
.775
.738
Fig. S.S(c)
5"
5"
5 21
5' 2
5 22
T_RA
__
N_SI_ST_O_R_D_A_T_A__
SH_E_E_T_S______________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
F2 - 1
+-a'
where G is the transducer gain of the transistor with its output port
conjugately matched. When F = Fmin (i.e. rs matched at r opt), G = Go is
known as the associated gain.
(b) Description
The manufacturer normally includes here a brief description of the
fabrication process or other such information as will help the designer to
choose a transistor to suit his purpose.
(c) Absolute maximum ratings
These are the maximum values of the static parameters, which are not to
be exceeded. The term MTTF appearing in Note 2, denotes the 'mean time
to failure', and is defined as the reciprocal of the rate of failure.
(d) Electrical specifications at T CASE
= 25C
TCASE refers to the case or ambient temperature. The first three items are
static parameters which are not normally used in the design. hFE is the d.c.
current gain used in the bias calculations. Note that the a.c. current gain h fe
01
~--------------------------------------------~
is not given. This is because of the fact that h fe is normally given at 1 kHz
and is thus not meaningful in h.f. operations.
In the three graphs under this heading, there are two more gain terms
which need to be defined.
1. MAG - maximum available gain - is the theoretical maximum of the
transducer power gain, which occurs when the transistor is conjugately
matched at both its input and output ports. It is a function of frequency
and is only defined when the transistor is unconditionally stable.
2. 1S21E 12 is a transmission transducer power gain of the transistor in
common-emitter mode with a 50 Q source and load. This is the power
gain offered by the transistor even without matching.
(e) Typical s-parameters
There are four tables of typical values of s-parameters as a function of
frequency under different bias conditions. In the last three tables, the
stability factor k is given. k is Rollet's stability factor. A transistor is
unconditionally stable when k > 1 and potentially unstable otherwise. k
will be discussed further in Chapter 6.
(f) Typical noise parameters/Low-power bias performance
In the table for typical noise parameters, ro is the optimal source reflection
(ropt ) coefficient needed to achieve F = Fmin . The r L given is the output
reflection coefficient as seen by the transistor when its input is loaded by
rs = ro (ropt ).
Rs -
50
TRA
__N_S_IS_T_O_R_D_A_T_A__
SH_E_E_T_S______________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
6
4
0
O.
_V
l---
B ___
- --
-r----..
--
O. 6
i3
o.4
1.0
2.0
4.0
3.0
5.0
6.0
1.0
8.0
9.0 10
30
20
10
-g
6
4
u
::
~
~
4.0
2.0
100
1E
0
5
::
:l
--
.....---
__
Oi.,/'
f/"
...-;1--'
~
~
~
~
,;'
.....---
150
200
300
400
500
600
800
1000
6.0~"
B.O
.1
7.0
+jb
6.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
--
100
01,
..............
'r-
300
200
400
500 600
SOD
..............
.........
.....- r--..
6.0 V"
4.5 f-VCE'
Ie = 1.5 mAde
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
-jb'e
15
0.5
200
300
400
500 600
800
1000
100
150
--
200
-jbrt
........
./'
",
/'
-gre
300
400
500
600
BOO 1000
f. FREQUENCY (MHz)
f, FREQUENCY (MHz)
and atlc
1000
1.0
150
V .......
.--
f, FREOUENCY (MHz)
5. 0
0
100
150
,/
5.0
o7 /
",
5.0
f, FREQUENCY (MHz)
~0
9. o f-YCE'
Ie = 1.5 mAde
+jb ie".,.
0
B. 0
0
6.
rs =
60 - 50
60 + 50 = 0.0909.
~IL _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _T_RA_N_S_IS_T_O_R_S_A_T_H_IG_H__F_RE_Q_U_E_N_C_IE_S__________~
FIGURE 2 - 500 MHz OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT
l'('~UT
SEE NOTE 1
2200
OHMS
Note 1- CouillLintoutpulntlWOrkconlilliogol
V"
Vee
1 GtnerJlRldioTyprB14020AdjllsllbirSIubOf.quiwalint
enUsFREQUENCY
10
9. 0
f-f--
B.O
7.0
RS" Optimum
6.0
'.0
2.0
*"
I---
3.0
600
500
400
-t-I-
200
r-- f-,.3.0dB
It
70
100
200
300
"
.........
VeE IE 6.0Vdc
f
lOS MHz
r--.. 1-...."
'"
.-/
1.5~B
SO
f;::
II
40
SO
r-
-f-,.
r-. .......
100 ~
90
80 ~ f-'.OdB
10
60
~5dB
1.0
r--
5. 0
~.
VeE = S.OVdc
Ie = 1.0 mAde
30
0.5
SOD
II
2.0
1.0
0.1
1. FREQUENCY (MHz)
3.0
5.0
7.0
I
.
w
u
z
i;;
*"
w
u
51
It
-~
300
200
100
VeE'" 6.0Vdc
f = 200 MHz
r-.
_..!;.2dB
..........
............
~"1'~B
---
10 t-
r-.
./
'.0 dB
1"--1-.
SO
I--~
30
40
0.5
0.1
I-2.0
1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
10
4Rn
+ To
11
10.0909 - 0.62961 2
- 0.0909 2 )
+ 0.62961 2 (1
10
~_________________B_~
__
IN_G__________________~I~
This latter method of noise-figure presentation is not as accurate as the
former method because the optimum source impedance is not in general
purely resistive. In actual circuit design, one should measure rs and Rn at
the bias condition and frequency at which one intends the transistor to
operate. The NF (Noise Figure) data given in the data sheet should only be
used as a guide to transistor selection.
IdmA)
40
IB
-B
800 flA
-C
/,-----~~--------~-------------600flA
20
/,-------------------------------- 400 fl A
/ , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 200 flA
-A
o
Fig. 5.8
10
-D
20
30
VeE (V)
~ ~I____________T_RA
__N_S_IS_T_O_RS__
A_T_H_IG_H__F_RE_Q_D_E_N_C_I_ES_____________
A popular active bias scheme for a microwave BJT is achieved by means
of a pnp transistor stabilizer circuit as shown in Fig. 5.9. The idea of such a
stabilizing network is to reduce Ie when Ie would otherwise increase due to
temperature change at Q2. FETs can be biased similarly. However, it
should be noted that FETs may be subject to damage if Vos is applied
before the application of a reverse-biased Vos, or a reverse-biased Vos is
taken away before Vos is switched off.
Figure 5.10 shows five basic d.c. bias networks for microwave FETs. The
power-supply connection and disconnection sequence must be observed in
order to avoid device damage. The voltages indicated in all the circuit
diagrams are for the bias conditions of Vos = 5 V and Vos = -2 V. Rs in
Fig. 5.10 (d) and (e) provides transient protection as well as the negative
voltage that Vos requires.
PROBLEMS
1. The available noise power from a thermal-noise source is given by
Pa
= kTB,
CI
fBI
C2
QI
I
R2
Fig. 5.9
RFC
Microwave
transistor
~____________________P_R_O_B_LE_M_S____________________~I ~
Circuit Diagram
Jifll----o
(d)
Vo=7V <>-l
Vs=2V
=IDsRs
Rs
-: -
-::V0
Type of
Application
Power Supply
Requirements
Low noise
High gain
High PowerHigh efficiency
1 +ve and
J-ve supply
Same as (a)
2+ve supply
Same as (a)
2-ve supply
Low noise
High gain
High Powerlower efficiency
Variable gain
adjust Rs
Same as (d)
Fig. 5.10
J +ve supply
J-ve supply
Connection
Sequence
Disconnection
Sequence
TRA
__N_S_IS_T_O_R_S_A_T_H_IG_H__F_RE_Q_U_E_N_C_IE_S__________~
L !_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
F = Fm + Zo
or
where
11 +
IFs - Foptl 2
Foptl 2 (1 - IFsI2)'
-,--_'--"--;""';"...,--"'t:..:..!...;---;-;;:-
~sults
Noiseless
two-port
1'
Fig. P.S.l
a'
2'
~_________________P_R_O_BL_E_M_S________________~I~
r-----~--~~----~o
It--........- - H
Fig. P.S.2
where V p is the pinch off voltage which equals -1 V and I Dss is the
zero-gate voltage drain current which equals 40 rnA.
Estimate also the value of C1 and C2 if the transistor is to operate at
12GHz.
6. The operating point for the r.f. transistor shown in Fig. P.5.3 is VeE =
10 V and Ie = 5 rnA, and the power supply available is Vee = 20 V.
Given that V BE = 0.7V and hFE = 50, calculate the values of R t and R 2.
Ans: 1.96kQ, 90.9kQ
7. Determine the values of the resistors required to bias the transistor
shown in Fig. P.5.4 to VeE = 15 V and Ie = 15 rnA. Given that hFE =
50, Vee = 20V, V BE = 0.7V and IBB = 1 rnA.
Ans: Re = 316Q, RB = 4.22kQ, RBt = 1OkQ, RB2 = 1.96kQ
8. Figure P.5.5 shows the construction of the gate biasing circuit of a FET
r-~==r-~'-~==r------O
RFC
Fig. P.S.3
Vee
1L-___________T_RA__N_sI_s_To_R_s_A_T__H_IG_H__FR_E_Q_U_E_N_c_IE_S__________~
Re
Fig. P.S.4
+
Fig. P.S.S
Vee
F_U_R_T_H_ER__R_EA_D_I_N_G________________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
operating at 1.2 GHz. Assign a suitable value for ZOI and for Z02, then
calculate the line lengths 11 and 12 , and the line widths WI and W2 , if the
circuit is to be realized by microstrips on a PTFE printed-circuit board
of lOr = 2.6 and of substrate thickness O.79mm (1132").
FURTHER READING
Bowick, C. (1982) RF Circuit Design, Howard W. Sams.
Danley, L., Mounting Stripline - opposed-emitted (SOE) Transistor,
Motorola Application Note AN-555.
Gardner, F.M. (1963) Optimum Noise Figure of Transistor Amplifier,
Proc. IRE, pp. 45-8, March.
Gonzalez, G. (1984) Microwave Transistor Amplifiers Analysis and
Design, Prentice-Hall.
Hewlett Packard, Diode and Transistor Designer's Catalogue 1984-85.
Johnsen, R.J. Thermal Rating of RF Power Transistors, Motorola Application Note AN-790.
Microwave Transistor Bias Considerations (1975) Hewlett Packard Application Note 944-1, April.
Motorola Application Note AN-421, Semiconductor Noise Figure Considerations.
Poole, c.R. and Paul, D.K., Optimum Noise Measure Terminations for
Microwave Transistor Amplifiers, IEEE trans. MTI-33 , No. 11,
November 1985, pp. 1254-7.
RF Transistor Design (1986) Motorola RF Device Data, Technical
Information Center, Motorola.
Verdelin (1978) Five Basic Bias Design for GaAs FET Amplifiers,
Microwaves, February.
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
P_O_~
__R_G_A_IN________________~I ~
Zs
at~
bt~
fs
Fig. 6.1
~b2
AmplifierS
~a2
fin
f out
r
fL
sUa!
b2
s2!a!
+ S12a2
+ S22a2'
(6.1)
(6.2)
Also, the reflection coefficients of the load and the source are
ZL -Zo
FL = - ZL+ZO
(6.3)
Zs-Zo
(6.4)
Fs=--
Zs+Zo
bs
at
S21
b2
~I
~----------------------------------------------------~
Ib 2 12 - la212.
Pout =
(6.5)
lad 2 - Ib 1 2 .
Pin
(6.6)
Fig. 6.3
a=
bs
1-
rsFS =
bs
1-
Ir sl2
(6.7)
bsr-s
(6.8)
A number of power ratios based on Fig. 6.2 can be derived using the same
method employed in deriving (3.11); they are listed below
P_O_W_E_R_G
__
A_IN_____________________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
b2
bs
S21
1-
Sl1TS -
S22TL -
1-
Sl1TS -
S22TL -
1-
sliTs -
S22TL -
1-
Sl1TS -
S21 T L
a2 _
bs
bs
S12S21TLTs
1 - T L s22
!!..L _
bs
S12S21TLTs
Sl1(1 -
S12S21TLTS
T Ls 22 )
S22TL -
+ SllS22TSTL
(6.9)
+ Sl1S22TSTL
(6.10)
+ SlIS22TSTL
(6.11)
+ S21 S 12T L
SI2S21TLTs
+ SlIS22TSTL'
(6.12)
G _ Pout
p -
Pin
Ib212 - la21 2
Ial 12 - Ib l 12
_ Ib212/1bsl2- la212/1b sl2
- lad 2 /1b sl2 - Ib l l2/lb sl2'
_
-
(6.13)
(6.14)
(6.15)
Ib212 - la212
lal 2- Ibl 2
Ib212/1bsl2- la212/1b sl2
Ia 12/1 b s 12 - Ib 12/1 bs12 .
On substituting (6.7-10) into (6.16)
(6.16)
~ ~[_____________S_M_A_L_L_-S_IG_N_A_L_A_M
__
PL_I_F_IE_R_D_E_S_IG_N____________~
GT -_ IS211 2(1 - IrLI2)(1 - Ir sl2)2
11 - SllrS - S22 r L + LlrLrS I .
(6.17)
The transducer power gain is not equal to the operating power gain unless the transistor is conjugately matched to the source, i.e. r in = r~.
Transducer power gain provides a measure of the advantages of using a
transistor over driving the same load directly by the source.
6.3 UNILATERAL AMPLIFIER DESIGN
A unilateral device is one whose scattering parameter S12 (reversetransmission coefficient) is insignificant. This implies that the transistor
network is assured to have virtually no internal feedback. When S12 = 0,
i.e. r in = SII and rout = S22, the unilateral transducer gain, G TU , defined
as G T when S12 = 0, can be written as
1(1 -
sllrs)(1 - S22rd 12
I 12 1 - Irs 12 1 - Ir d 2
S21
11 - sllrsl2 11 - s22rLI2
Gs =
Go
(6.18)
1 - Irsl2
11 - sllrsl2
1 - IrLi 2
11 - S22r d 2
IS211 2
and Go = 1s211 2 is a parameter of transistors usually given in the manufacturer's data sheet.
Go (S21) is fixed once the bias conditions of the active device are chosen
and remains invariant throughout the design. The term Gs is related only
to the input network. Similarly, the term G L is related only to the output
network. Hence it is seen that rs and r L are two quantities that designers
are able to control in the design of an amplifier. In fact, the design of a
unilateral amplifier (or even an amplifier in general) consists almost
entirely of the design of the input and output matching networks.
In most amplifier design the actual load impedance and signal source
impedance are both equal to the system impedance (50 Q in most cases).
These impedances, in general, do not match well with the active device
represented by S, or in other words, these impedances do not produce the
desirable rs and r L as seen by the active device. Hence a practical
amplifier can be treated as a system consisting of an input matching
network, an active device characterized by S and an output matching
network as shown in Fig. 6.4.
U_N_IL_A_T_ERA
__L__
A_M_P_LI_F_IE_R_D_E_S_IG_N________----~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Input
matching
network
Output
matching
network
S22
z"
rL
(a)
z"
""1_.._-------Input
matching
network
Amplifier
--------t~~1
Output
matching
network
Active
device
S
(b)
Fig. 6.4 Block diagram for a single-stage amplifier: (a) unilateral amplifier,
(b) general amplifier.
rs
rL
Stl
S12
and then
GTUm."
S21
1-
IS111 2 1 - IS2212
1
1 12
1
ISII1 2 S21 1 - IS221 2'
1-
(6.19)
~I~
_____________S_MA__L_L_-S_IG_N_A_L_A_M__PL_I_FI_E_R_D_E_S_IG_N____________~
1".." ..._------- Amplifier - - - - - - -..~~I
Source
Active
device
S
Input
matching
network
Fig. 6.5
Output
matching
network
Load
slIa,
b2 =
s2,a,
rL
+ S12a2
+ S22a2
(6.20)
(6.21)
a2
(6.22)
= bz '
Source
bl~
l
Fig. 6.6
rs r i
~b2
Linear
active
device
j+-a
r" r
ZL
N_O_N_-U_N_I_LA_T_E_RA
__L_AM
__P_L_I_FI_E_R_D_E_S_IG_N__________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
S21
1-
al
(6.24)
S22TL
Similarly
r
10 -
S22
Sl2S21 TS
+1
Sl1
rS .
(6.26)
ro
T* L -
Sll
S21 TL
+ 1SI2
T
- S22 L
S22
+1-
(6.27)
S12S 21 T S
Sl1
r
S
(6.28)
r _ CnB I
Sm -
V(Bt - 4Ict/z)]
21cl12
(6.29)
(6.30)
where:
BI
B z = 1 - ISttl2
C t = Stt - LlS12
C2 = S22 - LlS(t
Ll
= Sl1S22
IS2212 -
ILll 2
St2S21.
~I
S_MA
__L_L_-S_IG_N_A_L_A_M
__
PL_I_FI_E_R_D_E_S_IG_N____________~
L _____________
(6.32)
From (6.25) and (6.26) it is seen that for the particular cases when
and rs = 0 (6.25) and (6.26) reduce, respectively, to
rL = 0
r = Sll
ro = S22
j
and
ISIlI
< 1 and
Isd
<
(6.33)
1.
The expressions (6.33) are only necessary but not sufficient conditions for
inherent stability of an active device characterized by a set of s-parameters.
The stability criteria given in (6.31) and (6.32) have to be expressed in a
convenient form, a form which can readily be used (in terms of the device
s-parameters) to test the inherent stability of the device. To this end we
consider (6.31), i.e.
Ir Sm I =
=
thus
21Cd2
IIct
1
cdI 21 Cd
By V(Br
<
4ICl 12 2B[
V(Bl2-
O.
1,
(6.34)
Since the first term is positive, the second term must be negative. A
necessary condition for this to be true is that the negative sign must be
taken when Bl > 0, and vice versa. Another necessary condition for (6.31)
to hold is that
Br > 41Cd
(6.35)
ST_A_B_IL_I_T_Y_C_R_IT_E_R_IA________________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
B~ > 41c212.
(6.36)
and
(6.38)
= 1 - ISl11 2 -
Isnl 2
21 Sl2S211
+ ILll 2
(6.39)
K>1
(6.40)
K < -1.
(6.41)
However, it can be shown that the negative root for K violates the basic
stability criteria that Islll < 1 and Is221 < 1.
Most literature states that the criteria for inherent stability, i.e. the
device is unconditionally stable, are K > 1 and one of the following
conditions:
1. 1 -
> 0,
3. B2 > 0,
4. ILlI < 1.
2. Bl
and 1 -
In fact, 1. can be derived from K > 1 by assuming Isill < 1 and Iszzl < 1,
2. and 3. can be derived from 1. with no further assumption and 4. is
derived by adding 2. and 3. with no further assumption. Hence the
necessary and sufficient conditions for inherent stability are
> 1
ISIII < 1
IS221 < 1.
and
(6.42)
CJI
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
where:
BI = 1
B2 =
C I = Sl1 - LlS!2,
C2 = S22 - LlStl,
LI = Sl1S22 - S12S21.
(6.45)
The device can still be used to perform as an amplifier provided the regions
of source and load termination that cause instability are avoided.
I~
Sl1
S12S21rL
1 - r LSZ2
1--
S
= 1
I 1l1- - r LJrLI
LS Z2
(Sl1 - LJrd(Sl1 - LJrd* = (1 - r LS2Z )(1 - rLS ZZ )*
*
SZ2 - LJSj1
S2Z - LJ*Sl1 * _ IS11lz - 1
rLr L - Isnl 2 _ ILJI 2rL - IS221 2 _ ILJlzTL - Isd z _ ILJI2'
(6.46)
Consider the equation of a circle in the complex Z-plane with the centre at
A and a radius of R,
IZ-AI
=R
= R2
ZZ* - AZ* - A*Z + AA* = R2.
(Z - A)(Z - A)*
(6.47)
Comparison of (6.46) with (6.47) shows that there is a circle in the r Lplane, points on which represent load reflection coefficients or load impedances which will push the input stability to its limit corresponding to
Ird
= l.
The centre (r2S ) and radius (Q2S) of the load stability circle are thus
given by
r -
(S22 - LJSj1)* _
q
2S - 1s221 2 - 1LJI2 - 1S221 2 - 1LJ1 2'
(6.48)
(6.49)
~ ~I_____________S_MA
__L_L_-S_IG_N_A_L_A_M
__
PL_I_FI_E_R_D_E_S_IG_N____________~
Load stability
circle \ r.l = I
Unstable region
if \SII\ < 1
r L -plane
Smith chart
Fig. 6.7
(6.26) equal unity. The centre (TIs) and radius (QIS) of the source stability
circle are thus given by
centre:
(6.50)
radius:
(6.51)
The source stability circle is a locus on the Ts-plane Smith chart. The
centre of the Smith chart represent Ts = 0 or To = S22' Hence, if Is221 < 1
the centre lies in the stable region, and vice versa.
Smith
chart
Smith
chart
Smith
chart
(c)
Stable
region
Smith
chart
Stable
region
(d)
Smith
chart
(f)
Fig. 6.8 Load stability circle: (a) conditionally stable (K < 1, ISlIl < 1); (b)
conditionally stable (K < 1, ISlIl < 1); (c) conditionally stable (K < 1, ISlll < 1);
(d) conditionally stable (K < 1, ISlll < 1); (e) unconditionally stable (K > 1,
ISlll < 1); (f) unconditionally stable (K > 1, ISlll < 1).
S_MA
__L_L_-S_IG_N_A_L_A_M
__
PL_I_FI_E_R_D_E_S_IG_N____________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
IS2d 2 (1 - IrLI2)
I1 - rLS 22 12 - ISlI - rL.1 12'
G _
P -
Gp
g2 = IS2ti2
1- Ihl 2
The locus of
equation
Ir L-
rL
1
g2q
+ g2(lszz\2 -
1.112)
12 =
(6.52)
g2
(6.53)
r2C --
Centre:
g2q
+ g2( IS22 12 -
(6.54)
I.1 12)
_ V(g~IS12S2112 - 2g21s12S2ti K + 1)
1 + g2(l s221 2- 1.112)
Radius:
Q2C -
(6.55)
The circle is known as the constant power-gain circle. The constant powergain circle is on the Smith chart of the r L plane. It is the locus of the load
terminations (rLS) which, when connected to port 2 of the active device,
will provide an operating gain of IS211 2 g2.
For an inherently stable device, K> 1 and ILl I < 1, conjugate matching
at both ports is possible and this leads to the maximum gain, i.e.
G p ~ G pmax .
Q2C ~
and
On putting
r2C~
(}2C
r Lm .
= 0 into (6.55)
iz
or
or
= GTmax ,
(6.56)
(6.57)
CONSTANTPOW_E_R_-G_A_I_N_C_I_RC
__
LE_S____________~I
power-gain circles is generated first. A load reflection coefficient r L, in
the stable region of the r L-plane Smith chart with as high a gain as desired
is selected. The source reflection coefficient rs can be selected by
choosing the complex conjugate of the input reflection coefficient, i.e.
or
(6.58)
The value of rs as given by (6.58) is usable if it falls well inside the stable
region of the rs-plane Smith chart. If not, a different r L has to be selected
and the procedures are repeated until both r Land rs are on the stable
region.
Example 6.1
The s-parameters of a GaAs MESFET measured at 6GHz are given as
s"
s12
= 0.614L - 167.4
= 0.046L65
S2'
S22
= 2.187L32.4
= 0.716L - 83.
Solution
First, check the stability of the device.
Is,,1
Isd
= 0.614 < 1
= 0.716 < 1
also:
Ll =
S"S22 -
S'2S21
l.
r.
Sm -
21 C l l2
S_MA
__L_L_-S_IG_N_A_L_A_M
__
PL_I_FI_E_R_D_E_S_IG_N____________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Tsm = 0.8682LI69.76
q [B2 -
V,.,.,(B:1~-_-4""'I-:CC2"12""')]
21 C2 12
Lm -
TLm = 0.9055L84.48.
The maximum transducer gain is equal to the maximum operating gain for
a conjugately matched device. It is given by (6.1S) or (6.17) as
GTmax = G pmax = 28.7 = 14.5 dB.
Exampie6.2
Sll = O.64L
S21
S12
S22
- 158
0.087L28
= 4.13L88
= 0.39L - 68.
<.
Although both 1s II 1 < 1 and 1s221 < 1, K < 1 still implies that the device is
potentially unstable. The source and load stability circles can be computed
as
TIS
QIS
LO_W
__
-N_O_IS_E_AM
___
PL_I_FI_E_R_D_E_SI_G_N____________~I ~
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Load stability
circle
Source stability
circle
Stable
region
(a)
(b)
Fig.6.9 Stability circles for Example 6.2 (a) rL-plane, (b) rm-plane.
rs
rt;.
0.901L175.
This solution is not acceptable since rs lies inside the source stability
circle.
If r L = 0.41L77 (arbitrary) is chosen, then
rs = rt;. = 0.8137L
- 159.57.
This solution is in the stable region but only marginally, and hence it is not
recommended.
If r L = O.22L77 (arbitrary) is chosen, then
rs
rt;.
0.7256L158.97.
This solution is slightly better than the previous one, and can be accepted
for the purpose of this example.
The operating gain G p and the transducer gain GT can be found by using
(6.15) and (6.17), respectively. They are
G p = GT = 40.91 = 16.12dB.
~ ~~~ ~~_S_MA~L_L_-S_IG_N_A_L_A_M~PL_I_F_IE_R_D_E_S_IG_N~~~__~~~
LI
__
where Fm is the minimum noise figure of the two-port active device when
its source termination is at an optimum value, rapt. Rn is the equivalent
noise resistance and Zo is the system impedance to be taken as SO Q for
all practical purposes. Equation (6.S9) can be derived using the 'twogenerator' model on a two-port network. The noise performance of an
active device such as a BJT or FET is completely described by F m , R n ,
Irapt I and Lropt . These parameters can either be measured or taken
from the data sheet of the active device such as those given for HXTR 6102
in Fig. S.S(c). The measurement of noise in general will be discussed in
Chapter 11.
The source termination rs can be chosen to be rapt if the amplifier is to
be designed for the lowest noise figure. This is always possible if the device
is unconditionally stable. The output port is normally conjugately matched
for maximum power transfer to the load, i.e.
or
rL
rL
S22
(S22 -
1-
S12S 21 r opt )
+1-
Sl1
r.opt
LlroPt)*
roptSll
(6.60)
S12
= 0.075L6.2
Solution
Stability analysis gives
Is,,1
IS221
10.6741 < 1
10.61 < 1
~____________L_O_W__-N_O_IS_E_A_MP
__L_IF_I_E_R_D_E_SI_G_N____________~I
= 0.3865L134.22
ILl I < 1
K=1-l s llI 2 - l sd 2 + ILlI2 =1.284>1.
21 s 12S21I
LI = SllS22 -
so
S12S21
rL
( s22 -LITopt
1 - ropts ll
)* = 0.601L104
S22 -
G _
p -
G _
T -
I1 -
For the sake of comparison the gains for conjugate matching design, i.e.
the case when rs = rSm and r L = r Lm , are calculated to be G p = GT =
10.45 dB. It is seen that while the operating gain of the low-noise design is
only marginally lower, the transducer gain is more than 2dB below what
the FET can achieve with conjugate matching. This is due to the mismatch
loss in the input circuit.
(6.61)
[D2J
~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
(6.62)
Irs where r lF
rop/(1
rlFI = QIF,
+ NJ and
QIF = 1 : N Jl[Nr
+ N j (1 -
Iropt I2)].
(6.63)
Equation (6.63) is a circle equation known as the noise circle with its centre
at r lF and a radius of !?IF. The noise circle is the locus of all values of rs
having the same noise figure F j By varying the value of F j , a family of
noise circles each signifying a specific noise figure can be plotted.
Example (6.4)
Solution
Fj
Fm
= 3 dB = 1.9953
= 2.2 dB = 1.6596
6.64
50
= 0.1328
N = (F
F m) 11 + rop, 12 = 0.3009
Tn
j-
4rn
ropt
r lF = 1 + N
= 0.4420L138
I
QIF = 0.4154.
B_R_O_A_D_BA
__
ND
__C_O_N_S_ID_E_RA
__T_IO_N_S____________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Fm=2.2 dB
(data sheet)
Fig. 6.10
[IBJ I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
K = 1-
For inherent stability any load and source reflection coefficient within the
Smith chart represents a stable termination.
For a potentially unstable device, the load stability is calculated and
plotted on the Smith chart using (6.48) and (6.49).
Cz
(6.48)
IS2212 _ ILll 2
_ IS!2s2d
Q2S -ll s221 2- ILl121
Centre:
T 2S =
Radius:
(6.49)
Likewise the source stability circle was given in (6.50) and (6.51).
Centre:
ISlll2 _ ILll 2
_ IS'2s211
-ll sul 2- ILl121
(6.50)
TIS =
Radius:
QIS
(6.51 )
The load and source terminations selected, i.e. r L and r s , must fall within
the stable region as defined. Design can normally be classified as either
maximum-gain design or low-noise design. Broadband design adds additional constraints to, but is basically the same as, the maximum-gain or the
low-noise design.
Gpmax = Il s2'11
S'2
[K - V(K2 - 1)]
with conjugately matched source and load using (6.29) and (6.30), i.e.
r.
Sm -
21C,12
_ q[B2 - V(B~ Lm -
21 C212
41C212)]
PROBLEMS
L -____________________________________________
I [DB
where:
Bl=1+ ISl1I2_lsd 2 -1L112
B2 = 1 - ISl112 + IS2212 - 1.,11 2
C1 = Sl1 - L1S!2
C2 = S22 - L1Sl'1
.,1
= Sl1S22 -
S12S21'
r2C --
1+
V(g~
Q2C -
g2q
1 12
1.,1 12)
IS12S2d2 - 2g2 IS12S2d K +
1 + g2( Isd 2 - 1.,112)
g2( S22
1)
The calculated
r lF
-~
1 + N1
Radius:
rL
= (S22 -
1-
L1rs) *.
rSs l1
Both r L and rs must lie in the stable region. The transducer gain is then
checked using (6.17). If rL does not lie in the stable region or the
transducer gain is not high enough, the process of selecting rs can be
repeated until a suitable noise-gain compromise is achieved.
PROBLEMS
S_MA
__L_L_-S_IG_N_A_L_A_M
__
PL_I_FI_E_R_D_E_S_IG_N____________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
maximum operating gain of the transistor, the source and load termination are given by
r.
Ci[BI - V(Bi - 4I C
21CI12
Sm -
_ CHB 2
Lm -
d2)]
V(B~ - 4IC2 12 )]
21C212
,
where:
BI = 1
B2 = 1 -
CI = Sll - LlS12
C2 = S22 - Llstl
LI = SllS22 - S12S21'
> 0 and
B2
> 0,
where:
BI = 1
B2
LI =
Sl1S22 -
S12S21'
2. 1 -
IS12S211
S12S Z1
r opt
~_________________F_U_R_T_H_ER__R_EA_D_I_N_G________________~I ~
5. Implement the design in Problem 4 by using single-stub microstrip
matching circuits for both the input and output port, or other microstrip
matching circuits of similar complexity. The minimum circuit Q is to be
greater than 5.
6. Calculate the noise figure of the circuit in Problem 4.
7. Using the same device under the same bias conditions as in Problem 4,
design a low-noise amplifier of noise figure F = 2.2 dB and implement it
with the simplest possible microstrip circuit.
8. The a.c. parameters of the Motorola BJT MRF572 at 1 GHz under the
bias conditions of VCE = 6.0V and Ic = 5.0mA are given by
Sll
= 0.66L
S12
= 0.lOL22
- 167
S21
= 3.3L79
S22
= 0.29L - 77
Fm = 1.5dB
Fopt = 0.56L116
Rn = 6.0Q
SlI
S21
S12
S22
0.8
1.0
1.2
0.950L - 24
0.928L - 30
0.893L - 36
1.58L153
l.57L146
l.55L139
0.005L91
0.006L95
0.006L101
0.96L - 15
0.96L - 19
0.95L - 22
FURTHER READING
Bodway, G.E. (1987) Two port power flow analysis using generalized
scattering parameters. Microwave Journal, May.
~ I~
____________S_MA__L_L-_S_IG_N_A_L_A_M_P_L_I_FI_E_R_D_E_SI_G_N____________~
~___p_o_w_e_r_A__m_p_li_fi_er_s____~1 ~
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The y- or s-parameter representation of a high-frequency transistor
operating under small-signal conditions provides a very convenient linear
circuit model for the purposes of analysis and design. For power
transistors, however, linear models are not applicable in describing the
terminal behaviour of the transistors. The behaviour simply varies with the
power level.
Some transistors, known as 'linear power transistors', such as Hewlett
Packard HXTR-5103 (2N6741), when operated in class-A mode, are lowlevel power-amplifier transistors capable of delivering only hundreds of
milliwatts. Design methods using small-signal s-parameters can still be
used. This kind of amplifier can be considered as 'high-power' small-signal
amplifiers.
Small-signal transistors are all class-A biased. Power amplifiers can
nevertheless be biased in class-A, class-B or class-C mode, and at
frequencies below, say, a few hundred megahertz in class-D, class-E or
class-S mode employing VMOS or TMOS devices. The most commonly
used mode for power amplifiers is class-C because of its high efficiency. All
power amplifiers are fairly non-linear, but a class-C is more non-linear than
is a class-B which in turn is more non-linear than is a class-A amplifier. A
class-C amplifier is most non-linear in the sense that it generates more
harmonics than do other modes. The efficiency of a class-A amplifier is less
than 50% while that for a class-B amplifier, where the conduction angle is
1800 , is less than 78.5%. For a class-C amplifier the theoretical limit of
efficiency is 100% as the conduction angle approaches zero; however in
practice it does not normally exceed 80%.
Bipolar transistors can be biased in all of class-A, B or C modes, whereas
GaAs MESFETs are normally limited to class-A operation, and the power
output is usually lower than a few watts.
For relatively low-power applications of BJTs, common-emitter mode
is popular while for applications above, say a few watts common-base
operation is quite common. Most power BJTs have either their base or
~I
POWER AMPLIFIERS
~------------------------------------------------------~
or
(7.1)
I
Power
gain
in dB
I..
Fig. 7.1
Input power
in watts
Dynamic
range of
amplifier
~____________B_IA_S_I_NG__O_F_P_O_W__ER__T_RA_N_S_I_ST_O_R_S____________~I ~
7.2 BIASING OF POWER TRANSISTORS
Class-A biasing of BJTs and FETs has been encountered briefly in Chapter
5. Techniques for biasing class-A small-signal and class-A power transistors
are similar except that, for maximum output voltage swings, the V CE for
power transistors tends to be fixed at V cc (through an RFC without the
collector resistor). For class-C operations, the base-emitter junction of the
transistor must be reverse-biased to ensure that the transistor conducts for
less than 180.
Figure 7.2 shows a popular self-biased common-emitter class-C configuration. The base-emitter junction is biased by the input (sinusoidal)
voltage applied between point X and ground. Due to the p-n junction
effect of the BE junction, the base current iB (and hence ic) will assume a
waveform similar to that shown in Fig. 7.3.
By applying Fourier series analysis to i B, it is easily seen that iB contains
a d.c. current in addition to various harmonic current terms. The d.c.
current IB varies with the magnitude of the input a.c. signal and must be
returned to ground. Hence an RFC between point Y and ground is
necessary to provide a d.c. path for the BE junction current.
The base-spreading resistance Tbb' is the parasitic between the base of
the transistor and the base contact of the transistor package. Reverse bias
of the BE junction is achieved by the d.c. current passing through TW. If
this voltage drop is not enough to reverse bias the BE junction, an external
resistor can be connected between point Y and ground in series with the
RFC.
/---
I
0-------1
//
........
"-
t - - -.......-'--\---i
"- ""........
Fig. 7.2
--- -
--------/
IL-_________________P_O_W_E_R_A_M_P_L_IF_I_E_RS________________~
- iB (orie)
Time or
conduction angle (8)
I~ < 180~1
Fig. 7.3
Figure 7.5 shows the manufacturer's data sheets for the Motorola microwave power transistor MRF2001M. Out of the vast amount of data given,
some are more pertinent to power amplifier design than others.
RFC
Vee
MOTOROLA
SEMICONDUCTOR
TECHNICAL DATA
MRF2001M
The RF Line
1.0 W
2 GHz
MICROWAVE POWER
TRANSISTOR
NPN SILICON
r-Ni~C
H
-f
r==:==J
~L..I....
i~_ _ _ _
MAXIMUM RATINGS
Symbol
Value
Unit
Collector-Emitter Voltage
VCEO
20
Vdc
Collector-Base Voltage
VCBO
45
Vdc
VEBO
4.0
Vdc
Rating
Emitter-Base Voltage
Collector-Current -
Continuous
=25C (1)
IC
250
mAde
Po
7.0
40
Watts
mW/oC
Tstg
-65 to +200
Symbol
Max
Unit
R8JC
25
C/W
THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS
Characteristic
Thermal Resistance, Junction to Case (2)
(1) These devices are designed for RF operation. The total device dissipation rating
applies only when the devices are operated as RF amplifiers.
(2) Thermal Resistance is determined under specified RF operating conditions by
infrared measurement techniques.
-I
STYLE L
PIN t. EMITTER
1. COLLECTOR
3. BASE
NOTES.
t. DIMENSIONS WAND
ARE DATUMS.
1. POSITIONAL TOLERANCE FOR
MOUNTING HOLES.
1*19. t31O.0051@ITII'@IB@1
rn
3.
IS SEATING PLANE.
4. DIMENSIONING AND
TOLERANCING PER ANSI
Y14.5.1973.
MILLIMETERS
DIM MIN MAX
A 10.07 10.57
6.22
6.48
I
4.06
C 3.68
1.29
1.79
0
E
t.41
t.73
t4.171se
G
H 2.29
2.79
4.t9
K
3.43
7.87
8.38
N
Q
3.05
3.30
7.49
R 7.24
INCHES
MtN MAX
0.790 0.810
0.245 0.155
0.t45 0.t60
0.090 0.110
0.056 0.068
0.5608SC
0.090 O.lto
0.t35 0.165
0.3tO' 0.330
0.t20 0.t30
0.285 0.295
CASE 33702
Fig. 7.5(a) Motorola MRF2001M data sheet. Copyright of Motorola, Inc. Used
by permission.
Symbol
Min
Typ
Max
Unit
VIBR)CEO
20
Vde
VIBRICES
45
Vde
VIBR)CBO
45
Vde
VIBR)EBO
4.0
Vde
ICBO
0.5
mAde
GpB
8.5
9.5
dB
35
40
Characteristic
OFF CHARACTERISTICS
Collector-Emitter Breakdown Voltage
IIC = 5.0 mAde, IB = 0)
ON CHARACTERISTICS
DC Current Gain
IIC = 100 mAde, VCE = 5.0 Vde)
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
Output Capacitance
IVCB = 24 Vde, IE = 0, f = 1.0 MHz)
FUNCTIONAL TESTS
Common-Base Amplifier Power Gain
IVCC = 24 Vde, Pout = 1.0 W, f = 2.0 GHz)
Collector Efficiency
IVCC = 24 Vde, Pout = 1.0 W, f = 2.0 GHz)
Load Mismatch
IVce = 24 Vde, Pout = 1.0 W, f = 2.0 GHz)
VSWR = 10:1 All Phase Angles)
No Degradation
In
Power Output
Vcc=
+24 Vde
Fig. 7.5(b) Motorola MRF2001M data sheet. Copyright of Motorola, Inc. Used
by permission,
FIGURE 2 2.0
::::>
20 V
I--
/ ~V
1.0
24 V
51
~
~
....
::>
::::>
II'
r-
<:>
_r-
ii)
'"~
I/, V
2.0
Vee - 28 V
/'./
'"~
....
::>
f...f...-
./
FIGURE 3 -
10
/ V
/ V
<:>
V
V
V
./
/V
,,- I-""
Vee
=28 V
24 V
20 V
..... 1--
V/
V
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
060
260
80
100
FIGURE 4 -
FIGURE 5 -
1.6
ii)
t=
....
::>
::::>
1.4
1.2
0.8
<:>
0.6
0.4
140
160
180
200
220
240
./
/'
,/'
.,/
,L/ V
. . .V
---.....
~
~
~
!----
Vee = 28 V
I-
24 V
f...-
20 V
--- ---
12
~
z
r--,.....
10
'"~
~ 8.0
1e
<..0
,/'
Pin= 140mW
t---
r-- J
Vee
28 V
24 V
l -I--
r--......
6.0
........... 20 V
O. 2V
060
260
14
'"
~ 1.0
~
120
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
4.0
17
2.0
FIGURE 6 -
f. FREQUENCY IGHz)
+j50
lin
Ohms
15.5 + j 3.0
7.5 + j11.0
10.0+j100
ZOl'
Ohms
4.5 - j15.0
4.0 - j12.0
30-,7.0
-j&O
Coordinates in Ohms
Fig. 7.S(c) Motorola MRF2001M data sheet. Copyright of Motorola, Inc. Used
by permission.
2.3
IL-_________________
0
00
~00
"
,
0 _ _' _ _ 0
o Denote Eyelet
o 4-40 crcw Placcmcnt
Fig, 7.S(d) Motorola MRF200lM data sheet. Copyright of Motorola , Inc. Used
by permission .
It is noted in the first page of the data sheets that MRF200lM is designed
for common-base class-B or class-C operation over a frequency range of
1.7 -2.3 GHz. Some special features of the transistor are also stated in the
same page; they include a load mismatch ruggedness of VSWR = 10 and a
maximum output power of no less than 1.0 W.
From Figure 3 in Fig. 7.5(c) it is seen that a power amplifier using
MRF2001M can deliver an output power of 1.2 W at 2.0 GHz for an input
power of 140mW, i.e. it has a power gain of 9.3 dB provided the input and
output ports of the transistor are conjugately matched. Figures 2, 3 and 4
give the same input-output power relationship at different frequencies .
PO
__
W_E_R_T_RA
__N_S_IS_T_O_R_D_E_S_IG_N_D_A_T_A______------~I
L -____________
Note that both impedances are series impedances. Some manufacturers give
these impedances in parallel form and some give this information in both
forms. The series and parallel equivalent circuits of the MRF2001M at
2.0 GHz under the conditions described are shown in Fig. 7.6.
For power transistors intended to be used at lower frequencies, say
below a few tens of megahertz, the parallel output resistance Ro is roughly
equal to the parallel loading resistance RL in order to deliver a maximum
output power of Po according to
R _ (Vee - Vsat )2
L 2Po
'
(7.2)
where V cc is the supply voltage to the output port and V sat is the saturation
VCE or V CB voltage for CE and CB mode, respectively. In the case that
V CEsat or V CBsat is not given, they can be taken as zero for the purpose of
using (7.2). The expression (7.2) is valid for class-A, class-B and class-C
(Smith, 1987) at low frequencies where the a.c. impedance of the transistor
output port is neglected. It is derived with the assumption that the supply
voltage Vcc is connected to the collector through an RFC (without
collector resistor). However, (7.2) becomes increasingly inaccurate as
frequency increases. Certainly at upper UHF frequencies or above (7.2) is
not meaningful. Expression (7.2) is historically used to calculate the
loading resistance required for a given output power when the parallel
IL__________________P_O_W_E_R_A_M_P_L_I_FI_E_R_S________________~
MRF2001M
,----------------,
I
I
I
I
I
+jll.O
-j1.2
I
I
I
I
I
I
L_________ ________
0 C
I
I
I
B
Series
MRF2001M
,-----------------,
I
11.28 nH
I
I
I
23.6
4.36
I
I
I
I
I
L _______ _
--------~
Parallel
output resistance of the transistor is not given. The use of this equation at
higher frequencies should be avoided.
P_O_W
__E_R_A_M_P_L_IF_IE_R__
D_ES_I_G_N______________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
When a transistor is chosen, the input and output impedances for the
required power level can be read from the transistor data sheet as discussed
in the previous section.
It is noted that the impedances read from the data sheet only serve as a
rough guide because the actual values vary from device to device. Also, the
data sheet may not give the input and output impedances at the power level
and the frequency required. For these reasons, as an alternative, a test setup as shown in Fig. 7.7 can be used to measure the input and output
impedances of the transistor at the intended power level and operating
frequency.
The input and output power levels are monitored by the two power
meters. When the input power level is properly set, the two stub tuners are
tuned until the output power is maximum. The input power is adjusted
until the maximized output power is at the required operating power level.
The circuit is then disconnected at PP' and QQ', and the transistor
holder is removed by disconnecting AA' and BB'. The triple stub tuners
are terminated with 50-ohm loads at PP' and QQ'.
The impedance at AA' looking into the input tuner can be measured
using a vector network analyser; the complex conjugate of the measured
sit is the rin looking into the transistor holder
but
rin
is only
r AA',
not
r l1 ,.
Transistor Holder
B
I-~":""-+""-j
50 ohm
load
B'
Fig. 7.7
IL-_________________P_O_W_E_R_A_M_P_L_I_FI_E_RS________________~
Similarly, the output reflection coefficient of the transistor can be obtained
by measuring the sh at BB' looking into the output tuner with QQ' loaded
by a 50-ohm termination, then
Once the input impedance and the 'output impedance' of the transistor
at the proper power level are read from the data sheet or measured, power
amplifier design is reduced to the design of two impedance matching
networks matching the input and output impedances to the source and
load, respectively. Techniques of impedance matching thoroughly discussed in Chapter 4 can be applied to the design of matching networks for
power amplifiers in exactly the same way as for small-signal amplifiers.
Example 7.1
The input impedance and the 'output impedance' of a common-base BJT
2N6267 were measured at 2.3 GHz under aVec of 24 V and an input power
of 1.5W. They are
Zin = 1.8
+ j12Q
Zout = 1.6 - j8 Q.
Design a power amplifier for maximum power gain with no less than
10% bandwidth. Note: The manufacturer suggests an emitter resistance of
0.43Q.
Solution
For maximum gain design the input and output ports of the transistor must
be conjugately matched.
In order to design an amplifier with a bandwidth greater than 10%, all
the impedance (admittance) points for the input and output matching
circuits as indicated on the Smith chart must have a Q-factor smaller than
10 (in fact, smaller than, say,S or 6). The major task ofthis design is thus
the design of the input and output matching circuits with Q-values low
enough to provide 10% bandwidth. A constant-Q curves chart is shown in
Fig. 7.8 for reference purposes.
PO_W
__E_R_A_M_P_L_IF_IE_R__
D_ES_I_G_N________________I ~
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Smith chart
The choice of ZOl affects the overall Q-value of the input circuit. Since
is very small, if ZOl is relatively large, say 50 Q, Zin will be located very
near to the edge of the Smith chart after being normalized by 50 Q. This
will produce a fairly high Q-value at point A 2 To this end, a smaller value
of ZOI = 12.5 Q (say) is chosen. Point AI. i.e. Zin = 0.144 + jO.96 Q, and a
50-ohm circle, i.e. R = 4 are entered into a Smith chart as shown in Fig.
7.10. The microstrip of length II transforms point Al through a constantVSWR circle to point A2 where it meets the 50-ohm circle (R = 4). The
length II required is It = 0.109 wavelength (A g l)' The Q-values at points Al
and A2 are 6.7 and 1.5, respectively. Since the Q-value of A2 is much lower
Zin
Microstrip
section
(ZOl)
11
2N6267
(A2 )
(A 1)
Z = 1.8 + j12
~ ~[__________________ P_O_W
__E_RAMP_L_IF_I_ER_S___________________~
50 n
circle
Fig.7.10
than that of AI> the transformation does not reduce the bandwidth. The
reactance at A2 is jX2 = +j5.8, hence the capacitance required of C 1 is
1
2n x 2.3 X 109 x C1 = 5.8 x 12.5
or
C1
0.95pF.
+ jO.12mhos.
~______________P_O_W__ER__A_M_P_L_lF_lE_R_D_E_S_l_G_N______________~I ~
2N6267
(A7)
50
B
(A4)
(A6)
Microstrip
short-circuit stubs
Fig. 7.11
lis
Fig. 7.12
P_O_W_E_R_A_M_P_L_IF_I_ER_S________________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
YOU!
1125 =
06
.
+ J'3 .
= 25 x
B mho
= B5 - B4 =
-0.08 mho.
Note that the choice of point A5 is fairly arbitrary; as long as point A5 has a
Q-value low enough for our purposes, it is acceptable.
This susceptance, B = -0.08 mho, is provided by a pair of balanced
short-circuit stubs, each contributing BI2mho or -0.04 mho. The required
stubs may have a Z03 different from Z02 (25 Q). 13 will be determined later.
the impedance looking into the transistor and the shunt stubs,
Point
is then entered into Fig. 7.13. Point
is then transformed by the
microstrip section of length 12 (in Ag2) to point A6 through the constanttowards 'generator' until it meets the 50-ohm
VSWR circle from point
circle (R = 2) at point A 6 The second intersecting point is not taken
because it represents a capacitive point, the capacitance of which cannot be
neutralized by adding a series capacitance as scheduled. The reactance at
point A6 is X 6 In order to neutralize the inductance X 6 , the required
capacitance C2 is thus given by
As,
As
As
25
X6
2n x 2.3 x 109 x Cz
1
Cz = 2n x 2.3 x 109 x 25 x 1.7 = 1.63pF.
Hence a 0.3 - 3.5 pF variable capacitor can be used as C2. 12 is read from
the chart as 0.318A g2'
We now go back to find the length 13 of the short-circuited shunt stubs.
The required susceptance for each stub was previously found to be
-0.40 mho. The choice of short-circuit stubs rather than open-circuit stubs
for 13 is because of the inductive nature of required 13, For an open-circuit
stub to be inductive, 13 is necessarily greater than one quarter of a wavelength and Z03 needs to be fairly high in order to keep 13 reasonably short,
but a high Z03 will ma~e the stub width too small to be accurately
fabricated; hence short-circuited stubs are chosen.
Zo3 is arbitrarily chosen to be 75 D. The normalized susceptance (by
75 Q) of each stub is thus
I~
~-----------=~~~------------~
50n
circle
Fig. 7.13
Fig. 7.14 Output matching chart for Example 7.1 (admittance coordinates).
L I_
-_--_---_~~
P_O_W_E_R_A_M_P_L_I_FI_E_RS_ _ _ _ _ _
RFC
Vcc=2SV
ZOI = 12.5 n
Z02=25n
Z03 = 75 n
(Zm)
L-L---_l
-~~-----~J
12
Fig. 7.15 Overall circuit for Example 7.1. T, and T2 are microstrips on Teflon
glass board: Cr = 2.55, thickness = 0.79 mm = 1/32". C, and C2 are 0.3 to 3.5 pF
(Johanson 1700 or equivalent). C3 and C4 are 470 pF (Allen-Bradley FAC5 or
equivalent). Cs and C6 are 220 pF chip capacitors. RFC is No.2 wire, three turns,
ID = 1/8". R, is 0.43 Q (recommended by manufacturer). All dimensions in mm.
I, = 1O.62(0.109).g')' W, = 13.10, 12 = 31.59(0.318).g2), W2 = 5.56, 13 =
5.45(0.052).g3), W3 = 1.11.
B' = -0.04 = -3
1/75
P~R~O~BL~E~M~S____________________~I ~
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
PROBLEMS
1. Explain why common-base operation is commonly employed for
higher-power d. amplifiers.
2. For the c1ass-A biased power amplifier shown in Fig. P.7.1, show that
the power-conversion efficiency YJ is smaller than 50%.
3. Even if the VCEsat of the circuit shown in Fig. P.7.1 is zero, the coil
resistance of the collector RFC is zero and the base circuit does not
consume any power, the conversion efficiency for a c1ass-A RF power
amplifier is still normally much smaller than 50%. Explain why this is
so. Note that the answer can be extended to c1ass-B and c1ass-C
operations.
4. Show that the theoretical power-conversion efficiency for a non-linearly
biased power transistor (class-Band c1ass-C) is given by
YJ =
Po
0 - sin 0
Pi = 4 sin 012 - 20 cos 012 '
Vee
o~----~~----e-------;-.
Fig. P.7.1
P_O_W_E_R_A_M
__
PL_I_FI_E_RS________________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
where:
() is the conduction angle of the transistor in radians,
Po is the a.c. power output, and
Pi is the power supplied to the amplifier.
5. Refer to the design data of MRF2001M in Fig. 7.5. Use the input and
output impedances at 2.0 GHz given in Fig. 7 .5(c) to design a 2.0 GHz
test circuit with a similar microstrip configuration to that shown in Fig.
7.5(d). Note that the design given in the data sheet contains a number
of arbitrary choices, hence it is virtually impossible to design a circuit
which is exactly the same as that given unless these arbitrary choices are
specified.
Note that the circuit shown in Fig. 7.5(d) is the microstrip implementation of the schematic diagram shown in Fig. 7.5(b).
6. The input and output impedances of the class-C operated transistor,
Motorola MRF233, at 100 MHz under aVec of 12.5 V and at an output
power level of 15 Ware given by (common-emitter mode)
Zin = 1.7 - j2.7Q
Zout = 5 - j5.6 Q.
FURTHER READING
Bowick, C. (1982) RF Circuit Design, Howard W. Sams.
Miceli, M., A i-Watt, 2.3GHz Amplifier, Motorola Application Notes,
EB89.
Moline, D., 800 MHz Test Fixture Design, Motorola Application Notes,
An-923.
Motorola RF Device Data (1986) Motorola Inc.
Power Circuits, DC to Microwave (1970) RCA Electronic Components.
RF Power Transistor Manual (1972) RCA Solid State Division.
Smith, J. (1987) Modern Communication Circuits, McGraw-Hill.
~______o_S_C_il1_a_to_r_s______~1 ~
8.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW OF OSCILLATOR DESIGN
O_S_C_IL_L_A_T_O_RS__________________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
(8.1)
where the subscript m stands for measured values (or values from databook). Note that Sm could also be measured from common-base mode.
For an active device to oscillate, its stability factor K must be less than
unity. If this condition is not satisfied, either the common terminal should
be changed, e.g. from common emitter to common base, or some kind of
feedback is necessary.
In this section some expressions enabling the addition of positive feedback and the change of common terminals (i.e. either common emitter or
common base) are listed. The measured common-emitter s-matrix Sm is
represented as in (8.1). In this case, port 1 is the base-to-ground port and
port 2 is the collector-to-ground port. Since the actual transistor configuration used in the oscillator may be different from that of the measurement,
conversion is necessary.
The two-port common-emitter z-matrix (2 x 2), Z, can be obtained from
the measured common-emitter s-matrix S (2 x 2) by the expression
z = (ZII ZI2)
Z21
Z22
(8.2)
C_O_N_V_E_R_SI_O_N_O_F__T_HE__~_M_A_T_R_IX____________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
.-----02
)r----o 2
Model A
ModelB
3
Reactive
element
Fig. 8.1
1'
l'
~
2'
2'
Model A
r-----,
I
I
I
or
I
I ZB
I
IL ____ ...JI 0
ModelB
~ I~
___________________O_S_C_IL_L_A_TO__RS__________________~
In circuit theory it is well known that when two two-port networks are
connected in series as shown in Fig. 8.2 the overall z-matrix Z is equal to
the sum of the individual z-matrices, i.e.
(8.3)
Hence models A and B of Fig. 8.1 can be redrawn as the circuits shown in
Fig. 8.3 with the reactive elements taken as a capacitor and an inductor,
respectively, for model A and model B.
The overall s-parameter representation of a transistor with series
feedback can easily be obtained from the conversion formula
s=
(Z
+ RoI)-1 (Z - RoI).
(8.4)
(8.5)
(8.6)
if and only if
(8.7)
The stability factor K of the active network should be less than unity in
order for the device to oscillate. If this condition is not satisfied, either
the common terminal should be changed or positive feedback should
be added. The passive termination r 1 and r z must be so designed that
the input and output ports are resonating simultaneously at the same
frequency.
Resonator
."
,...
Two-port
active
network
fout = S~2'
Fig. 8.4
,...
Load
r+'
~_______________TH__EO_R_Y__O_F_O_S_C_IL_L_A_T_IO_N______________~I ~
It shall be shown in Theorem 1 that when port 1 is in resonance, the
following expression holds
(8.8)
In Theorem 2, it will be shown that if the circuit is oscillating at port 1, it
must simultaneously be oscillating at port 2, i.e.
(8.9)
if and only if
(8.10)
It shall also be shown in Theorem 3 that in order for oscillation to start and
ITII
>1+1
(8.11)
Sll
Theorem 1
The condition for port 1 to be in resonance is given by
Proof
For oscillation to occur, the real and imaginary parts of the input impedance of the network must be equal to zero. Referring to Fig. 8.5, the
conditions for oscillation can be expressed as
Rin
i.e.
Tin,
-"
Fig. 8.S
Port 2
Port 1
RdJ
(8.12)
jX1
=~
jXin
1""1
,..
Oscillation in port 1.
,...
JRm.
~
'"
Load
~
O_S_C_IL_L_A_T_O_RS__________________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
F; = Zin
10
Zin
R in
R in
1,
- Zo
+ Zo
+ jXin - Zo
+ jXin + Zo
F _ ZI - Zo
1 - ZI + Zo
Rl + jX1 - Zo
Rl + jX1 + Zoo
Now that
SIt
= rin , therefore
silFI = FinF l
(8.13)
= (-R 1
jX1
-R
1 - JX
l+ Z0
Theorem 2
or
(8.15)
Similarly,
I
S22
S22
S12S 21 F l
F
Sll 1
+1-
_ S22(1 -
SUFI)
1-
+ S12S21 F l
SUFI
T_H_E_O_R_Y_O_F_O_S_C_IL_L_A_T_IO_N______________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
(8.16)
S22 I
Szz -
(8.17)
Sll
or
shr2 = 1 into the expression for sil, we obtain the consequence that sitrl
= 1. Hence, the necessity and sufficiency of
shrl = 1
shr2 = 1
and
are proved.
Theorem 3
Under stable oscillating conditions, both Theorems 1 and 2 are valid, i.e.
shrl
=1
or
Irll>I+I
Su
(8.18)
Proof
Suppose that unit power is flowing into port 1 of the two-port active
network shown in Fig. 8.6. The power reflected is given by Isil1 2 x 1 unit.
The reflected power travels towards the source termination and is reflected
IL-___________________O_S_C_IL_L_A_TO__RS__________________~
Resonator
I+-
r+
Two-port
active
network
S
r+
Matching
network
and
load
r1 , the power reflected back from the source termination is Is 1112 X Ir1 12
units.
This reflected power again travels towards port 1 of the active network.
This power should be greater than unity in order for oscillation to build up.
This condition can be expressed by
or
If this power is less than unity, the oscillation will eventually be damped
sitr1 = 1
and
sizrz
= 1.
O_SC_I_LL_A_T_O_R_D_E_S_IG
__
N________________~I
L -_________________
(8.19)
S22
Ir2 -AI
=b,
where
A -
(S22 -
- Isd 2
IS12 S 21 I
(radius of circle).
(8.20)
However, the area inside the Iril = 1 circle, which represents all passive
source terminations, may be mapped either inside or outside the Ir2 - A I
= b circle on the rz-plane. Hence it is essential to determine which the
case is by locating the r l = 0 point on the rz-plane.
For the purposes of illustration, the area inside the Iril = 1 circle is
assumed to be mapped outside the Ir 2 - A I = b circle, and is illustrated
in Fig. 8.7. The shaded region represents the intersection between Iril <
1 and Ir21 < 1. If the chosen source termination r l is mapped into a point
within this region, the required load termination may be realized by a
passive network.
1
---;- mapping
522
/'
Ir2 - AI = b
( Ir11 = 1)
Intersection of
r 2 - plane
plane
Mapping of
Ir1 I =
O_S_C_IL_L_A_T_O_RS__________________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Sll = Sll
r
r
S12S 21 2
+ 1-
=,1
S22 2
and
r1
Sll
C - (Sll - L1S!2)*
-I S llI2_1L112
(centre of circle)
d IS 12S 2t1
(radius of circle).
-ll slll 2 - 1..1121
(8.21)
It is also necessary to test whether the area inside or outside the circle
Irt - CI = d represents Ir21 < 1 by using the point r2 = O. Figure 8.8
illustrates this mapping.
With the aid of Fig. 8.7 and Fig. 8.8, we may find out whether or not a
certain source termination crt) that we chose will map on to the shaded
region in the r 2-plane. If not, this means that the load required to be
placed at port 2 for the particular source termination at port 1 that we
chose cannot be realized by a passive network, and a different source
termination has to be chosen until the mapping of this r t value in the r2 plane lies inside the shaded area. The same argument applies to choosing a
if) - CI
( If21
= d
1)
/-
-"
.....
~I
I
I
,mappmg
Sl1
on
If21
Intersection of
f2 - plane
~_________________O_SC_I_LL_A_T_O_R_D_E_S_IG_N________________~I ~
load r 2 to see whether the required source termination falls inside the
shaded area in the rl-plane or not.
In Fig. 8.9 it is assumed that the mapped areas in both the rr and
r 2-planes which correspond to passive terminations are outside the
Ir2 - A I = b and Ir l - CI = d circles in the rr and rz-planes,
respectively. Suppose that a source termination r l is chosen and is denoted by point Al in the rrplane. Point Al is mapped by r2 = 1Is22 into
point A2 on the r 2-plane. Point A2 must lie in the shaded region, otherwise the required port-2 termination for the source r l cannot be realized
by a passive load. A load termination (r2 ) slightly different from that
,---"
/
/'
" '\
t\
)
\
"
fl - plane
f2 - plane
/-.........-
If1
If2 -AI=b
'"
Ci =
/ / - - ........
\
I
"\
If2 -AI=b
~
"- .......
fl - plane
f2 - plane
Fig. 8.9
O_S_C_IL_L_A_T_O_R_S__________________~
L l_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
and
~____________S_U_M_MA
__R_Y__
O_F_D_E__
SIGN_P_R_O_C_E_D_U_R_E_S____________~I ~
Mapping of Ir2 1= 1
(source stability circle)
Mapping of
Z2 over a
frequency
range 1',[2
Z2
Fig. 8.10
actual load
chosen at
operating
frequency 10
Resonator ZI
(e.g. a trimmer
capacitor or a
varactor diode)
--;- mapping of ZI
522
Mapping of Ir,1 = 1
(load stability circle)
then the next task is to tailor-design a load termination r 2 such that when
r2 is mapped back to the rl-plane by lIS!I, the oscillation start-up
condition of Irls!ll > 1 is satisfied, or in other words, the mapped value
of r2 is closer to the centre of the rl-plane than is the chosen rl.
The ideal Z2 (or r2 ) should be an impedance function of frequency
which, when mapped into the rl-plane, shows a frequency characteristic
that has a minimum value of IlIs!11 at the intended oscillating frequency,
so that signal strength at this particular frequency can be built up much
faster than at other frequencies.
Example 8.1
== O.5262L - 141.86
== O.089L33.15
S21m
S22m
== 3.812L85.56
== O.555L - 47.36.
O_S_C_IL_L_A_T_O_RS__________________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Using this transistor to design an oscillator at 1.2 GHz for a 50-ohm load.
Solution
The Rollet's stability factor of the transistor at 1.2 GHz is given by
1 - ISllml2 - IS22ml2 - ILlI2
K = ----'--'=:.:..:...,.--=--==::,'------'--'21 s 12mS21ml
'
where L1
= SllmS22m
S12mS21m'
Hence
K = 0.727
< 1.
I
(a)
(b)
Fig.8.11
Series capacitive feedback: (a) schematic and (b) microstrip realization
of the capacitor C.
S_U_M_MA
___
RY__O_F_D_E_S_IG_N__
PR_O_C_E_D_U_R_E_S____------~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
r2 -
plane
Load stability
circle
= 50 Q or
ZUm =
ZI2m =
22.94LI7.01
8.62L5.27
Z21m =
Z22m
369.35L57.68
= 93.I5L - 22.88.
Since the input impedance of the device is of the order of Zllm = 22.94 Q,
the impedance of the feedback capacitance is arbitrarily taken as -j18 Q.
The feedback network can be represented by the z-matrix Zf, given by
Zf =
( -jI8
-j18
-jI8)
-j18 .
The overall z-matrix Z, of the transistor with the series capacitive feedback
is thus given by
IL-___________________O_S_C_IL_LA_T_O_R_S__________________~
Z = Zm
or
Z11
Z12
24.73L - 27.47
19.34L - 63.64
+ Zf
354.17L56.11
- 32.34.
Z21
Z22
= 101.58L
The s-matrix corresponding to Z can be obtained using (8.3). The sparameters of the transistor with feedback are given by
S11
= 2.192.d21.8
S12
0.377L - 1
S21
S22
6.897L118.75
1.153L - 82.1.
The stability factor of the modified device, i.e. the transistor with feedback, is calculated to be K = -0.44 < l.
The load stability circle Ir2 - A = b can be found by using (8.20)
i'
The load stability circle is shown in Fig. 8.12 on the rz-plane. The arrows
on the load stability circle are pointing at the region where Irll < 1 and
Ir2 1<
l.
r------,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
f
IL
Fig. 8.13
_ _ _ _ _ ...1f
c===___________SU_M__M_A_R_Y__OFD_E_SI_G_N_P_R_O_C_E_D_U_R_E_S __________~I ~
fl - plane
21 for
various
C1
Source stability
circle
Fig. 8.14
L = 21.2nH.
Output matching
network
r--------,
L
50n
L________ .-J
Fig. 8.15
To base
supply
HXTR3102
50n
C,
(3 - 15 pF)
i.!~~8 n)
open-circuit stubs
~____________________P_R_O_BL_E_M_S____________________~I ~
techniques for stub matching networks were discussed in some detail in
Chapter 4.
The value of the resonator capacitance C1 can be found in Fig. 8.14 by
noting that the mapped value of Z2 is near to the section of the locus of Zl
where the normalized reactance is about -0.3 to -0.4, hence the required
reactance of Zj is about -0.35 x 50Q = -17.5Q, or
1
2n x 1.2 x 109 x C 1
C1 = 7.6pF.
175
.
Y1Z)
Y22
+ Sm)
-1
where
Y13 = -(Yll + Y12)
Y23 = -(Y21 + YZ2)
hI = -(Yll + Yzd
Y32 = -(Y1Z + Y2Z)
Y33 = (Yll + Y1Z + Y21 + yn).
3. Show that the conversion from the y-matrix Y to the s-matrix S, both
describing the same n-port network (n = 2,3, ... ), is given by
O_S_C_IL_L_A_T_O_RS__________________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
3 x 3
Ground
Ground
Fig. P.S.l
52 x 2
r---------,
jX
I
I
I
I
.....
-.....
Ym
I
_
I
L ____-___ -1
Fig. P.S.2
from 5 m
.....
.....
--
.,
II
ZOI
1
--
--
(T I)
T
--
Output
500.
load
--
Fig. P.S.3 Common-base oscillation for P.8.6. Note: Tl and T2 are microstrip
lines of characteristic impedance ZOI and Z02, respectively.
L-_________________F_U_R_T_H_ER
__R_EA_D_I_N_G________________
~I ~
S21m
= 6.81L93
P .8.2 in order to make the transistor more liable to oscillate, derive the
necessary matrix formulae and write a computer program to evaluate
the stability factor K and to plot the load stability circle as a function of
the feedback reactance X from X = -100 Q to X = 100 Q in steps of
lOQ.
= O.94L174
SI2m
= O.013L98
IL-___________________O_S_C_IL_L_A_TO__RS__________________~
Table I
Ie
(mA)
(MHz)
5.0
5.0
S'I
S"
VeE
(Volts)
Szz
SI'
IS'II
Lq,
Isul
Lq,
Iszzl
Lq,
-38
-75
-141
178
130
11.30
9.48
5.40
2.93
1.51
153
133
100
76
48
0.03
0.05
0.07
0.09
0.16
68
55
43
48
62
0.92
0.76
0.48
0.40
0.35
-17
-29
-44
-56
-85
0.57
0.51
0.52
0.52
0.59
-58
-103
-161
166
125
16.95
12.61
6.24
3.24
1.66
145
123
93
73
47
0.03
0.04
0.06
0.09
0.17
63
53
50
61
67
0.85
0.64
0.38
0.33
0.29
-23
-35
-45
-54
-84
100
200
500
1000
2000
0.48
0.47
0.53
0.53
0.60
-75
-121
-170
162
123
20.08
13.89
6.44
3.33
1.70
139
117
91
72
46
0.02
0.04
0.05
0.09
0.18
61
53
56
66
68
0.80
0.57
0.34
0.31
0.28
-27
-38
-44
-52
-82
20
100
200
500
1000
2000
0.44
0.47
0.53
0.53
0.61
-88
-132
-175
159
122
21.62
14.33
6.45
3.31
1.69
136
114
89
70
45
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.09
0.18
60
54
60
68
70
0.76
0.53
0.32
0.31
0.28
-28
-38
-41
-50
-80
30
100
200
500
1000
2000
0.43
0.50
0.57
0.57
0.65
-112
-148
178
156
121
21.45
13.38
5.82
2.99
1.50
130
109
86
68
42
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.08
0.18
58
57
65
73
74
0.72
0.51
0.35
0.35
0.33
-28
-33
-34
-46
-78
Is,,1
Lq,
100
200
500
1000
2000
0.71
0.62
0.54
0.53
0.59
10
100
200
500
1000
2000
15
Table II
Ie
(mA)
(MHz)
10
5.0
ISZlI
Lq,
-35
-69
-135
-177
132
11.32
9.69
5.65
3.11
1.58
0.59
0.52
0.49
0.50
0.57
-52
-95
-156
170
126
100
200
500
1000
2000
0.51
0.47
0.50
0.50
0.58
100
200
500
1000
2000
100
200
500
1000
2000
Szz
Isul
Lq,
ISzzl
Lq,
154
135
101
77
48
0.03
0.05
0.07
0.08
0.14
69
57
43
50
66
0.93
0.79
0.54
0.47
0.41
-14
-25
-38
-48
-75
17.06
13.06
6.58
3.44
1.75
147
125
95
74
47
0.02
0.04
0.05
0.08
0.16
64
54
51
62
70
0.87
0.69
0.45
0.41
0.36
-19
-30
-37
-45
-72
-66
-112
-166
164
124
20.36
14.48
6.81
3.54
1.78
141
119
92
72
46
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.08
0.16
63
54
57
67
72
0.83
0.63
0.41
0.39
0.35
-22
-31
-35
-43
-70
0.47
0.46
0.50
0.51
0.59
-78
-123
-171
162
123
22.08
15.07
6.84
3.51
1.77
138
116
90
45
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.08
0.17
61
55
60
69
73
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.39
0.35
-23
-30
-32
-41
-68
0.44
0.47
0.53
0.54
0.62
-98
-139
-177
158
122
22.70
14.47
6.33
3.26
1.61
133
111
87
69
42
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.07
0.16
59
55
65
74
77
0.76
0.57
0.43
0.43
0.39
-23
-27
-28
-39
-68
Is,,1
Lq,
100
200
500
1000
2000
0.73
0.63
0.53
0.51
0.57
10
100
200
500
1000
2000
15
20
30
Su
SZl
S"
VeE
(Volts)
71
F_U_R_T_H_ER__R_EA_D_I_N_G________________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
FURTHER READING
Abe, H., et al. (1978) A highly stabilized low-noise GaAs FET integrated
oscillator with a dielectric resonator in the C-band, IEEE Transaction on
MIT, vol. MIT-20, March.
Alley, G.D. and Wang, H. (1979) An ultra-low noise microwave synthesizer, IEEE Trans. MIT, vol. MIT-27, No. 12, December.
Basawapatna, G.R. and Stancliff, R.B. (1979) A unified approach to the
design of wide-band microwave solid-state oscillators, IEEE transaction
on MIT, vol. MIT-27, no. 5, May.
Ha, T.T. (1981) Solid State Microwave Amplifier Design, Wiley.
Ishihara, O. et al., (1980) A highly stabilized GaAs FET oscillator using a
dielectric resonator feedback circuit in 9-14 GHz, IEEE Trans. MIT,
vol. MIT-28, No.8, August.
Johnson, K.M. (1979) Large signal GaAs MESFET oscillator design,
IEEE Trans. MIT, vol. MIT-27, No.3, March.
Kurokawa, K. (1976) Microwave solid state oscillator circuits in Microwave
Devices (ed. M.J. Howes and D.V. Morgan), Wiley.
Murphy AC. and Murphy P.J. (1988) Computer program aids dielectric
resonator feedback oscillator design. Microwave Journal, September.
Pengelly R.S. (1984) Microwave Field-effect Transistors - Theory, Design
and Applications, Wiley.
Vendelin G.D. (1982) Design of Amplifiers and Oscillators by the SParameter Method, Wiley.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
A spectrum analyser is basically a test instrument for displaying signals in
the frequency domain, normally over a wide range of frequencies. It is
capable of displaying the magnitude spectrum of signals, that is, the magnitude versus frequency characteristics of signals, in a similar way that Fourier
series or Fourier transforms 'display' the Fourier coefficients or the Fourier
integral as a function of frequency.
Spectrum analysers are perhaps the most popular pieces of equipment in
r.f. engineering because of their wide range of application in this area. The
primary area of applications is in the analysis of signals from a source such
as the output of an oscillator, the output of a modulator and the input to a
receiver. With a reasonable degree of accuracy they can also be used to
perform noise measurements on signals such as the carrier-to-noise ratio
of a received signal and the noise figure of a two-port circuit such as
an amplifier. Together with a matched tracking generator, a spectrum
analyser is capable of measuring the frequency response and VSWR of
two-port networks such as amplifiers and filters.
A modern spectrum analyser normally consists of a superheterodyne
receiver which captures an input signal and converts it to an intermediate
frequency by means of an up or down frequency converter. The front end
of a basic spectrum analyser is shown in Fig. 9.1.
Suppose that the signal to be analysed by the spectrum analyser can be
decomposed by Fourier series into four frequency components as shown in
Fig. 9.2. This composite signal consisting of four sinusoidal signals of
various amplitudes is fed to the input of the spectrum analyser and the
spectrum analyser should be able to display on its CRT a plot very similar
to that shown in Fig. 9.2.
The intermediate frequency (IF) of the filter shown in Fig. 9.1 is set
outside the measuring frequency range, so that input signals cannot pass
directly through the IF filter without being transformed into an IF signal.
Most spectrum analysers have their IF set at a frequency higher than the
measuring frequency range.
~__________________IN_T_R_O_D_UC_T_I_O_N__________________~I ~
Mixer
up or down
converter
Input -----II~
signal
IF bandpass
filter
IF signal
to detection
I-----I~ and display
L....-_ _---l
circuitry
Local signal
Fig. 9.1
Amplitude
Frequency
The local signal in Fig. 9.1 comes from a swept oscillator which when
sweeping through a certain range will convert each frequency in the
intended measuring range to a fixed IF according to
mixer output frequency = fIF =
fLO fs,
(9.1)
IL________________TH_E__SP_E_C_T_R_U_M_A_N_A_L_Y_S_E_R______________~
I~
Ib't Ib
f~'
=======B=a=n=d=1=======IIIr-----B-an-d-2-----.
0.6 GHz
10
o
Fig. 9.3
2.3 GHz
4.0 GHz
~-------~~-----~~~h
1.7 GHz
input range, hence in order to provide better isolation between the mixer
ports and to avoid harmonics of the input from hitting the IF port, band 2
(2.3-4.0 GHz) is chosen to be the LO sweep range, i.e.
hF
fLO -
fs
(9.2)
Thus the output of the IF filter in response to the composite input signal as
shown in Fig. 9.2 is non-zero when the LO sweep is at 2.3 GHz + Ii>
2.3 GHz + Iz, 2.3 GHz + /J and 2.3 GHz + h The magnitudes of the IF
filter output at these instances are Ai> A 2 , A3 and A 4 , respectively.
9.2 OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF A SPECTRUM ANALYSER
Fig. 9.4
(850 MHz)
1st
mixer
2nd
LO
Aoz
Sawtooth
generator
3rd
mixer
r)<J
rXJ
3rd IF
1.5 MHz
BPF
CRT
IF amp.
-----------j
1-1
r)<.J
r)<J
rp
2nd IF
70 MHz
BPF
0....)
2nd
mixer
0....)
f)<;
1st IF
2.3 GHz
BPF
0....)
()<J
1.7 GHz
LPF
*-
Detector
~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
wide band voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) and sweeps in the frequency range from 2.3 to 4.0 GHz.
For example, let us consider the sweep which is set over the entire
range of 0 to 1.7 GHz. The frequency of the local oscillator at the left
edge A of the CRT (Fig. 9.5) becomes 2.3 GHz, and, at the right edge
B, 4.0GHz, and the frequencies between these edges are linearly swept
in proportion to the inclination of A ---' B.
3. The input signal and the first LO signal are converted by the mixer to a
frequency of fLO - fs. Only when this difference in frequency is equal
to 2.3 GHz (fIF) would the output of the mixer be picked up by the first
IF filter of centre frequency equal to 2.3 GHz and fed to the second
mixer and the subsequent circuits.
For example, if the input signal frequency fs is 850 MHz and the first
LO begins to sweep from 2.3 GHz: at the beginning of the sweep the
mixer output frequency is 2.3 GHz and no signal can get through the
2.3 GHz IF filter; only when fLO, is at 2.3 GHz + 850 MHz would a
signal pass through the first IF filter. In other words, when the LO
sweep which began at 2.3 GHz reaches 3.15 GHz, the output of the
mixer becomes 2.3 GHz and passes the 2.3 GHz band-pass filter.
As pointed out in (2), the local oscillator is linearly swept from 2.3 to
4.0 GHz, so that the mid-point of the CRT horizontal axis corresponds
to 3.15 GHz.
4. We have explained that the first local oscillator frequency is varied from
2.3 to 4 GHz and the signal is picked up when the mixer output becomes
2.3 GHz. However, a problem arises when this local frequency itself
becomes 2.3 GHz. The local signal output is at a considerably higher
power level than the input signal so as to enable the mixer output to
have a response in proportion to the input power level. Consequently,
part of this local signal will pass directly to the 2.3 GHz band-pass filter
as a leakage of the first mixer even when no signal of 'zero frequency' is
present at the input. Hence in a spectrum analyser display which covers
B'
~
A
CN
C'
Scan signal
Fig. 9.5
A'
~C----CRT beam
horizontal
movement
~_ _ _ _ _ _O_P_E_R_A_T_IN_G_A_S_P_EC_T_R_U_M_A_N_A_L_YS_E_R_ _ _ _ _~I ~
zero hertz, there is always a fairly substantial spectral component at the
origin.
5. The signal converted to 2.3 GHz is mixed with the 2.23 GHz signal of
the second local oscillator to become a 70 MHz signal, and it is further
mixed with the 68.5 MHz signal of the third local oscillator to become
the final IF signal of 1.5 MHz.
6. The third IF signal is detected by a peak detector after it has been
passed through the third IF filter of bandwidth selectable from the front
panel. The last IF bandwidth of a spectrum analyser is normally
selectable over the range from 100 Hz to 300 kHz in steps. The filtered
third IF signal is then amplified by a logarithmic or linear (selectable)
amplifier before being fed to the vertical-axis input of the CRT.
Figure 9.6 shows the spectrum analyser display of an input sinusoidal
signal of Is = 850 MHz when the first local oscillator sweep range is set
from 2.3 GHz to 4.0 GHz which is equivalent to setting an input measuring
range of 0-1.70GHz.
Figure 9.7 shows the graphical representation of the spectrum analyser
display when the control settings are varied. The diagram is self explanatory and is not further elaborated here.
Input
frequency
LO
frequency
Fig. 9.6
850 MHz
1.7 GHz
2.3 GHz
3.15 GHz
4 GHz
HH_I
- - - - - - - - - - - - -----------
Setting of control
Freq. span
(wide)
----1
T~
Fig. 9.7
/
/
Freq. span
(narrow)
Centre
freq.
\\
~________C_H_A_R_A_C_TE_R_I_ST_I_C_S_O_F_A_S_P_E_C_T_R_UM
__A_N_A_L_Y_S_ER________~I ~
frequency. The noise sideband is defined as the undesirable response
caused by noise generated inside the spectrum analyser (mainly due to the
local oscillators) and it appears on the display in the vicinity of a desirable
response. The LO leakage and its associated sideband noise are shown in
Fig. 9.8.
The lower frequency limit depends on what sensitivity is required. With
reference to Fig. 9.8, if the required sensitivity is -90dBm, the limit is
about 7 kHz, but if the required sensitivity is -100 dBm, the lower
frequency limit must be greater than (roughly) 14 kHz.
9.3.2 Resolution
The frequency resolution of the spectrum analyser is its ability to separate
signals closely spaced in frequency. The frequency resolution is determined
by the bandwidth and shape factor of the last IF filter and by the sideband
noise of the spectrum analyser.
The IF bandwidth (last filter before detection) is normally specified in
terms of its 3-dB bandwidth. A narrower IF bandwidth provides better
resolution but requires more poles to implement the filter, hence a
-20 dBm
10 dB/div
/ \
\~
.~,.
I
I
I
I
~ ~A .l~ AA.I~
I 'Vl'
10 kHz
5 kHzldiv
20 kHz
IFBW:
300 Hz
AA
30 kHz
IL-______________T_H_E__SP_E_C_T_R_U_M_A_N_A_L_Y_S_ER______________~
narrower IF filter has a longer propagation delay and thus imposes a limit
on the sweep rate. For example, in order to measure an AM or FM signal
of a modulating frequency of 1 kHz, the IF bandwidth has to be at most
300 Hz, preferably 100 Hz.
In measuring closely spaced frequency components, the characteristic of
the filter shape (skirt) is important. The filter skirt is normally characterized
by the ratio of LJh dB /LJf60dB (the 3-dB to 60-dB bandwidth), which is
known as the 'IF shape factor'. The shape factor for most commercially
available spectrum analysers ranges from 1:15 to 1:5, the larger the ratio
the better, i.e. 1:5 is better than 1:15. Figure 9.9(a) shows the bandpass
characteristic of an IF filter of shape factor approximately equal to 1:7.
Figure 9. 9(b) shows the bandpass characteristic of another IF filter of
shape factor approximately equal to 1: 15. A small signal of power 50 dB
below that of a stronger signal and at a frequency 600 kHz from it will not
be detected by the spectrum analyser of an IF shape factor of 1: 15 as
illustrated in Fig. 9.9(b). However, if the same signals are input into a
spectrum analyser whose IF shape factor is 1:7 such as the one shown in
Fig. 9.9(a), the smaller signal can be detected.
In order to make an IF filter with a sharper roll-off characteristic, the
number of poles in the filter has to be increased, and this will increase the
response time of the filter. Thus the response-time requirement imposes a
limit on how sharp an IF filter can be.
9.3.3 Stability
It is important that a spectrum analyser be more frequency stable than the
signals it measures. The stability of the srvctrum analyser depends on the
frequency stability of its local oscillators. Stability is usually categorized in
terms of short-term or long-term properties.
Residual FM is a measure of the short-term stability which is similar to
having low-frequency signals frequency modulating the local oscillator and
hence the displayed signals. Residual FM is usually specified in terms of the
peak-to-peak deviation in hertz. Residual FM is illustrated in Fig. 9.1O(a).
Short-term stability is also characterized by its sideband noise, usually
specified in terms of: 'X dB below the carrier when measured with an IF
resolution (bandwidth) of B Hz at a frequency offset of YHz from the
carrier'. The sideband noise specification is an indication of the spectral
purity of the local oscillators of the spectrum analyser. The sideband noise
of a spectrum analyser is illustrated in Fig. 9.1O(b).
Long-term stability is characterized by the frequency drift of the local
oscillators of the analyser. Frequency drift is usually specified by the drift
within a certain duration, i.e. in hertz per minute or hertz per hour.
C_H_A_RA
__C_T_E_RI_S_TI_C_S_O_F_A
__S_PE_C_T_R_U_M__
A_NA_L_Y_S_E_R________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _
tJ.Fi 3 dB)
-ll-
/ \
II \
/"
-10
tJ.F(60 dB)
-1000 kHz
-3JL
\,
tJ.
Ref.
-20
t3JB
-40
-50
"Xl\
o
G
dB
-60
/ ~ -70
~
+1000 kHz
=100 kHz
=200 kHz/div
IFBW
Sweep rate
(a)
f...--"
I\\
/
-10
-20
'" "
/\
;1
/
-1000 kHz
IF BW
Sweep rate
-40
-50
r'-
Undetected
sig~al
-30
o
G
dB
-60
-70
I,
+1000 kHz
= 100 kHz
=200 kHz/div
(b)
Fig.9.9
tJ.
Ref.
0
--10
1--
Ref.
-20
1_ 30
1_ 40
G
dB
.:'-"-.-
-l-:-~
t---
",
99.5 MHz
r 60
I
-70
--'-"---
,.I.
,.I
' 'rr'VIY'
100.5 MHz
100 MHz
(a)
0
-10
-20
( "'\.
--
-30
--
/ \
IldliL lil,ll
99 MHz
XdB ---r~l
down-e
1\
J
IlIfJflrfHlII
-40
Ref.
dB
!
1-70
---''-
lilu 111I11l~AH'lI
IAIIH11I
In"T
\Til
YHz
away
101MHz
(b)
Fig, 9,10 Stability of a spectrum analyser: (a) residual FM, and (b) sideband
noise.
T_RA
__C_K_I_N_G_G_E_N_E_RA
__
TO
__
R______________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Is
CRTn
VCO
T
Ivco
SPECTRUM
ANALYSER
TRACKING
GENERATOR
Fig. 9.11
TH_E__SP_E_C_T_R_U_M_A_N_A_L_Y_S_E_R______________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Is
Is
and
Ivco - !IF
(9.3)
Ivco - fiFo
(9.4)
Hence, the tracking generator output frequency (fs) precisely tracks the
tuning frequency (fs) of the spectrum analyser since both are effectively
tuned by the same VCO. This precision tracking exists in all analyser scan
modes. Thus, in full scan, the tracking generator output is a start-stop
swept oscillator, in 'per division' scan the output is a LJF swept oscillator
and in 'zero' scan the output is simply a continuous sinusoidal (CW) signal.
- Wm)t,
(9.5)
where m is the AM modulation index, and We and Wm are the carrier and
the modulating tone (angular) frequencies, respectively.
The ratio of the carrier power to the power of one sideband is (~A~)!
(kA~m2), or 41m2. Figure 9.12 shows the time-domain (CRO display) and
frequency-domain views of a 2 % AM. From the time-domain display on the
CRO, it is virtually impossible to measure the modulation index. On the
other hand, the frequency-domain display on a spectrum analyser shows
clearly that the carrier power is 40 dB above that of its sideband power,
hence
4
40 = 1OloglO--2
or
0.02.
J@l
CROdisplay
I0
I
-10
~20
I
-30
~40
-50
~60
dB
,~
2% AM time domain
Fig. 9.12
""n~
tl.al
""
I.
~[9I
2% AM frequency
domain
Amplitude modulation.
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
o
-0.2
Fig. 9.13
456
10
11
12
T_H_E__
SP_E_C_T_R_U_M_A_N_A_L_Y_S_E_R______________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
where J n(f3) is the ordinary Bessel function of the first kind and of the nth
order, and f3 is the modulation index. The plot of I n(f3) as a function of f3
with n as a parameter is shown in Fig. 9.13.
For distortion-free detection of the modulated signals, all sidebands
must be transmitted. This implies a transmission bandwidth of infinity. In
practice, only the significant sidebands are transmitted, so that the transmission bandwidth is finite. By the word 'significant' it is usually meant all
those sidebands which have a voltage of at least 1% (-40 dB) of the
voltage of the unmodulated carrier. Measurement of FM (or PM) bandwidth with a spectrum analyser is done by simply counting the significant
sidebands. Table 9.1 shows the value of f3 where Jo(f3) (the carrier term)
vanishes.
Table 9.1 Zeros of carrier amplitude
Order of carrier zero
1
2
3
4
5
6
2.40
n(n > 6)
18.07
5.52
8.65
11.79
14.93
18.07
+ .n(n -
6)
Table 9.1 can be used in conjunction with the spectrum analyser to find
the important parameters of an FM or PM signal, namely the FM peak
frequency deviation L1f(Hz) and the FM modulator sensitivity mf(Hz V-I),
the PM peak phase deviation f3 (rad) and the PM modulator sensitivity
mp(rad V-I). These parameters are related by
fJ = mfAm for FM
fm
fJ = mpAm for PM,
where Am andfm are the amplitude and frequency of the modulating tone.
When f3 is increased from zero by increasing the modulating voltage, the
magnitude of the carrier of the FM or PM signal displayed on the spectrum
analyser will vanish at f3 = 2.40, and then at f3 = 5.52, etc. At the points
where the carrier vanishes, the value of f3 can be read from Table 9.1, fm
can be read from the spectrum analyser display, and Am can be measured
at the modulator input, hence the parameters L1f, mf and mp can be found.
A_P_P_L_IC_A_T_IO_N_S__
O_F_S_PE_C_T_R_U_M__
A_N_A_LY_S_E_R_S_________~~
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Ref.
-10
-- -20
~
-40
-50
-60
-70
AIl}.h 1M\, IlAAI'
.,\ 1" "f
'I'
Fig. 9.14
,MA iyMi
"'-
\Hea,
"1
~IAAIIJ
'r
l.oIA.. ,
"Y''''
G
dB
TH_E__
SP_E_C_T_R_U_M_A_N_A_L_Y_S_E_R______________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
lJl
Spectrum
analyser
Frequency
counter
Tracking
generator
....
"..
"..
r.f.outpu
Input
signal
A_P_P_L_IC_A_T_IO
__
N_S_O_F_S_P_EC_T_R_U_M__A_N_A_LY_S_E_R_S________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Tracking
generator
r.f. output
Short circuit
for calibration
Calibration
Transmission response
Spectrum
analyser
Input
0---+---------.---------'
Tracking 0-+--...-----.
generator
L..----r<-,---J
Calibration
Sampling
arm
l
I
I
I
Spectrum Input
analyser
o-...,----..,-----.J
Fig. 9.17
Return loss
reference plane
b
I
Return loss
Matched
termination
Short circuit
for calibration
_ _
Noise power
bandwidth
BW n
Equal area
under those curves
Ideal rectangular
filter response
Spectrum analyser
IF filter response
Frequency
Fig.9.18
----.JI ~
APP_L_IC_A_T_I_O_N_S_O_F_S_P_E_C_TR_U_M_A_N_A_L_YS_E_R_S_ _ _ _
6
Ref.
1 0
1_ 10
1-20
~30
I
(a)
IIJ'I IAj
~ijr~\
I
'I I
IABI
ijijl
III
AU
IVI
'"
-40
fl .
G
dB
-50
11101
1-60
ml
-70
0
-10
6
Ref.
-20
-30
-40
(b)
-50
A verage noise
power
G
dB
-60
-70
IF BW = 100 kHz
Video filter ON
T_H_E__
SP_E_C_T_R_U_M_A_N_A_L_Y_S_ER____________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
-32.5dBm - 40.8dB
-73.3dBm HZ-I.
PROBLEMS
1. The average noise floor of a spectrum analyser, as seen on the display is
-110 dBm when the video filter is switched on and the IF bandwidth is
set at 1 kHz. The thermal-noise bandwidth factor is 1.1. Determine the
noise figure of the spectrum analyser. Calculate also its sensitivity when
the IF bandwidth is switched to 3 MHz
Ans.: 36dB, -75dBm
Note: The noise figure is defined as the ratio of the signal-to-noise at the
system input to that at the system output.
2. The noise floor of a spectrum analyser at 1 kHz IF bandwidth is
-llOdBm. In order to achieve the stated (by manufacturer) dynamic
range of 70 dB at an input level of -30dBm, what is the maximum IF
bandwidth setting allowed? What are the implications of the stated
dynamic range on the performance of the spectrum analyser in terms of
its residual spurious components and higher harmonics?
Ans.: 10kHz, -100dBm
3. An AM modulator also produces a small amount of FM. The display of
the modulator output on a spectrum analyser shows that the first
sideband above the carrier is at -12 dBc and that the first sideband
below the carrier is at -16 dBc. Calculate the AM modulation index
and the FM modulation index.
Ans.: 0.42, 0.09
4. Most spectrum analysers have a built-in comb generator which produces
all the harmonics of a fundamental oscillator (e.g. fundamental at
100 MHz and harmonics at 200 MHz, 300 MHz, ... ) for the purpose of
frequency calibration. Explain how the comb generator can be ultilized
to measure the frequency of a signal with a degree of accuracy better
than that of the tuning display.
A comb generator of a fundamental frequency of 100 MHz is built in
to a certain spectrum analyser. The stability of the comb fundamental
oscillator is 1 in 108 . If the spectrum analyser is used to measure the
frequency of a signal at about 1.5 GHz using the comb-generator
method, determine the uncertainty of the most accurate measurement,
given that the analyser display has 2048 horizontal points.
5. The carrier level of a composite TV signal (6 MHz transmission
bandwidth) is read from the spectrum analyser as -25 dBm with the
~____________________P_R_O_BL_E_M_S_____________________~I ~
video filter switched off. The noise floor of the display with the video
filter switched on is read as -95 dBm at an IF bandwidth of 10 kHz.
Calculate the carrier-to-noise ratio of the TV signal.
Ans.: 40.5dB
6. A log-periodic antenna is intended to be used over a range from 30 MHz
to 1000 MHz. The antenna has an N-type female connector. Propose a
measurement scheme ultilizing a spectrum analyser with its tracking
generator to measure the VSWR of the antenna with respect to the
plane of the connector over the frequency range of interest.
7. The total harmonic distortion, THD(%), of a signal is defined as
THD(%) = 100 x
V(A~ + A~:l
... +
A~),
-10
Ref.
-20
-30
-40
-50
V II 1/ ~ V
0.2 GHz
Fig. P.9.1
'1 HI ~~~~ II
~~, ~~I
G
dB
-60
AH
-70
~~'I
2.2 GHz
TH_E__
SP_E_C_T_R_U_M_A_N_A_L_Y_S_E_R______________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
FURTHER READING
Ai/tech 757 spectrum analyser product note, Eaton Corp.
Benedict, B. (1983) Fundamentals of Spectrum Analysers, Tektronix.
Hewlett Packard Application Note 150, 150-1, 150-2, 150-7, 150-8, 150-9,
150-10 and 150-11.
Noise measurements using the spectrum analyser, Tektronix, Inc., 1975.
Spectrum analyser - MS62 series, Anritsu Application Note NO. 4-E,
1978-9.
Microwave Frequency
Counting
10
r------------,
I
L __________ -.l
Schmitt
trigger
Decade
<;ounter
Main gate
flip flop
Time base
oscillator
Decade divider
Fig. 10.1
Gate time
control
~~~~~---~~====~~~~~~~
Lf.
/'=fx-fn
input
fx
Low-pass
amplifier
'video amp.'
To counter
input
/, =
fx - fa
fn=nXfo
From counter
clock
200 MHz
~~
+++ ++
---'f
Fig. 10.2
Harmonics
'comb'
generator
fa
200 MHz
tuning the order of the harmonic (n) is known, hence the input frequency ix
can be found according to:
Ix
I,
+n
x 200 MHz.
Ix
50MHz + 22 x 200MHz
= 4.45 GHz.
[i87]
l,____._"________~ _.
_______________ .__ , _
--J
__
Coupling
loops
YIG sphere
~ Output
Input
s
Fig. 10.3 YIG bandpass filter.
applied static magnetic field, and is independent of the size of the YIG
sample. Hence, a YIG sphere or disc can function as a tunable cavity by
varying the applied voltage which generates the static magnetic field.
The tuning characteristic for YIG spheres is given by the simple
relationship of fr = yH, where fr is the resonant frequency in megahertz, H
is the applied magnetic field in oersted and y is the gyromagnetic ratio in
megahertz per oersted. Pure YIG has a gyromagnetic ratio of y = 2.8
megatertz per oersted.
A YIG sphere can typically be tuned over a range of more than a decade
of frequency. A simple YIG bandpass filter is shown in Fig. 10.3. The input
and output loops without the insertion of the YIG sphere are decoupled
due their orthogonal orientation. However, with the YIG sphere installed
as shown, coupling between the loops will be greatly enhanced at the
resonant frequency of the YIG sphere, thus making the structure shown in
Fig. 10.3 function as a bandpass filter.
With the aid of a YIG filter, an automatic version of the heterodyne
converter can be constructed as shown schematically in Fig. 10.4. The
manually tunable cavity filter is replaced by the electrically (magnetically)
tuned YIG filter in the automatic version of the heterodyne converter. The
passband frequency of the YIG filter is determined by an initially freerunning ramp signal from the control circuitry. When a measurable output
from the video lowpass amplifier is detected, the control circuitry will stop
the ramp signal at the voltage of that particular instant. Knowing the YIG
control voltage, and with an advance knowledge of the resonant frequency
versus tuning voltage characteristic of the YIG filter, the harmonic number
of the comb frequency chosen can be calculated.
~___________M_I_C_RO_W
__A_V_E_F_R_E_Q_U_E_N_C_Y_C_O_U_N_T_IN_G__________~I ~
Is = Ix - nlo
r.f. input
Ix
To counter
input
Video amplifier
(1-220 MHz)
nlo
Detector
YIG control
circuitry
Harmonic
number to
counter
x20
multiplier
Fig. 10.4
10 MHz clock
from counter
d. input
Vi(t) - - - - . . - I
Sampler
V,(t)
. . . - - - - - - - To counter
veo
Fig. 10.5
Zero
beat
~ IL-~~~~~_M_I_C_RO_W~A_V_E_F_R_E_Q_U_E_N_CY~C_O_U_N_T_IN_G~~~~~~
The sinusoidal signal generated by the veo is turned into a sampling
train, which can be expressed mathematically as
2:
Vo(t) =
o(t - mT),
(10.1)
m=-'JC
where T = 2nlw and w is the frequency of the veo (much lower than
the r.f. frequency to be measured).
The pulse train is then used to sample or to mix with the r.f. input signal.
The r .f. signal may be written as
(10.2)
2:""
o(t - mT)
m=-oo
Vs(t)
If the
= Vj(t)* =
veo frequency
2:
m=-oo
(10.3)
w is a sub-multiple of w x , i.e.
w =
Wx
N'
(lOA)
2:""
m=-oo
2:
m=-oo
o(t - mT).
(10.5)
M
__
IC_R_O_W_A_V_E_F_R_E_Q_U_E_N_Cy
__C_O_U_N_TI_N_G__________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Nfl = (N - l)fz
N=~
or
fz -
(10.6)
It"
fIF!
(20MHz).
(to.7)
JrFI
1m =
20 MHz
'Video'IF!
amplifier
(20 MHz)
Sweep
generator
'sawtooth'
e----i~
Frequency
translation
To counter
10 (20 KHz)
From counter
~I
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
= 11
+ 10.
(10.8)
nh - Ix
+ 10) - (nIl
nlo + 20 MHz.
= n(fl
=
- 20 MHz)
By further mixing this IF amplifier output signal with the fIFref = 20 MHz
signal from the counter and rejecting the higher-frequency components at
mixer 3, the output frequency is nfo. Since fo is a reference frequency of
20kHz sent by the counter, by counting nfo n is known. Thusfx is virtually
determined according to fx = nfl'
There are a number of parameters commonly used to describe the performance of microwave frequency counters where down-conversion techniques
are employed. These parameters are now briefly described.
(a) Frequency range
The upper frequency limit for both the heterodyne-conversion (HC) and
the transfer-oscillator (TO) counter is about 21 GHz. This is basically
limited by the frequency response of the front-end amplifier and mixer.
Higher-frequency counting is possible with additional down-converting
mixing of the input signal before it is applied to the microwave counter.
This will substantially lower the sensitivity and the measurement speed of
the whole operation.
(b) Measurennentspeed
Measurement speed is normally specified in terms of the acquisition time
of a counter reading. An HC or TO counter has a typical acquisition time
of 100 to 300ms.
(c) Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a counter is the smallest signal level that can accurately
be counted. Since both the He and TO counters have a wideband frontend mixer, the sensitivity is typically limited to about - 35 dBm.
D_O_W_N_-C_O_NV
__E_R_T_E_D_F_R_E_Q_U_E_N_C_y_C_O_U_N_T_E_R_S________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
1L-___________M_I_C_RO_W__A_V_E_F_R_E_Q_U_E_N_Cy__C_O_U_N_T_IN_G__________~
given that:
1. The low-frequency counter has a counting range of 0 to 200 MHz,
2. The required counting range (fx) is 220 to 1000 MHz,
3. The low-frequency counter provides the TO counter with two
sinusoidal reference signals at 20 MHz and 20 kHz.
2. A heterodyne frequency-counting system is shown in Fig. P.lO.1. If
the low-frequency counter has an accuracy of 40 Hz at 100 MHz and
the crystal oscillator has a time base error of 4 x 10- 7 , calculate the
measurement error (%) when the system is used to measure a 5.1 GHz
signal.
3. If the accuracy of 10- 7 is required of a digital counter with a crystal
oscillator having an aging rate of 3 x 10- 9 per day, how often should
this crystal oscillator be calibrated?
Ans.: 1 month
4. The timebase accuracy of a lO-digit counter is 10- 9 and the display
accuracy is 1 digit. If the counter is used to measure a 400 Hz signal
with a time base setting of 10 seconds, what is the measurement
accuracy?
Ans.: 2.5 x 10- 4
5. If the counter in Problem 4 with the same time base setting is used to
measure a 400 MHz signal, what is the measurement accuracy?
Ans.: 1.025 x 10-8
6. An automatic heterodyne-conversion counter has an AUTO mode with
selectable preset value for the YIG filter. The YIG filter is then swept
upwards from this preset value. The comb-frequency distance of the
system is 200 MHz. Two frequencies of 1.92GHz and 9.05GHz are
applied to the input of this counter when the YIG preset is set at
2.00 GHz. What should be the counter reading?
7. In the process of determining the harmonic number of an input of
frequency Ix using a manual TO counter, the two beat frequencies were
Mixer
(5.1GHz)
To low-frequency
counter
Ix
10
x 500
Fig. P.IO.I
10 MHz
crystal
oscillator
F_U_R_T_H_ER__R_EA_D_I_N_G________________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
found to be 168 MHz and 174 MHz. Determine the harmonic number
andfx.
Ans.: 29, 4.872GHz
8. A 10 MHz crystal oscillator is to be calibrated to an accuracy of 10- 7
with the aid of a nine-digit 500 MHz counter. What is the gate time
(measuring time) required in order to achieve this accuracy?
Ans.: >1 second
FURTHER READING
Automatic Frequency Measurement of Millimeter Waves, EIP Application
Note 20I.
Bouwens, A.I., Digital Instrument Course, Part 2 Digital Counters and
Timers, N. V. Philips' Gleoilampenfabrieken.
Fundamentals of Microwave Frequency Counters, Hewlett Packard Application Note 200-I.
Source Locking the EIP microwave source, EIP Application Note 902.
N_O_iS_e_M_e_a_S_u_r_e_m_e_n_t_-----'
1L....-_ _
+ jX
(11.1)
RL
with
F- S/Nil
- So/No Ts=To (290 K)
FdB = 1OioglOF (in dB),
(11.2)
(11.3)
~_______________N_O_IS_E_A_N_D__N_O_IS_E_F_IG_U_R_E______________~I ~
where SJNi and So/No are the signal-to-noise ratios of a system at the input
and output, respectively. In defining the noise figure, a standard temperature of To = 290 K was adopted, originally by the IRE (forerunner of the
IEEE), and this standard is widely accepted.
Figure 11.1 shows the display of the input and output signals (plus noise)
of an amplifier on a spectrum analyser. The input signal-to-noise ratio is
seen from Fig. 1l.I(a) to be 40dB. In Fig. 11.1(b) it is seen that the input
signal is amplified by 20 dB, or the system (amplifier) gain is 20 dB. While
-20
-120L-____________ ____________
2.6
2.65
2.7
~
Frequency (GHz)
(a)
-20
03
:-
... E
-40
'l.l
:::o:l
8.~ -60
:;
..s
0-
-80
-100
-12
2.6
Fig. 11.1
2.65
Frequency (GHz)
(b)
2.7
~ I~_________N_O_IS_E_M_E_A_SUREM._E_N_T_ _ ..__~_.==~
the signal is amplified by 20 dB, the noise level is increased by 30 dB. The
system amplifies equally both the signal and the noise available at its input,
and the output noise level is expected to be -80dBm. The fact that the
output noise level is -70 dBm instead of -80 dBm shows that the system
(amplifier) not only amplifies the noise available at its input, but it also
adds to the output some internally generated noise. The amount of noise
added by the system itself, usually denoted by No (watt), is thus equal to
9 x 10- 11 watt or -70.46dBm. The noise figure of the system (amplifier)
is thus equal to 10 dB according to (11.2) and (11.3), assuming all events
took place at 290 K.
The noise figure of a system can also be written as
F - S;lN; I
So/No at 290
S;/N;
K (To)
(11.4 )
where G a is the gain of the system (in ratio) and Na is the noise added by
the system itself, or
F = Na
+ kToBG a
kToBG a '
(11.5)
where N j = kToB is the available input noise power. The magnitude of kTo
(or power spectral density of the available input noise) is equal to 4.00 x
10- 21 watt per hertz of system bandwidth (B) or -174 dBm per hertz.
The noise figure of the system is the degradation in the SIN ratio as a
signal passes through the system. The system noise figure is independent of
the signal level as long as the system is levelled (constant gain).
The noise figure (F) and the noise temperature (Tc) of a system are related
by
~__________E~F~F~E~CT~I~V~E~IN~P~U~T__N~O~IS~E~T~E~M~P~E~RA__TU~R~E__________~I ~
or
So/No
GaSj(kToB)
kToGaB
kGaBTo
F = Te + To
To
(11.7)
Na = 0
Ga,B
Z,at Te
o
Temperature of source impedance
Fig. 11.2
NOISE MEASUREMENT
@Ji~_______________J
1500
8
7
1000
700
$' 5
"0
'-'
...::I
500
400
300
<1)
01)
<I::
.~
0
:z:
g
~.
200
100
1
0
16
20
Frequency (GHz)
N.
'-0_ _.L...-_ _---'L.-_
To
Th
___.
M_E_A_S_U_R_EM
__E_NT__O_F_N_O_IS_E______________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
The noise power output Nl (at Tc) and N2 are related to the effective
noise temperature Te of the system by
NJ = kGaB(Tc + Te)
(11.8)
N2 = kGaB(Th + Te)
(11.9)
Te can be related to Y by
T = Th - YTc
(11.11)
Y _ 1 '
F = Te + To
To '
F = (ThlTo - 1) - (TJTo - 1).
since
therefore
(11.12)
Y-l
FI
F2 - 1
+ -G
+ ... +
1
Flolal
Fn - 1
G G
1
G
n-l
(11.13)
= F12 reduces to
F12 =
FI
F2 - 1
+ ----c;-.
(11.14)
It can be seen in the last two equations that for a system processing very
weak signals, Flolal must be small in order to allow a high enough SIN ratio
(called the system margin) at the system output for the output signal to be
detected. It is also observed that Flolal is mainly contributed by F l , the
~ I~
_________________N_O_I_SE__M_E_A_SU_R_E_M_E_N_T________________~
First
Second
Input
noise
kToB
Na2
...- ...-"'Nat
r-----r--
_-t-----+
kToBG t
---
N at
G2
kToBG t G 2
Total
noise
added
Total
noise
power
out ut
Noise input
x
system gain
noise figure of the first stage (front end) of the system, provided the gain
G I in this stage is high. Hence it is necessary to have a low-noise and highgain device as the first stage of a system processing weak signals.
The last two equations can also be applied to noise measurements. The
system to be measured (DUT) can be considered as the first stage and the
measuring equipment can be considered as the second stage of a two-stage
system. The noise figures and the noise temperatures for these two stages
are (Flo Tel) and (F2' Te2 ), respectively. The noise figure measured is not
FI but F 12 , therefore in order to find Flo a knowledge of the noise figure of
the equipment F2 and the gain G I of the DUT is necessary.
A calibration procedure where the noise source is fed directly into the
measuring equipment is performed and the result is shown in Fig. 11.6(b).
The noise N~ added by the measuring system itself can be deduced from
the calibration as shown in Fig. 11.6(b), from which the system noise figure
F2 can be found.
From the results of the DUT measurement and the system calibration as
shown in Fig. 1l.6(a) and Fig. 11.6(b), it is seen that the gain G I of the
DUT is equal to the ratio of the slopes in these plots, i.e.
_ (N2 - Nl)/(Th - Tc)
Gl
(Nz - Ni)/(Ti, -
T~)
(11.15)
(11.16)
Since both F2 and G 1 are found, the required noise figure Fl for the DUT is
~_______________M_E_A_S_U_R_EM__EN_T__O_F_N_O_I_SE______________~I ~
(a)
N2
slope =kGpj3
-N
= N_,_
T-T
h
c
(b)
N;
N;
N~
O L---~--------------~----~~~
Th
T~
slope
N~ - N'
=kGj3 = _,_-___
,1
Th - Tc
+ measuring
~~-I
~~
,--------
L _ ______
~-~-~~--~~~~-
-----
NOISE MEASUREMENT
obtained. The method just described for measuring the noise figure forms
the basis for all system noise characterization.
,------------1
Bias
input
Noise
output
L___________ ..J
Fig. 11.7
N_O_I_S_E-_F_IG_U_R_E_M
__
EA_S_U_R_E_M_E_N_T________----~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
(Th ;0290 )
(11.17)
or
(11.18)
Power
meter
Solid-state
noise
source
Noise source
Bias voltage
N_O_I_SE__M_E_A_SU_R_E_M_E_N_T________________~
L I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
S_I_D_EB_A_N_D__
M_E_A_SU_R_E_M_E_N_T_S____________~
__~
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
r--------------I
I
I
Power
meter
IL ______________
fM =
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
fLO - flF
of the NFM is such that it allows a noise input of 1.0 GHz to be measured
by the NFM. There are two noise frequencies at the input of the whole
system, 0.5 GHz and 2.5 GHz, that when mixed with the system LO of
1.5 GHz, will produce a 1.0 GHz noise signal for the NFM to detect.
Therefore the NFM will given a noise power reading for fM = 2.5 GHz that
is actually the sum of the noise power for fM = 2.5 GHz and fM = 0.5 GHz.
Hence the noise power detected by a noise-measuring system with down
conversion is always higher than the actual value. This is a consequence of
the double-sideband measurement technique.
flat over the entire frequency range of 0-3.0GHz, the noise powers from
Measurement system
Solid-state
noise
source
Noise
figure
meter
Noise
source
drive
_
I
I
~oltag~
[-_____ ___
~=~
NOISE~~~~URErV1ENT---'----'-"-'-
the OUT at 0.5 GHz and at 2.5 GHz are the same. Hence the noise power
shown by the NFM for 1M = 2.5 GHz is twice as much as it should be, and
therefore the correct reading should be 3 dB below the reading shown by
the NFM in a DSB noise measurement. However, a 3 dB adjustment to the
noise power measured by the DSB method is only valid if the OUT has a
constant response at both the intended measuring band and its corresponding image band. If a OUT does not have a constant response at both the
measuring and the image bands, a high-pass filter (e.g. cutoff at 1.5 GHz
for the system in the previous example) has to be inserted between the
OUT and the system mixer so that the noise power contributed by the
image band (0-1.5 GHz) can be eliminated. Sometimes, a lowpass filter
instead of a high-pass filter is required in order to prevent noise at the
image band affecting the system. Whether a low-pass or a high-pass filter
is required depends on whether the image band is above or below the
measuring band frequencies, respectively. Down-converted measurements
with an image-rejection filter are known as single-sideband (SSB) measurements. A noise figure measured by the down-conversion technique has
therefore to be qualified by specifying whether it is obtained by the DSB or
the SSB method.
11.9 SUMMARY
There are essentially two kinds of noise-figure measuring systems. One is
for single-frequency operation like that shown in Fig. 11.8, which consists
of a bandpass filter and a detector-meter. This type of system is known as
the system noise monitor. A system noise monitor is particularly useful
when installed permanently into a communication link (e.g. a satellite
receiver) or a radar system so that the noise performance of the system can
be checked either continuously or when required. The other kind of noisemeasuring system is the tunable type like those shown in Fig. 11.9 and Fig.
11.10. This type of instrument is particularly useful for characterizing
devices such as amplifiers, filters and mixers, where the noise-figure or the
noise-temperature frequency response is desired.
PROBLEMS
1. The Ailtech (Eaton) 757 spectrum analyser has an IF output (to
external connector) at 21.4 MHz. Design a noise-measuring system
using the Ailtech 757 and a fixed-tuned noise-figure meter (tunable to
21.4 MHz) that is capable of measuring the noise figure of devices from
10 MHz to 18 GHz (the entire input range of Ailtech 757), in sweep
mode.
2. Show that for a two-stage system with noise figures FI and F 2 , effective
noise temperatures Tel and Te2' and gains G I and G 2 , for the first and
the second stages are, respectively,
P_R_O_BL_E_M_S~------------------~I ~
L -____________________
F2 - 1
F12 = Fl + 0;-'
where Te12 and F12 are the effective noise temperature and the noise
figure, respectively, of the whole system.
3. A 12 GHz direct-broadcast satellite TV down link has the following
characteristics.
Transmitter power
Transmitter antenna gain
Bandwidth of transmission
Feeder loss
Transmission path Path loss
Atmospheric attenuation:
Receiver
Antenna gain
Calculate:
Transmitter
lOOW
39dB
27 MHz
3dB
206 dB (38000 km)
2dB
38dB
~ ~I
N_O_I_SE__M_E_A_SU_R_E_M_E_N_T________________~
_________________
LSig) ( 1 + 1:
Te )
FssB = ( 1 + L
1m
and
F DSB = 1
~~.
Conversion loss: 20 dB
Noise figure: 8 dB
Image rejection: lOdB.
Assuming that all ports are perfectly matched, calculate the noise figure
measured (i) by the SSB method, and (ii) by the DSB method.
Ans.: 8.4dB; 8.0dB
FURTHER READING
Fundamentals of RF and microwave noise figure measurements (1983)
Hewlett Packard Application Note 57-1, July.
Measuring noise performance factors (1983) published by Ailtech Instruments.
W.E. Pastori (1983) Image and second-stage corrections resolve noise
figure measurement confusion. Microwave Systems News, May.
W.E. Pastori (1983) Transform noise figure to noise temperature. Microwaves and RF, May.
J.B. Winderman (1980) Perform true DSB to SSB noise figure conversions,
Microwaves, July.
12
L I_ _ _ _
ALe
PIN
attenuator
t-------l~ Sweep
output
Sweep
generator
Fig. 12.1
Swept oscillator.
Lr. output
Directional
coupler
SC_A_L_A_R__
N_ETW
___
O_R_K_A_N_A_L_Y_SI_S___________~
__~
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
reverse configuration where the power is fed into port 2 of the network.
In both configurations the reflection coefficient (Sl1 or S22) is measured
at the point where the input power is applied to the network. From these
measurements of SII, SI2, S2I and S22, a whole list of other parameters, such
as return loss, input and output VSWR, insertion loss, and gain and input/
output impedances, can be obtained.
The reflection and transmission coefficients (Sl1' S12, S21 and S22) are, in
general, complex quantities with phase as well as magnitude. It is obvious
that measuring magnitude ratios is simpler than measuring both the
magnitude ratios and phase differences of two quantities. Therefore, a
class of equipment, known as scalar network analysers, is specifically
designed to measure the magnitude of the transmission coefficient and the
return loss of a network. Although a scalar network analyser cannot be
used to specify fully a network due to the lack of phase information, it is
still very useful in checking whether a network, a device or a system is
functioning properly, and in the preliminary tuning of the network. In
some research and development applications it is sometimes required to
find out why a network does not function, and then both phase as well as
magnitude measurements are necessary. These measurements require a
class of equipment known as vector network analysers (VNA).
12.4 SCALAR NETWORK ANALYSIS
A scalar network analyser (SNA) system (see Fig. 12.2) normally consists
of a swept oscillator, a signal-separation device and a power-detection
system. A fairly popular way of constituting a SNA system is to use a swept
oscillator, a signal-separation device and a frequency-response test set
(also known as a scalar network analyser). The test set comes with three
crystal detectors which provide a d.c. or low-frequency output voltages
proportional to the input power.
The Lf. signal from the swept oscillator is fed into the signal-separation
device. A small portion of this incident signal power is sampled by a
coupling arm to be detected by detector R whereas the rest of the incident
power goes through the separation device and acts as the input signal
power to the DDT. The d.c. voltage detected by the detector R is
proportional to the Lf. power sampled by the detector and hence it is also
proportional to the actual power input to the DDT. A portion of the signal
power fed to the DDT is reflected by the DDT to the separation device if
the input impedance of the DDT is not equal to the system impedance Zoo
A small portion of the reflected power is sampled by another coupler arm
and is detected by detector A. The d.c. outputs of detector R and detector
A represent the incident and reflected power of the DDT, hence the ratio
of A and R is proportional to the square of the input reflection coefficient
t~'l\:PI"
Swept oscillator
----. Freq.
Sweep
output
Lf.
output
)
R
()
c:>
:>
IDet~ctor I Det~ctor
+l
DUT
Signal-separation
device
of the D UT. Since the test set takes the ratio of V A/VR and displays it in
decibels against frequency, the vertical axis of the display is equal to the
return loss (L R ), i.e.
LR
VA
(12.1 )
It is noted that (12.1) is only correct if the coupling arms to A and R have
~______________SC_A_L_A_R__NE_T_W__O_RK__A_N_A_L_Y_SI_S____________~I ~
reflectometer bridges. The schematic of a dual-directional coupler is shown
in Fig. 12.3.
The main advantage of using a dual-directional coupler as the signalseparation device is that theoretically any variation of coupling factor CR
with frequency will be the same as that for CA , and since it is the ratio of
the R and A outputs which is measured, any frequency variation due to the
coupler will be cancelled.
Another commonly used signal-separation device is the reflectometer
bridge as shown schematically in Fig. 12.4. The two detectors R and A are
normally built into the bridge. They produce a d.c. or low-frequency (if the
swept oscillator is amplitude modulated by a low-frequency signal in the
order of kilohertz) voltage which is proportional to the power dissipated
in the 50 Q loads that they are connected to. It is not difficult to show that
the voltage across the balancing 50 Q resistor (reflection) is directly proportional to the reflection coefficient of the device connected to the test
port and that the voltage across the 'incident' 50 Q resistor is directly
proportional to the input power. The reflectometer bridge can also be
represented schematically by a circuit symbol similar to that of a dualdirectional coupler, as shown in Fig. 12.5.
Coming back to the scalar network analyser system shown in Fig. 12.2,
the d.c. or low frequency output voltage of detector B is proportional to
the output power of the OUT. The transmission coefficient of the OUT
can be displayed as the ratio of VBIVR in decibels on the frequencyresponse test set.
The frequency-response test set has three d.c. (or low-frequency) inputs,
R, A and B. It normally has two traces on its CRT display. The test set can
display the absolute power of either two of R, A and B in dBm or the ratio
of V AIVR and VBIVR in decibels on the vertical axis. The input to the
horizontal axis of the display is the sweep signal (time base) of the swept
oscillator, which corresponds to the frequency axis.
Since d.c. voltages are more difficult to amplify and compare accurately,
almost all frequency-response test sets provide a low-frequency square-
-20 dBm
(0.01 mW)
Matched
termination
CA = 20 dB
A
Matched
termination
o dBm
~~------t~
(1 mW)
Fig. 12.3 20 dB dual-directional coupler.
-0.044 dBm
(0.99 mW)
_A_N_D_N_E_T~WORK ANALYSERS
S_W_E_P_T_M_E_A_S_U_R_E_M_E_N_T_S
L I_ _ _ _
r.f.
input
50
(Reflection)
Short for
fioIl-/+-- calibration
/
<
"
///~ DUT
",/ /
Fig. 12.4
Reflectometer bridge.
Incident
(R)
Reflection
(A)
r.f.
input
Test
port
Fig. 12.5 Schematic diagram ot a reflectometer bridge. Incident (R) has r.t. input
coupling -6dB; Reflection (A) has test port coupling -9dB; and the test port has
r.t. input coupling -9 dB.
--'I ~
O_T_H_E_R_SC_A_L_A_R_N_E_TW_O_RK_-_A_N_A_LY_S_E_R_S_Y_S_T_EM_S_ _ _
L - -_ _ _ _
wave signal (e.g. 1kHz or 27.8 kHz) to modulate the swept oscillator into
pulsed r.f. mode, so that the outputs of the detectors are square waves of
1 kHz or 27.8 kHz.
12.5 OTHER SCALAR NETWORK-ANALYSER SYSTEMS
The spectrum analyser/tracking generator system together with a directional coupler acting as the signal-separation device as described in Section
9.5 form a complete scalar network-analyser (SNA) system. This type of
SNA is accurate, easy to use and easy to calibrate. It does not rely on
expensive crystal detectors which are non-repairable. In performing
transmission measurements they offer a large dynamic range, which is
basically the dynamic range of the spectrum analyser. The only commonly
encountered problem with this type of SNA is in the measurement of small
reflection signals because of the coupling factor (say 20 dB) of the
reflection sampling arm of the coupler. The cost of an SNA system based
on a spectrum analyser is slightly more than that of a system based on a
frequency-response test set. However, it is noted that a spectrum analyser
is a general instrument with many application areas. This fact should also
be taken into account in comparing the costs of various SNA systems.
A cheaper SNA system can be configured using power meters as shown
in Fig. 12.6. It is noted that power meters used for this purpose must have
fast acquisition time and that analogue outputs must be available in order
for the output voltage to be displayed on the oscilloscope.
meter
Swept oscillator
Sweep
r.f.
output
Scope
~
ChI
L.......j-Oll'O
Ch2
meter
@DI
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
IF. BPF
IF (fixed)
'------' Reference
Reference
channel
Sweptosc.
r----,
I
I
I
l-+-~
~-r-....J
I
I
I
IL ___ ..JI
IF (fixed)
Test
channel
Mixer
'------' Test
IFBPF
~______________S_O_U_R_C_E_S_Y_N_C_H_RO__N_IZ_A_TI_O_N______________~I ~
IF
Test
LO
(yeO)
Swept
osc.
r.f. reference
channel
IF
Reference
Line
stretcher
Fig. 12.8
Phase equalization.
[j~~
L I_ _ _
Phase
To power splitter
Sweep osc.
Reference
oscillator
fixed at
fIF = 100 kHz
fIF =
100 kHz
Reference channel
From r.f.
test and
reference
channel
0.1 to 1.5 GHz
LO
0.1001
(yeO) To 1.5001 GHz
To phase and
magnitude
comparator
and display
Test channel
fIF
100 kHz
PROBLEMS
1. For the reflectometer shown in Fig. 12.4, show that the output voltage
___________________P_RO_B_L_EM__S________________~I ~
~C===
Output
DUT
Input
r--I
I
I
I
I
I
---------------,I
I
I
I
I
To test channel
for reflection
measurements
I
I
I
I
To reference
channel
I
I
I
Line
I
IL __ ~ ______________
stretcher
I
~
Signal source
from
swept oscillator
[222 I [-
.=-
t
t-----------~I.- Pi
(b)
Fig. P.12.1
arm is 9 dB below the power reflected back into the bridge at the test
port.
3. The coupling factor C of a directional coupler as shown in Fig. P.12.l(a)
is given by
P
C = 10 iog lO p;
Pf
D = lOiog lO Ph'
F_U_R_T_H_ER__R_E_A_D_IN_G__________________~I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
o dBm
o dBm
Short
circuit
------II [J
~ ~I
Fig. P.12.2
ISI1I
IS121
=
=
-27 dB
-0.05dB
LS I1
LS 12
8
= 30
=
IS211
Iszzl
-0.1 dB
= -30dB
LS 21 =
LS22 =
30
_12.
Index
Active biasing 86
Admittance chart 53
Alumina 26, 27
AM 1, 173, 176, 192
Amplifier
small-signal 91-108
broadband 113
low-noise 109-13, 115
high-gain 114
power 119-37
Associated gain 77, 78
Attenuation constant 8, 10
Available power
power available 95
noise 195, 197
Avalanche diode 203
Balanced stubs 134, 136
Bandwidth 43, 70, 197, 208
IF 168,169,179,181
BJT3, 71,119,139
biasing 86
data-sheet 77-85
design 116, 117
Boltzmann's constant 86, 172, 195, 197
Broadband 113
Characteristic
admittance 10
impedance 9, 22
Clapp 139
Class A 85,119,137
ClassAB 85
Class B 85,119,137
Class C 119,137,138,139
biasing, 121, 122
Class D 119
ClassE 119
Class S 119
Colpitt 139
Conjugate matching 104,107-11,114,
126
Constant power gain circles 104, 106
Constant Q curves 57
Complex conjugate 129
Coupling factor 214,221,222
Dielectric resonator oscillator (DRO) 2
Direct broadcasr satellite (DBS) 2
Directional coupler 178, 217, 220-2
Dissipation factor 27,28
see loss tangent
Dynamic range 120, 172
Effective input noise temperature 197
Effective permittivity 22-6
Electrical length 216
Equivalent noise resistance 77,80,81
FAX 2
Feedback 36, 73, 75, 96, 140,211
FET 139,198
biasing, 85
Frequency counting 184-92
FM 1, 174
residual 169
incidental 176
GaAs FET 3,71
Gain
maximum available 79, 82
operating power 95
transducer power 95
unilateral transducer 97
Gain compression 120, see 1 dB
compression
Harmonic 43,119,163,185,188
distortion, 120
Hartley, 139
HBT71
(heterojunction bipolar transistor)
HEMT71,198
(high electron mobility transistor)
Heterodyne conversion, 185-8, 191,
206,216
~______
_______________IN_D_E_X______________________~I
Phase constant 8, 9
PIN diode 211
Potentially unstable 82, 102, 104, 106,
110, 114, 139
Power meter 204, 216
Propagation coefficient 8
Propagation velocity 22
PTFE (polytetrafluorethylene) 20, 26
Q curves 56,131
Quality factor (Q factor) 42, 43, 46, 57
Quarter wave transformer 14, 68
Quasi-TEM 21
Radio frequency choke (RFC) 121, 122,
127, 136, 137
Reflection coefficient 11, 13
Reflection loss 18
Residual FM 169
Resolution 168
Return loss 18
Rollet, see stability factor
s-parameter 31-41
Short-circuit stub 60, 63, 64
Smith chart 15, 17,51
Source stability circles 103, 104, 105
Spectrum analyser 161-83
Stability factor (Rollet's) 101, 106, 107
Stub matching 60
single 60, 61, 62
double 64, 65
SUPERCOMP ACT 117
Swept oscillator 162, 172,211
Synthesizer 210,211
Teflon (PTFE) 20, 26
Thermal noise 179, 180, 195
measurement 178-181
TOUCHSTONE 117
Tracking generator 172
Transducer power gain 82, 95-8, 109,
111
~I
IN_D_E_X__________________~
L ___________________
Woven 27
Wavelength 12,24,68
Z-parameters 140,142
Y-parameters 76, 77
Yttrium-iran-garnet (YIG) 163, 186