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BJT Small Signal Analyzing
BJT Small Signal Analyzing
BJT Small Signal Analyzing
iB
iC
vBE
vsat
vCE
For example, the input AC signal results in small changes in vBE around 0.7 V (Q point) and
corresponding changes in iB . The simple model cannot be used to calculate these changes
(It assume vBE is constant!). Also for a fixed iB , iC is not exactly constant as is assumed in
the simple model (see iC vs vCE graphs). As a whole, the simple large signal model is not
sufficient to describe the AC behavior of BJT amplifiers where more accurate representations
of the amplifier gain, input and output resistance, etc. are needed.
A more accurate, but still linear, model can be developed by assuming that the changes in
transistor voltages and currents due to the AC signal are small compared to corresponding
Q-point values and using a Taylor series expansion. Consider function f (x). Suppose we
know the value of the function and all of its derivative at some known point, x0 . Then, value
57
of the function in the neighborhood of x0 can be found from the Taylor Series expansion as:
(x)2 d2 f
df
+ ...
+
f (x0 + x) = f (x0 ) + x
dx x=x0
2 dx2 x=x0
Close to our original point of x0 , x is small and the high order terms of this expansion
(terms with (x)n , n = 1, 2, 3, ...) usually become very small. Typically, we consider only
the first order term, i.e.,
df
f (x0 + x) f (x0 ) + x
dx x=x0
The Taylor series expansion can be similarly applied to function of two or more variables
such as f (x, y):
f
f
+
y
f (x0 + x, y0 + y) f (x0 , y0 ) + x
x x0 ,y0
y x0 ,y0
In a BJT, there are four parameters of interest: iB , iC , vBE , and vCE . The BJT iv characteristics plots, specify two of the above parameters, vBE and iC in terms of the other two,
iB and vCE , i.e., vBE is a function of iB and vCE (written as vBE (iB , vCE ) similar to f (x, y))
and iC is a function of iB and vCE , iC (iB , vCE ).
Lets assume that BJT is biased and the Q point parameters are IB , IC , VBE and VCE . We
now apply a small AC signal to the BJT. This small AC signal changes vCE and iB by small
values around the Q point:
iB = IB + iB
The AC changes, iB and vCE results in AC changes in vBE and iC that can be found
from Taylor series expansion in the neighborhood of the Q point, similar to expansion of
f (x0 + x, y0 + y) above:
vBE
vBE
iB +
vCE
iB
vCE
iC
iC
+ vCE ) = IC +
iB +
vCE
iB
vCE
where all partial derivatives are calculated at the Q point and we have noted that at the Q
point, vBE (IB , VCE ) = VBE and iC (IB , VCE ) = IC . We can denote the AC changes in vBE
ECE60L Lecture Notes, Winter 2002
58
vBE
vBE
iB +
vCE ,
iB
vCE
iC =
iC
iC
iB +
vCE
iB
vCE
where the partial derivatives are the slope of the iv curves near the Q point. We define
hie
vBE
,
iB
hre
vBE
,
vCE
hf e
iC
,
iB
hoe
iC
vCE
iC = hf e iB + hoe vCE
V1 = hie iB
-
+
V2 = hre v CE
h ie
hre v CE
+
-
59
i1 = h fe iB
v
i = h oe v
2
CE
1/hoe
CE
CE
C
+
hfe iB
h ie
+
v
BE
hre v CE
+
-
C
+
hfe iB
1/hoe
CE
The small-signal model is mathematically valid only for signals with small amplitude. But
the model is so useful that is often used for sinusoidal signals with amplitudes approaching
those of Q-point parameters by using average values of h parameters. h parameters are
given in manufacturers spec sheets for each BJT. It should not be surprising to note that
even in a given BJT, h parameter can vary substantially depending on manufacturing
statistics, operating temperature, etc. Manufacturers spec sheets list these h parameters
and give the minimum and maximum values. Traditionally, the geometric mean of the
minimum and maximum values are used as the average value in design (see table).
Since hf e = iC /iB , BJT = iC /iB is sometimes called hF E in manufacturers spec sheets
and has a value quite close to hf e . In most electronic text books, , hF E and hf e are used
interchangeably.
60
r = hie (k)
hre
hf e
hoe (S)
ro = 1/hoe (k)
re = hie /hf e ()
Maximum
10
8 104
400
40
1,000
25
Average*
3
2 104
200
6
150
15
* Geometric mean.
As hre is small, it is usually ignored in analytical calculations as it makes analysis much
simpler. This model, called the hybrid- model, is most often used in analyzing BJT circuits.
In order to distinguish this model from the hybrid model, most electronic text books use a
different notation for various elements of the hybrid- model:
r = hie
i
1
hoe
= hf e
i
+
v
ro =
BE
hfe iB
h ie
1/hoe
BE
ro
The above hybrid- model includes a current-controlled current source. This implies that
BJT behavior is controlled by iB . In reality, vBE controls the BJT behavior. A variant of the
hybrid- model can be developed which includes a voltage-controlled current source. This
can be achieved by noting it the above model that vBE = hie iB and
hf e iB = hf e
vBE
= gm vBE
hie
hf e
Transfer conductance
hie
1
hie
re
=
Emitter resistance
gm
hf e
gm
BE
gm vBE
+
r
ro
61
R1
vi
Cc
vo
R2
RE
VCC = 0
R1
vi
Cc
vi
Cc
vo
vo
E
R2
RE
R1
R2
RE
62
We can combine R1 and R2 into RB (same resistance that we encountered in the biasing
analysis) and replace the BJT with its small signal model:
vi
Cc
+
v
RB
BE
vi
Cc
hfe iB
vo
1/hoe
h ie
RB
RE
1/hoe
vo
h ie
h fe iB
RE
The figure above shows why this is a common collector configuration: collector is shared
between input and output AC signals. We can now proceed with the analysis. Node voltage
method is usually the best approach to solve these circuits. For example, the above circuit
will have only one node equation for node at point E with a voltage vo :
vo v i vo 0
vo 0
+
iB +
=0
r
ro
RE
Because of the controlled source, we need to write an auxiliary equation relating the control
current (iB ) to node voltages:
iB =
vi v o
r
Substituting the expression for iB in our node equation, multiplying both sides by r , and
collecting terms, we get:
vi (1 + ) = vo 1 + + r
1
1
+
ro RE
= vo
"
r
1++
ro k R E
vo
=
vi
1+
r
(1 + )(ro k RE )
Unless RE is very small (tens of ), the fraction in the denominator is quite small compared
to 1 and Av 1.
To find the input impedance, we calculate ii by KCL:
ii = i1 + iB =
vi v o
vi
+
RB
r
63
vi
= RB
ii
Note that RB is the combination of our biasing resistors R1 and R2 . With alternative biasing
schemes which do not require R1 and R2 , (and, therefore RB ), the input resistance of
the emitter follower circuit will become large. In this case, we cannot use vo vi . Using the
full expression for vo from above, the input resistance of the emitter follower circuit becomes:
Ri
vi
= RB k [r + (RE k ro )(1 + )]
ii
VCC
R1
R1
Cc
vi
vi
Cc
vo
R2
vo
RE = RL
R2
RE is the Load
vi
Cc
vo
vi
Cc
RL
Separate Load
i
RB
RE
RE
ro
RB
vo
B
ro
RE
RL
C
Ro
Ro
Alternatively, the load can be placed in parallel to RE . This is done when the common
collector amplifier is used as a buffer (Av 1, Ri large). In this case, the output resistance
is denoted by Ro0 (see figure). For this circuit, BJT sees a resistance of RE k RL . Obviously,
if we want the load not to affect the emitter follower circuit, we should use RL to be much
ECE60L Lecture Notes, Winter 2002
64
larger than RE . In this case, little current flows in RL which is fine because we are using
this configuration as a buffer and not to amplify the current and power. As such, value of
Ro0 or Ai does not have much use.
When RE is the load, the output resistance can
be found by killing the source (short vi ) and finding the Thevenin resistance of the two-terminal
network (using a test voltage source).
vi
Cc
B
i
vT
iB
RB
iT
ro
vT
iB
KCL:
iT = iB +
ro
KVL (outside loop):
r iB = vT
Ro
Substituting for iB from the 2nd equation in the first and rearranging terms we get:
Ro
vT
(ro ) r
(ro ) r
r
r
=
= re
iT
(1 + )(ro ) + r
(1 + )(ro )
(1 + )
RB
io
=
ii
RE
In summary, the general properties of the common collector amplifier (emitter follower)
include a voltage gain of unity (Av 1), a very large input resistance Ri RB (and can
be made much larger with alternate biasing schemes). This circuit can be used as buffer for
matching impedance, at the first stage of an amplifier to provide very large input resistance
(such in 741 OpAmp). As a buffer, we need to ensure that RL RE . The common collector
amplifier can be also used as the last stage of some amplifier system to amplify the current
(and thus, power) and drive a load. In this case, RE is the load, Ro is small: Ro = re and
current gain can be substantial: Ai = RB /RE .
Impact of Coupling Capacitor:
Up to now, we have neglected the impact of the coupling capacitor in the circuit (assumed
it was a short circuit). This is not a correct assumption at low frequencies. The coupling
capacitor results in a lower cut-off frequency for the transistor amplifiers. In order to find the
cut-off frequency, we need to repeat the above analysis and include the coupling capacitor
ECE60L Lecture Notes, Winter 2002
65
impedance in the calculation. In most cases, however, the impact of the coupling capacitor
and the lower cut-off frequency can be deduced be examining the amplifier circuit model.
Consider our general model for any
amplifier circuit. If we assume that
coupling capacitor is short circuit
(similar to our AC analysis of BJT
amplifier), vi0 = vi .
Ro
Cc
Vi
Vi
Ri
Io
+
AVi
Vo
ZL
When we account for impedance of the capacitor, we have set up a high pass filter in the
input part of the circuit (combination of the coupling capacitor and the input resistance of
the amplifier). This combination introduces a lower cut-off frequency for our amplifier which
is the same as the cut-off frequency of the high-pass filter:
l = 2 fl =
1
Ri Cc
Lastly, our small signal model is a low-frequency model. As such, our analysis indicates
that the amplifier has no upper cut-off frequency (which is not true). At high frequencies,
the capacitance between BE , BC, CE layers become important and a high-frequency smallsignal model for BJT should be used for analysis. You will see these models in upper division
courses. Basically, these capacitances results in amplifier gain to drop at high frequencies.
PSpice includes a high-frequency model for BJT, so your simulation should show the upper
cut-off frequency for BJT amplifiers.
66
VCC
VCC
RC
R1
RC
R1
vo
vi
vo
Cc
vi
Cc
R2
R2
Cb
RE
Poor Bias
For this new circuit and with the capacitors open circuit, this circuit is the same as our
good biasing circuit of page 57. The bias point currents and voltages can be found using
procedure of pages 57 and 58.
AC analysis: To start the analysis, we kill all DC sources, combine R1 and R2 into RB and
replace the BJT with its small signal model. We see that emitter is now common between
input and output AC signals (thus, common emitter amplifier. Analysis of this circuit is
straightforward. Examination of the circuit shows that:
vi
vi = r iB
Cc
vo = (Rc k ro ) iB
Rc
vo
= (Rc k ro ) Rc =
Av
vi
r
r
re
Ri = R B k r
Ro = r o
C
i
RB
vo
iB
RC
ro
E
Ro
The negative sign in Av indicates 180 phase shift between input and output. The circuit
has a large voltage gain but has medium value for input resistance.
As with the emitter follower circuit, the load can be configured in two ways: 1) Rc is the
load. Then Ro = ro and the circuit has a reasonable current gain. 2) Load is placed in
parallel to Rc . In this case, we need to ensure that RL Rc . Little current will flow in RL
and Ro and Ai values are of not much use.
Lower cut-off frequency: Both the coupling and bypass capacitors contribute to setting
the lower cut-off frequency for this amplifier. After some involved analysis one arrives at:
l = 2 fl =
1
1
+
Ri Cc (RE + re )Cb
67
VCC
R1
RC
vo
Cc
vi
R2
vE
vE v o
vE v i
+
iB +
=0
r
RE
ro
vo v E
vo
+
+ iB = 0
RC
ro
vi v E
iB =
(Controlled source aux. Eq.)
r
C1
+
v
RB
BE
vo
iB
r
ro
E
RE
RC
=0
RC
ro
r
Above are two equations in two unknowns (vE and vo ). Adding the two equation together
we get vE = (RE /RC )vo and substituting that in either equations we can find vo .
Alternatively, we can find compact and simple solutions by noting that terms containing ro
in the denominator are usually small as ro is quite large. In this case, the node equations
simplify to (using r / = re ):
1
vi
RE
1
vE
+
=
vE =
vi
RE re
re
RE + r e
RE
RC
RC
RC
vo =
(vE vi ) =
1 vi =
vi
re
re RE + r e
RE + r e
68
Then, the voltage gain and input and output resistance can also be easily calculated:
RC
RC
vo
=
vi
RE + r e
RE
Ri = RB k [(RE + re )]
Ro = re
Av =
As before the minus sign in Av indicates a 180 phase shift between input and output signals.
Note the impact of negative feedback introduced by the emitter resistance. The voltage gain
is independent of BJT parameters and is set by RC and RE as RE re (recall OpAmp
inverting amplifier!). The input resistance is increased dramatically.
A Possible Biasing Problem: The gain of the common
emitter amplifier with the emitter resistance is approximately
RC /RE . For cases when a high gain (5-20) is needed, RE may
be become so small that the necessary good biasing condition,
VE = RE IE > 1 V cannot be fulfilled. The solution is to use a
by-pass capacitor as is shown. The AC signal sees an emitter
resistance of RE1 while for DC signal the emitter resistance is
RE = RE1 + RE2 .
Lower cut-off frequency: Both the coupling and bypass capacitors contribute to setting the lower cut-off frequency for this
amplifier. After some involved analysis one arrives at:
l = 2 fl =
VCC
R1
RC
vo
vi
Cc
R2
RE1
RE2
Cb
1
1
+
Ri Cc (RE2 + re )Cb
Note that if the by-pass capacitor does not exist, the second term should not be included in
the expression for l .
69
VCC
R1
vi
Cc
Ri = RB k [r + (RE k ro )(1 + )] RB
vo
(ro ) r
r
= re
(1 + )(ro ) + r
1
2 fl =
Ri Cc
Ro =
R2
VCC
Common Emitter:
Rc
(Rc k ro ) Rc =
r
r
re
Ri = R B k r
RE
Av =
R1
RC
vo
vi
Cc
Ro = r o
2 fl =
1
1
+
Ri Cc (RE + re )Cb
R2
Cb
RE
RE1 + re
RE1
Ri = RB k [(RE1 + re )]
VCC
Av =
vo
Ro = r e
2 fl =
RC
R1
1
1
+
Ri Cc (RE2 + re )Cb
vi
Cc
R2
RE1
RE2
Cb
70
ro =
1
= 100 k
hoe
= hf e = 200
re =
r
= 25
DC analysis:
9V
18k
vi
0.47 F
vo
RB = 18 k k 22 k = 9.9 k
22
VBB =
9 = 4.95 V
18 + 22
22k
4.95 0.7 = IE
IE = 4 mA IC ,
IB =
9.9 10
+ 103
2.1
IB =
1k
IE
IE
=
1+
201
9V
IC
RB
IC
= 20 A
IB
+
VBE
VCE
_ _
1k
VBB
IB = 20 A,
VCE = 5 V
AC analysis: The circuit is a common collector amplifier. Using the formulas in page 70,
Av 1
Ri RB = 9.9 k
Ro re = 25
1
1
l
=
=
fl =
= 36 Hz
3
2
2RB Cc
2 9.9 10 0.47 106
71
Example 2: Find the bias point and AC amplifier parameters of this circuit (Manufacturers
spec sheets give: hf e = 200, hie = 5 k, hoe = 10 S).
r = hie = 5 k
ro =
1
= 100 k
hoe
= hf e = 200
re =
r
= 25
DC analysis:
15 V
34 k
1k
vo
vi
4.7 F
5.9 k
270
RB = 5.9 k k 34 k = 5.0 k
5.9
15 = 2.22 V
VBB =
5.9 + 34
KVL: VBB = RB IB + VBE + 510IE
3
2.22 0.7 = IE
KVL: VCC
IB =
5.0 10
+ 510
2.1
IE
IE
=
1+
201
15 V
IC
RB
IC
= 15 A
IE = 3 mA IC ,
47 F
240
IB =
IB
+
VBE
VBB
VCE
_ _
270 + 240
= 510
IB = 15 A,
VCE = 10.5 V
AC analysis: The circuit is a common collector amplifier with an emitter resistance. Note
that the 240 resistor is shorted out with the by-pass capacitor. It only enters the formula
for the lower cut-off frequency. Using the formulas in page 70:
RC
1, 000
=
= 3.39
RE1 + re
270 + 25
Ri RB = 5.0 k
Av =
Ro re = 25
1
1
l
=
+
=
fl =
2
2Ri Cc 2(RE2 + re )Cb
1
1
+
= 20 Hz
3
6
25.0 10 4.7 10
2(240 + 25)47 106
ECE60L Lecture Notes, Winter 2002
72
Example 3: Design a BJT amplifier with a gain of 4 and a lower cut-off frequency of 100 Hz.
The Q point parameters should be IC = 3 mA and VCE = 7.5 V. (Manufacturers spec sheets
give: min = 100, = 200, hie = 5 k, hoe = 10 S).
VCC
r = hie = 5 k
ro =
1
= 100 k
hoe
re =
r
= 25
R1
RC
vo
vi
Cc
R2
RE
RC
RC
=4
|Av | =
RE + r e
RE
The lower cut-off frequency will set the value of Cc .
VCC
15 7.5 = 3 10 (RC + RE )
RC + RE = 2.5 k
RC
iC
RB
iB
+
vBE
VBB
vCE
_ _
RE
4RE + RE = 2.5 k
RE = 500 , RC = 2. k
Commercial values are RE = 510 and RC = 2 k. Use these commercial values for the
rest of analysis.
We need to check if VE > 1 V, the condition for good biasing. VE = RE IE = 5103103 =
1.5 > 1, it is OK (See next example for the case when VE is smaller than 1 V).
We now proceed to find RB and VBB . RB is found from good bias condition and VBB from
a KVL in BE loop:
RB ( + 1)RE
KVL:
VBB = RB IB + VBE + RE IE
3 103
+ 0.7 + 510 3 103 = 2.28 V
201
73
RB = R 1 k R 2 =
VBB
VCC
R1 can be found by dividing the two equations: R1 = 33 k. R2 is found from the equation
for VBB to be R2 = 5.9 k. Commercial values are R1 = 33 k and R2 = 6.2 k.
Lastly, we have to find the value of the coupling capacitor:
l =
1
= 2 100
Ri Cc
r = hie = 5 k
ro =
1
= 100 k
hoe
re =
r
= 25
R1
RC
vo
vi
Cc
R2
RC
RC
= 10
|Av | =
RE + r e
RE
RE
RC + RE = 2.5 k
74
Values of RC and RE can be found from the above equation together with the AC gain of
the amplifier AV = 10. Ignoring re compared to RE (usually a good approximation), we get:
RC
= 10
RE
10RE + RE = 2.5 k
RE = 227 , RC = 2.27 k
VCC
R1
RC
vo
Cc
vi
R2
DC Bias:
AC gain:
RE1
VCC
RC
Cb
RE2
iC
RB
iB
+
vBE
VBB
vCE
_ _
RE1 + RE2
VBB = RB IB + VBE + RE IE
3 103
+ 0.7 + 330 3 103 = 1.7 V
201
RB = R 1 k R 2 =
VBB
VCC
75
R1 can be found by dividing the two equations: R1 = 50 k and R2 is found from the
equation for VBB to be R2 = 3.6k . Commercial values are R1 = 51 k and R2 = 3.6k
Lastly, we have to find the value of the coupling and bypass capacitors:
l =
1
1
+
= 2 100
Ri Cc RE2 Cb
This is one equation in two unknown (Cc and CB ) so one can be chosen freely. Typically
Cb Cc as Ri RB RE . Using Ri RB = 3.3 k and choosing Cb = 47 F, one find
Cc = 0.7 F (commercial value of 0.68 F).
So, are design values are: R1 = 50 k, R2 = 3.6 k, RE1 = 220 , RE2 = 110 , RC =
2.2 k, Cb = 47 F, and Cc = 680 nF.
76