Drudgery of Women in Agriculture and Its Management

Dr.Suman Singh, Dr.HemuRathore

Agriculture Scenario in India and associated hazards
In India around 70% of the population earn their livelihood from agriculture (EIU, 1997). The Indian
agricultural production area is delineated to 15 regions based on water resources, irrigation pattern, rainfall
distribution, soil characteristics and cropping pattern. Characteristics and potentials of agriculture strongly vary
across the regions. Each region has distinct characteristics and potentials for agricultural production (Meena, 1991).
Rural Indian women are extensively involved in agricultural activities. However, the nature and extent of their
involvement differs with the variations in agro-production systems. The mode of female participation in agricultural
production varies with the land-owning status of farm households. Their roles range from managers to landless
labourers. In overall farm production, women's average contribution is estimated at 55% to 66% of the total labour
with percentages much higher in certain regions (Venkateswaran, 1992).
Still today agriculture ranks as one of the most hazardous industry as it is very much oriented towards
manual labor and agricultural workers are exposed to a tremendous variety of hazards that are potentially harmful to
their health and well-being (Rein, 1992). The physical demand of the farm work which range from moderate to heavy,
often include climbing, standing, squatting, bending and reaching, carrying heavy loads and working for long hours
may bring certain hazards to a person. Exposure to different environmental conditions, dusts, gases, noise,
chemicals etc. and inadvertent neglect of ergonomical aspects in the design of equipment, workplace or work
systems may result in many accidents and occupational health problems. There is limited information on the extent to
which ergonomics may alleviate the hazards. In most developing countries, problems due to the transfer of
technology also have ergonomic implications. Most of the new technologies come from industrialized countries and is
rarely appropriate either to the climate, working and cultural habits of the developing countries or to the body size and
physical strength of workers. These variations have lead to serious ergonomic problems both in terms of the
equipment and the users resulting in accidents and injuries.
Rural communities often lack education and information on the health hazards they may face. Farm
workers especially women often view pain as a normal part of work and seek care when the condition becomes
severe or disabling. This same issue carries over to preventive measures designed to reduce the incidence of
musculoskeletal injuries or other hazardous work exposures. Frequently, workers do not understand the
association of a problem with its source because of cultural misunderstandings. In most cases, the basic factors inadequate education and training, poverty and lack of awareness - hinder attempts to deal with the occupational
related health problems.
It is a paradox that the agricultural workers, whose labor feed others in the country, are the most deprived
group and are among the poorest in the nation. They are omitted from the occupational safety and health regulations
that are accessible to other workers employed in industries, mines, etc. The sector that must be given most
importance is being given the least importance.
Gender in Agriculture
The term gender describes the socially determined attributes of men and women. This includes male and
female roles in economic and non-economic functions, differential access to and control over resources and
differences in knowledge and skills. The term sex denotes the physical and biological differences between males
and females. The sexual division of labour for both agricultural and domestic tasks varies greatly by community and
ethnic group and it is difficult to make generalisations about the roles that men, women and children play. However,
through a process of gender analysis it is clear that women remain invisible, their presence not counted, their
contribution to agriculture remains unaccounted and their priorities and problems remain unattended.
Despite progress made in national and international policies since the first world conference on women in
1975, urgent action is still necessary to implement gender and social equity in AKST [Agricultural Knowledge Science

and Technology] policies and practices if we are to better address gender issues as integral to development
processes. Such action includes strengthening the capacity of public institutions and NGOs to improve the
knowledge of womens changing forms of involvement in farm and other activities in AKST. It also requires giving
priority to womens access to education, information, science and technology, and extension services to enable
improving womens access, ownership and control of economic and natural resources. To ensure such access,
ownership and control legal measures, appropriate credit schemes, support for womens income generating activities
and the reinforcement of womens organizations and networks are needed.
A number of other changes will strengthen womens contributions to agricultural production and
sustainability. These include support for public services and investment in rural areas in order to improve womens
living and working conditions; giving priority to technological development policies targeting rural and farm womens
needs and recognizing their knowledge, skills and experience in the production of food and the conservation of
biodiversity; and assessing the negative effects and risks of farming practices and technology, including pesticides on
womens health, and taking measures to reduce use and exposure. Finally, if we are to better recognize women as
integral to sustainable development, it is critical to ensure gender balance in AKST decision-making at all levels and
provide mechanisms to hold AKST organizations accountable for progress in the above
Role of Women in Agriculture
Women play a significant role in crop production and allied fields like the livestock production, horticulture,
post harvest operations, agro/social forestry, fisheries, etc. Statistics of India confirm the representation of women in
agriculture as significant. The proportion of women in agricultural production and post harvest activities ranges from
20 to 70%; their involvement is increasing in many developing countries, particularly with the development of exportoriented irrigated farming, which is associated with a growing demand for female labour, including migrant workers.
Key facts related to women in agriculture in India

Indian population comprise of 48.27% women and the number is 495.7 million (Census, 2001)

72.72 % of the women live in rural areas.

45.84% of the female population is illiterate. In rural areas the corresponding figure is 53.3%.

26% of the population lived below the poverty line in 1999-2000.

In rural areas, the incidence of poverty is highest among agricultural and other labour (as high as 47 % and 29
% respectively in 1999-2000), followed by self-employed in non-agriculture and self- employed in agriculture in
that order. However from the distribution of the total poor across different groups it is seen that the largest
fraction of the poor in rural areas belongs to agricultural labour followed by self employed in agriculture
category.

The labour force participation rate of women is 31.56 %, less than half of the mens rate of 68.44%.

Among rural women workers, 87% are employed in agriculture as labourers and cultivators.

Women work for longer hours and participate in most of the fieldwork related to crop production and have a
significantly higher involvement in livestock production, forest resource production and fishery.

Even within a region, their involvement varies widely among different ecological sub zones, farming system,
caste, class and stages in the family cycle. Generally, the poorer the family, the greater the involvement of
women in agricultural activities.

Women have extensive workloads with dual responsibility for many of the farm operations and household
management (fetching water, cooking and taking care of children).

Despite womens significant and crucial role in agricultural development and allied fields, they have virtually no
access to agricultural information, services or production assets and have very limited control over their
earnings.

Development of agriculture and other non-farm enterprises in rural areas continue to be the key factor in
reducing poverty.

In spite of all this, it is unfortunate that because of centuries of inertia, ignorance and conservatism, the
actual and potential role of women in the society has been ignored, preventing them from making their rightful
contribution to social progress. It is also because of distorted and/or partial information about their involvement in
agriculture and consequent devaluation of their contribution that they are denied their rightful status as active
producers in agriculture and access to developmental resources and services contributing to their marginalisation.
Women must be empowered by enhancing their awareness, knowledge, skills and technology use and efficiency so
that agricultural production multiplies at a faster pace, environmental degradation is reduced and conservation of
resources is practised earnestly, thereby, facilitating overall development of the society.
Empowerment in the context of womens development is a way of defining, challenging and overcoming
barriers in a womans life through which she increases her ability to shape her life and environment. It is an active,
multidimensional process which should enable women to realise their full identity and power in all spheres of life.
Since time immemorial, women have played, and continue to play, a key role in conservation of basic life support
system, such as, land, water, flora and fauna. Rural women play a crucial role in agricultural development and allied
fields, including crop production, livestock production, horticulture, post-harvest operations, fisheries, etc. Without
total intellectual and physical participation of women, it is not possible to achieve the goals of rural upliftment.
All this signifies the importance of having a full understanding of the role and contribution of farm women so
that the extension services may accordingly be devised and geared to fully integrate them in agriculture by better
serving their specific needs and interests. It is the concern for their integration in the process of agricultural
development, which has today become instrumental for policy debates, research initiative and organisational efforts
from womens perspective.
Occupational
health
Hazards due to Drudgery in Agriculture
Illness distribution
among
women
agricultural workers

The largest proportion of rural women worldwide continues to face deteriorating health and work conditions,
limited access to education and control over natural resources, insecure employment and low income. This situation
is due to a variety of factors, including the growing competition on agricultural markets which increases the demand
for flexible and cheap labour, growing pressure on conflicts over natural resources, the diminishing support by
governments for small-scale farms and the reallocation of economic resources in favour of large agro enterprises.
Other factors include increasing exposure to risks related to natural disasters and environmental changes, worsening
access to water, increasing occupational and health risks.
The occupational health problems may be mainly due to two reasons, i.e., the use of harmful chemicals in
the occupation and the biomechanical and postural demand of the workplace leading to musculo-skeletal disorders.
The musculo-skeletal disorder is of very high concern of the Ergonomists.The risk of developing musculo-skeletal
problems is mainly due to the inconvenient work postures. This risk of musculo-skeletal disorders may be higher in
agricultural workers than in most other industries because of the longer working hours. Uncertainties of agricultural
production make farming a relatively stressful job anyway, then people employed in agriculture may be even more
vulnerable to musculo-skeletal disorders (ONeill, 2004).
Musculo-skeletal disorder is the leading cause of the occupational ill health. An awkward and static posture
has been recognized as a risk factor for work related musculo-skeletal problems. From an occupational point of view,

the cervical spine, head and shoulders, elbow and wrist joint can be considered to be interrelated as far as the
problems of efficiency, design and comfort are considered. It is well known that certain jobs causes pain at the work
to the people with disorder and the symptoms are amplified or exposed by the demands of the job. Musculo-skeletal
pains of these types are said to be work related because it is partially caused by the work conditions. It is clear that
poor work place and tool design can increase the discomfort of both the healthy and less fit individuals. The design of
tools and workspaces can have a profound effect on the posture of the body and long term exposure to hazardous
working conditions which alters the physiological and psychological functions of an individual and produces many
types of musculoskeletal problems. In developing countries agricultural activities are expected to cause musculoskeletal disorders (Nwuba and Kaul, 1986; Nag et al., 1988).But an extensive survey is required to confirm that this is
the case and to identify the specific problems and the tasks that are associated with it.
The application of ergonomics and improved tools or task design based on both the researchers and
subjects perception of a need to improvement has the potential to reduce bio-mechanical disorders associated with
agricultural tasks or tools. Women in India are the major work force in agriculture and perform almost all the
agricultural activities.
The National Commission on Self-employed Women and Women in the informal Sector (1988) found high
incidence of a variety of illnesses due to

Postural problems,

Problems of contacts with hazardous materials and lack of safety measures

Heavy work and lack of rest,

Deplorable work environment.

In agricultural sector, it was found that women suffer additionally from

Generalized body ache, cough, respiratory allergies, injuries and toxicity, headache due to the scorching
sun. Nearly one-fourth of the women reported of general abdominal pain caused by peptic ulcer, arising from
acidity problems
Women and Drudgery

The Concept of Drudgery

Drudgery is a term used to represent the dissatisfactory experiences that constrain work performance. Study on
drudgery of women is suited in the sectors where there is excessive reliance on manual labor and their experiences
are multidimensional.
Drudgery is a term which refers to the conditions and experiences of living and working. The harsh weather, the
grindingly exhaustive nature of work, the dissatisfactory and painful work experiences, the hazards arising of
occupations etc descriptively explain this term.
Women share abundant responsibilities to perform wide spectrum of duties both in the home and outside
but their participation is considered as normal by the society. Women are extensively involved in activities related to
production, processing, preparation and marketing and selling of food-grains, fruits, vegetables and fishes, dairy and
other animal products. These tasks not only demand considerable time and energy but also are sources of drudgery
for rural women which are not yet precisely identified and quantified. The result is that womens needs for
comfortable work participation remain neglected. The problem of women relates to physical and mental fatigue,
monetary hardship, exploitation, pain, economic stress, malnutrition, unemployment/ underemployment are very
often encountered in the society. Almost all women suffer physical drudgery in various operations, some are given
below:

Drudgery in various agricultural operations

Hard physical work in care and management, harvesting, threshing/processing, marketing and bartering of
produce.
Child bearing and rearing simultaneously.
Remain for a long time under rain and scorching sun.
Harvesting by bending
Weeding with conventional implements by hand in hot sun, rain and cold for long hours.
Dehusking/shelling, pounding, grinding of cereals and pulses by hand, etc
Collecting and carrying fuel over long distance.

Fetching of water for cooking and drinking from distant places.

Drudgery experiences imply Work is time competitive

Poor amenities, elaborate work procedures, long distances to travel for meeting basic needs make the women
spend more time the survival and productive tasks. Women working in such conditions feel that work is never
ending, difficult and time demanding.
Work is physically strenuous
Larger dependence on muscular forces in productive as well as survival activities coupled with nutritional
insufficiency and poor physical fit make the worker exhaust very soon at work. This may lead to severe
muscular disorders.
Work is a complex process and difficult to perform
The cumbersome work processes due to lack of simplified procedures, more number of tasks remaining
unattended at the end of the day make women to feel that work is difficult to perform and work is never ending.
Low output efficiency is another result of such processes.
Work is causing postural discomfort and painful leading to muscular disorders. Poor working postures due to
work station heights, seating amenities, postures while lifting and handling materials in work cause stress on the
skeletal and joint muscles. Such working postures result in to pains, body disorders, hazards and low out put
efficiency.

Work is demanding with heavy physical loads to handle

The manual loads operative in handling materials with the load borne on body muscles such as in lifting,
pushing, pulling, and transferring result women to feel that work is heavy and demanding muscular potential.

Work is dynamic with force & movements causing stress on respiratory or circulatory system of
human body. The repetitive, forceful and rapid muscular movements while walking with material, climbing, and
cutting, pounding etc cause women to feel that work is fatigue. A crop production cycle involves a series of
distinct field based operations. These operations are managed by depending on manual power, draught animal

power and tractor power or a combination of them. The critical operations of farming namely sowing,
transplantation, weeding, harvesting are performed by women depending on laborious manual power leading to
drudgery.
The bench mark survey of Family Resource Management component of All India coordinated Research
Project on Home Science (ICAR), revealed that the core of the problem drudgery is associated with above reasons.
Addressing the issue of women empowerment in context of rural development in general and agriculture
production in particular is an important force that has the potentiality to bring quantum jump in rural economy of the
country. Feminization of agriculture would surely advance through the use of drudgery reducing agricultural
implements. This would help women to achieve higher production in an efficient and diversified way and ultimately
giving them a better social status and recognition.
The above reasons need a practical approach for bringing betterment in conditions and right combination of
technologies for managing the different and difficult operations in agriculture. - (source: Trainers Training Module on
Drudgery Reducing Technology Interventions for Women in Agriculture: FRM, AICRP-H.Sc.).
Present age is an age of technological development, which demands change in every direction, but this is
not the case with women. Although women are extensively involved in agriculture, yet they are devoid of scientific
information and training about improved tools and practices. All this affects the health of women adversely and
thereby that of their children also. Even after 50 years of independence, our farmwomen continue to be in state of
neglect. Scientific achievements and modernization are yet to make an impact on her. There is dire need to promote
appropriate agricultural technologies for farmwomen in order to raise efficiency so that they spare time for other
activities relating to improvement in their quality of life.
"Since labor intensive methods of production are common in rural areas, it is important to develop
technologies that can improve their labour efficiency and reduce drudgery DRWA Director Krishna Srinath said. The
activities assigned to men are those which are considered to demand greater physical power, skill and performance.
The activities assigned to women are considered to demand less physical power, lower skill and more time. They are
also monotonous in their nature and low paid. These situations indicate a need to match technological and innovative
solutions to the drudgery that women experience in agricultural and animal husbandry operations; also, the fact that
women shoulder a greater share of those tasks perceived to involve drudgery is in itself worthy of particular attention.
In addition to shouldering almost the entire work load of household activities and substantial responsibilities in child
rearing, women are found to work in agricultural and animal husbandry activities for more hours than men.
Agricultural extension services have a long tradition of working predominantly with men. However, due to
improved awareness in the last two decades, on the role that women play in agriculture and that agriculture
continues to remain a very important source of livelihood for women, special programmes have been initiated and
targeted at women in agriculture. Using the Asia-Pacific region as an example, India has also implemented women in
agriculture programmes. These programmes have conclusively proved that women, when given access to improved
information and resources could increase agricultural production significantly.
Women while fulfilling their multiple roles namely, reproductive, productive and community work remain
engaged long hours and perform monotonous and difficult activities which affect their mental and physical health.

Moreover, different factors of drudgery embedded in agriculture operations, post-harvest activities, seasonal stress,
and child bearing and rearing responsibility, household chores, health hazards create lots of heavy physical
exhaustion and fatigue, mental stress, agony, boredom, and malnourishment. These are the reasons for womens low
productivity and social complexity. This would require the introduction and adoption of labour saving and drudgery
reducing technologies and methods to alleviate the sufferings of women in agriculture and domestic works which
would enable the rural women to participate more energetically and enthusiastically.
Management ofDrudgery Reduction Programme
Women have to do jobs that are time and labour intensive such as sowing, transplanting, weeding,
intercultural, harvesting, threshing, and post-harvest operations like, shelling, cleaning, grading and processing. They
also contribute to decision making processes for crop production, seed production and management, post-harvest
management of agricultural and horticultural produce, biomass utilisation, livestock management, marketing and
financial management. In addition, women take up small ventures to generate additional family income. Therefore,
the role of women in agriculture and allied occupations, and household activities needs proper recognition. Women
constitute a major component of agricultural workforce. They have, however, lagged behind in use of improved crop
production and processing tools and machinery. Now, a number of gender neutral and simple devices/equipment for
crop production and processing has been developed. Their adoption by women will not only help improving the
agricultural production but will also elevate the status of women through better jobs and greater role in the economy
of the family. In addition to their role in agricultural production, women are gainfully employed in agribased allied
activities like dairying, animal husbandry, poultry, goatery, rabbit rearing, beekeeping, floriculture, horticulture, fruit
preservation, post-harvest technology, value added food products, etc.
Drudgery reduction is a possible outcome that makes women work with improved productive capacity &
health. It can be achieved through technology interventions conducted in a programmed way. Such an outcome
needs location specific packages of technologies and a systematic approach of intervention.(Source: Trainers
Training Module on Drudgery Reducing Technology Interventions for Women in Agriculture: FRM, AICRP-H.Sc.).
The National Perspective Plan for women (1988 -2000 AD) identified the major shortcomings to womens
development in agriculture sector. Through the policy and subsequent plan programmes, Empowerment of
women is given a major thrust.
Capacity building of women in technology use is a major action strategy recommended by policy for
reducing drudgery. By having good safety management program, one can avoid not only farm injuries, but also
unplanned accidents that are costly, time consuming, stressful and inconvenient. Thus there is need for increasing
the awareness of the agricultural workers regarding safety while doing farm work and management of health
hazards.
Technology Intervention for Drudgery Reduction
Technology intervention means the application of scientific knowledge as solutions to practical problems. In
agriculture it means to introduce tools, implements and machinery useful for various agricultural operations. It may

comprise of mechanical or motorized power, or a combination of these. A countrys development is regarded by its
level of technology integration in different domains of human activity.
Therefore, technology interventions in agriculture shall

Improve technology options available to farmers.

Improve effectiveness of technologies.

Alleviate women from burdensome labor at work.

Gender-specific interventions for drudgery reduction

A number of agricultural implements and hand tools suitable for farm women have been developed by
various Research & Development organizations under ICAR. These gender friendly tools are being promoted to
community through different intervention schemes.
Promotion and strengthening of agricultural mechanization through training, testing and demonstration.
Promotion of gender friendly tools.