Preparing

Students for
Postsecondary
Education
Barbara S. S. Hong
W. Fred Ivy
Humberto R. Gonzalez

TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 32-38. Copyright 2007 CEC.

Wendy Ehrensberger

Students with disabilities are increasingly enrolled in postsecondary education,

yet many of them are not prepared to
cope with the rigor of higher education.
Students who do not have the skills of
self-empowerment often experience
frustration and discouragement in the
postsecondary setting, leading to their
dropping out of school and eventually
experiencing less positive outcomes. At
the same time, many higher education
faculty members are not aware of how
to work with students with disabilities,
nor are they familiar with policies related to student rights and accommodations. There are some practical strategies for faculty, as well as K12 teachers, to help students with and without
disabilities develop skills of self-advocacy, self-regulation, internal locus of control, and self-knowledgeso they can
become empowered to take responsibility for their own learning.
According to the 2006 National Longitudinal Transition Study (Wagner, Newman, Cameto, Levine, & Garza, 2006),
the percentage of students with disabilities completing high school increased
by 17% between 1987 and 2003, with a
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corresponding 32% increase in enrollment in some kind of postsecondary

schools (National Council on Disability,
2003; Wagner et al.). However, more
than half of these students are at risk of
failure (Jones, 2002; National Council
on Disability, 2003). The National
Council on Disability (2004) reports that
one of the major reasons for this high
dropout rate is that university students
with disabilities are not prepared to
cope with the rigor of postsecondary
education. Support services for transition between secondary schools and
higher education are often fragmented
and inconsistent in helping students
develop requisite skills for postsecondary education (Dukes & Shaw, 1999;
Izzo, Hertzfeld, & Aaron, 2001; National
Council on Disability, 2004; Stodden,
Jones & Chang, 2002). In addition, there
is a lack of collaboration at the higher
education level between faculty and an
institutions office of student services

when it comes to providing services to

help prepare students for disabilityrelated challenges they may encounter
in the postsecondary setting (Hitchings
et al., 2001; Izzo et al.; National Council
on Disability, 2004; Sitlington, Clark, &
Kolstoe, 2000).

Support services for transition

between secondary schools and
higher education are often
fragmented and inconsistent in
helping students develop
requisite skills for
postsecondary education.
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act
of 1973 requires students with disabilities to disclose their disabilities to their

Table 1. Essential Components of Self-Empowerment

Self-Advocacy

Self-Regulation

Internal Locus of Control

Self-Knowledge

Personal autonomy

Choice indicating
preferences

Positive attribution of
efficacy

Self-awareness

Goal setting and

attainment

Problem identification,
problem expectation,
problem resolution,
problem solving

Outcome-expectation

Efficacy-expectation

Choice as a decisionmaking process

Choice as an expression of
autonomy and dignity

Self-observation

Self-management

Self-management

Self-care

Self-monitoring;
self-evaluation

Recreational and social

management

Self-instruction

Self-reinforcement

institution if they wish to receive reasonable accommodations. In postsecondary education, classroom accommodations are described as appropriate
academic adjustments (104.44(e)(a)).
Many higher education faculty have not
worked with people with disabilities,
and have received little preparation in
meeting their needs (National Council
on Disability, 2003). When students
with disabilities do disclose their disabilities, oftentimes faculty members
simply do not have sufficient knowledge to assist them. In fact, many parents, students, faculty, and high school
counselors themselves are not aware of
the policy differences for students with
disabilities in terms of rights, services,
and funding as a result of IDEA, Section
504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973,
and the Americans With Disabilities Act
of 1990 (National Center for the Study
of Postsecondary Educational Supports,
NCSPES, 2002; Stodden, Conway, &
Chang, 2003).
It is not unusual for faculty members
to believe that students with disabilities
accepted into a university program must
have met the same admission requirements as all other students and should
have the skills to function and compete
on the same playing field. In fact, students with disabilities often feel insecure when they leave the traditional
classroom setting to enter higher education (Hitchings et al., 2001; National
Council on Disability, 2004). Instruction
is at a faster pace, coursework requires

more reading, assignments demand

higher-order thinking, writing is more
technical, and study habits call for more
independent problem solving and selfstrategizing (Rosenbaum, 2004). Above
all, contact with the instructor is drastically reduced. All these factors combine
to create barriers and frustrations for
students who are not prepared or who
have not acquired sufficient self-regulation skills (National Council on Disability, 2003).

Students with disabilities often

feel insecure when they leave the
traditional classroom setting to
enter higher education.

Currently,
much
concern
is
expressed about students with disabilities exiting high school with less positive outcomes (NCSPES, 2002; National
Council on Disability, 2003; Wagner et
al., 2006), and our attention is focused
on raising standards, hiring more qualified teachers, and holding schools more
accountable. However, what seems to
have been neglected is helping students
with disabilities develop vital skills that
will enhance their prospect of success in
their next endeavor (Hicks-Coolick &
Kurtz, 1997; Milsom & Hartley, 2005;
Wehmeyer, 1996). This is particularly
imperative for students who decide to

Self-belief

pursue
postsecondary
education.
Studies (Izzo & Lamb, 2002; Lamb,
2002; NCSPES, 2002; Wagner et al.)
have revealed that many students with
disabilities enter college not knowing
how to communicate their needs (selfadvocacy); how to evaluate their own
performance (self-regulation); what it
means to have a sense of control (locus
of control); and their own strengths,
interests, and limitations (self-knowledge). In short, they are not self-determined. Table 1 lists the essential components of self-empowerment (cf.
Wehmeyer, 1995).
The term self-determination is often
used interchangeably with self-empowerment. Martin and Marshall (1995)
characterized people who are self-determined as those who:
Know how to choosethey know
what they want and how to get it.
From an awareness of personal
needs, self-determined individuals choose goals, and then
doggedly pursue them. This
involves asserting an individuals
presence, making his or her needs
known, evaluating progress
toward meeting goals, adjusting
performance, and creating unique
approaches to solve problems.
(p. 147)
Both of these terms describe someone
who has developed a combination of
attitudes and abilities to set goals, make
decisions, problem-solve, self-advocate,
self-evaluate, and adjust in order to

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Attributes of a Self-Empowered Individual

Knows how to differentiate ones wants and needs.

Makes choices based on one's preferences, interests, strengths, and
limitations.
Sets goals and works toward goals.
Considers options and anticipates consequences
because of ones decision.
Assumes responsibility for positive and
negative outcomes.
Uses effective communication skills.
Evaluates ones decisions based on
outcomes of previous decisions.
Revises future
decisions/plans/goals
based on previous
outcomes.
Strives for independence while
recognizing ones interdependence
with others.
Uses self-advocacy skills.
Is self-confident, persistent, and creative.

achieve his or her goals. (See box,

Attributes of a Self-Empowered Individual; cf. Field, Martin, Miller, Ward,
and Wehmeyer, 1998.)
Students with disabilities who have
not developed adequate skills of selfempowerment are less lightly to be successful in the postsecondary setting
(National Council on Disability, 2003).
Hence, it is imperative that faculty and
K12 teachers are knowledgeable about
strategies for empowering students.
These suggestions are beneficial not
only for students with disabilities, but
also for all students. Instructors (higher
education faculty as well as K12 teachers) first need to understand the common challenges students with disabilities face and how these difficulties correlate to subsequent ability to cope with
the demands of higher education. This
article presents certain fundamental
pedagogical principles for maximizing
student engagement in learning,
whether in public schools or higher
education setting, and provides some
practical approaches for supporting and
facilitating self-empowerment of students with disabilities.
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Student Capability and

Demands of Higher Education
Whether in higher education or the
K12 setting, students are expected to
perform multitask responsibilities such
as participating in class discussions,
paying attention to lectures, taking and
organizing notes, synthesizing new
information, staying focused, and
responding to instructor inquiries. For
many students with disabilities, multitasking can be extremely challenging
and expecting them to do so is unrealistic. When students discover there is a
problem in their learning or comprehension, they often do not know how to
fix it. They cannot identify the problem (self-regulation), determine what
kind of help they need (self-knowledge), or identify where to obtain help
(self-advocacy). Over time, these students become discouraged and frustrated and lose confidence in themselves
(internal locus of control). In order to
help these students develop adequate
skills of self-empowerment, instructors
must understand four common areas of
difficulty many students with disabili-

ties encounter, sometimes on a daily

basis (see Table 2).
In terms of cognitive ability, students
with disabilities generally are passive
learners (Rosenbaum, 2004); they do
not take initiative or actively strategize
learning habits that would help them
become successful. They tend to experience high levels of attention difficulties,
easily wander off task, and have a hard
time distinguishing pertinent information from irrelevant data to enhance
content understanding. The problem of
passive learning is compounded by the
fact that many of these students enter
higher education with reading skills at
least three grades below their last grade
level (Sabornie & deBettencourt, 2004).
Many students do not see how attending class, paying attention to lectures,
doing assignments, and reading the text
can have an effect on the outcome of
the course (Rosenbaum). Given these
challenges, its no wonder so many students with disabilities struggle to meet
high demands for content literacy, indepth analysis, critical synthesis, and
evaluative reading and writing assignments.
Pedagogical Principles for
Maximizing Student Learning
It is not uncommon for many faculty or
K12 teachers to be unaware of or be
unable to articulate best practices when
it comes to maximizing student learning. In order to determine what accommodation a student with a disability
needs and when appropriate and reasonable assistance should be offered,
instructors must first be aware of the
students specific learning aptitudes and
attributes. Instructors can ask these
three essential questions to gauge
whether the students academic adjustments are necessary and appropriate:
To what extent can this student
meet the demands of the specific
task (prerequisite skills, knowledge
of content, and clarity of direction)?
What is the students current level
of specific learning abilities to perform the task? Does the student
understand what is being taught
and is he or she able to use that
knowledge to perform the task?

Table 2. Student Challenges and Impacts

Students with . . .
Poor problem-solving skills

Are less likely to . . .

Are more likely to . . .

Create and apply strategies to problem situations

Ask questions to resolve concerns
Advocate for own needs in order to solve problematic
situations

Accept what is being offered,

even though services or
instruction may not be
appropriate, sufficient, or
correctly delivered

Seek assistance from peers

Initiate learning groups
Poor evaluation skills

Consider prerequisite skills before attempting a task

Rely on others to evaluate

how they are performing

Be aware of their own limitations and capabilities in

handling various tasks
Set goals or have realistic expectations
Understand how to manage tasks (e.g., carrying more
credits than one can manage)
Employ strategies to determine own progress
Recognize own improvement or lack of progress
Poor monitoring skills

Ask questions or recognize own lack of understanding

Apply error-monitoring strategies to tasks
Use rehearsal strategies to learn content

Lack self-control, selfdiscipline, and selfmanagement

Develop the steady study skills and learning habits

needed to perform higher-order-level tasks
Reinforce or challenge self to make progress
Adjust goals, strategies, or situations to improve self
Poor communication skills

Verbalize own needs

Let others direct their lives

Develop effective speaking, negotiating, and

conversational skills
Volunteer to lead a discussion, share different points of
view, or inquire further for deeper understanding
Know who they are and their own preferences, beliefs,
and thoughts
Be confident in themselves
Take on leadership roles
Be creative
Be persistent in pursuing questions not understood

What is the students current functioning level in strategies for learning the task? Does the student know
how to go about studying or mastering the content knowledge necessary to complete the task?
One of the most critical components
in facilitating student self-empowerment skills is to create a learning environment where there is an optimal
amount of support and opportunity for
all learners, regardless of disability.
Carlsons (1980) several general princi-

ples of learning and motivation have

been widely used by many practitioners
in creating such an environment.
Carlson suggests that once open and
honest communication is established,
learning should be made meaningful so
that students can relate what they are
learning to their background experience
and prior knowledge. Instructors should
be knowledgeable about specific prerequisite skills and knowledge before
beginning instruction or scheduling
assignments. During lesson presentations, instructors should model the

process of formulating specific questions, which will assist students in the

development of proactive learning
habits. Carlson stresses creating an
environment that encourages students
active participation in class discussions
and group activities. Instructors should
be mindful of the pace of instruction
when introducing new concepts and
assessing student understanding of
those concepts. Instructors can increase
students attention and motivation to
learn by employing novel ideas in lectures, course activities, and assign-

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Table 3. Strategies for Empowering Students

Help students obtain Provide pertinent and timely information (e.g., syllabus, textbook title, test dates, criteria for course
timely and appropriate
completion, rubrics) to enable students to request needed services/accommodations (e.g., reader, note
services
taker, scribe, sign language interpreter, extended time, Braille embosser, software speech synthesizer, tape
recorder, other assistive technology).
Help students understand their responsibilities to identify what services are provided at the institution
and to request accommodations at the beginning of the term. (Providing them pertinent information
before the course begins gives students enough time to obtain materials or arrange services.)
Respect student confidentiality rights and nondisclosure; do not discuss their disabilities and
accommodations with other instructors or students.
Do not discourage students from participating in any course activity or assignment due to a lack of
services.
Encourage students to advocate for their right to reasonable accommodation. Model how to effectively
communicate needs to instructors and student services.
Plan instruction
that develops selfregulatory behaviors

Integrate essential
study and learning
skills

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Be consistent and clear about what is expected of students for individual assignments, assignment
deadlines, and the grading of individual assignments. Specify standards for assessing assignments via
rubrics to permit students to better understand how their work is measured and whether they are
meeting expectations. Provide examples of past assignments that met target expectations and those that
did not so students have a better idea of what is expected. Help students understand that all student
coursework is graded by the same measures, but that the instructor is available to assist them.
Be flexible. Within set guidelines, allow students to meet course requirements via alternate modes of
presentation or to make up work, instead of rigidly sticking to the original syllabus. This helps students
to solve their own problems, generate realistic options, anticipate consequences for their decisions, and
develop a sense of self-efficacy.
Divide complicated assignments into smaller units, so that students can monitor their progress.
Encourage students to participate; do not penalize those who are not comfortable speaking out in class.
Provide students ample opportunities to learn how to verbalize their thoughts, express their opinions,
share their perspectives, and defend their ideas.
Utilize case studies and experiential learning relevant to student backgrounds, training, and interests
so they can meaningfully relate what they are learning to what they already know. Students learn to use
self-instruction and self-directing techniques to regulate their own learning.
Never make students feel they are not capable of making decisions because of their disability. Create
opportunities that encourage students to choose when, how, where, and with whom they will complete
an activity.
Allow room for trial and error during guided practice and before an assignment is taken home or is due.
Address student grievances, confusion, and conflicts. Students may not know how to resolve their
school problems, what questions are considered appropriate, or how an instructor will react to their
concerns. Students may not want to voice an opinion for fear of jeopardizing their grade.
Acknowledge students successful strategies in memorizing, reading, analyzing, and answering
questions, and help them generalize and transfer these strategies to another course or activity. Encourage
students to share successful strategies so that everyone can examine alternative ways to approach a task.
This not only helps students learn to take constructive feedback from others, but also enables them to
verbalize what works and what does not work in their own learning habits.
Provide a checklist or chart for students who need visual assistance in organizational techniques, time
management, schedules, and dates for completing an assignment.
Offer to help students organize their schedule to minimize conflict with other assignments, whether in
the same class or different class. Students learn to plan ahead to complete the first assignment due and
to schedule their time accordingly. Help students set realistic goals, practical timelines, and reasonable
procedures for monitoring their own learning.
Emphasize students' successes rather than highlighting limitations. For example, indicate the number
of items the student scored correctly (6/10) versus ones scored incorrectly (4). Percentages may not
accurately give students an identifiable assessment of how they did on a test (e.g., 70% of a 10-item test
versus 70% of a 50-item test). Acknowledge specific positive performance of students rather than using
general remarks such as nice job, good work, or simply a letter grade. Instead, use descriptive
phrases (Your essay demonstrates the key component of organization in writing and in logical
argument, I see improvement in your use of spell-check, I understand that you went to the writing
lab before you handed in your work; that is a productive habit, or I see that you have joined a study
group to prepare for the final exam; that is good initiative on your part.).
Help students acknowledge and accept their own effort in experiencing positive outcomes (students
hard work, good study skills, sustained attention during class, efficient management of time, regular
attendance of class, keeping up with reading assignments, handing in assignments on time, and
proactively participating in course activity).
Teach and model essential social skills such as how to ask questions, how to communicate with
professionals and classmates, when to volunteer or participate in class activities, and how to give a
different opinion without becoming defensive or argumentative.

EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

ments. When giving assignments, the

instructor should be sure to clarify the
directions and expectations for all students. Those expectations should be
realistic as well as challenging for all
students. Finally, instructors can utilize
multiple approaches when evaluating
student learning outcomes. Multiple
choice questions, written essays, group
assignments, class presentations, and
portfolios are all acceptable ways to
evaluate student learning. When
instructors utilize these principles of
learning and motivation, they are creating a learning environment that contributes to constructive learning.

boards, automatic page turners, laptops,

and so forth. Equally important for
K12 teachers is to teach students how
and when to communicate their needs
(physical access, space, or time) when
they are in a postsecondary setting.

Federal laws mandate that higher

institutions provide a safe,
barrier-free environment
to ensure equal access for
students with disabilities.

Barrier-Free Environment
Federal laws mandate that higher institutions provide a safe, barrier-free environment to ensure equal access for students with disabilities. Students come to
college with similar needs as when they
were in the public schools. Higher education faculty need to take into account
the sometimes seemingly insignificant
yet critical environmental needs of students in order to enhance their learning
experience. Instructors cannot always
determine or have any say regarding
whether furnishings for students with a
(physical) disability are appropriate; it is
important to maintain open communication with the universitys student
services or public school central office
to discuss possible or alternate access.
Instructors should be mindful about the
size of the desk, desk level, ease of writing on the table, the height between the
table and the students feet on the floor,
writing space (especially for students
who utilize assistive technology such as
screen magnifiers, alternate keyboards
or mouse-type devices), and the comfort of the seat itself (e.g., for students
who carry portable IVs or other medical
supplement). Instructors should also
take into account the need for extra
classroom space in order to maneuver
equipment such as leg braces, walking
cane, crutches, wheelchairs, or special
standing tables. In addition, before
beginning a lesson, the instructor
should consider the extra time students
may need to set up their writing stylus,
optical aids, magnification devices,
amplification equipment, writing lap-

External environmental conditions

that instructors must take into account
when working with students with disabilities include appropriate lighting for
students with visual impairment or
those who are sensitive to light and
sound, well circulated ventilation and
temperature needs for students with
health impairments (e.g., asthma), and
easier access to the door for students
who need to use the restroom frequently. Students with learning difficulties
often become distracted because they
cannot concentrate. Particularly when
working with students who have hearing problems or attention issues,
instructors need to consider the sensitivity level of white noise from overhead projectors and other equipment, or
the hallway noise from outside the
classroom.
Strategies for Empowering
Students
Instructors can significantly enhance
students with disabilities ability to succeed in postsecondary settings by focusing on three areas: (a) helping students
to obtain timely and appropriate services; (b) planning instruction which
develops self-regulatory behaviors; and
(c) integrating essential study and learning skills into coursework. Even though
most of these strategies are more relevant in postsecondary settings, it is
equally critical for K12 teachers to help
students anticipate the demands of
higher education. Table 3 provides a

checklist of strategies in each of these

areas.
Final Thoughts
With the increasing enrollment of students with disabilities in postsecondary
education, there is an urgent need for
higher education faculty as well as K12
teachers to become vigilant not only
about regulations and accommodations
pertaining to students with disabilities
but also about helping students develop
the skills necessary to take responsibility for their own learning. The strategies
presented here are equally beneficial for
students with or without disabilities.
When instructors are willing and able to
make an effort in promoting skills of
self-empowerment,
students
will
become more engaged in learning and
more likely to be successful in school.
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Barbara S. S. Hong (CEC TX Federation),
Associate Professor; W. Fred Ivy, Associate
Professor; and Humberto R. Gonzalez, Dean
and Associate Professor, College of Education,
Texas A&M International University, Laredo.
Wendy Ehrensberger (CEC NY Federation),
Instructor, Dowling College, Oakdale, New
York.
Address correspondence to Barbara Hong,
Department of Professional Programs, College
of Education, Texas A&M International
University, Laredo, TX 78041 (e-mail:
bhong@tamiu.edu).
TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 40,
No. 1, pp. 3238.
Copyright 2007 CEC.