The 41 Objectives In Introduction to Psychology

By: Samantha Barkhurst

1. Describe the problems psychology must face as a young science.
!
The problems that come along with Psychology still being so young are that
Psychologists still do not know a humans mental processes. They can study the brain
all they want but when it comes to a persons thoughts they are clueless. They do not
understand the perceptions and beliefs of others. Another example is that in a
Psychologists career, they may experience stressful situations. And what can follow
these situations is if they are doing an experiment that leaves them distressed they
could get the studies mixed up and wrong. What they studied could be false. When new
information is found it is common for Psychologists to throw out the old information
instead of putting it to use. It may not all be right but some parts of it may be, and it is
forgotten. When it comes to studying behavior in Psychology it is said that it is not much
appreciated like the other types of fields. It does not get as much attention as it should.
People focus more on the other things when there is still more discoveries to be made
in Behaviorism.
http://bigthink.com/videos/what-are-the-biggest-issues-in-psychology-today !
2. Identify the major theoretical and professional perspectives in psychology and
their basic assumptions.
!
There are a total of six perspectives that are based off of theory and a
Psychologists professional perspective. These six perspectives are Psychoanalytic,
behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, neurobiological, and sociocultural. The
Psychoanalytic Perspective states that a persons behavior and personality results in the
unconscious urges of sexual and aggressive forces The Behavioral Perspective is
explained as the product of on how and individual learns and associates with other
people and their environment. The Cognitive Perspective says that the a persons metal
process is used to both solve problems and at the same time develop personality traits.
Two things that are not much alike. It is said that a person reflects their behavior due to
how they mature, along with the life events that follow them through. That is known as
the Humanistic Perspective. The Neurobiological Perspective plays part in functioning
with the nervous system and relating it someway to Biology. With this Perspective
Behavior plays a large role. And the final one explains The Sociocultural Perspective
which says that behavior is influenced by the rules and expectations that and individual
is expected to meet. Such as in social situations and different cultures.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uc6AXIhAQUY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4QvnvRtjSZQ

Neurobiological

Humanistic Perspective

3. Describe the characteristics of a good (reliable) theory.

!
Let me start out with the definition of Reliable. Reliable means that it is
dependable, good, well-founded, authentic, valid, genuine, sound, and true. With
Psychology a theory is reliable when it involves all of these things. The two words
repeatability and consistency play a part in a reliable theory. The more a study can be
repeated the more reliable that study will be. Basing it off of doing an experiment once
does not give very good results. What an experiment consists of also determines how
reliable the theory is. A study cannot be made with little information. It is very important
to gather a lot of important information so it is more successful. A theory creates and
organized and easy way to explain observations. With a theory there are two variables,
which can be switched for a different variable to repeat the study and see if the results
were the same as the first time. A lot of research can help conduct a more reliable study.
It is more important to get more then little because in that way the information is not so
helpful. There are steps to be taken to make the study more reliable which are 1) Testretest reliability also known as consistency across time. 2) Inter-rater reliability which is
consistency across people. 3) Alternate form also known as Least popular-consistency
across forms. 4) And the last one is Internal consistency which is most popular
consistency across items.
https://vimeo.com/59450144 What is a theory?
https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=JEGzE6ExNgC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=reliable+case+studies&ots=HL0j02p7Yu&sig=kvQUhMl7VZRlg6M7moK5tIHeaI#v=onepage&q=reliable%20case%20studies&f=false
!
This book, called Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences,
explains what a theory is and what makes a good theory.

4. Describe what constitutes valid and reliable observation especially with

regards to operationalizing variables.
!
When it comes to conducting an experiment, the variables put into it need to be
clear so the procedure comes out to be valid. The steps taken need to be made very
clear as for if someone else were to repeat the same experiment they would come up

with results like it. There are two different types of variables and they are independent
and dependent. An independent variable is a variable that one has control over. A
dependent variable is the variable in an experiment that is affected in the experiment.
This variable also depends on the independent variable, hence its name. With a reliable
observation, a person should not expect what they think would result, they should pay
attention to what is really there. It is also a lot more helpful to avoid personal opinion.
Try to push yours and others aside to find the true result. Do not seek to be right. It will
give the most valid and reliable observations.
https://books.google.com/books?id=NdUtAAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=reliable
+observations&hl=en&sa=X&ei=4ar0VMOAL831yATzs4KoAQ&ved=0CCEQ6AEwAQ#v
=onepage&q=reliable%20observations&f=false
!
This book, Seeing Things, is a great example to explaining a reliable observation.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x2fpLd66yr4

5. Describe the differences between correlational and experimental research

especially with respect to issues of causality and prediction.
!
Correlation means mutual relation of two or more things. It also
contrasts the two things and record the data. Experimental research helps to
Negative
discard the things that are not useful to the experiment. It helps pick out the
Correlation
things that will be most important and most useful. With experimental research
the result will be actual facts and not assumptions. This can also involve a
dependent and independent variable. To see how the two compare and contrast. When
it comes to experimental research it makes the manipulation and control more
accessible in an experiment.
http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/correlational-research-definition-purposeexamples.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ay1o8XjoMVk
6. Define what a positive, negative, and zero correlation is.
!
Positive correlation is when both variables are either positive or negative. Better
explaining that if one variable is positive then the other one would be positive. Vice
versa with a negative variable. A negative correlation is when one out of the two
variables increases and the other one decreases. Zero correlation states that there is no
connection between the two variables. It does not mean that there is a complete
absence of a relationship between the two, there is just no linear relationship. A linear

Negative
Correlation
relationship is
when the
variables are
connected with a
straight line or in
mathematical term.
Positive

Correlation

Zero
Correlation

7. Construct and experiment from a given hypothesis and identify the

independent and dependent variables.
!
For example of an experiment if a study wanted to be made to see if a vitamin
worked for the human population. They could gather two different groups of people.
Once group that would take the vitamin that was suppose to help the body in some way,
such as improving the immune system and the other group takes a placebo to see if it
makes a difference. The people would be dependent on the vitamin to improve their
immune system. And the vitamin would be the independent variable. Somebody that
gets sick a lot and has a poor immune system would more dependent on the vitamin
than someone that already has a healthy immune system, but they could still take it to
make sure their immune system stays healthy.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=utNpSEEyMIU
http://core.ecu.edu/psyc/wuenschk/stathelp/IV-DV.htm
!
In the second paragraph there is an example of an Independent and dependent
variable. Along with the rest of the page it explains in great detail what an independent
and dependent variable are.

8. Describe the process of neural transmission.

!
It all starts with the neuron delivering messages to a very important system within
the body and that is the central nervous system. In order for a transmission to occur a
neuron has to be stimulated. In order to stimulate the neuron it has to sense pressure,
heat, light or chemical information from a certain part in the body or from another
neuron. At some point the neuron is at its resting potential. A time when the neuron is
inactive and only carries a small charge within it. In order for the message to transfer
onto another neuron is has to cross a synapse. I then has reached its action potential,
that is when the neuron receives the message from another neuron or location in the
body and fires to send the message onto another neuron or to the brain.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=qK0WpmDKazo

9. Describe the structure of the human nervous system.

!
There are two different parts of the nervous system, which are the Central
Nervous System and the Peripheral Nervous System. The Central Nervous System is
made up of the brain and spinal cord. The Peripheral Nervous System contains many
sensory nerves that are connected with various parts of the body. Within the Peripheral
Nervous System there is the Somatic Nervous System, which has voluntary control over
skeletal muscles. And there is also the Autonomic Nervous System which controls

glands and muscles of the internal muscles. In the Autonomic Nervous System there is
the Sympathetic, meaning it arouses the energy within an individual. And the
Parasympathetic, which conserves energy.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qK0WpmDKazo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kr7dGPOwzsA

10. Describe research on the split brain.

!
The brain has two different sides of the brain. One being the right hemisphere
and the other being the left hemisphere. Both sides of the brain work together to help
function the body. One side does not work alone, it needs the assistance of the other
side. The corpus callosum, which is located between the two hemispheres and helps
transfer messages back and forth between the two, can be damaged to where there is
no way the two hemispheres can exchange messages. Which is psychologically know
as split brain. The corpus callosum is made up of axon fibers. A split brain can also
result in epileptic seizures, which is the abnormal brain activity bouncing back and forth
between the two hemispheres.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eMFSu0iPm_g

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VHgClWAPbBY
http://www.nature.com/news/the-split-brain-a-tale-of-two-halves-1.10213
!
Split Brain case study about a woman named Vicki.
11. Identify and describe the variable that produce conformity and obedience.
!
Conformity and obedience branch from the psychological study of social
influences. Conformity is the desire to be like everyone else. Obedience is to follow and
order given, along with a request, or a law. When it comes to conformity it can involve
such things as gender differences, age differences and social influences. These specific
examples can affect a persons opinions and behaviors. Some examples that contribute
to obedience is an authority figure, chance of harm, and personal responsibility. All of
these mainly change how a person behaves.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U82CjCBNGZQ

12. Discuss the factors that promote bystander apathy and de-individuation and
how an examination of moral development helps us understand individuals
responses to these factors.
!
When someone is a bystander and realizes someone is in distress, such as
choking or crying. The natural instinct is to want to help but depending on how many
people are watching, a person may just wait and see if anyone responds before them
before deciding to help the person in distress out. When a group is bigger the person in
distress is less likely to get help from someone. The chances of getting help are more
likely the smaller the group is. This is due to unwanted attention. It is the fact that their
every watch is being moved by everyone within the group. Before acting upon the
situation people tend to stop and think, I could be responsible if something goes
wrong.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BdpdUbW8vbw
!
This video is about a woman named Kitty
Genovese. A perfect example for bystander apathy.

People heard and saw her get stabbed

but still had done nothing about it.

De-individuation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=y_ZLFGGsRNw

13. Define learning.

!
The definition of learning is what the brain processes through experience, study,
or being taught. These things would be categorized as knowledge. Learning starts as
soon as a person is born into the world. The older a person gets the more information is
taken in and remembered. As an infant a person learns simple things. But as time goes
on, learning starts to get more difficult. School is where most the learning happens. A
teachers purpose is to put knew ideas and have them stored in the brain so those tools
can be used later on in life. But of course things can be taught outside of school.
Whether a person is home schooled or it is something about life. Some things cannot be
taught at school as better as being taught by a parent or by experience. Since the brain
matures more and more throughout life that is why the learning gets tougher because
the brain can handle and remember things better than when an infant.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7nSe1VfAtww
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SdrGo-q_n-k

14. Summarize the components of classical conditioning.

!
There are a total of 5 elements. Which are Unconditioned Stimulus,
Unconditioned Response, Neutral Stimulus, Conditioned Stimulus, Conditioned
Response. Unconditioned Stimulus is response that acts reflexively.And when that is
activated it can trigger the conditioned response. Unconditioned Response is the

response that comes with the Unconditioned Stimulus. The Neutral Stimulus does not
send out a response, hence the name neutral. The Conditioned Stimulus is close to the
Neutral Stimulus. It still sends out a response. The Conditioned Response is the
response of the Conditioned Stimulus. Certain reflexes are put into certain categories
such as, the smell of food is an Unconditioned Stimulus and the feeling of hunger is an
Unconditioned Response.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=hhqumfpxuzI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=OwBQIhg6CvE

15. Describe stimulus generalization, higher order conditioning, discrimination,

and extinction in classical conditioning.
!
Stimulus generalization plays a role in Conditioned Stimulus by pulling the known
similar response from inside the brain and matching it with the response being done. A
person or living animal can be taught to discriminate against a person or a certain
object. in discrimination they can be taught to ignore a certain stimulus within the brain
and pay more attention to another.
!
Extinction is when the conditioned response either decreases to only slightly left
or completely disappears. This can occur when a conditioned stimulus is no longer
attached to an unconditioned stimulus. The most common result is for the stimulus to
disappear.
!
Discrimination in this sense is defined as the ability to differentiate between a
conditioned stimulus and another type of stimulus that has not been paired with an
unconditioned stimulus.
!
Higher order conditioning has another name for it which is, Second Order
Conditioning. This type of classical condition states that a stimulus that is neutral is
paired with a conditioned stimulus in order to emit the same conditioned response as
the conditioned stimulus.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1kqVxgPBIX0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EzcN0y_0ghc

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AoeFhHmg4mE
Discrimination

16. Describe the application of the principles of classical conditioning to the

therapeutic situation (systematic desensitization and aversive counter
conditioning.)