yr Till 11 tii i bp go ty en pt ic cae sexing, posted bythe Fort Poel aod Lp Co Pn one Crp, "Tanpa Ese Coy tad Gulf Power Co, Mice asta nthe fr Contents Sl tas rd an ses wi tard bom te enpy nd h : ta pr anode ytd Mess TF. Then. Jones WG Snes AN. Ag SK. Mead. BM “Te hares cae To sur ceparistet roid he proper aden seta, dwn est nr ote eet ora nd lg ee ‘Bip aos cans De wayee Che ‘iin vio Moppin pet the ele anor and He expert woo - fully appreciates. te L.Figert pnerace Vil fuerte 3 wrRooueriON : LY BiewieBiey i inpsctonSocey 1 152 Bhecse Enerky Soares 1-21 Hydropower : ‘ 122 Fosil Fuels 5 125 Nuclege Power 6 1.3. The Structure and Economy ofthe Beene Energy Induwry 7 14 The Futue of EESE 8 References 10 ‘CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF FLECTRIC ENERGY SYSTEMS EMGNEERING 2D 2.1 The Fundamental Power Formli—Electromsgnetic Energy 13 22 Additional Forms of Electric Feergy 17 BRI Bletre Field Energy Wo) IT 2-22 Magpeti Field Enety tay 19 . 222 Onmie, or Disipalve, Foray wo 20 ' 2.3 DC sermon AC Poner-Conceps of Real sad Resetive Powers 21 2-31) Single-phase Transmission 21 . i 2-32 Threephase Transmission 27 i 2-4 Coneypt of Complex Power 3 25 ert Representation of Impedances, Currents, Volage, wires ke 2| Exercise 39 Referens 43 ‘hapTER 3 THE ELECTRIC ENERGY SYSTEM OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS a 3-1 Objectives at 302 The Structure ofthe Elec Energy Sytem 45 3-21 Distibuion Lev 45 3-22 Sabtrmamisson Level 46 3-23 Trammission Level 47 3-3 Tranemision Capacity 49 34 Lood Chuscerstcs 53 3-41 Voltage snd Frequency Load Dependency 58 “3-5. The Real Power Balance and Is Elect on System Fresueny 57 35:1 Load-eeguency Mechanism 57 3:52 AMechinical Acalog 59 3-6 The Reactive Power Balance and ts Best on Sytem Voluge 60 ~3.7 Questions of Steuy aad Cost 64 8 Summary? 65 Reercies 65 References 68 CuNPTER 4 THE SYNCHRONOUS MACKINE—SYSTEM MODEL REPRESENTATION 70 41 Intodeton ~ 70 422 Elememury Maes and Analogs 71 4-21 Contol of Synchronous Machines 72 422 AMechanieal Analog 74 423 The Torgue—Power Aagle Mechanism 75. {24 Tongue Creation 76 463, Development of Geaeral Machine Equations 77 43.1 "The Basic Machine Parameters 78 432 TheGeneal Machine Equations $2 433 TheGenerat rower Equation 86 43. The Bloadel Transformation a8 44 Steady.state Machine Models 92 441 TheMachine tNoLosd 92 4-42 The Machine under Symmevical Loading Conditions 93 45 Machine Ratings 109 45 Sommay 110 Execs 110 References 142 CHAPTER 6 THE POWER TRANSFORMER 116 « 5-1 Practical Design Considerations 115 SeL1 Diferent Types of Cor Arrangements 117 5-12 Diferent Winding Arrangemeats and Flectical Connections HIT S13. Ratiogs 119 5.2 Equivalent Cres for Twoswinding Teaformess 119) 5-2. Bxaet Equivalent Circuits of Y¥-connered Teaasorners 119 5-22 Approximate Equivalet Circuits for Y¥-connected Transformers 121 5-23 Equivalent CucitforS-connecte ‘Teaslormers 124 5-24 w Equivalents 126 5-25 The Impedance Matix of @Symnetiealy Operated Three-phace Transformer 128 53. Eyuivaleat Circuits for Meliwinding Transtormers 129 5-4 Autouansfornes "135 5-5 The Transformer a8 a Control Device 137 S-S1 TCUL Traesocmers 137 5-52 Regulating Trasformess 138 5-6 Summary 148 Exercises 148 References 151 CHAPTER 6 THE HIGHENERGY TRANSMISSION LINE 352 6-1 Introduction 152 62 Design Considerations 155. 6-3 BecteLine Parameters 157 G-A1 Line Resistance and Shunt Cendvetoce 157 6-32 Lige fductance 158 53.3 Lise Capacitance 170 6-4 Longiioe Theory 183 G41 Longline Equations 183 6-42 Compusationt Considerations 186 6-43 Bquivalet Nework of LongLie 189 6-44 TheLosless Line 191 6-5 Summary 196 Exerciser 396 References 198AND LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 200, TL ADemonstetion Example 29 TLL Sytem Model—The Stale Load Flow Equations (SLFE) 202, 7-12 Important Characteristics of SLFE 208, S713 Chusiseation of System Varsbes 206 T14 Soluion of SLFE—A Basic Dilemma 207 TALS. Mosied Specifations—Solution of Our Dilemma 207 CHAPTER 7 THE ENERGY SYSTEM IN STEADY TATE SYSTEM MODELING 7-6 Geveraliraton ombus System 208 TUT Practical Sttesvariabe Coastaints 210 TELE Practical Conol-variable Coastaims 210 TTA9. Praccal Variable Specification Procedure 7FAL10 Bus Classfeaton onthe Basis of Speciation au Type 212 7-2 Seastvgy Analysis and the Problem of Control 213 TH2.1 Perturbation ox Sensivty Analysis 213 7-22 Jacobian and Sensvity Mawes 215, 7-3. Defation ofthe Load Flow Problem 218 7-4 Network Model Formalstn 220 7-4)" & Demonsvation Example 220 742 SLFEIn General Form 222 43 Network Terminology 223 144 Primitive Networks 226 TAS. Linear Nework Graphs 227 7-46 Choice of Lincarly Independent Network Variables 228 7-4. Network Variables in Loop Frame of Reference 250 ‘mental frequency variable fie reated to the phase angle deviation through Fg (0-6), we can, obviously, write Ea, (9-21) inthe following way: ere forar—fopt) ™ (fue—foe) om Pine = 20 ET 1 ays ce with Pt mega ring a 1 te we em MPaBlock-diagram representation of contro! area Consider Eq. (015) I we divide all terms by Pu that, the fra! megawatt ating of ate the ‘equation, in view of Eq) (19), takes on the form ao Bh La + Daft BP o20 ‘The variables AP apd D ae now measured in per unt of Pye ‘The quantity 4,5 Mat 025) having the dimension second experi ner constant with the desirable propery atts pal ndepeseat of ten a Type Hales Tie in the range 210 8s. {Letus now Lapacetransform Eqs. (9-28) and (224), We get >» Pu fi EE T,8 OR) ~ BF) 029" and (Pols) — Pld) — BP an Gof) = BEC) oa ft) ari samanin (ML dl) Fe Sap repeated eon arash Guteh BF so] [ane Bet Fie, 6 Bleceaapan seprecnnton of Lapcetan. Fone eption ©, where, for brevity, the following new parameters have ben introduced 028) 029) 630) Equations (2-26) and (9-27) can be represented by the block diagrams in Figg 9-7 and 9, respectively. By combining these two block diagrams with the one in Fig. 9-45, we Bally ative at the complete Block Aiagram eepresentation ofa eontrol are, shown in Fig 99 ‘To get a fel forthe dynamic of Pf contro systems, we begin by investigating the simplest posible case consisting of single control aret, The block diagram for 4 single-aea system (Fig 9-10) is obtained by simply deleting thet lines from Fig. 9, ‘The uncontrolled ease We consider, st, the anconrlld ease. with AP.=D._ This means that wedomot change the speed changes position System data make our study a elisa possible, we shall work ith the following typical merical vales ‘Tota ated area capacity P= 2000 MW Nominal operating lad Ps? 110 MW Inertia constant = 5.08 Regulation R= 240 Halpu MW (Example 9-1)aie, 4540 Ban aw . + l= raga} O—hrrg| We ae) 500) Fie.99 Coogee Hock-dagram rpecuntn of contol We shall assume that the load frequency characteristic is linear, meaning thatthe load would increase 1 peeent for | percent Frequency “Thus aR, _1000 oH OP wie orn per units of area capacity, 1000 . emmy — ESS 10 pu MWe We then gt rom Eqs. (0-28 tad (2-29), 2x50 axes xT = 1 $= 120 Hapanew cate, S19 PHBE on TW \egs ox are) ae Ti ‘pend col Fie: 0. Bcd reruns fl con ae Stile frequeney stop following sep lead change Prom the block diagram in Fig 9-10, we obtain for AP, = 0 oan ‘We shal find the response for 3 stp load change of magnitude AP, We have in this ate argiy = S02 eo) Using he fra-aie ttre, we readily obaa fom £4.31) he suai egeney drop are Maa = tin OF = = AAP = ~ We insosice here the soe ae fen repos chert (AFRO) f, defined as pipsk pumwite oy ad obtain, then, ‘AP few — 222 te 039 Ms 7 ) For the above numerical data we get Be 833 x 10 1 yy 00S pu MWeFor example load increaie of Pp = 20MW ~ 20/2000 = 0.01 pu MW - results in a stati Fequency change of 3 ot feu = 2k = 00235 He Time resiouse The dynamic requeney behavior Af (t)can be obtained by taking the inverse Laplace transform of Eg. (9-31). This fa stright forward procedure, in principle, but can get nimerically involved if the transfer functions Go and G, are cmp. We have concluded in our preceding analysis that they together wllcontin a leat the time constants ‘hich wil have theeesul thatthe denominator of Eg (9-31) wil be of third dee ° ‘We can simply the analyels considerably by making the reasonable ‘ssumptdn thatthe action of he speed governor plu the turbine generator Isinstntaneous” compared withthe rest of the power sjtem, The later, 45 demonstaed in our prsent example, has a fine constant of 20s, and ‘Since the other two dae constants are of the order ofl, we wil perform an pproirate analysis by euing To — Ty = 0. "From Eq, 31) we then get ral 1 "REE 39 AT, If we make use of the previous numerical values, we obtain AF U) = —0.0n35 L as) 629 ‘Te approximate time response i therefore purely exponential Af —00235(1 et) He 3 Figure 9-11 shows an analog computer recording of thi rexponse, For comparison, we also slated the loop response withthe inclusion of {The autor grate acaolagr the aster of Chace Fok «grade {ststaa ste Unersyof Poca abtnieg computes corgi spe Ann. isons ow constans and raged — (ve reoponan pees). sponse tnd Fe ot gad Fig bya tags dtion fling A ange, Spent ane the time constants Ty and Tp. We make the following cizcrations in regard to our eesuls 1. The overal closed loop system ime constant equals only 1/2.55 = 0.3935, which i a considerable reduction from the value T, = 20s, charae- terzing the plant sell” This spent ix a result of the feedback arrangement of the peed governor. Note thatthe system can be made SUL aster by reducing, that is, by incteasing the stati loop gain, 2, Reduetion off also reduee the sate frequency error 5. If we performed the above analysis by nat deparding the time constants ‘Tyand Toy then the response would not be purely exponential as above, Unig $11 we show te diferene, Note tht the added delays ease lage transient Feguency dip. Why? 4. The speed governor operated in the above noncontraled mode (ity “without sanipuision of the speed changer) gives reasonable Bet formance witha static requeney drop of only 24 He between zero and full load and setting times of te onder of s (as depicted in Fig. 91 However, withthe extremely severe retritone we in elit impose Frequency constancy (see next section), the res ae, at, etry unaeepiabe. We must do much beter ‘5. The foregoing analjis may not have given the reader full physical ‘understanding of the load frequency mechanism of the ancturlled Singlearea system. Sine such an’ understanding i invaluable 2appreciate fully so-called bis control in multiares systems (26 ext {ection}, we shall attempt now to shed some light on the phyial mechanism Phyl inerpretation of reclts When the load suddeoyinceased by 1 pecent (= 20.MW), where di this power oni rom? Certainly, it must have come from somewhere, a5 can be cetied by the customer who tte the switch and expected and got intantaneouly his demanded 20 MW. "in the milleconde following the closure of the swith, the Frequency has no changed a measurable amount, and herefore no powe increase has 1d the to develop the turbine (where the steam valve has not yet moves). Un that st istant the otal altel aad demand 20 MW i obtained from he stored kite omergy, wich therefore wil decrease ata ial rte of 20 MW. The kinetin energy i tleased by speed reduction, Sine the speed is dropping (and from Fig ll we noe that the inal gig (148) 8 hive oo thea we ean write the denominator polynomial in the form toe et Where x and gare Both positive and real, ‘This isthe sipercrtical cae “The expression for AF(#} now has & conjugate complex pole pair in the stable # plane, and the time response AJ) therefore contains damped ‘sllatry terms ofthe types etsiner and cos wr 1f, on the contrary: . : Ky < Koen : (bert integral contol), 1 Tee bat poe ones fom 4 won of he race yin the “somistor xpos Se le) ae ase mee tld bop eerie. oa) 0p me Vwatou ag! cont ® FE p12 Dan ee fri spl stn tr sen Soca eel gn neaer eaten eye (aeons Few Olos Qeaetaitrky = Oncaea esee ses ‘then we can write the polyromiat in the form + OG + 8) here 9, and fy are both postive Equation (9-41) now bas weal pole par inthe table «plane, and the corresponding nonosilatory time exponse Af() contains terms of ihe type eM and eh neither ofthe above two cases, 4 wil ths approach, provi that we foed have both sabe and denon Tegeency consol Oe fist and second sstearequienents ae thas met. Tp Fig, 13 ne dept {be seta silaed tie responses fr diferet values ofthe gals sete Ky The family of curves in ig 5130 couspond lo T= Te eortee AB eat we just anayaed. “Figure 136 inten the ect of ce tine‘We make te following general comments about integral ype conte! 1. Uwe use subcritical gain settings i < 100 percent, we obtain stugish onorcllatary resporse of the contol loop. This means she! the Snegralof (7, aid us the ime err, wl be relatively large. Ta [practical situation this sting is most oflen wed. The advantage i hat the generator now will not unnecessarily “chase” rapid Lond Actuation, causing equipment Wear. 2. Itwe want to sped up the response by inreasing the ain K, the response ‘urns oscillatory. "This's the peice we pay fr reducing the ie et, 3. A careful study ofthe espouse geaphe in ig. 9-13 teres the fllowing eats ‘As the sun fad inrease sets in, the Frequency starts fling” ofc se ame exponential at fr he ncn led ye (Compe Fig O10, Dorng tee ft nstnt the integral gone bas ot Yet bad tne to goat ston, andthe sytem fesponds in is scone fol manser, which me ded prenouly i reat Geta Aer 1 Sain tne (he shorter the tie, te higher itera pn Kp, te integral controle comes nto stion and eventual ts the eney hk ot ovina ve. 4. The ender mnt eae thn order to Kept nano theta ontallr singe, we have made ver sping sumptions. We Sal sae ese arth tne consis Ty abd To were net (Out they wet i lied inthe imate graphs in lg 9:10) 2. The speed change rexpone was stumed fnstantaeous Al conlincaie inthe equipment, sch a dead fone, have en epee 4.1 be ey ase a he srr cam ge cation Ps tft ait Commanded bythe sped changer ‘doo, Inaiy, therlsa pata tim the ce, expresed Smet prsacond twice eet can pik Sp feuds We have gepested thie tae limitaton during te ew trends we ate omidrng ¢. Welhne asumed thatthe ACE i vale a 2 cones in ey, the measurement of th equency deviation Baker Flas diconteucsty in sanple-dta fashion. I the satping {cis lately high (ompeted with the fare changer inte tepone of Fig) the the above analy gies good rest "The integral controler just described results in system that mete the Sst three of the specified contol requirements. "The fourth requirement, Le, (Sh eke as coe fae Hat - sde-are Fase ' ect Ft 4 Autom ad gay cnt th optimum eon pach {het pertaining to econmiedipte, an be mt we Provide or sont "sconomic dispatch contol equipment” tobe added tthe stem in Pig = eatin yer in Fig Wenow describe one possible solution of instrumentation for eonomie conte We ‘est remind toe ceader (Chap. 8) thatthe basis for economic ‘fhe sume sytem were part ofa pool of ay, 10,000 MW capacity, the sme 300-MW generation fale woUld represent oaly 20.3 percent os. ‘The frequency would be "saved," and support power to the extent that Stn welt ow into hep evi te east its oad until normal generation is reso AY System ste alge reduces the nee for reserve power among th pool members. ”A system that operates alone as a “single area” must provide ‘power to handle wot only the antpated peaks, but also the sudden require- Feats due to equipment fallues. ‘The reserves are cased on the basis of their readines. “Spinning” reserves eaa be called upon for instantaneous (atleast as fast asthe cobtoles can rect) asstance. "They are made vp Of filly operating but nl) partially loaded unis. “Hydroelectric, diesel, nd gorurbine operated is ean be called upon st afew minute” notice. Stean reserves ange all the way fom “Tow bank” (idling at pressure aad hha levels below tha equred for service) to cold reserves" (operative, but operation), " Since pak demands ocurt at various hours of the day ia various ara, the ratio between peak and average oad fora large poo is smaller than that ofthe individual Systems. Teis obvious, therefore, that all pool members an benef from a reed need of teerve capacity bya scheduled arange- ment of energy interchange. “The tworarea system It was posible in Chap. 7 to introduce the reader to the fundamental probleme associated withthe state operation of aa m-bs system by dicusing, Sst, the simplest of al mulbus systems, the two-bus system. We sal nd it equally instructive to itroduce the reader to the ‘ad frequeney dynamics of the m-area system by studying fret the dynamics of the tworaea system, Let therefore turn Ou attention toa system consisting of tv contol areas ofthe (pe indicated in Fig. 9-6, interconnected via relatively wea Weline, The areas ae generally of diferent size and characteristics. Block diagram of two-area system Fach sre i chracerized by the block digem show in Fig. 99 in erms ofits incremental 2 dynamics. By connecting two ofthese Bock diagrams together, we therfore obtain the tovorarea model showa in Fig 9-16. (Disrep, for the time Bring, the Aoted portions ofthis diagram.) ’Ae explanation must be given about the blk having the wansfer fanation dy We Fementber that in Eq. (2-28) the term AP epresented the te line power ou fom aea J expressed in perm megan of te area capacity Py For the two-aea system the te ine power AP, must equal the negative of Pun if Bou are expresed fo means. Expresied mathe: matically, this means that, Pa Pans Fa MPa AP ira DPies where Mechanical analog of two-area system Before we prosecd with a2 analysis ofthe two-area system, we shall preset, without proof a mectanical System that is 2 peefectanslog of our electrical worares system. Consider 1 Focetampe New York 62 Nabe of Deve, Fld ht # snes pak, whee ‘Mien ha water pakAbba By bly -,TH—-4--—---- be, Fie 946 Lond oueey cont of woares seem, (Dated porons wer ‘2 cmt es) the tain in Fig 9-17, If thie trai is traveling at a nominal constant speed ‘and “tiespring™ power and suddenly is subject to incremental load chang, the veloc willehange. The two-ar assemblies wil experience the velocity perturbations Ao, and At, respectively, and the te spring power wil change ‘with the amount M7. By wetingt the ineemental dynamic equations for this system, one can fea consi that they are ofthe intel form as out ‘stem equations (23) and (6-24). This means tha the systems are analogs ‘ofeach other, The following variables corespon to eachother: z TRA NE act Boneh jet maa why seal a dla snes djl et es au Tale al 2 a race 1:7 reader sould atk he autor word forth, Bt aly prove oi Ansiog of a0 Aosig of 0002 Reta st e-siog” “ oaog nk Boe Pug PAT Mechs ano of oat syst “Tie spring powere> te lne power “The rin analog can thus be used asa ald ia achieving a better fee for the bebivior ofthe este system. Static response of uncontrolled ¢wonarea system We shall fst nvetigat the eopons ofthe tvo-area system under uncontrolled conditions, ils, fixed sped ehanger positions: Pa = SP ‘We assume thatthe loads in each area are suddenly increased by the incremental steps AP and AP We sal init our analysis to finding the Sots changes tat raul frequency and eine power Let ws call hose ehangert Bfau 204 OP eta Since the tcremental increase in geeration“in this static case determined bythe sat oop gains only, we obtain ro Fig. 916 1 Poa = — J Mw * (9-48) Mousa = — fon From E9. 0.29 we upon sting fi of as (6) and 0-8, © Mua — BPs = Dr Bf t ® sand making use BP saa 4) faa Poe = De Bf ain Poet ‘he steaty sate de Huey dpe inthe (4 sens wl be oul Compare apt forgot.We solv or fan 808 Peg 308 obi * os) beng Equations ($0 become prc simplet we assume ena rea parameten Ley Dia DD © mi Rak z ssn pomw ‘For example, ia sep Joad change occur i acct 2, we get ie os) pow oss Tse no seats el es, 0s abe te sda of ol operation 4 Pity pret ofthe aed lo nae 2 wil sapped by ae in the te fit, 2 The frequency drop wil Be oly hal hat which woul be expricced it the ates were operating sloye [compare Eq, (038). arco yrlaro amet aiipa mw 8 0838x1050 Me requsey devon neath area a he Ue i pome ving fthlg & Sp ad inca aren? Dhar ypeed changes are fase. "Two eee Dynamic retponse of uncontrolled two-area system The syst in Fig 916s of seventh onder even if we us the very simple turbine odin Eq, (6-12), and it would be enliely meainglss i an introductory ex 0 atlempt an analysis direst It would be considerably more practical to put it on the analog computer. "This we actually id, and obtained the fesuls Shown in ig, 3.08 ‘tis posible, however, to expose some important characterises by analysis by fst making ome easonabie and not oo restr assumptions. We Sra state seve: Assumption 1 Consier the case of two equ! areas ‘Ascimprion 2 Consider the turbine come fast ratve t the est of Tystem, 20 that we can set Ty = Ty 0, and therefore we Gon = Gone h Acsimpion 3 Neglet the system damping This means that we assume the fads not to vay with frequency; ie. we set Dy~= De= 0. Thissee neon a Bp 99 2 a, te 6yt= 04) Log! Based upon thee assumptions, e can_now obtain the following ‘equation deel fom the lock dagram: ‘ 1 nt stato=~}8F0) ‘ AP oA(3) = — 5 AFi(s) “ BF (FG) — BFS) 56) MPa (2) = —A Pie als) uy a= tral ~ aha 0 - om AAA) Fite) — alt) = AR 0) By sition of Es 5 an 0 it as we ca derveth fang epson forte Ue epee ne NZY APpals) — BPmals) "af FRG ARIAT on Ts peso ti evra import ts MPs) 1, The denominator being ofthe form Sede etaGt er porne where «and et are both positive, we know thatthe syste is wie po system i stable 2. Following a dstrbance, the system wil ost a he damped angular Trequeney Vane =, os 43. The system damping is strongly dependent upoo the « parameter, ‘Sioce ‘fe and #1 ce esently constants, the dap nil Se a func of he ‘parameters, Low R valves wl give strong damping: high R vtoes, weak damping, The system will perform ndonped oseilons of Frequency oy = oo if R= co, that i, ifthe speed governor is noe cxntent 4, The fact that the system is lerentiyosiatory could have beta immed: dately predicted from the mechanieal analog in Fi 917 Yeap #2 Comider to gular, sh having te prance R~ 30K MW Wass paar rom £5. (059) tut a VITESTS ok Assume eine as pce fp Opener ep ands ‘opeatingas power sage of Fe £408) ths he “The aig eqn te = VIX OWT=T I (e030 Hepp) ‘Te atone inate saya contin by. A. more eed anal eRe ung ris and gers aps aos elt ‘Sat mith erin pram cosbinon te sen Pay actualy tr tae, il cen confibed oy shematon, ‘The controlled two-area systems The response cures ia Fig. 9:18 indicate that, as inthe single-aea cos, we must 244 integral contol to out system. Le us sate fin, the minimum requirements the system should Suggested controtsystem specicaions We shall roqire that ovr system mest the four-point spesfiatons that we stipulated for ce single- area sytem ia See. 923 In addition, we sal requte thatthe steady-state lie line poner wantin, fllowing a step lad ehange, must be 20." Tht requtement guatantecs that each fea, in steady state, absorbs its own Toad—the guiding principle in poo! operation he te line bias control strategy Since we must now ase a strategy that will cause Both the frequency 300 te ine deviations to vanish, we stall, ssinthe sogloarea case, adoptintegral contol, but wit the tie line deviation [added to one atea contol erat: ie, We attempt ACE: APs + BMS ACE MPucn + BAe e‘The speed changer commands wi hus be ofthe form Pa Ka [ (OPon + Be Bf at oo) APS Kn f OPaes + BB/D oa ‘The constants Ky and Kip ace integrator gos, andthe constants B, and By are the fegueney bas patameters. This srategy bas been indicated by the ‘outed portions n Fig U6. The mins signs must be included since each fren should increase is generation it ether ie frequency eror Bor Ue line power incremeat AP 8 negative. : Stari system response The chosen sategy wil eliinate the steady- state requeney and te line deviation fr the fllowing reason Following a step load change in either atea, anew static equim, 1 sch on equlirim exists, can be achieved ony after the speed changer commands AP and SP. have reached constant values. BUt thi evidenly reife that both integrands in Bg. @-61) be zee. eran + Bbfae =O os) Piensa + Bean os In view of a. (46, these codons can be met onl it Maat = BP tat = APiyeynst = 0 0-6) [Note that hs res dependent ofthe By and By values. In ft, one ofthe bias parameters (but not Bot) canbe zero, and we sl havea guarantee ‘hat Ey 965) ttf, Dynamic sytem responte The dynamic characteristics of the closed loop areas important asthe stati ones, if not more so, From all we Know 4a this stage, the prpoted sem may wat aren Be stable, To find the dynamie perforance is sll mare dificult than in the uncontrolled cas, ‘The two added Integrators have raised the sytem order to 9. ‘Without proo! we give the following information pertaining © the stability properties ofthe “controled” wore system: assumptions as mere Used tm arving wt Ey (9-5) reveals tha stabil is not ‘guaranteed as Nas the ease forthe “uncontrolled” stem. For eeain Values ofthe inteprator guns the osilatons wil grow. Fi 649 Frieny ad te ne poker deviation 4 canto oars ase folowing ep fond Sotrtoue” (On) anh | gary town) The eee ‘Sosy fein wi eet bas tings (9B = 6k, ~ 1; OB =, Kacorns, @)#= 005, hy 18 Remacng sym pcs are De sme 8 hoe ued ig 818 ‘The added integrators have contributed to the oscillatory nature of| the sytem "The station i depicted in the simulate response graphs in Fig 9.19, “These recordings were obtained forthe se system data an Fg. 918 “The graphs of Fig 9-19 depit the tranvient response for & sep load change nares 1). All graphseotespond to sable parameter combination, bbutne ave demonstrated the elect of varying the Pas parameter B. Both areas are characterized by idemical params. The graphs of Fig, 9194 correspond to B = 0. The stem now proptly controls the line power, but the frequency will have # stati error ‘The graphs of Fig 9-198 relat othe other extreme case, with B = co, (ote that the product KB is Brite, which means that K;=0) The control actions are now insesitive tte ine power errors and asa result we fare left witha state power err, bu she frequency is properly contolThe graphs of Fig. .19e show an intermediate case. Neither the Frequency nor the tie ine power wil have any sie error: Thi fs the racially important case! Optimum parameter adjustment} The graphs in Fig. 919¢ indicate cleaty the great importance of proper parameter settings. ‘The fist and ovetriding requirement isthe selection of att of pérametes which wil ‘esi in a nuble system. Having secured sable system, our next ob- Jestve must be to adjust the paramtersuatl we have & “best” or opium Fesponse. . onto erterion_tn developing tps for optim dspate inthe esdig chapter wechoreceain sr cot iets on bea wes see con pre ou stategies. ‘We smiy need some meaningil seve forteantien sponse. Sei Integra err err, ot con forcons, hase Feovd tbe the most mein and convenient meso of dpasne Fvformance'" Soa co tions sul oe tos c [rte eae heap cy, ey... Af the dierent “errors that our contol system is ) is penalty fnton that determines the "ost of the magnitude ofthe errs. “Phe pricieal value of the ror een depends upon the veto of & meting penaly ‘The effet of the integral in Eq. (966) toad to the cost for a8 long 5 the eo persist. In summary, thetelor, the effet of the function {0 penalize he menind teers and of he nega topes eit foals sor eon the soe glo te sr ear (ISE) criterion, eat “ edt 0-6) C8 [leat aet tot uate om Tet eh he eas i ti seni ar ce hae sandr np saa a a {Te pemeteashson! mb peer was sued by Feta ad Fg Te lnegration neve aes fo be ede ove inne afta, Anette [paps of Fig 9-1, the ror wil be ese ater ene the nega Sesoped wot nyse ect on srry ‘es positive. I's lear, therfore, thatthe ISE criterion penalizes cg erors (Of any signs, uti eatively lenient toward small errors We shall chose the ISE criterion for the judgment of the two-area conuoller and shall speifically employ the erttion function + c& [ar + eager os) is noted that we aye not included Af The reason is that Af, and ‘f, behave in about the same manner, which mens that inclusion of A Simply has the elect of increasing the weight Factor « "Note also that the weight factor for AP has been chosen nity. Tae reader should remember that, since wear interested in the eave magnitude (of Cfo various parameter stings, we can always set n Eq. 3-67 equal touniy Option pararster search procedue We shall exemplily the usage of the above cost terion by finding the optimum parameters for atworarea system where, for simply, we sall assume thatthe two areas have ‘denial parameters Ky aK Bn RnB We proceed in the folowing tps: 1, Sete fora weight factor = 2 Investigate how the C funtion depends upon the various paramaters that ‘sre open for our choice. When we have ted all combinations, we ‘hoor tho parameters which render Ca maa, ‘The secand step inthe outlined procedures, in practic, most cumbersome, shovld we atempt to use analysis Te principle, we would solve for AP. 40d Af, subsite ese solutions into Eq. (2-68), and evaluate the integral ‘This integeal woud, evidently, bea function of our two parameters; ie, c~caK If we were to pot the C fonction vers is two parameters # and i in «athrce-dimersional coordinate system, we would obtain a bow-shaped “cost ‘urfacd" 25 depicted in Fig 9-20 Compare also Fig. 82). The minimum point of this surface coresponds tothe optimum parameter stings ‘An analog computers particularly useful in ding the optimom, Tt renders directly the functions AP, and Af andthe only addtional equip. ‘ment needed isto multipliers fo perform the squaring operations APE, ‘and Aff The summing and iterating operations called Torin Eq. 0-58) re pecdormed in cegular summing and integrating amplifies.Sexes nea “The most practical computer procedure i to fix one ofthe parameters, say, B, and thea vary the other parameter ia steps. In this way we obtain the “constant cost contours” shown in ig. 9-20 Example 92. We erfrmedan opin study of moe ecard bythe Talowing wats ane er Dj B= 439 x 1 pe Mite B= R= 2altaga MW Paanyy= 20M Geto pact) 25 hs = 30" oma iin pote ange) » Py B= 0425 pu IH AFRO ost fntion FE 991 Conan oun, The sine compat fx wih or = snd xn heya tC cnton Cs mtn ox as pa ‘her ofthe yar tonal Figs 2 nd 92. ‘os scan yal aed ee, eects prea et ache ‘ema the intepan t E08 cote eal To sp se meer ike optimum pit Inother wee, we stich sg npn tee ponet fe eqn ror “he cat comours i Fig, 822 crspond 0 2 = 0; ie we aac a lengoans toi ne pose ingen th res we hve le vermis rth the B preter ted in see oan the ape op << 1508 ‘In toh cn we cin an opin sting hat cogent heap 1B 059 = 021 pe Wie ‘econ rom (961 a4) hatte optimum cata ray i ara — fares +021 aya oo ~fioraet 021 aoa* cofidn, soe : 3 Fi. 922 Constant eonan, Weigh tric sow @ Te rep sne eFig#188 omepod whe pn net “Eat tw sees po es ove eap),ofcoune, nl ithe sem paral aretha 1 TN fae osumed Rerexop we bad same onc tte ‘Weave ofan a ou ese ppy fo achat pe 2. The 5 wy indy presen she bmn Dia ating Bap ih nl opm ae we fun Th ny ds fot make any ing Ky. It dots use a {ot ate any pei esnmendaons concerning : very low integrator un ein ina ery slow secondary amen “The matin, sin the sing en cv stat he ube contol Soldat stopo eee ia age ber it pani rat he ly ep ce in PR bse cern inet poo ally mer That ot Gout vpn te contol sttey peel ted, and should sve 8 Sotvaton to sek bel sttepen. This we wl on Se. 4 “sshd onan ton hte meee tency nde Ee power ror at performed conn "Re sats se ee at ard ner ina sop 1" Noceer, ie sampling rate sully high nae signals propedy Shere, the results deviate very lite from those we have presented, 2f control of maren system The method of lod feyueny contol iscussed above for a tworarea sytem can be iniititey thieeded eect Ira¥essystem. Let us considera power pool consisting om indaden soean hich it is exporting a toa scheduled power which must be Kept conser, 'n keeping witb our fundamental poo-operaton principe. We popes ‘ow, in analogy with Eas. (0-40), an ACE ofthe tones Pose + Bef, e0) hese Au» represents the change ofthe toll area power export meanured Poise od from the are ‘As in the case ofthe tov area system, the area conto erors must be integrated in onder to eliminate the sai eros; ewe form 4 peee ‘hanger command sigaal ofthe form AP, = i facta en Me have sow, in effet, 2n gain parameters, Kj and By, to be selected, Beyond the recommendation that each aren thould sot it bas parameter ‘gual tits own AFRC, there seems tobe no peetating sty tha conser, the overall problem, The author fel that much additional research noes to bedone in this Geld. “Here are some sugested sscuchabjenien, |. Fleding of more definite rules for optima parameter settings than those presently used, “This could take the form ofan ealenslonet the shore two-area analysis, based on the ISF esiterion. 2. Investigation ofthe approximation ivotved in rating the mares problem asa two-area problem (with one atea much larger than the ther), 3 Analysis ofthe eet of ti line strength an spent cegaion 4A sensitivity analysis of che effects of turbine, gestion and other sytem parameters onthe Centerion, 5 Development of more advanced optimim coil strategies (See 9-4, 93 THE MEGAVAR VOLTAGE CONTROL PROBLEM We have studied in considerable detail the tagawatt feguency control problem for both sngl- and mutiple-aea systems Bascal, the proses In delle as one of Keeping a delicate balance tween the fnerged vad ‘SRusumed real power inthe system, the frequency being the adiater thot ‘his balance js maintained. In the multiplearea system, we alo a torea by sensing the changes in palance the rel power within each individual ont rt of out systems control “Wnes tart our ateaton to he srond pat of ou : wit tye on tng te estes per balan ia he Fen eecrer an Ile betnecn the teed nd an ct 2 hon wage cevnion Sa) mand an ee devin wl be ge a he bs whee ‘cin mbes " Thre are obvious, gaits tes the mega gene and cae a oie cond problems 1s tempting, hereon 5 a ety in the ater as, to Sra om our know of se come cetpe, ue ene ec cone rr, RCE ah eesemicys by renbog equeney by vl and mepmnat satin th ner ae oan WES (38) and 03), aRCEA A My om A, = —Ki] RCE di (iar is @ measure of the voltage level erro of the buses inthe controt rca Oa RE capt, be the average vue of he eo ol BoE {Shag or epsetntive sample : aaron inl vo the Q gator (r geet) th = In the multiple-area ease the control strategy, in ar (9-20) snd (0-1), should be RCE, # Que + CAI Mlae en = Hf RCE sve power mets posing eshte deviation niin ete power ese pose nny a ease ge be” pret eased mean dou ts the toa er seed hat AQ, inte soe equation te seen ea mmand compare te same mening fF, fhe cig won i ere ogh the poposed strategy (Ft 0-75] is very attractive fom & Se te ah Kn of ose whee as actually adopted. ‘There at several reson fortis important are of whic the thre most 1, Generation of restive power doesnot involve moBetay cost the same extent at generation of el power, For example, we do not have any fguivalent of fuel costs There iy Of cove, the istlation and maintenance cost of Q sources (cpactor banks and condenser) and (sinks (shunt reactors) In the case of rea-power generation, we based our optimum P dispatch ealiely on esonomie eres. Opt rum Q dispatch is based in parton economie consideration (twas ointed out in Chap. 8 that he Qfow does afect the fea power loses, And thus the transmission costs) and in parton other considerations. ‘Our mathemati erterion foe optim Q depat wil serefer ave to be more complicated than sh which governed our P dispatch (Gee aso point 3 below.) 2. There is no practial need for cootoling the voltage level to the same ‘accuracy a¢ the fequeney. For example, whereas the Trequncy i Controlled to within 2003 percent, the acuracy las for bos vllages ‘se of the aulet “El percent Also, we reqited the steady ste frequeney etror to vanish, flloning a step lead change. Stale voltage errors canbe oleried, and this then eliminates the need OF integral control 3. In.a typical power system the sormal diy fctutions inthe reactive demand pose entiely diferent problems during the day hours 3s compared ith the night hour ‘During he hours of heavy wea power demand we also find the largest demand for restive power, The concer now eto dispatch the reactive power in such a anseras 10 minimize the real ine ose ‘During the houre of ight reat load the @ demand decreases to rinimom. If our sytem contains long transmission lines andor ‘extensive cables, we may find thatthe capacitive O generation ie of such large magnitude tht we have a surplus of feactive power. Out concerns now to get ro this srplus ‘The chances are Ut our ‘operating seighbors have the same problem; So we cannot export he Surplus power. We may route it to our various generators, and by lundereciting these, we my force them to absorb the reactive Powe. However, inso doing we ate decreasing the machine emf, and this weakening the machines lctrcally, eating in reduced stability margins. We may, acwally, be forced to install shunt reactors that will eoasume the surplus ressive power, Our ererion for optimum 1 dispatch, which during peak load shoulé be based pon les mini tization, should evident, during night hours, be bated upon best, Climination of the reactive surplus power.‘The contol stategy most often used is characterized by the following sain features 1. Each generator boss vollagecontaled individually. 2. The voltage profile ofthe system is preselected on the Basi of load ow ody. 3. The voltage profile is changed petiodically to account forthe changing Toad pater. Excitation control systems come in many shapes and varieties, just as was the cae with turbine contel systems, Figure 923 depicts atypical species, ‘The main generator fed is fed from a de generator (exer, which wally ig deven from the tame turbine shaft as the generator ite. The exter ‘kd i controlled Va an amplifier. Due tothe exiter size, this amplifier usually consists of several stages. We have indicated only one. ‘Transfer function model of exciter system We present now a wansfer function model for this system. The variables used in the following ataysie ae defied in Fig 9-23.” We teat the various components inthe following orders” Voltage comparator This device compares the terminal voltage [7] ofthe generator witha reference voltage which eset equal to the aominl infil winding Msn St wining Moa vee 1 volgen mace +8 ea atone Fie 923 Tyialvoag pul Whats Fin 924 Block aga rpremition of ergo in ig 92, Yoliage 71. The votuge er teefore equals 68 hae = I= = 004 SIF) = 817) Amplfer Ths device an be care by a un actor Ky and a Mae constant the inte permet ply having maga ee ‘han 100s. The want fonction of he ampiier Seana oy WO ke WO esr, ors, cer This deve, aay sho a plier, tas sine vane function. * ites ts Herta VO) Ke FO7tr 019) Tr, the ime constant ofthe exces eld winding, as aly a vae ‘of about 1 5. Ms ial ava Generator representation The de developed sofa aes we ptothe terials of he gerry ofcourse oder fo be 428610 “loxe he op in Fg 3-24, fo dee taser hs the generator ite, tod the taser fusion which ese tor sida termi og iret faton depends 10 crn extent pon the nna erating sae of he eee nod wehbe oer age of operating codon We tall ane tn he pera fog perce or operating into etvork which 6 ght lool tak the inpdanc a iw fom te pronto minal epoca ater his asuapton neces nepetine torcaens As sconces, te diectaniscrent omponea wl ef weg mapitade tod ielast of Ege. (436) kes che simple form “, eed HSE 1 2 ALp em Under no-load cottons the tes emf, an from Eq, (+46), we thus get nal voliage equals the generator mainte om From £9667 8:70), ; MO. oy eg A VAG) ~ Vile, + ob)” V9 T Fath.) 1ST, on) sich is ou sgh at in Te ine comin 7 8 a te rotor Beld winding typialy has a magnitude of several seconds, 1 the generator caries stator currents, then we cannot, ia general, neglect the derivative tem lah fn Ex. (430). The fevulting magnetic coupling between the stator and rotor introduces considerable complexity Jno opt modeLt The etential ehavior of the generor can sill be ddeseibed in terms of a transfer fonction ofthe type of Eq. (0-79). The presence of stator cutents reduces the time constant T, Ge also the is nsion on transient reacance, in the net chap) ‘Stabilizing circuit We have concluded that the veltage contol loop. contains at last thee time constants; i. is opendoopteansferTanetion conttne three negative rel poles, ‘The Sally of tht loop, as demon “tented by the root locus pot in Fig. 9-28, would be impaired for high loop inins. Since the tne constant 7, s very large, we aed very high loop gah Sn oder to reduce the responce time of the loop. This would inevitably tender the sjstem vnstable. ‘The system cas be stabilized in many ways. We have suggested one arrangement in Fig. 923, consisting simply ofa transformer, which provides tus with “derivative feedback" the niversil cure for uotable contol ystems. The device supplies » voltage, &, which & proportional to the erosive oy and thus essentially also to -_ This voltage, which therefore existe Bore has changed, i subtracted [om the ertor Voltage, and there- fore in eect tls the amplifier to "go eas." ‘Mathematically, we cam state this a lows: First we hav, forthe wansformer outpt, * 4, cane 1A mor acu de pee in Se 1252, % = Open oo pote 1 = Coen ge Fe 128 Root forbid replat ni Indte o gh opi [For she primary erent weave the elton Yao sk, Tish “Reve Ta, he om ‘The lst approximation fllons if we intentionally make Rok ‘The reader should verify thatthe effet ofthe transformer is fo add a roo the thre exising poles of the openloop taster unetion.. This seve “ends te unstabie root lo of he beam uno -# plane, as shown in Fig. 9-26. me ™ evan ‘The megavar voltage contol method discussed a Deed bur vlaeprole conten napa tc aspect ofthe changing reactiveFig. 946 Roc lot for slaed repute Loop Miter np gees demand, ‘The voltage profile usually selected from a load low study, and the choice is based (when a logical base is indeed used) upon transmission lose minimization. ‘We peiated out in Chap. & thatthe tansmiston loses ate slatively small in most systems, and what wei fact are doing, therefore, isto minimize ‘velar quantity the magnitude of which may by negligible even unde the ‘wort of operating conditions. Gea, i fae to question wheter other exiteria exist which could ‘qualy wel serve aa base for our seletion of an “optimum” Q How and ‘whic havea leastequal or beter value than the lees minimization eitrion, ‘AS ofthis writing the industry is taking & new critical look atthe ‘overall problem of reastve power contol. Several quertions are ei ‘sted, most of them presently lacking answer: 1. To whatexet can the overall stem operation be improved by eatrol- ling he interpoo! Oto? 2. Ist pone to increase the stably margin ofa system by wsing O Bow ‘control strategies diferent fom the present one? 3 Should the Q ow eters be dierent during high and tow Specifically, what eter should be sed? a periods? 4, Twas pointed out eater that thee is coupling betwoon the OY and 27 ‘conttl channels. Can this coupling be Used to adbaacage? In Sex -4 we presented an example where a novel control eriterion for teactve power as suggested. In the next section we shall se how, by the ‘netiods of modern optimum conta, we ean ublize the existing coupling between QV and Pfchaneel to improve the damping ofthe lates, 14 OPTIMUM SYSTEMS conTROL, ‘The control methods discus in the preceding sttione of he chapter could De referred to as “elasial" since they epreent (with some minor medi tions) the present standard inthe US, power industry. "A cites! appraisal of presently employed control methods reveals several shortcomings: 1. The control strategies wsed (Eq (940), for example) are based ently ‘ypoo inte reasoning, Even if optimumparamteradjutment methods are used, the system respoose is very oxilatory. This i confirmed by the graphs of Fig. 1% which apply to an optimally parameteradjuned cae 2 Indeed, it canbe shown ataiycaly™ that presently existing contol loops ray easy go unstable. Sych oecurrences have, infact, been recorded. For example, recent tents to synchronize the eastern and western Dower block in the United States have becn only partly svcesfal- {der certain operating conditions the Ue ines have experienced power swings Of increasing ampliudes, necestatng severance of the fate ‘omection. This i, of couse, a clascal symptom of an unstale ‘ontol sytem. Othe parts ofthe U.S. gié hase on ocasionexpei- ced similar insabiies 3. No consideration i ive 20 the coupling between the Brand QY control ‘chanel. ‘We must algo remember that we are disusing system stability in regard to mall perurbaion, sometimes efere to a6 sta” stability. The real test ofthe atength ofthe system "Tarie™ isthe ably ofa stem to surve the shocks of major distrbances. This s-aled"dynam,"oe "transient. stability wll be dicussed in Chap. 12, [Atthis ime we shall pot oot only that there xan important corela- tion between there two sablity coucepts, Consider the two situations depicted in Fig. 9-27. Both ystems are “satially” stable, since both balls ‘will eurn to the stable equilibrium positions following mall disturbances.w Fig, $27 Boh thse sytem are wade. System tas eter margn tiny 5 . Itisobvious, however, that system b has ahigher “dynamic” stability margin than sjstem The eson that this simple example teaches us is that we ‘must seve to provide a system with the widest posible “aie” stability margin inorertodbsinat heats ime the best possible dynamic” margin, Preterly employed control methods ae eetaaly not optimal in this spec. Tn two recent technical reports Fosha and Elgerd™* have presented 3 novel approach to the power sjstem contol problem It can be sid with confidence at this early stage that the, suggested con! methods fe ‘considerable improvements over preset methods i regard to thet "sate “lability properties. We tall give a brit expos! of the methods, but must fefer the reser to th nina reports and to other soures* fora more (etaled coverage + Aes ing wt, sos conn re en pied ht ll eae (other : i ‘The new control strategy is based on the design methods of modern control theory. We summarize the basic features ofthis theory 1. No. priori assumption ned be made about the structure of the control ‘system or the contol eategy. 2. 11s necessary, in onder tq make use of the theory, eo put the sytem! ‘models in so-called sat narahe form, 3. An optimus contol evtrion must be preeected. 4 The theory can be applied (by use of dial compte) to systems of any fonder. This means, in our case, that we can fad with ese the optima contzoles for general mare systems, {Letus examine how to go about finding the optimum controle in our A prerequisite for making use ofthe optimum control theory i he avala- Diy of & dynamic system model in stateoariable form. All out earlier system models have bee in Bock-tingram (or “inputoutp) form, Letusexempliy now how one may go about astmbling state mode by considering the “uncontrolled” tworazea system in Fig. 9-16. From this ‘block diagram (the dotted portion na included), we have by inspection ang Ke ty (APo, ~ BP on — AP) K, Bm A Chon — AP ~ aye Pa Tey Pon Mon oe Ped sina y gic (ar Ta os are Ti! (ar, — arnee ups tater tava sa ned se emesanorton es 4 yb afi + Ky Bor Kea BP — Kn BP) FCM + Kee Bon "o + Rha OM Sagem Of t Kadhon ~ Ke OPon = Koen Po) Gn : Ly veut undp (tanh é 1 -4 (o-) Soe = (Arn + BPa— 3,4) feared = Fo AFos + Atm) Tm J sr) Cate Seed feano = 2TitOh=890 . . hn eee te te eco consi ee ut “x oh ct ‘fe ob thel oe oy ny] ae sy) [or s] lan, and te cat fice crea he trac ect -fheGed Glebe os In tems ofthese vectors we ean write Eqs. (9-82) nore compat ko Ac + Bob TP e49) “The system matrix A, the pu disribtion matrix B, and the diturbance stribation mate Tate baie Os ° $ ° Ke ° i pe}, 2) re) oo pan 7 of °° oo 00 oe Loo oe “The reader should pesform the matst vector produets called or in “Eq, (985) and very tha he indeed obtains Eqs (82, ‘The systematically weten system of Sesenlal equations (85) represents our sought dynamic "statevariable model.” For the tenet of those readers who persist in sexing eveything in block form, we peset in Fig. 928 a aymbolic representation of Eq, (945) Temust be emphasized thatthe dynamie state mode can be put into the vector form of Ea, (9.85) only if the diferent equations are linea. Should the iferenta equations be noliear, we can write them inthe more temerlform (he symbol (is shortand ford), oe)hie ae “a LG =e je in 928 wack erenton of sae ede is form in Cap. 12. Noe that esta havea opportniy 00 hf bse i arctan cn he dete vee vss, and eee i al equation 8) roost lgebrae form 0-09) (The stoic toad flow equationsin Chap. 7 appeared in aetna —— Trey anog oftavng ou dynamite el pinto of Eq (45) ean be summarized a lows his form a5 the 1. Mer col hays ed pon hs "tndars™ om Seed parameters into ates A, By and, we ave 2 er ocnorganasd” metosology Psalving the eo “uSonn Sher ania ory computer Ths becomes porta sage ems whee a ack o onnization easly resis in aun aa at vba rt ti i ai tea Tm would require the induction of additonal state variables) For every ditional coneot aren we would need to add tee move site variables fs BPow and dsp, plus one foreach added te Line. Having obtained a dynam system state model, our next concern should be to sleet a dyaamic opti contol eriterion ‘We shall again make yse of the ISE criterion, but modified in one important respect. In addition to penalizing the “errors,” we tall also penalize the contol forces, the eas Geng that if we didnot penalize them, {hey might take on infitevales (impulses) im our analysis Thi would not be consistent with physic. For example, in ou two-area system above, we may wish to penalize the frequency erors Afe-and Af and the control eflorts AP, ané AP, and should then oe the erteron Funetion ° c8[ear ruses nanernarre ex which in view of stro (04) and (44) wl ak on he form C8 [teat ent + at + fasta 0%) “The a and Ps are weigh actos. ‘More general io the m sate variables ano the m conel forse ce penalized, the elton function will have the form C8 [ent amtt hate tad 0 If 4 controller can be found that wil minimize the © funtion, the sulting contol loop wil be "optimal" sable Having asembled a state model that adequately describes the incremental , Eauaton (38) ws deed ted upente e asunylns o age 353. Deve {pies ernion rte nae ye, sg ea a a= m= 5 (2) Conder th ening sane Se Bim Rom Hap new “7 = 01 pe Mind cape gman at oootaesdernrteae 5 Seccipee tarmac ai. rere ere ae anfyteet ota een eu an ene pe oe sSeceeee peli seme tla oy eimai clnes neg 93) massa Saree inet onyesounpan neon ‘could obtain in $-5(¢). “* A awed oe Ege OW Chto Stes Ths” Mee Bock Company, Now Yr ae ” ey (2. Ailaae, Mey and P-L Flt: “Optimal Control" McGill Book Camps