H A R V A R D SEMITIC M U S E U M

H A R V A R D SEMITIC M O N O G R A P H SERIES

ISAIAH 24-27

edited by

AND THE

Frank Moore Cross, Jr.

ORIGIN O F A P O C A L Y P T I C
BY

WILLIAM R. MILLAR

Number 11
Isaiah 24-27 and the
Origin of Apocalyptic
by

Published by
S C H O L A R S PRESS

WILLIAM R . M I L L A R
for
The Harvard Semitic Museum

S C H O L A R S PRESS
Missoula, Montana

Distributed by
S C H O L A R S PRESS
University of Montana
Missoula, Montana 59801

ISAIAH 24-27
AND THE
ORIGIN O F A P O C A L Y P T I C
BY

W I L L I A M R. M I L L A R

Copyright 1976
by
The President and Fellows of Harvard College

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING IN PUBLICATION

DATA

Millar, William R
Isaiah 24-27 and the origin of apocalyptic.
(Harvard Semitic monographs ; 11)
Bibliography, p.
1. Bible. . T. Isaiah XXIV-XXVII Criticism,
interpretation, etc. 2. Apocalyptic literature.
I. Title. II. Series.
BS1515.2.M52
22477
76-3561
ISBN 0-89130-102-X

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Edwards Brothers, Inc.

Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104

For Donna,
Scott and Kim

PREFACE

T h i s study began as a seminar paper, was

d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n and appears now
the l a t t e r work.

I t i s not the purpose

sent a comprehensive

expanded i n t o a

as a thorough

r e v i s i o n of

of t h i s study to p r e -

d i s c u s s i o n of apocalyptic o r i g i n s .

The

g o a l i s simply t o g l e a n from I s a i a h 24-27 m a t e r i a l t h a t i s important to that d i s c u s s i o n .

In the p r o c e s s , i t i s hoped t h a t

l i g h t i s shed on our u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f these important c h a p t e r s

in

Isaiah.
I am i n d e b t e d t o many who

have g i v e n me

support and

en-

couragement throughout t h i s p r o j e c t .

A f e l l o w s h i p from the

N a t i o n a l Endowment f o r the Humanities

e n a b l e d me

Canaanite mythology.
read the manuscript
helpful criticisms.

a t one

stage and o f f e r e d thorough

Cross whose d i s c i p l i n e ,

My

s p e c i a l thanks go t o Frank

January 24,

M.

i n s i g h t s and p a t i e n c e have i n t r o d u c e d

t o the w o r l d o f a n c i e n t I s r a e l ' s

Wilmot Center, New

who

and

The s k i l l s o f Joann B u r n i c h as a manu-

s c r i p t t y p i s t are superb.

me

t o study

Thanks are due t o Leander . Keck

Hampshire

1976

vii

religion.

I.

Page
IV.

ISAIAH 24-27 AND

THE

ORIGIN OF APOCALYPTIC

A.

. . . .

The L i t e r a r y Context of I s a i a h 24-27

1. P r o s o d i e S t y l e
a. I s a i a h 24:l-16a, 24:16b-25:9 and 26:1-8
.
b. I s a i a h 26:11-27:6
c. Other Passages
2. Themes
a. War
b. V i c t o r y
c. F e a s t

3. Genre and Date

B. The H i s t o r i c a l S e t t i n g of I s a i a h 24-27
1. I s a i a h 24:l-16a, 24:16b-25:9 and 26:1-8 . . .
2. I s a i a h 26:11-27:6
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHIES

103
103
103
103
104
104
104
105
10 8
112
114
115
117
119
121

The

UNSETTLED PROBLEMS IN ISAIAH 24-27

time i s r i p e f o r a f r e s h a n a l y s i s of c h a p t e r s 24-27 i n

the book o f I s a i a h .

In s p i t e of the

f a c t t h a t i n t h i s century

there have been a number of d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n s

t e r s , there

are

still

many p o i n t s

of

o f these chap-

controversy.

Even the b a s i c assumption t h a t I s a i a h 24-27 form a separ a t e u n i t i n the book o f I s a i a h has

When one

t o r i c a l s e t t i n g and
city,"

not escaped

one

p r o p o s a l s f o r the s o - c a l l e d

i s impressed by

More important, however, the

l y p s e " has

"destroyed

the s c h o l a r l y l a b o r t h a t has

expended to crack the m y s t e r i e s of these

subject

challenge.

r a i s e s the problems of date, t e x t , form, genre, h i s -

been

chapters.

s o - c a l l e d " I s a i a n i c Apoca-

a c o n t r i b u t i o n to make to the c u r r e n t debate on

of a p o c a l y p t i c

origins.

I t i s to t h i s end

the

t h a t we

feel

another study i s j u s t i f i e d .
The

secondary l i t e r a t u r e i n t e r p r e t i n g I s a i a h 24-27

c e n t e r e d a g a i n and

again on

three

problem of l i t e r a r y genre; B)
t e x t and

i t s s t r u c t u r e ; and

the h i s t o r i c a l s e t t i n g .
date, a u t h o r s h i p and

A.
At one

The

the problems p r e s e n t e d by

C)

The

has

i n t e r r e l a t e d i s s u e s : A)

the d i f f i c u l t y

l a t t e r includes

the

the

in establishing
the problems of

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the d e s t r o y e d

city.

Problem o f L i t e r a r y Genre

extreme I s a i a h

24-27 has

p o s t - e x i l i c a p o c a l y p t i c work.

been i d e n t i f i e d as a l a t e

At another i t has

been read

as

p r e - e x i l i c prophetic

judgment l i t e r a t u r e t h o r o u g h l y a t home i n
2
the work of e i g h t h - c e n t u r y I s a i a h .
In between i t f r e q u e n t l y

1.
See, f o r i n s t a n c e , Bernhard Duhm, D a s B u c h J e s a j a
bersetzt u n d e r k l a r t , HKAT, I I I , 1 (4th ed., Gttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1922), pp. 172-194. H e r e i n a f t e r r e f e r red to as J e s a j a .
2.
Edward K i s s a n e , T h e B o o k o f I s a i a h ( D u b l i n : Browne
and N o l i n , LTD., 1941), pp. , 267, 303.
Hereinafter referred
to as I s a i a h .
See a l s o Yehezkel Kaufmann, T h e R e l i g i o n o f
I s r a e l , t r a n s , and a b r i d g e d by Moshe Greenberg, (Chicago: U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago P r e s s , 1960), pp. 348, 384-394.
Hereina f t e r r e f e r r e d t o as R e l i g i o n .

xii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
I.

UNSETTLED PROBLEMS IN ISAIAH 24-27

A.
B.
C.
D.

II.

III.

ix

The Problem o f L i t e r a r y Genre

The Problems o f Text and S t r u c t u r e
H i s t o r i c a l S e t t i n g and "Destroyed C i t y "
Summary

. . . .

1
9
15
21

THE TEXT AND PROSODY OF ISAIAH 24-27

23

A. I s a i a h 24:l-16a
1. I s a i a h 24:1-13
2. I s a i a h 24:14-16a
B. I s a i a h 24:16b-25:9
1. I s a i a h 24:16b-18b
2. I s a i a h 24:18c-23
3. I s a i a h 2 5 : l - 4 c
4. I s a i a h 25:6-8
5. I s a i a h 25:9
C. I s a i a h 25:10-26:8
1. I s a i a h 25:10-12
2. I s a i a h 26:1-8
D. I s a i a h 26:11-27:6
1. I s a i a h 26 :11-15
2. I s a i a h 26 :16-20
3. I s a i a h 26:21-27:1
4. I s a i a h 27:2-6
E. I s a i a h 27:12-13
F. Summary o f I s a i a h 24-27
1. I s a i a h 51:9-11
2. U g a r i t i c Text 5.1.1-5

23
24
31
33
33
34
38
40
42
44
44
45
49
49
52
54
55
58
59
61
63

.,

THE STRUCTURE OF ISAIAH 24-27

65

A. A Thematic A n a l y s i s o f I s a i a h 24-27
1. I s a i a h 24:l-16a
2. I s a i a h 24:16b-25:9
3. I s a i a h 25:10-26:8
4. I s a i a h 26:11-15
5. I s a i a h 26:16-27:6
6. I s a i a h 27:12-13
7. Summary
B. Thematic P a t t e r n s i n the Baal-'Anat E p i c . . . .
C. The D i v i n e W a r r i o r Hymn and the P r o c e s s i o n a l
Way i n the Royal Theology o f Hebrew T r a d i t i o n
.
D. T r a n s f o r m a t i o n s i n Second I s a i a h
1. War
2. V i c t o r y
3. F e a s t
E. Summary

65
65
65
67
67
68
70
70
71

xi

82
95
95
97
101
101

2
has

been understood as p r o p h e t i c

eschatology,

or more

recent-

nicht.missen

kann und

d i e den

ly,

early
An

apocalyptic.

ganz dogmatischer Weise benuzt."

important p a r t o f the methodology o f t e n used has

t o draw up

These themes are then used t o i d e n t i f y

genre of more d e b a t a b l e passages such as I s a i a h 24-27.

Smend, f o r i n s t a n c e ,
which f o r him

placed

e x i l i c period.
the e a r t h

tory

drew up

a list

of a p o c a l y p t i c

There was

(27:1).

There was

the use

There was

m e s s i a n i c e r a as a f u t u r e
According

of the

was

r e f e r r e d to a

the verse was

l a t e r than I s a i a h 51:9

I t was

of

notice

great

the

personal

to be dated l a t e r
i n E z e k i e l 37.

because the

these themes and

motifs

B.C.

than

Isaiah

latter clearly

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of

to date the c h a p t e r s between 500-300

re-

apocalyptic,

t h a t l e d Smend

Using many of these same c r i t e r i a ,

was

an a p o c a l y p t i c o r a c l e

(24;

song c o n c e r n i n g

the r e s u r r e c t i o n
yard

(27:2-5).

Erklrung man

Orakel

Duhm

25:12); and

i s o l a t e d what f o r

(25:1-5); a

satiri-

the

song of the

Ibid.,

7.

Duhm, J e s a j a ,

the

cautious

He

in unqualifiedly

argued the

through e s c h a t o l o g i c a l .

The

chapters

c e n t r a l theme

the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e

was

the

judgment

power and

the world's power.

p l a i n h i s t o r y was

not

But

complete.

f o r Rudolph, the break w i t h

A f t e r the

fall

of the w o r l d

c i t y , the heathen would t u r n t o Zion as the new

was

"nationalistisch-partikularistische,"

Judah would s u r v i v e the w o r l d judgment and

would be

power.

a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o the new

announced the i n b r e a k i n g
These themes, p l u s

the

Isaiah

26:21

p e r i o d of s a l v a t i o n

the n o t i c e of r e s u r r e c t i o n

the mention o f e l d e r s r a t h e r than k i n g s ,

knowledge of the P r i e s t l y source

f a i t h f u l Jews

kingdom o f God.

of t h i s new

The
that i s ,

and

(24:5, 18,

(26:19 and
the

23)

25:8),

apparent
persuaded

was

fall

of Babylon i n 330-300 B.C.

He

to A l e x a n d e r

the p r e c i p i t a t i n g event.
Lindblom a l s o argued t h a t the c h a p t e r s were e s c h a t o l o g i c a l

r a t h e r than a p o c a l y p t i c .

For him

a p o c a l y p t i c meant

Transzendentismus, Mythologismus, kosmologische

Orientierung; weiter pessimistische Geschichtsbet r a c h t u n g , Dualismus, P e r i o d e n e i n t e i l u n g , d i e
Lehre von zwei onen, Z a h l e n s p i e l e r i ; s c h l i e s s l i c h
Pseudoekstatismus, geknstelte offenbarungsansprcke,
Pseudonymitt und G e h e i m n i s t u e r i . ''

usw.,
But,

f o r Lindblom, i t was

themes were used.

n e c e s s a r y a l s o to note how

I s a i a h 24-27 was

not

these

to be r e g a r d e d

as

D a w n o f A p o o a l y p t i a (Philadelphia:
313-14. H e r e i n a f t e r r e f e r r e d to as
8.

199-200,
pp.

besieged

of the w o r l d , l i n k e d w i t h a sharp c o n t r a s t between Yahweh's

vine-

5.
Rudolph Smend, "Anmerkungen zu J e s . 24-27," ZAW, IV
(1884), pp. 161-224. H e r e i n a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o as "Anmerkungen."
pp.

which r e v e a l e d

i s t durchaus Apocalypse, zu deren

3.
See Joh. Lindblom, D i e J e s a j a - A p o k a l y p s e , J e s . 2 4 - 2 7 ,
LU, N.F. 1, 34, 3 (Lund: C.W.K. G l e e r u p , 1938), 120 pages.
H e r e i n a f t e r r e f e r r e d to as A p o k a l y p s e .

6.

warned the reader to be

suggested t h a t the

d i e s y b i l l i n i s c h e n Bcher, D a n i e l , Henoch

4.
P a u l Hanson, The
F o r t r e s s P r e s s , 1975), pp.
Dawn.

apocalyptic

soon a f t e r John Hyrcanus acceded t o

the c h a p t e r s a p o c a l y p t i c .

were through and

Moab (25:9-11); a poem r e f l e c t i n g hope i n

(26:1-19 and
"Die

Duhm dated the

suggested, Jerusalem was

B.C.) .

Rudolph

25:6-8; 26:20-27:1, 12-13)

w i t h l a t e r i n t r u s i o n s which i n c l u d e d a song
cal

when, he

Priesterkodex

Rudolph t h a t the c h a p t e r s r e f l e c t e d a p o s t - e x i l i c s e t t i n g .
7

him

(135

eschatology

t o Smend, I s a i a h 26:19

ambiguous.

post-

event.

f e r r e d t o Babylon, whereas 27:1,

was

(25:8); the

the blowing of the

throne

labeling

three b e a s t s as v e i l e d h i s -

the n a t i o n a l r e s u r r e c t i o n he p e r c e i v e d
27:1

the

B.C.

by A n t i o c h u s S i d e t e s

Rudolph

the concept of w o r l d judgment and

resurrection; therefore,

as

the d e s c r i p t i o n of the d e s t r u c t i o n

(26:19).

(27:13) and

o r a c l e to 129

themes

I s a i a h 24-27, beyond a doubt, i n the

(24:18-20); the meal on Mount Zion

of r e s u r r e c t i o n
trumpet

been

a l i s t of themes from l a t e a p o c a l y p t i c works such

the book of D a n i e l .

pentateuchischen

224.

172-94.

Ibid.,

p.

172.

9.
Wilhelm Rudolph, J e s a j a 2 4 - 2 7 , BWANT, LV,
g a r t : W. Kohlhammer, 1933), 64 pages.
10.

Ibid.,

p.

63.

11.

Lindblom, A p o k a l y p s e ,

p.

102.

10

(Stutt-

4
apocalyptic

l i t e r a t u r e because the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p o r t i o n s were

but expansions of h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s .

Lindblom suggested i t

important t o r e c o g n i z e

language of the

that prophetic

may

f u n c t i o n simply

ply

a r e t u r n t o chaos and

therefore,
being

to renew the p r e s e n t
inauguration

look beyond the

t a l k e d about.

I n h a l t , n i c h t mit

of a new

485

B.C.

der Form und

dem

One

" I s a i a n i c C a n t a t a " and

He

must,

actually

dem s a c h l i c h e n
12
Lindblom

placed

them

fall

of Babylon i n

to the d i s c u s s i o n by p r e s s i n g

for apocalyptic origins further.

concerned was

of about t h r e e

The

question

an h i s t o r i c a l one.

The

accompanied by many p r o p h e t i c

t r a c i n g the h i s t o r y of the p r o p h e t i c
centuries

presumably the p r o p h e t i c
D a n i e l , however, one

a f t e r the

with

forms.

In

notes a

gap

of Jerusalem, where

f o r c e d i n t o anonymity.

w i t n e s s e s a new

community l i f e ,

the p i e t y , w i t n e s s e d i n D a n i e l , come?
i s apocalyptic.

Hellenism

They had

i t y f r o m being
was

evident

I s a i a h 24-27.

w i t n e s s e s the

life

of the

der

Jewish

jdischen

Ge-

die

taken p l a c e

be-

er-

within

a people to become a commun-

to become a t h e o c r a c y .

l e v e l of e s c h a t o l o g y

This

which was

the s h i f t

change

one

apocalyptic.

of

The

the

counter-

from an a c t u a l i z i n g

eschatology.

The

other

two

were Zechariah

12-14

and

Ibid.,

p.
pp.

sections.

and

the w o r l d judgment was

and

ing
at

The

historical

coming age

Those r e s p o n s i b l e

this

Chapter 27 was

I t i s t o be p l a c e d

sense, s t i l l

Joel.
apocalypaside

Jerusalem t h e r e were growing two

r e f l e c t s the

w i t h i n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l dogma, t h a t one

the

alive in

the

representing

Shechem.

continuing
day

mak-

community

Samaritans.

factions

the emerging c o n f l i c t between Jerusalem and

added to 24-26 and

were

a f t e r the work o f

E z r a and Nehemiah p r i o r to the s p l i t w i t h the

27 was

the

Seleucids

an o l d e r p i e c e d e r i v i n g from

early Persian period.

Within

notice

f o r these c h a p t e r s were a

group w i t h i n the Jerusalem community who

For i t

was

from

c o n f l i c t s between

i n the D a v i d i c

Plger

The

f i r s t section

sharper e s c h a t o l o g i c a l d i v i s i o n s than the g e n e r a l

17
large.

and

i n the Apoca-

a cosmic event.

s i t u a t i o n derived

i n S y r i a - P a l e s t i n e caused by

Ptolemies.

dated

There d i d not y e t e x i s t the

of the r e s u r r e c t i o n of the dead would p l a c e

unrest

He

to the p e r i o d of A n t i o c h u s the Great

caused by h i s r u l e .

But,

Chapter

hope, even

I s r a e l would be

re-

united.
15.

Ibid.,

roughly

hopes f o r u n i f i c a t i o n ,

of which

have a m p l i f i e d

c h a p t e r s 2 4-26

better,

i n d i s c u s s i n g the o r i g i n of a p o c a l y p t i c , Plger s e t

13.

a nation

on the

to a d u a l i s t i c

of

prophetic

Daniel.

such " e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t e x t s , " one

However much I r a n i a n d u a l i s m may

12.

A s t r u c t u r a l change had
moved from b e i n g

p a r t t o the h i s t o r i c a l change was

conjectured

earlier

onto the prophets?

i n the y e a r s a f t e r the e x i l e , b e f o r e
three

eschatology

i n the anonymous or,

the pseudonymous l i t e r a t u r e tacked

p r e c i s e l y here one

The

Is i t p o s s i b l e t o d i s c o v e r

t r a c e s of a p o c a l y p t i c eschatology

tic,

Israel.

n e a r e r to D a n i e l .
In

From whence

discussed

klren knnen."'''^

lypse.

What happened to the descendants of the prophets?

spirit

innerhalb

foreign

the

Aneignung fremder V o r s t e l l u n g e n

sharp d u a l i s m between the p r e s e n t

interim.

is

mssen w i r

r e i t w i l l i g e Aufnahme und

the u n r e s t

national

movement, one

fall

s p i r i t was

the

h a v i n g spread through the a n c i e n t Near E a s t i n the

did

"So

Plger d i v i d e d I s a i a h 24-27 i n t o two

contributed

of I s r a e l was

Daniel

m e d i a t i o n of

meinde mit bestimmten Voraussetzungen rechnen, d i e uns

important l i n k s between prophecy and

suggested the h i s -

the

The

ideas presupposed a c e r t a i n open-mindedness w i t h i n

13

which he was
life

age.

I r a n i a n d u a l i s m as a primary s o u r c e .

community i t s e l f .

future
at a l l im-

Ursprung zu tun"

f o r the c h a p t e r s to be

Plger"'''' has
search

not

hat es mit

c l o s e r to prophecy than to a p o c a l y p t i c .
t o r i c a l occasion

and

language used to what was

"Eschatologische

l a b e l e d the c h a p t e r s the

age

was

Ibid.,

p.

37.

103.
80-84.

14.
O t t o Plger, T h e o k v a t i e u n d E s c h a t o l o g i e
(Wageningen:
N e u k i r c h e n e r V e r l a g , 1959). H e r e i n a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o as T h e o kvatie .

16.
I b i d . , p. 96.
For which Plger f o l l o w e d V r i e z e n .
See V r i e z e n , "Prophecy and E s c h a t o l o g y , " VT (Congress Volume,
1953), p. 227.
17.

Ibid.,

p.

18.

Ibid.,

pp.

96.
96-97.

6
P a u l Hanson, i n a r e c e n t
has

v e i l e d manner i n which the v i c t i m s of God's wrath

are mentioned.
Indeed, even c r i t i c s who speak of
i t as an apocalypse f i n d i n i t a r e f e r e n c e t o h i s t o r i c a l events of the p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d . 2 1

study of a p o c a l y p t i c o r i g i n s ,

developed t h i s l a t t e r t h e s i s of a group making sharper

es-

c h a t o l o g i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n s than the community at l a r g e , i n t o a

very

convincing

argument.

Hanson has

demonstrated t h a t

o r a c l e s of s o - c a l l e d T h i r d I s a i a h and
a t e n s i o n between two
These two
ilic

Second Z e c h a r i a h

groups w i t h i n e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c

groups c o n s t r u c t e d

A more v i s i o n a r y group,

contain

o f I s r a e l would be.
centered

t h e i r v i s i o n o f what the

A more r e a l i s t i c ,

son

connects the

l a t t e r group w i t h the
the e x i l i c

they had

Zadokite p r i e s t h o o d

held

f a v o r w i t h the

the I s a i a n i c group more and

in

v i s i o n s o f a new

was

The

and

tension

He

This

the

phases to the p l a n of w o r l d judgment: "the

the r u i n of Judah and

the p r e s e r v a t i o n

first resulting

of a remnant,

lishment

of the kingdom of Yahweh i n Z i o n . "

although Judah and A s s y r i a are not
i s nothing

With r e s p e c t

t o verses

apocalyptic

ideas,

r e c t i o n but

to p o l i t i c a l

the

the

According

estabto

specifically

i n the c h a p t e r s which c o u l d not

to events i n e i g h t h - c e n t u r y

age when matters would be

that i s ,

set s t r a i g h t .

v i o l e n c e and

I s a i a h 24-27 i n summary f a s h i o n by

of

There were

menrefer

Palestine.
usually pointed

to as

containing

"xxvi:19 does not r e f e r to i n d i v i d u a l r e s u r revival,

and

xxv:8 means simply

v i s i o n a r i e s were i n c r e a s -

f r u s t r a t i o n s i n fantasy,

sec-

reward or d e l i v e r a n c e

i s a theme common i n the P s a l t e r .

Kissane,

bloodshed w i l l no

longer

be

found i n

that
23

Zion."

As x x v i i : l has an a l l u s i o n to the conquest of the

monsters of P r i m i t i v e Chaos, and as the r u i n of Judah
i s a l s o compared t o a r e t u r n to chaos, i t i s p r o b a b l e
t h a t t h e r e i s an a l l u s i o n here to the imprisonment of
the monsters p r e p a r a t o r y to t h e i r e x e c u t i o n as n a r r a t e d i n the B a b y l o n i a n e p i c ( c f . E n u m a E l i s h
Tab.
iv.,
l i n e s 110-114).

It

l i t e r a t u r e began to take shape.

discussed

Isaiah.

t h a t the

second r e s u l t i n g i n the d e s t r u c t i o n of A s s y r i a and

i n such a s o c i o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n , argues Hanson, that apoc-

alyptic

just."

tioned, there

more found themselves e x c l u d e d

groups mounted.

ingly forced to resolve t h e i r

Per-

in

second temple.

from p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n e v e n t s , the

between the two

that

p o l i t i c a l power on t h e i r s i d e

worked t o b r i n g about the a c t u a l b u i l d i n g of the

As

Han-

period.

Because the Z a d o k i t e p r i e s t h o o d
sian establishment,

their vision.

the punishment o f the wicked and

two

leader.

to eighth-century

mere mention of world-judgment i s no proof

t i o n d e a l s w i t h the end of time. Every i n t e r v e n t i o n of God i s

22
a world-judgment."
"His i n t e r v e n t i o n has as consequences

the

o r pragmatic, group,

Chapters 40-48 of E z e k i e l , i n p a r t , c o n t a i n

went t o Babylon d u r i n g

centerleader.

reconstruction

i n Babylon, h e l d E z e k i e l as t h e i r s p i r i t u a l

a t t r i b u t e the e n t i r e t y of I s a i a h 1-39
"The

post-ex-

ed i n P a l e s t i n e , h e l d Second I s a i a h as t h e i r s p i r i t u a l
Chapters 6 0-62

K i s s a n e ' s judgments were p a r t of an extended argument to

Israel.

a l t e r n a t e v i s i o n s of the

reconstruction of I s r a e l .

the
reflect

identify-

2i

ing

i t as among t h a t l i t e r a t u r e which emerged out o f these

early p o s t - e x i l i c struggles.

R e f i n i n g what he

t e x t u a l - t y p o l o g i c a l method, which we
low,

he

identified

I s a i a h 24-27 as e a r l y

There are s c h o l a r s , however, who

called a

w i l l discuss

be-

apocalyptic.

are not c o n v i n c e d we

saw

I s a i a h 24-27 as

19.

Hanson, D a w n ,

20.

Ibid.,

pp.

passim.

313-14.

I s a i a h 24-27 as a p o c a l y p t i c .

"The

distinctive

label-

feature

are

apoca-

l y p t i c "only i n a very wide sense."

The only c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of an apocalypse which i t
has are the d e s c r i p t i o n o f a world-judgment, the

ing

of

apocalypse i s i t s anxious i n q u i r y i n t o the s e c r e t s of the c o s 25

mos."
The a p o c a l y p t i c v i s i o n a r y i s t r a n s m i t t e d t o the cosmic

d e a l i n g w i t h an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l o r a p o c a l y p t i c work a t a l l .
c a t h o l i c s c h o l a r , Edward K i s s a n e ,

In a s i m i l a r v e i n , Yehezkel Kaufmann argued a g a i n s t

con-

further
20

The
21.

Kissane,

Isaiah,

22.
A l l quotations
i b i d . , . 267.

p.

267.

i n t h i s paragraph may

be

found i n

25.
The q u o t a t i o n s i n t h i s paragraph may
Kaufmann, R e l i g i o n , p. 348.

be

found i n

23.

Ibid.,

p.

283.

24.

Ibid.,

p.

283.

8
realm o f d i v i n e p a l a c e s , p a r a d i s e , h e l l , e t c . , or he i s p r o j e c t e d through

and ages t o the end of time."

"This p e r s p e c t i v e v i s i o n , as

may

c a l l i t , i s the very h e a r t o f a p o c a l y p t i c . "

tic

these v i s i o n s were an end i n themselves.

prophecy, v i s i o n s were connected

v i s i o n was

For

apocalyp-

the a p o c a l y p t i c t o u r of space,

to

the e a r t h l y community of

does not

The

dooma m o t i f o f e a r l y l i t e r a t u r e
4:3;

I s . 13:10, 13), which the l a t e r apocalypse

t h i s genre and i t s development, one must

B. The

literary

form and

particu-

T h i s l e a d s us t o the

next

have a Canaanite background.

Problems of Text and S t r u c t u r e

Concurrent w i t h the l a c k o f consensus c o n c e r n i n g the genre

The monsters o f 27:1

t h a t we

know the Canaanite b a s i s o f such e s c h a t o l o g i c a l imagery

27

and 26:19

from

Therefore,

day

borrow-

there i s no reason whatever t o date i t t o l a t e time."

fully

different

century.

major u n r e s o l v e d problem i n the study o f I s a i a h 24-27.

5:8;

ed."^

25:8

understand

l a r l y the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s t h e r e i n .

(24:21)

(e.g., Amos 4:13;

f i f t h c e n t u r y was

take a c l o s e r look a t i t s prosody,

judg-

r e f e r s simply to " e c l i p s e s , as p a r t o f the t e r r o r s o f the

Hos.

l i t e r a t u r e o f the s i x t h and

the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e o f the second

encounter

a l l the " p e r s p e c t i v e v i s i o n of h i s t o r i c a l ages."

like

Hanson, f o r i n s t a n c e , has demonstrated t h a t the a p o c a l y p t i c

to
one

event

p o t t e r y forms and a l p h a b e t i c s c r i p t s , e v o l v e over the y e a r s .

Israel.

ment imagery d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t the hosts of the heavens

of

3) Some r e c e n t s c h o l a r s have shown t h a t l i t e r a r y genre,

The

served t o enhance h i s m i s s i o n

I s a i a h 24-27, Kaufmann argued,

the i n t e r n a l power o f the themes

broken l o o s e from t h e i r mooring i n h i s t o r i c a l

drawing the r e a d e r more and more i n t o the realm of f a n t a s y ?

classical

to t h i s - w o r l d l y events.

an h i s t o r i c a l event or had

themselves

Even the b i z a r r e v i s i o n s o f E z e k i e l , the f a t h e r

of

at

For

in

we

designed u l t i m a t e l y , "to command or reprove i n the

name o f God."

In

the language serve t o enhance the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f God's a c t i o n

time u n f o l d i n g the s e c r e t s o f "the g e n e r a t i o n s

"Now

of

I s a i a h 24-27 i s a l a c k of consensus c o n c e r n i n g matters

t e x t and

Smend was

Isaiah

For him,

are t o be read a g a i n s t the a n c i e n t theme o f the

of

structure.
unimpressed

by the p o e t r y of these

chapters.

they were not t o be compared to the work o f e i g h t h -

death and r e v i v a l o f the s i c k , s u f f e r i n g and p e r s e c u t e d

who

century I s a i a h .

"have descended i n t o the p i t " (Pss. 88:4ff; 143:3; Lam.

3:6,

p r e s e n t e d an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e from e i g h t h - c e n t u r y

54f).

of

the dead and the shades of 26:19

d e l i v e r a n c e of those who
down t o
Our

Smend read the paronomasia, a l l i t e r a t i o n , rhyme, and

29
chiasm as " d i f f i c u l t , l e a r n e d and f o r c e d . "
The author was
c l e a r l y a l a t e r i m i t a t o r whom he found d u l l , a r t i f i c i a l and

dust."

"The

revival

i s but a f i g u r e f o r the

are i n d i r e d i s t r e s s , who

lacking in poetic
31

have come

2 8

survey, thus f a r , has

r e v e a l e d as important,

lowing m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s when d e a l i n g w i t h the

f i c a t i o n o f a p o c a l y p t i c as a l i t e r a r y genre.
ing

Isaiah.

E z e k i e l used such r e s u r r e c t i o n language t o d e p i c t the

e x i l e and r e s t o r a t i o n o f the n a t i o n (Ezek. 37).

sections.

identi-

o f a p o c a l y p t i c themes, u s u a l l y from l a t e r works, has

s e t t l e d the q u e s t i o n o f genre i d e n t i f i c a t i o n .

Lohmann

the f o l -

1) A simple

ing

listnot

How

was

began h i s study o f these chapters w i t h the

i f t h e r e was

next t a s k was

With c l o s e a t t e n t i o n t o t e x t u a l data,
26:4-6; 25:1-5; 24:7-12; 27:10,
26:7-11; 26:12-19

Ibid.,

p.

384.

29.

Smend, "Anmerkungen," p.

27.

Ibid.,

p.

384.

30.

Ibid.,

28.

Ibid.,

p.

385.

(-17,

t o study the r e s t of the Apocalypse,

26.

in

not-

prophecy of some f u t u r e event or a p i c t u r e o f

Vorgang.

25:9-12; 27:2b-5; 26:lb-3;

Did

lyric

t o t r e a t them as i n d i v i d u a l u n i t s ,

he i s o l a t e d n i n e l y r i c s :

2) S e v e r a l c r i -

the imagery used?

"Sahwung."^

He proposed

an h i s t o r i c a l

t i c s have demonstrated t h a t i n any p a r t i c u l a r passage one must

ask the q u e s t i o n o f f u n c t i o n .

Even a l l o w i n g f o r s t y l i s t i c v a r i a t i o n s , 24-27

18).

11(8);
His

wherein

193.

p . 194.

31.
Paul Lohmann, "Die selbstndigen l y r i s c h e n A b s c h n i t t e
J e s . 24-27," AW XXXVII (1917/18), pp.
1-58.

10

11

t h e r e was

j u s t e s c h a t o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l , t o see

alone w i t h o u t the l y r i c s o r i f the

i f i t stood

would come the f i n a l problem o f the meaning and

the o r i g i n of the e n t i r e Apocalypse.
sible

f o r him

to f i n i s h h i s p l a n o f

K i s s a n e has
i s o l a t i n g the

he had

l y r i c s belonged to i t .

Then

the q u e s t i o n

the

of

H i s death made i t imposstudy.

a new

the m e t r i c a l r e s e a r c h ,

con-

non-eschatological

that

c h a p t e r s c o n s i s t e d of two

i l l u s t r a t e d h i s p o i n t by

Lohmann

Duhm

24:7-12
25:1-5
9-12
26:lb-3
4-5a

25:1-4
9-11
26:1-19

cially

24:8-18a
25:1-5

six-beat

26:1-6

proven not

was

h e l p f u l , espe-

g a t h e r e d much of the t e x t u a l data i n t o

one p l a c e .
One weakness i n h i s study, however, was the l a c k of
adequate c o n t r o l i n h i s not a p p l y i n g r u l e s of p o e t i c meter.
34
Eduard S i e v e r s

sought to f i l l

24-27 h i s method of c o u n t i n g
Sievers

A)

seven b e a t s :

B)

3+3:

ric
ly

to

Isaiah

24:1-6, 18c-23; 25:6-12; 26:1a, 7-21;

d i v i s i o n s i n the

s i x beats:

text.

He

line:

27:1-13;

24:13-18b;

obvious t h a t such an

The

the

ter

25:1;

argued t h a t such a

met-

b e n e f i t to the exegete was

that

now

Kissane,

Isaiah,

p.

272.

33.
E r n s t Liebmann, "Der Text zu J e s a j a 24-27," ZAW XXII
(1902), pp. 1-56, 285-304, XXIII (1903), pp. 209-86, XXIV
(1904), pp. 51-104, XXV (1905), pp. 145-71.
34.
Eduard S i e v e r s , " A l t t e s t a m e n t l i c h e
J e s a j a s 24-27," B G L LVI (1904), pp. 151-88.
35.

Ibid.,

pp.

152,

160-65.

seven-beat meter and

t o s e t t l e the q u e s t i o n s

The

M i s c e l l e n I:

i n counting

accents

has

the meter.

composed o f f i v e groups o f t h r e e

text after

use

anathe

26:7-27:13.

The

4-verse strophes ;

Wallace March, who

p l e t e d h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i n 1966, used the method of

a c c e n t s and has come up w i t h s t i l l another r e s u l t .
39
made e x t e n s i v e

sug-

K i s s a n e separated

major d i v i s i o n s : 24:1-26:6 and

l a t t e r seven 6-verse s t r o p h e s .

Fohrer

and

remarks,

Lindblom used the p r i n c i p l e of

(upbeat) t o l e v e l out

t e x t i n t o two

These g e n e r a l

Rudolph r a d i c a l l y r e a r r a n g e d the

to f i t h i s system.

crusis

com-

counting

of y e t another d e v i s e

to

sep-

a r a t e the. u n i t s , namely the r u b r i c s , such as " i n t h a t day,"

"for

by

i n v o l v e d , as i s i l l u s t r a t e d

t e x t u a l emendations proposed to p r e s e r v e the

however, do a p p l y .
26:13

B)

f o l l o w i n g c h a r t which compares the meter count of chap-

Yahweh has

spoken."

Our

t e x t u a l a n a l y s i s , however,

and

has

r e v e a l e d t h a t such an approach i s unsound, s i n c e i n some cases

36.

32.

the

oracles,

hymns, " L i e d e r k r e i s , " c h a r a c t e r i z e d

g e s t e d meter have not been i n c l u d e d .

the

that

apocalyptic

24:1-17 made by P r o c k s c h , Rudolph, Lindblom, K i s s a n e ,

38

March.

analysis

uncovered the o r i g i n a l u n i t s which subsequent-

been a l t e r e d .

t h e s i s of P r o c k s c h was

b a s i c groups: A)

and

lines.

former was

the number of a c c e n t beats to the

To S i e v e r s , i t was

a n a l y s i s had
had

applying

a c c e n t beat.

24:4-12; 25:2-5; and C)

y i e l d e d new

by

suggested there were t h r e e b a s i c groups i n I s a i a h

24-27, i d e n t i f i a b l e by

26:lb-6.^

t h i s gap

The

by

the

between a p o c a l y p t i c o r a c l e

However, the s u b j e c t i v i t y i n v o l v e d

d e t a i l e d t e x t u a l study

which i n many ways i s s t i l l

framework suggested

w i t h some v a r i a t i o n s , done by

" S i e b e n e r a p o k a l y p s e , " c h a r a c t e r i z e d by

by

i n t h a t he has

song.

l a t e r non-eschatological

Proaksoh

In another d i r e c t i o n , a very
33
made by Liebmann

comparing the

to the h i s t o r y of

argued w i t h Duhm t h a t the b a s i c d i v i s i o n of

lyrics
32
have been suggested f o r h i s u n i t spanning 24:1-26:6:

He

l y r i c s of the Apocalypse, t h e r e has

He

m a t e r i a l i n I s a i a h 24-27 was

been no

sensus.

i n penetrating

in tradition.''

P r o c k s c h " ^ b u i l t h i s study on the

Duhm and
Sievers.

noted, however, t h a t even on the matter of

c o n t r o l f o r use

text's transmission

Ibid.,

p.

151.

37.
Otto Procksch, J e s a j a
IX, 1 ( L e i p z i g : . D e i c h e r t s c h e
305-46.

I bersetzt u n d erklrt,
,
Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1930) , pp.

38.
W a l l a c e March, A S t u d y o f T w o P r o p h e t i c C o m p o s i t i o n s
i n I s a i a h 2 4 : 1 - 2 7 : 1 (Unpublished Th.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Union
T h e o l o g i c a l Seminary i n the C i t y of New York, 1966).
Hereina f t e r r e f e r r e d t o as I s a i a h 2 4 : 1 - 2 7 : 1 .
39.
Georg
F o h r e r , "Der Aufbau der Apokalypse des J e s a j a buchs, J e s . 24-27," CSQ, XXV (1963), pp. 34-45.
Hereinafter
r e f e r r e d t o as "Aufbau."

13

12
the

r u b r i c s seem to have been i n t r o d u c e d s e c o n d a r i l y i n t o the

The accent count of Kissane's work is my own, deduced from his English translation
arrangement of the text.

3T3
3+3
:17 3+3

2+2+2
:16

3+3
:15 6+6+6

:14

:7
:8

3+3
3+3
:9
3+3
:10 3+3
: 11 3+3
:12 3+3
:13 6+6+6

3+3
3+3

3+3
3+3
v. 11 3+3+3
2+3
v. 10 3 + 3
.
3+2+3
3+3
3+3
3+2
2+2+2
or 3(2 + 2)
2+3
2+2+ 2
6+6 or 2(3+3)
3T3
3+3
3+3 ( + 15a)
or 3(2 + 2)
2+2+2
6+6 or 2(3+3)
4+2
2+2+2 (+14c
or 3(2+2)
4+3
2+2+2
6+6 or 2(3+3)
4+2
2+2+2
2+2
or 3(2+2)
2+2
2+3
3+3
3 + 3+3
2+ 3
3+3
3+3
3+3

4+3
3+3+3
2+2 + 2
2+3
3+3
3+3

3+3
3+3

4+3
v. 13:
4+3

3+3
3+3
3+3
3+3
6+6 or 2(3+3)

2+2 + 2
3+3+3

3+3

3+2
4+3

4+3+4
2+2
4+3
:5

:4

: 6 7 + 7+7

3+3

4+3

3+4

3+3+3
(+5a)
2+2

3+3
3+2
3+2
7+7+7
:3

:2

3+3
3+3
3+2
3+3
(cf. v. 6)

(+5a)
2+2+2

2+2 + 2
2+2
3+3+3
2+2
3+3+3
2+2
2+2
2+3

2+2
2+2
3+2

3+2
7+7+7
24:1

Procksch

3+2+2

4+4 or 2(2+2)

Rudolph

Lindblom

4+3+2

1+2

3+2

2+2+2

Kissane^

3+2

2+2+2

3+3

2+ 2

2+2

March

and

text.
Lindblom, b u i l d i n g on the works o f Duhm, Procksch and
Hylm
ed

(who read c h a p t e r s 25-26 as a p r o p h e t i c l i t u r g y )

suggest-

t h a t t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e o f a l i t u r g y throughout 24-27.

Lindblom i s o l a t e d f o u r s e c t i o n s o f I s a i a h 24-27 as l a t e r

addi-

t i o n s : 24:21-23, the i m p r i s o n i n g o f p r i n c e s and the kingdom o f

Yahweh; 27:1, the d e s t r u c t i o n o f the world; 25:10b-12, c o n c e r n ing

Moab; and 26:15-19, a lament o f the p e o p l e .

the

"Apocalypse" he viewed as nine poems a l t e r n a t i n g between

40

The r e s t o f

e s c h a t o l o g i c a l prophecy and songs o f t h a n k s g i v i n g .

of

The songs

t h a n k s g i v i n g , b a s i c a l l y o p t i m i s t i c , d e r i v e d from the a t t e n -

dant j o y o f the d e s t r u c t i o n o f Babylon by Xerxes I i n 485 B.C.,

the

date he a s s i g n e d t o the Apocalypse.

This h i s t o r i c a l

event,

however, was p l a c e d w i t h i n a broader c o n t e x t as the f i r s t a c t

of

a g r e a t e s c h a t o l o g i c a l drama i n v o l v i n g heaven and e a r t h , a f -

f i r m i n g the supremacy of Yahweh, u l t i m a t e l y r e s u l t i n g i n the

r e t u r n o f the Jews t o t h e i r homeland.

S u p p o r t i n g Hylm's a t -

tempt t o see 25-26 as a l i t u r g y , Lindblom c r i t i c i z e d h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f l i t u r g y as b e i n g too narrow t o be a p p l i e d t o t h i s

work.
to

Lindblom d i s c a r d e d the term a l t o g e t h e r as i n a p p r o p r i a t e

t h i s c o n t e x t and suggested c a n t a t a .

I t was composed by a

prophet working i n the Jerusalem c u l t , and sung a n t i p h o n a l l y by

a

l a y and p r o p h e t i c c h o i r .

val
val,

I t was perhaps sung a t some

i n v o l v i n g a p r o c e s s i o n through the c i t y gate.

41

festi-

Which

festi-

however, one c o u l d not determine.

F o h r e r , i n a b r i e f study, d e l i n e a t e d t h r e e p r o p h e t i c

lit-

u r g i e s which made up the Apocalypse (24 :1-20; 24:21-25:10a;

27:1-6, 12-13). I s a i a h 26:1-6 and 7-21 were c o n n e c t i n g
42
pieces.
Wallace March, f o l l o w i n g c l u e s from F o h r e r , has read the
c h a p t e r s as a p r o p h e t i c l i t u r g y .

I s a i a h 24:1-3 i s a " p r o p h e t i c
43

announcement o f impending doom."

40.

Lindblom, A p o k a l y p s e ,

I s a i a h 24:4-15

p. 67.

41.

Ibid.,

42.

F o h r e r , "Aufbau," pp. 34-35.

p. 71.

43.

March, I s a i a h

24:1-27:1,

p. 7.

show t r a c e s

16

s u g g e s t i o n s have been made t o i t s i d e n t i t y .

We w i l l

l i m i t our-

1.

A n unknown

city

i n Moab.The

only h i s t o r i c a l

ence i n I s a i a h 24-27 i s t o Moab (25:10-12).

refer-

in

Jeremiah

48, r e i n f o r c e s t h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h Moab.

Palestine.
larly

Smend argued t h a t those i n the d i a s p o r a , p a r t i c u w i t h the m e s s i a n i c hope.

They

r e c o g n i z e d Alexander as the one b r i n g i n g i n the new age, hence

the j u b i l a t i o n o f 24:14-16.

The author, l i v i n g

i n Judah, s u f -

f e r e d from A l e x a n d e r ' s e x p e d i t i o n i n t o P a l e s t i n e .
ever, t h a t i t was deserved because
people.

He saw, how-

o f t h e g u i l t among h i s own

There was hope f o r the f a i t h f u l ,

i n t h a t the p r e s e n t

s u f f e r i n g was b u t a p r e l u d e t o the j o y o f the new age.

t h o r ' s s p e c i f i c j o y was d i r e c t e d t o the impending,
fall

The au-

or actual,

o f Moab, which a t the time was e x e r t i n g p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e

on I s r a e l

and was about t o f a l l ,

as w e l l , b e f o r e the f o r c e s o f

Alexander.
I t was A l e x a n d e r ' s march through S y r i a - P a l e s t i n e which
p r e c i p i t a t e d the f o c a l p o i n t around which two dominant themes
crystalized:

1) I s r a e l was b e i n g punished f o r h e r s i n s

13); b u t 2) t h e r e was ground

(24: 14-23) .

The c a t a s t r o p h e took on overtones o f w o r l d judgment when viewed

from the p e r s p e c t i v e o f God's purposes
g u i l t was b e i n g atoned

i n the event.

f o r , and the day was r a p i d l y

when the m e s s i a n i c age would be e s t a b l i s h e d .

ing

Israel's

o f the Moabite

r e s t o r a t i o n o f the w o r l d .

was another who took s e r i o u s l y

regarded the songs as o l d e r than the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l

power; 25:6-8: hope f o r t h e

I s a i a h 25:9-12 was a song i n which

wicked

d e s t r o y e d c i t y on t h e grounds t h a t " i n 26:6 the f e e t o f

the poor

i n c l u d e d the f a c t t h a t the mention

The songs were "occa-

s i o n e d by a d i s a s t e r f a l l e n upon Moab and i t s c a p i t a l . " " '

5 7

58
Mulder,

t o o , developed the t h e s i s t h a t the d e s t r o y e d

c i t y was connected w i t h Moab. He proposed Dibon.

A c c o r d i n g t o h i s p o s i t i o n , I s a i a h 24-27 must have
been w r i t t e n a f t e r t h e r e b u i l d i n g o f the w a l l s o f
Jerusalem ( c f . 26 : I f f ) , and s i n c e the i d e a s
53.

Smend, "Anmerkungen," pp. 193-95, 215-24.

54.
Otto E i s s f e l d t , T h e O l d T e s t a m e n t , A n I n t r o d u c t i o n ,
t r a n s , from the 3rd German ed. by P e t e r R. Ackroyd (New York:
Harper and Row, 1965).

56.

Ibid.,

p. 326.

57.

Ibid.,

p. 327.

largely

Verses 26:1-13 f o c u s e d on

26:14-27:1 e l a b o r a t e d on the

o f new hope which reached the peak i n the n o t i c e o f

T h i s Smend regarded as more d i a l e c t i c

The

m y t h i c a l b e a s t s r e f e r t o the S e l e u c i d and P t o l e m a i c kingdoms.

...24-27 may a l s o be s e t s i d e by s i d e w i t h 34-35, i n
t h a t i n both passages a judgment f a l l i n g upon a p a r t i c u l a r people i n the environment o f Judah, i n the
one case Moab, i n the o t h e r Edom, i s extended i n t o a
w o r l d d i s a s t e r , and p r o v i d e s an o c c a s i o n f o r the
promises o f the g l o r y o f the kingdom o f Yahweh on
Zion.

p. 326.

resurrection.

city

A l s o compare the Jew-

h a t r e d o f Moab i n I s a i a h 16:16 w i t h 25:10 and Z i o n as a

p l a c e o f refuge i n 16:1-5 and 25:6-8.

Ibid.,

ground

Further evidence

o f wine i n t h e h o s t i l e

compared f a v o r a b l y w i t h I s a i a h 16:7-10.
ish

as the

( i . e . , t h e Jews) trampled it....We must t h e r e f o r e

t h i n k of a c i t y i n the r e g i o n o f Judah.

55.

Chapter 26, opening a c h a p t e r

the s u f f e r i n g and end o f I s r a e l ;

possible

He c h a l l e n g e d the f r e q u e n t c h o i c e o f Babylon

and d e s t r u c t i o n o f Moab.

p r a y e r s , t r e a t e d the same themes.

prophecy.

date.

the two themes were k n i t t o g e t h e r : r e s t o r a t i o n o f the f a i t h f u l

of

the r e f e r e n c e s

F o l l o w i n g the b a s i c d i v i s i o n between a p o c a l y p t i c

arriving

These themes hav-

been s e t , they were f u r t h e r developed by t h e author: 25:1-

5: hope f o r the f a l l

Moab.

(24:1-

f o r some r e j o i c i n g i n t h a t , a t t h e

same time, h e r dreaded enemy, Moab, was t o succumb

Eissfeldt
to

He suggested t h a t the f o u r t h c e n t u r y was the e a r l i e s t

Alexander the Great came from a land west o f

i n A s i a Minor, were f i l l e d

sung

o r a c l e and song, suggested by Duhm, he r e v e r s e d the d a t i n g and

His r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the

h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t began w i t h the r e f e r e n c e t o the west i n

I s a i a h 24:14-16.

Verses 27:2-13 were y e t another song, t h i s time

s t r u c t i o n o f Moab were c e l e b r a t e d . ^
54

I s a i a h 24:16-18,

which appear v e r b a t i m i n a c o l l e c t i o n o f o r a c l e s a g a i n s t Moab

Smend looked t o Moab f o r the c i t y .

poetic.

by Yahweh h i m s e l f , i n which the joys o f r e s t o r a t i o n and the de-

s e l v e s t o the t h r e e p r o p o s a l s w i t h the s t r o n g e s t e v i d e n c e .

than

58.
Egge Simon Mulder, O i e T h e o l o g i e v a n d i e J e s a j a
A p o k a l i p s e J e s a j a 2 4 - 2 7 ( D j a r k a r t a : J . B. W o l t e r s , 1954).
H e r e i n a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o as A p o k a l i p s e .

18

19
expressed were more i n harmony
Mulder suggested a date o f c a .
quent to the Nabatean i n v a s i o n
s t o o d as the probable backdrop

w i t h l a t e r developments,
270 B.C., a date subseof Moab, which he underfor this w r i t i n g . ^

the e n t i r e o r a c l e as
We
(and

will

but

secondary.^

sure,

the

language used i s very

of the r e s i s t a n c e met
The

Moab and

Edom are

i n the T r a n s j o r d a n area d u r i n g

New

symbolic
the

first

p o i n t i n the Apocalypse i s t h a t a l l o p p o s i t i o n

t o Yahweh's p l a n o f renewing c r e a t i o n w i l l be

crushed.

Zion

2.

has

been i d e n t i f i e d as the

destroyed

t h a t the B a b y l o n i a n s d e s t r o y e d

Otzen "*) on the

Jerusalem and

grounds

c a r r i e d the

people

I t i s n a t u r a l t o expect t h a t a deep

t r e d would be d i r e c t e d toward t h a t c i t y .
would have been occasioned

by the

The

ha-

joy of 24:14-16

c i t y ' s take over i n e i t h e r

HThR,

24:1-27:1,

60.

Torry,

61.

Lindblom, March.

p. xxv.

XXXI (1938), p.

See

Mulder,

She

was

62.
Werner K e s s l e r , G o t t g e h t es um d a s G a n z e , l e s . S S - 5 6
u n d J e s . 2 4 - 2 7 , Die B o t s c h a f t des A.T., 19 ( S t u t t g a r t : C a l b e r
V e r l a g , 1960), 175 pages.
VT,

64.
Marie L o u i s e Henry, G l a u b e n e k r i s e u n d G l a u b e n s b e Whrung i n d e n D i c h t u n g e n d e r J e s a j a a p o k a l y p s e , BWANT, 86
( S t u t t g a r t : W. Kohlhammer V e r l a g , 1967). H e r e i n a f t e r r e f e r r e d
to as G l a u b e n s k r i s e .
65.
B e n e d i k t Otzen, " T r a d i t i o n s and
XXIV-XXVII," VT, XXIV (1974), p. 206.

Structures

of

very

to focus

s c h o l a r s had

She

by

Marie
ma-

done w e l l i n

and

form-

liturgical

and

argued t h a t the time had

s c h o l a r l y s t u d i e s thus

psychological

to b r i n g together

d i v e r s i t y of m a t e r i a l t h a t had

come

far?

the

the

various

6 6

t h a t Second I s a i a h s t i m u l a t e d
exilic

suggested the poet i n I s a i a h 24-27 was

from a r e l i g i o u s c o n c e r n .
Indeed, he was

He

powerful

community.

moved to w r i t e p r i -

u n i v e r s a l i z e d from a

constructing

His presentation

the profane sense but he had

motifs

into a unity

been uncovered by

r e l i g i o u s m o t i f s which spread through the

u n i v e r s a l meaning.

the

contained

par-

"event" from
no h i s t o r y i n

i n t e r p r e t e d an event as the f u l -

f i l l m e n t of d i v i n e purpose through which human purpose was

and

the working out o f the

was

s e t out

quo

f o r the Apocalypse would be

in a vision.

l a s t worth between man

set

and

God

Henry suggested t h a t the terminus a

67
538

B.C.,

although i t was

created

l a t e r s i n c e the c i t y was

eigners

turned

not

to Yahweh as L o r d .

the end

of

the

l i k e l y t o have been
i n r u i n s nor

The

had

the

for-

f a l l of Babylon was

nected w i t h the hope f o r the d i v i n e r u l e of God,

for

the

What were those f o r c e s which produced

the p r e s s u r e

t i c u l a r event.

the

in

textual c r i t e r i a , metrics,

What were the r e l i g i o u s and

that provided

marily

described

s e n s i t i v e t o the d i v e r s i t y o f

Previous

on i t s u n i t y .

the work?

the

(though

Great.

and h i s t o r i c a l c r i t i c i s m ,

Babylonian c a p t i v i t y ,

63.
G. W. Anderson, " I s a i a h 24-27 R e c o n s i d e r e d , "
Supplement IX (1963), pp. 118-26.

to Alexander the

Apoka-

246.

by Xerxes I

reach the e x t e n t

theological presuppositions.

aside
59.
Marsh, I s a i a h
l i p s e , pp. 91-93.

suggested because

B.C.

most r e c e n t e l a b o r a t i o n of t h i s view was

Henry.

history, literary

She

(among them Rudolph, Lindblom,

K e s s l e r , ^ A n d e r s o n , ^ H e n r y , ^ and

e x i l e t o Babylon.

B.C.

Henry r e c o g n i z e d

Babylon.Babylon

485

d i s s e c t i n g the c h a p t e r s u s i n g

re-established.

c i t y by numerous s c h o l a r s

in

and

i n the Apocalypse goes back t o the theme o f

Conquest r e v i v e d by Second I s a i a h .

w i l l be

than

i t s o r i g i n i n an o r a c l e a g a i n s t h i s t o r i c a l Moab,

i t s place

conquest.

specific

(though u s u a l l y not

then d e s t r o y e d ) ;

t e r i a l i n I s a i a h 24-27.

argue t h a t the mention o f Moab i n I s a i a h 24-27

To be

p r o b a b l y had

'3i/3fc " or d e l e t i n g

i s symbolic, r a t h e r

not

The

to

by Cyrus

f i g h t i n g i n the c i t y does not

Louise

the mention of Edom i n I s a i a h 34)

literal.

B.C.

A p o c a l y p s e ) ; o r 331

There have been attempts made t o remove the problem o f

Moab t e x t u a l l y , e i t h e r by emending m o a b

539

c i t y was

con-

hopes begun

the e x i l i c community, i n Second I s a i a h .

Henry's u n d e r l i n i n g of the

importance of Second I s a i a h

for

our u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the Apocalypse i s u s e f u l .

But

of the

descending from

formation

as i t were, and

of 24-27 as a l i t e r a r y d e p o s i t
shaped by

r e l i g i o u s and

66.

Henry, G l a u b e n s k r i s e , p.

67.

Ibid.,

Isaiah
p.

33.

12.

the model

p s y c h o l o g i c a l ideas

can

21

20

be sharpened by working through the more concrete

t i o n s of r o y a l and
3.

the d e s t r o y e d

a f t e r 587
cording

forms and

t h i r d opinion

l i t e r a r y prosody

Of

B.C.

the r e c e n t

a "confident expectation
This expectation
lament form.

was

"The

The

as f o l l o w s .

punished h i s own

of Yahweh's coming

He may

repent,

expresses no

confidence

communal

s i t u a t i o n i s unbearable, but
69

and

hope t h a t h i s people w i l l

t h a t the wrath of Yahweh w i l l be turned

t h a t t h i s w i l l happen or
away from them.

The

i t s h a l l become even more

10)."

Jerusalem, but

"more p a r t i c u l a r l y Zion

" A t t e n t i o n i s turned

of w a i t i n g . "
Canaan, but

city is

(24:23, 25:6,

i s made t o the

of the

and

26:5

to "those who

oppose, or who

r e c t l y dated to around 575

as coming from around 560.
mood t h a t we

The

B.C.,

have not

yet

" I f 24:1-20, then, i s c o r 24:21-27:1 i s b e s t

T h i s would p r o v i d e

1) W i t h i n

t h i s century,

change

eschatology,

and,

judgment l i t e r a t u r e ,

e x i l i c or e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c

recently, early apocalyptic.

Hanson o f f e r s the s u g g e s t i o n :
. . . i f the c i t y of chaos, the d e s t r u c t i o n of which i s
c e l e b r a t e d by the apocalypse, i s the J e r u s a l e m cont r o l l e d and d e f i l e d ( i n the eyes of the v i s i o n a r i e s )
by the h i e r o c r a t i c p a r t y , then the composition c o u l d
stem from a p o i n t f a i r l y l a t e i n the s i x t h c e n t u r y .

are.

T h i s problem i s rooted

69.

Ibid.,

24:1-27:1,

p.

some other

is still

puts a l l the p i e c e s o f the p u z z l e

a matter of c o n j e c t u r e

and

un-

i n Moab or

rests ultimately
together.

T h i s study proposes to advance our d i s c u s s i o n of these

questions.

Chapter two

of I s a i a h 24-27.
to i t s p r o s o d i e
where the

w i l l o f f e r a f r e s h a n a l y s i s of the

From t h a t work c o n c l u s i o n s
style.

We

text

w i l l be drawn as

are p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d t o note

s t y l e of 24-27 stands i n r e l a t i o n t o t h a t of Second

I s a i a h and

"Third"

Isaiah.

7 2

Chapter t h r e e w i l l o f f e r a d i s c u s s i o n of the s t r u c t u r e of
I s a i a h 24-27 b e g i n n i n g
be

compared w i t h the

Hebrew t r a d i t i o n .

w i t h an a n a l y s i s of i t s themes.

derstanding
We

We

will

are p a t t e r n s which

same o r s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s

can

elsewhere i n

At l e a s t p a r t of t h i s d i s c u s s i o n w i l l

on the D i v i n e W a r r i o r Hymn which we

see as c r u c i a l to the

center
un-

of I s a i a h 24-27.

recognize

t h a t the steps

from theme t o form t o

institu-

are very p r e c a r i o u s .

When

267.
71.

p.

3) Whether the

c i t y i s Babylon, Jerusalem, one

on how

one

the

i n the many t e x t u a l d i f -

have i n h e r i t e d from t r a d i t i o n .

t i o n a l s e t t i n g to h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t
March, I s a i a h

lacking a

consensus as to what the b a s i c s t r u c t u r a l d i v i s i o n s o f

chapters

apoca-

prophe-

proto-apocalyptic

2) There i s s t i l l

want to determine whether or not t h e r e

have noted....

68.

s c h o l a r s have l a b e l e d

l i t e r a r y genre o f I s a i a h 24-27 as a l a t e p o s t - e x i l i c

tic

understood

f o r the

Summary

7,

are u n i d e n t i f i a b l e c i t i e s i n hymns r e -

the power of Yahweh."

pro-

period.

l y p t i c work, p r e - e x i l i c p r o p h e t i c

period

r i v a l d e i t i e s of

the s u p e r i o r i t y of Yahweh i s unquestioned."

f e r r i n g i n general

in

The

toward the coming end

"Masked r e f e r e n c e

c i t i e s of 25:2
recognized,

changed.

material

There are u n s e t t l e d problems r e l a t e d t o the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

of I s a i a h 24-27.

f i c u l t i e s we

severe.
still

D.

named, d e s t r o y e d

In I s a i a h 24:21-27:1, the mood had

to see i f our

f i t t e d i n t o some of the t y p o l o g i c a l sequences he

poses f o r the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c

the

prophet, however, sees u n r e l i e v e d gloom

punishment.

w i l l want t o t e s t Hanson's h y p o t h e s i s

can be

Ac-

deliverance."

seen as an i n t e g r a l p a r t of the

We

people

r e j o i c i n g of 24:14-15 stemmed, from

68

more e x t e n s i v e
but he

too,

s t u d i e s , March s e l e c t e d Jerusalem

to I s a i a h 24:1-20, Yahweh had

breach of covenant.

of

a c h o i c e which we,

H i s b a s i c r e c o n s t r u c t i o n was

controversy,

7 1

first.

i n the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

c i t y i s Jerusalem i t s e l f ,

w i l l defend.

for

prophetic

Jerusalem.A

perhaps from the p e r i o d of the temple

ca. 5 2 0 .

transforma-

Hanson, D a w n , p.

314.

268.

70.
The q u o t a t i o n s
i b i d . , pp. 275-76, 284.

of t h i s paragraph may

be

found i n

72.
Our use of the d e s i g n a t i o n of T h i r d I s a i a h r e f e r s
simply t o chapters 56-66 i n I s a i a h . We are not e n t e r i n g i n t o
the d i s c u s s i o n of whether o r not t h e r e was a T h i r d I s a i a h .
For
such a d i s c u s s i o n , see Hanson, i b i d . , pp. 32-208.

22
working w i t h a passage l i k e I s a i a h 24-27, the s t e p s are
so.

We

II.

doubly

THE

TEXT AND
A.

a t y p o l o g y of p r o s o d i e s t y l e , and t o the h i s t o r y i n t r a d i t i o n
of

PROSODY OF

ISAIAH 24-27

f e e l , however, t h a t by s t a y i n g as c l o s e as p o s s i b l e t o

thematic p a t t e r n s we

have r e a s o n a b l y o b j e c t i v e grounds t o

o f f e r a s u g g e s t i o n as t o date, form and h i s t o r i c a l

these c h a p t e r s .

s e t t i n g of

T h i s w i l l be the s u b j e c t o f c h a p t e r f o u r .

Isaiah

24:l-16a

The m e t r i c s t r u c t u r e o f I s a i a h 24:l-16a holds the

ation,

alliter-

the assonance, the paronomasia, the chiasm, the c l i m a c -

t i c p a r a l l e l i s m i n a t i g h t l y woven p a t t e r n which responds

tifully

t o the poem's own

content.

The

the units''' t o g e t h e r i s an a l t e r n a t i o n between groups o f

and b i c o l a ,

beau-

f i n e t h r e a d which h o l d s
tricola

a l l o f which p l a c e these v e r s e s a l o n g s i d e the b e s t

i n Hebrew p o e t i c s t y l e .
The
lowed by

i n i t i a l u n i t opens w i t h t h r e e t r i c o l a ,
four b i c o l a .

w i t h a r e d u c t i o n from t h r e e t o two.
2
known from U g a r i t i c

3(b:b:b), f o l -

The next u n i t r e t u r n s t o t r i c o l a ,

and appears

i n v e r s e seven

T h i s u n i t i s f o l l o w e d a g a i n by f o u r b i c o l a ,
u n i t i s then c l o s e d w i t h one
t r i c o l a , as they reduce

but

The p a t t e r n b : b : : l i s

tricolon.

as b:b: 1 ::b:b:b.

4(b:b).

The

entire

N o t i n g the symmetry of

from t h r e e t o one,

I s a i a h 24:1-13

scans

as f o l l o w s :
b:b:b::b:b:b::b:b:b
4(b:b)
b:b:l::b:b:b
4 (b:b)
b:b:b

In t h i s c h a p t e r , the term " u n i t " i s used i n a g e n e r a l way

and w i l l need t o be understood i n each i n s t a n c e by c o n t e x t .
The more s p e c i f i c t e r m i n o l o g y t o be used may be d e f i n e d as
f o l l o w s : 1) A l i n e i s any s i n g l e grouping o f words which when
labeled
a c c o r d i n g to s y l l a b l e count (see note 1, page 35) i s
c a l l e d b r e v e or l o n g u m .
2) A c o l o n i s any g r o u p i n g o f l i n e s
which s t a n d i n p a r a l l e l w i t h one another.
Depending on the
number o f l i n e s which stand i n p a r a l l e l w i t h one another, the
grouping w i l l be c a l l e d b i c o l o n or t r i c o l o n .
3) A strophe i s
any grouping o f c o l a w i t h i n a poem which form a m e t r i c and
thought u n i t .
They w i l l be i n d i c a t e d w i t h such symbols as
4(b:b), 3(b:b:b), b : b : : l : : b : b .
4) A poem i s any c o l l e c t i o n o f
strophes which make up a m e t r i c and thought u n i t .
These may
or may not conform t o e s t a b l i s h e d forms { G a t t u n g e n ) .
2
See the d i s c u s s i o n i n Frank f l . C r o s s , "The Song o f the
Sea and Canaanite Myth," J T h C , V (1968), p. 5, n. 12.
Hereina f t e r r e f e r r e d t o as "Song o f the Sea."

23

24

25
People

1. I s a i a h 24:1-13
a. 3(b:b:b)

and

priest,

Yahweh i s emptying e a r t h now;

He

i s l e v e l i n g i t s surface!

He

i s scattering i t s inhabitants!

6/7

Buyer and

T h e I s a i a h s c r o l l of Qumran ( I Q I s a ) has which may

have support from i n the Greek. The l a t t e r u s u a l l y
t r a n s l a t e d w i t h yfj.
The o f the MT was r e t a i n e d t o p r e serve the m e t r i c a l b a l a n c e .
3

R e a d i n g the as a secondary expansion i n t r o d u c e d a f t e r

was added t o the t e x t through a m i s r e a d i n g o f .
See note 4.
4

F o l l o w i n g C r o s s ' s s u g g e s t i o n , communicated i n c o n f e r e n c e ,
t h a t due t o the c l o s e s i m i l a r i t y of waw and yod i n t h i s p e r i o d
and the p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e a d i n g and as an V ( c f . I Q I s a ) ,
d e l e t e as d i t t o g r a p h y . See I s a i a h 28:25 f o r
added p r e s s u r e f o r the i n c l u s i o n o f .
The r e s u l t i n g symmet r y argues i n f a v o r o f such an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
a

24

and t h r e e .

Note a l s o

the

borrower,

C r e d i t o r and
Reading f o r , me tri o a u s a , would reduce the s y l l a b l e count o f the f i r s t l i n e t o s i x . We are working w i t h
p o e t r y t h a t appears to be a r c h a i z i n g , t h a t i s , o l d p a t t e r n s and
t e c h n i q u e s of p o e t i c s t r u c t u r e emerge here and t h e r e . In s c a n n i n g the c o l a , r a t h e r than u s i n g the L e y - S i e v e r s ' method o f
n o t i n g accent beat alone, we w i l l a l s o f o l l o w suggestions made
by C r o s s and employed i n h i s a r t i c l e "Song o f the Sea...,"
i b i d . , pp. 4-5, n. 5.
See a l s o Freedman's d i s c u s s i o n i n "Prolegomenon" t o G. B. Gray, The F o r m s o f H e b r e w P o e t r y , KTAV,
1972, pp. v i i - l i i i .
In order t o d e s c r i b e more p r e c i s e l y the
symmetry, s y l l a b l e count w i l l be noted.
The s i g l a b { b r e v e )
and 1 i l o n g u m ) w i l l be used.
A l i n e of 7 s y l l a b l e s w i l l u s u a l l y be the upper l i m i t of b r e v e although i n our t e x t the c o n t e x t
may suggest an 8 s y l l a b l e l i n e as b r e v e and a 7 s y l l a b l e l i n e
as" l o n g u m .
In accordance w i t h the language o f the s i x t h cent u r y B.C.,
(our proposed date f o r the c h a p t e r s ) , s e g h o l a t e s
w i l l be counted as one s y l l a b l e .
V o c a l shewas w i l l be counted
as one or as z e r o . The d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e , , the r e l a t i v e ,
and o c c a s i o n a l l y the c o n j u n c t i v e waw w i l l be d e l e t e d as e l e ments of prose i n t r o d u c e d i n t o the p o e t r y l a t e r , as the t e x t
was t r a n s m i t t e d i n t r a d i t i o n .

seller,

Lender and

Maid and m i s t r e s s .

6/7
4

^Note the -h rhyme o f l i n e s two

the q u a n t i t y o f and P.

Servant and master,

( I s a i a h 24:1-2)

debtor.

To analyze the p o e t i c p a r a l l e l i s m , a l e t t e r w i l l be
signed to each word.

D i f f e r e n t grammatical

r o o t w i l l be i n d i c a t e d by the same l e t t e r .

as-

forms of the same

When a word i n the

same l i n e or i n a subsequent l i n e stands i n p a r a l l e l w i t h

i n i t i a l word, i t w i l l be
is,

a, a-^, &2 .

the

i n d i c a t e d by a s u b l i n e a r number, t h a t

I f a group o f words express

a concept which

stands i n p a r a l l e l t o the i n i t i a l word, i t w i l l be i n d i c a t e d

a capital letter.

The

by

purpose o f t h i s a n a l y s i s i s to d e s c r i b e

as c l o s e l y as p o s s i b l e the p r o s o d i e s t y l e o f I s a i a h 24-27.

1.
S y n t a c t i c a l l y , the o f v. 1 and the o f v. 2
go t o g e t h e r . A c c o r d i n g t o Lambdin, a h i n n e h c l a u s e p l u s conv e r t e d p e r f e c t i n t e r j e c t s e x p l a n a t o r y m a t e r i a l i n t o the main
narrative.
Thomas 0. Lambdin, I n t r o d u c t i o n to B i b l i c a l
Hebrew
(New York: C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ' s Sons, 1971), pp. 169-70. A
t r a n s l a t i o n f o r v e r s e s one and two might be "Because Yahweh i s
emptying e a r t h . . . i t s h a l l be as w i t h the p e o p l e , so the p r i e s t .
..."
Both and do break the exact symmetry o f t h e i r
lines.
But s i n c e they both open a c o l o n , are s t i l l p a r t o f
l i n e s t h a t can be c o n s i d e r e d s h o r t , and do make sense, they
are r e t a i n e d i n the t e x t .
2.
One must be c a u t i o u s i n u s i n g the mention o f as
an argument f o r a l a t e date because t h e ^ f o r m u l a appears i n Hosea 4:9, an e i g h t h century rib c o n t e x t .
Of course,
i t may have taken on an added dimension o f meaning i n i t s
I s a i a n i c context.
3.

Reading as e x p a n s i o n i s t i c p r o s a i z i n g o f .

4.
Reading as an Aramaism.
t h a t read .

There are

manuscripts

27

26
E a r t h mourns, a t r o p h i e s .
3(b:b:b)

6/7

24:1

World l a n g u i s h e s , w i t h e r s .

3 2

5/7

7/8

6/7
A curse devours the e a r t h !
I n h a b i t a n t s bear the

:2

guilt.

E a r t h ' s d w e l l e r s are d e s o l a t e !
There remain but a

24:3

few!

6
7

4(b:b)

7
The

hinnh

shape o f the f i r s t
was

strophe.

A f t e r i t was

5/7
7/8

announced t h a t Yahweh

d e s t r o y i n g the e a r t h , the poet i n s e r t e d a c a t a l o g u e of

those who

were t o succumb under the impending d i s a s t e r .

d i t i o n t o the t i g h t p a r a l l e l i s m i n the i n i t i a l
the rhyme o f boqq
The

:4

p l u s c o n v e r t e d p e r f e c t formula c o n t r o l s the

and

boteq

and the two

t r i c o l o n i s onomatopoetic, f i l l e d

p l u s the hard sounding

In

tricolon,

ad-

q, which t o g e t h e r suggest

(b and

6
7

note

l i n e s ending i n -ha.

with b i - l a b i a l s

:6

p)

the g u r g l i n g

sound o f a b o t t l e b e i n g emptied.
The

c a t a l o g u e as a d e v i c e t o expand on a p o i n t i s a n c i e n t

and known t o us from U g a r i t i c s o u r c e s .

Note, too, the

chiasm

w i t h i n the c a t a l o g u e as those w i t h power s h i f t w i t h those

out power.
The

The

c a t a l o g u e i s brought

with-

t o an end w i t h a s o l i d b o .

r e p e a t e d use o f k , i n t e r n a l rhyme, and exact

parallelism

mark t h i s u n i t as e x c e l l e n t p o e t r y .

b. 4(b:b)

( I s a i a h 24:3-6)

Emptied i s e a r t h !

5
1

Plundered

i s world!

2
7

1.
Read f o r balance i n p a r a l l e l i s m , w i t h t e x t u a l
support from the Greek, ... npovouti
. See a l s o the p a r a l l e l i s m o f and i n I s a i a h 26:9,
18 and 24:4.
2.

D e l e t e as e x p a n s i o n i s t i c .

1.
R e t a i n the MT r e a d i n g a g a i n s t the Greek f o r reasons o f
m e t r i c a l symmetry and i n t e r n a l assonance p a r a l l e l e d i n the p r e ceding l i n e s .

2.
Read
7
- , (the i s s
w i t h a misunderstood e n c l i t i c mem), and
7

v a r i a n t r e a d i n g s c o n f l a t e d i n t o the t e x t .
The r e s u l t i n g s e r i e s
of f o u r c o l a c o n s i s t i n g o f two l i n e s each argues i n f a v o r o f
u n d e r s t a n d i n g the t e x t as e x p a n s i o n i s t i c a t t h i s p o i n t .
3.
Verse f i v e appears i n a l l the e x t a n t t e x t s and v e r sions.
However, i t i s p r o s a i c and reads very much l i k e a mora l i
s t i c g l o s s . An argument i n f a v o r o f such a r e a d i n g i s t h a t

i t s d e l e t i o n does not d i s t u r b the m e t r i c a l symmetry o f the
poem. I t i s r e c o g n i z e d , however, t h a t t h e r e may be an o r i g i n a l

r e a d
i n g u n d e r l y i n g the v e r s e t h a t has been d i s t o r t e d beyond
recognition.
4.
Although the i n t e r n a l p a r a l l e l i s m o f the next f o u r
l i n e s i s not as r e g u l a r as i n the p r e c e d i n g l i n e s , the o v e r a l l
symmetry compares f a v o r a b l e t o what has preceded and what f o l lows.
Read > V as e x p a n s i o n i s t i c .
5.
F o l l o w i n g the S y r i a c r e a d i n g . Another r e a d i n g might
be . In I s a i a h 41:5 i s used w i t h but t h e r e
are s e v e r a l o c c u r r e n c e s o f w i t h people as the s u b j e c t .
See
BDB, p. 353, f o r a l i s t .

28

29
The paronomasia and a l l i t e r a t i o n

o f the f i r s t

two b i c o l a

e x c e l l e n t example of the a n c i e n t p a t t e r n known as

stand out and c o n t r i b u t e t o the hammer e f f e c t of the e a r t h ' s

demise.
curse.

p a r a l l e l i s m , abc ::abd::efg.

repetitive

Compare w i t h I s a i a h 26:15.

A new element i s i n t r o d u c e d w i t h the mention of the

d. 4(b:b)

From t h a t p o i n t on the t i g h t p a r a l l e l i s m i s abandoned

and the focus s h i f t s

from what i s happening t o the e a r t h , t o

( I s a i a h 24:9-12)

No more, w i t h song, do they d r i n k .

the cause and e f f e c t w i t h r e s p e c t t o the i n h a b i t a n t s of the

Wine t a s t e s b i t t e r to them t h a t t r y .
land.

The l a s t l i n e l e a v e s the reader w i t h a glimpse

desolation.

o f the

T h i s l a t t e r i s an example, though not the b e s t , o f

The c i t y o f chaos i s beaten.

the many i n s t a n c e s o f c l i m a c t i c p a r a l l e l i s m throughout

the
Every house i s b a r r e d a t the door.

piece.
c. b : b : l ( I s a i a h 24:7-8)
b:b:b

Wine mourns.
Vine

languishes.

16)

The joyous of h e a r t a l l s i g h .

T i m b r e l s are s i l e n t .

The l y r e i s q u i e t .

18)

D)e s o l a t i o n has s e i z e d the c i t y .

L i k ea
r u i n , the gate l i e s

24 :9

7)

d^

smashed.

6
6

4(b:b)

* * * * *
Festivity

i s gone.

:10

6
24:7

b:b:l
b:b:b

4
4

(16)
6
6

&

(18)

(or

1'

6
I s a i a h 24:9-12 i s very
The reuse o f the verbs and connects
w i t h the p r e v i o u s one.

As i n d i c a t e d e a r l i e r ,

m e t r i c p a t t e r n known from U g a r i t i c .

this

strophe

good

the b : b : l i s a

Doth o f the above c o l a

are good examples of c l i m a c t i c p a r a l l e l i s m .

d i f f i c u l t t e x t u a l l y , but t h e r e i s

enough t o i n d i c a t e t h a t the o r i g i n a l t e x t was p r o b a b l y

The l a t t e r

i s an

1. T h i s arrangement assumes a whole l i n e was m i s p l a c e d by

a scribe writing stychometrically.

1. See the d i s c u s s i o n i n chapter one o f W i l l i a m F. A l b r i g h t , l a h w e h a n d the G o d s o f C a n a a n .

He i l l u s t r a t e s the p a t t e r n i n U g a r i t i c and e a r l y Hebrew p o e t r y .
2. The t e x t i s v e r y c o r r u p t w i t h no s o l i d c l u e s f o r a
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the o r i g i n a l r e a d i n g .
3.

Note the n i p h a l s and p u a l s i n common w i t h v e r s e t e n .

30

31

p o e t r y t h a t may

have been c o r r u p t e d i n t r a n s m i s s i o n

than bad p o e t r y o r i g i n a l l y .

The

strophe.

rather

h a r v e s t imagery and the communal l i f e o f the p e o p l e .

theme o f the f i r s t b i c o l o n i s

t h a t o f wine gone sour which would connect

ous

i t w i t h the

first

previ-

c i t y , both of which c o l l a p s e under the wrath o f Yahweh who

Because i t i s a b i c o l o n , i t i s b e i n g read w i t h

turned a g a i n s t the c r e a t e d o r d e r .

the f o l l o w i n g u n i t o f b i c o l a , r a t h e r than w i t h the p r e v i o u s

u n i t of t r i c o l a .
w i t h in,

The chiasm, reuse o f the verb ,

r a h and y o d t e s t i f y

can be understood

t o i t s own

land and no one

or no t h i n g s h a l l

A curse i s d e v o u r i n g

has

the

escape.

and p l a y

internal unity.

It

2. I s a i a h 24:14-16a

as a t r a n s i t i o n v e r s e between the m o t i f s of

soured wine and d e s t r o y e d

I s a i a h 24:14-16a r e p e a t s the m e t r i c p a t t e r n of the

city.
two

The next b i c o l o n s h i f t s t o the m o t i f of the d e s t r o y e d

city.

This

u n i t has e n v i s i o n e d w i t h e r i n g c r o p s , and a d e s t r o y e d

last

u n i t s o f the p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n : 4(b:b), b:b:b.

I t stands n i c e l y w i t h the f i n a l b i c o l o n w i t h i t s p a r a l -

l e i use o f n i p h a l s and p u a l s .
c o l a are arranged

The

second

a. 4(b:b)

l i n e s o f the two b i -

i n chiasm w i t h r e s p e c t t o each o t h e r .

paronomasia o f the l a s t b i c o l o n i s e x c e l l e n t .

The

The

They shout

third b i -

( I s a i a h 24:14-15)

in victory.

They r a i s e t h e i r v o i c e .

c o l o n has no s o l i d c l u e s f o r a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n though i t s m o t i f
seems t o d e a l w i t h bad wine which would connect
f i r s t bicolon of this

i t with

the

In

the presence

They shout
e. b:b:b
Thus i t s h a l l be throughout

from

-9

afar.

( I s a i a h 24:13)
the l a n d .

4 3

They worship Yahweh

Among d i s t a n t i s l e s .
<

Among the p e o p l e : l i k e s t r i k i n g
olives,

The Name i s Yahweh

2
L i k e g l e a n i n g grapes.

'Eloh

-9

liara'el.

b:b:b

24:13
e
e

f
l

T h i s t r i c o l o n b r i n g s the f i r s t major u n i t t o a c l o s e .
is

of Yahweh

strophe.

a n i c e example of c l i m a c t i c p a r a l l e l i s m .

It

I t brings together

1.
By " c o r r u p t e d i n t r a n s m i s s i o n " we mean e i t h e r mistakes
made by c o p y i s t s or a treatment o f the t e x t as prose r a t h e r
than p o e t r y .
The Qumran s c r o l l , f o r i n s t a n c e , r e v e a l s no s i g n s
i n the t e x t t o suggest t h i s passage i s p o e t r y .
In order to
p r e s e r v e space the words are simply w r i t t e n one a f t e r the
other.
2.
Read as e x p a n s i o n i s t i c . The r e s u l t i n g p a r a l l e l i s m i s sharper and the s y l l a b l e count i s c l o s e r .
The phrase
appears i n Micah 7:1.

1.
The l i f t i n g up o f the v o i c e t o shout i s a common dev i c e f a m i l i a r from U g a r i t i c sources to i n d i c a t e a break or
s h i f t i n the poem. See U g a r i t i c Text 3.D.32-33 f o r an example
of the f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r r i n g formula, t s ' u g h w t ^ b . The Mass o r e t i c t e x t o f v e r s e 14a i s a p p a r e n t l y a c o n f l a t i o n of two
l i n e s , s i n c e the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the f i r s t b i c o l o n , suggested
by Cross i n p r i v a t e c o n f e r e n c e , f i t s very n i c e l y w i t h what p r e cedes and f o l l o w s . See a l s o I s a i a h 52:8, 11 and 48:20.
2.

See

Isaiah

54:1.

3.
D e l e t e as c o n f l a t i o n .
equals
.
See I Q I s a f o r the s i m i l a r i t y of y o d and v e S ,
3

4.

See

I s a i a h 42:12.

5.

For Yahweh's name, see I s a i a h 48:1-2.

33

32
of
5

24:14

-9
4

4(b:b)

bj

the

p r a i s e i n honor o f Yahweh: "Honor t o t h e J u s t One!"

c
B.

b.

1. I s a i a h 24 :16b-18b

There i s a s h i f t
:15

I s a i a h 24:16b-25:9

4
-9
5

As i n

e a r l i e r t r i c o l o n , t h e statement develops c l i m a c t i c a l l y .

i n the meter.

Only b i c o l a a r e used.

e
Judging from the c o n t e n t o f t h i s passage, b:b may be understood

-9
4

as

a p r e c u r s o r t o the l a t e r l : b , q l n a h

b a s i c a l t e r n a t i o n between

meter, o f lament.

The

two and t h r e e i s r e t a i n e d i n the num-

e
3

-9
6

ber

o f b i c o l a used: 2(b:b),

a.
As noted above, the l i f t i n g

up o f the v o i c e t o shout i s a

common d e v i c e f a m i l i a r from U g a r i t i c sources t o i n d i c a t e a

break o r s h i f t i n the poem. The c l o s e p a r a l l e l s w i t h Second
I s a i a h ' s "New Song" w i l l be d i s c u s s e d below.

6
5

"I

am wasted!

4
6

b:b:b

b
c

Oh, woe i s me!"

With t r e a c h e r y , they a r e t r e a c h e r o u s . "

J u s t One !

24:16b-c)

Some say, "I am wasted!"

24:16b-c

From the ends o f t h e e a r t h

24:16a

(Isaiah

"The t r e a c h e r o u s a r e t r e a c h e r o u s .

b. b:b:b ( I s a i a h 24:16a)

We heard a song:

2(b:b)

b. 3(b:b)

2(b:b)
b

( I s a i a h 24 17-18b)

d
e

Pack and Snare and P i t

A g a i n s t you, i n h a b i t a n t s o f the

land

5
5/6

T h i s t r i c o l o n concludes t h i s u n i t and i s t o be compared

w i t h the t r i c o l o n , v e r s e 13, which concluded the f i r s t

unit.

1.

Reading one as d i t t o g r a p h y .

2.

See Jeremiah 48:43-44.

They both open w i t h an a l l u s i o n t o t h e geography o f the l a n d

but

whereas the p r e v i o u s t r i c o l o n e n v i s i o n e d the s t r i k i n g o f

o l i v e s and g l e a n i n g o f grapes, t h i s t r i c o l o n

1.

In the above

s t r o p h e , note the rhyming -am c l o s i n g the f i r s t three b i c o l a

There i s good use o f chiasm and c l i m a c t i c p a r a l l e l i s m .

Honor t o the

3(b:b).

c o n t a i n s a shout

For the ends o f t h e e a r t h , see I s a i a h 48:20, 52:12.

3. F o l l o w i n g Dahood's s u g g e s t i o n o f i d e n t i f y i n g p h d w i t h
Ugaritic p h d , "flock."
M i t c h e l l Dahood, P s a l m s I I (NewYork:
Doubleday and Co., I n c . , 1968), p. 331. H e r e i n a f t e r r e f e r r e d
to as P s a l m s I , P s a l m s I I o r P s a l m s I I I .

35

34
He who f l e e s from the marauding Pack,
He f a l l s

i n the P i t .

Ea r t h i s broken i n p i e c e s .
1

6/5(

He who c l i m b s out o f t h e P i t ,
5

He i s caught i n the Snare.

E a r t h i s r e n t asunder.

Earth i s v i o l e n t l y

shaken.

E a r t h q u i v e r s l i k e a drunk.
It

5/6

24:18c

8
d.

6
6
d

7
7

1:1
b:b:b
1:1

f i r s t b i c o l o n o f the f i r s t

s t r o p h e and of the f i r s t

line

d
d

To d e p i c t the r e t u r n t o chaos , the w r i t e r drew on many

ancient poetic devices.
In

2. I s a i a h 24:18c23; mixed meter

v i c t o r y are described.

combine

The meter r e f l e c t s t h i s s h i f t i n tone

Long l i n e s a r e i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h

l i n e s t o express a growing c r e s c e n d o and t u r b u l e n c e .

a l t e r n a t i o n , however, between b i c o l a and t r i c o l a

the t r i c o l o n ,

1:1
b:b:b
1:1

f i r s t b i c o l o n , note the chiasm.

t o enact v e r b a l l y the c o l l a p s e of

the e a r t h .

The f i n a l

c l i m a c t i c p a r a l l e l i s m as i t r e -

produces the p a t t e r n e s t a b l i s h e d i n the t r i c o l o n adding then

short

another image which i s p a r a l l e l e d i n

the f i n a l

line.

The b a s i c

i s retained.
1.

a.

In the

the rhyme, a l l i t e r a t i o n and paronomasia a l l

b i c o l o n i s another example of

the next s e c t i o n the r e t u r n t o chaos, a b a t t l e and a

by becoming mixed.

( I s a i a h 24:18c-20)

The windows o f heaven a r e opened.

The f o u n d a t i o n s o f e a r t h do tremble.

It
to

Note the i n t e r n a l p a r a l l e l i s m i n t h e second l i n e o f

the second s t r o p h e .

In

The paronomasia and a l l i t e r a t i o n a r e obvious i n these two

in

19

3 2
:20

the

strophes.

sways l i k e a h u t .

3(b:b)

24:17

1. The a r t i c l e i s i n c l u d e d as a d e m o n s t r a t i v e pronoun.
i s p o s s i b l e t h i s was the way the a r t i c l e was i n t r o d u c e d i n poetry.

Infinitive

a b s o l u t e , p a r a l l e l i n g and .

2. The s y l l a b l e count o f v e r s e 20b i s r e g u l a r , but the

s t r o n g rhythm and b a l a n c e i s c l e a r l y broken. The phrase
* forms the f i r s t p a r t o f a lament over I s r a e l i n
q i n a h meter found i n Amos 5:2. T h i s f a c t p l u s i t s awkwardness
I s a i a h 24 suggests i t s secondary i n t r u s i o n i n the I s a i a h
i n
context.
The reads very much l i k e a m o r a l i s t i c
g l o s s
, s i m i l a r t o I s a i a h 24:5 (see note 3, page 2 7 ) . The con
t e x t may have suggested t o an e d i t o r a lament such as t h a t
found i n Amos 5:2, o f which he i n s e r t e d the opening l i n e . I f
20b i s the c l i m a x o f the poem, i t i s a d i s a p p o i n t i n g one. So
much b e t t e r i f t h e r e a d e r passes immediately t o v v . 21-23.

36
b.

1:1
b:b:b
(b:b):1:1

( I s a i a h 24:21-23)
24:21

11

11

A sharp crescendo f o l l o w s as the p r e c e d i n g p a t t e r n i s r e peated w i t h e x t r a - l o n g l i n e s .

and the s h o r t l i n e s
long.

The long l i n e s become very

long

i n another c o n t e x t might be c o n s i d e r e d

l
e

The b a s i c p a t t e r n o f a l t e r n a t i o n between b i c o l a and t r i -

l
f

e
e

1:1
b:b:b
(b:b):1:1

c o l a i s r e t a i n e d u n t i l the l a s t l i n e , when the climax i s r e a c h ed,

expressed i n a t r i c o l o n

of extra-long l i n e s .

The b i c o l o n

t h a t i s b u i l t i n t o the i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e of the t r i c o l o n i s
s u r e l y not a c c i d e n t a l .

But

i t s h a l l be i n t h a t day:

Rubric

Yahweh w i l l charge the gods

i n heaven;

11

The k i n g s of the e a r t h on e a r t h .

11

They w i l l be gathered as a group

to the P i t .

They w i l l be locked up as a

It

11

11

1
e

11

1
f

i s as i f the p r e v i o u s strophe reached such a p o e t i c

climax
t h a
t the

poet
had
t o stop f o r b r e a t h .

R e c a l l Revela-

t i o n ' s h a l f hour o f s i l e n c e b e f o r e the seventh s e a l was broken.

The
r u b r
i c "
I t s h a l l happen on t h a t day" prepares the reader
f o r the b a t t l e i t s e l f wherein Yahweh breaks through i n a l l h i s
power
and
g l o r y t o d e f e a t the enemy and r e - e s t a b l i s h h i m s e l f as
1

king at Zion.

colon.

p r i s o n e r i n the Dungeon.
In due time, they w i l l be punished.

Note the i n a l u s i o

as the verb opens the

f i r s t
l i n e o f the s t r o p h e and c l o s e s the l a s t

earth.

colon.

l i n e o f the t r i -

Yahweh charges the gods i n heaven and the k i n g s on

Note the assonance o f ' a l e p h ,

s i n and p e s i n the t r i -

The l a t t e r i s another example

of c l i m a c t i c

parallelism.

The expected b i c o l o n t o c l o s e the s t r o p h e i s lengthened t o

The Moon w i l l be confounded; 11=6/5

the Sun abashed.

a tricolon

Yahweh of Hosts w i l l r e i g n a t
Mount Zion.

11

And o p p o s i t e H i s e l d e r s , i n
Jerusalem, the K a b o d .

11

as the w r i t e r approached the c l i m a x .

l p
a r a l l e l
ism i
n the f i r s t
n a

line.

He used

inter-

The a f f i r m a t i o n o f Yahweh's

v i c t o r y was made i n the second l i n e h a r k e n i n g back t o t h e r o y a l

f the
temple.
hymns
o

The l a s t l i n e stands i n chiasm w i t h

this

a f f i r m a t i o n u n d e r l i n i n g the epiphany of Yahweh on h i s mount i n

Jerusalem.

1. Verse 22 i s d i f f i c u l t .
As i t now stands, i t i s very
awkward and m e t r i c a l l y out of balance (10/6). The V u l g a t e and
S y r i a c f o l l o w MT.
The Targum i s h o m i l e t i c a l .
A possible solut i o n i s t o read the f i r s t l i n e o f l Q I s a : .
See a l s o the Greek ( &) which does not
f o l l o w the MT e x a c t l y .
The c u r r e n t p o s i t i o n o f i n the MT
c o u l d be e x p l a i n e d on the one hand by d i t t o g r a p h y : s i n c e two
words b e g i n n i n g w i t h ... had t o be c o p i e d , the c o p y i s t mistakenly copied three.
The of the second l i n e was l o s t by
haplography: f o l l o w e d by . When the c o p y i s t n o t i c e d he
had a l r e a d y w r i t t e n f o l l o w e d by he jumped back t o the
o f the second l i n e and c o n t i n u e d .
3

The mention o f the e l d e r s r e c a l l s an e a r l i e r

any o f Yahweh on Mount S i n a i r e c o r d e d i n Exodus

Put
as

t o g e t h e r , the u n i t s o f c h a p t e r 2 4 look,

follows:
b:b:b::b:b:b::b:b:b
4(b:b)
b:b:l::b:b:b
4(b:b)
b:b:b

epiph-

24:11.
metrically,

39
38
You have made the c i t y

a heap;

4(b:b)
The

b:b :b

f o r t i f i e d city a ruin.

The p a l a c e o f a l i e n s i s

nude ;

2(b:b)
Forever, i t s h a l l

n o t be r e b u i l t

3(b:b)

b:b:b

1:1

b:b:b

:2

11

b) :1:1

11

1:1

3.

25:1

1:1

I s a i a h 25:

4(b:b)

The u n i t t h a t f o l l o w s i s couched i n m e t r i c p a t t e r n s a l -

ready e s t a b l i s h e d by the p o e t :
In

4(b:b)
1:1
1:1: (b:b)
The l a s t
is

the

tricolon,

and mem ap-

The m o t i f o f a d e s t r o y e d c i t y was r e i n t r o d u c e d w i t h the

third

bicolon.

( I s a i a h 25:1-2)

Yahweh, You are my God!

I lift

You up; I p r a i s e Your name!

You have g i v e n c o u n s e l s o f wonder;

From o f o l d , p e r f e c t

In the second

pears a g a i n .

t o be compared w i t h 24:23.
4(b:b)

i n the second l i n e .

l i n e o f t h e second b i c o l o n the assonance o f ' a l e p h

l i n e , wherein a b i c o l o n i s imbedded w i t h i n a

a.

the f i r s t b i c o l o n note the f r e q u e n t use o f ' ale ph. and

i n t e r n a l rhyme o f - i m k a

faithfulness.

( I s a i a h 25:3-4)

T h e r
e f o r e , people o f s t r e n g t h w i l l
worship You;

Haughty
n a t i o n s r e v e r e You.
7

The

the

1. T r a n s l a t e d as i f the r e a d i n g were .
current text i s either i n error or poetic l i c e n s e .

b. 1:1
1:1:(b:b)

1. Reading .
next l i n e .

was p r o b a b l y c o p i e d by mistake from

2. T r a n s p o s i n g and t o b a l a n c e the s y l l a b i c
metry o f the p a r a l l e l
lines.

sym-

3. Reading . / : A naked, d e s o l a t e p l a c e .
See Nahum 3:5 where i t i s used t o d e s c r i b e t h e d e s o l a t i o n and exposure o f Nineveh.
4.

D e l e t e as e x p a n s i o n i s t i c from v e r s e

three.

40

41
You a r e a refuge t o the poor,

A refuge t o the needy,

A feast of o i l ;

A s h e l t e r from the w i n t e r ; shade

from the h e a t .

A f e a s t o f wine;

For

b. 2 (b:b)

Fat,
25:3

c
d

d
l

c
c

8
8

1:1
1:1: (b:b)

e
l

w e l l cured;

The b e s t o f wine.

1
e

25:6b

5
c

b
b

2(b:b)
1

1
b

Note the chiasm i n the f i r s t b i c o l o n , the assonance of -am

e
c.

There i s c l i m a c t i c and i n t e r -

nal

p a r a l l e l i s m i n the t r i c o l o n .

the

t r i c o l o n i s t o be compared w i t h the i n t e r n a l

of

and - i m p l u s the rhyme o f -uka.

( I s a i a h 25:6b)

The i n t e r n a l p a r a l l e l i s m o f
The p o e t r y o f t h e b i c o l a above c o u l d h a r d l y be more beau-

parallelism

tifully

I s a i a h 24:23.

constructed.

The rhyme, t h e assonance and c l i m a c t i c

p a r a l l e l i s m a r e superb.
4. I s a i a h 25:6-8
c.
The i n t r i c a t e m a n i p u l a t i o n of b i c o l a and t r i c o l a

i n the

He w i l l

2(b:b:b)

( I s a i a h 25 7-8a)

swallow on t h i s mount

next u n i t , h o l d i n g t o g e t h e r the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c paronomasia,

alliteration,

assonance, and chiasm, r e v e a l once a g a i n the an-

c i e n t canons o f Hebrew p o e t r y i n f u l l p l a y .

The meter scans as

f o l l o w s : 1:1
2(b:b)
2 (b:b:b)
1:1

The n e t ensnared
About a l l t h e people;

The web woven

About a l l the n a t i o n s .
a.

He w i l l swallow Death

1:1 ( I s a i a h 25:6a)

Yahweh o f Hosts has made

For

a l l peoples on t h i s mount:

forever

Verses 4d through 5 appear t o be a g l o s s .

4
1

25:7
5

5

2 (b:b:b)
d

4
1.

:8

6
e

2. F o l l o w i n g s u g g e s t i o n s made by Cross i n c o n f e r e n c e :
V e r s e 6: " e i t h e r r u b r i c , o r 1:1 (7:7) w i t h caesura d e s p i t e
run-on.'"
Verses 7-8: "Read as s h o r t l i n e s with.some run-on
due t o p o e t i c l i c e n s e .
See the Lament o f David and Exodus 15."

1.

Note the i n c l u a i o

i n the use o f .

43

42
It

i s the i n o l u s i o

3(b:b:b)

o f t h a t g i v e s t h i s s t r o p h e shape.

The l i n e s are run-on, but the p a r a l l e l i s m i s o b v i o u s .

The

4(b:b)

cli-

b : b : l : : b : b:b

max i s reached w i t h the swallowing o f Death.

4(b:b)
d. 1:1 (b:b::b:b)

66
-11
5

He w i l l wipe the t e a r s
From a l l

b:b:b

( I s a i a h 25:8b-c)

faces.

The reproach o f h i s people he

w i l l remove
From a l l

25:8

the earth.

10

c,

a,

f
f

4(b:b)
b:b:b

11

1=1

1:1

b:b:b

1:1

1:1

11

b:b:b

(b:b):1:1 11
Chiasm i s used again i n very long l i n e s .

The l e n g t h i s

4(b:b)

broken up, however, as the s e p a r a t e u n i t s w i t h i n the l i n e s

1:1

stand i n p a r a l l e l w i t h one another.

1:1: (b:b)

5. C l o s i n g B i c o l o n

( I s a i a h 25:9): 1:1
2

Our God, f o r whom we w a i t

i s here;
Let

1:1
2(b:b)

2(b:b:b)

us s i n g , and r e j o i c e i n
his
victory!

11

1:1

1:1
25:9

11
11

1:1

The a n a l y s i s o f t h e t e x t o f 24:1-25:9 has r e v e a l e d an exc e l l e n t example

of Hebrew p o e t r y .

In a d d i t i o n t o a l l i t e r a t i o n ,

rhyme, assonance, paronomasia and onomatopoeia, the a u t h o r has

made f u l l
Our study o f t h e t e x t and prosody o f I s a i a h 24:l-16a and

use o f chiasm: 24:2, 18c, 23; 25:8; chiasm w i t h i n -

tervening l i n e s :

24:10, 12; i n o l u s i o :

25:7 (

24:16b-25:9 w i l l be h e l p f u l i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e remainder o f

().

the

24:7, 8, 13, and 20 f o r the b e t t e r passages.

Apocalypse.

The t e x t , so f a r , scans as f o l l o w s :

2,24:21;(

There a r e many examples o f c l i m a c t i c p a r a l l e l i s m .

See

Frequent use o f

i n t e r n a l p a r a l l e l i s m was made: 24:16b, 17a, 23; 25:4. The

1.

D e l e t e m e t r i

causa.

m e t r i c u n i t b : b : l , r e p e t i t i v e p a r a l l e l i s m , c a t a l o g u i n g and the
poetic device of l i f t i n g

2.
The v a r i a n t r e a d i n g , , has been conf l a t e d i n t o the MT. g l o s s e s .

t h e v o i c e t o shout are a n c i e n t c h a r -

a c t e r i s t i c s known i n U g a r i t i c p o e t r y .
g r a l p a r t o f our passage.

These a l l form an i n t e -

44

45
C.

I s a i a h 25:10-26:8

In t h i s r e c o n s t r u c t e d

U s i n g the p r o s o d i e i n f o r m a t i o n

gleaned from the

quently.

material

remainder of 24-27.

The

t e x t does, however,

p r o g r e s s i v e l y worse as one

works through the m a t e r i a l .

frequent

4(b:b) p a t t e r n

o c c u r r e n c e of the

between b i c o l a and
the

text diverges

metrically.

t r i c o l a can

and

the

from these p a t t e r n s ,

2.

a n a l y s i s leads

poetry underlying
prosaized

With the u n i t opening c h a p t e r 26,

m e t r i c a l patterns

When

the

current

therefore,

hopeless,

4(b:b)
b:b:b

t e x t of 25:10-12, i t has

The

versions

qual-

we

are back i n t o

as

been
a. 4(b:b)

poetry,
since

Our

( I s a i a h 26:1-3)

c i t y i s strong!

imbalance i n s y l l a b l e count argues a g a i n s t

the p a r a l l e l i s m of the

the

The
25:12

support f o r the

comes from two

i n g chapter 26
i s associated
current
two
The
He

The
He

and

tentative reconstruction
the very s h o r t

2) the vocabulary o f 26:5

and

can be understood as

of

Let the v i c t o r s

Isaiah

l i n e s open-

He

wherein

w i t h .

humbled;

to the dust.

25:12

6
5

a
2

b-

c.

3]

enter;

keeps f a i t h ,

He

i s steadfast,

!
The

f o r t i f i c a t i o n . Your w a l l s

who

a c o n f l a t i o n of

reduced, to the ground.

razed

( i n place)

He who

He who

stronghold

rampart

Open the g a t e s !

verses:
high

and

l i n e s i n d i c a t e , however,

w i t h ;w i t h ;

s t a t u s o f 25:12

prose.

d i r e c t i o n s : 1)

(4/5)

en-

i n t e r n a l rhyme of l i n e lOb-c

f o l l o w i n g two

that i t i s at l e a s t poetic

25:
Walls and

s e c t i o n b e i n g p o e t r y ; the

Text.

f o l l o w i n g t e x t u a l remarks can be made about I s a i a h

10-12: the

the

24:

Victory i s established!

tire

of

b:b:b

is

are of no h e l p

f o r the most p a r t they f o l l o w the M a s s o r e t i c

The

line

line.

4(b:b)

A reconstruction

i s problematical.

first

second

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of c h a p t e r

the

us t o suggest t h a t i f there

almost c o m p l e t e l y .

i n the

be-

i s used f r e -

I s a i a h 26:1-8

i t y of the p o e t r y i s u s u a l l y much b e t t e r .
Textual

hiphil

get

alternation

i t i s usually

The

There i s i n t e r n a l p a r a l l e l i s m i n the

The

be documented throughout.

When the t e x t conforms t o the p a t t e r n s ,

type.

the second b i c o l o n ; a l l i t e r a t i o n

above, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o b r i n g t o a r e l a t i v e s t a t e o f o r d e r
much of the

passage, note t h a t each b i c o l o n

gins w i t h a noun of the m i k t a b

1. I s a i a h 25:10-12, Prose

26:1

e s t a b l i s h e d peace.

4(b:b)

1.
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t the V u l g a t e i d e n t i f i e s

the c i t y as Z i o n , t h a t i s , Jerusalem. Throughout, Jerome usua l l y f o l l o w s the MT to the word.
2.
The Targum and Greek might be t r a n s l a t i n g at t h i s
point.
The gender i s changed to masculine to make grammatical
sense.

and

3.
D e l e t e one
Syriac.

as d i t t o g r a p h y ,

f o l l o w i n g the

Greek

47

46

26:1

(cont)

:2

1
d

91

4
4

He r a z e d i t t o the ground;

He reduced i t t o d u s t .

-13
7

Feet o f the poor trampled i t ;

93

8
-13

Steps of the o p p r e s s e d .

2
The way

of the r i g h t e o u s i s smooth;

-13
The t r a c k of the v i c t o r s , make s t r a i g h t !
'ayin and sn c o n t r i b u t e t o the assonance of the f i r s t b i colon; h e t
1 vowel.

i n the second b i c o l o n .

Both b i c o l a end w i t h a long

26:5

i n g o f q u a l i t i e s t h a t d e s c r i b e the .
6
b. b:b:b

(Isaiah

7
1

For i n Thee they t r u s t .

4/5

b-^

91

4/5

-13
5

26:4

a
b

d
d

4/5

/ c

Yahweh, F o r e v e r !

4/5

-13

26:4)

Yahweh, the E t e r n a l Rock!

4(b:b)

-13

In the n e x t two b i c o l a note the rhyming and c a t a l o g u -

6
-13
7

b:b:b

e
x

T h i s i s a good example

of c l i m a c t i c p a r a l l e l i s m .

The poet

began w i t h the mention o f those l i v i n g i n h i g h p l a c e s .

were brought down by Yahweh.
c. 4(b:b)

ground."

-13

1.

expanded

They
"to the

( I s a i a h 26:5-7)

He humbled the haughty ones;

The e x a l t e d

The "down" was

city.

The Greek p r e s e r v e s the m e t r i c a l b a l a n c e

3

15

nicely:

4/5
4/5
6

a. D i t t o g r a p h y i n the Hebrew t e x t .
Such an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s
supported a l s o by the S y r i a c and l Q I s a t e x t s ,
b. The on
Yahweh i s d i t t o g r a p h y .
c. i s d i t t o g r a p h y o f
from the p r e v i o u s l i n e .
See IQIsaa f o r the s i m i l a r i t y i n o r thography and s c r i p t .
The i n d i c a t e s . d. N o t i c e the f r e quent use of .
a

T h i s , i n t u r n , was expanded by d e s c r i b i n g the f e e t of

the poor who

trampled t o the dust the e x a l t e d c i t y .

Such an

image c a l l e d t o mind immediately the r e t u r n a c r o s s the highway

1. One
lowing 1Q1sa
i s t o be
Greek can be

o f the may be d e l e t e d as d i t t o g r a p h y f o l .
The Greek has . The
r e t a i n e d f o r m e t r i c a l balance.
I t s absence i n the
e x p l a i n e d by haplography.

2. See the Greek, S y r i a c , and l Q I s a

i n d e l e t i n g as d i t t o g r a p h y .

for textual

support

3.
Reading the d i t t o g r a p h y o f . The o f belongs w i t h . Repoint the consonants t o read , a l e v e l
place.
The p a r a l l e l w i t h Second I s a i a h ' s Highway i n the d e s e r t
as the p r o c e s s i o n a l way f o r the New Exodus seems c l e a r ( I s a i a h
40:4) .

48

49

i n the d e s e r t of Second I s a i a h .
in

T h i s i s the highway a l l u d e d t o

Put

the f i n a l b i c o l o n of the s t r o p h e .

together,

I s a i a h 25:10-26:8 scans as f o l l o w s :

I s a i a h 25:10-12

Prose

26:1-8
d. b:b:b
Yea, the Way

(Isaiah

4(b:b)

26:8)

b:b:b

o f Yahweh i s J u s t i c e !

4(b:b)

b:b:b

We w a i t on Thy name;

6
5

Thy memory, f o r which our

soul longs.

D. I s a i a h 26:11-27:6

I s a i a h 26:9d and 10 do n o t f i t i n t o the passage m e t r i c a l l y ,

The f i r s t

l i n e appears to be a commentary on the l a s t b i -

c o l o n of the p r e v i o u s
chiasm i n the l a s t

strophe.

There i s a n i c e example of

two l i n e s of t h i s

b:b:b:: 1:1:1.

3, page 27) and 24:20b

tricolon.

I s a i a h 26:9 c o u l d be connected w i t h v e r s e
break, however,

When compared w i t h

24:5

(see note 2, page 35), these

(see note
verses

read

much l i k e a g l o s s t o e l a b o r a t e on what the r i g h t e o u s a r e t o do.

8.

I t would

Verse 11 b r i n g s us back i n t o the p r e v i o u s m e t r i c

the p a t t e r n a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d , y i e l d i n g a

patterns.

There i s a r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e b:b:b:: 1:1:1, but the t e x t i s n o t

S i n c e the t e x t i s i n r a t h e r bad shape a t t h i s

p o i n t , we have d e c i d e d

nor do they make any sense.

in

t o read 26:9 as a p o e t i c expansion on

very good c o n d i t i o n .

tative.

the m o t i f o f the s o u l ' s l o n g i n g f o r Yahweh mentioned i n v e r s e 8.

better

as t e n -

poetry.

1. F o l l o w i n g the Greek which p r e s e r v e s the m e t r i c a l b a l ance w i t h the p r e c e d i n g m a t e r i a l and makes sense.

2. The l a c k of s u f f i x i s supported i n the Greek, the T a r gum, the S y r i a c and l Q I s a .
I t s o c c u r r e n c e i n the MT i s due t o
dittography.

The r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s regarded

The subsequent u n i t of 4(b:b) f o l l o w e d by b:b:b i s

1. I s a i a h 26:11-15
a. b:b:b
1:1:1

( I s a i a h 26:11-12)

3.

F o l l o w i n g the MT t o p r e s e r v e

t h e p a r a l l e l i s m w i t h .

4. The p l u r a l s u f f i x , f o l l o w i n g the Greek and S y r i a c ,

p r e s e r v e s the balance w i t h .
5.

The f i r s t p a r t o f 26:9 i s good

My s o u l longs

f o r Thee i n the n i g h t ;

Yea, my s p i r i t searches
the morning.

f o r Thee i n

Because Thy j u s t i c e i s l i k e
on the e a r t h .

light

Yahweh, Thy hand i s r a i s e d !

L e t those who w i l l not see, see!
L e t the a n t a g o n i s t s
be abashed!

o f Thy p e o p l e

poetry:
9
9

a. The t e x t as r e c o n s t r u c t e d , o f t h i s and the p r e c e d i n g l i n e i s

p r e s e r v e d i n the S y r i a c . The may have been l o s t by
haplography i n the Greek. b. F o l l o w i n g the Greek which p r e s e r v e s a b e t t e r balance w i t h . c. F o l l o w i n g the Greek.
The would n o t have appeared i n the o r i g i n a l t e x t .

makes good sense i n t h i s c o n t e x t and p r e s e r v e s the s y l l a b i c

symmetry. An a l t e r n a t i v e s u g g e s t i o n , communicated i n c o n f e r ence, i s t h a t o f Talmon which r e t a i n s the MT: " L i k e a s t r a i g h t
path i s thy J u s t i c e f o r the e a r t h . "
.

1. That t h i s might be d i t t o g r a p h y i s very p o s s i b l e .
The
was
r e t a i5
n e d because o f m e t r i c a l symmetry. The Greek e i t h e r
MT
l a c k s or i s h o m i l e t i c a l : fiSeLoav
..

2. The sense of t h i s l i n e i s very d i f f i c u l t .
Dahood
t r a n s l a t e s " a n t a g o n i s t s " f o l l o w i n g A l b r i g h t ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f
" to r i v a l , oppose."
See Dahood, P s a l m s I I I , p. 189.
See
a l s o A l b r i g h t , VT 9 (1959), p. 314.
1

51

50
Yea,

with f i r e ,

consume Thy enemies!

Yahweh, spread peace i n our midst;

E s t a b l i s h f o r us our deeds!

8
1

The dead w i l l n o t l i v e !

The Shades w i l l n o t r i s e !

So,
a t t a c kand wipe them o u t !

Destroy
b:b:b
1:1:1

26:11

<

26:13

a l l memory o f them!

5
7

4 (b:b)

7
6/7
7/9
5

7
Dahood arranges

two o f t h e l i n e s as f o l l o w s :
7

The

a n t a g o n i s t s o f your people
w i l l look and w i t h e r .

With your f i e r y wrath w i l l you

devour your a d v e r s a r i e s .

The
countered

sense and m e t r i c a l symmetry i s e x c e l l e n t b u t i t does not

f i t w i t h the s u r r o u n d i n g l i n e s , As i n d i c a t e d above we r e g a r d

The

Oh Yahweh, our God!

L o r d , Thou h a s t r u l e d us.

Thy name a l o n e , we acknowledge.

i s n o t t h e b e s t we have en-

But the s y l l a b i c

symmetry i s regu-

itself.

c. b:b:b ( I s a i a h 26:15)

b. 4(b:b) (Is l i a h 26:13-14)

Apart

i n I s a i a h 24-27.

l a r and each b i c o l o n i s a u n i t unto

our r e c o n s t r u c t i o n as t e n t a t i v e

from Thee, we know n o t h i n .

p o e t r y o f t h i s strophe

6/7

Yahweh, Thou h a s t i n c r e a s e d
the n a t i o n !

Thou h a s t i n c r e a s e d the n a t i o n ,
Thou a r t honored!

Thou h a s t e n l a r g e d the h o r i z o n s
of the e a r t h !

7/9
26:15

1.
As 12b now stands i n t h e MT, i t i s too l o n g . I t reads
very much l i k e a c o n f l a t i o n o f two v a r i a n t r e a d i n g s . A l l b u t
the Greek v e r s i o n s f o l l o w the MT. Drawing t h e c l u e from the
Greek, the v a r i a n t s c o u l d be: (
) and .
2.
F o l l o w i n g t h e Greek .
i s perhaps t r a n s l a t i n g t h e o f t h e next l i n e .

The

b:b:b

1.
The m e t r i c p a t t e r n o f 4(b:b) f o l l o w e d by b:b:b i s w e l l
documented i n I s a i a h 24-27 and accounts f o r the MT n i c e l y .

53

52
example Df r e p e t i t i v e p a r a l l e l i s m , very
The f i r s t two l i n e s begin w i t h
s i m i l a r i n s t r u c t u r e to 24:8
the phrase. The l a s t l i n e expands on what has been e n l a r g e d .

b. 3(b:b)

T h i s i s a good

2. I s a i a h 26 :16-20; mixed meter

a.

looked
2

In

the t h r o e s of Thy chastisement

of us.

Let

Thy corpses r i s e !

Let

them awake and shout i n v i c t o r y ;

7

-12

The d w e l l e r s o f the d u s t !

8/9

Thy dew

V i c t o r y we have not made f o i- the

earth;

The i n h a b i t a n t s of the worl<J have

not
fallen.

She w r i t h e s and c r i e s i n her l a b o r .

So were we because of Thee, Yahweh

8/9
:17

:18

i s the dew o f the F i e l d s ;

i t f a l l on the l a n d o f Shades!

26:19

3(b:b)
-12

-12

-12

T h i s strophe makes good use o f chiasm.

In the f i r s t b i -

c o l o n even the rhyme i s arranged c h i a s t i c a l l y .

nal

-12

We were w i t h c h i l d ; we w r i t h e d ;
We brought f o r t h wind.

-12

Let

L i k e a pregnant woman about to

give b i r t h ;

26 :16

Thy dead l i v e !

( I s a i a h 26:16-18)

1:1
2(1:1:1)

Yahweh, i n d i s t r e s s , we
to Thee;

Let

( I s a i a h 26:19)

1:1
2(1:1:1

too,

p a r a l l e l i s m o f the f i r s t
t h a t dew

and l i f e

Note the i n t e r -

l i n e of the second b i c o l o n .

Note,

are l i n k e d i n Psalm 137.

9
9

0j_

Jj

2
f

c.

1
g

Go, my p e o p l e !

1.

F o l l o w i n g the Greek.

2.

F o l l o w i n g the Greek.

-10

h
E n t e r your rooms!

b : b : : l : : b : b ( I s a i a h 26:20)

1. Dahood has made an i n t r i g u i n g s u g g e s t i o n c o n c e r n i n g

the t r a n s l a t i o n o f '!jr.
Drawing on h i s e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h i n t o
the impact o f C a n a a n i t e mythology on I s r a e l i t e r e l i g i o n , as r e f l e e t e d i n the Psalms, he proposes a d i s t i n c t i o n between the
homographs 'wr C a r ) , " l i g h t " and 'wr C u r ) , " f i e l d . "
In our
c o n t e x t the f i e l d s r e f e r t o the E l y s i a n F i e l d s , o r the "abode
of the b l e s s e d a f t e r death." Such a t r a n s l a t i o n i s r e i n f o r c e d
by the f a c t i t stands i n p a r a l l e l w i t h the land o f the Shades.
Dahood l i s t s many obscure passages which read much b e t t e r w i t h
'r r a t h e r than " o r . See M i t c h e l l Dahood, P s a l m s I , pp. 222223.

55

54

Lock the doors b e h i n d you!

L e v i a t h a n , the p r i m o r d i a l

10

The t w i s t i n g
Hide f o r a l i t t l e

while;

b:b::1::b:b

6
-10

U n t i l the wrath i s p a s t .

26:20

10
6

27:1

-10
4

The v o c a b u l a r y , s c a n s i o n ,
The suspense i s m a i n t a i n e d throughout t h i s strophe by the
use o f i m p e r a t i v e s and c l i m a c t i c p a r a l l e l i s m .

The grounds f o r

hope i s t h a t Yahweh i s f i g h t i n g t h e f o r c e s o f chaos.

t o r y w i l l b r i n g the dead t o l i f e .
the

For a short while,

His v i e -

sia

a l ltestify

not

enough, however,

serpent.

c
c

He s h a l l s l a y the dragon which i s

i n the Sea.

-10
6

serpent,

8
8
7

1:1::1:1:1

h
h

l
i

i n t e r n a l p a r a l l e l i s m , paronoma-

t o the a n t i q u i t y o f t h i s passage

If

t h a t were

i t i s almost a d i r e c t quote from U g a r i t i c

t e x t 5.1.1-5.

however,

4. I s a i a h

27 2-6

f a i t h f u l must h i d e and w a i t .
5(b:b)
2(b:b:b)
3. I s a i a h 26:21-27:1
D e l i g h t f u l vineyard, sing of i t !
a.

2(1:1)

Yahweh comes f o r t h from h i s p l a c e

now !
To p u n i s h the i n h a b i t a n t s o f the
land f o r t h e i r i n i q u i t y .

The e a r t h w i l l

His

f i e r c e , g r e a t and s t r o n g
(sword),

1.

8/9

1:1::1:1:1 ( I s a i a h
t h a t Day, Yahweh w i l l
a t t a c k w i t h h i s sword.

r e v e a l her b l o o d .

I t w i l l not c o n c e a l anymore her

slain.

In

( I s a i a h 26:21)

27:1)

, Yahweh, watch over i t .

1. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t the m y t h o l o g i c a l b e a s t s
are almost c o m p l e t e l y s u p p r e s s e d i n the Targum. They are read
as r e f e r e n c e s to Pharaoh and S e n n a c h e r i b , p r o t o - t y p e s o f c r u e l
k i n g s , the l i k e s o f whom a r e the o b j e c t of Yahweh's wrath and
sword. Many s c h o l a r s have attempted t o e s t a b l i s h the i d e n t i t y
of the b e a s t s .
In P r o t o - A p o c a l y p t i c , however, t h i s i s o f l e s s
concern than the r e c o v e r y o f the c r e a t i o n myth i t s e l f and i t s
i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r the study o f I s r a e l ' s r e l i g i o n .
2. See A l b r i g h t ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f b r h as " e t e r n a l " i n , "Are
the Ephod and the Teraphim Mentioned i n U g a r i t i c L i t e r a t u r e ? "
AS OR, LXXXIII (1941), pp. 3 9 f f .

Read e i t h e r as prose o r as l o n g p o e t i c l i n e s , run-on.

3.

Dittography.

As the l i n e s t a n d s , i t i s too l o n g .

4.

D e l e t i n g , the a r t i c l e , and as p r o s a i s m s .

5. Of the v e r s i o n s , the Greek d i v e r g e s the most.

The
s u b j e c t i s a f o r t i f i e d c i t y ( , ,) .
A l l the a l l u s i o n s , however, are t o the t e n d i n g o f a garden.
The changing o f t o ( see 26:1); (cont)

56
57
R e g u l a r l y , I water i t ,
Lest

(something)

be m i s s i n g o f i t .

Night and day I watch over i t

Would t h a t I were t h o r n s ,

B r i a r s i n flame,

I would advance a g a i n s t i t ;
I would k i n d l e i t a l t o g e t h e r .

to ;'?to ( -v) suggest secondary emendat i o n s to b r i n g the song o f the v i n e y a r d i n t o l i n e w i t h the r e c u r r e n t c i t y m o t i f o f I s a i a h 24-27. For a d i s c u s s i o n o f the
Greek and Hebrew t e x t s of I s a i a h 27:2-5, see Paul Lohmann, pp.
37-38, 40-49. He suggests the Hebrew t e x t w i t h which the
t r a n s l a t o r was working was so fragmentary t h a t o n l y an occas i o n a l word was l e g i b l e .
The t r a n s l a t o r took the words and
wrote h i s passage i n l i n e w i t h the c i t y m o t i f he had a l r e a d y
encountered many times i n t r a n s l a t i o n .
In whatever manner the Greek d i d come about, I would agree
w i t h Lohmann t h a t we do not have i n the Greek an e n t i r e l y new
song. There are enough words which can be p o i n t e d d i f f e r e n t l y
to y i e l d the key elements o f the Greek t o s u b s t a n t i a t e secondary emendation. The Targum i s h o m i l e t i c a l , but the u n d e r l y i n g
MT can be d i s c e r n e d .
6.
The d and can be confused w i t h each o t h e r i n t h i s
period.
The Greek ( d i t t o g r a p h y i n the t e x t ) and Targum read
.
S y r i a c and Vulgate f o l l o w MT.
l Q I s a reads which
might be " c l a y " o r "mire."
For the use o f elsewhere
i n prophecy, see Amos 5:11.

Or, l e t them l a y h o l d o f my

protection!

Let them make peace w i t h me;

Peace, l e t them make w i t h me!

In the f u t u r e Jacob s h a l l take r o o t ;

I s r a e l s h a l l blossom
shoots.
And

and put

fi

forth

f i l l the whole world w i t h

fruit.

27:5
2(b:b:b)

7. Note the feminine s u f f i x r e f e r r i n g to which usua l l y i s masculine.

The S y r i a c takes as masculine throughout except f o r the strange occurrence i n verse 4 o f
*
?and
~> ^JSf, second person f e m i n i n e . Some L u c i a n i c manuscripts i n
the Greek r e a d masculine f o r i n verse 2. l Q I s a ,
V u l g a t e and Targum a l l f o l l o w MT w i t h the f e m i n i n e .
a

8. Note i n p a s s i n g which
equals .
The t r a n s l a t i o n may have been i n f l u enced by 26 : l b .
1. See Greek .
Lohmann suggests
r e a d i n g o r }^. Lohmann, p. 44.

the t r a n s l a t o r i s

2.
The Greek and Vulgate take p a s s i v e l y .
The S y r i a c
changes the sense by r e a d i n g . . . _ j > $ 0 > 0 > A j i 0 , "and I
v i s i t i t d u r i n g the n i g h t and d u r i n g the day."
Duhm's suggest i o n , f o l l o w i n g e a r l i e r commentators, to take as ,
" l e a f a g e " i s i n t e r e s t i n g , but not n e c e s s a r y .
3.
i s a very s h o r t l i n e and does not make much
sense.
C r o s s ' s s u g g e s t i o n , communicated i n conference, o f
would make v e r y good sense, e s p e c i a l l y i n l i g h t o f

I s a i a h 5:2c .
by the waw

The opened

a d v e r s a t i v e marks the t u r n i n g p o i n t of the

(cont)

Although the p a r a l l e l i s m does not extend

to the other, each

from one

t r i c o l o n i s a u n i t unto i t s e l f .

i s very n i c e i n the f i r s t

tricolon.

The second

The

tricolon
chiasm

tricolon i s a

good example of the k i n d o f c l i m a c t i c p a r a l l e l i s m we

have

song. From t h i s p o i n t on, Yahweh's disappointment t u r n s i n t o

wrath a g a i n s t the v i n e y a r d . The c o u l d e a s i l y e x p l a i n the
of the MT but the masculine gender r a i s e s a problem o f why the
i s r e f e r r e d to i n the feminine throughout the r e s t o f the
song. The r e s u l t i n g t h r e e - s y l l a b l e l i n e does not h e l p the
m e t r i c a l symmetry. W a l l ( )i s read by t h e Greek and S y r i a c ,
but does not h e l p much.
1.
F o l l o w i n g C r o s s ' s r e a d i n g , suggested i n c o n f e r e n c e .
F o r the p o s s i b l e i n t e r c h a n g e o f w i t h and w i t h n, see
lQIsa .
The r e s u l t i n g symmetry, p a r a l l e l i s m and good sense a l l
argue i n f a v o r o f t h i s r e a d i n g .
a

59

58
encountered many times i n the Apocalypse.
climax b u i l d s i n t e r n a l l y .
t i o n i n g t h a t Jacob w i l l
blossoms
line,
to

and sends

The expansion

take r o o t .

f o r t h shoots.

In the second
And

finally

f r u i t covers the f a c e of the w o r l d .

line

i n the

And those banished i n the

land o f Egypt.

or

The t r i c o l o n begins simply by

men-

Israel

third

It is difficult

And they s h a l l p r o s t r a t e thems e l v e s b e f o r e Yahweh on the

Holy Mount i n Jerusalem.

not

draw the p a r a l l e l w i t h the f e a s t on the mount m o t i f and

F. Summary of I s a i a h 24-27

Second I s a i a h ' s r e j u v e n a t i o n o f the d e s e r t when the e x i l e s were

to

Our a n a l y s i s o f the t e x t and prosody

r e t u r n home i n v i c t o r y .

of I s a i a h 24-27 has

r e v e a l e d the f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s : 1) The elements

. I s a i a h 27:12-13

paronomasia,

alliteration,

assonance,

chiasm, i n o l u s i o

of
and c l i -

m a c t i c p a r a l l e l i s m are i n e v i d e n c e throughout most o f the ApocI s a i a h 27:12-13 i s prose w i t h s t r o n g support from the v e r sions.
It

However, a p o e t i c undertone

is still

very n o t i c e a b l e .

stands a t t h a t p o i n t when p o e t r y i s b r e a k i n g i n t o p r o s e .

The s y l l a b i c symmetry i s abandoned.

Long l i n e s are run on but

the t e c h n i q u e of p o e t i c p a r a l l e l i s m seems s t i l l

t o be

exerting

p r e s s u r e on the w r i t i n g of the p o e t .
And

Yahweh w i l l t h r e s h
From the bank o f the
r i v e r (Euphrates)

the wadi Egypt.

everyone.

The

1:1::1:1:1 i s a l s o f r e q u e n t .

The

2. Aramaic: : "The
r a i s e d b e f o r e Yahweh," i s h o m i l e t i c a l .

sense

t o , the q u a l i t y i s u s u a l l y very good.

It

suggest make up the A p o c a l y p s e .

i s not the purpose

o f t h i s study to p r e s e n t a f u l l

pro-

Isaiah.

We

a passage

from U g a r i t i c t e x t 5 and I s a i a h 51:9-11.

i n c l u d e here, however, two

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e samples,
In both

cases the t e x t u a l work has been done i n d e p e n d e n t l y by

another

I t i s i n t e n d e d t o show t h a t the p r o s o d i e s t y l e

we

i n I s a i a h 24-27 has c l o s e a f f i n i t i e s w i t h what

i s g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d as good Hebrew p o e t r y .

Syriac: Jsjjp

cOk^O

IO).^ftl

i s expansion-

1.
I s a i a h 27:7-11 i s l e f t out of the c u r r e n t d i s c u s s i o n
because the t e x t i s c o r r u p t and p r o v i d e s no s o l i d c l u e f o r a
probable r e c o n s t r u c t i o n .

3.

When adhered

f o l l o w i n g c h a r t compares the p r o s o d i e p a t t e r n s of the u n i t s

which we

1.
istic.

3) When the above m e t r i c p a t -

t e r n s are abandoned, the p o e t r y i s u s u a l l y bad and the

have encountered

4
And they w i l l come: those
l o s t i n the l a n d o f A s s y r i a ;

alternation

The p a t t e r n s 4(b:b) f o l l o w e d by

s o d i c a n a l y s i s o f U g a r i t i c p o e t i c s t y l e o r t h a t o f Second
2

And i t s h a l l happen i n t h a t Day,

A b l a s t s h a l l be sounded on
the Great Horn

tricola.

b:b:b, with v a r i a t i o n s , are found i n more than one c o n t e x t .

scholar.
be gleaned,

2) The most common p r o s o d i e p a t t e r n i s the

secondary.

i t s h a l l happen i n t h a t Day,

sons o f I s r a e l , you w i l l

alypse.

between b i c o l a and

slain shall

be

Greek: " i s a proper name.

4.
S y r i a c : Egypt and A s s y r i a are i n t e r c h a n g e d i n d i c a t i n g
p o e t i c p a r a l l e l i s m i s s t i l l a t work.

2.
For h e l p f u l d i s c u s s i o n s , see W i l l i a m F. A l b r i g h t , Y a h w e h a n d t h e G o d s o f C a n a a n , chap, one, and Frank M. C r o s s ,
C a n a a n i t e M y t h a n dH e b r e w E p i a , p a s s i m .
R i c h a r d Whitaker, "A
F o r m u l a i c A n a l y s i s o f U g a r i t i c P o e t r y , " (Unpublished Ph.D.
d i s s e r t a t i o n . Harvard U n i v e r s i t y , 1971) i s a l s o very h e l p f u l .
3.
See r e s p e c t i v e l y , Marvin Chaney, "Mythology and Holy
War i n I s a i a h 34:1-17 and 51:9-11," (Unpublished seminar paper.
Dept. of Near E a s t e r n Languages and L i t e r a t u r e s , Harvard U n i v e r s i t y . F a l l , 1965) and Frank M. C r o s s , "Song of the Sea...,"
p. 7.

61
60

In terms o f a chronology o f p r o s o d i e s t y l e s , r e s e a r c h

2(b:bb)

5(b:b)
2

27:1

16

d i s s o l v e d u n t i l prose became the

i c grounds, needs t o be p l a c e d
ology, c l o s e t o Second

Awake, awake, c l o t h e
i n power,

Thus, our t e x t u a l

study

e a r l y i n the t y p o l o g i c a l chron-

Isaiah.

1.

Isaiah

a.

l:b::l:b
l:b: :l:b::l:b

yourself

51:9-11

-11

Arm o f Yahweh!

b:b:b

Prose

Awake as i n the days of o l d ;

-11

Generations of long

ago!

Was

i t not Thou who

smote Rahab ;

Who

pierced

Was

i t n o t Thou who d r i e d up Sea;

1:1

1:1

2(b:b:b)

1-1

2'(b:b)

l:l:(b:b)

(b:b):l:l

4(b:b)
.!

6b

25:1
3

Who

made the depths o f the

Sea a Way

For

the Redeemed t o pass over.

b:bb

l:b::l:b
l : b : :1 :b: !l : b

16

b.D.o

4(b:b)
14

-12

11

1J

3(bbb)
24:1

-11

The Waters of the Great Deep?

23

21

Dragon?

51:9

Isaiah 24:l-16a

-11

ll

: b

2(bb>
24:16b

Isaiah 24 :lBb-25: 9

25:10-12

Isaiah 25: 10-26: 8

done

established

o f I s a i a h 2 4 - 2 7 leads us t o conclude t h a t t h i s work, on prosod-

: 1 >
(

? J-

21

eventually

has shown t h a t

dominant l i t e r a r y form o f a p o c a l y p t i c .

19

20

1:1:1

poetic patterns

1:1

b:b::l::b:b

2(1:1:1)
17
1:1

26:11

Isaiah 26: 11-27:6

i n the prosody o f E a r l y A p o c a l y p t i c

1.
See the work i n " T h i r d " I s a i a h and Second Z e c h a r i a h by
P a u l Hanson, D a w n , p a s s i m .

63

62

51:9

(cont)

2. U g a r i t i c Text 5.1.1-5

-11
5
6

1:1:1::1:1

h.

k-timhas ltna batna b a r i h a

11

t a k a l l i y u batna 'aqalatna

11

ilyata d i s a b ' a t i ra'asma

11

-12
t i t k a h u titrap samimi

ka-ru<ku>si

'ipidika

The p o i n t d e v e l o p s c l i m a c t i c a l l y as key words are p a r a i l e l e d and expanded.

Over a l l ,

T h i s happens many times i n t h e A p o c a l y p s e .

When you (Baal) smote Ltn, the a n c i e n t dragon,

the l i n e s are v e r y l o n g , and can be scanned as

1:1::1:1:1.

Each l i n e breaks down i n t o a l : b u n i t .

use o f b i c o l a and t r i c o l a .

Destroyed t h e crooked s e r p e n t ,

Note t h e

S h i l y a t w i t h t h e seven heads,

The m o t i f o f s l a y i n g t h e dragon i s
(Then) the heavens w i t h e r e d

to be compared w i t h I s a i a h 27:1.

(and) drooped

L i k e the f o l d s o f your garments.

b. 1:1::1:1:1
return.

They w i l l come t o Zion amidst shouts

of v i c t o r y .

The ransomed o f Yahweh s h a l l

UT 5.1.1-3

11

11

E v e r l a s t i n g j o y s h a l l be upon t h e i r
heads.
They s h a l l a t t a i n

j o y and g l a d n e s s .

11

The t r i c o l o n

d^

1:1:1

i s t o be compared w i t h I s a i a h 27:1.

I s a i a h 34:4 f o r a c l o s e p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e b i c o l o n .

levels,

Sorrow and s i g h i n g s h a l l f l e e away.

1:1::1:1:1

51:11

Note t h e chiasm o f verbs i n the b i c o l o n .

The l a s t two

l i n e s o f the t r i c o l o n are arranged c h i a s t i c a l l y .

Not t h e l e a s t o f these

8
ties

The p a r a l l e l

See

On many

the w r i t e r o f I s a i a h 24-27, Second I s a i a h and C a n a a n i t e

p o e t s , share c o m m o n a l i t i e s .

members are c o n t r a s t e d as o p p o s i t e s .

i s the s i m i l a r i t y i n prosodie

style.

commonali-


I I I . THE

STRUCTURE OF

ISAIAH 24-27

A. A Thematic A n a l y s i s o f I s a i a h 24-27
To d e a l w i t h

the problem of s t r u c t u r e , we

begin w i t h a thematic
study

a n a l y s i s o f these

have chosen to

chapters.

o f the themes o f I s a i a h 24-27 r e v e a l s the

A close

frequent

use

of p o r t i o n s or a l l o f the f o l l o w i n g p a t t e r n : t h r e a t , war,

vie-

t o r y and f e a s t .
1. I s a i a h 24:l-16a
Threat:
War:

24:1-13

Victory:

24:14-16a

Feast:
The

two

items always p r e s e n t

I s a i a h 24:l-16a.

A b r i e f synopsis

these passages i s as f o l l o w s .
As the s u r f a c e i t s e l f

are war

p l u s v i c t o r y as i n

of the scenes d e s c r i b e d i n

Yahweh i s a t t a c k i n g the

i s l a i d waste, no one

earth.

i s exempt.

Those

i n p o s i t i o n s o f power ( p r i e s t , master, m i s t r e s s , c r e d i t o r ) are

no

l e s s v u l n e r a b l e than the average person

debtor).

Yahweh's a t t a c k has

o f an enemy o f I s r a e l .
world

The

shudders as a curse

(servant, maid,

gone beyond the simple

punishing

e a r t h i t s e l f i s b e i n g emptied.

from God

All

s i g n s o f f e s t i v i t y are gone.

The

c i t y stands

devours the c r e a t e d
Chaos has

The

order.

consumed the

d e s o l a t e as a r u i n , a r e f l e c t i o n o f the

city.
plight

o f the e n t i r e l a n d .
All
triumph.
God

i s not b l a c k , however, f o r from a f a r come shouts of

Yahweh i s p r o c l a i m e d

of I s r a e l ,

the J u s t One

v i c t o r and p r a i s e d .

the ends o f the e a r t h comes a song of j o y .

2. I s a i a h 24:16b-25:9
Threat

24:16b-18b

War:

24:18c-23

Victory:

25:l-4c

Feast:

25:6-8

He

i s the

to be honored i n t h i s event.

65

From

66

67
Here we

have the f u l l e s t e x p r e s s i o n o f the p a t t e r n .

In
d. F e a s t

our t e x t u a l study o f 24:16b-18b we

24:16b and
t e r n may

suggested,

noted

a shift

pat-

The

as a p r e c u r s o r t o the l a t e r l : b , q i n a h

prepares

j u d g i n g from content,

be understood

t h a t the b:b

songs o f p r a i s e have a f u l l e r c o n t e x t i n t h a t Yahweh

on h i s mount, f o r a l l p e o p l e ,

a feast.

This i s a

f e a s t o f f i n e o i l and wine to c e l e b r a t e h i s v i c t o r y over

meter, o f lament.

powers o f chaos.
a. Threat

feast.

( I s a i a h 24:l"6b-18b)

his
There are those who

are s u f f e r i n g .

ones.

The

i n h a b i t a n t s o f the l a n d have

been a t t a c k e d as i f by a pack o f dogs.

One

Death, i t s e l f ,

Death's web,

people,

i s to be

the

swallowed at t h i s

t h a t b r i n g s t e a r s o f f e a r and anguish

w i l l be removed f o r e v e r from a l l the e a r t h .

to
"Our

They are f a c i n g the

God,

threat of treacherous

the marauders.

( I s a i a h 25:6-8)

i n meter at

f o r whom we

wait

i s here!

L e t us s i n g and

rejoice in his

v i c t o r y !"

There i s no escape from

i s encompassed about by P i t and Snare.

A
3. I s a i a h 25:10-26:8

shout o f anguish

i s r a i s e d : "I am wasted!

Oh,

woe

is

me!"
Threat:

b. War
Such anguish,

( I s a i a h 24:18c-23)

however, i s but a microcosmic r e f l e c t i o n

War:

25:10-12

Victory:

26:1-8

of
Feast:

a cosmic c a t a s t r o p h e .
turning.

The

days of the a n c i e n t f l o o d are r e -

The windows of heaven open.

e a r t h tremble.

The

The

foundations

self,

poet's

v i s i o n suddenly

b u r s t s f o r t h w i t h Yahweh,

the g r e a t cosmic W a r r i o r ,

charging

They are

quished

The

l o c k e d i n a g r e a t p i t - l i k e Dungeon.

moon themselves c r i n g e i n c o n f u s i o n .
have been put down.

sun

the

and

enemies o f Yahweh

Yahweh resumes h i s p l a c e at Z i o n .

h i s c l o u d o f power and

theme of 25:10-12 i s war

The

weh's c i t y .

Walls

i n v i t e d to e n t e r .

and

dust.

rampart are i n p l a c e .

Those who

of Yahweh, come b e f o r e Him,

As
joy

The

victors

are s t e a d f a s t i n f a i t h ,

Yahweh has

humbled the haughty ones.

to the ground.

The

i t under f e e t .

H i s r i g h t e o u s way

and

Yah
are

trust

t h e i r E t e r n a l Rock.

d i d the hymn of p r a i s e i n 25:1-4, the reason

i s given.

p r e s s e d dare t o trample

The

the

fortifications

A v i c t o r y hymn f o l l o w s , acknowledging the s t r e n g t h o f

Justice.

25:l-4c)

But Yahweh crushes

s t r o n g h o l d , the w a l l s , the

duced the e x a l t e d c i t y

f a i t h of h i s e l d e r s .

Moab i s t r o d -

Moab s t r e t c h e s out h i s

are a l l humbled b e f o r e Yahweh, razed to the

In

honor r e s t s , r e a f f i r m e d i n the

c. V i c t o r y ( I s a i a h

a g a i n s t Moab.

upon as i s straw i n a dung heap.

p r i d e o f Moab.

van-

Why? Because the k i n g s h i p o f Yahweh i s to

be r e c o g n i z e d by a l l .
Jerusalem

The

him-

in battle against

gods i n heaven, and a g a i n s t the k i n g s o f e a r t h .

and

den

arms as does a swimmer s e e k i n g s a f e t y .

i n p i e c e s , sways l i k e a drunk i n the wind.

The

The

o f the

e a r t h shakes, i s r e n t asunder, i s broken

The

poor and
Way

f o r the
He has
the

re

op-

o f Yahweh i s

has been e s t a b l i s h e d .

v i c t o r y i s c e l e b r a t e d w i t h a song o f p r a i s e : "Yahweh,
4. I s a i a h 26:11-15

You

are my

God.

You

have d e s t r o y e d

the f o r t i f i e d c i t y .

p a l a c e of a l i e n s i s naked, never t o be r e b u i l t .
refuge to the poor and needy.
w o r l d w i l l now

worship o n l y

The

powerful

You

The
Threat:

are a

War:

and haughty of the

Victory:

You."

26:11-12

26:13-14
26:15

Feast:
The

p o e t r y o f 26:11-12 i s not as good as we

t e r e d i n o t h e r p o r t i o n s o f the Apocalypse but

have encoun-

the theme i s

69

68
c l e a r l y one

o f war.

Yahweh r a i s e s h i s hand a g a i n s t the

o n i s t s of h i s p e o p l e .
The

With f i r e , he w i l l

antag-

consume h i s enemies.

V e r s e s 13-14

of chapter

p a t t e r n o f 4(b:b),

v i c t o r y are i n t a c t .
no o t h e r gods.
Destroy

frequently

the themes o f war

from Thee, we

And

o f the

(which n o r m a l l y

T h i s s u b s t i t u t i o n was
works.

of

the psalm of lament) a p a r t

which d e p i c t e d God's answer to the s u p p l i c a t i o n o f h i s

people.

p a r t i c u l a r l y noticeable i n prophetic

I s a i a h 26:20 c o u l d be such an o r a c l e o f s a l v a t i o n an-

nouncing God's i n t e n t i o n on b e h a l f o f h i s

then the a f f i r m a t i o n o f v i e have

concluded

the

s u b s t i t u t e d f o r the vow

en-

acknowledge

have i n c r e a s e d the n a t i o n . You

s t u d i e d , there was

plus

the dead, the Shades, and wipe them out!

a l l memory o f them!"

the h o r i z o n s

and

"Yahweh, a p a r t

Attack

t o r y : "Yahweh, You

26 r e t u r n to the
b:b:b

people which he
praise

deeds o f h i s f a i t h f u l ones are t o be e s t a b l i s h e d .

countered

Westermann a l s o notes t h a t i n a number o f the laments o f

people.

Go, my people!
E n t e r your rooms !
Lock the doors behind you!
Hide f o r a l i t t l e w h i l e
U n t i l the wrath i s p a s t .

enlarged

earth!"

5. I s a i a h 26:16-27:6
b. War
Threat:

26:16-19

War:

26:20-27:lb

Victory:
Feast:
The

( I s a i a h 26:20-27:lb)

T h i s announcement o f s a l v a t i o n moves the theme from one

27:1c
27:2-6 (Rejuvenation

o f the Land)

above sequence of passages appears to be put

s e c o n d a r i l y from o l d e r m a t e r i a l s .

The

together

meter i s mixed.

There

face o f t h r e a t , to the theme of Yahweh, the D i -

vine Warrior,

marching f o r t h to punish

He

countered

i n such war

hymn and

a song o f the v i n e y a r d .

seems, however, to be m o d i f i e d by

the c u r r e n t c o n t e x t .

g e s t t h a t i t i s the p r e v a i l i n g p a t t e r n of themes
v i c t o r y and
these

f e a s t ) t h a t has

guided

passages.

Each
We

(threat,

sugwar,

scene q u o t i n g

unjustly slain.

He w i l l punish

Lament:

Petition:

en-

inhabitants

e a r t h w i l l r e v e a l the

I s a i a h 27:1

c o n t a i n s the b a t t l e

wherein B a a l i s c r e d i t e d with s l a y i n g Ltn,

(= L e v i a t h a n ) ,

the

Dragon o f chaos.

c. V i c t o r y
"He

( I s a i a h 26:16-19)

( I s a i a h 27:1c)

s h a l l s l a y the dragon which i s i n the

Sea."

i n I s a i a h 26:16ff which
d. F e a s t

r e c o n s t r u c t s f o r the communal lament.

Address:

The

the

the c r e a t o r or e d i t o r of

There are many elements p r e s e n t

Westermann

land.

a passage which goes back at l e a s t to U g a r i t

materials.
a. Threat

i n the

a s a l v a t i o n o r a c l e , an
b l o o d o f those

ancient Divine Warrior

the e v i l

comes f o r t h from h i s p l a c e , a stock image f r e q u e n t l y

o f the l a n d f o r t h e i r i n i q u i t y .
are t r a c e s o f a lament o f the people,

of

lament i n the

"Yahweh, i n d i s t r e s s , we

looked

The

t o Thee...."
was

"In the t h r o e s o f Thy chastisement of us....

We were w i t h c h i l d , we w r i t h e d , vie brought
f o r t h w i n d . . . . V i c t o r y we have not made.
"Let Thy dead l i v e !
L e t Thy corpses r i s e !
L e t them awake and shout i n v i c t o r y ! "
(This i s a r e f e r e n c e t o themselves.)

1.
Claus Westermann, T h e P r a i s e of G o d i n the P s a l m s ,
t r a n s , by K e i t h R. Crim, (Richmond: John Knox P r e s s , 1965),
52-64. H e r e i n a f t e r r e f e r r e d to as P s a l m s .

( I s a i a h 27:2-6)

theme o f c e l e b r a t i n g Yahweh's v i c t o r y through f e a s t i n g

s t r o n g enough to t r a n s f o r m

I s a i a h ' s use

the

judgment i n t e n t o f

o f the Song o f the V i n e y a r d .

image becomes a v i s i o n of a r e j u v e n a t e d

and

fertile

Yahweh s i n g s o f h i s d e l i g h t f u l v i n e y a r d ,
for

First

In I s a i a h 27,

the

land.

Israel.

He

cares

i t , watches over i t . Suddenly the mood changes as i n

I s a i a h 5.

Yahweh becomes angry and

in

He would d e s t r o y

wrath.

pp.
1.

Ibid.,

pp.

61-64.

i t in

turns against h i s vineyard

flames.

71

70
The b i c o l a i n which the above theme was
s h i f t t o t r i c o l a i n verse

6.

The

time Yahweh's a t t i t u d e o f h o s t i l i t y changes t o one

t i o n and

peace.

take r o o t .

the whole world w i t h

We

of

put

protecshall

f o r t h s h o o t s , and

fill

victory

and

trans-

theme of f e a s t i n g was

s t r o n g enough t o

form the h o s t i l e i n t e n t o f the Song of the V i n e y a r d

from F i r s t

I s a i a h , to a v i s i o n of h i s v i n e y a r d ,

inherited

Israel,

r o o t , blossoming, and p u t t i n g f o r t h s h o o t s t o f i l l
world w i t h f r u i t .

War:

26:13-14

26:20-27:lb

27:12

Victory:

26:15

27:1c

27:13

Feast:

27:2-6
(Rejuvenated
Land)

pressure

throughout these c h a p t e r s of the p a t t e r n : t h r e a t , war,

The

taking

the whole

Vie w i l l suggest below t h a t t h i s l a t t e r theme

probably came from Second I s a i a h who

envisioned

B.

life

of the d e s e r t

to provide

Thematic P a t t e r n s

Judging from the thematic p a t t e r n noted above, i t would

early apocalyptic expression.

velopments, we
terns

t u r n now

i n Canaanite

food and water f o r Yahweh's

way

The

themes o f war

and

nations

above, are

re-

Yahweh i s t h r e s h i n g

the

from the Euphrates t o the Wadi Egypt, g l e a n i n g

of I s r a e l .

At the

sound of the v i c t o r y trumpet, the

r e t u r n home to Z i o n , t o p r o s t r a t e themselves b e f o r e

the

lost

sons
will

Yahweh's

h o l y Mount i n p r a i s e .

f o l l o w i n g c h a r t summarizes our

thematic p a t t e r n we

see

24:l-16a
Threat:
War:
Victory:
Feast:

24:1416a

recognize

fragmentary and

developments.

propose what may

We

t h a t the

be d e s c r i b e d

Such a study p r o v i d e s ,
s h i f t i n g our

t e x t s we

now

have,

the mythic themes of Canaanite

sometimes r e f l e c t complex

inter-

f e e l , however, t h e r e are enough d a t a t o

as thematic

patterns.

as w e l l , a n e c e s s a r y c o r r e c t i v e by

a t t e n t i o n from P e r s i a n

source o f a p o c a l y p t i c themes to the

t e r i a l t h a t appears l a t e can be

The
a n a l y s i s o f the

basic

thought as the

primary

r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t much

t r a c e d back t o Canaanite

i n I s a i a h 24-27.
24:16b-2S:9

25:10-26:8

24:18c-23

25:10-12

25:l-4c

26:1-8

25:6-8

Kingship

of

Baal

mareli-

Once upon a time, ages ago,

between two

24:16b-18b
24:1-13

We

gion.

7. Summary
The

de-

s i m i l a r pat-

religion.

t h a t can be used t o r e c o n s t r u c t

nal

v i c t o r y , discussed

t o a d e s c r i p t i o n of v e r y

i s premature t o become t o o dogmatic when i t comes to

Ugaritic studies.

from Babylon.

I s a i a h 27:12-13

expressed i n the prose of 27:12-13.

reutilized in

To understand these l a t e r

the coming to

mythology, are
6.

i n the Baal-'Anat E p i c

appear t h a t a n c i e n t mythic themes were b e i n g

It
e x i l e s on t h e i r journey home on the t r i u m p h a l

27:12-11

26:16-19

fruit."

suggest t h i s s h i f t i n mood comes from the

feast.

26:16-27:6

Threat:

This

"Let them make peace w i t h me....Jacob

I s r a e l s h a l l blossom and

26:12-16

expressed then

mood changes a g a i n .

of the younger gods.

a quarrel
Yamm,

arose

who

1.
The purpose o f t h i s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the s t o r y - l i n e
of the B a a l - ' A n a t e p i c i s to d e s c r i b e the thematic p a t t e r n s
t h a t can be d i s c e r n e d i n these t e x t s . We w i l l l a b e l only the
major themes. The s t y l e o f p a r a p h r a s e was suggested by a s i m i l a r d e v i c e , employed f o r another purpose, by Theodore G a s t e r i n
h i s O l d e s t S t o r i e s i n the W o r l d (New York: V i k i n g P r e s s , 1952).
More l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n s o f the o r i g i n a l p o e t r y , w i t h proposed
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s , can be found i n the f o l l o w i n g works: Theodore
G a s t e r , T h e s p i e : R i t u a l , M y t h a n d D r a m a i n the A n c i e n t N e a r
E a s t (New York: Henry Schuman, 1950); Cyrus H. Gordon, U g a r i t i c
L i t e r a t u r e (Rome: P o n t i f i c i u m I n s t i t u t u m B i b l i c u m , 1949); H.L.
Ginsberg, " U g a r i t i c Myths, E p i c s and Legends," All ( P r i n c e t o n :
P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1955), pp. 129-142; Joseph
(cont)

72

73
controlled

the p o w e r f u l

deeps o f Ocean and the

B a a l be handed over

many f i n g e r s o f R i v e r , thought he s h o u l d be k i n g .

gifts.

H i s f a t h e r , 1 , was g e t t i n g o l d and t h e r u l e
would soon pass from h i s hands.
h i g h l y o f Yamm and indeed
had

gods.

1 thought
COMBAT

from which he would

All
ambitious

rule.

a palace

missed.

f o r Yamm

Kothar-wa-Hasis chose t o defend

c l u b s were g i v e n names and charged

H i s storm c l o u d , a c -

throne.

for

know who had ever witnessed

t h e r o a r i n g waves and f l o o d i n g waters o f

2
One day,

The b a t t l e was f i e r c e as anyone would

the gods were s e a t e d t o d i n e .

s e n t h i s messengers t o the d i v i n e banquet

and demanded t h a t
prisoner.

wind and waves bore w i t n e s s

VICTORY

The v i c t o r was B a a l .

hall

sea and r i v e r

E1 t u r n over B a a l t o be h i s

The o t h e r gods, i n c l u d i n g E1,

over-

heads i n t h e i r l a p s .

receded

FEAST

of assuring f e r t i l i t y

Only B a a l , n o t t o be i n t i -

honor P r i n c e B a a l .

ground.

B a a l as he enjoyed
1 was s t i l l

king.

rightful

t o the e a r t h .

A banquet,

There was music and song f o r

the company o f h i s

B a a l had a s i s t e r .

that

Above a l l ,
Aistleitner, D i e M y t h o l o g i s c h e n u n d K u l t i s c h e n T e x t e a u s R a s
Schamra
(Budapest: Akademiai Kiado, 1964); Anton J i r k u ,
K a n a a n a i s a h e M y t h e n u n d E p e n a u s R a s S o h a m r a - U g a r i t (Gtersloh:
Verlagshaus Gerd Mohn, 1962; G.R. D r i v e r , C a n a a n i t e M y t h a n d
L e g e n d s (Edinburgh: & C l a r k , 1956) .

war.

1.
UT 1.3 ('nt p l . i x ) ; UT 1.4.13-15 C n t p l . ) ; UT 2 . 3 .
1-9 (129). The numbers r e f e r t o the c o l l e c t i o n o f U g a r i t i c
t e x t s made by Andre Herdner, C o r p u s d e s T a b l e t t e s e n Cunif o r m e s Alphabtiques
( P a r i s : Imprimerie N a t i o n a l e , 1963). The
numbers i n parentheses r e f e r t o the numbering o f Cyrus Gordon,
U g a r i t i c T e x t b o o k (Rome: P o n t i f i c i u m I n s t i t u t u m B i b l i c u m , 1965).
Gordon p l a c e s t h e 'nt p i . i x and a f t e r the 'nt t e x t (see U L ,
pp. 24-27) b u t the s t o r y seems t o r e f l e c t a p e r i o d when 1 f a vored Yamm over B a a l as s u c c e s s o r .
See Marvin Pope's d i s c u s s i o n i n 'El i n the U g a r i t i c T e x t s ( L e i d e n : E . J . B r i l l , 1955),
pp. 91-93.

d e r i v e d her

(68) .

back t o t h e i r

daughters:

Pdry, T l y and 'Arsy.

A c t i n g under

t h r e a t , t o be s u r e , he n e v e r t h e l e s s o r d e r e d

gods.

The f l o o d i n g waters o f

w i t h sumptuous meat and d r i n k , was prepared t o

2

midated by the messengers o f Yamm, s t o o d h i s

But

Lightning,

to a frightening

place while Baal returned t o h i s g e n t l e r a c t i v i t y

whelmed by t h i s b l a t a n t show o f power, h i d t h e i r

UT 2.4

a dark thunder c l o u d

s t r u g g l e between these two powerful

Yamm

The

t o d r i v e out

c h a r g i n g a t the s u r f a c e o f the sea.

B a a l was a t t e n d i n g t o the needs o f 1 .

hands

Yamm, so t h a t B a a l might assume h i s p l a c e on the

companied by thunder and l i g h t n i n g , was a match

THREAT

the po-

and made f o r him two magic

c l u b s , c l u b s t h a t would f l y from B a a l ' s

Yamm.

2.

s t r i k i n g deadly blows upon the a d v e r s a r y .

god B a a l , who c o n t r o l l e d

the r a i n s and f e r t i l i t y .

j e s t u r e toward t h i s new

t o the throne, Yamm.

s i t i o n of B a a l ,

would have gone w e l l were i t n o t f o r t h e

and powerful

B a a l would b r i n g

B a a l , however, was n o t t o be so e a s i l y d i s -

a l r e a d y commissioned Kothar-wa-Hasis, t h e

Craftsman o f the gods, t o b u i l d

T h i s was a f i t t i n g

pretender

i t was rumored t h a t he

t o Yamm.

He would b r i n g t r i b u t e as would a l l the

for

she loved the excitement

and danger o f

Many f e a r e d her f o r she would s l a y and k i l l

pleasure.

through
pile

Her name was A n a t .

How many times had she waded

the b l o o d and gore o f s l a i n

severed

troops t o

heads and hands as t r o p h i e s . She

zest for l i f e

from such e x p l o i t s .

At

the end o f the day she would wash her hands and
body i n t h e f r e s h waters o f r a i n and dew r e l i s h ing

the p l e a s u r e s o f the day.

1.

UT

2.4

(68) .

2.

UT

3 . A ('nt) .

3.

UT

3 . ( 'nt) .

75

74

BUILDING
BAAL'S
ABODE

'Anat made the t r i p t o 1 b u t a p p a r e n t l y

But one day as she was r e s t i n g about h e r

she was not s u c c e s s f u l f o r soon we w i t n e s s

house, she saw the messengers o f B a a l approach

her abode.

She was s t a r t l e d

at f i r s t

and

'Anat making p l a n s t o v i s i t

s i n c e so
wife of ' E l .

o f t e n messengers brought

bad news.

B a a l and 'Anat a r r a n g e d w i t h t h e

Had her
Craftsman

b r o t h e r been b a n i s h e d

from h i s throne?

god t o have many s p e c i a l g i f t s made

Had Yamm
from s i l v e r and g o l d .

once again t h r e a t e n e d t o a t t a c k ?

Baal

'Asherah, the

These would be p r e s e n t s

Had any o f t h e
for

'Asherah,

g i f t s t o win h e r f a v o r .

numerous monsters and dragons who c o n t r o l l e d t h e

e v i l powers o f chaos escaped

Like

t o challenge the

peace o f the world?

When the messengers a r r i v e d ,
,

A n a t was v i s i b l y

no harm had come t o B a a l .

importance

seeing that

thought

shaken, they a s s u r e d her t h a t

speak w i t h h i s s i s t e r .

A n a t b e f o r e , when 'Asherah looked up

from h e r chores t o see B a a l and 'Anat coming, she

2

Rather

he wished t o

He had a matter

W e l l aware o f B a a l ' s

and her c h i l d r e n .

Could

As they drew c l o s e r , however,

she saw they c a r r i e d n o t weapons, b u t g i f t s .

she hasten t o meet w i t h him so t h a t peace and

T h i s a s s u r e d her t h a t perhaps t h e i r

concord c o u l d c o n t i n u e t o r e i g n i n t h e l a n d .

were p e a c e f u l .

She

agreed t o come and soon was i n s i g h t o f

her b r o t h e r ' s mountain.

a house.

Then he r e v e a l e d h i s

palace.

concern:
Baal has no house l i k e the gods;
^
Nor a c o u r t l i k e the sons o f 'Asherah.

talk.

He had proven

the r a g i n g power o f Yamm.

had t o be o b t a i n e d from

impetuous way agreed t o h e l p .

E1.
She

agreed

perform-

f o r h e r b r o t h e r be b u i l t .

t o t a l k w i t h h e r husband.

a palace

'Anat i n h e r

saddle h e r donkey.

announced

i t s most s p l e n d i d t r a p p i n g s .

abode o f 1 .

Indeed i f E l would

ground and beat him u n t i l the grey o f h i s h a i r

1.

UT 4.1 (51).

and beard

2.

UT 4.2.12ff (51).

3.

UT 4.3

(51).

4.

UT 4.4

(51).

1.

UT 3.D-F (' nt) .

2.

UT 3.IV E . l - 2 .

'Asherah
Having

settled

She had them deck i t out i n

Then she mounted

the animal and was l e d by a glowing

she would k i c k him l i k e a lamb t o t h e

flowed r e d w i t h b l o o d !

intended

t o approach h i s w i f e .

t h e i r b u s i n e s s the t h r e e d i n e d .
A f t e r a b i t , 'Asherah had h e r s e r v a n t s
4

t h a t she would v i s i t 1 and demand t h a t a house

not agree,

They r e p l i e d t h a t they

They needed h e r t o break t h e i c e .

ed by the o l d god, 1 , were b e i n g taken over by

still

f o r him t o

'Asherah asked why they d i d n ' t

to do so, b u t d e c i d e d f i r s t

But even

the younger B a a l , p e r m i s s i o n t o b u i l d

Indeed, the o t h e r gods were b e g i n n i n g t o

I t was becoming embarrassing

such d e c i s i o n s .

He must now secure f o r

though many o f t h e f u n c t i o n s , o r i g i n a l l y

He wanted

approach 1 d i r e c t l y , s i n c e i t was he who made

himself i n battle against

h i m s e l f a p l a c e from which t o r u l e .

I t was u n f i t t i n g t h a t a k i n g n o t have a

appear i n p u b l i c .

I t was o n l y f i t t i n g t h a t a k i n g s h o u l d have a
palace.

intentions

B a a l t o l d h i s s t o r y t o 'Asherah.

He t r e a t e d her t o food

as would any generous h o s t .

youth-

she f e a r e d they might be coming t o do harm t o h e r

of great

t h a t he would d i s c u s s w i t h her.

the worse.

f u l power and 'Anat's r e p u t a t i o n f o r v i o l e n c e ,

s t a r t o the

76

77
When she a r r i v e d , her husband was
to

see her.

He

love f o r her warmed the room.

she had

r e l a t e d to him Baal's concern

granted h i s p e r m i s s i o n t h i s time but s t r e s s e d

t r o w e l or
That was

not he who

'Asherah who

'Asherah was

complimented her husband on

wisdom and noted

r a i n s would come.

t h a t now

delighted with

the season of

The

e a r t h and

T h i s p l e a s e d Kothar-wa-Hasis very

Rains c o u l d now

had

assumed h i s throne

THREAT

A l l was

commissioned by B a a l t o

The m a t e r i a l s were gathered

and

i n place.

Then f o r s i x days the house burned

2
f i r e as the flames melted the p r e c i o u s metals.
the seventh day the f i r e went out; the g o l d

in
On
and

s i l v e r were poured i n t o b l o c k s and

Thus the house, worthy o f a k i n g , was

There was

The

the most powerful

not he

the

to

gods were i n v i t e d

Texts

UT

4.5

2.

UT

4.6.22ff

3.

UT

4.5.120ff

supreme.

H i s p a l a c e was

of

hot and

a r i d there due

The

sun was

an agent o f Mot

rain.

nether

built.

to the l a c k
and

each

ban-

r e g i o n s w i t h her i n c e s s a n t heat.

Mot,

h i m s e l f , consumed a l l those who

came too c l o s e ,

as one would consume a f r e s h l y

s l a u g h t e r e d lamb.

The messengers c a r r i e d B a a l ' s message t o

from

was

not to be i n t i m i d a t e d .

Rather

1.

UT

4.7

(51) .

2.

UT

4.7

(51) .

3.

UT

4.8

(51).

4.

See A i s t l e i t n e r ,

(51).
(51).
Baal

sent

i n t o the under-

I t was
4

(51).

4.
See the d i s c u s s i o n o f Kapelrud,
(1952), p. 95.

as
be

n i g h t she would d i p below the h o r i z o n t o burn the

who
1.

Should

w i t h word to the e f f e c t t h a t

be c a u t i o u s i n t h e i r descent

but

Some have

o f the p a l a c e a g r e a t

o f the gods.

The s i l v e r and g o l d were v i s u a l testimony to h i s

position.
Baal warned h i s messengers, however,

thought t h i s would a n t i c i p a t e the opening o f the

windows o f the heavens themselves t o l e t i n the
4
rains of Baal.
At the completion

de-

himself

he, B a a l , was

A t f i r s t B a a l s a i d no,

Because of h i s power to

d e s t r o y and b r i n g l i f e l e s s n e s s , he saw

world.

l a t e r acceded to the s u g g e s t i o n .

arranged.

rule.

Perhaps a n t i c i p a t i n g some t r o u b l e , B a a l

finished.

a d i s c u s s i o n between B a a l and

window i n the house.

quet was

king

o f the e a r t h brooded another o f the

2

messengers to Mot

BANQUET

The

from whence he would

king?

bricks.

Craftsman god over whether or not t o b u i l d

he

In-

king,

not w e l l , however, f o r deep i n the

n e t h e r reaches

the

gods, Death, Mot.

Kothar-wa-Hasis was

set

of the new

* * * * *

a l l would be w e l l once more.

the presence

The

the sky.

B a a l ' s v o i c e would sound i n

joy of h i s f e r t i l i t y would f i l l

do the work.

reach the e a r t h .

B a a l , t h a t h i s enemies f l e d i n t e r r o r .

the

the clouds and h i s l i g h t n i n g would f l a s h i n the

skies.

deed, so v i v i d was

'El's

She

king.

thunderous v o i c e of B a a l would f i l l

mother of the gods.

his

much.

bricks.

fill
new

p a l a c e o f B a a l , the windows of h i s house were

installed.

should c a r r y the

drank t h e i r

a t the d e d i c a t i o n o f a

Soon a f t e r the c e l e b r a t i o n , d e d i c a t i n g the

new

work f o r o t h e r s than the f a t h e r and

decision.

Everyone ate and

p a l a c e f o r a new
THEOPHANY

for a palace.

s h o u l d make the

far.

as one would expect

restcome.

She

the f a c t t h a t i t was

near and

His

When she had

ed from her t r i p , he asked her why

(THEOPHANY
ANTICIPATED)

delighted

o f f e r e d her food and d r i n k .

i n the R a a S h a m r a
Texte,

p. 46, n.

c.

he

sent

Mot
the

78

79
messengers back t o B a a l w i t h a t h r e a t of h i s
own.

one

'Anat, t o o , g r i e v e d over the death o f her

Because B a a l had s l a i n the dragon, Ltan,

of the many monsters o f the Sea, the heavens

drooped and w i t h e r e d .

So now

B a a l by swallowing him

as one would an

The

would Mot

SEARCH FOR
LOST BAAL

brother.
body,

destroy

olive.

stop.

would

over her
In

world,
to

and have i t

to

i n t o the n e t h e r r e g i o n s o f the

was

Some have suggested

that this

There was

thought by some t o be the god o f

a try.

the

'Attar attempted

B a a l but was

B a a l then e n t e r e d the lower

of

the throne

He

of

Neither did his feet

reach the f o o t s t o o l , nor d i d h i s head reach

the

came down from B a a l ' s moun-

r e g i o n s a t the
t a i n t o r u l e on the e a r t h i n s t e a d .

base of a mountain and immediately

showed s i g n s o f d y i n g .

the e a r t h

The worst was

feared.

COMBAT
('ANAT-MT)

'Anat had

found and p r o p e r l y b u r i e d her

b r o t h e r ' s body.

STERILE
LAND

t o ascend

too s h o r t .

top of the c h a i r .
DESCENT INTO UNDERWORLD

He

irrigation.

n a t u r a l r a i n , t h a t i s , B a a l , but he would g i v e i t

r i s k t h a t he might not r e t u r n from the powers of

Mot.

Someone had t o take the p l a c e of

recommended 'Attar the T e r r i b l e .

To be s u r e , he would be no match f o r the god

was

B a a l ' s d e s i r e t o r e g e n e r a t e a b i t o f h i m s e l f bef o r e e n t e r i n g the r e g i o n o f Death.

She

requested of h i s wife,

t h a t she recommend another o f her sons

be k i n g .

Baal.

a young h e i f e r which soon gave b i r t h t o a

2

loss.

'Asherah,

j u s t p r i o r t o h i s j o u r n e y , B a a l made l o v e

young l a d .

found.

to h i s mountain f o r a proper

the meantime, 1

R e c o g n i z i n g the dangers i n v o l v e d

i n descending

f a r and wide f o r h i s l o s t

A n a t asked Samsu t o l o a d B a a l on her back t h a t

v a n i s h from the earth..

out w i t h him.

searched

burial.
A f t e r o f f e r i n g the a p p r o p r i a t e s a c r i f i c e s , she b u r i e d her b r o t h e r , weeping b i t t e r l y

The heat of the sun would s c o r c h the l a n d .

B a a l knew t h a t he must face Mot

She

she might c a r r y him

r a i n s w i t h t h e i r l i f e - g i v i n g power would

Mot would r e i g n supreme w h i l e f e r t i l i t y

with the h e l p of Samsu the body was

T h e i r god was

dead.

life
Mot.

She

c o n t i n u e d her s e a r c h f o r h i s

He had been swallowed by

B a a l ' s body was

found

essence,

h i s s o u l as i t w e r e .

t e r e d Mot whom she expected

In

g r i e f , messengers brought

the news t o 1

She

encoun-

e n t e r e d a s t a t e o f profound

as the one h o l d i n g

who
him p r i s o n e r .

immediately

f a l l e n on the ground.
She demanded t h a t B a a l be r e l e a s e d .

anguish.
Then, t r u e to her w a r l i k e n a t u r e , she s e i z e d

He

slid

Mot,

from h i s t h r o n e , t o h i s f o o t s t o o l , t o the
s p l i t him w i t h her sword, winnowed him w i t h a

ground.

He poured

ashes o f mourning on h i s head.

s i e v e , burned him w i t h f i r e ,

He
his

c u t h i s arms, h i s c h e s t , h i s back.
v o i c e and

He

raised

VICTORY

B a a l i s dead!
Woe, Oh people o f Dagon's Son!
Woe, Oh m u l t i t u d e s o f B a a l !
5.1

2.

UT

5.5.17ff

3.

See

4.

UT

5.6.8ff

5.

UT

5.6.22-24 (62) .

(67).

(62).

p.

revealed to 1

in a

v i s i o n t h a t he would r e c o g n i z e the r e b i r t h o f

(67).

the d i s c u s s i o n of K a p e l r u d , B a a l ,

i t was

B a a l when the heavens once again r a i n e d o i l and

UT

field.

cried,
Elsewhere,

1.

ground him w i t h a

m i l l s t o n e and p l a n t e d h i s remains i n a

1.

UT

6.1

(49+62).

2.

UT

6.1

43ff

3.

See

4.

UT 6.2

(49+62).

121.
the d i s c u s s i o n o f 'Attar i n G a s t e r , T h e s p i s , p. 19 8.
(49+62).

80

81
the wadies ran w i t h honey.

REJUVENATION OF
THE LAND

Then would he know

t h a t the Mighty B a a l l i v e d a g a i n .
happened.

The

f o r joy.

The

Mighty B a a l was

again!

The e a r t h would be

h i m s e l f a t t a c k e d Mot.

He beat him

earth.
Baal.

another

throne

on the s h o u l to the

handle

They b i t one

another

They k i c k e d l i k e r a g i n g

Samsu who

i n t e r v e n e d and

Death w i t h a word from 1 ,

fight

support

from

4
your r u l e i n the n e t h e r
enough to f r i g h t e n Mot.

regions.
The

B a a l r e t u r n e d t o h i s throne

This

ability

from which he

and
estab-

l i s h e d h i s r u l e as the g r e a t e s t o f a l l k i n g s .
* * * * *

El

may

k i n g must prove he

And

can

a k i n g must prove

(Baal-Mt).

Once p r o v i n g

i n h a n d l i n g these v a r i o u s forms of power, the

B a a l sought such a house.

new

Once accommuch

rejoicing.

f o l l o w i n g c h a r t summarizes the thematic p a t t e r n s

have d i s c e r n e d i n the Baal-'Anat

Baal-larnm

Baal-

Threat
Descent i n Underworld
S t e r i l e Land
Search f o r l o s t B a a l
Combat ('Anat-Mt)
Victory

Combat (Baal-Yamm)
Victory
Feast
B u i l d i n g o f Abode
Banquet
Theophany

Anat-Mt

Rejuvenation

we

epic.

Threat

was

f i g h t stopped

As w e l l , a new

i n v a s i o n o f an enemy army (Baal-Yamm).

f e a s t i n g and

threatened

"Cease t h i s

the t e n s i o n between B a a l and

p l i s h i n g the g o a l o f e s t a b l i s h i n g h i s k i n g s h i p , t h e r e was

stal-

one

o v e r t p h y s i c a l t h r e a t , e i t h e r from nature o r from an

The
was

t o be k i n g ,

r e a l i t i e s o f a young p r e t e n d e r to the

he can c o n t r o l the powers o f death

one

f o r one

the

and s t e -

B a a l had to d e a l w i t h the power of a u t h o r i t y

k i n g m e r i t s a house.

like buffaloes.

enjoyed.

They shook each o t h e r .

a g a i n s t B a a l o r I w i l l remove my

KINGSHIP

still

his

They gored

symbolizes

s e e k i n g t o e s t a b l i s h h i m s e l f where an o l d e r , r e c o g n i z e d

that 1

lions.
It

level,

The b a t t l e c o n t i n u e d on the mount o f

l i k e serpents.

VICTORY

another

k i n g , once stood.

Once r e l e a s e d , B a a l

Mot

d i s e a s e , drought

In the mind o f raythopeic man,

r e f l e c t the p o l i t i c a l

f r u i t f u l once more.

der, smote him w i t h a c l u b , k i c k e d him

rility.

On

Samsu were sent to g r e e t B a a l .

w i t h the a i d of 'Anat.

and u n c o n t r o l l e d , d e s t r o y .

must have the power t o c o n t r o l these d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e s .

and

alive

B a a l had been r e l e a s e d from the c l u t c h e s of

Mot

when unleashed

s i l e n t power of death which spreads

E1, much r e l i e v e d ,

back, put h i s f e e t on h i s f o o t s t o o l

laughed

'Anat and
COMBAT
(BAAL-MT)

so i t

heavens began t o r a i n down o i l and

the wadies ran w i t h honey.

sat

And

Saal-Mot

Combat (Baal-Mt)
Victory

o f Land
Kingship

There appear to be two major c y c l e s o f t r a d i t i o n i n these

stories:

a Baal-Yarran c y c l e and

r i d i n g theme of both
d e s c r i b e and

a Baal-Mt c y c l e .

i s kingship.

On one

i n t e r p r e t events o f n a t u r e .

o v e r t powers o f sea and

level,

The
these

overstories

Yamm symbolizes

the

f l o o d , t h a t i s , p h y s i c a l f o r c e , which,

It
in

would seem c l e a r t h a t the thematic p a t t e r n

I s a i a h 24-27 i s a n c i e n t , perhaps even h a v i n g

Canaanite

religion.

We

t u r n now

encountered

i t s origin in

to the s u b j e c t o f

Israel's

use o f some o f these themes and m o t i f s i n her r e l i g i o u s

tradi-

tion.
1.

UT

6.3

(49+62).

2.

UT

6.5-6

3.

UT

6.6.12ff

4.

UT

6.6.24-29

(49+62).

5.

UT

6.6.33-35

(49+62).

(49+62).
(49+62).

1.
For an e x c e l l e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the p o l i t i c a l d i mensions o f E n u m a E l i s h , see T. Jacobsen, "Mesopotamia," B e f o r e
Philosophy
( B a l t i m o r e : Penguin Books, 1946), pp. 184-199.
For
the c o n n e c t i o n between the Baal-Yamm e p i c and t h a t o f Enuma
E l i s h , see Jacobsen, "The B a t t l e between Marduk and Tiamat,"
J A O S 88 (1968), pp. 104-108.

83

82
C. The

D i v i n e W a r r i o r Hymn and the P r o c e s s i o n a l

i n the R o y a l Theology o f Hebrew T r a d i t i o n

F o r purposes of d i s c u s s i o n , we

will

Hymn.

a hymn w i l l become c l e a r below.

To

Our

reasons f o r c a l l i n g i t

a n t i c i p a t e the d i s c u s s i o n ,

i n r i t u a l re-enactment i n the c u l t i c

life

from the p e r i o d of the T r i b a l League, i s a good

expression

a r i s e once again

being

Near E a s t e r n myth.

way.

T h i s may

which God's a c t i o n i n h i s t o r i c a l events was

Yahweh, the D i v i n e W a r r i o r ,

Although

imagery of the sea i s s t i l l v e r y much a p a r t of the poem.

was

The

b a t t l e had

not

f i g h t i n g Yamm, the god

the

Yah-

of chaos i n Canaanite myth.

s h i f t e d to the h i s t o r i c a l enemy, Egypt.

themes of Yahweh's v i c t o r y , however, and

lishment

com-

marched i n b a t t l e

threatening h i s people.

the subsequent

The

intact.

to

There i s evidence t h a t

the

f i r m l y entrenched p a t t e r n s

That such d i d not happen can be

ancient

credited in
period.

of the

Tribal

processional

account, at l e a s t i n p a r t , f o r the c o n t i n u i t y i n

of the D i v i n e W a r r i o r
had

of

been the

route

Hymn i n t r a d i t i o n .

The

procs-

of l i b e r a t i n g exodus and

con-

quest.

I t had been the route o f Yahweh's march t o b a t t l e the

2
f o r c e s o f chaos and r e t u r n i n v i c t o r y .
I t was the route of a
Second Exodus, a way over which the e x i l e s of Babylon would r e 3
t u r n t o Jerusalem.
I t would be the p r o c e s s i o n a l way f o r the

new

Messiah.

estab-

of h i s mountain abode, from which he would r u l e as

k i n g , remain

importantfor

League to t h a t of e a r l y a p o c a l y p t i c i s t h a t of the

s i o n a l way

weh

to the s u r f a c e .

swallowed up by the

of t r a d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l even w i t h i n a t h e o l o g i c a l s e t t i n g i n

a g a i n s t an enemy t h a t was

so

e p i c t r a d i t i o n s of the T r i b a l League were even i n danger of

the use

c e n t r a l to the

prs-

n e e d e d e v e n w i t h i n a community

l a r g e p a r t t o the work of the prophets d u r i n g t h i s

of I s -

the

of the Near E a s t .

A m o t i f which p e r s i s t s from the t h e o l o g y

example of the power of mythic themes to shape the

munity's f a i t h .

l i k e the other n a t i o n s

mythic p a t t e r n s , which o r i g i n a t e d i n such a c o n t e x t ,

rael's religious history.

Exodus 15,

to be

What more of an i n v i t a t i o n was

old

the

f e e l the p e r s i s t e n c e of the p a t t e r n i s e v i d e n c e of i t s r e -

c u r r e n t use

a king involved i n international a f f a i r s ,

on

where God's a c t i o n i n h i s t o r i c a l events was

then c e l e b r a t i n g the r e a f f i r m a t i o n

of h i s r u l e , a D i v i n e W a r r i o r

we

the-

responding to a

t h r e a t a g a i n s t h i s people, by e n t e r i n g i n t o b a t t l e w i t h
enemy, b e i n g v i c t o r i o u s and

and

sure was

l a b e l the b a s i c

matic p a t t e r n of Yahweh as D i v i n e W a r r i o r ,

palace

Way

To account f o r t h i s p e r s i s t e n c e i n t r a d i t i o n , we
there was

i n f a c t a p r o c e s s i o n a l way

suggest

in Israel's cultic

life

over which the b a s i c themes of t h r e a t , combat, v i c t o r y and

During the Royal P e r i o d ,

the p a t t e r n of the D i v i n e

Warrior
2

f e a s t were r e - e n a c t e d

and

celebrated.

During the p e r i o d o f

the

T r i b a l League, these themes were used t o c e l e b r a t e the ExodusHymn was

to enjoy a renewed l i f e

i n the c u l t of the monarchy.

Conquest event t h a t c r e a t e d the n a t i o n .

Indeed, because t h e r e was

now

a temple, because t h e r e was

D u r i n g the Royal

Per-

a
iod,

1.
Many of the assumptions here are based on the e x t e n s i v e work i n e a r l y Hebrew p o e t r y and the r e l i g i o n o f I s r a e l ' s
T r i b a l League done by Frank M. C r o s s .
See, f o r i n s t a n c e , h i s
"Song of the Sea...." o r , more f u l l y , C a n a a n i t e M y t h a n d H e b r e w
Epia.
See, a l s o , Paul Hanson's use of the poem's o u t l i n e i n
h i s d i s c u s s i o n of a p o c a l y p t i c o r i g i n s i n D a w n , p. 301:
Combat-victory (Exodus 15:1-12)
Theophany of D i v i n e W a r r i o r (15:8)
S a l v a t i o n of the I s r a e l i t e s : (15:13-16a)
B u i l d i n g of the temple and p r o c e s s i o n (15:16b-17)
M a n i f e s t a t i o n of Yahweh's u n i v e r s a l r e i g n (15:18)
2.
Hanson has gathered a l i s t of 18 psalms whose thematic
p a t t e r n i s t h r e a t , combat, v i c t o r y p r o c e s s i o n , c e l e b r a t i o n of
Yahweh's e t e r n a l r e i g n . D a w n , pp. 305-308.

they were used to c e l e b r a t e the b u i l d i n g o f Yahweh's abode

on Mount Z i o n .

And

during

s i o n s of Second I s a i a h and
again

the e x i l e , p a r t i c u l a r l y

i n the v i -

h i s f o l l o w e r s , they were used once

t o r e a f f i r m the b a s i c f a i t h

t h a t Yahweh was

king.

He

1.
Note the c u l t i c n a t u r e o f many o f the Joshua s t o r i e s
and the r e f e r e n c e i n Micah 6:5 t o the route ( p r o c e s s i o n a l way?)
"from S h i t t i m to G i l g a l . "
2.

T h i s i s what we

will

reconstruct

3.
See the p r o c e s s i o n a l way
Second I s a i a h .
4.

See

f o r the Royal P e r i o d .

f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d to i n

t h i s image of e a r l y a p o c a l y p t i c i n Z e c h a r i a h

9:9.

85

84
For

would rescue h i s l o s t ones and as o f o l d make m a n i f e s t t o a l l ,

his

our purposes,

i t was

Mowinckel's treatment of the so-

c a l l e d enthronement psalms t h a t i s o f primary importance

kingship.
To e l a b o r a t e on the use of the p r o c e s s i o n a l way

t r a l m o t i f i n the t h e o l o g y o f the r o y a l c u l t , we

as a cen-

t u r n now

Mowinckel proposed

t h a t we

Indeed,

cause of t h e i r p o s s i b l e c o n n e c t i o n t o m a t e r i a l i n I s a i a h 24-27.

to a

He p o s t u l a t e d a " f e s t i v a l which has...been c e l e b r a t e d as a f e s -

func-

t i v a l o f the enthronement o f Yahweh."

Rather than look f o r a
new, as y e t u n d i s c o v e r e d f e s t i v a l , we are to n o t i c e the " h i t h -

"the

e r t o unheeded a s p e c t of the well-known and

d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s matter by Mowinckel and h i s c r i t i c s .

t i o n o f the psalms.

take s e r i o u s l y the c u l t i c

he argued, t h e r e i s evidence

frequently

psalms a r e w i t h v e r y few e x c e p t i o n s - - r e a l c u l t psalms, made

for

c u l t i c use.'

f e a s t of t a b e r n a c l e s i n i t s c h a r a c t e r o f new
He

argued t h a t t o understand

fully

one must ask the q u e s t i o n o f

C o u l d one v i s u a l i z e a psalm's use w i t h i n an e s t a b l i s h e d

festival."

the c l i m a x

of Yahweh as k i n g was

was

clbra-

ritual
ted.

The

formula i n t r o d u c i n g psalms t h a t would be used i n such

festival?
a f e s t i v a l c e l e b r a t i o n was
Important s i t u a t i o n s i n l i f e tend t o become hedged by
f i x e d r i t u a l s . . . . I n the d e c i s i v e s i t u a t i o n s o f l i f e ,
i n l i f e ' s supreme moments, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t h a t somet h i n g v i t a l be c r e a t e d and o b t a i n e d ; and the means
by which i t was t o be a t t a i n e d were e f f i c a c i o u s
r i t e s and words.
Myth and h i s t o r y blended t o enable the c u l t
communal

Yahweh

malak.

val

t o "regener-

Day"

was

the p r o c e s s i o n a l entrance o f the Ark.

procession i t s e l f ,

History i n Israel's royal cult,

according to

Mowinckel,

had been m y t h i c i z e d .

Yahweh's f i g h t with the dragon

procession.

132,

of chaos.

a c t o f circumambulation.

are mentioned.

3.

Ibid.,

pp.

4.

Ibid.,

p.

of the c i t y w a l l i s i n -

Yet, i t must be admitted t h a t the e v i i s tenuous.

Nehemiah

12:

d i d i n v o l v e a r i t u a l c e l e b r a t i o n a t the w a l l , but the

ceremony had as i t s prime

27.
1.

Ibid.,

p.

112.

2.

Ibid.,

p.

121.

3.

Ibid.,

p.

107.

18-19.
19.

circumambulat-

i n l i g h t of I s a i a h 26:1-2, where hmot

dence f o r such an e s t a b l i s h e d r i t u a l
31ff

Psalm

In the

wall.

s u g g e s t i o n of circumambulation

triguing, particularly
wahl

1.
Sigmund Mowinckel, The P s a l m s i n I s r a e l ' s
Worship,
t r a n s , by D.R. AP-Thomas, 2 v o l s . (New York: Abingdon P r e s s ,
1962), p. 30.
H e r e i n a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o as T h e P s a l m s .

Mowinckel suggested

48:12-13, Nehemiah 12:31ff, and

the r i t u a l

e i t h e r the a l t a r or the c i t y
The

f i g h t i n g games,"

of the c i t y w a l l r e - e n a c t i n g

l a t t e r , he i n t e r p r e t e d h a g as a c i r c u l a r dance,
ing

P r i o r t o the

24 and 118 gave t e x t u a l evidence f o r the

He saw Psalm

118:27 r e f l e c t i n g

I t i s e s p e c i a l l y the h i s t o r i c a l f a c t s of s a l v a t i o n
which are "remembered," and thereby turned i n t o new
e f f e c t u a l r e a l i t y by Yahweh's presence at the f e s t i val.
A l l he f o r m e r l y d i d , gave, and s e c u r e d , he
does, and g i v e s and secures a g a i n when he "appears"
at h i s f e s t i v a l . ' *

Mowinckel p o s t u l a t e d " r i t u a l

and p o s s i b l y a circumambulation

t h a t Psalms 68,

p.

of
festi-

The c e n t r a l event d u r i n g t h i s c e l e b r a t i o n o f "Yahweh's

The "world" i s worn out i f i t i s not r e g u l a r l y r e newed, as anyone can see by the annual c o u r s e o f
l i f e and n a t u r e . Thus i t i s the " f a c t o f s a l v a t i o n "
which i s a c t u a l i z e d i n the c u l t . . . . s a l v a t i o n which
takes p l a c e i n a r e p e t i t i o n of a f i r s t s a l v a t i o n
which took p l a c e i n the dawn of time.3

Ibid.,

i s reminded

of babylonian r e l i g i o n .
I t i s not a l a s t i n g c o n d i t i o n t h a t the poet d e s c r i b e s
w i t h t h i s expression....The poet's v i s i o n i s o f somet h i n g new and important which has j u s t taken p l a c e :
Yahweh has now become k i n g ; hence the new song o f
joy and p r a i s e t o be sung.3

life.

2.

One

the s i m i l a r formula, "Marduk i s k i n g , " used i n the a k l t u

ate"

festival,

function.
reached as the re-enthronement

or

year

mentioned
2

the naP o s s i b l y on the seventh day o f t h i s

t u r e o f the psalms,

be-

f u n c t i o n the d e d i c a t i o n o f the newly

87

86
restored wall.
ing

T h i s i s s l i g h t evidence

t h a t they were

There i s " no mention o f Yahweh ascending t h e throne,

but he comes i n as the "King o f G l o r y , " and i s t h e r e f o r e welcomed as the God who i s a l r e a d y p r e s e n t above
the throne.
We c o u l d t h e r e f o r e speak o f a r o y a l ent r y by Yahweh above t h e d i v i n e throne o f the A r k .

rehears-

an a n c i e n t r i t u a l t h a t c o u l d be t r a c e d back t o t h e r o y a l

cult.

Psalm 118:27 appears t o d e s c r i b e a p r o c e s s i o n

to the a l -

tar.

But even i f we t r a n s l a t e hag i n t h e sense o f c i r c u l a r

3) Kraus a l s o took i s s u e w i t h Mowinckel's t r a n s l a t i o n o f

dance, the most t h a t can be i m p l i e d i s a circumambulation o f

the a l t a r .

To use t h i s as evidence

c i t y wall i s hardly

Psalm 4 8 envisages

(vv. 4-5).

(vv. 1-3).

There i s a t h r e a t t o

Verses 6-9 d e s c r i b e a b a t t l e and v i c t o r y .

10-12.

"And now, behond, A d o n i j a h

malak

hinneh

i s king."

'dniy-

Kraus argued

suggests t h a t i t be

t r a n s l a t e d "Yahweh i s k i n g " r a t h e r than "Yahweh has become

2

A
king."

v i c t o r y shout i s r a i s e d i n v e r s e s

He drew on I Kings 1:18: w'ath

malak.

malak.

t h a t the word sequence o f Y a h w e h

t h e e l e v a t e d , mythic mount o f t h e
Zion

lahweh
yah

convincing.

north, associated with

Zion

f o r circumambulation o f the

"The r e f e r e n c e

i s t o a s t a t e , not an a c t . "

And then t h e c i r c l i n g
Kraus i s c o r r e c t i n c h a l l e n g i n g Mowinckel's t r a n s l a t i o n of

o f Zion i s d e s c r i b e d i n v e r s e s

13-14.

Rather than circumambuYahweh

lation,

malak.

A well-known c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Hebrew syntax i s

i t may be s u f f i c i e n t , however, t o read 48:13-14 as a

t h a t word order

i n d i c a t e s emphasis: " I t i s Y a h w e h

who r u l e s . "

r e f e r e n c e t o a p r o c e s s i o n through the c i t y .
There i s no debate as t o time.
Although H. J . Kraus argued i n f a v o r o f a r o y a l Zion f e s t i v a l , he c h a l l e n g e d Mowinckel's concept o f i t as an enthronement f e s t i v a l .

H i s o b j e c t i o n s were as follows:''

always w i l l be k i n g .

He i s now, always has been and

The theme was theophany.

The worshippers

were l o o k i n g f o r and a f f i r m i n g a r e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Yahweh's

presence as k i n g .

1) I t presupposes a time when Yahweh was not k i n g .

H. Schmidt has made i t unmistakably c l e a r what t h e
t h e o l o g i c a l context o f a " f e s t i v a l o f Yahweh's enthronement" would have t o be.
Schmidt assumes t h a t
the God o f I s r a e l l i k e a l l o t h e r v e g e t a t i o n
d e i t i e s " a c t u a l l y l o s e s f o r a p e r i o d " h i s supremacy i n the n a t u r a l rhythm o f t h e seasons and dec l a r e s t h a t t h i s i s a myth s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e
p e r i o d i c descent o f the gods t o the underworld and
t h e i r r e s u r r e c t i o n . . . . T h e r e i s no evidence w i t h i n
the Old Testament o f t h i s i d e a o f a " m y t h i c i z i n g "
o f Yahweh, the L o r d o f H i s t o r y .

It

i s t r u e , too, t h a t Yahweh, the L o r d o f h i s t o r y i n I s -

r a e l i t e r e l i g i o n , d i d remain supreme.
text,

1 submitted

In t h e Canaanite

t o Yamm's demand f o r B a a l , thereby

B a a l , f o r a time, a t the mercy o f Yamm.

B a a l was imprisoned

by Mot.

In the Baal-Mt c y c l e ,

There i s no s u g g e s t i o n

imprisonment o f Yahweh i n the O l d Testament.

ment, "there i s no evidence

conplacing

of similar

But Kraus' com-

w i t h i n the O l d Testament o f t h e

i d e a o f a ' m y t h i c i z i n g ' o f Yahweh, the L o r d o f h i s t o r y , " goes

too f a r .
2) The p r o c e s s i o n o f the Ark i n t o the temple was not a r e enactment o f Yahweh's enthronement, i t was simply
t i o n o f Yahweh's throne

i n t o h i s temple.

the i n t r o d u c -

In Psalm 2 4 : 7 f f , f o r

instance,

There are many passages wherein p e r s o n i f i e d chaos

(Yamm/Nahar) t h r e a t e n e d
Divine Warrior,

t i o n o f war between t h e gods.

lows Death

2.
Hans-Joachim Kraus, W o r s h i p in I s r a e l , t r a n s , by
G e o f f r y Buswell (Richmond: John Knox P r e s s , 1965), pp. 206-7.
H e r e i n a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o as W o r s h i p .

f o r t h Yahweh, t h e

Indeed, h i s t o r i c a l b a t t l e s would

have been i n t e r p r e t e d m y t h i c a l l y as t h e h i s t o r i c a l

transformation
1.
See a l s o DeVaux's summary o f the major arguments f o r
and a g a i n s t the concept o f an enthronement f e s t i v a l i n h i s A n a i e n t I s r a e l (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., I n c . , 1961), pp
504-6.

creation, c a l l i n g

t o do b a t t l e .

We see,

o f themes i n the Baal-Mt c y c l e , as Yahweh

(Mot)

a t the v i c t o r y

f e a s t on the Mount.

t h a t the supremacy o f Yahweh was p r e s e r v e d

in

manifesta-

too, i n I s a i a h 25:8, a
swal-

I t i s true

as myth was reworked

i t s I s r a e l i t e c o n t e x t , b u t Kraus a p p a r e n t l y has f a i l e d t o

underscore enough the r e a l p r e s s u r e

1.

Ibid.,

p. 207.

2.

Ibid.,

p . 206.

from myth t o t r a n s f o r m

epic

88

89

t r a d i t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g the r o y a l p e r i o d .
l o r d o f h i s t o r y was

being mythicized,

Yahv7eh, the

even though he was

When the day came when the p i l g r i m had to leave the

sanctuary, he d i d so with a "ceremony of departure"
such as has come down to us i n Ps. c x x i . l

never

q u i t e e n g u l f e d by pure myth.
In r e f e r e n c e t o the p r o c e s s i o n of the Ark,

we

can

w i t h Kraus, Yahweh came not to become k i n g , but because he

king.
was

We

would add

t h a t the wider c o n t e x t

Yahweh s v i c t o r i o u s r e t u r n from the f i e l d

r e a s s e r t e d h i m s e l f once again as
It

is instructive,

t i o n o f the
was

o f the

a pilgrimage

was

w i l l note below, there are d i f f e r e n c e s i n our

c o n s t r u c t i o n from t h a t of Kraus.

Notably,

the c e n t r a l f u n c t i o n o f f e s t i v a l was

procession

of b a t t l e ,

having

Yahweh, the D i v i n e Warrior

we

re-

w i l l argue t h a t

a v i c t o r y c e l e b r a t i o n of

and King.

Kraus does, however,

p o r t our g e n e r a l t h e s i s t h a t a r e g u l a r f e s t i v a l p r o c e s s i o n

Warrior-King.

i n passing,, to note Kraus'

f e s t i v a l a t Jerusalem

As we

agree

reconstruc-

d u r i n g the r o y a l p e r i o d .

the Ark

to the Temple d i d e x i s t .

Based on h i s own

It

work i n the c a t e g o r i e s of the

Westermann r a i s e d some important

2

festival.

The journey was accompanied by songs o f p i l g r i m a g e

and even on the journey, p a r t i c u l a r l y immediately
o u t s i d e the gates of the c i t y o f God, the "Songs
o f Z i o n " were sung.

t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the psalms.
was

t h a t the t r u e " S i t z

self.

The

T h i s may

worship i n the temple.

psalms,

o b j e c t i o n s to the c u l t i c i n -

A fundamental t h e s i s of h i s work

i m Leben"

exigencies of l i f e

ment or p r a i s e .

The a c t u a l f e s t i v a l c u l t began w i t h the solemn

ascent o f the Ark t o the Temple mount....The proc e s s i o n began w i t h an a c t o f a d o r a t i o n " a t h i s
h o l y h i l l " (Ps. x c i x . 9),
and the f i r s t hymns
were no doubt s t r u c k up here coming at t h e i r c l i max i n the summons to e n t e r the Temple.

supof

of the psalms was

life i t -

l e d the worshipper e i t h e r t o l a -

have l e d the worshipper to p u b l i c

But

the s p i r i t and

f o r c e of t h a t p u b l i c

worship d i d not o r i g i n a t e i n the c u l t , r a t h e r , i t r o o t e d i n

life.

The

psalms are f i r s t

and

foremost i n d i v i d u a l c r e a t i o n s

By means o f the c u l t i c drama, the

"two

Royal Theology, the e l e c t i o n o f Z i o n and

p i l l a r s " of

of p r a i s e or
We

the

the e l e c t i o n o f

David,

When the solemn p r o c e s s i o n was approaching the sanet u a r y and had reached the gates which opened i n t o
the c o u r t y a r d s the p r i e s t s i n t o n e d the "Entrance
Torah" (Ps. xv; x x i v A ) .
could

enter.

A f t e r the "Entrance Torah" was completed, the "Ent r a n c e L i t u r g y " proper c o u l d b e g i n .

We see the
connections between the two very c l e a r l y i n Ps. x x i v .
...The climax o f the ceremony was the mighty o f f i c i a l p r o c l a m a t i o n o f the s a c r e d c u l t i c name Yahweh.
...Yahweh i s to be known as Yahweh
ssb'at....The
p r o c e s s i o n i n t o the s a n c t u a r y came t o i t s c o n c l u s i o n and i t s climax i n the solemn a c t o f a d o r a t i o n
b e f o r e Yahweh.

Ibid.,

2.

Ibid.

p.

210.

and

those

fundamental s p i r i t o f the psalms

events i n l i f e wherein God's a c t i o n o r

on b e h a l f o f h i s people was

transparent.

But

the

f a c t t h a t the psalms have c e r t a i n p a t t e r n s , or forms, argues

s t r o n g l y t h a t t h e r e must have been some i n s t i t u t i o n c e n t r a l to
the

life

forms.
Only the saddqm

agree t h a t the

came from l i f e
non-action

were c e l e b r a t e d .

1.

can

petition.

of a n c i e n t I s r a e l t h a t taught

dual c r e a t o r s .
source

and p r e s e r v e d

these

These forms were to i n f l u e n c e the work of many i n d i v i The

temple and

i t s c u l t would be the

f o r many o f the p a t t e r n s evidenced

logical

i n the psalms.

Westermann argued t h a t "the enthronement psalms do

c o n s t i t u t e a category,

nor are the s o - d e s i g n a t e d

not

psalms u n i t e d

by r e g u l a r marks o f a category...we are d e a l i n g w i t h mixed

3
forms t h a t are taken from q u i t e v a r i e d c a t e g o r i e s . "
suggest, however, t h a t i t i s the p a t t e r n o f the D i v i n e
1.

Ibid.,

2.

Claus Westermann, P s a l m s ,

pp.

3.

Ibid.,

p.

213,

146.

218.
pp.

15-35.

We

would
Warrior

91

90
Hymn t h a t i s the c a t e g o r y searched f o r .

The marks o f the c a t e -

gory a r e : 1) Yahweh's march t o b a t t l e ; 2) H i s f i g h t w i t h the

L e t us go t o h i s d w e l l i n g

place!

L e t us worship a t h i s f o o t s t o o l !

f o r c e s o f chaos which can be e i t h e r an h i s t o r i c a l enemy o r gods

of chaos; and 3) H i s v i c t o r y and t r i u m p h a l
where he i s g r e e t e d

r e t u r n t o h i s abode,

by v i c t o r y celebration.''

these themes under h i s c a t e g o r i e s

Westermann t r e a t s

o f E s c h a t o l o g i c a l Songs o f

P r a i s e , Epiphany o f God and V i c t o r y Song.

Perhaps h i s

t a t i o n o f these themes i n t o separate c a t e g o r i e s ,

You

often

To summarize our p o i n t thus f a r , because the m o t i f

of the

p r o c e s s i o n a l way i n I s r a e l ' s r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n i s p e r s i s t e n t ,
and because o f t h e r e c u r r e n c e

i n d i f f e r e n t s e t t i n g s o f the t h e -

matic p a t t e r n we have l a b e l e d

the D i v i n e W a r r i o r Hymn, we pro-

pose there was i n f a c t a p r o c e s s i o n a l way a l o n g which were r e enacted i n r i t u a l c e l e b r a t i o n , t h e b a s i c themes o f t h r e a t , war,

Within

of Zion a g a i n s t

the R o y a l Theology, these themes

o f Yahweh and i n v i o l a b i l i t y

a l l enemies whether they be f o r e i g n armies o r

gods o f chaos.
We would c i t e Psalm 132 as a psalm which r e f l e c t s the
i d e a l p a t t e r n and meaning o f such a r i t u a l p r o c e s s i o n
t i n g the k i n g s h i p

Listen;

clbra-

of Yahweh and h i s a n o i n t e d one.

1.

Threat-Battle

we heard o f i t i n Ephrathah!

using

u n i t y o f t h e D i v i n e W a r r i o r Hymn p a t t e r n .

v i c t o r y and f e a s t .

and the Ark o f Your might !

fragmen-

grammatical tense as the guide, has obscured the more b a s i c

were used t o r e a f f i r m the k i n g s h i p

R i s e , Yahweh, (go) t o / f r o m Your

resting place!

We found i t i n the f i e l d s o f Ya'ar!

2. V i c t o r y
a. The P r o c e s s i o n a l Way

1.
The reader i s r e f e r r e d once again t o the c o l l e c t i o n o f
psalms Hanson has gathered t h a t e s s e n t i a l l y f o l l o w the above
pattern.
Hanson, D a w n , pp. 305-8. They i n c l u d e Psalms 2, 9,
24, 29, 46, 48, 65, 68, 76, 77, 89, 97, 98, 104, 106, and 110.
2.
f o r , m e t r i c a u s a .
Reading s e g h o l a t e s as one
s y l l a b l e and i g n o r i n g s h e w a and ?!atep?2-vowels y i e l d s a very
r e g u l a r symmetry.

1.
We a r e f o l l o w i n g t h e p a r a l l e l passage i n I I C h r o n i c l e s
6:41.
The very r e g u l a r s y l l a b i c symmetry i s thereby r e t a i n e d .
The word i n t h e Psalm 132 c o n t e x t may have been i n f l u e n c e d by
132:14. The t r a n s l a t i o n i s d e r i v e d from r e a d i n g l a m e d as
e i t h e r " t o " o r "from."
In e i t h e r case the A r k c o u l d have been
used i n p r o c e s s i o n .
The "from" would r e f e r t o the r e s t i n g
p l a c e i n which i t was found (132:6) o r from i t s r e s t i n g p l a c e
i n the temple t o be used i n r i t u a l p r o c e s s i o n .
D e l b e r t H i l l e r s has argued t h a t the A r k was n o t used i n
" r e c u r r i n g c u l t i c p r o c e s s i o n s , i n t o J e r u s a l e m and i n t o the
Temple." D. H i l l e r s , " R i t u a l P r o c e s s i o n o f t h e Ark and Psalm
132," CBQ XXX (1968), p. 48. Psalm 132:8 i s t h e key t o h i s
argument s i n c e t h a t i s the v e r s e most o f t e n c i t e d i n support o f
such a p r o c e s s i o n .
A b e t t e r t r a n s l a t i o n i s e a s i l y o b t a i n e d by t a k i n g
lamed
as meaning "from," a sense now a t t e s t e d i n
numerous b i b l i c a l passages, i n c l u d i n g some i n the
Psalms: " A r i s e , Yahweh, from your r e s t i n g p l a c e ,
You and Your mighty Ark."
"Let us e n t e r i n t o h i s d w e l l i n g ; l e t us bow down t o
h i s f o o t s t o o l , " s t i l l r e f e r s t o approaching the tempie.
B u t the s p e c i f i c c u l t i c a c t o r o c c a s i o n w i t h
which the psalm was a s s o c i a t e d i s no l o n g e r c e r t a i n .
I b i d . , p. 52.
He
suggested t h e psalm " i s u l t i m a t e l y connected w i t h t r a d i t i o n
a l r o y a l d e d i c a t o r y i n s c r i p t i o n s , " ( i b i d . , p. 55) p a r a l l e l e d i n
some Northwest S e m i t i c i n s c r i p t i o n s .
Perhaps, t h e n . Psalm 132 was one o f the " e p i g r a p h i c "
psalms, o r s i n c e the p a r a l l e l s a r e mostly g e n e r a l
r a t h e r than s p e c i f i c , a t l e a s t descended from t h a t
type o f psalm. T h i s does n o t r u l e out the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t Ps. 132 was r e c i t e d o r sung a t some p o i n t
or p o i n t s i n the temple l i t u r g y ; . . . ( i b i d . , p. 55)
1

Hillers
d i s c u s s i o n o f l a m e d i n 132:8 may indeed be c o r r e c t , b u t i t does n o t f o l l o w t h a t the r i t u a l p r o c e s s i o n o f t h e
Ark has thereby been d i s p r o v e d .
H i l l e r s , h i m s e l f , does n o t
c l a i m t o have d i s p r o v e d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a r i t u a l p r o c e s s i o n o f
the Ark.
"Some may s t i l l f i n d t h i s p r o b a b l e and the p r e s e n t
w r i t e r knows o f no e v i d e n c e a g a i n s t the s u p p o s i t i o n .
But i t
does seem t h a t t h i s can no longer be regarded as proven"
{ibid.,
p. 52). We would argue d i f f e r e n t l y .
The t r a n s l a t i o n
(cont)

93

92

Let

Your p r i e s t s be d r e s s e d i n
Righteousness;

Let

Your f a i t h f u l
in victory.

ones shout

b. K i n g s h i p
On b e h a l f of David, Your s e r v a n t ,

Do n o t t u r n from the face of Your

a n o i n t e d one.

Yahweh swore t o David;

He w i l l not go back on h i s word.

"One

of your sons I w i l l
i n your p l a c e ;

A l s o t h e i r sons w i l l
the throne.

s i t on

Yahweh's Abode

Because Yahweh has chosen Zion;

He has d e s i r e d i t f o r h i s d w e l l i n g p l a c e .

" T h i s i s my

r e s t i n g place forever;

Here I w i l l d w e l l because I have

desired i t .

I w i l l abundantly b l e s s her
provisions ;

Her poor I w i l l

s a t i a t e w i t h bread.

Her p r i e s t s w i l l c l o t h e w i t h
victory;

Her f a i t h f u l ones w i l l
v i c t o r y shout.

establish

c.

r a i s e the

d. The Abode of Yahweh's A n o i n t e d

I f your sons keep my covenant,
And my t e s t i m o n i e s which I s h a l l
t e a c h them."

7
7

of l a m e d as " t o " or "from" makes no d i f f e r e n c e i n the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the c u l t i c f u n c t i o n o f the psalm. I t i s s t i l l

h i g h l y l i k e l y t h a t i t was used i n a r i t u a l p r o c e s s i o n o f the
Ark t o c e l e b r a t e Yahweh s v i c t o r y i n b a t t l e and r e a f f i r m a t i o n
of h i s e t e r n a l k i n g s h i p .

One
2

There I w i l l r a i s e f o r t h r o y a l
power f o r David;

I w i l l arrange dominion f o r my
Anointed.

His

enemies I w i l l c l o t h e w i t h shame.

But

upon him, h i s crown w i l l

1. T h i s l i n e and a l l of v e r s e 12 break the meter as they

now s t a n d .
The r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s suggested i n o r d e r t o p r e serve the s y l l a b i c symmetry. The c o n f u s i o n c o u l d have begun i f
the c o p y i s t was u s i n g a t e x t p r i n t e d s t y c h o m e t r i c a l l y i n which
case the c o n d i t i o n a l p a r t of the covenant was i n t r o d u c e d too
early.
i s a c o n f l a t i o n of two v a r i a n t s i n p a r a l l e l
s t r u c t u r e , now appearing i n both l i d and 12d. In the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n the throne stands i n p a r a l l e l w i t h , an a l l u s i o n
to the d y n a s t i c s u c c e s s i o n b e g i n n i n g w i t h D a v i d .
2.

Psalm 132, i n i t s opening v e r s e s , r e f e r s t o t h a t time

p r i o r t o the b u i l d i n g o f the temple: "Remember...how he swore
to Yahweh...I w i l l not e n t e r my house... u n t i l
for

too
3.

See note 1.

4.

Rubric.

5.
Greek.

R e p o i n t i n g , the o l d e r r e l a t i v e pronoun.

I find a place

Yahweh, a d w e l l i n g p l a c e f o r the Mighty One o f Jacob."

The

use of a p o r t i o n of t h i s psalm i n I I C h r o n i c l e s 6:41 i n

Reading as e x p a n s i o n i s t i c , perhaps from v e r s e

14.

sparkle."

1. Reading as d i t t o g r a p h y .
long.

As i t stands, the l i n e i s

2. F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f the t r a n s l a t i o n of and , see

P a u l Hanson, "The Song o f Heshbone and David's N v r , " HTR, LXI
( J u l y , 1968), pp. 297-320; esp. p. 318, n. 29.
See the

3.

Ibid.

94

95

c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h Solomon's d e d i c a t i o n o f the temple wherein

the Ark was

brought, p r a y e r s were o f f e r e d , and

c e l e b r a t e d , suggests t h a t Psalm 132

was

a feast

used, p r o b a b l y

The
weh's "New

periodi-

success

c a l l y , i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a ceremony i n memory o f the b u i l d i n g

9).

of the

the Ark

temple.

Below i s a p o s s i b l e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the r i t u a l

v i c t o r y procession provided

was

re-

Song,"

over the

the o c c a s i o n

to s i n g

Yah-

or v i c t o r y shout, sung to c e l e b r a t e Yahweh's

f o r c e s of chaos

(Pss. 118:15-18; 98:1-3;

" L e t Your f a i t h f u l ones shout i n v i c t o r y . "

The

144:

r e t u r n of

to the temple r e a f f i r m e d Yahweh's e t e r n a l k i n g s h i p

(Pss. 132;

118:26-27; 24:7-10; 68:24-25).

e n a c t i n g Yahweh's b a t t l e w i t h the f o r c e s o f chaos, h i s v i c t o r y

and

the subsequent c e l e b r a t i o n .

The

r e c u r r e n t thematic

i s the primary data used i n the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n .

p l i f i e d , however, from a l l u s i o n s made t o r i t u a l
the content

pattern

I t can be

3.

Feast

amThe

a c t s , found i n

climax p r o b a b l y

Yahweh's Mountain, Z i o n .

o f s e l e c t e d psalms.

to Yahweh and
Amos 5:21;

was

reached w i t h

a c t u a l r i t u a l banqueting

8:10;

a victory

T h i s c o u l d have i n c l u d e d

Hosea 7:5;

2:15;

f e a s t on
sacrifices

(I Kings 3:15;

8:65;

J e r . 31:10-14; I s . 55:1-5).

1. T h r e a t - B a t t l e
R e c a l l , too, the covenant meal a t S i n a i , Ex.
A ritual

searching

f o r the Ark may

t e x t f o r Yahweh's b a t t l e s .
Ephrathah!"

Yahweh was

search for Baal.

"Listen!

gone.

One

have p r o v i d e d

We

con-

heard o f i t i n

i s reminded o f

I t i s t r u e t h a t there i s no

Yahweh has descended i n t o the underworld but

b e i n g away at b a t t l e ,

the

f e a s t i n g gods c e l e b r a t i n g B a a l ' s
completion

that

D.

Transformations

i n Second I s a i a h

Two

f r e q u e n t l y encountered forms i n p r e - e x i l i c prophecy

were the p r o p h e t i c o r a c l e a g a i n s t the n a t i o n and

(rib).

The

f o r e i g n enemy, the

2. V i c t o r y
of the Ark would be

a r i t u a l a f f i r m a t i o n of

Yahweh's v i c t o r y over the powers o f d e s t r u c t i o n .

i n the f i e l d s o f Ya'ar!"
s i o n t o the temple.

"Let us go t o h i s d w e l l i n g p l a c e !

and the Ark

victorious king.

Let

of Your might!"

He would be r e t u r n e d

t o r a h l i t u r g y which determined those who

t h a t i s worthy to process

us

with

the Ark

were c u l t i c a l l y

t o the temple.

i n Righteousness."

s e t t i n g s when Jerusalem

pure,

i n 587

B.C.

regrouped i n t o a new
o f war,
in

judg-

breaking

God.

was
The

destroyed

for

institutional

and her people d i s p e r s e d

themes o f these

o l d e r forms were

s y n t h e s i s by Second I s a i a h .

the o l d p a t t e r n o f the D i v i n e W a r r i o r

In a new

Hymn was

time

renewed

strength.

"Let

These were the

Righteous b e f o r e whom the gates o f the c i t y would be

g u i l t y of

These forms, p l u s the r i t u a l p a t t e r n r e c o n s t r u c t e d

into exile,
as

Divine

l a t t e r d e p i c t e d the wrath o f Yahweh's

I s r a e l ' s r o y a l c u l t , were r e l e a s e d from t h e i r

R i s e , Yahweh, go t o Your r e s t i n g

Psalm 2 4 suggests t h a t perhaps t h e r e was

Your p r i e s t s be d r e s s e d

covenant w i t h

found i t

I t would then be brought i n procs-

worship at h i s f o o t s t o o l !
p l a c e , You

"We

the

former d e s c r i b e d Yahweh's wrath a g a i n s t a

ment a g a i n s t I s r a e l , h e r s e l f , when she was

recovery

the

o f the b u i l d i n g o f h i s abode.

the theme of h i s

Lawsuit

The

the
at

'Anat's

indication

f i g h t i n g enemy k i n g s , or even the gods o f

chaos, would not be out o f p l a c e .

24:11, and

v i c t o r y over Yamm and

1.

War

opened
For Judah,

the war

was

over.

"Jerusalem

had

received

(Ps. 118:19-20) .
from Yahweh's hand double f o r her
prophetic
1.

See,

sins"

(40:2).

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the d i f f i c u l t

A common

days Judah

was

f o r i n s t a n c e . Psalm 89:5-14.

2.
R e c a l l the f o o t s t o o l ( h d m ) ,
h i s d i v i n e abode.

part of E l ' s f u r n i t u r e i n

1.
We understand the "New Song" to be i n d i g e n o u s t o the
psalm l i t e r a t u r e , a form which Second I s a i a h used i n h i s work,
not v i c e v e r s a .
See below, pp. 111-12.

97

96

h a v i n g t o f a c e , r o o t e d i n the covenant t h e o l o g y from the T r i b a l

League.

Judah

had broken covenant and was

s u f f e r i n g the

c u r s e s unleashed by Yahweh a g a i n s t h i s own.

ishment was over.
the

In p a r t , we

But now,

D a v i d i c covenant (Ps. 132:12) b e i n g overshadowed

god was bound t o be the p r o t e c t o r o f h i s c r e a t i o n .

the

o l d D i v i n e W a r r i o r Hymn, the w a r r i o r d e i t y was

Remembering the days o f Noah

though the mountains d e p a r t and the h i l l s

The b e a r e r of good news.

The r e p o r t e r o f v i c t o r y .

by the unWho

In the l a t t e r ,

the

defend h i s own.

the pun-

see the c o n d i t i o n a l element o f

shakable e t e r n a l covenant ( ) o f myth.

The r e p o r t e r of peace,

As i n

says t o Z i o n :

"Your God

reigns."

expected t o

(Isaiah

54:9-10),

Your watchmen l i f t

remove,

up t h e i r v o i c e ;

Together they shout i n v i c t o r y .

My s t e a d f a s t l o v e s h a l l not
d e p a r t from you;

Nor s h a l l the covenant of my

peace t o t t e r .

Because eye f o r eye they see

Yahweh
i n h i
s return to Zion.

Rubric

* * * * *
The memory of g r e a t days under K i n g David s u r f a c e d t o i n f l u e n c e
I s a i a h 40:3-5
the

t h e o l o g y o f Second I s a i a h

( I s . 55:3b).

s h a l l make w i t h you an e v e r l a s t i n g covenant;

(Like) the secure covenant b o n d s
of D a v i d .

A voice crying:

In the w i l d e r n e s s , make c l e a r the
Way o f Yahweh;

Make s t r a i g h t i n the steppe,
a Highway.

I s a i a h b l e n d e d the a n c i e n t themes of exodus and conquest,

from the T r i b a l League, and the theme o f Yahweh's d e f e a t o f the

B e f o r e our God, e v e r y v a l l e y
s h a l l be l i f t e d up;

Mountain and h e i g h t s s h a l l be
made low.

powers o f chaos t o defend h i s abode, from the r o y a l p e r i o d , t o

e n v i s i o n Yahweh as v i c t o r i o u s k i n g , l e a d i n g h i s e x i l e s home
a l o n g h i s p r o c e s s i o n a l way.

T h i s time h i s "way"

extended

a c r o s s the d e s e r t , from Babylon t o Z i o n .

I s a i a h 52:7-8
How

b e a u t i f u l are they upon the

mountains ;

The f e e t o f him who

b r i n g s good news,

The steep ground s h a l l become

a la in ;

And rough p l a c e s , a broad v a l l e y .

The G l o r y of Yahweh s h a l l be
revealed ;

And a l l f l e s h w i l l

1. F o l l o w i n g a t r a n s l a t i o n suggested by C r o s s , i n conference.

see i t t o g e t h e r .

2. V i c t o r y
We have noted t h a t the march o f the w a r r i o r God i n t o b a t tie,

the d e f e a t o f the f o r c e s o f chaos, and h i s r e t u r n

along

98

99

the p r o c e s s i o n a l way

i n v i c t o r y are themes t h a t have had a l o n g

history in tradition.

Who

leads o u t c h a r i o t and h o r s e ,

Army and w a r r i o r
t h i s p a t t e r n was c y c l i c ,
ment.

Within

r e g u l a r l y repeated i n r i t u a l

Hebrew t r a d i t i o n ,

i t was

c a l p a t t e r n , d e r i v i n g from myth, however, was

Second I s a i a h i n h i s unique use o f the "New
shout o f the r o y a l p e r i o d .

This

This

transformed by

song took on e p i c dimensions

Conquest i s s u i n g f o r t h i n t o a New

They are e x t i n g u i s h e d ; l i k e a wick

they are quenched.

3) New

Yah-

Age.

Creation.

e x i l e s to Zion,

To i n s u r e the s a f e a r r i v a l

renewal o f a d e s o l a t e
again

I s a i a h 42:9-10

dead.

come t o pass.

now d e c l a r e ;

B e f o r e they s p r i n g f o r t h I make
i t known:

S i n g t o Yahweh a New

Within

Song!

t h i s s p i r i t of the New

1) New

creation.

t h e o l o g y t o i n c l u d e an e n t i r e
1

way:

Conquest ( I s . 42:13).
6

L i k e a s o l d i e r , he awakens f u r y .

He shouts i n triumph, yea he r o a r s .

He shows h i m s e l f mighty a g a i n s t
h i s enemies.

Exodus

flowed

r e t u r n i n g t o t h a t which was

"They d i d n o t t h i r s t w h i l e he l e d them through the d e s -

" (48:21). Indeed, the new age of f e a s t i n g w i t h Yahweh r e e r t

verses an o l d age when Jerusalem drank from the cup o f Yahweh's

wrath.

Look!
took
from your hand

The
cup o f r e e l i n g ; the cup

of wrath.

i s making i n the sea, a way;

i n the mighty waters a p a t h .

You s h a l l d r i n k o f i t no more;

s h a l l put i t i n t o the hand of

your t o r m e n t e r s .

6
6

* * * * *
Isaiah

41:18

s h a l l open on the bare

heights, r i v e r s ;

i n
the midst of v a l l e y s ,

springs.

( I s . 43:16-17).

Thus says Yahweh,

Who

Waters and s p r i n g s

and the d e s e r t bloomed, t o quench the t h i r s t o f Yahweh's

Song, the "old-new" themes

around the image of the p r o c e s s i o n a l

L i k e a w a r r i o r , Yahweh goes f o r t h ;

2) New

of the r e t u r n i n g

I s a i a h 51:22-23

His p r a i s e s from the end o f the e a r t h !

c l u s t e r e d together

the v i c t o r y f e a s t on the mount o f the r o y a l

p e r i o d was expanded i n I s a i a h ' s

Exodus had

once f o r a l l .

The former t h i n g s have now

things

They l i e down never t o get up.

chosen and t o show t h a t l i f e was

New

cycli-

Song", o r v i c t o r y

weh's v i c t o r y i n b a t t l e , i t became the song o f the New

won

together.

re-enact-

i n the t h e o l o g y o f Second I s a i a h . . I t c e l e b r a t e d not only

been, o r was b e i n g ,

the r o y a l c u l t t h a t came

c l o s e s t to r e f l e c t i n g t h i s mythopeic p e r s p e c t i v e .

The b a t t l e o f New

In p r e d o m i n a n t l y mythopeic s o c i e t i e s ,

1. R e c a l l the r e j u v e n a t i o n o f the land a f t e r 'Anat's def e a t o f Mot and the r e l e a s e o f B a a l .

T h i s i s one o f the many
examples of the r e c r u d e s c e n c e of mythic thought i n Second I s a h.
F o r I s a i a h , however, the arena o f such a c t i v i t y was s t i l l
i a
within plain history.

101

100
I w i l l make the w i l d e r n e s s
marshes;

into

And dry l a n d i n t o s p r i n g s of water.

The ransomed o f Yahweh s h a l l

return;

They w i l l come t o Zion midst shouts

o f v
i c t o
ry.

E v e r l a s t i n g joy s h a l l be upon t h e i r
heads.

* * * * *
Isaiah

51:3

For Yahweh has compassion on Zion;

They s h a l l a t t a i n j o y and gladness;

Sorrow and s i g h i n g s h a l l

He has compassion on a l l h e r
waste p l a c e s .

f l e e away.

As we noted i n the Royal Theology, i n Second I s a i a h as

He made i t s w i l d e r n e s s l i k e

Eden;

And her steppe l i k e the garden o f Yahweh.

w e l l , we see l a y e r s o f meaning c l u s t e r e d about the p r o c e s s i o n a l

way.

I t was

the route o f the w a r r i o r d e i t y marching f o r t h t o

b a t t l e the dragon o f chaos

Joy and gladness w i l l be found
i n her,

P r a i s e and the v o i c e of song.

people to d e s t r o y t h e i r enemies

I t was

the r o u t e o f con-

(42:13).

I s a i a h added a new

dimension when i t became a l s o the r o u t e of a new exodus.

highway was

envisioned, b u i l t

p r o c e s s t o Zion

I s a i a h 51:9-11 may w e l l serve as our parade example i n

which a l l these themes were b e a u t i f u l l y

(51:9).

quest as Yahweh, the D i v i n e W a r r i o r , marched on b e h a l f o f h i s

23).

wed:

(51:10-11; 43:1-2, 5-7;

Yahweh, i n v i c t o r y , was

i n the d e s e r t f o r the redeemed

to

49:11-12; c f . 45:22-

s a v i n g h i s r i g h t e o u s ones

(51:7-

8; c f . 40:31) .
Awake, awake, c l o t h e
i n power,

yourself

-11

0 Arm of Yahweh.

3. F e a s t
Vie noted above how

Awake as i n the days o f o l d ,

**

6
-11

G e n e r a t i o n s of long

ago.

Was

i t not Thou who

smote Rahab,

Who

pierced

Was

i t not Thou who

I s a i a h used the a n c i e n t m o t i f of the

land's r e j u v e n a t i o n to e n v i s i o n how

-11

d r i e d up Sea,

Once a r r i v i n g a t

Z i o n , those t o partake of Yahweh's f e a s t on t h e mount were t o

be h i s s u f f e r i n g s e r v a n t s .

Dragon?

the e x i l e s would be f e d on

t h e i r long journey home a c r o s s the d e s e r t .

mocratized to include a l l

The m e s s i a n i c f i g u r e had been deI s r a e l , now

to share w i t h Yahweh the

e t e r n a l j o y s of the M e s s i a n i c F e a s t on the Mount

( I s . 55:1-5).

E. Summary
-11

The waters of the Great Deep?

Our u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the s t r u c t u r e o f I s a i a h 24-27 d e r i v e s

from the t h e m a t i c p a t t e r n we have l a b e l e d

Who

made the depths of the Sea

a Way

For the redeemed

t o pass over?

Hymn.
-12

We

the D i v i n e W a r r i o r

suggest i t i s a t l e a s t one l i n e of c o n t i n u i t y

extends from U g a r i t t o Second I s a i a h and i n t o

T h i s i s the thematic p a t t e r n o f t h r e a t , war, v i c t o r y and

1.

N o t i c e the f r i g h t e n e d gods i n 46:1.

that

apocalyptic.
feast.

102
To be sure, t h i s b a s i c s t r u c t u r e was
as the o c c a s i o n warranted.

c o n t r a c t e d or e m b e l l i s h e d

s i o n a l way

emerged a g a i n and again i n I s r a e l ' s r e l i g i o u s t r a -

d i t i o n , we

suggest

which was

t h e r e was,

i n f a c t , a p r o c e s s i o n a l way

re-enacted a t r e l i g i o u s

t e r e d above.

THE

ORIGIN OF APOCALYPTIC

T h i s b r i n g s us t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f I s a i a h 24-27 and i t s

over

f e s t i v a l s the themes encoun-

During the p e r i o d of the T r i b a l League,

these

During the r o y a l p e r i o d , they were used

p l a c e i n the o r i g i n o f a p o c a l y p t i c .

And

g o a l i s simply t o g l e a n from I s a i a h 24-27 t h a t m a t e r i a l

which we

f e e l i s important

f o r such a d i s c u s s i o n .

to

c e l e b r a t e the b u i l d i n g o f Yahweh's abode on Mount Z i o n , a v i s u a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n of h i s k i n g s h i p and power.

I t i s not our purpose t o

p r o v i d e a comprehensive d i s c u s s i o n o f a p o c a l y p t i c o r i g i n s .
Our

themes were used t o c e l e b r a t e the Exodus-Conquest event t h a t

c r e a t e d the n a t i o n .

IV. ISAIAH 24-27 AND

Because the m o t i f of the procs-

A. The L i t e r a r y Context

o f I s a i a h 24-27

d u r i n g the
In o r d e r t o r e s o l v e some o f the problems r a i s e d i n c h a p t e r

e x i l e , e s p e c i a l l y i n the t h e o l o g y o f Second I s a i a h and h i s f o l lowers, the themes were used once a g a i n t o r e a f f i r m the b a s i c

one

f a i t h t h a t Yahweh was

which the d a t a p r o v i d e d by these c h a p t e r s i n I s a i a h make sense.

king.

As o f o l d , he would rescue h i s

l o s t ones and would make m a n i f e s t t o a l l ,

his kingship.

of t h i s study, we

attempt

now

to e s t a b l i s h a context i n

F r e q u e n t l y , i t i s a r e f e r e n c e t o some h i s t o r i c a l event o r p e r sonage t h a t e s t a b l i s h e s the c o n t e x t i n which t o understand

passage o f s c r i p t u r e .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , those data are l a c k i n g i n

our c h a p t e r s .
T h e r e f o r e we w i l l attempt

t o use p r o s o d i e s t y l e and

matic p a t t e r n t o e s t a b l i s h the c o n t e x t .

t o r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l t h a t comes b e f o r e and a f t e r , we
suggest

the-

By r e l a t i n g these

data

hope t o

a s e t t i n g t h a t i s a t l e a s t r e a s o n a b l e , i n t h a t i t makes

sense o f m a t e r i a l we

do have.

Within t h i s context c e r t a i n t y -

p o l o g i c a l developments can be d i s c e r n e d .

1. P r o s o d i e
a. I s a i a h 24:l-16a,
The

p o e t r y o f 24:l-16a,

Style

24:16b-25:9 and 26:1-8

24:16b-25:9 and 26:1-8 can be

pared w i t h the b e s t i n Second I s a i a h .

com-

The most common p r o s o d i e

p a t t e r n i s the a l t e r n a t i o n between b i c o l a and t r i c o l a .

Within

a t i g h t s y l l a b i c symmetry are couched many examples o f paronomasia, a l l i t e r a t i o n ,

repetitive
We

would argue,

24:l-16a,

assonance, chiasm, i n o l u s i o ,

climactic

and

parallelism.
then, on the b a s i s o f p r o s o d i e s t y l e , t h a t

24:16b-25:9 and 26:1-8 form the e a r l i e s t m a t e r i a l of

1.
Of the r e c e n t s t u d i e s on the s u b j e c t those o f Plger,
T h e o k r a t i e and Hanson, D a w n , p r o v i d e h e l p f u l and p r o v o c a t i v e
discussions.
103

104

105

the Apocalypse
Isaiah.

and i s t o be dated c l o s e t o the time o f Second

The p o e t r y o f these s e c t i o n s compares w i t h the p o e t r y

o f I s a i a h 60-62, i n T h i r d

would p l a c e them t y p o l o g i c a l l y p r i o r t o what we f i n d i n 26:1127:6.

I s a i a h , and Z e c h a r i a h 9, which Hanson

concludes i s a l s o very c l o s e i n s t y l e t o t h a t o f Second Isaiah?

As noted e a r l i e r ,
t h e r e appear

i n t h i s l a t t e r sequence o f m a t e r i a l ,

t o be t r a c e s o f a lament o f the people, a s a l v a -

t i o n o r a c l e , an a n c i e n t D i v i n e W a r r i o r Hymn and a m o d i f i e d Song

b. I s a i a h 26:11-27:6

o f the V i n e y a r d .

T y p o l o g i c a l l y , the p r o s o d i e s t y l e o f I s a i a h 26:11-27:6
would come l a t e r .
b:b:b:: 1:1:1.

The meter i s mixed.

i n the e a r l i e r p o r t i o n s o f the Apoc-

But then comes a 1:1 f o l l o w e d by 2(1:1:1).

3(b:b), then b : b : : l : : b : b .
1:1::1:1:1.

Two b i c o l a

Next i s a

f o l l o w , 2(1:1), then

F i n a l l y t h e r e i s a 5(b:b) and 2(b:b:b).

e t r y i s n o t as good as t h a t encountered
See,

t o be a

T h i s i s f o l l o w e d by the p a t t e r n 4 ( b : b ) , b:b:b

which we have encountered

alypse.

There appears

f o r i n s t a n c e , the run-on

i n the former

The pounits.

material.

We would conclude, then, on p r o s o d i e grounds,

that

26:11-

t e r n suggested above.

was added

These m a t e r i a l s probably c i r c u l a t e d i n -

dependently p r i o r t o t h e i r c u r r e n t use i n the Apocalypse.

independent

This

c i r c u l a t i o n would c e r t a i n l y be t r u e o f the D i v i n e

W a r r i o r Hymn ( I s . 27:1, see UT 5.1.1-5).

of t h e Song o f t h e V i n e y a r d

I t was p r o b a b l y t r u e

( I s . 27:2-6, see I s . 5:1-7).

c o u l d be t r u e f o r the communal lament

And

t h a t begins a t 26:11.

The o r a c l e a g a i n s t Moab (25:10-12) may a l s o have been i n s e r t e d

at t h i s

27:6

We suggest, then, t h a t the author or e d i t o r was r e -

adapting o t h e r r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l s he had, a c c o r d i n g t o the p a t -

it

l i n e s o f 26:20-21.

They have been arranged, however, a c c o r d i n g

to the b a s i c thematic p a t t e r n we have d i s c e r n e d i n the e a r l i e r

time.

later.
The v a r i o u s elements
c. Other

o f t h i s thematic p a t t e r n each have

had a h i s t o r y i n t r a d i t i o n and can be used t o h e l p e s t a b l i s h a

Passages

c o n t e x t f o r I s a i a h 24-27.
The prose o f 27:12-13 would appear,
still.

then, t o be l a t e r

We have d e l e t e d v e r s e s 24:5, 24:20b and 26:9d-10 as

e d i t o r i a l expansion.

In each case they i n t e r p r e t what we p r o 2

pose i s an e a r l i e r t e x t .
these passages,

In comparison

w i t h what

they a r e very p r o s a i c and break

o t h e r w i s e good p o e t r y .
27:9-11, because,

surrounds

i n t o what i s

We l e a v e out o f our d i s c u s s i o n

as y e t , i t does n o t y i e l d

Isaiah

a. War
A model example o f the a n c i e n t war theme, d e r i v i n g i n I s r a e l from t h e t h e o l o g y o f the League, i s Numbers 10:35-36 (see
a l s o Pss. 68:2; 18:15):
And whenever the Ark s e t out, Moses s a i d :

t o our a n a l y s i s .
A r i s e , Yahweh, l e t Thy enemies be
scattered;

2. Themes

L e t Thy a d v e r s a r i e s f l e e b e f o r e Thee.
Our

study o f the themes o f I s a i a h 24-27 has r e v e a l e d the

f r e q u e n t use o f p o r t i o n s o r a l l o f the f o l l o w i n g thematic p a t -

Return, Yahweh, w i t h the myriads;

t e r n : t h r e a t , war, v i c t o r y and f e a s t .

w i t h the thousands

o f Israel.''"

In 24:l-16a, 24:16b-25:9 and 26:1-8, t h i s p a t t e r n conforms

to the poem's own c o n t e n t , t h a t i s , the poems themselves
to have been c r e a t e d w i t h these themes i n mind.

seem

This, again,

1.

Hanson, D a w n ,

2.

See above, n. 3, p. 27, n. 2, p. 35, and p. 49.

1.
F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s t e x t and i t s l i t u r g i c a l use
i n the League c u l t , see Frank M. C r o s s , "The D i v i n e W a r r i o r , "
pp. 24-25. Cross has suggested s u b s e q u e n t l y , i n p r i v a t e c o n f e r e n c e , t h a t the second b i c o l o n be read a s :

pp. 4 6 f f and pp. 2 9 2 f f .

<>
< >

106

107
Yahweh, symbolized w i t h the Ark,

to s c a t t e r

()

this procession
during
again

of the Ark

the p e r i o d s

As we

c o u l d w e l l have had

i n the

a n a l y s i s of p a r a l l e l s

the p r o p h e t i c

to the war

oracle against

life

vocabulary of

I t can,

the n a t i o n was

theme i n t r a d i t i o n .

an

p a r a l l e l passages i l l u s t r a t e s , however, t h a t the

from t h a t c o n t e x t
The

therefore,
important
the

context

in

e s t a b l i s h e d i n the p r e - e x i l i c

sense of formulae and

weh s wrath a g a i n s t
I s a i a h 24-27 by

being

t e r n which we

f a c i l i t a t e d by

a separate l i f e

suggest was

I s a i a h 27:1

(34:4

and

the

w i t h the

f a c t t h a t the

important p a r a l l e l s

Israel.

S p e c i f i c a l l y , he

envisioned

l i k e a s c r o l l , w i t h a l l the host

of the

sky

c f . UT

5.1.4-5).

i n war

war

of heaven f a l l i n g

he

the
own

41:

yet,

holy war

not

o r a c l e opens w i t h

stance,

sense i t was

the

lawsuit.

f o r Judah

order.

not

use

was

He was

H i s t o r y was

ushering
of the

of the

theology of

p u l l e d over the e n t i r e c r e a t i o n

oracles against

and

turned

lawsuit

{ r i b ) and
The

war

to be

The

I t was

from the c y c l i c c h a r a c t e r
t o the

faith
cra-

this

radi-

both Second I s a of nature myth.

s e r v i c e of h i s t o r y .

the o r a c l e a g a i n s t

pas-

salvation for

the changes toward a new

f u t u r e which p r e s e r v e d

lan-

to i t s a n c i e n t

s i d e o f g r e a t war.

s p e c i f i c p a r t i c u l a r i t y of p r o p h e t i c

down.
1.
See the f o l l o w i n g l i t e r a t u r e t h a t argues t h a t I s a i a h
34-35 be c o n s i d e r e d p a r t of Second I s a i a h .
C.C. T o r r e y , T h e
Second Isaiah
(New York: C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ' s Sons, 1928), pp.
9 3 f f and 279ff; Marvin Pope, " I s a i a h 34 i n R e l a t i o n to I s a i a h
35, 40-66," J B L , LXXI (1952), pp. 235-43; R.B.Y. S c o t t , "The
R e l a t i o n of I s a i a h , Chapter 35, to D e u t e r o - I s a i a h , " A J S L , L I I
(Oct., 1935-July, 1936), pp. 178-91; Olmstead, " I I I s a i a h and
I s a i a h , Chapter 35," A J S L , L I I I ( J u l y , 1937), pp. 251-53;
, "The E a r l i e s t Book of K i n g s , " A J S L , XXXI (1915), p.
196.
See Otto E i s s f e l d t , T h e O l d T e s t a m e n t : A n I n t r o d u c t i o n ,
t r a n s , by P e t e r Ackroyd (New York: Harper and Row,
1965), (cont)

apocalyptic

Myth was
the

directing

There was

War

i n lawsuit

the n a t i o n s

t h a t i s , s a l v a t i o n f o r the R i g h t e o u s .

iah

age.

covenant o r i g i n a l l y

curses

from i t s then t r a d i t i o n a l use

openness toward the

was

i n a new

l o g i c a l extension

i n the D i v i n e W a r r i o r Hymn.

tion,
cal

being

The

were b e i n g

t h a t Yahweh was

And

f a l l i n g back

Yahweh's d e s t r u c t i o n of c r e a t i o n

a r e t u r n to the b e g i n n i n g .

In one

created

he was

of n a t u r e mythology.

( I s . 42:9).

(Is.

In the eyes of Second I s a i a h ,

moving a g a i n s t elements of the

f a i t h f u l t o the p r o p h e t i c

periodized

rollout

Yah-

portray

language.

standard

prophetic

in his

to

14),

sages and

the heavens

to d e s c r i b e

Judah or some o t h e r n a t i o n , but

hills

pat-

so

used not

Exodus,
a verb

The

period.

To do

a New

i n I s a i a h 41:16, ,

passages, was

to

Judah

about to be winnowed.

shifted

applied

r e s u l t was

Judah's s c a t t e r i n g to the wind the c h a f f of mountains and

guage was

of the

The

a p r e l u d e to d e l i v e r a n c e ,

instance,

the Righteous ones on the other

t r a d i t i o n a l use

i n g up

( I s . 34:4;

Divine

i n Second

r e t u r n to chaos theme to events which were o c c u r r i n g

Using a Canaanite image, he

r e t u r n to chaos theme, of myth,

which brought a p e r i o d of h i s t o r y very near i t s end.

5.1.1-5).

theme from t h a t e s t a b l i s h e d i n p r e - e x i l i c
drew f r e e l y upon mythic themes.

used f r e q u e n t l y

For

weh's wrath a g a i n s t

intended

a resurgence i n t h i s

s h i f t i n g the

Creation.

the p r o p h e t i c

by

i n the c r e a t i o n myth, a

enjoying

51:9-11; c f . UT

Second I s a i a h was

day.

In I s -

threatened

s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l enemies.

W a r r i o r Hymn had

Isaiah

was

h a v i n g t o face was

i n t o the p e r s p e c t i v e
Yah-

transformed

the r e t u r n to chaos theme of myth.

was

Yahweh was

period.

a s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l enemy was

T h i s s h i f t was

Note again

in
differ-

v o c a b u l a r y used to d e s c r i b e

a i a h 2 4-2 7, the e n t i r e c r e a t e d * o r d e r
Yahweh, not

now

Isaiah

A comparison of

this

the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t the c u r r e n t d e v a s t a t i o n

a New

which the author of I s a i a h 24-27 used t h i s language was

ent

offer

of t h a t language used

the n a t i o n .

be argued t h a t the o r a c l e a g a i n s t
c a r r i e r of the war

a cultic

Isaiah incorporated

i n t o the T r i b a l League theme of conquest.

t h e o l o g y of I s a i a h 24-27.

24-27 r e v e a l s t h a t i t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
in

Israel

have suggested,

of the T r i b a l League, the Monarchy and

i t is reflected
An

l e d the armies of

the enemy i n b a t t l e .

To be

forms, l i k e the

the n a t i o n , was

themes of these forms were r e l e a s e d

sure,
divine

broken

from

their

s e t t i n g s when combined w i t h the r e t u r n to chaos theme of myth

to g i v e e x p r e s s i o n

to a theme of u n i v e r s a l d e s o l a t i o n .

The

mythic theme of r e t u r n to c h a o s n e w c r e a t i o n combined w i t h

pp.
and

327-28 f o r one who

Second I s a i a h .

the

d e n i e s the u n i t y between I s a i a h 34-35

The w r i t e r i s g r a t e f u l t o Marvin Chaney who

r e f e r e n c e s i n a seminar paper e n t i t l e d M y t h o l o g y
(Harvard, NELL, 1965).

gathered these
a n d Holy War

108

e p i c theme o f conquest.

march i n New

to d e s c r i b e Yahweh's

Conquest, a message of hope t o those who

the r u b b l e o f a d e s t r o y e d
We

suggest i t was

The

emptied.

destruction

conquest.

indeed, the e n t i r e e a r t h was

There was hope i n the d e v a s t a t i o n , however,

As

being

( i n a shout of v i c t o r y )

Declare!

Proclaim t h i s !

Cause i t t o go f o r t h ,

To the end of the e a r t h .

! >

( I s . 24:23).
(Say)

I s a i a h 41:16 would suggest t h a t Second I s a i a h ,

and events f o r the arena o f God's a c t i v i t y .

enemies

I f I s a i a h 34-35

does i n f a c t come from the hand o f Second I s a i a h ,

I t does appear, however,

himself,

a l r e a d y began t h i s s h i f t away from s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l

added t e x t u a l support.

i n that

a f t e r the war Yahweh's k i n g s h i p and power at h i s mount would

once more be obvious t o a l l

to be understood as p a r t o f the

from Yahweh's march i n new

Gods, k i n g s , c i t i e s ,

Isaiah

p a r t of the r e t u r n to chaos, no one or no t h i n g would be exempt.

Go f o r t h from Babylon!
F l e e from c h a i d e a !

24:l-16a, 24:16b-25:9 and 26:1-8 were c r e a t e d .

fall-out

( c f . I s . 24:14)

stood i n

community.

i n t h i s context that at l e a s t

o f J e r u s a l e m i n 587 B.C. was

inevitable

1) I s a i a h 48:20

The o v e r r i d i n g t h r u s t o f the war theme

from Second I s a i a h i n t o a p o c a l y p t i c was

Yahweh has redeemed

H i s s e r v a n t Jacob.

t h i s would be
t h a t the h o l d

Isaiah

52:8

on p l a i n h i s t o r y i s weakening i n I s a i a h 24-27 beyond t h a t noted

i n Second

Your watchmen l i f t

Isaiah.

In any event, we can conclude t h a t the e a r l i e r p o r t i o n s o f

up t h e i r v o i c e ;

Together they r a i s e the v i c t o r y shout.

I s a i a h 24-27 come from a c l o s e d i s c i p l e o f Second I s a i a h as

e v i d e n c e d both by the p r o s o d i e s t y l e and now
war

i n h i s use of the

theme.

Because eye f o r eye they see

The r e t u r n of Yahweh t o Z i o n .

b. V i c t o r y
2) I s a i a h 54:1
The language o f I s a i a h 24:14-16a

is distinctly

i n tone from what precedes and what f o l l o w s .

the l i f t i n g

up of the v o i c e was

The language o f war and anguish was

of j o y .

We

As noted above,

a common d e v i c e , known from

U g a r i t i c s o u r c e s , t o i n d i c a t e a break o r s h i f t

( c f . I s . 24:14)

different
Shout i n v i c t o r y , b a r r e n one;
The one who

i s childless.

i n the t e x t .

suddenly r e v e r s e d to words

suggest t h a t the reason f o r the s h i f t

can be under-

Break f o r t h i n shouts o f s u c c e s s !
Cry a l o u d , you who

have not g i v e n b i r t h !

stood b e s t i f the reader p e r c e i v e s the o v e r - a r c h i n g p a t t e r n of

the D i v i n e W a r r i o r Hymn.

These v e r s e s c o n t a i n a v i c t o r y shout

3) I s a i a h 42:12

( c f . I s . 24:15)

sung as Yahweh, the D i v i n e W a r r i o r , marched out and was v i e L e t them g i v e t o Yahweh honor!

t o r i o u s i n the f i e l d o f b a t t l e .
The language used, i n c o n t r a s t t o what precedes and

fol-

lows, stands out s h a r p l y as b e i n g i n f l u e n c e d by t h a t of Second

Isaiah.

L e t them d e c l a r e h i s p r a i s e
among the i s l e s !

110
Ill
4) i s a i a h 48:1

( c f . i s . 24:15)

Those who swear by the name o f

Yahweh;

Who

remember the God o f I s r a e l .

Given these s t r o n g p a r a l l e l s i n the use of language w i t h Second

I
s a i a h , i t would seem t h a t the author had i n mind Second I s aiah's "New Song" when he wrote t h i s passage.

t h a t t h i s was an e n t i r e l y a p p r o p r i a t e
suggests
New

5) I s a i a h 42:10-13

Song was

s i n c e the

the v i c t o r y shout sung i n c e l e b r a t i o n of Yahweh,

the D i v i n e W a r r i o r , v i c t o r i o u s i n b a t t l e .

sing:

Mowinckel i s c e r t a i n l y c o r r e c t i n i n s i s t i n g t h a t much of

Yahweh, a New

I s a i a h 42:10-13
choice

Song!

what i s found i n Second I s a i a h was dependent upon r o y a l forms

and not v i c e v e r s a .

.He (Isaiah) has c o n s c i o u s l y i m i t a t e d and used them as
a pregnant e x p r e s s i o n o f the message he i s b r i n g i n g .

His p r a i s e from t h e end of the

earth !

Let the sea r o a r and a l l t h a t

fills it;

The i s l e s and t h e i r i n h a b i t a n t s .

L e t the d e s e r t and i t s c i t i e s l i f t
(their voices);

The i d e a o f c r e a t i o n as the g r e a t achievement o f

Yahweh and the i d e a o f h i s k i n g s h i p are both i n d i g enous i n the c u l t i c l y r i c s ; t h a t i s where the two
ideas have been k n i t t o g e t h e r , and t h a t i s where
D e u t e r o - I s a i a h has found thought content as w e l l
as thought forms.'-

An a l t e r n a t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the New

The v i l l a g e s t h a t Kedar i n h a b i t s .

Song i s t h a t

these

psalms were dependent upon Second I s a i a h and hence o f l a t e

2

date.
L e t the i n h a b i t a n t s o f S e l a shout
in victory;

From the top of the mountains l e t

them shout.

But, as Mowinckel has noted, the sword can c u t both

ways.

When we

take i n t o account I s a i a h ' s

a r c h a i z i n g use o f

language and prosody, i t i s l o g i c a l t o assume t h a t r a t h e r than

r e a t e new,
c

unheard o f , forms, he would draw on e s t a b l i s h e d

forms t o e x p r e s s h i s message.
Textual

support f o r r e g a r d i n g

the New

to the r o y a l p e r i o d i s Psalm 144:5-11.

Song as indigenous

Yahweh the D i v i n e

War-

r i o r comes from the heavens t o rescue the w o r s h i p p e r from the

a l i e n waters o f chaos.
Yahweh, l i k e a w a r r i o r ,

goes f o r t h ;

L i k e a s o l d i e r , he s t i r s up h i s f u r y .

He c r i e s out, he shouts aloud;

Verse n i n e begins the New

Song.

It

unctions
f

Yahweh's d e l i v e r a n c e o f "David, h i s s e r v a n t " (v. 10). Myth was

b e i n g used here i n i t s r e g e n e r a t i v e sense. Psalm 98 connects

5/6

i n the p a t t e r n as a v i c t o r y shout sung i n response t o

r i t u a l conquest and New

Song i n a s i m i l a r manner.

Yahweh, the D i v i n e W a r r i o r , was p r o t e c t o r o f the f a i t h f u l

He shows h i m s e l f mighty a g a i n s t

the enemy.

a
gainst

the ravages o f chaos.

t e x t was
righteous
1.

D e l e t e d because the meter

2.

Expansionistic.

The New

Song i n i t s r o y a l con-

a v i c t o r y shout c e l e b r a t i n g Yahweh's rescue o f the

from the h o s t i l i t i e s o f h i s t o r y .

Z i o n was

the

(8/9) b r e a k s the p a t t e r n .

g l o s s e s

1.

Sigmund Mowinckel, T h e P s a l m s ,

p. 118.

2.

See, f o r i n s t a n c e , Westermann, P s a l m s ,

p. 147.

112

113

impregnable f o r t r e s s a g a i n s t
harm.

The

New

s i o n of the Ark t o the

the

the

t h r e a t o f chaos, a s h i e l d from

Song would have had a s o l i d

temple.

We

f u n c t i o n i n a procs-

argue, then, t h a t we

shout of v i c t o r y i n p r a i s e of Yahweh, the

In the

c o n t e x t of the

Song took on

a new

themes i n Second

I s a i a h 42:9,

Song, demonstrates the

the v e r s e

former t h i n g s

New

things

I now

are now

past;

New

references

be

faithful
he

epic

recrudescence of myth e x e r t e d

h i s t o r y ' s e v e n t s , a tendency s t r o n g

a p r e s s u r e to

Song would n a t u r a l l y express t h a t p e r i o d i z a t i o n .

I s a i a h stopped s h o r t of f a l l i n g
History

p o s e f u l l y i n t o the
Second I s a i a h was

still

had

future.
to be

The

Age.

of

moving

f u n c t i o n o f the New

song o f the New

New

Second

c y c l i c pattern

a d i r e c t i o n t h a t was

The

the

i n t o the

But

pur-

The

true a n t i q u i t y of t h i s theme becomes apparent when

r e c a l l the

the

myth, the

f e a s t of the gods, e n j o i n e d

at hand.

t h a t the

The

p e r i o d i z a t i o n would e v e n t u a l l y

conception

tive i n sixth-century

of two

ages y i e l d i n g the

was

develop i n t o the

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d u a l i s m of the

apoc-

its

Song i n I s a i a h 24 was

i n Second I s a i a h .

In the

to accompany Yahweh's march i n New

grounds f o r r e j o i c i n g .
weh,

the

King

( I s . 24: 23) .
The

Divine

E v i l was

tival

face of a l l the t e r r o r

having i t s l a s t

55:1-5 and

Jeremiah 31:10-14 i n d i c a t e

prophetic

thought.

image.

Yah-

stand again

author's use

of the v i c t o r y theme, t h e r e f o r e ,

I s a i a h 24-27 c l o s e t o Second

c.

the

literary

New

and

acthe

royal

house had

a fes-

cult.

One

was

the e l e v a t i o n of Zion

from the w o r l d over came to Zion

as

to t h i s Jerusalem o f f a i t h ) .

be

c o n t e x t of

f o r a l l t o see

( I s . 26:1

as people

must c e r t a i n l y r e f e r

Coupled w i t h t h i s v a s t

Exodus f o r those i n the bondage of

procession

exilewas

the mythic theme of a s t e r i l e c r e a t i o n come back t o l i f e .

ond

I s a i a h made use

of t h a t combination: "And

Sec-

he made i t s

Isaiah.

Feast

an e x c e l l e n t d i s c u s s i o n of how
and

can

still

I Kings 8:65

There were a number of subthemes t h a t flowed i n t o t h i s

still

stand.

s e t t i n g i n the

to Z i o n a New

added to t h a t evidence t h a t p l a c e s

Jeremias has

s i m i l a r to

Conquest, t h e r e were

W a r r i o r , would be v i c t o r i o u s and

inter-testamental

Isaiah

theme of f e a s t i n g i n v i c t o r y c e l e b r a t i o n was

commemorating Yahweh's promises to the D a v i d i c

f u n c t i o n of the New

function

of h i s abode.

many p o e t i c a l l u s i o n s to David would i n d i c a t e t h a t such a f e a s t

a l y p t i c movement.
The

we

when B a a l of Canaanite

v i c t o r i n h i s b a t t l e w i t h Yamm, completed the b u i l d -

ended.

( I s . 40:2)

was

Creation

passages l i k e i t .

gathered important p a r a l l e l s to t h i s theme.

ing

dawn of New

to

and

the Passover of the Vollendung, a l l stemming,

shout of v i c t o r y r a i s e d t o announce t h a t Jerusalem's warfare

The

f e a s t of the good

na-

Song i n
I t was

Testament are

The f a m i l i a r passage I s . 55:1-5 a l s o r e c e i v e d

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , r i g h t l y or wrongly, as the banquet
of David r e d i v i v u s
(so i n Rev. 22:17; c f . Ezek.
44:3.
Another c l a s s i c a l passage i s J e r . 31:10-14.)
And a whole k a l e i d o s c o p e of i d e a s , the streaming
of the n a t i o n s t o the e x a l t e d mountain of Zion ( I s .
2:2-4, Micah 4:1-4, Ps. 74:12-17, esp. v. 14, and
I s . 60.
See a l s o IQM 12:10-18), the f e e d i n g of
the f l o c k s (the c h i l d r e n of I s r a e l ) on the "heights
of I s r a e l , " (Ezek. 34:14-16), the h e a l i n g and
n o u r i s h i n g r i v e r s i s s u i n g from the New Temple on
i t s "very high mountain," (Ezek. 40:2; 47:1-12)
were woven i n t o a p o c a l y p t i c f a b r i c . . . I t comes as
no s u r p r i s e . . . . to d i s c o v e r these motives were a t
home among the Essenes.
(Note the d i s c u s s i o n of
4QPs 37 I I , 1 0 - 1 1 . )

periodize

i n Second I s a i a h .

servant,

From t h i s back-

to meals i n the New

suggests, from I s a i a h 25 and

Cross has

declare.

the cosmic mountain."

i n t e r p r e t e d : the b r i d a l f e a s t , the

immedi-

f o r c e of

B e f o r e they s p r i n g f o r t h , I
p r o c l a i m (them).

t u r e myth.

king.
the

"meal on

ground a l l the

Isaiah.

The

The

victorious

l i t e r a t u r e of Second I s a i a h ,

dimension.

a t e l y p r e c e d i n g a New

have here

p i c t u r e of the

much of

the

Testament l i t e r a t u r e grew out o f

the

1.
J . Jeremias, " H e i l s m a h l auf dem Weltenberge," J e s u
M i s s i o n fr die Vlker ( S t u t t g a r t : W. Kohlhammer V e r l a g , 1956),
pp. 51-62.
2.
Frank M . C r o s s , T h e A n c i e n t L i b r a r y
York: Anchor Books, 1961), pp. 91-92.

o f Qumran

(New

115

114
w i l d e r n e s s l i k e Eden, and her steppe l i k e the garden
(Is.

of Yahweh"

o r a c l e or an advanced

d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f p r o s o d i e s t y l e which

would p l a c e our c h a p t e r s l a t e i n Hanson's t y p o l o g y .

51:3) .
The themes of f e a s t and renewal o f s t e r i l e c r e a t i o n as

A s i x t h - c e n t u r y date i s not unreasonable.

em-

We

would p l a c e

ployed i n I s a i a h 24-27 flow n a t u r a l l y from the t h e o l o g y of Sec-

the e a r l i e r p o r t i o n s of the c h a p t e r s c l o s e r t o 587 B.C.,

ond I s a i a h .

fall

images was

As we have suggested above, the f o r c e o f t h e s e

so s t r o n g t h a t i t transformed the Song o f the V i n e -

y a r d , from a song d e s c r i b i n g judgment

new
of

creation

( I s . 27).

( I s . 5) t o one e x p r e s s i n g

The

of Jerusalem, than t o 520 B.C.,

author would be a d i s c i p l e of I s a i a h , one who

v i s i o n s f o r the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f

s t i n k i n g grapes.

B. The H i s t o r i c a l S e t t i n g o f I s a i a h 24-27

I t deserved n o t h i n g

more than t o be plowed i n t o the ground.

drawn w i t h I s r a e l , Yahweh's v i n e y a r d .
(mipt) but b e h o l d , bloodshed
{sadaqah),
In

but behold, a c r y

To move from the l i t e r a r y

Then the p a r a l l e l i s
"He

(mispah);

the h i s t o r i c a l

looked f o r j u s t i c e

stances.

f o r righteousness

i s p r o d u c i n g as i t ought

t o produce.

the F e a s t on the Mount and may

W i t h i n the

C r e a t i o n i s b u r s t i n g w i t h new

be c o n s i d e r e d a subtheme along

share i n the new

life.

found f e r t i l i t y

We

But h a v i n g e s t a b l i s h e d , on r e l a t i v e l y
what we b e l i e v e t o be the l i t e r a r y

24-27, we

are i n a p o s i t i o n , now,

historical

s i g h t s t o understand

literature

In

of

propose

t o o f f e r such a d i s c u s s i o n h e r e .

We

for

The

author emerges as

very much i n f l u e n c e d by the work o f Second I s a i a h .

For

one

that

reason, we would l a b e l the genre of I s a i a h 24-27 p r o t o - a p o c alyptic,

r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t as our knowledge o f the l i t e r a t u r e

the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d becomes more complete,

may

of

adjustments

have t o be made.
We would argue t h a t I s a i a h 26:11-27:6 i s t y p o l o g i c a l l y

l a t e r than I s a i a h 24:l-16a, 24:16b-25:9 and 26:1-8 and moving

in

the d i r e c t i o n o f what Hanson has d e s c r i b e d as e a r l y

alyptic.

But we

setting of

i n 24:14-18b o f the

identi-

14,

In the presence o f Yahweh

They shout from a f a r .

feel,

i n p a t t e r n , do e s t a b l i s h a l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t

us t o understand these c h a p t e r s .

we

They shout i n v i c t o r y .
They r a i s e t h e i r v o i c e .

however, the p r o s o d i e s t y l e o f I s a i a h 24-27 and i t s themes,

both s e p a r a t e l y and

from the p e r i o d i n which

litera-

a discussion

d i v i s i o n s between p r o t o - , e a r l y - and m i d d l e - a p o c a l y p t i c .

Nor do we

t o make some s u g g e s t i o n s as

Plger's r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the h i s t o r i c a l

f i c a t i o n o f the "they" i n v e r s e
study has not taken i n t o account enough o f the

objective

context of Isaiah

setting.

I s a i a h 24-27, he r a i s e d the problem

3. Genre and Date

Our

that

p l a c e the Apocalypse.

( I s . 27:12-13).

t u r e between Second I s a i a h and D a n i e l to j u s t i f y

setting

t o the ambiguity o f

O t t o Plger and P a u l Hanson have o f f e r e d some h e l p f u l i n -

New

are c a l l e d t o Zion t o

of c r e a t i o n

grounds,

to

the same f u n c t i o n as

w i t h the other themes f l o w i n g t o g e t h e r around t h i s image.

under the b e s t o f c i r c u m -

The number o f s u g g e s t i o n s f o r h i s t o r i c a l

the d a t a .

(85'aqah).

l i t u r g i c a l p a t t e r n , t h i s theme performed

context to a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of

setting i s d i f f i c u l t

have been made f o r I s a i a h 24-27 t e s t i f i e s

I s a i a h 27, however, Yahweh's w a t c h f u l c a r e of h i s v i n e -

yard, I s r a e l ,

shared i n h i s

Israel.

I s a i a h 5 e n v i s i o n s Yahweh's tender care

h i s v i n e y a r d , w a i t i n g and hoping f o r i t t o y i e l d good grapes

but i n s t e a d i t produced

the

the temple c o n t r o v e r s y .

apoc-

do not see e v i d e n c e o f the s a l v a t i o n - j u d g m e n t

the "we"

of v e r s e

16a,

From the ends of the e a r t h

We heard a song:
Honor to the J u s t One !
and the "I say" or p o s s i b l y

"one

s a y s " of v e r s e 16a

(we

trans-

l a t e as "some s a y " ) .
Some say, "I am wasted!"
"I am wasted! Oh, woe i s
He argued

me!"

t h e r e were two groups w i t h i n the p o s t - e x i l i c

Jewish community both o f whom shared a g e n e r a l e s c h a t o l o g i c a l

116

117

perspective.
cal

But

one

of the groups was

prophecy of the end

other.
who,

The

of the

"they" of verse

age

t a k i n g the

eschatologi-

much more s e r i o u s l y than

14 would r e f e r to the other

the

group

i n the eyes of the author, were r e j o i c i n g prematurely over

Yahweh's r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t
be

the

the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l end
traumatic
t h a t the
cal

event.

The

saw

of the

The

" I " o f 16b

would

wanted t o d r i v e home the p o i n t

of the
"we"

age was

of 16a

" I " d i d see h i m s e l f

perspective

what he

of h i s p e o p l e .

author h i m s e l f who

as

"they."

still

t o be

the b a s i c

But he was

and

"they" i n

eschatologi-

challenging

them i n

to be premature r e j o i c i n g over " p r e l i m i n a r y ,

pre-

e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e v e n t s " thereby d e t r a c t i n g from the r e a l eschat o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y o f Yahweh.

Plger argued t h a t "the

escha-

t o l o g i c a l l y d i s i n t e r e s t e d view...probably r e f l e c t s the p o s i t i o n
2
of the r u l i n g c l a s s e s and

e s p e c i a l l y the p r i e s t s . "

t o r i c a l work of the C h r o n i c l e r ,

The

his-

f o r i n s t a n c e , would come from

who

power s t r u g g l e

pattern
which we

a p p l i c a t i o n of the

have noted, i n d e p e n d e n t l y .

d i t i o n to t r a c i n g the

breakdown

Isaiah.
cal

not

to apply

The

to a l l I s r a e l .

In

P o s t - e x i l i c oppressive

the P e r s i a n

establishment,

p r o b a b l y t o be

la

No

of 24:2,

being

wherein p r i e s t and

celebrated,

perspective

2.

Ibid.,

3.

Hanson, D a w n ,

p.

76.
passim.

l a t e i n the

Apocalypse

an

the

histori-

N o t i n g the

formu-

and

sug-

c i t y , whose d e s t r u c t i o n
composition c o u l d

s i x t h century,

temple c o n t r o v e r s y

of 52 0.'

of the v i s i o n a r i e s , was

was

stem

perhaps from

the

Jerusalem, from

the

d e f i l e d , being

controlled

the h i e r o c r a t i c p a r t y which took c o n t r o l a f t e r r e t u r n i n g

26:1-8

c h a p t e r s i s e x c e l l e n t , to be
The

there

and

not
la

p l a c i n g I s a i a h 24-27 so

i s the p r o s o d i e

literary

The

12-14
2

compare the Apocalypse i s p r o s e .

c i t y as Jerusalem, but

that c l e a r .

The

reference

p a r a l l e l e d i n Hosea 4:9,
the

poetry

compared w i t h the best

i s an open c o n f l i c t between two

I s a i a h 24,

s t y l e of p a r t i c u l a r l y

26:1-8.

s t y l e of Zechariah

i d e n t i f y the d e s t r o y e d

from

tracing i t s

argument a g a i n s t

typology

I s a i a h 24:l-16a, 24:16b-25:9 and

suggests we

Israel.

l e a d e r , enjoyed f a v o r

strongest

l a t e i n the

t o which Hanson
We,

too, would

the evidence

parties within

to p r i e s t and

an e i g h t h - c e n t u r y

document.

spared i n the c u r r e n t d e s t r u c t i o n .

1.

Ibid.,

pp.

313-14.

2.

Ibid.,

pp.

314,

354-401.

that

Israel is

people i s a formu-

formula i s p a r t of a c a t a l o g u e g o o d

58.

of these
i n Second

In

poetic

s t y l e t h a t can be t r a c e d back to U g a r i t w h o s e p o i n t
none are b e i n g

Otto Plger, T h e o k r a t i e , p.

the

people are c o n t r a s t e d

he concludes, "the

from a p o i n t f a i r l y
p e r i o d of the

Isaiah.

an

e x p e r i e n c e d the B a b y l o n i a n e x i l e

1.

human instrument i s i n v o l v e d .

g e s t i n g Jerusalem as the destroyed

The

was

suggests Hanson,

i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the p r i e s t h o o d

places

argues t h a t the t i e s t o

1. I s a i a h 24:l-16a, 24:16b-25:9 and

leaders

p o s t - e x i l i c groups w i t h i n

u s i n g E z e k i e l as i t s s p i r i t u a l

He

ritual

ad-

I s r a e l were to succumb under Yahweh's renewed wrath.

emerging c o n f l i c t between two

One,

is

Salvation for Israel

salvation-judgment oracle r e f l e c t s ,

He

the

Second I s a i a h

Yahweh i s a t t a c k i n g the e n t i r e w o r l d , not

enemy.

the

Second Z e c h a r i a h .

p o e t r y , such as the use of b i c o l a and p o e t i c p a r a l l e l i s m , t o ward the use of prose as the v e h i c l e of a p o c a l y p t i c e x p r e s s i o n ,

he has i d e n t i f i e d the j u d g m e n t - s a l v a t i o n o r a c l e as a form
3

within

Israel.

p o l i t i c a l r e a l m have moved beyond t h a t encountered i n Second

of p o e t i c canons of Hebrew

unique t o the p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d .

however.

and

groups w i t h

c o n t e x t u a l - t y p o l o g i c a l method to

o r a c l e s of s o - c a l l e d T h i r d I s a i a h and

prob-

Zadokites i n the i n t e r n a l

v i a the r o y a l theology and

l a t e i n h i s typology,

from Babylon.

the

the e x i l e ,

t r a c e d t h e i r l i n e a g e back t o L e v i

over the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of

transmitted

l i t e r a t u r e of

f u r t h e r r e f i n e d the t h e s i s o f two

u s i n g Second I s a i a h as i t s

In d e a l i n g w i t h I s a i a h 24-27, Hanson r e c o g n i z e d

by

Daniel.

other,

s u f f e r e d a t the hands of the

such a group. One can, on the other hand, r e c o g n i z e a l a t e r

stage of the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l group i n the f u l l - b l o w n a p o c a l y p t i c
Hanson has

The

l e a d e r , remained i n P a l e s t i n e d u r i n g

a b l y i n c l u d e d p r i e s t s who

that

a future

connected w i t h the

sharing

l i n e a g e back t o Zadok.
spiritual

i s that

The

break

119

118
the emerging c o n f l i c t
w i t h h i s t o r y was

already

begun i n Second I s a i a h

(see

p o s t - e x i l i c period.
The

use

t h a t we
We

of the r e t u r n to chaos theme i s not

are l a t e i n the
suggest the

t h a t Hanson documents through the

early

41:16).
Yahweh was

preparing

his feast for a l l

necessarily a sign
people.

typology.

f o l l o w i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the

chapters,

A l l the kings

o f the e a r t h were being

t h i s r e t u r n to chaos t h a t was

to be

caught up

a p r e l u d e to a new

in

creation.

p l a c i n g t h e i r o r i g i n c l o s e r t o the d e s t r u c t i o n o f Jerusalem i n
587

B.C.

That event touched o f f a profound search

and

explanation.

stroyed?
was

The

myth.

Why

would Yahweh a l l o w h i s own

language a p p r o p r i a t e

The

theologians

of the day

witnesses i n the

l i t e r a t u r e of the p e r i o d

of mythic p a t t e r n s

events of the day.

in

and

to be

answers to t h e i r q u e s t i o n s .

the

One

a ground s w e l l i n the

r e - u s i n g mythic m a t e r i a l s

particularly

instrumental

p a t t e r n o f the D i v i n e W a r r i o r Hymn re-emerged w i t h i t s

f u l l power.

I t provided

an e x p l a n a t i o n

f o r the

destruction.

Chaos was

r e a s s e r t i n g i t s d e s t r u c t i v e power.

salem was

p a r t of the c o l l a p s e of c r e a t i o n , a r e t u r n to chaos.

The

sis.

D i v i n e W a r r i o r Hymn a l s o p r o v i d e d

The

fall

of

hope i n t h a t the

Jeru-

faithful

the t e n s i o n

earth;

the

Who

and

and

The

L e t Thy

a shuddering e a r t h .

From

t h i s mountain Yahweh would p r e p a r e a f e a s t f o r a l l p e o p l e s , a

f e a s t a t which the power of Death and

chaos would be

v i c t o r y would be

an e x p r e s s i o n

J u s t as Moab of o l d had

e n t r a n c e i n t o the
Note the

land,

so now

a p r o c e s s i o n a l hymn of

o f t h i s Second Conquest-Exodus
to be

conquered p r i o r t o

Moab would be

s i m i l a r symbolic use

the

l a i d waste by

of Edom i n I s a i a h 34

Yah-

and

We
and

would argue, then, t h a t I s a i a h 24:l-16a, 24:16b-25:9

26:1-8 were composed by a d i s c i p l e of I s a i a h .

He

the v i s i o n s of a r e s t o r e d I s r a e l w i t h Second I s a i a h .

tween the

leaders,
h e l d out,

The

power of myth t o see beyond the

by h i s t o r i c a l event was

t a k i n g h o l d , but we

limits

do not

as

yet.

judgment-salvation

or-

conclude t h a t I s a i a h

among I s a i a h ' s

to the d e s t r o y e d
trampled by

the

d i s c i p l e s , became

faithful,

c o u l d be

i n t o the e a r l i e r poems as the t e n s i o n s

and

the
As

Zion of f a i t h ,

however, f o r t h a t day

above, pp.

68-70.

wrath.

The

ele-

be-

increased.

f o r the

i t became d e f i l e d by

i t deserved Yahweh's c o n t i n u e d

26:
Yah-

c i t y o f a l i e n s , never

contending p a r t i e s i n p o s t - e x i l i c I s r a e l

See

Thy

period.

stored.
1.

"Let

evidence e a r l y s h i f t s i n the l i t -

imposed

see,

of

(26:19).

to become the

a r i e s , remained f a r a p a r t .

shared
did

the c i t y

Jerusalem o f r e a l i t y

He

move beyond the v i s i o n of the events t a k i n g p l a c e w i t h i n p l a i n

history.

rebuilt,

reference

ments i n t r o d u c e d

The

63.

s a l v a t i o n may

weh's v i c t o r y , as p e r c e i v e d

to be

leaders

were s u f f e r -

added to the e a r l i e r o r a c l e s as the delay o f

The

were

material

s a l v a t i o n j o i n i n the Song of

Based on the evidence above, we

apparent.

poet
who

j u g g l i n g o f o l d e r forms around the themes

toward what was

11-27:6 was
o r a c l e a g a i n s t Moab f o l l o w e d by

This

Whereas the

stage where the

the

(26:18).

to Yahweh f o r d e l i v e r a n c e :

corpses r i s e ! "

a c l e of the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c

consumed

forever.

weh.

erature

fallen"

t h e r e were p e o p l e who

themes of judgment and

of judgment and

h e l d even w i t h i n d e s c r i p t i o n s o f

f o r the v i c t o r y of

have not made f o r

Zadokite p r i e s t h o o d

not y e t reached the

they were a p p e a l i n g

dead l i v e !

victory.

Hope f o r v i c t o r y was

Were they the

I s r a e l were openly a t t a c k e d ,

the V i n e y a r d .

the d e v a s t a t e d c i t y , Jerusalem, and

" V i c t o r y we

were these " i n h a b i t a n t s of the world" t h a t the

r e a f f i r m h i s p o s i t i o n as k i n g on h i s mount, hence the shouts of

motif.

increased:

i n h a b i t a n t s of the w o r l d have not

of I s a i a h 26 has

c o u l d e n v i s i o n t h a t day when Yahweh, the W a r r i o r d e i t y , would

The

impatience of those w a i t i n g

has

assuming c o n t r o l of the p o s t - e x i l i c c u l t ?

ing

synthe-

In terms of c o n t e n t , though hard t o prove, i t seems t h a t

wishes were f a l l e n ?

The

noted

24ff.

There i s a l s o a mixing o f o l d e r forms to produce a new

t o i n t r e p r e t God's a c t i o n i n the

events.

We

e a r l i e r t h a t the prosody i s t y p o l o g i c a l l y l a t e r than

Yahweh's Day

images to i n t e r p r e t the t r a g i c

Second I s a i a h was

I s a i a h 26:11-27:6, however, i s another s t o r y .

de-

f o r meaning

reached f a r back i n t o

to d i s c o v e r

use

city

to such a search

t r a d i t i o n a l past

2. I s a i a h 26:11-27:6

f o r meaning

vision-

oppressive
hope

when I s r a e l would t r u l y be

was
re-

120

We

can w i t h r e a s o n a b l e c o n f i d e n c e date the e n t i r e ApocSELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHIES

a l y p s e t o the l a s t h a l f o f the s i x t h c e n t u r y B.C.

I t was

the y e a r s of e x i l e and s h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r t h a t the

apocalyptic

movement was
faith

born.

That movement was

in this

l i t e r a t u r e was

A. T e x t s , D i c t i o n a r i e s , and Grammars

t o a s s u r e t h a t the e p i c

of a n c i e n t I s r a e l would not be l o s t to h i s t o r y .

carried

in

The hope

to h e l p b r i n g about the r e s u r -

r e c t i o n o f a n a t i o n and e v e n t u a l l y the b i r t h o f a new

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