B.

TECH PROJECT REPORT

ON

Automatic Railway Crossing

Controller

By
:AKNASHA GAHLOT
(0832140001)
MANOJ SHARMA (0832140002)
MOHIT AGGRAWAL
(0837940004)
SOURABH TYAGI (0837940009)

CERTIFICATE

To whom it may concern

This is to certify that the work which is being presented in the project report title

Automatic Railway Crossing Controller in partial fulfillment for the

award of
the degree of B.Tech and submitted to the department of Mechanical Engineering,
TRANSLAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT,MEERUT is
an authentic record of the work carried out by MANOJ SHARMA, AKNASHU
GALHOT MOHIT AGGRAWAL & SOURABH TYAGI and during the
academic session 2008-2012. The matter presented in this report has not been
submitted by the candidates for the award of any other degree.

Mr.ABHISHEK GOEL

Mr.

K.M

AGARWAL
(Assistant Professor & Project Guide)

(Head of Department & Project

Coordinator project Coordinator)

M.E Deptt.

M.E. Deptt.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to Mr.Abhishek goel, Asst. Lecturer, Mech.

Department, TITM Mawana road Meerut

encouragement and

guidance during the preparation of this work.

We express our sincere gratitude to Dr.K.M Aggrawal, H.O.D.,

M.E

Department,

Translam

Institute

of

Technology

&

Management, Meerut for his invaluable suggestions and

constructive criticism regarding this report.

Last but not the least, we are thankful to all those who helped
us in any way to prepare this report.

Mr. HARIOM TRIPATHI

Mr. ANIL JOSI
Mr. ANUPAM Kumar
3

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION

PLATFORM USED

AIM OF THE PROJECT

BLOCK DIAGRAM

WORKING OF THE PROJECT

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

COMPONENT LIST

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
4

 PCB LAYOUT

STEPS FOR MAKING PCB

SENSING UNIT DESCRIPTION

COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION

CONCLUSION

REFERENCE

INTRODUCTION

In his generation everything is going to be automated human involvement is going to

decreases. Technology is growing day by day using the embedded system designing
here we have designed Automatic railway crossing which is a embedded system based
design, embedded system is a combination of hardware and software it functioning is
based on the microcontroller .In this project the railway barrier automatically close
when the train is few Kilometer away from the barrier and automatically gets open
when the train crosses that barrier and goes few Kilometer ahead of it.

PLATFORM USED

Hardware requirements:
1) LM7805

Regulator

2) Resistors
3) Capacitors
4) Transistors
5) Connectors
6) IR Sensor
7) BUZZER
8) Liquid crystal display
9) PCB developing equipments

AIM OF THE
PROJECT

The Aim of this project is to design an automatic railway crossing system by using
controller and Pressure sensor ,Pressure sensor is used for finding the distance of the
train ,at a fixed distance these sensor is placed whenever a train passes it ,Ir transmitter
generate a low signal pulse that is received by the controller ,passes to the circuit which
give us the information about the train .when train if few k.m away from the barrier the
barrier will closes and after train crosses it ,the barrier open and allow the traffic to
cross it . This system is reliable and much effective then the previous railway crossing
system in which a human has to be involve all the time, this system work also when
their will be no person to operate the barriers opening and closing .

10

BLOCK DIAGRAM

11

POWER
SUPPLY

PRESSURE
SENSOR
PIC
CONTROLLER

Motor to
control barrier

DISPLAY
ON LCD

Buzzer

12

WORKING OF THE
PROJECT

13

Here we are using a microcontroller ,PRESSURE sensor ,relay ,motor and LCD for
proper functioning of the system .we are presenting a model of the system in which we
are using a toy train which representing the actual train .we have placed three sensor
at fixed distance along the track whenever the train crosses it and sensor press ,the pulse
that it is giving to the microcontroller initially, changes from high to low this low pulse
is applied to the pin of the microcontroller on sensing this pin microcontroller run the
buzzer and display the distance of the train ,the distance display will be the distance
loaded by programmer during programming of the microcontroller when it crossed the
IR sensor at which is 3 Km away from the barrier ,the microcontroller sense it and it
turn on a relay which turn on a motor and the barriers closes, H bridge is used here for
changing the direction of rotation of motor because it has to rotate in opposite direction
for closing the barrier when train crosses it .

14

CIRCUIT
DIAGRAM

15

Attach the hard

copy of the ckt
diagram
16

CIRCUIT
DESCRIPTION

17

POWER SUPPLY SECTION:

Consists of:
1.

RLMT Connector--- It is a connector used to connect the step

down transformer
to the bridge rectifier.

2.

Bridge Rectifier --- It is a full wave rectifier used to convert

ac into dc , 9-15v ac made by transformer is converted into dc
with the help of rectifier.

3.

Capacitor:
-----It is an electrolytic capacitor of rating
1000M/35V used to remove the ripples. Capacitor is the
component used to pass the ac and block the dc.

4.

Regulator: ----LM7805 is used to give a fixed 5v regulated

supply.

5.

Capacitor: -----It is again an electrolytic capacitor 10M/65v

used for filtering to give pure dc.

18

6.

Capacitor: ----- It is an ceramic capacitor used to remove the

spikes generated when frequency is high(spikes).
So the output of supply section is 5v regulated dc.

MICROCONTROLLER

SECTION:

Requires three connections to be successfully done for its

operation to begin.
1.

+5v supply: This +5v supply is required for the controller to

get start which is provided from the power supply section. This
supply is provided at pin no.31and 40 of the 89c51 controller.

2.

Crystal Oscillator: A crystal oscillator of 12 MHz is connected

at pin no.19,x1 and pin no.18,x2 to generate the frequency for
the controller. The crystal oscillator works on piezoelectric
effect.The clock generated is used to determine the processing
speed of the controller. Two capacitors are also connected one
end with the oscillator while the other end is connected with the
ground. As it is recommended in the book to connect two
ceramic capacitor of 20 pf40pf to stabilize the clock
generated.

19

3.

Reset section:
It consists of an rc network consisting of
10M/35V capacitor and one resistance of 1k. This section is used
to reset the controller connected at pin no.9 of AT89c51.

DISPLAY SECTION:
LCD (LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY)

MICROCONTROLLER BASED LCD DISPLAY ,this project is an embedded project . Embedded is the
combination of software and hardware before designing any embedded project it is the first step to design the
proper hardware for the desired application. Here we are interfacing the LCD, LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY
with the Microcontroller, we are using ATMEL series 51 controller 89c51 controller. It is a 40 pin IC, the first
step while designing hardware is to design the required power supply as the controller operates on +5 v supply
so first we have to design the regulated supply with the help of transformer, regulator and filtering capacitor.
Next step is the necessary connections of the controller like reset and the crystal oscillator for resetting and
speed respectively.
Then comes the LCD interfacing ,we are using 16x2 LCD for display, pin no. 7 to 14 are the data lines of the
LCD which has to be interfaced with the microcontroller input/output pins. Port p0 has been used for the
interfacing of data lines.
20

Since the display becomes very easy when we use microcontroller hence we have made this project and we
have tried to show different display using the switch.

RELAY SECTION:
RELAY is an isolator and an electrical switch. The relay used is 12V5A.To control the operation of relay an NPN transistor BC547 has
been used. Whenever high signal comes at the base of NPN transistor
it is switched on and whenever low arrives it is switched off. Base of
the transistor is connected with the I/O pin of the microcontroller.
Base resistance of 1k5 is connected at the base of the transistor.
Whenever low is sensed at the pin of microcontroller transistor gets
off and the output of the collector becomes high and the relay which
is connected at the output of the collector becomes off. The reverse
action of it takes place when high is sensed at the pin of
microcontroller.

This section also consists of pull up & pull down resistance. A 2k2
resistance is used as pull up. In any case when more than 5v comes
then pull up resistance sinks the excess voltage & maintains 5v. If
pull up is not used then the 12v of relay can damage the processor
when the transistor BC547 is on. A pull down resistor of value 2k2 is
also used.

BUZZER SECTION:
This section includes a buzzer as well as a resistance to limit the
current. The buzzer operates in the range of 20-25mA. The voltage
given to the buzzer is 5v and also the buzzer can operate between
3V-24V. The resistance used is calculated by using the ohms law.
Buzzer is an indicating device which is used for checking the software
condition and also used for indicating any specific condition.
21

PCB LAYOUT
22

Attach the hard

copy of the
component layout

23

Attach the hard

copy of the pcb
layout

24

STEPS FOR
MAKING PCB

25

 Prepare the layout of the circuit (positive).

Cut the photo film (slightly bigger) of the size of the layout.

Place the layout in the photo printer machine with the photo film above
it. Make sure that the bromide (dark) side of the film is in contact with
the layout.

Switch on the machine by pressing the push button for 5 sec.

Dip the film in the solution prepared (developer) by mixing the
chemicals A & B in equal quantities in water.
Now clean the film by placing it in the tray containing water for 1 min.
After this, dip the film in the fixer solution for 1 min. now the negative of
the
Circuit is ready.
Now wash it under the flowing water.
Dry the negative in the photocure machine.
Take the PCB board of the size of the layout and clean it with steel wool
to make the surface smooth.
Now dip the PCB in the liquid photoresist, with the help of dip coat
machine.
26

 Now clip the PCB next to the negative in the photo cure machine, drying
for approximate 10-12 minute.
Now place the negative on the top of the PCB in the UV machine, set the
timer for about 2.5 minute and switch on the UV light at the top.
Take the LPR developer in a container and rigorously move the PCB in it.
After this, wash it with water very gently.
Then apply LPR dye on it with the help of a dropper so that it is
completely covered by it.
Now clamp the PCB in the etching machine that contains ferric chloride
solution for about 10 minutes.
After etching, wash the PCB with water, wipe it a dry cloth softly.
Finally rub the PCB with a steel wool, and the PCB is ready.

27

MICROCONTROLLER AT89C51

Features
Compatible with MCS-51 Products
8K Bytes of In-System Re programmable Flash Memory
Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles
Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz
Three-level Program Memory Lock
256 x 8-bit Internal RAM
32 Programmable I/O Lines
Three 16-bit Timer/Counters
Eight Interrupt Sources
Programmable Serial Channel
Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

28

COMPONENTS
DESCRIPTION

29

Liquid crystal display(LCD)

A liquid crystal display (commonly abbreviated LCD) is a thin, flat
display device made up of any number of color or monochrome pixels
arrayed in front of a light source or reflector. It is prized by engineers
because it uses very small amounts of electric power, and is therefore
suitable for use in battery-powered electronic devices. Each pixel of
an LCD consists of a layer of perpendicular molecules aligned
between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the
axes of polarity of which are perpendicular to each other. With no
liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through one
filter would be blocked by the electrodes. The surfaces of the
electrodes that are in contact with the liquid crystal material are
treated so as to align the liquid crystal molecules in a particular
direction. This treatment typically consists of a thin polymer layer
that is unidirectional rubbed using a cloth (the direction of the liquid
crystal alignment is defined by the direction of rubbing). Before
applying an electric field, the orientation of the liquid crystal
molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces. In a
twisted nomadic device (the most common liquid crystal device), the
surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular,
and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure, or
twist. Because the liquid crystal material is birefringent, light passing
30

through one polarizing filter is rotated by the liquid crystal helix as it

passes through the liquid crystal layer, allowing it to pass through the
second polarized filter. Half of the light is absorbed by the first
polarizing filter, but otherwise the entire assembly is transparent.
When a voltage is applied across the electrodes, a torque acts to
align the liquid crystal molecules parallel to the electric field,
distorting the helical structure (this is resisted by elastic forces since
the molecules are constrained at the surfaces). This reduces the
rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and the device
appears gray. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal
molecules are completely untwisted and the polarization of the
incident light is not rotated at all as it passes through the liquid
crystal layer. This light will then be polarized perpendicular to the
second filter, and thus be completely blocked and the pixel will
appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid
crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in
varying amounts, correspondingly illuminating the pixel. With a
twisted nematic liquid crystal device it is usual to operate the device
between crossed polarizers, such that it appears bright with no
applied voltage. With this setup, the dark voltage-on state is uniform.
The device can be operated between parallel polarizers, in which case
the bright and dark states are reversed.

Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material
contain ionic compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity
31

is applied for a long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to

the surfaces and degrades the device performance. This is avoided by
applying either an alternating current, or by reversing the polarity of
the electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid
crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied
field). When a large number of pixels is required in a display, it is not
feasible to drive each directly since then each pixel would require
independent electrodes. Instead, the display is multiplexed. In a
multiplexed display, electrodes on one side of the display are grouped
and wired together (typically in columns), and each group gets its
own voltage source. On the other side, the electrodes are also
grouped (typically in rows), with each group getting a voltage sink.
The groups are designed so each pixel has a unique, unshared
combination of source and sink. The electronics or the software
driving the electronics then turns on sinks in sequence, and drives
sources for the pixels of each sink.

32

Figure 20:LCD Pictorial View

2.5.1

LCD Standards

Frequently, an 8051 program must interact with the outside world using input and
output devices that communicate directly with a human being. One of the most common
devices attached to an 8051 is an LCD display. Some of the most common LCDs
connected to the 8051 are 16x2 and 20x2 displays. This means 16 characters per line by
2 lines and 20 characters per line by 2 lines, respectively. Fortunately, a very popular
standard exists which allows us to communicate with the vast majority of LCDs
regardless of their manufacturer. The standard is referred to as HD44780U, which refers
to the controller chip which receives data from an external source (in this case, the
8051) and communicates directly with the LCD.
2.5.2

44780 Standard

The 44780 standard requires 3 control lines as well as either 4 or 8 I/O lines for the data
bus. The user may select whether the LCD is to operate with a 4-bit data bus or an 8-bit
data bus. If a 4-bit data bus is used the LCD will require a total of 7 data lines (3 control
lines plus the 4 lines for the data bus). If an 8-bit data bus is used the LCD will require a
total of 11 data lines (3 control lines plus the 8 lines for the data bus).
The three control lines are referred to as EN, RS, and RW.
The EN line is called "Enable." This control line is used to tell the LCD that you are
sending it data. To send data to the LCD, your program should make sure this line is
low (0) and then set the other two control lines and/or put data on the data bus. When
the other lines are completely ready, bring EN high (1) and wait for the minimum
33

amount of time required by the LCD datasheet (this varies from LCD to LCD), and end
by bringing it low (0) again.
The RS line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0), the data is to be treated as
a command or special instruction (such as clear screen, position cursor, etc.). When RS
is high (1), the data being sent is text data which sould be displayed on the screen. For
example, to display the letter "T" on the screen you would set RS high.
The RW line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RW is low (0), the information on
the data bus is being written to the LCD. When RW is high (1), the program is
effectively querying (or reading) the LCD. Only one instruction ("Get LCD status") is a
read command. All others are write commands--so RW will almost always be low.
Finally, the data bus consists of 4 or 8 lines (depending on the mode of operation
selected by the user). In the case of an 8-bit data bus, the lines are referred to as DB0,
DB1, DB2, DB3, DB4, DB5, DB6, and DB7.

Transformers
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another by
magnetic coupling without requiring relative motion between its parts. It usually
comprises two or more coupled windings, and, in most cases, a core to concentrate
magnetic flux. A transformer operates from the application of an alternating voltage to
one winding, which creates a time-varying magnetic flux in the core. This varying flux
induces a voltage in the other windings. Varying the relative number of turns between
primary and secondary windings determines the ratio of the input and output voltages,
thus transforming the voltage by stepping it up or down between circuits.
Basic principle

The principles of the transformer are illustrated by consideration of a hypothetical ideal

transformer consisting of two windings of zero resistance around a core of negligible
reluctance. A voltage applied to the primary winding causes a current, which develops a
magneto motive force (MMF) in the core. The current required to create the MMF is

34

termed the magnetizing current; in the ideal transformer it is considered to be

negligible. The MMF drives flux around the magnetic circuit of the core.

Figure 26: The ideal transformer as a circuit element

An electromotive force (EMF) is induced across each winding, an effect known as

mutual inductance. The windings in the ideal transformer have no resistance and
so the EMFs are equal in magnitude to the measured terminal voltages. In
accordance with Faraday's law of induction, they are proportional to the rate of
change of flux:

and

Equation 7: EMF induced in primary and secondary windings

where:
and
and

are the induced EMFs across primary and secondary windings,

are the numbers of turns in the primary and secondary windings,

35

and
windings.

are the time derivatives of the flux linking the primary and secondary

In the ideal transformer, all flux produced by the primary winding also links the secondary,
and so

, from which the well-known transformer equation follows:

Equation 8: Transformer Equation

The ratio of primary to secondary voltage is therefore the same as the ratio of the number
of turns; alternatively, that the volts-per-turn is the same in both windings. The conditions
that determine Transformer working in STEP UP or STEP DOWN mode are:

Ns > Np
Equation 9: Conditon for STEP UP

Ns < Np
Equation 10: Conditon for STEP DOWN

Rectifier
A bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four diodes connected in a bridge circuit
as shown below, that provides the same polarity of output voltage for any polarity
of the input voltage. When used in its most common application, for conversion of
alternating current (AC) input into direct current (DC) output, it is known as a
bridge rectifier. The bridge rectifier provides full wave rectification from a two wire
AC input (saving the cost of a center tapped transformer) but has two diode drops
rather than one reducing efficiency over a center tap based design for the same
output voltage.

36

Figure 9: Schematic of a bridge rectifier

The essential feature of this arrangement is that for both polarities of the voltage at the
bridge input, the polarity of the output is constant.

Basic Operation
When the input connected at the left corner of the diamond is positive with respect to the
one connected at the right hand corner, current flows to the right along the upper colored
path to the output, and returns to the input supply via the lower one.

When the right hand corner is positive relative to the left hand corner, current flows along
the upper colored path and returns to the supply via the lower colored path.

37

Figure 10: AC, half-wave and full wave rectified signals

In each case, the upper right output remains positive with respect to the lower right one.
Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only produces DC power
when supplied with AC power: it also can provide what is sometimes called "reverse
polarity protection". That is, it permits normal functioning when batteries are installed
backwards or DC input-power supply wiring "has its wires crossed" (and protects the
circuitry it powers against damage that might occur without this circuit in place).
38

Prior to availability of integrated electronics, such a bridge rectifier was always constructed
from discrete components. Since about 1950, a single four-terminal component containing
the four diodes connected in the bridge configuration became a standard commercial
component and is now available with various voltage and current ratings.
2.2.2 Output Smoothing
For many applications, especially with single phase AC where the full-wave bridge serves
to convert an AC input into a DC output, the addition of a capacitor may be important
because the bridge alone supplies an output voltage of fixed polarity but pulsating
magnitude.

Figure 11: Bridge Rectifier with smoothen output

The function of this capacitor, known as a 'smoothing capacitor' (see also filter
capacitor) is to lessen the variation in (or 'smooth') the raw output voltage
waveform from the bridge. One explanation of 'smoothing' is that the capacitor
provides a low impedance path to the AC component of the output, reducing the
AC voltage across, and AC current through, the resistive load. In less technical
terms, any drop in the output voltage and current of the bridge tends to be
cancelled by loss of charge in the capacitor. This charge flows out as additional
current through the load. Thus the change of load current and voltage is reduced
relative to what would occur without the capacitor. Increases of voltage
correspondingly store excess charge in the capacitor, thus moderating the change
in output voltage / current.

The capacitor and the load resistance have a typical time constant = RC where C
and R are the capacitance and load resistance respectively. As long as the load
resistor is large enough so that this time constant is much longer than the time of
39

one ripple cycle, the above configuration will produce a well smoothed DC voltage
across the load resistance. In some designs, a series resistor at the load side of the
capacitor is added. The smoothing can then be improved by adding additional
stages of capacitorresistor pairs, often done only for sub-supplies to critical highgain circuits that tend to be sensitive to supply voltage noise.
Voltage Regulators
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a
constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active
electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more
AC or DC voltages. With the exception of shunt regulators, all voltage regulators operate
by comparing the actual output voltage to some internal fixed reference voltage. Any
difference is amplified and used to control the regulation element. This forms a negative
feedback servo control loop. If the output voltage is too low, the regulation element is
commanded to produce a higher voltage. For some regulators if the output voltage is too
high, the regulation element is commanded to produce a lower voltage; however, many
just stop sourcing current and depend on the current draw of whatever it is driving to pull
the voltage back down. In this way, the output voltage is held roughly constant. The
control loop must be carefully designed to produce the desired tradeoff between stability
and speed of response.

2.4.1

LM317 (3-Terminal Adjustable Regulator)

Description
The LM317 is an adjustable three-terminal positive-voltage regulator capable of supplying
more than 1.5 A over an output-voltage range of 1.2 V to 37 V. It is exceptionally easy to
use and requires only two external resistors to set the output voltage. Furthermore, both
line and load regulation are better than standard fixed regulators. The LM317 is packaged
in the KC (TO-220AB) and KTE packages, which are easy to handle and use. In addition to
having higher performance than fixed regulators, this device includes on-chip current
limiting, thermal overload protection, and safe-operating-area protection. All overload
protection remains fully functional, even if the ADJUST terminal is disconnected.

40

Figure 16: TOP IC view of LM 317

The LM317 is versatile in its applications, including uses in programmable output

regulation and local on-card regulation. Or, by connecting a fixed resistor between the
ADJUST and OUTPUT terminals, the LM317 can function as a precision current regulator. An
optional output capacitor can be added to improve transient response. The ADJUST
terminal can be bypassed to achieve very high ripple-rejection ratios, which are difficult to
achieve with standard three-terminal regulators. The LM317 is characterized for operation
over the
virtual junction temperature range of 0C to 125C.

RELAYS

41

Circuit symbol for a

relay

A relay is an electrically operated

switch. Current flowing through
the coil of the relay creates a
magnetic field, which attracts a
lever and changes the switch
contacts. The coil current can be
on or off so relays have two
switch positions and they are
double
throw
(changeover)
switches.
Relays allow one circuit to switch
Relays
a second circuit that can be
completely separate from the first.
Photographs Rapid Electronics For example a low voltage battery
circuit can use a relay to switch a
230V AC mains circuit. There is
no electrical connection inside the
relay between the two circuits, the
link is magnetic and mechanical.
The coil of a relay passes a
relatively large current, typically
30mA for a 12V relay, but it can
be as much as 100mA for relays
designed to operate from lower
voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot
provide this current and a
transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value required for
42

the relay coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so
these devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification.
Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch
contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available.
For further information about switch contacts and the terms used to describe them
please see the page on switches.
Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to the pins
providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay.
The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil will be
obvious and it may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high
voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in
the circuit. To prevent damage you must connect a protection diode across the relay
coil.
The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can
see a lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This
lever moves the switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground
and another behind them, making the relay DPDT.
The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:
COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch.
NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay
coil is on.
Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay
coil is off.

43

Crystal Oscillator
It is often required to produce a signal whose frequency or pulse rate is very stable and
exactly known. This is important in any application where anything to do with time or
exact measurement is
crucial. It is relatively simple to make an oscillator that produces some sort of a signal,
but another matter to produce one of relatively precise frequency and stability. AM
radio stations must have a carrier frequency accurate within 10Hz of its assigned
frequency, which may be from 530 to 1710 kHz. SSB radio systems used in the HF
range (2-30 MHz) must be within 50 Hz of channel frequency for acceptable voice
quality, and within 10 Hz for best results. Some digital modes used in weak signal
communication may require frequency stability of less than 1 Hz within a period of
several minutes. The carrier frequency must be known to fractions of a hertz in some
cases. An ordinary quartz watch must have an oscillator accurate to better than a few
parts per million. One part per million will result in an error of slightly less than one
half second a day, which would be about 3 minutes a year. This might not sound like
much, but an error of 10 parts per million would result in an error of about a half an
hour per year. A clock such as this would need resetting about once a month, and more
often if you are the punctual type. A programmed VCR with a clock this far off could
miss the recording of part of a TV show. Narrow band SSB communications at VHF
and UHF frequencies still need 50 Hz frequency accuracy. At 440 MHz, this is slightly
more than 0.1 part per million.
Ordinary L-C oscillators using conventional inductors and capacitors can achieve
typically 0.01 to 0.1 percent frequency stability, about 100 to 1000 Hz at 1 MHz. This is
OK for AM and FM broadcast receiver applications and in other low-end analog
receivers not requiring high tuning accuracy. By careful design and component
selection, and with rugged mechanical construction, .01 to 0.001%, or even better
(.0005%) stability can be achieved. The better figures will undoubtedly employ
44

temperature compensation components and regulated power supplies, together with

environmental control (good ventilation and ambient temperature regulation) and
battleship mechanical construction. This has been done in some communications
receivers used by the military and commercial HF communication receivers built in the
1950-1965 era, before the widespread use of digital frequency synthesis. But these
receivers were extremely expensive, large, and heavy. Many modern consumer grade
AM, FM, and shortwave receivers employing crystal controlled digital frequency
synthesis will do as well or better from a frequency stability standpoint.
An oscillator is basically an amplifier and a frequency selective feedback network (Fig
1). When, at a particular frequency, the loop gain is unity or more, and the total phase
shift at this frequency is zero, or some multiple of 360 degrees, the condition for
oscillation is satisfied, and the circuit will produce a periodic waveform of this
frequency. This is usually a sine wave, or square wave, but triangles, impulses, or other
waveforms can be produced. In fact, several different waveforms often are
simultaneously produced by the same circuit, at different points. It is also possible to
have several frequencies produced as well, although this is generally undesirable.

CAPACITOR
A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of
conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When a potential difference (voltage)
exists across the conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores
energy and produces a mechanical force between the conductors. The effect is greatest
when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor
conductors are often called plates.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is
measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the
potential difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a
small amount of leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent
series resistance and the dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a
breakdown voltage.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits to block the flow of direct current
while allowing alternating current to pass, to filter out interference, to smooth the output
of power supplies, and for many other purposes. They are used in resonant circuits in
45

radio frequency equipment to select particular frequencies from a signal with many
frequencies.

Theory of operation

Main article: Capacitance

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal

electric field. A dielectric (orange) reduces the field and increases the
capacitance.

46

A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region.The nonconductive substance is called the dielectric medium, although this may also mean a
vacuum or a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A
capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and
no influence from an external electric field. The conductors thus contain equal and
opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric contains an electric field.
The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits.
An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the
ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them

Sometimes charge buildup affects the mechanics of the capacitor, causing the
capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each
conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.
Work must be done by an external influence to move charge between the conductors in
a capacitor. When the external influence is removed, the charge separation persists and
energy is stored in the electric field. If charge is later allowed to return to its equilibrium
position, the energy is released. The work done in establishing the electric field, and
hence the amount of energy stored, is given by:

RESISTOR
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Resistors are used to limit the value of current in a circuit. Resistors offer opposition to
the flow of current. They are expressed in ohms for which the symbol is . Resistors
are broadly classified as
(1) Fixed Resistors
(2) Variable Resistors

Fixed Resistors :
The most common of low wattage, fixed type resistors is the molded-carbon
composition resistor. The resistive material is of carbon clay composition. The leads are
made of tinned copper. Resistors of this type are readily available in value ranging from
few ohms to about 20M, having a tolerance range of 5 to 20%.

They are quite inexpensive. The relative size of all fixed

resistors changes with the wattage rating.
Another variety of carbon composition resistors is the metalized type. It is
made by deposition a homogeneous film of pure carbon over a glass, ceramic
or other insulating core. This type of film-resistor is sometimes called the
precision type, since it can be obtained with an accuracy of 1%.
Lead
Colour Coding

Tinned Copper Material

Molded Carbon Clay Composition

Fixed Resistor
A Wire Wound Resistor :
It uses a length of resistance wire, such as macram. This wire is wounded on to a round
hollow porcelain core. The ends of the winding are attached to these metal pieces
inserted in the core. Tinned copper wire leads are attached to these metal pieces. This
assembly is coated with an enamel coating powdered glass. This coating is very smooth
48

and gives mechanical protection to winding. Commonly available wire wound resistors
have resistance values ranging from 1 to 100K, and wattage rating up to about
200W.

Coding Of Resistor :
Some resistors are large enough in size to have their resistance printed on the body.
However there are some resistors that are too small in size to have numbers printed on
them. Therefore, a system of color coding is used to indicate their values. For fixed,
mounded composition resistor four color bands are printed on one end of the outer
casing. The color bands are always read left to right from the end that has the bands
closest to it. The first and second band represents the first and second significant digits,
of the resistance value. The third band is for the number of zeros that follow the second
digit. In case the third band is gold or silver, it represents a multiplying factor of 0.1to
0.01. The fourth band represents the manufactures tolerance.

RESISTOR COLOUR CHART

0 black

0 black

0 black

0 black

1 brown

1 brown

1 brown

1 brown

2 red

2 red

2 red

2 red

3 orange

3 orange

3 orange

3 orange

4 yellow

4 yellow

4 yellow

4 yellow

5 green
6 blue

6 blue

5 green
6 blue

5 green
6 blue

7 purple

7 purple

7 purple

7 purple

8 silver

8
silver
5 green

8 silver

8 silver

9 white

9 white

9 white

9 white

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For example, if a resistor has a color band sequence: yellow,

violet, orange and gold
Then its range will be

Yellow=4, violet=7, orange=10,

gold=5% =47K 5% =2.35K

Most resistors have 4 bands:

The first band gives the first digit.
The second band gives the second digit.
The third band indicates the number of zeros.
The fourth band is used to show the tolerance (precision)
of the resistor.

This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands.
So its value is 270000 = 270 k .
The standard color code cannot show values of less than 10 . To show these small
values two special colors are used for the third band: gold, which means 0.1 and
silver which means 0.01. The first and second bands represent the digits as
normal.

For example:
red, violet, gold bands represent 27 0.1 = 2.7
blue, green, silver bands represent 56 0.01 = 0.56
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The fourth band of the colour code shows the tolerance of a resistor. Tolerance is
the precision of the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For example a 390
resistor with a tolerance of 10% will have a value within 10% of 390 , between
390 - 39 = 351 and 390 + 39 = 429 (39 is 10% of 390).

A special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance:

silver 10%, gold 5%, red 2%, brown 1%.
If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is 20%.
VARIABLE RESISTOR: In electronic circuits, sometimes it
becomes necessary to adjust the values of currents and
voltages. For n example it is often desired to change the
volume of sound, the brightness of a television picture etc.
Such adjustments can be done by using variable resistors.
Although the variable resistors are usually called rheostats in
other applications, the smaller variable resistors commonly used
in electronic circuits are called potentiometers.

TRANSISTORS
A transistor is an active device. It consists of two PN junctions
formed by sandwiching either p-type or n-type semiconductor
between a pair of opposite types.
There are two types of transistor:
1. n-p-n transistor
2. p-n-p transistor

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An n-p-n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors

separated by a thin section of p-type. However a p-n-p type
semiconductor is formed by two p-sections separated by a
thin section of n-type.
Transistor has two pn junctions one junction is forward biased
and other is reversed biased. The forward junction has a low
resistance path whereas a reverse biased junction has a high
resistance path.
The weak signal is introduced in the low resistance circuit and
output is taken from the high resistance circuit. Therefore a
transistor transfers a signal from a low resistance to high
resistance.
Transistor has three sections of doped semiconductors. The
section on one side is emitter and section on the opposite side
is collector. The middle section is base.
Emitter : The section on one side that supplies charge
carriers is called emitter. The emitter is always forward biased
w.r.t. base.

52

Collector : The section on the other side that collects the

charge is called collector. The collector is always reversed
biased.
Base : The middle section which forms two pn-junctions
between the emitter and collector is called base.

A transistor raises the strength of a weak signal and thus acts

as an amplifier. The weak signal is applied between emitterbase junction and output is taken across the load Rc
connected in the collector circuit. The collector current flowing
through a high load resistance Rc produces a large voltage
across it. Thus a weak signal applied in the input appears in
the amplified form in the collector circuit.

Heat sink

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Waste heat is produced in transistors due to the current flowing through them. Heat
sinks are needed for power transistors because they pass large currents. If you find that
a transistor is becoming too hot to touch it certainly needs a heat sink! The heat sink
helps to dissipate (remove) the heat by transferring it to the surrounding air.

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CONNECTORS
Connectors are basically used for interface between two. Here we use connectors for
having interface between PCB and 8051 Microprocessor Kit.
There are two types of connectors they are male and female. The
one, which is with pins inside, is female and other is male.
These connectors are having bus wires with them for connection.
For high frequency operation the average circumference of a coaxial
cable must be limited to about one wavelength, in order to reduce
multimodal propagation and eliminate erratic reflection coefficients,
power losses, and signal distortion. The standardization of coaxial
connectors during World War II was mandatory for microwave
operation to maintain a low reflection coefficient or a low voltage
standing wave ratio.

Seven types of microwave coaxial connectors are as

follows:
1.APC-3.5
2.APC-7
3.BNC
4.SMA
5.SMC
6.TN
7.Type N

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LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)

A junction diode, such as LED, can emit light or exhibit electro luminescence. Electro luminescence is
obtained by injecting minority carriers into the region of a p-n junction where radioactive transition takes
place. In radioactive transition, there is a transition of electron from the conduction band to the valence
band, which is made possibly by emission of a photon. Thus, emitted light comes from the hole electron
recombination. What is required is that electrons should make a transition from higher energy level to
lower energy level releasing photon of wavelength corresponding to the energy difference associated
with this transition. In LED the supply of high-energy electron is provided by forward biasing the diode,
thus injecting electrons into the n-region and holes into p-region.
The pn junction of LED is made from heavily doped material. On forward bias condition, majority
carriers from both sides of the junction cross the potential barrier and enter the opposite side where they
are then minority carrier and cause local minority carrier population to be larger than normal. This is
termed as minority injection. These excess minority carrier diffuse away from the junction and
recombine with majority carriers.
In LED, every injected electron takes part in a radioactive recombination and hence gives rise to an
emitted photon. Under reverse bias no carrier injection takes place and consequently no photon is
emitted. For direct transition from conduction band to valence band the emission wavelength.
In practice, every electron does not take part in radioactive recombination and hence, the efficiency of
the device may be described in terms of the quantum efficiency which is defined as the rate of emission
of photons divided by the rate of supply of electrons. The number of radioactive recombination, that take
place, is usually proportional to the carrier injection rate and hence to the total current flowing.

LED Materials:
One of the first materials used for LED is Ga As. This is a direct band gap material, i.e.,
it exhibits very high probability of direct transition of electron from conduction band to
valence band. GaAs has E= 1.44 eV. This works in the infrared region.
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GaP and GaAsP are higher band gap materials. Gallium phosphate is
an indirect band gap semiconductor and has poor efficiency because
band to band transitions are not normally observed.
Gallium Arsenide Phosphate is a tertiary alloy. This material has a
special feature in that it changes from being direct band gap
material.
Blue LEDs are of recent origin. The wide band gap materials such as
GaN are one of the most promising LEDs for blue and green emission.
Infrared LEDs are suitable for optical coupler applications.

DIODE
ACTIVE COMPONENT-

Active component are those component for not any other component are used its
operation. I used in this project only function diode, these component description are
described as bellow.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODEA PN junctions is known as a semiconductor or crystal diode.A crystal diode has two
terminal when it is connected in a circuit one thing is decide is weather a diode is
forward or reversed biased. There is a easy rule to ascertain it. If the external CKT is
trying to push the conventional current in the direction of error, the diode is forward
biased. One the other hand if the conventional current is trying is trying to flow
opposite the error head, the diode is reversed biased putting in simple words.

57

1. If arrowhead of diode symbol is positive W.R.T Bar of the symbol, the diode
is forward biased.
2. The arrowhead of diode symbol is negative W.R.T bar , the diode is the
reverse bias.
When we used crystal diode it is often necessary to know that which end is arrowhead
and which end is bar. So following method are available.
1. Some manufactures actually point the symbol on the body of the diode
e. g By127 by 11 4 crystal diode manufacture by b e b.

2. Sometimes red and blue marks are on the body of the crystal diode. Red mark
do not arrow wheres blue mark indicates bar e .g oa80 crystal diode.

ZENER DIODE-

58

It has been already discussed that when the reverse bias on a crystal diode is increased a
critical voltage, called break down voltage. The break down or zener voltage depends
upon the amount of doping. If the diode is heavily doped depletion layer will be thin
and consequently the break down of he junction will occur at a lower reverse voltage.
On the other hand, a lightly doped diode has a higher break down voltage, it is called
zener diode
.

A properly doped crystal diode, which has a sharped break down voltage, is known as a
zenor diode.
In this project I used semiconductor diode for bridge rectifies, two-crystal diode

59

CONCLUSION

60

CONCLUSION:
This Automatic Railway Crossing Controller overcomes the drawbacks of earlier
system. We are able to implement successfully our mission which is to develop a fire
protection system that able to provide the solution to the problems faced by fire
accident .
The developing of this project has been a learning experience for all team members and
would prove as a milestone in their academic career. The achievement of this project
are:-

i.

The project has achieved its set target well in Time and Budget.

ii.

Based on cutting edge technology called Embedded development which is

niche in the market today and its future is much bright.

iii.

The product developed is ready for implementation and can bring financial
benefits too by sale in the market.

So, we conclude that the advanced security system is still far away from the perfect, but
we believe we have laid the groundwork to enable it to improve out of sight.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
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 Mehta V.K., Principles of Electronics

S.Chand & Co. Ltd., New Delhi
Intel Microcontroller and Features
Tata Mc Graw Hill Publishing Ltd., New Delhi
Boylstead

Robert & Nasceslsky Louis Electronic Devices &

Circuit
Theory Prentice Hall of India Private Ltd., New Delhi
Millman Jacob & Halkias C. Christos Integrated Electronics

Tata Mc Graw Hill Publishing Ltd., New Delhi

WEB SITES

www.microtutorials.com
www.datasheets.com
www.archives.com
www.nationalsemiconductors.com
www.atmel.com
www.seimens.com
www.fairchildsemiconductors.com

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