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1\sb241\sl-322\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 November 2005 \par\pard\ql
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nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs27 A Profile of the Indian Education System \par\pard\ql \li
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s24 Gretchen Rhines Cheney Betsy Brown Ruzzi and Karthik Muralidharan \par\pard\
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\expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\fs24 India, with more than a b
illion residents, has the second largest education system \line \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 in the world (after China). Experts estimate that 32 percent of i
ts current \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 population is under the age of 15
.\ul0\super\cf15\f16\fs23 1\ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\fs24 But counter to the im
age of India as a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 youthful engine of economi
c growth where many urban-based citizens work in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 some of the best technology-centered jobs in the world, males in India comp
lete \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 just 2.9 years of schooling on average,
females just 1.8 years.\ul0\super\cf15\f16\fs23 2\ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\fs24
And for the small \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 proportion who do persis
t through primary and secondary schooling, the quality \line \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 of instruction varies widely, depending on the region of the country
and whether \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 one is enrolled in a State-suppo
rted public school or a fee-based private school. \par\pard\ql \li2519\sb246\sl276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Despite the highly inefficient deliver
y of public services, high levels of teacher \par\pard\ql \li2519\ri1657\sb15\sl
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, many Indian students remain motivated \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 to s
ucceed on the college entrance exams. The high level of competition for entry \
line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 into the Indian Institutes of Technology, the
Indian Institutes of Management \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and other t
op institutions is enough to spur millions of students to achieve at \line \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 remarkably high levels, particularly in the areas of sc
ience and mathematics. The \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 increased demand

for higher education is not currently being met: only ten \line \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 percent of the age cohort is actually enrolled in higher educatio
n. But in a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 country with such a large popul
ation, ten percent enrollment amounts to 9 \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 m
illion students, resulting in 2.5 million new college graduates a year. These \
line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 numbers driven by the private sector opportun
ities abroad, and increasingly, back \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 in Indi
a, will continue to ensure India\u8217?s prowess in delivering high-quality \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 technical manpower. \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1777\
sb253\sl-268\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24
Historically, Indian education has been elitist. Traditional Hindu education wa
s \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 tailored to the needs of Brahmin\ul0\super
\cf16\f17\fs21\ul0\super\cf16\f17\fs20 3\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 boys who
were taught to read and write by a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Brahmin t
eacher. Under British rule from the 1700s until 1947, India\u8217?s education \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 policies reinforced the pre-existing elitist t
endencies, tying entrance and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 advancement in
government service to academic education. Colonial rule \line \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 contributed to the legacy of an education system geared to preserv
ing the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 position of the more privileged clas
ses. Education served as a "gatekeeper," \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 per
mitting an avenue of upward mobility only to those with resources. \par\pard\ql
\li1799\ri1800\sb256\sl-264\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Post-primary e
ducation has traditionally catered to the interests of the higher \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-2\charscalex100 and upwardly mobile castes. In the nineteenth century, po
st-primary students \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 were disproportionately
Brahmins; their traditional concern with learning gave \line \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 them an advantage under British education policies. By the early twen
tieth \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 century, several other castes realized
the advantages of education as a passport \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 t
o political power and managed to acquire formal learning. But even today, the \
par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb95\sl-230\slmult0 \
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs20\ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 1\
ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 The World Fact Book, CIA. 2004 estimate. \par\pard
\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-217\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18
\fs19 2\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Public Report of Basic Education, 1999 \pa
r\pard\qj \li1799\ri1870\sb21\sl-220\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\
super\cf17\f18\fs19 3\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Brahmin is the highest caste
group in India, traditionally made up of priests, philosophers, scholars, and \
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 religious leaders. \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmu
lt0\par\pard\li1799\sb165\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx10319 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex1
00 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 National Center on Education and the Economy, 20
06\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\pape
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\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg3}{\bkmkend Pg3}\par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-276\sl
mult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmu
lt0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb67\sl-276\slmul
t0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 vast majority of
students making it through middle school to high school \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri1
614\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 continue to be from high-le
vel castes and middle- to upper class families living in \up0 \expndtw-3\charsca
lex100 urban areas. \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1615\sb250\sl-270\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 This historical barrier coupled with the post-independence fo
cus of the education \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 system on tertiary educ
ation more than primary education (relative to the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 number of students in each category), makes it unsurprising that India ha
s the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 largest number of illiterate people in
the world. According to the 2001 Census, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 m
ore than one out of every three Indian citizens (and 42 percent of adults) is \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 illiterate. The gap between male and female il
literacy, while still a challenge, is \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 decrea
sing: 25 percent illiteracy for males and 46 percent for females. There is \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 also a wide discrepancy in the literacy rates of
different States.\ul0\super\cf18\f19\fs23 4\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 At o
ne end, the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 state of Kerala has achieved 90
percent literacy, while on the other end, the state \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
alex100 of Bihar has only 39 percent.\ul0\super\cf18\f19\fs23 5\ul0\nosupersub\c
f13\f14\fs24 While the government has increased its focus on \line \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 primary education, the highly inefficient state of public ser
vice delivery in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 education, with high teache
r absence\ul0\super\cf18\f19\fs23 6\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 and low teachi
ng activity even when \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 teachers are present,
is likely to keep learning levels low for the foreseeable \line \up0 \expndtw-3\
charscalex100 future. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb246\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 India has more languages than any other country - fifteen main lan
guages and \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1627\sb15\sl-263\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 hundreds of other languages and dialects. Hindi is the national languag
e and the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 primary tongue of 30 percent of th
e people. The other main languages are \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Benga
li, Urdu, Punjabi, Gujarati, Tamil and Telegu. And English is ubiquitous in \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 India, a former British colony. While not clas
sified as one of the fifteen national \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 langua
ges, English is certainly important in higher education, upward social \line \up

0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 mobility, and has played a key role in establishing I

ndia as an economic power \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 globally. \par\par
d\ql \li1799\ri1623\sb251\sl-271\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 In 1997 a
n India Today survey suggested that about a third of the population had \line \u
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the ability to carry on a conversation in English.\u
l0\super\cf18\f19\fs23 7\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 This was an amazing incre
ase \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 over the estimates of the 1980s, when on
ly about four to five percent of the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 populat
ion were thought to use the language. And given the steady increase in \line \up
0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 English learning since 1997 in secondary schools and
among the upwardly \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 mobile, it is estimated t
hat there are 350 million English-speaking Indians today. \line \up0 \expndtw-4\
charscalex100 This is more than the combined English-speaking populations of Bri
tain and the \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 US.\ul0\super\cf18\f19\fs23 8 \
par\pard\ql \li1799\sb265\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosu
persub\cf13\f14\fs24 India has been able to capitalize on its large numbers of w
ell-educated people, \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 many of whom are skilled in the English language, to become a major e
xporter of \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-23
0\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb6\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \
ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs20\ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 4\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19
India is made up of 29 States and 6 Union Territories. \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri17
98\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 5\
ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Statistical Database for Literacy, Vol.2, National
Institute of Adult Education, New Delhi, 1993. Note: \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 Kerala\u8217?s 1990 Total Literacy Campaign is credited for dramatically ra
ising literacy levels in remote, tribal \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 areas, but
some now question whether the State did truly achieve full literacy. \par\pard\
ql \li1799\sb1\sl-217\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\
fs19 6\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 See Kremer, Muralidharan, Chaudhury, Hammer
, and Rogers (2005) \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb13\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 7\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 However, the
level of fluency is likely to be extremely variable, with the vast majority of
people who \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-217\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
respond to such surveys as \u8220?knowing\u8221? English having only extremely
rudimentary comfort in the language. \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri2141\sb21\sl-220\slm
ult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 8\ul0\nosupersub\cf1
0\f11\fs19 David Crystal (honorary professor of linguistics at the University o
f Wales, Bangor) \u8220?SubContinent \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Raises Its V
oice.\u8221? YaleGlobal Online. November 30, 2004. \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\
slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb165\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx10319 \up0 \expndtw-3\charsca
lex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 National Center on Education and the Economy
, 2006\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 2\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\
paperh15840{\shp
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\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg4}{\bkmkend Pg4}\par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-276\sl
mult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmu
lt0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb67\sl-276\slmul
t0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 software services
and software workers. The growth of the middle class is \par\pard\ql \li1799\r
i1655\sb0\sl-270\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 fueling the country\u8217
?s overall development. In India, there are now estimated to \line \up0 \expndtw
-2\charscalex100 be some 300 million middle-income earners making $2,000-$4,000
a year in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 purchasing power parity (PPP) term
s.\ul0\super\cf18\f19\fs23 9\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Both the number of m
iddle earners and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 their income levels are li
kely to rise rapidly, but their incomes will continue to be \line \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 substantially below averages in the US and other rich countries
even by 2020. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 There is also sharp regional d
isparity in economic growth, with the states in the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
alex100 west and south growing much faster than the poorer states such as Bihar,
Uttar \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Pradesh, and Orissa, which are likely
to remain underdeveloped in the near to \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 med
ium-term future.\ul0\super\cf18\f19\fs23 10 \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb235\sl-276\sl
mult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 The pervasive
low-quality education available to the masses has led the \par\pard\ql \li1799\r
i1784\sb14\sl-264\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 government -- in its fiv
e year plans which outline the country\u8217?s development \line \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 strategy -- to move funding away from the higher education system
overall \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 (although not to the detriment of t
he crown jewels of the system: the Indian \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 In
stitutes of Technology and the Indian Institutes of Management) toward basic \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 primary and middle stage education in an effort
to boost the abysmally low \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 literacy rates.
\par\pard\ql \li1799\sb247\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nos
upersub\cf12\f13\fs24 Primary and Middle Education \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1656\s
b0\sl-265\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Th
e Indian Constitution made a commitment to make primary and middle grade \line \
up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 education (for students ages 6-14) free and univers
al by 1960, with the two \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 national policy sta
tements on education in 1968 and 1986 (and revised in 1992) \line \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 placing much emphasis on this goal. But India\u8217?s inability
to allocate resources \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 effectively and effic

iently has made that goal unattainable even 45 years later. \par\pard\ql \li1799
\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb64\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 There has, however, been a considerable increase in the spread of educ
ational \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1667\sb0\sl-268\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 institutions since India gained its independence in 1947. For instance, du
ring the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 period 1950-51 and 2001-2002, the n
umber of primary schools grew three-fold, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 wh
ile the number of middle (upper primary) schools increased 16 times. Today \line
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 India has more than six hundred thousand\ul0\supe
r\cf18\f19\fs23 11\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 primary schools serving 115 mil
lion \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 students (the average teacher to studen
t ratio is 1:43) and more than two million \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 u
pper primary schools serving 45 million students (the average teacher to \par\pa
rd\qj \li1799\ri1760\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 student ra
tio is 1:38). Another recent trend is the growth of private schools that \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 receive no government aid and rely on student fees.\ul0
\super\cf18\f19\fs23 12 \par\pard\qj \li1799\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1
799\ri1641\sb131\sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf
13\f14\fs24 The Indian school system follows the British structure. Primary scho
ol consists of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 grades 1-5 (ages 6-11) and mi
ddle school consists of grades 6-8 (ages 11-14). Both \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\
sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl
-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb85\sl230\slmult0\tx3153 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs20\ul0\su
per\cf17\f18\fs19 9\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Basu, Indrajit. \tab \up0 \exp
ndtw-2\charscalex100 \u8220?India\u8217?s Growing Urge to Splurge.\u8221? Asia T
imes Online. August 22, 2003. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \ex
pndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 10\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19
Report of the National Intelligence Council's 2020 Project. \par\pard\qj \li1799
\ri2418\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs1
9 11\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Sourced from the official education statistic
s put out by the Indian Ministry of Human Resource \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
Development. Statistics available at: \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-193\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK "http://www.educatio
n.nic.in/htmlweb/edusta.htm" }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 http://w
ww.education.nic.in/htmlweb/edusta.htm}}} \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb17\sl-230\slmul
t0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 12\ul0\nosupersub\cf10
\f11\fs19 See Kingdon (2005). Paper can be downloaded at: \par\pard\ql \li1799
\sb1\sl-217\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK
"http://www.ksg.harvard.edu/pepg/pdf/events/mpspe/pepg-05-15geeta.pdf/" }}{\fldr
slt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 http://www.ksg.harvard.edu/pepg/PDF/events/MP
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b166\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx10319 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf
11\f12\fs24 National Center on Education and the Economy, 2006\tab \up0 \expndtw3\charscalex100 3\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840{\shp
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\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg5}{\bkmkend Pg5}\par\pard\qj \li1799\sb0\sl-280\sl
mult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-280\slmu
lt0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\ri1825\sb48\sl-28
0\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 are compul
sory. However, researchers estimate that an average of 70 percent of \up0 \expnd
tw-3\charscalex100 children between the ages of 6 and 14 actually attend school.
\ul0\super\cf18\f19\fs23 13 \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-264\slmult0 \par\pard\ql
\li1799\ri1625\sb130\sl-264\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersu
b\cf13\f14\fs24 Emphasis on reform has been on compulsory school attendance, rat
her than on \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 any measure of expected learning
. Quality of state-run schools ranges from top\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 not
ch to abysmal. Private schools are, on the whole, better but many of them \line
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 charge high fees making them accessible only to t

he middle and higher class \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 families and admi
ssions can be highly competitive. A recent phenomenon has \line \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 been the proliferation of low-cost private schools in both rural
and urban India. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 These schools often have po
orer facilities and infrastructure than the government \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 schools, but are able to hire many more teachers and have smaller classes a
nd \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 greater teaching activity because private
teachers are paid much lower salaries \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 than
public school unionized teachers. \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri2035\sb249\sl-273\slmul
t0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Yet, the paucity of educational data in India m
akes it difficult to estimate true \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 numbers of priv
ate schools. Recent evidence suggests that the percentage is \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 much higher than the official figures indicated in the table below (
closer to 30 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 percent rather than 15.4 percent).\ul
0\super\cf18\f19\fs23 14 \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri2382\sb262\sl-280\slmult0\fi62 \
up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 Total Student Enrollm
ent by Educational Stage and Percent Enrolled in \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 P
rivate Schools (2001)\ul0\super\cf20\f21\fs23 15 \par\pard\li1799\sb274\sl-276\s
lmult0\fi2212\tx6230 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs24
Total Gross\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Percent Enrolled\par\pard\li1799\
sb1\sl-261\slmult0\fi2212\tx6230 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Enrollment\tab \u
p0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 in Private Schools\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult
0\fi0\tx4012\tx6230 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Primary\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\ch
arscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 99.3%\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex10
0 15.4%\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-273\slmult0\fi0\tx4012\tx6230 \up0 \expndtw-3\cha
rscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 Secondary\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscale
x100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 50.3%\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 --\pa
r\pard\li1799\sb4\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx4012\tx6230 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
\ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 Tertiary\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\n
osupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 11.4%\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 --\par\pard\ql \
li1799\ri1705\sb244\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 For those who d
o attend, there are large gaps in access to education; quality of \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-2\charscalex100 education; and learning according to gender, social grade,
and location. Two out \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of five first-grade s
tudents will not complete the primary cycles of 4 to 5 years \line \up0 \expndtw
-2\charscalex100 (depending on the State),\ul0\super\cf18\f19\fs23 16\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf13\f14\fs24 and the learning achievement of those graduating is \line \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 low. Children from poorer families are at a greater
disadvantage. The drop-out \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 rate for the poor
est households is about four times that of the richest ones.\ul0\super\cf18\f19\
fs23 17 \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb244\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 While States determine the curriculum used in scho
ols, the following is the \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri1719\sb18\sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 national curriculum outline. The quality of teaching va
ries tremendously school \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 to school and State to St
ate. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb247\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul
0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\fs24 Primary Stage (5 years) \par\pard\qj \li1799\sb0\sl-2
20\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-220
\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\ri1936\sb71\sl-220\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
ex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs20\ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 13\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f1
1\fs19 Karthik Muralidharan\u8217?s work shows average attendance in public sch
ools across India is 64%, and for \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 private schools
it is75%, suggesting an average attendance rate of 70%. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1
2\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 14\ul0\n
osupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Kingdon, 2005. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-217\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 15\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f1
1\fs19 The World Bank EdStats, 2001. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb13\sl-230\slmult0 \
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 16\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11
\fs19 The World Bank (year?) \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-217\slmult0 \up0 \expn
dtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 17\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Th

e World Bank (year?) \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb166\s

l-276\slmult0\fi0\tx10319 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12
\fs24 National Center on Education and the Economy, 2006\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\char
scalex100 4\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bk
mkstart Pg6}{\bkmkend Pg6}\par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\l
i1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1
799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb67\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\c
harscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 The curriculum includes: \par\pard\ql
\li1799\sb1\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 A. Grades 1 and 2 \par
\pard\ql \li2159\sb4\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 1.\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf22\f23\fs24 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 One Language \u8212? the mothe
r tongue/the regional language \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb4\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex100 2.\ul0\nosupersub\cf22\f23\fs24 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs
24 Mathematics \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb4\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
ex100 3.\ul0\nosupersub\cf22\f23\fs24 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Art of Hea
lthy and Productive Living \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb268\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw-3\charscalex100 B. Grades 3 to 5 \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb1\sl-256\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-1\charscalex100 1.\ul0\nosupersub\cf22\f23\fs24 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\
f14\fs24 One language \u8212? the mother tongue/the regional language \par\pard
\ql \li2159\sb4\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 2.\ul0\nosupersub\cf
22\f23\fs24 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Mathematics \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb4
\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 3.\ul0\nosupersub\cf22\f23\fs24 \
ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Environmental Studies \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb8\sl276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 4.\ul0\nosupersub\cf22\f23\fs24 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Art of Healthy and Productive Living \par\pard\ql \li1
799\sb244\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\
fs24 Upper Primary/Middle Stage (3 years) \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb244\sl-276\slmu
lt0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 The Grade 6-8 cu
rriculum includes: \par\pard\qj \li2159\ri1715\sb18\sl-260\slmult0\tx2519 \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex100 1.\ul0\nosupersub\cf22\f23\fs24 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14
\fs24 Three Languages \u8212? the mother tongue/the regional language, Hindi an
d \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 English \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb3\sl-25
7\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 2.\ul0\nosupersub\cf22\f23\fs24 \ul0\nos
upersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Mathematics \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb4\sl-256\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-1\charscalex100 3.\ul0\nosupersub\cf22\f23\fs24 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f
14\fs24 Science* and Technology \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb4\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex100 4.\ul0\nosupersub\cf22\f23\fs24 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\
fs24 Social Sciences \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex100 5.\ul0\nosupersub\cf22\f23\fs24 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Work
Education \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb1\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
6.\ul0\nosupersub\cf22\f23\fs24 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Art Education (f
ine arts: Visual and Performing) \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb4\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 7.\ul0\nosupersub\cf22\f23\fs24 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14
\fs24 Health and Physical Education \par\pard\qj \li1799\sb0\sl-265\slmult0 \pa
r\pard\qj\li1799\ri1610\sb132\sl-265\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Mothe
r tongue or regional language is the medium of instruction for most Indian \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex106 primary students, although students from elite families
are typically sent to \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 English medium schools as Eng
lish is considered a distinction of social class. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 M
any states now start teaching English as a second language by grade 3 -\line \up
0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 though in practice the execution of this varies widel
y across states. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb246\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 Most independent tests of achievement levels continue to show dismally
low \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 levels
of achievement in basic literacy skills. The Public Report of Basic \par\pard\q
l \li1799\ri1675\sb0\sl-264\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Education (PRO
BE) of 1999 is based on a household survey of randomly selected \line \up0 \expn
dtw-2\charscalex100 villages in 5 States, accounting for 40 percent of the popul
ation and more than \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 half of all out-of-schoo
l children in India. The survey found that one of the five \line \up0 \expndtw-

2\charscalex100 States (Himachal Pradesh) had made remarkable progress towards u

niversal \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 elementary education, but the other
four had a great distance to go. For \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 examp
le, when PROBE investigators arrived at the school sites, they found that \line
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 one-quarter of headteachers were teaching, one-thi
rd were absent, and the rest \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 were present bu
t not actively delivering instruction. Similarly, only half of the \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 teachers were seen actually teaching, the rest were descr
ibed as minding the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 class, not in the classr
oom, engaging with colleagues, or participating in other \line \up0 \expndtw-3\c
harscalex100 non-instructional activities. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmul
t0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb105\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\n
osupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 Out-of-School Population \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slm
ult0\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\p
ard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb147\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx10319 \
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 National Center on Edu
cation and the Economy, 2006\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 5\par\pard\sect\s
ectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840{\shp
{\*\shpinst\shpleft1700\shptop11340\shpright4760\shpbottom11500\shpwr3\shpfblwtx
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\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg7}{\bkmkend Pg7}\par\pard\qj \li1799\sb0\sl-270\sl
mult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-270\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-270\slmu
lt0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-270\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\ri1686\sb96\sl-27
0\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 One out of

every three out-of-school children in the world reside in India. Fifty\up0 \ex
pndtw-2\charscalex100 three percent of students dropout before completing primar
y school.\ul0\super\cf18\f19\fs23 18\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 The issue \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 today is not a lack of demand, but rather quality of
supply. Students often drop \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 out because their pub
lic school experiences are often so poor that they learn very \up0 \expndtw-3\ch
arscalex100 little even after being enrolled for 4 to 5 years. \par\pard\ql \li1
799\sb246\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Educating girls is a part
icular challenge. India\u8217?s high fertility rates promote a \par\pard\ql \li
1799\ri1637\sb0\sl-272\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 social bias against
educating young girls. Parents lack the resources to provide a \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-2\charscalex100 quality education for all of their children, and therefore
invest scarce resources in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 boys, for whom th
e market returns to the investment in education are perceived \line \up0 \expndt
w-2\charscalex100 to be higher. It is estimated that for every 100 girls that e
nroll in school in rural \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 India, 40 will reac
h grade four, 18 will reach grade eight, nine will reach grade 9, \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-2\charscalex100 and only one will make it to grade 12.\ul0\super\cf18\f19\
fs23 19\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 The PROBE study did find, however, \par\p
ard\qj \li1799\ri1960\sb0\sl-270\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 that 98 p
ercent of parents surveyed felt that education was necessary for boys, \line \up
0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and 89 percent of parents felt it necessary for girls
. Some studies suggest that \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 parents are mor
e likely to incur private expenditure for sons than daughters.\ul0\super\cf18\f1
9\fs23 20 \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb244\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex10
0 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 Secondary Education \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 The Seco
ndary Stage consists of grades 9-12 (ages 14-17). India has more than \par\pard\
ql \li1799\sb4\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 one hundred thousand
secondary and senior secondary schools serving 30 \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb28\sl276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 million students (the average teacher
to student ratio is 1:34).\ul0\super\cf18\f19\fs23 21\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs
24 Even though \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri1667\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 education in government schools continues to be free for grades 9
and above, the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 majority of enrollment is in
private schools whose fees varies considerably.\ul0\super\cf18\f19\fs23 22 \par\
pard\qj \li1799\ri2088\sb241\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\n
osupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Although UNESCO data indicates that nearly half of all c
hildren enrolled in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 secondary school in 1999
-2000 (up from 30 percent in 1980)\ul0\super\cf18\f19\fs23 23\ul0\nosupersub\cf1
3\f14\fs24 , studies seem to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 indicate that o
nly 20 percent of students actually attend secondary school. \par\pard\qj \li179
9\ri1771\sb249\sl-270\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Public exams at the
end of grades 10 and 12 drive instruction at the school level. \up0 \expndtw-2\c
harscalex100 Therefore, there is significant difference in the curriculum offere
d correlating to \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 the various examination boards. \
par\pard\qj \li1799\ri6159\sb11\sl-560\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul
0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\fs24 Secondary Stage grades 9 and 10 (2 years) \up0 \expnd
tw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 The curriculum includes\ul0\sup
er\cf18\f19\fs23 24\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 : \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-2
30\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb173\sl-2
30\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs20\ul0\super\cf17
\f18\fs19 18\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 UNESCO, 2000-01. \par\pard\ql \li1799
\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\ri1759\sb60\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw
-2\charscalex100 19 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK "http://www.infochangeindia.or
g/" }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 www.infochangeindia.org}}}\ul0\no
supersub\cf10\f11\fs19 is a news channel that gathers content from a wide, cred
ible and experienced \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 network of journalists,
researchers, development specialists and grassroots activists, and from dozens
of \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 different journals, websites and news agencies

in India and across the world. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard

\ql\li1799\sb40\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18
\fs19 20\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Kapur, Devesh and Pratap Bhanu Mehta. \u
8220?Indian Higher Education Reform: From Half-Baked \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri1927
\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Socialism to Half-Baked Capita
lism.\u8221? Working Paper, Center for International Development at Harvard \up
0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 University. September 2004. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1
\sl-193\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 21\ul0\no
supersub\cf10\f11\fs19 UNESCO Institute for Statistics cited in ADB Key Indicat
ors for Global Participation, 2003. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb17\sl-230\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 22\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\f
s19 Karthik Muralidharan. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-217\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw
-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 23\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 UNESC
O Institute for Statistics cited in ADB Key Indicators for Global Participation,
2003. \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb166\sl-276\slmult0\
fi0\tx10319 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 National
Center on Education and the Economy, 2006\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 6\pa
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\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\ri1665\sb21\sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw
-2\charscalex100 *Mathematics secondary curriculum includes the study of Arithme
tical concepts, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 number systems, algebra, geo
metry, trigonometry, statistics, measurement, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 graphs and coordinate geometry. (Additional detail provided in attachment) \pa
r\pard\ql \li1799\sb247\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 **Science a
nd Technology curriculum is designed around six major themes: \par\pard\qj \li17
99\ri1900\sb18\sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 matter, energy, livi
ng world, natural resources, environment and the universe. \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 Each student is expected to do 15 exercises involving lab work per scho
ol year. \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (Additional detail provided in attachment
) \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1658\sb252\sl-270\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
The typical school schedule is a 9 period day (40 minutes per period). Accordi
ng \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 to the Central Board of Secondary Education, in
structional time in grade 10 is \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 spent as fol
lows: \par\pard\li1799\sb259\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx6839 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscale
x100 Subject Area\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Amount Studied Weekly\par\pa
rd\li1799\sb1\sl-261\slmult0\fi0\tx6839 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Language I
\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 280 minutes\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-264\slmult
0\fi0\tx6839 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Language II\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\chars
calex100 240 minutes\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-264\slmult0\fi0\tx6839 \up0 \expndtw
-3\charscalex100 Mathematics\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 280 minutes\par\p
ard\li1799\sb0\sl-264\slmult0\fi0\tx6839 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Science a
nd Technology\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 360 minutes\par\pard\li1799\sb0\
sl-264\slmult0\fi0\tx7559 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Social Science\tab \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 360 minutes\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-264\slmult0\fi0\tx68
39 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Work Education or Pre-Vocational Education\tab
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 120 minutes \ul0\nosupersub\cf24\f25\fs21 (plus ti
me outside\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-247\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
school)\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-261\slmult0\fi0\tx7559 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex
100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Art Education\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex10
0 80 minutes\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-264\slmult0\fi0\tx6839 \up0 \expndtw-3\chars
calex100 Physical and Health Education\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 80 minu
tes\par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1739\sb245\sl-266\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 Secondary schools are affiliated with Central or State boards which administer
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 examinations at the end of grade 10 resulti
ng in the award of the Secondary \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 School Cert
ificate (SSC), the All-India Secondary School Certificate or the Indian \line \u

p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Certificate of Secondary Education.. There are three

national examining boards: \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the Central Boar
d of Secondary Education (CBSE), the Council for the Indian \line \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 School Certificate Examinations (CISCE) and the National Open Sc
hool (NOS) \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 for distance education. \par\pard
\qj \li1799\ri1885\sb259\sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The academ
ic content and marks awarded by the CBSE and CISCE are broadly \up0 \expndtw-3\c
harscalex100 equivalent, with the exception of English. The CBSE program examine
s \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0
\par\pard\ql\li1799\sb5\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf10\f11\fs19 24 According to Shalini, a SAIS student from India, the math
and science curriculum up to grade 10 \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri1946\sb0\sl-240\slm
ult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 provides a very solid foundation for Indian st
udents and she was amazed at the content and slow pace of \up0 \expndtw-1\charsc
alex100 her graduate work here in the U.S. \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\p
ar\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb88\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx1031
9 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 National Center on
Education and the Economy, 2006\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 7\par\pard\sec
t\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840{\shp
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\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg9}{\bkmkend Pg9}\par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-276\sl
mult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmu
lt0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb67\sl-276\slmul

t0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 functional Englis

h and has no study of literature, while the CISCE program \par\pard\qj \li1799\r
i1647\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 incorporates the study of
Shakespeare and other classics as well as contemporary \up0 \expndtw-3\charscal
ex100 literature, drama and poetry.\ul0\super\cf18\f19\fs23 25 \par\pard\qj \li1
799\ri2479\sb258\sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf
13\f14\fs24 In some of the States, the first public examination is also conducte
d at the \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 completion of the middle stage. \par\pard
\ql \li1799\ri1763\sb252\sl-270\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The Britis
h Council notes that the Indian Secondary School Certificate (awarded \line \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 by all school boards after grade 10) may generally be
considered slightly below \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 the British Genera
l Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) or the \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charsca
lex100 International GCSE High School Examinations standard.\ul0\super\cf18\f19\
fs23 26\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 The content is \line \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 considered equivalent, but students are not expected to problem solve o
r apply \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 their knowledge in the same way. Se
nior secondary certificates from either of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 t
he two national boards may be considered equivalent to an \u8216?AS\u8217? stand
ard. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb246\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul
0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 Upper Secondary Education \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1728
\sb0\sl-264\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24
The majority of students exit school after grade 10 (approximately age 15). For
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 those who stay, schooling becomes different
iated. Based on performance on the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 10\ul0\su
per\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 th\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 grade
subject exams, students enter an upper-secondary stream for their last \line \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 two years of schooling before university (grades 1112). The most prestigious \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 stream (which al
so has the highest cut-off in terms of marks required in the \line \up0 \expndtw
-2\charscalex100 grade 10 exams) is the science stream, the second is commerce,
and the third is \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 humanities (arts). Student
s in the sciences stream almost always study \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
mathematics, physics, and chemistry. Additional subjects may include \line \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 biology/botany/zoology for those intending to take med
ical school entrance \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 exams and computer scie
nce for those pursuing engineering degrees. Those in \line \up0 \expndtw-3\chars
calex100 the Commerce stream study economics, accounting, mathematics, and \line
\up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 commerce. Students in the Humanities/Arts stream
study options that include \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 history, geograph
y, political science, philosophy, psychology, languages, arts, \line \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 music. Most schools only offer a few of these subjects, whic
h obviously restricts \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 student latitude in se
lecting areas of focus. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-267\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1
799\ri1777\sb1\sl-267\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Upper secondary educ
ation is conducted in schools, or two-year junior colleges \line \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 (some of which are also affiliated with degree offering colleges)
. Some of these \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 institutions are privately o
perated while others are government-operated \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
institutions. Another common institutional form is to have colleges with privat
e \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 management but receiving substantial finan
cial assistance from the government \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 in retur
n for charging low fees. Student enrollment in private, unaided schools \line \
up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 grew by almost 10 percent between 1978 and 1993.\ul
0\super\cf18\f19\fs23 27\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 The curricula for upper
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 secondary institutions are determined by Sta
te or Central Boards of Secondary \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Education
and students sit for exams at the conclusion of grade 12. \par\pard\qj \li1799\s
b0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0
\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\ri1696\sb136\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\c

harscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs20\ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 25\ul0\nosupersub\

cf10\f11\fs19 Most of the private schools, as well as many government schools,
are affiliated with the Central Board of \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Secondary
Education (CBSE). \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri1958\sb20\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf18\f19\fs23 26\ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 \ul0\n
osupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 The British GCSE or the IGCSE is the largest and most wi
dely recognized examination system in the \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 wo
rld. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-215\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\s
uper\cf17\f18\fs19 27\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 NCERT All India Educational
Surveys cited in Financing Education in India, edited by Tilak. \par\pard\li1799
\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb166\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx10319 \up0 \expnd
tw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 National Center on Education and
the Economy, 2006\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 8\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\
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\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg10}{\bkmkend Pg10}\par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-262\
slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-262\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-262\sl
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-262\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 After c
ompleting their upper secondary schoolwork (grade 12), students sit for \line \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 another set of exams (the Higher Secondary Certifica
te Examinations) which \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 determines their high
er education options. Well known colleges specify cut-off \line \up0 \expndtw-2\

charscalex100 marks for admission in various courses of study, which may sometim
es be \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 extremely high (over 90% marks not bei
ng uncommon). The cut-off marks or \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 overall e
ntry score can vary between courses in the same university/college, \line \up0 \
expndtw-1\charscalex100 between similar courses in different universities/ colle
ges and from year to year \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 in the same course.
Some courses and some universities/institutions/colleges are \line \up0 \expndt
w-2\charscalex100 in greater demand than others and therefore acceptance is more
competitive. \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Students may also be required
to complete pre-requisite coursework. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-263\slmult0 \p
ar\pard\ql\li1799\ri1706\sb15\sl-263\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The t
op students wanting to pursue professional school (medical, engineering, \up0 \e
xpndtw-3\charscalex100 law) sit for additional school-based entrance exams to de
termine their \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 admissions into these specific
programs. Most science stream students try to get \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 into the engineering or medical colleges as these have the most prestige withi
n \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 India. For the commerce line, students typically
try to get admissions into a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 commerce, acco
unting, business, or technology program of study. Most students \up0 \expndtw-3\
charscalex100 in the humanities stream aim to enter the arts colleges. \par\pard
\ql \li1799\ri1648\sb257\sl-264\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Vocational
and technical education is also an option in higher secondary schools. \up0 \ex
pndtw-2\charscalex100 The aim of vocational education is to gain a broad knowled
ge about occupations, \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 not training in specialized
subjects. The courses consist of a language course \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
alex100 (15%), general foundation courses (15%) and vocational electives (70%),
of which \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 about half consists of practical work. El
ectives are chosen from a wide variety of \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 areas in
cluding agriculture, engineering and technology, business and \line \up0 \expndt
w-2\charscalex100 commerce, home science, health and para-medical services, and
humanities. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Courses are employment-oriented,
but also can provide access to courses in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 r
elated areas of higher education. Examinations at this level are conducted by \
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 the All India and State Boards of Vocational Educat
ion. \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1856\sb269\sl-273\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex
100 Only 10 percent of students are opting for the vocational stream, against a
year \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2000 target of 25 percent.\ul0\super\cf18\f19
\fs23 28\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 This is attributed to the lack of indust
ry-school \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 linkages and the system hasn\u8217
?t convinced students that this stream can prepare \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
them for real jobs and careers. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb245\sl-276\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 A Three-Tiered System \pa
r\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf13\f14\fs24 In 1964, the Kothari Commission Report on Education presented a
n in-depth \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb4\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
study of primary and secondary education. The Commission roundly \par\pard\qj \
li1799\ri1702\sb21\sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 condemned this s
eparate, unequal school system which it accused of \u8220?increasing \up0 \expnd
tw-3\charscalex100 social segregation and perpetuating and widening grade distin
ctions.\u8221? \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1674\sb257\sl-264\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 Yet little has changed. There are clearly three tiers of schools
in India. Ninety \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 percent of the estimated 1
12 million children who enroll in primary school \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 annually have no choice but to attend ill-maintained government schools, ma
ny \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 functioning out of a canvas tent. Howeve
r, given that the quality of education in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 th
ese schools is usually quite poor, the fast-increasing middle class prefers to \
line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 send its children to the government-aided, pr
ivately-run schools. The third \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\par
d\ql\li1799\sb75\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f1

8\fs20\ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 28\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Tenth Five-Year

Plan. Ministry of Human Resources Development. \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmu
lt0\par\pard\li1799\sb163\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx10319 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex1
00 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 National Center on Education and the Economy, 20
06\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 9\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\pape
rh15840{\shp
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-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 categor

y, the private schools, caters to the elite upper-grade population, boasting \up
0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 air conditioning and riding lessons. \par\pard\qj \li
1799\ri1802\sb227\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Summiya Yasmeen,
a reporter for India Together (an online news source) offers \up0 \expndtw-3\cha
rscalex100 her opinion on the three tiers of Indian schooling:\ul0\super\cf18\f1
9\fs23 29 \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1748\sb245\sl-270\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\fs24 The rich and famous are typically enrolle
d in five-star English-medium schools affiliated \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 t
o the upscale CBSE (all India), CISCE (pan India), and IB examination boards whi
ch \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 offer globally accepted syllabuses and curricul
ums. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb246\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Nex
t in the pecking order are English medium government aided schools affiliated to
\par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1643\sb0\sl-270\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 St
ate-level examination boards to which the children of the middle grade are sent.
The 28 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 State boards offer inferior infrastructur
e, sub-standard education and less rigorous \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
syllabuses and examination assessments. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb235\sl-276\slmult
0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 And at the base of the education pyramid are sha
bby, poorly managed \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri1609\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw
-2\charscalex100 government/municipal schools which shove dubious quality langua
ge education down the \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 children of the poor majorit
y. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb265\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 Teacher Quality/Teaching Environment \par\pard\ql \li17
99\sb1\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs2
4 For most students in India, the learning environment is pretty abysmal. Schoo
l \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1618\sb0\sl-264\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 c
onsists of a one-room schoolhouse, one teacher covering multiple grades, and 40
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 students per teacher. It should be noted th
at many rural public schools barely \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 have the
most basic of facilities (a closed-in building, drinking water, toilets, a \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 blackboard). In addition to these challenges, m
any rural schools are seriously \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 understaffed
, especially in the larger states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. While \line \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 one teacher may have 40 students per class on average,
the unwillingness of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 many teachers to accept
remote rural postings (and the attempts to get these \line \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 postings changed via lobbying and court cases) means that the actual s
tudent-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 teacher ratio is much higher in many
parts of rural India. High student-teacher \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
ratios are exacerbated by high levels of teacher absence and low levels of \line
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 teaching activity. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb265\sl276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Without efforts to recruit large numbe
rs of new teachers and an investment of \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-256\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 resources to upgrade school facilities, India will
be hard-pressed to scale up \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb4\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 elementary education and improve instructional outcomes for i
ts young children. \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1636\sb251\sl-272\slmult0 \up0 \expndt
w-2\charscalex100 Teaching is a well-paid profession in India and teachers are t
ypically appointed \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 based on political affili
ations, not on content or pedagogical knowledge. There is \line \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 no system in place to motivate teachers to improve academic achie
vement\ul0\super\cf18\f19\fs23 30\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 , and \line \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 very little training available to strengthen teaching p
ractices. For example, while \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the 1986 Natio
nal Policy on Education upgraded the standard curriculum with \line \up0 \expndt
w-2\charscalex100 increased requirements in English and in the sciences, the cur
ricular changes \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-257\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
ex100 were not linked with new ways of teaching and assessing student progress.
\par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb156\sl-230\slmult0

\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs20\ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19

29\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Yasmeen, Summiya. \u8220?Swelling Support for
Common Schools.\u8221? Indiatogether.org (July 2004). \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri18
45\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 30\
ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 One innovative example: In Madhya Pradesh, panchay
ats (village councils) are given responsibility for \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 ensuring teacher performance at the local level, including the right to withho
ld teachers\u8217? salaries in the \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 event of poor t
eacher performance. \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb153\sl
-276\slmult0\fi0\tx10199 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\
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calex100 10\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840{\shp
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lt0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\ri1881\sb145\sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 The British Council provides the following summa
ry of the typical school day. \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 While this descripti
on is likely valid for urban private schools, it is far from the \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 case in the typical government school, where the focus (if at all
) is still on rote \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 learning for passing exams: \pa
r\pard\ql \li1799\sb267\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupe

rsub\cf14\f15\fs24 A typical school day begins early in the morning anytime betw
een 7-8 am. Students \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 attend school for about 6 hours during the day with each classroom se
ssion spanning 30-\par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1639\sb0\sl-265\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 40 minutes and a 30-minute lunch break. Some schools operate for
a longer duration of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 time (about 8 hours) an
d these schools provide two break periods. The school typically \line \up0 \expn
dtw-2\charscalex100 begins with a morning assembly for all students and teachers
and may include prayers, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 meditation, import
ant announcements, special assemblies, Mass PT or any other planned \line \up0 \
expndtw-3\charscalex100 activity. \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1768\sb250\sl-268\slmul
t0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Primary classes generally span for a shorter du
ration of time than the secondary classes. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 T
he grade is managed by one teacher, who is generally assisted by another teacher
. This, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 however, is not the rule and in some
rural parts of the country one teacher may be \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1
00 responsible for managing a range of classes\ul0\super\cf15\f16\fs23 31\ul0\no
supersub\cf14\f15\fs24 ! A secondary grade typically has one class \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 teacher who has the overall responsibility of managing th
e grade and also teaches one or \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 more subject
s. Subject teachers teach students during their respective periods. For some \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 subjects like Arts, Music, Physical Education,
Work Experience, Science Practicals, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Library
etc. students are required to shift to the relevant work places in the school.
\par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-262\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\ri1639\sb15\sl-262\s
lmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 In terms of the physical attributes, there
are a number of variations in India. In a city a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 classroom typically has rows of benches and a teacher\u8217?s desk right at
the front. Other \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 basic resources in the cla
ssroom include the blackboard, one or more bulletin boards/ \line \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 display areas and one or more cupboards for storage purposes. Ur
ban private schools may \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 have greater resourc
es to set up modern classrooms and many of them are progressing \line \up0 \expn
dtw-2\charscalex100 towards developing Hi-tech classrooms, complete with compute
r systems and modern \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 teaching aids. In compl
ete contrast, some schools in rural and semi-urban areas lack even \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 the basic facilities like concrete buildings, benches, ch
airs etc. However, many initiatives \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 are taki
ng place in the area of education and especially to reach out to the underprivil
eged \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 masses of the society. \par\pard\ql \li
1799\sb0\sl-265\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\ri1708\sb11\sl-265\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw-2\charscalex100 A typical classroom session involves guided teaching by the
subject teacher following the \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 prescribed syllabus
. Teachers are increasingly using the Project method of teaching to \up0 \expndt
w-2\charscalex100 encourage students to think, research information and collate
data. Majority of the work \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 as well as assessment h
appens on an individual basis and for certain specific topics and \up0 \expndtw3\charscalex100 assignments, students work in groups. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb246
\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 Gove
rnance \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1844\sb0\sl-270\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex
100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 With India\u8217?s independence in 1947, a Dep
artment of Education was established \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 within the Mi
nistry of Human Resource Development. The department has \up0 \expndtw-3\charsc
alex100 three main divisions: \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\
ql\li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\ri1699\sb153\sl-230\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs20\ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 31\u
l0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Recent research by Kremer and Muralidharan (2005) s
hows that nearly 70% of rural government schools \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 i
n India practice \u8220?multi-grade\u8221? teaching, whereby a teacher simultane
ously teaches multiple grades -\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 typically bec

ause there are fewer teachers than grades in the school. \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl
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arscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 National Center on Education and the Ec
onomy, 2006\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 11\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw
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\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg13}{\bkmkend Pg13}\par\pard\ql \li2159\sb0\sl-276\
slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2159\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2159\sb0\sl-276\sl
mult0 \par\pard\ql\li2159\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2159\sb67\sl-276\slm
ult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 1.\ul0\nosupers
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\par\pard\ql \li2159\sb1\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2.\ul0\nos
upersub\cf22\f23\fs24 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Elementary Education and L
iteracy \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb4\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 3.
\ul0\nosupersub\cf22\f23\fs24 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Women and Child De
velopment \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb248\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 The department coordinates planning with the States, provides funding for \par
\pard\ql \li1799\sb4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 experimental p
rograms, and acts through the University Grants Commission \par\pard\ql \li1799\
sb1\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (defined in the higher educatio
n section) and the National Council of \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri1719\sb1\sl-260\sl
mult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Educational Research and Training (NCERT) to
develop standards, instructional \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 materials, and d

esign textbooks. The NCERT\u8217?s textbooks serve as models since \up0 \expnd
tw-3\charscalex100 States are not legally obligated to follow the national sylla
bus. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-263\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\ri1768\sb15\sl263\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The central government drafts five-yea
r plans that include education policy and \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 some fun
ding for education. State-level ministries of education coordinate \line \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 education programs at the local levels. Administration
of urban government \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 schools are overseen by both t
he state education ministry and the municipal \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 gove
rnment. In rural areas, either the district board or the panchayat (village \up
0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 council) has oversight on school functioning, which o
ften brings heightened \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 politicization to the teach
er appointment process. \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1607\sb254\sl-267\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 The individual State governments provide the majority of
educational funding \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and either directly run
schools or support privately-run schools through grants. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\c
harscalex100 However, a phenomenon of growing importance over recent years has b
een the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 mushrooming of schools in each state
that are completely independent of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 governme
nt funding; these are called private, unaided schools. These schools \line \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 typically pay much lower salaries than government scho
ols, and are therefore \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 able to hire more tea
chers, reduce multi-grade teaching, and have smaller classes. \line \up0 \expndt
w-2\charscalex100 They are also able to exercise more oversight on teachers and
have higher rates of \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 teaching activity.\ul0\
super\cf18\f19\fs23 32 \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb266\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3
\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 Financing \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\
sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 On th
e recommendation of the Education Commission (1966), the Indian \par\pard\ql \li
1799\ri1708\sb0\sl-273\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 government (1968) f
ixed a target of investing six percent of GNP in education by \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 1986, but this has never been achieved. In the early 1950s, it was
as low as 1.2 \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 percent, it has moved up stead
ily to around 4 percent of GNP (4.2 in 2000-01).\ul0\super\cf18\f19\fs23 33 \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 According to the Human D
evelopment Report (2001), among the 143 countries \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
listed, India ranked 104\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 th\ul0\
nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 with respect to the share of GNP spent on education. \
line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 And, a recent UNESCO study indicates that cou
ntries spending much less than \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 India are getting b
etter results.\ul0\super\cf18\f19\fs23 34 \par\pard\li3153\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\pa
r\pard\li3153\sb54\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx4948 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Primary school\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Expend
iture\par\pard\li3153\sb1\sl-262\slmult0\fi0\tx4948 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex10
0 dropout rates\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 as % of GDP\par\pard\ql \li179
9\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\
ri1944\sb145\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs2
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und 600 private unaided schools that reported having done so. \par\pard\ql \li17
99\sb1\sl-217\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 33\
ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Financing Education in India, edited by Talik. \pa
r\pard\ql \li1799\sb13\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\super\c
f17\f18\fs19 34\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 UNESCO Global Education Digest 200
3 (data from 2000-01 school year) \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\l
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\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg14}{\bkmkend Pg14}\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmu
lt0\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pa
rd\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb131\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx3153\tx4
948 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 India\tab \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 53%\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 4.1%\par\pard\li17
99\sb108\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx3153\tx4948 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Myanmar\
tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 45%\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1.4%\par
\pard\li1799\sb107\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx4948 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Bangl
adesh\ul0\nosupersub\cf22\f23\fs24 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 35%\tab \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 3.7%\par\pard\li1799\sb109\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx3153\tx4
948 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Cambodia\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 3538%\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1.9%\par\pard\li1799\sb108\sl-276\slmult0\
fi0\tx3153\tx4948 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Nepal\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
alex100 35-38%\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2.5%\par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl
-264\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\ri1708\sb70\sl-264\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 Belatedly recognizing the importance of primary education, the governm
ent has \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 in recent years shifted the focus of
its funding to primary and middle grades in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
an attempt to boost overall literacy levels. Higher education funding overall
has \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 seen a decline over the past twenty year
s, although the world-renowned \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \u8220?instit

utions of national importance\u8221? in technology and management have not \line

\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 suffered budget cuts. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb267\
sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 Share
by Level of Total Public Expenditure on Education (percent)\ul0\super\cf20\f21\
fs23 35 \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb2\sl-276\slmult0\f
i0\tx3791\tx6052\tx8395 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\f
s24 Year\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Primary\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscale
x100 Secondary\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Tertiary\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl
-272\slmult0\fi0\tx3791\tx6052\tx8395 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1950-51\tab
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 48\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 25\tab \up0 \
expndtw-3\charscalex100 20\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-274\slmult0\fi0\tx3791\tx6052\
tx8395 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1960-61\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 4
2\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 27\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 22\par\
pard\li1799\sb0\sl-274\slmult0\fi0\tx3791\tx6052\tx8395 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscal
ex100 1970-71\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 43\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscale
x100 28\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 28\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-272\slmult0\
fi0\tx3791\tx6052\tx8395 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1980-81\tab \up0 \expndtw
-3\charscalex100 41\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 29\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\cha
rscalex100 29\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-274\slmult0\fi0\tx3791\tx6052\tx8395 \up0 \
expndtw-3\charscalex100 1990-91\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 46\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw-3\charscalex100 32\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 13\par\pard\li1799\s
b1\sl-272\slmult0\fi0\tx3791\tx6052\tx8395 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 2000-01
\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 49\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 30\tab \
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 15\par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1626\sb259\sl-265\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The central government contribution to education i
s relatively small compared to \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the state bud
gets (the central government contributes approximately 10 percent \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-4\charscalex100 of total spending on education). Regardless of the source
, there are no reliable \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 reports on the distr
ibution of government resources making it very difficult to \line \up0 \expndtw4\charscalex100 track how much of the allocations actually reach the school syst
em for which \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 they have been budgeted. Certa
inly the Department of Education receives the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 majority of expenditure, but funds are also released to a number of centrally\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 sponsored projects and programs, making it u
nclear how much reaches the \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 district and sch
ool level. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb246\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex1
00 Of the total recurring expenditures, teacher salaries amount to more than 80
\par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1695\sb0\sl-268\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 per
cent and non-teaching staff salaries make up 8 percent, leaving very little for
\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 key investments in infrastructure, teacher t
raining, instructional materials, and \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the li
ke. Despite a commitment to free education, schools simply do not have the \line
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 funds to provide the basics. As of 1995-96, only
35 percent of children in public \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 primary sc
hools receive textbooks, five percent receive paper, and 27 percent \line \up0 \
expndtw-5\charscalex100 lunch.\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 3
6 \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0
\par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \
par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb65\sl-230\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 35\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\
fs19 Analysis of Budget Expenditure in India, cited in Financing Education in I
ndia, edited by Tilak, p. 29. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-217\slmult0 \up0 \expn
dtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 36\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 NS
S (?) report cited in Financing Education in India, edited by Talik. \par\pard\l
i1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb166\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx10199 \up0 \
expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 National Center on Educatio
n and the Economy, 2006\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 13\par\pard\sect\sectd
\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840{\shp
{\*\shpinst\shpleft1700\shptop13740\shpright4760\shpbottom13900\shpwr3\shpfblwtx

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slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-260\sl
mult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\ri2093\sb145\sl
-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 India\u
8217?s investment in education can be summed up as inadequate in terms of \line
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 efficiency and equity, yet the country\u8217?s pri
zed professional higher education \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 institutes
continue to be well-funded and to produce high quality graduates. \par\pard\ql
\li1799\sb247\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\
f13\fs24 Foreign Aid \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\cha
rscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 As it does with many poor and developin
g countries, the World Bank is \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1628\sb0\sl-264\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 investing in India\u8217?s education system to moder
nize facilities and close the divide \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 between what\
u8217?s available to rural versus urban students. The World Bank's \line \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 support for education in India focuses on both primary
education and vocational \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and technical education a
nd training. The Bank is also exploring ways in which it \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 can support India's upper-primary education and ways to develop the skill
s of \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 scientists and technicians. \par\pard\q
l \li1799\ri1790\sb250\sl-265\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Bank assista
nce for basic education in India aims to expand enrollment levels \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 and reduce drop out rates, while raising students' academic perf
ormance. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Projects focus especially on girls,
children from disadvantaged scheduled castes \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and
scheduled tribes, working children, children with disabilities, and other \up0 \

expndtw-3\charscalex100 children with limited opportunities to attend primary sc

hool. \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1722\sb256\sl-264\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 The main project activities are working to increase access, improve classro
om \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 instruction, strengthen community partici
pation in education, and build \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 institutional
and management capacity. This work has been financed with more \line \up0 \expn
dtw-2\charscalex100 than $1.8 billion by the International Development Associati
on (IDA), the World \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Bank's concessionary len
ding affiliate that provides interest-free credits to the \line \up0 \expndtw-3\
charscalex100 poorest countries.\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20
37 \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb267\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0
\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 Higher Education: An Expanding System \par\pard\ql \li
1799\ri1690\sb0\sl-262\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1
3\f14\fs24 At the time of its independence, India lacked a national network of u
niversities \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and affiliated colleges that cou
ld provide outreach to a country with vast \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 d
iversities. Similarly, the feeder secondary institutions were of unequal qualit
y \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 making it difficult to provide a high qual
ity academic curriculum while also \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ensuring
access for a wide swath of the population. Over the last fifty years, \line \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 India has endeavored to expand access to (i.e. provide
a greater number of seats) \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 higher education
, but there does not appear to have been a corresponding focus \line \up0 \expnd
tw-3\charscalex100 on improving quality. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb263\sl-276\slmul
t0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 In fact, in an effort to meet the primary goal
of creating social mobility and \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \ex
pndtw-3\charscalex100 equality of opportunity, many say the government has overc
ompensated, \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1627\sb0\sl-263\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 instituting strict commonalities in terms of fee structure and curricul
um across \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 250-odd universities. This \u8220
?excessive egalitarianism\u8221? is an unusual goal for \line \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 tertiary systems and has served to minimize distinction and excellen
ce in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 institutions. The emphasis on levelin
g has served to make the majority of higher \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
education degrees meaningless in the marketplace. And rather than respond, the
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 middle class, in large part, has opted for e
ither education abroad or via a private \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 inst
itution. According to Harvard professor of government, Devesh Kapur and \par\pa
rd\qj \li1799\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\par
d\qj\li1799\ri2290\sb212\sl-220\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super
\cf17\f18\fs20\ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 37\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 \u8220?W
orld Bank Support for Education in India.\u8221? South Asia Sector Brief. The
World Bank Group. \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 September 1999. \par\pard\li1799
\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb165\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx10199 \up0 \expnd
tw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 National Center on Education and
the Economy, 2006\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 14\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24
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\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg16}{\bkmkend Pg16}\par\pard\qj \li1799\sb0\sl-260\
slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-260\sl
mult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\ri1645\sb145\sl
-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 his pol
icy researcher colleague Pratap Bhanu Mehta, the system feels no pressure \up0 \
expndtw-3\charscalex100 to enhance the median quality of education.\ul0\super\cf
25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 38 \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1789\sb257\sl-264\
slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 India\u8217?
s current system of higher education is centralized and highly politicized, \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 offering relatively limited access to higher edu
cation. (Only ten percent of the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 age cohort
was enrolled in 2004, however, seven percent of a college-age \line \up0 \expndt
w-2\charscalex100 population of 90 million still equates to more than 9 million
students, with 2.5 \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 million graduating from u
niversity each year.)\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 39\ul0\nos
upersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Over the course of the 1970s \line \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 and 1980s, politicians acquired a vested interest in universities, seei
ng them as \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ways to expand patronage. The re
sult is that in many cases, universities are \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100
inextricably intertwined with government officers who oversee and/or fund \line
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 them. The hiring and promotion of teachers is al
so politicized, providing \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 teachers with unco

nditional job security and no accountability in improving \line \up0 \expndtw-2\

charscalex100 student achievement.\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs
20 40\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 It is only because India has such a large po
pulation \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 overall, and therefore large total
numbers of students, that the success of the IIT \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 and IIM graduates provides a strong impression of the higher education syst
em \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 overall. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb247\sl-27
6\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 In some sense, one could argue that the
greatest achievement of the IIT\u8217?s and \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-256\slmu
lt0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 IIM\u8217?s is the fact that they have managed
to keep their stringent admission \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1623\sb20\sl-262\slmul
t0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 standards free of corruption. However, since t
hey manage to select the very best, \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 it is unclear
as to how much of their highly-publicized success is due to \u8220?value\up0 \ex
pndtw-2\charscalex100 addition\u8221? as opposed to simply to \u8220?selection.\
u8221? The greater value to society from \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the exis
tence of these apex institutions perhaps comes from the fact that so many \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 students attempt the entrance examinations (around 200,0
00 students take the IIT \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 entrance exam for less th
an 3,000 seats) and in the process of studying for these \line \up0 \expndtw-2\c
harscalex100 stringent exams, they sharply raise their own academic standards re
lative to that \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 of the normal grade 12 public exams
. \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1650\sb256\sl-265\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
This, of course, creates huge demand for university education, and over the pas
t \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 few decades, India has seen phenomenal growth in
the number of higher and \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 technical education inst
itutions, and a corresponding growth in enrollment. The \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 higher education system has seen a 13-fold increase in the number of univ
ersities \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and a 26-fold increase in the number of c
olleges since Independence in 1947. As \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of 2002-03,
there were 196 universities, 76 Deemed Universities, five institutions \up0 \ex
pndtw-2\charscalex100 established through State and central legislation, 11 inst
itutes of national \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 importance established th
rough Central legislation, and nearly 13,150 colleges \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex
100 including around 1,600 women colleges in the country.\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs2
1\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 41 \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\q
l\li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb144\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 38\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Kap
ur, Devesh and Pratap Bhanu Mehta. \u8220?Indian Higher Education Reform: From
Half-Baked \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri1927\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
alex100 Socialism to Half-Baked Capitalism.\u8221? Working Paper, Center for In
ternational Development at Harvard \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 University. Se
ptember 2004. \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri1966\sb2\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 \ul0\super\cf18\f19\fs23 39\ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf19\f20\fs19 India graduates a million more students from college each yea
r than the U.S. does, including 100,000 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 more in th
e sciences and 60,000 more in engineering. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-215\slmul
t0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 40\ul0\nosupersub\cf10
\f11\fs19 Kapur, Devesh and Pratap Bhanu Mehta. \u8220?Indian Higher Education
Reform: From Half-Baked \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri1927\sb21\sl-220\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 Socialism to Half-Baked Capitalism.\u8221? Working Paper
, Center for International Development at Harvard \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
University. September 2004. \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri2382\sb20\sl-220\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 41\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\f
s19 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs19 This does not include the \u8220?unrecognized
\u8221? institutions/foreign universities operating in the higher \up0 \expndtw3\charscalex100 education sector. \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\l
i1799\sb165\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx10199 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf11\f12\fs24 National Center on Education and the Economy, 2006\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw-3\charscalex100 15\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840{\shp

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-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Recent
growth is much greater in professional colleges (especially engineering, \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 management and medicine), as well as in private vocationa

l training courses \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 catering especially to the IT s

ector.\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 42 \par\pard\qj \li1799\r
i1929\sb160\sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f1
4\fs24 In the Indian system, higher (tertiary) education starts after the 10+2 S
tage (i.e. \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ten years of primary and secondary educ
ation followed by two years of senior \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 secondary ed
ucation). \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb247\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 Student enrollment has grown about five percent annually over the past two \pa
r\pard\ql \li1799\ri1749\sb15\sl-263\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 decad
es. This growth is about two-and-a-half times the population growth, and \line
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 results from both a population bulge in lower age
cohorts as well as increased \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 demand for high
er education overall. Yet only ten percent of the age cohort is \line \up0 \expn
dtw-2\charscalex100 enrolled today, a number higher than developing country aver
ages, but lower \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 than the Asian average (11 p
ercent) and much lower than developed countries \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex
100 which average 40 percent. Enrollment ratios vary across Indian States, with
the \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Southern and Western States having high
er numbers than their Eastern \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb2\sl-257\slmult0 \up0 \expn
dtw-3\charscalex100 counterparts. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb248\sl-276\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 All India Growth of Stud
ent Enrollment: 1983-84 to 2002-2003\ul0\super\cf27\f28\fs21\ul0\super\cf27\f28\
fs20 43 \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb3\sl-276\slmult0\f
i0\tx4012\tx6230\tx8443 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\f
s24 Year\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Total Enrolment\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\c
harscalex100 Increase over the\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Percentage\par\
pard\li1799\sb1\sl-262\slmult0\fi4430\tx8443 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 prece
ding year\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Increase\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\
slmult0\fi0\tx4012\tx6230\tx8443 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\c
f13\f14\fs24 1983-84\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 3,307,649\tab \up0 \expnd
tw-3\charscalex100 174,556\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 5.6\par\pard\li1799
\sb2\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx4012\tx6230\tx8443 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 198485\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 3,404,096\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
96,447\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 2.9\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-273\slmult0
\fi0\tx4012\tx6230\tx8443 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1985-86\tab \up0 \expndt
w-3\charscalex100 3,605,029\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 200,933\tab \up0 \
expndtw-3\charscalex100 5.9\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-274\slmult0\fi0\tx4012\tx6230
\tx8443 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1986-87\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
3,757,158\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 152,129\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscal
ex100 4.2\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-272\slmult0\fi0\tx4012\tx6230\tx8443 \up0 \expn
dtw-3\charscalex100 1987-88\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 4,020,159\tab \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 263,001\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 7.0\par\pard
\li1799\sb1\sl-274\slmult0\fi0\tx4012\tx6230\tx8443 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex10
0 1988-89\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 4,285,489\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charsc
alex100 265,330\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 6.6\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-274
\slmult0\fi0\tx4012\tx6230\tx8443 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1989-90\tab \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 4,602,680\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 317,191\ta
b \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 7.4\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-272\slmult0\fi0\tx401
2\tx6230\tx8443 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1990-91\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charsc
alex100 4,924,868\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 322,188\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\
charscalex100 7.0\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-274\slmult0\fi0\tx4012\tx6230\tx8443 \u
p0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1991-92\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 5,265,886\
tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 341,018\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 6.9\
par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-272\slmult0\fi0\tx4012\tx6230\tx8443 \up0 \expndtw-3\char
scalex100 1992-93\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 5,534,966\tab \up0 \expndtw3\charscalex100 269,080\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 5.1\par\pard\li1799\sb
1\sl-274\slmult0\fi0\tx4012\tx6230\tx8443 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1993-94\
tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 5,817,249\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 28
2,283\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 5.1\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-272\slmult0\f
i0\tx4012\tx6230\tx8443 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1994-95\tab \up0 \expndtw-

3\charscalex100 6,113,929\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 296,680\tab \up0 \ex

pndtw-3\charscalex100 5.1\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-274\slmult0\fi0\tx4012\tx6230\t
x8443 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1995-96\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 6,
574,005\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 460,076\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex
100 7.5\par\pard\li1799\sb4\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx4012\tx6230\tx8443 \up0 \expndt
w-3\charscalex100 1996-97\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 6,842,598\tab \up0 \
expndtw-3\charscalex100 268,593\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 4.1\par\pard\l
i1799\sb1\sl-272\slmult0\fi0\tx4012\tx6230\tx8443 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
1997-98\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 7,260,418\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscal
ex100 417,820\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 6.1\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-274\s
lmult0\fi0\tx4012\tx6230\tx8443 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1998-99\tab \up0 \
expndtw-3\charscalex100 7,705,520\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 445,102\tab
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 6.1\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-272\slmult0\fi0\tx4012\
tx6230\tx8443 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1999-00\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscal
ex100 8,050,607\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 345,087\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\ch
arscalex100 4.5\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-274\slmult0\fi0\tx4012\tx6230\tx8443 \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 2000-01\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 8,399,443\ta
b \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 348,836\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 4.3\pa
r\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-272\slmult0\fi0\tx4012\tx6230\tx8443 \up0 \expndtw-3\charsc
alex100 2001-02*\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 8,821,095\tab \up0 \expndtw-3
\charscalex100 421,652\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 5.0\par\pard\li1799\sb1
\sl-274\slmult0\fi0\tx4012\tx6230\tx8443 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 2002-03*\
tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 9,227,833\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 40
6,738\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 4.6\par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-255\slmul
t0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\fs24 *Provisional \par
\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\
pard\ql\li1799\sb146\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf1
7\f18\fs20\ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 42\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Kapur, Deves
h and Pratap Bhanu Mehta. \u8220?Indian Higher Education Reform: From Half-Bake
d \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri1927\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 S
ocialism to Half-Baked Capitalism.\u8221? Working Paper, Center for Internation
al Development at Harvard \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 University. September 2
004. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-193\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\
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, 2002-03 \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb170\sl-276\slmul
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slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-262\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-262\sl
mult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-262\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\ri1692\sb135\sl
-262\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 The vas
t majority of India\u8217?s 15,000 colleges in India are Arts, Science, Commerce
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 & Learning Colleges\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21
\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 44\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 and these enroll the b
ulk of the nearly 6 million current \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 tertiary
students.\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 45\ul0\nosupersub\cf1
3\f14\fs24 Nearly two-thirds of students are enrolled in arts and science, \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 with another 18 percent in commerce/management.\
ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 46\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24
This is important because \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 most private inv
estment in higher education is concentrated in engineering, \line \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 medicine and management and therefore, does little for the major
ity of students. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Almost nine in ten students
pursue bachelor\u8217?s degrees, one in ten pursue post-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\c
harscalex100 graduate degrees.\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 4
7 \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1613\sb257\sl-264\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 There is a trend towards privatization, although

of course the degree to which \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 states have al

lowed private higher education institutions and the quality of such \line \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 institutions varies widely. In the case of engineering
colleges, the private sector, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 which accounte
d for just 15 percent of seats in 1960, now accounts for 86.4 \line \up0 \expndt
w-2\charscalex100 percent of seats.\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\f
s20 48\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 In medical colleges, the proportion of pri
vate seats has risen \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 from 6.8 percent in 196
0 to 40.9 percent in 2003.\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 49\ul
0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Privatization does not imply a \line \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 release from the state monopoly of regulation which dictates tea
ching methods, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 courses taught, and syllabi.
Privatization simply means that institutions are self-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 financing; they draw on student fees rather than government funding.
It is \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 presumed that the efficiency of such
schools is much greater than in government-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 s
upported schools. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-264\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\ri
1632\sb12\sl-264\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 And, of course, there are
an estimated 110,000 Indian students studying abroad -\line \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 approximately 80,000 in the U.S.\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf
25\f26\fs20 50\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 , although they are turning to Canad
a, the U.K. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and Australia with the effects o
f the terrorist strike in September 2001 making \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex
100 entry into the U.S. much more difficult. Indians are spending between $700
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 million and $1 billion on higher education a
broad, a sum total that exceeds \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 expenditures
by the State. Public institutions have been limited in the fees they \line \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 can charge students which sends a somewhat perverse me
ssage to those with \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 means: \u8220?If you hav
e money, you can spend it on education abroad, you can come \line \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 to a private arrangement, or even waste it on any form of consum
ption, but the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 one thing you will not be all
owed to do is to spend it at public institutions or on \line \up0 \expndtw-3\cha
rscalex100 getting an education in India.\u8221?\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\sup
er\cf25\f26\fs20 51 \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\
sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb
155\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 44\ul0
\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 University Grants Commission, 2001-02 \par\pard\qj \l
i1799\ri5844\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f1
8\fs19 45\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK "http://ww
w.education.nic.in/htmlweb/iamrstat.htm./" }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf31\f32
\fs19\ul http://www.education.nic.in/htmlweb/iamrstat.htm\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f1
1\fs19 .}}} \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK "h
ttp://www.education.nic.in/htmlweb/iamr2.htm#ta17/" }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub
\cf10\f11\fs19 http://www.education.nic.in/htmlweb/iamr2.htm#TA17}}} \par\pard\q
l \li1799\sb211\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18
\fs19 46\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 University Grants Commission, 2002-03 \pa
r\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-217\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf
17\f18\fs19 47\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs19 U\ul0
\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 niversity Grants Commission, 2002-03 \par\pard\ql \li1
799\ri1706\sb13\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18
\fs19 48\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 AICTE cited in Kapur, Devesh and Pratap B
hanu Mehta. \u8220?Indian Higher Education Reform: From Half\up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 Baked Socialism to Half-Baked Capitalism.\u8221? Working Paper, Cent
er for International Development at \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Harvard Univer
sity. September 2004. \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri1766\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expn
dtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 49\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Me
dical Council of India cited in Kapur, Devesh and Pratap Bhanu Mehta. \u8220?In
dian Higher Education \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Reform: From Half-Baked Soci
alism to Half-Baked Capitalism.\u8221? Working Paper, Center for International

\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Development at Harvard University. September 2004

. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\sup
er\cf17\f18\fs19 50\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 More than 70 per cent of India
n students who come to the U.S., do so to study engineering and science. \par\pa
rd\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-217\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f
18\fs19 51\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Kapur, Devesh and Pratap Bhanu Mehta.
\u8220?Indian Higher Education Reform: From Half-Baked \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri19
27\sb21\sl-220\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Socialism to Half-Baked Cap
italism.\u8221? Working Paper, Center for International Development at Harvard
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 University. September 2004. \par\pard\li1799\sb0\
sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb165\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx10199 \up0 \expndtw-3\
charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 National Center on Education and the
Economy, 2006\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 17\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\pape
rw12240\paperh15840{\shp
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\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg19}{\bkmkend Pg19}\par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-276\
slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-276\sl
mult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb67\sl-276\slm
ult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 And, those who
leave, typically the most capable and financially well-off, have \par\pard\ql \l
i1799\ri1641\sb0\sl-263\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 little stake in im
proving the home system. However, while the majority of Indian \up0 \expndtw-2\c
harscalex100 students graduating from U.S. institutions used to stay and work in

America, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 more and more are now returning to
India as profitable and challenging job \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 opp
ortunities become available back home, and in response to reduction in the \line
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 number of H-1B visas relative to the internet boo
m years. So perhaps with \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 greater numbers re
turning, there might be additional pressure to strengthen \line \up0 \expndtw-3\
charscalex100 educational offerings overall. \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1814\sb252\s
l-264\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 There has also been a recent emphasi
s on women\u8217?s education since almost sixty \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex
100 percent of girls/women in India remain illiterate. The number of women\u821
7?s \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 colleges has recorded a substantial incr
ease (1,600 in 2002-03) and women now \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 consti
tute a greater proportion of enrollment figures. They represented just 31 \line
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 percent of the student population in 1991 which ha
d climbed to 40 percent by \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 2002.\ul0\super\c
f25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 52 \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb267\sl-276\slmult
0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Additionally, Indi
a\u8217?s most marginalized social groups (scheduled castes and \par\pard\ql \li
1799\ri1696\sb0\sl-266\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 scheduled tribes) a
re enrolling in greater numbers, moving from eight percent of \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 students in the late 1950s to 12-13 percent in the late 1980s. Ther
e is also strong \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 evidence to suggest that the prop
ortion of first generation graduates has been \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 risi
ng in State and Central Universities.\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26
\fs20 53 \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb239\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
\ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 Governance Bodies \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-256
\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 The \ul0\no
supersub\cf14\f15\fs24 University Grants Commission\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24
(UGC), established in 1952 and awarded \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb4\sl-256\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 statutory authority in 1956, is responsible for t
he development of higher \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1658\sb18\sl-264\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 education, allocating and distributing grants from the Ce
ntral Government to all \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 eligible central, St
ate and deemed universities based on an assessment of their \line \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 needs. Universities established under the Acts of Parliament ar
e eligible for both \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 development and maintena
nce grants; those established by State legislatures are \line \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 eligible for development grants only. There is a growing consensus
that the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 UGC needs to be restructured, with
less emphasis on the grant dispensation, and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
more emphasis on becoming a monitoring organization that benchmarks Indian \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 colleges and universities with the best in the w
orld in order to strengthen \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 academic standar
ds. Currently only 6,000 of India\u8217?s colleges qualify for UGC \line \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 grants and recognition because the other 9,000 lack suff
icient resources or \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 qualified faculty.\ul0\s
uper\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 54 \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb247\sl-276\
slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 The UGC esta
blished an autonomous body, the \ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\fs24 National Accredita
tion and \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1653\sb0\sl-265\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
ex100 Assessment Council\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 (NAAC), for carrying out
periodic assessment of volunteering \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 universi
ties and colleges. NAAC\u8217?s process of assessment and accreditation \line \
up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 involves the preparation of a self-study report by
the institution, validation of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 this report b
y peers, and final decision by the Council. Criteria include: \line \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 curricular aspects; teaching-learning and evaluation; researc
h, consultancy and \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\s
b228\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs20\ul0\s
uper\cf17\f18\fs19 52\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 University Grants Commission

\par\pard\ql \li1799\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\sup

er\cf17\f18\fs19 53\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Kapur, Devesh and Pratap Bhanu
Mehta. \u8220?Indian Higher Education Reform: From Half-Baked \par\pard\qj \li
1799\ri1927\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Socialism to Half-B
aked Capitalism.\u8221? Working Paper, Center for International Development at
Harvard \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 University. September 2004. \par\pard\ql
\li1799\sb1\sl-193\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs1
9 54\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Dilip Thakore. \u8220?UGC Begins a New Inning
s.\u8221? Indiatogether.org. May 2004. \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\p
ard\li1799\sb170\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx10199 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\n
osupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 National Center on Education and the Economy, 2006\tab \u
p0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 18\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\
pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg20}{\bkmkend Pg20}\par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-276\s
lmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slm
ult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb67\sl-276\slmu
lt0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 extension; infra
structure and learning resources; student support and \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri169
3\sb0\sl-263\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 progression; organization and
management; and healthy practices. The NAAC's \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex
100 main initiative is to address the qualitative problems that have arisen beca
use of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the recent explosion in higher educat
ion. However, the agency's authority is \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 conf
ined to institutions that are already recognized by the University Grants \line
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Commission as degree-granting institutions or as a
ffiliated institutions. They \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 have no power t
o assess or regulate private, unrecognized institutions. And \line \up0 \expndt
w-2\charscalex100 accreditation is voluntary, with very few institutions partici
pating to date. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb242\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
alex100 The \ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\fs24 All-India Council of Technical Educati
on\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 (AICTE), established in 1948 and \par\pard\ql \
li1799\ri1723\sb15\sl-263\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 awarded statutor
y authority in 1988, is responsible for planning and developing \line \up0 \expn
dtw-2\charscalex100 technical education (engineering and technology, architectur
e, management and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 pharmacy). It oversees th
e review and update of the curriculum and facilities of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 the engineering colleges and other technician-training institutions.
The AICTE \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 also regulates the establishment
of new private professional colleges in order to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
ex100 limit their proliferation. A significant feature in the development of te
chnical \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 education in the last twenty years i
s the emergence of \u8220?self-financing\u8221? \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1775\sb0\
sl-266\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 institutions in the private sector
that charge student fees and do not depend on \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 gove
rnment grants. The AICTE recently established a National Board of \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 Accreditation (NBA) to initiate the accreditation of tech
nical institutions (like its \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 counterpart, the NAAC
). \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1615\sb251\sl-264\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 In 2004, AICTE announced that it will constitute a \ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\fs
24 National Engineers Registration \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and Licen
sing\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Board (NERLB) to provide registration and lic
enses for the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 engineering graduates of IITs
with a view to enhance the level of proficiency and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
alex100 ethics. NERLB would among other things represent the engineering profess
ion at \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 national and international levels, fa
cilitating international mobility of Indian \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
engineers. \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1694\sb255\sl-266\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 All universities are members of the \ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\fs24 Asso
ciation of Indian Universities\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 (AIU). The \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 AIU has no executive powers but plays an important role a
s an agency of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 dissemination of information

and as an advisor to the government, UGC and the \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 u

niversities themselves. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb246\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 The \ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\fs24 National\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f
14\fs24 \ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\fs24 Council for Teacher Education\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf13\f14\fs24 (NCTE), established in 1973 and \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1747\s
b16\sl-262\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 awarded statutory authority in
1993, is responsible for planning and developing \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 teacher education, including setting and maintaining standards. There is a
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 National Eligibility Test to select teacher
s. Some States also conduct State Level \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Tes
ts for appointment of teachers in their States. In 1987, \ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f
15\fs24 Academic Staff Colleges \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosuper
sub\cf13\f14\fs24 (ASC) were set up (45 to date) to provide opportunities for ge
neral orientation \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and subject refresher prog
rams for academic staff. More than 100,000 teachers \line \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 have received training of 3-4 weeks duration. These colleges also cond
uct 2-3 \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 day seminars for Principals. \par\pa
rd\ql \li1799\sb247\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub
\cf12\f13\fs24 Higher Education Provider Options \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb4\sl-276
\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 On paper, t
he Indian government is responsible for maintaining educational \par\pard\ql \li
1799\sb1\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 quality and standards, for
studying and matching educational options with \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri1813\sb1\
sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 workforce needs, and for supporting
research and advanced study. Yet, experts \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 s
ay that India\u8217?s higher education system, like its K-12 counterpart, is fra
ught \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb198\sl-276\slmult0\fi
0\tx10199 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 National Ce
nter on Education and the Economy, 2006\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 19\par
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\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg21}{\bkmkend Pg21}\par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-262\
slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-262\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-262\sl
mult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-262\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\ri1631\sb135\sl
-262\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 with po
litics and corruption and is considered to be highly inefficient in doing its \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 job. Devesh Kapur of Harvard and Pratap Mehta of th
e Center for Policy \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Research in New Delhi po
sit in a recent paper that higher education in India is \line \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 being de facto privatized. However, because private initiatives rem
ain hostage \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 to State regulations, private capital
has been unable to structure a productive \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 al
ternative to the public system. Private colleges are not able to respond to \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 demand or fill a market niche because they must
operate in the same regulatory \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 environment that p
ublic institutions do. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb247\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1
\charscalex100 Higher education is provided by: 1) Universities - including agri
cultural \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1724\sb15\sl-263\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 universities and medical universities;\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\
cf25\f26\fs20 55\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 2) "Deemed to be universities" w
hich are \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 institutions that are conferred the statu
s of a university by virtue of their long \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 traditio
n of teaching, or specialization in a particular area; and 3) Institutions of \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 National Importance which are established or designa
ted through Acts of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Parliament. There are 11
such institutions including the Indian Institutes of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 Technology. They are empowered to award their own degrees, a privileg
e \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 normally granted only to universities. \pa
r\pard\qj \li1799\ri1957\sb252\sl-270\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Indu
strial training institutes and polytechnics (administered through the State \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 departments of technical education) offer non-universi
ty level post-secondary \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 education in various techn
ical and commercial fields. \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1612\sb256\sl-263\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Since the early 1980s, India has been developing an O
pen University system that \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 provides distance educa
tion to improve university access. The \ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\fs24 Distance Ed
ucation \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Council\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 (DEC
) provides development funding (from the Central Government) to \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 open universities and distance education institutions. With 72 per
cent of the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 population living in rural areas
, where only 38 percent of colleges are located, the \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1
00 Indian government had to implement distance education to fulfill demand. Open
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 learning is credited with expanding and diversify
ing the courses available to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 students and re
aching a vastly heterogeneous student body (age, gender, region, \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 social background, income, and educational experience). There ar
e now some \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 sixty Institutes/Directorates of
distance education attached to conventional \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
universities and ten Open Universities. Students can chose from over 100 courses
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 leading to degrees/diplomas via distance educatio
n. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-263\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\ri1608\sb14\sl-26
3\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Courses are offered on a modular pattern
, leading to the award of certificates, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 dipl
omas and degrees. Open University programs have proven to be highly \line \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 cost-effective, averaging just 35 to 50 percent of the
cost of traditional programs. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Also, unlike t

heir University counterparts, Open Universities are notable for their \line \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 close linkages with industry and employer groups, not
only in designing and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 preparing learning pac
kages, but also in the delivery of various services to \line \up0 \expndtw-3\cha
rscalex100 students at the workplace. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb267\sl-276\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 Universities in Indi
a: Important Features \par\pard\qj \li1799\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li179
9\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\
sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\ri1850\sb11\sl-220\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0
\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs20\ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 55\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf10\f11\fs19 There are Central Universities, funded directly by the Ministry
of Human Resources Development, and \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 State Univers
ities, set up and funded by various States. \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\
par\pard\li1799\sb165\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx10199 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \
ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 National Center on Education and the Economy, 2006\t
ab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 20\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh1
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\pard\ql \li5270\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1561\sb227\sl-276\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 Important Features\par
\pard\qj \li20\ri1935\sb161\sl-264\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\no
supersub\cf14\f15\fs24 Nearly 50% of universities in India belong to this \up0 \
expndtw-4\charscalex100 category.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri1959\sb33\sl-264\slmult0 \
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Specialized instruction and research on campus. \up
0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Professional areas like engineering, medicine, law \u
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 covered.\par\pard\ql \li20\ri1599\sb29\sl-264\slmult
0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 University status awarded to institutions(60) of
long \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 standing and high academic reputation. Typic
ally \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 encompasses both teaching and research, with
close \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 interactions between the two.\par\pard\qj \l
i5270\sb0\sl-278\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li5270\sb0\sl-278\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \l
i20\ri1806\sb230\sl-278\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Highly selective i
nstitutions offering professional \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 teaching /resear
ch; IITs/NITs/IIMs/ Law Institutes \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Private Institu
tions\par\pard\ql \li5270\sb0\sl-263\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\ri1658\sb28\sl-2
63\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Open and flexible education offered thr
ough the \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 distance mode using correspondence
courses/modern \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 educational technology like interac
tive TV; Wide \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 variety of programs. \par\pard\sect\
sectd\sbknone \ql \li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb4\sl-276\slmu
lt0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Instruction for
almost 80 percent of students in undergraduate programs is \par\pard\ql \li1799\
ri1683\sb0\sl-265\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 delivered by colleges wh
ich are affiliated with universities (universities have the \line \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 power to grant affiliation to a college). Universities prescrib
e the courses and set \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the standards for the
colleges, conducting the examinations and awarding the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 degrees. This leaves college teachers very little flexibility in wha
t they teach and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 how. The UGC has, however,
conferred autonomous status on 140 colleges \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
allowing teachers to experiment with the curriculum, introduce innovations in \
line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 teaching, conducts their own examinations, an
d award joint degrees with \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 affiliating unive
rsities. The target is to make 10 percent of existing colleges \line \up0 \expnd
tw-3\charscalex100 autonomous by 2007 (which would raise the number to 600).\ul0
\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 56 \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb240\sl-27
6\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 While ther
e has been a dramatic increase in the number of public colleges \par\pard\ql \li
1799\ri1866\sb0\sl-265\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 established in rece
nt years, most of them only offer general education courses \line \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 through syllabi set by their affiliating universities. These col
leges have neither \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the flexibility nor the f
inancial resources to offer the same innovative programs \line \up0 \expndtw-2\c
harscalex100 that private institutions have developed. A graduate of a tradition
al three-year \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 bachelor's program in a non-pr
ofessional school has virtually no marketable \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 skills as compared to one that has completed a program that included applied \
line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 mathematics and science and industry placemen
t in the same three-year span. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Therefore, a
degree in Arts and Sciences is meaningless in the marketplace and \line \up0 \ex

pndtw-2\charscalex100 does not perform a signaling effect for employers because

the quality of \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri2558\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 education received varies so widely. As reported by the president o
f the \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Reliance Group, India\u8217?s largest privat
e sector corporation: \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li179
9\sb149\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs20\ul
0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 56\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Dilip Thakore. \u8220?UGC
Begins a New Innings.\u8221? Indiatogether.org. May 2004. \par\pard\li1799\sb0\
sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb163\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx10199 \up0 \expndtw-3\
charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 National Center on Education and the
Economy, 2006\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 21\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\pape
rw12240\paperh15840{\shp
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72ff00b3ff00fe1e5f875ffcd1d1ff000d65fb2c7fd1cbfecfff00f8797e1d7ff3475f4051401f3f
ff00c3597ecb1ff472ff00b3ff00fe1e5f875ffcd1d1ff000d65fb2c7fd1cbfecfff00f8797e1d7f
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3c8b2dc42afea14500145145007fffd9}}}}}
\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg23}{\bkmkend Pg23}\par\pard\ql \li2519\sb0\sl-260\
slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2519\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2519\sb0\sl-260\sl
mult0 \par\pard\ql\li2519\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2519\sb0\sl-260\slmu
lt0 \par\pard\ql\li2519\ri2454\sb145\sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 \ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\fs24 \u8220?We are obliged to rigorously test (gradua
te) job applicants to determine \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 their IQs an
d street smartness rather than trust their degree \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
ex100 qualifications. We train them, creating our own Bachelor of Sciences and
\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 re-teaching our employees mechanical and che
mical engineering.\u8221?\ul0\super\cf30\f31\fs21\ul0\super\cf30\f31\fs20 57 \pa

r\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-263\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\ri1622\sb15\sl-263\slmu

lt0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 The rapid scaleup in the number of colleges has appeared to impact the quality \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 of education in that academic standards are not up to par by inter
national \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 standards. Today\u8217?s diversifie
d student body ranges from first generation learners \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1
00 who attended publicly funded schools to those from professional and higher \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 income families who patronized private institu
tions. Many educational experts \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 feel that the qua
lity of higher education has declined in an effort to serve the \line \up0 \expn
dtw-3\charscalex100 wide variety of students entering today. \par\pard\ql \li179
9\ri1643\sb256\sl-265\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Curriculum content i
s criticized as outdated, with much reliance on rote teaching \line \up0 \expndt
w-3\charscalex100 methods. Students complain of too little connection to work-r
elated \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 opportunities or career preparation.
Many feel they study for irrelevant degrees \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
and are unprepared for the world of work as a result. Graduate unemployment \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 is rising; in fact, the unemployment level of
the educated workforce - defined as \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 secondar
y and above level of education\u8212?is almost six times that of the \line \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 workforce educated only up to the primary level.\ul0\su
per\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 58\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 The t
otal number of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 registered unemployed recentl
y topped 40 million Indian residents, with many \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex
100 more unregistered but still interested in finding employment. \par\pard\ql \
li1799\ri1627\sb256\sl-264\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 In the early po
st-Independence years, a bachelor's degree often provided the elite \line \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 entrance to prime government positions, but in contempor
ary India, it at best \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 provides a chance to b
ecome a white-collar worker at a relatively modest salary. \line \up0 \expndtw-3
\charscalex100 And with organized employment only representing 10 percent of tot
al \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 employment, finding a professional job is
a challenge. Nevertheless, a university \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 deg
ree or diploma continues to be a requirement for most jobs and consequently, \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the college and university system remains in de
mand. But students do not \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 demand quality im
provements in their education.\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 5
9\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Instead, many of them \line \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 spend more years (and increasingly more resources) in acquiring some
sort of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 post-graduate professional qualifica
tion in order to signal their skills and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 kno
wledge to potential employers. Another recent phenomenon is the number \line \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of college students, in non-professional degree cour
ses, who study in parallel \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 technical profess
ionally-oriented courses with the hope of increasing their job \line \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 prospects upon graduation (examples of these include various
kinds of computer \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 courses provided by instit
utes such as NIIT and Aptech). \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb267\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 With teacher appointments made based on political affilia
tion, the teachers \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 themselves are often unmotivated, unchallenged by competition in that s
tudents \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-230\s
lmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb46\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul
0\super\cf17\f18\fs20\ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 57\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Q
uote taken from Dilip Thakore, \u8220?UGC Begins a New Innings.\u8221? Indiatoge
ther.org. May 2004. \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri1917\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw
-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 58\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Accor
ding to Morgan Stanley economist Chetan Ahta in \u8220?India Appending Itself to
the Global Labour \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Supply Chain.\u8221? Global Eco
nomic Forum. February 4, 2004. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-193\slmult0 \up0 \ex

pndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 59\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19

Kapur, Devesh and Pratap Bhanu Mehta. \u8220?Indian Higher Education Reform: Fr
om Half-Baked \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri1927\sb25\sl-220\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 Socialism to Half-Baked Capitalism.\u8221? Working Paper, Center fo
r International Development at Harvard \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 University.
September 2004. \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb165\sl-2
76\slmult0\fi0\tx10199 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs
24 National Center on Education and the Economy, 2006\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charsca
lex100 22\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840{\shp
{\*\shpinst\shpleft1700\shptop13960\shpright4760\shpbottom14140\shpwr3\shpfblwtx
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\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg24}{\bkmkend Pg24}\par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-276\
slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-276\sl
mult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb67\sl-276\slm
ult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 do not select t
eachers and courses once they enroll in a program, not held \par\pard\ql \li1799
\ri1739\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 accountable for the qua
lity of their teaching, and in fact, are very often paid on a \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 per lecture basis. (Teacher salaries can constitute as much as 95 pe
rcent of \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 university expenditures.) \par\pard
\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\ri1788\sb18\sl-260\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 In response to these problems, the UGC is now encour
aging students to take \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 electives from other
disciplines outside their stream in order to gain additional \line \up0 \expndtw

-2\charscalex100 job-related skills and earn certificates after just one year of
study. Practical \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 courses are beginning to
be offered at colleges and universities, offering hands-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\c
harscalex100 on learning to supplement the theory-heavy traditional curriculum.\
ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 60 \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb267\sl
-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 Admissi
ons \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1762\sb0\sl-265\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100
\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 For admission to undergraduate courses, universit
ies/institutes in India require \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 candidates to have
completed 12 years of schooling. This is considered by the \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 British Council to be equivalent to earning pass grades in five subje
cts at the \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Ordinary Level (O level) and two subjec
ts at the Advanced Level (A Level) \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 through t
he GCE Examination of the U.K. \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1632\sb251\sl-263\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Privately managed and publicly funded colleges are
required to admit 50 percent \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of their students ba
sed on their performance on entrance exams (free seats). \line \up0 \expndtw-2\c
harscalex100 These students are not required to pay any extra fees or tuition. T
he other 50 \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 percent of students are admitted
based on their willingness to pay extra tuition \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 (
payment seats). The unaided private colleges set their own fee levels (below a
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 government-set ceiling) that are generally extreme
ly high in comparison to the \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 aided private college
s and government colleges. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb267\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 Only students who are able to obtain an 80% to 99% on their e
xaminations are \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1612\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\c
harscalex100 able to get admission into a good college. Otherwise, many students
are admitted \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 into average colleges for regu
lar Bachelor of Arts, Sciences or Communication \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex
100 degrees. \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1685\sb15\sl-264\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 In general, gaining admission to a nonprofessional college is not und
uly difficult \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 except in the case of some sel
ect colleges that are particularly competitive. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex
100 Students encounter greater difficulties in gaining admission to professional
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 colleges in such fields as architecture, bu
siness, medicine, and dentistry. And, of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 co
urse, admissions to the Indian Institutes of Technology (and the Indian \line \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Institutes of Management for graduate level work) is
extremely competitive. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb247\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 Indian Institutes of Technology \p
ar\pard\ql \li1799\ri1679\sb0\sl-265\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 In 1946, the Sarkar Committee was set up to explore cre
ating technical institutes \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of higher education for
post-war industrial development of India under a special \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
alex100 act by the President. The recommendations of the Sarkar Committee were
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 modeled along the lines of great U.S. univer
sities, notably the Massachusetts \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Institute
of Technology (MIT). \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb240\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\c
harscalex100 The first Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) was created in 1950.
The seventh \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex
100 and latest was established by upgrading one of India\u8217?s oldest engineer
ing \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 instit
utions, Roorkee University, into an IIT. IITs offer undergraduate, integrated \
par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb96\sl-230\slmult0 \
up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs20\ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 60
\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Dilip Thakore. \u8220?New Stimulus for College E
ducation.\u8221? Indiatogether.org. June 2004. \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmul
t0\par\pard\li1799\sb163\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx10199 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex10
0 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 National Center on Education and the Economy, 200
6\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 23\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\pape

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\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg25}{\bkmkend Pg25}\par\pard\qj \li1799\sb0\sl-260\
slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-260\sl
mult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\ri2939\sb145\sl
-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 postgra
duate, postgraduate and doctoral degrees in over 25 different \up0 \expndtw-3\ch
arscalex100 engineering, technology and business/ \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb3\sl-25
7\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 management disciplines. There are about
1,500 undergraduate and 2,000 \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1737\sb0\sl-266\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 graduate students in each IIT (except for IIT Guwaha
ti which is about half this \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 size). The government
reserves just over 20 percent of the IIT places for \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
alex100 scheduled castes and tribes. But this does nothing to help women, who ma
ke up \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 less than 5 percent of the IIT students. \pa
r\pard\ql \li1799\sb242\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 IITs are co
nsidered world-class and are core to the knowledge-based \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri
1715\sb0\sl-266\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 development strategy of th
e country. The curriculum may be the most rigorous \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 in the world. Students carry approximately 50 percent more courses than the \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 typical U.S. undergrad.\ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\
fs31 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Last year, 178,000 high school seniors took
the entrance \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 exam called the JEE (Joint Entrance

Examination). The entrance exams are \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 fiercel

y competitive and no amount of connections or string-pulling help.\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf9\f10\fs19 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 (Most \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 students wishing to enter IITs rely on extensive private tutoring to prepare t
hem \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 for the highly rigorous exam.) \par\pard\ql \l
i1799\sb199\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The Examination consist
s of one Screening Paper of three hours duration in \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1766\
sb0\sl-262\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Mathematics, Physics and Chemis
try. Those who qualify in the screening test \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 return for the Main Examination consisting of three papers in Mathematics, \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Physics & Chemistry, each of two hours duration
. The question papers for Joint \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Entrance Ex
amination are in both English and Hindi. The candidates are \line \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 permitted to write the Main Examination in any one of the follow
ing languages: \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Assamese, Bengali, English, G
ujarati, Hindi, Tamil and Telugu. Just over 3,500 \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
ex100 were accepted, or less than two percent of the 200,000 students who sat fo
r the \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 JEE (compared to Harvard College\u8217
?s eight percent acceptance rate). \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1717\sb233\sl-264\slmu
lt0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Each institute is staffed by high-caliber teac
hing faculty, has well equipped most \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 modern
laboratories, state-of -art library and computer networks. The selected \line \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 candidates live in a pleasant and intellectually sim
ulating environment. The \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 teaching method rel
ies on direct personal contact between teacher and students \line \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 (the average student:teacher ratio is 10:1)\ul0\super\cf25\f26\f
s21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 61\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 . A high staff to st
udent ratio ensures \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 close contact for monito
ring and academic progress of each student. Living in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 such an environment with people having similar goals and aspirations i
s \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 credited with building student confidence
and providing academic \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 stimulation. Students
and faculty make no distinction between rich and poor, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 city-bred and rural. The only things that matter are ability, expert
ise and \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 leadership quality. \par\pard\ql \li
1799\ri1758\sb215\sl-266\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The following are
quotes from CBS News Transcripts, Lesley Stahl, \u8220?Imported \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 from India: Indian Institute of Technology produces world-grade c
hemical, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 electrical and computer engineers w
ho\u8217?ve played a leading role in the American \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
technology revolution,\u8221? March 2, 2003: \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1682\sb259\s
l-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\fs24 \u8220
?You wouldn't mistake this for MIT or Caltech. It's the final exam of metal fabr
ication \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 grade, required for every IIT freshm
an. Call it shop grade on steroids. Using just a saw \line \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 and a file, students have to cut quarter-inch steel into an assigned sh
ape, measured to the \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799
\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb5\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs20\ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 61\ul0\nosupersub\cf10
\f11\fs19 \u8220?Joshi for more students in IITs, IIMs.\u8221? News Insight (pu
blic affairs magazine). January 2, 2004. \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\pa
r\pard\li1799\sb163\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx10199 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul
0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 National Center on Education and the Economy, 2006\tab
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 24\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh158
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ff0043d7fe5b1e31ff00e67abe80a2803e7fff0086a4f813ff0043d7fe5b1e31ff00e67a8ff86a4f
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ff0043d7fe5b1e31ff00e67abe80a2803e7fff0086a4f813ff0043d7fe5b1e31ff00e67abb0f04fc
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\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg26}{\bkmkend Pg26}\par\pard\qj \li1799\sb0\sl-260\
slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-260\sl
mult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\ri2069\sb145\sl
-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\fs24 millime
ter. It's an illustration of IIT's emphasis on engineering basics, precision and
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 discipline. Nobody majors in music at IIT.
The education is not well-rounded. But in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 sc
ience and technology, IIT undergraduates leave their American counterparts in th
e \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 dust.\u8221? \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-2
60\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\ri1723\sb20\sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
alex100 \u8220?Students act like entrepreneurs the whole time they're at IIT. Th
ey run everything in \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the dorms, which might be mis
taken for cell blocks if not for all the Pentium 4 PCs. They \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 organize the sports themselves. They even hire the chefs and pick the
food in the mess \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 halls. And unlike so many
other institutions in India, they all know they're here because \up0 \expndtw-3\
charscalex100 they deserve to be here.\u8221? \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-265\sl
mult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\ri1716\sb11\sl-265\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1
00 \u8220?IIT may also be one of the best educational bargains in the world. It
costs a family just \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 about $700 a year for room, bo
ard and tuition. That's less than 20 percent of the true \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 cost. The Indian government subsidizes all the rest. While some IIT grads
stay and have \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 helped build India's flourishing hi
gh-tech sector, almost two-thirds--up to 2,000 people--\line \up0 \expndtw-3\cha
rscalex100 leave every year, most for the US.\u8221? \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1942
\sb255\sl-265\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs2
4 A key reason why IITs are so successful is their near-complete autonomy from \
line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the government. Yet the IIT continues to attr
act significant levels of State \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 funding. For
instance, while the Victoria Jubilee Technical Institute, a much-\line \up0 \ex

pndtw-2\charscalex100 respected engineering college in Mumbai, has to manage wit

h $1.88 million \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 every year, the annual budge
t of IIT Mumbai exceeds $26 million.\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\
fs20 62 \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1617\sb255\sl-265\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 IIT graduates occupy key positions in indus
tries in India and abroad. In 1998, the \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 renowned I
ndian Institute of Technology sent 30 percent of all of its graduates to \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 the United States, including 80 percent of its computer s
cience graduates.\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 63\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf13\f14\fs24 About \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 20,000 IIT graduates curr
ently live in the United States, almost 20 percent of the \up0 \expndtw-3\charsc
alex100 total IIT grad population since the system's inception. \par\pard\ql \li
1799\ri1835\sb256\sl-264\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 A topic of much d
ebate in India is should the government continue subsidizing \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 the education of IIT students since so many of them end up working i
n foreign \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 countries? There are many who are asking
that an "exit tax" be imposed on \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 students w
ho pass out from prestigious institutions like the IIT only to take up \up0 \exp
ndtw-2\charscalex100 jobs abroad. There is also a proposal to ask them to serve
time in Indian rural \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 areas - just like medical stu
dents are required to do. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-262\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\l
i1799\ri1614\sb16\sl-262\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Another criticism
often levied against the IITs is that do not attract students who \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 want to pursue a career in research. But the situation is
fast changing as \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 industries begin to link u
p with the IITs. IT giant IBM, for example, has entered \line \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 into a much talked-about collaboration with IIT Delhi, setting up a
technology \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 center within the campus. The cen
ter showcases advanced applications for bio-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
informatics, networking, knowledge management and application of e-\line \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 commerce to local initiatives. Similarly, IIT Kharagpur i
s doing research work in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 collaboration with
multinationals like Motorola, Compaq, Oracle and GE Capital. \par\pard\ql \li179
9\sb207\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs
24 Indian Institutes of Management \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\
pard\ql\li1799\sb192\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf1
7\f18\fs20\ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 62\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Raju Bist. \
u8220?Students for the World: India\u8217?s Dilemma.\u8221? Asia Times. February
19, 2003. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-217\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
\ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 63\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 Janamitra Devan and P
arth S. Tewari, \u8220?Brains Abroad,\u8221? McKinsey Quarterly, No. 4, 2001. \p
ar\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb166\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx101
99 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 National Center on
Education and the Economy, 2006\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 25\par\pard\s
ect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840{\shp
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\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg27}{\bkmkend Pg27}\par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-260\
slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-260\sl
mult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\ri1680\sb145\sl
-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 The IIM
s were set up by the government of India in 1961 as specialized institutes \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 to improve the practice of management in the country. S
tudents take a two-year \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 course of study leading to
a Post-Graduates in Management degree (the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
equivalent of an MBA). The IIMs have six colleges in the country: Ahmedabad, \u
p0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Bangalore, Calcutta, Indore, Kozhikode and Lucknow.
\par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-264\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\ri1882\sb13\sl-264\s
lmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Like their IIT counterparts, the facilities
and faculty at the IIMs are some of the \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 best in I
ndia (the average student:teacher ratio is just 5:1).\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul
0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 64\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 The Institutes \line \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 collaborated with Harvard Business School to design th
eir own system of case\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 study teaching. The benefits
for students are the high quality of teaching, wide \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1
00 choice of subjects, massive library and computer facilities and easy access t
o \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 industry for project placements. \par\pard\ql \l
i1799\ri1668\sb256\sl-265\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 IIM graduates no
longer line up for safe government jobs (particularly since the \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 government is considered overstaffed with almost 19 million emplo
yees and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 represents only one percent of newl
y generated jobs). They prefer and enjoy the \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 chall
enges and risks of becoming entrepreneurs and global players. The average \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 IIM student has multiple lower-level managerial job offe
rs - often in well-paid \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 industries like IT and fin
ance -- even before graduation. But because the average \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 starting salary for top MBA graduates in India is only about $43,000 (com
pared \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 to a U.S. starting salary of over $100,000),
25 percent of graduates accept \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 placements a
broad where the salary prospects are higher.\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\c
f25\f26\fs20 65 \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1653\sb256\sl-264\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Admission to the IIMs is through a
Common Admission Test (CAT), followed by \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 a p
anel interview and a personal interview. IIM Ahmedabad, in the western \line \u

p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 State of Gujarat, was rated the toughest business sc

hool in world to get into by \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the Economist I
ntelligence Unit (2002). With more than 70,000 applicants \line \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 fighting for 200 places, the two-year program was considered an i
nternational \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 bargain at $5,100.\ul0\super\cf
25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs20 66 \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \
par\pard\ql\li1799\ri1741\sb20\sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0
\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Despite the fact that graduates of these top instituti
ons have high earning levels, \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the government remai
ns reluctant to increase student fees. In fact, student fees \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 decreased by 80 percent from 2002 to 2004, amounting to just $750 pe
r student \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (out of a total annual cost of $10,000 p
er student). \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb267\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscale
x100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 Higher Education Financing \par\pard\ql \li17
99\ri1799\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\
f14\fs24 Higher education occupies a low priority in terms of public expenditure
s. Its \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 share of GNP was nearly one percent
during the 1970s, just .35 percent in the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 mi
d-1990s, and has since had a modest increase to .6 percent. Higher education \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 received 12 percent of the share of the total
expenditure on education in 2000-\par\pard\qj \li1799\ri1957\sb18\sl-260\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 01.\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs21\ul0\super\cf25\f26\fs
20 67\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Yet, the central government provides only o
ne-quarter of the funding for \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 higher education, wi
th much of the rest coming from the States. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmu
lt0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-230\slmult
0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb35\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\sup
er\cf17\f18\fs20\ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 64\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 \u8220
?Joshi for more students in IITs, IIMs.\u8221? News Insight (public affairs maga
zine). January 2, 2004. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw3\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 65\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 \u8220
?Consider India.\u8221? The Economist Global Executive. June 6, 2002. \par\par
d\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-217\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f1
8\fs19 66\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 \u8220?Consider India.\u8221? The Econo
mist Global Executive. June 6, 2002. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb13\sl-230\slmult0 \
up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 67\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11
\fs19 Analysis of Budgeted Expenditure on Education, Ministry of Human Resource
Development cited in \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb1\sl-217\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 Kapur, Devesh and Pratap Bhanu Mehta. \u8220?Indian Higher Educatio
n Reform: From Half-Baked Socialism \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard
\li1799\sb166\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx10199 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosu
persub\cf11\f12\fs24 National Center on Education and the Economy, 2006\tab \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 26\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840{\sh
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\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg28}{\bkmkend Pg28}\par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-264\
slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-264\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-264\sl
mult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-264\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-264\slmu
lt0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\ri1661\sb121\sl-264\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Until the late 1980s, the central government sup
plied up to 90 percent of the total \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 funding
for higher education. In contrast, student fees contributed around 5 \line \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 percent. However, in the 1990s the government allegedly
saw minimal social \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 rates of returns from it
s higher education investments and changed its policy, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 increasing funding at the elementary and secondary levels and decreas
ing \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 funding at the university level. The Gov
ernment of India\u8217?s 1997 discussion paper \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1
00 on Government Subsidies in India provided a revealing insight into government
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 thinking. For the first time, higher educat
ion (as well as secondary education) \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 was cla
ssified in the discussion paper as a "nonmerit good" (and elementary \line \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 education as a "merit good"). Therefore, it was argued
that government \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 subsidies for higher educat
ion would need to be reduced drastically. \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri2219\sb260\sl-2
60\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 Estimated
Higher Education Expenses Incurred by Parents and Students\ul0\super\cf27\f28\f
s21\ul0\super\cf27\f28\fs20 68 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1
3\f14\fs24 (Bachelor\u8217?s degree, academic year 2001-02) \par\pard\li1799\sb0
\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb6\sl-276\slmult0\fi4204\tx9335 \up0 \expndtw-3
\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 Public\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscal
ex100 Private\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-272\slmult0\fi1977\tx5289\tx6359\tx7732\tx9
335 \dn1 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Central\tab \dn2 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Stat
e\tab \dn2 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 University\tab \dn2 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
Government\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 College\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-262
\slmult0\fi1804\tx4982\tx6518\tx8001\tx9335 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Univer
sity\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 University\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex
100 College\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 College\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charsc
alex100 (aided)\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx4065\tx5380\tx6758\tx82
46\tx9638 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Up-front o
r\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $3\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $17\tab
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $12\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $17\tab \up
0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $17\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-261\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expn
dtw-3\charscalex100 one-time fees\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx4003\
tx5380\tx6758\tx8246\tx9638 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Tuition\tab \up0 \expn
dtw-3\charscalex100 $20\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $85\tab \up0 \expndtw3\charscalex100 $37\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $37\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\ch
arscalex100 $37\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-272\slmult0\fi0\tx4065\tx5380\tx6758\tx82
46\tx9638 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Other fees\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscale
x100 $9\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $50\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
$68\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $50\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $50\
par\pard\li1799\sb3\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx4003\tx5380\tx6758\tx8246\tx9638 \up0 \
expndtw-3\charscalex100 Books\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $73\tab \up0 \ex
pndtw-3\charscalex100 $44\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $38\tab \up0 \expndt
w-3\charscalex100 $19\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $51\par\pard\li1799\sb1\
sl-273\slmult0\fi0\tx4003\tx5323\tx6700\tx8303\tx9575 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex
100 Lodging\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $37\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex
100 $170\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $166\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex10

0 $8\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $255\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-274\slmult0\f

i0\tx3945\tx5323\tx6700\tx8183\tx9484 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Food\tab \up
0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $552\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $509\tab \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 $552\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $637\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw-3\charscalex100 $1,019\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-272\slmult0\fi0\tx3945\tx53
80\tx6758\tx8246\tx9638 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Transportation\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw-3\charscalex100 $116\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $90\tab \up0 \expn
dtw-3\charscalex100 $42\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $36\tab \up0 \expndtw3\charscalex100 $39\par\pard\li1799\sb1\sl-274\slmult0\fi0\tx4003\tx5380\tx6758\
tx8303\tx9638 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Other\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex
100 $25\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $18\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
$14\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $6\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $19\p
ar\pard\qj \li1799\ri9293\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 perso
nal \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 expenses \par\pard\li1799\sb6\sl-276\slm
ult0\fi0\tx3945\tx5323\tx6700\tx8183\tx9484 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\n
osupersub\cf12\f13\fs24 Total cost to\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $836\tab
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $986\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $947\tab \
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $810\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 $1,487\par\p
ard\qj \li1799\ri9069\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 parent an
d \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 student \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1604\sb222\
sl-266\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 Gener
ally, it is felt that there exists much room for fee increases, the solicitation
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of private donations, and the use of consul
tancy to generate revenues. The \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 government
has promised incentives: matching grants to the institutions that \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-2\charscalex100 secure private funds and income tax savings to individual
donors. But these \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 initiatives have made lit
tle headway, because the government and its bureaucrats \line \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 have not been able to give up their culture of control over institut
es of higher \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 education. \par\pard\qj \li1799
\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\s
b0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1799\ri1818\sb136\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 to Half-Baked Capitalism.\u8221?
Working Paper, Center for International Development at Harvard University. \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 September 2004. \par\pard\qj \li1799\ri1755\sb0\sl-230\
slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf17\f18\fs19 68\ul0\nosupersub
\cf10\f11\fs19 M.R. Narayana, Professor of Economics, Institute for Social and
Economic Change, Bangalore cited in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Buffalo
University\u8217?s International Comparative Higher Education Finance and Access
ibility Project report \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 on India ({\field{\*\
fldinst {HYPERLINK "http://www.gse.buffalo.edu/org/inthigheredfinance/region_asi
a_india.hmtl/" }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 www.gse.buffalo.edu/or
g/inthigheredfinance/region_asia_India.hmtl}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs19 ) \p
ar\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb152\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx101
99 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 National Center on
Education and the Economy, 2006\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 27\par\pard\s
ect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg29}{\bkmkend
Pg29}\par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-263\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-263\slm
ult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-263\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\sb0\sl-263\slmul
t0 \par\pard\ql\li1799\ri1622\sb130\sl-263\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs24 A couple of recent controversies highlight this p
roblem: First was the directive \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 from the Ed
ucation Minister under the previous BJP-led government to IIMs to \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-2\charscalex100 reduce their fees drastically. While this was done in the
name of making the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Institutes more accessib
le to the poor, in practice this was not an issue since \line \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 banks lined up to give educational loans to any one who had been adm
itted to an \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 IIM. Most analysts saw the real
issue being one of control, whereby the \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 gov
ernment would reduce the autonomy of the IIM by making it even more \line \up0 \

expndtw-2\charscalex100 dependent on government-provided funds. The second exam

ple was a directive \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 by the same minister to
the effect that all alumni donations to the IITs be made to \line \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 a central fund administered by the government, which would then
pass the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 monies on to the IITs. While this
was ostensibly done to increase \u8220?coordination\u8221? \line \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 in the use of alumni funds, most observers again saw it as an iss
ue of \u8220?control.\u8221? \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb247\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw-2\charscalex100 At present, the university system is too large for the gove
rnment of India to \par\pard\ql \li1799\ri1671\sb0\sl-265\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw1\charscalex100 maintain financially. While University funding by Central/State
Governments \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 has been the tradition, this practice
is declining as government funding is \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 steadi
ly being reduced. Yet, large amounts of public money continue to be spent \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 per student in the IITs and IIMs, which generally cater
to the relatively affluent \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 students, in order to
generate economic growth. \par\pard\ql \li1799\sb0\sl-263\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\l
i1799\ri1855\sb8\sl-263\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Competition is als
o inserting itself in India\u8217?s higher education system. Private \line \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 and joint sector institutions \u8216?deemed as univers
ities\u8217? are expanding rapidly. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Virtual
universities are likely to spread in the coming years. And although \line \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 foreign universities in India are mostly in the big cit
ies and are few in number \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 today, many instit
utions from the U.S. and other developed countries are eager \line \up0 \expndtw
-2\charscalex100 to insert themselves into this new marketplace in the post-WTO
era (beginning \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 January 1, 2005 foreign insti
tutions are now free to set up shop in India). \par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmul
t0\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\par
d\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\s
b0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\
slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\pa
r\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1
799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl
-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmul
t0\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\par
d\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\s
b0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1799\sb202\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx10199 \up0 \expndtw
-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs24 National Center on Education and t
he Economy, 2006\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 28\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24}