NETRINO KAI POLUDIASTATES JEWRIES

JEMELIWDWN ALLHLEPIDRASEWN

Didaktorik Diatrib

Yalldac Andrac

Tmma Fusikc
Sqol Jetikn Episthmn
Panepistmio Iwannnwn

IWANNINA 2006

Afiernetai sthn mhtra mou

H ergasa aut sugqrhmatodotjhke ap thn Eurwpaik 'Enwsh, sta plasia tou progrmmatoc me ttlo "HRAKLEITOS", tou progrmmatoc EPEAEK II tou 3ou Koinotiko
Plaisou Strixhc tou UP.E.P.J., me qrhmatodthsh kat 25% ap ejnikoc prouc kai
kat 75% ap to Eurwpak Koinwnik Tameo (EKT).

This research was co-funded by the European Union in the framework of the program
HRAKLEITOS of the Operational Program for Education and Initial Vocational Training of the 3rd Community Support Framework of the Hellenic Ministry of Education,
funded by 25% from national sources and by 75% from the European Social Fund (ESF).

Euqaristec
H parosa didaktorik diatrib ekponjhke sto Tmma Fusikc tou Panepisthmou Iwannnwn up thn epbleyh tou Kajhght k. G. K. Leontrh ston opoo kai apeujnw tic jermc
mou euqaristec gia thn bojeia, sunergasa kai kajodghsh.
Euqarist idiatera jerm ton Anaplhrwt Kajhght k. I. Rzo gia thn sunergasa kai
tic poltimec episthmonikc suzhtseic mac.
Idiaterec euqaristec ja jela na apeujnw ston metadidaktorik foitht k. D. Giotso
gia thn armonik sunergasa mac kai tic atelewtec suzhtseic pnw sta ereunhtik kajc
kai sta eisagwgik jmata autc thc didaktorikc diatribc.
Euqarist ton metadidaktorik foitht k. T. Dent gia thn yogh sunergasa mac pnw
sthn ergasa gia thn epktash tou montlou Pati-Salam.
Euqarist jerm ton Kajhght k. K. Tambkh gia tic suzhtseic mac pnw sthn Kbantik Jewra Pedou kajc kai gia thn oikonomik upostrixh pou mou pareqe sthn arq
thc parosac diatribc.
Euqarist thn trimel epitrop mou (k. k. G. K. Leontrh, k. N. Blqo, k. I. Rzo)
gia ton qrno pou dijese sthn angnwsh thc parosac diatribc.
Jermc euqaristec ofelw stouc flouc mou kai sunadlfouc k. k. G. Poulipolh, O.
Eujumou, S. Nsserh, Q. Mpogdno kai A. Dhmhtridh gia thn poltimh bojeia touc se
jmata software kai idiatera me ta progrmmata Mathematica kai LaTeX, kajc kai gia tic
suzhtseic mac pnw se geniktera ereunhtik jmata.
H parosa diatrib qrhmatodotjhke apo to prgramma HRAKLEITOS tou Epiqeirhsiako Progrmmatoc gia thn Ekpadeush kai Arqik Epaggelmatik Katrthsh apo to
Ellhnik Upourgeo Paideac ktw apo to Trto Koinotik Plasio Strixhc kai to Eurwpaik Koinwnik Tameo. Euqarist to Tmma Fusikc kajc kai to Upourgeo Paideac
gia thn oikonomik upostrixh pou mou pareqe msw tou progrmmatoc HRAKLEITOS, sto
disthma twn teleutawn 3 etn.
Tloc, ja jela na ekfrsw tic jermc mou euqaristec stouc gonec mou gia thn oikonomik kai hjik upostrixh se lh thn dirkeia twn spoudn mou.

Snoyh
Sthn parosa didaktorik diatrib ja exetaste h pijanthta anaparagwgc twn peiramatikn dedomnwn stic qamhlc enrgeiec gia ta netrna sta plasia jewrhtikn montlwn.
Pio sugkekrimna, parousizetai ma eisagwg sto fainmeno twn talantsewn twn netrnwn, to mhqanism airac kai h sugqron peiramatik katstash sqetik me ta netrna. Akma,
gnetai ma anaskphsh thc upersummetrac kajc kai thc aplc upersummetrikc epktashc
tou kajierwmnou protpou. Sthn sunqeia, diereunntai oi epiptseic tou aplo upersummetriko kajierwmnou protpou auxanmenou apo ma anmalh U (1) summetra oikogneiac
pnw stic mzec twn netrnwn kai stic gwnec mxhc. H summetra oikogneiac spei aujrmhta apo mh mhdenikc msec anamenmenec timc keno enc zegouc monrwn pedwn. H
summetra diathre nan telest distashc 5 pou parqei rouc mzac Majorana sta aristerstrofa netrna. Upojtwntac summetrikoc pnakec mzac gia ta leptnia, to montlo
mpore na ermhnesei ta atmosfairik dedomna kai problpei 13 = 0. Epshc, analetai
pwc ktw apo kpoiec upojseic mpore to montlo na perigryei me epituqa ta teleutaa
peiramatik dedomna. Parakinomenoi apo ta parapnw apotelsmata kai to gegonc oti
montla pou prokptoun apo thn jewra qordn problpoun sto fsma touc na meglo
arijm oudterwn monrwn pedwn, melettai to apotlesma thc eisagwgc enc katllhlou
deterou zegouc monrwn pedwn, to opoo odhge se epiplon suneisforc stouc pnakec mzac tou prohgomenou montlou. Sunepc, upologzetai h genik morf twn pinkwn
mzac twn fortismnwn leptonwn kai twn netrnwn tan do diaforetik zegh apo monrh peda Higgs anaptssoun mh mhdenikc anamenmenec timc keno kai apodeiknetai pwc
o pnakac gia ta netrna pou prokptei sqetzetai proseggistik me summetrec leptonikc
geshc. Akma parousizetai ma arijmhtik anlush gia ma sugkekrimnh perptwsh kai
apokomzontai lseic gia tic mzec kai tic gwnec mxhc se sumfwna me ta peiramatik dedomna. Katpin, meletntai fainmena epakanonikopohshc pnw stic mzec twn netrnwn kai tic
gwnec mxhc se na upersummetrik SU(4)SU(2)L SU(2)R U(1)X montlo empneusmno
apo thn jewra uperqordn, pou ta peda lhc enai sthn basik kai thn antisummetrik
anaparstash kai ta monrh peda Higgs fortismna ktw apo thn anmalh summetra oikogneiac U (1)X . Oi pnakec Yukawa gia ta kourk, ta fortismna leptnia kai ta netrna
diakrnontai apo touc diaforetikoc suntelestc Clebsch-Gordan. H parousa enc deterou monrouc pedou Higgs epitrpei na pio realistik, ierarqik fsma gia ta elafr
netrna me swstc gwnec mxhc. Ktw apo arijmhtik dierenhsh, brsketai ma perioq sto
parametrik qro tou montlou pou oi diaforc mazn sto tetrgwno gia ta netrna kai oi
gwnec mxhc stic qamhlc enrgeiec enai se sumfwna me ta peiramatik dedomna. Tloc,
meletntai montla empneusmna apo jewrec me polubrnec (D-branes) me summetra bajmdac U (3) U (2) U (1)N sta plasia tou senarou thc diaqwrismnhc upersummetrac (split
supersymmetry) . Jewrontai periptseic me na, do kai trec (N = 1, 2, 3) abelianoc
pargontec kai upologzontai lec oi embaptseic uperfortou pou odhgon sto realistik
swmatidiak perieqmeno tou kajierwmnou protpou me thn eisagwg tou dexistrofou
netrnou. 'Epeita, analontai oi epiptseic thc diaqwrismnhc upersummetrac sto mgejoc
thc klmakac thc qordc, h exlixh twn suzexewn bajmdac kai oi sqseic mzac fermionwn trthc genic. Jewrontai sqseic metax twn suzexewn bajmdac pou mporon na
prokyoun se montla me parllhlec kajc kai me temnmenec brnec (intersecting branes)
7

kai kathgoriopoiontai ta difora montla smfwna me tic problyeic touc gia to mgejoc
thc klmakac thc qordc kai tic epiptseic touc stic qamhlc enrgeiec. Sto senrio me
tic parllhlec brnec, pou oi U (1) brnec enai prosanatolismnec ete me thn dsmh U (2)
ete me th U (3), h metabol thc klmakac sthn opoa spei h upersummetra se ma meglh
perioq odhge se trec diaforetikc periptseic montlwn. Aut problpoun uyhl, mesaa
kajc kai qamhl klmaka qordc, dhlad pio sugkekrimna MS 1016 GeV, MS 107
GeV kai MS 104 GeV antstoiqa. Epiplon, brsketai oti sto montlo me thn endimesh klmaka qordc o qamhlc enrgeiac lgoc mb /m enai se sumfwna me thn enopohsh
b- sthn klmaka thc qordc. Akma, parousizetai ma anlush me tuqaec sqseic metax
twn suzexewn bajmdac sthn klmaka thc qordc pou antistoiqon se pijan montla apo
temnmenec brnec. Diereunntai periptseic oi opoec problpoun ma klmaka qordc thc
txhc MS 1014 GeV kai dexistrofa netrna mzac thc diac txhc tsi ste msw tou
mhqanismo airac na prokptoun elafr aristerstrofa netrna sthn apodekt peiramatik energeiak perioq. Tloc, analontai oi problyeic twn montlwn gia ton qrno zwc
tou gklouno gluino.

Abstract

In this thesis, the possibility of interpreting the solar and atmospheric neutrino data within
the context of theoretical models is being explored. In particular, the implications of the
Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model augmented by a single U (1) anomalous family
symmetry for neutrino masses and mixing angles are investigated. The family symmetry
is spontaneously broken by nonzero vacuum expectation values of a pair of singlet fields.
The symmetry retains a dimension-five operator which provides Majorana masses for lefthanded neutrino states. Assuming symmetric lepton mass matrices, the model can account
for atmospheric data and predicts 13 = 0. It is also shown how under certain assumptions
the model can be compatible with all recent experimental data. Motivated by the above
results and the fact that string theory models predict in their spectrum a large number
of neutral singlet fields, the effect of introducing a proper second singlet pair is studied
resulting to additional mass entries in the previous model. Consequently, the general form
of the charged lepton and neutrino mass matrices is derived when two different pairs of
singlet Higgs fields develop nonzero vacuum expectation values and the resulting neutrino
textures are related to approximate lepton flavor symmetries. A numerical analysis for
one particular case is performed and solutions are obtained for masses and mixing angles,
consistent with experimental data. Also, renormalization effects on neutrino masses and
mixing angles in a supersymmetric string-inspired SU(4)SU(2)L SU(2)R U(1)X model
are discussed, with matter in fundamental and antisymmetric tensor representations and
singlet Higgs fields charged under the anomalous U (1)X family symmetry. The quark,
lepton and neutrino Yukawa matrices are distinguished by different Clebsch-Gordan coefficients. The presence of a second U (1)X breaking singlet with fractional charge allows
a more realistic, hierarchical light neutrino mass spectrum with bi-large mixing. By numerical investigation a region is found in the models parameter space where the neutrino
mass-squared differences and mixing angles at low energy are consistent with experimental data. Lastly, D-brane inspired models are studied with U (3) U (2) U (1)N gauge
symmetry in the context of split supersymmetry. Configurations with one, two and three
(N = 1, 2, 3) abelian factors are considered and all hypercharge embeddings are derived
which imply the realistic particle content of the Standard Model with the addition of the
right-handed neutrino. Then, the implications of split supersymmetry on the magnitude of
the string scale, the gauge coupling evolution and the third family fermion mass relations
are analyzed. Gauge coupling relations are considered which may arise in parallel as well as
intersecting brane scenarios and the various models are classified according to their predictions for the magnitude of the string scale and the low energy implications. In the parallel
brane scenario where the U (1) branes are superposed to U (2) or U (3) brane stacks, varying
the split susy scale in a wide range, three distinct cases of models are found predicting a
high, intermediate and low string scale, MS 1016 GeV, MS 107 GeV and MS 104
GeV respectively. Furthermore, in the intermediate string scale model the low energy ratio
mb /m is compatible with b Yukawa unification at the string scale. Moreover, a similar
analysis is performed for arbitrary gauge coupling relations at MS corresponding to possible intersecting brane models. Cases that predict a string scale of the order MS 1014
GeV are explored which accommodate a right-handed neutrino mass of the same order so
9

that a see-saw type light left-handed neutrino component is obtained in the sub-eV range
as required by experimental and cosmological data. Finally, a discussion is devoted for the
life-time of the gluino.

10

Perieqmena
Prlogoc

14

1 Eisagwg sthn fusik twn netrnwn

19

1.1

Eisagwg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

1.2

Hliak kai atmosfairik netrna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

1.3

Anqneush netrnwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

1.4

Talantseic netrnwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

1.4.1

Talantseic sto ken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

1.4.2

Talantseic sthn lh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

Mzec fermionwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

1.5.1

Mzec fermionwn sto kajierwmno prtupo

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

35

1.5.2

Mzec fermionwn pra apo to kajierwmno prtupo . . . . . . . . .

36

1.5.3

O mhqanismc airac sto KP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

Peiramatik dedomna kai netrno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

1.5

1.6

2 Eisagwg sthn upersummetra

43

2.1

Eisagwg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

2.2

H lgebra thc upersummetrac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

2.3

O formalismc tou uperqrou kai ta uperpeda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

2.4

Chiral kai dianusmatik uperpeda

2.4.1
2.4.2

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

Chiral uperpeda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

Dianusmatik uperpeda

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

2.5

Upersummetrikc langkranzianc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

2.6

Rxh thc upersummetrac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

11

3 To apl upersummetrik kajierwmno prtupo

kai oi epektseic tou

57

3.1

Eisagwg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57

3.2

Perigraf tou montlou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

3.3

Aujrmhth rxh thc hlektrasjenoc summetrac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

3.4

To fsma tou MSSM

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

3.5

O mhqanismc Froggatt-Nielsen kai h exlixh tou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

3.6

Anwmalec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

Polubrnec kai h prosggish thc energo jewrac pedou

71

4.1

Eisagwg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

4.2

Anoiqtc qordc se p-polubrnec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

4.3

Anoiqtc qordc metax p-polubrann kai q-polubrann . . . . . . . . . . .

74

4.3.1

p-polubrnec diac distashc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

74

4.3.2

Polubrnec diaforetikc distashc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

4.4

Temnmenec brnec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

78

4.5

H energeiak klmaka thc qordc kai h energc jewra . . . . . . . . . . . .

79

5 Epktash tou MSSM me ma anmalh U (1)X summetra

81

5.1

Eisagwg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

81

5.2

Knhtra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

82

5.3

Perigraf tou montlou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83

5.4

Oi mzec twn netrnwn kai oi gwnec mxhc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87

5.5

Prosggish me 2 zegh monrwn pedwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

92

5.5.1

Periorismo stic mzec kai tic gwnec mxhc twn netrnwn . . . . . . .

93

5.5.2

H prosjkh tou deterou zegouc monrwn pedwn . . . . . . . . . .

97

5.5.3

Arijmhtik anlush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

100

6 Montla Pati-Salam

107

6.1

Eisagwg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

107

6.2

To upersummetrik montlo SU (4) SU (2)L SU (2)R . . . . . . . . . . .

108

6.3

Exisseic thc omdac epakanonikopohshc

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

111

6.4

To upersummetrik SU (4) SU (2)L SU (2)R U (1)X montlo . . . . . .

113

6.4.1

Oi pnakec mzac twn fermionwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

117

6.4.2

Exlixh twn mazn kai twn gwnin mxhc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

122

12

7 Upersummetriko kai mh upersummetriko sqhmatismo apo polubrnec

131
7.1

Eisagwg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

131

7.2

To kajierwmno prtupo apo polubrnec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

133

7.3

H klmaka thc qordc kai oi suzexeic Yukawa se upersummetrikoc kai mh

upersummetrikoc sqhmatismoc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

143

7.4

Diaqwrismnh upersummetra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

149

7.5

Enopohsh kai h klmaka thc qordc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

150

7.5.1

Parllhlec polubrnec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

155

7.5.2

Temnmenec polubrnec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

158

7.5.3

b- enopohsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

163

7.5.4

Mzec,suzexeic gaugino kai o qrnoc zwc tou gklouno. . . . . . .

166

Sumpersmata

174

Parartmata

179

A Oi pnakec mzac twn fermionwn kai oi gwnec mxhc gia to

upersummetrik SU (3)C SU (2)L U (1)Y U (1)X

179

A.1 O tomac twn kourk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

179

A.2 O tomac twn leptonwn

184

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

B H kanonikopohsh tou uperfortou

193

G Oi exisseic thc omdac epakanonikopohshc

197

G.1 H epktash tou MSSM me bari monrh peda

G.2 Diaqwrismnh upersummetra

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

197

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

199

D Prgramma

203

Bibliografa

209

Orologa

217

13

14

Prlogoc
Sthn istora thc jewrhtikc fusikc uyhln energein despzei to kajierwmno prtupo twn Glashow, Salam kai Weinberg. Apo ta msa thc dekaetac tou 1970, opte kai
oloklhrjhke h diatpws tou, mqri kai smera, h antiparjesh tou me ta peiramatik dedomna uprxe tromaktik epituqhmnh. Wstso, oi adunamec tou kajierwmnou protpou,
pwc gia pardeigma metax llwn kai o aujaretoc arijmc twn elejerwn paramtrwn pou
prosdiorzontai apo to perama, kajc epshc kai h kbntwsh twn fortwn twn diforwn
swmatidwn, den afnoun perijria epanpaushc.
H prospjeia na dwjon apantseic sta anapnthta erwtmata pou dhmiourgose to
kajierwmno prtupo odghse sthn kataskeu twn megaloenopoihmnwn jewrin. Prgmati,
oi sugkekrimnec jewrec lusan problmata pwc aut thc kbntwshc tou fortou kai
probleyan epituqc ton lgo twn hlektromagnhtikn kai asjenn allhlepidrsewn stic
qamhlc enrgeiec. Epshc, exghsan thn prbleyh thc jewrac tou kajierwmnou protpou
smfwna me thn opoa se uyhlc enrgeiec, se sqsh me thn hlektrasjen klmaka, h isqur,
h asjenc kai h hlektromagnhtik allhlepdrash gnontai diec kai adikritec metax touc
me ma stajer szeuxhc. En h omda summetrac pou qarakthrzei thn megaloenopoihmnh
jewra enai apl tte aut emfanzei mno ma stajer szeuxhc.
Parola aut, oi megaloenopoihmnec jewrec edrawsan to legmeno prblhma thc ierarqac. Ta montla aut qarakthrzontai apo do klmakec enrgeiac kai tpota den exhge
thn metax touc terstia energeiak diafor. H upersummetra katafrnei na lsei aut
to prblhma sqetzontac mpoznia kai fermonia. H efarmog thc sto kajierwmno prtupo
kai stic megaloenopoihmnec jewrec dwse apnthsh se na akma erthma. Wstso, par
tic epmonec prospjeiec den qei epibebaiwje peiramatik kai h telik apnthsh anamnetai
apo ton meglo epitaqunt sugkroumenwn desmn adronwn LHC (Large Hadron Collider)
sto CERN. H wc tra peiramatik apotuqa odghse sthn prtash mic idac gnwstc wc
diaqwrismnh upersummetra. Smfwna me autn, h upersummetra spei se ma klmaka pou
mpore na ftnei akma kai thn qarakthristik klmaka twn megaloenopoihmnwn jewrin.
'Ola ta bajmwt swmatdia apokton uyhlc mzec en oi antstoiqoi fermioniko bajmo
eleujerac, ta gauginos kai ta higgsinos, paramnoun elafr kai thc txhc tou TeV. Me
autn ton trpo epitrpetai h diatrhsh epituqhmnwn qarakthristikn thc upersummetrikc epktashc tou kajierwmnou protpou pwc h enopohsh twn suzexewn bajmdac kai h
parxh enc upoyfiou swmatidou gia thn skotein lh. Parola aut, ma bajmwt diplta
Higgs prpei na paramnei elafri, kti pou apaite lept rjmish, tsi ste na epitugqnetai to spsimo thc hlektrasjenoc summetrac. 'Etsi, gia kpoiouc egkatalepetai, en gia
kpoiouc llouc lnetai to prblhma thc ierarqac. To epiqerhma ousiastik epikentrnetai sthn diapstwsh ti ap thn stigm pou qreizetai h lept rjmish prokeimnou na luje
to prblhma thc kosmologikc stajerc, mpore na epitrape h lept rjmish kai se llouc
tomec thc jewrac.
'Omwc, uprqei na akma prblhma pou basanzei thn fusik twn stoiqeiwdn swmatidwn: h enopohsh lwn twn allhlepidrsewn. To kajierwmno prtupo agnoe entelc
tic barutikc allhlepidrseic. Gia aut to skop diatupjhke h jewra qordn, an kai
arqik eqe protaje tsi ste na exhgsei thn sumperifor twn adronwn se peirmata
15

epitaquntn. H jewra qordn antikajist la ta stoiqeidh shmeiak swmatdia thc lhc

kai twn allhlepidrsewn me na kai mno ektetamno antikemeno apeiroelqistou mkouc,
thn qord. Kje gnwst stoiqeidec swmtio, pwc kourk, hlektrnio,fwtnio, antistoiqe se ma sugkekrimnh suqnthta talntwshc thc qordc. Bbaia, na pol enoqlhtik
qarakthristik twn jewrin autn enai to gegonc oti jemelinontai se perissterec diastseic ap tic 4 pou parathrontai. H ida pou protjhke jewre tic epiplon qwrikc
diastseic kuklikc me mikr aktna, mh parathrsimec stic sunhjismnec enrgeiec kai enai
gnwst c sumpagopohsh. Me autn ton trpo, h ma elejerh parmetroc, to mkoc thc
qordc pou orzei kai thn klmaka enrgeiac thc qordc sthn opoa kai emfanzontai autc oi
jewrec, auxnetai kai perissterec paramtroi emfanzontai tan katebanei h jewra stic
4 diastseic.
H eisagwg thc idac thc upersummetrac odghse se 5 diaforetikc jewrec uperqordn,
anexrthtec metax touc gnwstc wc Tpou I, Tpou II (A kai B) kai do eterotikc jewrec.
Wstso, sta plasia thc legmenhc deterhc epanstashc twn uperqordn gine gnwst oti
lec autc sqetzontan metax touc msw enc diktou apo duadikottec. Ma duadikthta
sqetzei do diaforetikc jewrec twn opown h fusik enai ousiastik h dia. Kentrik
rlo se autn thn deterh epanstash diadramtisan oi polubrnec (D-branes). Prkeitai
gia ektetamna antikemena me p qwrikc diastseic ta opoa dwsan terstia jhsh sthn
kataskeu jewrhtikn montlwn. Gia pardeigma, na pragmatik elkustik senrio enai
tan h klmaka thc qordc brsketai sthn perioq tou TeV lnontac ousiastik to prblhma
thc ierarqac qwrc thn eisagwg thc upersummetrac. Ma bisimh pijanthta auto tou
senarou sumbanei tan jewrhje oti uprqoun meglec epiplon qwrikc diastseic stic
opoec diaddetai mno h barthta, kti pou dnei kai exghsh sthn parathromenh uperbolik
mikr isq thc stic makroskopikc klmakec, miac kai aplnetai kai stic diastseic pou den
parathrontai. Gia na enai se sumfwna me ta peirmata apaitetai h eisagwg toulqiston
do ttoiwn epiplon diastsewn.
H empeira ap thn kataskeu jewrhtikn montlwn ap tic jewrec qordn kai brann
deixe oti na fusik bma enai h upjesh epiplon U(1) summetrin pou xeqwrzoun tic
diforec oikogneiec. Prkeitai gia ma ida pou arqik protjhke sta tlh thc dekaetac
tou 1970 apo touc Froggat kai Nielsen se ma prospjeia na exhghje h parathromenh
ierarqa sto fsma twn fermionwn kai oi gwnec mxhc, jmata pou menan anapnthta apo
to kajierwmno prtupo. Ta montla apo qordc kai brnec katlhgan sunjwc se ma
energ jewra thc opoac to mh abelian mroc epekteintan apo ma anmalh abelian
summetra, anwmala pou diagraftan apo ton mhqanism Green-Schwarz.
En tic teleutaec trec dekaetec uprxe entatik h melth twn parapnw jewrin,
terstiec kai poludpanec peiramatikc diatxeic katferan na katastryoun ma ida pou
eqe ftsei sta ria tou mjou. 'Opwc apedeqjh sta tlh thc dekaetac tou 1990, ta netrna
den enai maza. H pepojhsh polln fusikn ti ta netrna den eqan mza, den tan absimh.
Oi Sadarshan, Marshak, Feynmann kai Gell-Mann bsisan thn epituqhmnh V-A jewra twn
fortismnwn reumtwn twn asjenn allhlepidrsewn sthn mhdenik mza twn netrnwn. To
epiqerhma tan oti h exswsh gia na mazo fermionik pedo enai anallowth ktw apo ton
5 metasqhmatism kai afo to netrno summetqei stic asjenc allhlepidrseic ja prpei me
kpoio trpo na emfanzoun autn thn analloithta la ta ferminia. Epiplon, se autn
16

thn pepojhsh sunbale kai h tromaktik epituqa tou kajierwmnou protpou.

Up to fc twn hliakn kai atmosfairikn peiramatikn dedomnwn gia ta netrna,
gnetai aparathth h epktash twn parapnw jewrhtikn montlwn. Sthn parosa didaktorik diatrib ja exetaste an enai efikt h anaparagwg twn peiramatikn dedomnwn
stic qamhlc enrgeiec gia ta netrna sta plasia mic epktashc tou aplo upersummetriko
kajierwmnou protpou kajc kai mic epktashc thc upersummetrikc megaloenopoihmnhc
summetrac Pati-Salam apo ma epiplon U(1) anmalh summetra. Epshc, ja melethjon
jewrec apo polubrnec pou efarmzetai h ida thc diaqwrismnhc upersummetrac (split
supersymmetry).
Pio sugkekrimna, sto keflaio 1 gnetai ma eisagwg sto fainmeno thc talntwshc twn netrnwn, sto mhqanism airac kai sta peiramatik dedomna pou apaitetai kje
epituqhmno montlo na anapargei. Sta epmena 2 keflaia dnetai ma eisagwg sthn
upersummetra kai parousizetai h apl upersummetrik epktash tou kajierwmnou protpou. Sto keflaio 4 grfetai ma eisagwg sthn jewra twn polubrann. Sto keflaio 5
melettai an h epktash tou aplo upersummetriko kajierwmnou protpou apo ma U(1)
summetra me na kai do epiplon monrh peda enai se sumfwna me ta peiramatik dedomna
gia ta netrna. Sto keflaio 6 diereuntai to dio erthma sta plasia tou upersummetriko
megaloenopoihmnou montlou SU(4)C SU(2)L SU(2)R U(1)X . Tloc, sto keflaio 7
exetzontai montla me upersummetrikoc kai mh upersummetrikoc sqhmatismoc apo polubrnec kajc kai sqhmatismoc pou isqei h jewra thc diaqwrismnhc upersummetrac.

17

18

Keflaio 1
Eisagwg sthn fusik twn netrnwn
1.1 Eisagwg
Mia apo tic pio basikc erwtseic pou anazhtose apnthsh gia ta netrna tan an aut qoun
mza. Mqri prsfata, den uprqan stoiqea arket isqur pou na dnoun jetik apnthsh.
Gia pra pol kair uprqe mia prokatlhyh oti ta netrna den qoun mza, pepojhsh pou
basiztan sthn tromaktik epituqa tou kajierwmnou protpou mqri enrgeiec thc txhc
kpoiwn ekatontdwn GeV kai problepe mhdenik mza gia ta netrna. 'Enac akma lgoc
gia autn tan oti sqedn se lec tic megaloenopoihmnec jewrec na netrno ankei se mia
pollaplthta, maz me toulqiston na fortismno leptnio, na jetik fortismno kourk
kai na arnhtik fortismno kourk. To netrno sqetzetai lgw thc summetrac me ta lla
mlh thc pollaplthtac, ta opoa mwc la qoun mh mhdenik mza. 'Etsi, ja tan perergo
an to netrno eqe mh mhdenik mza. Sta prsfata qrnia tan pragmatik entupwsiak h
prodoc sthn fusik twn netrnwn, me thn anakluyh kai epibebawsh tou fainomnou thc
talntwshc. Tra pia uprqoun arket peiramatik dedomna pou epibebainoun thn parxh
toulqiston do xeqwristn suqnottwn talntwshc. Aut me thn seir tou shmanei oti ta
netrna qoun mza kajc kai oti prokptei nac pnakac mxhc se analoga me ton Cabibbo
Kobayashi Maskawa (CKM) pnaka tou toma twn kourk. Gi' aut ton lgo ja prpei
na jewrhje h melth tou leptoniko toma tso shmantik so kai ekenh tou toma twn
kourk. Sthn pragmatikthta mwc uprqoun kpoia stoiqea pou knoun ta netrna pi
endiafronta. H elqisth mza twn netrnwn mllon sundetai me to gegonc oti aut
enai oudtera kai kat sunpeia mporon na qoun rouc Majorana me mza antistrfwc
anlogh mic meglhc klmakac sthn opoa o leptonikc arijmc parabizetai. 'Oroi mzac
tpou Majorana mporon na prokyoun ete apo ton mhqanism airac ete apo kpoiouc mh
epakanonikopoisimouc telestc uyhlterhc txhc, pwc ja melethje sta epmena keflaia.
Se aut to keflaio perigrfetai to fainmeno thc talntwshc twn netrnwn. Epshc,
analontai trpoi anaparagwgc twn peiramatikn dedomnwn stic qamhlc enrgeiec msw
mh epakanonikopoihmnwn telestn kajc kai msw tou mhqanismo airac.

19

1.2 Hliak kai atmosfairik netrna

Se aut to shmeo ja gnei ma anafor sthn proleush twn netrnwn pou ftnoun stouc
aniqneutc [1].
1.

Hliak netrna
'Opwc h gh dqetai ta perisstera fwtnia ap ton lio, tsi dqetai kai ta perisstera netrna thc ap autn. Gia kje ekatommrio netrna pou mpanoun sthn atmsfaira
na prorqetai ap to extato disthma kai ta uploipa 999.999 prorqontai ap ton
lio. To 86% ap ta netrna tou hlou pargontai sthn antdrash alusdac ppI :

ppI : p + p d + e+ + e ( 0.42M eV )

(1.1)

p + e + p d + e (1.44M eV )

(1.2)

d + p + 3 He

(1.3)

He + 3 He 4 He + p + p

(1.4)

Oi arijmo stic parenjseic dhlnoun thn enrgeia tou e . To 3 He pou pargetai

sthn parapnw alusda odhge stic paraktw antidrseic me thn onomasa alusda
hep, pou sumbllei mno na mikr posost (perpou 107 ) thc roc twn netrnwn
kai alusda ppII pou sumbllei perpou to 14% thc roc twn netrnwn.

hep : 3 He + p 4 He + e+ + e ( 18.77M eV )

(1.5)

ppII : 3 He + 4 He 7 Be + 7

(1.6)

Be + e 7 Li + e ( 0.861M eV )

(1.7)

Li + p 4 He + 4 He

(1.8)

Telik, h antdrash alusdac ppIII enai aut pou enai upejunh gia na posost
1.5 104 thc sunolikc roc netrnwn.

ppIII : 7 Be + p 8 B +

(1.9)

B 8 Be? + e+ + e ( 14.06M eV )

(1.10)

Be? 4 He + 4 He

(1.11)

Akma uprqei o kkloc CNO pou enai upejunoc gia thn paragwg netrnwn. Autc
kuriarqe thc alusdac pp mno se jermokrasa pou uperbanei ta 1.8 107 K. Gia
ton lio aut h katstash den uprqei kai tsi sumbllei mno sto 1.5% thc paragwgc netrnwn. Ta hliak netrna qoun aniqneute sth G apo arket peirmata pou
qrhsimopoion diaforetikc mejdouc anqneushc. Lgw twn diaforetikn energein
katwflou kai twn diaforetikn antidrsewn anqneushc, ta peirmata enai euasjhta
se diaforetik mrh tou fsmatoc twn hliakn netrnwn kai thc snjeshc thc aktnac.
Tra mporon na parathrhjon ta paraktw
20

 Prin thn mtrhsh twn oudterwn reumtwn sto Sudbury Neutrino Observatory
(SNO) [2], aniqneutc pou ja perigrafe paraktw, la ta peirmata parathrosan mia ro h opoa tan mikrterh apo ekenh pou problepe to hliak kajierwmno prtupo (SSM) [3].
obs
= 0.3 0.6
SSM
Aut to lleimma den enai to dio gia ta difora peirmata, kti pou deqnei oti
to fainmeno enai energeiak exarthmno.
O aniqneutc SNO qei parathrsei diaforetik rujm gegontwn se diaforetikc antidrseic. Sugkekrimna stic metrseic twn oudterwn reumtwn kanna
lleimma den parathrjhke se sqsh me tic problyeic tou SSM [4].
Oi prtec 2 parathrseic enai gnwstc kai wc prblhma twn hliakn netrnwn. H
teleutaa apl pareqe apodexeic oti ta hliak netrno allzoun geseic anexrthta
apo to SSM.
2.

Atmosfairik netrna
Oi kosmikc aktinobolec pargoun sthn atmsfaira thc Gc pinia kai kania ta opoa
metatrpontai se fortismna leptnia kai netrna,

, K + ( )

(1.12)

e + e (e ) + ( )

(1.13)

Aut ta netrna mporon na aniqneujon apo tic gnwstc antidrseic fortismnwn

reumtwn noukleonwn netrnwn. Prkeitai gia ta legmena sugkrathmna gegonta
(contained events). O aniqneutc SuperKamiokande [5] qei qwrsei ta dedomna tou
se up-GeV gegonta me orat enrgeia ktw apo 1.2 GeV kai multi-GeV pnw apo
aut to rio. Kat mso ro up-GeV gegonta prokptoun apo netrna arketn
ekatontdwn MeV, en multi-GeV gegonta apo netrna enrgeiac thc txhc arketn
GeV . Uyhlterhc enrgeiac netrna tou mionou kai antinetrna mporon na aniqneujon mmesa parathrntac ta minia pou pargontai apo tic allhlepidrseic fortismnwn
reumtwn ston aniqneut. Aut enai ta anerqmena minia (upgoing muons). An tra aut ta minia stamatsoun msa ston aniqneut onomzontai stamathmna minia
(stopping muons) ta opoa prokptoun apo netrna enrgeiac grw sta 10 GeV. Tloc, an h troqa twn mionwn persei lo ton aniqneut aut ja lgontai diaperastik
minia pou dhmiourgontai apo netrna me enrgeia arketn ekatontdwn GeV [4].
Anwmala twn atmosfairikn netrnwn shmanei perilhptik:

'Eqei parathrhje nac makrc dirkeiac lleimma grw sto 60% metax tou pro
blepmenou kai tou peiramatik parathromenou rujmo e twn sugkrathmnwn
gegontwn, kti pou enisqetai apo to uyhl statistik degma pou sunlexe to
SuperKamiokande (SK).
21

 To pio shmantik stoiqeo apo ta dedomna pou aforon ta atmosfairik netrna sto SK enai oti emfanzoun na azimoujiak gwniak exartmeno lleimma
netrnwn tou mionou, pou deqnei oti to lleimma enai megaltero gia mionik
netrna ta opoa rqontai ktw apo ton orzonta kai qoun taxidyei megalterec apostseic prin ftsoun ston aniqneut. Antjeta, ta hlektroniak netrna
sumperifrontai pwc anamentan apo to hliak kajierwmno prtupo.
To lleimma gia diaperastik minia enai mikrtero apo ekeno gia ta minia pou
stamaton. Aut apodeiknei oti to lleimma meinetai so h enrgeia twn netrnwn megalnei.
H pio pijan lsh thc anwmalac twn atmosfairikn netrnwn enai h apodoq oti ta
netrna talantnontai, fainmeno pou proupojtei thn parxh mzac.

1.3 Anqneush netrnwn

H anqneush enc oudterou swmatidou diaforetik tou fwtonou apaite thn qrhsimopohsh
diadikasac pou ja prokalsei hlektromagnhtik aktinobola [6]. Aut mpore na sumbe mesa me thn apeleujrwsh enc fortismnou swmatidou (aniqneutc anelastikn antidrsewn)
mmesa me th metafor stroformc se na fortismno swmatdio (aniqneutc elastikn
antidrsewn). Oi mejdoi anqneushc mporon na taxinomhjon stic exc kathgorec:

Radioqhmikc mjodoi
S' aut th mjodo to qhmik stoiqeo tou aniqneut allhlepidr me netrna metatrpontc ta se na radioenerg istopo enc llou stoiqeou o qrnoc hmizwc tou
opoou enai merikc ebdomdec. Qrhsimopointac qhmikc teqnikc ta lga toma tou
radienergo katloipou prontoc apospntai kai katametrontai. To prto qhmik
pou qrhsimopoijhke tan to 37 Cl sto perama tou Davis, smfwna me thn akloujh
antdrash energeiako katwflou 0.814 MeV:
e + 37 Cl 37 Ar + e
O 37 Cl qei qrno hmizwc 35 hmrec kai rujm sllhyhc 7.9 2.6 SNU1 . H sllhyh
enai dunat mno gia ta uyhlterhc enrgeiac netrna. 'Etsi, to 37 Cl perama enai
perisstero euasjhto gia ta netrna pou pargontai ap thn antdrash aposnjeshc
tou B sthn alusda ppIII. Epmeno stoiqeo idanik gi' aut ton skop enai to Gllio.
H antdrash ed enai:

e + 71 Ga 71 Ge + e
O qrno hmizwc tou 71 Ge enai 11.4 hmrec. H antdrash sllhyhc qei energeiak
katfli 0.233 MeV kai enai euasjhto se qamhlc enrgeiac netrna. Sth pragmati71
Ga. Ttoiou
kthta oi upologismo tou Bahcall dnoun sunolik 13220
17 SNU gia to
11

SNU 1036 .

22

edouc perama gnetai se duo mrh. O aniqneutc Gallex [7], pou qrhsimopoie 30 tnouc
Ga, brsketai ktw ap to Gran Sasso thc Italac, mia koruf 2.900 mtrwn sta Apninna roi boreianatolik thc Rmhc. Akma, uprqei to Amerikanosobietik (SAGE)
[8] perama gallou ktw ap ta roi tou Kauksou pou qrhsimopoie 60 tnouc metalliko gallou. H perioq mtrhshc prpei na enai makri ap ton ara gia thn
apofug mlunshc ap radnio. Gi' aut apaitetai h parousa olklhrou bouno gia
thn prostasa tou Gallex ap thn kosmik aktinobola. 'Allo na pijan radioqhmik
perama perilambnei to 7 Li

e + 7 Li 7 Be + e
To 7 Be qei qrno hmizwc 53 hmrec. To energeiak katfli thc antdrashc enai
0.862 MeV. Aut to perama enai euasjhto sto 8 B kajc kai se netrna ap ton
kklo CN O. O rujmc sllhyhc anamnetai 51.8 16 SN U . 'Alla pijan ulik
anqneushc enai : 81 Br, 127 I . Sthn prth perptwsh qoume:

e + 81 Br 81 Kr + e
To 81 Kr qei qrno hmizwc 0.21 106 qrnia. Sthn perptwsh tou
enai
e + 127 I 127 Xe + e

127

I h antdrash

Autc o aniqneutc enai euasjhtoc sta dia netrna B . O qrno hmizwc tou
enai 36 hmrec. O rujmc sllhyhc enai o dioc me ekeno tou qlwrou.

127

Xe

To perama LSND (Liquid Scintillator Neutrino Detector) [9] enai na perama pou
gnetai msa se na ergastrio sto Los Alamos kai enai to mno pou qei parathrsei 3
diaforetikc suqnthtec. Dhlad qreizontai toulqiston 4 elafr netrna, 3 energ
kai na anenerg to opoo den nijei thn asjenc dnamh. Mia akmh pijanthta na
gnoun dekt ta apotelsmata tou LSND, qwrc na jewrhje to anenerg netrno, enai
na gnei h paradoq oti h summetra CP T den diathretai [10]. Mia ttoia paradoq
mwc fanetai na mhn enai swst afo ta prta apotelsmata tou KamLAND qoun
dh dexei oti h summetra CPT ikanopoietai ston asjen toma me mia qarakthristik
akrbeia thc txhc perpou twn 1020 GeV [11]. Ta apotelsmata mwc tou LSND den
epibebaijhkan apo to perama KARMEN [12] pou yqnei sqedn ston dio parametrik
qro.

Teqnikc aktinobolac Cerenkov

H basik antdrash se aut th perptwsh sumbanei se meglo gko nero kai enai :

l + O l + C (opou l to leptnio pou sqetzetai me to l )

Ta fortismna leptnia aniqneontai me th bojeia tou fainomnou Cerenkov sto ner.
Aut h mjodoc den mpore na qrhsimopoihje gia netrna tou hlektronou kajc ta
hlektrnia ( pozitrnia) stamaton se lga mtra msa sto ner.
Ta netrna me enrgeiec thc txhc twn TeV aniqneontai me mia kateujuntikthta thc
txhc thc miac morac. Ttoiou edouc peirmata ektelontai se meglo bjoc (perpou
23

sta 4.000 mtra), me skop thn apofug thc kosmikc aktinobolac upobjrou. Gi'
aut to jalssio ner energe a) wc nac aporrofhtc pou filtrrei tic kosmikc
aktinobolec, b) nac stqoc me ton opoon allhlepidron ta netrna kai g) nan energ aniqneut pou me to fainmeno Cerenkov diafwtzei meglec perioqc arket
makri ap to prasma twn swmatidwn (kurwc twn mionwn), pou pargontai stic
allhlepidrseic twn netrnwn.
Ttoiou edouc aniqneutc enai o Dumand pou sqedisthke na leitourge sto nhs
thc Qabhc me 36 grammc pltouc pentakoswn mtrwn na brskontai sto bjoc tou
Atlantiko. 'Ena akma prgramma aniqneut netrnwn ktw ap thn jlassa brsketai sta diejn data notiodutik thc Elldac kont sthn plh Ploc. Epshc, o
aniqneutc SuperKamiokande qrhsimopoiose thn dia mjodo. Autc brisktan na
qilimetro ktw ap th gh se na giapwnziko oruqeo.
O aniqneutc SNO (Sudbury Neutrino Observatory) [2] enai akma nac aniqneutc
Cerenkov. Brsketai duo qilimetra ktw ap to dafoc sto Ontario tou Kanad se
na energ oruqeo nikelou, se na splaio 22 mtrwn pltoc kai 34 mtrwn yoc, se
sndesh maz tsimntou kai 8 mm paq poluouraijanou pou krat to ner msa kai
to radnio xw. To SNO mpore na melet netrna kosmikc aktinobolac, netrna ap
soupernba kai mpore na yqnei gia ekpomp netrnou-antinetrnou sto deutrio.

1.4 Talantseic netrnwn

To 1967 o Bruno Pontecorvo [14, 15] prteine thn pijanthta ti oi geseic twn netrnwn
mporon na anamiqjon. To fainmeno onomsthke talantseic netrnwn diti h pijanthta
metamrfwshc metax duo gesewn qei hmitonoeid exrthsh ap to mkoc tou drmou.
Aut mwc mpore na sumbanei mno an uprqei diafor mzac metax twn duo netrnwn.
Prgmati, to 1998 o aniqneutc SuperKamiokande katfere na parathrsei to fainmeno.
Gia na exhghje to fainmeno ja prpei prta na melethje o kbantikc arijmc thc
geshc. 'Estw na netrno gennitai sthn aposnjesh tou W -mpozonou :

W + la+ +

(1.14)

'Opou a = e, , kai la+ enai na apo ta jetik fortismna leptnia : le+ e+ ,l+ + ,
l+ + . 'Estw oti qwrc na qei qrno na allxei qaraktra to netrno allhlepidr me
nan aniqneut amswc met thn gnnhs tou apo thn aposnjesh (1.14) kai pargei na
kainorgio fortismno leptnio l+ . Tte brsketai ti h gesh enai pnta h dia me thn
gesh a tou fortismnou leptonou me to opoo gennjhke to . Sunepc, tra mporon na
grafton me megalterh akrbeia ttoiou edouc aposunjseic wc :

W + la+ + a

(1.15)

To netrno a , pou onomzetai netrno geshc a, enai ex orismo to netrno pou pargetai
stic leptonikc aposunjseic twn W -mpozonwn kai sqetzetai me to fortismno leptnio
geshc a. 'Otan to a allhlepidr gia na dhmiourgsei na fortismno leptnio tte aut
24

ja enai pnta la+ . Sthn talntwsh netrnwn, na netrno pou gennitai se sqsh me na
fortismno leptnio la+ geshc a kai met taxideei gia kpoio qronik disthma mpore na
allxei to qaraktra tou. Aut mpore na diapistwje en allhlepidrsei kai dhmiourghje
na detero fortismno leptnio l+ geshc diaforetikc apo thn a me thn opoa gennjhke
to netrno.

1.4.1 Talantseic sto ken

O roc allhlepdrashc sto kajierwmno prtupo [16, 17] pou perigrfei thn szeuxh W leptonwn enai:
X
X
g

lL Ui Li W g
LlW =
Li Ui
lL W+
(1.16)

2 i=1...N ,=e,,
2 i=1...N ,=e,,
Ed o U enai nac N N monadiakc pnakac anlogoc tou pnaka CKM twn kourk. O
pnakac U anafretai sunjwc kai wc leptonikc pnakac mxhc. Oi leptonikc allhlepidrseic tou W + brskontai apo ton detero ro thc parapnw langkranzianc. Apo aut ton
ro sumperanetai oti tan W + l+ + , h katstash tou netrnou pou pargetai | i
se sqsh me to sugkekrimno leptnio enai :

| i =

N
3
X

Ui
|i i

(1.17)

Aut dhlad shmanei oti to netrno geshc (| i) pou pargetai maz me to l+ , enai mia
smfwnh uprjesh energeiakn idiokatastsewn thc mzac twn netrnwn |i i, me suntelestc oi opooi enai stoiqea tou leptoniko pnaka mxhc. Trec grammiko sunduasmo twn
idiokatastsewn thc mzac qoun asjenec allhlepidrseic kai tsi lgontai energ netrna,
en oi uploipoi sunduasmo onomzontai anenerg netrna (sterile) ta opoa den nijoun thn
asjen dnamh. An ta apotelsmata tou LSND isqoun tte ja prpei na apaithje kai h
parxh enc anenergo netrnou. Aut mwc den gine afo ta apotelsmata tou kamLAND
den epibebawsan kti ttoio [11]. Ap thn stigm pou to netrno den enai mia statik katstash ja exelssetai me to qrno smfwna me touc nmouc thc kbantikc mhqanikc. 'Etsi
gia t > 0 ja enai
3
X

Uj
exp (iHt)|j (0)i
(1.18)
| (t)i =
j

Sto ssthma ergasthrou kai gia qrno t kai jsh L o pargontac fshc enai :

exp {i(Ej t pj L)}

(1.19)

Ed ta Ej kai pj enai h enrgeia kai h orm twn netrnwn sto ssthma ergasthrou. Sthn
prxh to netrno ja enai uyhl sqetikistik tsi ste en gennjhke tan (t, L) = (0, 0)
ja upologiste o pargontac (1.19) tan t L pou kai ja gnetai

exp {i(Ej pj )L}

25

(1.20)

Tra an upoteje oti to netrno pou dhmiourgetai maz me to la qei mia sugkekrimnh kai
kajorismnh orm pj = p anexrthta me to pio j enai, aut ja qei olik enrgeia
q
m2j
Ej = p2 + m2j p +
(1.21)
2p
tan lec oi mzec enai mikrterec apo thn p. Lgw thc (1.20) mpore na upologiste to
pltoc gia na breje h arqik katstash |j (0)i sthn qronik exeligmnh |i (t)i

h (0)| (t)i =

3
X

hi (0)|Uia

(1.21)

exp {i(Ej p)L}|j (0)i =

Uj

m2j
L)
(1.22)
2p
Enallaktik ja mporose to netrno na paraqje me kajorismnh enrgeia E . Tte gia thn
sugkekrimnh idiokatstash ja qei orm
q
m2j
pj = E 2 m2j E
(1.23)
2E
Kai tsi pli apo thn (1.20) qoume
= exp (i

m2j
L)
(1.24)
2E
'Otan E p (perptwsh sqetikistik) den qei shmasa an to netrno dhmiourgetai me
kajorismnh orm kajorismnh enrgeia. 'Etsi sunduzontac tic (1.20), (1.19) ,(1.18) gia
netrno kajorismnhc enrgeiac
h (0)| (t)i exp (i

h (0)| (t)i =

Uj Uj

Kai telik h pijanthta talntwshc enai :

P ( ) = |h (t)| (0)i|2 = +

m2j
exp (i L)
2E

(1.25)

Ui Ui
Uj
Ui (eimij L/2E 1)

(1.26)

i,j

me m2ij = m2i m2j kai pou L h apstash pou taxdeye to netrno. Oi roi me i = j den
suneisfroun sto jroisma kai mia pol qrsimh morf thc pijanthtac metptwshc enai :

P ( ) = 4
+2

) sin2 (m2ij L/4E)

Ui Uj Uj
Re(Ui

i>j

Im(Ui
Ui Uj Uj
) sin2 (m2ij L/2E)

(1.27)

i>j

Sta parapnw qrhsimopoijhke kai h sqsh

X

Ui
Ui =

(1.28)

lgw tou oti o pnakac U enai monadiakc. Se aut to shmeo kpoiec genikc parathrseic:
26

1. Apo thn exswsh (1.27) enai faner oti an lec oi mzec twn netrnwn exafanzontai,tte P ( ) = kai enai faner oti den uprqoun talantseic apo mia
gesh se mia llh. 'Ara oi talantseic metax twn gesewn twn netrnwn apaiton
thn parxh mzac gia ta netrna.
2. H pijanthta P ( ) talantnetai san mia sunrthsh wc proc L/E . Gia aut
kai onomsthke lo to fainmeno talantseic netrnwn.
3. An epanaeisaqjon kai oi pargontec c kai ~ ja enai

m2ij L/4E = 1.27m2ij (eV 2 )L(km)/E(GeV )

(1.29)

4. Lgw tou gegontoc oti o pnakac U enai monadiakc h sunolik ro twn netrnwn
diathretai,
X
X
P ( ) =
|h (t)| (0)i|2 =

XX
X
m2
m2
(i 2Ei L)
(+i 2Ej L)
(
Ui Ui
e
)(
Uj Uj
e
)=

X
ij

i
l
mij 2E

Ui
Uj e

Ui Uj
=

|Ui |2 = 1

(1.30)

pou qrhsimopoijhke h (1.28). To apotlesma aut shmanei oti se perama me sugkekrimno arijm netrnwn n geshc a, peita apo thn talntwsh o arijmc twn netrnwn pou qoun
talantwje makri apo thn gesh a se gesh diaforetik thc arqikc sn ton arijm
autn pou qoun kratsei thn arqik gesh a ja prpei na enai pli n. Fusik kpoia apo
ta kainorgiac geshc netrna ja mporosan na enai anenerg. Se autn thn perptwsh o
arijmc twn energn netrnwn (dhlad ekenwn pou summetqoun stic asjenec allhlepidrseic tou kajierwmnou protpou) pou ja menoun met thn talntwsh ja enai mikrteroc
apo n. Ta parapnw mporon na melethjon se do eidikc periptseic:
1. Sthn pio apl perptwsh pou uprqoun do geseic (, = e, ) mno o nac roc
suneisfrei apo to jroisma thc (1.27). 'Etsi, h pijanthta talntwshc metax twn
do gesewn ja enai :

P ( ) = 4|U2 |2 |U2 |2 sin2 (m2 L/4E)

(1.31)

Opte h pijanthta epibwshc enc netrnou ja enai :

P ( ) = 1 P ( ) =
1 4|U2 |2 (1 |U2 |2 ) sin2 (m2 L/4E)

(1.32)

O monadiakc pnakac 2 2 pou emfanzetai stic parapnw ekfrseic mpore na parametropoihje smfwna me ton gnwst trpo me ma gwna strofc kai 3 fseic:

ei1 cos
ei2 sin
(1.33)
U=
ei(1 +3 ) sin ei(2 +3 ) cos
27

Ed h gwna lgetai kai leptonik gwna mxhc. Kai tsi lgw thc (1.33), 4|U2 |2 |U2 |2 =
sin2 2, kai epomnwc

P ( ) = sin2 2 sin2 (1.27m2ij (eV 2 )

L(km)
)
E(GeV )

(1.34)

Aut enai kai h pio gnwst morf thc pijanthtac talntwshc metax do gesewn.
2. Mia deterh eidik perptwsh pou mpore na apodeiqje qrsimh sthn prxh enai tan
uprqoun tra netrna me kanonik ierarqa, kti pou ja anaferje sto upokeflaio
1.6, dhlad m3 m2 m1 :

|m221 | |m231 | m232

(1.35)

An upoteje oti na perama qei EL ttoio ste m231 L/4E = O(1), h (1.35) autmata
shmanei oti m221 L/4E 1. Gia aut to perama ja isqei lgw thc (1.25) oti
2 L

U2 )eim32 2E + U3
eim3 2E h (0)| (t)i (U1
U1 + U2
U3

(1.36)

Qrhsimopointac thn (1.28) h parapnw sqsh grfetai :

2 L

eim3 2E h (0)| (t)i U3

U3 (1 eim32 2E )

L
)
4E
'Etsi, h pijanthta talantsewn metax 3 gesewn gnetai:
2

= 2ieim32 4E U3
U3 sin(m232

P ( ) 4|U3 |2 |U3 |2 sin2 (m231

en h pijanthta epibwshc enai,

P ( ) = 1

L
)
4E

(1.37)

(1.38)

P ( ) =

1 4|U3 |2 (1 |U3 |2 ) sin2 (m231

L
)
4E

(1.39)

Enai faner h analoga metax twn periptsewn 1, 2. Mno h megalterh diafor

mzac metrei. 'Etsi loipn na perama to opoo meletei thn perptwsh twn 3 netrnwn
kai gia aut to perama isqei m221 L/4E 1, tte aut den mpore na de thn diafor
m221 metax twn netrnwn 1 kai 2. Se ttoiou edouc peirmata to zegoc 1 kai 2
moizei me na netrno kai h sqsh (1.31) gia talntwsh metax do gesewn isqei.
'Oson afor ta peirmata mporon na gnoun oi exc parathrseic:

H euaisjhsa enc peirmatoc talntwshc wc prc thn diafor mzac twn netrnwn
kajorzetai apo thn enrgeia touc E kai to mkoc talntwshc L. Oi talantseic
L
1. Stic katllhlec
gnontai oratc tan gia tic diaforc mazn isqei m2 4E
mondec aut shmanei oti:
E[GeV ]
m2 [eV 2 ]
(1.40)
L[km]
28

 Sto pareljn h euaisjhsa twn peiramtwn apeikonzontan kurwc sto eppedo

(m2 , sin2 2). 'Omwc, ma ttoia parametropohsh kalptei mno ton mis parametrik
qro. Perisstero katllhlec enai oi metablhtc (m2 , tan2 2) oi opoec kai enai
exairetik shmantikc gia talantseic sthn lh.
H mtrhsh tou megjouc kai tou prosmou thc parabashc CP stic talantseic twn
netrnwn enai epshc exairetikc shmasac. 'Ena parathrsimo mgejoc thc parabashc
CP enai h asummetra
e = P (e ) P ( e )

(1.41)

Qrhsimopointac gia akma ma for thn sqsh (1.28) kai thn analloithta CP T
mpore na deiqje oti:
e = = e
(1.42)
Akma apo thn sqsh (1.27) prokptei
X

= 4
Im(Ui
Ui Uj Uj
) sin2 (m2ij L/2E)

(1.43)

i>j

To ginmeno twn pinkwn mxhc enai antisummetrik stouc dektec geshc :

Im(Ui
Ui Uj Uj
) = ij Jl

(1.44)

P3
pou =
c=1 abc kai Jl enai h leptonik parmetroc Jarlskog. Gia ta kourk
brsketai oti Jq 105 . Lgw twn meglwn gwnin pou parathrontai sta peirmata
uprqe h pepojhsh oti ja kanan thn emfnis touc fainmena parabashc thc summetrac CP kti pou to KaMLAND aprriye afo pwc dh anafrjhke h summetra
CPT ikanopoietai ston asjen toma me mia qarakthristik akrbeia thc txhc perpou
twn 1020 GeV [11].

1.4.2 Talantseic sthn lh

Wc tra meletjhkan oi talantseic netrnwn sto ken. Enai mwc logik oti poll peirmata gnontai afo prta ta swmtia aut qoun taxidyei msa apo meglh posthta lhc
prin ftsoun ston aniqneut. Aut ta netrna perilambnoun ekena pou dhmiourgontai sto
eswterik tou liou kai taxideoun msa tou prin ftsoun stouc aniqneutc sthn Gh. Akma
ttoiou edouc netrna enai kai ekena pou dhmiourgontai sthn atmsfaira apo tic kosmikc
aktinobolec kai taxideoun msa apo olklhrh thn Gh prin ftsoun sthn llh krh kai
aniqneujon. Gia aut loipn ja qreiaste na analuje pwc ephrezontai oi talantseic
twn netrnwn apo thn parousa lhc.
'Otan ta netrna taxideoun msa apo thn lh den ikanopoion ton formalism tou prohgomenou edafou. En ta netrna mporon na skedaston apo to mso sto opoo diaddontai,
ta plth skdashc enai pra pol mikr kai tsi to fainmeno thc skdashc enai amelhto.
'Opwc kai ta fwtnia, tan ta netrna taxideoun se na mso apokton ma energ mza.
29

Den gnetai kama antallag ormc enrgeiac metax netrnou kai msou. H epdrash tou
msou enai na apoktsoun ta netrna kpoiec energc mzec. Enai pol bolik loipn na
antimetwpiste to fainmeno thc didoshc twn netrnwn sthn lh msw mac energo qamiltonianc. Pnw se aut ja qreiaste prta na anaferjon do lgia gia thn didosh sto
ken. Ac upoteje oti uprqoun mno do geseic e , . Tte h pio genik qronoexarthmnh
katstash grfetai:
X
|(t)i =
f (t)| i
(1.45)
=e,

pou f (t) enai to qronoexarthmno pltoc gia na qoun ta netrna gesh . An HV enai
h qamiltonian gia to ssthma twn do netrnwn sto ken tte h exswsh Schrodinger gia
to |(t)i enai
X

i |(t)i =
if (t)| i =
t

X
HV |(t)i =
f HV | i =

| ih |HV | i =

"
X X

#
(1.46)

(HV ) f (t) | i

Kai sugkrnontac thn exswsh sto tloc me thn arqik enai:

fe (t)
fe (t)
i
= HV
f (t)
t f (t)

(1.47)

pou HV pnakac 2 2 me stoiqea (HV ) . Kai enai faner oti h exswsh Schrodinger enai
anlogh me thn gnwst perptwsh enc swmatou me spn (spin) 12 . Tra mwc ant gia tic
do katastseic spn emfanzontai oi do katastseic gesewn.
'Estw 1 , 2 oi idiokatastseic thc mzac apo tic opoec dhmiourgontai oi katastseic
e , . Gia na breje h HV ac upoteje oti ta netrna qoun kajorismnh orm p tsi ste
oi sunistsec twn idiokatastsewn thc mzac na qoun enrgeia pou dnetai apo thn (1.21).
Dhlad HV |i i = Ei |i i kai fusik oi idiokatastseic upakooun sthn sqsh orjogwnithtac pwc ja prpei gia idiokatastseic ermitianc qamiltonianc. Lgw thc (1.17) ta
stoiqea (HV ) ja enai :
X
X
X

(HV ) h |HV | i = h
Ui
i |HV |
Uj
|j i =
Ui Ui
Ei
(1.48)
i

Mpore na jewrhje o pnakac U apo thn sqsh (1.33). 'Opwc mwc fanetai kajar apo
thn sqsh (1.34) oi migadiko pargontec fshc den qoun kama epdrash sthn pijanthta.
Sunepc, afo ed perigrfetai to fainmeno thn talntwshc, ja agnohjon oi migadiko
pargontec fshc thc (1.33). Gia aut grfetai ( = V )

cos V
sin V
(1.49)
U=
sin V cos V
30

Eisgontac sthn (1.48) kajorzontai la ta stoiqea (HV ) . Se aut to shmeo ma idithta

thc qamiltonianc pou ja qrhsimopoihje paraktw. Parathretai oti an prosteje nac
katllhla epilegmnoc roc sth qamiltnia ta apotelsmata den ja allxoun. Sugkekrimna
prostjetai o roc I E pou I o monadiaoc pnakac o opooc enai anallowtoc ktw apo
ton metasqhmatism pou diagwnopoie thn qamiltonian. To apotlesma auto tou rou
enai na metatopsei tic idiotimc thc qamiltonianc kat E , dhlad Ei + E , gia i = 1, 2
. Gia na gnei faner oti aut h metatpish den ephrezei tic talantseic ac upoteje oti to
netrno gennitai thn stigm t = 0 me gesh . Dhlad |(0)i = | i. Met apo qrno t ja
enai drntac me ton telest exlixhc:
X
X
iEi t

Ui
e
|i i
(1.50)
|(t)i = eiHV t |(0)i = eiHV t
Ui
|i i =
i

To pltoc gia to netrno na talantwje se ma katstash se qrno t enai:

X
iEi t
h |(t)i =
e
Ui
Ui

(1.51)

Dhlad metatopzontac tic idiotimc thc enrgeiac ja eisaqje sto pltoc mia fsh
exp {i(E)t}. Enai faner oti ma ttoia fsh den qei kama epdrash pnw sthn pijanthta P ( ) = |h |(t)i|2 . 'Oson afor thn sugkekrimnh perptwsh h katllhlh
(m2 +m2
epilog enai : [p + ( 14p 2 )], tsi ste na aplopoihje h qamiltonian. Tte apo thn
(1.48) h na energc qamiltonian ja gnei HV0 HV + (E)I , me stoiqea :

(HV0 ) =

Ui Ui
Ei [p +

(m21 + m22
)]
4p

'Etsi, lgw twn (1.49),(1.21) ja enai telik:

m212 cos 2V
0
(HV ) =
sin 2V
4E

sin 2V
cos 2V

(1.52)

(1.53)

'Opou qrhsimopoijhke pli p E . Mpore na apodeiqje oti h parapnw energc qamiltonian odhge sthn sunhjismnh pijanthta talntwshc.
'Eqontac tra thn qamiltonian pou perigrfei thn didosh twn netrnwn sto ken,
ja melethje pwc allzei tan qoume thn parousa lhc. H lh fusik apoteletai apo
hlektrnia kai nouklenia. 'Otan loipn na netrno pernei msa apo mia jlassa apo
hlektrnia kai nouklenia, skedzetai pwc fanetai kai sto sqma 1.1.
Oi parapnw diadikasec elastikc skdashc gnontai apo poll swmtia tou msou me
apotlesma thn dhmiourga enc dunamiko tou netrnou sto mso. Afo mwc ma apo
tic skedseic tou sqmatoc mporon na sumbon mno gia netrna tou hlektronou, aut
to dunamik ja exarttai apo to kat pso na netrno enai e qi. To dunamik gia na
netrno geshc a prpei na prosteje sto stoiqeo tou pnaka (HV0 ) tsi ste na katalxei
kanec telik sthn qamiltnia gia didosh enc netrnou msa apo thn lh. Ed ja melethje
pio analutik h diadikasa.
31

Sqma 1.1: Skdash enc netrnou apo swmatdio thc lhc.

Arqik gnetai h upjesh oti ta mna netrna me ta opoa ta e anamignontai enai ta
netrna tou mionou, tsi ste na dhmiourghje na ssthma moio me aut pou suzhtjhke
sthn perptwsh tou keno. To prasma twn netrnwn apo to mso ephrezei thn talntws
touc kai pwc ja apodeiqje thn allzei. Kje e allhlepidr me ta hlekrnia tou msou
smfwna me thn antallag tou W mpozonou tou aristero sqmatoc tou 1.1. Aut h
allhlepdrash odhge se na dunamik VW (e ) twn e msa sto ulik. Profanc, to VW (e )
enai anlogo thc stajerc tou Fermi, h opoa kai qarakthrzei to pltoc thc diadikasac tou
sqmatoc. Akma, aut enai anlogo tou arijmo twn hlektronwn an monda gkou Ne
(sto shmeo tou netrnou) mic kai h Ne metrei ton arijm twn hlektronwn pou suneisfroun
sthn elastik skdash tou e . Sto kajierwmno prtupo enai,

(1.54)
VW (e ) = 2GF Ne
Aut h enrgeia prpei na prosteje sto (HV0 )ee tsi ste na prokyei telik h qamiltonian
thc didoshc enc netrnou apo thn lh. Fusik, kanonik kpoioc ja prpei na prosjsei
sthn qamiltnia kai to dunamik pou dhmiourgetai apo thn antallag tou Z mpozonou msw
thc diadikasac tou dexio sqmatoc tou 1.1. Kti ttoio den sumbanei diti autc oi Z
antallagc enai kai anexrthtec thc geshc all kai diagniec,ra h suneisfor touc sthn
qamiltnia enai anlogh tou monadiaou pnaka. 'Eqei mwc apodeiqje oti aut h suneisfor
den ephrezei thn pijanthta talntwshc twn netrnwn gia aut kai agnoetai. Gia ton dio
lgo enai dunat h prsjesh, ektc tou VW (e ), kai tou 12 VW (e )I opo I o monadiaoc
pnakac. 'Etsi, me (HV0 ) thn qamiltnia pou perigrfei thn didosh sto ken na dnetai apo
thn sqsh (1.53), h qamiltonian gia thn didosh msa apo thn lh gnetai:

GF
1 0
0
=
H m = H V + Ne
0 1
2

m212 Dm cos 2m sin 2m

=
(1.55)
sin 2m cos 2m
4E
pou se aut thn kfrash enai:

q
Dm =

sin2 2m + (cos2 2m xm )2

kai

sin2 2m =

sin2 2V
sin2 2V + (cos2 2V xm )2
32

(1.56)
(1.57)


2 2GF Ne E
xm =
(1.58)
m212
Bbaia, h hlektroniak puknthta Ne den enai stajer. 'Etsi, den enai stajerc ote h m
ote h (m212 )Dm . Parola aut ac upoteje oti h Ne enai stajer. Tte, h Hm , pwc
akribc kai h HV0 , enai anexrthth thc jshc kai sunepc ja prpei na odhge sthn dia
pijanthta talntwshc me thn allag m kai m212 m212 Dm . 'Ara, h Hm odhge
sthn pijanthta talntwshc:
P (e ) = P ( e ) = sin2 2m sin2 [1.27m212 (eV 2 )Dm

L(km)
]
E(GeV )

(1.59)

Tra son afor thn (1.59) shmeinontai ta exc :

'Opwc tan anamenmeno, to apotlesma gia to ken anapargetai gia xm = 0.

H talntwsh sto ken apaite na uprqei talntwsh sthn lh.
Gia cos 2m |xm |, to fainmeno sthn lh enai ma mikr diataraq tou apotelsmatoc
tou keno.
Gia cos 2m |xm | h gwna mxhc enai pra pol mikr.
Gia cos 2m = |xm | sumbanei mgisth mxh.
Se prth txh wc prc xm ta fainmena lhc exafanzontai apo thn pijanthta talntwshc. 'Etsi, proseggzontac sin xm xm prokptei h pijanthta talntwshc sto
ken.
Ma pra pol shmantik efarmog twn parapnw enai ston lio. Ta netrna pou pargontai ston lio apo tic diadikasec pou anafrjhkan parapnw enai netrna tou hlektronou
kai o parapnw formalismc isqei kai gia aut. Tra mwc m enai h energc gwna
mxhc ston lio kai Nm Ne h hlektroniak puknthta tou liou. Fusik, ta parapnw
isqoun tan h puknthta thc lhc enai stajer. Metabolc thc puknthtac ephrezoun
thn parapnw anlush. Ac oriste h adiabatik parmetroc:

m2 sin2 2 N (r)
Q(r) =
E cos 2 N 0 (r)

(1.60)

Ed N (r) h puknthta thc lhc se kje shmeo r thc troqic tou netrnou, en orzetai kai
h pargwgoc thc puknthtac
dN (r)
(1.61)
N 0 (r) =
dr
Sto adiabatik rio, Q 1, h metabol thc puknthtac enai mikr. Se aut thn perptwsh
h metptwsh metax idiokatastsewn thc mzac periorzetai kai o formalismc thc stajerc
puknthtac mpore na efarmoste. Sto mh adiabatik rio, Q < 1, h metabol thc puknthtac
enai pol grgorh. Tte, h metptwsh metax idiokatastsewn thc mzac enai pijan kai o
formalismc thc stajerc puknthtac den mpore na efarmoste. H metatrop twn hliakn
netrnwn apo netrna miac geshc se llh wc apotlesma thc allhlepdrashc me thn lh
enai gnwst kai c to fainmeno twn Mikheyev-Smirnov-Wolfenstein(MSW) [18].
33

1.5 Mzec fermionwn

Genik uprqoun do pijano roi mzac gia ta ferminia: roi mzac Dirac kai roi mzac
Majorana. 'Ola ta ferminia mporon na qoun rouc mzac Dirac, all mno ta oudtera
ferminia mporon na qoun rouc mzac Majorana. 'Etsi kai sto kajierwmno prtupo
(KP) la ta ferminia pou qoun mza, ta kourkc kai ta fortismna leptnia, qoun rouc
Dirac. Ta netrna enai maza sto KP epeid ta dexistrofa netrna den uprqoun.
Oi roi mzac Dirac sundoun aristerstrofa peda me dexistrofa

mD L R + h.c

(1.62)

me L kai R enai aristerstrofa kai dexistrofa spinoriak peda Weyl antstoiqa. Tra
mporon na shmeiwjon ta exc gia thn exswsh (1.62)

An uprqei mia jewra me ma perissterec summetrec U (1) tte ja prpei ta forta

twn L kai R ktw apo autc na enai antjeta. Gia pardeigma, ta do peda mporon
na qoun hlektrik forto an Q(L ) = Q(R ).
Afo ta L kai R enai diaforetik peda uprqoun 4 bajmo eleujerac me thn dia
mza, mD .
'Otan uprqoun perisstera apo na peda me touc diouc kbantikoc arijmoc, orzetai
o pnakac Dirac, (mD )ij
(mD )ij (L )i (R )j + h.c
(1.63)
pou i(j) parnoun timc apo na wc ton arijm twn aristerstrofwn (dexistrofwn)
pedwn me touc diouc kbantikoc arijmoc. Sto kajierwmno prtupo ta fermionik
peda enai se trec genic, dhlad se tra antgrafa, kai oi pnakec mzac Dirac enai
3 3 pnakec.
Oi roi mzac Majorana sundoun na aristerstrofo na dexistrofo pedo me ton
eaut tou. An jewrhje to R na singlet dexistrofo pedo tou KP tte o roc Majorana
qei thn morf:
(1.64)
mM Rc R , c = C T
pou C o pnakac suzugac fortou. Parmoia sqsh isqei kai gia ta aristerstrofa peda.
Parathrontai ta exc gia thn sqsh (1.64) :

Afo tra qreizetai mno na ferminio Weyl gia na dhmiourghjon roi tpou Majorana, uprqoun mno 2 bajmo eleujerac me thn dia mza, mM .
'Otan ufstantai perisstera apo na oudtera peda h mM gnetai nac pnakac mzac
Majorana
c
(1.65)
R j
(mM )ij Ri
Ta i kai j parnoun timc apo na ec ton arijm twn oudterwn pedwn. 'Enac pnakac
Majorana enai summetrikc.
34

 Oi kbantiko arijmo twn Rc R enai oi dioi kai gia aut na fermionik pedo mpore na
qei mza Majorana an enai oudtero ktw apo lec tic topikc kai olikc mh spasmnec
summetrec U (1). Sugkekrimna peda pou qoun hlektrik forto den mporon na
proun mza Majorana.
Sunjwc, oi jewrec qarakthrzontai apo topikc summetrec. Se ttoiec periptseic
oi olikc summetrec enai tuqaec. 'Enac roc tpou Majorana gia na fermionik
pedo spei lec tic olikc summetrec U (1) ktw apo tic opoec to ferminio enai
fortismno.

1.5.1 Mzec fermionwn sto kajierwmno prtupo

To kajierwmno prtupo (KP) enai mia epakanonikopoisimh tetradistath jewra pedou
pou

H summetra bajmdac enai h SU (3)C SU (2)L U (1)Y .

Uprqoun trec genic fermionwn
1
2
1
QL (3, 2, , ), UR (3, 1, ), DR (3, 1, ),
6
3
3
1
LL (1, 2, + ), ER (1, 1, 1)
2
O sumbolismc (qC , qL , qY ) deqnei thn anaparstash ktw apo tic SU (3)C ,
SU (2)L ,U (1)Y antstoiqa.

(1.66)

H anamenmenh tim keno gia to bajmwt pedo Higgs, H(1, 2, 12 ), odhge sto aujrmhto spsimo thc summetrac
SU (2)L U (1)Y U (1)EM

(1.67)

To kajierwmno prtupo qei tsseric tuqaec olikc summetrec : baruoniko arijmo(B)

kai leptonikn gesewn (Le , L , L ). Enai epshc bolik na oriste kai o olikc leptonikc
arijmc san L = Le + L + L , o opooc profanc diathretai sto KP. Ma tuqaa summetra
enai ma summetra pou den epiblletai sthn drsh. Uprqei mno lgw twn pedwn thc
jewrac kai lgw thc apathshc h jewra na enai epakanonikopoisimh. An gnei dekt
h apathsh thc epakanonikopohshc tte oi tuqaec summetrec den ja uprqoun pia. Gia
pardeigma, pwc ja anaferje kai paraktw analutiktera, sto KP mpore na grafton
kai telestc distashc 5 kai 6 pou spne to leptonik kai ton baruonik arijm.
Smfwna me to KP ta netrna den qoun mza. Aut sumbanei diti

To kajierwmno prtupo den perilambnei peda ta opoa enai monrh (singlets) ktw
apo thn summetra bajmdac (R (1, 1, 0)). Aut shmanei oti den uprqoun roi Dirac
i2 H ? ).
L R (pou H
thc morfc hHi
35

 Den uprqoun bajmwtc tripltec (1, 3, 1) sto KP. 'Etsi, roi Majorana thc morfc hiLc L den mporon na grafton.
To kajierwmno prtupo enai epakanonikopoisimo. Dhlad den mporon na grafton
roi thc morfc hHihHiLc L
U (1)BL enai mia tuqaa mh anmalh olik summetra tou KP. 'Etsi, kbantikc diorjseic den mporon na dhmiourgsoun Majorana rouc thc morfc hHihHiLc L . Fusik
den qei sumperilhfje h barthta. An gnei kti ttoio tte h U (1)BL ja qei anwmalec kai tsi ja enai dunat h parxh rwn mzac. Dhlad se kje genkeush tou
KP pou perilambnei thn barthta ta netrna parnoun mza.
Ektc apo ta netrna sto KP paramnoun maza kai ta dianusmatik mpoznia bajmdac
SU (3)C U (1)EM . Uprqei mwc mia pol meglh diafor. H summetra pou prostateei
ta netrna apo to na proun mza enai tou leptoniko arijmo, dhlad mia tuqaa summetra
pou kannac den epiblei sto KP. Antjeta, to fwtnio kai ta gklounia enai maza lgw
thc analloithtac ktw apo topikoc metasqhmatismoc bajmdac, pou fusik enai mia
summetra pou epiblletai sthn drsh kai den prokptei tuqaa.

1.5.2 Mzec fermionwn pra apo to kajierwmno prtupo

'Otan embaptuste to KP msa se mia pio basik jewra, orismnec apo tic parapnw idithtec
qnontai. 'Etsi, se pollc epektseic tou KP ta netrna parnoun mza. 'Opwc anafrjhke
prohgoumnwc oi mzec twn netrnwn dhmiourgontai prosjtontac elafr bari peda sto
KP (ta bari peda qoun mia mza pou qarakthrzetai apo mia pra pol meglh klmaka
en ta elafri apo thn hlektrasjen).
Uprqoun do edh elafrin pedwn pou mporon na qrhsimopoihjon gia na dhmiourgsoun mzec sta netrna. Prta ta dexistrofa peda R (1, 1, 0) sundontai me ta aristerstrofa leptonik peda tou KP msw twn suzexewn Yukawa kai dhmiourgon rouc mzac
Dirac gia ta netrna:
L R + h.c mD L R
h HL
(1.68)
pou h h adistath zexh Yukawa kai to smbolo shmanei aujrmhto spsimo thc
hlekrasjenc summetrac. Autc o mhqanismc den dnei kama exghsh giat oi mzec twn
netrnwn enai tso pol mikrc kai giat ta dexistrofa netrna den mporon na proun
mzec Majorana. 'Enac lloc trpoc na proun ta netrna mza enai na prosteje sto KP
mia bajmwt triplta (1, 3, 1). Upojtontac oti aut h triplta parnei mia anamenmenh
msh tim keno o roc Majorana pou prokptei enai

LcL LL M Lc L

(1.69)

pou ma adistath stajer szeuxhc. Fusik tra ja prpei na exhghje giat h triplta
qei anamenmenh tim keno (vacuum expectation value (vev)) pol mikrterh apo thn vev
thc dipltac Higgs tou KP.
'Enac akma trpoc na dwje mza sta netrna genikeontac to KP enai na prostejon
kainorgia bari peda. Se aut thn perptwsh h qamhlc enrgeiac jewra enai to KP, all
36

h oloklhrwmnh jewra kai stic uyhlc enrgeiec perilambnei na peda. Qrhsimopointac

mia prosggish energoc jewrac pedou, h epdrash autn twn kainorgiwn barin pedwn
perigrfetai prosjtontac mh-epakanonikopoisimouc rouc sthn drsh tou KP. 'Oloi auto

oi roi periorzontai apo dunmeic thc mikrc paramtrou M

. Ed enai h vev tou Higgs tou
KP, h opoa kai qarakthrzei thn asjen klmaka, kai M h gnwsth klmaka thc uyhltera
energeiak jewrac, pou mpore na enai gia pardeigma thc txhc MG twn megaloenopoihmnwn jewrin akma kai thc txhc thc mzac tou Planck MP l . Oi mzec twn netrnwn
gennintai apo telestc thc morfc:

HHLcL LL m =
M
M

(1.70)

pou ma adistath stajer. Tra gia thn (1.70) mporon na parathrhjon ta exc :

Jewrntac to KP san ma energ jewra pedou enai m 6= 0. Afo loipn enai

gnwst oti h na fusik prpei na uprqei ktw apo sthn mza tou Planck, enai
pol pijan ta netrna na qoun mza.
H m enai mikr afo prorqetai apo mh epakanonikopoisimouc rouc.
Afo ta netrna pran mza o leptonikc arijmc den diathretai plon kai mlista
o sunolikc leptonikc arijmc den diathretai gia do mondec. 'Enac pol morfoc
mhqanismc pragmatopohshc twn parapnw enai kai o mhqanismc airac.

1.5.3 O mhqanismc airac sto KP

An telik ta netrna qoun mh mhdenik mza, h pio ikanopoihtik exghsh gia aut thn
elafrthta touc rqetai apo ton legmeno mhqanism airac (see-saw mechanism) [19, 20,
21, 22, 23]. Gia na gnei katanoht pwc leitourge autc o mhqanismc parathretai oti,
antjeta me ta fortismna swmtia, ta netrna mporon na enai dia me ta antiswmatdia
touc. An na netrno enai dio me to antiswmatdio tou tte apotelete apo do mazik
ekfulismnec katastseic: mia me spn pnw kai mia me spn ktw. 'Ena ttoio netrno pwc
anafrjhke lgetai Majorana. Antjeta, an enai diaforetik apo to antinetrno tte maz me
aut apotelontai apo 4 mazik ekfulismnec katastseic: thn spn pnw kai spn ktw tou
netrnou kajc kai thn spn pnw kai spn ktw tou antinetrnou. Autc oi 4 katastseic maz
lgontai netrno Dirac. Ston mhqanism airac tra na netrno Dirac N D (4 katastseic)
mzac MD qwrzetai se 2 katastseic Majorana. Mia apo autc tic do, M , qei mikr
mza kai tautopoietai me na apo ta parathromena elafr netrna. H llh, N M , qei
pol meglh mza MN qarakthristik kpoiac uyhlc klmakac mzac pou oi shmerino
epitaquntc den mporon na ftsoun. 'Etsi to NM den qei akma parathrhje. To spsimo
tou N D se M kai NM enai ttoio ste MN M
= MD . Tra enai logik na upoteje oti h
mza tou swmatidou Dirac MD enai thc txhc enc tupiko fortismnou leptonou kourk
afo kai aut enai swmtia Dirac. Tte MN M
= Ml2 or q me to Ml or q mia tupik mza
enc leptonou enc kourk kai MN pol meglh. Autc enai o mhqanismc tramplac
pou exhge giat h M enai tso pol mikr. Ac ton dome mwc pio analutik sthn pi
apl epktash tou KP pou eisgetai kai to dexistrofo netrno [15].
37

H allhlepdrash Yukawa orzei touc kbantikoc arijmoc tou dexistrofou netrnou:

qei leptonik arijm, pou enai na olik forto, lla den qei qrma, isotopik spn
uperforto oi opooi enai kbantiko arijmo bajmdac. 'Etsi, mporon na grafton kai roi
mzac Majorana. Aut pou prpei na anaferje enai oti h mza Majorana den ja prpei
na dhmiourgetai apo ton mhqanism Higgs tsi ste na enai pol megalterh kai na odhge
msw tou mhqanismo tramplac se pol mikrc mzec gia ta netrna.
H allhlepdrash Yukawa, h opoa enai upejunh gia thn szeuxh aristerstrofwn kai
dexistrofwn netrnwn kajc kai dexistrofwn netrnwn me ton eaut touc,

1
()
c
Rj + h.c
LY = hij lL i Rj H1 + Mij Ri
2

(1.71)

O prtoc roc dnei peita apo to aujrmhto spsimo summetrac ton ro mzac Dirac
mD = h 1 gia ta netrna. Analutiktera:

1
()
c
LM = mDij L i Rj + Mij Ri
Rj + h.c
2

(1.72)

Oi idiokatastseic twn mazn prokptoun an gnei nac monadiaoc metasqhmatismc.

Qrhsimopointac thn tautthta L mD R = R c mD T Lc oi roi mzac mporon na grafton
se morf pnaka

1
0 mD
L
()
c
L R
+ h.c
(1.73)
LM =
T
mD M
R
2
O monadiaoc pnakac pou diagwnopoie aut ton pnaka mzac ekola kataskeuzetai san
seir wc proc x = mD /M . 'Etsi, mqri trthc txhc wc proc x :

L
1 21 xx+
x
L
=
(1.74)
Rc
x+
1 12 xx+
Rc
Wc proc ta na aristerstrofa kai dexistrofa peda, L kai R, o pnakac mzac enai diagnioc:

1
L
m 0
L
()
+ h.c
(1.75)
LM =
c

0 M
R
2 R
opo o m enai:

m = mD M 1 mTD

Aut enai h perfhmh sqsh mazn airac tpou I. 'Otan M mD tte profanc m
mD . San na pardeigma, sthn eidik perptwsh mac mno genic, dialgontac gia mD
thn megalterh gnwst mza fermionwn,mD mt 100 GeV kai gia M thn klmaka
enopohshc twn enopoihmnwn jewrin, M 1015 GeV , brsketai oti m 102 eV .
H sugkekrimnh tim enai msa sta peiramatik apodekt ria. Se llec epektseic tou
KP, o mhqanismc airac tpou II prokptei an jewrhje oti sthn langkranzian (1.71)
suneisfroun kai oi roi thc morfc (1.68) kai/ (1.69). Tte to 11 stoiqeo tou pnaka
sthn (1.73) enai mL kai h m gnetai

m = mL mD M 1 mTD .
38

Oi m kai M enai oi pnakec mzac gia ta elafr netrna kai touc kat pol barterouc
etarouc touc. Oi antstoiqec idiokatastseic mzac enai ferminia Majorana

= L + Lc = c , N = Rc + R = N c

(1.76)

me L, Rc kai Lc , R enai antstoiqa oi aristerstrofec kai dexistrofec sunistsec

L=

1 5
1 5
, Rc =
N k.t.l
2
2

(1.77)

'Etsi, qrhsimopointac ta parapnw peda oi roi mzac ja gnoun

1
1 + 5
1
1 + 5
()
LM = m
+ N
m
N + h.c
(1.78)
2
2
2
2
Shmeinetai oti genik oi pnakec mzac qoun pragmatik kai fantastik mrh. Aut enai
mia sunpeia twn migadikn zexewn Yukawa kai mia pijan phg parabashc thc summetrac
CP . Ac dome tra lgo pio analutik ton leptonik pnaka mxhc. An o pnakac mzac twn
netrnwn diagwnopoietai apo to monadiak pnaka U () ,

m1 0
0
U () m U ()? = 0 m2 0
(1.79)
0
0 m3
tte o pnakac U emfanzetai sto fortismno rema
g X
(l)
LEW =
eLi Uij Lj W +
2 ij
pou

(e)

()

Uij = Ui Uj

o leptonikc pnakac mxhc. Autc sunjwc parametropoietai sthn morf

c12 c13
c13 s12
eif s13

c23 s12 c12 eif s13 s23 c12 c23 eif s12 s13 s23 c13 s23 diag(ei 21 , ei 22 , 1)
c12 c23 eif s13 + s12 s23 c23 eif s12 s13 c12 s23 c13 c23

(1.80)

(1.81)

(1.82)

pou sij sin ij , cij cos ij . Oi sqetikc fseic metax twn mazn Majorana enai trec,
mwc dialgetai h m3 pragmatik kai jetik, opte kai oi llec do enai m1,2 = |m1,2 |ei1,2 .
Sunepc, genik 9 parmetroi prostjentai sto KP tan sumperilhfjon kai mzec gia ta
netrna: 3 idiotimc, 3 gwnec mxhc kai 3 fseic pou parabizoun thn CP.

1.6 Peiramatik dedomna kai netrno

Ti metrne mwc ta peirmata? Ta parathromena megjh twn mazn twn netrnwn mporon na
qwriston se do kathgorec:(i) Parathrsima megjh talantsewn (ii) Mh parathrsima
talantwtik megjh. H prth kathgora twn parathrsimwn megejn enai ekenec pou
39

prokptoun apo ta peirmata talantsewn kai aut enai sugkekrimna oi diaforc mazn
m212 = m2sun = |m2 |2 |m1 |2 , m223 = m2atm = m3 2 |m2 |2 . H arjmhsh 123 antistoiqe
stic suqnthtec kai genik den qei sqsh me seir apo to elafrtero sto bartero. Akma
enai oi trec gwnec mxhc 12 sun ,23 atm kai 13 h gwna Ue3 kajc kai h fsh CP f .
Ta lla parathrsima tra megjh pou mporon na brejon apo mh talantwtik peirmata
enai h elafrterh mza apo ta tra netrna kai oi do fseic Majorana. 'Opou

e
1
= U 2
(1.83)

3
dhlad to U sqetzei ta do snola idiokatastsewn, thc asjenc kai thc mzac. Autc o
pnakac pwc edeqjh sthn exswsh (1.82) mpore na parametropoihje qrhsimopointac tic
parapnw gwnec 13 , 23 , 12 (0 ij /2) kai mia fsh (0 2 ) (agnontac tic
llec do), akribc pwc kai gia ton pnaka mxhc twn kourk VCKM .
Stic arqc tou 2002, h paratrhsh twn hliakn netrnwn apo tic antidrseic oudterwn
kai fortismnwn reumtwn sto SNO dwse thn lsh sto prblhma twn hliakn netrnwn
smfwna me thn metptwsh e , . H anlush twn peiramatikn dedomnwn deixe mia
protmhsh sthn Meglh Gwna Mxhc (Large Mixing Angle (LMA)) perioq me mia diafor
twn mazn sto tetrgwno 2 105 < m221 = m2sun < 4 104 eV 2 kai arket meglh
gwna mxhc 0.2 tan2 12 0.9. Mia pragmatik pra pol entupwsiak epaljeush tou
parapnw apotelsmatoc tan h anakonwsh sto tloc tou diou touc twn apotelesmtwn
tou peirmatoc sto KamLAND. 'Etsi, tra oi perioqc ginan

LM A I : 5.1 105 < m221 = m2sun < 9.7 105 eV 2

LM A II : 1.2 104 < m221 = m2sun < 1.9 104 eV 2

(1.84)

kai arket meglh gwna mxhc 0.29 tan2 12 0.86. To Septmbrh tou 2003 ta apotelsmata tou SNO [24] met thn prsjesh alatio epibebawsan gia akmh mia for thn
LM A epilgwntac thn perioq LM A I . Epshc, deixe kai apklish apo mgisth 12 ,
(tan2 12 < 0.64 (3)). To 1998 to Superkamiokande anakluye thn asummetra anw-ktw'
twn gegontwn uyhlc enrgeiac ta opoa eqan dhmiourghje apo ta atmosfairik , dnontac tsi mia apdeixh thc exafnishc twn atmosfairikn . Sto tloc tou 2002 to
perama K2K epibebawse thn lsh thc talntwshc twn netrnwn pnw sthn anwmala twn
atmosfairikn netrnwn, mic kai paratrhse thn exafnish tou (pou eqe dhmiourghje
apo ton epitaqunt) se mia apstash 250 Km apo thn phg. Ta plon prsfata peiramatik
apotelsmata fanontai ston Pnaka 1.1.
Ta parapnw dedomna exhgontai me thn ida thc talntwshc 3 energn netrnwn, sta
opoa oi trec geseic e , , enai nac grammikc sunduasmc twn 1 , 2 , 3 me mzec
antstoiqa m1 , m2 , m3 . 'Etsi, uprqoun trec dunatc parathromenec timc gia tic idiokatastseic twn mazn twn netrnwn:
Ekfulismnec (Degenarate) : |m1 | |m2 | |m3 | >> |mi mj |
Anpodh ierarqa (Inverted hierarchy) :|m1 | |m2 | >> |m3 |
Kanonik ierarqa (Normal hierarchy):|m3 | >> |m2,1 |
40

Paramtroi
best fit
m2sol [105 eV 2 ]
8.1
2
5
2
matm [10 eV ]
2.2
2
sin 12
0.30
sin2 23
0.50
2
sin 13
0.000

2
7.5 8.7
1.7 2.9
0.25 0.34
0.38 0.64
0.028

3
7.2 9.1
1.4 3.3
0.23 0.38
0.34 0.68
0.047

4
7.0 9.4
1.1 3.7
0.21 0.41
0.30 0.72
0.068

Pnakac 1.1: Best fit timc, 2 , 3 , kai 4 diastmata gia tic paramtrouc netrnwn trin
gesewn.

Sqma 1.2: Ta do apo ta tra sqmata pou epitrpontai apo thn ierarqa m2sun m2atm .
H peiramatik parathromenh ierarqa m2sun m2atm dnei tic parapnw perioqc,
pwc fanetai kai sto sqma 1.2. Ta do sqmata qoun onmata pwc kanonik ierarqa kai
antstrofh ierarqa, diti sthn kanonik ierarqa h qamhlterh diafor mzac sto tetrgwno
dhmiourgetai apo ta do elafrtera netrna kai ma fusik ierarqa pragmatopoietai an
m1 < m2 . Apo thn llh pleur sthn anpodh ierarqa h qamhlterh diafor mzac sto
tetrgwno dhmiourgetai apo ta do bartera netrna, ta opoa enai sqedn ekfulismna gia
kje tim tou elafrterou netrnou.
Tra smfwna me ton aniqneut CHOOZ h gwna s13 enai mikr (< 0.2) kai epomnwc
mpore na jewrhje s13 0, c13 1. Akma jewrntac mno mia CP-violating fsh, h opoa
spei thn summetra CP, kai agnontac tic 1,2 o pnakac (1.82) gnetai

c12
s12
<< 1
s23
U c23 s12 c12 c23
(1.85)
s12 s23 c12 s23 c23
Parnontac upyh tic epitrepmenec perioqc tou Pnaka 1.1 o leptonikc pnakac mxhc

41

qei thn morf [4]:

0.79 086 0.50 0.61 0.0 0.16

U 0.24 0.52 0.44 0.69 0.63 0.79
0.26 0.52 0.47 0.71 0.60 0.77

(1.86)

'Enac ttoioc pnakac mxhc me la ta stoiqea megla ektc tou Ue3 onomzetai bilarge.
Shmeinetai gia llh mia for h diafor tou leptoniko pnaka mxhc me ton pnaka mxhc
tou toma twn kourk.

42

Keflaio 2
Eisagwg sthn upersummetra
2.1 Eisagwg
H telik enopohsh lwn twn swmatidwn kai lwn twn allhlepidrsewn enai to neiro
twn jewrhtikn fusikn. Oi enopoihmnec jewrec bajmdac mac feran na bma pio kont.
'Omwc, afo ta gnwst stoiqeidh swmtia apotelontai kai apo ferminia (kourk kai
leptnia) kai apo mpoznia (fwtnia,gklounia k.t.l) h telik touc enopohsh apaite na
enai sustatik mic basikc pollaplthtac fermionwn, ta opoa mporon na enopoihjon
msa se ma omda Lie, na uprqei kpoia kainorgia summetra pou na metasqhmatzei ta
mpoznia se ferminia. Ed ja melethje aut h na summetra,gnwst wc upersummetra [25,
26, 27]. Telikc skopc enai h kataskeu enc upersummetriko montlou.
Gia na diapistwje giat h summetra metax mpozonwn kai fermionwn enai tso meglou endiafrontoc shmeinetai apl to exc: Oi epakanonikopoisimec kbantikc jewrec
pedou me bajmwt swmtia (pwc p.q o tomac Higgs twn enopoihmnwn jewrin bajmdac)
parousizoun tetragwnikc apoklseic se txh enc brqou kai uyhlterhc son afor tic
bajmwtc mzec. Antjeta me tic logarijmikc apoklseic pou sqetzontai me tic fermionikc mzec, oi opoec mporon na exafaniston ekmetalleumenoi tic chiral summetrec, den
uprqei profanc summetra pou na mpore na elgxei tic apoklseic pou sqetzontai me tic
mzec twn bajmwtn swmatwn. Apo thn llh pleur, an uprxei mia jewra pou mpore na
suzexei ferminia kai mpoznia oi bajmwtc mzec (pwc tou swmatou Higgs) ja qoun 2
phgc gia tic tetragwnikc apoklseic tou, mia me jetik prshmo h opoa prorqetai apo
to bajmwt brqo kai mia me arnhtik prshmo apo to fermionik brqo. 'Etsi, gnetai
faner oti an uprqe ma summetra pou na sundei stajerc szeuxhc kai mzec mpozonwn
kai fermionwn ja exafanzontan oi apoklseic. H upersummetra dnei aut thn eukaira.

2.2 H lgebra thc upersummetrac

'Ena basik sustatik lwn twn fusikn jewrin enai h sunalloithta touc ktw apo thn
omda Poincare, thc opoac oi genntorec enai h orm P (metatopseic) kai h gwniak orm
43

M (strofc kai wjseic). Auto ikanopoion thn paraktw lgebra Lie :

[P , P ] = 0
[M , P ] = i( P P )
[M , M ] = i( M + M M M )

(2.1)

h opoa kai dhmiourge thn Poincare omda Lie (dka parmetroi). To pol shmantik jerhma twn Coleman kai Mantula [28] mac lei oti enai adnato na anamxhc eswterikc
summetrec me thn summetra Poincare me na polploko trpo. Mlista, h mgisth summetra tou pnaka S enai to ginmeno thc summetrac Poincare me thn eswterik summetra.
Dhlad, an Gi enai oi genntorec thc eswterikc summetrac tte auto metatjentai me touc
genntorec P kai M :
[P , Gi ] = [M , Gi ] = 0
Parola aut uprqei na prblhma afo to jerhma qrhsimopoie mno sqseic metjeshc.
Sta majhmatik uprqoun pio snjetec algebrikc domc pou klenoun ktw apo metajtec
antimetajtec kai onomzontai Graded Lie Algebras (GLA). Ta rtia stoiqea miac ttoiac
lgebrac upakooun tic sunhjismnec sqseic metjeseic kai ta peritt se sqseic antimetjeshc metax touc kai metjeshc me ta peritt. 'Otan qrhsimopoihjon ttoiec domc tte to
jerhma twn Coleman kai Mantula genikeetai tsi ste h lgebra Poincare epektenetai
se aut pou enai gnwst kai wc lgebra thc upersummetrac. Ousiastik h sugkekrimnh
prtash enai kai to perieqmeno tou jewrmatoc twn Haag-Lopuszanski-Sohnious [29]. H
aplosterh epktash thc lgebrac Poincare enai h N = 1 upersummetra h opoa periqei,
ektc apo touc P kai M ( rtia stoiqea ), tssera na spinoriak forta Qa san peritt
stoiqea. Mia akma epktash enai na qoume perisstera spinoriak forta Qia kai thn
parousa qi kentrikn fortwn. 'Etsi, an Qia enai forta me do sunistsec (spnorec
Weyl) tte:
ia ] = 0
[P , Qia ] = [P , Q

{Qia , Qj } = {Qia , Qj } = 0
[M , Qia ] = ( Qi )a
{Qi , Qj } = 2 ij P
a

(2.2)

Ta forta mporon na ikanopoion kai sqseic antimetjeshc thc morfc:

{Qia , Qj } = a Z ij
pou [Z ij , G] = 0 gia kje stoiqeo thc GLA. H prth apo tic sqseic (2.2) dhlnei oti oi
spnorec enai anallowtoi ktw apo metatopseic, en h trth ti ta Qia metasqhmatzontai
san spnorec ktw apo thn omda Poincare.

44

2.3 O formalismc tou uperqrou kai ta uperpeda

Gia na enai dunatn na kataskeuaston upersummetrik montla enai aparathtoc nac formalismc ston opoo h upersummetra na isqei kat anlogo trpo me thn analloithta
Lorentz ston tetradistato qro. Autc o formalismc enai o formalismc twn uperpedwn kai eisqjh apo touc Salam kai Strathdee. Gia pardeigma, ac dome mia jewra h
opoa grfetai ston trisdistato Eukledio qro. Genik kpoioc den mpore na perimnei
mia ttoia jewra na enai anallowth ktw apo metasqhmatismoc Lorentz na enai anallowth ktw apo touc metasqhmatismoc thc omdac Poincare. H kataskeu mic jewrac
sqetikistik anallowthc apaite thn epktash thc apo ton trisdistato Eukledio qro se
nan eppedo yeudo-Reimmnio tetradistato qro, ton qro Minkowski. Prosjtontac kai
ton qrno enai dunat na grafte h jewra me nan sqetikistik anallowto trpo. Qrhsimopointac thn dia logik epektenetai o qroc Minkowski ston uperqro. Stoiqea tou
uperqrou enai oi upersuntetagmnec pou periqoun tic gnwstc 4 qwroqronikc suntetagmnec kai 4 stajeroc (dhlad anexrthtouc tou x ) antimetajetikoc arijmoc Grassmann.
Enai faner h epijuma na krathje mia summetra metax tou sunhjismnou qrou kai tou
fermioniko. Gia aut kai eisgontai 4 fermionikc suntetagmnec. 'Ena shmeo ston uper . Ta a , a antimetatjentai, kti pou shmanei oti to ginmeno do diwn
qro enai (x , , )
sunistwsn mhdenzetai. Oi dektec Weyl anebanoun kai katebanoun me thn bojeia tou
antisummetriko tanust a

0 1
a =
1 0
'Etsi, kje spnorac Weyl grfetai :

a = a , a = a

a = a , a = a

(2.3)

Oi a metasqhmatzontai smfwna me thn (1/2, 0) anaparstash, en oi a smfwna me thn

(0, 1/2).Akma orzetai o spnorac Dirac:

xa
D =
a
kai o spnorac Majorana:

M =

xa
xa

To eswterik ginmeno do spinrwn orzetai wc:

x = a xa = a xa = x
diti,

a xa = a xa = a xa = a xa = xa a
45

'Opou a antisummetrikc tanustc me 12 = 1. Omowc,

x = a xa = a xa = x

Ta stoiqea twn pinkwn Pauli enai :

= a a
aa ,
aa = a a
Epshc apodeiknontai oi paraktw qrsimec sqseic:

1
1
1

a = a , a = a , ( )(
) = g
2
2
2
'Etsi,
kai

(2.4)

1
1
1
a = a cd c d = (c da ca dc )c d = a
2
2
2

( )(
) = a a c cdd = a a c cdd = a cda c d = g
2
Orzetai akma o telestc :

= exp {ix P + iQ + iQ}

L(x , , )

(2.5)

o opooc enai nac peperasmnoc upersummetrikc metasqhmatismc kai dr pnw se sunartseic pou orzontai ston uperqro. O pollaplasiasmc do ttoiwn stoiqewn thc omdac
thc upersummetrac enai :

L(a, , )L(x
, , ) = exp{ia P + iQ + i Q + ix P + iQ + i Q

1
ix P + iQ + iQ]}
=
+ [ia P + iQ + iQ,
2
+ i( + )Q + i( + )
Q}
=
exp{i[a + x + i( )]P
L(x0 , 0 , 0 )

(2.6)

pou qrhsimopoijhke h frmoula Baker-Hausdorff

1
exp{a} exp{b} = exp{a + b + [a, b]}
2
afo sthn perptwsh mac oi metablhtc enai Grassmann kai isqei [a, [a, b]] = 0. Akma
= 2 a P . Dhlad, do diadoqiko upersummetriko metasqhmatismo qoun
[iQ, iQ]
a
wc apotlesma mia qwroqronik metatpish.
Ta antikemena pnw sta opoa dr o L enai ta legmena uperpeda. Oi Salam kai
twn sunistwsn tou uperqrou, thn opoa
Strathdee prteinan oti mia sunrthsh (x, , )
onmasan uperpedo, na jewrhje san o genntorac twn stoiqewn twn uperpollaplottwn.

46

 ja mporose na ankei se ma tuqaa anaparstash thc omdac Lorentz all ja

H (x, , )
jewrhjon mno bajmwt uperpeda. Sugkekrimna enai :
= (x) + (x) + (x)

(x, , )
+ 2 M (x) + 2 N (x)+
(x) + 2 (x)

V
+ 2 a(x) + 2 2 D(x)
(2.7)

pou ta , , , M (x), N (x), V (x), (x),

a(x), D(x) enai oi sunistsec tou uperpedou. Uprqoun 16 pragmatiko mpozoniko kai 16 pragmatiko fermioniko bajmo eleujerac. Enallaktik, na genik uperpedo mpore akma na ekfraste sunartsei paramtrwn Grassmann 4 stoiqewn, oi opoec ikanopoion thn sunjkh Majorana. Dhlad, mpore na grafte,
5 (x)) i (
5 )M (x) 1 ()N

S(x, ) = C(x) i(
(x)
2
2
i
1
1
1

+ (
(x)]) (
5 )V (x) i(5 )([(x) + \
5 ) (D(x) + C(x))
2
2
4
2
Tra, bbaia, dunmeic tou megalterec tou 4 enai mhdn, dhlad

(2.8)

n = 0, n 5
Sunjwc, enai ikanopoihtik na jewrhjon apeirosto upersummetriko metasqhmatismo.
Auto grfontai,
A ]
S (a, a
) = [iaA QA + i
aA Q
(2.9)

= a +a

S (a, a
)(x, , )
i(a a
)
(x, , )
(2.10)

pou a, a
enai metablhtc Grassmann. Sugkrnontac tic parapnw do sqseic prokptei h
paraktw anaparstash gia touc genntorec thc upersummetrac,

Qa =

ia ,
a

a = +
Q
(2.11)
a
a
Ed axzei na shmeiwje oti h kataskeu twn parapnw gennhtrwn se diaforik morf
gine efikt qrh sthn epktash tou aplo qwroqrnou ston uprqwro. Ja apodeiqje
epshc pol qrsimo na eisaqjon upersummetrikc sunallowtec pargwgoi Da , dhlad
sunallowtec pargwgoi anallowtec ktw apo upersummetrikoc metasqhmatismoc
a , S ] = 0
[Da , S ] = 0 , [D
Dhmiourgetai loipn nac diaforikc telestc Da ston uperqro tsi ste tan autc
drsei se uperpedo na dsei llo uperpedo. Aut den mpore na to knei opoiosdpote
telestc afo mpore na mhn enai uperpedo to apotlesma. 'Etsi, orzetai :

Da =

+ ia ,
a

47

 a =
D
a
a
Akma, ja qreiaston oi chiral anaparastseic twn parapnw. 'Etsi,

S (a, a
)L = a + a
+ 2i a
L ,

, D
L =
+ 2i

S (a, a
)R = a + a
2ia R ,

R = 2i , DR =
D

Metax twn anaparastsewn L kai R isqei h akloujh sqsh:
DL =

= L (x + i ,
, )
= R (x i ,
, )

(x, , )

(2.12)

(2.13)

(2.14)

(2.15)

Sthn anlush pou ja akoloujsei sta paraktw keflaia enai aparathth h melth do
edh uperpedwn ta opoa kai ja suzhthjon se aut to shmeo.

2.4
2.4.1

Chiral kai dianusmatik uperpeda

Chiral

uperpeda

To prto edoc uperpedou enai ta chiral uperpeda [30]. To noma touc prokptei apo to oti
ta ferminia tou kajierwmnou protpou enai chiral kti pou shmanei oti oi aristerstrofec
kai oi dexistrofec sunistsec metasqhmatzontai diaforetik ktw apo thn SU (2)U (1)Y .
'Etsi, qreizontai uperpeda me mno duo fusikoc fermionikoc bajmoc eleujerac, ta opoa
mporon na perigryoun thn aristerstrofh dexistrofh sunistsa enc fermionou tou
kajierwmnou protpou. Bbaia, ta dia uperpeda ja periqoun mpozonikoc etarouc, ta
uperferminia. O aplosteroc trpoc gia na kataskeuaston ttoia uperpeda enai na
apaithje :
a L 0
D

Da R 0

(2.16)

To L lgetai aristerstrofo, en to R lgetai dexistrofo. 'Etsi, efarmzontac tic

sunjkec (2.16) autc ja meisoun ton arijm twn anexrthtwn sunistwsn kai kpoioi ja
enai qwroqronikc pargwgoi kpoiwn llwn. Gia na fane aut pio kajar orzontai oi
kainorgiec metablhtc:

y = x i ,
0 = , 0 =
(2.17)
Me bsh autc tic suntetagmnec oi sunallowtec pargwgoi gnontai :

a =
D
a
48

Da =

+ 2ia
a

(2.18)

Sunepc, apo tic parapnw sunjkec gnetai katanoht oti den uprqei exrthsh sthn
L . 'Etsi, gia na aristerstrofo pedo mpore na grafte,

L (y , ) = A(y) + 2(y) + F (y)

(2.19)

O pargontac 2 mpanei apl gia lgouc kanonikopohshc. H parapnw anptuxh enai

akribc afo to qei mno do sunistsec oi opoec antimetatjentai. Gia aut den uprqei
roc me trec perissterouc pargontec . Ta peda A kai F enai migadik bajmwt en to
enai spnorac Weyl. Me mia prth mati to L fanetai na periqei tsseric mpozonikoc
bajmoc eleujerac kai mno do fermionikoc. Aut pou sumbanei enai oti den anapariston
la ta mpozonik peda fusikoc bajmoc eleujerac. An ekfraste aut to chiral uperpedo
sunartsei twn arqikn suntetagmnwn tte,

= A(x) + i( )
A(x) 1
A(x)
L (x, , )
4

+ 2(x) + ()a a (x)a a + F (x)

2

(2.20)

To qei distash se mondec mzac 21 . Jtontac sto bajmwt pedo A(x) distash +1
ja prpei to fermionik pedo na qei thn sunhjismnh distash + 32 kai thn asunjisth
distash +2 gia to bajmwt pedo F (x). To uperpedo qei distash +1 .
Ktw apo nan apeirost upersummetrik metasqhmatism oi sunistsec tou chiral uperpedou metasqhmatzontai wc

A = 2a (mpoznio ferminio )

A =

2aA F A (y) + i 2A A aA (ferminio mpoznio)

F = 2i a

(2.21)

Apo autc enai faner oti to pedo F metasqhmatzetai se mia qwroqronik pargwgo.
R
'Etsi, h sunistsa tou aristerstrofou pedou tan ja oloklhrwje wc proc d4 x ja
paramenei anallowth ktw apo upersummetrikoc metasqhmatismoc. Aut h plhrofora
ja qrhsimopoihje tan ja gnei prospjeia kataskeuc upersummetrikn langkranziann.
Antstoiqa to dexistrofo uperpedo anaptssetai :

+ ) + F
(y + )
(2.22)
R (y+ , ) = A+ (y + ) + 2(y
pou o spnorac enai tra nac dexistrofoc spnorac Weyl. Apl parathretai oti h
onomasa twn pedwn prorqetai apo to spnora Weyl.

49

2.4.2 Dianusmatik uperpeda

Ta chiral uperpeda mporon na perigryoun mpoznia me spn 0 kai ferminia me spn 12 , pwc
gia pardeigma ta mpoznia Higgs, ta leptnia kai ta kourk tou kajierwmnou protpou.
'Omwc, ja prpei na perigrafon kai ta dianusmatik mpoznia tou kajierwmnou protpou
ta opoa qoun spn 1 . Gia aut kai eisgontai ta dianusmatik uperpeda V pou ikanopoion
= V + (x, , )
[31]. Se morf sunistwsn to dianusmatik uperpedo
thn sunjkh V (x, , )
grfetai :

= C(x) + i i + i 2 (M + iN ) i 2 (M iN )
V (x, , )
2
2
1
1
+ i2 (

+ i ) i2 ( + i )
V
+ 2 2 (D C)
(2.23)
2
2
2
2
pou ta C, M, N kai D enai pragmatik bajmwt, ta , enai spnorec Weyl kai to V enai
to dianusmatik pedo to opoo kai qarzei to noma tou se lo to uperpedo. To dianusmatik
ferminio enai o upersummetrikc sntrofoc tou dianusmatiko pedou V . An tra
V perigrfei na dianusmatik mpoznio, tte to V ja prpei na metasqhmatzetai san
thn autoprosarthmnh anaparstash thc omdac bajmdoc. Tra, mporon na apaleifjon
arketc apo tic sunistsec an qrhsimopoihje o metasqhmatismc bajmdac, V V + +
+ pou ta ,+ enai chiral kai anti-chiral uperpeda. Dialgontac ma bajmda (bajmda
Wess-Zumino) me C = M = N = = 0 to dianusmatik uperpedo mpore na grafte :
i2 + 1 2 2 D
+ 2
V = V
2
1
V 2 = V V 2 2
2
V3 =0

(2.24)

Enai pol bolik na ergzetai kpoioc se aut thn bajmda diti isqei akribc kai qi kat
prosggish
exp{V } = 1 + V + V 2
(2.25)
An dwje distash 1 sto V tte to D qei distash 2. Aut h sunistsa lgetai 2 2
sunistsa D, anloga me thn F sunistsa twn chiral uperpedwn. Ktw apo na upersumR
metrik metasqhmatism aut gnetai mia olik pargwgoc kpoiac posthtac. 'Ara d4 xD
enai na antikemeno upersummetrik anallowto kti pou kai fusik ekmetalleetai sthn
kataskeu upersummetrikn langkranziann. To dianusmatik uperpedo enai adistato.

'Eqontac dsei touc metasqhmatismoc bajmdac mpore na grafte h upersummetrik

genkeush tou sunallowtou bajmdac (anallowtou sthn abelian perptwsh) tanust F .
Ac jewrhje prta h abelian omda. H posthta

1
DDa V
(2.26)
Wa = D
4
mpore na deiqje oti enai anallowth ktw apo to metasqhmatism Wess-Zumino. Enai
akma faner oti to Wa enai na chiral uperpedo. Sugkekrimna,
1
D)D
AV = 0
DA WA = DA (D
4
50

(2.27)

 3 = 0. Omowc,
afo D

1
DA WA = DA (DD)DA V = 0
4
'Oso gia thn analloithta ktw apo to metasqhmatism Wess-Zumino,
1
1
WA0 = D
DDA V 0 = D
DDA (V + + )
4
4

(2.28)

(2.29)

enai grammiko telestc qoume

Afo mwc D, D
1
1
1
WA0 = D
DDA V D
DDA D
DDA =
4
4
4
1
1 A
1
A
= WA D
DDA = WA D
A D DA DA DA D =
4
4
4
= 0) = WA 1 D
{D
A , DA }
(afo D
A
A
4
kai

(2.30)

. 'Etsi telik D
= 0
O antimetajthc klenei me to P po mwc metatjetai me to D
A
A
WA = WA0

(2.31)

i
A
WA = iA (y) + A D ( )A F + 2 ( )
2

(2.32)

Sthn bajmda Wess-Zumino enai

me F = V V enai o hlektromagnhtikc tanustc. 'Enac genikc mh abelianc

metasqhmatismc enc dianusmatiko uperpedou enai :

egV ei egV ei
me

a
pou F

i
a
a)
WA = T a (iaA + A Da ( )A F
+ 2 D
2
a =
a + f abc V b
c.
= Va Va + f abc Vb Vc kai D

(2.33)

(2.34)

2.5 Upersummetrikc langkranzianc

'Eqei dh anaferje oti h uyhlterhc txhc sunistsa enc uperpedou metasqhmatzetai
ktw apo metasqhmatismoc upersummetrac se mia olik pargwgo. 'Ena qwroqronik oloklrwma mac ttoiac posthtac enai epomnwc anallowto ktw apo upersummetrikoc
metasqhmatismoc. Aut h basik idithta enai to kritrio smfwna me to opoo kataskeuzontai upersummetrikc langkranzianc puknthtec. 'Etsi, gia na kataskeuaste ma

51

upersummetrik szeuxh diafrwn uperpedwn, apl jewretai oti to telik uperpedo dhmiourgetai apo ton pollaplasiasm twn sunistwsn uyhlterhc txhc. 'Omwc to uyhlterhc txhc pedo prokptei apo oloklrwsh wc prc tic metablhtc Grassmann kai .
'Etsi, h upersummetrik drsh enai :
Z
Z
Z
Z
4
4
4

S = d x d L = d x d2 d2 L
(2.35)
pou L h upersummetrik langkranzian puknthta (upersummetrik mqri ma olik pargwgo). All sthn pragmatikthta kama drsh autc thc morfc den ja ikanopoiose apo
fusik poyh qwrc na epiblhjon eidikc sunjkec sta uperpeda apo ta opoa apotelete. Gia na uperpedo S(x, ) h mnh morf upersummetrikc kinhtikc drshc h opoa enai
digrammik sta S ,S ? kai den perilambnei parapnw apo do paraggouc twn sunistwsn
twn pedwn enai:
Z
S d4 x[S ? S]D
(2.36)
Kai lgw thc (2.8), h zhtomenh D sunistsa enai:

1
1
) + ((
) )
[S ? S]D = C ? C (
2
2
+ M ?M + N ?N V ?V
+C ? D + D? C (
) ()

(2.37)

Oi tetragwniko roi wc proc C , ja mporosan na perigryoun kinhtikoc rouc mazwn

pedwn me spn 0 kai 12 . Dustuqc mwc oi roi pou periqoun ta D, qoun thn katastrofik
apathsh sta troqiak oloklhrmata na mhdenzoun ta C , . Gia aut to lgo pwc edame
epibljhkan sto genik uperpedo diforec sunjkec dhmiourgntac kainorgia uperpeda
pou odhgon se swstc, apo fusik poyh, drseic.
H parousa chiral uperpedwn se mia jewra anogei mia epiplon dunatthta gia thn
kataskeu upersummetrikn drsewn. Meletntac ton kanna metasqhmatismo (2.21) enai
faner oti o upersummetrikc metasqhmatismc allzei ton F ro tou aristerstrofou
uperpedou kat ma pargwgo, tsi ste to oloklrwma kje F rou tou uperpedou na
enai upersummetrik. 'Etsi, mia upersummetrik drsh enai thc morfc:
Z
Z
Z
1
4
4
?
d4 x[K]D
(2.38)
S = d x[f (L )]F + d x[f (L )]F +
2
pou fusik ta f (L ),K enai sunartseic twn basikn aristerstrofwn kai genikn uperpedwn pou orsthkan parapnw. 'Otan tra to f (L ) ekfrzetai wc mia sunrthsh mno
twn basikn aristerstrofwn uperpedwn kai qi sunartsei twn uperparaggwn touc
twn qwroqronikn paraggwn touc enai gnwst c uperdunamik (superpotential).
Antjeta, h sunrthsh K enai genik ma pragmatik bajmwt sunrthsh kai twn aristerstrofwn kai twn dexistrofwn uperpedwn kajc kai twn uperparaggwn touc kai twn
qwroqronikn paraggwn touc. Aut h sunrthsh enai gnwst wc dunamik Kahler. Axzei
na shmeiwje oti epeid ta chiral uperpeda den qoun D rouc, duo K pou diafroun kat
na chiral uperpedo suneisfroun to dio sthn drsh. Epiplon shmeinetai ti ta uperpeda
52

K(, )
mporon na zon se qro pou orzetai apo thn metrik gij =
. 'Opwc ja gnei fai j
ner kai sthn sunqeia, pollc forc ja qreiaste na jewrhjon mh epakanonikopoisimec
langkranzianc thc genikc morfc:

1
L = 2Re[f ()]F + [K(, ? )]D
2

(2.39)

pou tra to uperdunamik f enai tuqaa sunrthsh aristerstrofwn pedwn all qi

twn paraggwn touc kai to dunamik Kahler enai mia tuqaa sunrthsh twn ,? all
qi twn paraggwn touc. Aut h perptwsh prokptei stic energc jewrec pedou twn
opown oi summetrec apokleoun kje epakanonikopoisimh allhlepdrash, stic opoec oi
epakanonikopoisimec allhlepidrseic enai pra pol mikrc. Se aut mwc ja epanljoume
se paraktw keflaia analutiktera.
Tra ta peda lhc brskontai se chiral pollaplthtec oi opoec ktw apo metasqhmatismoc bajmdac metasqhmatzontai wc :

eig

(2.40)

me = a T a , me a chiral uperpeda kai T a enai oi genntorec thc anaparstashc tou .

Ta peda bajmdac ankoun se dianusmatikc uperpollaplthtec V a . An V = V a T a enai h
D sunistsa () thc kfrashc
Z
d4 x[ egV ]
(2.41)
tte enai upersummetrik anallowth kai anallowth ktw apo metasqhmatismoc bajmdac
mno an to V metasqhmatzetai wc

egV eig egV eig

(2.42)

To kanonikopoihmno mroc thc kinhtikc enrgeiac twn pedwn bajmdac kai twn upersummetrikn suntrfwn touc periqetai sthn upersummetrik ermhtian drsh
Z
1
d4 x{Tr (W a Wa ) + h.c}
(2.43)
2
4g
H sunolik drsh (kai upersummetrik anallowth kai ktw apo metasqhmatismoc bajmdac), sumperilambanomnwn kai twn pedwn lhc enai :
Z
SSU SY = d4 xLSU SY =

Z
=

d4 x{

X
1
a
(i egV i ) + [f (i )| + h.c]}
[Tr
(W
W
)
+
h.c]
+
a

4g 2
i

(2.44)

pou f (i ) enai to uperdunamik kai mia chiral sunrthsh tou orsmatc thc,

f (i ) = ci i +

ijk
mij
i j +
i j k
2
3!
53

(2.45)

me ci , mij , ijk suntelestc ttoioi pou sbontai thn summetra bajmdac. Mpore na deiqje oti h aparathth sunjkh gia epakanonikopoisimh drsh apagoreei thn parxh sthn
langkranzian dunmewn tou megalterwn apo 3. Sthn bajmda Wess-Zumino h langkranzian enai epakanonikopoisimh kai kpoioc mpore na thn ekfrsei sunartsei twn
sunistwsn (g 2g )

i
1 a 2
i a
LSU SY = (D Ai ) (D Ai ) + (
D i + h.c) (F
) +(

D a + h.c)
i
2
4
2

Da
1 2 f (A)
a

i j + i 2
i + h.c V (F, F , D)
(2.46)
2 Ai Aj
Ai
me

i
Ai

= ( igT

Va )

i
Ai

(2.47)

D a = a + gf abc Vb c

(2.48)

a
= Va Va + f abc Vb Vc
F

(2.49)

me f abc stajerc domc. Ta bohjhtik (auxillary) peda F, F , Da pou emfanzontai kajorzontai apo tic exisseic knhshc:

Fi =

X
f (A)
, Da = g
Ai T (a) Ai
Ai
i

(2.50)

To dunamik enai jetik orismno kai dnetai apo thn sqsh :

V =

Fi Fi +

1X a 2
(D )
2 a

(2.51)

Oi mesaoi roi sthn LSU SY enai allhlepidrseic Yukawa pou mpore na periqoun rouc
mzac gia ta ferminia lhc. Tra se kje bajmwt Ai (2 bajmo eleujerac) antistoiqe,
kai antstrofa, na ferminio Weyl kai se kje dianusmatik mpoznio Va na ferminio
bajmdac (gaugino) (a) . Ta (a) ankoun sthn prosarthmnh anaparstash thc omdac
bajmdac pwc akribc kai ta mpoznia bajmdac. Oi idiotimc twn mazn gia ferminia kai
mpoznia ikanopoion ton kanna
X
Str M 2 SupertraceM 2 =
(1)2j (2j + 1)m2j = 0
(2.52)
j

Dhlad mpoznia kai ferminia qoun thn dia mza. Tloc, an h omda bajmdac periqei
ma UY (1) omda pou qarakthrzetai apo ma stajer gY tte mpore na qei nan epiplon
ro sthn langkranzian
L = Y DY 2Y V (Y ) |
(2.53)
kai h exswsh knhshc gia to DY enai

DY = gY

Yi Ai Ai Y

O roc autc enai gnwstc wc roc Fayet-Iliopoulos [32].

54

(2.54)

2.6 Rxh thc upersummetrac

H upersummetra, an telik isqei, den fanetai sto fsma twn gnwstn swmatidwn. 'Etsi,
kje qrhsimopohsh twn efarmogn thc upersummetrac stic sunhjismnec enrgeiec apaite
na gnoun kpoiec upojseic gia ton mhqanism tou spasmatoc thc upersummetrac. Ja tan
to aplostero na upoteje oti h upersummetra spei pwc h SU (2) U (1), smfwna me
fainmena pou sumbanoun sthn prosggish dndrou thc aplc upersummetrikc epktashc
tou KP (MSSM), h opoa kai ja melethje sto epmeno keflaio. Aut h pijanthta mpore
sgoura na aporrifje. Den enai kat angkh sqhmo prgma to gegonc oti prpei na
anazhthje to spsimo thc upersummetrac pra apo thn prosggish dndrou tou MSSM.
An h upersummetra tan spasmnh se aut thn prosggish, tte h qarakthristik mza pou
jtei thn klmaka sthn opoa spei h upersummetra ja tan kpoia parmetroc mzac sthn
langkranzian, h opoa me thn seir thc ja jete thn klmaka lwn twn llwn paramtrwn
mzac sto kajierwmno prtupo. 'Omwc tte ja emastan pli antimtwpoi me to prblhma
thc ierarqac: giat aut h klmaka mzac enai tso pol mikrterh apo ta 1016 1018 GeV?
An h upersummetra enai mia summetra thc fshc, enai sqedn bbaio oti prkeitai gia
ma akribc, topik summetra. Aut sumbanei kai sthn jewra qordn. Akma kai an h
jewra qordn den enai h swst basik jewra, enai dskolo na fantaste kanec oti h
upersummetra prokuye tuqaa. Sunepc, h upersummetra ja prpei na spei aujrmhta.
Parola aut, se pollc periptseic apodeiknetai oti to aujrmhto spsimo dhmiourge
ma energ langkrazian stic qamhlc enrgeiec h opoa enai upersummetrik ektc apo
sugkekrimnouc malakoc rouc pou thn parabizoun. To malak spsimo epitugqnetai
prosjtontac rouc sthn langkranzian oi opooi den eisgoun tetragwnikc apoklseic.
Mlista qei apodeiqje [33] oti h pio genik jewra h opoa den qarakthrzetai apo tetragwnikc apoklseic enai h upersummetra me nan periorismno arijm apo malakoc rouc.
Ousiastik kpoioc mpore na prosjsei touc paraktw malakoc rouc [34] pou spne thn
upersummetra:
m2 AA , m2 (A2 + A2 ), g(A3 + A3 )mg
(2.55)
Sthn kfrash (2.55) to A dhlnei na migadik bajmwt pedo kai to na ferminio bajmdac. Ma upersummetrik jewra pou spei lgw thc parousac twn rwn (2.55) lme oti
enai malak spasmnh.
Tra ja proqwrsoume sto aujrmhto spsimo thc upersummetrac. Apo thn lgebra
thc upersummetrac, h opoa parousisthke sto edfio 2.2, pwc ja apodeiqje h qamiltonian tou sustmatoc dnetai apo
2

H=

1X
(Q Qa + Qa Qa )
4 a=1 a

(2.56)

kai ra enai jetik orismnh. An gia ma fusik katstash h enrgeia enai mhdn tte aut
enai h basik katstash tou sustmatoc kai h upersummetra den qei spsei, pwc fanetai
apo thn (2.56). H (2.56) prokptei c exc:

BA
} = 2 P {QA , Q
}(
{QA , Q
= 2(A B )(
)BA P =
B
B )
AB

55

= 2 Tr[
]P = 4 P = 4P
kai gia = 0 enai

1
1

0 BA
}(
1 + Q
1 Q1 + Q2 Q
2 + Q
2 Q2 )
= (Q1 Q
P 0 = H = {QA , Q
B )
4
4

afo
0 = I22 . 'Etsi loipn na upersummetrik ken uponoe oti ta uperforta QA , Q
A
exafanzoun to ken,
Evac =< 0|H|0 >= 0
(2.57)
Sunepc, gia ma jewra me bajmwt uperpeda mpore na mhn uprqei kanna spsimo thc
upersummetrac eswterikc summetrac kajc kai h perptwsh na sumbanei spsimo kpoiac
eswterikc summetrac all qi thc upersummetrac. Epshc uprqei kai h perptwsh kat
thn opoa h upersummetra enai spasmnh, h enrgeia keno enai diforh tou mhdenc.
'Etsi loipn to ken spei thn upersummetra an kai mno an h enrgeia keno enai
diforh apo to 0 [35]. H enrgeia keno thc jewrac melettai apo to dunamik gia to opoo
h kfrash sto eppedo dndrou enai h exswsh (2.46). Enai na jroisma jetik orismnwn
rwn kai to aujrmhto spsimo thc upersummetrac apaite Vmin f 2 > 0 pou shmanei oti
hFi i 6= 0 /kai hDa i 6= 0 sto elqisto. 'Otan hFi i 6= 0 to spsimo onomzetai spsimo tpou
F (ORaifeartaigh ) kai tan hDa i 6= 0 spsimo tpou D (Fayet-Iliopoulos).
Tra gia pardeigma enai dunatn na prokptei na dunamik thc morfc,

V (x, y) =

|fi (x)|2 +

X X fi (x)
|
yi
|
x
n
n
i

(2.58)

To dunamik elaqistopoietai dialgontac ta xn tsi ste na elaqistopoietai o prtoc roc.

Oti timc kai na dnei aut sto xn , o deteroc roc mpore pnta na elaqistopoihje parnontac yi = 0. Ete h upersummetra mpore na spsei aujrmhta ete qi, aut ta montla
qoun thn perergh idithta na uprqoun pnta dieujnseic ston qro twn uperpedwn stic
opoec to elqisto tou dunamiko na enai eppedo. 'Etsi, opoiesdpote timc xn0 tou xn
elaqistopoion ton prto ro, o deteroc roc mhdenzetai qi mno gia yi = 0, all kai
gia kje dinusma se mia diejunsh kjeth se la ta diansmata (un )i = ( fxi (x)
)x=x0 . An
n
n
uprqoun NX uperpeda Xn kai NY uperpeda Yi me NY > NX , tte ta u den mporon na
anaptxoun to qro twn y kai tsi ja uprqoun toulqiston NY NX eppedec dieujnseic.
'Etsi loipn se epmeno keflaio, tan anafrontai D kai F eppedec dieujnseic ennoontai peda gia ta opoa oi D,F roi mhdenzontai sto dunamik (2.51). Gia pardeigma, sto
dunamik (2.51) mpore na elaqistopoihje o prtoc roc gia kpoio hAi i, en o deteroc
roc na mhdeniste qi mno gia hAi i = 0 all kai gia kje Ai kjeto sto T a hAi i. Kpoioc
tra ja mporose na pe oti h upersummetra spei en uprqoun Ai gia ta opoa merikc
summetrec bajmdoc enai spasmnec T a hAi i 6= 0. Aut mwc den sumbanei qi mno sthn
prosggish dndrou all ote se kama txh thc jewrac diataraqn, kti pou prokptei
apo ta diataraktik mh epakanonikopoisima jewrmata.
'Etsi loipn sumperasmatik anafretai oti an h upersummetra enai qi aujrmhta
spasmnh enai na jma apluta isodnamo me thn erthsh an to ken qei jetik orismnh
enrgeia mhdn.
56

Keflaio 3
To apl upersummetrik
kajierwmno prtupo
kai oi epektseic tou
3.1 Eisagwg
Ta fusik fainmena se enrgeiec prositc apo ta peirmata stouc shmerinoc aniqneutc
- epitaquntc perigrfontai me akrbeia apo to kajierwmno prtupo (KP), thn epakanonikopoisimh jewra twn kourk, leptonwn kai dianusmatikn mpozonwn, pou qarakthrzetai
apo thn omda bajmdac SU (3) SU (2) U (1). To KP smera jewretai wc h qamhlc
enrgeiac prosggish mic gnwsthc basikc jewrac sthn opoa h barthta fanetai enwmnh me tic isqurc kai hlektrasjenc dunmeic se mia enrgeia thc txhc MU 1016 ec
1018 GeV. Aut dhmiourge to prblhma thc ierarqac: Giat aut h terstia klmaka thc
basikc energeiakc klmakac kai h diafor thc me ta 300 GeV pou qarakthrzei to KP? H
upersummetra enai ma lsh sto prblhma thc ierarqac. Oi mzec sta swmtia tou KP enai
anlogec thc klmakac sthn opoa spei h summetra thc hlektrasjenc dnamhc, h opoa me
thn seir thc enai anlogh thc mzac tou bajmwto pedou upejunou gia to spsimo thc
summetrac. To prblhma thc ierarqac brsketai sto oti aut ta bajmwt peda, antjeta
me ta ferminia kai ta dianusmatik mpoznia, den prostateontai apo to na proun uyhlc
mzec apo kama summetra tou KP kai tsi enai dskolo na katanohje giat oi mzec touc
kai ra kai oi mzec lwn twn llwn den enai kont sthn MU . An apo to KP dhmiourghje
ma upersummetrik ekdoq, ja enai dunatn na luje to prblhma afo lec oi mzec tou
KP ja dnontai me thn energeiak klmaka sthn opoa spei h summetra. 'Ola ta ferminia
kai mpoznia tou KP prpei na sunodeontai apo touc upersummetrikoc etarouc touc ta
opoa enai mpoznia kai ferminia antstoiqa. Akma, afo h upersummetra metatjentai me
thn hlektrasjen summetra, oi idithtec metasqhmatismo twn gnwstn swmatwn kai twn
upersummetrikn etarwn touc prpei na enai oi dioi kai to mroc thc langkranzianc pou
spei thn upersummetra ja prpei na sbetai thn hlektrasjen summetra.

57

Uperpeda

Qi,a
r
Lir
Erc
Drc,a
Urc,a
H1i
H2i

Sustatik

u
u
,

L d L
e
e
,
e L
e L
c
e
, ec
dc , dc
uc , uc
0 0 !
h1
h1
,
h
h
1
1
+ + !
h2
h2
,
h02
h02

SU (3)C SU (2)L U (1)Y

(3, 2,

1
)
6

(1, 2, 12 )
(1, 1, 1)
1, 2 )
(3,
3
(3, 1, 31 )
(1, 2, 12 )
(1, 2,

1
)
2

Pnakac 3.1: Me r, s, t = 1, 2, 3 dektec oikogneiac, i, j, k = 1, 2 dektec SU (2)

,a, , = 1, 2, 3 dektec SU (3).
Uperpeda
V1
V2
V3R

Sustatik
, B
B
W , W
GR , GR

SU (3)C SU (2)L U (1)Y

(1, 1, 0)
(1, 3, 0)
(8, 1, 0)

Pnakac 3.2: Me R, S, Q = 1, 8 dektec SU (3), en A, B, dektec SU (2)

3.2 Perigraf tou montlou

Ed ja melethje h apl upersummetrik ekdoq tou kajierwmnou protpou (MSSM) [36].
Sto MSSM orzontai ta uperpeda pou fanontai ston Pnaka 3.1. Autc enai oi chiral
uperpollaplthtec tou MSSM. Oi dianusmatikc uperpollaplthtec brskontai ston Pnaka
3.2.
Oi upersummetrikc jewrec Yang-Mills periqoun do basikoc tpouc pedwn:

Tic dianusmatikc pollaplthtec bajmdac (a , Va ) sthn prosarthmnh anaparstash

thc omdac bajmdac G.
Tic pollaplthtec lhc se ma epilegmnh anaparstash thc G (Ai , i ), me ta Ai , i
na brskontai sta chiral uperpeda pou Ai migadik bajmwt peda kai i fermionik
peda.

58

'Etsi, sthn perptwsh pou ta peda tou montlou enai aut twn Pinkwn 3.1,3.2 enai

i,a , Q
i,a , U c , D
c , E c , H i , H i mpoznia s = 0
Ai : L
r
r
r,a
r,a
r
1
2
1
i,a
c
c
c i i
i : Li,a
r , Qr , Ur,a , Dr,a , Er , H1 , H2 ferminia s =
2
W,
G
ferminia s = 1
a : B,
2

(3.1)

Basizmenoi sthn exswsh (2.46) kai qrhsimopointac ta parapnw peda h langkranzian

tou MSSM prokptei mesa. To uperdunamik pou sbetai thn diatrhsh leptoniko kai
baruoniko arijmo enai
i i
rs j c i
i
rs j,a c
i
c
W = Yurs Qj,a
r Us,a H2 ij + Yd Qr Ds,a H1 ij + Ye Lr Es H1 ij + ij H1 H2

(3.2)

Epiplon roi pou ja mporosan na grafton sto uperdunamik, kai enai qi mno anallowtoi ktw apo thn SU (3) SU (2) U (1) all kai epakanonikopoisimoi, enai

1
0
c,a
W 0 = rst Lir Ljs Etc ij + rst Lir Qj,a
s Dt ij
2
1 00 c,a c, c,
(3.3)
+ rst Ur Ds Dt a,, + kr Lir H2i
2
Ttoiou edouc roi mwc odhgon se parabash leptoniko kai baruoniko arijmo kai grgorh dispash prwtonou. Sunjwc, se autc tic periptseic gnetai h upjesh oti kpoiec
summetrec apagoreoun thn emfnish ttoiou edouc rwn. Profanc, autc oi summetrec
mpore na enai o leptonikc kai baruonikc arijmc. Parola aut, uprqoun eurwc diadedomnec amfibolec sqetik me to an enai pijan na qoume akribc, suneqc ektetamnec
summetrec (global symmetries), diti sthn jewra qordn h parxh akribc suneqc summetrac upojtei thn parxh mazou swmatidou me spn 1 to opoo sundetai me to rema
summetrac, kat sunpeia h summetra prpei na enai topik kai qi ektetamnh. Wstso, oi
roi (3.3) mporon na apagoreuton upojtontac ma diakrit ektetamnh summetra, gnwst
c R prith [37]. H R prith orzetai na enai +1 gia ta kourk, ta leptnia, ta dianusmatik
mpoznia kai ta bajmwt peda Higgs, kai 1 gia touc upersummetrikoc suntrfouc touc.
H R prith enai sh me
R = (1)3B+L+S .

(3.4)

pou B o baruonikc arijmc B(Qr ) = + 31 , B(Urc , Drc ) = 31 , B(Lr , Erc ) = 0, L o leptonikc

arijmc L(Lr ) = +1, L(Erc ) = 1, L(Qr , Urc , Drc ) = 0, en S enai to spn tou swmatidou.
Apo thn llh pleur h R prith den apagoreei rouc me distash d > 4 oi opooi
parabizoun ton baruonik kai leptonik arijm. H parxh kpoiou mhqanismo se uyhl
klmaka M pou sqetzetai me autn thn parabash odhge se telestc pou emfanzontai
sthn energ langkranzian tou KP me suntelestc M d4 . Sthn mh upersummetrik
ekdoq tou auto enai distashc 6 [38] en sthn upersummetrik uprqoun kai distashc 5
telestc [39]. Oi upersummetriko telestc distashc 5 pou mporon na sqhmatiston apo
59

chiral uperpeda enai thc morfc (? )D kai ()F kajc kai oi ermhtiano suzhgc
autn. Den jewrontai telestc pou periqoun paraggouc peda bajmdac giat auto den
prosfroun kama prsjeth pijanthta gia mh diatrhsh leptoniko baruoniko arijmo.
Oi roi distashc 5 pou diathron thn R-prith enai:
(LLH2 H2 )F

(3.5)

? )D , (QDH ? )D , (QU H ? )D , (QQU D)F , (QU LE)

F
(LEH
2
2
1
E)
F
(QQQL)F , (U U D

(3.6)
(3.7)

O roc (3.5) enai h upersummetrik ekdoq tou distashc 5 telest pou ja dsei mikr
mza sta netrna se orismnec jewrec [38], pwc se aut pou ja meletsoume sto epmeno
keflaio. Oi telestc (3.7) prosfroun kainorgiouc mhqanismoc gia thn mh diatrhsh
baruoniko kai leptoniko arijmo. Bbaia, enai pijan diadikasec oi opoec upojtoun thn
mh diatrhsh tou baruoniko arijmo na apagoreontai, lgw kpoiou diathrhtiko nmou. H
jewra qordn, pwc dh anafrjhke, enai enanton thc diatrhshc tou baruoniko arijmo
c basik ektetamnh suneqc summetra, all tpota den apagoreei oi telestc (3.7) na
diagrfontai lgw mac summetrac Z3 [40].
Kanna apo ta kourk kai leptonik peda tou KP den ankoun sthn prosarthmnh anaparstash thc SU (3) SU (2) U (1), tsi den mporon na enai upersummetriko etaroi
gnwstn dianusmatikn mpozonwn kai gia aut orsthkan na periqontai se chiral bajmwt
i , D
i , Ei , Ei san ta uperpeda twn opown oi suniuperpeda. Orsthkan loipn ta Ui , Di , U
stsec L enai ta gnwst aristerstrofa peda twn kourk kai antikourk, leptonwn kai
antileptonwn. Ed apl shmeinetai oti qreizontai 2 Higgs dipltec H1 , H2 gia na dwjon oi aparathtec mzec twn fermionwn. O lgoc enai giat h upersummetra den epitrpei
thn qrsh tou migadiko suzug sthn kataskeu tou uperdunamiko. Akma, 2 peda Higgs
qreizontai tsi ste na epiteuqje kai diagraf twn anwmalin.

3.3 Aujrmhth rxh thc hlektrasjenoc summetrac

H hlektrasjenc summetra SU (2) U (1)Y prpei na spei aujrmhta. Gia aut to lgo
jewrontai 2 peda Higgs
+
0
H2
H1
.
(3.8)
, H2 =
H1 =
H20
H1
Enai aparathto to bajmwt dunamik na qei to apluto elqisto makri apo to mhdn. Ac
prosxoume prta to dunamik pou exarttai mno apo ta peda Higgs. Aut lambnei trec
edouc suneisforn: Upersummetriko F roi apo ton prto ro thc (2.51), upersummetriko
D roi apo ton detero ro thc (2.51) kajc kai roi apo to mroc thc langkranzianc pou
spei thn upersummetra. 'Etsi, upologzetai

V = VF + VD + VSOF T = (m2H1 + 2 )|H1 |2 + (m2H2 + 2 )|H2 |2 +

60

1 2
g22 +
j i
2
2
2 2

+ Bij H2 H1 + (g + g2 )(|H2 | |H1 | ) + |H2 H1 |2

(3.9)
8
2
en sunjwc orzetai m1 = m2H1 + 2 , m2 = m2H2 + 2 . Epeid anazhtetai to elqisto
eke pou h hlektromagnhtik jewra paramnei anallowth jewrome mno oudtera peda.
Aut epitugqnetai me nan SU (2) metasqhmatism bajmdac epilgontac hH i = hH + i = 0.
Sunepc,

1
0
H1 =
, H2 =
.
(3.10)
0
2
+Bij H1j H2i

Gia autc tic dieujnseic to dunamik grfetai:

2

g 2 + g22 2
+ m2H2
B
2
2 2
V =
(2 1 ) + (2 1 )
.
B
2 + m2H1
1
8
Gia na mporsoun ta mpoznia Higgs na apoktsoun vevs ja prpei h orzousa
2

+ m2H2
B
det
<0
B
2 + m2H1

(3.11)

(3.12)

na enai arnhtik. Parola aut, uprqei kndunoc h diejunsh 2 = 1 , sthn opoa o prtoc
roc ttarthc txhc tou dunamiko mhdenzetai, na mhn periorzetai apo ktw. Gia na mhn
sumbanei kti ttoio qreizetai

2 + m2H2 + 2 + m2H1 > 2B.

(3.13)

H sunjkh aut anagkzei ta m1 = m2H1 + 2 , m2 = m2H2 + 2 na mhn mporon na proun

arnhtikc timc. Grfontac thn (3.12) sunartsei twn m1 , m2 enai

m21 m22 < (B)2

(3.14)

Oi sunjkec (3.13),(3.14) den ikanopoiontai tautqrona gia m21 = m22 . Epiplon, aut
isqei kai tan oi upersummetrikc suneisforc sta m21 , m22 enai oi diec. Kje diafor
stic do autc posthtec prpei na ofeletai se suneisforc pou prorqontai apo to mroc
thc langkranzianc to opoo spei thn upersummetra. Dhlad, sto MSSM uprqei sqsh
metax tou spasmatoc mic summetrac bajmdac kai tou spasmatoc thc upersummetrac: to
prto den enai dunat qwrc to detero.
H mza tou Z dianusmatiko mpozonou parnei thn swst thc tim gia

2 = sin ,
2

1 = cos ,
2

250 GeV.

(3.15)

Opte h elaqistopohsh tou dunamiko ja dsei

m2Z m2H1 m2H2 tan2

+
,
2
tan2 1

(3.16)

2B = (22 + m2H2 + m2H1 ) sin 2.

(3.17)

2 =
kai

61

H apl upersummetrik ekdoq tou kajierwmnou protpou mpore na odhgsei se spsimo thc hlektrasjenoc summetrac msw kbantikn diorjsewn, tan h upersummetra enai
parabiasmnh [41]. To energ dunamik Higgs se txh enc brqou mpore na ekfraste wc
to jroisma tou dunamiko se eppedo dndrou sn ma dirjwsh se txh enc brqou

V1

loop

= Vtree () + V1 ()

(3.18)

H dirjwsh se eppedo enc brqou dnetai apo thn sqsh:

m2p 3
1
M2 3
1 X
4
2sp
4
V1 () =
Str{M (ln 2 )} =
(1) (2sp + 1)mp (ln 2 ) (3.19)
64 2

2
64 2 p

2
pou M 2 enai oi pnakec mazn sto tetrgwno, oi opooi exartntai apo ta peda kai m2p
enai oi idiotimc twn mazn tou p swmatidou me spn sp . To dunamik Higgs se eppedo
dndrou enai
Vtree () = m21 ()H1 ()H1 () + m22 ()H2 ()H2 ()

2
+m23 () H1i ()H2j ()ij + h.c + g 2 () |H12 ()|2 |H22 ()|2
8
1
+ g22 ()(|H1 ()|4 + |H2 ()|4 + 4|H1 ()H2 ()|4 2|H1 ()|2 |H2 ()|2 )
(3.20)
8
pou
m21 () = m2H1 () + 2 ()
(3.21)

m22 () = m2H2 () + 2 ()

(3.22)

m23 () = ()B()

(3.23)

Tra, oi parmetroi sto dunamik jewrontai wc trqwn, dhlad metabllontai me thn

klmaka smfwna me tic exisseic thc omdac epakanonikopohshc. Epeid h klmaka sthn
opoa spei h hlektrasjenc summetra enai mikr, ja prpei na qrhsimopoihje h omda
epakanonikopohshc tsi ste na exeliqjon oi parmetroi tou dunamiko se ma bolik
klmaka pwc p.q. h MZ (pou enai gnwstc oi peiramatikc timc twn stajern szeuxhc).
Plon mporome na proqwrsoume sthn perigraf tou fsmatoc gia to MSSM.

3.4 To fsma tou MSSM

Se aut to shmeo ja perigrafe to fsma tou MSSM.

O tomac Higgs

Met to spsimo thc hlektrasjenoc summetrac, 3 apo touc 8 bajmoc eleujerac pou
periqontai stic dudec H1 ,H2 trgontai apo tic diamkeic sunistsec twn dianusmatikn mpozonwn bajmdoc W , Z . Oi pnte fusiko bajmo eleujerac pou apomnoun
ftiqnoun na oudtero yeudobajmwt mpoznio Higgs A, do oudtera bajmwt h
kai H kai na fortismno mpoznio Higgs H . Oi pnakec mazn sto eppedo dntrou
gia tic katastseic Higgs mporon ekola na kataskeuaston parnontac tic deterec
62

paraggouc tou dunamiko sto apluto ken thc jewrac. 'Etsi, gia ta parapnw
g2 2
swmtia enai mA = m21 + m22 , m2H = m2A + m2W kai m2W = 22 . Akma,

m2H,h

q
1
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
=
mA + mZ (mA + mZ ) 4mA mZ cos 2
2

(3.24)

Mzec twn uperfermionwn

'Oson afor touc upersummetrikoc etarouc twn up-kourk o 66 pnakac sthn bsh
twn (
u, c, t) grfetai :

2
MLr Ls ML2r Rs
2
(3.25)
Mu =
MR2 r Ls MR2 r Rs
me r, s = 1, 2, 3 dektec oikogneiac kai

1
0
ML2r Ls = m2Q r rs + 22 (Yu Yu )rs (12 22 )[Y (uL )g 2 T3 (uL )g22 ]rs
2
1
MR2 r Rs = m2ucr rs + 22 (Yu Yu )rs (12 22 )[Y (
uc )]rs
2
rs
rs
MR2 r Ls = 2 Ars
u Yu + 1 Yu
ML2r Rs = MR2?r Ls

(3.26)
(3.27)
(3.28)
(3.29)

Parmoioi pnakec uprqoun kai gia touc llouc upersummetrikoc etarouc twn fermionwn. Fusik, oi parapnw parmetroi ja prpei na exeliqjon stic qamhlc enrgeiec thc txhc tou mZ tsi ste na elegqjon peiramatik.

Mzec twn charginos

O pnakac mzac twn charginos, o opooc prorqetai apo mxeic twn fortismnwn gauginos kai higgsinos prokptei apo touc paraktw rouc mzac thc langkranzianc:

!
+
W

Lmass
+ h.c
(3.30)
charginos = (W , iH1 )MC
iH2+

pou qei oriste W

(1) W
(2)
W

kai

MC =

sin
M2
g
2

g cos

!
(3.31)

H diagwnopohsh auto tou pnaka dnei

U MC V =

m1
0
0 m2

(3.32)

Gia aut kai grfetai

1 1 m2 2 2
Lmass
charginos = m1
63

(3.33)

Oi Dirac katastseic twn charginos

1,2 dnontai apo
+
+
1

1
, 2 2
1
2

(3.34)

+
Oi spnorec Weyl
1,2 sqetzontai me ta W , iH1 , iH2 smfwna me tic sqseic:

+
W
+
1
, iH )U ( , )
(3.35)
V

, (W
+
2
1
1
+

iH
2

Mzec twn neutralinos

W
(3) , iH0 , iH0 o pnakac mzac twn neutralino enai
Sthn bsh B,
1
2

0
0

M1
0
g cos
g sin
2
2

0
M2
g cos
g sin
2
2
MN =
0 cos

g
g cos
0

2
2
0 sin
sin
g 2

0
g 2

Oi idiokatastseic tou pnaka mzac twn neutralino (

01,2,3,4 ) grfontai wc
0
B
1

2 W (3)

03 =
iH10
04
iH20
kai

OT MN O = diag(m01 , m02 , m03 , m04 )

(3.36)

(3.37)

(3.38)

pou O enai nac pragmatikc orjognioc pnakac.

3.5 O mhqanismc Froggatt-Nielsen kai h exlixh

tou
To prblhma thc ierarqac pou parousizetai stic mzec twn leptonwn kai twn kourk
kajc kai oi gwnec mxhc den mporon na antimetwpiston apo to kajierwmno prtupo.
Kpoiec mwc prsfatec exelxeic tso se jewrhtik so kai se peiramatik eppedo fanetai
na dnoun kpoia lsh. 'Oson afor ta peirmata, brjhke ti h mza tou top kourk enai
sthn perioq thc hlektrasjenc klmakac. Apo thn jewrhtik pleur, h parousa thc
jewrac twn qordn san ma jewra twn pntwn, h opoa sumperilambnei kai thn barthta,
prosfrei na monadik pedo sto opoo mporon na susqetiston jmata thc energoc
jewrac stic qamhlc enrgeiec pou palitera moiazan asusqtista. 'Etsi, ttoiou edouc
jmata enai: h parousa mh epakanonikopoisimwn rwn, sunjwc nac megloc arijmc
orizntiwn summetrin (eidik abeliann) oi opoec spne aujrmhta se klmakec pou mpore
na metabllontai metax thc hlektrasjenc klmakac kai thc klmakac tou Planck, nac
64

megloc arijmc monrwn bajmwtn pedwn twn opown h szeuxh me ta sunhjismna peda
tou KP kajorzontai apo tic parapnw summetrec. Ti ennoetai mwc tan anafretai o
roc orizntiec summetrec?
Uprqoun arket montla sta opoa h summetra SU (2)U (1) epektenetai sthn SU (2)
U (1) GH , pou GH anaparist mia orizntia omda. O roc orizntia shmanei oti oi metasqhmatismo thc GH dron stouc dektec twn oikogenein, strfontac metatrpontac
ma oikogneia se ma llh toulqiston xeqwrzontac tic diforec oikogneiec (gia pardeigma, en GH enai ma omda U (1) me diaforetik forta gia tic diaforetikc oikogneiec
thc asjenoc bshc). Aut pou jhse orismnouc na epibloun tic orizntiec summetrec
se difora montla tan na bron sqseic metax twn mazn twn fermionwn kai twn gwnin
mxhc kai tsi na problyoun thn mza twn kourk. Geniktera mwc, gintan mia prospjeia
sto na brejon summetrec pou sundoun tic diforec oikogneiec metax touc. Pollc apo
tic orizntiec omdec perilambnoun diakritc omdec all h GH telik ja mporose na enai
kai ma suneqc omda.
'Etsi, loipn h arqik ida twn Froggatt-Nielsen [42] tan na qrhsimopoisoun mh epakanonikopoisimouc rouc szeuxhc gia ta kourk kai ta leptnia me ta hlektrasjen bajmwt
peda bajmdac kai ma orizntia summetra h opoa na periorzei touc rouc szeuxhc tsi
ste na prokptei h parathromenh ierarqa sto fsma twn fermionwn. Ac dome mwc ta
parapnw sto KP qrhsimopointac tic up-tpou Yukawa allhlepidrseic Qi Ujc H c na
pardeigma. En epiblhje ma epiplon U (1) summetra me forta (qi , ucj , h) gia ta peda
(Qi , Ujc , H), oi allhlepidrseic Yukawa sthn sunhjismnh morf touc apagoreontai lgw
thc U (1) analloithtac. Eisgontac na bajmwt pedo me U (1) forto 1 mporon na
grafton mh epakanonikopoisimoi roi gia tic allhlepidrseic thc morfc
|qi +ucj +h|
X
Qi Ujc H,
(3.39)
L 3 yij

X=

an
an

qi + ucj + h > 0
qi + ucj + h < 0

(3.40)

oi opoec enai faner oti ephrezontai apo thn klmaka L, en oi arqikc suzexeic Yukawa
jewrontai thc txhc thc mondac. Upojtwntac oti to bajmwt pedo apokt ma vev
perpou ma txh megjouc qamhltera apo thn L,

(3.41)

sthn energ jewra pou to qei aposuzeuqte, oi energc suzexeic Yukawa mporon na
grafton
c
(3.42)
L 3 yij |qi +uj +h| Qi Ujc H.
Me autn ton trpo upojtwntac gia pardeigma h = 2n, (q1 , q2 , q3 ) = (uc1 , uc2 , uc3 ) =
(n + 3, n + 2, n), o pnakac gia tic up-tpou Yukawa allhlepidrseic enai
6 5 3

5 4 2 ,
(3.43)
YU =
3
2
1
65

pou kai agnojhkan oi suntelestc yij mic kai enai thc txhc thc mondac. Prokptei loipn na efikt fsma me sin C 0.2. Sta epmena keflaia ja melethjon ektetamna
ttoiou edouc pnakec mzac.
Ac dome mwc pio analutik pwc epektenetai to apl upersummetrik kajierwmno
prtupo pou mlic analjhke an efarmoston autc oi idec. 'Opwc dh anafrjhke h
basik ida enai na qrhsimopoihje mia abelian orizntia summetra U (1)X tsi ste na
aporrifjon apo thn langkranzian oi perissteroi roi szeuxhc Yukawa: ousiastik loi
ektc apo touc rouc szeuxhc pou aforon to top kourk alloic thn trth oikogneia.
Tte, h parathromenh ierarqa twn fermionwn kajc kai oi gwnec mxhc dhmiourgontai
apo uyhlterhc txhc telestc pou perilambnoun na perisstera monrh bajmwt peda.
Aut ta peda parnoun ma vev h opoa spei thn orizntia summetra se kpoia uyhl
klmaka ephrezontac tsi tic sunhjismnec stajerc szeuxhc Yukawa. 'Estw loipn oti
enai na ttoio pedo me forto ktw apo thn summetra U (1)X 1. Se aut thn perptwsh o
pnakac me tic suzexhc Yukawa stic qamhlc enrgeiec ja periqei mhdenik tan to sunolik
forto nij ja enai arnhtik, afo tra o olomorfismc tou uperdunamiko ja apokleei nan
ttoiou edouc ro. O olomorfismc tou dunamiko shmanei oti aut enai ma sunrthsh
twn aristerstrofwn uperpedwn kai qi twn migadikn suzugc autn. 'Omwc ma ttoia
idithta enai na pra pol sqhmo qarakthristik afo mpore na emfaniston pra poll
mhdenik ston pnaka mzac. Se aut thn perptwsh to uperdunamik pou enai anallowto
ktw kai apo thn kainorgia summetra enai:
"
qi +uj +h2
X

U
W =
Yij H (qi + uj + h2 )
Qi U j H 2 +
M
ij

YijD H (qi + dj + h1 )

qi +dj +h1

Qi Dj H1 + YijE H (li + ej + h1 )

li +ej +h1
Li E j H1

(3.44)
pou
anamnetai na enai thc txhc thc mondac, h mza M enai ma uyhl klmaka
mzac kai h sunrthsh H(x) enai h gnwst sunrthsh Heavyside. 'Opwc ekola mpore na
katalbei kpoioc, o arijmc qi + uj + h2 = nij den enai tpote llo par to jroisma twn
j , H2 ,
Q-fortwn twn pedwn tou kajierwmnou protpou, dhlad twn Qi , U

YijU,D,E

nij = qi + uj + h2

(3.45)

To genik pedo Kahler smfwno me aut thn summetra enai

"
i j
+ j i #
X

K=
Zij H (i j )
i +j
+ H (j i )
M
M
i
i
i i
i
=Q ,U ,D ,L ,E ,H1 ,H2

(3.46)
arijmo. 'Otan loipn to pedo prei mia vev, tte h katlhxh enai ma energc
pou
stajer Yukawa h opoa, an periorstoume ston toma twn up-kourk, ja enai

n
hi ij
U
Yij
(3.47)
M

Zij

66

En hi/M enai nac mikrc arijmc kai h epilog twn fortwn enai h swst tte kpoioc
mpore na katalxei se arketc ierarqec mazn kai gwnec mxhc.
Tra, to hlektrasjenc bajmwt pedo mpore na emfaniste kai me thn morf enc
zegouc pedwn (kti pou ja melethje analutiktera sto epmeno keflaio). Se aut thn
sto opoo kai ja dwjon antstoiqa timc fortwn
perptwsh, uprqei na zegoc pedwn ,
1 kai 1. To prblhma se aut thn perptwsh enai oti tra epitrpetai sto uperdunamik
(ektc en M

jewrhje ma pra pol uyhl klmaka) o opooc
nac roc thc morfc M
kai katastrfei thn D eppedh diejunsh, odhgntac se uyhl ierarqa metax twn vevs.
Ta teleutaa qrnia uprxe na terstio endiafron se montla me ma anmalh abelian
summetra U (1)X 1 . Mh spasmnec summetrec bajmdac U (1) emfanzontai se pollc sumpagopoiseic thc jewrac qordn. 'Opwc apedeqjh [43] kbantikc
diorjseic se eppedo enc
P
brqou mporon na dhmiourgsoun nan ro thc morfc a ca Da sthn energ drsh, pou
Da enai to bohjhtik pedo pou sqetzetai me ton abelian pargonta U a (1) kai ca suntelestc. Me bsh thn summetra kai thn energ langkranzian sthn ergasa [44] deixan oti
roi Fayet-Iliopoulos mporon na dhmiourghjon se txh enc brqou sthn jewra diataraqn twn qordn an kai den uprqoun se eppedo dndrou. Kat sunpeia, enai dunatn
na spsei h upersummetra msw enc dunamiko pou katastrfei tic eppedec dieujnseic
akribc lgw auto tou rou. Sugkekrimna, o U (1)X D roc qei upologiste
X
DX =
iXi |i |2 2
(3.48)
pou 2 o roc Fayet-Iliopoulos pou prokptei sthn jewra qordn [45]. Gia na diathretai h
upersummetra prpei ta peda pou ja spsoun thn anmalh U (1)X summetra na apoktsoun
vev thc txhc tou . Me autn ton trpo dhmiourgontai oi energc suzexeic Yukawa pwc
fanetai sthn (3.47). Autc o mhqanismc problpei kai ma endiafrousa sqsh anmesa
sto fsma twn fermionwn kai thn tim thc gwnac Weinberg [46]. Pio sugkekrimna, to
fsma twn fermionwn epiblei ttoiouc periorismoc sta Q-forta pou oi anamigmnec anwmalec thc summetrac U (1)X enai anagkastik mh mhdenikc kai tsi prpei na exafaniston
qrhsimopointac ton mhqanism Green-Schwarz [47], kajorzontac thn asjen gwna mxhc
h opoa kai brsketai sh me thn gnwst thc tim sin W = 83 sthn klmaka enopohshc. Ac
dome mwc lgo pio analutik thn emfnish twn anwmalin sto kbantik eppedo kai ton
mhqanism Green-Schwarz.

3.6 Anwmalec
Se ma kbantik jewra mia anwmala antistoiqe sthn parabash mic klassikc summetrac
sto kbantik eppedo. Ma summetra h opoa enai aparathto na diathretai ja prpei na enai
elejerh apo anwmalec. Aut enai h perptwsh twn summetrin bajmdac alloic topikn
summetrin se ma kbantik jewra pedou, pou an oi anwmalec den mhdenzontai tte oi
afsikoi bajmo eleujerac den ja aposuzeuqton apo thn jewra. Pio sugkekrimna, tan
kpoioc allzei thn fermionik thn mpozonik dom mic jewrac enai pol shmantik na
1

5 .

67

Spn

G
W
B
Q
Uc
Dc
L
Ec
H

1/2

(SU (3)C ,SU (2)L )U(1)Y

(8,1)0
(1,3)0
(1,1)0
(3,2) 1
6
(
3,1) 2
3
(
3,1) 1
3
(1,2) 1
2
(1,1)1
(1,2) 1
2

Pnakac 3.3: Oi kbantiko arijmo gia ta peda tou KP.

apofgei thn eisagwg anwmalin, oi opoec enai apeirismo, monadikthtec, pou sqetzontai
me thn suneisfor tou fermioniko trigwniko diagrmmatoc ston brqo trin reumtwn,
pwc fanetai kai sto Sqma 3.1.

jb
jb
ja

ja
+
jc
jc

Sqma 3.1: Diagrmmata ta opoa suneisfroun sthn anwmala mia jewrac bajmdac. Sto
eswterik trigwnik brqo trqei na chiral ferminio to opoo enai fortismno ktw apo
kje rema bajmdac pou emfanzetai sta exwterik pdia tou diagrmmatoc.

Ac melethje gia pardeigma to KP. Oi kbantiko arijmo twn pedwn fanontai ston Pnaka 3.3. 'Olec oi anwmalec apo ta trigwnik diagrmmata ja prpei na diagrfontai. Oi
diagrafc twn anwmalin gia tic SU (3)3 kai SU (2)3 enai tetrimmnec, en gia tic U (1)3 ,

68

[SU (3)]2 U (1), [SU (2)]2 U (1) kai [barthta]2 U (1) enai
tr(Q3Y )

3
3
3
3
2
1
1
1
+3
+3
+2
+ 13 = 0,
=6
6
3
3
2

a b
1
1
2
1
tr( TC , TC QY ) =
2 +
+
= 0,
2
6
3
3

a b
1
1
1
tr( TL , TL QY ) =
3 +
= 0,
2
6
2


1
2
1
1
tr(QY ) = 6 + 3
+3 +2
+ 1 = 0.
6
3
3
2

(3.49)
(3.50)
(3.51)
(3.52)

'Otan kpoioc kataskeuzei mia energ jewra bajmdac apo to qamhlc enrgeiac fsma enc
montlou uperqordn, enai fusik na anarwthje an ma ttoia jewra pedou ja anaptxei
kpoio edoc anwmalin, oi opoec fusik ja shmanoun kai asunpeia thc jewrac. 'Opwc dh
anafrjhke, pollc forc sto fsma thc energo jewrac qordn emfanzetai ma anmalh
summetra U (1)X . H anwmala pou eisgei aut h summetra diagrfetai me nan mhqanism
gnwst kai c mhqanismc Green-Schwarz [47]. Aut epitugqnetai msw enc mh grammiko
metasqhmatismo sthn pollaplthta tou ntlaton (dilaton)

i
S S + GS ,
2

(3.53)

pou L enai h parmetroc tou metasqhmatismo bajmdac. Pio sugkekrimna, oi kinhtiko

roi stic upersummetrikc jewrec pwc edame grfontai
Z
1
Lgauge =
d2 [ kX S WX WX + ka S Wa Wa ] + h.c.,
(3.54)
4
qrhsimopointac touc tanustc twn pedwn thc U (1)X kai thc Ga , WX kai Wa . Ed, kX
kai ka enai ta eppeda Kac-Moody thc U (1)X kai thc Ga antstoiqa. Oi stajerc zexeic
ga dnontai apo thn vev tou dilaton
1/ga2 . O anmaloc metasqhmatismc (3.53)
R 2 ka hSi =

epiblei ma metatpish L d [iCa Wa Wa ] gia kje Ga , pou Ca = TrGa T (R)2 QX

enai oi miktc (mixed) anwmalec. Epeid h metatpish (3.53) enai koin gia kje Ga ektc
apo to ka , h analoga Ca /ka prpei na enai koin gia kje Ga tsi ste na diagrfontai
oi anwmalec. Parnontac tic [U (1)X ]3 kai tic barutikc anwmalec, prokptoun oi ktwji
sqseic:
1
1
Ca
=
tr QX 3 =
tr QX ,
(3.55)
2 2 GS =
ka
3kX
24
pou QX enai to U (1)X forto. 'Opwc dh anafrjhke, o Fayet-Iliopoulos D roc den
prokptei se eppedo dndrou lla se uyhlterh txh. Epeid to dunamik Kahler K gia to
S prpei na enai mi sunrthsh tou S + S GS VX pou VX enai to dianusmatik uperpedo
thc U (1)X , o Fayet-Iliopoulos D roc dnetai apo thn sqsh

Z
GS K 0
4

DX + 2 DX + ,
(3.56)
d K(S + S GS VX ) =
2
69

pou to prshmo tou QX kajorzetai tsi ste 2 > 0. An K(x) = ln(x) pwc upologsthke sthn ergasa [45], o 2 proseggzetai c

2 =

gs2 tr QX
,
192 2

pou gs2 = 1/hSi.

70

(3.57)

Keflaio 4
Polubrnec kai h prosggish thc
energo jewrac pedou
4.1 Eisagwg
Jewrec pou sugkekrimna swmatdia, idiatera ta elafr tou kajierwmnou protpou, periorzontai stic 4 diastseic, en lla mporon na diaddontai se perissterec diastseic
enai pragmatik endiafrousec. Se aut to keflaio ja melethjon auto tou edouc oi
jewrec kai h uperepifneia pou periorzontai kpoia swmatdia ja anafretai wc polubrnh (brane) [48]. Ma p-polubrnh (Dp-brane) enai na ektetamno antikemeno me p qwrikc
diastseic. To grmma D shmanei Dirichlet. 'Otan uprqei h parousa mac polubrnhc ta kra twn anoiqtn qordn prpei na brskontai pnw sth brnh. Den enai la ta
ektetamna antikemena sthn jewra qordn polubrnec. Oi qordc gia pardeigma enai 1brnec (1-branes), epeid enai ektetamna antikemena me ma qwrik distash, all den enai
1-polubrnec (D1-branes). Brnec me p qwrikc diastseic genik onomzontai p-brnec (pbranes). Ma 0-brnh enai na edoc swmatidou. 'Opwc h pagksmia gramm enc swmatidou
enai monodistath, o pagksmioc gkoc mic p-brnhc enai (p + 1)-distasc. Apo autc tic
(p + 1) diastseic, h ma enai o qrnoc kai oi uploipec p enai qwrikc. Ja qrhsimopoihje
ma qamhlc enrgeiac prosggish me ma energ jewra pedou. Aut shmanei oti h jewra
ja isqei mqri ma klmaka enrgeiac pnw apo thn opoa ja prpei kpoioc na lbei upyhn
tou kai thn dunamik pou sthn ousa dhmiourge thn brnh.

4.2 Anoiqtc qordc se p-polubrnec

'Estw oti to d sumbolzei ton olik arijm twn qwrikn diastsewn sthn jewra. Sthn
mpozonik jewra qordn, pou oi qwrikc diastseic enai 25, qoume d = 25 en o olikc
arijmc qwroqronikn diastsewn enai D = d + 1 = 26. Ma p-polubrnh me p < 25 ektenetai pnw se na p-distato upqwro tou 25-distatou qrou. Autc pou enai aplc enai
p-distashc upereppeda msa sto d-distato qro. Qreizontai d p grammikc sunjkec
gia na oriston aut ta upereppeda, sec dhlad enai kai oi qwrikc diastseic kjetec
71

sthn brnh.
Jewretai tra ma p-polubrnh. Eisgontac qwroqronikc suntetagmnec x , me =
0, 1, , 25, autc qwrzontai se 2 omdec. H prth omda periqei suntetagmnec efaptomenikc sto pagksmio gko thc brnhc. Autc enai h qronik sunistsa kai p qwrikc
sunistsec. H deterh omda periqei tic d p suntetagmnec kjetec sto pagksmio gko
thc brnhc. 'Etsi, grfontai:

x0 , x 1 , , x p :

Dp efaptomenikc suntetagmnec

xp+1 , xp+2 , , xd :

Dp kjetec suntetagmnec

(4.1)
(4.2)

H topojesa thc p-polubrnhc kajorzetai jtontac tic timc twn suntetagmnwn oi opoec
enai kjetec sthn brnh. Sunepc,

xa = xa ,

a = p + 1, , d.

(4.3)

Ed ta x
a enai na set apo d p stajerc. Omowc, oi sunistsec thc qordc qwrzontai
c

X 0, X 1, , X p :

Dp efaptomenikc suntetagmnec

X p+1 , X p+2 , , X d :

Dp kjetec suntetagmnec

(4.4)
(4.5)

Epeid ta kra thc anoiqtc qordc ja prpei na brskontai sth p-polubrnh, oi suntetagmnec qordc kjetec sth brnh prpei na ikanopoion sunoriakc sunjkec Dirichlet

X a (, )|=0 = X a (, )|= = xa ,

a = p + 1, , d.

(4.6)

pou , oi parmetroi oi opooi qrhsimopoiontai gia na perigryoun thn didistath epifneia pou diagrfei h qord kajc diaddetai sto qro. Oi suntetagmnec qordc X a
onomzontai suntetagmnec DD diti kai ta do kra ikanopoion ma sunjkh Dirichlet. Ta
kra thc anoiqtc qordc mporon na kinontai elejera kat mkoc twn efaptomenikn
dieujnsewn thc polubrnhc. 'Etsi, oi suntetagmnec qordc pou enai efaptomenikc sth
p-polubrnh ikanopoion sunjkec Neumann

X m0 (, )|=0 = X m0 (, )|= = 0,

m = 0, 1, , p.

(4.7)

Autc oi suntetagmnec qordc onomzontai NN suntetagmnec diti kai ta do kra thc

qordc ikanopoion sunjkec Neumann. Sunepc, diapistnoume oti o qwrismc (4.4),(4.5)
enai kai qwrismc se suntetagmnec pou ikanopoion Neumann kai Dirichlet sunjkec antstoiqa

X 0, X 1, , X p :

NN suntetagmnec

(4.8)

X p+1 , X p+2 , , X d :

DD suntetagmnec

(4.9)

Epeid ja qrhsimopoihje h bajmda knou fwtc, qreizetai toulqiston ma qwrik NN

suntetagmnh pou ja qrhsimopoihje maz me thn X 0 gia na oriston oi suntetagmnec X .
Oi suntetagmnec knou fwtc sumbolzontai c

X +, X , X i
Xa

i = 2, , p :

NN suntetagmnec

(4.10)

a = p + 1, , d :

DD suntetagmnec

(4.11)

72

H diadikasa kbntwshc thc anoiqtc qordc odhge sto prosdiorism tou fsmatc thc.
'Etsi, enai
p
X
d
X
X
X
1
i i
M = p = 2p p p p = 0 (1 +
n an an +
m aam aam )

n=1 i=2
m=1 a=p+1
2

i i

(4.12)

pou

0 enai h parmetroc klshc h opoa sqetzetai me thn tsh thc qordc (T =

1
)
20

ain , ain enai oi telestc dhmiourgac kai katastrofc stic (p + 1) 2 efaptomenikc

dieujnseic sthn brnh.
aam , aam enai oi telestc dhmiourgac kai katastrofc stic d p kjetec dieujnseic
sthn brnh.
Ac jewrsoume tra ton qro twn katastsewn thc kbantikc qordc. Oi basikc
katastseic se ma 25-polubrnh (D25-brane) enai |p+ , p~T i, pou p~T = (p2 , , p25 ) enai
to dinusma me sunistsec pI . To I parnei tic timc kai tou i all kai tou a. Epeid mwc
den uprqoun pa telestc, oi basikc katastseic perigrfontai apo ta p+ kai pi mno:

|p+ , p~i

p~ = (p2 , , pp )

me

(4.13)

Epiplon katastseic dhmiourgontai drntac me touc telestc dhmiourgac kai katastrofc. Pio sugkekrimna, kat mkoc thc brnhc qoume

ain
en kjeta sth brnh

aan ,

n 1 i = 2, , p,

(4.14)

n 1 i = p + 1, , d.

(4.15)

Sunepc, oi katastseic parnoun thn morf

" p
#" d
#
YY
Y Y
(ain )n,i
(aam )m,a |p+ , p~i
n=1 i=2

(4.16)

m=1 a=p+1

Aut ta peda zon sth p-polubrnh kai tsi prpei na melethje pwc metasqhmatzontai ktw
apo metasqhmatismoc Lorentz pou diathron thn p-polubrnh. Auto enai metasqhmatismo
Lorentz stic p + 1 diastseic kai ta peda mpore na enai ete bajmwt ete dianusmatik.
Ac arqsoume me tic basikc katastseic,

|p+ , p~i ,

M2 =

(4.17)

Autc oi katastseic enai taquonikc katastseic sthn brnh deqnontac oti aut enai
astajc. Fusik, to antstoiqo taquonik pedo enai apl na bajmwt Lorentz sthn brnh.
73

Oi epmenec katastseic qoun na telest na dr pnw touc. Arqzontac apo telestc pou
prokptoun apo sunistsec efaptomenikc sthn brnh

ai1 |p+ , p~i ,

i = 2, , p

M 2 = 0.

(4.18)

Autc enai (p + 1) 2 mazec katastseic. Epiplon, o dekthc pou froun zei sth brnh.
Prkeitai loipn gia katastseic pou metasqhmatzontai c diansmata Lorentz sth brnh.
Apo thn stigm pou o arijmc twn katastsewn isotai me thn distash tou qwroqrnou
meon do, enai faner oti autc enai fwtonikc katastseic. To sqetik pedo enai na
pedo bajmdac Maxwell pou ze sth brnh!
Ac jewrsoume akma kai thn perptwsh pou o telestc dhmiourgac prokptei apo
sunistsa kjeth sth brnh

aa1 |p+ , p~i ,

a = p + 1, , d

M 2 = 0.

(4.19)

Tra qoume d p katastseic pou zon sthn brnh. Epeid mwc o dekthc a den enai
dekthc Lorentz gia th brnh, enai apl ma arjmhsh. Dhlad autc oi katastseic metasqhmatzontai c bajmwt Lorentz sth brnh. Prokptei loipn to sumprasma oti gia
kje diejunsh kjeth sth brnh qoume kai na mazo bajmwt pedo.
Sugkentrwtik, oi mazec katastseic sthn p-polubrnh enai (p 1) fwtonikc katastseic kai d p bajmwtc.

4.3 Anoiqtc qordc metax p-polubrann kai qpolubrann

Se aut to shmeo exetzetai o sqhmatismc do parllhlwn brann thc diac kajc kai
diaforetikc ditaxhc. H prth p-polubrnh brsketai sthn xa = x
a1 en h deterh sth
xa = xa2 . An sumbanei xa1 = xa2 gia kje a tte oi do polubrnec sumpptoun sto qro,
brskontai h ma pnw sthn llh. Diaforetik enai qwrist.

4.3.1

p-polubrnec

diac distashc

Uprqoun 4 diaforetikc kathgorec anoiqtn qordn pou uposthrzoun to parapnw sqhmatism, oi opoec kai fanontai sto Sqma 4.1. Oi prtec do kathgorec apotelontai apo
anoiqtc qordc pou arqzoun kai teleinoun sthn dia brnh, ete sth brnh 1 ete sth 2.
Autc kai to fsma touc meletjhkan sto prohgomeno edfio. Oi llec do kathgorec
apotelontai apo qordc pou arqzoun sth ma brnh kai teleinoun sthn llh. O prosanatolismc thc qordc (h diejunsh sthn opoa to auxnetai) qei shmasa. Oi diaforetikc
kathgorec twn anoiqtn qordn onomzontai tomec kai h kbantik jewra anoiqtn qordn
metax polubrann qei 4.
Arqik ja analuje o tomac twn anoiqtn qordn pou arqzoun sth brnh 1 kai katalgoun sth 2. Oi NN suntetagmnec qordc X + , X , X i kbantnontai pwc kai prn
74

Sqma 4.1: Do parllhlec 2-polubrnec.

afo ikanopoion tic diec sunoriakc sunjkec. Tra mwc oi DD suntetagmnec qordc
ikanopoion tic sunoriakc sunjkec

X a (, )|=0 = xa1

X a (, )|= = xa2 ,

a = p + 1, , d.

H kbntwsh odhge ston telest mzac sto tetrgwno

a
2
x2 xa1
1
2
M =
+ 0 (N 1)
0
2

pou

N =

p
X
X

ain ain

n=1 i=2

X
d
X

(4.20)

(4.21)

m aam aam

(4.22)

m=1 a=p+1

O prtoc roc sto dexi mroc thc (4.21) enai ma na suneisfor. Apo thn stigm pou h
tsh thc qordc enai T = 1/(20 ), autc o roc enai apl to tetrgwno thc enrgeiac
mic klassikc qordc aplwmnhc metax twn do polubrann.
Ac exetaston oi basikc katastseic apo kje na toma apo touc 4 thc anoiqtc
qordc. Gia na enai dunat h dikrish touc eisgontai 2 epiplon dektec [ij], o kajnac
apo touc opoouc mpore na prei tim 1 2. O prtoc akraioc dhlnei thn brnh pou
brsketai to = 0 kro, en o deteroc thn pou brsketai to = kro. 'Etsi, qoume

|p+ , p~ ; [11]i ,

|p+ , p~ ; [22]i ,

|p+ , p~ ; [12]i ,

|p+ , p~ ; [21]i

(4.23)

Oi katastseic twn anoiqtn qordn sto toma [ij] qoun thn morf twn katastsewn
thc (4.16), me thn exaresh oti oi basikc katastseic antikajstantai apo tic |p+ , p~ ; [ij]i.
Akma, oi telestc dhmiourgac kai katastrofc mpore na enai tou diou arijmo all
prkeitai gia diaforetikoc telestc.
75

'Oson afor tic anoiqtc qordc pou aplnontai apo thn mi brnh sthn llh, den mpore
na eipwje oti ta peda zon se kpoia apo autc. Ta peda prpei na zon kai stic do brnec.
'Omoia me thn ergasa gia thn mia brnh, tsi kai tra ja kajoriste an oi katastseic
enai bajmwt dianusmatik peda Lorentz. Oi pio aplc katastseic enai oi basikc
+

|p , p~ ; [12]i ,

1
M = 0 +

xa2 xa1
20

2
(4.24)

An h apstash metax twn brann mhdenzetai tte prokptoun oi sunhjismnec taquonikc

katastseic tou telest thc tetragwnikc mzac. An mwc oi brnec enai qwrismnec tte
autc qei ma jetik suneisfor pou gia thn tim

|
xa2 xa1 | = 2 0
(4.25)
anaparist na mazo bajmwt pedo. Gia megalterec apostseic oi basikc katastseic
anapariston na bajmwt pedo me mza. Oi epmenec katastseic qoun na telest na
dr pnw touc. Upojtwntac oti h apstash metax twn brann enai mh mhdenik, an o
telestc prokptei apo suntetagmnh kjeth sth brnh qoume

aa1

|p , p~ ; [12]i ,

a = p + 1, , d

M =

xa2 xa1
20

2
(4.26)

Gia opoiadpote orm, aut enai d p mmaza bajmwt peda mic kai o dekthc a den enai
dekthc ston qro twn brann. An o telestc prokptei apo suntetagmnh efaptomenik
sthn brnh tte

ai1

|p , p~ ; [12]i ,

i = 2, , p

M =

xa2 xa1
20

2
(4.27)

Tra qoume (p + 1) 2 = p 1 mmazec katastseic. Parola aut tra den dhmiourgon

na mmazo pedo bajmdac Maxwell afo aut qei perissterouc bajmoc eleujerac. Se
aut thn perptwsh, na apo tic bajmwtc katastseic sthn (4.26) prpei na enwje me
tic p 1 katastseic thc (4.27) tsi ste na proume na mmazo dianusmatik pedo kai
(d p 1) mmaza bajmwt peda.
Ma pol endiafrousa katstash sumbanei tan h apstash twn do brann gnei
mhdenik. An kai tra h ma brnh enai pnw apo sthn llh, autc enai diakritc kai akma
ufstantai oi 4 tomec thc anoiqtc qordc. Oi mazec katastseic thc anoiqtc qordc pou
anapariston qordc pou ektenontai apo thn ma brnh sthn llh perilambnoun na mazo
pedo bajmdac kai (dp) maza bajmwt. Dhlad dio perieqmeno pedwn me ton toma pou
qordc arqzoun kai teleinoun sthn dia brnh. Sunepc, tan oi do brnec sumpptoun
uprqoun snolo 4 maza peda bajmdac. Ac upojsoume tra oti o sqhmatismc apoteletai
apo N p-polubrnec. An autc sumpptoun, oi N 2 tomec dnoun N 2 allhlepidrnta maza
peda bajmdac. Aut orzei mi U (N ) jewra bajmdac Yang-Mills sto pagksmio gko twn
N p-polubrann. Prokptei loipn to pol shmantik sumprasma oti N sumpiptmenec
polubrnec metafroun U (N ) maza peda bajmdac.
76

4.3.2 Polubrnec diaforetikc distashc

Se aut to upoedfio exetzetai o sqhmatismc do parllhlwn polubrann me diaforetik
distash. Jewrontai p, q akraioi pou ikanopoion thn 1 q < p 25. Oi do brnec
sumpptoun an o gkoc thc q-polubrnhc enai upqwroc tou gkou thc p-polubrnhc. Jewretai akma oti oi do brnec enai parllhlec. Gia ton sqhmatism twn p-,q-polubrann
enai

x0 , x 1 , , x q

: q + 1 koinc efaptomenikc suntetagmnec

xq+1 , xq+2 , , xp
xp+1 , xp+2 , , xd

(4.28)

: p q miktc suntetagmnec

(4.29)

: d p kjetec suntetagmnec

(4.30)

'Eqoun dh analuje qordc pou arqzoun kai katalgoun sthn dia brnh, gia aut kai
meletntai ed mno autc pou aplnontai kai stic do. Ac jewrhje loipn h qord pou
aplnetai apo th p-polubrnh sth q-polubrnh. To plrec set twn suntetagmnwn thc
qordc enai

X 0, X 1, , X q :

NN suntetagmnec

(4.31)

X q+1 , X q+2 , , X p :

ND suntetagmnec

(4.32)

X p+1 , X p+2 , , X d :

DD suntetagmnec

(4.33)

H kbntwsh odhge sto telest tou tetragnou thc mzac

M =
pou

N =

q
X
X

xa2 xa1
20

ain ain

n=1 i=2

1
1
(N 1 + (p q))
0

16

(4.34)

p
d

X
X
X
X
k r r
m aam aam
+
ak ak +
2
2
2
+ r=q+1
m=1 a=p+1

(4.35)

kZodd

Ac exetaste tra o qroc twn katastsewn kai ta peda. Oi jemelideic katastseic

shmeinontai wc
|p+ , p~ ; [12]i
me
p~ = (p2 , , pq )
(4.36)
Oi dektec stic ormc twn katastsewn dhlnoun oti ta antstoiqa peda zoun se na (q +1)
distato qwroqrno. Qrhsimopointac touc telestc ain , ark , aam mpore na dhmiourghje o
2

qroc twn katastsewn. Oi basikc katastseic qoun N = 0 kai antistoiqon se na

monadik bajmwt pedo sth q-polubrnh. Aut to pedo qei mza geniktera, lla mpore
kai na enai mazo akma kai taquonik kti pou exarttai apo thn apstash twn 2 brann
kai thn tim tou p q . An upoteje oti oi brnec sumpptoun kajc kai oti p q = 16 tte
to bajmwt enai mazo. Oi epmenec katastseic enai thc morfc

ar1 |p+ , p~ ; [12]i

me

77

N =

1
2

(4.37)

Autc oi katastseic dnoun (p q) bajmwt peda, mic kai o dekthc r den antistoiqe se
ma diejunsh tou gkou thc q-polubrnhc. 'Olec oi uploipec katastseic qoun mza afo
gia autc aparathta isqei N 1 kai p > q . Sunepc den brsketai kpoio mazo pedo
bajmdac.

4.4

Temnmenec brnec

'Ena pol endiafron apotlesma parathretai apo thn stigm pou jewrhjon oti oi brnec
den enai pi parllhlec all tmnontai (intersecting branes). Se aut thn perptwsh anakalptetai nac tomac anoiqtn qordn pou ektenetai apo thn ma brnh sthn llh kai
enai periorismnh kont sto shmeo tomc. Auto tou edouc oi qordc dnoun peda lhc me
tic idithtec twn fermionwn tou kajierwmnou protpou.
Ja perigrafon do 6-polubrnec (D6-branes) pou tmnontai ston tro1 T 6 . Qrhsimopointac 10-distath jewra uperqordn, oi 3 dieujnseic enai Dirichlet kai oi 6 Neumann.
3 apo tic Neumann ja prpei na enai oi 3 qwrikc diastseic thc energo jewrac YangMills en oi uploipec 3 brskontai ston T 6 . Ston T 6 brskontai epshc kai oi 3 dieujnseic
Dirichlet. H jsh thc kje 6-polubrnhc kajorzetai apo tic timc twn suntetagmnwn kat
mkoc twn dieujnsewn Dirichlet. 'Etsi, gia th prth 6-polubrnh orzetai

en gia to detero

6-polubrnh 1 : x5 = x7 = x9 = 0

(4.38)

6-polubrnh 2 : x4 = x6 = x8 = 0

(4.39)

'Ena shmeo ankei sthn tom an ankei kai stic do 6-polubrnec.

Sunjkh tomc : x4 = x5 = x6 = x7 = x8 = x9 = 0

(4.40)

Dhlad, to shmeo tomc brsketai ston tro T 6 . Mpore na melethjon ta parapnw me na

tro o opooc kai orzetai sto eppedo (x, y) me tic tautopoiseic x x+1,y y+1, pou kai
epilqjhke to mkoc metax tautopoihmnwn shmewn na isotai me thn monda. Mporon
na qrhsimopoihjon do akraioi (m, n) gia na perigrafte ma prosanatolismnh kleist
gramm ston tro. Sto eppedo (x, y) enai ma eujea prosanatolismnh gramm pou arq
thc qei to (0, 0) kai tloc to (m, n). Tte o megalteroc koinc touc diairthc anaparist
to psec forc h gramm peritulssetai sto tro. Sto parapnw pardeigma me tic 6polubrnec uprqoun 3 dieujnseic perituligmnec sto T 6 . Kje peritligma kajorzetai
apo 3 grammc (`1 , `2 , `3 ). H gramm `i anaparist thn diejunsh thc 6-polubrnhc pou
peritulssetai ston antstoiqo T 2 (T 6 = T 2 T 2 T 2 ). 'Otan kajoriste mia 6-polubrnh
qrhsimopointac 3 prosanatolismnec grammc, ousiastik dnetai nac prosanatolismc sto
3-distato upqwr thc pou brsketai ston T 6 . O prosanatolismc enc qrou distashc k
orzetai apo thn epilog enc set apo k grammikc anexrthtwn efaptomenikn dianusmtwn.
1

T 2 (x, y) (x, y) (x + 2R, y)

(x, y) (x, y + 2R).

78

Sunepc, sthn genik perptwsh pou uprqoun do 6-polubrnec, a kai b, kai kje na apo
ta opoa qei 3 perituligmnec dieujnseic grw apo ton T 6 , o sqhmatismc kajorzetai apo
(a)

(a)

(a)

(4.41)

(b)

(b)

(b)

(4.42)

6-polubrnha :

(`1 , `2 , `3 )

6-polubrnhb :

(`1 , `2 , `3 )

Oi 6-polubrnec tmnontai ston T 6 Iab forc sec me to ginmeno twn temnmenwn arijmn
(a)
twn antstoiqwn grammn se kje na apo ta 3 T 2 . Prgmati, an `i = (mai , nai ) kai
(b)
`i = (mbi , nbi ) tte
3
Y
Iab =
(mai nbi mbi nai )
(4.43)
i=1

Se montla pou kataskeuzontai apo temnmenec polubrnec, 4-distata chiral ferminia

emfanzontai apo anoiqtc qordc pou periorzontai kont sthn tom. Gia 2 dsmec Ni , Nj
apo brnec, me arijmoc peritluxhc (wrapping numbers) (mi , ni ) kai (mj , , nj ) antstoiqa,
h omda bajmdac enai U (Ni ) U (Nj ) en ta ferminia (pou zon sth tom) ankoun sthn
j ) (N
i , Nj ). Akma, se ttoiou edouc
dijemelidh (bifuntamental ) anaparstash (Ni , N
montla enai anagkaa h antigraf twn pedwn se tra anttupa, mic kai to kajierwmno prtupo qei trec genic me fermionik peda me ta dia forta. Aut se montla apo polubrnec
epitugqnetai me pollaplc tomc. O akribc kannac pou dnei ton arijm twn fermionwn
kai kajorzei pwc anaparistntai apo qordc enai o exc: Uprqoun |Iab | aristerstrofa
ferminia sto set twn tomn twn brann a kai b, na aristerstrofo ferminio se kje
shmeo tomc. An |Iab | > 0, oi aristerstrofec katastseic enai qordc pou ektenontai
apo thn brnh b sth brnh a. An |Iab | < 0, oi aristerstrofec katastseic enai qordc pou
ektenontai apo thn brnh a sth brnh b.

4.5 H energeiak klmaka thc qordc kai h energc jewra

Enai aparathto na katalbei kanec pwc o energc 4-distatoc ksmoc pou parathrome
prokptei apo ma jewra me perissterec diastseic. Pio sugkekrimna, jloume na brome
pwc oi parathromenec energc stajerc szeuxhc bajmdac kai barutikc sundontai me tic
basikc paramtrouc thc uyhlterhc distashc jewrac.
Sumbolzetai h basik klmaka Planck thc jewrac wc M? kai gnetai h upjesh oti
uprqoun n epiplon diastseic twn opown h aktna enai r. H sqsh pou isqei metax twn
barutikn stajern szeuxhc enai

MP2 l = M?n+2 V(n) = M?n+2 (2r)n

(4.44)
18

Ed MP l enai h parathromenh 4-distath klmaka Planck 10 GeV. Epshc, sthn deterh

isthta qrhsimopoijhke h sqsh V(n) = (2r)n h opoa isqei gia toroeidc sumpagopoiseic. Gia tic suzexeic bajmdac brsketai

1
2
gef
f

=
79

V(n)
g?2

(4.45)

Sunpeia twn parapnw enai

n
1 n+2
g4
MP l

(4.46)

Dhlad, gia ma fusik jewra ja enai r M1P l katalgontac se pol mikrc epiplon
diastseic. Parola aut, ta parapnw sumpersmata isqoun sthn perptwsh pou kje
pedo diaddetai se lec tic diastseic. Antjeta, an upoteje oti ta peda tou kajierwmnou protpou periorzontai sthn brnh kai mno h barthta ( lla peda pou den qoun
parathrhje) diaddontai stic epiplon diastseic tte ta sumpersmata allzoun. Wc ma
prth prosggish jewretai oti h tsh twn brann enai mikr kai oi epiplon diastseic
enai eppedec. Apo thn stigm pou uprqei h sqsh MP2 l M?n+2 rn , an r > 1/MP l h basik
klmaka M? mpore na qei qamhlterh tim apo thn MP l . An M? < 1 TeV tte dh ja
prepe na eqame de shmdia thc kbantikc barthtac sta ec tra peirmata, kti pou den
qei sumbe. 'Etsi, gnetai h upjesh oti h qamhlterh tim gia thn M? 1 TeV kai maz h
megalterh tim gia tic epiplon diastseic
32

r 2 1017 10 n cm

(4.47)

En gia n = 1 prokptei ma terstia aktna, gia n = 2 enai r 2mm.

Ttoiec montla onomzontai jewrec me meglec epiplon diastseic [49, 50]. Prkeitai
gia na exairetik elkustik senrio pou lnei to prblhma thc ierarqac qwrc thn qrhsimopohsh thc upersummetrac. Enai katanoht plon apo thn parapnw anlush oti h
klmaka thc qordc mpore na enai arket qamhl. Enai plon faner oti summetrec pou
palaitera meletjhkan sta plasia megaloenopoihmnwn jewrin me MGU T 1016 GeV
kai klmaka qordc MU 1018 GeV mporon pia na epanexetaston ktw apo diaforetik
optik gwna. Prgmati, sto keflaio 5 ja analuje ttoiou edouc energc jewra me ma
msh qarakthristik klmaka 1013 GeV. Epiplon ja analujon sto keflaio 7 jewrec
apo polubrnec pou h klmaka thc qordc enai pragmatik thc txhc tou TeV kai lgo
yhltera.

80

Keflaio 5
Epktash tou MSSM me ma
anmalh U (1)X summetra
5.1 Eisagwg
H epktash thc summetrac bajmdoc tou kajierwmnou protpou enai ma sunhjismnh lsh
kurwc gia thn exghsh thc ierarqac twn fermionikn mazn. Mia fusik upoyfia enai
mia epiplon U (1) summetra oikogeneac h opoa kai spei se kpoia uyhl klmaka M, na
senrio pou protjhke ed kai arket kair gia thn exghsh thc ierarqac sto fsma twn
fortismnwn fermionwn [42, 52, 53] kajc kai gia thn pragmatopohsh thc sqshc sumplhrwmatikthtac kourk-leptonwn (QLC) [54] pio prsfata [55, 56]. Aut h epilog gine
lgw thc empeirac apo thn kataskeu montlwn stic jewrec uperqordn ta opoa deixan
ti na logik bma prc autn thn aplopohsh enai h upjesh parxhc U (1) summetrin
pou xeqwrzoun metax twn diafrwn oikogenein.
Peiramatik dedomna [57] upodeiknoun oti oi stajerc szeuxhc Yukawa pou sqetzontai me tic mzec twn netrnwn enai pol mikrterec se sqsh me ekenec twn kourk kai twn
fortismnwn leptonwn, en oi gwnec mxhc enai pol megalterec apo ekenec tou toma
twn kourk. Sunepc, h dierenhsh tou an ta dedomna talntwshc twn netrnwn mporon
na exhghjon sto plasio mic epktashc thc summetrac tou kajierwmnou protpou enai
mia endiafrousa prooptik. Ja qrhsimopoihje mno to elqisto fermionik fsma thc
upersummetrikc epktashc tou KP qwrc thn eisagwg dexistrofwn netrnwn [58]. 'Etsi,
ja dojon mzec tpou Majorana gia ta tra netrna msw tou telest pou parabizei ton
leptonik arijm [38, 59] kai qei thn morf

c H)(LH)
(L
M

(5.1)

pou M enai ma uyhl klmaka pou ja apodeiqje na enai thc txhc 101314 GeV. Aut
h klmaka enai pol mikr gia na tautopoihje me thn klmaka enopohshc twn megaloenopoihmnwn jewrin (GUTs) thn klmaka qordc sta plasia twn eterotikn uperqordn,
parola aut enai se sumfwna me thn energ klmaka barthtac sta plasia jewrin me
meglec epiplon diastseic oi opoec prokptoun apo montla qordn Tpou I.
81

Aut to keflaio baszetai stic ergasec [58, 60]. Diereuntai h pijanthta oi mzec twn
netrnwn kai oi gwnec mxhc na mporon na ermhneuton me thn bojeia miac epiplon U (1)
summetrac oikogeneac h opoa sugqrnwc enai upejunh gia thn dhmiourga thc ierarqac
sto fsma twn fortismnwn fermionwn. Aut h summetra ja mporose na enai anmalh kai
gnetai h upjesh oti h diagraf twn anwmalin sumbanei sta plasia thc basikc jewrac
pnw apo thn klmaka M. Akma, apodeiknetai sumfwna me ta peiramatik dedomna gia
thn atmosfairik gwna mxhc 13 , h opoa problpetai pol mikr. H eisagwg epiplon
monrwn pedwn frnei to montlo se apluth sumfwna me la ta peiramatik dedomna,
dnontac sugkekrimnec timc fortwn se la ta peda pou pragmatopoion ta parapnw.

5.2 Knhtra
Wc upoyfia thc kbantikc barthtac h jewra uperqordn meletjhke ektetamna tic teleutaec dekaetec. H empeira pou apoktjhke apo thn dhmiourga jewrhtikn montlwn apo
tic jewrec uperqordn deixe oti problpontai U (1) summetrec oi opoec xeqwrzoun tic
diforec oikogneiec. 'Opwc prokptei apo thn sumpagopohsh thc eterotikc uperqordc,
uprqoun katastseic oi opoec kai periqoun peda bajmdac U (1) ta opoa enai anmala.
Aut shmanei oti to jroisma twn U (1) fortwn lwn twn mazwn katastsewn fortismnwn ktw apo thn U (1) den enai mhdn. H anwmala aut diagrfetai msw tou mhqanismo
Green-Schwarz. Sunepc, pwc gnetai kateujean faner emfanzontai epiplon summetrec
U (1).
Ktw apo to fc twn parapnw diapistnetai oti ja mporose na melethje h summetra
tou kajierwmnou protpou, h opoa perigrfei thn fsh me pol meglh akrbeia gia enrgeiec ec 102 GeV, epektenontac thn apo ma epiplon summetra U (1). Prkeitai loipn
gia na logik bma en kpoioc jlei na meletsei ma energ jewra pedou h opoa prokptei apo ma jewra me megalterh qarakthristik energeiak klmaka pou perigrfei kai
thn barthta. Aut h qarakthristik klmaka, h klmaka thc qordc, pwc ja apodeiqje se
epmeno edfio, den enai h upoqrewtik na enai thc txhc MS 101718 GeV all mpore
na enai arket qamhlterh. Jewrec basismnec se epiplon qwrikc diastseic mporon
na dsoun kai MS 1 TeV. Parola aut, peirmata tpou Cavendish epibloun MS 3
TeV.
Ma akma shmantik paratrhsh enai oti h summetra Le L L [61] uponoe nan
pnaka mzac gia ta netrna antstrofhc ierarqac me gwnec mxhc 12 = 23 = 4 kai
13 = 0. Autc qei thn morf

0 B A
m B 0 0
(5.2)
A 0 0
Prkeitai gia ma summetra h opoa epitrpei talantseic all empodzei to e
na talantwje. Parti aut h summetra den dnei ma swst perigraf twn peiramatikn
dedomnwn mpore na gnei na kal arqik shmeo gia ma akrib perigraf an kpoioc
dhmiourgsei epiplon suneisforc. 'Opwc ja apodeiqje, sta plasia tou MSSM me thn
82

epktash apo ma katllhlh U (1)X abelian summetra kai na monrec pedo Higgs o tomac
twn netrnwn sbetai thn summetra Le L L . Mikrc diorjseic apo epiplon monrh
peda, ta opoa emfanzontai se jewrec qordn pwc anafrjhke, mporon na perigryoun
me akrbeia ta peiramatik dedomna gia tic mzec twn netrnwn kai tic gwnec mxhc.
Sumperasmatik, parathretai oti summetrec pou ec tra eqan melethje sta plasia
twn megaloenopoihmnwn montlwn mporon na epektajon kai na analujon up to fc
twn nwn dedomnwn. Kti ttoio ja gnei se aut to keflaio pnw sthn summetra tou
kajierwmnou protpou kajc kai sto epmeno sthn summetra Pati-Salam.

5.3 Perigraf tou montlou

Gnetai h upjesh thc parxhc miac epiplon U (1) summetrac pou xeqwrzei tic diforec
oikogneiec. Smfwna me autn thn prosggish, la ta kourk, leptnia kai peda Higgs
emfanzoun nan akma kbantik arijm lgw thc prsjethc summetrac. Aut epilgontai
tsi ste tan den qei spsei h U (1)X mno h 3 geni na qei mza kai lec oi gwnec mxhc
na enai 0. 'Otan mwc spsei h summetra U (1)X , dhlad ta monrh (singlet) peda proun
mia mh mhdenik anamenmenh tim keno, prokptoun mh mhdenik stoiqea stouc pnakec twn
mazn dhmiourgntac mzec kai gwnec mxhc. Ac ta dome mwc pio analutik.
Jewretai to MSSM me summetra bajmdac GKP = SU (3) SU (2)L U (1)Y c h
energc jewra pedou ktw apo klmaka M mic basikc jewrac. Sta plasia thc GKP
summetrac, loi oi anallowtoi ktw apo touc metasqhmatismoc bajmdac roi Yukawa oi
opooi sqetzontai me ta kourk kai ta fortismna leptnia enai:

W = yiju Qi Ujc H2 + yijd Qi Djc H1 + yije Li Ejc H1 .

(5.3)

Sthn perptwsh montlwn pou kataskeuzontai sta plasia thc jewrac uperqordn, uprqoun sugkekrimna paradegmata pou ta peda tou MSSM enai fortismna ktw apo
toulqiston ma epiplon abelian anmalh summetra (U (1)X ) h opoa kai empodzei rouc mh anallowtouc ktw apo aut thn summetra na emfaniston sthn (5.3). Sunjwc, h
parousa autc thc epiplon U (1)X akoloujetai apo toulqiston na zegoc apo monrh
) tou MSSM me antjeta forta. Ta kai
mporon na proun vevs kai na
peda (,
odhgsoun sto spsimo thc epiplon abelianc summetrac.
Megalnontac thn kajierwmnh summetra bajmdac me thn U (1)X anmalh summetra ta
peda bajmdac parnoun nan forto kai mno roi anallowtoi ktw apo thn na summetra
mnoun sto uperdunamik. Tra lgw thc parathromenhc ierarqac sto fsma twn fermionwn stic qamhlc enrgeiec kai thc apathshc na qoume fusikc timc gia tic suzexeic
Yukawa prthc txhc, wje sthn jerhsh oti oi suzexeic epipdou dndrou pou sqetzontai me thn trth geni enai oi mnec pou paramnoun anallowtec. Gia aut ta U (1)X forta
gia ta peda epilgontai prokeimnou na uprqei 0 sto 33 stoiqeo tou pnaka twn fortwn.
Ed prpei na toniste oti jewrontai oi arqikc suzexeic Yukawa thc txewc thc mondac mic kai autc den upologzontai (par mno se jewrec uperqordn kai brskontai thc
txhc thc mondac O(1)). 'Etsi, so h U (1)X paramnei spasth ta elafrtera ferminia
ja qoun mhdenik mza. Gia aut kai oi roi mzac pou periqoun elafrtera ferminia
83

Ferminia
Forto
Qi (3, 2, 16 )
qi
1
c
Di (3, 1, 3 )
di
2
c
Ui (3, 1, 3 )
ui
Li (1, 2, 21 )
`i
c
Ei (1, 1, 1)
ei

Higgs
Forto
H1 (1, 2, 12 )
h1
1
H2 (1, 2, 2 )
h2
(1, 1, 0)
1, 0)
(1,

+1
1

Pnakac 5.1: U (1)X forta gia ta peda tou MSSM . Ta U (1)X forta gia ta do epiplon
epilgontai na enai +1 kai 1 antstoiqa.
monrh peda kai
ja dhmiourghjon msa apo mh epakanonikopoisimouc rouc szeuxhc sto uperdunamik
kpoiac txhc. Auto oi uyhlterhc txhc anallowtoi roi dhmiourgontai prosjtontac
sto eppedo dndrou na katllhlo arijm monrwn pedwn me U (1)X forto ttoio ste
o sunolikc roc na enai anallowtoc ktw apo thn U (1)X . Aut ta peda enai aparathta
gia na spsoun thn U (1)X summetra dhmiourgntac mh epanakanonikopoisimouc rouc pou
gemzoun touc pnakec mzac twn fermionwn. Sunepc, sthn kataskeu twn pinkwn mzac
gia ta kourk kai ta leptnia mporon na oriston oi paramtroi:

hi hi
,=
M
M

(5.4)

Ed shmeinetai oti sthn perptwsh mic anmalhc U (1)X summetrac ja prpei na isqei
. Aut prpei na sumbanei giat h diagraf tou D-rou apaite oi timc touc na
hi 6= hi
diafroun. Sugkekrimna, o mhqanismc Green-Schwarz dhmiourge mia suneisfor ston Dro thc anmalhc U (1)X summetrac. Aut enai anlogh tou qnouc tou anmalou fortou
pnw se la ta peda pou enai ikan na apoktsoun mh mhdenikc anamenmenec msec timc
keno. Gia na diathretai h upersummetra h akloujh sunjkh D epipedthtac ja prpei na
ikanopoietai:
X
2
2
QX
(5.5)
j |j | = 6= 0
j

pou QX
j enai to U (1)X forto tou pedou j , en to jroisma ektenetai pnw se la ta
dunat monrh peda kai h parmetroc 2 enai anlogh tou qnouc thc anmalhc U (1)X . Sthn
dik mac perptwsh pou qoun jewrhje do monrh peda me antjeta forta ja prpei na
isqei:
2 = 2
|hi|2 |hi|
(5.6)
Eisgontac ta forta gia ta peda thc jewrac, pwc fanontai ston Pnaka 5.1, kajorzontai kai ta forta twn stoiqewn twn pinkwn mzac,

Ciju = qi + uj , Cijd = qi + dj , Cije = `i + ej .

Epeid mac apasqolon mno summetriko pnakec ja isqei

q i + uj = q j + ui
84

(5.7)

qi + dj = qj + di
(5.8)

li + ej = lj + ei

H apathsh na enai mno h trth geni anallowth ktw apo thn U (1)X summetra se eppedo
dndrou epiblei epiplon sunjkec

q3 + u3 + h2 = 0
q3 + d3 + h1 = 0
(5.9)

l3 + e3 + h1 = 0

Apo thn ec tra anlush sumperanetai oti h genik morf twn rwn sto uperdunamik,
oi opooi suneisfroun stouc fermionikoc pnakec mzac, qwrzontai se do kathgorec:

Touc rouc szeuxhc se eppedo dndrou

u
d
e
Wtree = y33
Q3 U3c H2 + y33
Q3 D3c H1 + y33
L3 E3c H1

(5.10)

pou ta yu,d,e enai oi arqikc zexeic Yukawa (pou jewrjhkan thc txewc thc O(1))

Mh epakanonikopoisimouc rouc oi opooi kai epitrpontai apo thn GKP U (1)X

summetra bajmdac. Gia ta up kai down kourk kajc kai gia ta fortismna leptnia
auto enai
u

(1)
Wn.r.
Qi Ujc H2 Cij + Qi Djc H1 Cij + Li Ejc H1 Cij

pou Cija (a = u, d, l) orsthkan sthn sqsh (5.7) kai h parmetroc orzetai c:

k
an k = [k] < 0
k
k an k = [k] > 0

0 an k =
6 [k]

(5.11)

pou [k] enai to akraio mroc tou k . 'Oson afor ta netrna, aut enai maza se
eppedo dndrou, mwc o mh epakanonikopoisimoc roc (5.1) odhge se na pnaka
mzac Majorana o opooc kai periqei tic aristerstrofec sunistsec Lj
(2)
Wn.r.
=

2
a Cij ci j
v
c
(La H2 ji )(H2l Lk lk ) a Cij 2 La
L
M
M

(5.12)

me v2 = hH2 i O(mW ) kai Cij = 2h2 + `i + `j .

O pnakac twn fortwn twn pijann suzexewn twn kourk me to katllhlo pedo Higgs
enai

q1 + u1 + h2 q1 + u2 + h2 q1 + u2 + h2
c
c
C QU H2 = C QD H1 = q2 + u1 + h2 q2 + u2 + h2 q2 + u3 + h2
(5.13)
q3 + u3 + h2 q3 + u2 + h2 q3 + u3 + h2
85

Pedo

Q
Uc
Dc
L
Ec

1
n
+ q3
2
n
q3 h 2
2
n
q3 h 1
2
n0
+ l3
2
n0
l3 h1
2

H1

h1

Geni
2
m
+ q3
2
m
q3 h 2
2
m
q3 h 1
2
m0
+ l3
2
m0
l3 h1
2
Higgs
H2

3
q3
h2 q3
h1 q3
l3
h1 l3

h2

Pnakac 5.2: Fermionik forta U (1)X peita apo thn eisagwg twn akraiwn paramtrwn
oi opoec emfanzontai stouc pnakec twn kourk kai twn leptonwn antstoiqa.
Epibllontac tic parapnw sunjkec (5.8),(5.9) o pnakac parnei thn morf

2(q1 q3 )
(q1 q3 ) + (q2 q3 ) q1 q3
c
c
2(q2 q3 )
q2 q3
C QU H2 = C QD H1 = (q1 q3 ) + (q2 q3 )
q1 q3
q2 q3
0

(5.14)

Dhlad, ta forta gia ta kourk exartntai apo touc sunduasmoc q1 q3 kai q2 q3 . Gia
aut ton lgo eisgontai oi kainorgiec paramtroi
n
m
q1 q3 = , q 2 q3 =
me m + n 6= 0, m, n = 1, 2,
(5.15)
2
2
Oi parmetroi m, n ja prpei na enai akraioi tsi ste oi idiotimc tou (5.14) na enai
diaforetikc tou mhdenc mic kai jewrjhke to forto twn , 1, 1 antstoiqa. Sunepc,
mporon na grafton ta forta gia touc rouc mzac twn kourk c

m+n
n
n
2
2
m m2
Cq = Cd = m+n
(5.16)
2
n
m
0
2
2
Omowc, gia ta leptnia orzontai oi paramtroi 2n0 = l1 l3 kai 2m0 = l2 l3 , pou m0 , n0
enai akraioi kai o sqetikc pnakac parnei thn morf

m0 +n0
n0
n0
2
2
0
0
m0
Ce = m +n
(5.17)
m0
20
2
n
m0
0
2
2
To mhdenik forto sto stoiqeo 33 twn parapnw pinkwn ofeletai sthn apathsh na
emfanzontai se eppedo dndrou oi antstoiqoi roi Yukawa. Gia ta uploipa stoiqea mia
katllhlh dnamh thc paramtrou anptuxhc enai aparathth. 'Etsi, ta forta tou Pnaka
5.1 mporon na grafton sunartsei twn kainorgiwn paramtrwn m, n, m0 , n0 pou orsthkan
kajc kai sunartsei twn q3 , `3 , h2 , h1 . Ta apotelsmata fanontai ston Pnaka 5.2.
'Oson afor ta forta tou pnaka mzac gia ta netrna autc parnei thn morf

0
m0 +n0
n0 + A
+ A n2 + A
2
0
0
m0
C = m +n
+ A m0 + A
+A
20
2
m0
n
+A
+A
A
2
2
86

(5.18)

pou eisgetai h parmetroc

A = 2(l3 + h2 )

(5.19)

Parathretai ti ta stoiqea tou pnaka twn fortwn gia ta netrna diafroun apo ta antstoiqa twn fortismnwn leptonwn mno apo thn stajer A

Cij = Cije + A

(5.20)

Ta stoiqea tou pnaka twn fortismnwn leptonwn Cije enai akraioi hmiakraioi, sunepc
gia na prokyoun mh mhdenik stoiqea ston pnaka mzac twn netrnwn h parmetroc A ja
prpei na enai akraioc hmiakraioc. An A enai akraioc tte ja prpei na isqei mia
epiplon sunjkh tsi ste na katalgoume se fainmena mxhc ston toma twn netrnwn.
Prgmati, an kai ta do stoiqea Cij , Cije qoun to dio prshmo, tte ta stoiqea mzac enai
anloga me ton dio suntelest analogac A . Aut mwc shmanei oti kai oi do pnakec
mporon na diagwnopoihjon tautqrona odhgntac se leptonik pnaka mxhc kont ston
monadiao. Parola aut mporome na katalxoume se fainmena mxhc an kpoia apo ta
stoiqea twn pinkwn twn fortwn ikanopoion thn sqsh Cij Cije 0. Tte, smfwna me thn
(5.11) oi pnakec mzac twn fortismnwn leptonin kai twn netrnwn periqoun diaforetikc
paramtrouc anptuxhc kai plon den enai anlogoi metax touc. Antjeta, den uprqoun
sunjkec tan h A enai hmiakraioc.

5.4 Oi mzec twn netrnwn kai oi gwnec mxhc

Se aut to edfio anazhtontai sugkekrimnec epilogc fortwn U (1)X gia ta peda tou
MSSM pou dnoun fainomenologik apodektoc pnakec mzac gia la ta ferminia, en
ja melethjon idiatera ta netrna. H basik dom twn pinkwn mzac kai twn gwnin
mxhc h opoa kai ikanopoie tic fainomenologikc apaitseic mpore na paraqje qwrc thn
anafor se sugkekrimnec epilogc fortwn U (1)X . Sto tloc tou edafou ja dojon
sugkekrimna paradegmata me snola apo forta gia la ta ferminia kai ta peda Higgs.
To pio axioshmewto qarakthristik enai oti h epktash thc summetrac tou KP apo ma
U (1)X summetra mpore na anapargei thn swst ierarqa se la ta fermionik peda en
sugqrnwc ta peiramatik dedomna ermhneontai se ma kal prosggish apo nan leptonik
pnaka mxhc pou periqei do gwnec mxhc, ma proerqmenh apo ton pnaka twn fortismnwn
leptonwn kai thn deterh apo to pnaka mzac Majorana twn netrnwn. Wstso, se aut to
eppedo anlushc oi timc twn mh mhdenikn suntelestn Yukawa, pou emfanzontai stouc
rouc tou dunamiko enai gnwstec, afo o upologismc touc apaite leptomer gnsh
thc basikc jewrac pnw apo thn klmaka M. Kat sunpeia, sthn parosa anlush oi
suntelestc Yukawa jewrontai thc txhc thc mondac kai meletntai ta qarakthristik
tou montlou.
Arqik shmeinetai oti o pnakac mzac twn kourk exarttai mno apo ta m, n en o
leptonikc apo ta m0 , n0 . Mporon loipn na kajoriston oi parmetroi m, n tsi ste
na prokyei to swst ierarqik fsma mazn twn kourk. 'Epeita o tomac twn leptonwn

87

mpore na melethje anexrthta epilgwntac katllhlec timc gia tic do epiplon paramtrouc m0 kai n0 . O pnakac mzac twn kourk sunartsei thc paramtrou kai jewrntac
touc arqikoc suntelestc Yukawa thc txhc thc mondac, parnei thn morf

Mu,d mu,d
0

m+n
2
n
2

m+n
2

m
m
2

n
2
m
2
1

(5.21)

Sto Parrthma A sugkentrnontai oi analutiko upologismo tso gia ton toma twn kourk so kai gia ton toma twn leptonwn. Pio sugkekrimna, jewrontai lec oi dunatc periptseic me m, n, m0 , n0 rtio peritt. O parapnw pnakac twn kourk qei melethje
sto pareljn me leptomreia [52, 63, 65] kai enai gnwst oti katalgei se swst ierarqa
mazn gia diforec timc twn m, n. Kpoiec epilogc parousizontai kai sto Parrthma A.
Sthn sunqeia, peita apo ma susthmatik dierenhsh, h opoa sugkentrnetai sto Parrthma A, sumperanetai oti ja prpei na jewrhje m0 rtio kai n0 peritt. Ktw apo autn
thn epilog o pnakac twn fortismnwn leptonwn gnetai

0
n
0
0
m0
0

Me = me0 0
(5.22)
m
2

m0
2

pou kai qoun eisaqje do apo tic trec paramtrouc thc txhc thc mondac a kai pou
antistoiqon stouc suntelestc Yukawa kai se fainmena epakanonikopohshc. Oi idiotimc
pou dnoun thn mza twn leptonwn enai
0

me = ml0 n , m = ml0 (1 a2 )m , m = ml0 (1 + a2 m )

Eisgontac thn tan(2) = 2 a
tismnwn leptonwn gnetai

m0
2

(5.23)

/(1 m ) o pnakac diagwnopohshc tou toma twn for

1
0
0
Vl () = 0 cos sin .
0 sin cos

(5.24)

Proqwrntac ston toma twn netrnwn o pnakac mzac Majorana parnei thn morf

m0 +n0
M0 = m0 2 +A
n0
2 +A

m0 +n0
+A
2

0
0

n0

2 +A
0
0

(5.25)

pou h parmetroc antistoiqe se suntelest thc txhc thc mondac. Autc o pnakac
0
mzac mpore na diagwnopoihje apo nan monadiak pnaka V (), pou tan = m /2 ,
kai odhge se dimgisth (bimaximal) mxh sthn perptwsh pou ta do stoiqea tou pnaka
mzac enai sa [66].
88

Pedo

Q
Dc
Uc
L
Ec
H1

Lsh A
Geni
1
2
4
2
2
0
4
2
9
14
4
11
4

Pedo

3
0
2
0
54
34

1
4

Higgs
2 H2
Singlets

Q
Dc
Uc
L
Ec

H1

Lsh B
Geni
1 2
3
4 2
0
1 1 3
4 2
0
9
1
4 54
4
7
34 74
4
Higgs
3 H2
0
Singlets
1
1

Pnakac 5.3: Paradegmata U (1)X fortwn ta opoa odhgon sthn dom tou pnaka mzac
twn netrnwn pou suzhtitai sto kemeno.
0

Oi idiotimc gia tic mzec twn netrnwn enai m1 = m0 , m2 = m0 kai m3 = 0, me

m0 +n0 p
0
1 + 2 m0 , katalgontac smfwna me tic ec tra upojseic gia tic
m0 = m0 A+ 2
diaforc twn tetragnwn twn mazn
0

m2atm = m223 = (m0 )2 2A+m +n (1 + 2 m ) , m2 = m212 = 0

Sunepc, o leptonikc pnakac mxhc dnetai apo

1
12
2
cos(+)
cos(+)
0

Ul =
2
2
sin(+)

sin(+)

0
sin( + )

cos( + )

(5.26)

(5.27)

Ta parapnw apotelsmata parousizoun kpoia endiafronta qarakthristik tou montlou ta opoa kai axzoun na anaferjon se aut to shmeo. Arqik, parathretai oti
to montlo problpei antstrofh ierarqa stic mzec twn netrnwn, mac kai h qamhlterh
idiotim antistoiqe sthn m3 . Epiplon, shmeinetai oti h summetra sunepgetai meglec gwnec mxhc sto pnaka mzac twn netrnwn, se antjesh me thn katstash sto toma
twn fortismnwn fermionwn pou h mxh enai mikr. Akma, se aut to eppedo anlushc, problpetai mhdenik tim gia to stoiqeo U13 ston pnaka mxhc. Ta uploipa stoiqea
kajorzontai apo do gwnec mxhc, thn apo ton pnaka diagwnopohshc twn fortismnwn
leptonwn kai thn apo ton pnaka mzac twn netrnwn.
Se aut to shmeo ja apodeiqje pwc to parapnw senrio mpore na ulopoihje epilgontac sugkekrimna forta ta opoa kai ja ermhnesoun ta dedomna twn netrnwn. Gia
sugkekrimnec lseic qei jewrhje m0 rtio kai n0 peritt, mic kai gia na zegoc monrwn
pedwn enai h mnh apodekt perptwsh. Apo tic exisseic tou Pnaka 5.2 brsketai oti ta
me k akraio. Sthn sunqeia ja dwjon
leptnia qoun klasmatik forta thc morfc 2k+1
4
forta ta opoa enai sunepc me tic sunjkec diagrafc twn anwmalin.
89

Epilgontac gia pardeigma m = 4, n = 8, m0 = 2, n0 = 7, h1 = 2, h2 = 0, A = 25

prokptoun ta forta thc lshc A tou Pnaka 5.3, kajc kai stouc paraktw pnakec mzac
gia ta kourk
8 6 4

u,d 6 4 2

Mu,d m0
.
(5.28)
4 2

1
(prkeitai gia thn dom pou suzhtjhke sthn [63]), gia ta fortismna leptnia

7 0

0
2 a

Me me0 0

0 a 1

(5.29)

kai gia ta netrna

0
2
0
0 .
M0 m0

0
0

(5.30)

Oi mzec twn fortismnwn leptonwn mporon na prosarmoston sta peiramatik dedomna se sugkekrimnh ktash timn twn paramtrwn tou (5.29). Gia pardeigma, epilgontac
0.28, 1.3 kai 2, prokptei to swst fsma mazn. H atmosfairik diafor

tetragwnikn mazn mpore na paraqje gia M 5 1013 GeV. Aut h klmaka enai pol
mikr gia ta tautopoihje me thn klmaka qordn se eterotikc kataskeuc. Parola aut
brsketai se sunpeia me ta montla uperqordn Tpou I. 'Allec epilogc U (1)X fortwn
enai fusik pijanc mic kai oi pnakec mzac den exartntai apo tic paramtrouc q3 , `3 . Gia
pardeigma, epilgontac thn lsh B apo ton Pnaka 5.3 lambnontai oi dioi pnakec mzac
me autoc tic lshc A pou meletjhkan parapnw.
'Opwc mwc dh qei parathrhje, se aut to eppedo anlushc, o qwrismc twn mazn
metax prthc kai deterhc genic twn netrnwn den emfanzetai mic kai oi do idiokata2
stseic enai ekfulismnec, dhlad matm
= m223 kai m2 = m212 = 0. Akma, o
leptonikc pnakac mxhc U`0 = V` V uponoe mgisth hliak gwna mxhc, mia katstash
h opoa apokleetai apo ta prsfata peiramatik dedomna. Aut h asumfwna mpore na
arje an epiplon mh mhdenik stoiqea dhmiourghjon apo ierarqik mikrtera fainmena.
Gia pardeigma, an jewrhje na epiplon zegoc monrwn pedwn me U (1)X forta 3/2
parnoume M23 = M32 kai M11 3 . Autc oi suneisforc mporon na epiteuqjon
kai apo kpoion llo mhqanism pwc to spsimo thc upersummetrac. Enai prgmati endiafron to gegonc oti do epiplon suneisforc sta stoiqea 11 kai 23, mikrterec apo ta
stoiqea 12 kai 13 pou dh uprqoun, enai ikan na froun ton pnaka mzac twn netrnwn
se apodekt morf spzontac ton ekfulism mzac kai dnontac gwnec mxhc se sumfwna
me ta peiramatik dedomna. 'Etsi,

2x
cos
sin

0
2y
M = m0 cos
(5.31)
sin

2y
0
90

pou
= + . Qrhsimopointac thn parapnw upjesh oti x, y < cos
, sin
oi idiotimc
tou (5.31) enai

))
m1 m0 (1 + x y sin (2

(5.32)

))
m2 m0 (1 + x y sin (2

(5.33)

m3 2 m0 y sin (2
)

(5.34)

pou uyhlterhc txhc diorjseic O(x2 , xy, y 2 ) paralefjhkan. Sunartsei twn parapnw
idiotimn, oi diaforc twn tetragwnikn mazn enai

))
m212 4m20 (x y sin(2

(5.35)

)))
m223 m20 (1 2(x y sin(2

(5.36)

O leptonikc pnakac mxhc grfetai

Ul

x+y sin(2
)
1 +

2
2 2
)

cos(
+ g(x, y)
2
sin(
)

f (x, y)
2

x+y sin(2
)
1

2
2 2
cos(
)

+ g(x, y)
2
sin(
)
2 f (x, y)

2y cos(2
)

sin(
)
cos(
)

(5.37)

pou kai pli qoun paralhfje uyhlterhc txhc diorjseic en f (x, y), g(x, y) enai oi
sunartseic

f (x, y) =

(5 y cos(
) + 3 y cos(3
) + 2 x sin(
))

4 2

g(x, y) = =

(2 x cos(
) + 5 y sin(
) 3 y sin(3
))

4 2

(5.38)
(5.39)

Tautopointac ta stoiqea tou pnaka diagwnopohshc (5.37) me thn kajierwmnh parametropohsh ij (sin ij sij , cos ij cij ),

c12 c13
s12 c13
s13 ei
U = s12 c23 c12 s23 s13 c12 c23 s12 s23 s13 s23 c13
(5.40)
s12 s23 c12 c23 s13 c12 s23 s12 c23 s13 c23 c13
mqri txhc O(x2 , xy, y 2 ) diorjseic (epilgontac thn CP fsh = 0) brsketai

tan 23 tan

(5.41)

tan 13 2y cos(2
)

(5.42)

tan 12 1 (x + y sin(2
))

(5.43)

Ed, h tan 23 diafrei apo thn arqik tan(

) mno se deterhc txhc dirjwsh stic paramtrouc x, y , en h tim thc tan 12 exarttai apo ton grammik sunduasm (x + y sin(2
))
91

twn x kai y . Apo thn llh pleur oi diaforc twn tetragwnikn mazn qoun ma analoga
h opoa exarttai apo nan diaforetik x, y grammik sunduasm, (x y sin(2
),

m212
4(x y sin(2
))
=
2
m23
1 2(x y sin(2
))

(5.44)

Parathretai oti do pol shmantiko diaforetiko sunduasmo twn x, y emfanzontai

stic ekfrseic (5.43) kai (5.44). Enai faner oti an poio apo ta x, y jewrhje mhdn, ta
peiramatik dedomna den mporon na epalhjeuton. Oi epitrepmenec perioqc sta 3 enai

0.23 sin2 12 0.39

0.31 sin2 23 0.72

(5.45)

0.00 sin2 13 0.054

en oi diaforc twn tetragwnikn mazn brskontai sthn perioq

5.4 105 m212 /eV 2 9.5 105 , 1.4 103 m223 /eV 2 3.7 103
Qrhsimopointac tic sqseic (5.43), (5.44) kajc kai ta peiramatik dedomna sumperanoume
oti tan 12 apodektc timc mporon na epalhjeuton gia x [0.100.24] kai y [0.100.22]
, upojtontac oti
enai mgisth. Tonzetai se aut to shmeo oti autc oi timc sto megaltero posost thc epitrepmenhc perioqc enai ikanopoihtik mikrterec apo ta txhc
na stoiqea 12 kai 13 tou pnaka mzac twn netrnwn kai tsi h prosggish enai swst. Se
aut thn perptwsh prokptei akma 13 = 0. Allzontac lgo thn tim
= /4 qoume kai
pli apodektc timc gia ta x, y kai 13 msa sta peiramatik ria. Aut ta sumpersmata
dikaiologon thn upjesh oti stoiqea 11, 23 mporon na dhmiourghjon diataraktik. Tloc, elgqetai h parmetroc pou sqetzetai me thn aposnjesh o . Agnontac thn pra
pol mikr m3 suneisfor kai fainmena deterhc txhc, aut dnetai apo

|hmee i| 2 m0 y sin 2

(5.46)

h opoa kai enai ma txh megjouc ktw apo ta trqonta peiramatik dedomna gia thn
parametrik perioq sthn opoa h prosggish mac enai gkurh.

5.5 Prosggish me 2 zegh monrwn pedwn

Oi parapnw pnakec (5.29), (5.30) odhgon se dimgisth mxh, gegonc pou rqetai se antjesh me ta wc tra peiramatik dedomna. Domc pinkwn oi opooi kai katalgoun
se swst apotelsmata meletjhkan sthn ergasa [64]. Oi suggrafec katlhxan se 7
domc me 2 anexrthta stoiqea tou migadiko summetriko Majorana pnaka mzac twn 3
aristerstrofwn netrnwn na mhdenzontai. Autc oi domc enai:

0 0 X
0 X 0
X X 0
A1 : 0 X X A2 : X X X B1 : X 0 X
X X X
0 X X
0 X X
92

X 0 X
X 0 X
X X 0
X X X
B2 : 0 X X B3 : 0 0 X B4 : X X X C : X 0 X
0 X 0
X X 0
X X X
X X 0
(5.47)
Den brjhkan pnakec me 3 anexrthta mhdenik stoiqea epibebainontac oti h prosggish
h opoa akoloujjhke arqik, an kai aparathth fusik, qreizetai beltwsh apo epiplon
suneisforc. H sugkekrimnh anlush [64] gine sthn bsh pou ta fortismna leptnia
enai diagnia. Apo thn llh pleur, oi pnakec twn fortismnwn leptonwn pou meletontai
sthn dik mac perptwsh den enai diagnioi gia tic domc twn netrnwn pou analjhkan, me
apotlesma h sgkrish me thn [64] na mhn enai dunat me ma prth mati. Parola aut,
ja sugkrijon ta apotelsmat me aut thc [64] afo mh diagnia stoiqea tou Me kai
fainmena mxhc apo ton toma twn fortismnwn leptonwn den enai shmantik me sunpeia
oi gwnec mxhc twn netrnwn na parnoun mno mikrc suneisforc apo ton pnaka mzac twn
fortismnwn leptonwn. Aut mwc enai kti pou ja deiqje argtera se aut to edfio.
Parathretai loipn oti h eisagwg 2 epiplon stoiqewn, twn 11 kai 23/32, enai ikan na
mac frei ton pnaka mzac twn netrnwn se ma apodekt morf pnaka mzac (perptwsh
C) me do mhdenik, o opooc parqei to aparathto spsimo tou ekfulismo kai ermhneei
ta peiramatik dedomna me akrbeia. Enai pijan kpoioc na dhmiourgsei ta apaitomena
stoiqea ete prosjtontac na epiplon zegoc apo monrh peda ,
me U (1)X -forta 3/2
(h emfnish arketn monrwn pedwn enai na sunhjismno fainmeno se montla qordn)
ete apo kpoion llo mhqanism pwc gia pardeigma to spsimo thc upersummetrac. Ed
ja melethje h prth epilog pio analutik [60].

5.5.1 Periorismo stic mzec kai tic gwnec mxhc twn netrnwn
Ston pnaka Majorana twn netrnwn uprqoun to pol 9 anexrthtec parmetroi, en ta
peirmata mporon na metrsoun mno 2 tetragwnikc diaforc mazn, 3 gwnec, ma CPfsh kai thn parmetro thc aposnjeshc bta. Kat sunpeia, o pnakac mzac twn netrnwn
den mpore na kajoriste plrwc apo ta ec tra peirmata. 'Enac genikc pnakac mzac
gia ta netrna grfetai
M = Un Md Un|
(5.48)
pou Md enai o diagnioc pnakac Majorana twn netrnwn

m1 0
0
Md = 0 m2 0
0
0 m3

(5.49)

kai Un enai o diagwnzwn pnakac parametropoihmnoc apo trec gwnec kai ma fsh (cij
cos ij , sij sin ij )

c12 c13
c13 s12
s13 ei
c13 s23 (5.50)
Un = c23 s12 c12 s13 s23 ei c12 c23 s12 s13 s23 ei
i
i
c12 c23 s13 e +s12 s23 c23 s12 s13 c12 s23 e
c13 c23
93

Sugkrnontac me ton (1.82), oi sqetikc fseic metax twn mazn Majorana ja metaferjon stic idiokatastseic mzac. Parathretai oti ta stoiqea tou pnaka (5.48) mporon na
grafton wc eswterik ginmena

m 1
m 2
m 3




M =
(5.51)
m 2
m 4
m 5

m 3
m 5
m 6

pou
m = (m1 , m2 , m3 ) enai to dinusma twn idiokatastsewn thc mzac kai ta diansmata

i enai sunartseic twn gwnin mxhc 12 , 13 , 23 kai thc fshc .

1 = c212 c213 , c213 s212 , s213 e2i

2 = c12 c13 c23 s12 + c12 s13 s23 ei , c13 s12 c12 c23 s12 s13 s23 ei , c13 s13 s23 ei

3 = c12 c13 s12 s23 c12 c23 s13 ei , c13 s12 c23 s12 s13 ei + c12 s23 , c13 c23 s13 ei
i
h
2
2

4 =
c23 s12 + c12 s13 s23 ei , c12 c23 s12 s13 s23 ei , c213 s223

5 =
c12 c23 s13 ei s12 s23 c23 s12 + c12 s13 s23 ei ,

c23 s12 s13 ei + c12 s23 s12 s13 s23 ei c12 c23 , c213 c23 s23
h
2
2 2 2 i

i
i
6 =
c12 c23 s13 e s12 s23 , c23 s12 s13 e + c12 s23 , c13 c23

Zegh twn dianusmtwn i mpore na elegqjon kai apodeiknetai oti enai grammikc ane
xrthta, me sunpeia sto 3-distato qro to
m na mpore na enai orjognio se na zegoc

to pol. Se autn thn perptwsh, h (5.48) parnei ma morf

m i = 0 ,
m j = 0 kai
prokptei mia sunjkh gia tic mzec twn netrnwn

m = m0 i j

(5.52)

pou m0 enai mia migadik parmetroc mzac h opoa qarakthrzei thn klmaka mzac twn
netrnwn. Peiramatik apodektc perioqc gia ta stoiqea tou M mporon na kajoriston
wc exc: Prta sqhmatzetai h adistath analoga

14.73

|m3 |2 |m2 |2
68.51
|m2 |2 |m1 |2

(5.53)

h opoa exarttai mno apo tic timc twn gwnin mxhc 12 , 13 , 23 . 'Epeita, ereunntai oi
timc gia tic gwnec entc twn parapnw peiramatikn dedomnwn, oi opoec ikanopoion thn
sunjkh analogac (5.53). Autc fanontai sta Sqmata 5.1,5.2,5.3,5.4.
Plon, autc oi gwnec mporon na qrhsimopoihjon ste na kataskeuaste o pnakac
M . Prpei h gwna 13 na enai kont sto mhdn kai h 23 na enai kontsto /4. Sto

rio pou 13 = 0 kai = 0 oi epiplon sunjkec 2 + 3 = 0 kai 5 4 6 = 0

94

0.8
0.775
0.75
23

0.725

0.7
0.675
0.65
0.625
0.6

0.2
5
0.1
0.1

13

0.0

0.
52
5

0 0.5

0.
55

0.
57
5

0.
6

0.
62
5

0.
65

12

Sqma 5.1: Oi epitrepmenec perioqc gia tic trec gwnec mxhc twn netrnwn.

70
60

50
40
30
20

0.2

10

0.

25
0.
6

0.
7

13

0.05

0.
65

23

0.
67
5

72
5

0.1

0.

0.
75

0.
77
5

0.15

Sqma 5.2: H adistath analoga mazn twn netrnwn (5.53) wc sunrthsh twn gwnin
23 , 13 .
95

70
60

50
40
30
20
10

75
0.7
5
0.7
25
0.7

23

0.7
75
0.6
5
0.6

25
0.6

0
0.6 .5

0.5

0.
55

0.5
75

0.6

0.6
25

0.6
5

12

25

Sqma 5.3: H adistath analoga mazn twn netrnwn (5.53) wc sunrthsh twn gwnin
23 , 12 .

70
60

50
40
30
20
10

0.6

5
25
0.6

12

0.2

0.6
0.5

75
5
0.5
0.5

0.1
25

0
0.5

0.0
5

0.1
5

13

Sqma 5.4: H adistath analoga mazn twn netrnwn (5.53) wc sunrthsh twn gwnin
12 , 13 .
96

ikanopoiontai. An peraitrw apaithje 23 = /4 ma akmh sunjkh prokptei 4 = 6 .

Gia pardeigma, upojtwntac

m 4 = 0 kai
m 6 = 0, o pnakac mzac twn netrnwn parnei
thn morf

m 1
m 2
m 3

M =
(5.54)
m 2
0
m 5

m 3
m 5
0
An autc o pnakac enai se sumfwna me to perama, prpei na pargei M,12 = M,21
M,13 kai M,23 1. O parapnw formalismc apokalptei kai ma akmh endiafron
idithta tou pnaka (5.54). An h mxh enai mgisth, dhlad 23 = 4 , tte o pnakac
(5.54) odhge se ekfulism twn do idiotimn

m1 m2 = m0 cos2 13

m3 = m0 1 + e2 sin2 13

(5.55)
(5.56)

'Etsi, h mgisth mxh se aut thn perptwsh aporrptetai mic kai odhge se m2sol = 0.

5.5.2 H prosjkh tou deterou zegouc monrwn pedwn

Upenjumzetai oti oi parmetroi m0 , n0 kajorzoun touc leptonikoc pnakec. 'Etsi, son
afor ta m0 , n0 prokptoun oi exc periptseic:
1. An m0 rtio kai n0 peritt, dhlad m0 = 2p kai n0 = 2q + 1, (pou p, q akraioi),
tte mno ta stoiqea m12 = m21 , m13 = m31 enai mh mhdenik ston pnaka mzac
twn netrnwn. Se aut thn perptwsh, o pnakac mzac twn netrnwn sbetai ma Lf =
Le L L summetra geshc, odhgntac se bimaximal (12 , 23 ) mxh, antstrofh
ierarqa stic mzec twn netrnwn kai pio sugkekrimna ekfulism stic idiokatastseic
twn do prtwn genin m1 = m2 en m3 = 0. Antjeta, o antstoiqoc pnakac mzac
twn fortismnwn leptonwn den sbetai thn summetra Lf .
2. An kai oi parmetroi m0 kai n0 enai perittc, tte m13 = m31 6= 0 kai m23 = m32 6= 0,
en la ta lla stoiqea tou pnaka mzac twn netrnwn mhdenzontai. Shmeinetai oti
aut h dom tou pnaka twn netrnwn emfanzei ma Le + L L summetra.
3. Sthn perptwsh pou m0 = 2p + 1, n0 = 2q , ta mh mhdenik stoiqea enai ta m12 =
m21 6= 0, m23 = m32 6= 0, en h summetra enai h Le L + L .
4. 'Otan kai oi do parmetroi enai rtioi akraioi, m0 = 2p, n0 = 2q , la ta stoiqea
tou C gnontai hmiakraioi kai o pnakac mzac twn netrnwn mhdenzetai. Sunepc,
sbetai ma Le + L + L summetra. Apo thn llh pleur, la ta stoiqea tou Me
e
enai mh mhdenik lgw twn mh epakanonikopoihmnwn rwn Cij .
Up to fc thc ektetamnhc anlushc twn prohgomenwn edafwn, twn opown leptomreiec
parousisthkan sto Parrthma A, sumperanetai ti oi periptseic 2 kai 3 den mporon
na perigryoun ta peiramatik dedomna. H 4 en gia na zegoc monrwn pedwn Higgs
97

m0
2p
2p + 1
2p + 1
2p

n0
2q + 1
2q + 1
2q
2q

A
mij 6= 0

r + 1/2 m12 , m21 , m13 , m31

r + 1/2 m13 , m31 , m23 , m32
r + 1/2 m12 , m21 , m23 , m32
r + 1/2
kanna

M -Summetra
Le L L
Le + L L
Le L + L
Le + L + L

Pnakac 5.4: Oi summetrec touc pnaka mzac Majorana twn netrnwn sthn perptwsh enc zegouc monrwn pedwn Higgs me U (1)X forta 1 gia tic 4 dunatc epilogc twn
paramtrwn m0 , n0 .
aporrptetai, pwc ja deiqje sthn sunqeia h prosjkh enc akma zegouc pedwn ja
dsei apodekt apotelsmata. Ston pnaka 5.4 sugkentrnontai lec oi periptseic.
'Opwc edame kai sto prohgomeno edfio, na bisimo set apo leptonikoc pnakec kai
gwnec mxhc mpore na prokyei gia thn epilog m0 =rtio kai n0 =peritt. An grafte
m0 = 2 p, n0 = 2 q + 1, A = r + 21 me p, q, r akraiouc, ta stoiqea tou pnaka twn U (1)X
fortwn twn fortismnwn leptonwn (5.17) gnontai

2q + 1 p + q + 12 q + 12
2p
p
(5.57)
Ce = p + q + 12
1
q+2
p
0
en gia ta netrna

p+q+r+1 q+r+1
2q + r + 32
C = p + q + r + 1 2p + r + 12 p + r + 12 .
q+r+1
p + r + 12
r + 12

(5.58)

Oi epilogc tou Pnaka 5.3 dnoun sta stoiqea twn (5.57), (5.58) thn morf

Ce =

7
9
2
7
2

2
1
2 1 , C = 2 21 32
1 0
1 32 52
9
2

7
2

9
2

(5.59)

'Opwc dh anafrjhke, o pnakac mzac twn netrnwn sbetai mi summetra geshc Le

L L en den mpore na ermhnesei ta peiramatik dedomna. Jewrntac na epiplon
zegoc monrwn pedwn aut h summetra mpore na spsei kai na odhgsei se ma dom
h opoa enai se apluth sumfwna me ta peiramatik dedomna. 'Ena kainorgio zegoc
monrwn pedwn (,
) mpore na prosteje me katllhla U (1)X forta kai na anaptxei
vevs (arke na ikanopoietai h sunjkh D epipedthtac (5.5) ). Gia pardeigma, gia na enai
dunat h parxh enc mh mhdeniko stoiqeou 23, to forto tou deterou monrouc pedou
ja prpei na ikanopoie thn exswsh sQ 23 = 0, pou s akraioc. Aut uponoe oti
3
Q = 2s
{ 32 , 34 , 12 , 83 }. Ed gnetai h epilog Q = 32 kai epomnwc Q = 32 .

98

Tra jewrontai oti ta do na monrh peda ,

apokton vevs kai dhlnetai = hi
,
M
hi

= M . Se analoga me thn (5.11) orzetai

k
an k = [k] < 0
k
k an k = [k] > 0
=
(5.60)

0 an k 6= [k]
Tte, gia Q =
mroc ) enai

3
2

na stoiqeo tou pnaka mzac mij me forto Nij +

mij =

1
2

(me Nij to akraio

yij` Nij 3`1 2`+1

(5.61)

`=1,0,1,...

yij`

pou
enai suntelestc Yukawa prthc txhc. Apo thn llh pleur, na stoiqeo mzac
mij me akraio forto Nij enai
X
mij =
yij` Nij 3` 2`
(5.62)
`=1,0,1,...

Ac upoteje oti p = 1, q = 3 tsi ste m0 = 2, n0 = 7, pwc sthn (5.59). Tte

2 3
1 3
+ y12
+ . . .
me12 = y12

(5.63)

1 2
+ . . .
me13 = y13

(5.64)

kai moia gia ta lla stoiqea tou pnaka mzac. Se aut to shmeo prpei na toniste oti
se ma realistik kataskeu montlou apo thn jewra qordn, lgw epiplon diakritn
summetrin, arketo mh epakanonikopoisimoi roi sta ajrosmata (5.61), (5.62) mpore na
mhdenzontai.
kai , enai sthn
Sthn kataskeu twn pinkwn mzac gnetai h upjesh oti ta ,

diataraktik perioq kai sunepc jewrontai mh epakanonikopoisimoi roi mno mqri 4

txhc. Agnontac gia eukola touc suntelestc yij , oi pnakec mzac grfontai sunartsei
kai , c exc: Gia ta fortismna leptnia enai
twn ,

7
3 + 3
2 +

3
3 + 3
2 + 2
+ 2 2
Me ' me0
(5.65)
2
3
2 2

+
+
1
en gia ta netrna

3 + 3
2 + 2
+ 2 2

2 + 2
+ 2

M = m0
2 2

(5.66)

Parathretai oti an jewrhjon mno suneisforc apo ta , , o pnakac mzac twn netrnwn
emfanzei ma summetra L L . Epomnwc, sthn perptwsh pou emfanzontai 2 zegh
monrwn pedwn Higgs la ta stoiqea gia touc pnakec mzac twn fortismnwn leptonwn kai
twn netrnwn gnontai mh mhdenik. Parola aut mporon na upotejon ierarqec anmesa
99

 , kai na dhmiourghjon proseggistik mhdenik se oriakc periptseic pou

stic vevs , ,
kpoiec apo tic vevs jewrontai mhdenikc amelhtec se sgkrish me kpoiec llec.
prokptei anlogh dom me thn (5.30)
'Etsi, an upoteje oti 0, kai <

3
2 0
M = m0

(5.67)

1 kai agnontac rouc 4 txhc, an < mpore na proseggiste o

Upojtwntac
pnakac mzac gia ta netrna c

2 0
(5.68)
M = m0 2 0
0

An apo thn llh isqei >

0 2 0
M = m0 2 2
0

(5.69)

1 enai
Gia 1 kai upojtwntac

0 0

M = m0 0

(5.70)

'Ena shmantik sqlio se aut to shmeo. H perptwsh 4 pou anafretai sthn arq auto tou
edafou, h opoa odhgose se mhdenik pnaka mzac gia ta netrna tra me thn eisagwg tou
deterou zegouc monrwn pedwn epibinei. Sunepc, epilgontac n0 = 8, m0 = 2,A = 92 ,
h2 = 14 gia to U (1)X forto tou Higgs, `1 = 2, `2 = 1, `3 = 2 kai Q, = 12 oi
katalhktiko pnakec enai oi
7
8 5 4

5
2
, M = m0 5 7
Me = me0
(5.71)
4
7
9

1

Prkeitai gia nan pnaka pou odhge se antstrofh ierarqa kai meglh mxh gia .

5.5.3 Arijmhtik anlush

Ec tra djhkan endeiktikc timc stic paramtrouc. Ed ja melethje o (5.66), pou enai

tou tpou
m = m0 4 6 , o opooc sthn prosggish kai 1 gnetai

2
3

M = m0 2
(5.72)
0

0
100

n0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

me0
1685.27
1685.33
1694.54
1700.30
1717.55
1735.09
1755.26
1759.96
1772.21
1775.19
1775.70

b
0.106904
0.114839
0.109728
0.09143
0.088453
0.090929
0.116885
0.124525
0.103441
0.110105
0.127301

d
0.662742
0.662618
0.643608
0.630442
0.583331
0.518201
0.401999
0.362853
0.203602
0.128032
0.109161

0.410916
0.401166
0.39885
0.418435
0.407698
0.390316
0.346965
0.337367
0.353084
0.344582
0.328114

0.341056
0.340994
0.33211
0.326475
0.309176
0.290874
0.268733
0.263384
0.24901
0.245416
0.24479

0.241615
0.24267
0.239861
0.234507
0.229562
0.223921
0.217379
0.215189
0.205992
0.204041
0.204962

0.072256
0.064982
0.063127
0.074418
0.068114
0.058959
0.040692
0.037264
0.044141
0.039409
0.033917

Pnakac 5.5: Oi arijmhtikc timc gia tic paramtrouc gia 11 epilegmnec periptseic oi
opoec ikanopoion ta peiramatik dedomna gia tic mzec twn leptonwn kai tic gwnec mxhc.
Oi me0 , b, d, kai kajorzontai apo ton pnaka mzac twn fortismnwn leptonwn. Oi
uploipec parmetroi kai brskontai apo ton m .
pou enai parmetroc Yukawa thc txhc thc mondac. Sto rio , 0 brsketai h
aplosterh perptwsh tou enc zegouc monrwn pedwn. Aut h perptwsh meletjhke
se prohgomeno edfio pou o pnakac twn netrnwn sbetai ma Le L L pou plon
spei lgw twn suneisforn tou deterou zegouc monrwn pedwn. Ed ja dhmiourghjon
arijmhtikc timc gia ta , , pou ikanopoion ta peiramatik dedomna. 'Omwc, ja prpei
na shmeiwje oti mno na upost twn timn pou ja dhmiourghjon mporon na rjoun se
sumfwna me tic sunjkec pou epibllontai apo ton leptonik pnaka mzac.
H anlush xekin me ton pnaka mzac twn fortismnwn leptonwn. Apo thn stigm pou
o pnakac twn fortismnwn leptonwn qei ligterouc bajmoc eleujerac apo ekenon twn
netrnwn, epiplon stajerc ja prpei na eisaqjon. O elqistoc arijmc pou apaitetai tsi
ste na ftsoume se ma lsh enai 3 (me0 , b, d ). Me autn ton trpo (qrhsimopointac
thn dia prosggish , 1) o leptonikc pnakac mzac gnetai
7

b 3 0

Me = me0 b 3 2 d
(5.73)
0 d 1
An epijuma apotele h ergasa sthn diataraktik perioq, ja prpei na apaithje oi timc
twn kai na enai mikrterec apo thn monda, en oi timc twn stajern b kai d na enai
to pol thc txhc thc mondac. To qnoc tou pnaka Me isotai me to jroisma twn mazn
twn fortismnwn leptonwn. Gia autn ton lgo anamnetai h tim thc stajerc me0 na enai
grw apo thn tim thc mzac tou -leptonou. Ktw apo arijmhtik dierenhsh, oi lseic oi
opoec ikanopoion ta kritria brjhkan kai parousizontai stic stlec 2-5 tou Pnaka 5.5.
'Olec autc oi lseic antistoiqon se leptonikc mzec me = 0.51 MeV m = 105.66 MeV
kai m = 1777.05 MeV. O pnakac Me mpore na diagwnopoihje msw enc orjogniou
101

pnaka Ul tsi ste

diagonal (me , m , m ) = Ul Me Ul|

H austhr ierarqa twn mazn twn fortismnwn leptonwn |me | m < m epiblei isqurc
sunjkec sta stoiqea tou Ul . Epeid ta Me,11 kai Me,12 enai amelhta, ta idiodiansmata
pou antistoiqon stic idiotimc m kai m prpei na enai thc morfc e3 = [ 0, 0, 1] kai
e2 = [ 0, 1, 0] lgw orjokanonikthtac. Tte, h orjokanonikthta dnei kai to trto
idiodinusma e1 = [ 1, 0, 0]. H arijmhtik anlush epibebainei aut to sumprasma.
Prgmati, epilgontac apo ton Pnaka 5.5 b = 0.106904, d = 0.662742, = 0.410916,
= 0.341056 brsketai

0.993337 0.112408 0.0254002

0.965657 0.23287
(5.74)
Ul = 0.115231
0.00164859 0.234245 0.972176
en gia thn qamhlterh lsh b = 0.127301, d = 0.109161, = 0.328114, = 0.24479
prokptei

0.997154
0.0753675 0.00201336
0.996752 0.0283198
Ul = 0.0753943
(5.75)
0.000127579 0.028391
0.999597
Kat sunpeia, o Ul metafrei mno mikr mxh sto toma twn netrnwn afo enai kont ston
monadiao pnaka se lec tic periptseic. O pnakac mzac twn netrnwn mpore na grafte
c
m,diag = Ul M Ul|
kai na diagwnopoihje apo nan orjognio pnaka o opooc kai mpore na tautopoihje me
ton Un (5.50). Oi stlec 6,7 tou Pnaka 5.5 deqnoun tic timc twn enapomeinntwn paramtrwn , pou kajorzontai apo ton pnaka mzac twn netrnwn. Apo aut thn tautopohsh
prokptoun kai oi timc gia tic gwnec 12 , 13 , 23 . Ta apotelsmata ikanopoion la ta
peiramatik dedomna.
Ston Pnaka 5.6 anagrfontai ta apotelsmata gia thn klmaka mzac twn netrnwn m0 (
5.72) kai tic gwnec mxhc ij oi opoec enai se sumfwna me ta peiramatik dedomna. Stic
prtec do stlec fanontai to nw kai ktw rio thc m0 en oi uploipec deqnoun tic 3
gwnec mxhc.
Tloc, h sqetik parmetroc me thn dipl aposnjesh bta (0 ) enai
X
Ue2i mi
mee =

(5.76)

en ta peirmata thn oriojeton mee exp [0.55 1.10] eV. Oi problyeic kai gia ta 11
montla gia m0 = m0max enai smfwnec me autn thn perioq kai dnontai ston Pnaka 5.7.
Se aut to shmeo shmeinontai kpoiec parathrseic pnw stic lseic pou brjhkan.
Katarqn, parathretai oti lec oi anamenmenec msec timc keno brskontai sthn diatara pwc kai arqik eqe upoteje. Apo touc pnakec twn lsewn
ktik perioq, en
102

n0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

m0 min
0.377324
0.235305
0.227853
0.259091
0.280139
0.301829
0.367913
0.385085
0.670619
0.377407
0.404905

m0 max
0.421945
0.312101
0.302218
0.343651
0.371568
0.400338
0.487989
0.510765
0.753771
0.500582
0.537054

sin2 12
0.37482
0.389747
0.379206
0.342147
0.329176
0.325867
0.358503
0.365593
0.315931
0.327493
0.353621

sin2 13
0.053167
0.044787
0.042058
0.055435
0.046816
0.036055
0.019655
0.017262
0.022377
0.018809
0.015066

sin2 23
0.549865
0.555663
0.552185
0.539129
0.531798
0.521448
0.503853
0.496102
0.453056
0.437599
0.436352

Pnakac 5.6: Ta nw kai ktw ria gia thn m0 , h opoa orsthke sthn (5.72) fanontai stic
do prtec stlec en oi timc gia tic sin2 ij kai gia tic 11 periptseic parousizontai stic
uploipec 3.

m0max
0.421945
0.312101
0.302218
0.343651
0.371568
0.400338
0.487989
0.510765
0.753771
0.500582
0.537054

m1
0.0677911
0.0496165
0.0460616
0.0525161
0.0516527
0.049542
0.0501541
0.0502146
0.0695465
0.0446707
0.0464765

m2
0.0672912
0.0486496
0.0450185
0.0516036
0.0507248
0.0485738
0.0491979
0.0492598
0.0690545
0.0435943
0.0454431

m3
0.0287763
0.0191827
0.0181325
0.0242644
0.024252
0.0228372
0.0194268
0.0186574
0.0326878
0.0194047
0.0179377

mee
0.0178
0.0117
0.0118
0.0173
0.0182
0.0178
0.0146
0.0139
0.0259
0.0158
0.0140

(5.77)

P 2
Pnakac 5.7: H parmetroc mee =
Uei mi pou sqetzetai me thn dipl aposnjesh bta
gia tic mgistec timc thc klmakac m0 . 'Olec oi mzec ekfrzontai se eV .

103

mpore na upologiste to mgejoc twn stoiqewn pnaka kajc kai oi gwnec mxhc. Mpore
na elegqje oti gia lec tic lseic isqei m11 m23 afo 3 , pwc fanetai kai sto
sqma 5.5. Kat sunpeia ta aujareta stoiqea tou pnaka meinontai kai h summetra tou
auxnei. Epshc sto sqma 5.6 fanontai ta stoiqea me22 , me23 gia tic arijmhtikc lseic.

Sqma 5.5: Ta stoiqea pnaka m11 , m23 gia tic lseic tou Pnaka 5.6.
Mlista to montlo 9 enai exairetik summetrik afo m11 m23 kai me22 me23 Oi gwnec

Sqma 5.6: Ta stoiqea pnaka me22 , me23 gia tic lseic tou Pnaka 5.6.
mxhc ij fanontai sto sqma 5.7 kai gia tic 11 lseic tou Pnaka 5.6. 'Opwc mpore na
diapistwje kai apo to sqma 5.8, grw sthn lsh 8 lambnoume thn proseggistik sqsh
12 + 13 23 . Aut enai se sumfwna me thn prsfath prbleyh sqetik me thn sumplh
c
c

c
4 pou 12
+ 12
kai 12
13
rwmatikthta kourk-leptonwn h opoa kai dhlnei oti 12
enai h gwna Cabibbo.

104

 12 , 13 , 23

40
30
20
10

10

Solutions

Sqma 5.7: Oi gwnec mxhc gia tic lseic tou Pnaka 5.6.

12 + 13 , 23

50

48

46

44

10

Solutions

.
23
+ 13
Sqma 5.8: Elgqontac thn sunjkh 12

105

106

Keflaio 6
Montla Pati-Salam
6.1 Eisagwg
H ida twn megaloenopoihmnwn jewrin (GUTs), h opoa baszetai se aplc omdec pwc
h SU (5) h SO(10) kai qarakthrzontai apo ma stajer zexhc gGU T , enai na pol elkustik senrio son afor thn fusik pra apo to kajierwmno prtupo. Ma endiafrousa
enallaktik lsh protjhke apo touc Pati-Salam [67] me omda summetrac GS GW . Ma
epilog h opoa uposthrzetai apo ta peiramatik dedomna gia thn isqur omda enai h
GS = SU (4), me ton leptonik arijm na pazei ton rlo tou ttartou qrmatoc, en GW
epilgetai h SU (2)2 . Kajc mwc epiteqjhke h kataskeu montlwn stic 4 diastseic
kateujean apo tic jewrec qordn, diapistjhke oti mno mikrc anaparastseic enai diajsimec sto eppedo k = 1 thc lgebrac Kac-Moody. To prblhma ljhke sthn ergasa [68]
pou brjhke oti h summetra Pati-Salam SU (4) SU (2)L SU (2)R , qwrc thn eisagwg
epiplon U (1) summetrin, pwc sto anapodogurismno SU (5), mpore na spsei sto kajierwmno prtupo me peda Higgs se anaparstash mikrterh apo thn prosarthmnh. Sthn
ousa kpoioc qreizetai mno 2 mh plreic pollaplthtec Higgs twn 16 kai 16 thc SO(10)
ste na spsei thn summetra bajmdac se antjesh me tic terstiec 54 kai 126 pou qrhsimopoiontan wc tte. Ed ja melethje to montlo pou parousisthke sthn ergasa [68].
Sthn sunqeia ja perigrafe ma epktas tou apo mia U (1)X summetra oikogeneac [69] tsi
ste na ikanopoihjon ta qamhlc enrgeiac peiramatik dedomna gia ta netrna.

107

6.2 To upersummetrik montlo SU (4) SU (2)L

SU (2)R
Ja parousiaste to swmatidiak perieqmeno tou montlou kai oi idithtec metasqhmatismo
tou ktw apo thn summetra G = SU (4) SU (2)L SU (2)R . Ta aristerstrofa kourk
kai leptnia topojetontai stic paraktw anaparastseic,

a
F iL

= (4, 2, 1) =

i
F xR = (
4, 1, 2) =

u
d e

dc ec
uc c

(6.1)

i
(6.2)

pou = 1, . . . , 4 enai nac dekthc SU (4), a, x = 1, 2 enai dektec SU (2)L,R , kai i =

1, 2, 3 enai dekthc oikogneiac. Oi anaparastseic F kai F kai to fusik perieqmeno pou
djhke se autc enai ekeno to opoo emfanzetai tan gnetai h anagwg thc spinoriakc
anaparstashc thc SO(10) ktw apo thn SU (4) SU (2)L SU (2)R ,

16 (4, 2, 1) + (
4, 1, 2)

(6.3)

, ta opoa parnoun
'Oson afor ton toma Higgs thc jewrac, uprqoun 2 Higgs H kai H
meglec vevs kai mpanoun stic anaparastseic,

= (4, 1, 2) =

kai

x = (
H
4, 1, 2) =

uH H
dH eH
uc
ecH
H
c
c
dH H

(6.4)

(6.5)

Ta peda Higgs ta opoa ja dsoun mza sta ferminia kai ja pragmatopoisoun to spsimo
thc summetrac SU (2)L U (1)Y prokptoun apo thn anagwg thc 10-distathc anaparstashc thc SO(10)
10 (6, 1, 1) + (1, 2, 2) D + h
(6.6)
'Etsi, maz me to aparathto pedo Higgs h

hxa

= (1, 2, 2) =

h+ u h0 d
h0 u h d

(6.7)

emfanzetai na exadistato ktw apo thn SU (4) pedo, to opoo ja prpei na parnei meglh
mza peita apo to spsimo thc summetrac. Akma, uprqoun 4 bajmwt peda 0 kai i
(i = 1, 2, 3) 0 = i = (1, 1, 1).
(1)H(H)
to uperdunamik
Ktw apo tic summetrec 1,2,3 (1)1,2,3 kai H(H)
thc jewrac grfetai:
ij
ij

W = ij
1 FiL FjR h + 2 HHD + 3 H HD + 4 H FjR i + 5 0 i j + 6 hh0

108

(6.8)

Mpore plon na suzhthje to spsimo thc summetrac bajmdoc. 'Otan ta peda Higgs H
anaptxoun vevs kat mkoc twn oudterwn sunistwsn touc H , c ,
kai H
H
c
= h
hHi = h
H i MGU T , hHi
H
i MGU T

(6.9)

spne to SU (4)SU (2)R mroc thc summetrac odhgntac sthn summetra tou kajierwmnou
protpou sthn klmaka MGU T

SU(4) SU(2)L SU(2)R SU(3)C SU(2)L U(1)Y .

(6.10)

Ac to dome mwc aut lgo pio analutik.

Kje pedo kpoiou swmatou sqetzetai me ma mh anagwgsimh anaparstash thc G
tsi ste sthn langkranzian L na kuriarqe h analloithta ktw apo thn G. Gia na parathrontai oi H/M, asjenec kai isqurc allhlepidrseic, ja prpei h G na periqei thn
summetra tou kajierwmnou protpou wc upoomda. Ta perieqmena mic mh anagwgsimhc
anaparstashc mic omdac se sqsh me tic mh anagwgsimec anaparastseic mic upoomdac
onomzontai kannec diakldwshc. H gnsh autn enai aparathth gia thn melth enopoihmnwn montlwn. 'Etsi kai ed, qontac kat nou touc kannec diakldwshc katanmontai
ta swmtia tou kajierwmnou protpou stic anaparastseic tou SU (4) SU (2)L SU (2)R .
'Epeita loipn apo to spsimo thc SU (4) SU (2)R summetrac ja enai :

1
1
FL (4, 2, 1) Q(3, 2, ) + `(1, 2, )
6
2
2
1
FR (
4, 1, 2) uc (
3, 1, ) + dc (
3, 1, ) + c (1, 1, 0) + ec (1, 1, 1)
3
3
2
1
c

H(
4, 1, 2) ucH (
3, 1, ) + dcH (
3, 1, ) + H
(1, 1, 0) + ecH (1, 1, 1)
3
3
2
1
H(4, 1, 2) uH (3, 1, ) + dH (3, 1, ) + H (1, 1, 0) + eH (1, 1, 1)
3
3
1
3 (3,
1, 1 )
D(6, 1, 1) D3 (3, 1, ) + D
3
3
1
1
h(1, 2, 2) hd (1, 2, ) + hu (1, 2, )
2
2
H omda SU (4) spei sthn SU (3) U (1)BL . H qrwmatik anagwg thc prosarthmnhc
anaparstashc (15) thc SU (4) enai

15 8 + 3 +
3+1

(6.11)

Dhlad, emfanzetai h sunhjismnh oktda gklouonwn, mia qrwmatist triplta, mia

antitriplta kai mia oudterh singlet. Ta peda uH , ucH , eH , ecH kai ta dianusmatik mpoznia
pou antistoiqon se kpoio sunduasm tou B L genntora kai tou I3R genntora tou
SU (2)R parnoun mza thc txhc thc MGU T . O orjognioc sunduasmc twn prohgomenwn
dhmiourge thn U (1)Y tou kajierwmnou protpou. Oi qrwmatistc tripltec dH , dcH parnoun mza msw twn 2 , 3 rwn tou uperdunamiko. Ktw apo to spsimo (6.10), h diplta
109

Higgs h angetai se 2 dipltec Higgs hu , hd twn opown h oudterh sunistsa sthn sunqeia
anaptssei vevs sthn asjen klmaka,
hhd0 i = v1 , hhu0 i = v2

(6.12)

me tan v2 /v1 . To pedo 0 ja prei vev sthn hlektrasjen klmaka ( = h0 i O(mW ))

tsi ste na pragmatopoisei thn mxh twn dipletn Higgs, en to i ja prei mroc se nan
ektetamno mhqanism airac kat ton opoo ta aristerstrofa netrna ja proun elafric
mzec Majorana.
Se autn ton sumbolism h anlush diafrwn rwn se SU(3)C SU(2)L U(1)Y peda
enai,

FL FR h = Quc hu + Qdc hd + `ec hd + ` c hu

a
3
D3 + uaH eaH D
HHD = uaH daH D3 + daH H
c c
c c
HD
= uc dc D

H
H H 3 + dH H D3 + uH eH D3

(6.13)

H F = uH uc + dH dc + H c + eH ec
hh = hu hd + hd hu
3 ,D3 (tic qrwmatistc tripltec pou emfanzontai
Oi roi mzac pou sqetzontai me ta D
peita apo to spsimo thc D6 ) enai:
2W
c
c c
= H
3 3 H
dH D3
c

dH D3

(6.14)

2W
3
= H 2 2 H dH D

dH D
3

(6.15)

c
'Etsi, tan ta peda Higgs proun vevs kat mkoc twn oudterwn sunistwsn touc H , H
,
c
= h
hHi = h
H i MGU T , hHi
H
i MGU T

(6.16)

oi roi 2 kai 3 gnontai

c
3
3 hH
idcH D3 + 2 hH idH D
(6.17)
3 , D3 gia na sqhmatsoun katastseic mzac thc txhc tou
Ta dH , dcH sunduzontai me ta D
c
MGU T hH
i, hH i. 'Etsi, den uprqei kndunoc aposnjeshc tou prwtonou.

'Oson afor ton prto ro tou uperdunamiko autc ja dsei mza kai sta 16 ferminia

2W
p q
pq

= ij
1 i j h 1 Fp Fq h

Fp Fq

(6.18)

tan ta peda Higgs spsoun thn hlektrasjen summetra. Pi sugkekrimna:

ij
ij
ij
ij
c u
c d
c d
c u

ij
1 Fi Fj hhi 1 Qi uj hh i + 1 Qi dj hh i + 1 `i ej hh i + 1 `i j hh i =
ij
c
c
c
c
= mij
u (ui uj + i j ) + md (di dj + ei ej )

110

(6.19)

ij
ij
ij
pou mij
u = 1 2 , md = 1 1 . 'Etsi, suneqzoun na ufstantai oi sqseic apo prohgomenec
GUT jewrec md = me , mu = m mic kai oi zexeic Yukawa ikanopoion tic paraktw
sunoriakc sunjkec:
ij
ij
ij
ij
ij
1 (MGU T ) U (MGU T ) = D (MGU T ) = E (MGU T ) = N (MGU T ).

(6.20)

'Otan to pedo Higgs H prei vev tte apo ton ro H F prokptei

Epshc,

2W
c
c j ij
h
H i ic j = ij
= ij
hHi
4 MGU T i j
4
4
i

Fq

(6.21)

2W
= ki lj
k l

(6.22)

'Etsi, to uperdunamik (6.8) odhge ston paraktw pnaka mzac gia ta netrna:

0
mij
0
u
0
MGU T
M, c , = mji
u
0 MGU T

(6.23)

sthn bsh (i , jc , k ). Diagwnopohsh tou parapnw dnei 3 elafr netrna me mza thc
2
txhc (mij
u /MGU T ) kai afnei ta dexistrofa Majorana netrna me mzec thc txhc tou
MGU T .

6.3 Exisseic thc omdac epakanonikopohshc

H basik ida se ma megaloenopoihmnh jewra bajmdac enai oti an h summetra GKP =
SU (3) SU (2)L U (1)Y embaptuste se mia megalterh omda summetrac G tte oi epiplon summetrec mporon na periorsoun merikc apo tic aujaretec paramtrouc oi opoec
tan tuqaec sto kajierwmno prtupo. Epiplon, h exlixh thc jewrac tou kajierwmnou
protpou se uyhlc ormc Q2 se sqsh me thn hlektrasjen klmaka odhge se ma perioq
energein pou h isqur, h asjenc kai h hlektromagnhtik allhlepdrash gnontai diec kai
den mporon na diakrijon katalgontac ousiastik se mia jewra pou uprqei mno ma
stajer szeuxhc. En h omda G enai apl tte h jewra qei mno ma stajer szeuxhc.
Sunepc, oi megaloenopoihmnec jewrec bajmdac enai se jsh na exhgsoun thn enopohsh
twn stajern szeuxhc. Jewrntac ta parapnw apo ma llh optik gwna ja mporose
na pe kpoioc oti oi parathromenec allhlepidrseic stic qamhlc enrgeiec den enai tpota
llo par to apotlesma tou spasmatoc thc enopoihmnhc summetrac G.
Oi exisseic thc omdac epakanonikopohshc (EOE) qarakthrzoun thn epdrash thc allagc thc paramtrou klmakac m, h opoa aparathta eisgetai sthn epakanonikopohsh thc
jewrac kai qei diastseic mzac, stic sunartseic Green thc jewrac. Oi suntelestc se
autc tic exisseic sqetzontai me thn peperasmnh allag h opoa kai epiblletai apo thn
allag thc paramtrou m sthn peirh kumatosunrthsh, sthn mza kai stic epakanonikopoisimec stajerc brqwn thc jewrac. Sto epmeno edfio, pou ja melethje mia epktash
111

tou montlou Pati Salam pou parousisthke, ja apodeiqjon aparathtec oi EOE gia tic
suzexeic bajmdac. Gia lgouc pou ja anaferjon eke sthn anlush ja jewrhjon sto
fsma thc jewrac Pati-Salam kai ta peda

hL (1, 2, 1) hL (1, 2, 0)
1
1

hR (1, 1, 2) h+
(6.24)
R (1, 1, ) + hR (1, 1, )
2
2
ta opoa kai prokptoun se montla qordn kai brann. Oi EOE gia tic stajerc zexhc
dnontai se txh 2 brqwn apo thn sqsh

isodnama epeid i =

di
2
1 X
= i (bi +
bij j )
dt
2
4

(6.25)

g3
gi3 X
dgi
= i 2 bi +
bij gj2
dt
16
(16 2 )2

(6.26)

gi2
4

Pnw apo thn klmaka MGU T oi (6.25),(6.26) gnontai

1
6
2
2
1
0
0
2
bi = 6 + 2 ng + 0 nH + 1 nh + 0 nD + 12 n2L + 0 n2R
12
2
1
0
1
0
0

24 0
0
14 0 15
bij = 0 24 0 + 0 14 15 ng +
0
0 96
3 3 31

7
0
0
2
+ 0 0 0 n2R +
0 0 0

14 0 15
7 3 0
0 0 0 nH + 3 7 0 nh
3 0 31
0 0 0
2

0 0 0
0 0 0
0 72 0 n2L + 0 0 0 nD
0 0 0
0 0 18

pou i, j = (2R , 2L , 4). Ktw apo thn enrgeia MGU T kuriarqe h upersummetrik epktash
tou kajierwmnou protpou SU (3)c SU (2)L U (1)Y kai oi suntelestc gnontai

1
3
0
2
10
5
bi = 6 + 2 ng + 12 n2 + 0 n3
1
0
9
2
2

0 0
0
bij = 0 24 0 +
0 0 54

38
15
2
5
11
15

6
5

14
3

88
15

8 ng +

68
3

9
50
3
10

9
10
7
2

4
0
0
75

0 n2 +
0 0
2
0
0
15

16
15

0 n3

17
3

pou i, j = (1, 2, 3). Stic parapnw exisseic nD enai o arijmc twn exadistatwn pedwn
(6, 1, 1), to nH metrei tic (4, 1, 2) anaparastseic Higgs oi opoec spne thn SU (4), nh enai
112

o arijmc twn (1,2,2) Higgs, n2L(R) enai oi (1, 2, 1) kai (1, 1, 2) anaparastseic, en ng enai
o arijmc twn oikogenein. Akma n3 enai o arijmc twn qrwmatistn tripltwn kai n2
enai o arijmc twn pedwn Higgs.
Sta plasia twn jewrin pou prokptoun apo tic uperqordc, lec oi allhlepidrseic
enopoiontai sthn klmaka thc qordc MU h opoa kai enai kont sthn klmaka Planck.
Ousiastik, h stajer szeuxhc gi pou sqetzetai me ma mh abelian summetra bajmdac
2
Gi isotai me gi2 = gki pou g enai h tetradistath stajer thc qordc kai ki enai to akraio eppedo Kac-Moody. Sunepc, autmata epitugqnetai enopohsh lwn twn stajern
szeuxhc gia ki = 1 kti pou kai epiplon eggutai thn apousa exwtikn mazwn anaparastsewn, odhgntac mno se tripltec SU (3) kai/ SU (2) dipltec. Upologismo qoun
dexei oti h klmaka MU enai do txeic megjouc megalterh apo thn tupik klmaka enc
upersummetriko megaloenopoihmnou montlou. H melth twn exissewn thc omdac epakanonikopohshc se autc tic jewrec [72, 73] apdeixe sunpeia thc prbleyhc thc klmakac
enopohshc thc qordc apo tic jewrec uperqordn me ta peiramatik dedomna se qamhlc
enrgeiec. Meglo rlo se aut paixan kai oi epiplon exwtikc katastseic (me mza
diforh tou mhdenc) pou enai anapfeuktec se la ta montla qordn sto k = 1 eppedo
thc lgebrac Kac-Moody. H sugkekrimnh ida meletjhke kai sta plasia thc summetrac
Pati-Salam [74] kai brjhke sunepc me thn enopohsh twn zexewn gia mesaac klmakac
enrgeiec (1011 1014 GeV).

6.4 To upersummetrik SU (4)SU (2)L SU (2)R U (1)X

montlo
Ta peiramatik dedomna [75] upainssontai mia sqsh metax thc leptonikc gwnac mxhc 12 kai thc gwnac Cabibbo c gnwstc kai wc sumplhrwmatikthta kourk-leptonwn
(SKL) 12 + C 4 [54]. 'Eqei apodeiqje [76] oti aut h sqsh mpore na paraqje
en uprqei kpoia summetra anmesa sta kourk kai sta leptnia. Pollo suggrafec [56] proqwrntac pra apo thn upersummetrik ekdoq tou kajierwmnou protpou qoun
prospajsei na petqoun thn sqsh SKL msa apo thn parousa thc omdac bajmdoc
Pati-Salam, h opoa enai logik upoyfia mic kai sqetzei tic leptonikc me tic gwnec
mxhc twn kourk. Se aut to edfio exereunetai to fsma twn mazn twn netrnwn son
afor to SU (4) SU (2) SU (2) U (1)X [53] montlo [69], basismno sta 4-4-2 montla [68, 77, 78, 79] empneusmna apo tic jewrec uperqordn twn opown oi epiptseic stic
mzec twn kourk kai twn leptonwn meletjhkan prsfata sthn ergasa [53] kai qoun
arket elkustik qarakthristik. Prton, anaparastseic Higgs mno mikrc distashc
qreizontai kai autc enai oi mnec epitreptc se montla qordn. Deteron, trthc genic
fermionikc suzexeic Yukawa enopoiontai [80] mqri kpoiec mikrc diorjseic. H enopohsh twn suzexewn bajmdac epitrpetai kai mpore na problefje, an kpoioc upojsei oti to
montlo enai embaptismno sthn upersummetrik qord. Epiplon, to prblhma diaqwrismo
dipltac tripltac (doublet-triplet splitting) den ufstantai.
Se montla ta opoa prokptoun apo jewrec uperqordn nac megloc arijmc oudterwn bajmwtn pedwn emfanzetai sto fsma thc energo jewrac, pou qei kbantikoc
113

arijmoc mno ktw apo thn U(1)X . Oi sunjkec epipedthtac D kai F apaiton orismna
apo aut na apoktsoun mh mhdenikc vevs thc txhc thc energeiakc klmakac sthn opoa
spei h U(1)X summetra. Sto sugkekrimno montlo, gia na anaparaqjon me akrbeia ta
qamhlc enrgeiac peiramatik dedomna gia tic mzec twn netrnwn kai tic gwnec mxhc,
eisgontai do monrh peda , , na me akraio kai na me klasmatik forto ktw apo
thn U (1)X summetra [81]. To prohgomeno montlo [53] me na monrec pedo mporose na
odhgsei se na fsma elafrn netrnwn me kanonik ierarqa kai bi-large mxh. Wstso,
peita apo melth twn EOE brjhke oti h klmaka gia ta elafr netrna enai pol meglh
gia na enai se sumfwna me to perama. An loipn epiblhje h swst klmaka gia ta elafri
netrna, tte kpoia apo ta bari dexistrofa netrna qoun mzec pnw apo thn klmaka
enopohshc, gegonc to opoo enai asmbato me thn prosggish thc energo jewrac pedou
pou akoloujetai ed.
Sunepc, trec anexrthtec paramtroi anptuxhc emfanzontai apo to uperdunamik, do
lgw twn monrwn pedwn kai ma apo ta peda Higgs ta opoa kai apokton msh anamenmenh
tim keno sthn klmaka pou spei h summetra SU (4) SU (2) SU (2). Genik, nac mh
epakanonikopoisimoc telestc mpore na periqei arket ginmena twn pedwn Higgs pou
spne thn SU(4)SU(2)R summetra. 'Etsi, diforec sustolc twn deiktn thc omdac
bajmdac enai pijanc odhgntac se diaforetikc suneisforc oi opoec exartntai apo
touc pargontec Clebsch. Ed ja qrhsimopoihje nac elqistoc arijmc mh tetrimmnwn
paragntwn Clebsch tsi ste na kataskeuaston oi pnakec mzac Dirac. Ta dexistrofa
netrna apokton mzec tpou Majorana msw mh epakanonikopoisimwn suzexewn me ta
U (1)X monrh peda kai me ta peda Higgs en ta elafr netrna parnoun mza msw tou
mhqanismo airac. Oi exisseic thc omdac epakanonikopohshc gia tic mzec twn netrnwn
kai tic gwnec mxhc pnw, anmesa kajc kai ktw apo tic klmakec thc airac lnontai
arijmhtik gia arket snola twn txewc 1 paramtrwn pou kajorzoun to pnaka mzac
twn dexistrofwn barin netrnwn. Se kje perptwsh ta apotelsmata enai se sumfwna
me ta sgqrona peiramatik dedomna.
Parousizetai h ekdoq tou montlou Pati-Salam pou ja melethje. H omda bajmdac
enai h summetra bajmdac Pati-Salam [67] auxanmenh apo ma summetra oikogeneac U (1)X .
'Etsi, ta peda tou montlou pou parousisthke sto edfio 6.2 emfanzontai me nan epiplon
kbantik arijm. Pio sugkekrimna, uprqoun trea antgrafa apo tic (4, 2, 1) + (
4, 1, 2)

anaparastseic tsi ste na topojethjon oi trec genic fermionwn Fi + Fi , i = 1, 2, 3,

c c c c

ui ui ui i
ui ui ui i

, Fi =
Fi =
dci dci di eci
di di di ei
i

pou Fi periqei ta aristerstrofa ferminia tou KP, en Fi periqei tou dexistrofouc

suntrfouc touc sumperilambanomnwn kai twn dexistrofwn netrnwn. Oi dektec i ,
i
anafrontai sta forta twn gwnin twn fermionwn ktw apo thn omda summetrac U (1)X .
Anloga me to prohgomeno edfio gia na enai dunat to spsimo thc summetrac PatiSalam ktw sthn summetra tou KP, do baric anaparastseic Higgs H = (4, 1, 2) kai
= (4, 1, 2) eisgontai
H

c
c
c
u
u
u

uH uH uH H

H
H
H
H
=
, H
H=
dcH dcH dH ecH x
dH dH dH eH x
114

c
,
oi opoec anaptssoun vevs kat mkoc twn oudterwn sunistwsn touc H , H
c
= h
hHi = h
H i MGU T , hHi
H
i MGU T

(6.27)

spzontac thn summetra sthn enrgeia MGU T :

SU(4) SU(2)L SU(2)R SU(3)C SU(2)L U(1)Y .

(6.28)

Epiplon, sto toma Higgs uprqei to h = (1,

2, 2) pedo to opoo peita apo to spsimo
thc summetrac Pati-Salam ja dsei ta do qamhlc enrgeiac uperpeda Higgs tou MSSM.
Akma, do D = (6, 1, 1) bajmwt peda eisgontai tsi ste na dsoun mza stic qrwmati msw twn rwn HHD kai H
HD
[53]. Tloc, do monrh peda
kc tripltec twn H kai H
, eisgontai fortismna ktw apo thn U (1)X summetra afo aut enai arket gia na
perigrafon ta peiramatik dedomna. Ta monrh peda , eisgontai me skop to spsimo
thc anmalhc U (1) summetrac apoktntac vevs oi opoec kai ja prpei na ikanopoion thn
D sunjkh epipedthtac [44] mic kai epijuma apotele h upersummetra na paramenei jikth
mqri thn enrgeia Msusy = 1 TeV. Sunepc, aut qei c apotlesma to aujrmhto spsimo
thc U (1)X summetrac perpou ma txh megjouc ktw apo thn klmaka thc qordc. H anmalh sunjkh epipedthtac D epitrpei lseic pou oi vevs gia ta suzhg peda kai
enai
mhdenikc kai ja perioriste h anlush se autn thn perptwsh. Epiplon monrh peda pou
pwc anafrjhke mpore na emfanzontai, jewretai oti qoun shmantik mikrterec vevs.
Ta peda thc jewrac fanontai ston Pnaka 6.1. Epilgetai to forto tou pedou Higgs h
na enai 3
3 tsi ste h trthc genic szeuxh F3 F3 h na epitrpetai.

Fi
Fi
H

h
D1
D2

SU (4) SU (2)L
4
2
4
1
4
1
4
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
6
1
6
1

SU (2)R
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
1

U (1)X
i

i
x
x
z
z0
3
3
2x
2
x

Pnakac 6.1: Ta peda kai oi kbantiko arijmo touc.

Se aut to shmeo qreizetai prosoq afo ta peda Higgs mpore na proun mza msw twn rwn HH,HH kai HH. Parola aut, gia na enai dunat to spsimo thc
summetrac Pati-Salam kai sugqrnwc h diatrhsh thc upersummetrac apaitetai na zegoc
na paramnei mazo. Anakefalainontac, ed akoloujetai o periorismc se na mno
H -H
, .
antgrafo twn H, H,
Epmeno bma enai h melth twn rwn mzac twn fermionwn tou uperdunamiko. Ta
fortismna ferminia mporon na apoktsoun mno rouc mzac tpou Dirac en ta oudtera
115

mporon na qoun kai mza tpou Dirac kajc kai mza tpou Majorana. Oi roi mzac
Dirac twn fermionwn prokptoun stera apo to spsimo thc hlektrasjenoc summetrac
apo telestc tou uperdunamiko thc morfc

WD =

y033 F3 F3 h

+ Fi Fj h

ij
ym

m>0

ij
yk,`

k,`>0

MU

MU

MU

m
+

ij
ym
0

m0 >0

`
+

ij
yp,q

p,q>0

HH
MU2

MU

ij
yr,s

r,s>0

m0
+

ij
y0n

n>0

HH
MU2

MU

HH
MU2

n
+

MU

(6.29)

pou MU enai h klmaka enopohshc. 'Opwc enai faner apo thn (6.29), apaitetai oi mnoi
roi szeuxhc se eppedo dndrou na enai ekenoi oi opooi sqetzontai me thn trth geni.
Sunepc, mno o roc F3 F3 h emfanzetai se eppedo dndrou sthn (6.29). 'Opwc anafrjhke,
aut h upjesh kajorzei sto forto tou pedou h na enai 3
3 pwc fanetai apo ton
Pnaka 6.1. 'Oloi oi uploipoi roi mzac prokptoun se mh epakanonikopoisimo eppedo.
ij
0 ij
Oi suzexeic ym,m
0 kai y n enai mh mhdenikc kai genik thc txhc thc mondac tan to forto
tou antstoiqou telest

i 3 +
j
3 = {mz, m0 z 0 , n(x + x),
kz `z 0 , p(x + x) qz, r(x + x) sz 0 }.

(6.30)

mhdenzetai. Bbaia, megalterhc txhc telestc mporon na prokyoun pollaplasizontac

` s /M 2`+s gia jetik akraio ` kai s tsi ste `(x + x) + s z = 0. Auto
kje ro me (H H)
U
oi roi lambnontai upyin mno tan o krioc roc mhdenzetai.
Ta oudtera ferminia (netrna), pra apo tic mzec tpou Dirac, mporon na apoktsoun
kai mzec tpou Majorana. Oi roi mzac tpou Majorana prokptoun apo touc telstec

WM

Fi Fj HH
=
MU
+

ij
0

ij
t

t>0

ij
k0 ,`0

k0 ,`0 >0

MU

MU

k 0

MU

ij
t0

t0 >0

`0
+

MU

t0
+

ij
p0 ,q 0

r,s>0

ij
r0 ,s0

ij
0 w

w>0

p0 ,q 0 >0

HH
MU2

HH
MU2

p0

r 0

MU

HH
MU2

MU

q 0
!

s0
+

. (6.31)

Suzexeic autc thc morfc epibinoun tan oi akloujec sunjkec ikanopoiontai

i +
j + 2x = {tz, t0 z 0 , w(x + x),
k 0 z `0 z 0 , p0 (x + x) q 0 z, r0 (x + x) s0 z 0 }.
116

(6.32)

6.4.1 Oi pnakec mzac twn fermionwn

H genik dom
'Opwc enai faner apo touc rouc szeuxhc tou uperdunamiko (6.29) kai (6.31), trec diaforetikc paramtroi anptuxhc periqontai sthn kataskeu twn pinkwn mzac twn
fermionwn. Autc enai

hi
,
MU

MG2
,
MU2

00

hi
MU

(6.33)

= M 2 . Parathretai akma oti nac mh epakanonikopoisimoc

pou gine h upjesh hH Hi
G
2

telestc tpou Dirac mpore na periqei arket ginmena tou H H/M

U , opte kai diforec
sustolc twn deiktn twn omdwn bajmdac enai pijano [79]. Aut mpore na odhgsei se
diaforetikc suneisforc sta pnw, ktw kourk kai leptnia, anloga me touc pargontec
ij
Clebsch Cn(u,d,e,)
pou pollaplasizoun tic energc suzexeic Yukawa. Sunepc, an kai
o pargontac Clebsch gia nan sugkekrimno telest mpore na mhdenzetai se txh n, o
kai q
suntelestc tou telest O(n+p);q o opooc periqei p epiplon pargontec (H H)
pargontec tou kai/ tou enai genik mh mhdenikc.
Sthn anlush pou akolouje epijumetai na melethje to apotlesma sto toma twn netrnwn thc eisagwgc enc deterou monrouc pedou [69] se sqsh me thn anlush pou
parousisthke sthn [53], qwrc na ephreaston ousiastik ta apotelsmata sto toma twn
kourk. Gia na dhmiourghje na snolo apo fermionikoc pnakec mzac me ton elqisto
kai qoun klasmatik U (1)X
dunat arijm telestn, gnetai h upjesh oti ta peda H, H

forto, en thn dia stigm jewretai oti o sunduasmc H H kai to monrec pedo enai akraia fortismna ktw apo thn U (1)X . Dhlad, orzontai oi i ,
i x+ x kai z na enai akraioi
en h z 0 ja jewrhje klasmatik. Me autn ton trpo tan aut ta peda anaptxoun vevs
ja gemsoun touc pnakec mzac twn fermionwn msw twn mh epakanonikopoisimwn rwn
tou uperdunamiko apofegontac upersummetrik mhdenik. Apotlesma twn parapnw enai
oi roi mzac Dirac oi opooi periqoun vevs tou na enai amelhtoi se sgkrish me llouc
rouc. Sunepc, agnontac uyhlterhc txhc rouc pou perilambnoun ginmena twn , 0
kai 00 , oi roi mzac Dirac sthn klmaka enopohshc enai

0
mij i3 j3 m3 + m + (00 )m + Cij (0 )n vu,d
(6.34)
pou m3 vu,d y033 me vu kai vd oi pnw kai ktw vevs gia ta Higgs antstoiqa, en den
ij
qrin aplthtac.
shmeinontai oi txhc 1 suntelestc Yukawa ym
Tra ja analujon oi roi mzac Majorana. Apo thn (6.31) parathretai oti oi roi
mzac enai anlogoi tou sunduasmo HH o opooc smfwna me tic upojseic mac qei
klasmatik forto. Sunepc, roi anlogoi tou /MU tra gnontai shmantiko kai mporon
na suneisfroun sta stoiqea twn pinkwn mzac. H genik morf tou pnaka mzac Majorana
enai

ij
ij
ij
ij 00 t0
k0 00 l0
0 p0 q 0
0 r0 00 s0
t
0 ij 0 w
(
)
+

(
)
+

(
)

(
)
(
)
MN MR ij

(
)
+

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
t
w
k ,l
p ,q
r ,s
t
(6.35)

pou MR MG2 /MU 0 MU .

117

Peda
U(1)X

F1
-4

F2
-3

F3
0

F1
-2

F2
1

F3
0

h H
0 x

H
x

-1

3/5

Pnakac 6.2: U (1)X -forta gia ta peda.

Kajorismc twn U (1)X fortwn

Prn proqwrsoume se na sugkekrimno snolo pinkwn mzac, pwc kai mpore na diapistwje apo tic (6.30),(6.32) shmeinetai oti oi roi mzac twn fermionwn enai anallowtoi
ktw apo metatopseic twn U (1)X fortwn [53]

i i + ,
i
i + , x x , x x +

(6.36)

Sunepc, gia na exetaston oi mzec twn fermionwn, mpore elejera na kajoriston oi

3 =
3 = 0 kai na efarmoston oi metatopseic kai sto tloc tou upologismo.
Ston Pnaka 6.2 sugkentrnontai oi epilogc gia ta forta pou kai kajorzetai x + x
= 1,
z = 1. Oi timc gia ta x kai z 0 epilgontai na enai klasmatikc ttoiec ste na prokptoun
oi epijumhtc domc pinkwn kai h vev tou na ephrezei thn sunolik klmaka twn mazn
twn netrnwn. Gia autc tic epilogc oi pnakec twn fortwn gia ta kourk kai ta leptnia
enai

6 3 4
4 1 2
1 .
QX [MD ] = 5 2 3 , QX [MN ] = 2x + 1 2
(6.37)
2 1
0
2 1
0
Sthn sunqeia, gia na enai efikt h kataskeu enc aplopoihmnou sunlou apo fermionikoc pnakec mzac, antikajstantai ta , 0 kai 00 apo ma parmetro , upojtontac tic
sqseic

= b1 , 00 b2 , 0 =
(6.38)
pou b1 , b2 arijmhtiko suntelestc thc txhc thc mondac. 'Etsi, oi energc zexeic Yukawa
gia ta kourk kai ta fortismna leptnia enai
m/2
Yfij = yfij [bm
+ bm+1
1+m/2 + Cfij n/2 + b1 1+n/2 + ] , me f = u, d, e,
1
1

(6.39)

Poic apo autoc touc rouc epibinei exarttai apo to prshmo tou fortou tou antstoiqou
telest. Gia na stoiqeo me arnhtik forto oi prtoi do roi den mporon na paraqjon
sto uperdunamik se antjesh me ton trto kai ton ttarto. Se autn thn perptwsh jewretai
mno o ttartoc roc tan o antstoiqoc pargontac Clebsch enai mhdn. Gia na jetik
stoiqeo mno o prtoc roc jewretai.
Epomnwc, qreizetai na kajoriston oi suntelestc Clebsh-Gordan gia touc rouc
2

pou periqoun dunmeic thc paramtrou anptuxhc hH Hi/M

U . Oi suntelestc mporon
na prosdioriston en h basik jewra me lec tic summetrec tan gnwst sthn klmaka
enopohshc. Up thn apousa enc sugkekrimnou montlou thc jewrac twn uperqordn,
ed parousizetai nac elqistoc arijmc telestn o opooc odhge se na apl kai bisimo
snolo pinkwn mzac. 'Etsi, agnontac ma pijan migadik fsh, epilgetai Cd12 = Cd22 =
118

QX [H]
QX []

32
35

34
31

53
1
3

65
35

78
54

14
52

34
32

Pnakac 6.3: Pijanc epilogc gia ta U (1)X forta twn H kai pedwn.
1
,
3

Cu23 = 3 kai Cu11 = Cu12 = Cu21 = Cu22 = Cu31 = C22 = C31 = 0 me louc touc llouc souc
me thn monda. Sunepc, oi energc suzexeic Yukawa sthn klmaka MGU T up to fc twn
parapnw upojsewn enai

b1 4 b1 5/2 2
3
7/2
2
3/2
Yu = b1
b1
3 , Yd = 5/2
2
1/2
b1
b1
1

3
3

3/2
2

5/2
3/2

Ye =

, Y = 5/2
b1 1/2 1
b1 2

3/2
3

3
b1 1/2

3/2
b1 2
b1 1/2

2
3/2 ,
1

2
3/2
1

(6.40)

O tomac twn kourk pwc kai o tomac twn netrnwn qei melethje sthn [53]. Parola
aut, pwc qei dh proanaferje, plrhc fainmena epakanonikopohshc den upologsthkan
gia ton toma twn netrnwn kai pwc prokptei na monrec pedo den enai arket gia na
perigryei ta qamhlc enrgeiac dedomna. Kat sunpeia, eisqjh kai na detero monrec
pedo tou opoou h vev ephrezei mno thn sunolik klmaka twn mazn twn netrnwn.
O epijumhtc pnakac gia ta dexistrofa netrna enai apotlesma perissotrwn apo
ma epilogn gia ta forta tou H pedou kai tou monrouc pedou. Autc oi epilogc
anagrfontai ston Pnaka 6.3. Apo thn stigm pou h dom twn fortismnwn leptonwn enai
dh gnwst, epilgetai x = 56 (h parmetroc sthn (6.37) pou enai to forto tou pedou H),
tsi ste to 2x na mhn enai akraioc kai kajorzetai to U (1)X forto tou monrouc pedou
so me 35 me stqo thn dhmiourga tou epijumhto leptoniko pnaka mxhc. H anlush gia
n r
H
ta kourk paramnei h dia pwc sthn [53] afo oi telestc Fi Fj h( H
2 ) ( M ) den uprqoun
MU
U
n
HH

gia r < 5, en enai amelhtoi sugkritik me ton krio ro Fi Fj h( 2 ) .

MU

Ktw apo autoc touc prosdiorismoc, o pnakac twn fortwn (6.37) gnetai
32

22
5 17

5
5
25 75 .
QX [MN ] = 17
5
22
75 12
5
5

(6.41)

Gia ton toma twn netrnwn gnontai kpoiec parathrseic. Lgw klasmatiko fortou twn

telestn upejunwn gia thn dhmiourga twn mazn twn netrnwn, suneisforc apo ta H H
3

mhdenzontai. Se autn thn perptwsh uprqoun akma ta monrh peda H H/M

U me vev
3/2
2
3/2
b2 , /MU me vev b1 b2 , en gia kpoia stoiqea ja prpei na jewrhjon uyhlterhc
txhc roi mic kai o krioc roc den uprqei. Ston pnaka 6.4 grfetai analutik kje
telestc gia kje na stoiqeo tou MN .

119

MN
MN11
MN12
MN13
MN22
MN23
MN33
Pnakac 6.4:
netrnwn.

Telestc
7

HH
2
MU

HH
2
MU

MU

MU

HH
2
MU MU

HH
2
MU
MU
2

HH
2
MU
MU
3

HH
2
MU
MU

vev
b2 9/2
b2 3
b2 7/2
b2 3/2
b2 2
b2 5/2

Telestc oi opooi dhmiourgon ton dexistrofo pnaka Majorana twn

O pnakac Majorana gia ta dexistrofa netrna grfetai

11 9/2 12 3 13 7/2
MN = 12 3 22 3/2 23 2 b2 MR
13 7/2 23 2
5/2
me MR = 0 MU =

(6.42)

MU .

'Eqontac orsei touc pnakec mzac Dirac kai Majorana gia ta netrna, mpore mesa na
upologiste o pnakac mzac gia ta elafri netrna, o opooc kai sqetzetai me to perama,
msw tou mhqanismo airac

m = mD MN1 mTD

(6.43)

sthn klmaka MGU T .

Orzontac tic paramtrouc anptuxhc

To ousiastik mroc twn pinkwn mzac enai oi parmetroi anptuxhc (6.33). 'Eqontac
orsei touc pnakec mzac, prpei na prosdioriston oi timc twn paramtrwn anptuxhc
tsi ste na uprqei sumfwna me ta qamhlc enrgeiac peiramatik dedomna gia tic mzec
kai tic gwnec mxhc. Shmeinetai oti sthn prosggish mac, oi trec paramtroi anptuxhc
kajorzontai msw thc (6.38). 'Etsi, o suntelestc b2 pou emfanzetai eke ja kajorsei
thn klmaka mzac twn netrnwn msw thc (6.42), en h anagkaithta tou b1 phgzei apo thn
epijuma gia katllhlouc suntelestc stouc pnakec Dirac kai Majorana.
Sumfwna me ta qamhlc enrgeiac dedomna sto toma twn kourk kajrise thn tim thc
5 102 , mac kai pwc qei dh melethje sthn [53] h CKM gwna mxhc 12 enai sh me

, thn gwna Cabibbo. Aut epiplon uponoe oti o lgoc metax thc energeiakc klmakac
sthn opoa spei h summetra Pati-Salam MG kai thc klmakac enopohshc MU enai epshc

M2
kajorismnoc 0 = MG2 0.22: H omda Pati-Salam paramnei gia mia mikr energeiak
U

120

60

26.8

-1
-1

50

-1

2R

26.4

-1

i
40

-1

26.0

-1

30

2L
25.6

-1

20

-1

4
25.2

10
2

10

12

14

log

10

16

16.0

16.1

16.2

( /GeV)

16.3

16.4

log

10

( /GeV)

Sqma 6.1: Sto arister mroc apeikonzetai h exlixh twn stajern szeuxhc. Oi do
grammc sthn a3 deqnoun thn ktash thc arqikc sunjkhc sthn MZ . Dexi dnetai to analutiktero grfhma thc exlixhc twn stajern zexhc sthn energeiak perioq tou montlou
Pati-Salam.
perioq. Parousizetai loipn ma anlush twn exissewn thc omdac epakanonikopohshc,
h opoa parousisthke sto edfio 6.3, tsi ste na enai dunatc o legqoc thc sunpeiac
autc thc prbleyhc me tic qamhlc enrgeiac timc twn stajern zexhc kai thc asjenc
gwnac mxhc sin2 W [71]

sin2 W = 0.23120 , 3 = 0.118 0.003 , aem =

1
127.906

An h jewra sthn klmaka enopohshc MU qei ma stajer szeuxhc, tte h MG enai

anagkasmnh na enai ktw all pol kont sthn klmaka enopohshc smfwna me thn anlush twn stajern zexhc sta plasia tou MSSM. Sunepc, h qamhlc enrgeiac abebaithta
gia thn a3 ephrezei thc enopohsh twn stajern zexhc. Gia aut ton lgo prosjtontai
oi paraktw epiplon katastseic

hL = (1, 2, 1)

hR = (1, 1, 2)

oi opoec kai prokptoun sunjwc sto fsma se montla uperqordn [77]. Apodeiknetai
oti qreizontai 4 apo kje ma apo autc tic katastseic gia MG = 9.32 1015 GeV gia na
katalxei kanec me thn swst tim gia thn 0 . Arqik, sto arister mroc tou Sqmatoc 6.1
anaparistntai h exlixh twn stajern zexhc gia thn energeiak perioq MZ wc MU . Sto
dexi mroc tou Sqmatoc 6.1 apeikonzetai me megalterh leptomreia h exlix touc sthn
energeiak perioq Pati-Salam. Oi do lwrdec gia tic stajerc 4 kai 2R ofelontai sthn
abebaithta sthn mtrhsh thc isqurc stajerc szeuxhc sthn MZ . Gia 3 (MZ ) = 0.1176
pwc mpore na gnei faner kai apo to Sqma 6.2 lambnetai MU = 1.96 1016 GeV.
Oi enapomenontec parmetroi pou prpei na kajoriston enai oi b1 , b2 kai ij tou pnaka
mzac twn dexistrofwn netrnwn. Brsketai oti o pnakac MN enai anlogoc tou b2 , MN
b2 MR MN0 , tsi h b2 sqetzetai thn klmaka tou elafro pnaka m . Akma, h epilog

b1 1.1 odhge se sumfwna me to perama, en epiplon uponoe oti = 1.1 = 0.25.

121

26.6

26.4

-1

-1
i

2R

26.2

-1
2L

26.0

25.8

-1
25.6

25.4
16.00

16.05

16.10

16.15

16.20

log1

16.25

16.30

( /GeV)

Sqma 6.2: To shmeo enopohshc gia tic stajerc zexhc Pati-Salam me 3 (MZ ) = 0.1176.

6.4.2 Exlixh twn mazn kai twn gwnin mxhc

'Ena apo ta problmata pou sunant kanec tan anazht na pnaka mzac gia ta elafri
netrna msw tou mhqanismo airac enai h epirro pou qoun se autn oi exisseic thc
omdac epakanonikopohshc (EOE). Oi problyeic thc jewrac dnontai sthn GUT klmaka. Gia na enai dunat h extash twn problyewn autn ja prpei na exeliqjon mqri
thn qamhl enrgeia MZ kai eke na sugkrijon me ta peiramatik dedomna. Ta qamhlc
enrgeiac dedomna ta opoa prokptoun apo na snolo fermionikn pinkwn mpore na enai diaforetik se shmantik bajm se sqsh me ta apotelsmata sthn energeiak klmaka
airac. Se aut to edfio ja melethje o mhqanismc airac se sunduasm me tic exisseic
epanakanonikopohshc. Oi diaforikc exisseic pou perigrfoun thn exlixh twn mazn kai
twn gwnin mxhc qoun melethje ektetamna gia enrgeiec ktw apo tic klmakec pou qarakthrzoun to mhqanism airac [82, 83, 84] kajc kai pnw apo autc [85, 86, 87]. Ed
arqik upenjumzetai pwc gnetai h exlixh tan kanec qei arqikc sunjkec se ma pol
uyhl klmaka. 'Ena pol shmantik teqnik zthma enai oti ta bari monrh netrna, pou
sqetzontai me ton mhqanism airac, ja prpei na aposuzeuqjon na na. 'Etsi, kpoioc
prpei na jewrsei ma seir apo energc jewrec. To endiafron ja epikentrwje sto kajierwmno prtupo kai thn upersummetrik ekdoq tou tropopoihmnh me 3 monrh netrna
NRi tra monrh uperpeda i antstoiqa.
H lagkranzian tou KP epekteinmenh apo dexistrofa netrna, pwc anafrjhke kai
sto keflaio 1, grfetai

1
L = Y `L NR e NRC M NR + h.c. ,
2

(6.44)

pou `L = (`1L , `2L , `3L )T dhlnei tic aristerstrofec dipltec twn leptonwn kai 0 enai h
122

diplta Higgs kai e = i 2 0 . Sthn upersummetrik perptwsh, to 0 antikajstatai apo thn

diplta Higgs Hu .
Gia na mporon na oriston oi paramtroi mzac kai mxhc c sunrthsh thc klmakac
epakanonikopohshc pnw apo thn uyhlterh klmaka airac, jewretai o energc pnakac
mzac twn elafrn netrnwn

v2
Y () M 1 () Y ()T ,
(6.45)
2
pou Y kai M enai -exartmena. H sqetik Higgs vev enai v = 246 GeV sto KP kai
v = 246 GeV sin sthn upersummetrik ekdoq tou. m enai o pnakac mzac twn 3
elafrn netrnwn pwc prokptei apo thn diagwnopohsh tou plrouc 66 pnaka mzac twn
netrnwn, pou akolouje to sunhjismno upologism airac. Oi exartmenec apo thn klmaka
paramtroi mxhc lambnontai apo thn m () kai apo thn exelissmenh szeuxh Yukawa twn
fortismnwn leptonwn Ye (). Sunepc, ja gnei qrsh thc exswshc epakanonikopohshc
gia thn snjeth posthta m , h opoa upologzetai apo tic Y kai M . Aut enai
m () =

16 2

dm
= m (Ce Ye Ye + C Y Y )T + (Ce Ye Ye + C Y Y ) m +
m
dt

(6.46)

me t := ln(/0 ),

3
1
Ce = , C =
sto KP,
2
2
sto MSSM,

Ce = C = 1

(6.47a)
(6.47b)

kai

9 2 9 2
g1 g2 + 2 Tr Y Y + Ye Ye + 3Yd Yd + 3Yu Yu ,
10
2

6
= g12 6g22 + 2 Tr Y Y + 3Yu Yu .
5

SM =

MSSM

(6.48a)
(6.48b)

H exswsh exlixhc (6.46) qarakthrzei mno thn exlixh tou elafro pnaka mzac twn
netrnwn pnw apo thn uyhlterh klmaka airac, h opoa kai dnetai apo thn idiotim M3
tou barterou monrouc pedou NR3 . Gia < M3 , h swst exswsh exlixhc apokomzetai
peita apo thn aposzeuxh tou NR3 . Aut odhge sthn emfnish enc energo telest son
afor thn mza twn netrnwn

1 (3)
g
f
f g (`C
(6.49)
L ) (`L ) + h.c. ,
4
pou f, g {1, 2, 3} enai dektec oikogeneac kai h telea dhlnei sustolc anallowtec ktw apo thn SU(2)L . O suntelestc auto tou telest prokptei apo thn sunjkh
enarmnishc
(3)
gf = 2(Y )g3 M31 (YT )3f ,
(6.50)
L =

pou epiblletai sto = M3 . Aut h kfrash kajorzetai sthn bsh pou o M enai diagnioc. Anafretai ed oti qreizetai prosoq gia na breje h klmaka enarmnishc mic kai o
123

pnakac M (kai kat sunpeia kai h idiotim M3 ) exelssontai. Sunepc, gia klmakec ktw
thc M3 o energc pnakac twn mazn twn netrnwn perigrfetai apo 2 suneisforc

m =

(3)
(3) (3)
v 2 (3)
+ 2 Y M 1 YT .
4

(6.51)

(3)

O 2 3 pnakac Yukawa Y lambnetai apl afairntac thn teleutaa seir tou Y sthn
(3)

bsh pou o M enai diagnioc. O 2 2 pnakac mzac M brsketai apo ton M afairntac
teleutaa gramm kai stlh. Lgw kataskeuc, o m enai ma suneqc sunrthsh thc
klmakac epakanonikopohshc. H exlixh tou 2 rou sto dexi mroc thc exswshc (6.51)
(3)

perigrfetai apo thn exswsh (6.46) ktw apo thn antikatstash Y me to Y . H exlixh
tou 1 rou perigrfetai apo thn

(3) (3)
(3) (3) T
(3) (3)
d (3)
(3)

16
= Ce Ye Ye + C Y Y + Ce Ye Ye + C Y Y +
dt
(3)

(6.52)

me Ce kai C akribc pwc sthn (6.47) kai

(3) (3)

SM = 3g22 + 2 Tr Y Y + Ye Ye + 3Yd Yd + 3Yu Yu + ,

(3) (3)

(3)
6

MSSM = g12 6g22 + 2 Tr Y Y + 3Yu Yu .

5
(3)

(6.53a)
(6.53b)

Plon kpoioc mpore na exelxei ton energ pnaka mzac twn netrnwn mqri thn klmaka
M2 kai na epanalbei thn diadikasa enarmnishc. Aposzeuxh tou NR2 sthn = M2 kai o
pnakac Yukawa elattnetai akma perisstero en o energc pnakac twn netrnwn parnei
ma akma suneisfor. Ftnontac sthn = M1 h diadikasa epanalambnetai gia akma ma
for. Sunoyzontac, h exlixh tou energo pnaka mzac twn netrnwn pnw kai anmesa
apo tic klmakec airac dnetai apo thn exlixh 2 mern

m =

(n)
(n) (n)
v 2 (n)
+ 2 Y M 1 YT .
4

(6.54)

pou n anafretai sthn energ jewra. Sto kajierwmno prtupo kai sto MSSM, oi energc
posthtec pou kuriarqon sthn (6.54) ktw apo thn uyhlterh klmaka airac ikanopoion
tic diaforikc exisseic
(n)

dX
16
dt
2

(n)

(n)

(n) (n) (n)

(n) (n) T
(n)
(n) (n)
X X ,
= X Ce Ye Ye + C Y Y + Ce Ye Ye + C Y Y X +
(n) (n)

(6.55)

(n)

i fanontai ston Pnaka 6.5.

pou X enai 2 Y M 1 YT antstoiqa. Oi telestc Ci kai
'Opwc gnetai faner apo thn (6.55), gia na enai efikt h melth twn mazn twn netrnwn
kai twn gwnin mxhc apaitetai plrh lsh tou sustmatoc twn EOE. Sto Parrthma G.1
sugkentrnontai oi exisseic se txh 2 brqwn gia to MSSM.
Oi EOE qoun luje qi mno arijmhtik all kai analutikc lseic qoun breje [84,
86, 87]. Arijmhtik ktw apo to elafrtero bar dexistrofo netrno shmantik fainmena
124

Montlo
KP
KP

MSSM
MSSM

(n)

(n)

Ce C
X

(n)

(n) (n)

(n)

2 Y M 1 YT
(n)

(n) (n)

(n)

2 Y M 1 YT

23

1
2

23

1
2

(n) (n)
2 Tr Y Y
(n) (n)
2 Tr Y Y
(n) (n)
2 Tr Y Y
(n) (n)
2 Tr Y Y

+ Ye Ye + 3Yd Yd + 3Yu Yu 3g22 +

9 2
+ Ye Ye + 3Yd Yd + 3Yu Yu 10
g1 92 g22

+ 3Yu Yu 65 g12 6g22

+ 3Yu Yu 65 g12 6g22

Pnakac 6.5: Suntelestc gia tic bta sunartseic thc (6.55), pou qarakthrzoun thn exlixh
tou energo pnaka mzac twn netrnwn.
epakanonikopohshc sumbanoun mno sthn perptwsh ekfulismnwn mazn gia ta elafri
netrna gia pol meglec timc thc tan [88, 84]. Pnw kai anmesa apo tic mzec twn dexistrofwn netrnwn ta prgmata gnontai pol pio polploka lgw mh tetrimmnwn
exartsewn twn zexewn twn barin netrnwn, ektc en o M c enai diagnioc. 'Oson afor tic leptonikc gwnec mxhc, sthn perptwsh thc kanonikc ierarqac, sthn opoa kai
katalgoume sthn perptws mac, anamnontai amelhta fainmena sthn hliak gwna mxhc
en sunjwc oi 13 , 23 trqoun grhgortera [89]. Sunepc, h sqsh sumplhrwmatikthtac kourk-leptonwn enai stajer. Apo thn llh pleur, melth twn analutikn lsewn,
oi opoec kai brskontai peita apo proseggseic, akribc h antjeth sumperifor problpetai kai h hliak gwna mxhc lambnei megaltera fainmena epakanonikopohshc apo tic
13 , 23 . Parola aut, lgw paragntwn axhshc/mewshc kai pijann diagrafn h akribc
arijmhtik lsh mpore na diafrei shmantik apo autc tic ektimseic.
Se aut to edfio ja melethjon oi EOE gia ta netrna me ma pnw proc ta ktw
prosggish apo thn klmaka Pati Salam MG sthn asjen. Epilgontai snola apo timc gia touc gnwstouc suntelestc Yukawa sthn MG kai exelssontai oi EOE mqri thn
enrgeia MZ pou kai upologzontai ta m2ij kai ij kai sugkrnontai me tic peiramatikc timc. 'Omwc, melth kai thc ktw-pnw prosggishc qei pragmatopoihje [89] kai ja
sqoliaston, sugkrijon ta apotelsmata mac kai stic do proseggseic. H anlush thc
omdac epakanonikopohshc twn paramtrwn twn netrnwn me diadoqik aposzeuxh twn dexistrofwn netrnwn mpore na ekteleste qrhsimopointac ta pakta REAP/MPT ta opoa
parousisthkan sthn [86].

Enai mesh h paragwg arijmhtikn timn gia touc suntelestc 11 , 12 , 13 , 22 , 23

tsi ste met thn exlixh tou m stic qamhlc enrgeiec na uprqei sumfwna me to perama. O suntelestc 33 mpore na kajoriste soc me thn monda, afo pnta mpore
na prosarmoste h tim tou b2 . Prgmati, ktw apo arijmhtik dierenhsh, sunepc lseic sugkentrnontai ston Pnaka 6.6. Epiplon, ston Pnaka 6.7 shmeinontai oi problyeic autn twn lsewn gia tic fusikc paramtrouc ij kai m2ij sthn MZ . Oi diaforc mazn sto tetrgwno brskontai sthn perioq m2atm = [1.33 3.39] 103 eV2 ,
exp.
=
m2sol = [7.24 8.85] 105 eV2 , lec se sumfwna me ta peiramatik dedomna m2atm
exp.
3
2
2
5
2
[1.33.4]10 eV kai msol
= [7.18.9]10 eV . Oi gwnec mxhc epshc brskontai
stic epitrepmenec perioqc 12 = [29.4 37.6], 23 = [36.9 51.0] kai 13 = [0.86 12.50].

125

Lseic
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

11
0.10535
0.11939
0.10392
0.09143
0.12697
0.10920
0.10124
0.12358
0.13006
0.12665

12
0.10972
0.10954
0.11787
0.10962
0.12745
0.09638
0.11682
0.09514
0.11973
0.12137

13
0.86012
0.80912
0.97796
0.87616
0.99860
1.00975
0.98568
0.99580
1.02235
1.00029

22
0.10491
0.10683
0.10512
0.10063
0.11652
0.10238
0.10688
0.10434
0.10378
0.10695

23
0.91014
0.93832
0.98749
0.93798
0.99980
0.93561
0.99156
0.95646
0.89460
0.91578

Pnakac 6.6: Arijmhtikc timc gia tic paramtrouc 11 , 12 , 13 , 22 , 23 .

Lseic
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

m2atm 103
2.7149
2.3145
1.8978
3.0062
3.3905
3.2459
2.0171
1.3321
2.4867
2.1652

m2sol 105
7.9621
7.9514
8.6141
8.3217
7.2468
7.5351
7.9464
7.9060
8.8561
7.8869

12
29.442
34.289
30.560
34.347
30.245
34.296
34.432
37.646
29.592
29.189

13
3.9859
12.507
0.8656
1.8512
2.9355
1.3701
1.0086
6.1490
5.6007
3.1512

23
44.114
51.047
46.230
44.333
36.900
46.947
50.279
43.067
42.970
37.220

Pnakac 6.7:
Arijmhtikc timc gia tic qamhlc enrgeiac fusikc paramtrouc
matm , msol , 12 , 13 , 23 sto MZ (mondec mzac eV2 ).

126

m (eV)

0.10

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

m
0.00
2

10

12

log

10

14

16

( /GeV)

Sqma 6.3: H exlixh twn elafrn mazn twn netrnwn.

Sto sqma 6.3 sqedizetai h exlixh twn mazn twn trin elafrin netrnwn (m1 <
m2 < m3 ) gia thn energeiak perioq MG MZ . Oi arqikc (GUT) idiokatastseic twn mazn twn netrnwn enai lec megalterec apo tic timc touc stic qamhlc enrgeiec. Shmantik
exlixh parathretai kurwc sthn barterh idiotim m3 . Gia peiramatik sunepc tetragwnikc diaforc mazn m2ij sthn MZ se lec tic periptseic, oi timc touc sthn klmaka MG
brskontai ektc apo thn apodekt perioq. Se aut to ierarqik senrio gia tic mzec twn
elafrin netrnwn, diapistnetai oti shmantik fainmena epakanonikopohshc sumbanoun
pnw apo to katfli tou barterou netrnou mic kai oi suzexeic Yukawa enaipmeglec
kai o deteroc roc sthn (6.54) kuriarqe. Akma, apo thn stigm pou m1 < m2sol ,
h hliak gwna mxhc apodeiknetai oti enai ousiastik grammik me ton logrijmo kai pio
stajer sugkritik me thn exlixh thc 23 , pwc fanetai kai apo to Sqma 6.4. Aut ta
apotelsmata enai se sumfwna me ta sumpersmata thc ergasac [89].
Sto Sqma 6.5 apeikonzetai h katanom thc m2atm wc proc thn m2sol stic do
klmakec MG (Pnakac 6.8) kai MZ gia ta dka montla tou Pnaka 6.6. Apo aut prokptei
to sumprasma oti h ierarqa stic mzec twn netrnwn tenei na auxhje sthn klmaka MG
sugkritik me autn stic qamhlc enrgeiec. Arket montla problpoun m223 /m221 xw
apo thn apodekt peiramatik perioq sto MG , an kai peita apo thn exlixh sthn MZ enai
se sumfwna me ta dedomna gia ta netrna. Oi exelxeic twn diaforn twn tetragnwn twn
2
2
pou aut pargoun sqedizontai sto Sqma 6.6.
kai m2atm m23
mazn m2sol m12
Tloc, elgqontai oi problyeic tou montlou gia thn energ parmetro mzac twn
netrnwn sqetik me thn aposnjesh 0 . Aut h parmetroc mpore na grafte sunartsei

127

23

12

13

( )

23

45

12

30

15

13

10

12

14

log

10

16

( /GeV)

Sqma 6.4: H exlixh thc atmosfairikc gwnac mxhc 23 , thc hliakc gwnac mxhc 12 kai
thc gwnac CHOOZ 13 .

At M

At M

-1.0

log

10

( m

23

2 1/2

-0.9

-1.1

-1.2

-1.3

-1.4

-2.05

-2.00

-1.95

-1.90

-1.85

-1.80

log

( m

10

-1.75
2 1/2
12

Sqma 6.5: m212 kai m223 sthn MZ kai sthn MG .

parathromenwn posottwn c

|hmi|

p
p

2
i
2
2
2
i
msol sin ) cos 13 + matm sin 13 e . (6.56)
(m1 cos + e

Sthn teleutaa stlh tou Pnaka 6.8 dnetai h tim thc paramtrou gia tic lseic 1 10.
128

Lseic
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

m2atm (MG ) 103

10.5294
8.1987
7.2533
11.7749
14.093
12.347
7.4256
5.2910
9.74656
8.99695

m2sol (MG ) 105

27.6096
30.1333
31.6108
30.4352
23.7416
28.2642
30.855
29.8775
30.5418
25.8838

hmi
0.00361
0.00633
0.00607
0.00753
0.00346
0.00822
0.00821
0.00852
0.00379
0.00327

b2
3.41
2.88
1.50
1.28
2.85
1.26
1.23
1.17
3.64
3.42

Pnakac 6.8: Oi arijmhtikc timc gia tic paramtrouc m2atm , m2sol sthn MG kai gia thn
parmetro h opoa sqetzetai me thn 0 -aposnjesh thc energ mzac netrnwn. Akma, parousizetai h parmetroc b2 , h opoa kajorzei thn klmaka tou pnaka twn elafrn
netrnwn m .

-2

2
atm

(eV )

10

10

-3

m
10

-4

2
sol

10

12

log

14

10

16

( /GeV)

Sqma 6.6: Exlixh twn m2sol kai m2atm .

Poll peirmata prospajon na metrsoun aut thn posthta [90]. To kaltero rio pnw
sthn hmi dnetai apo thn sunergasa HeidelbergMoscow [91]

hmi 0.35 z eV,

(6.57)

pou h parmetroc z = O(1) eisgetai gia na lhfjon upyin abebaithtec.

Se ma prsfath anlush son afor thn dipl aposnjesh bta dqwc netrno [92]
h epitrepmenh ktash thc energo parmetrou mzac djhke gia difora senria. Sthn
129

perptwsh thc kanonikc ierarqac ta ria enai

0 < hmi < 0.007 eV

kai kat sunpeia ta apotelsmata enai sthn peiramatik apodekt perioq.

130

(6.58)

Keflaio 7
Upersummetriko kai mh
upersummetriko sqhmatismo apo
polubrnec
7.1 Eisagwg
Oi prtec prospjeiec kataskeuc realistikn montlwn apo jewrec qordn bassthkan
se sumpagopoiseic thc E8 E8 eterotikc uperqordc. Ma fainomenologik apodekt
sumpagopohsh epiblletai na katalgei se 4-distath energ jewra pou ja periqei to
fsma tou KP kai omda bajmdac SU (3) SU (2) U (1). Epeid h barthta tan mroc tou
qamhlc enrgeiac fsmatoc, h klmaka thc qordc kajorsthke sthn klmaka Planck, en to
prblhma thc ierarqac apofeqjhke epibllontac N = 1 upersummetra. 'Opwc apedeqjh
stic [93, 94], ttoiou edouc sunjkec apaitosan oi epiplon 6 diastseic na ikanopoion
kpoiouc periorismoc, pwc na ankoun se na sumpagc Riemannian polptuqo M me
SU (3) omda olonomac. H omda olonomac periqei touc metasqhmatismoc pou gennon
metatopseic kat mkoc mic kleistc kamplhc pnw sthn pollaplthta K6 , pou K6 h
6-distath sumpagopoihmnh pollaplthta. Ttoia polptuqa enai gnwst c Calabi-Yau
CY3 [95].
En h kajierwmnh antimetpish tou problmatoc thc ierarqac epiteqjhke, kje sunepc eterotik sumpagopohsh prpei na perigrfei ton pragmatik ksmo pou h upersummetra qei spsei. Mh diataraktik antikemena pou pazoun kentrik rlo sto spsimo
thc upersummetrac enai oi polubrnec (D-branes). Oi kataskeuc apo polubrnec qi mno
anapargoun tic prohgomenec epituqec apo tic eterotikc qordc all epitrpoun kai thn
melth mh upersummetrikn montlwn. Sta eterotik montla, oi barutikc kajc kai oi
allhlepidrseic bajmdac antistoiqon se peda ta opoa diaddontai se lo to qro. Enallaktik, an h jewra bajmdac prokptei apo p-polubrnec, tte oi allhlepidrseic bajmdac
kai oi barutikc allhlepidrseic ja diaddontai se diaforetikoc gkouc. H jewra bajmdac
periorzetai stic p + 1 diastseic tou pagksmiou qrou thc p-polubrnhc, en h barthta,
h opoa kai prokptei apo to toma thc anoiqtc qordc, diaddetai se lo to 10-distato
qro (bulk). 'Opwc deixan stic [96, 50, 51, 97] apo aut thn apl paratrhsh mpore na
131

epiteuqje mia diafor stic klmakec anmesa stic allhlepidrseic bajmdac kai tic barutikc
allhlepidrseic. Sugkekrimna, h katlhxh enai ma jewra me realistik sumpagopohsh
pou h klmaka thc qordc MS den qreizetai anagkastik na enai thc txhc thc klmakac
Planck all mpore na enai sthn perioq tou TeV mpore na enai se kpoia endimesh
klmaka [98, 99]. Sthn deterh perptwsh to prblhma thc ierarqac fanetai na paramnei
luto. Kti ttoio mwc den sumbanei epeid uprqoun jewrhtik montla pou h upersummetra spei se kpoio 'krummno' (hidden) toma. Se aut enai aparathto h rxh thc
upersummetrac na gnetai se kpoia endimesh klmaka. Ma enallaktik prtash apotele
kai to senrio thc diaqwrismnhc (split) upersummetrac to opoo parousisthke prsfata.
Prkeitai gia thn energ jewra h opoa prokptei an afairejon apo to MSSM la ta bajmwt swmatdia ektc apo to lept rujmismno Higgs, agnontac ousiastik to prblhma
thc ierarqac.
Se aut to keflaio ja melethje h exlixh twn stajern szeuxhc se montla empneusmna apo sqhmatismoc polubrann, pou arqik protjhkan sthn ergasa [100], me summetra bajmdac U (3) U (2) U (1)N sthn klmaka thc qordc [101]. H anlush pragmatopoietai sta plasia tou senarou thc diaqwrismnhc upersummetrac en meletontai
upersummetriko kai mh upersummetriko sqhmatismo. Epiplon, exetzetai h pijanthta na
prokyei sta parapnw montla h swst sqsh gia ton lgo twn mazn mb /m sthn enrgeia MZ kai sugqrnwc isthta twn suzexewn Yukawa b- sthn klmaka thc qordc.
Akma, anazhtontai lseic oi opoec prosarmzoun to dexistrofo netrno c me katllhlh
mza (h opoa enai sunjwc thc txhc thc klmakac thc qordc), tsi ste msw tou mhqanismo airac na prokptei ma klmaka mzac gia to aristerstrofo netrno L se sumfwna
me ta peiramatik dedomna stic qamhlc enrgeiec. Tloc, melettai kai o qrnoc zwc tou
gklouno gia ta difora montla pou ja prokptoun.

132

7.2 To kajierwmno prtupo apo polubrnec

'Opwc meletjhke sto keflaio 4 mi sullog apo N parllhlec p-polubrnec, oi opoec
sqedn sumpptoun me thn ma na enai pnw sthn llh, metafroun N 2 maza peda bajmdac
orzontac ma U (N ) summetra bajmdac Yang-Mills. Aut ta peda bajmdac antistoiqon
se anoiqtc qordc pou ektenontai apo to na set N brann sto llo. Fusik epakloujo twn parapnw enai h prospjeia na prokyei to KP apo ttoiou edouc sqhmatismoc
polubrann thc jewrac qordn Tpou I.
H omda bajmdac pio kont sthn SU (3)SU (2)U (1) tou KP pou mpore na apokomsei
kanec apo thn Tpou I/I' jewra qordn sta plasia twn parapnw enai h U (3)U (2)U (1).
O prtoc pargontac prokptei apo trec sumpiptmenec polubrnec ('qrwmatistc' brnec
U (3)C SU (3)C U (1)). Ma anoiqt qord me to na kro thc se autc enai ma triplta
ktw apo thn SU (3) kai metafrei to dio U (1) forto kai gia tic trec sunistsec. Sunepc,
o pargontac U (1) thc SU (3) prpei na tautopoihje me to baruonik arijm. 'Omoia, h
U (2) prokptei apo do sumpiptmenec sjenec' polubrnec U (2)L SU (2)L U (1) kai o
antstoiqoc abelianc pargontac tautopoietai me ton asjen arijm dipltac (weak doublet
number). Arqik, anamnetai oti h U (3) U (2) ja enai h elqisth epilog. Parola aut,
kti ttoio en gnei den sumbanei epeid to uperforto den mpore na ekfraste wc grammikc
sunduasmc tou baruoniko kai tou asjen arijmo. 'Etsi, nac epiplon pargontac U (1), o
opooc antistoiqe se ma epiplon polubrnh (U (1) polubrnh), enai aparathtoc gia na enai
dunat h katlhxh sto KP. Se poluplokterec ekdoqc oi asjenec /kai oi qrwmatistc
dsmec mporon na epanalhfjon odhgntac kai pli sto KP, me perissterec U (1) aut
thn for. H plrhc summetra bajmdac h opoa mpore na prokyei apo auto tou edouc
tic jewrec enai thc morfc

G = U (m)pC U (n)qL U (1)N

(7.1)

me m 3,n 2 kai p, q 1. Fusik epeid U (n) SU (n) U (1), sumperanetai oti ttoiou
edouc kataskeuc odhgon se montla me omdec bajmdac SU (n) kai arketoc pargontec
U (1).
H aplosterh perptwsh h opoa odhge kateujean sto KP enai h epilog p = q = 1.
Ttoiou edouc kataskeuc qoun protaje sthn ergasa [100]. Pio sugkekrimna, prokptoun montla me omda summetrac SU (3) SU (2) U (1)N +2 . Se autn thn perptwsh to
asjenc uperforto Y enai nac grammikc sunduasmc twn U (1)

Y =

p
X
i=1

(i)
k3 Qi3

q
X

(j)

k2 Qj2 +

j=1

N
X

k`0 Q0` ,

(7.2)

`=1

pou Qi3 enai oi U (1) genntorec tou qrwmatiko pargonta i, Qj2 oi U (1) genntorec
tou asjen pargonta j kai Q0` (` = 1, . . . , N ), oi genntorec twn uploipwn abeliann
paragntwn. 'Amesh sunpeia twn (7.1) kai (7.2) enai h szeuxh tou uperfortou (gY ) sthn
klmaka thc qordc (MS ) na sqetzetai me tic suzexeic brann (gm , gn , gi0 ) wc
N

X k0 2
2mk32 2nk22
1
i
= 2 + 2 +2
02
gY2
gm
gn
g
i=1 i
133

(7.3)

Epilgontac m = 3, n = 2 sthn (7.3) prokptei h mh abelian dom tou KP me arketoc

U (1) pargontec kai thn szeuxh tou uperfortou na enai
N

X k0 2
1
6k32 4k22
i
=
+
+
2
02
gY2
g32
g22
g
i=1 i

(7.4)

Gia dedomno fsma swmatidwn me gnwst to kbantik arijm tou uperfortou ta ki0 qoun
sugkekrimnec lseic kai h exswsh (7.4) sqetzei thn asjen gwna me to lgo twn suzexewn bajmdac sthn klmaka thc qordc

sin2 W (MS ) =

1
1 + kY

(7.5)
N

kY

X 2 2
2
2
= 6k32
+ 4k22 + 2
ki0 0
Y
3
i
i=1

(7.6)

pou i gi2 /(4). An loipn uprqei ma sqsh metax twn i0 kai 2 ( 3 ) oi exisseic
(7.5) kai (7.6) maz me thn exswsh exlixhc twn 3 , 2 , Y kajorzoun thn klmaka thc
qordc. Se jewrec qordn Tpou I o gkoc tou eswteriko qrou eisrqetai sthn sqsh
metax twn suzexewn bajmdac kai qordc [102] me apotlesma h enopohsh twn suzexewn
bajmdac na fanetai oti den sumbanei me fusik trpo. Parola aut, uprqoun kpoiec
kathgorec montlwn pou toulqiston oi do apo tic suzexeic twn desmn apo brnec ete
sqetzontai ete enai sec sthn MS [103, 104]. Sto eppedo thc qordc aut to senrio
antistoiqe sthn uprjesh twn sqetikn parllhlwn desmn apo brnec. Kat sunpeia,
gia montla me trec suzexeic bajmdac prokptei h zhtomenh sqsh. 'Opwc ja diapistwje
gia aut to lgo enai qrsimo na oriste h analoga

2 (MS )
3 (MS )

(7.7)

Sto apl senrio twn parllhlwn brann, nac arijmc n < N twn U (1) brann me stajerc
0
szeuxhc 1,...,n
eujugrammzetai me thn dsmh twn U (3) brann en oi uploipec me stajerc
0
0
n+1,...,N me tic U (2) brnec. Aut shmanei oti oi stajerc szeuxhc 1,...,n
enai sec me thn
0
3 , en n+1,...,N = 2 sthn MS . Sunepc, sthn klmaka thc qordc h kY grfetai

kY

2 (MS )
= n1 + n2 ,
Y (MS )

(7.8)

pou oi suntelestc n1 , n2 enai

n1 =

6k32

+2

n
X

ki0 , n2 = 4k22 + 2

PN
i=n+1

ki0 2 .

(7.9)

i=1

Sunoyzontac, oi pijano kbantiko arijmo qordc pou katalgei se do dsmec U (m)

kai U (n) polubrann enai (m; +1, n; +1) , (m; 1, n; +1), (m; +1, n; 1), (m; 1, n; 1),
dhlad basikc anaparastseic twn antstoiqwn monadiakn omdwn. Sthn perptwsh pou
134

kpoio pedo prorqetai apo anoiqtc qordc me ta do touc kra sthn dia dsmh U (n), tte
aut ja ankei sthn antisummetrik anaparstash thc U (n). Ed kanonikopoiontai loi oi
U (n) genntorecsmfwna me thn Tr T a T b = ab /2, a, b = 1, . . . , n2 kai h stajer szeuxhc
SU (n) na enai 2n forc thn U (1) stajer szeuxhc. Epiplon, gia na epiteuqje b
enopohsh jewrontai montla pou ta ktw kourk kai ta fortismna leptnia parnoun
mza apo koin pedo Higgs. Ed ja melethjon loi oi dunato sqhmatismo pou ikanopoion
tic parapnw upojseic me N = 2 kai N = 3, en ja analujon loi oi sqhmatismo me
N = 1. Ta grafmata fanontai sta Sqmata 7.1, 7.2, 7.3.

C
c

U(3)

U(1)

U(1)

L
Q
c

U(2)

U(1)
L

U(1)

U(3)

e
U(2)

U(2)

Sqma 7.1: N = 1 sqhmatismo apo polubrnec kai ta peda tou KP.

135

Q
c

U(1)

Q
d

U(2)

U(3)

U(3)

U(1)

U(2)

U(2)

U(3)

U(3)

2
c

u
U(3)

U(3)

U(1)

U(1)
c

e
H

U(1)
U(2)

U(2)

U(1)

Sqma 7.2: 'Omoia me to Sqma 7.1 gia N = 2 sqhmatismoc apo polubrnec.

U(1)

U(1)

U(3)

U(1)

U(1)

U(1)

U(3)

U(1)

U(3)
c

U(2)
U(1)

U(1)

U(2)

U(1)
L

U(1)

U(1)

e
U(2)

U(1)

u
U(3)

U(3)

U(3)

U(1)

U(1)

U(1)

L
H

U(2)

U(2)

U(1)

U(2)
d

U(1)

U(1)

Sqma 7.3: 'Omoia me to Sqma 7.1 gia N = 3 sqhmatismoc apo polubrnec.

136

Sqhmatismo N = 1
Arqik meletntai sqhmatismo polubrann me N = 1 (Sqma 7.1) oi opooi odhgon se summetra bajmdac SU (3)SU (2)U (1)3 . Ktw apo thn SU (3)SU (2)U (1)3 U (1)2 U (1)01
ta mlh mac oikogneiac kourk kai leptonwn qoun touc paraktw kbantikoc arijmoc:
Montlo A1

Montlo B1

Montlo C1

(3, 2; 1, 1 , 0)1/6

(3, 2; 1, 1 , 0)1/6

(3, 2; 1, 1 , 0)1/6

dc

1; 1, 0, 2 )1/3
(3,

1; 22 , 0, 0)1/3
(3,

1; 1, 0, 2 )1/3
(3,

uc

1; 23 , 0, 0)2/3
(3,

1; 1, 0, 3 )2/3
(3,

1; 1, 0, 3 )2/3
(3,

(1, 2; 0, 4 , 5 )1/2

(1, 2; 0, 4 , 5 )1/2

(1, 2; 0, 4 , 5 )1/2

ec

(1, 1; 0, 26 , 0)1

(1, 1; 0, 0, 26 )1

(1, 1; 0, 0, 27 )0

Montlo D1

(1, 1; 0, 27 , 0)0

Montlo E1

(1, 1; 0, 0, 26 )1
(1, 1; 0, 27 , 0)0

Montlo F1

(3, 2; 1, 1 , 0)1/6

(3, 2; 1, 1 , 0)1/6

(3, 2; 1, 1 , 0)1/6

dc

1; 1, 0, 2 )1/3
(3,

1; 22 , 0, 0)1/3
(3,

1; 1, 0, 2 )1/3
(3,

uc

1; 23 , 0, 0)2/3
(3,

1; 1, 0, 3 )2/3
(3,

1; 1, 0, 3 )2/3
(3,

(1, 2; 0, 4 , 5 )1/2

(1, 2; 0, 4 , 5 )1/2

(1, 2; 0, 4 , 5 )1/2

ec

(1, 1; 0, 0, 26 )1

(1, 1; 0, 26 , 0)1

(1, 1; 0, 27 , 0)0

(1, 1; 0, 0, 27 )0

(7.10)

(7.11)

(1, 1; 0, 26 , 0)1
(1, 1; 0, 0, 27 )0

Oi teleutaoi trec akraioi arijmo stic parenjseic peita apo to erwthmatik enai ta
forta ktw apo touc 3 abelianoc pargontec U (1)3 U (1)2 U (1)01 . Oi kbantiko arijmo
twn pedwn tou KP gia louc touc sqhmatismoc N = 1, 2, 3 ekfrzontai sunartsei twn
paramtrwn i (i = 1, i = 1, , 7) oi opooi dhlnoun thn amfibola son afor to
prshmo. Pio sugkekrimna, gia thn SU(2) isqei 2=
2 pote kai o kbantikc arijmc ktw
apo thn U(1)2 mpore na enai ete 1 ete 1. 'Omoia isqoun kai gia monrhc anaparstash.
Akma, amfibola son afor to prshmo prokptei kai apo ta peda pou oi kbantiko arijmo
touc prorqontai apo qordc pou qoun kai ta do touc kra sthn dia dsmh apo polubrnec.
'Opwc anafrjhke aut ankoun sthn antisummetrik anaparstash me forto ktw apo ton
antstoiqo abelian pargonta 2. Epshc, shmeinetai oti h prosjkh tou c anagkzei
kpoia apo ta i na proun sugkekrimno prshmo. Parola aut, ed ja luje to pio genik
ssthma qwrc to dexistrofo netrno. Sunepc, oi sunjkec gia to uperforto twn pedwn
thc jewrac parnoun thn morf1
1

U (1) .

137

Montlo A1

1
6

k 3 + 1 k2 =

dc

k3 + 2 k10 =

uc

2k3 3 =

k2 4 + k10 5 =

ec

26 k2 = 1

Montlo B1

Montlo C1

1
6

k3 + 1 k2 =

k3 + 1 k2 =
1
3

22 k3 =

2
3

1
3

k3 + 2 k10 =

2
3
1
k2 4 + k10 5 =
2

k3 + 3 k10 =
1
2

26 k10 = 1

Montlo D1

1
6

k 3 + 1 k2 =

dc

k3 + 2 k10 =

uc

2k3 3 =

k2 4 + k10 5 =

ec

26 k10 = 1

1
3

2
3

1
6

k3 + 1 k2 =

1
3

2
3
1
k2 4 + k10 5 =
2

26 k2 = 1

(7.12)

26 k10 = 1

k3 + 3 k10 =
1
2

2
3
1
k2 4 + k10 5 =
2

Montlo F1

22 k3 =

1
3

k3 + 3 k10 =

Montlo E1

k3 + 1 k2 =

1
6

1
6

k3 + 2 k10 =

1
3

2
3
1
k2 4 + k10 5 =
2

k3 + 3 k10 =

(7.13)

26 k2 = 1

Parathrntac thn exswsh (7.6) enai faner oti den enai aparathth h gnsh tou prosmou twn ki , ki0 . Aut h paratrhsh dieukolnei thn lsh tou sustmatoc (kurwc stic
periptseic N = 2, 3 pou ja akoloujsoun). Ta montla D1 , E1 , F1 den dnoun lsh kai
aporrptontai. H lsh twn susthmtwn (7.12) gia touc sqhmatismoc A1 , B1 , C1 odhge stic
timc pou fanontai stic prtec grammc tou Pnaka 7.1. Ta apodekt montla metonomzontai se a1 , b1 , taktik pou ja akoloujhje kai gia touc epmenouc sqhmatismoc. Shmeinetai
oti oi sqhmatismo B1 , C1 qoun thn dia lsh gia aut kai dnoun mno to montlo b1 . 'Etsi,
o kajorismc twn suntelestn k3 , k2 , k10 odhge msw thc (7.6) ston upologism thc kY .
Sto senrio me tic parllhlec dsmec apo polubrnec, anloga me ton prosanatolism thc
U (1) polubrnhc, h kY parnei do diaforetikc timc. Sugkekrimna, gia to montlo b1 an
10 = 2 sthn MS tte kY = 6 + 12 , en an 10 = 3 tte kY = 23 . Ta parapnw apotelsmata anagrfontai sto Pnaka 7.2. Tonzetai oti o sumbolismc (2, 2, 3) dhlnei ton
prosanatolism twn epiplon U (1) polubrann pou to 2 anaparist thn U (2)-diejunsh
kai to 3 thn U (3). Kat sunpeia, (2, 2, 3) shmanei oti oi prtec do abelianc polubrnec
enai prosanatolismnec me thn dsmh U (2), en h trth me thn U (3) dsmh.

138

|k3 |
1
3
1
6
1
6
2
3
1
3
1
6
1
3
2
3

a1
b1
a2
b2
c2
a3
b3
c3

1
2

|k2 |

|k10 |
0

1
2
1
2

1
0

0
1

|k30 |

0
0

1
2
1
2

1
2
1
2

1
2

0
1

1
2

1
2

1
2

|k20 |

1
2

1
0

1
0

Pnakac 7.1: Aplutec timc gia touc suntelestc k3 , k2 kai ki0 gia touc sqhmatismoc polubrann N = 1,N = 2 kai N = 3.

a1
U 0 (1)1
(n1 , n2 )

b1
2

3
( 23 , 1)

( 61 , 21 ) ( 23 , 0)

a2
U 0 (1){1,2}

(2, 2) (3, 3)
( 16 , 1)

(n 1 , n 2 )

( 76 , 0)

b2
(3, 3)

(2, 2) (2, 3)

(3, 2) (2, 3)

(3, 2)

(3, 2) (3, 3)

( 23 , 12 )

( 14
, 1)
3

( 23 , 3)

( 83 , 3)

(3, 2, 3)

U 0 (1){1,2,3} (2, 2, 2) (3, 2, 2) (3, 3, 3) (3, 3, 2)

(2, 2, 3)

( 23 , 1)

( 83 , 1)

b3

(2, 3, 2)

( 16 , 32 )

c2

(2, 3) (2, 2)

a3

(n1 , n2 )

(2, 3, 3)

( 53 , 0)

( 76 , 21 )

c3
(2, 2, 3) (2, 2, 2) (3, 3, 3)

(2, 2, 2) (2, 3, 3) (2, 3, 2) (2, 2, 3) (3, 2, 2)

(3, 2, 2) (3, 3, 3) (3, 2, 3) (2, 3, 2) (3, 2, 3)
(3, 3, 2) (2, 3, 3) (3, 3, 2)

( 23 , 5)

( 14
, 1)
3

( 83 , 3)

( 83 , 3)

( 14
, 1)
3

Pnakac 7.2: Oi diforoi U (1)0 prosanatolismo kai oi antstoiqec timc twn suntelestn
n1,2 gia la ta montla tou Pnaka 7.1.

Sqhmatismo N = 2
Ed ja melethjon sqhmatismo N = 2, dhlad me 4 U (1) summetrec. Tra mwc, pwc
kai sthn N = 3 perptwsh pou ja akoloujsei, meletntai mno ekenoi oi sqhmatismo
oi opooi ikanopoion tic upojseic pou anafrjhkan parapnw. 'Epeita apo dierenhsh
diapistnetai oti mno do sqhmatismo ikanopoion ta kritria pou tjhkan. Auto fanontai
sto Sqma 7.2 kai onomzontai A2 ,B2 . Oi kbantiko arijmo gia ta swmatdia tou KP ktw
139

apo thn SU (3) SU (2) U3 (1) U2 (1) U (1)0 1 U (1)0 2 enai

Montlo A2

Montlo B2

(3, 2; 1, 1 , 0, 0)1/6

(3, 2; 1, 1 , 0, 0)1/6

dc

1; 1, 0, 0, 2 )1/3
(3,

1; 1, 0, 2 , 0)1/3
(3,

uc

1; 1, 0, 3 , 0)2/3
(3,

1; 1, 0, 0, 3 )2/3
(3,

(1, 2; 0, 4 , 5 , 0)1/2

(1, 2; 0, 4 , 0, 5 )1/2

ec

(1, 1; 0, 0, 6 , 7 )1

(1, 1; 0, 0, 6 , 7 )1

(1, 1; 0, 0, 28 , 0)0

(1, 1; 0, 0, 0, 28 )0

(7.14)

Oi exisseic pou epiblei o kbantikc arijmc tou uperfortou enai

Montlo A2

Montlo B2

1
6

k3 + 1 k2 =

dc

k3 + 2 k20 =

uc
L
ec

1
6
1
k3 + 2 k10 =
3
k3 + 1 k2 =

1
3

2
3
1
k2 4 + k10 5 =
2
k3 + k10 3 =

k3 + k20 3 =

2
3

k2 4 + k20 5 =

k10 6 + k20 7 = 1

(7.15)

1
2

k10 6 + k20 7 = 1

Wc ed h omoithta enai faner me thn N = 1 perptwsh. Parola aut, h lsh twn

susthmtwn (7.15) allzei entelc thn eikna. Plon oi sqhmatismo A2 ,B2 parousizoun
dipl apeira lsewn. Pio sugkekrimna, gia ton sqhmatism A2 enai
(1)

A2

(2)

A2

1
1
: |k3 | = | k20 | , |k2 | = | k20 | , |k10 | = |1 k20 | , k20
3
2
1
1
: |k3 | = | + k20 | , |k2 | = | + k20 | , |k10 | = |1 + k20 | , k20
3
2

(7.16)
(7.17)

en gia ton B2
(1)

B2

(2)

B2

1
2
: |k3 | = | k20 | , |k2 | = | k20 | , |k10 | = |1 k20 | , k20
3
2
2
1
: |k3 | = | + k20 | , |k2 | = | + k20 | , |k10 | = |1 + k20 | , k20
3
2

(7.18)
(7.19)

Qrhsimopointac thn (7.6) kajc kai jewrntac louc touc dunatoc prosanatolismoc
gia tic epiplon U (1) polubrnec mpore na upologiste h kY . Aut fanontai stic 3 prtec
stlec tou Pnaka 7.10 sthn sel. 170.
140

Sqhmatismo N = 3
Se aut thn perptwsh uprqoun sunolik 5 U (1) polubrnec. Oi sqhmatismo pou enai se
sumfwna me ta kritria pou tjhkan sthn arq thc anlushc parousizontai sto Sqma 7.3.
Oi kbantiko arijmo twn pedwn ktw apo thn SU (3) SU (2) U3 (1) U2 (1) U (1)0 1
U (1)0 2 U (1)0 3 enai
Montlo A3

Montlo B3

(3, 2; 1, 1 , 0, 0, 0)1/6

dc

1; 1, 0, 0, 2 , 0)1/3
(3,

uc

1; 1, 0, 3 , 0, 0)2/3
(3,

1; 1, 0, 0, 3 , 0)2/3
(3,

(1, 2; 0, 4 , 0, 0, 5 )1/2

(1, 2; 0, 4 , 0, 0, 5 )1/2

(1, 2; 0, 4 , 0, 5 , 0)1/2

ec

(1, 1; 0, 0, 0, 6 , 7 )1

(1, 1; 0, 0, 6 , 0, 7 )1

(1, 1; 0, 0, 0, 6 , 7 )1

(1, 1; 0, 0, 8 , 0, 9 )0

Montlo D3

(3, 2; 1, 1 , 0, 0, 0)1/6

Montlo C3

1; 1, 0, 2 , 0, 0)1/3
(3,

(1, 1; 0, 0, 0, 8 , 9 )0

Montlo E3

(3, 2; 1, 1 , 0, 0, 0)1/6
1; 1, 0, 0, 0, 2 )1/3
(3,
1; 1, 0, 3 , 0, 0)2/3(7.20)
(3,

(1, 1; 0, 0, 8 , 9 , 0)0

Montlo F3

(3, 2; 1, 1 , 0, 0, 0)1/6

(3, 2; 1, 1 , 0, 0, 0)1/6

dc

1; 1, 0, 2 , 0, 0)1/3
(3,

1; 1, 0, 0, 0, 2 )1/3
(3,

uc

1; 1, 0, 0, 0, 3 )2/3
(3,

1; 1, 0, 0, 3 , 0)2/3
(3,

(1, 2; 0, 4 , 0, 5 , 0)1/2

(1, 2; 0, 4 , 5 , 0, 0)1/2

(1, 2; 0, 4 , 5 , 0, 0)1/2

ec

(1, 1; 0, 0, 6 , 7 , 0)1

(1, 1; 0, 0, 6 , 0, 7 )1

(1, 1; 0, 0, 6 , 7 , 0)1

(1, 1; 0, 0, 0, 8 , 9 )0

(1, 1; 0, 0, 8 , 9 , 0)0

(3, 2; 1, 1 , 0, 0, 0)1/6
1; 1, 0, 0, 2 , 0)1/3
(3,
1; 1, 0, 0, 0, 3 )2/3(7.21)
(3,

(1, 1; 0, 0, 8 , 0, 9 )0

en h sunjkh tou uperfortou odhge sta sustmata twn exissewn

Montlo A3

Montlo B3

1
6

k 3 + 1 k2 =

dc

k3 + 2 k20 =

uc
L
ec

1
6
1
k3 + 2 k10 =
3
k3 + 1 k2 =

1
3

2
3
1
k2 4 + k30 5 =
2

2
3
1
k2 4 + k30 5 =
2

k3 + 3 k10 =

k3 + 3 k20 =

k20 6 + k30 7 = 1

6 k10 + 7 k30 = 1
141

Montlo C3

1
6
1
k3 + 2 k30 =
3
k3 + 1 k2 =

2
k3 + 3 k10 = (7.22)
3
1
k2 4 + k20 5 =
2
6 k20 + 7 k30 = 1

Montlo D3

Montlo E3

1
6

k 3 + 1 k2 =

dc

k3 + 2 k10 =

uc
L
ec

k3 + 1 k2 =
1
3

k3 + 2 k30 =

2
3
1
k2 4 + k20 5 =
2

Montlo F3

1
6

1
6
1
k3 + 2 k20 =
3
2
k3 + 3 k30 =
3
k3 + 1 k2 =

1
3

2
3
1
k2 4 + k10 5 =
2

k3 + 3 k30 =

k3 + 3 k20 =

k2 4 + k10 5 =

1
2

6 k10 + 7 k20 = 1

6 k10 + 7 k30 = 1

k10 6 + k20 7 = 1

(7.23)

'Opwc kai sthn N = 2 perptwsh tsi kai tra emfanzetai dipl apeira lsewn sn
epiplon ma lsh h opoa den mpore na breje apo tic llec do. Oi lseic gia ta la
montla dnontai ston Pnaka 7.3.
Montla

A3

B3

C3

(1)

A3
(2)
A3
(3)
A3
(1)
B3
(2)
B3
(3)
B3
(1)
C3
(2)
C3
(3)
C3

|k3 |
2
| 3 k30 |
| 32 + k30 |
5
6

| 23 k30 |
| 32 + k30 |
5
6

| 13 k30 |
| 31 + k30 |
5
3

|k2 |
1
| 2 k30 |
| 12 + k30 |
1
1
| 2 k30 |
| 12 + k30 |
1
1
| 2 k30 |
| 12 + k30 |
1

|k10 |
|k30 |
|k30 |

|k20 |
|1 k30 |
|1 + k30 |

|k30 |
k30
k30

3
2

1
2
|k30 |
|k30 |
3
2

1
2
k30
k30
1
2
k30
k30
1
2

|1 k30 |
|1 + k30 |
1
2

|1 k30 |
|1 + k30 |

|1 k30 |
|1 + k30 |

3
2

1
2

Pnakac 7.3: Oi lseic gia ta montla A3 , B3 , C3 . Oi lseic gia touc sqhmatismoc D3 , E3 , F3

den grfontai diti autc enai diec me tic lseic twn B3 , C3 , A3 antstoiqa.
Plon, akoloujntac thn dia taktik me tic prohgomenec periptseic upologzetai h kY
gia touc diforouc prosanatolismoc twn 3 epiplon U (1) polubrann. Ta apotelsmata
fanontai stic 3 prtec stlec twn Pinkwn 7.11,7.12,7.13 stic sel. 171,172,173 antstoiqa.
Apo thn apeira twn lsewn gia tic periptseic N = 2, N = 3 epilgontai oi aplosterec
me k20 = 12 , 0, 1 kai k30 = 12 , 1, 0. Diapistnetai oti mno do sqhmatismo, o B2 kai o B3
D3 , odhgon se qamhl tim gia thn klmaka thc qordc MS . Epomnwc, katalgoume sta
montla a2 , b2 ,c2 kai a3 , b3 , c3 twn opown oi timc gia ta ki , ki0 fanontai ston Pnaka 7.1, en
oi timc gia touc suntelestc n1 , n2 pou kajorzoun thn kY anagrfontai sto Pnaka 7.2.

142

7.3 H klmaka thc qordc kai oi suzexeic Yukawa

se upersummetrikoc kai mh upersummetrikoc
sqhmatismoc
Se aut to edfio ja melethjon h klmaka thc qordc kai h enopohsh b- se upersummetrikoc kai mh sqhmatismoc polubrann me U (3) U (2) U (1)N summetra bajmdac sthn
klmaka thc qordc. 'Oson afor mh upersummetrikoc sqhmatismoc h anlush qei pragmatopoihje sthn ergasa [105]. Parola aut, ed ja parousiaston ta sumpersmata thc
parapnw ergasac tsi ste na enai efikt h sgkrish me upersummetrikoc sqhmatismoc.
Sunepc, akoloujntac ma apo ktw proc ta pnw prosggish exelssontai oi suzexeic
bajmdac qrhsimopointac tic exisseic thc omdac epakanonikopohshc se txh enc brqou.
Sthn enrgeia MZ lambnontai upyin oi peiramatikc timc gia ta 3 , em kai sin2 W sthn
MZ [71]

3 = 0.118 0.003,

e1 = 127.906,

sin2 W = 0.23120

(7.24)

H exlixh stamat sthn klmaka thc qordc h opoa orzetai wc h enrgeia gia thn opoa
isqei kY n1 n2 = 0. Kat autn ton trpo kajorzetai h MS h opoa enai diaforetik
gia ta montla tou Pnaka 7.1 lgw twn suntelestn n1 , n2 . Melettai arqik ti gnetai
sthn perptwsh pou oi dsmec apo tic polubrnec den diastaurnontai kai sugkekrimnec
sunjkec stic arqikc timc twn suzexewn bajmdac mporon na jewrhjon, me apotlesma nan arijm diaforetikn periptsewn, oi opoec anagrfhkan ston Pnaka 7.2. Sthn
perptwsh twn parllhlwn polubrann o prosanatolismc kpoiwn apo tic epiplon U (1)
polubrnec mpore na sumpptei me thn diejunsh thc U (3) dsmhc, en oi uploipec abelianc polubrnec enai parllhla me thn U (2) dsmh. Aut shmanei oti oi U (1) suzexeic
bajmdac qoun tic diec arqikc timc ete me thn 3 ete me thn 2 szeuxh bajmdac. Sthn
sunqeia ja melethje kai h perptwsh pou oi polubrnec tmnontai. Epiplon, exetzetai
an enai dunat h b enopohsh twn suzexewn Yukawa.
Ac dome mwc lgo pio analutik thn taktik pou ja akoloujhje meletntac thn
enopohsh twn stajern szeuxhc kajc kai thn exlixh twn suzexewn Yukawa. Qrhsimopointac tic peiramatik kajorismnec timc gia tic mzec thc trthc genic fermionwn
mb , m , exelssetai to ssthma se txh 2 brqwn twn SU (3)C U (1)Y exissewn thc omdac epakanonikopohshc mqri thn klmaka MZ pou kai enarmonzetai se ekeno to shmeo ta
apotelsmata me tic gnwstc peiramatikc timc gia thn asjen gwna mxhc kai tic zexeic
bajmdac. Gia thn exlixh ktw tou MZ orzontai oi parmetroi

g 2
e 2
3
,
3 =
, t = 2 ln

e =
4
4

(7.25)

pou e, g3 enai h hlektromagnhtik kai isqur zexh antstoiqa, en enai h klmaka

143

epakanonikopohshc. Oi exisseic thc omdac epakanonikopohshc enai [70]

d
e
80 2 464 3 176 2
=

3
dt
9 e
27 e
9 e
d
3
23 2 116 3 22 2
9769 4
=
3

3 +
3
e

dt
3
3
9
54 3

dmb
1
397 2 1012 2 4
3
= mb
e 4
3 +

3
e 474.8712
3
dt
3
162 e
18 3 9
dm
dt

373 2
= m 3
e +

18 e

pou mb , m enai oi trqwn mzec tou bottom kourk kai tou t-leptonou antstoiqa, en
t,b, 2t,b, /16 2 .
a
i gi2 /16 2 kai a
H aparathth tim gia thn trqwn mza tou mt sthn MZ upologzetai c exc: lnetai
to ssthma twn EOE gia tic (a
3 , a
2 , a
Y , a
t , a
b , a
) kai peita kajorzetai h sunrthsh
parembolc gia ta a
3 () kai mt (; mt (MZ )) se kje klmaka pnw apo thn MZ , pou
mt (MZ ) dhlnei thn exrthsh sthn aujareth arqik sunjkh. H gnwsth tim gia thn
mt (MZ ) brsketai lnontac arijmhtik thn algebrik exswsh:

Mt
mt (; mt (MZ ))
=0
(7.26)
1 + 16
a

()

2
a
()
3
t
3
=Mt
Aut ta apotelsmata qrhsimopoiontai wc dedomna. Gia enrgeiec pnw apo thn MZ
jewrontai ete to fsma tou KP me do dipltec Higgs ete to fsma tou MSSM.

Mh upersummetriko sqhmatismo.

Arqik, gia enrgeiec pnw apo thn MZ jewretai to fsma tou KP me 2 dipltec Higgs
kai qrin sgkrishc anafrontai ta sumpersmata thc ergasac [105]. H exswsh thc omdac
epakanonikopohshc se txh enc brqou gia tic suzexeic bajmdac (
/(4)) enai

d
i
= bi
i2 ,
dt

i = Y, 2, 3

(7.27)

pou t = 2 ln kai se autn thn perptwsh (bY , b2 , b3 ) = (7, 3, 7).

Jewrntac oti h 3 parnei diaforetikc timc apo thn 2 , brsketai oti ta montla
(1 , b1 , 2 , b2 , c2 , 3 , b3 , c3 ) tou Pnaka 7.1 problpoun ma klmaka qordc h opoa ektenetai
apo merik TeV ec thn enrgeia Planck. To montlo (b1 ) aporrptetai mic kai odhge se
uperbolik meglh klmaka qordc, en to (1 ) problpei ma endimesh energeiak klmaka
1013 . H uyhlterh tim enai thc txhc MS 7 1017 GeV kai antistoiqe se suzexeic
2
= 1 sthn MS . Apo thn llh, qamhlterec timc enopohshc thc txhc tou TeV
3
proupojtoun lgo twn suzexewn bajmdac so me 23 2. Se aut thn perptwsh h
ida thc enopohshc twn suzexewn bajmdac mpore akma na isqei an kpoioc jewrsei
oti h summetra bajmdac tou KP prokptei apo thn rxh mac summetrac to mh abelian
mroc thc opoac enai U (3) U (2)2 . Ta difora montla me tic problyeic gia thn klmaka
144

Montlo
(1 )
(b 1 )
(b 2 , b 3 , c 3 )
(c2 )
(3 )
(2 )

kY
1.608
0.802
2.969
2.539
1.554
1.226

= 23
0.91
1.20
0.42
0.58
0.93
1.01

MS /GeV
4.73 1013
4.01 1023
5.786 103
1.986 106
1.645 1014
6.710 1017

mb
(MS )
m

1.25
1.01
0.73
0.68

1.44
1.19
0.87
0.81

Pnakac 7.4: H klmaka thc qordc kai o lgoc = a32 gia diforouc prosanatolismoc twn
U (1) polubrann pou parousisthkan ston Pnaka 7.2. H teleutaa stlh deqnei ton lgo
twn mazn b sthn MS . Akribc b enopohsh epitugqnetai gia to montlo (c2 ) gia
MS 106 GeV .
enopohshc kajc kai gia tic llec posthtec fanontai ston Pnaka 7.4. H qamhlterh
pijan enopohsh gia ta tra montla (b2 , b3 , c3 ) antistoiqe se kY = 143 + 1, kai enai
MS 5.8 103 GeV, gia lgo suzexewn bajmdac 0.42 sthn MS . To montlo (c2 )
problpei ma endimesh tim MS 2 106 GeV en to montlo (3 ) dnei MS 1014 GeV.
Tloc, to montlo (2 ) gia 1 problpei ma klmaka enopohshc MS 6.7 1017 GeV,
h opoa kai enai thc txhc thc eterotikc uperqordc. Enai endiafron oti sthn teleutaa
perptwsh, lec oi suzexeic bajmdac enai sec sthn MS , 3 = 2 = i0 , en pwc fanetai
apo ton Pnaka 7.2, o kY parnei koin tim kai gia tic trec periptseic, kY = 7/6.
Ja exetaste loipn h pijanthta na epiteuqje enopohsh b- gia thn perptwsh qamhlc
klmakac qordc MS . O trpoc apkthshc twn dedomnwn sthn enrgeia MZ parousisthke
parapnw. Sthn sugkekrimnh perptwsh jewretai to KP me na akma pedo Higgs. Autc
o diplasiasmc twn pedwn Higgs enai se sumfwna me parallagc tou KP apo montla
polubrann. Akma, gnetai h upjesh oti oi roi szeuxhc tou enc pedou Higgs Hu me
to top kourk kai tou deterou pedou Higgs Hd me to bottom. Kti ttoio mwc den enai
efikt gia ta montla (1 , b1 ) gia ta opoa gia lgouc plhrthtac dnontai oi timc twn kY ,
kai MS .
'Epeita, se analoga me thn upersummetra orzetai h gwna h opoa sqetzetai me tic
vevs tan = vvud . Sunepc, gia tic suzexeic Yukawa

d
t
dt
d
b
dt
d

dt
dvu
dt
dvd
dt

17
9
9
1

Y
2 8
3 +
t +
b)
12
4
2
2
5
9
1
9

b (
Y
2 8
3 +
t +
b +
)
12
4
2
2
15
9
5

(
Y
2 + 3
b +
)
4
4
2
vu 3
9
(
Y +
2 3
t )
2 4
4
vd 3
9
(
Y +
2 3
b
)
2 4
4

=
t (
=
=
=
=

'Etsi, upologzetai o lgoc mb /m sthn enrgeia MS . Sugkentrwtik apotelsmata son

145

afor tic diforec periptseic twn montlwn (2 ) (c3 ) parousizontai ston Pnaka 7.4.
Parathretai oti enopohsh b- epitugqnetai gia to montlo (c2 ), gia MS 2 106
GeV. Ta montla (b2 , b3 , c3 ) me klmaka enopohshc MS 5.8 103 GeV problpoun ma
mikr apklish apo thn akrib enopohsh b- . Prkeitai gia ta montla pou ikanopoion
a3 2 a2 .
mb
Sto Sqma 7.4 o lgoc m
sqedizetai c sunrthsh thc energeiakc klmakac gia thn

perptwsh tou KP me do peda Higgs. Lambnontac upyin lec tic abebaithtec to apotlesma fanetai sthn skiasmnh perioq. H orizntia perioq orzetai metax twn timn
mb
= [0.95 1.05].
m

1.8

m /m

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

10

12

14

log

10

16

( /GeV)

mb
wc sunrthsh thc enrgeiac sto KP me do dipltec Higgs. H
Sqma 7.4: O lgoc m

skiasmnh perioq ofeletai sthn abebaithta twn metrsewn twn dedomnwn stic qamhlc
enrgeiec. Oi orizntiec grammc deqnoun thn perioq 5% grw apo thn monda.

Upersummetriko sqhmatismo.

H prohgomenh anlush deixe oti orismna mh upersummetrik montla problpoun qamhlc enrgeiac klmaka qordc en kpoia lla dnoun endimesh enrgeia MS . Enai loipn
faner oti se ttoiec periptseic to prblhma thc ierarqac paramnei. Sunepc, gia lgouc pou anafrjhkan kai sto edfio 7.1, ed melettai h perptwsh pou h upersummetra
146

den qei spsei kai gnetai aisjht mqri thn hlektrasjen klmaka. Dhlad, gia enrgeiec
pnw thc MZ jewretai to MSSM. Plon oi suntelestc Yukawa pou upeisrqontai sthn
su su
(7.27) enai (bsu
Y , b2 , b3 ) = (11, 1, 3).
'Opwc tan anamenmeno, h tim gia thn klmaka thc qordc gia ta montla tou Pnaka 7.2 auxnetai se sqsh me touc prohgomenouc mh upersummetrikoc metasqhmatismoc. Pio sugkekrimna, sthn sgkrish metax upersummetrikn kai mh upersummetrikn sqhmatismn kentrik rlo qoun oi sunartseic bta. Lgw twn epiplon suneisforn apo touc upersummetrikoc suntrfouc twn kourk kai twn leptonwn oi bi gnontai
(7, 3, 7) (11, 1, 3). 'Etsi, h 3 elattnetai en h Y auxnetai me pio arg rujm,
me apotlesma megalterh klmaka qordc sto MSSM se sqsh me to KP me do dipltec
Higgs. An kai tra h klmaka thc qordc ektenetai apo merik TeV ec thn enrgeia Planck,
parathretai oti ta montla (2 , b2 , c2 ) prpei na aporrifjon. Gia to montlo (2 ) h klmaka
thc qordc enai 3.6 1018 GeV kai sumbanei tan oi U (1) polubrnec enai sthn dia qwrik
katejunsh me tic U (3) polubrnec. Prkeitai gia enrgeia thc txhc thc mzac tou Planck
me lgo 32 1.15 kai kY = 76 . 'Omwc, pwc ja analuje kai me perissterh leptomreia
sto epmeno edfio, sthn klmaka thc qordc prpei na isqei 1 kai kY 1 tsi ste
sto shmeo pou kaletai shmeo enopohshc kajc kai se mikrterec enrgeiec < MS na
isqei gia tic stajerc szeuxhc 2 () 3 () kai 2 () Y (). Aut to kritrio ikanopoijhke sthn mh upersummetrik perptwsh, kti pou den isqei pia. 'Oson afor to
(b1 ) aporrptetai gia ton dio lgo pwc akribc kai sto KP me do dipltec Higgs, pra
apo thn mh ikanopohsh tou parapnw krithrou. Gia ta montla (b2 , b3 , c3 ) h qamhlterh
dunat enopohsh sumbanei tan MSsusy = 1.46 105 GeV (kY = 14
+ 1) pou 0.43.
3
susy
'Opwc kai prn, sto montlo (c2 ) problpetai ma endimesh tim MS = 7.39 108 GeV gia
kY = 83 + 1, en gia la ta montla (3 ) h tim thc MSsusy enai thc txhc twn 1016 GeV me
qamhlterh thn 1.81 1016 GeV gia kY = 53 pou 1.00 kai lec oi suzexeic bajmdac
sec. 'Ola ta parapnw apotelsmata fanontai stic stlec 2-4 tou Pnaka 7.5.
'Oson afor thn enopohsh b- , oi zexeic Yukawa ikanopoion to ktwji ssthma diaforikn exissewn,

d
t
dt
d
b
dt
d

dt
dvu
dt
dvd
dt

13
16

Y 3
2
3 + 6
t +
b)
9
3
7
16
=
b (
Y 3
2
3 +
t + 6
b +
)
9
3
=
t (

=
(3
Y 3
2 + 3
b + 4
)
vu 1
3
(
Y +
2 3
t )
2 4
4
vd 3
9
=
(
Y +
2 3
b
)
2 4
4
=

'Opwc fanetai kai apo ton Pnaka 7.5, enopohsh b- sumbanei me epituqa gia to montlo
(c2 ) me MSsusy 7 108 GeV. Aut sunbh kai sthn mh upersummetrik perptwsh lla ma
txh megjouc uyhltera sthn energeiak klmaka. Apo thn llh gia ta qamhlc enrgeiac
montla (b2 , b3 , c3 ) problpetai ma mikr apklish thc txhc tou 20% apo thn akrib b-
147

Montlo
( 1 )
(b1 )
(b2 , b3 , c3 )
(c2 )
( 3 )
( 2 )

kY
= 23
1.669
1.00
0.892
1.34
3.008
0.43
2.606
0.60
1.672
1.00
1.338
1.15

MSsusy /GeV
1.89 1016
2.42 1021
1.46 105
7.39 108
1.81 1016
3.6 1018

mb
(MSsusy )
m

1.20-1.46
0.97-1.25
0.74-1.03
0.70-1.00

Pnakac 7.5: 'Omoia me ton Pnaka 7.4. Epituqhmnh b enopohsh sumbanei gia to montlo
(c2 ) gia MS 8 108 GeV.
mb
enopohsh. Sto sqma 7.5 dnetai to grfhma tou lgou m
wc sunrthsh thc enrgeiac

sta plasia tou MSSM, en sto sqma 7.6 apeikonzontai maz ta grafmata 7.4 kai 7.5.
H perioq abebaithtac enai safc megalterh sthn perptwsh tou MSSM gegonc pou
ofeletai sthn parmetro tan .

1.8

m /m

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6
2

10

12

14

log

10

Sqma 7.5: O lgoc

mb
m

16

( /GeV)

wc sunrthsh thc enrgeiac sto MSSM.

148

1.8

m /m

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

10

12

14

log

10

16

( /GeV)

Sqma 7.6: H leuk lwrda antistoiqe sto MSSM, en h gkrza sto KP me do dipltec
Higgs.

7.4 Diaqwrismnh upersummetra

Prsfata oi suggrafec thc ergasac [106] efrmosan mia diaforetik 'logik' prosggish
sthn upersummetra. Ousiastik agnhsan to prblhma thc ierarqac deqmenoi thn lept
rjmish sthn mza tou mpozonou Higgs. Jerhsan oti afo to prblhma thc kosmologikc
stajerc qreizetai ma sobarterh lept rjmish kpoioc mpore na zsei kai me thn lept
rjmish sto mpoznio Higgs. Se autc tic jewrec to fsma twn upersummetrikn etarwn
twn swmatidwn tou kajierwmnou protpou qwrzetai sta do: (1) ta bajmwt swmtia
(s-kourk kai s-leptnia) parnoun mza sthn uyhl klmaka sthn opoa spei h upersummetra, h opoa kai mpore na ftnei sthn klmaka enopohshc MGU T , kai (2) ta ferminia,
,B-ino B
) kai higgsinos (H
u,d ) ta opoa brskontai kont sthn
gauginos (gluino g,W-ino W
hlektrasjen klmaka tsi ste na epiteuqje h enopohsh twn stajern szeuxhc. To
mno elafr bajmwt swmtio thc jewrac enai to lept rujmismno Higgs. 'Etsi, ant thc
ec tra prbleyhc oti sto LHC ja breje mno to Higgs, autc oi jewrec problpoun
gauginos kai higgsinos sthn klmaka tou TeV.
H pio genik kanonikopoihmnh energc langkranzian gia ta parapnw peda perilambnei
rouc mzac gia ta ferminia, suzexeic Yukawa metax twn Higgs kai twn fermionwn kai

149

thn szeuxh Higgs ttartou bajmo:

2 u
H H hij qj ui H + hdij qj di H + heij `j ei H
2
M3 A A M2 a a M1
Tu H
d
g g +
W W +
B B + H
+
2
2
2

H
HT
a a
0
a a
0

+ gu W + gu B H u +

g d W + gd B H d + h.c. , (7.28)
2
2

L = m2 H H

pou = i2 kai qei upoteje ma anlogh summetra thc R prith ktw apo thn opoa lec
oi nec katastseic enai perittc. H langkranzian sthn exswsh (7.28) perigrfei thn
energ jewra (SplitSM) h opoa prokptei an apo to upersummetrik KP afairejon ta skourk,ta s-leptnia, to fortismno kai to yeudobajmwt Higgs. Gia autc tic katastseic
gnetai h upjesh oti enai lec baric kai ekfulismnec me mza m
. Oi stajerc szeuxhc
thc energo jewrac sthn klmaka m
kajorzontai tairizontac thn langkranzian sthn
exswsh (7.28) me touc rouc allhlepdrashc twn upersummetrikn dipletn Higgs Hu kai
Hd ,

2 g 2
2
g22 a
Hu Hu + Hd a Hd
Hu Hu Hd Hd
8
8
+u H T
ui qj d H T di qj e H T
ei `j

Lsusy =

ij

ij

ij

Hd a a
H
a + gB
H
u
H
d + h.c.
g2 W g B
u g2 a W
2
2

(7.29)

Epeid sthn diplta Higgs H = cos Hd + sin Hu gine lept rjmish ste na qei
mikroc rouc mzac, oi sunoriakc sunjkec twn stajern szeuxhc sthn exswsh (7.28)
sthn klmaka m
prokptoun antikajistntac sthn (7.29) Hu sin H , Hd cos H :

[g22 (m)
+ g 2 (m)]

cos2 2,
4

(7.30)

hd,e
= d,e
cos ,
ij (m)
ij (m)

(7.31)

gu (m)
= g2 (m)
sin ,

gd (m)
= g2 (m)
cos ,

(7.32)

g0u (m)
= g(m)
sin ,

g0d (m)
= g(m)
cos .

(7.33)

(m)
=
huij (m)
= u
sin ,
ij (m)

Sta epmena edfia ja melethjon oi problyeic twn sqhmatismn polubrann sta plasia
tou senarou thc diaqwrismnhc upersummetrac.

7.5 Enopohsh kai h klmaka thc qordc

Gia na enai dunat h poiotik dierenhsh thc epdrashc thc klmakac pou spei h upersummetra sthn klmaka thc qordc, arqik melettai h exlixh twn suzexewn bajmdac se txh
enc brqou. Pnw apo thn m
oi sunartseic bta enai autc thc plrhc upersummetrikc
150

jewrac, en ktw apo autn oi sunartseic bta qoun suneisforc mno apo touc fermionikoc suntrfouc (ta ferminia tou KP, ta gaugino kai ta higgsino) kai na grammik
sunduasm twn bajmwtn dipletn Higgs. Sumbolzontai me bSU
i , bi oi sunartseic bta
stic energeiakc perioqc pnw kai ktw apo thn m
antstoiqa.
Lnontac analutik tic exisseic epakanonikopohshc sto eppedo enc brqou brskontai oi suzexeic bajmdac 3 (MS ), 2 (MS ) kai Y (MS ) sunartsei gnwstn posottwn
sto MZ . Epiplon, smfwna me thn ec tra anlush, sthn energeiak klmaka thc qordc
isqoun
2 (MS )
2 (MS )
= ,
= n1 + n2
(7.34)
3 (MS )
Y (MS )
pou oi timc twn n1 , n2 dnontai ston Pnaka 7.2 gia ta difora montla. Sunepc, oi (7.34)
apotelon ssthma do exissewn me do agnstouc (MS , ) me thn m
elejerh parmetro
gia timc thc opoac ja brejon ta (MS , ). Isqoun,

MZ < < m
:

Orzontac

1
3 (MZ )

1
b3
m

+
ln
3 (m)

2
MZ

(7.35)

1
2 (MZ )

1
b2
m

+
ln
2 (m)

2
MZ

(7.36)

1
Y (MZ )

1
bY
m

+
ln
Y (m)

2
MZ

(7.37)

t = 2 ln , tZ = 2 ln MZ , t = 2 ln m
, tS = 2 ln MS

(7.38)

oi (7.35), (7.36) kai (7.37) gnontai

1
3 (tZ )

b3
1
+
(t tZ )
3 (t) 4

(7.39)

1
2 (tZ )

1
b2
+
(t tZ )
2 (t) 4

(7.40)

1
Y (tZ )

1
bY
+
(t tZ )
Y (t) 4

(7.41)

m
< < MS : 'Omoia gia enrgeiec pnw thc m
pou spei h upersummetra isqei
1
3 (t)

bSU
1
+ 3 (tS t)
3 (tS )
4

(7.42)

1
2 (t)

1
bSU
+ 2 (tS t)
2 (tS )
4

(7.43)

1
Y (t)

1
bSU
+ Y (tS t)
Y (tS )
4

(7.44)

151

Upenjumzetai oti

{bY , b2 , b3 } = {

15 7
, , 5} ,
2
6

SU SU
{bSU
Y , b2 , b3 } = {11, 1, 3}.

(7.45)

Sunduzontac tic (7.39)-(7.41), (7.42)-(7.44) epitugqnetai h eplush wc proc i (tS )

3 (tS ) =
2 (tS ) =

1
SU
bSU
3 ) b3 tZ + b3 tS ]

1
[t(b3
4

1
SU )

(7.46)
(7.47)

1
[t(b2
4

b2 ) b2 tZ + bSU
2 tS ]

1
[t(bY
4

1
SU
bSU
Y ) bY tZ + bY tS ]

(7.48)

SU

2 (tZ ) 4 3 (tZ )[(b3 bSU

3 )t b3 tZ + b3 tS ]
SU

3 (tZ ) 4 2 (tZ )[(b2 bSU

2 )t b2 tZ + b2 tS ]

(7.49)

Y (tS ) =
=

1
3 (tZ )

1
2 (tZ )

1
Y (tZ )

Oi (7.46)-(7.48) se sunduasm me tic (7.34) orzoun to tS wc sunrthsh twn stajern

szeuxhc sthn enrgeia MZ

tS =

2 (tZ )
n1 2 (tZ ) n2 3 (tZ )]
4[ 3 (tZY )
(tZ )

3 (tZ )2 (tZ )(n1 bSU

3
+

n2 bSU
2

bSU
Y )

bY b3 n1 b2 n2
tZ
SU
SU
n1 bSU
3 n2 b2 + bY

SU
SU
n1 (b3 bSU
3 ) + n2 (b2 b2 ) (bY bY )
t
SU
SU
n1 bSU
3 n2 b2 + bY

(7.50)

Opte kai to upologzetai apo thn (7.49) qrhsimopointac thn (7.50). H parapnw kfrash
(7.50) aplopoietai kai to apotlesma enai

f (i ,ni )

MS = e

MZ

ND

MZ

(7.51)

pou
SU
SU
N = n1 (b3 bSU
3 ) + n2 (b2 b2 ) (bY bY )

(7.52)

SU
SU
D = n1 bSU
3 n2 b2 + bY

(7.53)

kai h sunrthsh f (i , ni ) h opoa exarttai apo tic suzexeic bajmdac tou KP Y , 2 , 3

sthn klmaka enrgeiac MZ kai apo touc suntelestc n1 , n2 enai

2
n1
n2
1
f (i (MZ ), ni ) =

D Y
3 2

2 cos2 W n2 sin2 W
n1
=

D
e
3

2
2
n1
cos W n2 sin2 W
=

(7.54)
3n1 n2 + 11
e
3
152

O arijmhtc kai o paronomastc sto detero ekjth thc (7.51) exarttai mno apo touc
suntelestc n1 , n2 apo thn stigm pou kajoriston oi sunartseic bta h analoga dnetai
apo to tpo

N
21 12n1 13n2
=
D
6(11 + 3n1 n2 )

(7.55)

Tra, gia la ta montla tou Pnaka 7.1, oi timc gia ta n1,2 mporon na upologiston apo
touc suntelestc ki , ki0 , qrhsimopointac tic sqseic (7.9), kai anagrfontai ston Pnaka
7.2. 'Opwc mpore na diapistwje apo thn (7.51), gia kje montlo tou Pnaka 7.1, h klmaka
thc qordc MS mpore ete na auxnetai ete na meinetai kajc h klmaka sthn opoa spei
h upersummetra auxnetai. H sqsh metax twn MS kai m
bbaia exarttai apo to prshmo
tou ekjth thc analogac m/M

Z , h opoa enai pnta megalterh thc mondac. 'Oson afor

ta montla ta opoa meletntai, o paronomastc D prokptei pnta jetikc, kat sunpeia
to prshmo tou ekjth exarttai apo to prshmo tou arijmht N , to opoo mpore na
elegqje antikajistntac tic timc twn n1 , n2 pou anagrfontai sto Pnaka 7.2. Parola
aut, se aut to shmeo ja analujon do idithtec pou prpei na qoun loi oi sqhmatismo
anexrthta twn n1 , n2 . Enai profanc oti h sqsh (7.51) gia thn klmaka thc qordc isqei
mno tan m
MS . Epiplon, en oi suzexeic bajmdac den enopoiontai apluta sthn
MS , enai aparathto se kje montlo na isqei 2 () 3 () gia kje MS . Ekola
apodeiknetai oti sthn klmaka MS h stajer szeuxhc Y enai mikrterh twn 2 , 3 gia
kje m
, kti pou shmanei oti pnta ta 2 , 3 sunantiontai prta. Kat sunpeia, an
M23 (m,
3 ) enai h klmaka pou oi stajerc szeuxhc 2 (), 3 () gnontai sec, tte gia
ta montla pou analontai, h paraktw sunjkh prpei na apaithje

MS M23 (m,
3 ) = MZ

MZ

N 00
D

f0

2
pou f = 0
D
0

1
1

2 3

(7.56)

Ed enai

nH
23 1
=
+ =4
6
6
6
nH
1
= D0 (b2 b3 ) = (b2 b3 ) +
(b2 b3 ) =
6
6

SU
D0 = bSU
2 b3 = (b2 b3 ) +

N0

Prgmati, sthn diaqwrismnh upersummetra pou to fsma tou KP embaptzetai se SU (5)

pollaplthtec, N 0 enai anlogh thc diaforc twn dipletn Higgs pnw kai ktw apo thn m
.
nH
1
N0

Sunepc, brsketai D0 = 24 = 24 . Sto sqma 7.7 apeikonzetai h M23 wc sunrthsh thc m

parnontac upyin thn abebaithta sthn peiramatik mtrhsh thc 3 . Gia dedomno m
mpore
na elegqje h mgisth epitrepmenh tim thc klmakac thc qordc MS h opoa ikanopoie thn
sunjkh MS M23 . Akma, apo to dio grfhma diapistnetai oti so h m
metablletai
apo thn MZ sthn MS , to shmeo enopohshc twn 2 3 brsketai sto disthma (agnontac
diorjseic se txh 2 brqwn kai diorjseic katwflou)

M23 [1.59 1016 1.2 1017 ] GeV.

153

(7.57)

/GeV)

16.8

= 0.121

log

10

23

17.0

(M

17.2

16.6

= 0.115

16.4

16.2
2

10

12

log

14

16

~
(m/GeV)

10

Sqma 7.7: H ktash thc enopohshc se txh enc brqou twn suzexewn bajmdac 2,3
wc sunrthsh thc klmakac sthn opoa spei h upersummetra. H exrthsh apo thn m

emfanzetai lgw tou diaforetiko arijmo dipletn Higgs pnw kai ktw apo thn m
.
Perptwsh
N
D

N
D

>
<

1
24

1
24

Sunjkh

m
'Orio

f < f0

m
MZ e||

MZ e

f > f0

m
MZ e||

< MZ (Mh apodekt)

||

f <f

f > f0

m
MZ e

m
MZ e||

MZ max(1, e )

Pnakac 7.6: 'Oria pou epibllontai sthn m

lgw thc sunjkhc (7.58).
Gia ma pio leptomer anlush mpore na qrhsimopoihje h exswsh (7.51) wc sunjkh gia
thn m

MZ

sign( ND 241 )

f f0
pou = N
.
1
| D 24
|

(7.58)

'Olec oi pijanc periptseic sugkentrnontai ston Pnaka 7.6. Sthn sunqeia ja melethjon ta parapnw montla gia thn klmaka thc qordc.

154

Montla

a1
b1

(n1 , n2 )
( 23 , 1)

( 23 , 0)

1
6
25
132

( 16 , 21 )
( 16 , 1)

a2

( 83 , 1)

2
21
7
87
13
150
25
48
31
13
30
92

( 16 , 23 )

1
120

( 23 , 1)

( 53 , 0)

1
96
1
168
13
12
31
25
48
25
48
31

( 76 , 0)
( 23 , 21 )

b2
c2

a3

( 83 , 3)
( 14
, 1)
3
( 23 , 3)

( 76 , 21 )
( 23 , 5)
b3

( 14
, 1)
3
( 83 , 3)

c3

N
D

( 83 , 3)
( 14
, 1)
3

f (i (MZ ), ni )
12 sin2

MS (GeV)

[ 3a23 +
]
6
ae
2
2
[ 3a23 + 1sinae W ]
13
1 3 sin2
2
[ 6a13 + 2 ae W ]
11

[1.90 2.20] 1016

2
4
W
[ 6a13 + 12 sin
]
21
ae
2
4
[ 6a73 + 1sinae W ]
29
1 23 sin2 W
4
2
[
+
]
25
3a3
ae
2
W

[ 3a83 + 14 sin
]
8
ae
2
W

14
[ 3a
+ 12 sin
]
12
ae
3
2
W

[ 3a23 + 14 sin
]
5
ae
2
W

[ 3a83 + 12 sin
]
9
ae
5
1 sin2

[ 6a13 + 2 ae W ]
5
2

W
[ 3a23 + 12 sin
]
6
ae
2

[ 3a53 + 1sinae W ]
8
1 3 sin2

[ 6a73 + 2 ae W ]
7
2

W
[ 3a23 + 16 sin
]
4
ae
2
W

14
[ 3a
+ 12 sin
]
12
ae
3
2
W

[ 3a83 + 14 sin
]
8
ae
2

W
[ 3a83 + 14 sin
]
8
ae
12 sin2 W

14
[ 3a3 +
]
12
ae

[2.84 2.96] 1019 ( MmZ ) 21

[2.42 2.78] 1021 ( MmZ ) 6

25

[2.12 2.21] 1022 ( MmZ ) 132

2
7

[3.60 4.48] 1018 ( MmZ ) 87

13

[8.57 9.90] 1018 ( MmZ ) 150

25

[4.42 6.94] 101 ( MmZ ) 48

1

[1.46 2.47] 105 ( MmZ ) 3

13

[1.00 2.20] 102 ( MmZ ) 30

2

[7.39 11.0] 108 ( MmZ ) 9

1

[1.96 2.05] 1016 ( MmZ ) 120

[1.90 2.20] 1016
1

[1.81 2.41] 1016 ( MmZ ) 96

1

[1.85 2.32] 1016 ( MmZ ) 168

13

[1.23 1.54] 1017 ( MmZ ) 12

1

[1.46 2.47] 105 ( MmZ ) 3

25

[4.42 6.94] 101 ( MmZ ) 48

25

[4.42 6.94] 101 ( MmZ ) 48

1

[1.46 2.47] 105 ( MmZ ) 3

Pnakac 7.7: Sugkentrwtikc pnakac twn problyewn gia thn klmaka thc qordc gia la
ta montla Pnaka 7.2 swn afor thn perptwsh twn paralllwn polubrann.

7.5.1 Parllhlec polubrnec

Arqik, ja melethje h perptwsh twn paralllwn polubrann me ta montla tou Pnaka 7.2.
Ston Pnaka 7.7 sugkentrnontai oi problyeic kje montlou gia thn klmaka thc qordc
to prshmo thc opoac apokalptei an h MS (m)
enai
kai anagrfetai h tim tou ekjth N
D
axousa fjnousa sunrthsh.

To KP apo polubrnec me N = 1 abelian polubrnh

Arqik, ja jewrhjon ekena ta montla tou Pnaka 7.2, pou mno ma epiplon abelian
brnh eisgetai. Uprqoun do diaforetik montla kai odhgon se trec diaforetikc
problyeic gia thn klmaka thc qordc. Anmesa se autc h pio endiafrousa enai h a1 h
155

opoa problpei mi klmaka thc txhc

1 2 sin2 W
2
MS = MZ exp

2 1016 GeV
6
e
33

(7.59)

Ed prpei na anaferjon ta exc: Prton, enai axioprsekto to gegonc oti se autn

ton elqisto sqhmatism apo polubrnec, h MS sumpptei me thn klmaka h opoa prokptei apo ta megaloenopoihmna montla. Deteron, epeid se autn thn perptwsh isqei
N = 0, h klmaka thc qordc se txh enc brqou apodeiknetai na enai anexrthth thc m

(ma elafri exrthsh anamnetai se txh 2 brqwn). Wstso, mpore na kajoriste h tim
thc m
epibllontac ma sugkekrimnh sunjkh gia ta 2 , 3 sthn MS . 'Etsi, upojtwntac
enopohsh twn mh abeliann suzexewn bajmdac sthn klmaka thc qordc mpore na qrhsimopoihje h (7.56) kai na kajorsei thn m
apaitntac M23 (m
G , 3 ) MS . Plon ekola
apodeiknetai oti

1 5 sin2 W
7
m
G = MZ exp 4
+
e
33
me MZ m
G . 6.26 TeV up thn proupjesh oti 3 0.11694.
Oi do periptseic tou montlou b1 odhgon se uyhlterec klmakec (MS MP l ) kai,
epomnwc, apo thn sunjkh (7.57) kajc kai apo to gegonc oti problpoun ma uperbolik
f
meglh klmaka gia ton mhqanism airac twn aristerstrofwn netrnwn (nef
106 eV),

sumperanetai oti kama perptwsh den mpore na perigryei ma qamhlterh energeiak energ
jewra, son afor to senrio twn paralllwn polubrann.

To KP apo polubrnec me N = 2 abelianc polubrnec

Se autn thn perptwsh analjhkan ta montla a2 , b2 kai c2 . Gia to montlo a2 , anloga me
ton prosanatolism twn U (1)0 polubrann sqetik me tic dsmec U (2), U (3), prokptoun
trec pijanc timc gia ta n1 , n2 , pwc fanetai kai apo ton Pnaka 7.2. Se lec autc tic
periptseic h klmaka thc qordc auxnei kajc h m
apokt uyhlterec timc, kti pou
diapistnetai ekola apo tic arijmhtikc timc tou ekjth N /D = 2/21, 7/87, 13/150.
Sthn deterh perptwsh gia pardeigma h klmaka thc qordc

MS = MZ

MZ

877

exp

4
29

1 sin2 W
7

e
63

(7.60)

apodeiknetai na enai toulqiston thc txhc thc mzac tou Planck, akma kai gia ma tim
thc m
sugkrsimh me thn hlektrasjen klmaka (Pnakac 7.7). Shmeinetai epshc oti h
sunjkh (7.57), den ikanopoietai sto montlo a2 , afo oi mh abelianc suzexeic bajmdac
2 , 3 sunantiontai se ma klmaka qamhlterh apo ekenh pou rise h exswsh (7.8).
Proqwrntac sto montlo b2 prokptoun 2 periptseic. 'Opwc fanetai apo ton Pnaka 7.7, h prth perptwsh odhge se apardekta mikr klmaka qordc, en h deterh
problpei ma klmaka sthn txh tou TeV, h opoa dnetai

MS = MZ

MZ

13

exp

12

156

14
1 2 sin2 W

ae
3a3

(7.61)

Sthn (7.61) o ekjthc tou lgou twn mazn m/M

S enai arnhtikc, epomnwc, kajc h klmaka m

elattnetai, h klmaka thc qordc auxnei. Sthn akraa perptwsh pou m
MZ ,
dhlad tan h klmaka pou spei h upersummetrac enai sugkrsimh me thn hlektrasjen,
h uyhlterh tim thc enai MS 100 TeV, en tan m
MS , h klmaka thc qordc
elattnetai sta MS 23.5 TeV.
'Omoia, do periptseic uprqoun kai gia to montlo c2 . H prth problpei ma apardekta mikr klmaka qordc. Wstso, h deterh perptwsh enai pol pio endiafrousa. Se
autn h MS dnetai apo thn kfrash

MS = MZ

MZ

29

8
1 2 sin2 W

exp
9
ae
3a3

h opoa kai pargei ma klmaka qordc thc txhc 108 GeV (Pnakac 7.7). 'Opwc ja dexei
kai h anlush se epmeno edfio se aut to montlo h enopohsh b sthn MS enai efikt
kai se sumfwna me ton qamhlc enrgeiac peiramatik metromeno lgo mb /m .

To KP apo polubrnec me N = 3 abelianc polubrnec

Se aut to shmeo sugkentrnontai oi problyeic gia sqhmatismoc me trea (N = 3) abelianc polubrnec. Prokuyan trea montla a3 , b3 , c3 me ta paraktw qarakthristik. Anloga me ton pijan prosanatolism twn trin epiplon abeliann polubrann, to montlo
a3 dnei tsseric diaforetikc periptseic. 'Olec autc problpoun ma klmaka qordc thc
txhc twn megaloenopoihmnwn jewrin 1016 GeV. Sugkekrimna, sthn deterh perptwsh
tou a3 h klmaka thc qordc dnetai apo thn exswsh (7.59), katalgontac se dia prbleyh
me ekenh tou aplosterou sqhmatismo apo polubrnec a1 . Oi enapomenousec periptseic
tou a3 parousizoun ma pol asjen exrthsh me thn klmaka m
. Tloc, ta montla b3 , c3
dnoun moia apotelsmata gia thn MS me aut tou montlou b2 . Ta apotelsmata gia lec
tic periptseic sugkentrnontai ston Pnaka 7.7.
Gia na melethjon kpoia poiotik qarakthristik thc MS son afor thc exrthsh
thc apo thn m
, sto Sqma 7.8 apeikonzetai h klmaka thc qordc sunartsei thc m
gia
4 qarakthristikc periptseic. Apo aut to grfhma parathretai oti gia kpoiouc sqhmatismoc kai sugkekrimnouc prosanatolismoc epitrpetai ma qamhl (TeV) endimesh
klmaka qordc (arister mroc tou Sqmatoc). Mlista, so h m
auxnei h MS elattnetai. Ta montla me qamhl klmaka qordc parousizoun ma isqur exrthsh apo thn m

se sgkrish me ta montla me uyhl MS . 'Oso pio qamhl h klmaka thc qordc, tso pio
isqur h exrthsh apo thn m
. Wstso, h exrthsh apo thn m
enai ousiastik anparkth
16
tan h klmaka enai thc txhc thc MS 10 GeV. Tloc, periptseic me MS 2 1017
GeV (dexi mroc tou Sqmatoc) den ikanopoion to kritrio (7.57), epomnwc, den mporon
na jewrhjon bisimec energc jewrec . Prpei na shmeiwje oti sto rio m
MZ to fsma gnetai plrwc upersummetrik gia lo to energeiak disthma MZ MS , pou uprqei
sumfwna me ta upersummetrik montla pou dh analjhkan.
Sunoyzontac, se aut to edfio parousisthke ma taxinmhsh twn sqhmatismn apo
polubrnec me U (3) U (2) U (1)N (N = 1, 2, 3) summetra, sto senrio twn paralllwn
157

(M /GeV)

20

(c )

18

log

10

10

log

(
19

(M /GeV)

10

17

(b ,b ,c )
2

16

log

15
2

10

12

14

log

(m/GeV)

10

16

(m/GeV)

10

Sqma 7.8: H klmakac thc qordc MS sunartsei thc klmakac sthn opoa spei h upersummetra m
sto senrio twn paralllwn polubrann gia tic tsseric qarakthristikc
periptseic oi opoec analontai sto kemeno. To pqoc sthn kamplh thc MS lambnei
upyin thn abebaithta sthn mtrhsh thc isqurc stajerc szeuxhc sthn enrgeia MZ .
polubrann kai brjhkan endiafrousec kathgorec montlwn se sqsh me thn prbleyh
touc gia thn klmaka thc qordc:
(i) ma kathgora montlwn gia N = 1 kai N = 3 abelianc polubrnec, problpei ma
klmaka qordc thc txhc thc klmakac twn megaloenopoihmnwn jewrin MS 1016
GeV. Enai endiafron oti aut ta montla qarakthrzontai se ma kal prosggish me
= 1, kti pou shmanei oti oi mh abelianc suzexeic bajmdac prgmati enopoiontai
sthn MS .
(ii) Sthn perptwsh N = 2 abeliann polubrann, gia na sugkekrimno prosanatolism
twn U (1) polubrann brsketai na montlo me endimesh klmaka qordc MS 107
108 GeV.
(iii) Do periptseic me N = 2 kai N = 3 abelianc polubrnec problpoun qamhl MS
sthn energeiak perioq twn 104 105 GeV.
(iv) Tloc, sthn N = 2 abelian perptwsh, ta montla a2 epitrpoun mia klmaka qordc
thc txhc thc mzac tou Planck. Wstso, gia lgouc pou analjhkan parapnw den
jewrontai bisima.

7.5.2 Temnmenec polubrnec

Parousisthkan parapnw la ta montla pou prokptoun apo diforec uperjseic twn
abeliann polubrann me ta mh abelian. Se aut ta montla oi abelianc suzexeic bajmdac, sthn klmaka thc qordc, qoun sec timc me tic suzexeic 2 3 . Sthn genikterh
perptwsh pou oi U (1) polubrnec den enai prosanatolismnec ote me tic U (3) ote me tic
U (2) oi antstoiqec suzexeic mporon na proun diaforetikc timc, i 6= 2 , 3 . Antjeta
158

me to prohgomeno upoedfio, anloga me tic leptomreiec tou sqhmatismo apo polubrnec,

autc mporon na proun diforec timc kai kat sunpeia dnoun diaforetik prbleyh gia
thn klmaka thc qordc. Se aut to edfio ja diereunhjon oi problyeic ttoiou edouc
montlwn pou den qei epiblhje kpoioc sugkekrimnoc prosanatolismc twn abeliann
0
polubrann. Qwrc blbh thc genikthtac, jewretai 10 = 20 = = N
=
. Orzetai
0
loipn ma koin msh tim gia touc lgouc twn suzexewn bajmdac 2 /i0 kai ekfrzetai
h parmetroc kY c

kY =

6k32

4k22

+ 2

N
X

ki0

(7.62)

i=1

pou shmanei oti plon h klmaka thc qordc exarttai apo do tuqaec paramtrouc kai
0 . Kat sunpeia,
N
X
2
2
2
0
n1 = 6k3 , n2 = 4k2 + 2
ki0 .
(7.63)
i=1
00

Enallaktik, orzontac =

3 /i0

tte

kY = (6k32 + 2 00

N
X

ki0 ) + 4k22

(7.64)

(7.65)

i=1

Dhlad,

n1 =

6k32

+ 2

00

N
X

ki0 , n2 = 4k22 .

i=1

Sthn arq tou kefalaou meletjhkan loi oi dunato sqhmatismo me N = 1, 2, 3 kai brjhkan genikc lseic. Ed ja analujon ta montla a2,3 , b1,2,3 kai c2 pou prokuyan gia tic
aplosterec timc twn n1 , n2 . Prn mwc pragmatopoihje h sugkekrimnh anlush kpoiec
shmantikc parathrseic sqetik me tic diaforc pou ja prokyoun se sqsh me thn ec
tra ergasa stic parllhlec polubrnec. Plon emfanzetai ma akma elejerh parmetroc, ete h 0 ete h 00 . Sunepc, h klmaka thc qordc peita apo thn antikatstash twn
n1 , n2 apo thn (7.63) thn (7.65) ja exarttai apo do paramtrouc, thn m
kai thn 0 thn
00 . Sthn anlush pou ja akoloujsei ja gnoun grafmata MS = f ( 0 ) gia sugkekrimnec
timc thc m
tsi ste na melethje h sumperifor thc MS . Idiaterh prosoq apaitetai
se orismna shmea. Epijuma apotele h parmetroc 0 na parnei timc pou ektenontai sto
1
< 0 < 10. Uprqei ma krsimh tim thc 0 , 0 c , h opoa an xeperaste tte ja
disthma 10
isqei MS < m
, kti pou den prpei na sumbe. Aut h paratrhsh elattnei to disthma timn thc 0 . 'Etsi, akoloujetai parmoia antimetpish me to prohgomeno edfio kai
upologzetai h MS gia la ta montla a2,3 , b1,2,3 kai c2 tou Pnaka 7.1 kai ta apotelsmata
anagrfontai ston Pnaka 7.8.
Jewrntac ta montla a2,3 , b1,2,3 kai c2 , sto Sqma 7.9 (sel. 161) apeikonzetai h klmaka thc qordc sunartsei tou lgou twn suzexewn bajmdac log 0 = log(2 /
), qrhsimopointac 4 qarakthristikc timc gia thn klmaka sthn opoa spei h upersummetra
m
= 103 , 106 , 109 kai 1013 GeV.
159

Montla

a1

(n1 , n2 )

N
D

( 23 , 1)

b1

( 16
a2

+ 2 )

+ 2 , 1)

00
1+
2
3

1913 0
696 0

4[ 6a1 +

00
1
2
6 + + 1sin W
a3
ae
23+6 00

1912 00
69+18 00

4[

12+13 0
6( 0 9)

2[ 3a8 +
3

a3

[ 3

3839 0

4[ 6a1 +

13818 0

3 00

, 0)

1918 00

+ 4 )

13 0
6( 0 3)

00

2 00
3(1+
00 )

+ 4 , 1)
0

+ 2 )
00

+ 2 , 1)

69+27 00

12+13 0
6( 0 9)
00 )
2(1+
3(3+ 00 )

1sin2 W
ae
23+9 00

2[ 3a8 +
3

a3

12 sin2 W
ae
3(3+ 00 )

1(2+20 ) sin2 W
ae
182 0

8 +200

[ 3

1(2+40 ) sin2 W
ae
124 0

2 +400
1sin2 W
3
+
a3
ae
6(1+ 00 )

30
1(1+ 2 ) sin2 W
ae
233 0

2[ 3a2 +
[

00
1 + 3
6
2
a3

12 sin2 W
ae
3(2+ 00 )

4[

1(2+20 ) sin2 W
ae
122 0

2 +200
a3

12 sin2 W
ae
3(3+ 00 )

2[ 3a2 +

1(2+20 ) sin2 W
ae
182 0

8 +200

[ 3

1(1+0 ) sin2 W
ae
232 0

2 00
3(2+
00 )

1sin2 W
ae
23+3 00

4[ 6 a

00

0
1(1+ 2 ) sin2 W
4[ 6a1 +
ae
3
23 0

196 00
69+9 00

00 )
2(1+
3(3+ 00 )

12 sin2 W
ae

+ 2 )

3 0

[ 3a23
6

13 0
6( 0 6)

+ 2 , 1)

( 83 , 1
( 83

00

( 23 , 1
( 23

c3

+ , 0)

( 16 ,
( 16

b3

00

( 23 , 1
( 23

a3

( 83 , 1
( 83

c2

00
, 0)
2

( 16 , 0 )
( 16

b2

3813 0
1386 0

( 16 , 2 )

f (i (MZ ), ni )

Pnakac 7.8: Sugkentrwtikc pnakac twn problyewn gia thn klmaka thc qordc gia la
ta montla sunartsei twn paramtrwn 0 , 00 tan oi dsmec twn polubrann tmnontai.
Arqik, gia thn perptwsh pou m
= 103 GeV (epnw arister grfhma tou Sqmatoc)
diapistnetai oti gia ta montla b2,3 , c2 kai c3 pwc h 0 metablletai h klmaka thc qordc
parnei timc se ma meglh energeiak perioq. Wstso, h MS enai pnta mikrterh apo
thn klmaka twn megaloenopoihmnwn jewrin toulqiston kat ma txh megjouc. Apo ta
grafmata sta Sqmata 7.10, 7.11 (sel. 162 kai 163 ) brsketai epshc oti gia kje tim thc
MS , < 1 kai 0 1, dhlad 2 < 3 kai 2
. Oi suzexeic bajmdac i0 brskontai sthn
diataraktik perioq. Pio sugkekrimna, gia m
103 GeV pwc metabllontai ta , 0 , to
160

montlo b2 dnei ma klmaka qordc sthn perioq MS = 103 108 GeV. Epiplon, gia ma
sugkekrimnh tim tou lgou 0 twn suzexewn bajmdac oi kamplec thc MS twn b2 kai
b3 diastaurnontai, dnontac dia prbleyh gia thn klmaka thc qordc thc txhc twn 105
GeV . Idiatero endiafron gia thn qamhlc enrgeiac fusik twn netrnwn parousizoun ta
montla b3 kai c2 pou h MS ftnei mqri ta 1014 GeV kai 1015 GeV antstoiqa. Prgmati,
se autc tic periptseic h mza tou dexistrofou netrnou mpore na enai thc diac txhc me
thn MS , epitrpontac ma mza tpou Majorana msw tou mhqanismo airac, se sumfwna
me ta peiramatik dedomna.

16
3

14

(
(

10

GeV

(
14

(b )
1

12

log

(b )

10

m=10

(c )
12

10

log

(b )

GeV

(M /GeV)

m=10

(M /GeV)

16

(b )
3

(c )
2

(b ,c )
2

10

(b ,c )
2

6
-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

log

~
m=
10

16

GeV

14

0.8

-1.0

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

log

10

(b )
1

~
m=
10

13

(c )

log

10

13

0.8

GeV

16

(b )
1

10

log

15

(M /GeV)

10

(M /GeV)

-1.0

15

(c )

12

14

11

(b )
3

10

13

9
-1.0

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

log

10

-1.0

0.8

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

log

10

0.8

Sqma 7.9: H klmaka thc qordc sunartsei thc paramtrou 0 tan h upersummetra spei
stic enrgeiec m
= 103 , 106 , 109 , 1013 GeV.
Ma deterh kathgora montlwn apotelon ta a2 , a3 , b1 . Se aut oi kamplec gia thn
klmaka thc qordc enai aptomec, sunepc, h MS enai pol pio euasjhth se metabolc
tou lgou 0 se sqsh me ta montla pou suzhtjhkan prohgomena. 'Oso h m
apokt
uyhlterec timc, h kamplh thc MS gnetai akma pio aptomh. Epiplon, se antjesh me
tic prohgomenec periptseic, h MS mpore na prei timc thc txhc twn 1016 GeV
kai akma uyhlterec. Akma, brsketai oti pnta enai 2
, en gia MS thc txhc
161

3.2

1.0

~
m=
10

(M )
S

GeV

0.9

k (M )
Y

(c )

0.8

3.0

(b )

~
m=
10 GeV

2.8

)
2.6

(b )

(b )

(b )

0.7

2.4

0.6

2.2

(b )
2

(c )

0.5

2.0

)
(b )
1

1.8

0.4

-1.0

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

log

0.6

10

-1.0

0.8

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

log

0.6

10

0.8

1.0

m=10

GeV

(b )

(M )
S

2.6

0.9

(
(

(c )

0.8

(b )
2

k (M )

(b )
3

2.4

(c )
2

2.2

(b )
3

0.7

2.0

(b )

0.6
1.8

(b )
-1.0

-0.8

m=10 GeV

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

log

10

0.6

-1.0

0.8

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

log

10

0.8

S)
Sqma 7.10: Arister apeikonzetai o lgoc = 23 (M
en dexi fanetai h kanonikopohsh
(MS )
0
3
kY wc sunrthsh thc paramtrou jewrntac m
= 10 , 106 GeV.

twn megaloenopoihmnwn jewrin, gia sugkekrimnec timc thc 0 pou exartntai apo to
kje montlo, mpore na epiteuqje enopohsh twn mh abeliann suzexewn bajmdac 2,3
sthn MS ( = 1). Se lec tic periptseic, oi uyhlterec timc gia thn MS (ta antera
telik shmea twn kampuln) antistoiqon sthn perptwsh swn mh abeliann suzexewn
bajmdac, 3 (MS ) = 2 (MS ). Gia m
= 103 GeV 0 1, 1.5, 3 gia ta montla a3 , a2 , b1
antstoiqa, en oi uyhlterec timc thc MS gia enopohsh = 1 brskontai sthn perioq
[1.75 3.45] 1016 GeV. 'Otan m
= 1013 , h MS anebanei mqri ta [4.5 9.0] 1016 GeV.
Parmoia sumpersmata prokptoun kai gia tic uploipec do grafikc parastseic tou diou
Sqmatoc pou antistoiqon stic periptseic m
= 106 , 109 GeV. Shmeinetai oti sto trto
9
grfhma pou m
= 10 GeV, h kamplh b2 den uprqei gia to montlo diti se aut h klmaka
thc qordc den mpore na enai uyhlterh apo 108 GeV. Sto ttarto grfhma (m
1013
GeV), ta b2 , c3 kai b3 den emfanzontai gia ton dio lgo. Tloc, ta montla a2 , a3 , b1 gia
katllhlec timc twn suzexewn bajmdac, mporon na deqjon na dexistrofo netrno thc
epijumhtc mzac Mc MS 1014 GeV.

162

1.00

2.4
9

(M )
S

m=10

GeV
2.3

(b )

0.95

0.90

k (M )

2.2

(c )

(b )
(
(c )

0.85

2.1

2.0

0.80

1.9

(b )

(b )

0.75

1.8

0.70
1.7

-1.0

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

log

0.6

10

0.8

-1.0

m=10

GeV

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

log

10

0.6

1.00
13

m=10

(M ) 0.98

GeV

0.96

0.94

13

m=10

1.95

GeV

k (M )
Y

1.90

1.85

(c )

0.92
1.80

0.90

(c )

(b )

(b )

1.75

0.88
1.70

0.86

-1.0

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

log

10

-1.0

0.6

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

log

10

0.6

Sqma 7.11: 'Omoia me to Sqma 7.10 gia m

= 109 , 1013 GeV.

7.5.3

b-

enopohsh

'Ena apo ta pio endiafronta qarakthristik twn paradosiakn megaloenopoihmnwn jewrin enai oi sqseic pou sunepgontai metax twn suzexewn Yukawa trthc genic. Mlista,
se pollc megaloenopoihmnec jewrec qei deiqje oti h isthta metax thc b kai thc
szeuxhc Yukawa enai se sumfwna me ta qamhlc enrgeiac peiramatik dedomna gia tic
mzec mb m . Gia na elegqje an oi parapnw sqhmatismo qoun autn thn idithta qrhsimopoiontai oi EOE prokeimnou na exetaste h sqsh twn suzexewn Yukawa b sthn
klmaka thc qordc. Se autn thn anlush mwc, antjeta me thn wc tra melth pou oi
upologismo gia thn klmaka thc qordc MS , ton lgo kai thn kanonikopohsh kY tan
analutiko, to ssthma pou prokptei enai mh grammik kai mnh dixodoc enai h arijmhtik
eplus tou.
Sunepc, qrhsimopointac tic peiramatik kajorismnec timc gia tic mzec twn fermionwn trthc genic mb , m exelssetai to ssthma twn SU (3)C U (1)Y EOE [105, 70] se txh
2 brqwn mqri thn klmaka MZ pou kai enarmonzontai eke ta apotelsmata me tic gnwstc
timc gia thn asjen gwna mxhc kai gia tic suzexeic bajmdac. Gia energeiakc klmakec
nw thc MZ jewretai to diaqwrismna upersummetrik KP (SplitSM) pou h upersummetra
spei sthn enrgeia m
genik arket uyhltera apo thn klmaka tou TeV. Aut shmanei oti
163

h jewra epnw apo thn m

enai plrwc upersummetrik me to ssthma twn EOE na periqei
ta 3 , 2 , Y , Yt , Yb , Y (dec Parrthma G.2) en ktw apo thn m
h energc jewra prokptei afairntac la ta bajmwt swmtia ektc enc lept rujmismnou Higgs. Oi sqetikc
exisseic thc omdac epakanonikopohshc periqoun tic 3 , 2 , Y , Yt0 , Yb0 , Y0 , u , u0 , d , d0
0
0
pou Yt,b,
enai oi suzexeic Yukawa kai u,d , u,d
enai oi suzexeic gaugino.
Apo thn stigm pou h diplta Higgs enai lept rujmismnh na qei mikr ro mzac, oi
sunjkec enarmnishc twn stajern szeuxhc sthn m
gnontai

Yt0 = Yt sin2

u0 = Y sin2

Yb0 = Yb cos2

u = 2 sin2

Y0 = Y cos2

d0 = Y cos2
d = 2 cos2

pou h gwna sqetzetai me tic vevs twn upersummetrikn dipletn Higgs (tan = ud ).
Oi exisseic thc omdac epakanonikopohshc gia diaqwrismnh upersummetra brskontai
sthn ergasa [107]. Parola aut, sto Parrthma G.2 grfontai autc oi exisseic me thn
smbash pou akoloujjhke stouc parn arijmhtikoc upologismoc.
H taktik antimetpishc tou problmatoc enai h exc: Arqik, moia me to prohgomeno
edfio kajorzetai h klmaka thc qordc MS anebanontac apo thn hlektrasjen klmaka
sthn m
, pou spei h upersummetra kai sthn sunqeia apo eke mqri thn MS gia thn opoa
isqei:

2 ()
2 ()
=0
(7.66)
n1
+ n2
3 ()
Y () =MS
Krioc stqoc apotele o upologismc twn mazn twn kourk kai twn antstoiqwn suzexewn Yukawa sthn energeiak klmaka MS . Gia aut to lgo akoloujetai ma apo pnw
proc ta ktw prosggish tou problmatoc. Oi zhtomenec posthtec mSt,b, mt,b, (MS )
jewrontai gnwstoi parmetroi oi opooi upeisrqontai sto ssthma twn diaforikn exissewn c sunoriakc sunjkec. Aut to ssthma exelssetai mqri thn klmaka enrgeiac
m
pou gia tic suzexeic gaugino kai Yukawa isqoun oi sunoriakc sunjkec enarmnishc2 .
Akolojwc suneqzetai h exlixh twn fusikn posottwn mqri thn MZ pou jewretai oti
isqei h jewra thc SplitSM. Tra plon qei kajoriste h sunrthsh parembolc gia ta

t (),
b (),
() gia kje klmaka pnw thc MZ . Oi gnwstec timc gia tic mSb , mS , mSt
brskontai lnontac arijmhtik to ssthma twn algebrikn exissewn

!
p
M
t
v 4Yt0 ()
= 0
Y 0 ()
3 ()
1 + 43
t2
=Mt
q
(7.67)
mb (MZ ) v 4Yb0 (MZ ) = 0
p
m (MZ ) v 4Y0 (MZ ) = 0
2

gaugino MZ
.

164

1.5
S

1.0

Model (

b
S

0.9

Models (b ,b ,c )
2

1.4

m
0.8

1.3

0.7

1.2
0.6

1.1
0.5

1.0
2.0

0.4
2

10

12

14

16

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

log

(m/GeV)

log

(m/GeV)

10

10

mb
wc sunrthsh thc klmakac sthn opoa spei h upersummetra
Sqma 7.12: O lgoc m

m
gia ta montla (2 ),(b2 , b3 , c3 ). 'Omoia me to prohgomeno edfio, h skiasmnh perioq
ofeletai sthn abebaithta sthn mtrhsh thc a3 , tou mb (mb ) kajc kai tou mt (mt ). Oi
orizntiec grammc deqnoun thn perioq 5% grw apo thn monda.

1.3

1.1

Model (c )

1.2

Model (

1.0

0.9

1.1
0.8

1.0
0.7

0.9

0.6

0.8
2

0.5

log

(m/GeV)

10

12

14

log

10

16

(m/GeV)

10

Sqma 7.13: 'Omoia me to sqma 7.12 gia ta montla (c2 ),(3 ).

pou lec oi posthtec3 Y 0 qoun eswterik exrthsh apo tic mSt,b, , en v 173.46
GeV
p enai h vev tou pedou Higgs pou sqetzetai me thn mza tou mpozonou Z c MZ =
v 2(Y + 2 ).
Oi peiramatikc timc pou qrhsimopoiontai gia ta 3 , em kai sin2 W sthn klmaka MZ
djhkan sthn exswsh (7.24), en akma mb (mb ) = 4.25 0.15 GeV, m (m ) = 1.777 GeV.
'Oson afor thn pole mza tou top kourk enai Mt = 172.7 2.9 [113].
H parapnw diadikasa epanalambnetai gia timc thc klmakac m
, oi opoec ektenontai
apo 102 GeV m
1016 GeV. To ktw rio ja enai ma pra pol qrsimh perptwsh afo
ja epitryei ton legqo kai thn sgkrish me ta apotelsmata tou prohgomenou edafou.
3

m
< Mt (7.67) Y 0 Y .

165

Montlo
(b2 , b3 , c3 )
(c2 )
(3 )
(2 )

kY (m
MZ ) (m
MZ ) =
3.008
0.43
2.606
0.60
1.672
1.00
1.338
1.15

2
3

MS (m
MZ ) GeV
1.46 105
7.39 108
1.81 1016
3.6 1018

mS
b
(m

mS

MZ )
1.19-1.45
0.96-1.25
0.74-1.03
0.70-0.99

Pnakac 7.9: Sugkentrwtikc pnakac thc anamenmenhc sumfwnac thc diaqwrismnhc upersummetrac me ton Pnaka 7.5 tan m
MZ .
Aut h anlush ja pragmatopoihje gia ta montla (2 ), (3 ), (b2 ), (c2 ), (b3 ), (c3 ). Epeid h
klmaka thc qordc orzetai apo thn exswsh (7.66), anamnontai tsa diaforetik grafmata
mS
b
mS

= f (m)
sa kai ta montla pou orzontai apo thn kanonikopohsh kY . Aut fanontai
sta sqmata 7.12 kai 7.13. H ktw kamplh antistoiqe se tan = 8.5 kai h pnw se
tan = 50, en qei lhfje upyin kai h abebaithta sthn mtrhsh thc isqurc stajerc
szeuxhc. Parathretai oti se sta montla a2 , a3 o lgoc mb /m sthn klmaka thc qordc
enai shmantik mikrteroc thc mondac gia ma meglh perioq timn thc m
, ektc apo mikrc
timc m
O(MZ ) (dhlad tan h jewra enai plrwc upersummetrik) pou plhsizei thn
monda. 'Oson afor ta montla b2,3 , c3 , aut problpoun nan lgo b megaltero thc
mondac gia kje tim thc m
. To pio endiafron apotlesma prorqetai apo to montlo c2 ,
gia to opoo gia ma arket meglh perioq m
[102 106 ] GeV, h analoga b (sthn
MS 107 GeV) enai thc txhc thc mondac.
mS

Epiplon, ston Pnaka 7.9 fanontai oi problyeic thc jewrac gia ton lgo mSb tan

h m
MZ . Sugkrnontac me ton Pnaka 7.5, epibebainetai h prosdoka sto ktw rio
na prokptoun ta apotelsmata twn upersummetrikn sqhmatismn pou meletjhkan sto
prohgomeno edfio.

7.5.4 Mzec,suzexeic gaugino kai o qrnoc zwc tou gklouno.

Sthn diaqwrismnh upersummetra, oi mzec twn gaugino kai twn higgsino, antjeta me touc
bajmwtoc upersummetrikoc etarouc touc, prostateontai apo ma R-summetra kai ma
summetra PQ, tsi ste na enai maza se eppedo dndrou. Sunjwc gnetai h upjesh
oti h rxh thc upersummetrac sumbanei sto barutik toma, kat sunpeia h R-summetra
spei kai ta gauginos parnoun ma elafri mza. Thn dia stigm prpei h summetra PQ,
h opoa prostateei ta higgsino apo to na proun uyhl mza, na spsei prokeimnou na
dhmiourghje o roc mxhc B . Autc o roc mzac maz me touc malakoc rouc mzac gia tic
dipltec Higgs ufstantai katllhlh lept rjmish tsi ste nac grammikc sunduasmc
twn Higgs na paramnei me qamhl mza, en o deteroc enai thc txhc thc m
2 . Aut
enai kai na shmantik pleonkthma thc split upersummetrac afo ta bari bajmwt swmtia
elattnoun shmantik tic problhmatikc diadikasec parabashc thc geshc twn antstoiqwn
upersummetrikn montlwn.
'Ena akmh pol shmantik qarakthristik thc SplitSM enai kai h arg aposnjesh
166

= 300 GeV

odel (

20

= 300 GeV

-15

log

log

30

/ sec)

10

/ sec)

g~

odel (c

10

-10

-20

10
0
-10

-25

-20

-30

= 1 TeV

-30

log

= 1 TeV

/ sec)

odel (b ,b ,c )
2

-20

-24

14

16

(m/GeV)

odel (

20

= 300 GeV

10

10

-22

= 300 GeV

-26

log

log

10

/ sec)

30

12
10

10

-18

10

log

(m/GeV)

= 1 TeV

0
-10
-20

-28

-30

= 1 TeV

-30
2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

-40

4.0

log

(m/GeV)

10

12

log

14

16

(m/GeV)

10

10

Sqma 7.14: O qrnoc zwc tou gklouno gia 4 qarakthristikc periptseic tan M3 (MS ) =
0.3 kai 1 TeV.
tou gklouno. Aut h shmantik paratrhsh diaforopoie ta montla thc SplitSM ta opoa
suzhtjhkan ec tra. Lgw thc paradoqc oti h klmaka sthn opoa spei h upersummetra
enai uyhl, oi upersummetriko sntrofoi twn kourk enai bari bajmwt swmtia kai o
qrnoc zwc gia na gnei aposnjesh tou gklouno mpore na ftsei akma kai ta 1026 sec.
Pio sugkekrimna, gia ton qrno zwc isqei [108, 111]

g = 3 10

m
sq
9
10 GeV

1 TeV
mg

5
sec

(7.68)

pou m
sq enai h mza twn skourk thc txhc thc m
kai mg enai h mza tou gklouno thc
txhc tou TeV. H kfrash sthn (7.68) exarttai apo tic m
sq kai mg oi opoec ekfrzontai
sunartsei thc m
. Sunepc, h peiramatik anqneush tou gklouno ja kajorsei kai thn
klmaka m
. Gia mikrc m
, ligtero apo merikc ekatontdec TeV, ta gklouno ja aposunjejon entc twn aniqneutn. Wstso, an h klmaka m
enai arket uyhl ta gklouno
mporon na zsoun arket kai na taxidyoun apostseic megalterec apo to mgejoc twn
aniqneutn. Se aut thn perptwsh mporon na sqhmatsoun R-adrnia ta opoa qnoun
167

enrgeia msw ionismo en na posost ja stamatsei msa ston aniqneut [110]. Arketc fainomenologikc meltec exetzoun thn pijanthta na parathrhjon endiafrontec
endexeic sto LHC [109, 111].
Qrhsimopointac tic exisseic pou dnontai sto Parrthma G.2, upologzetai h pole mza
tou gklouno kai o qrnoc zwc tou c sunrthsh thc m
. Sto Sqma 7.14 apeikonzetai o
qrnoc zwc tou gklouno wc sunrthsh thc m
gia do arqikc sunjkec M3 = 300 GeV kai
M3 = 1 TeV sthn klmaka thc qordc, gia la ta montla. Sta montla me qamhl klmaka
qordc b2 , b3 , c3 o qrnoc zwc tou gklouno enai mikrteroc apo 1018 sec, sunepc ta
gklouno ja aposunjejon msa ston aniqneut. Sto montlo c2 gia m
O(106 ) GeV
prokptei g 1012 sec, kti pou shmanei oti peiramatikc metrseic sto LHC mporon na
kajorsoun thn m
.
'Opwc prokuye apo thn anlush twn prohgomenwn edafwn ta montla a2 , a3 problpoun uyhl klmaka qordc (MS 1016 GeV kai pnw). 'Etsi, epitrpoun thn dramatik
axhsh tou qrnou zwc tou gklouno lgw thc pijanthtac na isqei m
MS . 'Opwc mpore na breje kai apo thn (7.68), mza twn skourk sto energeiak disthma m
sq 1013 1016
GeV shmanei stajer gklouno me qrno zwc 1010 1026 sec4 . Prpei akma na shmeiwje
oti uprqei shmantik exrthsh twn M3 kai g apo thn arqik tim thc paramtrou M3 sthn
MS . Aut h exrthsh gnetai pio shmantik gia megalterec timc thc m
, pou deqnei oti ta
fainmena epakanonikopohshc enai ousiastik ktw apo thn m
.
'Ena akma pol shmantik qarakthristik thc diaqwrismnhc upersummetrac enai h
anisthta metax twn suzexewn gaugino kai twn suzexewn bajmdac ktw apo thn klmaka m
. H spoudaithta autc thc prbleyhc gkeitai sto gegonc oti mpore na elegqje
peiramatik apo akribec metrseic, kti pou qei protaje sta plasia tou spasmatoc thc
upersummetrac se qamhlc enrgeiec 1 TeV. Kat sunpeia, oi suzexeic gaugino, oi opoec ikanopoion tic sunoriakc sunjkec (7.32)-(7.33) sthn klmaka m
, exelssontai wc
thn klmaka MZ . Sto sqma 7.15 apeikonzontai oi suzexeic gaugino se mondec suzexewn
bajmdac gu /(g2 sin ), gd /(g2 cos ),gu0 /(g sin ),gd0 /(g cos ) upologismnec sthn hlektrasjen klmaka. Epshc, jewrontai do periptseic, ma sthn opoa tan = 8.5 kai ma
pou tan = 50.

[112].

168

Sqma 7.15: Oi suzexeic gaugino, se mondec suzexewn bajmdac gu /(g2 sin ),

gd /(g2 cos ),gu0 /(g sin ),gd0 /(g cos ) upologismnec sthn hlektrasjen klmaka, jewrntac
tan = 8.5 kai tan = 50 gia ta montla (2 ),(c2 ),(b2 , b3 , c3 ),(3 ).

169

170

12+74k20 +87k20 2
54+60k20 +54k20 2

( 83 (1 + 3k20 + 3k20 2 ) , 6k20 2 + 4k20 + 1)

1249k20 +43k20 2
3648k20 39k20 2

( 23 (7 18k20 + 15k20 2 ) , 4( 21 k20 )2 )

( 83 (1 + 3k20 + 3k20 2 ) , 6k20 2 + 8k20 + 3)

( 23 (7 + 18k20 + 12k20 2 ) , 6k20 2 + 4k20 + 1)

10 = 3 , 20 = 2

( 23 (7 + 18k20 + 15k20 2 ) , 4( 21 + k20 )2 )

i0 = 3

10 = 2 , 20 = 3

(6(k20 + 23 )2 , 8k20 2 + 8k20 + 3)

i0 = 2

2498k20 +87k20 2
72+96k20 54k20 2

( 23 (7 18k20 + 12k20 2 ) , 6k20 2 4k20 + 1)

72+96k20 +54k20 2

24+98k0 +87k0 2

48+48k02+54k022

25+100k0 +87k0 2

36+48k20 +39k20 2

12+49k0 +43k0 2

48+48k02+30k022

25+100k0 +88k0 2

10 = 3 , 20 = 2

4848k02+54k022

( 83 (1 3k20 + 3k20 2 ) , 6k20 2 8k20 + 3)

10 = 2 , 20 = 3

25100k0 +87k0 2

i0 = 3

48+48k20 30k20 2

(6(k20 23 )2 , 8k20 2 8k20 + 3)

i0 = 2

25100k0 +88k0 2

10 = 3 , 20 = 2

30+12k20 +54k20 2

13+76k0 +87k0 2

27+30k20 +39k20 2

6+37k0 +43k0 2

( 23 (1 + 6k20 + 12k20 2 ) , 6k20 2 + 8k20 + 3)

( 23 (4 + 12k20 + 15k20 2 ) , 4( 21 + k20 )2 )

i0 = 3

13+76k0 +88k0 2

30+12k20 +30k20 2

10 = 2 , 20 = 3

(6(k20 + 13 )2 , 8k20 2 + 8k20 + 3)

i0 = 2

1274k20 +87k20 2
54+60k20 54k20 2

( 83 (1 3k20 + 3k20 2 ) , 6k20 2 4k20 + 1)

10 = 3 , 20 = 2

1376k0 +87k0 2

2730k20 +39k20 2

637k0 +43k0 2

3012k20 +54k20 2

( 23 (4 12k20 + 15k20 2 ) , 4( 21 k20 )2 )

i0 = 3

1376k0 +88k0 2

3012k20 +30k20 2

( 23 (1 6k20 + 12k20 2 ) , 6k20 2 8k20 + 3)

(6(k20 13 )2 , 8k20 2 8k20 + 3)

i0 = 2

N
D

10 = 2 , 20 = 3

(n1 , n2 )

Sqseic
suzexewn

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

MS /MZ
}(

}(

}(

}(

}(

}(

}(

}(

}(

}(

}(

}(

}(

}(

}(

}(

0 +8k0 2 ) sin2
6(k0 1 )2
1(48k2
W
2
[ 2a 3 +
]
ae
m
N
3
D
2
0
0
M
52k2 +5k2
Z
2
2
0
0
0
0
2
2(412k2 +15k2 )
1(24k2 +4k2 ) sin W
[
+
]
3a3
ae
m
N
D
2
0
0
MZ
910k2 +13k2
2
2
0 +12k0 )
0
0
2
2(16k2
2 + 1(48k2 +6k2 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
m
N
D
MZ
52k20 +9k20 2
0 +3k0 2 )
0
02
2
8(13k2
2 + 1(24k2 +6k2 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
m
N
D
MZ
910k20 +9k20 2
2
0
2
1
0
0
2
6(k + )
1(4+8k2 +8k2 ) sin W
[ 2a 3 +
]
ae
m
N
3
D
MZ
5+2k20 +5k20 2
2
2
0
0
0
0
2
2(4+12k2 +15k2 )
1(2+4k2 +4k2 ) sin W
[
+
]
3a3
ae
m
N
D
2
0
0
M
9+10k2 +13k2
Z
2
2
0
0
0
0
2
2(1+6k2 +12k2 )
1(4+8k2 +6k2 ) sin W
[
+
]
3a3
ae
m
N
D
2
0
0
M
5+2k2 +9k2
Z
2
2
0 +3k0 )
0
0
2
8(1+3k2
2 + 1(2+4k2 +6k2 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
m
N
D
MZ
9+10k20 +9k20 2
0 +8k0 2 ) sin2
6(k0 2 )2
1(48k2
W
2
[ 2a 3 +
]
ae
m
N
3
D
2
0
0
M
88k2 +5k2
Z
2
2
0
0
0
0
2
2(718k2 +15k2 )
1(24k2 +4k2 ) sin W
[
+
]
3a3
ae
m
N
D
2
0
0
MZ
1216k2 +13k2
2
2
0 +3k0 )
0
0
2
8(13k2
2 + 1(48k2 +6k2 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
m
N
D
MZ
88k20 +9k20 2
2
2
0 +12k0 )
0
0
2
2(718k2
2 + 1(24k2 +6k2 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
m
N
D
MZ
1216k20 +9k20 2
0 +8k0 2 ) sin2
6(k0 + 2 )2
1(4+8k2
W
2
[ 2a 3 +
]
ae
m
N
3
D
2
MZ
8+8k20 +5k20
2
2
0
0
0
0
2
2(7+18k2 +15k2 )
1(2+4k2 +4k2 ) sin W
[
+
]
3a3
ae
m
N
D
MZ
12+16k20 +13k20 2
2
2
0
0
0
0
2
8(1+3k2 +3k2 )
1(4+8k2 +6k2 ) sin W
[
+
]
3a3
ae
m
N
D
2
0
0
M
8+8k2 +9k2
Z
2
2
0
0
0
0
2
2(7+18k2 +12k2 )
1(2+4k2 +6k2 ) sin W
[
+
]
3a3
ae
m
N
D
2
0
0
MZ
12+16k2 +9k2

Pnakac 7.10: H prbleyh gia ton lgo thc klmakac thc qordc me thn MZ gia touc N = 2 sqhmatismoc A2 ,B2 wc sunrthsh
thc paramtrou k20 .

B2

(2)

(1)

B2

A2

(2)

A2

(1)

Montla

171

1249k0 +50k0 2

( 23 (4 12k30 + 15k30 2 ) , 6k30 2 8k30 + 3)

( 23 (7 18k30 + 15k30 2 ) , 6k30 2 4k30 + 1)

20 = 2 , 10 = 30 = 3

10 = 2 , 20 = 30 = 3

7296k30 +72k302

2498k0 +99k0 2

2498k0 +99k0 2

25100k0 +99k0 2
4848k03+72k023
3
3

3
48(1k0 +k
02 )

25(12k0 )2

3648k30 +24k302

7296k30 +72k302

( 23 (7 18k30 + 12k30 2 ) , 8k30 2 4k30 + 1)

20 = 3 , 10 = 30 = 2

( 23 (7 18k30 + 15k30 2 ) , 6k30 2 4k30 + 1)

( 83 (1 3k30 + 3k30 2 ) , 8k30 2 8k30 + 3)

10 = 3 , 20 = 30 = 2

25(12k30 )2
48(1k30 +k302 )

3648k30 +48k30 2

1249k0 +49k0 2

25100k30 +101k30 2
4848k30 +24k30 2

30 = 2 , 10 = 20 = 3

( 23 (7 18k30 + 18k30 2 ) , 4( 21 k30 )2 )

i0 = 3

( 83 (1 3k30 + 3k30 2 ) , 8k30 2 8k30 + 3)

(6(k30 23 )2 , 10k30 2 8k30 + 3)

i0 = 2

N
D

30 = 3 , 10 = 20 = 2

(n1 , n2 )

Sqseic
suzexewn

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

MS /MZ

} ( MmZ ) D

} ( MmZ ) D

} ( MmZ ) D

} ( MmZ ) D

} ( MmZ ) D

} ( MmZ ) D

} ( MmZ ) D

} ( MmZ ) D

0 +10k0 2 ) sin2
6(k0 2 )2
1(48k3
W
3
[ 3a 3 +
]
ae
3
88k30 +4k30 2
0 +18k0 2 )
0
02
2
2(718k3
3 + 1(24k3 +4k3 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
1216k30 +16k30 2
0 +3k0 2 )
0
02
2
8(13k3
3 + 1(48k3 +8k3 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
88k30 +8k30 2
0 +12k0 2 )
0
02
2
2(718k3
3 + 1(24k3 +8k3 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
1216k30 +8k30 2
0 +3k0 2 )
0
02
2
8(13k3
3 + 1(48k3 +8k3 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
88k30 +8k30 2
0 +15k0 2 )
0
02
2
2(718k3
3 + 1(24k3 +6k3 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
1216k30 +12k30 2
0
0 2)
0 +6k0 2 ) sin2
2(412k3 +15k3
1(48k3
W
3
[
+
]
3a3
ae
2
88k30 +12k30
0 +15k0 2 )
0
02
2
2(718k3
3 + 1(24k3 +6k3 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
1216k30 +12k30 2

Pnakac 7.11: H prbleyh twn n1 , n2 , dhlad thc kY , tou ekjth N

kai thc MS gia ton N = 3 sqhmatism A3 me louc touc
D
dunatoc prosanatolismoc twn U (1) polubrann c sunrthsh thc paramtrou k30 . To epnw prshmo anafretai sthn lsh
(1)
(2)
A3 en to ktw sthn A3 .

A3

Montla

172

B3

Montla

exp{
exp{

7296k30 +72k302

2498k30 +99k30 2
7296k30 +72k302
25100k30 +99k30 2
4848k30 +72k302

( 83 (1 3k30 + 3k30 2 ) , 8k30 2 8k30 + 3)

( 23 (7 18k30 + 15k30 2 ) , 6k30 2 4k30 + 1)
( 23 (7 18k30 + 15k30 2 ) , 6k30 2 4k30 + 1)
( 23 (4 12k30 + 15k30 2 ) , 6k30 2 8k30 + 3)

30 = 2 , 10 = 20 = 3

20 = 2 , 10 = 30 = 3

10 = 2 , 20 = 30 = 3

Pnakac 7.12: 'Omoia me ton Pnaka 7.11 gia ton sqhmatism B3 .

2498k0 +99k0 2

48(1k0 +k3 0 )2

25(12k0 )2

exp{

exp{

exp{

30 = 3 , 10 = 20 = 2

25(12k0 )2

48(1k0 +k3 0 )2

( 83 (1 3k30 + 3k30 2 ) , 8k30 2 8k30 + 3)

exp{

exp{

MS /MZ

} ( MmZ ) D

} ( MmZ ) D

} ( MmZ ) D

} ( MmZ ) D

} ( MmZ ) D

} ( MmZ ) D

} ( MmZ ) D

} ( MmZ ) D

0 +10k0 2 ) sin2
6(k0 2 )2
1(48k3
W
3
[ 3a 3 +
]
ae
3
88k30 +4k30 2
0 +18k0 2 )
0
02
2
2(718k3
3 + 1(24k3 +4k3 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
1216k30 +16k30 2
0 +12k0 2 )
0
02
2
2(718k3
3 + 1(24k3 +8k3 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
1216k30 +8k30 2
0 +3k0 2 )
0
02
2
8(13k3
3 + 1(48k3 +8k3 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
8(1k30 +k30 2 )
0 +3k0 2 )
0
02
2
8(13k3
3 + 1(48k3 +8k3 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
8(1k30 +k30 2 )
0
0 2)
0 +6k0 2 ) sin2
2(718k3 +15k3
1(24k3
W
3
[
+
]
3a3
ae
2
1216k30 +12k30
0 +15k0 2 )
0
02
2
2(718k3
3 + 1(24k3 +6k3 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
1216k30 +12k30 2
0 +15k0 2 )
0
02
2
2(412k3
3 + 1(48k3 +6k3 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
88k30 +12k30 2

exp{

20 = 3 , 10 = 30 = 2

1249k30 +50k302
3648k30 +24k302

3648k30 +48k30 2

1249k0 +49k0 2

25100k30 +101k30 2
4848k30 +24k30 2

( 23 (7 18k30 + 18k30 2 ) , 4( 21 k30 )2 )

i0 = 3

( 23 (7 18k30 + 12k30 2 ) , 8k30 2 4k30 + 1)

(6(k30 23 )2 , 10k30 2 8k30 + 3)

i0 = 2

N
D

10 = 3 , 20 = 30 = 2

(n1 , n2 )

Sqseic
suzexewn

173

C3

Montla

3
48(1k0 +k
02

7296k30 +72k302

25100k30 +99k30 2
4848k30 +72k30 2

4848k03+72k032

( 23 (7 18k30 + 18k30 2 ) , 4( 21 k30 )2 )

( 83 (1 3k30 + 3k30 2 ) , 8k30 2 8k30 + 3)
( 83 (1 3k30 + 3k30 2 ) , 8k30 2 8k30 + 3)
( 23 (1 6k30 + 12k30 2 ) , 8k30 2 12k30 + 5)
( 23 (7 18k30 + 15k30 2 ) , 6k30 2 4k30 + 1)
( 23 (4 12k30 + 15k30 2 ) , 6k30 2 8k30 + 3)
( 23 (4 12k30 + 15k30 2 ) , 6k30 2 8k30 + 3)

10 = 3 , 20 = 30 = 2

20 = 3 , 10 = 30 = 2

30 = 3 , 10 = 20 = 2

30 = 2 , 10 = 20 = 3

20 = 2 , 10 = 30 = 3

10 = 2 , 20 = 30 = 3

Pnakac 7.13: 'Omoia me ton Pnaka 7.11 gia ton sqhmatism C3 .

25100k0 +99k0 2

2498k0 +99k0 2

1351k30 +50k30 2
12+24k302

25(12k0 )2

25(12k30 )2
48(1k30 +k302

3648k30 +48k30 2

1249k0 +49k0 2

26102k30 +101k30 2
24+24k30 2

i0 = 3

(6(k30 13 )2 , 10k30 2 12k30 + 5)

i0 = 2

N
D

(n1 , n2 )

Sqseic
suzexewn

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

exp{

MS /MZ

} ( MmZ ) D

} ( MmZ ) D

} ( MmZ ) D

} ( MmZ ) D

} ( MmZ ) D

} ( MmZ ) D

} ( MmZ ) D

} ( MmZ ) D

0 +10k0 2 ) sin2
6(k0 1 )2
1(612k3
W
3
[ 3a 3 +
]
ae
3
4+4k30 2
0 +18k0 2 )
0
02
2
2(718k3
3 + 1(24k3 +4k3 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
1216k30 +16k30 2
0 +3k0 2 )
0
02
2
8(13k3
3 + 1(48k3 +8k3 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
88k30 +8k30 2
0 +3k0 2 )
0
02
2
8(13k3
3 + 1(48k3 +8k3 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
88k30 +8k30 2
0 +12k0 2 )
0
02
2
2(16k3
3 + 1(612k3 +8k3 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
4(1+2k30 2 )
2
0
0
0 +6k0 2 ) sin2
2(718k3 +15k3 )
1(24k3
W
3
[
+
]
3a3
ae
2
1216k30 +12k30
0 +15k0 2 )
0
02
2
2(412k3
3 + 1(48k3 +6k3 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
88k30 +12k30 2
0 +15k0 2 )
0
02
2
2(412k3
3 + 1(48k3 +6k3 ) sin W ]
[
3a3
ae
88k30 +12k30 2

174

Sumpersmata
Sthn parosa didaktorik diatrib exetsthke h pijanthta na anaparaqjon ta peiramatik dedomna gia tic mzec kai tic gwnec mxhc twn netrnwn. Gia aut to skop meletjhkan ma epktash tou MSSM kai ma epktash thc upersummetrikc megaloenopoihmnhc
jewrac Pati-Salam apo ma epiplon U(1) summetra. Epshc, diereunjhkan sqhmatismo
apo polubrnec (D-branes) oi opooi problpoun to c kai qarakthrzontai apo diaqwrismnh
upersummetra. Ed ja anaferjon ta pio shmantik shmea kai sumpersmata thc melthc.
Sto keflaio 5 parousisthke ma apl epktash tou MSSM apo ma anmalh U(1)
summetra, h opoa spei se ma uyhl klmaka M kai epiqeirjhke h ermhnea twn prsfatwn
dedomnwn gia ta netrna. Stqoc uprxe h paroq mac lshc h opoa qrhsimopoie mno to
elqisto fermionik fsma thc upersummetrikc epktashc tou KP. Dhlad, h anaparagwg
twn peiramatikn dedomnwn gine qwrc thn eisagwg dexistrofwn netrnwn. Prgmati,
aut enai efikt kai ta dedomna mporon na prosarmoston mno me ta aristerstrofa
netrna sta plasia tou MSSM mic kai uprqei nac telestc (LH)2 /M , o opooc mpore na
dsei mza tpou Majorana sta tra netrna. Epshc, jewrjhke prta h eisagwg mno
enc zegouc monrwn bajmwtn pedwn. Upojtwntac summetrikoc pnakec mzac kajc
kai oti h trth geni twn pnw, ktw kourk kai fortismnwn leptonwn parnoun mza se
eppedo dndrou, exqjhkan se genik morf oi epilogc fortwn gia ta ferminia tou MSSM
kai exetsthkan oi epiptseic touc ston pnaka mzac twn netrnwn, o opooc prorqetai apo
ton telest distashc 5 (LH)2 /M . 'Opwc apedeqjh ta stoiqea tou pnaka twn fortwn gia
ta netrna diafroun apo ta antstoiqa twn fortismnwn leptonwn mno apo ma stajer. Gia
ma eidik kathgora me sugkekrimnh epilog twn paramtrwn pou qarakthrzoun ton pnaka
mzac twn netrnwn brjhke oti o tomac twn netrnwn sbetai ma Le L L summetra.
'Allec epilogc twn paramtrwn odhgon se paremferec summetrec tou tpou Le L L
pou den dnoun sumbat apotelsmata. Brjhke oti to montlo odhge se antstrofh ierarqa
mazn gia ta netrna, 13 = 0 kai mgisth atmosfairik mxh gia M 101314 GeV. Aut
h klmaka enai arket qamhl gia na tautopoihje me thn klmaka twn megaloenopoihmnwn
jewrin me thn klmaka thc qordc sta plasia thc eterotikc jewrac qordn. Wstso,
enai sumbat me ma energ klmaka barthtac se jewrec me meglec epiplon diastseic oi
opoec prokptoun se montla qordn Tpou I. Se aut to eppedo anlushc me na mno
zegoc monrwn pedwn, oi aplutec mzec twn elafrterwn idiokatastsewn gia ta netrna
enai sec kai h hliak gwna mxhc mgisth. To aparathto spsimo tou ekfulismo mpore na
gnei ete me thn eisagwg enc deterou monrouc pedou ete apo kpoion llo mhqanism.
Wc epmeno bma meletjhke h prth epilog.
Meletjhke dhlad h epktash tou MSSM apo ma abelian summetra me elqisto fermionik fsma all plon me thn eisagwg do zeugn monrwn pedwn, ta opoa problpontai se plhjra apo tic jewrec qordn. Arqik, anaptqjhke nac qrsimoc formalismc
pou ta stoiqea pnaka anaparistntai c eswterik ginmena tou diansmatoc twn idioka

tastsewn mzac twn netrnwn m = (m1 , m2 , m3 ) me xi diansmata i , ta opoa enai sunartseic twn gwnin mxhc. Domc pinkwn me do mhdenik stoiqea, oi opoec qoun melethje

sthn bibliografa kai odhgon se apodekt apotelsmata, qoun

m i = 0 ,
m j = 0 kai

dnoun na idiodinusma mzac gia ta netrna thc morfc

m = m0 i j . Epiqeirjhke o
175

susqetismc autn twn domn me domc pinkwn oi opoec ikanopoion sugkekrimnec summetrec. Brjhke oti oi roi mzac Yukawa, oi opooi dhmiourgontai tan ta zegh twn do
monrwn pedwn me katllhla U(1) forta apoktsoun vevs, mporon na dhmiourgsoun se
ma kal prosggish arketc domc me mhdenik. Sugkekrimna analjhke h perptwsh pou
o pnakac mzac twn netrnwn sbetai thn summetra leptonikc geshc Lf = Le L L .
Aut h katstash, pou sthn prohgomenh perptwsh me to na zegoc monrwn pedwn
odhgose se mgisth hliak mxh, tra me tic suneisforc apo to detero zegoc monrwn
pedwn Higgs spei thn summetra Lf kai dhmiourge epiplon rouc mzac pou odhgon se
sumfwna me ta peiramatik dedomna gia tic mzec kai tic gwnec mxhc twn netrnwn. Aut
epibebaijhke kai me ma arijmhtik anlush gia fusikc timc twn prgmati akajristwn
apo thn jewra suzexewn Yukawa.
Sto keflaio 6 meletjhke h exlixh twn mazn twn netrnwn kai twn gwnin mxhc se
na upersummetrik SU(4)C SU(2)L SU(2)R U(1)X montlo. H akribc perigraf twn
dedomnwn stic qamhlc enrgeiec gia ta netrna epbale thn eisagwg 2 monrwn pedwn
fortismnwn ktw apo thn U(1)X , gegonc pou odghse se do paramtrouc anptuxhc. To
prohgomeno montlo to opoo qrhsimopoiose thn dia summetra all mno na epiplon monrec pedo mporose na dsei na fsma gia ta elafr netrna me kanonik ierarqa
kai apodektc gwnec mxhc. Wstso, peita apo melth twn EOE brjhke oti h klmaka
twn elafrn netrnwn tan pol meglh gia na enai sumbat me ta peiramatik dedomna.
An loipn epiblhje h swst klmaka gia ta elafri netrna, tte kpoia apo ta bari dexistrofa netrna qoun mzec pnw apo thn klmaka enopohshc, gegonc to opoo enai
asmbato me thn prosggish thc energo jewrac pedou pou akoloujetai ed. Kat sunpeia, plon oi pnakec mzac kataskeuzontai sunartsei 3 paramtrwn anptuxhc, oi 2
apo autc prorqontai apo ta epiplon monrh peda kai h trth apo ta peda Higgs pou
spne thn SU(4)SU(2)R summetra. Epshc, qrhsimopoijhke kai nac elqistoc arijmc
paragntwn Clebsch-Gordan, pou ofelontai stic diaforetikc sustolc twn deiktn twn
omdwn bajmdac stouc mh epakanonikopoisimouc telestc pou suneisfroun stouc Dirac
rouc mzac. Ta dexistrofa netrna parnoun rouc mzac Majorana msw mh epakanonikopoisimwn suzexewn me ta U(1)X fortismna monrh peda kai ta peda Higgs, en ta
elafr netrna parnoun mza msw tou mhqanismo airac. To montlo aplopoietai lgw
twn klasmatikn fortwn pou dnetai sta H kai peda, sunepc, to detero monrec pedo
ephrezei mno ta dexistrofa bari netrna.
H parmetroc anptuxhc h opoa prokuye apo tic vevs twn pedwn Higgs orzei kai to
lgo thc klmakac sthn opoa spei h summetra SU(4)SU(2)R MG me thn klmaka enopohshc MU . 'Etsi, pragmatopoijhke ma anlush twn EOE gia tic suzexeic bajmdac up
to fc thc parapnw sunjkhc kai brjhke epituqc enopohsh me thn prosjkh epiplon
katastsewn oi opoec uprqoun sunjwc sto fsma thc qordc. Upojtontac oti mno h
trth geni twn fortismnwn leptonwn kai kourk apokton mza se eppedo dndrou kai
ktw apo sugkekrimnh epilog fortwn U(1)X fortwn kajc kai paragntwn ClebschGordan, exetsthkan oi epiptseic gia tic mzec twn elafrn netrnwn kai tic gwnec mxhc.
Pio sugkekrimna, oi EOE gia tic mzec kai tic gwnec mxhc twn netrnwn pnw, anmesa kai
ktw apo tic klmakec airac ljhkan arijmhtik gia arket snola twn paramtrwn txhc
1 oi opoec kajorzoun to pnaka twn dexistrofwn netrnwn. Se kje perptwsh ta apotelsmata stic qamhlc enrgeiec brjhkan se sumfwna me ta peiramatik dedomna. 'Opwc
176

prokuye, to fsma twn mazn twn elafrn netrnwn parousizei kanonik ierarqa kai
aut h ierarqa twn mazn tenei na gnei megalterh sthn klmaka MG se sqsh me thn MZ
lgw thc exlixhc smfwna me tic EOE. H hliak gwna mxhc 12 paramnei stajer ktw
apo thn exlixh stic qamhlc enrgeiec en fainmena epakanonikopohshc tan megaltera
gia thn atmosfairik gwna mxhc 23 kai thn 13 , pnta me tic timc touc sthn hlektrasjen
klmaka se sumfwna me ta peirmata. Akma, elgqjhke kai h prbleyh tou montlou gia
thn energ parmetro mzac sqetik me dipl dispash bta 0 kai brjhke entc twn
peiramatikn orwn.
Sto keflaio 7 meletjhkan epektseic thc summetrac tou KP thc morfc U (3)
U (2) U (1)N me thn prosjkh tou dexistrofou netrnou sta plasia tou senarou thc
diaqwrismnhc upersummetrac. Exetsthkan sqhmatismo me na, do kai tra (N = 1, 2, 3)
epiplon abelianc polubrnec kai gine ma plrhc kathgoriopohsh lwn twn montlwn
bsei twn diafrwn embaptsewn tou uperfortou. Pio sugkekrimna, tan mno ma epiplon
U(1) polubrnh eisgetai, ektc bbaia apo ta mh abelian, kpoia apo ta ferminia tou KP
ja prpei na brskontai se antisummetrikc anaparastseic, oi opoec prokptoun apo qordc
pou qoun kai ta do kra touc sthn dia polubrnh. Antjeta, gia tic periptseic me N =
2, 3 edame oti la ta gnwst ferminia mporon na mpon se basikc anaparastseic twn
monadiakn omdwn. Akma, en epiplon abelianc polubrnec ja mporosan na eisaqjon,
periorsthke h anlush se N 3 tsi ste na exasfaliste nac oikonomikc tomac Higgs,
pou ta ktw kourk kai fortismna leptnia parnoun mza apo to dio pedo Higgs, kti
pou odghse se enopohsh b sthn klmaka thc qordc. Sthn sunqeia pragmatopoijhke
ma anlush se eppedo enc brqou gia na upologiste h klmaka thc qordc gia aut ta
montla sta plasia tou senarou thc diaqwrismnhc upersummetrac, tso sthn perptwsh
twn paralllwn polubrann so kai se senria temnmenwn polubrann.
H anlush rqise meletntac tic epiptseic thc diaqwrismnhc upersummetrac upersummetrac gia thn klmaka thc qordc jewrntac montla ta opoa prokptoun se senria
paralllwn polubrann pou qoume uprjesh twn desmn twn U(1) polubrann ete me
tic U (2) ete me tic U (3). Metabllontac thn klmaka sthn opoa spei h upersummetra m

se ma meglh energeiak perioq, exetsthke h exlixh twn suzexewn bajmdac kai h katlhxh tan trec diaforetikc klseic montlwn me ta paraktw qarakthristik: (i) ma txh
montlwn pou prokptei gia N = 1 kai N = 3 abelianc polubrnec, problpei ma klmaka
qordc thc txhc twn upersummetrikn megaloenopoihmnwn jewrin MS 1016 GeV. Enai
prgmati endiafron oti aut ta montla problpoun oti oi mh abelianc suzexeic bajmdac
enopoiontai (2 = 3 ) sthn MS . (ii) se ma sugkekrimnh perptwsh me N = 2 abelianc
polubrnec kai gia nan sugkekrimno prosanatolism brjhke na montlo me endimesh
klmaka qordc MS 106 107 GeV kai (iii) se do periptseic sta senria me N = 2 kai
N = 3 abelianc polubrnec prokuye mia klmaka qordc thc txhc tou TeV. Analutiktera, exetsthkan sqseic metax twn mazn thc trthc genic fermionwn kai brjhke oti gia
to montlo me thn endimesh klmaka qordc (MS 108 GeV) h parathromenh analoga
mb /m stic qamhlc enrgeiec enai sumbat me thn enopohsh b sthn klmaka thc qordc
gia ma arket meglh energeiak perioq timn thc m
[0.5 103 106 ] GeV.
Epiplon, pragmatopoijhke ma parmoia anlush jewrntac tuqaec arqikc sunjkec
gia tic suzexeic bajmdac, senrio pou antistoiqe se jewrec apo temnmenec polubrnec,
177

kai ta difora montla kathgoriopoijhkan kai meletjhkan oi problyeic tou gia thn klmaka thc qordc. Ta kria qarakthristik pou prokuyan sthn perptwsh twn paralllwn
polubrann suneqzoun na isqoun kai ed, en an agnohjon oi sunjkec i0 = 2 kai
i0 = 3 , montla ta opoa dinan apardekta meglh klmaka qordc (MS MP l ), plon
qarakthrzontai apo MS 1017 GeV gia sugkekrimnec sunjkec metax twn suzexewn
bajmdac i0 2,3 sthn MS .
Gia ma omda montlwn kajc o lgoc twn suzexewn bajmdac 2 /i0 metaballtan h
klmaka thc qordc pairne timc se ma meglh energeiak perioq. Mlista, se kpoia
sugkekrimna montla (b3 kai c2 ) h MS ektenotan mqri kai ta 101415 GeV. Se aut h mza
tou dexistrofou netrnou mpore na enai thc diac txhc me thn MS , epitrpontac me autn
ton trpo mza tpou Majorana gia ta aristerstrofa netrna sthn peiramatik metromenh
perioq. Se ma llh omda montlwn h klmaka thc qordc tan pra pol euasjhth me thn
metabol thc paramtrou 2 /i0 me apotlesma ta grafmata na enai exairetik aptoma.
Se la ta montla thc prthc omdac pnta isqei 2 3 , en gia ekena thc deterhc gia
sugkekrimnec timc thc paramtrou 2 /i0 prokptei 2 = 3 . Tloc, peita apo melth twn
EOE gia thn mza gaugino, h opoa sqetzetai me thn mza tou gklouno, brjhke oti gia ta
montla me uyhl klmaka m
o qrnoc zwc thc aposnjeshc tou gklouno enai megalteroc
kai apo thn hlika tou smpantoc. Bbaia, kpoia lla montla me qamhlterh m
den problpoun stajer gklouno all akma kai se autc tic periptseic ta difora montla thc
diaqwrismnhc upersummetrac mporon na diaforopoihjon apo ekena thc upersummetrac.

178

Parrthma A
Oi pnakec mzac twn fermionwn kai
oi gwnec mxhc gia to
upersummetrik
SU (3)C SU (2)L U (1)Y U (1)X

Se aut to parrthma parajtontai oi aparathtoi upologismo, oi opooi odhgon sta sumpersmata tou kefalaou 5.

A.1 O tomac twn kourk

Arqik, ja melethjon lec oi pijanc domc gia ton pnaka mzac twn kourk. Ston pnaka
A.1 fanontai oi 5 periptseic summetrikn pinkwn pou brskontai se sumfwna me thn
peiramatik parathromenh ierarqa [62].
Gia na uprqei mh mhdenik tim gia thn deterh geni twn kourk enai faner oti prpei
h parmetroc m na enai akraioc (mno tte ta stoiqea 22, 23, 32 mpore na epibisoun)
kajc kai h n me parmoia epiqeirmata. 'Etsi, diakrnontai 4 periptseic:(i) m peritt, n
rtio, (ii) m peritt, n peritt, (iii) m rtio, n peritt (iv) m, n rtia.
1. m peritt,n rtio. Se autn thn perptwsh
n 2
n
sin 0 2
0
m 0
mU = m0
n
0 1
2

(A.1)

H eisagwg enc mikro pargonta sto stoiqeo mU 11 , parametropoihmno c sin2 ,

pragmatopoijhke tsi ste na jewrhjon kai oi diorjseic oi opoec prorqontai
apo tic zexeic Yukawa. Enai faner ti h parmetroc anptuxhc mpore na enai ete
, anloga me thn epilog twn fortwn. Oi idiotimc enai
ete

mu = mo n cos2 , mc = mo m , mt = mo (1 + n )
179

(A.2)

Pnakec

T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

MU

6
0
2
0

26
4
0
0
1
0

6
0 0
6 0 2
0 2
1

0
0
24
4
0
0
4
2
0
1

6
2
0
0

4 2
26
3
2
1
0
0 0
4
2
0
24 2

2
4

MD
0 24
24 23
0 43

0 24
24 23
0 23

0 24
24 23
0 43

0 24
24 23
0
0

0 24
24 23
0
0

0
43
1

0
23
1

0
43
1

0
0
1

0
0
1

Pnakac A.1: Oi 5 summetriko pnakec mzac gia ta pnw kai ktw kourk pou brskontai
se sumfwna me thn peiramatik parathromenh ierarqa [62].
oi opoec kai uponoon ti

1
mc m
=
mt
n
mu mt m
2
cos =
mt mc

(A.3)
(A.4)

O pnakac diagwnopohshc enai

1 n
1+

VU

2
1+
n
n
2

Orzontac = tan

mc
mt

n
2m

0
1
0

n
2

n
1+

(A.5)

1 n
1+

autc mpore na grafte c

cos 0 sin
0
1
0 .
VU
sin 0 cos
O pnakac mzac gia ta ktw kourk qei thn dia morf,
n 2 0
n
sin 0 2
0
m 0
mD = m0
n
0 1
2
180

(A.6)

(A.7)

me pnaka diagwnopohshc

cos 0 sin
0
1
0 .
VD
sin 0 cos

(A.8)

Sunepc, o pnakac mxhc UCKM = VU VD enai

cos( ) 0 sin( )
.
0
1
0
UCKM
sin( ) 0 cos( )
Tra ja melethjon kai kpoiec eidikc periptseic sta plasia
epilogc gia ta m kai n.

2m 0
QU c H2
QDc H1

0 m
Gia n = 2m n = 2m : C
=C
=
m 0

(A.9)
thc sugkekrimnhc

m
0
0

(A.10)

Ston pnaka twn mazn mno to 33 stoiqeo gnetai 1. Ta lla paramnoun mhdn.
Prkeitai gia pnakec diouc me touc T3 . Parnontac m = 3, n = 6
6

3
0 3

0
(A.11)
mU = 0 3 0 , kai mU = 0 3 0
3
3

0 1
0 1
pou ta mhdenik prokuyan sthn jsh twn dekadikn fortwn. Omowc gia ta ktw
kourk,
6

0
0 3
mD = 0 3 0 , kai mD = 0 3 0
(A.12)
3
3

0 1
0 1
2. m,n peritt. Ja proqwrsoume anloga me thn prohgomenh perptwsh eisgontac
nan mikr pargonta sto stoiqeo mU 11 .

n 2
m+n
sin 2
0
m+n
mU = m0 2
(A.13)
m 0
0
0
1
Oi idiotimc enai

mu = mo n cos2 , mc = mo m , mt = mo

(A.14)

kai odhgon stic sqseic

1
mc m
=
mt
mn
mt
m
u
cos2 =
mt mc
181

(A.15)
(A.16)

O pnakac diagwnopohshc enai

VU

nm
2

1+
nm
1
1+nm

Orzontac

nm
2

= tan

mc
mt

nm
2m

1+1nm
nm
2

1+nm
0

0 .
1

(A.17)

autc grfetai

sin cos 0
VU cos sin 0 .
0
0
1

(A.18)

O pnakac mzac gia ta ktw kourk enai

n 2 0 m+n
sin 2
0
m+n
mD = m0 2
m 0
0
0
1

(A.19)

en o pnakac diagwnopohshc brsketai

sin cos 0
VD cos sin 0 .
0
0
1
Sunepc, o pnakac mxhc UCKM = VU VD gia ton toma twn

cos( ) sin( )

sin( ) cos( )
UCKM
0
0
Ma katllhlh epilog apotele h m = 3, n = 11
11 4

0
3 0
mU = 4
0 0 1

(A.20)
kourk enai

0
0 .
1

(A.21)

(A.22)

Gia m = 3, n = 5 prokptei pnakac pou qreizetai mno mia parmetro anptuxhc.

5 4

0
mU = 4 3 0
(A.23)
0 0 1
Ed fanetai oti oi pnakec thc perptwshc 3 qoun ma sugkekrimnh dom, me thn
morf twn down kourk pinkwn moia me ekenh twn up. 'Omwc, h mxh thc trthc
genic me tic llec do,an kai peiramatik metritai kai enai pol mikr, den mpore na
dhmiourghje kajlou ed pwc enai faner apo thn morf twn pinkwn.
182

3. n peritt, m rtio. Tra gia ta pnw kourk o pnakac parnei thn morf
n

0
0
m
m
2 sin2
mU = 0
m
0 2 sin2
1

(A.24)

Gia llh mi for eisgontai sta stoiqea mU 32 , mU 23 parmetro parnontac upyin

tic diorjseic stic zexeic Yukawa. Oi idiotimc

mu = mo n , mc = mo m (1 sin4 ), mt = mo (1 + m sin4 )

(A.25)

odhgon

1
mu n

mt
mn
mc mc
4
1 sin =
mt mt
'Oson afor ton pnaka diagwnopohshc

1
0

VU 0 1+m sin4
m

2
2
0 sin 4
1+m sin

Orzetai 2 sin2 = tan 2 =

mu
mt

m
2n

(A.26)
(A.27)

sin2

1+m sin4

(A.28)

1+m sin4

kai autc grfetai

1
0
0
VU 0 cos sin .
0 sin cos
Gia ta ktw kourk o pnakac mzac enai
n

0
0
m
m
2 sin2 0
mD = 0
m
0 2 sin2 0
1
me

(A.29)

(A.30)

1
0
0
VD 0 cos sin .
0 sin cos

Sunepc, o pnakac mxhc UCKM = VU VD enai

1
0
0
UCKM 0 cos( ) sin( ) .
0 sin( ) cos( )
183

(A.31)

(A.32)

4. n = m =rtia. Se aut thn perptwsh h dom enai tuqaa. Parola aut ja melethjon orismnec periptseic.
(a) Arqik ja jewrhje m, n > 0. O pnakac (5.16) enai jetikc kai tsi qreizetai
mno to na pedo .

2m 2m
m
2m
0
m
3
m m2 = 0 m m2 T5
Gia n = 2m: 2m
(A.33)
3
m
m
m 2 0
m 2 0
o opooc moizei me ton T5 ,ra dektc.
Gia m = 4, n = 8:

8 6 4
m = 6 4 2
4 2 1

(A.34)

kai autc me thn seir tou moizei me ton T5 afo ta 8 , 6 pra pol mikr.
(b) 'Estw m n < 0 (ma ek twn do). Tra kai oi do parmetroi anptuxhc mpanoun
sthn dom twn kourk.

2m
4m 3m
2
m
T4
m
(A.35)
Gia n = 4m: 5m
2
2
m
2m
0
2
'Ara p.q. gia n = 16, m = 4
16

6
mU =
8

6
8

4 2 , m D =
2 1

16

6
8

4 2
2 1

(A.36)

(g) Ja dwjon oi pnakec mzac gia akma ma epilog h opoa sumpptei me ekenh
thc ergasac [52]. Ktw apo touc parn orismoc gia ta forta, aut h perptwsh
prokptei gia n = 8, m = 2,
8 3 4
8 3 4


3 2

2
.

3
mU =
; mD =
(A.37)
4
4

1
1
Parathretai mwc h parousa do paramtrwn anptuxhc sthn (A.37) se antjesh me
thn [52] pou emfanzetai mno ma.

A.2 O tomac twn leptonwn

Anloga ja pragmatopoihje h ergasa kai ston toma twn leptonwn. Tra mwc uprqei
kai h parmetroc A h opoa mpore na enai ete akraioc ete hmiakraioc. Arqik melettai
h perptwsh hmiakraiou A.
184

 A: Hmiakraioc
Arqik melettai h perptwsh A =
diaforetikc periptseic:

p
,p
2

= 1, 3, 5, pou kai prokptoun 4

1. n0 = rtioc (a) , m0 = perittc (p) m0 + n0 = (p).

Tte,

n0
0
a n
0 2
0

ml = m0 0
m
0

n0
2

(A.38)

Kat thn gnwst taktik qei eisaqje nac suntelestc sto stoiqeo mL 11 gia na
lhfjon upyin oi diorjseic lgw twn arqikn suzexewn Yukawa. Tonzetai
gia llh ma for to gegonc oti h parmetroc anptuxhc mpore na enai ete
. Oi idiotimc tou (A.38) enai
ete
0

me = mo n (1 a), m = mo m , m = mo (1 + n )

(A.39)

kai qoun wc apotlesma

m
m

me
1a =
m

1
m0

m
m

(A.40)

n00
m

(A.41)

O pnakac diagwnopohshc brsketai

Vl

Orzontac

n0
2

= tan

m
m

1
1+n0

0
n0
2

n0
2m0

1+n0

n0

0 2

1+n0

(A.42)

1+n0

enai

cos 0 sin
0
1
0 .
Vl
sin 0 cos

(A.43)

O pnakac mzac twn netrnwn enai

m0 +n0
m = m0 2 +A
0

185

m0 +n0
+A
2

m0
+A
2

m0
+A
2

(A.44)

kai mpore na parametropoihje c

A+

m = m0

2
m0 +n0
2

0
cos

2
1
0
0
sin (A.45)
+ A+ 2 (n ) cos
0
sin
0

me

cos = r

m0 +n0
2

A+

A+
2
m0 +n0
2

A+ 2 n
r
,
sin

2
2
0
0
A+ 12 (n0 )
A+ 12 n0
A+ m +n
2
+
+

Oi idiotimc tou enai 0, m0 , m0 . Sunepc, o leptonikc pnakac mxhc Ul = Vl V

mpore na grafte

cos(+)

sin( + ) cos(+)
2
2

1
1

0
Ul
(A.46)
.
2
2
sin(+)
sin(+)

cos( + )
2
2
2. n0 = (p) , m0 = (p) m0 + n0 = (a).
Se aut thn perptwsh enai

0
a n
0
0

ml = m0 m +n
2
0

m0 +n0
2

0
1

m
0

(A.47)

H anlush ed suneqzetai moia me thn parapnw perptwsh. Oi idiotimc

0

me = mo n a, m = mo m , m = mo

(A.48)

odhgon stic sqseic

m
m

me
1a =
m

1
m0

m
m

(A.49)

n00
m

(A.50)

en o leptonikc pnakac mxhc gnetai

n0

0
m
2

2 n 0

1+ (m )

Vl
1
1+n0 m0

0
186

1
1+n0 m0

n0
2

0
m
2

1+n0 m0

.
0

(A.51)

n0
2

Eisgontac thn

m2

= tan

n0 m0 0

m
m

2m

autc gnetai

sin cos 0
Vl cos sin 0 .
0
0
1

(A.52)

O pnakac gia tic mzec Majorana twn netrnwn enai

0
0

m = m0

0
0

0
A+ n2

m0
+A
2

n0
A+ 2

m0
2 +A
0

(A.53)

Parametropoietai moia me thn prohgomenh perptwsh c

q
0
0
cos

1 0
m0
0
sin
m = m0 (A+ 2 n )2 + ( 2 +A )2 0
cos sin
0

(A.54)

me
1

A+ 2 n

cos = q
1

(A+ 2 n )2 + (

sin = q

(A.55)

m0
+A
2

)2

m0
+A
2

)2

m0
+A
2

1 0
(A+ 2 n )2

+ (

(A.56)

Oi idiotimc tou enai 0, m0 , m0 . 'Etsi, o leptonikc pnakac mxhc Ul = Vl V

parnei thn morf

sin(+)

cos( + ) sin(+)
2
2

cos(+)

(A.57)
Ul sin( + ) cos(+)
.
2
2
1
1

0
2
2
3. n0 = (p) , m0 = (a) m0 + n0 = (p).
O pnakac mzac twn fortismnwn leptonwn grfetai

0
n
0
0
m0
0

ml = 0
2 a
m
m0
0
2 a
1

(A.58)

me idiotimc
0

me = mo n , m = mo m (1 a2 ), m = mo (1 + m a2 )
187

(A.59)

oi opoec kajorzoun tic paramtrouc

1a

me
m

m
=
m

10

(A.61)

m0
2

0
1+m a2

1+m a2

Kat ta gnwst orzontac

m00

me
m

O leptonikc pnakac mxhc enai

1
0

Vl 0 1+m0 a2

m0
0 2 a0

m0
2

(A.60)

me
m

(A.62)

0 a2

1+m

m00
2n

a = tan =
autc parnei thn morf

1
0
0
Vl 0 cos sin .
(A.63)
0 sin cos

Gia ta netrna o pnakac mzac gnetai

0
A+ m0 +n0
m = m0
2

A+

m0 +n0
2

0
A+ n2

0
0

kai parametropoietai c

r
m = m0

A+

2
m0 +n0
2

+ A+ 2 n

n0

A+ 2
0
0

(A.64)

0
cos sin
cos
0
0 (A.65)
sin
0
0

pou
m0 +n0
2

A+
2
m0 +n0

(A.66)

A+ 2 n
sin = r
2
2
0
0
A+ m +n
A+ 12 n0
2

(A.67)

cos = r

A+

Oi idiotimc tou (A.64) enai

m,Diag

A+ 12 n0

1 0 0
= m00 0 1 0
0 0 0
188

(A.68)

en o pnakac diagwnopohshc upologzetai

V =

12

cos()

2
sin()

1
2
cos()

2
sin()

0
sin()
.
cos()

(A.69)

Plon mpore na breje o leptonikc pnakac mxhc Ul = Vl V ,

1
12
0
2
cos(+) cos(+)

sin( + )
Ul 2
.
2
sin(+)
sin(+)

cos( + )
2
2
Se autn thn perptwsh katalgoume se bimaximal
4|U3 |2 |U 3 |2
= 1, tan 4 . Enai gnwst oti
(1U 2 )2

(A.70)

mxh afo sin 2atm =

e3

tan + tan
1 tan tan

tan ( + ) =

(A.71)

'Etsi, diakrnontai oi paraktw periptseic:

0
0
0
(i) A + n2 > 0 , A + m +n
>0
2
a) 'Otan m0 > 0 enai
1

tan =

2 |m |
, tan ( + ) =
1a

12 |m0 |

2 m
tan ( + ) =
1a
Apaitntac tan ( + ) = c prokptei
1

1
c(1 a)

2m =

(A.72)

(A.73)

(A.74)

Smfwna me ta peiramatik dedomna 0.33 c2 3.3 me best fit tim c = 1.

Sunepc, upojtontac a = 2 kai c = 2 h katalhktik exswsh enai
1

2m =

1
6

(A.75)

gia thn opoa tan m0 = 2 (den xeqnme oti m0 =rtioc) enai ma kal prosggish.
b) 'Otan m0 < 0 tte

21 |m0 | + 12 |m0 |
1

0|
|m

tan = 2
, tan ( + ) =
0
m2
1 a()
189

(A.76)

(ii) A +

n0
2

>0 , A+

m0 +n0
2

tan =

<0
0

A+ n2

12 |m0 | + 21 |m0 |

, tan ( + ) =
0
m2
1 a()
1

tan ( + ) =

2 m a + 2 m
1

(A.77)

1 2 m a 2 m

(A.78)

4. H teleutaa perptwsh aporrptetai afo problpei ti m = 0

A: Akraioc

Proqwrme sthn perptwsh pou h parmetroc A enai akraia. Tra mwc den prpei
na agnohje oti Cl,ij C,kl < 0. Gia aut ton lgo qreizontai toulqiston do peda
, (do paramtrouc anptuxhc ) gia na perigrafon ta stoiqea.
1. n0 = rtioc (a) , m0 = perittc (p) m0 + n0 = (p)
Sunepc,
0

n0
n
0 2
0

ml = 0 m
0

n0
2

(A.79)

O pnakac gia ta netrna enai:

n0
0
n +A
0
2 +A
0

m = 0
m +A
0
n0
2 +A
0
A

2. n0 = (p) , m0 = (p) m0 + n0 = (a). Se aut thn

m0 +n0
0
n
2
0
0
0

0
m
ml = m +n
2

0
0
0
1

perptwsh

en o pnakac gia ta netrna gnetai:

m0 +n0
+A
n0 +A
2

0
0
0

0 +A
+A
m
m = m +n
2

0
0
0
A
3. n0 = (p) , m0 = (a) m0 + n0 = (p). 'Omoia,
n0

0
0
m0
0

ml = 0 m 2
m0
0 2
1
190

(A.80)

(A.81)

(A.82)

(A.83)

Gia ta netrna enai

0
n +A
0
0
m0
0

m = 0
m +A 2 +A
0
m
0
2 +A
A

(A.84)

4. n0 = (a) , m0 = (a) m0 + n0 = (a).

m0 +n0
ml = 2
n0
2

n +A

m0 +n0
m = 2 +A
n0
2 +A

m0 +n0
2
0

m
m0
2

m0 +n0
+A
2
0

m +A
m0
2 +A

n0

m0
2

(A.85)

1
n0

m0
+A
2

2 +A

(A.86)

Oi parapnw periptseic den meletontai peraitrw mic kai den parousizoun sumfwna me ta peiramatik dedomna ston apaitomeno bajm.

191

192

Parrthma B
H kanonikopohsh tou uperfortou
H majhmatik jewra twn algebrn Lie kai twn omdwn diadramatzoun shmantik rlo stic
jewrec Yang-Mills. Se aut to parrthma ja skiagrafhjon kpoia qarakthristik touc
kai ja melethje to jma thc kanonikopohshc tou uperfortou. Perissterh anlush kai
pollc fusikc efarmogc mporon na brejon stic [114].
O mgistoc arijmc twn gennhtrwn mic aplc lgebrac Lie oi opooi mporon na
diagwnopoihjon tautqrona onomzetai txh `, en oi genntorec ikanopoion
m
m
[Tk , Tl ] = Ckl
Tm , Ckk
=0

[Tk , [Tl , Tm ]] + [Tl , [Tm , Tk ]] + [Tm , [Tk , Tl ]] = 0

(B.1)

m
pou Ckl
oi stajerc domc. Apo tic stajerc domc kataskeuzetai o metrikc tanustc
tanustc Killing
X

g =
C
C
(B.2)
,

o opooc enai summetrikc. Tra, ma apl omda den qei anallowtec upoomdec, ektc
tou tautotiko stoiqeou kai lhc thc omdac. Ma lgebra enai hmiapl an kai mnon an
detg 6= 0. 'Estw, ma anaparstash G mic hmiaplc lgebrac Lie L. Sthn kajierwmnh
bsh Cartan-Weyl, oi genntorec qwrzontai se do set. H upolgebra Cartan, h opoa
enai h mgisth abelian upolgebra thc L, periqei ` genntorec Hi me

[Hi , Hj ] = 0 ,

i, j = 1, , `

(B.3)

en oi uploipoi genntorec ikanopoion thn exswsh idiotimn

[Hi , E ] = i E

i = 1, , `

(B.4)

Gia kje telest E uprqei na dinusma to opoo onomzetai rizik, apotelete apo `
arijmoc i kai kajorzei na shmeo ston `-distato Eukledio qro pou onomzetai rizikc
qroc. Epeid oi pnakec metatjentai mporon na diagwnopoihjon tautqrona. Orzontac
|ui idiodinusma tte
Hi |ui = mi |ui , i = 1, , `
(B.5)
193

To m = (m1 , , m` ) onomzetai broc thc anaparstashc. Stic megaloenopoihmnec jewrec h taxinmhsh pedwn kai swmatwn dosmnhc summetrac smfwna me thn mikrterh
summetra tou KP GS = SU (3) SU (2) U (1) dnei fusik perieqmeno sta peda aut.
Drntac me ton telest probolc P se na broc mic anaparstashc G pou periqei thn
summetra tou KP dnetai fusik perieqmeno sthn G afo prosdiorzontai oi kbantiko thc
arijmo.
'Ena pol shmantik qarakthristik twn megaloenopoihmnwn jewrin (MEJ) enai oti
o genntorac pou antistoiqe sto uperforto den qei tuqaa kanonikopohsh pwc sto
KP. Aut sumbanei diti o genntorac tou uperfortou embaptzetai sthn lgebra Lie thc
omdac thc MEJ. Dhlad, GGU T SU (3) SU (2) U (1). Gia ma anaparstash R h
kanonikopohsh sthn opoa upakooun oi genntorec T a enai

trR T a T b = X(R) ab .

(B.6)

H epikratosa kanonikopohsh sthn fainomenologa enai X(F ) = 1/2 gia thn basik anaparstash F thc SU (N ). Lgw thc summetrac thc MEJ, h isqc thc allhlepdrashc enc
swmatidou bajmdac me thn lh dnetai apo

gU () T a ,

gia kje a,

(B.7)

pou gU () enai h trqwn zexh thc omdac bajmdac thc MEJ sthn klmaka MU , me
MU thn klmaka enopohshc. 'Ena apo ta T a , stw to T 1 , tautopoietai me ton hlektrasjen
genntora tou uperfortou. Parola aut, gia na prokyoun oi sunhjismnec idiotimc gia
ta swmatdia tou KP (pwc gia pardeigma Y = 1 gia to ec ) prpei na epanaoriste o
genntorac
p
Y kY T 1 .
(B.8)
Lgw twn (B.7,B.8), h stajer tou uperfortou gY () ja sqetzetai me thn gU () sthn
klmaka enopohshc MU . Pi sugkekrimna,
p
gU (MU ) T 1 = gY (MU ) Y = kY gY (MU ) T 1 ,
(B.9)
apo thn stigm pou h isqc thc allhlepdrashc den ja prpei na exarttai apo thn kanonikopohsh twn gennhtrwn. Ac diathrhje h sunhjismnh kanonikopohsh twn MEJ gia
touc T a pou antistoiqon stic mh spasmnec upoomdec SU (2) kai SU (3), tsi ste na mhn
uprqei anlogh exswsh me thn (B.8). Orzontac tic trqwn stajerc zexhc me g2 () kai
g3 () antstoiqa, lgw thc (B.7) kai autc ja prpei na enai isodnamec sthn tim gU (MU )
tan = MU . Me autn ton trpo prokptoun oi gnwstc sunoriakc sunjkec
p
g3 (MU ) = g2 (MU ) = kY gY (MU ) = gU (MU ).
(B.10)
Wc na prto pardeigma ac dome thn MEJ SU (5). H embptish tou uperfortou sthn
SU (5), stw T 1 , mpore na kajoriste apo thn tr(T 1 )2 = 1/2 gia thn basik anaparstash.
Gia pardeigma,

L
1
1

.
(B.11)
gia
5=
T = diag(3, 3, 2, 2, 2),
dc
60
194

 1) gia ta
pou L h diplta (1, 2) twn leptonwn kai dc enai ma qrwmatist antitriplta (3,
kourk ktw tpou. Apo thn llh pleur h kanonikopohsh tou uperfortou enai
1
diag(3, 3, 2, 2, 2)
(B.12)
6
p
gia tic diec katastseic. 'Omwc afo Y = 5/3 T 1 , mpore na diapistwje apo thn (B.8)
oti
kY = 5/3.
(B.13)
Y =

Aut enai kai h tim, h opoa tan upoteje sthn (B.10), problpei thn krwc epituqhmnh
enopohsh twn zexewn sthn upersummetrik epktash tou KP.
Suneqzontac, lga lgia gia to montlo Pati-Salam, to opoo meletjhke sto keflaio
6, kajc kai gia thn sqsh twn stajern zexhc. 'Oson afor thn kanonikopohsh twn
gennhtrwn jewretai mia sugkekrimnh anaparstash thc SO(10), pwc gia pardeigma h
spinoriak anaparstash, sthn opoa kai mpanoun ta ferminia. Jewrntac touc SU (2)L
kbantikoc arijmoc gia la ta mlh thc 16-distathc anaparstashc brsketai,
2
2
2
TrI3L
= 3I3L
(quarks) + I3L
(leptons) =

3 1
+ =2
2 2

(B.14)

O genntorac tou U (1)Y Y enai:

1
10
Y2
3
= (Yu2L + Yd2L + Yd2R ) + (Y2L + Ye2L + Ye2R ) =
(B.15)
4
4
4
3
q
Opte, mpore na oriste nac genntorac IY = 35 ( Y2 ) o opooc kai enai kanonikopoihmnoc
pwc kai o I3L . Akma,
BL
4
Tr (
)=
(B.16)
2
3
q
'Etsi, o genntorac kanonikopoietai IBL = 32 ( BL
). To epmeno sustatik pou ja qreia2
ste gia na enai dunat h melth twn stajern zexhc enai to exc: An se ma klmaka m,
mia summetra bajmdac G1 G2 spei sthn G tsi ste oi antstoiqoi genntorec T1 , T2 kai
T sqetzontai c:
T = p1 T1 + p2 T2
(B.17)
Tr

tte oi antstoiqec stajerc zexhc g1 , g2 kai g ikanopoion sthn klmaka m thn sqsh,

p21
p22
1
=
+
g 2 ()
g12 () g22 ()

(B.18)

Ac dome tra thn stajer zexhc tou U (1)Y , Y . H summetra SU (4) spei sthn SU (3)
U (1)BL en h SU (2)R U (1)R . Afo to hlektrik forto enai prosjetikc kbantikc
arijmc ja prpei na enai grammikc sunduasmc twn diagniwn gennhtrwn,

Q = I3L +

BL
Y
= c1 I3L + c2 I3R + c3
2
2
195

(B.19)

'Ara se aut thn klmaka h sqsh enai

Y
BL
= I3R +
IY =
2
2

3
I3R +
5

2
IBL
5

(B.20)

Telik, son afor tic stajerc zexhc ja isqei:

1
gY2 (MG )

3
1
2
1
+
2
2
5 g2R (MG ) 5 gBL (MG )

196

(B.21)

Parrthma G
Oi exisseic thc omdac
epakanonikopohshc
G.1 H epktash tou MSSM me bari monrh peda
Se aut to Parrthma anagrfontai oi EOE se txh 2 brqwn gia ma epktash tou MSSM
apo bari monrh peda, oi opoec qrhsimopoijhkan tsi ste na melethje to upersummetrik SU (4) SU (2)L SU (2)R U (1)X montlo. Dnontai oi posthtec
(n)

(n) (n)

Q {, M, Y , Yd , Yu , Ye } sthn morf
(n)

dQ (n)(1) (n)(2)

= Q + Q .
d

(G.1)

'Oson afor se txh enc brqou [115, 83]

(n) (n) T (n) (n) (n)

(n)
(n)
(n)
(n)
(4)2 (1) = (Ye Ye )T + (Ye Ye ) + Y Y + Y Y
(n) (n) (n)
6 (n)
(n)
(n)
+ 2 Tr Y Y + 6 Tr(Yu Yu ) g12 6g22 ,
5
(n)

(1)

(4)2 M
(n)

(4)

(n)

(4)

(1)
Y

(1)
Yd

(n) (n) T (n)

(n) (n) (n)
= 2 M Y Y + 2 Y Y M,

(G.3)

(n) (n)
(n)
(n) (n)
3 2
2

=
3Y Y + Ye Ye + Tr Y Y + 3 Tr(Yu Yu ) g1 3g2 Y , (G.4)
5
n

(G.2)

3Yd Yd

Yu Yu

3 Tr(Yd Yd )
197

Tr(Ye Ye )

7 2
g
15 1

3g22

16 2
g
3 3

Yd , (G.5)

(4)

(n) (n)
= Yd Yd + 3Yu Yu + Tr(Y Y ) + 3 Tr(Yu Yu )

(n)

(1)
Yu

(n)

(4)

(1)
Ye

13 2
g
15 1

3g22

16 2
g
3 3

Yu , (G.6)

(n) (n)
9 2

2
=
3Ye Ye + Y Y + 3 Tr(Yd Yd ) + Tr(Ye Ye ) g1 3g2 Ye .
5

(G.7)

Ta apotelsmata gia 2 brqouc, ta opoa kai enai ma epktash twn sunhjismnwn exissewn sto MSSM [116], enai [117]

(n)
(n)
(n)
4 (2)
(4) = 6 Tr(Yu Yd Yd Yu ) 18 Tr(Yu Yu Yu Yu ) 2 Tr(Y Ye Ye Y )

8 2
207 4 18 2 2

4 (n)
+ g1 Tr(Yu Yu ) + 32g3 Tr(Yu Yu ) +

g + g1 g2 + 15g2
5
25 1
5

(n) (n)
(n) (n)
(n) (n) (n) (n)
(n)
2(Ye Ye Ye Ye )T + 2(Y Y Y Y )T + Tr(Y Y ) + 3 Tr(Yu Yu ) (Y Y )T
(n) (n) (n) (n)

6 Tr(Y Y Y Y )

6 2

T
+ g1 + Tr(Ye Ye ) + 3 Tr(Yd Yd ) (Ye Ye )
5

(n) (n)
(n) (n)
(n) (n) (n) (n)

2Ye Ye Ye Ye + 2Y Y Y Y + Tr(Y Y ) + 3 Tr(Yu Yu ) Y Y

6 2

(n)
+ g1 + Tr(Ye Ye ) + 3 Tr(Yd Yd ) Ye Ye ,
5

(n)
(n)
(n)
(n) (n) (n) (n)
(n) (n)
4 (2)
(4) M = 2YT Ye YeT Y 2YT Y YT Y 6YT Y Tr(Yu Yu )

(n)

+M

(n)

(2)

(4)4 Y

(n)

(n) (n)

2YT Y
(n)

(n) (n)

Tr(Y Y )

(n) (n)
6 (n) (n)
+ g12 YT Y + 6g22 YT Y
5

(n) (n) (n) (n)

(n) (n)

(G.8)

(n)

(n) (n)

(n) (n)

2Y Ye Ye Y 2Y Y Y Y 6Y Y Tr(Yu Yu ) 2Y Y Tr(Y Y )

(n) (n)
6 2 (n)(n)
2
+ g1 Y Y + 6g2 Y Y ,
5

(n) (n)
(n) (n) (n) (n)
= 2Ye Ye Ye Ye 2Ye Ye Y Y 4Y Y Y Y 3Ye Ye Tr(Yd Yd )
(n) (n)

(n) (n)

(n) (n)

(n)

(G.9)

(n)

Ye Ye Tr(Ye Ye ) 3Y Y Tr(Y Y ) 9Y Y Tr(Yu Yu ) Tr(Y Ye Ye Y )

(n) (n) (n) (n)
6 (n) (n)
6
3 Tr(Y Y Y Y ) 3 Tr(Yu Yd Yd Yu ) 9 Tr(Yu Yu Yu Yu ) + g12 Ye Ye + g12 Y Y
5
5

(n) (n)
207 4 9 2 2 15 4 (n)
4 2

g + g g + g 2 Y ,
+ 6g2 Y Y + g1 Tr(Yu Yu ) + 16g3 Tr(Yu Yu ) +
5
50 1 5 1 2
2

(G.10)
198

(n)

(4)

(2)
Yd

4Yd Yd Yd Yd 2Yu Yu Yd Yd 2Yu Yu Yu Yu 9 Tr(Yd Yd Yd Yd )

(n) (n)

3 Tr(Yd Yu Yu Yd ) 3 Tr(Ye Ye Ye Ye ) Tr(Ye Y Y Ye ) 9Yd Yd Tr(Yd Yd )

(n) (n)

3Yd Yd Tr(Ye Ye ) Yu Yu Tr(Y Y ) 3Yu Yu Tr(Yu Yu ) + 6g22 Yd Yd

4
2
4
6
+ g12 Yd Yd + g12 Yu Yu g12 Tr(Yd Yd ) + g12 Tr(Ye Ye ) + 16g32 Tr(Yd Yd )
5
5
5
5

287 4
15 4 8 2 2
16 4
2 2
2 2
(G.11)
+
g + g1 g2 + g2 + g1 g3 + 8g2 g3 g3 Yd ,
90 1
2
9
9
n
(n)
(2)
(4)4 Yu = 2Yd Yd Yd Yd 2Yd Yd Yu Yu 4Yu Yu Yu Yu 3Yd Yd Tr(Yd Yd )
(n) (n)

Yd Yd Tr(Ye Ye ) 9Yu Yu Tr(Yu Yu ) 3Yu Yu Tr(Y Y )

(n)

(n)

(n) (n) (n) (n)

3 Tr(Yu Yd Yd Yu ) 9 Tr(Yu Yu Yu Yu ) Tr(Y Ye Ye Y ) 3 Tr(Y Y Y Y )

2
4
2
+ g12 Yd Yd + g12 Yu Yu + 6g22 Yu Yu + g12 Tr(Yu Yu ) + 16g32 Tr(Yu Yu )
5
5
5

2743 4
15 4 136 2 2
16 4
2 2
2 2
+
g + g1 g2 + g2 +
g g + 8g2 g3 g3 Yu ,
450 1
2
45 1 3
9
(n)

(4)

(2)
Ye

(n) (n)

(G.12)

(n) (n) (n) (n)

4Ye Ye Ye Ye 2Y Y Ye Ye 2Y Y Y Y 9Ye Ye Tr(Yd Yd )

(n) (n)

(n) (n)

(n) (n)

3Ye Ye Tr(Ye Ye ) Y Y Tr(Y Y ) 3Y Y Tr(Yu Yu ) 9 Tr(Yd Yd Yd Yd )

(n) (n)
6
3 Tr(Yd Yu Yu Yd ) 3 Tr(Ye Ye Ye Ye ) Tr(Ye Y Y Ye ) + g12 Tr(Ye Ye )
5

2 2
27 4 9 2 2 15 4

2
+ 6g2 Ye Ye g1 Tr(Yd Yd ) + 16g3 Tr(Yd Yd ) + g1 + g1 g2 + g2 Ye(. G.13)
5
2
5
2

G.2 Diaqwrismnh upersummetra

Se aut to shmeo sugkentrnontai oi exisseic thc omdac epakanonikopohshc se txh
enc brqou pou qrhsimopoijhkan sthn anlush gia thn enopohsh b- son afor thn
jewra thc diaqwrismnhc upersummetrac. Oi exisseic se txh do brqwn brskontai sthn
ergasa [107], en nac parmoioc sumbolismc all me diaforetikc sumbseic mpore na
breje sthn [119]. Ed grfontai me ton sumbolism pou akoloujjhke stouc arijmhtikoc
upologismoc thc parosac diatribc.
199

Oi EOE se txh enc brqou gia tic suzexeic bajmdac enai

d
i
= bi
i2
dt

(G.14)

g 2
pou i = Y, 2, 3 kai
= ( 4
) . Ktw apo thn klmaka m
pou spei h upersummetra oi
15
7
su su
sunartseic bta enai (bY , b2 , b3 ) = ( 2 , 6 , 5), en epnw (bsu
Y , b2 , b3 ) = (11, 1, 3).

Oi exisseic pou ikanopoion oi suzexeic Yukawa (h) kai gaugino (g) enai epshc aparathtec. Ktw apo thn m
gia tic suzexeic Yukawa isqei

d
9
17
9
3
3
3
1 0
1 0
ln Yt0 = 8
3
2
Y + Yt0 + Yb0 + Y0 +
u +
d +
u +
(G.15)
dt
4
4
2
2
2
2
2
2 d
9
9
3
1 0
5
3
3
1 0
d
3
ln Yb0 = 8
2
Y + Yt0 + Yb0 + Y0 +
u +
d +
u +
(G.16)
dt
4
4
2
2
2
2
2
2 d
5
d
9
15
3
3
1 0
1 0
ln Y0 =
2
Y + 3Yt0 + 3Yb0 + Y0 +
u +
d +
u +

(G.17)
dt
4
4
2
2
2
2
2 d
g 2
h 2
kai
= 4
pou Y 0 = 4
. Paramnontac ktw apo thn klmaka m
oi exisseic gia tic
suzexeic gaugino g enai

d
u
11
1
1
1/2
= 3
u

2 +
Y +
u (5
u 2
d +
u0 ) + (
u
d
u0
d0 )
dt
4
4
4

d
u0
dt

1
+
u (6Yt0 + 6Yb0 + 2Y0 + 3
u + 3
d +
u0 +
d0 )
2

3
1
3 0 0
1/2
0
= 3
u

2 +
Y +
(
+ 2
d0 +
u ) + 3(
u
d
u0
d0 )
4
4
4 u u

d
d
dt

1 0 0
+
(6Y + 6Yb0 + 2Y0 + 3
u + 3
d +
u0 +
d0 )
(G.19)
2 u t

11
1
1
1/2
= 3
d

2 +
Y +
d (2
u + 5
d +
d0 ) + (
u
d
u0
d0 )
4
4
4

d
d0
dt

1
d (6Yt0 + 6Yb0 + 2Y0 + 3
u + 3
d +
u0 +
d0 )
+
2

1
3 0 0
3
1/2
0
= 3
d

2 +
Y +
d (
d + 2
u0 +
d ) + 3(
u
d
u0
d0 )
4
4
4
1 0 0
d0 )
u + 3
d +
u0 +
+
d (6Yt + 6Yb0 + 2Y0 + 3
2

(G.18)

(G.20)

(G.21)

Gia enrgeiec pnw apo thn m

mqri kai thn klmaka thc qordc MS oi exisseic pou

200

perigrfoun thn exlixh twn suzexewn Yukawa () enai

d
13
16
ln Yt =
Y 3
2
3 + 6Yt + Yb
dt
9
3
7
16
d
ln Yb =
Y 3
2
3 + Yt + 6Yb + Y
dt
9
3
d
ln Y = 3
Y 3
2 + 3Yb + 4Y
dt
pou Y =

2
4

(G.22)

Oi EOE gia thn mza gaugino M3 se txh enc brqou ktw apo thn klmaka pou spei
h upersummetra enai

d
ln M3 = 9
3 (1 + cg
3 ),
dt

(G.23)

pou cg = 38/3 sto sqma M S kai cg = 10 sto DR. Pnw apo thn m
h prohgomenh
exswsh gnetai

d
ln M3 = bSU
3
3
dt

201

(G.24)

202

Parrthma D
Prgramma
Se aut to parrthma sugkentrnetai to krio mroc tou progrmmatoc to opoo anaptqjhke sto prgramma Mathematica tsi ste na luje to ssthma twn mh grammikn diaforikn exissewn sta plasia thc melthc twn exissewn thc omdac epakanonikopohshc
gia ta montla tou kefalaou 7. Endeiktik parousizontai mno ta montla (b2 , b3 , c3 ).

Off[General::spell,General::spell1];

SetDirectory[C:/mbtau];

Initial Conditions
{Mx, Mz} = {1017 , 91.1874};
1
, 0.2312};
{aez, sin2w} = { 4127.906
q
Mz
v = 4 2(1 - sin2w)sin2w
}
aez

mptau = 1.777;
1
{a3z, mptop, mrbb, tanb} = { 4
0.121, 169.8, 4.1, 8.5};

B = {11, 1, 3}; b = {15/2, (7/6), 5};

{t1, ttau, tbot, tz} = 2. Log[{1., mptau, mrbb, Mz}];

Solve gauge couplings below MZ and Running mass for ,b at MZ

aBz = Module[ {t, sys, ti = t1, tf = tz},
sys = {

203

ae[t] ==

80
ae[t]2
9

464
ae[t]3
27

as3[t] == 23
as3[t]2
3

176
ae[t]2 as3[t],
9

116
as3[t]3
3

22
as3[t]2 ae[t]
9

9769
as3[t]4 ,
54

as3[tf] == a3z , ae[tf] == aez

};
NDSolve[sys,{as3, ae},{t,ti,tf}]
];
tuBz=Module[ {t, sys, ti=ttau, tf=tz},
sys={
ae[t]2 )/. First[aBz]),
mtau[t] == mtau[t] ((-3ae[t]+ 373
18
mtau[ti]==mptau
};
NDSolve[sys,mtau,{t,ti,tf}]
];
bBz=Module[{t,sys,ti=tbot,tf=tz},
sys=
{mb[t] == mb[t](( 13 ae[t] 4as3[t] +

397
ae[t]2
162

506
as3[t]2
9

94 as3[t] ae[t]

474.8712 as3[t]3 )/.First[aBz]),

mb[ti] == mrbb};
NDSolve[sys,mb,{t,ti,tf}]
];
mtauz=mtau[tz]/.First[tuBz];
mbz=mb[tz]/.First[bBz];

Solve only gauge RGEs from Mz to Ms

sysBw = { aY[t] == b[[1]] aY[t]2 , a2[t] == b[[2]] a2[t]2 , a3[t] == b[[3]] a3[t]2 ,
aY[tz] == aYz, a2[tz] == a2z, a3[tz] == a3z};
sBw = DSolve[sysBw, {aY, a2, a3}, t];

204

DeleteFile[mBEG1]; DeleteFile[mBEG2];
sBEG = {0.1, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22};
Do[
DeveloperClearCache[Numeric]; DeveloperClearCache[Symbolic];
tsp = 2.Log[sBEG[[i]]] + 6.Log[10.];
{AYsp, A2sp, A3sp} = {aY[tsp], a2[tsp], a3[tsp]} /. First[sBw];
sysAv = {AY[t] == B[[1]] AY[t]2 , A2[t] == B[[2]] A2[t]2 , A3[t] == B[[3]] A3[t]2 ,
AY[tsp] == AYsp, A2[tsp] == A2sp, A3[tsp] == A3sp};
sAv = DSolve[sysAv, {AY, A2, A3}, t];

Finding the string scale

svtS =FindRoot[

14 A2[t] /. sAv[[1]]
3 A3[t] /. sAv[[1]]

+1

A2[t] /. sAv[[1]]
==
AY[t] /. sAv[[1]]

0, {t, 30} ];

tS = t /. svtS;
{aYtS, a2tS, a3tS} = {AY[tS], A2[tS], A3[tS]} /. sAv[[1]];

Going down from Ms to Msplit in the MSSM

syw1[t , AtS , AbS , AtauS ] := {
AY[t] - 3 A2[t] -

16
3

A3[t] + 6 At[t] + Ab[t]),

Ab[t] == Ab[t]( - 79 AY[t] - 3 A2[t] -

16
3

A3[t] + At[t] + 6Ab[t] + Atau[t],)

At[t] == At[t](-

13
9

Atau[t] == Atau[t](- 3 AY[t] - 3 A2[t] + 3 Ab[t] + 4 Atau[t]),

At[tS] == AtS, Ab[tS] == AbS, Atau[tS] == AtauS
} /. First[sAv];
sYS2m[AtS ?NumberQ, AbS ?NumberQ, AtauS ?NumberQ] :=

205

Module[ {t, ti = tS, tf = tsp},

NDSolve[syw1[t, AtS, AbS, AtauS], {At, Ab, Atau}, {t, ti, tf }]
];

Matching conditions at Msplit

syw2[t ?NumberQ, AtS ?NumberQ, AbS ?NumberQ, AtauS ?NumberQ] :=
1
{
1+tanb2

At[t] tanb2 , Ab[t], Atau[t] } /. First[sYS2m[AtS, AbS, AtauS]];

{augps, augs, adgps, adgs} =

1
{
1+tanb2

aY[tsp] tanb 2 , a2[tsp] tanb2 , aY[tsp], a2[tsp]} /. First[sAv];

Going down from Msplit to Mz in SplitSM

syw3[t ,atS ,abS ,atauS ]:={
at[t]==at[t](
3
adg[t]
2

17
aY[t]- 94 a2[t]-8
12

a3[t]+92 at[t]+ 32 ab[t]+atau[t]+ 32 aug[t] +

+ 12 augp[t] + 12 adgp[t]),

5
ab[t]==ab[t](- 12
aY[t]- 49 a2[t]-8 a3[t]+ 32 at[t]+ 92 ab[t]+atau[t]+ 32 aug[t] +
3
2

adg[t] + 12 augp[t] + 12 adgp[t]),

atau[t]== atau[t](- 15
aY[t]- 94 a2[t]+3 at[t]+3 ab[t]+ 52 atau[t]+ 32 aug[t] + 32 adg[t] +
4
1
augp[t]
2

+ 12 adgp[t]),

aug[t] == aug[t] (- 33
a2[t]- 34 aY[t]+ 45 aug[t] - 12 adg[t] +
4

1
4

augp[t]+3at[t]+3ab[t]+

atau[t]+ 32 aug[t] + 32 adg[t] + 12 augp[t] + 12 adgp[t])+ (aug[t]adg[t] augp[t] adgp[t]),

augp[t] == augp[t] (- 49 a2[t]- 34 aY[t]+ 34 augp[t] + 32 adgp[t] + 34 aug[t]+3at[t]+3ab[t]+
atau[t]+ 23 aug[t] + 32 adg[t] + 12 augp[t] + 21 adgp[t])+3
a2[t]- 34 aY[t]- 21 aug[t] + 54 adg[t] +
adg[t] == adg[t] (- 33
4

1
4

(aug[t]adg[t] augp[t] adgp[t]),

adgp[t]+3at[t]+3ab[t]+

atau[t]+ 32 aug[t] + 32 adg[t] + 12 augp[t] + 12 adgp[t])+ (aug[t]adg[t] augp[t] adgp[t]),

206

adgp[t] == adgp[t] (- 49 a2[t]- 34 aY[t]+ 34 adgp[t] + 32 augp[t] + 34 adg[t]+3at[t]+3ab[t]+

atau[t]+ 32 aug[t] + 32 adg[t] + 12 augp[t] + 12 adgp[t]) + 3 (aug[t] adg[t] augp[t] adgp[t]),

at[tsp] == syw2[tsp, AtS, AbS, AtauS][[1]],
ab[tsp] == syw2[tsp, AtS, AbS, AtauS][[2]],
atau[tsp] == syw2[tsp, AtS, AbS, AtauS][[3]],
aug[tsp] == augs, augp[tsp] == augps, adg[tsp] == adgs, adgp[tsp] == adgps
} /. First[sBw];
sYm2tz[AtS ?NumberQ,AbS ?NumberQ,AtauS ?NumberQ]:=
Module[{t,ti=tsp,tf=tz},
NDSolve[syw3[t,AtS,AbS,AtauS],{at,ab,atau,aug,augp,adg,adgp},{t,ti,tf }]
];
Finding the unknown parameters at Mstring
tp = 2.Log[mptop];
If[tsp > tp, solmtopz[x ?NumberQ,y ?NumberQ,z ?NumberQ]:=
4v

at[tp] /. First[sYm2tz[x, y, z]]

mptop
1+

16 (a3[tp] /. First[sBw])
-2(at[tp]
3

/. First[sYm2tz[x, y, z]])

solmtopz[x ?NumberQ,y ?NumberQ,z ?NumberQ]:=

4v

At[tp] /. First[sYS2m[x, y, z]]

];

mptop
1+

16 (A3[tp] /. First[sAv])
-2(At[tp]
3

/. First[sYS2m[x, y, z]])

solmbz[x ?NumberQ,y ?NumberQ,z ?NumberQ]:=

4v

ab[tz] /. First[sYm2tz[x, y, z]]-mbz;

solmtauz[x ?NumberQ,y ?NumberQ,z ?NumberQ]:=

4v

atau[tz] /. First[sYm2tz[x, y, z]]-mtauz;

fs = FindRoot[
{ solmtopz[xx, yy, zz] == 0, solmbz[xx, yy, zz] == 0, solmtauz[xx, yy, zz] == 0},
207

{{xx, 0.0030, 0.0045}, {yy, 8 103 , 9 10 5}, {zz, 103 , 5.5 105 }}, MaxIterations 200];
mbdmtau =

p
Re[yy /. fs] / Re[zz /. fs]; splitscale = sBEG[[i]] 103 ;

PutAppend[splitscale, mBEG1]; PutAppend[mbdmtau, mBEG2], {i , 1, Length[sBEG] }

];
splitscale = ReadList[mBEG1]; mbdmtau = ReadList[mBEG2];
datam = Table[Log[10, splitscale[[i]]], mbdmtau[[i]], i, 1, Length[sBEG]];

208

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Orologa
B
bifuntamental representation, dijemelidh anaparstash
bilarge, pnakac mxhc me megla stoiqea
bimaximal mixing, dimgisth mxh
D
D-branes, polubrnec
degenarate states, ekfulismnec katastseic
dilaton, ntlaton
doublet-triplet splitting, diaqwrismc dipltac tripltac
Dp-brane, p-polubrnh
G
gaugino, ferminio bajmdac
global symmetries, ektetamnec summetrec
gluino, gklouno
Grand Unified Theories (GUTs), megaloenopoihmnec jewrec
H
higgsino, ferminio Higgs bajmdac
I
intersecting branes, temnmenec brnec
inverted hierarchy, anpodh ierarqa
L
Large Hadron Collider (LHC), megloc epitaquntc sugkroumenwn desmn adronwn
Large Mixing Angle (LMA), meglh gwna mxhc
M
Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM), apl upersummetrik ekdoq tou
kajierwmnou protpou

N
Normal hierarchy, kanonik ierarqa
P
p-branes, p-brnec

217

S
see-saw mechanism, mhqanismc airac
singlet fields, monrh peda
Split Standard Model (SplitSM), diaqwrismno upersummetrik KP
split supersymmetry, diaqwrismnh upersummetra
Standard Model, kajierwmno prtupo (KP)
sterile neutrinos, anenerg netrna
superpotential, uperdunamik
V
vacuum expectation value (vev), anamenmenh tim keno
W
wrapping numbers, arijmo peritluxhc

218

H ergasa aut sugqrhmatodotjhke ap thn Eurwpaik 'Enwsh, sta plasia tou progrmmatoc me ttlo "HRAKLEITOS", tou progrmmatoc EPEAEK II tou 3ou Koinotiko
Plaisou Strixhc tou UP.E.P.J., me qrhmatodthsh kat 25% ap ejnikoc prouc kai
kat 75% ap to Eurwpak Koinwnik Tameo (EKT).

This research was co-funded by the European Union in the framework of the program
HRAKLEITOS of the Operational Program for Education and Initial Vocational Training of the 3rd Community Support Framework of the Hellenic Ministry of Education,
funded by 25% from national sources and by 75% from the European Social Fund (ESF).

219