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    ~ Prepare Practice Susceed Question Bank for Electronics & Communication Engineers (PSUs/GATE/IES) Satish K. Karna ‘The aim of this publication is to supply information taken from sources believed to be valid and reliable This is not an attempt to render any type of professional advice or analysis, nor is it to be treated as such, While much care has been taken to ensure the veracity and currency of the informa-tion presented within, neither the publisher, nor is authors bear any responsibility for any damage arising from inadvertent omissions, negligence or inaccuracies (typographical or factual) that may have found their way into this book Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt, Ltd Licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia ‘No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the publisher's prior waitten consent This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. The publisher reserves the right to remove any material present inthis eBook at any time ISBN 9788131763247 eISBN 9789332509986 Head Office: A-8(A), Sector 62. Knowledge Boulevard. 7th Floor. NOIDA 201 309. India Registered Office: 11 Local Shopping Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India Contents Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Preface Acknowledgements DRDO: Syllabus for Electronics and Communication Engineering Gate BC - Electrontes and Communication Engineering Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Paper-I (For Both Objective and Conventional Type Papers) Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Papert (For Both Objective and Conventional Type Papers) ITO: Syllabus: Telecemmanication Engineering About the Author ‘Materials and Components 1.1 Structure and Propertics of Electrical Engineering Materials 1.2 Conductors 1.3. Semivondustors 1.4 Insulators (Dielectric Materials) 1.5 Magnetic Materials: Characteristic 1.6 Ferromagnetic Mateti~ als 1.7 Piezoelectric Materials 1.8 Ceramic Material 1,9 Optical Material 1,10 Superconduetivity LIL Resistor 1.12 Ferrites (Ferrimagnetic Materials) 1.13 Quartz Crystal 1.14 Electromagnetic Components 1.15 Miscellaneous Conducting Materials Question Bank Physical Electronics, Electron devices and ICs 2.1 Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors, Carrier Statistics 2.2 Mechanism of Current Flow in « Semi- conductor 23 Hall Effect 24 Iunetion Theory 2.5 Different Types of Diodes and Their Chaacter- istics 26 Zener Diode 2.7 Tunnel Diode-Esaki Diode 28 Bipolar Jurction Transistor 2.9 Field Effect Transistor 2.10 Mostet 211 Led 212 Pin Diode 213 Photo Diode 2.14 Avalanche Photodiodes 215 Basics of Photo Electronics 2.16 Device Technology 2.17 Cmos Technology Question Bank Signals and Systems 43.1 Introduction to Signals and Systems 3.2 System 3.3 Convolution 34 Definitions and Properties of | Laplace Transform 3.5 Continuous-Time Fourier Series 3.6 Diserete Time Fourier Series 3.7 Continuous-Time Fourier Transform 38 Diserete Time Fourier Transform 3.9 Dft (Diserete Fourier Transform) 3.10 Fft 3.11 Z-Transform 3.12 Sampling Theorem 3.13 Linear Time-Invariant (LTD Systems, Definitions And Properties, Causality, Stability, Impulse Response, Convolution, Poles and Zews 3.14 Poles and Zeros 3.15 Parallel Structure 3.16 Cascade Structure 3.17 Frequeney Responie 3.18 Group Delay 3.19 Phase Delay 3.20 Signal Transmission Through LTI Systems Question Bank Network Theory ALL Network Graphs: Matiices Associated with Graphs; Incidence, Fundamental Cut Set and Fundamental Circuit Matrices 4.2 Solution Methods: Nodal and Mesh Analysis 43 Dot Convention 4.4 Net- ‘work Theorems: Superposition, Theveni and Norton's Maximum Power Transfer, Wye-Delta Transforms tion 45 Steady State Sinusoidal Analysis Using Phasors 4.6 Linear Constant Coeflicient Ditlerential L132 313.22 41446 vi @ Contents Chapter S Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Equations; Time Domain Analysis of Simple RLC Parameters 4.9 State Equations for Networks Question Bank Cireuits 47 Resonance 4.8 Two-Port Network Electromagnetic Theory 51-838 5.1 Vector Operation, Coordinate System and VariousDelts Operations 5.2 Electrosiaties 53 Magnetostar tion 54 Time Varying Fields and Maxwell’s Equation 5.5 Boundary Value Problems and Solutions 5.6 Transmission Lines 5.7 Basics of Wave Guide and Resonator 5.8 Elements of Antenna Theory ‘Question Bank Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation 6.1-6.40 6.1 Metsurments and Measurement Systems 6.2 Units, Dimensions and Standards 6.3 Chamseteristics of Instruments and Measurement Systems 64 Errors in Measurements and Their Analysis 65 Circuit Components (R, L, C) 66 Analog Instruments 67 Electro Mechanical Indicating Instruments 6.8 An log Meters 69 Measurement of Energy 610 Power Factor Meters 611 Measurement of Resis: tance 6.12 Measurement of Frequency 6.13 Electronic Measuring Instruments 6.14 Cathode Ray Oscil- loscope (CRO) 6.15 Spectrum Analyser 6.16 Recorders 6.17 Instrument Transformers 6.18 A/D And DI/AConvertr, Digital Voltmeter 619 Transducers and Their Applications 620 Measurement of Displace- ment 6.21 Measurement of Pressure 6.22 Data Acquisition Question Bank ‘Analog Electronic Circuits 7.1 Smull Signal Equ valent Cireui | Equivalent Circuits of BITS 7.3. Small Signal Equivalent Circuits of FET OR IFETMOSFET 7.4 Simple Diode Circuits 7.5 Transistor Biasing 7.6 FET/MOSFET Biasing 7.7 Transistor Amplifier Analysis 7.8 FET Amplifier Analysis, 7.9 Power Amplifcr (Large Signal Amplifier) 7.10 Single Stage amplifier 7.11 Multistage Amplifier 7.12 Difterential Amplifier. 713 Operational Ampliier 7.14 Feedback Amplifier 7.15 Frequerey Response 7.16 Simple Ops-Amplifier Application circuit 7.17 Filter 7.18 Oscillators 7.19 Funetion gencrators 7.20 IC $85 Timer 721 Power supply Question Bank Digital Electronic Circuits 81-838 81 Boolean Algebra 82 Minimization of Boolean functions 83 logic gates 84 digital IC families 85 Combinaticnal Circuit 84 Arithmetic Cireui) 87 Code and Code Converter 88 Multiplexer $9 Sequential Cireuit $10 Counters 8.11 AD and D/A Converters Question Bank Control Systems 9.1-9.48 9.1 Control System Components 9.2 Block Disgrammatic Description 9.3 Open Loopand Closed Loop Systems 94 Signal Flow Graphs 9.5 Transient and Steady State Analysis of LTT Control Systems and Frequency Response 9.6 Tools and Techniques for LTT Control System Analysis 97 The Root Locus 9.8 Polar Plots 9.9 Nyquist Plot 9.10 Bode Plot 9.11 Frequerey Domain Specification 9.12 State ‘Variable wRepresentation of LTT Control Systems 9.13 Control System Compensator 9.14 Contolling SystemControllers Question Bank 101-1041 10.2 Analog Communication Systems 10.3 Super Hetrodyne Receiver 104 Realizations of Analog Communication Systems 105. Fundamenals of Information Theory and Channel Capacity Theorem 10.6 Digital Communication System 10.7 Digital Communication Modulation Schemes 10.8 Basics of TDMA, FDMA and CDMA and GSM Question Bank Microwave Engineering 1.A-11.29 HL Microwave Tubes 11.2 Solid State Devices 11.3 Microwave Generation and Amplifier 11.4 Waveguide 115 Microwave Components and Circuits 11.6 Microstip Circuit 11.7 Microwave Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Anienns 11.8 Microwave Measurement 11.9 Masers and Lasers 11.10. Microwave Propagation ILI Microwave Communication Systems Terrestrial and Satelite Based 11,12 Satellite Communication 1113 Radar Question Bank Computer Engineering 12.442.17 121 Contents 12.2 Number Systems 12.3 Data Representation 12.4 Programming 12.5 Fundamentals of ComputerArchitecture 126 8085 Programming Model Question Bank Solutions S-S.119 Test Papers: Test paper 1 131438 Test paper 2 13913.16 Test paper 3 1317-1326 Test paper 4 27134 Test paper 3 1B35-13.46 Test paper 6 134713 55 Test paper 7 1336 1364 Test paper 8 1365-1372 Test paper 9 1373-1381 Bibliography BIBT This page is intentionally left blank. Preface ‘This book has been primarily developed for the students/engi (Communication Engineering ‘These days more and more objective type questions are being asked in various competitive examinations to test real knowledge of students, Thus, the present day trend of competitive examinations with objective type questions is simed at evaluating the conceptual ani mathematical skills of the examinees, Almost all leading public and private sector organizations are conducting such tests for the recruitment of engineer trainees as well as management trainees. Wit large number of sandidates appearing in such fests every Veat. the competition has become tough. Therefore, for suecessin such tests, one must be familiar with the style of questions generally asked, ard praclice solving these questions and get the correct answer ers Who are looking for a bright career in the field of Electronics and There are basically Three Levels of Muliple Choice Questions tha ate asked, Level | that needs the concept, basie knowledge and implementation of echnical skills very quickly: In such case, the number of ques- tions is. 180 or 200 and the time allotted is 2 hours. In this category. diploma level NTPC. BEEL. SAIL. GAIL. AAI ECIL. NHPC. IOCL ONGC, OIL ISRO. BEL, RLY, PSEB examinations fall. (Here approximately 100 questions from concerning technical branch and approximately 190 questions are asked fiom general ability/aptitude section.) Level | and2 type questions need he concept, basie knowledue with the numerieal skills o solve the problems in short time. The num- ber of questions is 240 or 200 and the time allotted is 2:30 or 2.00 hours. In such categories B Tech level NTPC. BHEL, SAIL. GAIL. ‘AAI ECIL, NHPC, IOCL ONGC. OIL ISRO, BEL. RLY, PSEB examinations fall. (Here approximately 100 questions from concerning technical b ns areasked from general ability eptitude section.) hand approximately 100 ques Level 2 and 3 type questions nced the concept, basic knowledge with the mathematical skills to solve the problems in short time, The ‘number of questions is 65 or 85 or 120 and 150 and the time allotted is 3 hours. In such categories B.Tech, GATE, ISRO. BARC, CSIR, ‘TO and DRDO examinations fall. ‘To develop this book, we have consulted a number of students who quabfied diflerent examinations proviously. We have collected the memory based questions and analyzed the pattern, We have put (ull effort to make this book useful for students‘engineers, There are number of books available in markets which contain large number of questions and answers. We have developed bock Jh contains thousands of questions and answers with the detailed solutions. This will he help the students to correct the fundamen's and apply to the similar problems that they may face in competitive examinations. This book consists of thirteen chapters namely, Materials and Components, Piysical Electrons, Electron Devices and IC's, Signals ‘and System, Network Theery, Flectromagnetic Theory: Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation. Analog Electronic Cirenits, Digital Electronic Cireuits, Control Systems, Communication Systems, Microwave Engineering andComputer Engineering. Bibliography given ‘atthe end oF the text aims to stimulate the readers to go in for further reading to seek in-depth knowledge For general ablity/aplitude test, students are advised to read the related topic books and practice it. General topies also play amajor roll in selection. Constructive criticism and positive suggestions for the improvement of the quality or the content of this book will be highly appreciated Satish K. Karna This page is intentionally left blank. Acknowledgements ‘This book would be incomplete without expressing our gratitude to those wonderfull people who provided real inspiraration, motiva- tion and encouragement in taking up this cballenging project. A special gratitute to Dr. S. Chatterjee, Head, Department of Electrical Engineering. TTTT Chandigarh and Dr B.S. pabala, assistant professor, TTT! Chandigarh We are grateful to these people for their support in solving the problems and developing the book ‘Mrs. Manmeet Kaur, M.E (Electrical, Power System) ‘Mr. Pravin Kumar, ME (Instrumentation and control) Miss. Suman, ME (Eleetsical, Power System) Mr. Divesh Kumar. ME lecirical. Power System) ‘Mrs. Ritula Thakaur, M.E (Electsical, Power System) ‘Mr. Amand Parkash, MLE (Electronies and Communication) Mr. Hitendar singh Pawar, ME (Microelectronics) My Jitendet Viemani, ME (Control and Instrumentation) ‘Mr. Amapam Anand, M.Se. (Statistics) and M. Tech. (Computer Se.) ‘Mr. Shailendra ‘liwari, M. ‘lech. (Computer Science) Mr Surendra Singh, M.Tech (Computer Science) Mr, Deepak Singla, M. Tech. (Computer Seience) Mr. Asish Saxsena, B. Tech, (Electionies and Communica Mr. MS Rao, B. Tech. (Electronies and Communication) ) Our students Miss. Kritika Singh, B.E (Electronics and Communication) Mr Amandeep, B.E (Electronics and Communication) Miss Baljinder Kaur, B.E (Electronics and Communication) Miss. Rupinder Kaur, BE (Electronics and Communication) ‘Miss Suman, B.E (Electronics and Communication) ‘Mis. Monika, BE (Electronics and Communication) Mis Rina, B.E (Electronics and Instrumentation) Miss Kawalpreet Kaur, BE (Electronics and Communication) Miss. Kritika, BE (Electronics and Communication) ‘Mr. Chirag. B.E (Llectronies and Communication) Mr. Raineesh Kumar, B E (Electrical) M; Prateek Srivastava, BE (Electronics and Intrumentation) Miss Parva Kaul, BLE (Electronics and Communication) Rehil Khanna, B.E (Flectronies and Intrumentation) ‘MrRavi Verma, BE (Eleetronies and intimidation) Mr Sudhir Kumar, BE (Electronics and Communication) Mr. Gautam Khera, BE Electrical) Mr. Inderpreet Singh, BE (Electrics!) ‘The Pearson Team Kerampeet Singh Khosa, Assistant Editor, Pearson Bhupesh Sharma. Associate Editor. Pearson We owe a debt of gratitude to Mayank and Nilophar for their patience and understanding. 1am thankful to Mr. Mukesh Kumar Koundal, Miss. Preety Rani, Mr Kamal Kumar and Ram Raja for efficiently word precessing the manuscript Satish K. Karna This page is intentionally left blank. DRDO: Syllabus for Electronics and Communication Engineering NETWORKS Network graphs: matrices associated with graphs; incidence, fundamental cut set and fundamental circuit matrices, Solution methods: nodal and mesh snalysis. Network theorems: superposition, Thevenin and Norton'smaximum power transfer, We-Delta transformation Steady state sinusoidal analysis using phasors. Linear constant coetficient differential equations; time domain analysis of simple RLC is, Solution of network equations using Laplace transform, frequency domain analysis oF RLLC eireuits. 2-port network parameters driving point and transfer functions. State equations for networks. ELECTRONIC DEVICES Energy bands in silicon, intrinsic and extrinsic silicon. Cartier transport in silicon: diffusion current, drift current, mobility, and resistiv- ity. Generation and recombination of carriers p-njunction diode, Zener diode. tunnel diode, BIT_JFET, MOS capacitor, MOSFET. LED, p-l-n and avalanche photodiode, Basics of LASERs. Device technology: integrated circuits fabrication process, oxidation, diffusion, ien implantation, photolithography, n-tub, p-tub and vinetub CMOS process ANALOG CIRCUITS Small Signal Equivalent ciseuits of diodes, BJTs, MOSFETs and enalog CMOS. Simple diode circuits, clipping, clamping Biasing and bias stability of tansistor and FET amplifiers. Amplifiers: single-and multi-stage, differential and operational, feedback, ani power. Frequency response of amplifiers. Simple op-amp circuits. Filters. Sinuscidal oscillators, enterion for oscillation, single- transistor and op-amp configurations, Function generators and wave-shaping circuits, 555 Timers. Power supplies DIGITAL CIRCUITS Beolean algebra, minimization of Boolean functions; logic gates; digital IC families (DIL, TTL, ECL, MOS, CMOS). Combinate- rial circuits: arithmetic circuits, code converters, multiplexers, decoders, PROMs and PLA. Sequential circuits: latches and flip-flops counters and shifl-registers, Sample and hold circuits, ADCs, DACs, Semiconductor memories. Microprocesson(8085), architecture, programming, memory and U0 interfacing, Fourier series, continuous-time and discrete-time Fourier Transform, DFT and FET, z-transform. Sampling theorem. Linear Time- Invariant (LT) Systems: definitions and propertes, causality stability. impulse response, convolution, poles and zeros, parallel and ceascade structure, ftequency response. group delay. phase delay. Signal transmission through LTT systems CONTROL SYSTEMS Basie control system components; block diagrammatic description, reduction of block diagrams Open loop and closed loop (feedback) systems and stability analysis of these systems. Signal flow graphs and their use in determining transfer functions of systems; transient xiv DRDO: Syllabus for Electronics and Communication Engineering and steady state analysis of LTT control sysiems and frequeney response. Tools and techniques for LT control system analysis: root loci, Routh-Hurwitz criterion, Bode and Nyquist plots. Control system compensators: elements of lead and lag compensation, elements ‘of Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control, Stae variable representation and solution of state equation of LTT control systems, COMMUNICATIONS Random signals and noise: probability, random variables, probability density function, autocorrelation, power spectral density. Analag communication systems: amplitude and angle modulation and demodulation systems. spectral analysis of these operations, superhel- cerodyne receivers, elements of hardware, realizations of analog communication systems, signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) calculations for amplitude modulation (AM) and fiequency modulation (FM) for low noise conditions. Fundamentals of information theory and channel capacity theorem. Digital communication systems: pulse code modulation (PCM), differential pulse code modulation (DPCM), digital modulation schemes: amplitude, phase and frequency shift keying schemes (ASK, PSK, FSK), matched filter receivers, bandwidth con- sideration and probability of error calculations for these schemes. Basies of TDMA, FDMA and CDMA and GSM. ELECTROMAGNETICS Elements of vecior caleulus: divergence and curl; Gauss” and Stokes” theorems, Maxwell's equations: diferential and integral forms. Wave equation, Poynting vector. Plane waves: propagation through various media: reflection and refraction, phase and group velocity skin depth, Transmission lines. characteristic impedance; impedance transformation; Smith chart; impedance matching, S parameters, pulse excitation, Wayeguiles: modes in rectangular waveguides, boundary conditions, cut-off flequencies, dispersion relations. Basies of propagation in dielectric waveguide and optical fibers. Basics of Antennas: Dipole antennas; radiation pattem, antenna gain, Gate EC - Electronics and Communication Engineering ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS. Linear Algebra: Matrix Algebra, Systems of linear equations, Eigen values and eigen vectors Caleulus: Mean value theorems, Theorems of integral calculus, Evaluation of definite and improper integrals, Partial Derivatives, ‘Maxima and minima, Multiple integrals, Fourier series. Veetor identities, Directional derivatives, Line, Surface and Volume integrals, Stokes, Gauss and Green’s theorems Differential equations: First order equation (linear and nonlinear), Higher order linear differential equations with constant evelficients, ‘Method of vanation of parameters, Cauchy's and Fuler’s equations, Initial and boundary value problems, Partial Dferential Equations and vatiable separable method ‘Complex variables: Analytic functions, Cauchy’s integral theorem and iategral formula, Taylor's and Laurent’ series, Residue theorem, solution integrals, Probability and Statistics: Sampling theorems, Conditional probability, Mean, median, mode and stanard deviation, Random vari- ables, Discrete and continuous distibutions, Poisson, Normal and Binomial distribution, Correlation and regression analysis, Ni ical Methods: Solutions of non-dinear algebraic equations, single and muli-step methods for differential equations. ‘Transform Theory: Fourier tansform, Laplace wansform, Z-transform. ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING Networks: Network graphs: matrices associated with graphs: incidence, fundamental cut set and fundamental circuit matiices. Solu- tion methods: nodal and mesh analysis, Network theorems superposition, Thevenin and Norton’s maximum power transfer, Wye-Delia transformation, Steady state sinusoidal analysis using phasors, Linear constant coefficient differential equations, time domainanalysis of simple RIC citeaits, Solution of network equations using Laplace transform: frequency domain analysis oC RLC eireuits,2-port network parameters: driving point and transfer functions. State equations for networks. Electronic Devices: Eneray bands in silicon. intinsic and extrinsic silicon, Carrier transport in silieon: diffusion current, drift current, mobility, and resistivity, Generation and recombination of carriers. p-n junction diode, Zener diode, tunnel diode, BUT, JEET, MOS capacitor, MOSFET, LED, p-En and avalanche photo diode, Basics of LASERs, Device technology: integrated circuits fabrication pro- ceis, oxidation, diffusion, ion implantation, photolithography, n-tub, p-tub and twin-tub CMOS process. Analog Circuits: Small Signal Equivalent circuits of diodes, BITs, MOSFETs and analog CMOS. Simple diode circuits, clipping, clamping, rectifier Biasing ant bias stability of transistor and FET amplifiers. Amplifiers: single-arsd multi-siage, differential and op- rational, feedback, and power, Frequency’ response of amplifiers, Simple op-amp circuits Filters, Sinusoidal oseillaters, exiterion for ostillation: single-ransistor and op-amp configurations. Function generators and wave-shaping cireuits, $55 Timers. Power supplies. Digital circuits: Boolean algebra, minimization of Boolean functions; logic gates; digital IC families 1 Combinatorial circuits: anthmetic circuits, eode converters, multiplexers, decoders, PROMS and PLAs. Sequential eireuits: latches and flip-flops, counters and shiftregisters. Sample and hold eireuits, ADCs, DACs, Semiconducior memories, Mictoprccessor(8085); archi- tecture, programming, memory and I/O interfacing, xvi Gate EC - Electronies and Communi ion Engineering Signals and Systems: Definitions and properties of Laplace transform, continuous-time and discrete-time Fourier series, continuous crete-time Fourier Transform, DFT and FFT, z-transtoom. Sampling theorem. Linear Time-Invariant (LT) Systems: deft- nitions and properties, causality, sibility, impulse response, convolution, poles and zeros, parallel and caseade structure, frequent response, group delay, phase delay. Sigral transmission through LTT systems, Contral Systems: Basic control system components, block diagrammatic description, reduction of block diagrams. Open loop and closed loop (feedback) systems and stability analysis of these systems. Signal low graphs and their use in determining transfer func- tions of systems: transient and steady stote analysis of TI control systems and frequency response. Tools and techniques for LTT eontral system analysis: root loci, Routh-Hurwitz criterion, Bode and Nyquist plots. Control system compensators: clements of lead and leg ‘compensation, clements of Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control. Slate variable representation and solution of state equation of LTT contiol systems Communications: Randem signals and noise: probability, random variables, protabilily density function, autacortelation, power spec- tral density. Analog communication systems- amplitude and angle modulation and demodulation systems, spectral analysis ofthese op- cations, superheterodyne receivers, elements of hardware, realizations of analog communication systems; signal-to-noise ratio SNR) caleulations for amplitude modulation (AM) and fiequeney modulation (FM) for low noise conditions. Fundamentals of information theory and channel capacity theorem. Digital communceation systems: pulse ende modulation (PCM), differential pulse code modulaticn (DPCND, digital modulation sshemes: amplitude, phase and frequency shift Keying schemes (ASK, PSK, FSK), matched filter reeeiy= crs, bandwith consideration and probability of er calculation for these schemes. Basics of TDMA, FDMA and CDMA and GSM. Electromagnetics: Elements of vestor calculus: divergence and curl, Gauss’ and Stokes” theorems, Maywell’s equations: differential and integral forms. Wave equation, Poynting vector. Plane waves: propagation through various media, reflection and refraction, phase and group velocity, skin depth. Transmission lines: characteristic impedance, impedance transformation, Smithehait, impedance match- 'S parameters, pulse excitation Waveguides: modes in rectangular waveguides; boundary conditions; cul-off frequencies; disper sion relations, Basics of propagation in dielectric waveguide and optical fibers, Basies of Antennas: Dipole antennas; radiation pattern; lanterns gain Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Paper-l (For Both Objective and Conventional Type Papers) 1. Materials and Components Structure ard properties of Electrical Enginesring materials; Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators, magnetic, Ferroclectti, Piczo- electric, Ceramic, Optical and Super-conduciing materials. Passive components and characteristics Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors; Fertites, Quartz crystal Ceramic resonators, Electromagnetic and Electromechanical components 2. Physical Electronics, Electron Devices and ICs Electrons and holes in semiconduciors, Carrier Statisties, Mechanism of eurtent flow in a semiconductor, Hall effect; Junetion theory; Ditferent types of diodes and their characteristies; Bipolar Junction transistor; Field effect transistors; Power switching devices like Rs, GTOs, power MOSFETS; Basies of ICs - bipolar, MOS and CMOS types; basic of Opto Electronics. 3. Signals and Systems Classification oF signals and systems: System modelliag in terms of differential and difference equations, State vasiable representation, Fourier series. Fourier transforms and their application to system aralysis, Laplace transforms and their application to system analysis Convolution and superpostion integrals and their applications, Z-transforms and their applications to the analysis ard characterisation of diserete time systems; Ranfom signals and probability, Correlation functions; Spectral density, Response of linear system te random inputs 4. Network Theory Network analysis techniques: Network theorems. transient response. steady slate sinusoidal response. Network graphs and their applications in network analysis: Tellegen’s theorem, Two port networks, Z, Y, h and transmission parameters. Combination of two ports, analysis of common two ports. Network functions: pats of network functions, obtaining @ network funetion frem a givea pat. ‘Transmission eritena: delay and rise time, Elmore's and other definitions effect of cascading. Elements of network synthesis 5.Electromagnetic Theory Analy'ss of electrostatic and magnetostatic fields, Laplace's and Poisson’s equations, Boundary value problems and their solutions; ‘Maxwell’s equations. application to wave propagation in bounded and unbounded media: Transmission lines: basic theory. standing ‘waves, matching applications, microstrip lines: Basies of wave guides and resonators, Elements of antenta theory Electronic Measurements and instrumentation ectrical quantities and parameters, Electronic measuring instru- sation, Transducers; Electronic measure- y for industrial use Basie concepts, standards and error analysis; Measurements of basi ‘ments and their principles of working: analog and digital, comparison, characteristics, app ‘ments of non electrical quantities like tempera pressure, humidity ete; basis of tele This page is intentionally left blank. Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Paper-ll (For Both Objective and Conventional Type Papers) 1. Analog Electronic Circuits ‘Transistor biasing and stabilization. Small signal analysis, Power amplifiers. Frequency response, Wide banding techniques. Feedback amplifiers. Tuned amplifiers. Oscillators. Rectifiers and power supplies. Op Amp. PLL, other linear integrated circuits and applications. Pulse shaping ciscuits and waveform generators Digital Electronic Circuits Transistor a: a switching element; Roolean algebra, simplification of Boolean functions, Kamaguh msp and applications, IC Logie gates and their characteristics, IC logic families : DTL, TTL, ECL, NMOS, PMOS and CMOS gates and their comparison; Combinational logic Cireuits. Half adder, Full adder; Digital comparator, Muluplexer Demult-plexer: ROM an their applications. Flip flops. R-S, J-K, Dand T flip-lops: Different types of counters and registers Waveform generators. A/D and D/A converters, Semiconductor memories 3. Control Systems ‘Transient and steady state response of control systems, Effect of feedback on stability and sensitivity; Root locus techniques: Frequency response analysis, Concepts of gain and phase margins: Consiant-M and Constant-N Nichol’s Chart, Approximation of transient re- sponse from Constant-N Nichol's Chart, Approximation of transient response from closed loop frequeney response; Design of Conteal Systems, Compensators, Industrial controllers 4. Communication systems Basie information theory, Modul cong, Time division and fiequeney division mul tion of signals at HF, VHF, UHF and microwave frequency. ion and detection inanalogue and digital systems; Sampling and data reconstructions, Quantization & ing, Equalization, Optical Communication in fice space & fiber opti, Propaga- vellite Commun 5. Microwave Engineering Microwave Tubes and solid state devices, Microwave generation and amplifiers, Waveguides and other Microwave Components and Circuits, Microstrip circuits, Microwave Antennas, Microwave Measurements, Masers, lasers, Microwave propagation. Microwave Communication Systems terrestrial and Satellite based ‘Computer Engineering Number Systems. Dota representation: Programming, Elements of a high level programming language PASCAL/C: Use of basic data structures; Fundamentals of computer architecture; Processor design; Control unit design, Memory organisation, To System Organisa- tion, Microprocessors: Architecture and instruction set of Microprocessors 8085 and 8086, Assembly language Programming. Micro- processor Based system design: typical examples. Personal computers and their typical uses, This page is intentionally left blank. JTO: Syllabus: Telecommunication Engineering SECTION-I 1. Materials and components Structure and properties of Flectronic Engineering materials, Conductors, Semiconducters and Insulators, Magnetic, Ferroelectric Piezoelectric, Ceramic, Optical and Superconducting materials. Passive components and characteristics, Resistors, Capacitors and In- ductors, Femites, Quirtz crystal, Ceramic resonators, Electromagnetic ard Electromechanical components, 2. Physical Electronics, Electron Devices and Ics Electrons and holes in semiconductors, Cartier Statistics, Mechanics of current flow in a semi-conductor, Hall effect; Junction theory Ditllerent types of diodes and their characteristics, Bipolar Junction transistor, Field effect transistors, Power switching devices like SCRs, CTOs, power MOSFETs; Busies of ICs-bipolas, MOS and CMOS types; Basies of Opto Electronics, 3. Network theory Network analysis techniques: Network theorem, transient and sieady state sinusoidal response, and Transmission criteria; delay and tise time Elnore’s and other definition, eflect of cascading, Elements of network synthesis 4. Electromagnetic Theory n lines: basie theory, standing Waves, matching applications, ‘ments of antenna theory nieto sitip lines; Basies of waveguides and resonators, Ele 5. Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation Basie concepts, standards and error analysis, Measurements of basic electrical quantities and parameters, Elestronie measuring instru- ‘ments and their principles of working: analog and digital, comparison, characteristics, and applications. Transducers, Electronic mea- Jectrical quantities like temperature, pressure, humidity ete. Basies of telemetry for industrial use surements of Power Electronics Power Semiconductor devices, Thyristor, Power transistor, MOS 3-phase DC-to-DC Converters, AC regulators. Thyristor controlled reactors, switched capacitor networks Inverters: Single-phase and 3-phase. Pulse width modulation, Sinusoidal modulation with uniform sampling. Switched mode power supplies Te, Characteristics and operation. AC to DC converters; Phase and xxii # ITO: Syllabus; Telecom Engineering SECTION- 1. Analog Electronic Circuits Transistor biasing and stabilization, Small Signal analysis. Power amplifiers. Frequeney response, Wide band techniques, Feedback amplifiers. Tuned amplifiers. Oscillators, Rectifiers and power supplies. Operational Amplifier, other linear integrated circuits and ap- plications. Pulse shaping ciretsts and waveform generators. 2, Digital Electronic Circuits ‘Transistor asa switching element; Boolean algebta, simplification of Boolean functions, Kasnaugh Map and applications, IC Logic gates and their characteristics, IC logic families: DTL. TTL, ECL, NMOS, PMOS and CMOS gates and their comparison; Combinational logic cieults, Half adder, full adder, Digital Compartor. Multiplexer Demultiplexer, ROM and their applications. Flip-lops. R-S, J-K, Dand T flip-lops, Different types of counters and registers, waveform generators. A/D and D/A converters. Semiconductor memories, 3. Control Systems ‘Transient and steady state response of control systems, Effect of feedback on stability and sensitivity, Root locus techniques: Frequency response aralysis. Concepts of gain and phase margins: Consiant-M and Constant-N Nichol’s Chart, Approximation of tuansient re- sponse from Constant-N Nichol’s Chart, Approximation of transient response from closed loop frequency response; Design of Control Systems, Compensators, Industrial controllers . Communication Systems Basic information theory: Modulation and detection in analogue and digital systems; Sampling and data reconstruction. Quantization & (Coding, Time division and frequency division multiplexing; Equalisation, Opical Communication: in free space & (iber optic, Propaga- tion of signals at HF, VHF, UKF and microwave frequeney, Satellite communication, 5. Microwave Engineering Microwave Tubes and solid state devices, Microwave generation and amplifiers, Waveguides and other Microwave Components and Cireuits, Microstrip circuits, Microwave antennas, Microwave Measurements, MASERS LASERS. Microwave Propogation. Micro- wave Communication Systems-terrstrial and satellite based 6. Computer Engineering Number Systems; Data representation; Programming: Elements of a high level programming language PASCAL.C: use of basie data structures; Fundamentals of computer architecture processor design, Control unit design. Memory organization. 1/0 System Organiza- tion, Personal computers and their typical uses 7. Microprocessors Microprocessor architecture - Instruction set and simple assembly language programming. Interfacing for memory and LO. Applications of Microprocessors in Telecommurications and power system. SECTION-III General Ability Test ‘The candidate's comprehension and understanding of General English shal be tested through simple exereises. Questions on knowledge ofeurrent eventsand of such matter of everyday observation and experience in their scientific aspects as may be expected ofan educated person. Questions will also be included on events and developments in Telecommunications. History of India and Geography. These will bbe of anature, which can be answered without special study by an educated person About the Author Salish K_Kamna,x-educational consultant, guided the Department of Electronics Electrical and Computer Engineering. He runs Kara Institute of Engineering, Chantigath He has more than 15 years of experience inthe engineering industies and teaching for compet- tive examinations (1.e, GATE /IES / PSUs). After graduation in Electtonies and Communiestion Engineering, he obtained his M ‘Tech. in Computer Integrated Manufacturing from Punjab Engineesing College, Chanigash. Ui fields of interest are Communicaticn Systems, Control Systems, Cieuits Theory and Networks, Electronics Devices and Circuits, Analog Electronies, Digital Electonics He hasalresdy written many text and reference books for competitive examinations 1. GATE: Electronics and Communication Engineering by Satish K. Karna 2. GATE: Electrical Engineering by Saiish K. Karna and Suman 3. GATE: Instrumentation Engineering by Satish K. Karna and Ravi Verma 4 5 Communication Systems (Theory ‘problems and solution /MCQ%) hy Satish & Karna Control Systems (Theory / probllems and solution /MCQs) by Setish K. Karna 6, BSNL JTO: Question Bank with Detatled Solutions by Satish K. Karna 7. MINLJTO: Question Bank with Detailed Solutions by Satish K. Karna 8. Electronics and communication for competitions by Satish K Kara 9. Electrical for competitions by Sauish K Karna 10. Instrumentation for competitions by Satish K. Karna and Ravi Verma (in Press) AL, MCQin Electronics and communication by Satish K Karna (in Press) 12, MCO in Electrical Engineering by Sotish K. Karna (in Press) 13. GATE: Computer Science and IT by Satish K. Karna and Deepak (in Press) PROPOSED BOOKS Cireuit Theory and Network (Theory /profillems and solution /MCQs) by Satish K. Karna Analog Electronies (Theory /probllems and solution /MCQs) by Satish K. Karna {2nal and Systems (Theory /probllems and solution /MCQs) by Sash K Karna tal Electronies (Theory /probllems and solution /MCQs) by Satish K Kama 1 2 3. 4. Di This page is intentionally left blank. CHAPTER MATERIALS AND 1.1 STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING MATERIALS. Electronic Energies in an Atom of an Element The electron tound to the mucleus of an atom can exist only in «8 series of encrgy slates having sharply defined energies. (B, ‘According to Bohr’s theory of the atom lectron volt) Asn increases, the , levels get closer, which states that no thvo electrons in bound state can have all the four quantum num- ber n/m, and m, of the same magnitude and direction ie, not more than two electrons can oceupy the same energy level and these two must have opposite spins. Principal quantum number (n) which indicates the size of the orbiting election (cireular or eliptical). It ts a measure of how the total energy is quantized 3 = 063): 2d). 3(P).a(-D. © Azimuthal or Angular’ momentum quentinn muamber (I) Which determines the ellipical motion of the electon orbit Itisthe way'in which the angular m (n-1) © Magnetic quantum number (m) associates with orbiting cleciron in a plane, indicating is tiny magnetic behaviour tis a measure of the angle between cleciron’s angular mo- ‘mentum and an applied magnetic field tum is quantized 2 1=01 maoata.tt m(4) COMPONENTS * Spin quantum munber (m) clockwise'anticlock-wise A solid in which the atoms are orranged in a regular periodic geometrical pattern, is known as a Crystal whose corer points form an array in space. This array of points is called a Crystal lnttice, The spacing between atoms in a tal is the same for ‘crystalline solid and is called the lattice constant dof the crystal Principles of Electron Energy Bands When several atoms are brought together to form a solid crystal ‘each sharp level of the individual atoms, spreads into as many energy levels as there are atoms in the solid and yet Pauli’s exclusion principle 4s not violated for electrons of the similar atoms inerystalline solid These energy levels are situated together very closely and xy band as shown in fig Electron Energy Band Scheme and Forbidden Bands «The width of E-band depends on the corresponding E-level n free atom of the between atoms in the solid crystal which forms potential hills and well to control the flow of elec- {rons across the ery'tal lattice + The lower « tion betwe bands, + On the bands hand, the higher energy levels are affected very much by neighbouring aloms and expand into a wide band. ray levels are slightly affected by interac- hbouring atom and thus form very narrow 1.2m Materials and Components ‘+ The width of energy bands is greater if inter-atomic dis- tance is less depending on the erystal lattice structure ‘© Theeneigy band structure of solids provides a basis which ‘enables us to a solids vir. 1, Metals (good conductors) 2. Insulators (bad conductors) 3, Semiconductors ‘cant for three distinst groups of erystalline ~Conaacion Enpoey ‘Conduction band Partly filled ELL Forbiddem aap E> TV ZZ" Blctrom in Eyecan_ Electra in band cross over to Eyeasily cannotreach £y @ eo Metal Insulator Tae Conduction #, ZB, — lketons in 83 band sethated to rach Fy © Semivondastor Fig. Zone Model and Brillouin Zones (Wave-Mechanies Model of Band Theory) ‘The outer or valence electrons which travel through the erystal- line solid come across crystal lattice of the ions. The travelling cleetrons across the crystal lnttice undergo diffraction effects in periodic manner due to potential well and hills atthe sites of positive ons of erystal atoms and valence-core electron cloud re- spectively The average amplitude ofthe periodie potentials (hills and wells) corresponds to the width of energy gaps Hlectron wave of wavelength 4= (iimv) can be difracted ssconling to Braga’sdiffaction law 4 =2d sin 0 Wave number ix) =72 IK] =3% d sin? The result indicates that thete is at least one sees of values of |K| corresponding to integer n, for which electrons ae diffacted And do not pass frely through the crystal. This statement should hold true whether the free slectrons ae part ofan electron beam impinging on the crystal oran electron inthe erystal (i, valence electron) or valence electrons in a crystal, these values of K cor respond tothe forbidden energie in the bund atrusture. ‘type (Donor type) of semiconductor is Silicon or Germanium (both in 1V group with covalent bond) doped with As orP of ¥ group. The Sth elestron of Aa or inthe host crystal to SiGe remains unengaged and it can be fieed for conduction: process since effective energy gap =[0.1/10]eV = E,, = 0.01 eV. an compired with £,=LeV for intinwic 8VGo. Heooe, mtype conductivity is (10.10}100 times mors thaa that of pure i Ge This conductivity again increases with femperture very rapidly a [lBierme sents petype (Acceptor type) of semiconductor is Silicon or Germanium (both in IV group) doped with Boron or Gallium of I group. There is defisit of one electronin the host erystal which ‘otherwise requires four electrons. In order words, electron-hole (p-type) is ereased. Its E, = 0.01 eV justabove the valence band, be (0) Net £,=£,-4. 10 10 But this is an extra charge carier and hence «7, incceases as compared to a, °c, again depends on temperature as per the equation Gallium Arsenide Versus Silicon + Gallium Arsenide and other compound semisonductors (InP, ZnSe, AlGa Se, AIGAAs ete.) have the same average number of valence electrons per atom compared to silicon, + In compound semiconductor the chemical bond between the nearest neighbours is heteropolar. However. in such compounds the bond is still more or less covalent. The compound semiconductors offer 4 variety of choices to a material scientist and a device designer, Inspite of this Gallium Arsenide technology is the most developed compound semiconductor technology till date. Silicon and germanium are indirect gap semiconductors Gallium arsenide and related compounds have several oth- er advantages compared to silicon, The effective mass of electrons at the (gamma) minimum point is smaller than in or L. This leads to higher electrons velocity Hence GaAs devices are more suitable for high frequency high speed application Gallium Arsenide, being a direct gap semiconductor can be used to generate and detect both incoherent and eohes- coe Clases) iehite: and: hhenoe’ in-well suited for-apolications in opto-electionies, The Gallium arsenide and Aluminum, gallium arsenide are grown in layers one above the other for confinement of light, The recombination of holes and clectrons in a direct gap semiconductor such ax Gallium arsenideis more efficient. Asa result, when Galliumarsenide is subjecied to radiation, the electron-hole pairs produced by radiation recombine faster as compared to electron-hole pair produced by silicon. Hence GaAs devices are extensively used in circuits which operate satisfactorily in radiation Temperature Dependence of Materials Conductors (Metal) Electrical Resistivity with Temperature mel Nee The reciprocal of relaxation time [I/r] represents the probability of clecton sufering a scatting per unit ime. Thus if +=10" see, then the electron undergoes 10°" collisions in one second. This ealision of electrons is due to two factors: (a) Lattice Cross Vibrations (photons) because of thermal excitation (b) Imperfection in the erystal (such as foreign atom or erystal defects). 1 ¥ Ist term is due to Photon 2nd term is due to Imperfection ‘There are many’ free electrons in the erystal structure of a metal, Valence electrons are party filed in the valence band and hence are free 19 move about etal stip'write when comected to the extemal battery (voltage supply) allows the inherent ample fice electrons to drift ‘out info the extemal cireuit and set up a eurtent flow. Greater the external voltage, greater isthe aurtent according to Ol + Law 1=[7/R] Electrical conductivity o = += 1 = RV SL “The thermal conductivity K i also igh for metas, The ratio [o/K]=Fleotical conductivity is a universsl constant for all metals for a given temperature TK, according to Wiedemann- Franz Law ler 7/2) where, L = Wiedeman-Franz constant Iis tobe noted that the electrical conductivity decreases with 14 at), 0, =|—F— see of 2) Materials and Components = 1.3 Explanation for this effect (ise in R with temperature) is siven later Thermoionie emission of electrons trom metals and Pho- tocleotric emission of clestrons from metals give 4 practical illustattation of the fiee-dleotion theory for metal, apart trom 200d thermal and electical conductivities for metal Thermistor ‘Themistors are made fom sintered mistures of N,O, Mn,O,, CO,O, and have an exponential decrease in resistivity with temperature increase. Hence they have negative temperature coefficient of resistance and can be used to compensate changes in circuit resistance which have positive iemperature coefficient of resistance. Sometimes, heav- ily doped semiconductors have positive temperature coetficient [dR dil and ase called sensistors, They ate also used as creuit elen Semiconductor Because of the function of thermal energies, the free electrons and holes of a semiconductor move in random path. But, when aan electric field is applied, motion of change is called drift and ‘can be described in terms of E-field and the conductor properties Current density =Change density = v= pv =—nev, Semiconductor material vs Energy gap C-Diamend 7 eV Si Silicon > Lev Ge ~ Germanium — 0.68 eV Sn—Tin 0.08 eV But the conductivity o of such semiconductors inereases with, rise in temperature, unlike metallic conductors Insulators In the ease of bad vonductor material, the forbidden every gap E, is so much wide £, > 20 eV thai there is no ckanee for electron in the valence band (fully occupied) to get exeited by high thermal ‘energy, to reach conduction band which is completely vacant. Not ‘even a few electrons ate available in top-conduction band even at 200°C in sueh a material called insulator 1.2. CONDUCTORS Ohm's Law for Metals When an clestie field is applied between two ends of a malic bar the localized kinetic electrons are forced to move along the metallic bar Higher the electrical field gratient, greater is the velocity of elections and larger are the elestions crossing unit ‘area per second 1=(V/R) 14m Materials and Components Collision Time is defined as the average time interval between two successive collisions of an electron in a conductor, Relaxation Time ‘The relaxation time is closely related to the mean t between collision and also tothe mean free path ofthe conduction clectrons, which is the average distance of undisturbed motion tetween collisions. All the collision processes occurring in the electron gas can be explained through relaxation time. The collisions are caused by theimal or structure imperfection in the latice. The relaxation time is introduced as the characteristic time governing the establishment of equiibrium through collision, from an initial disturbed situation in which v, #0. Consider @ conducting bar with electri ficld applied across itsenis. Let Blectric fled be removed at 1=0, then the drift velocity of electron for 1> 0 is given by v, (0) =v, (0)e" Note: Forisotropic materials, relaxation time is equal tocollision time Mean Free Path It is the everage distance covered by an clectron between two successive collisions, A. = vj. The velocity and mean free path at Fermi level W nv, 2 mean free path 2, =v), and the probability that an &~ moves fbr time t without suffering 2 colision is given by R(N) =e" Joules Law Heat developed in a conducting material, P=(7R JE Factors Affecting Conducting Property of the Conducting Materials ‘The resistivity of conducting materials according to Mathissen's rule is given by p= p, +p, P, —> Thermal components (depends on temperature) p, > Residual resistivity (depends on impurity) Note: the metal alloy of any material always hes greater resistivity than Factors Affecting the Resistivity of Metal Temperate: The restivity of condueting materials increases wih ipereaoe in lomperstre T and given by p= By (i+q,an+0,(87)"+..) where. AT T-1, 7, Room température i, > Resisvity a 100m temperature Nofe: The pure metal has zero resistivity at absolute zero Alloying: The alloys have less regular structure than pare metals. So the electrical conduetivity oFalley' is lesser than pure metals Resistivity of alloy is given by 2, +52, S_>Atomic per cent of impurity (P,-> Increase in resistivity per atomic per cent Cold working: The mechanical process produces localized strain which in turn decreases the conductivity of material Age hardening: [materials get hardened withage. their resistivity ls Conductivity Insulator = 10" mhom! Semiconductor =107 rho»! ‘Conductor (Metals) 10" mho m Conductivity of Pure Metals 7=neu as temperature increases 1 of electrons: decreases due to thermal agitation which in tum results into decreased conductivity L Note: Athigh temperature o igh temp 7 ATow temperature ob. F Increasing Order of Conductivity of Few Materials K constant x > fiaetional part of impurity in metal When ¥ -> is verysmall, I= =1 =A Pe Py Matheson’s Rule for Specific Resistivity In pure metals and dilute alloys, the total resistivity pis the sum cof two terms; thermal component. , . which arises from latti vibrations, ané the residual resistivity p, caused by impurities and siructual impurities therefore i/o, | 1p, > Residual resistivity and p, exists even at absolute 7ze10 and tal resistivity at ny temperature is given by P= Pou + Pz > Mattheisen’s Rule Py ~> Thermal component Pr iPix ~> Residual resistivity For a series of dilute Cu-Ni alloys, the residual resistivity increases as the niekel content ofthe alloy increases, For pure metals, the temperature-coetficient of resistivity is about 0.004 per degree centigrade, while foralloys, ais gener- ally lower Relation Between Temperature Coefficient of Alloys and Pure Metals Different Types of Electron Emission From Metals andMetallic Compounds ‘To cause direct emission of electrons from metals and metallic ‘oxides, definite amount of energy should be supplied to the rather fee electrons contained in solid metals, Thermion Emission ‘Thermion Emission as per Richardson's Law year de When the energy is supplied tothe electrons thermally (i.e. by heating the metalic filament or by passing current throush itor by indirect heating of metalic oxide coating ring around the heated metallic wire), the election emission is called thermoionic '* But space charge due fo electron-closed near the emitter, “will present easy flow of electrons towards anode. ‘+ Ifa biased grid is placed in the Binstein’s equation hh, =e. = [V2] my! Materials and Components = 1S Photoelectric Emission Phoivelectiic emission is given by Einstein's equation div =[fic]2 equal tothe energy of impinging photon of frequency ¥, or wavelength 4 on the metallic electrode coated with pho- to sensitive element cesium or sodium, F, = threshold frequency of the ineident photon. If ¥>%. the liberated electron will be emitted with a kinetic enerey KE = [1/2] mv, and ¥, = retarding potential required to reduee the KE wo 2010, Secondary Emission Secondary emission of electrons is caused by bombardment of metallic plate by high energy electrons that strike the metallic surface, The bombarding particles transfer their energy to the electrons contained in metallic state Field Emission Field Emission, a strong electric field near the surface of metal may be used to lower the potential energy barrier, space charge, ‘existing at the surface. This type of emission is called Field Emis- sion There is appreciable inereaso in emission current from 1 heated cathode with inerease in anode voltage, The effect is known as Schottky effect as given by the equation oa rene 1.3. SEMICONDUCTORS Intrinsic Semiconductors Semiconducting materials are comparatively poor conductors of electricity. They ate characterized by ncadly full valence band, Which is separated fiom nearby empty conduction band by a narrow eneray gap of E,<15eV or less, as per electronic eneruy’band theory in carlicr seston. The thermal enersy can promote electrons to conduction band after breaking covalent bonds as in the case of Germanium and Silicon semiconductors. But the covalent bond is left with vacant dleetronie-state called elestror-holes which ean also serve as chaige carriers by drifting process caused by applied electric field Both conduction electrons and holes serve as chaise eatriess intrinsically in the ease of pure semiconducting materials like Ge and Si The elestica resistivity p of such an intrinsic semiconductr varies with temperature J sccording to the relation pace lor] 1.6m Materials and Components ‘+ Intrinsic semiconductor Thoot sagen mi greaterin comparison to decrease ia mobility Extrinsic Semiconductors (p and n types) ‘The substitutional impurity atome of higher or lower valence, [Ge+P; Ge+ AI] cancontibute excess elections to conduction tand or holes i the valence band, Such composite materials are called n-type orp-type extrinsic semiconductors. The conductivity is increased many times since the resultant E, is very. much smaller with respect to £, . ‘The mobility of a charge cairier is limited by collision with impurity stoms and photons (sound waves) inside the semicon- ductor materials. Excess earier can be ereated by radiations and they can be neutralized at resombination center. ile/a] eoel=e Extrinsic Semiconductor Lower doping level Higher doping level 1 oer ged = oT with TT odwith TL 1. Normal dopii As TT=nt. wb and nT> al ot Biploar_ —>—ve temperature evefficient MOSEET > ve tomperature evefficient 3. Sensistor —> +ve temperature cveffivient level Unit of mobility 1.4 INSULATORS (DIELECTRIC MATERIALS) Polarization In dielectric materials, all electrons ate bound; the only motion Position inthe presence of anelectrc field isa mimute displacement ‘of positive and negative charges in the opposite directions. The displacement is ustally small as compared to atomic dimensions. ‘A dielectic in which this charge displacement takes place is said t be polarized, and its molecules are said to posses induced dipole moments. These dipoles produces their own field, which adds to that of extemal field Polarization (P) is defined as dipole moment per unit volume ipole moment Volume 24 6 Polarizability =e 9@ ra Fig. 1.2 Pax; Pak sth Polarizatility cm E Vim (Parad ~ metre?) Electronic Polarization, is defined as an electric strain produced in an atom due to the application of external field to the bulk material It isthe result of the displacement of the positively charged nucleus and the negative electrons ofan alom in opposite direstions, sn occurs in the materials in whieh there is no interaction between the different atoms or molecules of the materials Bleetronie polariz: Example: Inert gases, Diamond Expression for Electric Polarizability The electronic polarability of a materials conssting of sing! type of atoms is given by w, =472, R* where, R—> Radius of atoms order of measuring , (60 H, to 10!°H,) He

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