CHAPTER 4 4.1) NUMBER OF THERMAL PHOTONS We need D 1. y li, am ne mot mth n+l MH ™ The integral has the value 1/[n(M+)"]. For n = 2, M= 10 one obtains in this way Ty = 2.404134, a result within less than 1 part in 10° of the exact value, 2.404114. The accuracy increases with increasing M. 4.2) SURFACE TEMPERATURE OF THE SUN (a) Let J, denote the radiated energy flux density at the Sun-to-Earth distance D, from the Sun. Then the total radiated flux is = 25 8 26, .-1 % = 4nDpJ, = 3.845x10°°S s , (b) If Ry is the radius of the sun and J, the flux den- sity at that radius, 4 2 = 28 = -lo- Jq = %/4nRG = o,T” = 6245 J s'cm , T = (Jo/og)* = 5761 K 4.3) AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OF THE INTERIOR OF THE SUN (a) Dimensionally, u = - omar = - 3.77x10*%erg = - ax10*erg . (1) If the Sun had a uniform density p = My/(4nR3/3), the exact result would be -29- 4.3]u=- Gp? f (ann? /3) (4nR? yar oO 2 - 3GMG/5Ry We continue with the value (S1). (b) The sun consists mostly of hydrogen atoms; their number is = = 57 2 57 N= Mo/Mz = 1.195x10°" = 1x10 From 3tN/2 = -U/2: = 6 = 107; T = - U/3K,N = 9.66x10°K = 10’K . 4.4) AGE OF THE SUN (a) The reaction stops when the number of “He atoms reaches N = 0.1xMo/My, ¥ 3.0x10°°. Next, aM = (4%1.0078 - 4.0026) x 1 amu = = 0.09818 amu 1.63x1075g. Then, E N x AM x 2 = 1.28x10445 (b) Let ® denote the total radiated energy flux. Then t = £/6 = 3.2x1017s = 10x10) yr. (useful mnemonic device: 1 yr = nx107’s, to within better than %%. The average year, on the Gregorian calendar, has 365.2425 days = 3.1557x10’s). 4.5) SURFACE TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH The solar energy flux density at the Earth's orbit is Jg = OpT’x(Ry/D,)*. The flux intercepted by the earth is 2 _ 4 2 © = R25, = nog x (RgRo/Dy)? The flux re-radiated by the Earth is = ott x anr2 b= opt, anky [4.3] -30-Equating the two fluxes leads to T, Note that the radius of the Earth drops out. Comment. The problem lends itself to various elabora- tions, such as estimating the temperature of the solar energy panels of a satellite, as a function of the atti- tude of the panels, and of the emissivity of the back of the panel. 4.6) PRESSURE OF THERMAL RADIATION (a) Us Di sjhw;- If the system is kept in the same state i during a volume change, the occupation numbers remain the same and the change is isentropic. With (0s,/2V), P= -(2U/9V), = - Ls jK(dwj/av) (50) We have written qu j/av rather than (aw,/2V) mode frequencies depend only on the cavity dimensions. because the (b) We assume an isotropic volume change of a cube-shaped cavity (see comment below). From (15): log w; = - log L + constant = - 3 log v + constant, aw aw, w, —i..iw ~i - li 35 ay FF aw T3T . (51) (c) Insert (51) into (50): p=th = u/3v. (52) (d) Insert (20) into (52): nant 405, A p= Wet. Me a5yec3 3° -31- [4.6]This is equal to the gas pressure, p = nk,T, when 1/3 T = (3cnk,/40,) Te 3.2x107K. For n = N,/lem® = 6.0x107%cm™ Comment. The result (51), while not depending on the exact shape of the cavity, requires that the volume change of the cavity is isotropic. For an anisotropic volume change the relative change in frequency is different for different modes but the result (52) remains valid anyway. Students interested in rigor might be encouraged to work out the details, but the subject is ill-suited for general classroom use. 4.7) FREE ENERGY OF A PHOTON GAS (a) The partition function for a single mode with fre- quency w, is, from (3), in = CL = exp (“Mays (s1) The different modes are independent of each other; there- fore the partition function for the overall photon gas is simply the product of all single-mode partition functions: 2=712 non Because of (S1) this is the same as (53). (») F=-tlogzZ=-1 log Z,. with (S1) this is the same as (54). Transformation to an integral: De. =af... n@an = n¢rtymne)? fi... wa, n 0) ° with u = (nfc/tL)n ; see Problem 4.1. Integration by parts: [4.6] -32-3 [SB--5 ® I log(1-e"")yu2au = 2 1og(1-e™¥) © ° ole ele The integrated term vanishes at both u = 0 and u = ®, and the integral is the same as in (19), n4/15. Inserted into F: v= x n(tL/mMe)? x (-n4745) = = n2vr47a5c3y3 4.8) HEAT SHIELDS We treat the general case of N heat shields (n = 1, Mu, =>) hu/Lexp(iu,,/t)-1) 7 of (fw, /t an = exp (im, 7t)=1 0 The mode frequencies are those for which the length of the line is an integer multiple of 4/2: A = 2L/n, w, = 2nv/A = (mv/L)n. Let u = fw)/t = (ntv/tL)n. Then, U. 2 udu vu = (t7L/mhv) f: at The integral has the value n*/6. (See, for example, Dwight, #860.31). Therefore U = mir /oyy ¢, p= (8U/8T), = mbt /3hv Comment. The integral can be evaluated numerically with- out reference to a table, by the method discussed in the solution to Problem 4.1. For M = 10 one obtains 1.6450, which agrees with the exact value (1.64493) to within about 4 parts in 10°. 4.10) HEAT CAPACITY OF INTERGALACTIC SPACE For the atoms, C,/V = (3/2)nkg. For photons, we first re-express the proportionality factor in the expression (20) by inserting the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, op = 1? K3/60H3c?: - 4 = Bye; UV = 4opT*/o , Crag/V = l60,T/c 3ck, - SB NV x07 29 Cy/rad ~ F2Gy gd * 2.84x10 [4.9] -34-Comment. It usually simplifies numerical calculations if one expresses U/V in the form used here, involving o,/c and T, rather than the form (20) directly. 4.11) HEAT CAPACITY OF SOLIDS IN HIGH-TEMPERATURE LIMIT With the help of (44),(41) may be written as *D 3 u = onkgo x 4, f X2* , witn x, xy ee ip = 6/T When T >> 6, x, << 1, and we can expand for all x < x D -1=x+ x2/214¢ 731... =x(l+y) , x/2 + x*/6 +... << 1, Then z a 5 o 0 exta-yry-yr.. Tty If we keep only terms up to x”, yex2+xe , y= x24 , zo With these: x3/(e%-1) = x2(1 = x/2 + x2s12)_, 1 3 4 5 -T_1,0 SD 70/8 87/80) = Bo 8 * OE ‘ U = 3Nk,([T - 3/80 + 07/207] , - 2 poor? Cy = 3Nk,[1 - 0°/20T*] For T = 1.40 we have 07/20r = 0.0255; that is, Cy about 2.5% below its asymptotic value, in rough agreement with Fig. 4.11. Fig. 4.11 does not extend to T = 1.40; use Table 4.2 for @/T = 0.7 = 1/1.43 instead, yielding 1 - 24.34/24.943 = 0.024. is =35- [4.11]4.12) HEAT CAPACITY OF PHOTONS AND PHONONS For phonons, for T << 6 from, (47b): cy/v = (1247/5) nk, (1/0)? = 322 erg K* For photons, as in Problem 4.10, = 4 uU/v = 40,7 /o oo, 14, cy/v erg Kom? xT 160gT?/e = 2.99107 The two values are equal for 1/3 T = (322/2.99x10714) “K 2.2x10°K nw 4.13) ENERGY FLUCTUATIONS IN A SOLID AT LOW TEMPERATURES With the help of (3.89), # = <(a0)?>/0? = Poaufr) yu? . 4 In the low-temperature range U« t™, hence (aU/at), 4u/t, #7 = 4t/U. Insert (46) for U: = 20) 2 (2) = 0.684 x z(2)° , io IS 4.14) HEAT CAPACITY OF LIQUID “He AT LOW TEMPERATURES (a) We need N/V: 3 23 nol 6.02x10*?mol7* x 0.145 g/: 27 3 N/V = aT cm” = 2,18x107’ atoms/cm’ With this, and v = 2.383x104cm s74, from (44), 1/3 0 = (fv/kg)(6n?N/v)!/> = 19.83K (b) For 1 gram, N = 6.02x1073/4 = 1.5x1073. with this and the above value for 6, from (47b), after dividing by 3, to account for the absence of transverse modes, [4,12] -36-4 _ 1 lan 3 Cy(per gram) = 3 “5” Nk,(T/0) Lyn 3 = 0.020853 g °K" xT , which is very close to the experimental value. Comment. Note that we accounted for the absence of the longitudinal mode by dividing the final heat capacity by 3, not by adjusting the Debye temperature to the lower number of contributing modes. 4.15) ANGULAR DISTRIBUTION OF RADIANT ENERGY FLUX (a) The thermal radiation within the black body cavity itself is isotropic. All energy travels with the speed c, but the directions of travel are uniformly distributed over a solid angle 4m, hence the energy flux density whose direction of travel falls within a solid angle do is (cU/V) x dQ/4n. Suppose now that the direction of travel makes an angle 6 with the direction normal to the plane of a small hole of area A in the wall of the cavity. This hole will let pass the same amount of radiation as a hole of the size A cosé perpendicular to the direction of radiation travel. Hence the energy flux emerging through the hole into the solid angle d2 is cU/V cose da/4an. (b) The total energy flux emerging through the hole is obtained by integrating over all forward angles, with da = sino do do: ‘ 2n n/2 = CUA = UA i * = Fy J cose an BB fav f cose sine de. 0 “O The integration over yields 2n. The integral over 6 has the value 1/2. Hence -37- [4.15]= =f o/A =F , by utilizing Eq. = 1/[exp(Mu/t) - 1] From (3) and (6) follow: = + 1 = exp(Mw/t)/[exp(Mw/t) - 1] 1/[1 - exp(-Hw/t)] = 2 , / = exp(fw/t) , Yu/t = logi/] , aZ _ a _ d _ _ _exp(jtw/t) x ihe or or er {exp (iw/t)-1]? x? 1 76stL>log[/] We insert (S2) and (S4) into (Sl): x 1 ZH * F log[/] logsst1> + [log - log] a " log + log - log 4.18) ISENTROPIC EXPANSION OF PHOTON GAS (sl) (3) (6): (6) (s2) (s3) (s4) (58) (a) With the volume being proportional to R?, the isen- 1/3 _ tropic relation tv = constant implies tR = constant, or Ri/Re = t/t; = 2-9K/3000K = 1079 -39- [4.18]The final temperature T, = 2.9K is the present cosmic black-body temperature (see Figure 4.5). (b) W= Uz - UE. From (20), U = spt", where sy 2 rsy3c3 = 4 4 3 3 n°/1s#c>. Hence W = s,(Viti - Vets). Now, Vit} = Vety. 49,3 Therefore Vet = Vjtit, and = 4 3.) 2 3 We sQ(VitG - Vitite) = SgVyty Te) 4.19) REFLECTIVE HEAT SHIELD AND KIRCHHOFF'S LAW Let t; be the (unknown) temperature of the intermediate sheet. The net flux density from 1, to t, is 4 4 4 4 fa Blu 7 @%pty 7 Topty aog(ty because a = e and r = (1- a). The net flux density from ty to t, is In steady state J, fies 2aq, = ao. 4 4 4 a. 4 Bri pity tty) OF te = B(tys Ft Ty the same as for a black heat shield. The net flux is obtained by inserting this value of t, into the expression for Jy or Jy: J = 4(1 - r)og(t,* - [4.19] -40-