Preface FROSIO. The Norwegian Professional Council for Education and Certification of Inspectors for Surfice Treatment, sas founded in 1980 with the ain te educate and certify Surface Treatment Inspectors, For this purpose a Carriculuss: amd ain SO. hous ‘ourse Were established together with the Norwegian Standard NS 476, Paint and coatings Approval and certification af surtace treatment inspec tors, This handbook 3s an English translation of the Norwegian hautdbook SOverilatebehandtin years is att aid inthe trial mot Kortosjon”. which fers been used in Norway tor my ourse’ far candidates who avishes to become cert Tied by FROSIO as Inspector The handbook covers all tems given in the FROSTO Curriculum asd should therefore be good assistant te obtain the knowles and practical examination FROSIO therefore highly recommend this handbook for the training to obtain a PROSIO NS 476 certitiowe. needed t0 pass the theoretical FROSIO Bord KKK FROSIOContents 1 Corrosion Innvoduction ‘What ie corrasion? Corrosion theory Electrochemical series Corrosion environment and pH Corrosion types Uniform corrosion (general corrosion) Galvanic corrosion (bimetallic corrosion) Crevice corrosion on zs vi Pitting corrosion Erosion corrosion. Selective corrosion (deslicying corrosion). ‘Stress corrasion cracking Intergranuiar corrosion (intercrystaline corrosion) Conosion fatigue wv... it at Corrosion in different ervirionments Corrosion in air Corrosion in water Corrosion in soil Literature 2. Protection against corrosion Introduction Correct selection of materials Steel Weathering steels Stainless steels... Thanium anc nickel alloys Copper and copper allays Zine ‘Aluriniarn Constructional design to reduce corrosion C10VICES wesrneeen Geometrical effects Metallic joints Design to prevent unnecessary turbulence Using paints and coatings el Paints Pain: system selection and use of EN ISO 12944 [Linings (organic) Metal coatings Electroplating, Dipping in moiten metals. Thermal spraying (metalization} Cathodic protection... How does this type of cathodic protection work? Practical measurements Using sacrificial anodes Cathodic protection with Impressed current Combination of cathodic protection and paint coating systems Overprotection alia Corrosion inhibitors Corrosion monitoring... Literature ot3. Surface preparation and aplication equipment Introduction nnn Surface preparation equipment Wirebrushes SCIaPEFS wee Electric and pneumatic power tools... Mechanical grinding equipment . . ‘nding roundels, grinding wheels and grinding beds Chipping hammers and needle guns .. Flamecleaning equipment Equipment for dry opennozzie blasting Ejector equipment. oo Pressurized pot Application equipment Paint brushes Paint rollers Painting mits/gioves . Spray equipment Conventional spray equipment ‘Automatic gun Cleaning and maintenance HVLP spray equipment High pressure laivless) spray equipment ‘Compressed.air driven piston pumps Non-pneumatically drven piston pumps... Electromechanically driven piston pumps ... Electrohydrauiic driven piston pumps Diaphragm pumps Pulse chamber. Reduction valve Water separator Oikmist lubricator. Oil eup Coarse fiter Fine fiers... Paint hoses Swivel coupling Airless guns Paint supply in the spray head Paint inlet through the handle Extension pole guns... Nozzles Standard nozzles « Reversible tips. Adjustable nozzies Fine finish nozzles Selection and maintenance of nozzles. Airassisted airless. spraying «1. Cleaning and maintenance of spraying equipment Maintenance .. o Literature. 112 4. Pretreatment Introduction Cleaning and surface preparation 120 Degreasing, een £22 Degreasing in water soluble, alkaline chemicals, oe 323 Use of emulsifying solvents... 128Solvent based degreasing Dogreasing in trichloro ethylene vapours Mechanical and thermal surface preparation Abrasive blast cleaning .. Flame cleaning : Waterbased cleaning methods .- High pressure water cleaning and water jetting Pickling nese The pickling process Chemical conversion coatings. Phosphatizing .. Chromatizing . Chromatizing of zine Chromatizing of aluminium... fustromovrs or rust cleaning gens | based on Bhosphone ‘acid Wash priming. Literature Applicaton of coatings and nin. Introduction Rigging ... “ Containment of the area... Masking .. Ventilation Checklist for safety equipment. Preparation of the paint... Application. Application wih pant ler and paint gloves Conventional spraying .. The conventional spray gu. Pressure pot spray system Airless spraying... Safety precautions . Spraying technique Spray pattern defects Spray testing Faulty spray pattern in connection with conventional Spraying. Adjustments of faults . Other types of faults Defects in the paint or varnished surface . Defective spray patterns associated with high pressure spraying Corrective actions os Airassisted high pressure and HVLP high pressure Electrostatic spraying (Wet vamnsh/atr) Preheating .. Literature: int coating materials Introduction How does the paint coating system ‘wor Paint composition. Binder Pigments Extenders Solvents Additives Paint types Primers 424 126 127 128 431 132 133 135, 136, 138 138, 140 140 a4 441 142 144 145, 178, 179) 181, 181, 182Organic zincrieh paints. Inorganic zincrich paints, zine ati i silicate Zine alkali silicate Shopprimers Iron oxide shopprimer Zineich shopprimers Wash primers wa... Rust corwerters so nnn Physically drying paints. Chlorinated rubber pains Vinyl paints. Acrylic paints Waterborne paints. Bituminous paints Tar paints ‘Oxidatively curing paints Aliya paints Urethane alkyd paints Epoxy ester paints nce nnn Silicone paints, a Chemically curing paints .. Epoxy paints Goal tar epoxy paints Polyurethane paints. Solvent-ree epoxy / tar epoxy paints... Epoxy and polyurethane mastic paints Siloxane paints Polyester glassflake paints Cementitious paints.. Antifoulings.. Selection of paint coating system Literature Coating failures Introduction ... Loss of adhesion ... Peeling... ‘Saponification| Littings.. Defects in the surface vo -. Vacuoles/voids and biistering Craters oF poping Fisheyes Pinholes Cracking Checking Cracking Cosmetic defects Wenkling Bleeding Blushing... Water stains Chalking Application defects: Dry spray/overspray Orange peel... ‘Sags and curtains Coatings remaining soft 182 183, 184 185 485, 186 "186 187 187 188 189) 190 491, 193 194 "195 195, 196 197 “197, 198 198 200 201, 202 203 204 204 205 206 207 209 210 210 211 2a 242 213 214 215 217 219. 220 224, 1221 222 224 228 225 226 227 228 229 229 230 234, 232Rough sutace fens o° contamination inthe suf nnn 29 Degradation of coating 234 Idenitevion of coatings detects 235 Literature 235 8 Thermal spraying .. Introduction : Thermal spraying methods. Powder flame spraying Wire flame spraying. see Aro spraying Plasma spraying... . High velocity oxyfuel spraying Detonation spraying Restoration and enhancing Protective equipment for thermal spraying... 9. Passive fire protection Introduction oe co Demands to fire protection wnnnnne vo 246 ‘Main types of coatings . 2aT Organic coatings 2a7 Inorganic coatings... 248 Paint en . 249 Pretreatment and corrosion protection 249 Requirements to pretreatment. oe 249 Corrosion protection in case of epoxy coatings... 250 Gorrosion protection in case of inorganic coatings... " 250 Preparation of substrate, fiting of pins and wire mesh and application .....---. 250 Epoxy coatings 250 Inorganic coatings... . 252 Demands to passive fire protection... . 253 What are the types of fires? 25a What are the materials able to tolerate? 254 Fire classes sen . 255 Literature: fos "287 10 Concrete repair Introduction Concrete, composition and properties ‘Carbonation . Corrosion of the reinforcement steel Condition survey Carbonation depth Cover depth. Chioride contents Corrosion degree on reinforcement steel and stee! profiles Extent of cracks, crevices and corner damage Efflorescence : Strength and porosity of concrete Previous repairs . Surface preparation for concrete repairs Cleaning of concrete surfaces Removing deteriorated concrete Cleaning of the reinforcement steel... Aatiorosion reatment of te reinforcing ste. Bonding coat... Filing of repair areas275 276 217 279 Surface treatment Paint selection Electrochemical concrete rehabilitation Literature. 280 280 280 283 414 Other coatings and linings... Introduction Powder costings . Tar and asphalt costes Wax BBS. Tape ed Hotmeit coatings 284 Rubber linings 285 Metallic coatings... 286 Electrodeposited metal coatings nnnnnnnnnnn 286 Diosspin method CT 287 Hot dip galvanizing 288 Literature, 289 412 Quatty management systems, specifications, procedures and documentation ... 291, Introduction... sonnei oo 291, Quality management systems sn. O29 Quality management systems standard 292 180 9001:2000 . . 292 ‘Scope and application ... . 293 Quality management system son . 293 Management responsibility 293 Documentation requirements 234 Customer focus . 294 Management review .. 204 Internal audits cnn Sooccceee 295 Human resources, 295, Design and development... 295, Identification and traceability 295, Product realization aoe 295, onto of nonconterning Produc Sonn 295 Corrective actions ener concn nen sees 298 Quality control . 296 Specifications and procedures 297 What is @ specification and what does it consist of? 237 Extracts trom a specification concerning surface preparation of steel... 298 Procedures .. Svnnnnnn 299 Communication 299 Reports a. 300 Daily log . . 301 Progress reports IIE 203 Nonconformity reports 303 Techical reports 303 13 upacton mato and equtpment nnn sons 310 Iniraduction nn — 310 rspection routines. 310 Inspection of the substrate 341 Assessment of rust grades of steel ae 312 Assessment of visual cleanliness 313, Chemical cleanliness: conn 318 ‘Suisteate fOUBHMESS wns nes 324Comparators ... Determination of roughness . Determination of the climatic conditions... Sling psychrometer How to measure tho relative humidity of the ar andthe dew pont temperature? . . Control of the liquid paint Condition in the can Viscosity Density Volume Solids Control of the paint film ‘Measuring the wet paint flim .. Calculation of paint fim thickness Calculation of paint consumption. Measuring dry film thickness... Cutting instruments Adhesion Cross Cut test, 1S0 2409 Xeut Test . se Pulkoff test 150 4624 Pulloff testers... Pinholes, voids and other ccsting detects Curing .. Identification of unknown pai Coating concition survey prior t0 maintenance painting, Evaluation of degradation of painted sutaoes Testing at the paint manufacturer... Mechanieal properties. Elasticity an Gloss, Colour Opacity Accelerated testing Sutcoor exposure test Literature Appendix to Chapter 13... ‘Appendix 1 150 8501.1 Preparation af steel substrates before application of paints and related products ~ Visual assessment of surface cleaniiness ... Appendix 2 1S0 8504/ Suppl:1994 Visual assessment of surface cleanliness ~ Informative Supplement to part 1: Representative photographic examples. of the change of appearance imparted to steel when biast cleaned with different abrasives, Appendix 3 150 8501.2 Preparation grades of previously coated stes! surfaces ater localized removal of previous coatings Appenaix 4 130 8501-3 Preparation grades of welds, cut edges and other areas with surface imperfections... Appendix 5 ISO 8501-4 Preparation grades of coated and uncoated steel Substrates after removal of rust and previous coatings by high pressure waterfetting wn Appendix 6 180 TR 8602-1 Field test for solubie ion corrosion products. Appendix 7 ISO 85022 Laboratory determination of chloride on cleaned surfaces ..... Appendix 8 ISO 85023 Assessment of dust on stesl surfaces prepared Tor painting (pressure-sensitive tape method) Appendix 9 Determination of relative humidity and dew point on steel 324 325 330 3a 0 383 334, “336 336 337 340 342 347 348, 349 349, 350 351, 354 "357 358 359, 360 363 364 365 365, 366 366 366 367 368, 370 370 art 372 373 374 "375 376 377,surfaces prepared for painting 378 ‘Appendix 10 1S0 8502:6 Extraction of Soluble contaminants for naive «The Bresle method . 379 Appendix 14 1S0 85029 Field ni {or the conductomeiric determination of water-soluble salts . . 380 ‘Appendix 12 Use of [SO 8503-4 to determine the roughness on blast cleaned steel surfaces. 381 Appendix 13 Use of wet film gauges in accordance with ISO 2808 to determine the wet flim thickness of coatings... “ se 382 Appendix 14 Adjustment of dry fim thickness gauges based on magnetic pulloff principle «0. 383 Appendix 15 Adjustment of dy fim thickness gauges based on ‘magnetic induction principe . 384 Appendix 16 Measurement of, and acceptance criteria for, the dry fim ‘thickness on rough surfaces (ISO 19840 (in progress) 385 ‘Appendix 17 Measuring dry film thickness by destructive means (ASTM D 4138) 386 Appendix 48 Measuring adhesion using the Gross Gut Test (180 2409)... 387 Appendix 49 Measuring adhesion using the tape test (ASTM D 3359) 3E8, Appendix 20 Adhesion testing using pulLoff test equipment (1S0 4624) nuns. 389 Appendix 21 Holiday detection of coatings using the low voltage wet sponge method (ASTM D 5162) 390 Appendix 22 Holiday detection of coatings using the high voltage spark test method (ASTM D 5162)... 301, Appendix 23 Measuring MEK resistance of ethyl silicate (inorganic) Zinexich primers by solvent rub (ASTM D 4752) 392 14 Health, safety and environment. vn 394 Introduction... 394 Health and safety laws and regulations . 395, Gompary procedures for compliance wth ews end requatens 396 Safety from accidents and injuries 396 ‘Scatfold work.. 398, Working with biast cleaning and grinding equipment. 800 Working with airless equipment 404 Electric equipment Working in confined areas and tanks Physical working environment factors... Noise Lighten so Gimatic conditions swan nnnnnnnnnnn nnn, 408 Strain a 409 Chemical hazards in the working environment COUSIN aa Solvent on on matt How do solvents atfect the body? 412 Dust foe ALB Occupational exposure limits for substances in the wots air 414 Skincorrosive and sensitizing substances ee AIS, Labelling of chemical products .. 419 ecupational a requtements wo a2t Safety Data Sheets (SDS) . 422 Fire nazard .. 423 Flammable and explosive substances 423 Technical fre prevention measures .. 426 Fire extinguishing... 428 Measures for improving the working ‘environment... 429 Assessment 429 etion plans nner nn oo 484Changing working procedures... Substitution of nazardous products: Persanal protection equipment... Respiratory protection Environmental problems Environmentally hazardous waste ... Actions in case of spillage and leaks 45 Economy and cost calculations, Introduction .. Cost factors ‘Area calculations: Plates .. sn ‘Area of a tank surface Surface preparation costs, Paint costs .. Cost estimates . vo Comparison of various siternatives Literature. - Index aa “un fas, ans at a aa9 aai 4ai 4a 4431 Corrosion Introduction Annually corrosion costs society vast sums. In the Western World the costs have been estimated to constitute approximately 3-4% of the gross national product. ‘A major part of the damage is due to too little knowledge about corrosion and the conditions which cause corrosion. Ifthe selection of materials is not considered carefully enough, the result can be extensive corrosion damage. It has been esti- inated that improved knowledge about corrosion and corrosion protection can re- sluce costs by approximately 15%. In case of corrosion protection by means of paint coatings the applicator and the inspector are important. In order to ensure that the job is carried out correctly they inust have a good understanding of subjects like corrosion, surface preparation ul protection against corrosion. Later in the book these subjects will be discussed tn rater detail. What is corrosion? 11s common opinion that corrosion is the same as rust, which is not entirely true. Rust is the corrosion product formed when iron and steel corrode. But many other ‘materials are also attacked. The patina on copper and white rust on zinc are well- known examples. These are also corrosion products. Consequently, corrosion is the deterioration or breakdown of materials due to a reaction with the environ- ent esiles destroying metals, corrosion also contributes towards breaking down ‘cancrete and plastic materials. Why. hen, are a number of construction materials around us broken down, and how cloes this happen? If we look at the metals, most of them are produced by A.Cornosion 15,applying large amounts of energy to the raw material, the ore. The state in which, the metal is found in nature is generally said to be its most stable state or form. As ore, the metal is usually combined with oxygen, carbon, sulphur, and other ele. ‘ments sheets Pipes Energy Water Manufacture Oxygen aw materi ae igure 1.1 Production and deterioration by corrosion of iron/stee! In the manufacturing of metals energy is applied to the raw material, ore. During the process the ore melts and the metal is separated from the slag products. Milling takes place while the metal is in a red-hot state. During milling the red-hot steel gets into contact with air and a thin layer is formed on the surface. This layer is usually called mill scale. Mill scale is brittle and only protects the metal as long as itis intact. If the stee] is left outdoors, the mill scale will eventually crack and the steel begin to rust. By this breakdown, the corrosion, steel is transformed into rust. Chemically speaking, rust has almost the same composition as ore. The process has now come toa close. It started with ore and has now ended up with rust. The iron is again at a lower and more “natural and stable” state of energy. Metal production can be compared to a ball placed at the foot of a hill. By applying energy we move the ball uphill. When the ball is placed on the ground at the higher level, it wil start rolling until it reaches the lowest level and stops. Innature al ore O siavie condition Figure 1.2 ‘This is what happens: The ball, which was at a stable level, was transferred to a non-stable level. Due to physical reasons the ball rolls down the hill and finally comes to a halt at the foot of the hill. The ball will again be at its most stable level. 16 Conrosion ProtectionIn principle, this is also what happens during the production of metal. To extract the metal, found only in limited quantities inthe ore, energy is required. Due to the energy expended, the metal in the ore is transferred from its stable level to a non- stable level. The metal has now been extracted from the ore, but extemal conditions like moisture and oxygen cause the corrosion process to start. The corrosion proc- ess is a natural process which under the right circumstances (i.e. oxygen supply and high humidity) tries to convert the metal back to its most stable state, which is ‘ore. The chemical compositions of ore and the corrosion product are very much alike, If we want to preserve the metal, something must be done. In order to prevent the corrosion process from starting, we use paints, coatings and linings, or other barriers to stop any direct contact between the metal and the environment Onygen Water ae ities: Figure 1.3 Eventually mill scale will crack and the steel begin to corrode Corrosion theory In order for a metal to corrode the surface of the metal must be covered by an electrically conductive liquid or substance (electrolyte) and oxygen. Water, either fresh water or sea water, and soil are examples of electrolytes. Pollution in the ait may dissolve in water and make it conductive. Metals have a tendency to release electrically charged atoms (ions) when in contact with water, For some metals this tendency is weak, for example in the case of platinum and gold. Such metals are called noble metals. ‘Other metals release a large number of ions in contact with water, for example aluminium and zinc. Such metals are called ignoble ot base metals. If we immerse two different metals in a conductive liquid (an electrolyte) with- out any electrical connection between them, both metals corrode at a certain rate. Butif the metals are joined together electrically, the rate of corrosion increases on the less noble metal. How fast the corrosion takes place depends on a number of factors, including the metal types, for how long humidity is present, pollution on the surface, ete Table 1.1 gives the corrosion rate in ym/year (thousandth millimetre per year) for the metals steel, aluminium, copper and zinc after two, five and ten years’ exposure at a testing station on the west coast of Sweden. The corrosion of the metals takes place at very different rates, which is mainly due to the formation of oxide films and corrosion products on the metal surfaces. It can also be noted that porous corrosion product like rust to some extent results in a reduced corrosion rate over time (given in pm/yeat), A. Commosion 47Table 1.1 Rate of corrosion in pon/year for different metals after 2, Sand 10 veuy of exposure in a marine environment [1] [ 2 years 5 years 10 years ser S11 «32.8 ——~«20.7 Aluminium 0.48 0.76 0.35 Copper | 18 14 0.74 __ Zine [36 26 “ar In order to explain this in more detail, think of an example where iron is in contact with copper in an electrolyte. When an iron atom leaves the metal surface, it 1 leases two electrons and becomes an iron ion, The sites where this takes place a called anodes. The anode is consumed by corrosion. The electrons pass through the iron to the copper — the cathode. At the cathode hydroxyl ions are formed, which ‘combine with the iron ions. After this, a reaction takes place with oxygen in the air to produce rust, which may be called water-containing iron oxide. 2 Volunter copper (cathode) {anode} Figure 1.4 Corrosion of the less noble of two metals increases if the metals are connected in an electrolyte Zine case | — Paper Manganese oxide Figure 1.5 A dry cell battery illustrates the corrosion process 18 Conrasiov protectionA simple illustration of the corrosion process is provided by the activity within a dry cell battery. The dry cell battery consists of a carbon or graphite rod in a substance able to conduct electricity (an electrolyte). This substance is enclosed by a zine case. The carbon or graphite rod is more noble than the zine case. If a small light bulb is inserted between the poles of the battery, it will ight up. ‘The battery supplies the power. When in use, the battery is being discharged. This, is because the zinc case (the anode) corrodes. If the process is allowed to continue Jong enough, the battery will eventually stop working and could start to leak. The corrosion process has corroded the zinc case surrounding the electrolyte. Conse- ‘quently, the less noble of the two metals in contact has broken down and, being the anode, zinc has delivered the energy to the cathode, However, in order for corrosion to take place, itis not necessary that dissimilar metals are joined, as in this example. It is a well-known fact that steel rusts if exposed outdoors in wind and weather. The reason is that steel is not microscopi cally uniform. contains a number of small areas with noble and base particles, On unpainted stec! mill scale, graphite grains, or other noble particles tend to be- come small cathodes, while the bulk material (the steel) becomes the anode, These areas form among themselves small corroding “batteries”. The corrosion attacks ignoble areas on the steel (anodes). At the cathode there is no breakdown of the metal, but the solution around the cathode becomes alkaline. +iCatnoses) (Anodes) Figure 1.6 A steel surface consists of numerous areas with noble and base parti- cles. Among themselves these areas form small “batteries” In simple terms, the corrosion process can be described as follows: iron + oxygen + water — iron ions + hydroxy! ions —> iron hydroxide (rust) The iron ions and the hydroxyl ions react with one another and form rust. At the cathode there may also be other reactions than the formation of hydroxyl ions. In acidic solutions (acids) hydrogen gas is formed. Deposit of noble particles from a solution at the surface of the metal may also be a cathode reaction. Itis important to note that if we can prevent the metal surface from getting into contact with air (oxygen) and an electrolyte (water), we are actually able to prevent corrosion This is to a great extent utilized in practice. Just think of closed water-filled systems where there is little exchange of the water, for example in central heating systems (radiators) in blocks of houses and office buildings. The limited quantity of 1.Cornosion 19‘oxygen present in the water when the system is taken into use is quickly consumed due to corrosion, When the oxygen has been consumed, the corrosion attack within the system ceases There are many ways in which we can prevent metal surfaces from getting into contact with moisture. For example, surfaces can be painted or applied with other types of coatings. But it is also practically possible to remove or reduce humidity in closed-in constructions to such an extent that the formation of a conductive water film is not possible. This principle is used world-wide on bridges made as steel box girder constructions. Outside, the steel construction can be applied with a duplex system in the form of thermally sprayed zinc coating and paint, but inside the steel isonly primed. A dehumidifying system ensures that the relative humidity inside the structure is constantly approximately 40%. ‘The idea is that at such low relative humidity the formation of an electrolyte inside is not possible, This prevents any internal corrosion, Electrochemical series The corrosion resistance of a metal indicates the ability of the metal to resist cor: rosion in a defined environment. How resistant metals or alloys are, depends on factors such as the type of metal and the environment to which it is exposed. Inall metals or alloys (mixtures of metals) a certain amount of energy is stored, ‘This amount of energy can be measured in volt. These measurements are usually called potential or voltage measurements ‘The difference in potential between two metals can be measured by a voltmeter However. in order to measure the potential of the metals, either alone or together, a reference electrode must be used. A reference electrode serves as a kind of zero point. Such a reference electrode is called the standard hydrogen electrode, often abbreviated SHE. It has a potential of 0 V in a defined solution at 25°C. -O> Voltmeter Reference electode Figure 1.7 Potential measurement with reference electrode For potential measurements in sea water the reference electrodes listed below are used. When a certain reference electrode is referred to, the chemical names or the abbreviations in the parentheses are occasionally used. 20 Corrosion protectionTable 1.2 Potentials for different reference electrodes in relation to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) [Reference electrode Electrolyte Potential versus SHE (V)_ Zine ‘Sea water approximately -0.78 V | Silver/silver chloride (SSC) Sea water approximately +0.25 V Copper/copper sulphate (CSE) Sea water approximately +0.32 V Calomel (SCE) Kel approximately 40.245 V_| Itcan be seen that a reference electrode of zinc is negative compared to the standard hydrogen electrode, and that the other three are more positive. Metals and alloys can be ranked in electrochemical series according to their corrosion resistance. Such electrochemical series are established by measuring the potential of a metal or an alloy in a defined environment. The most widely known and used series is the galvanic series in sea water. A closer look at the galvanic series quickly reveals which of two joined metals will corrode. Table 1.3 shows that both zinc and aluminium and their alloys are less noble than steel. If two metals are placed in electrochemical contact, the less noble metal will suffer increased corrosion. This circumstance is of great practical importance, for example in connection with corrosion protection. For this reason, alloys of zine, aluminium and magnesium, which are all less noble than steel, are used for ca- thodic protection of steel structures. The lowest possible rate of corrosion is desired when two metals are joined. In order to achieve this, the metals must be insulated from each other in stich a Way that they are not in direct electrical contact. If this is not possible, it must be en sured that their relative positions are not too far apart in the electrochemical series. ‘The driving force behind corrosion processes has been mentioned, ie. the differ- ences in potential between the metals. The greater the difference in potential, the fiercer the attack will be on the less noble of the two metals, Toa very large extent the corrosion attack on a metal also depends on the me- dium or environment to which it is exposed. Aluminium alloys and stainless steel alloys do not corrode to any great extent when exposed in urban or industrial at- mospheres. However, the attack may be important ifthe same alloys are exposed to for example sea water. In the galvanic series a few metals or alloys are listed twice. This is due to the fact that some metals are covered by a thin and protective oxide film. As long as this oxide film is intact, it helps the metal to remain passive. If the film has been removed or damaged, for example through abrasion, the position in the galvanic series changes. The metal now has a higher tendency to corrode. Metals with such an oxide film include stainless steel, nickel alloys and alu- minium alloys. If there is plentiful supply of water and oxygen, these oxide films are self-repairing. Under layers of dirt and pollutants the supply of oxygen may become too low. In such sites the oxide film is not repaired and corrosion may occur, Under such conditions, some process industries have experienced problems with crevice and pitting corrosion of “ordinary” stainless steel. This has resulted in a change to higher grade stainless steel types. for example ASTM $31254 A.Comosion 24.Table 1.3 Galvanic series in flowing sea water (2.5-4 m/s), temperature range I1- 30°C. Potentials are measured versus saturated calomel reference electrode (SCE) (2) ao chan ot Crevice and pitting corrosion are types of corrosion which cause localized corro- sion attacks on metals. The attack often starts where there is a poor exchange of electrolyte in narrow crevices or in pits. This type of attack often takes place very quickly and may result in the metal corroding completely through, Galvanic corrosion is also found if the external conditions between two equally noble metals result in a difference in potential, Such a difference may occur due to a difference in oxygen concentration, for example on piles submerged in sea water. 22 Connosion prGalvanic corrosion isa type of corrosion which occurs when there is metallic con- tact between two metals in a corrosive environment. The selection of appropriate materials requires thorough knowledge of metals and alloys and their behaviour in different environments. Corrosion environment and pH Indoors, in dry rooms, there is little danger of corrosion because the tinuous electrolyte being formed on the surface. In the case of outdoor exposure, the corrosion attack depends on the environment. The more polluted the environ- ‘ment, the faster the corrosion attack will be, Many of the industrial gases emitted into the atmosphere are transformed into acids or alkalis. Such solutions attack metals as well as other construction materials. In order to indicate whether a solution is acidic or alkaline, the pH value of the solution is measured. The pH value is usually measured within a range from 0 to 14, Pure water has the pH value of 7, which is a neutral solution. If pH value of less than 7 is measured, itis an acidic solution. The closer to 0, the more acidic the solution, Rain water often has a pH value around 5 because it has taken up acidic pollution ‘The pH scale is logarithmic. This means that for every single point above or below a pH value of 7, the solution will be ten times more concentrated, A solution with a pH value of 5 is consequently 10x 10 = 100 times more concentrated than a neutral solution with pH value 7. ete |= hale Neutral oo, 23 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 13 14 Figure 1.8 The pH scale Alkaline substances have pH values from 7 to 14. Examples of such substances are sodium hydroxide (caustic soda, lye), ammonia and cement. Acidic substances have pH values from 0 to 7. Examples of such substances are hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid. Their area of use includes pretreatment (pick- ling) of steel before hot dip galvanizing, “The corrosion attack on metals is often intensified in acidic and alkaline solu tions. Both aluminium and zine sustain very severe attacks in contact with alkalis. However, if steel is immersed in an alkaline solution, the steel is passivated. A thin iron oxide film is formed on the surface which offers good protection against corro- sion, and the rate of corrosion is reduced considerably. Reinforcing steel bars are well protected and kept passivated by the alkaline environment in concrete ‘The decisive factor for the corrosion process is whether water from rain, dew or condensation due 1 a high relative humidity of the air is present on the metal surface. However. the consequences may vary considerably, When it rains, contaminants like salts and dirt collected on the surf -e will be 1Conrasion 23,washed away. But in case of high humidity or condensation on the steel, such con- taminants are not washed off. Contaminants in the form of dust and salt attract moisture (they are hygroscopic), and this prolongs the time of wetness, For this reason, structures in an environment of high humidity, but little precipi- tation, may sustain severe corrosion attacks. Auminium Zine Stee! =f sikaine solution Figure 1.9 Contact with strong alkalis will cause attack on both zinc and alu- ‘minim, but not on steel Corrosion types So far the deterioration of materials by the process of corrosion has been described in very general terms. In the case of corrosion on metals, the attacks are usually given a more detailed characterization, primarily based on the appearance charac- teristics of the attack. A more detailed description will now be given of some of the most common types of corrosion found on metals. Uniform corrosion (general corrosion) When corrosion develops at approximately the same rate over the entire metal sur- face, itis called uniform corrosion. ‘This type of corrosion results in a fairly even breakdown of the metal. An attack like this causes both anode and cathode reactions to occur on the same metal. Areas of different nobleness can be found due to particles of foreign metals being present in the metal surface or inthe electrolyte. thnically speaking, this type of corrosion is not very problematic. The life- time of various alloys in various environments can be calculated, If the attack takes place at arate of approximately 0.1 mm/year, it will take 20 years before a metal thickness of 2 mm has corroded away completely. Normally requirements to both strength and lifetime are taken into consideration and the metal thickness increased by a corrosion allowance. Figure 1.10. Uniform corrosion 24 Conmasion PROTECTONAnoold galvanized roof where the zinc has corroded away is an example of uniform corrosion. Attacks on low alloy and weathering steels are often of this type. This corrosion type can be seen on most metallic materials. Uniform corrosion can be reduced by selecting the right material adding inhibitor (to systems carrying liquid) using cathodic protection using coatings/linings Galvanic corrosion (bimetallic corrosion) One of the most widely observed corrosion types, and often the most dangerous type, is galvanic corrosion. This type of corrosion occurs when there is metallic contact between two metals in a corrosive environment. The corrosion is acceler- ated on the base metal and is reduced on the noble metal. Cathooe ‘node Figure 1.11 Galvanic corrosion The attack on the base metal, the anode, is most severe close to the point of contact and decreases with increased distance from i ‘The driving force behind galvanic corrosion is the difference in potential be- tween the two metals. The attack is severe if metals located far apart in the electrochemical series are joined together. ‘The appearance characteristics of the attack depend on several factors, The relative area sizes of the anode and cathode and the conductivity of the electrolyte are among the most important factors. A large cathode coupled to a small anode often leads to a faster and more severe corrosion attack than in the case of a small difference in area. The offshore oil industry has experienced problems with some types of welding electrodes used for welding of carbon steel. By accident insufficiently alloyed elec- trodes compared to the pipes were used. This resulted in complete corrosion of the ‘welded joints in record time and extensive damage to the materials, The reason is galvanic corrosion caused by a large cathode area (the pipes) and a small anode area (the welds). ‘The galvanic series in sea water (see Table 1.3) was mentioned above. To a certain extent this series provides a possibility for predicting the risk of galvanic corrosion. Below some examples of various types of attack caused by galvanic contact between dissimilar metals will be discussed. The Statue of Liberty in New York City was completed in 1886. The copper statue was supported internally by a framework of iron and steel. The copper skin and the steel were originally insulated from each other by means of asbestos fabric impregnated with shellac. Over the years the asbestos fabric had deteriorated and started to work as a wick between the metals, In the early 80°s the steel framework 1 Conosion 25had become extensively damaged due to galvanic corrosion, The corrosion attack on the steel and cracking of the rust had caused deformation of the copper skin in a number of places. During the restoration an effort was made to prevent galvanic corrosion. Most of the steel was replaced by stainless steel alloys and the metals were insulated from each other by means of Teflon gaskets/inserts. [3] ‘A number of wheel houses on ships are made of aluminium. This has resulted in galvanic corrosion in the interface between steel and aluminium, but the prob- ems have now been reduced by changing the joining techniques and by using anticorrosion paints Galvanic corrosion can be reduced by using filler metals for welding which are nobler than the parent material changing the materials used in order to avoid harmful contacts between noble and base material insulating materials from each other using metal coatings or paint coatings avoiding the deposit of nobler metal ions on the surface. Crevice corrosion Narrow crevices exposed to a liquid, typically water-containing solutions, may be open enough to allow the liquid to penetrate, but still so narrow that the liquid becomes stagnant within them. If this is the case, crevice corrosion may occur, The driving force for this type of corrosion is a difference in oxygen content inside and outside the crevice. The most pronounced crevice corrosion occurs on metals which are passive or easily passivated, such as stainless steel, aluminium and steel in predominantly alkaline environments. For example in sea water the passive oxide layer on some ‘metals may be broken down by aggressive chloride ions, Crevice corrosion occurs in flanged joints, under rivet heads and screw heads, in overlaps and when the metal is covered by for example dirt, sand, corrosion products or marine growth. water more re in — ‘ovygen becomes the ‘cathode region | the crevice becomes the oxygen depiotod ara, Le. Cathodic reaction: ~ %40,+H,0428=20 Figure 1.12 Crevice corrosion 26 —Conrosion prorecToNIn some cases crevice corrosion in flanged joints or beneath rubber hoses mounted by clamps onto stainless steel piping in sea water has had an extent of several millimetres per year. The reason is that sea water has penetrated but the exchange hhas not been frequent enough, which again leads to too low oxygen content to ‘maintain the oxide film. Stainless steel pipe with soa water Ne ee ‘ond LOLOL: send Sik Crevice cortosion Figure 1.13 Crevice corrosion on stainless steel Crevice corrosion can be reduced by a number of practical precautions: Use welding instead of flanged joints and bolted joints whenever possible. Minimize the number of sharp edges, comers and possibilities for liquid pock- ets Drain areas which are not continuously filled with liquid. Do not use packings that absorb water. ‘Take solid particles and suspensions which may adhere to the walls into consid- eration. Pitting corrosion Pitting corrosion is a type of corrosion which involves localized attacks on metals. ‘The attack is in the form of localized pits. This corrosion type may arise on a number of metals, but itis often found on metals with a passivating oxide film. like aluminium and stainless steel. Such attacks may result in extensive damage. Often 1Comwasion 27the diameter of the corrosion pits is relatively small, but they grow in depth. The pittings may also be covered by corrosion products, which makes them difficult to spot Figure 1.14 Pitting corrosion ‘The relative sizes of the cathode and anode areas also determine the corrosion rate. ‘The larger the cathode area relative to the anode area, the more severe the attack. The problem is also related to defects either in the oxide film or otherwise in the material. Attacks on stainless steel are often more severe than on ordinary steel. If the oxide film is attacked by chloride ions, it will be on weak spots in the film. The difference in area between the cathode and the anode is consequently very big. ‘Ordinary steel has considerably more defects and the cathode and anode areas will be more equal in size. The oxide film on the stainless stec! has few defects and acts as cathode to the metal. ‘The corrosion rate inside each pitting can be considerable and may cause the material to corrode through relatively quickly. Pitting corrosion is often seen in conditions where the metal is passive. Pitting corrosion may also act like bimetallic corrosion. This happens when the water contains traces of more noble metal ions which are deposited on the metal surface. Major corrosion attacks may take place when copper ions are deposited as metallic copper on aluminium and steel Also a fairly noble material like copper may experience pitting corrosion. In copper pipes this may be due to the water quality or deposits from the water, Also residues in the pipes of carbon-containing drawing agent from the manufacturing process may be the reason. Heating of the pipes during their fabrication causes it to ‘carbonize and a thin layer of carbon or graphite may be left on the Walls of the pipe. Graphite is more noble than copper. The difference in area size between cathode and anode is big, and often major corrosion attacks are seen. Some materials are highly resistant to pitting corrosion. They are usually char- acterized by a high content of chromium, nickel and molybdenum. Other metals are susceptible to this type of corrosion in chloride-containing environments and are. for example, not used in sea water nor in the chemical process industry. In chloride-containing environments ordinary stainless stec! usually has too lit- tle resistance against corrosion, On the other hand, special high alloy, stainless and acid-resistant steels, copper-nickel alloys and nickel and titanium alloys can be used with excellent results. Pitting corrosion can be reduced or prevented by selecting more suitable materials ‘changing the corrosion environment 28 Consosion ProrectIon‘rode ‘Cathode Anode ‘node Cathode Anode ‘cathose node Cathode Figure 1.15. The corrosion attack is determined by the relative area sizes of the cathode and the anode, and by the conductivity of the electrolyte Erosion corrosion Erosion corrosion is a type of corrosion which occurs when a metal is exposed to ‘mechanical abrasion and a corrosive environment at the same time. Liquid or gas flowing at high velocity in pipes may cause erosion corrosion. ‘Turbulence is formed in the pipes. The mechanical impact causes the protective surface layers to be wor off or damaged at the surface. Erosion corrosion may occur on most metals, but copper alloys are especially ‘susceptible to this type of corrosion attack. Depending on the temperature of the fresh water, the maximum water velocity in non-replaceable distributing pipes is 1- ‘2 m/s, perhaps slightly higher on coupling pipes, before erosion corrosion arises. Copper alloys are also widely used for transport of sea water. These velocities for sea water should not be exceeded: copper alloys mis aluminium brass 1.8 avs copper-nickel alloys 2.5-3.5 m/s Erosion corrosion is often due to the fact that the construction has an unsuitable design. Inside the pipe the corrosion can be caused by uneven weldings ot pipes, inserted by welding, which jut in too far and thereby cause the flow of the water to change. Over time this results in a sort of undermining of the material. The attack is often shaped like a horse shoe. 1.Conposion 29Figure 1.16 Erosion corrosion on copper Selective corrosion (dealloying corrosion) Selective corrosion can appear on brass and cast iron if they are exposed in sea water. This type of corrosion causes one of the alloying elements to be preferen- tially attacked. The attack may be local or uniform over the entire surface. As a result, the geometry of the object may remain unchanged, but since one of the elements has been removed, it eaves a porous material with little or no mechanical strength. Well-known examples of selective corrosion are the dezineification of brass and the graphitization of cast iron Brass is an alloy of zinc and copper. Certain brass alloys with a high content of zinc are susceptible to selective corrosion. If such an alloy is used in sea water, the zinc will corrode and leave a porous matrix of copper. Consequently, the brass has lost its strength, Once the attack has reached this stage, only smail impact is re quired to cause for example a pipe to break, When brass is dezincified, the attack can be seen as small reddish-brown areas on the brass. Here the zinc has corroded and the visible spots are the porous matrix of the copper. No corrosion LLL LLL LLL LLL LLL Selective corrosion (tng corrosion) Selective corrosion (of the surface} WLLL Soloctve corrosion fot al the material) Figure 1.17 Selective corrosion 30 Corosiow pnorecrionCast iron has a high content of carbon. Graphitization results in corrosion of the iron, leaving a porous matrix of carbon in the material. As a result of the attack the iron in the cast iron will disappear and leave a dark area consisting of graphite (carbon). This may happen if cast iron is immersed in sea water. Stress corrosion cracking Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) isa term given to inter- or transgranular cracking of metals by joint action of static tensile stress and a specific environment. This type of corrosion is very common in many industries. Great concern has been given to SCC both on onshore and offshore locations. Different types of metals or alloys will be more or less sensitive than others to a given solution or environment. Metal Solutions causing SCC Carbon steel Nitrate solutions (NO, ) Copper alloys Ammonia solutions (NH) Stainlesssteels Chloride solutions (CI) Insulated stainless steel pipes for the transport of fresh water or sea water at tem peratures of approximately 60°C are particularly susceptible to stress corrosion cracking. Such pipes are ofien insulated with cellular glass insulation. Before ap- plying the insulation, the stainless steel is often sweep-blasted with a fine mineral abrasive and then painted with epoxy or similar coatings. Itis common practice to specify paints without zinc metal or chlorine-containing constituents. ‘The risk of stress corrosion cracking on stainless steel can be reduced by stress~ relief annealing to remove residual stresses from welding or cold-work. Figure 1.18. Stress corrosion cracking on stainless steel in chloride-containing environment at 60°C 1 Conmosion 34Intergranular corrosion (intercrystalline corrosion) Intergranular corrosion is localized attacks on of around the grain boundaries of a metal with little impact on the rest of the surface. All metals are composed of microscopic metal grains. Intergranular attack occurs along the grain boundaries of the metal This type of corrosion especially affects austenitic stainless steel with a carbon content of approximately 0.05-0.08%, for example of the ASTM 304 and ASTM, 316 types. These types of steel may be susceptible to corrosion attacks if they have been subject to heat treatment within the temperature range of 400-800°C. The heating causes a deposit of chromium carbide on the grain boundaries. This deposit takes place at the expense of a small zone on the grain boundary where chromium contents are reduced. In this little zone the material loses its “stainless-ness”, 50 t0 speak. Intergranular corrosion of austenitic stee! often takes place in connection with welding. The areas around the welds are often subjected to the relevant temperature range for a short period of time. This results in a localized attack around the weld, oon both sides of it Intergranular corrosion usually occurs in very specific environments, for exam~ ple chloride-containing environments. In order to avoid this type of corrosion itis common practice to select a material quality like ASTM 304L or 316L with a low content of carbon (lower than 0.03% C), or other alloys stabilized with titanium or niobium which bind carbon and form titanium or niobium carbide instead of chro- mium carbide. Figure 1.19 Intergranular corrosion Corrosion fatigue When a metal is subjected to either temporary or continuous stresses, cracking may suddenly occur above a certain stress level. This may take place in spite of the stresses being considerably smaller than what is otherwise known to be the tensile stress of the material. This is usually called fatigue. When this fatigue takes place in a corrosive environment, itis called corrosion fatigue. In the case of corrosion fatigue the material may be broken down earlier than in the case of ordinary fa- tigue. Corrosion fatigue causes cracking of the material and total destruction may be the result. Microscopes are often used for the evaluation of the surface of the fra, ture. In this case lines can be observed on the smooth part of the surface, so-called striations. The striations have the same curvature towards the starting point. 32 Coanasion PROTECTION“<= Dynamic stress pe Figure 1.20 Fatigue corrosion Corrosion in different environments Corrosion in air Corrosion of unpainted steel or other metals takes place at a relative humidity higher than approximately 60-70%. Because the air contains oxygen, the decisive factor for the corrosion is how long the metal surface is wet. The length of time when the surface is wet is usually called the time of wetness. The time of wetness is defined as the period of time when the relative humidity of the air is above 80% and the air temperature above 0°C. In urban and industrial atmospheres there is a particularly high amount of solid particles in the air, including soot, sand and chloride and sulphate salts. Such salts are hygroscopic (attract water) and water soluble. Thereby they increase the corro- sion in air, In some cases itis also a determining factor for the corrosion attack whether the water on the metal surface is due to condensation or rain. In very polluted environ- ments rain will wash away contaminants. Condensation rarely creates so much water that the contamination is actually washed off the surface. Corrosion attacks caused by condensation may be more severe than those caused by rain water. ‘The corrosion rates of for example aluminium alloys, stainless steel, copper alloys and zinc are generally lower than of stec] exposed to the air. Corrosion in water Structures to be immersed in water are often built of metallic materials. There are ‘wo main types of water: fresh water and sea water. Corrosion attack in water depends on the temperature, pH value and oxygen and salt contents of the water. Fresh water In areas of the world where the drinking water is soft, with a low calcium content the water is corrosive. Ata number of waterworks attempts have been made to reduce the internal corrosion of the water piping system. Such attempts include increasing the calcium contents and the pH value of the water. Hard water is less 1.Conrosion 33corrosive than soft water. This is due to the content of calcium and magnesium salts in the water. Ifthe content of such salts is sufficiently high, there will be a deposit of for example calcium carbonate, which reduces the rate of corrosion. Sea water As opposed to this, pure sea water in the oceans of the world has a constant compo- sition and corrosivity. The salt content is approximately 3.5% and pH 8.1. [4] From the chloride contents of the sea water a relatively high corrosion rate for ste] should be expected. But to some extent the contents of calcium and magnesium salts reduce the attacks. Such salt layers have a protective effect. This is especially the case in connection with cathodic protection where the formation of hydroxide results in increased pH value and deposit of calcium and magnesium salts on the surface. Corrosion is oxygen dependant and will be severe in the splash zone since the water is continuously enriched with oxygen. At the same time the salt deposits are washed away, and the effect from the deposited salt layer is reduced. ‘Also the velocity of flow may be of importance for the attack on some alloys. A high flow velocity causes the protective layer of corrosion products to be worn away. In extreme cases also parts of the actual material may be torn away. Espe- cially copper alloys are susceptible to this type of corrosion, which is called ero- sion corrosion. On stainless steel the risk of such attacks is very small. At too low velocity of flow or in stagnant liquids crevice corrosion may occur. Corrosion in soil Structures which are fully or partly buried in soil will be exposed to corrosion. The attacks in soil will 0 a very large extent depend on the type of soil and humidity, salt and oxygen contents, pH value, etc.,.and may be quite extensive. In order to reduce the extent of the corrosion itis important that the soil around buried structures is well drained. This is the case of gravel, sand and moraine. In such types of soil the oxygen contents are consequently high. ‘Ground leve! LT ‘cable or pipe Soil, sand, gavel Clay Sond, gravel Oxygen contents: High Low High Electrode reaction: 0,42H,0s4e-s40H Fo-sFe®+20" 0,+2H,0+d0-»40H PPD 2 ate. Figure 1.21 Corrosion attack in soil 34 Corrosion prorecrionIn mixed clay-containing soils variations in the oxygen contents may occur. Clay lumps near the surface result in low supply of oxygen. In such places there isa risk of localized corrosion attacks. Structures to be placed fully or partly in contact with soil over a prolonged period of time, should if necessary be protected. This especially applies to steel, which is often protected by thick organic coatings of coal tar or rubber. Alloys of lead and copper have better resistance to corrosion in soil. Literature 1 Torsten Johnsen and Cecilia Aronsson: Korrosionshastigheten hos fistelement. Slutraport. K-report 1995-7, Korrosionsinstitutet, Stockholm, 2 LaQue, F.L., Marine Corrosion - Causes and Prevention, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 1975 3 R, Baboian, E. Blaine Cliver, B. Lawrence Bellante: The Statue of Liberty Res- oration, Proceedings of the Statue of Liberty ~ Today for Tomorrow Confer- ence. National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, Texas, 1990 4 Einar Mattson: Electrokemi och korrosionslara. Bulletin no. 100, Korrosionsinstitutet, Stockholm, 1987. He 1900's cone2 Protection against corrosion Introduction In the previous chapter various types of corrosion and influence from the environ- ‘ment have been discussed. We will now have a closer look at other methods of corrosion prevention: + correct selection of materials appropriate construction design use of paints and coatings cathodic and anodic protection conditioning of the environment Correct selection of materials A number of handbooks contain tables showing whether a metal/alloy is suitable fora given corrosive environment. Information on the corrosion rates of a number of metallic materials in connection with various concentrations of chemicals and temperatures may be listed. Based on information in the handbooks, experiences from projects etc., suitable metals/alloys are selected. Conditions such as lifetime requirements and accessibility for replacement are also of great importance. Many factors play a part in the selection of materials. The final selection is often made on the basis of considerations related to corrosion engineering and the ‘economy. Farther considerations may concern various combinations of materials and the risk of special types of corrosion under the given environmental conditions. ‘Various metals and their areas of use will be given a short description below. Steel Pure iron finds insignificant technical use. On the other hand, iron alloyed with, carbon and smaller amounts of the elements manganese and silicon constitutes the 36 Conrossow ProrecTOnmost widely used metallic construction material. ‘Types of steel where the tensile strength properties are mainly determined by the carbon contents are called carbon steel or unalloyed steel. Steel (carbon steel) has a carbon content of up to 1.3%, while in the case of east iron it is even higher, be- tween 2-4%. Apart from carbon, such steels also contain minor quantities of sul- pphur, phosphonus, silicon and manganese from the manufacturing process, Other elements can also influence the properties of the steel. For example, the silicon content is very important for the thickness of the zine coating produced by means of hot dip galvanizing. By alloying steel (carbon steel) with small quantities of the alloying elements chromium, nickel, molybdenum, phosphorus and vanadium a large variety of steel qualities is obtained. Such steel qualities are usually called low alloy steels. The total contents of the alloying elements rarely exceed a few per cent. The corrosion resistance of unalloyed steel and low alloy steel is more or less the same. Steel used for building constructions have excellent mechanical properties, but will corrode in the atmosphere at humidities above 60-70%. The rate of corrosion is influenced by factors such as time of wetness, pH value and air pollution. During milling (rolling) of the steel mull scale is created. Mill scale will act as a cathode on the steel, if not completely removed. At first mill scale acts asa barrier nd reduces the corrosion of the steel, but when the mill scale cracks and flakes off, the corrosion rate of such exposed localized areas will increase due to unfavourable cathode-anode ratios. The rust formed provides only slight protection of the stee). Structural steel and plates of large thicknesses are usually supplied hot rolled, ‘whereas thinner sheets (below 4 mm) are cold rolled. The thin sheets do not have nil sale, Due to corrosion, but also for cosmetic reasons, it is common practice to pro- vide the steel with some sort of protective treatment. In most cases this is accom- plished by painting the steel. ‘Mil scale Outdoor exposure An Figure 2.1 At outdoor exposure mill scale cracks and steel corrodes Weathering steels Weathering steel is a special type of low alloy steels which, when exposed out- dloors, has better resistance against corrosion than ordinary structural steels, The improved resistance is a result of the weathering steels having been alloyed with slightly higher amounts of chromium, phosphorus and copper. 2 Provecrion acawst cornosion 37‘The weathering steels rust during an initial period of 1.5-4 years in roughly the same way as carbon steels, During this period a uniformly dense and dark rust, layer called patina develops on the surface. The dense rust layer now causes corro- sion to take place at a slower rate. [1] ust (porous) ust (dense) Figure 2.2 After a few years a dense rust layer (patina) is formed on weathering steels Due to the decorative rust layer and lower rate of corrosion it is not common prac~ tice to paint weathering steel. The construction design is of the utmost importance. Discoloration of light-coloured materials such as concrete is a problem if rain wa- {er is not drained effectively from the weathering stecl. Corrosion ym) 44 umyyear Reterence steet : 3 5 Years Figure 2.3 Corrosion of Atmofix 52A and an unalloyed reference steel exposed ‘outdoors in highly polluted atmosphere [1] 38 Connosion protecTonOn surfaces which are constantly damp or exposed to a marine environment no patina will be formed. Weathering steels are consequently more suitable for struc~ lures which are exposed to alternate periods of wetness and dryness. ‘Weathering steels are probably more widely known by their trade names, such as Cor-Ten A and B, Patinax 37, Atmofix 52, etc. Inthe USA approximately 2000 bridges built from weathering steel during the period around 1960 to 1980 have not been painted. After some time extensive cor- rosion problems have been observed which will result in a considerable reduction of the calculated lifetime of the structure if nothing is done about it. Blast cleaning to Sa 2% and subsequent application of epoxy mastic systems is now being consid- 2) ‘The term Sa is one of four degrees of cleanliness defined in connection with blast cleaning. A degree of cleanliness of Sa 2¥4 corresponds to very careful blast cleaning of the steel to the extent that almost all rust is removed. Stainless steels As opposed to low alloy steels, stainless stecls contain substantial amounts of al- laying elements in the range of 15-30%. Generally, the various types of stainless steels are grouped after their crystalline structure, such as ferritic, austenitic, and ferritic-austenitic. Differences in the struc~ lure result in differences in their corrosion properties. In chloride-containing envi- ronment with a risk of pitting and crevice corrosion, steels of an austenitic structure ue often preferred over ferritic or ferritic-austenitic structures. The table below gives a summary of some of the most common stainless alloys, their crystalline structures and grades according to various standards. Vuble 2.1. Common terms for various high alloy steels in accordance with EN, ASTM and UNS UNS | Structure % Mo | EN ASTM 43000 | Fenitio > 0.04/165) | 30400 an | 0.04 | 18.1 4016 | 430— 4301 | 304 4307 | 304L 83 002/181 8.3 0.04) 16.9 /10.7) 26 1 1 | 1 | s30403 | Austenitic 1.4436 | 316 $31600 | Austenitic 1.4432 | 316L | $31603 | Austenitic | 0.02/16.9 10.7| 26 1.4539 | 904. | NoB904 | Austenitic | 0.01 20 | 25 | 4.3 1.4547 | $31254 | $31254 | Austenitic | 0.01] 20 | 18 | 64 | 1.4652 | $32654 | $32654 | Austenitic | 0.01) 24 | 22 | 7.3 1.4462 | $32205 | s31803 | Duplex | 0.02) 22 | 5.7 | 3.4 1.4410 | $32750 | $32750_| Duplex | 0.02) 25 {he main alloying element in stainless alloys is chromium. When chromium is used foralloys, a thin and protective chromium-oxide film is formed on the surface of 2 Prorection xcansr cornosion 39.the metal. The alloy must as a minimum have a chromium content of approximately 119 to prevent rust from appearing on the steel. Stainless steel must have access to oxygen in order to maintain the oxide film, Besides alloying stainless steel with chromium, also nickel and molybdenum are added. An example of a stainless steel of this type is steel with approximately 17% chromium, 11% nickel and 2.6% molybdenum, see Table 2.1 Many countries have standards for stainless steels. The terms ASTM 304 and ASTM 316 from American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) designate examples of stainless steels. It is quite common to describe stainless steel as 18/8 steel. The figures indicate the contents of chromium and nickel, respectively, in the steel. Molybdenum can also be added. An alloy with 17% chromium, 11% nickel and 2.6% molybdenum corresponds to ASTM 316. Other steel qualities have better corrosion resistance to sea water compared to the types mentioned above. The material ASTM $31254, often referred to as 254 SMO or 6 Mo, is a high quality steel alloy containing 20% chromium, 18% nickel and 6.1% molybdenum. When this material was first introduced on the market, tests showed good corrosion resistance against crevice corrosion at temperatures up to approximately 40°C. However, subsequent practical experience has shown that the material has been subject to pitting/crevice corrosion even at lower tem- peratures. ‘The corrosion resistance of ASTM 31254 in for example sea water is much better than that of an “ordinary” stainless steel, for example ASTM 304. This is due to the high alloy contents. Under particularly corrosive conditions also ASTM '$31254 may have too little corrosion resistance, and other materials must be cho- sen. Formability and weldability are greatly improved when nickel and molybdenum are added. It is a general misconception that stainless steels do not corrode. In sea water a number of these alloys will suffer extensive corrosion, Despite the fact that alloys with a chromium content of minimum 12% result in steel qualities which do not rst, these types will nevertheless be subject to corrosion, Defects in te oxide ‘tm may result in| Passive condition piting corgsion| ative condition Figure 2.4 Active and passive condition 40 Conrasion pRorEcTIONIn chloride-containing environments localized corrosion attacks will occur. Pitting and crevice corrosion may result in complete perforation of pipe walls or severe attacks on seal faces on flanges. Intercrystalline corrosion isa type of corrosion which may appear on stainless steels with a high carbon content (0.05-0.08% C). Welding of stainless steels with high carbon content may cause precipitation of chromium carbides, leading to depletion of chromium to below 12% in the metal adjacent to the precipitates, which is thus no longer “stainless”. If the steel is exposed to an aggressive environment, such sites may become anodic to the rest of the metal, and may corrode. This type of corrosion attack can be reduced by selecting stainless alloys with low carbon contents (< 0.03%) or possibly adding small quantities of titanium or niobium in order to prevent the formation of chromium carbide. Alternatively, the steel can be heat treated at high temperature and cooled very rapidly so that no chromium carbides can be formed ‘There are many areas of use for stainless steels, from household articles (cut- lery, saucepans, etc.) to use for the transportation and storage of aggressive liquids, including chloride-containing substances. Water salts Piting corrosion ‘Oxide fm Figure 2.5 Pitting corrosion on stainless steel Titanium and nickel alloys Titanium alloys have excellent corrosion resistance when exposed in both marine and industrial atmospheres. They are also suitable for use in fresh water and in sea water. Due to high initial costs the use of titanium alloys has been limited. But under demanding conditions the selection of titanium alloys may be advantageous be- cause they have a number of excellent properties. This has been the case in the process industry which has had good experience with the use of titanium for pumps, valves, etc. Also the oil industry has started to use titanium, for example for heat exchangers, ‘Nickel alloys are considered among the most corrosion-resistant alloys in exist- ence. Such alloys are used in particularly aggressive media, and when long life~ times are required. They are extremely resistant towards sea water with high veloc- ity of flow. In stagnant and slow sea water they may be subject to pitting and crevice corrosion. (3 "You may have heard mention of materials such as Monel, Chlorimet, Hastelloy B and C, and Inconel, which are all examples of nickel alloys. CHON AGANIST CORROSION — 44.Copper and copper alloys Copper is a relatively noble, but soft metal, By alloying copper a large number of alloys with many different areas of use are produced. Well-known alloys are brass (copper and zinc) and bronze (copper and tin), just to mention a few. The rate of corrosion of copper in air is low, approximately 0.5-2.5 pm/year This is due to the fact that the corrosion product formed on copper is very dense and durable. Most people have probably at some point in time seen the green patina, verdigris, on objects made of copper. ‘The use of copper for construction has a long tradition. Copper alloys are often used for roofs, mountings, statues, ete. Copper and copper alloys ate also widely used for water-bearing pipes, con- densers and heat exchangers as well as for components like valves, pumps, etc. ‘When selecting materials, attention must be paid to the medium which the alloy will get into contact with. This is perhaps especially important in connection with the transport of fresh water and sea water in the pipes. Copper pipes used for hot and cold water piping and hot water appliances are well-known, For transport of sea water more resistant copper alloys should be chosen. Alloys of copper-nicke! or aluminium-brass are often used for this purpose. Copper alloys are generally sensitive tothe velocity of flow in the pipes. Ata too high velocity, erosion corrosion may arise. In order to avoid such damage on “ordi- nary” copper pipes, the flow velocity of the sea water should not exceed approxi- mately 1 m/s. In the case of copper-nickel the upper limit is considered to be ap- proximately 3.5 m/s. Besides erosion corrosion, copper alloys are also attacked by pitting corrosion, Selective corrosion may occur on various brass alloys. ‘The tendency of fouling is smaller on copper than on other metals, Consequently, copper alloys are extensively used in water-bearing pipes, and for the same reason copper-containing antifouling paints are used on ships’ hulls, Zine When we consider the areas of use of hop dip galvanized steel, this is utilized for a number of purposes where long lifetime without extensive maintenance is required, Apart from the advantage of a low corrosion rate of hot dip galvanized steel in a ‘number of atmosphere types, the zine coating also provides corrosion protection of the steel in case of damage. A major part of the steel used for power masts, railings, lamp posts, crash barriers, etc. is hot dip galvanized. It has been estimated that approximately 40% of all zinc produced on a world-wide basis is used for corro- sion protection of steel. [4] Zinc coatings can be applied to stee! by various methods that will be discussed later. Depending on the method of application and the thickne: i provide excellent protection to steel for many years, depending on the exposure environment, Corrosion on zinc in air is generally slow. In urban and industrial atmospheres ittakes place at 1-10 pm/year. In rural and marine atmospheres itis even lower and only approximately 0.5-2 m/year. Sacrificial anodes made of zinc are used for cathodic protection of steel. 42 Cornosiox pRoTecnonAluminium ‘When aluminium is exposed to the air, a thin oxide film will quickly form on the surface. The oxide film is only approximately 0.01 wm thick, but protects the metal effectively against corrosion. In the case of aluminium alloys, improved properties in respect of ultimate strength, ductility, corrosion performance, etc. can be obtained. ‘Aluminium alloys have become popular for many applications, including roof panels and facade cladding. The average rate of corrosion over a 20-year period will even in industrial atmosphere rarely exceed | jtm/year for such alloys. Often ‘minor pitting corrosion attacks occur. Such attacks can be difficult to spot with the naked eye. The corrosion rate of such attacks usually decreases with time. In the cise of pitting corrosion the following maximum depths of the pittings alter 20 ars in different atmospheres have been measured [5] rural atmosphere 10-55 jum turban atmosphere 100-190 jm marine atmosphere 85-260 jam. ‘As aluminium is relatively ignoble, there may be a risk of galvanic corrosion in contact with more noble metals such as steel, stainless steel and copper. The metals should therefore be insulated from each other. Naturally, the prerequisite for gal- ‘yunic corrosion is the presence of an electrolyte at the point of contact. In spite of the metals being insulated from each other, corrosion may occur on the aluminium. his may happen if the aluminium is exposed to copper-containing water. In this, ‘case, the copper is deposited on the surface. The copper particles form small cath- oxles and the result may be serious corrosion damage. ‘Aluminium alloyed with 4.5% magnesium and 1% manganese, among other cclements, is called sea water-resistant aluminium. The alloy has high resistance to corrosion in a marine environment, For many years sea water-resistant aluminium lias been used for the hulls of high-speed vessels, For protection of flare booms on olfshore platforms sea water-resistant aluminium is applied by means of thermal spraying, When an aluminium hull is painted at and below the water line, antifouling paints should not be applied directly on top of the aluminium because they are usually based on copper pigments. Damage to the paint results in an unfavourable dlillerence in area between the copper-containing paint (the cathode) and aluminium, This may cause corrosion of the hull ‘Aluminium is not suitable for processing and storage of inorganic acids, with ‘he exception of concentrated nitric acid and sulphuric acid. However, it may be sulliciently resistant to withstand several organic acids. Alkalis also attack alu- iminium, but inhibitors, for example silicates, added to diluted alkaline solutions redluce such attacks. An inhibitor is a substance which retards the reaction speed in a process 2 Protection AGaWst coRROSION — 43Constructional design to reduce corrosion In order to prevent corrosion we must have knowledge about the selection of mate- rials and the importance of constructional design. There are numerous examples of constructions which have been quite satisfac: tory, both in respect of strength and aestheties, but where nevertheless the structure has had weaknesses. Unsuitable designs may cause entrapment of water, dirt and pollution. This results in extensive maintenance costs. Consequently, we must try io reduce corrosion at an early stage, preferably already on the drawing board Crevices Construction designs often create areas with narrow crevices. Crevices may be created in many ways, for example by fastening parts by spot welding or bolts. In areas with difficult access, this will give rise to problems. In such a case rust formation constitutes a high risk of expansion and cupture. This is due to the fact that rust takes up a larger volume than the steel from which it is formed, The result may be deformation of thin sheets etc. There are several Ways to avoid the formation of crevices. In many cases crevices can be avoided if ‘materials are welded together instead of flanged and bolted. Another possibility is to deliberately make the crevices bigger to enable easier and better maintenance work. Also steel structures at the ground level may be subject to splashes and collec- tion of moisture. In many cases the steel can be protected by embedding it in a concrete foundation or by applying extra thick coats of paint in such areas. Botts Outdoor exposure / \ fo notrow crevice / Deformation due te corrasion| products Figure 2.6 Corrosion products have a higher volume than metal. This may result in deformation Geometrical effects ‘The geometrical designs should be as simple as possible. The simpler the surfaces, the easier itis to carry out surface preparation and paint application. This makes cleaning and later maintenance easier and reduces the risk of corrosion. Quite many problems are caused by variations in profile shapes. This is why large areas are easier to prepare and paint than for instance sections which are welded, riveted or bolted together. It is difficult to obtain sufficient film thickness on sharp edges. If edges are 44 Conosion pravectionrounded in connection with painting, the paint coating wil be more even and better than on sharp edges. Many specifications now include the requirement that edges must be rounded and have a radius of minimum 2 mm. Paint Sharp edge! Rounded edge: ow thickness on edges even thickness Vigure 2.7 Sharp edges should be rounded in order to obtain a sufficiently thick paint coating JL} iL CJt1fL a ST aw Vigure 2.8 Designs and shapes which are difficult to maintain and/or collect dirt id moisture should be avoided The international standard EN ISO 1294-3 “Design considerations” explains, both in text and figures, that in connection with the planning of constructions important ‘aspects are whether they function properly and have adequate stability, strength and durability. The entire design must be planned and must include surface prepa- 2 Protection AcaINsT conRosION — ASration, painting, inspection and maintenance Especially the aspects of design and access must be considered of the utmost importance in order to obtain the best possible base and possibility for maintenance lateron. In connection with projects itis still possible to meet inappropriate designs like those shown in the Figures 2.8, 2.10, and 2.11 ‘Narrow gaps, crevices and lap joints are places which are alw: corrosion attacks because moisture, dirt, ete. are collected in such places. In some cases sealants should be used in order to reduce the risk of corrosion, or possibly welding should be carried out once more. Any openings in for example stiffeners, frames or similar structural members should have a gap of minimum 50 mm to provide access for sufficient surface preparation and application of an anticorrosive paint. — siifener Bottom flange Figure 2.9 Stiffener design recommended for corrosion protection With due consideration of the risk of corrosion the design should also be in accord- ance with the recommended corrosion-protective treatments, It must be possible to carry out proper maintenance with blast cleaning and airless spray application. It should also be ensured that the design preferably eliminates any entrapment of moisture and dirt. (6] Insulated suppor Figure 2.10. In tanks incomplete insulation of supports may result in internal ‘condensation and risk of corrosion In buildings where plating is used attention must be paid to the risk of thermal 4G Corrosion protectionbridges at low outdoor temperatures. Thermal bridges may cause a risk of conden- sation on the inside of the plating. If suitable damp-proofing and insulation mate als are used, this may be prevented. In order to avoid similar problems, for example in tanks, the entire tank and supports must be insulated, Tanks should also be designed in such a way that draining is possible. Otherwise, any liquid retained in the tank may cause a tisk of corrosion. Cannot be completely emotes ematy completely Figure 2.11 Tanks should be designed in such a way that no liquids are collected Metallic joints In many cases damage is due to more or less noble metals being in direct contact with each other. This causes risk of galvanic corrosion. The larger the potential difference between the metals, the faster the corrosion rate on the ignoble metal. If atall possible, care should be taken to keep the metals completely insulated from each other, Insulating gaskets and washers Inulating gaskets Figure 2.12 Direct electric contact between different metals can be prevented by means of insulating gaskets 2 Protection AGaNsT conRosION 47When welding, it is of great importance to select the correct welding electrode. It must be ensured that the weld does not become anodic in relation to the parent material. If the welds are less noble than the parent material, the welds may be severely attacked. In the offshore industry accidents have occurred due to use of wrong welding electrodes. As a result of this the welds corroded rapidly and leakages occurred. ‘The cause of this damage was galvanic corrosion caused by the lange and unfa- vourable difference in size between the area of the pipes (the cathode) and the area of the welds (the anode). Before painting welds itis important that the welds are prepared in such a way that they are suitable for being coated. The surface preparation should include removal of irregularities and weld spatter by grinding, and removal of weld smoke residues by fresh water hosing. Depending on the agreed specification, the extent of ‘work applied to the grinding may vary. Specifications may include relatively sia ple information such as “weld seams to be treated in a suitable inanner...” without ‘any specific requirements to the way they look. This may of course result in discus- sions and disputes in a project. The NACE standard RP 0178-2003 “Standard Recommended Practice: Fabr'- cation Details, Surface Finish Requirements, and Proper Design Considerations for Tanks and Vessels to be Lined for Immersion Service” is an excellent too}. (7] ‘The standard contains detailed text and illustrations describing welds prepared by grinding, The standard also incudes a molded plastic replica with examples of butt, fillet and lap welds. Completely untreated welds have been coded F, and after this the welds have received better and better grinding. On welds ground to the degree of Aall weld spatter and irregularities have been removed and the surface has been ‘ground completely even, Electroie “The welding materia Is less noble than stee! Figure 2.13. It is important that no welds are less noble than the surrounding material Weld beads ‘and weld smoke Ground weld Figure 2.14 Residues of weld smoke and weld beads provide an unsuitable substrate for painting. 48 Connosion proTecTONDesign to prevent unnecessary turbulence tn flowing media, for example in liquid-bearing pipes, erosion corrosion may arise. Strongly susceptible to this are pipes, bends, T-pieces, heat exchanger pipes, etc. carrying mixtures of water and solid matter. It is very important that the pipes have a suitable design in order to avoid unnecessary turbulence. Figure 2.15 shows that insertion of pipes by welding should be carried out in such a way that any unneccessary change of the flow within the pipe is avoided. Pipes should be designed in such a way that any dimensional changes are gradual. Use of right-angled bends where a change of flow may cause erosion corrosion should also be avoided a Figure 2.15 Sharp bends are areas at risk in pipes Using paints and coatings Paints The most widely used method for protecting steel is by use of paints. When paint, (ora similar coating, is applied, a film is built up to prevent corrosive gases or liquids from getting into direct contact with the metal. Generally, a corrosion-protective paint can be said to protect the steel in three Uifferent ways: 2 Protecmion Acawst conmosion 491 Paints can protect stcel against corrosion by excluding water and air from the surface. The paints arc said to protect by means of barrier protection. Although some water vapour and oxygen will diffuse through the coating, barrier c ings generally have low permeability. Typical barrier coatings are two-compo. nent epoxy and polyurethane paints, vinyl and chlorinated rubber paints, and tar-based paints, just to mention a few. 2. Painis can also protect steel against corrosion if special pigments are added to the paint which provide an inhibitive effect to the steel, for example by inktbit- ing the corrosion process by passivation. Paints with such pigments must not be too dense, Water must be able to permeate and react with the pigments in order for them to contribute to the corrosion control. You may have heard mention of pigments providing protection of stee! in this way. Previously, the most widely Used pigments included red lead and zinc chromate, Due to health hazards these pigments are very little used today. Instead the pigment zine phosphate is used to an increasing extent, 3. Paints may protect steel against corrosion by “sacrificing” themselves. This is called the cathodic effect. Paints used for this method ot protecting steel are the zinc-rich paints. The zinc in the paint is sacrificed and provides the necessary protection to the steel The barrier formed when we apply paint is relatively thin, The film thickness re- quired for protecting the stee! depends on the environment the metal is exposed to. When exposed in air, paint systems in a total film thickness from approximately 100 um up to 300 wm are usually applied. ‘The paint must often be selected according to several requirements to the paint, Residual rust may be present on areas of a structure with difficult access. On such, areas a paint type is chosen which is tolerant of a rusty surface. On areas where regular maintenance is required, itis advantageous to chose a maintenance-friendly paint. Consequently, there are many circumstances to take into consideration when, selecting paints. However, the most important property of an anticorrosion paint is its resistance towards moisture and water. Water has an impact on almost all or- ‘ganic materials and is close to being a universal solvent. Paint system selection and use of EN ISO 12944 ‘The selection of paint systems for major projects within the onshore or offshore industries can be based on the standard EN ISO 12944 “Paints and Varnishes Corrosion Protection of Stee! Structures by Protective Paint Systems”. [8] EN ISO 12944 consists of 8 parts in total and was published in 1998, Accord- ing to the European Committee for Standardization, CEN (Comité Européen de Normalisation), a large part of the European countries have committed themselves to implement this standard, resulting in EN ISO 12944 also becoming national standards. 50 Corrosion prorectionEIN [SO 12944 “Paints and Varnishes - Corrosion Protection of Steel Structures ‘hy Protective Paint Systems" General introduction Classification of environments Design considerations ‘Types of surface and surface preparation Protective paint systems Laboratory performance test methods Execution and supervision of paint work Development of specifications for new work and maintenance There are different ways of protecting steel structures from corrosion. EN ISO 12944 deals with protection by paint systems and covers, in the various parts, all atures that are important in achieving adequate corrosion protection, ‘The standard deals with a number of surfaces consisting of unalloyed or low alloy steel and their treatment, for example by thermal spraying, hot dip galvaniz~ surfaces painted with prefabrication primer, zinc-clectroplated surfaces, et. 180 9226:1992 “Corrosion of metals and alloys — Corrosivity of atmospheres Determination of corrosion rate of standard specimens for the evaluation of corrosivity” classifies the environment according to 6 atmospheric corrosivity cat- cgories. The same classification is used in EN ISO 12944 where the following terms are used: Atmospheric corrosivity category CL verylow low medium high very high (industrial) very high (marine) ‘Additionally, three corrosivity categories have been defined for structures immersed in water or buried in soil. In the case of structures immersed in water or buried in soil the corrosion is of a general nature. It is therefore difficult to indicate any specific corrosivity categories. Corrosivity category Environment Im! Immersed in fresh water Im2 Immersed in sea water or brackish water Im3 Buried in soil ‘The standard defines the corrosivity categories based on mass or thickness loss after first year of exposure of standard test specimens made of unalloyed carbon see! or zinc. Both typical interior and exterior environments have been described. Examples of the various corrosivity categories as well as examples of paint systems within each category are given below. Many other modifications or combi- nations are possible. 2 Protecnon aGanst comnosion 52.Corrosivity category C Interior: Heated buildings with clean atmospheres (offices, shops, schools or hotels) Exterior: - Aggressivity: Insignificant Paint systems: None, systems in C2 can be used for aesthetical reasons Corrosivity category C2 Interior: Unheated buildings where condensation may occur (depots, sports halls) Exterior: Atmosphere with low levels of pollution (rural atmosphere) Aggressivity: Low Paint systems: Alkyd systems: 2-5 coats (80-200 um) Acrylic, chlorinated rubber, PVC: 2-4 coats (100-160 jum) Epoxy, polyurethane: 2-4 coats (120-160 pm) Zine epoxy: 1-2 coats (80 pum) Zinc ethyl silicate: I coat (80 xm) Corrosivity category C3 Interior: Production rooms with high humidity and some air pollution (food processing plants, production halls) Exterior: Urban and industrial, moderate SO, pollution, coastal areas with low salinity Aggressivity: Medium Paint systems: Alkyd systems: 3-5 coats (200 pm) Acrylic, chlorinated rubber, PVC: 3-5 coats (200-240 jm) Epoxy, polyurethane: 3-5 coats (160-240 wm) Zinc epoxy + acrylic, chlorinated rubber: 1-2 coats (160-200 um) Zinc ethyl silicate + epoxy + polyurethane: 3-4 coats (160-200 pm) Corrosivity category C4 Interior: Chemical plants, indoor swimming pools, coastal shipyards Exterior: Urban and industrial, moderate SO, pollution, coastal areas with moderate salinity Aggressivity: High Paint systems: Alkyd systems: 3-5 coats (200 ym) ‘Acrylic, chlorinated rubber, PVC: 3.5 coats (200-240 um) Epoxy, polyurethane: 3-6 coats (200-320 um) Zinc epoxy + epoxy + polyurethane: 4-5 coats (160-320 um) Zinc ethy| silicate + epoxy + polyurethane: 3-4 coats (240 um) Zinc ethyl silicate + acrylic, chlorinated rubber, PVC: 3-4 coats (240 ym) 52 Conrosion paorectionrrosivity category C5 Interior: Buildings or areas with almost permanent condensation and highly poltuted atmosphere Exterior: Industrial areas with high relative humidity and aggressive atmosphere M: Coastal and offshore areas with high salinity Aggressivity: Very high Paint systems: ‘Chlorinated rubber systems: 3-4 coats (200 pm) Epoxy, polyurethane: 3-6 coats (300-500 pm) Zinc epoxy + coal tar epoxy: 4 coats (400 um) inc ethyl silicate + epoxy + polyurethane: 3-5 coats (320 ym) Epoxy solvent-free: 1-2 coats (800 um) The corrosivity categories listed above are all intended for corrosion protection of stcel under atmospheric conditions. However, in case of selection of paint systems Tor structures or objects to be immersed in fresh water or sea water or to be buried in soil, the following categories apply’ Paint systems for the categories water and soil, Im1, Im2, and Im3 Exterior: Immersed in fresh water or sea water / brackish water or buried in soil Paint systems: Epoxy, polyurethane: 2-4 coats (360-380 jim) Zinc epoxy + coal tar epoxy: 5 coats (540 um) Epoxy solvent-free: 1-2 coats (800 wm) Coal tar epoxy: 1-5 coats (360-1000 jum) Coal tar polyurethane: 2 coats (400 im) The durability of the paint systems depends on factors such as surface preparation, conditions during application, quality of application, paint system, exposure con: tions, etc Within each corrosion class the paints systems are divided into 3 durability classes: class L (low), class M (medium) and class H (high). The durability is described by the following intervals: Low (L) 2-5 years Medium(M) 5-15 years High(H) more than 15 years, ‘The durability time is not linked to any “guarantee time”, but is a consideration ‘which can help the owner set up a maintenance program. The following conditions largely apply to all systems surface preparation requirements, primer types number of coats and total film thickness 2 Protecnon acansr conrosion 53,What are the influences by factors such as surface preparation, selected paint sys- tom, and dry film thickness on the durability of a paint system? Studies often show that the higher the requirements to surface preparation, sys- tem build-up as well as number of coats and total film thickness, the longer the durability of the paint system, Linings (organic) Not all surfaces are suitable for the use of paint 2s protection. There may be several reasons for this, including extensive mechanical or chemical impact, difficult ar- eas, or economic considerations. Linings largely protect the metal in the same way as paints by forming a barrier between the ambient environment and the metal. ‘The term lining is often associated with higher film thicknesses than when using paint. Some of these linings can be applied in thicknesses of several millimetres, some may be several centimetres thick. ‘Among the organic lining types currently in use are tar coatings, asphalt, vari- cus plastic coatings, bitumen, grease-like coatings, tapes, etc. “The methods of application of linings are numerous. Asphalt and tar linings are spray-applied, while various types of plastic and bitumen linings are wrapped around pipes in automatic machines. To a certain extent this is also the case of grease-like inings and other tapes. Metal coatings ‘A widely used method for corrosion protection is to apply a thin ‘metal to the metal to be protected. ‘Very many structures around us have external surfaces consisting of a metal coating. Familiar examples are hot dip galvanized lamp posts, crash barriers, gar- bage stands, and chromium-plated and nickel-plated parts on cars. ‘Metal coatings are applied by various methods. They can be applied electrolyti- cally (aqueous metal solutions), by dipping in molten metals (hot dip galvanizing) orby thermal spraying (metallization), +r of another Electroplating Metal coating of small steel components is done by means of electrolysis. Elec- twolysis utilizes an electrolyte with metal ions, anode and cathode, and a power source. By this method, dissolved metal ions from the electrolyte are deposited on the steel surface. The coatings applied to metals by means of electrolysis can be both more noble and less noble than the metal to be protected, For example, if zinc is applied on steel, the zinc will function as a sacrificial anode layer. If damage occurs down to the bulk metal, the zinc layer will corrode and not the steel. The thickness of electrolytic zinc layers is usually low, approxi- mately 5-20 ym. 54 Corrosion PROTECTIONChromium and nickel layers are usually applied for aesthetical reasons. The thickness of the layer is usually 5-40 pm for nickel and 03-2 ym for chromium. Such layers are more noble than steel, and in order to protect against corrosion they Inust be absolutely dense and holiday-free. If coating damage down to the steel occurs, the nickel/chromium layer will become the cathode and the stecl anode. In other words, there is a high area ratio between the cathode and the anode, This results in increased corrosion of the coated metal in the damaged area. tne EET steet one Nickel aa Pees sect —} igure 2.16 Damage of the nickel/chromium layer down to steel may result in severe pitting corrosion of the steel Dipping in molten metals ‘Another method for coating steel is dipping it in a bath with molten metal. The most widely used method is hot dip galvanizing. By dipping steel in a bath with molten zinc, a zinc layer of considerably higher thickness can be obtained than is the case of electroplated steel. The zinc thickness lepends on the steel type. On unkilled steel zine coatings above approximately 70 jim are rarely seen. On silicon-killed stee! a zinc thickness of over 200 ym can be obtained. Even though dipping in molten zinc is the most common protection process, steel can also be applied with coatings of aluminium, aluminium-zinc alloy and ‘ead by dipping it in molten metals of these types. ‘The corrosion rates of metal coatings depend on the ambient environment. A coating of 75 jum can protect steel in an inland area for 20 yeats, perhaps longer, but when exposed in aggressive industrial atmosphere the protection may pethaps only last for approximately 10 years. Pe Ree eer as fain NEI RERE SE (092106 alloy Steet Vigure 2.17 Cross cut of the coating on hot dip galvanized steel 2 Protection acaist connosion 55Thermal spraying (metallization) Another method for coating steel is by spray applying either a metal wire or metal powder melted by a gas flame or an electric are in a spray gun. The most common metals sprayed on for corrosion protection of steel are zine and aluminium and their alloys. ‘Thermal spraying of zinc in connection with corrosion protection of bridges has ‘generally been combined with paint systems. A common thickness of the zine coat ing is 100-150 pm plus approximately 200 pm paint. The lifetime of the zine coat ing is extended quite considerably when overcoated. In Norway some structures have been in use for more than twenty years, more or less without any damage. Such systems employing thermal spraying and paint systems are usually called duplex systems. Within the offshore oil industry thermal spraying has been in use for many years. In case of thermal spraying of pure aluminium and aluminium alloys a coat- ing of 150-400 um is usually applied as well as a paint system. If the temperature of the structure is below approximately 120°C, an epoxy or polyurethane system in a thickness of approximately 200 um is usually applied. When the temperature is higher than this, heat-resistant paints are used, for example aluminium silicone paints ina thickness of approximately 50 pm. Cathodic proctection Cathodic protection can, in short, be described as a process where the metal to be protected becomes the cathode in a galvanic cell. As mentioned above, the cathode is notattacked by corrosion. The attack takes place at the anode. In practice, this is utilized by putting the metal to be protected into galvanic contact with a less noble ‘metal (the sacrificial anode) or by using impressed current. Cathodic protection, both in theory and in practice, has been known since 1824 ‘when Sir Humphrey Davy described this form of corrosion protection. The method is used for the protection of ships, offshore platforms, and oil and gas pipes in sea ‘water, etc, The method is also used to prevent localized corrosion on aluminium and stainless steel alloys. In recent years cathodic protection has also been used for protecting concrete constructions, How does this type of cathodic protection work? The rate of corrosion of a metal in an electrolyte to a very high extent depends on the potential of the metal. The attack on the metal can be reduced by making the ‘metal more negative, i.e. lowering the potential. ‘As a further illustration, a diagram showing the potential (voltage) relative to the pH value for iron in water will be discussed. The diagram is called the Pourbaix- diagram after Marcol Pourbaix who invented it, Similar diagrams are also avail- able for other metals, ‘The solid lines in the diagram indicate a transition to areas where the steel either 56 Contosion PROTECTIONcorrodes, is passive (slight corrosion) or is immune (no corrosion). The dashed lines show the lower and upper stability limits for water. Below the lower line water is transformed into hydrogen gas (H,), above the upper line water is transformed into oxygen gas (O,). Whether the metal corrodes or not (see the diagram) depends on the potential of the metal and the pH value of the solution. yy GY Passivation mune oad : ‘Corrosion Higure 2.18 Pourbaix-diagram for steel in water In the Pourbaix-diagram reference is made to the Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE). Whenever potentials are to be measured under practical conditions, it is always necessary to use other sorts of reference electrode, for example copper! Copper sulphate, silver/silver chloride or zinc. The reference electrodes will have this potential in relation to the standard hy- rogen electrode, see also Table 1.2: Silver/silver chloride in sea water (SSC) 40.25 volt Copperlcopper sulphate in sea water (SCE) +0.32 volt Zinc in sea water -0.78 volt Example I stee! is immersed in sea water with a pH value of 7, a potential of the steel of ‘approximately -0.40 volt versus SHE will be measured. This potential corresponds to the approximately ~0.65 volt versus the silver/silver chloride electrode and the saturated calomel electrode shown in the galvanic series in Table 1.3. The point is plotted on the Pourbaix-diagram, and we will now take a look at what happens if the conditions around the steel are slightly changed. 2 Prorecrion acanst connosion 574) If we lower the pH value, making the water more acidic, this will result in continued corrosion since the steel remains within the corrosive area, The como- sion rate increases with the reduction of the pH value. ) If we increase the pH value, the water becomes more alkaline, and the steel is moved into the area where itis passivated. The corrosion rate is reduced, but not entirely stopped. ) If we apply a more positive potential, the metal will again be transferred to the passive area, This method does not make the metal immune against corrosion, but a layer is formed on the metal surface which reduces the rate of corrosion This is called anodic protection, 4) Lf we apply a more negative potential, the stcel will be seen to move down into the immune area. In the border area where corrosion stops at -0.65 volt meas: ured versus SHE slight corrosion may still arise, but at potentials lower than 0.65 volt measured versus SHE the metal dissolution will be close to zero. This type of protection is called cathodie protection. thas now been demonstrated that itis possible to protect steel by changing the potential in a more negative direction. The above example is for steeV/water but in principle it also applies to steel in sea water, Practical measurements For practical corrosion protection of steel in sea water we may for example use sacrificial anodes in order to lower the potential of the steel down into the immune area. The pH value of sea water varies only slightly and is usually around 8. AS illustrated in Table 1.3 the potential of stec! in sea water is approximately -0.65 volt versus SCE (saturated calomel electrode) and SSC (silver/silver chloride elec: trode). Under these conditions the steel will corrode. ‘The established potential criterion for obtaining protection of steel at normal ‘temperatures in sea water is-0.80 volt versus SSC and SCE, which corresponds to 087 volt versus CSE (coppericopper sulphate), see Table 1.2, ‘The potential of a piece of zinc in sea Water measured in the same way is ap- proximately -1.0 volt, sce Table 1.3. Under these conditions the zine will corrode. Ifzine and steel are electrically connected, the potential will adjust to a potential between the potentials of each of the metals. A potential of -0.85 volt versus SSC is easily obtained and the corrosion of the steel is stopped. However, after the cou- pling the zine will corrode — sacrifice itself - at a higher rate. From the diagram it can also be seen why reinforcing steel in concrete does not corrode. At a pH value of 12-13 the steel is passive. It is not until a pH value of around 9-9.5 that corrosion of the reinforcing steel occurs. ‘The more negative the potential of the steel, the lower the rate of corrosion. Itis not necessary to achieve a potential of the steel lower than -0.80 to -0.85 V versus SSC in order to obtain satisfactory protection. At even lower potentials hydrogen ‘gas is formed which may result in hydrogen brittleness of the steel. Paint systems ‘on stee! will form blisters under such conditions and the coating will detach com- pletely due to extensive formation of hydroxyl ions (OF). 58 Corrosion protection‘Cathodic protection is used to protect structures both in water and soil. Both ciivironments provide the necessary distribution of protective current in such a way that the structure is sufficiently protected, (Oy ase fe ve we 1 Permanent i—| an ole Higure 2.19 Cathodic protection of steel in sea water he Norwegian Oil Directorate has provided some guidelines for the dimensioning ‘of cathodic protection of both uncoated and coated stee! in sea water. In the North Sea the following protective current requirements have been established: Table 2.2. Guidelines for selection of current densities in order to dimension cathodic protection of uncoated steel at sea water temperature [9] se en v | m4 | | | | | usta ee St a Son {up to 57) 150 85 | 100 Northern part of North Sea | | res (mw) | a | ext sane sone dey | | os 5 jx é | 38 2 Protecmon canst conRosiON 59An offshore structure should reach the desired protective value within three months after having been permanently erected. In orderto achieve this a high initial capac- ity is necessary. A high initial capacity results in the formation of caleareous depos- its on the steel surface. For this reason, a lower average current density is required to maintain the protective potential. Guidelines for the selection of current density at the dimensioning of cathodic protection of thin film coated or painted steel surfaces are given in the table below Table 2.3 Guidelines for selection of current densities in order to dimension cathodic protection of thin film coated steel surfaces at sea water temperature [9] Lifetime | Current density, mA/m? wears) [initial _| In mic-operation | nal 5 a 10 a | 6 12 20 4 45 30 30 | 4 2 60 40 L4 35 90 Cathodic protection of metals can be obtained by means of two methods: | The metal to be protected is coupled to sacrificial anodes of a less noble metal, like for example zinc, aluminium or magnesium. 2. The metal to be protected is coupled to an external power source, usually a DC rectifier. Often inert, permanent anodes of lead, graphite, magnetite, platinum or platinized titanium are used. Inert anodes are anode types which are con- sumed at a minimum rate over time. Using sacrificial anodes ‘As mentioned above, cathodic protection works because the metal in the galvanic coupling becomes the cathode. Which material can then become the anode in such circuit or such a system? From the galvanic series in sea water all alloys which are more ignoble than steel can theoretically be used. However, usually anodes made of aluminium, zine or magnesium are used. The question arises, is it really as simple as this? The answer is both yes and no. ‘An aluminium anode weighing for example 100 kg mounted on an offshore oil platform will not reduce the corrosion on the platform to any great extent. There- fore, itis important during the dimensioning of the cathodic protection to consider the relative area sizes of the cathode and the anode. The protection depends on the distance between the anode and the area to be protected. Consequently, the po tioning of the anodes is often based on previous experience. In recent years, simu- lation/calculation models for cathodic protection have been worked out by means of advanced computer programs, Ta case of cathodic protection by means of sacrificial anodes the anodes supply 60 —_Connosion prorectionthe current necessary to protect the steel. Ifthe anodes work satisfactorily, they will eventually be totally consumed. After some years it will be necessary to replace the modes, However, this depends on how much current the structure requires over time Sacrificial anodes Figure 2.20 Cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes Aluminium anodes are commonly used for under water protection in the offshore ‘nulustry. This is mainly due to the weight savings obtained compared with zinc. Vic current output from aluminium anodes is higher than for zinc anodes. This is ‘iuportant with a view to the lifetimes of the anodes and how often they need to be iephiced, Magnesium anodes cannot be used for cathodic protection in sea water. The sell corrosion of magnesium in sea water is very high. On the other hand, magne- sain wire finds widespread use for stripping of tanks on board ships. Stripping is ‘he removal of rust and mill scale. Large quantities of magnesium wire are welded tw the steel surface in for example ballast tanks. After the wire has been fixed the aks are filled with sea water, which acts as the electrolyte. The steel becomes iphly overprotected. The overprotection causes the formation of large volumes of fiydrogen gas atthe surface, causing mill scale and rust to detach from the surface. Proper cleaning with high pressure hosing before subsequent surface preparation ‘unl painting of the tanks is of course a must. Consequently, the use of this type of amxles is limited to water tanks or pipelines in soil. In case of protection in soil, the unwxles (zine or magnesium anodes) are usually placed in a coke filling mixed with fypsum and common salt to ensure suitable conductivity. ‘On vessels both the method of attachment and the shape of the sacrificial anodes «we of major importance due to the drag of the ship in the water. The best method is tw weld on the anodes in preference to attaching them with screwed-on fasteners ‘which may be shaken loose. tn case of cathodic protection in sea water calcium and magnesium salts are dleposited which have a protective effect and with time reduce the current require- ments, The West Sole B-platform in the British sector of the North Sea was put into ‘operation in 1966, Here a combination of paint and cathodic protection was used, Under water the platform was painted with coal tar and additionally protected by 2.46 zine anodes with a total weight of a little more than 19 tons. After almost 20 yeuty in service this was still reported to provide protection of the platform [10]. 2 ProTecMiON Acamst conposion 64.Figure 2.21 Risers on the Oseberg-platform protected by use of coal-tar epoxy, epoxy and sacrificial anodes of aluminium Cathodic protection with impressed current ‘The principle of an impressed current installation is quite similar to that described for the sacrificial anodes, however, some differences should be noted. A system based on impressed current is more complicated and more expensive to install than the systems with sacrificial anodes, “The necessary protection is provided by the permanent anodes through a recti- fier transmitting direct current. One great advantage of the impressed current in- stallation for cathodic protection isthe use of anodes which are scarcely consumed, ‘The anode material is more noble than the metal to be protected. Itis subject to very lite attack. Anode materials often used are graphite, magnetite, platinum and plati- nized titanium. Protection with impressed current is used for a number of purposes, including the protection of pipelines, stee! pilings in soil, floating docks, etc. Impressed cur- rent installations are today very rarely used on offshore structures. But CONOCO’s 62 Corrosion proreenionMurchison-platform in the North Sea having a surface area of 80 000 m? is pro- ‘ected by one hundred anodes, and fifty reference electrodes are in place [11]. Pre: vious projects with impressed current installations have experienced problems with breakdown of current-carrying cables to anodes and broken down anodes. As a result of these circumstances protection with sacrificial anodes is often chosen. 1 Permanent anodes 2 Reference electrodes 2 Control unt 4 Registration unit 5 Recifer unt {6 GaNvanic connection between ruder and hull 7- Sipring on propetior shat Impressed current cathodic protection installation on a ship In order to obtain even protection of a painted ship’s hull the anodes are fitted Ihclow the waterline along the ship's side. On suitable sites reference electrodes are pplaced. They are used for monitoring thatthe ship has the right protection, Current! voltage are automatically adjusted on the basis of the readings taken ‘The anodes are insulated from the underlying paint system by use of an anode shield created by a 0.8-2 mm thick layer of epoxy filler applied in a diameter of 2- 5 metres around the anodes. This is done in order to prevent the paint system from teaking down due to the alkaline environment developed around the anodes. Elec- tronic control makes the system self-regulating. And if defects arise, for example ige to the paint coating system, the current supply is automatically increased Itis not unproblematic to use impressed current installations for the protection ‘of buried pipelines. It is important that the buried anodes can supply current over large distances. Usually a coke or coal filling with gypsum and salt is used to increase the conductivity. It was mentioned at the beginning of this chapter that cathodic protection had heen used for protecting reinforcing iron in concrete constructions. Impressed cur- ‘ent installation is used as a protective system on bridges and road systems world- wide. ‘When impressed current is used, itis possible to change the potential if arises, This cannot be done in the case of sacrificial anodes. Combination of cathodic protection and paint coating systems Before the Oseberg B-platform was built, very few submerged steel parts of the 2 Provecron acamsr corrosion — 63fixed platforms in the North Sea were painted below the water line. They are solely protected by cathodic protection with sacrificial anodes. In spite of the deposit of calcium on the unpainted steel, a large number of anodes are required for cathodic protection or the most recent offshore projects, systems combining paint coatings and cathodic protection have been used under water on platforms in the North Sea. In order to save weight and to obtain an expected lifetime of forty years, the jacket of the Oseberg B-platform was painted with coal tar epoxy in a total of 400 pm [12] At the same time such a combined protective system reduces the quantity of sacri- ficial anodes required. Cathodic protection is in many cases used as a supplement to ensure satisfactory protection of the steel in case of damage to the paint coating film, In order for a paint coating system to be suitable together with cathodic protec tion, the following conditions must be fulfilled ‘The paint coating selected should be able to withstand alkalis as alkalis will be formed at the cathode. Epoxy, coal tar epoxy and vinyl coatings are suitable in combination with cathodic protection. Additionally, also asphalt coatings are used. However, the binders of drying oils, alkyd, phenolic resins, polyester and epoxy ester and modified chlorinated rubber paints are broken down in contact with alka- li Paint coating fl Rectifier 1 Tiavese +h pF Reference l ioctoce (@ sieet «Gas ana | | aronce: Y formation Permanent Painted Hydroxide formation, the ‘anode stect paint coating bisters Figure 2.23 Overprotection Overprotection In summary, cathodic protection is a technique used for reducing corrosion, Sacri- ficial anodes or noble permanent anodes supply sufficient amounts of cathodic current for the dissolution of metal at the anode to be insignificant. Incase of correct cathodic protection of steel in sea water, a voltmeter, inserted between the steel and a reference electrode (SSC), should show a potential between 0.80 and 0.85 volt. Ifthe potential is further reduced, down towards -1,00 volt, overprotection may arise. Overprotection causes the formation of hydroxy! ions (OH) and hydrogen gas (H.), 64 Connasion PRotecTonThis phenomenon is usually called cathodic disbonding. Cathodic disbonding often appears as blistering together with the formation of white or beige calcareous deposits on and around the damaged areas. How extensive the calcareous deposit- ing is, will depend on the hardness of the water. Normally the paint system will not detach, but the blistering is relatively dense. Cathodic disbonding may arise both in the case of sacrificial anodes and im- pressed current with potentials exceeding approximately ~1.15 to 1.20 volt meas- ured versus CuSO, [13] ‘The formation of alkali (OH’) in the blisters protects the steel. If the blisters are broken, for example in connection with the docking of a ship, the steel under the ppaint system can be obyerved to have a grey appearance. Rupture of the blisters inereases the area to be protected and the power supply requirements increase. ‘Severo corosion 060 - Corosion Some protection 088 100% cathodteprotection| ‘Slight overprotection aa — verprotection and possible |] paint coating camage a8 4 Figure 2.24 Potentials of steel measured versus a copper/copper sulphate refer- ence electrode Corrosion inhibitors A corrosion inhibitor is the common term for a chemical or substance acded in small quantities to the corrosive medium to reduce or obstruct a corrosion process, Some people may perhaps link the use of inhibitors to the addition of chemicals, to pickling (acid) baths in order to limit the corrosion attack on steel, But the inhibi- tors find a wider area of use than that, including the use in connection with oil production and in the cooling water of circulating piping systems. Depending on whether they affect the anode or cathode reaction, they are called anodic or cathodic inhibitors. The purpose of an anodic inhibitor is to retard the reaction taking place at the anode: the metal dissolution. The cathodic inhibitor 2 Protection acawst consosioN 65ust retard the reaction at the cathode: the oxygen reduction. A few substances can inhibit both reactions. ‘What do the inhibitors consist of? And how do they work? The inhibitors are often chemicals like chromate, nitrite, phosphate or polyphosphate. They may have ‘many different ways of working, Some form a thin film on the surface to inhibit the reactions. Others are absorbed at anodic areas of the surface. Cathodic inhibitors are oft cen if too small amounts of inhibitor are added so that not all cathodic areas are eliminated, at any rate some of the active cathode surface will be reduced. Too little addition of anodic inhibitor may be “dangerous”, because in this case not all anodic areas are removed. AS a result, the corrosion will intensify at the remaining areas. How much the rate of corrosion will be retarded when adding the inhibitor de~ pends on how effective it is. It is important to continuously control how much inhibitor is present in a system. In this way an eye can be kept on whether there is sufficient inhibitor available to protect the metal. Corrosion inhibitors are used in a number of areas in acids for cleaning of steel surfaces for mill scale and rust before hot dip galvanizing (pickling) in anti-freeze (ethylene glycol) for cars, in the coolant used for the cutting, turning, milling and drilling of metals The paint industry also uses inhibiting pigments which, in the same way as de- scribed above, are to provide the metal with an effective protection. As examples of such pigments iron oxide and zine phosphate can be mentioned. Corrosion monitoring Corrosion attacks may occur in spite of all the best efforts done to prevent it. It is therefore important to have control routines which include inspection and monitor- ing in order to prevent a structure from breaking down. Visual inspections carried out on a regular basis are important parts of the monitoring process. But in order to be able to carry out visual controls we depend upon the access possibilities for taking a closer look at for example damaged areas, This is not always possible. Examining corrosion attacks inside process systems presents a problem. In order to discover corrosion attacks on inaccessible areas, for example inside piping systems, other methods must be employed. There are many different ways of determining the condition of the material. One way is ultrasonic measurements. This method is used for searching for cracks or pittings on metals. The instruments used are small and the readings are taken on the outside of the pipes. In liquid-carrying systems weight loss coupons can be utilized. This method involves inserting small coupons or specimens of the same material quality as the pipe into the flow of liquid. The coupons are placed parallel to the direction of flow in such a way that the corrosion attack will be equivalent to the one on the pipe 66 Corrosion enorecnonwall, After a period of time the samples are examined. The weighing enables us to determine the weight loss of the metal. This can then be converted into a corrosion rate of for example millimetres per year. The method is relatively time-consuming if reliable results are to be obtained, Linear polarization probe Fastenars for weight loss coupons > iW RED X X yo oo Closing valve losing vale Figure 2.25 Measuring methods for control of corrosion rate Two other measuring methods widely used are measurement of electrical resistance and polarization resistance. ‘When measuring electrical resistance the resistance of a small sample, often & thin wire, of the metal is measured. A probe of the metal in question is placed in the corrosive liquid. As the wire corrodes, the resistance of the wire increases due to the cross-section of the wire becoming smaller. The increase in resistance becomes a ‘measure of the corrosion. This method tells us how much of the metal has corroded. But the method provides no information on which type of corrosion is occurring on the wire or in the system. This method is often used in connection with dosage of water treatment. The method does not require so Jong exposure times to provide results as when the weight loss is calculated. The measurement of polarization resistance is an electrochemical method where a probe is provided with two electrodes of the material to be examined. The probe is mounted inside the system and a DC voltage applied between the electrodes. The ‘method provides an instantaneous value of how fast the metal corrodes. The method depends upon the liquid having a sufficiently high conductivity, Both of the latter methods have gained great practical importance, in particular {for the monitoring of corrosion on offshore installations. Literature 1 Gullmann, Jan; Knotkova, Dagmar et al; Weathering steels in building ~ cases of corrosion damage and their prevention: Research cooperation between the Swedish Corrosion Institute and GV. Akimov’s State Research Institute for the Protection of Materials, Czechoslovakia; Bulletin No. 94, Stockholm 1985. 2 John W. Peait: Unpainted weathering steel bridges. Corrosion mechanisms ‘and maintenance alternatives. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings. January 1991. Pages 36-42. 2 PROTECTION AGAINST CORROSION 673 EB. Bardal: Korrosjon og korrosjonsvern. Tapit, Trondheim 1985. 4 EN. Schmidt: Exterior Durability of Organic Coatings, FMQ International Pub- lications Ltd., Surrey 1988. 5 E. Mattsson: Elektrokemi och Korrosionsltra, Bulletin nr. 100, Stockholm 1987. 6 KA. Chandler and D.A. Bayliss: Corrosion Protéction of Steel Structures. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, London 1985, 7 NACE Standard RP 0178-2003. Standard Recommended Practice: Fabrica- tion Details, Surface Finish Requirements, and Proper Design Considerations ‘for Tanks and Vessels to Be Lined for Immersion Service. 8 EN ISO 12944:1998 “Paints and Varnishes - Corrosion Protection of Steel Structures by Protective Paint Systems”. 9 Oljedirektoratet: Veiledning for korrosjonsbeskyttelse av innreininger. 10 D. Faithurst: Konferansen ~ UK Corrosion 84 — Lecture 1/1, ICorrSt. Bit mingham, England. 11 KR. Trethewey and J. Chamberlain: Corrosion — For students of science and ‘engineering. Longman Group UK Limited 1988. 12 RE. Lye: A Corrosion Protection System for a North Sea Jacket, Materials Performance, May 1990, pages 13-18. 13 JPCL, Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, June 1990, pages 9-11 68 Corrosion prorecon3 Surface preparation and application equipment Introduction ‘This chapter is divided into two parts. The first partis about surface preparation equipment. To a very large extent the condition, location and required degree of cleanliness of the substrate determine which equipment must be used for the sur- face preparation. There is a wide variation in the various groups of equipment, from the use of wirebrushes and scrapers for simple pretreatment to the use of blast cleaning equipment where the requirements for cleanliness and capacity are high. Water blasting equipment (ultra high pressure water jetting equipment) removes, in an environmentally friendly way, water-soluble contaminants together with rust and old paint without the use of abrasives, ‘The second part discusses application equipment. Also in the case ofthis group of equipment there is a wide distance between extremities. On the one hand, we have hand tools like brushes, rollers, mitts or gloves, and, on the other hand, ad- vanced multi-component spray systems and fully automated, robotized plants for paints and powder coatings. Increasing environmental awareness and stricter regulations of the emission of hazardous, volatile components in paints and varnishes have forced the manufac- turers of paints and application equipment to new thinking. Within industry, ship- ping and the offshore oil industry large quantities of paint are spray-applied, and today solvent-less or solvent-free paints are used to a very great extent. The manu- facturers of spray equipment have developed the equipment to be suitable for these, often highly viscous, paints and made it more powerful, and in some cases they can offer heating devices in order to lower the viscosity and thereby improve sprayability and flow properties. Within finishes paints, where the requirements to the result of the application are very strict, the content of harmful solvents has been very high in order to obtain ‘optimum flow properties. In order to reduce the volume of harmful solvents emitted it has now become possible to use water-bome finishes to replace some of the ‘3 SURFACE PREPARATION AND APPLICATION EQUIPMENT 69solvent-borne types. ‘The manufacturers have developed spray equipment which produces less spray fog than conventional equipment. This has been achieved by combining airless equipment and conventional equipment (low pressure equipment), reducing the atomizing pressure and increasing the volume of air of conventional spraying. In some cases the atomizing air is heated. Surface preparation equipment Wirebrushes Hand tools used forstee! structures are wirebrushes, scrapers, hammers and needle guns. In addition, various types of grinding paper and pads are used. ‘Two to six row, single-hand wirebrushes and long-handled large brushes are available. The most common single-hand brushes have two, three and four rows ‘The two row types are used for comers and crevices. They are toc small and soft for large areas where brushes with more rows or long-handled brushes should be used. The biggest brushes have a large area of contact to the substrate. Great power ‘must be applied if the brush is to do more than just “skim” across the rust. This is also a problem even when using long-handled brushes where the handle is held with two hands all the time. If multi-row brushes are used, itis also difficult to clean grooves and pits in the substrate. On such sites the tip of the brush must be used. Brushes without a raised handle are worn mostly at the front. This is because these brushes must be slightly tipped when used in order to avoid bruised knuckles. After some time in use 2-3 cm at the front of the brush will have lost the steel bristles or have too short bristles. The resulting bared end makes it impossible te wirebrush inside corners. We can solve the problem either by cutting off the bared end as far as to the “fresh” bristles, or we may simply replace the brush. corre Figure 3.1 If the wirebrush has a “straight” handle, the brush is tipped forwar and the wire bristles are worn mostly near the tip = Wirebrushes with a raised handle are worn more evenly because the brush can bt held flat against the substrate without the hand grazing the surface. swarm Figure 3.2 Wirebrushes with a raised handle can be held flat against the substrat without bruising the knuckles. The wire bristles will be worn more evenly In narrow crevices, holes and notches special brushes are used. Within the shippin industry these are usually called notchling brushes. 70 Corrosion ProrectIonFigure 3.3 The notchling brush resembles a small round painting brush No matter how thoroughly wirebrushing is carried out, itis impossible to remove all rust. The best result is obtained when the rust to be removed only consists of a thin layer. If wirebrushing is done on thick rust layers, the result may easily be burnis tead of rust removal Scrapers The more rust and old paint to be removed, the more cutting power must be em- ployed. In this case a scraper can be among the tools to use. Both wirebrushing and scraping should actually be carried out irrespective of whether there is much or little rust and old paint to be removed. Mainly, three types of scrapers are used: angle scraper, triangle scraper and tungsten carbide scraper. Angle scrapers in different sizes are the scrapers most widely used for steel substrates. They have two edges. One is held at an angle of 90° against the substrate, the other from 0° up to 60°. Angle scrapers are sturdy and the larger versions can in ‘many cases be used for striking or scraping off weld spatter. A disadvantage of these scrapers is that they become blunt more quickly than the tungsten carbide scrapers. (— hernoe a Figure 3.4 Scrapers ‘The angle scrapers must be sharpened by means of a file. In practice this will prove to be quickly done if file is carried in the pocket. ‘The triangle scrapershave three edges, Consequently, the scrapers remain sharp longer than the angle scrapers. However, triangular scrapers are not used very extensively for steel. They may be perceived as having too little weight. The blades are relatively thin, They can be sharpened but are also replaceable. Some scraper designs are not robust enough. The sharp corners of the blades are handy for clean- ing of crevices, 3 Sunrace pnerananion AND APPUCATION EQUIPMENT 74.Scrapers with tungsten carbide blades are the sharpest and cut most effectively. They remain sharp fora long time, but are easily broken when scraping off protra sions ete, When thick rust layers and thick coats of old paint are to be removed, also these scrapers may be feit to be too light, Effective scraping demands that the seraper is held with both hands. This also applies to the triangle scrapers. Electric and pneumatic power tools. When major jobs are to be carried out, compressed-air powered (pneumatic) ma- chines are most commonly used. The electrically powered tools are sensitive to the fine dust produced daring the wirebrushing. In addition, they are quite easily over- Joaded. The compressed-air types are robust, allow heavy loads and are not sensi tive to dust. The machines must be lubricated with pneumatic tool oil. The oil both, lubricates and prevents any moisture in the compressed air from freezing. A lubri- cating cup or oil-mist lubricator can be mounted on the air inlet. The oil can also be fed directly into the air line, but it is easy to fill in too much. If too much oil is, introduced, the excess oil wil be carried out of the machine together with the ex- haust air. Oil will then be sprayed onto cleaned surfaces or surfaces to be treated. It is often difficult to detect the oil because it may appear in spots or as a thin film on the surface, In either case, all oil must be removed before any paint is applied. ‘On the machines (both electric and pneumatic) so-called cup brushes are mounted. They are available in different sizes and are selected on the basis of the machine power and the condition of the surface. The peripheral speed of the brushes should be between 25 nv/s and 35 m/s. They can be made from many single, crimped wires, ‘or wires twisted together in knots. Knotted cup brushes are usually more stiff than those with single wires. The wire diameter can be within the range of 0.3 mm and 0.5 mm. ff =~ Figure 3.5. Pneumatic tool with cup brush ‘The tool must not be pressed so hard against the surface that the Wires are flattened, Ifa severely rusted substrate is being brushed, there is great risk that the surface will become burnished. The degree of burnishing increases with decreasing stiff- ness ofthe brush, and ifthe bristles are flattened out. A burnished surface results in poor adhesion of the paint, and the major part of the rust remains attached to the surface In addition to the particles ripped from the surface during the brushing, eventu- ally also bristles from the brush will come off. Consequently, it is not enough to protect only one’s eyes with goggles. Bare skin must be covered because loose wires may penetrate like needles, : 72 Connosion prorectionMechanical grinding equipment For removal of rust and old paint flexible fibre discs mounted on a rubber roundel ed. The flexible fibre discs are provided with glued-on abrasives in the shape of larger or smaller grains. Grains with a diameter from 0.25 mm to 0.4 mm are widely used. When welding seams are to be ground and protrusions ete. to be removed, hard dises are used, or mechanical grinding largely the same machines are used as for mechanical wirebrushing. A disadvantage of mechanical grinding is that it is impossible to clean craters and pits in the surface. Besides, melting paint will get stuck on the dlise and “seal” it. Mechanical grinding usually produces a cleaner surface on smooth substrates ‘han mechanical wirebrashing. Grinding roundels, grinding wheels and grinding pads Scotch-Brite Clean N Strip roundels and wheels are eminently suited for the re- moval of rust, old paint, oxide films and temporary chromate protection on galva~ Is used in the grinding roundels and grinding wheels have n open construction, are flexible and without metal particles. The ground-off ma- terial does not stick and consequently does not seal off the roundels or wheels. Scotch-Brite is also available as grinding pads. Grinding paper and pads are useful tools for removal of loosely adhering rust nd may also be used advantageously for roughening of painted surfaces before the Tesh coat is applied. 1 Gending materals Figure 3.6 3 ‘SURFACE PREPARATION AND APPLICATION EQuENENT 73Figure 3.8 Scotch-Brite roundels TA Connosion protectionAnother type is the pneumatic chisel. The chisel itself is mounted inside the tubular tool body where itis moved quickly back and forth by a small air motor. The chisels, ‘may have edges of different widths depending on the size and shape of the substrate. ‘The needle gunis the most widely used pneumatic impact tool for the removal of rust and old paint. The tool is very similar to the pneumatic chisel, but is often rather bigger. Instead of a chisel a large number of needles do the actual job. The number of needles can be from 20 to just over 100. Their lengths are from 480 to ‘500 mm and the diameter from 2 to 4 mm, The needles move independently of each other. Consequently, itis easy to get to clean cavities, comers, angles, bolts, rivets, nuts, welding seams and other irregularities. Th contrast to the pneumatic rust hammers and chisels, which may leave ugly ‘marks in the steel if not cautiously used, the needle guns are more “gentle”, also in the case of rather rough treatment. Flame-cleaning equipment In principle, flame-cleaning equipment is similar to equipment used for flame cut- ting. It consists of cylinders for fuel gas (acetylene) and oxygen, pressure regula- tors, supply hoses and a nozzle. The nozzle has a special design for flame-cleaning. Usually its width is from 50 to 200 mm. To the front of the head are a number of orifices where gas mixtures stream out. When the nozzle is lit, athin flame (weld ing flame) is produced in each orifice. In some cases round nozzles or nozzles with a different design are used. In order to obtain a good result the pressure and the mixture of gases must be regulated correctly. Be fo Omen Aceiene Figure 3.11 Flame-cleaning equipment Equipment for dry open-nozzle blasting Dry open-nozzle blasting is carried out by using equipment powered by compressed. air. In principle, two types of equipment are available. They work, respectively, according to the ejector principle pressure chamber principle Ejector equipment “Most units of this type are closed cabinets with cleaning and recovery/recirculation of the abrasive. The operator carries out the blast cleaning and handles the workpieces 76 —Connosion PROTECTIONthrough two openings in the front panel of the cabinet. Some of the units are more ‘or less automated or robotized. In the case of blasting in the open air itis extremely difficult, not to say impos- sible, to recover, clean and recycle the abrasives. As a result, other and less expen- sive types of abrasives are used in the case of open-nozzle blasting than for blasting inside cabinets. During the blasting process, the equipment draws in the abrasives from abag, a ‘container or a cup mounted underneath. This equipment is best suited for small and less demanding blasting jobs. Figure 3.12 illustrates schematically how an ejector system is designed. It oper- ates in such a way that the abrasive is drawn from a container by underpressure formed by a high-velocity jet of air between the air nozzle and the blasting nozzle. The abrasive then hits this stream of air and is propelled against the workpiece. The weceleration (velocity increase) of the abrasive takes place during the time it takes tor it to pass through the blasting nozzle. This time is too short for the abrasive to reich the same velocity as the compressed air. In other words, the compressed air is ‘oot capable of transmitting all the velocity (kinetic energy) to the abrasives. ‘The abrasives will be found to have approximately 40% lower speed when leav- ing the nozzle in an ejector system compared to a pressure chamber system. In the pressure chamber system the mixing of abrasives and compressed air takes place at tte outlet of the dosage valve. Consequently, on its way through the hosing system (blasting hoses) the compressed air has sufficient time to transmit almost all its Kinetic energy to the abrasives. ‘As mentioned above, the abrasives are drawn from a container in the ejector system, This may be in the shape of a conical hopper, cylindrical or box-shaped, or simply the container in which the abrasives are supplied. This all depends on which type of equipment is used. ‘A common feature of all the types is that the suction is produced by underpressure, she ejector effect. If the hopper is tight, without any supply of air, the transporta- tion of abrasives will only proceed until the hopper is empty of air. Without a supply of additional air or “false air”, a vacuum is built up in the hopper, and the tansportation stops. Compressed air Airnozzle lector - be DT ‘setion nozzle cure 3.12 Schematic representation of suction-feed blasting system, ejector pninciple ‘The same would happen with equipment drawing the abrasives froma bag. When the suction nozzle (pipe) is thrust into the abrasives, care should be taken to avoid too densely packed abrasives around the head. Nor must the suction pipe get stuck ‘3 SURFACE PREPARATION AND APPLICATION EQuIeMENT 77to the bottom of the bag, Manufacturers of the equipment have solved some of these problems by making an adjustable opening in the suction pipe to admit false air. The same problems mentioned here will be known from vacuum-cleaning of carpets. If we are not careful, the mouthpiece will stick fast to the carpet. The vyacuum-cleaner tube is also provided with an adjustable opening (valve) for admit- ting false air Some of the blasting cabinets are provided with equipment both for cjector and pressure blasting. The abrasives used in the ejector systems are usually fine-grained. They can be glass beads or aluminium oxide with diameters down to for example 0.2 mm. As the grains are so small, they pack closely together and there is very little room for airbetween them, As result ofthis, the abrasives easily become densely packed in the container and in the intake system. Packing and blocking of the system are usually caused by a too big quantity of abrasive having been drawn in. Humidity within the system may be another cause of this. ‘As mentioned above, most ejector installations are of the cabinet type. They can bbe bench-top models or Larger floor models. ‘Table 3.1 lists technical data for three different-size cabinets. They are all made after the same design and consist of the cabinet itself with “blasting chamber” blasting gun air gun for removal of dust container for the abrasives dust collector/filter for removal of dust and cleaning of abrasives working lighting various electric motors electrie/pneumatic controls Additionally, a compressor is required that can supply a sufficient amount of ai at the necessary pressure, For special purposes tumble baskets and tumtables can be supplied as well as guides for horizontal or vertical movements of the gun, fixed ‘guns and other more or less automated or robotized equipment. The cabinets can be equipped with two or more guns. Today, such a rich variety of cabinets is available that abrasive blast cleaning of ‘manually handled workpieces is covered. In addition, specially designed systems can be supplied if for example the treatment is part of a mass-producing line in a workshop. Excepting the automated and robotized systems, the operators carry out the blast cleaning and handling of the items through two openings in the front panel. The openings are usually fitted with two long rubber gloves. The gloves can also be detachable. They protect the operators’ hands from being injured by the abrasives. A window allows the operator to constantly monitor his or her activities, or super- vise the automated blasting. Normally blasting is stopped and started by means of apedal switch. Some cabinets have a door at either side for placing of the workpieces. Others have a door at the front while on others the entire top can be tipped up. ‘The abrasives are cleaned and recirculated in the cabinet blasting process. The cleaning process removes, with rather varying effect and quality, dust, spent or 7B Conrosion protectionbroken abrasives and torn-off particles from the surface of the workpieces. Abrasives used for blasting in cabinets are glass beads, broken glass and ceramics aluminium oxide, corundum stainless steel ‘cast iron and steel nutshell plastic granulate Table 3.1 Technical data Cabinet, type 1 3 | External Width in mm 1270 | 1530 2000 | dimensions Depth in mm 960 | 1260 | 1380 | Height in mm 1240 1740 1880 Blasting Width in mm | 740 990 | 1390 chamber Depth in mm 760 | 1000 | 1230 Height in mm 490 710 810 Blasting gun Air nozzle @ mm 3 4 4 Blasting nozzle @mm | 6.5 10 10 | Nozzle material Ceramics | Steel [Boron carbide | Air required at § bar 22min | 52m%/n | 62 mn | Lighting — fluorescent tube 1x20W | 2x20W | 2x40W ! Dust collector, type ps25 ps6 | PSi0 | Fiter area 25m@ | sme | 40me Air volume — outlet 150 mh | 300 m2/h | 600 mé/h | Motor effect, fan 0.25 kW | 0.55 KW | 0.75 KW Filter cleaning Automatic | Automatic | Automatic Weight Net 280kg | 350kg | 590 kg Gross incl. packing | 330K — 400kKg | 680KG | Glass beads and aluminium oxide (corundum) are perhaps the abrasives most com- monly used in the cabinets Ifitis a requirement that the surface is not too rough but is rather to look finely “sanded” or just matted down after the blasting, small glass beads are used. They 3 Sunnace PrePanarion AND APPLICATION EqueMENT 79mostly remove surface contamination only and very little of the actual material However, if itis a requirement to remove both contaminants and provide the surface with a certain roughness, sharp-edged corundum is used. For this purpose, sharp-edged abrasives of stee! or iron can also be used, but the grains are heavy and more difficult to accelerate in an ejector plant. For shot pening balls of glass or stee! can be used. The glass beads are fairly easily broken down at blasting pressures above 4.5-5 bar. If ejector equipment is used for blast cleaning in the open air, the following abrasives are used gamet iron slag copper slag nickel slag aluminium silicate ‘They are relatively inexpensive and are usually not recycled. Ejector equipment is not suitable for blast cleaning of large constructions or for removing heavy layers of rust, mill scale or paint. For such purposes the impact and thereby also the capacity, is too small. Several examples have been seen where ‘companies have undertaken to perform blast cleaning jobs on large constructions by using ejector equipment. Usually these companies have had little or no experi- ence with blast cleaning. And each time it has been the same story: ‘After much trouble and many delays, little progress, and many working hours spent the company has had to borrow, rent or resort to buying pressurized blast pot ‘equipment, which has actually more than five times the capacity of ejector equip- ment. But lack of experience with the new equipment and too little knowledge of blast cleaning in general have caused new problems. The result has usually been an ‘enormous loss on the job. It goes without saying that the company should not have accepted the job in the first place. ‘When blasting takes place in a closed-in cabinet, apart from long rubber gloves also safety goggles or shield must be worn to prevent abrasives from getting in the eyes. We must also be prepared for dust and protect ourselves with a dust filter mask. Additionally, the equipment produces quite a lot of noise. Consequently, hearing protection is also necessary. If lasting is carried out in the open, we must also use a pressurized mask with supply of clean breathing air, disposable dust filter mask, hearing protection, gloves and working clothes/protective clothes which can withstand the blasting action of the abrasives. Pressurized pot Design and mode of operation ‘This system works according to a principle which is completely different from the ejector system described above where the abrasives are drawn directly from acon- tainer, In this case the abrasive is fed from a pressurized pot (blasting pot) through a metering valve into the blasting hose. In order for this to happen, the pot must have the same pressure as the blasting hose. The compressed air then conveys the 80 Corrosion protectionabrasive to the nozzle. The abrasive/air mixture is ac the workpiece. ‘Accordingly, the blast pot is a pressure tank. Manufacture, use and mainte- nance must be carried out properly and in accordance with relevant national and international rules and regulations. The first patented pressurized blasting equipment was introduced at an exhibi- tion in New York in 1871. The equipment was designed by B.C. Tilghman, It was constructed and worked almost like a blasting unit today. The drawing shows a pot using sand from about 1890. This can be used to illustrate the design of a pressure pot unit, As can be seen, the compressed air is distributed both to the blasting hose ‘and to the pot. This in order to ensure that the pressure is the same in the pot as in the hose. The abrasives will then run at an even flow through the metering valve ‘and into the jet of air. When the abrasives are used up, the air supply is shut off both to the blasting hose and tothe pot. Then the valve/cap at the top of the pot is opened sand the air released. In this way the pot is depressurized more quickly than when the air is released through the blasting nozzle. The pot is now pressure-free and fresh abrasives can be filled in lerated and propelled against ‘Abrasive ret NS. vane Abrasives Nozale Abrasive metering vave. ‘Compressed air Figure 3.13 Early design blasting unit Very few changes have actually been made to the blasting unit itself during the ‘more than hundred years elapsed since Tilghman designed his units. However, some developments have taken place ‘Today, all blasting units have a cylindrical shape. The bottom part is conical (cone-shaped), and ends in a pipe stub where the metering/sand valve is connected, ‘The cone wall is so steep that the abrasive can flow down by its own weight. See Figure 3.14. ‘The top of the unit is also conically shaped like the bottom part and with an opening in the middle for refilling abrasives. Around the opening, on the underside ‘3 SURFRCE PREPARATION ANO APPLICATON equPMeNT 81of the top plate, a thick rubber packing is fitted. This is often shaped like an O-ring ‘When the tank is pressurized and the unit started, the air pressure lifts the conical pop-up valve (closing valve, cone) to fit closely against the rubber packing. If the metering valve is open, abrasives will now flow into the blasting hose. When the abrasive/air mixture flows evenly from the nozzle, the blasting can star. -—Fiing or aang Popup valve Manometer Remote contol valve (pneumatic) Compressed ar inlet Inspection door Misersype metering vatve onto! nanaie/ “deadman handle” Figure 3.14 Mobile, modern compressed-air blasting unit with pneumatic remote control The pop-up valves may vary in shape and design. ‘They are conical and may be more or less pointed, Some may have a cut-off top. Today, practically all cones have a core of steel or iron coated with hard-wearing rubber. When the refill of abrasives takes place from a bag or by manual filling from a container, it is common practice to fill to right below the pop-up valve. In any case, the abrasives should preferably not cover the entire valve. It will then fit closer to the O-ring and wear will be less. 82 Contosion prorEctiON‘An uncoated metal valve with a very pointed top has commonly been used in units with continuous filling, In such units the abrasives are stored in a bin mounted ‘on (op of the blasting unit. When the operator stops blasting and the unit is de~ pressurized, the abrasives automatically flow from the bin into the unit. When the operator starts the unit again, the cone must force its way through the abrasives in order to fit tightly to the packing. This wears both the valve and the packing. ‘Today, users of automatic blasting units report that they use the ordinary rub- her-coated pop-up valves in their blasting systems. They seal well and wear is not particularly extensive. Metering valve ‘A selection can be made between several types of abrasive metering valves. If a certain valve is chosen, this is usually done on the basis of the type of abrasive to be used. However, the choice also depends on whether the valve is to open and close :utomatically. Whether the valve is automatic or not, does not depend on the abrasives hut on the equipment. Blasting pot Regulating | twande Figure 3.15. Cross-section of blasting pot with Miser metering valve I blasting is carried out with sand or slag, a Miser-type metering valve is often mounted on the unit. Figure 3.15 shows that it consists of a house which can be dismantled. The house contains two plates with an orifice hole in each of the plates. They are mounted at the end of a stem. One plate is fixed while the other is movable with the stem, The stem extends beyond the housing. At the end a regulating handle is fitted, Ifthe handle is moved, one of the plates is moved as well. When the handle is in mid-position, the orifice holes in the plates fully overlap. In this case a full opening 3 Suatice PREPARATION AND AEPUCATION EQUIPMENT 83is formed. The more the handle is taken to one of the sides, the less overlap of the orifices is produced, The handle and the orifice should be adjusted in such a way that the valve is fully opened in mid-position and completely shut with the handle in an extreme position. (On Miser-type valves a guide pin is often mounted on the regulating handle. The guide pin can be marked with a scale showing the position of the orifices relative to each other — i.e. the valve opening. In addition, the handle can be screwed fast to the guide in such a way that the adjusted setting does not change. In units for blasting with metallic abrasives other types of metering valves are used than the Miser-types. They are usually called steel grit valves as many people, erroneously, call all metallic abrasives “steel grit”, especially the sharp-edged types The steel grit valves can be distinguished from the Miser valves by the way the ‘volume of abrasives is regulated and how the abrasives flow into the air jet. Figures 3.16 and 3.17 show two of the most common methods of regulation: Abrasives in Valve house: Figure 3.16 Metering valve with rubber case for vertical passage of metallic abrasives Abrasives in erasives Double rubber dgptragm — | Clean out Reguating pee handle Ball Vale seating Aorashes out Figure 3.17 Abrasive control valve with ball shaped valve for vertical passage of ‘metallic abrasives 84 Conrosion protectionOne valve contains a rubber case. The valve is mounted in such a way that the abrasives flow directly from the blast pot through the opening of the rubber case. By means of a plunger fitted to a spindle with a regulating knob at the end the ‘opening of the rubber case can be changed. Ifthe spindle is screwed in, the plunger will squeeze the rubber case together. Thereby, both the opening and the volume of abrasives that can pass through are reduced. ‘The other steel grit valve is regulated by adjusting the opening between a ball- shaped valve and a valve seating. Obviously, a small opening results in only a small volume of abrasives passing through. Inthis steel grit valve the parts which are in contact with the abrasives should be made of hardened, highly abrasive-resistant steel, or be coated with other abrasive~ resistant materials. ‘The abrasives flow through the Miser valve and into the blasting hose at the optimum angle of approximately 30°. That is as parallel to the air jet as possible without the angle of tilt becoming so small that the abrasives stop running. Thereby the grains pick up speed more easily from the compressed air. This benefit is not obtained if the abrasives flow at right angles into the air jet. ‘Apart from the Miser valves, several of the metering valves can be fitted with remote control and automatic closing valves. They work purely pneumatically or electro-pneumatically and are often accessories to blasting units with automatic stop and start, so-called remote control. ‘The purely pneumatic valves are controlled by compressed air which is con- veyed in hoses all the way from the stop and start valve on the nozzle to the meter- ing valve. Consequently, the time it takes before the metering valve reacts depends (on the distance to the stop/start valve. In many cases this time can be quite long. Contrary to this, the electro-pneumatically controlled valves react very quickly. ‘When the operator presses the remote control switch, he or she turns the current on oroff to the magnet valve that switches the controlling air to the metering valve on or off. In some cases defects have occurred in electrical components on units for blast- ing with metallic abrasives. The defects have arisen because metal particles or dust have penetrated the equipment and caused short-circuits or other defects. ‘When the operator stops blasting by means of the remote control, the automat- ics first close the abrasive control valve and then the compressed air. Thereby the blasting hose is emptied of abrasives. When blasting is resumed, itis not necessary to put into motion “dead” abrasives which would otherwise have been present in the hose, fier the blasting has finished, the automatic metering valve can be closed, but the compressed air inlet held open. Itis then possible to use the pure compressed air for blowing away abrasives and dust. Abrasive/air mixture ‘Adjustment of the required volume of abrasives and the valve opening is in many cases done on the basis of experience. However, the safest method is to carry out preliminary tests, The trial blasting should be carried out on the same substrate as the later, actual blasting. It is important that the optimum abrasive/air mixture is used. By that is meant that maximum production is obtained with minimum con- sumption of abrasives. ‘3 SURFACE PREPARATION AND APPLICATON EQueMENT 85‘The volume of abrasives necessary for accomplishing this depends on the constructional design — closed, narrow spaces condition of surface — for example rust degree abrasive — type, grain size, and dust contents dust formation, lighting conditions, visibility compressor pressure hose length, dimension and loss of pressure nozzle type and size operator ‘A few indications of incorrect air/abrasive mixture are high air noise (whistling, squealing) when the abrasive supply is too small, and if itis oo big, the mixture is ejected unevenly and intermittently from the nozzle. At the same time, there are jerks and blows in the blasting hose. Blasting hose The transportation of the abrasive/air mixture from the mixing valve to the nozzle is done through the blasting hose. On the way through the hose a loss of pressure occurs. The pressure loss increases with increasing length of the blasting hose. Also, the pressure loss is higher in a hose with a small internal diameter (interior ‘width) than in one with a wide internal diameter. The blasting pressure can be measured by using a needle manometer inserted right behind the nozzle. Manometer Seo ont Figure 3.18 Needle manometer. The needle is inserted slantwise into the blasting hose with the air jet Consequently, itis important to put the blasting pot ina location where the blasting hose can be as short as possible. In practice, this follows as a matter of course. The blasting starts with as short a hose as possible. Later on extension hoses are added according to requirements until the blasting effect becomes too poor as a result of the loss of pressure. We must then try to move the pot to @ position closer to the blasting place. ‘The nozzle orifice determines the dimension of the blasting hose. As a rule of thumb it can be stated that the internal diameter of the hose should be three times that of the nozzle orifice. Consequently, for an 11 mm nozzle a blasting hose with minimum 33 mm internal diameter should be selected. ‘The hose to which the nozzle is connected is called the whip hose.’ The other 86 Conrosion protecrioNblasting hoses are called extension hoses. The extension hoses and the whip hose are connected by means of special quick couplings. These should definitely be fitted on the outside of the hose. In that case they do not reduce the internal hose er nor do they disrupt the jet of abrasives/air. The wear on them is also ‘negligible. ave wae ex te Pressure loss in bar per 30 m hose Figure 3.19 Loss of pressure in hoses (internal, smooth) Figure 3.20 Extension of hoses a Extension with internal tubes reduces the diameter in the hose and disrupts the jet of air and abrasives Optimum extension method by external coupling ‘The couplings are made of plastic, aluminium, bronze and cast iron. They are fastened to the hose by means of screws. It is an advantage if the couplings are provided with internal thread. They can then be screwed to the hose, and itis easier to make the hose ends fit tightly to the rubber gasket at the front edge of the cou- pling. Itis important to secure that the extensions are not pulled apart. Some couplings are provided with lock-springs which keep the hoses from pulling themselves out of 3 SURFKCE PREPARATION AND APPLICATION EqueMeNT 87the coupling. Often couplings can be seen wired together with steel wire as a safe- guard. A safety device must also be present to prevent the hose from sliding from the coupling if the screws should fail. For this purpose clamps with chains or cables are available. The clamps must be fastened on the hose behind the coupling and fastened together by chains or cables. If an accident should occur, the safety device keeps the hose in place in the coupling. At any rate the hose ends are prevented from ‘whipping about. =) © ay —£) Figure 3.21 a Quick couplings for extension of blasting hoses b Nozzle holders © Gasket for quick coupling d Gasket for nozzle holder e. Screws for fastening of quick couplings and nozzle holders to the hose Figure 3.22 a Safety chain with clamps b Safety cable Safety sleeve with two loops When the air/abrasive mixture passes at high velocity along the surface inside the blasting hose, the mixture may become electrically charged. The discharge takes place when the mixture hits the surface, which is usually connected to earth. The 88. Corrosion PROTECTIONdischarges (sparks) are an ignition source in addition to the sparks produced when the abrasive particles hit the surface. The discharges may also ignite critical dust or ‘gas mixtures in other parts of the surroundings or within the actual unit. ‘Consequently, the entire unit must be properly earthed up to and including the nozzle. Copper wire is therefore inserted between the casing layers of the blasting hoses. The copper wire is to conduct the static electricity to earth. Contact through all extensions is therefore necessary. In some cases ithas been necessary to put out «separate earth cable along the blasting hose. Both the internal rubber lining in the hose, rubber and external covering must to some extent be electrically conductive. ‘The operator can be affected by the static electricity because he or she is usually connected to electrical earth. Nozzles for blast cleaning Table 3.2 Air consumption in cubic metres per minute in Venturi nozzles | | Nozzle diameter Nozzle pressure in bar | 35 42 49 58 63 c 3.2mm | 032 037 042 048 052 0.57 5.0mm | O73 084 092 106 415 126 64mm | 4132 151 4171 190 207 227 gomm | 246 249 283 316 353 3.84 gsmm | 302 353 400 451 484 5.49 | 110mm | 412 476 543 608 672 741 | 125mm | $46 627 7.06 784 865 9.46 | 159mm | 862 997 1131 1266 1411 15.34 18.0mm | 1240 4411 46.02 1803 19.38 21.95 Table 3.3. Short nozzles Diameter Air consumption at 7 bar 80 mm 80 mm 80mm 2.8 m/min 4.8 m/min 25 mm 6.8 m/min ‘3 SunPice PREPARATION AND APPLICATION EQUIPMENT — 99.Breathing alr supy tine Glass with safety fo Handle for stop and Start of remote contd Ligne Nozze holder Nozze Leather gives, Ai tne for — Blasting/whip hose remote contr! Blasting suit win leather apron Figure 3.23 Fully equipped operator Breathing air supp line Regulator for breathing air Figure 3.24 Blasting helmet 90 Corrosion protectionStraight nozae ee = i TT Ventut nezale Se Se Figure 3.25 Common nozzles a) The straight nozzle collects the abrasive particles at the centre of the blasting urea (narrow fan). The exit speed has been measured to approximately 300 km/ hhour at a pressure of 7 bar. +b) The venturi nozzle distributes the abrasives evenly over the blasting area. The cxit speed has been measured to more than 700 knVhour at 7 bar. The nozzle provides a high production rate. Figure 3.26 Special nozzles for blasting in hollow spaces (pipes etc.) and other areas with difficult access 3 SURFACE PREPARATION AND APPUCATION EQUENENT 91Figure 3.27 Internal blasting of pipes Figure 3.28 Fixed nozzles (equipment for internal blasting of pipes with internal diameter from approximately 29 mm to approximately 300 mm) = Be Figure 3.29 Rotary equipment for internal blasting of pipes with internal diam- eters from approximately 160 mm to 1600 mm 22 CoRrosion pnorecTonrs wasting Nowe Yar ‘Vacuum hose Nw | Anrasive blasting pot Water bath fiter tector ("vacuum pump") orasive blasting hose Mutter Figure 3.30 Vacuum blasting equipment for dust-free blast cleaning /— Water hose with valve Hose \_ nwa onte holéer Figure 3.31 Basic equipment for mounting on blasting nozzle to provide water supply for dust-laying and wet abrasive blasting ™ (! Nome tube | ese 1 Inf fr water from igh pressure aggregate igure 3.32 a) Gun for high pressure water jetting 3 Surewe preveraron ano aPPuicaTON Equipwent 9BMaxing chamber Abrasive/water ininture | iter inet ‘Abrasive inlet a b) Gundinixing chamber for wet abrasive blasting Application equipment ‘The second part of this chapter discusses application equipment. Application equip: ‘ment includes hand tools like brushes, rollers, gloves, and spray application equip- ‘ment such as conventional spray equipment, HVLP equipment, airless spray equip- ment, equipment for air-assisted airless spraying, and electrostatic spray equip. ment In addition to the actual application equipment also compressors, pressure regu: lators, air cleaners, hoses, agitators, protective gear and other necessary accesso- ries are required, Paint brushes aint application by brush is particularly suited for working the paint into irregu- Jarities in the substrate, for example manual welds. The brush is also a suitable too] for areas of difficult access. Such areas can be edges, comers and notches. Brushes are also used for touch-up painting and stripe coating. Brush application results in thinner and more uneven layers than spray applica- tion. Normally not more than from 40 um to 50 ym dry film is applied per coat ‘The thickness measured also varies with the coarseness of the brush marks. ‘A good part of the anticorrosive paints have poor brushability. This is because they have a very short open time and set before they have been completely smoothed ‘out. Some of the paints are so viscous and heavy to work that, apart from minor touch-up work, itis impossible to apply them by brush. Quality brushes are made of bristles or hair from animals. The best brushes are made of pure bristles, preferably hog bristles. Natural hairs are hollow and flagged at the ends in two or three split-ends. The flagging also takes place as the brush becomes worn, Most brushes have a mixture of bristles and hairs. Bristles and hairs from animals withstand solvents, but not acids or alkalis 94 Coarosiow eRorecTOnIn the case of synthetic brushes, the bristles can be of nylon, perlon or polypropylene. They withstand acids and alkalis, but are slightly less resistant to Mrong solvents Brush types used for anticorrosive painting are ring brushes. ‘oval brushes flat brushes, including radiator brushes t4¢ 4 Ferruled brush Ring brush Oval brush Radiator brush lat brush Viqure 3.33 Brush types for application of anticorrosive paints Kigure 3.34. Before the brush is taken into use, loose bristles must be removed. This is done by pressing the brush against the palm of your hand and then twist- ing it around. ‘ new brush should be left suspended in motor oil or lubricating oil for a few days hofore it is taken into use. After the oil treatment any surplus oil must be rinsed out «carefully with for example white spirit. In order to take good care of a brush used for many different types of anticorrosive paints, it must be thoroughly cleaned in a suitable solvent after use. This takes some time. Consequently, some people just throw away the brush after use. For this reason, quite a number of cheap brushes or toss-away brushes are used. Paint rollers Paint rollers are available in different types and qualities. They consist of a bakelite cylinder with a glued-on nap. This nap can be made of lambswool, perlon or mo- 3 SURFACE PREPARATION ANDO APPLICATION EQUIPMENT — 95hair. Many anticorrosive paints are not very roller-friendly and highly viscous. Perlon rollers with a not (oo long nap are widely used within anticorrosive painting. For application of finishing coats a large number of mohair rollers are used. They have good resistance to solvents. ‘The paint roller should not be used for application of primer coats. Figure 3.35 Roller specially made ‘for application of paint on large- dimension pipes Figure 3.36 Back roller is designed {for use behind radiators etc, Figure 3.37 In the pressure-fed roller the paint is forced into the roller to enable continuous painting Painting mitts/gloves ‘The painting mitt is used for painting pipes and handrails. Itis made of lambswool and is available with and without a thumb. The mitt may leave lint on the surface to be painted, and should not be used for application of primer coats directly on top of blast cleaned substrates. 96 Corrosion PROTECTIONFigure 3.38 Painting mitt with and without a thumb Spray equipment ‘The two most important spray application methods, conventional spray (air atomi- zation) and airless spray, also represent the two main principles in connection with spray application of paint. Conventional spray uses air for atomizing the paint, whereas airless spray utilizes high pressure combined with a small outlet orifice, nozzle orifice, to atomize the paint. See also Chapter 5 about conventional and airless spray application. The methods have their advantages and disadvantages. They are used for different areas and for different types of jobs, even if there are some overlaps. Airless spray has obvious advantages within the fields of marine coating, off- shore constructions, power plants, machines and equipment, and buildings, but is ulso used for industrial finishes on metals and wood as well as finishes on heavy vehicles, aircraft and railcars. Airless spray is considerably faster than conventional equipment. Airless spray ‘cquipment has up to 10 times the capacity compared to pressure-fed conventional spray equipment (0.75~1.0 Itrs/min), measured as material output from the gun per minute. Another advantage is that airless spray produces less spray fog. ‘The advantage of conventional spray is that atomization is finer, resulting in better flowability and a finer finish of the paint, and more glossy top coats. Conse- quently, the method is preferred where the requirements to appearance and gloss ae high Itshould also be remembered that air is used for “atomizing” heavy and coarse materials like cement mixtures, cement-based fire protection and deck coatings, after the materials have been conveyed to the spray gun or spray gun-like equip- ment by means of screw or pump feeding. Based on airless and conventional spray technologies new spray equipment and methods have been developed. The methods can be divided into the following groups: 1 Conventional spray (air atomization), basic method 2 Airless spray, basic method 3 Air-assisted airless spray (airmix, aircoat), combination of 1 and 2 4 5 Electrostatic spray, combinations with 1, 2 or 3 HVLP (High Volume Low Pressure), modification of 1 6 HVLP ~air-assisted airless spray, combination of 5 and 3 Dual or plural component airless spray units have been on the snarket for several ‘3 SURFACE PREPARATION AND APPLICATION EqUEeMENT QTdecades. Their areas of use have been spraying of polyester and epoxy coatings! paints with short pot life. Basically, the equipment consists of preheater, feed pump, ‘main pump with high pressure cylinders, intermediate heaters, flush system, mate~ rial hoses, mixing unit and the spray gun. ‘The mixing of components takes place cither in a mixing block mounted between the pump unit and the gun, or in the gun itself. The ability of the pumps to supply the different components in the corre ‘mixing ratio and their mixing is now highly reliable. The advantages of using plural component equipment have also been noted in cases where the pot life allows spraying with ordinary one-component equipment. Among other points of interest, there is economy in the fact that there is no waste of ready-mixed paint. Conventional spray equipment Conventional spray guns are divided into two types: 1 Guns provided with a cup mounted directly on top of or underneath the gun 2 Guns attached to separate, pressurized cans (2-2.5 litres), larger pressurized pots (10-25 litres are common) or feed pumps through hoses ‘These two types can again be split into ‘guns with internal or external mixing of atomizing air and paint ‘guns with suction feed and pressure feed guns for automatic spraying Guns with suction feed may have paint cups mounted underneath or on top. The different suction feed guns have cans with a capacity of up to one litre and are used for minor spray jobs, for spraying of easily sprayabie paints and jobs with frequent change of paint types or colours. Guns with paint cups mounted on top can spray ‘materials that are considerably more viscous than those with the cup underneath. If the gun is attached to a pressure cup, a pressure pot, or feed pump, the material is conveyed to the gun by means of pressure. Pressure-fed guns have a large capacity ‘compared to the suction-fed and are used for spraying of large objects and serial production. In the head of all types of spray guns for conventional spraying the most impor- tant parts are located: air cap (including the air distribution ring), nozzle and con- trol needle, They are of decisive importance for the capacity, atomization and transfer efficiency. The combination of these important parts is determined by the material tobe sprayed, how the paint is delivered to the gun, the shape and size of the spray area, the spraying capacity and requirements to result and finish. Air cap, nozzle and needle must be compatible. ‘Air caps with more or large orifices for the atomization air produce quick at- omization and increased capacity compared to air caps with fewer and smaller orifices, ‘The paint to be sprayed passes through the nozzle and out into the air stream. The nozzle is the seat of the paint needle which in its forward position stops the stream of paint through the nozzle. Nozzles come in different orifice sizes for different materials and feeding sys-tems. In the case of pressure feeding, nozzles with less paint flow are normally used than in the case of suction feeding, ‘Compressed If ordinary conventional equipment is used, the air used for (ansportation and atomization of the paint is supplied by a compressor. It is important that the air is clean and dry to prevent foreign matter like solid particles, oil or water from con. taminating the paint or the object to be sprayed. The air must therefore pass through filtering equipment like oil or water separators where any contamination is taken up and removed from the air before itis allowed into the pressure pot or before itis used as atomizing air. ‘Air supplied directly from the compressor or the compressed-air system often has a pressure which is too high for use directly for material conveyance and atom zation. Consequently, it must first be passed through a reduction valve which re- duces the compressor/system pressure down to the working pressure required For HVLP (High Volume Low Pressure) equipment, which operates with a high volume of air and low pressure, the air can be supplied from a turbine or a com- pressor. If a pressure pot is part of the HLVP equipment, compressed air from a compressor is used for pressurizing the pot. The pressure in the pot forces the paint through the paint hose to the gun in the same way as the pressure pot on ordinary conventional equipment. Air from a turbine is clean and dry, whereas compressor air must be cleaned in the oil or water separator. Automatic gun ‘The automatic gun is pneumatically operated. Ithas the same technical spray prop- erties as the guns for manual spraying. The automatic guns are used for industrial purposes (serial production) where the parts are sprayed automatically while for example suspended from a conveyor. Regulating knob for iets stomzaton a ~_———¢ Knob for regulating fan width Fastening Compressed air Aircap com Fuld inet Compressed air inlet [Nr cap retainer ting Figure 3.39 Automatic gun J SunnOC MEMO NO AHPLCATON eQuONT BBCleaning and maintenance Cleaning of the conventional spray equipment is naturally quite different from clean- ing of airless equipment, but an important similarity is that all parts and compo- nents Which have been in contact with paint or have been soiled must be cleaned, ‘This applies to gun parts, hoses, cans and pots, and feeding pumps ‘The unit must be flushed until all parts and components are clean, i.e. until the thinner sprayed from the gun is clean, Normally, i is not necessary to dismantle the nozzle during each cleaning. The many orifices of the air cap must be kept open. Metal objects should not be used for cleaning of nozzle ot air cap. The equipment must be clean and dry when itis put away. Maintenance of the gun usually consists of replacing heavy-wear parts like the nozzle/seat and the needle. Some wearing down ofthe trigger mechanism and spring will also take place over time. Threaded parts, springs and needle packings require a drop of oil from time to time. Figure 3.40 Suction-fed gun Figure 3.41 Suction-fed gun with with cup mounted underneath cup mounted on top Figure 3.42 Pressure cup Figure 3.43 Pressure cup with without paint regulator aint regulator 100 Conrosion prorectionDetachable intra ting Matera be A Agitotor Pressure pot Vigure 3.45 a) External atomization gun is a type where air and paint are mixed outside the nozle. It is suitable for almost all paint types. 4h) Internal atomization gun is a type where air and paint are mixed inside the nozzle between the air cap and the nozzle. It is used for small compressor units, The capacity is high and it atomizes the paint finely. % aN Vigure 346 Nozzle for suction feed. Figure 3.47 Nozzle for pressure feed. The nozzle creates a vacuum in the In the pressure-fed gun the paint is nozzle orifice and the paint is forced through the gun from a cup, siphoned from the container (cup) «a pressurized pot or a feeding pump. and out through the nozzle. A Sune nnemunxnnw wn wNoUNATINN CoumMCMT 104Figure 3.48. Suction-fed gun with cup mounted on top. Sufficiently low-viscous paint flows down into the gun, while the vacuum formed in the nozzle orifice siphons the paint through the nozzle. Knob for regulating the fan wie Fluid needa Airvatve eae Connection for suction cup cae Comprossedairiniet Figure 3.50 I Air nozzle/air cap 2 Nozle 3 Needle 102 GoRAosION PROTECHIONHVLP spray equipment HYLP is an abbreviation of High Volume Low Pressure. In contrast to spraying with conventional spray equipment where the atomization pressure is often within the range of 0.3-0.4 MPa, which creates drawbacks in the form of spray fog, bounce- back and overspray, the HVLP systems operate with considerably lower pressure (below 0.1 MPa). ‘Normally this pressure cannot transport the paint from the pot to the nozzle nor wtomiize the paints to such a degree that they flow out to form an even film on the surface. But by adding large volumes of air the desired effect is achieved. The spray fan is “soft” and passes easily across the surfaces to be sprayed. Bounce- back is at a minimum, also from inside corners, nooks and crevices. makes spray application on such areas simpler. The soft fan and the easily controlled spray pattern enable spraying of panelling and window frames without (or with vninimum) masking of adjacent areas ‘The atomization air is supplied by compressor or turbine. HVLP systems with ‘compressor-supplied atomization air were the first to appear on the market. Appar- ently the “new” technology with turbine-supplied atomization air has become popular. The airis heated when it leaves the turbine. This causes more solvents to evaporate tyefore the paints reach the surface than in the case of ordinary compressor-sup- plied air, The reduced solvent contents in the paint film should reduce the risk of solvent retention even at high film thicknesses and additionally reduce the tendency to sag. Within the automotive finishing industry with high demands on finish some are sceptical and reluctant to use HVLP equipment because the flow properties of the paints are slightly reduced, ‘The HVLP equipment has been further developed by the attachment of a high pressure pump to the system. The pump conveys the paint to the spray gun under a hydraulic pressure from 1.0 MPa to 13.0 MPa. Thereby the properties of the HVLP system and air-assisted airless spray are combined. When the paint is under hy- «iraulic pressure, some atomization takes place when it passes the airless nozzle. ‘After this large-volume air and low pressure will produce the final atomization. 3 Sunvace pRertnanon ANO APPLICATION EQuEMENT 103High pressure (airless) spray equipment ‘Two types of high pressure airless pumps are available: piston pumps iaphragm pumps 1 Air inlet 2. Air regulator 3 Water separator 4. Lubricator 5. Air motor 6 Oil cup 7. Pulse chamber with fine filter 8 Paint outlet 9 Paint pump 10 Relief valve HI Paint inlet. Usually a suction hose with coarse filter (screen) is connected here. 12 Paint hose 13 Flexible whip hose 14 Swivel coupling 15 Gun 16 Nozzle 17 Sound-muffled air exhaust (exit air) from the air motor 6 “ Figure 3.51 High pressure airless pump — compressed-air driven piston pump Piston pump types Diaphragm pump types Compressedair driven Hydraulic driven with electromotor Electromechanically driven Hydraulic driven with petrol motor Electrohydraulic driven Compressed-air driven piston pumps ‘Compressed-air driven piston pumps cover most ground when it is a question of pressure and capacity. They can operate with atomization pressures of up to 42 MPa. ‘The pump consists of two main parts: the air motor and the hydraulic cylinder. ‘The main component of the air motor is the air piston. The valve mechanism gov- ‘ems the compressed air so that it acts alternately on the upper part and on the lower part of the piston. The air motor is coupled to the hydraulic cylinder by a transmis- sion rod. 104. Consosion ProrectionCE _- Slide for regulating exhaust sir xine —-{) E Exhoust valve Air piston Passages for air ee ‘supply and exhaust oir bee ote ——— EF Paint out > Upper packing set Prstn 0 Cinder chamber oer we ———{FfS) or anon i Foot valve chamber sh rei | tower bal valve Figure 3.52 Compressed-air driven piston pump ‘The hydraulic cylinder consists of a lower cylinder chamber (foot valve chamber), a piston, a piston rod, an upper cylinder chamber, an upper and lower ball valve (check valves) and upper and lower packing sets. The lower packing set may be seated in a stuffing box or directly on the piston rod. In the former case the packing set is fixed. The piston rod then moves through the packing set. In the latter case the packing set follows the piston rod up and down. ‘When the pump is to be primed, the reduction valve is opened to allow air to ass into the motor. The air works alternately on the upper and lower parts of the ston in the air cylinder. The up and down strokes are transmitted to the hydraulic cylinder through the piston rod. Underpressure is produced in the lower part of the cylinder when the piston rod ‘moves upwards. When the inlet valve (lower ball valve, foot valve) opens, paint is siphoned into the chamber below the piston (foot valve chamber). At the same time, the ball valve in the piston closes. The paint in the upper part of the cylinder is <3 SURFACE PREPARATION ANO APPLICATION EQUEMAENT 109forced out into the hose. When the piston moves downwards, the paint presses against the inlet valve and closes it. Atthe same time the paint presses against the ball valve in the piston, which opens. The paint passes through the open ball valve and flows into the upper part of the cylinder and further out into the hose. Consequently, the pump applies full pressure to the paint during the upward as well as the downward strokes. This is what is meant by a double-acting pump. The relation between the piston area in the air motor and the piston area in the hydraulic cylinder indicates the pump ratio, The air motor piston arca is consider- ably a larger than the paint piston area. The relation can for example be 30:1, 45:1, 60:1. This means that the outlet pressure of the paint is 30, 45 or 60 times the inlet pressure of the air motor. With an inlet air pressure of 0.5 MPa and a pump ratio of 60:1 the paint pres- sure is 0.5 MPa x 60 = 30 MPa. The calculated pressure is theoretical and applies toa closed gun or if the nozzle capacity is so small in relation to the pump capacity that the pump can maintain maximum pressure also when spraying takes place. When the gun is deactivated, the pump will continue working until the air pressure and the paint pressure balance. When the gun is reactivated, the paint pressure decreases. At this point the pump will start to maintain the paint pressure by replac- ing the volume flowing out of the nozzle. sent . soem | Merman aca | | Ai motor piston area | Tit J H 25m! 250m ‘rea ofthe hycrauic cylinder piston ‘Area of the hyaullc cxinder piston Figure 3.53 Pump ratio Figure 3.54 Pump ratio Calculation of pump ratio: Calculation of pump ratio: 25:25 = 10 50: 2.5 = 20 Pump ratio = 10: 1 Pump ratio = 20: 1 Non-pneumatically driven piston pumps ‘These airless pumps work according to the same principle as the compressed- driven. Their mode of operation is also the same. Maximum capacity and maxi- mum working pressure are more limited compared to the compressed-air driven. Consequently, these types of pumps are less suitable for spraying of viscous and difficult-to-spray paints. The electromotor of the pumps limits their use due to the fire and explosion hazards (this also applies to the diaphragm pumps). The pumps are allowed for use on offshore installations. 4106 Conrosion protecrionElectromechanically driven piston pumps An electromotor transfers the power to the piston in the paint eylinder pump through ‘a shaft and an eccentric wheel. Otherwise, the pump works as a compressed-air driven piston pump. The pump produces a pressure just below 20 MPa. The capac- ity is in the range of 1.8 litres per minute. Electrohydraulic driven piston pumps ‘The main components of the pump are electromotor, hydraulic oil pump, hydraulic motor and hydraulic paint cylinder. ‘The electromotor powers the oil pump in the hydraulic part of the pump. The oil is pumped to the hydraulic motor, which powers the paint cylinder. The working pressure of the pump corresponds to the oil pressure, which can be set at maximum 21.0 MPa. The electrohydraulic paint pumps work according to the same principle as the compressed-air driven paint pumps. Diaphragm pumps Diaphragm pumps can supply between 0.5-15 litres of paint per minute, The pres- sure may reach 25 MPa. This is reduced to approximately 20 MPa when the gun is activated. ‘The pumps are driven by a single-phase electromotor ot petrol motor. ‘The electromotor is coupled directly to a hydraulic pump, which produces pres- sure impulses to an oil chamber. The oil chamber is separated from the paint cham- ber by a diaphragm, which transmits the pump strokes to the paint. ‘The diaphragm pump is suitable for spraying of most types of paint requiring an atomizing pressure of up to approximately 20 MPa. Itis well suited for spraying of paints containing abrasive particles. Electromotor Paint pump Paint container Return hose Gun Figure 3.55 Diaphragm pump 3 Suntnce PREPARATION AND APPLICATION EQUIFWENNI 207NousauoWd NOISOHROg OT. sured yp aztwiore 01 2aps0 ur dumd agp 40 sovout sre ay (01 parjddns 2q 01 amssasd 1says0} aun Sunsnfpe 105 pasn st aayeA oHINPAS OL soWw9Lqn| (ISIW-T1o) UF puv soresedas saves “(4oreyNBau amnssaid) aaywa ONINpOL 1b ynonp ssed ysnuL 4 IOIOUT sTe aM OTUE pamorfe st te passarduios ay) 20}2¢1 anjea uononpay ‘pourmgo us9q sey aunssaid parsnipe ayn ynun zaqurey> aun onur ured paay 01 y0%8 01 sizeys dumd axp quiod stp ay “Tuan syus eunssaxd ‘yp kqazoU, uondumsuoo amp £q pasneo uononpas auunjos au aoujdar oy spuedxo soqureyo agind yp Jo doy oxp ye s1e ayy “pouunsuo9 uraq yured axp ypten dons uy ‘jured ULM PTY %66 si saquioyp atp soroydsoune or ry “dor amp moqaq ate arp sassarduuo pue aveds youn pu arowr dn saxer 1 soquneys ap ort! sory TurEd Uay.AL oquEEYD asind ou 1 paziqnn st apqissaidumos st ate aya possarduroo oq iowue> uted req 1987 2H, -uraned Keds Jo ssoy Arexodunay & asnte2 eur asned aig “ojzzou a8re] © ype Surdesds vou paw soqureyo astnd e mOtTIAL “ayons duund amp jo mod Summum axp ve Ajddns yured ayy ur asned w st axoup WOH, woo ‘omssoud ured yweysuoo e BumutenuTeU spremor saInqunuoD ZoqureyD asynd ax Jaquieyo asind u0t 0 asp win) uorsid oynoupsy aquioy? 10 Spaydorg aquanyo suo sagqoa y94-) (aayoa ssnd-Aq) oropndau aunssat Namemenc dund wSp.ydoip fo uonsas-sso1y 9¢'¢ aunBiyy »] > Uy 1 ed fds 01 ot ss TON Gund oynenia— dund wesItmakes litle sense if the pump works at a higher pressure than necessary. This only results in more wear, more spray dust and thereby increased paint consump- tion, poorer working environment and a lower quality of the paint film. Water separator In practice the compressed ait contains smaller or larger quantities of water and compressor oil. The water separator removes the major part of the oil/water mix- ture, but rarely all of it. ‘Water cartied by the compressed air into the air motor may freeze when the ‘exhaust air expands and cools on its way out. In step with the exhaust pipes becom- ing clogged with ice, the pump will work less efficiently and will eventually come toa complete stop. The oil carried by the compressed air is mixed with the pneu- matic tool oil. Oil-mist lubricator The lubricator consists of an oil container and an adjustable drip-feeder. Normally it drips one or two drops into the air stream per minute. The oil is a special pneu- ‘matic tool oil. The main components are lubricating oil and spirit. The pneumatic tool oil lubricates the air motor and prevents the formation of ice. Oil cup ‘The oil cup is threaded to the top of the hydraulic part ofthe pump and the bare part of the piston rod moves freely inside it. The design of the cup varies according to the type of pump and manufacturer. It may be open or closed. The use of such a cup serves two purposes: 1 Keeping the upper packing set in place against the cylinder wall and around the piston rod. We tighten or slacken by screwing up or loosening the oil cup. 2. Keeping the bare part of the piston rod free of paint. In this case the cup is filled with a mixture of oil and solvent. Ready-made special products are also avail- able for the purpose. Some of these also have a sealing effect. Coarse filter Abrasive particles and other contaminants may be drawn into the pump together with the paint. This may damage or cause malfunction of vital pump components. Ball valves and packings are especially at risk. A coarse filter mounted on the paint inlet prevents the major part of the contaminants from entering the pump. ‘3 Sunrace PREPARATION AND APPLICATION EQUNENT 109)Fine filters Even if the pump has a coarse filter and both pump and paint hoses are cleaned on a regular basis, contaminants may reach the nozzle and clog it up. These are con. taminants so small that they slip through the coarse filter, and paint crusts detach- ing from the paint pump and the paint hoses. These contaminants must be strained from the paint on its way from the paint, outlet on the pump to the nozzle. For this purpose fine filters are used. They can be mounted as a separate unit after the paint outlet, in the pulse chamber, in the swivel coupling or in the gun. They can be of the knife filter type or the mesh type. ‘The smaller the nozzle orifice, the smaller the particle it takes to block it. Con- sequently, the nozzle orifice determines how fine the filters are to be. “The nozzle orifice is usually given in thousandths of an inch, the filters in mesh size. The mesh size is the number of meshes per inch. Nozzles with an orifice of 0.015” or less require a 200 mesh filter. Nozzles with an orifice between 0.15-0.021” require a 100 mesh filter. Nozzles with an orifice between 0.21-0.031" require a 60 mesh filter. Ifrever ted. le nozzles with orifices above 0.031” are used, fine filters are often omit- Paint hoses The paint hoses (high pressure hoses) must be able to withstand the load of the high pressures supplied by the pump in all conditions. They must be produced from solvent-resistant materials and be able to tolerate high ductile and bending loads. ‘The hoses consist of an internal hose and an external hose. Between these are one or several braided layers of polyester or wire netting. For security reasons an earthing wire is also braided in which must be con- nected to the gun at one end and to the airless pump at the other, and from there to electric earth. The earthing is to divert charged, static electricity. Ifthe unit is not earthed, electric sparks may be discharged from the gun during spraying. The dis- charge may affect the painter unpleasantly. If paint containing flammable solvents is sprayed in tanks or poorly ventilated rooms, the discharge may ignite the critical, explosive mixture of solvent and air. The hoses must have the correct dimensions in order to carry enough paint to the gun without too much loss of pressure. In the case of short hose lengths and rela- tively light-fluid materials, hoses with '4” internal diameter can be used. The most widely used hoses for spraying of anticorrosive paints, both for major and minor jobs, have an internal diameter of 3/8” They provide high flexibility because itis, possible to transport most types of paint over varying distances without too high loss of pressure. The thickness of the 3/8” hoses makes them rather rigid to handle. Normally a 4" whip hose of varying length is inserted between the 3/8” hose and the gun. The ‘gun can then be handled much more freely. 140 DonnSwivel coupling The swivel coupling is also a facility for oblaining easy handling of the gun. Ithas the effect that the gun can be turned around freely without the hose following the gun around. The swivel coupling is inserted between the gun and the whip hose. Airless guns In the case of ordinary single-handed guns the paint inlet is either in the spray head orthrough the handle. The extension pole gun is operated by both hands, It does not have a regular gun handle but a grip through which the material is supplied. ‘The airless gun can be distinguished from the conventional gun (low pressure ‘gun) by a number of features: thas been designed to tolerate very high pressures Ttdoes not have an air inlet nor air cap ‘The needle is designed in such a way that it seals against the seat under high pressures Fan width and volume of paint cannot be adjusted when standard or reversible tip nozzles are used. The nozzles are made of tungsten carbide, The gun is either open or closed ‘The gun has a safety guard ‘The trigger can be secured ‘The gun can be provided with a knife filter or mesh filter. Paint supply in the spray head In this gun only the forward part of the needle, seat, nozzle retainer, various packings and nozzle are in direct contact with the paint. Consequently, cleaning is quite simple, Due to the high pressure leakage may easily occur between the needle and the needle packing. In some cases the needle spring may also be so weak that the needle does not seal completely against the seat. Figure 3.57 Airless gun with paint inlet in the head 3 SURFACE PREPARATION AND APPLICATION EQUIPMENT 22Figure 4.5 Stationary centrifugal blasting machine for profiles (beams, bar steel) and single pieces Tofiter bag ust and other contaminants Container for abrasive Recycled abrasive Ccontitugal whee! ht Figure 4.6 Mobile self-propelled centrifugal blasting machine for cleaning of levelled surfaces (ship decks, tank tops, and similar) In principle, three methods exist: Pneumatic (driven by compressed air) methods in which the abrasive is mixed with compressed air in a mixing valve and a tube or hosing system. Subse- quently, the abrasive is blasted against the material in a fan-shaped jet. 4 Prevreament 129If a standard nozzle is used, there is room for a knife filter in the nozzle retainer behind the nozzle. One disadvantage of having the paint hose connected to the spray head is that it may easily get in the way when spraying is carried out in confined spaces. ‘To some extent it also impedes the free movement of the gun. This, type of gun is not used very often. Paint inlet through the handle ‘The paint enters at the bottom of the handle and is forced through the entire gun. All internal parts and surfaces are thereby in contact with the paint. As a result, clean- ing is quite comprehensive and must be carried out very carefully. ‘Both the needle spring and the entire closing mechanism are quite robust. The ‘gun is well sealed at high pressures. The trigger pull tension is especially hard on ‘guns of the “high-volume type” They have four-finger triggers, while the ordinary types have two-finger triggs ‘Some manufacturers have guns with mesh filters in the handles. This is easily removed for cleaning or replacement. Guns with paint inlet through the handle are the most widely used types. Fing fer a Hanae Figure 3.58 Airless gun with paint inlet through the handle Extension pole guns ‘These guns or spraying tools are manufactured in lengths of 4, 6 and & feet. The nozzle retainer can be adjusted in various angles. The extension poles allow a wide range of action and are widely used for the external coating of ship’s hulls, and to some extent within industrial and architectural painting. ‘The extension pole must be held with both hands. ‘The extension pole is not suitable for spray jobs requiring a fine finish. The long needle may easily bend and it seals poorly against the seat. Ttmay be difficult to obtain sufficient control ofthe extension pole guns and this results in a considerable amount of dry spray, pore formation and uneven film thickness. 112 Connosion ProtectionNozzles Airless nozzles have a core of tungsten carbide, The outlet orifice has an oval shape. The given nozzle orifice corresponds to the diameter of a circular orifice ‘with the same throughput as the oval orifice. Nozzles come with orifices from 0.005” to 0.050”. Paint contractors normally have at their disposal a selection of nozzles from 0.015” to 0.027”. Industrial Iac- quer applicators use nozzles with orifices from 0.009" to 0.011”. ‘The fan width and spray angle are given in degrees from 5° to 95°, For spraying, of plane surfaces nozzles ranging from 60° to 80° are used, while on smaller pro- files and frames a spray angle down to 40° is used. ‘Asclection can be made from the following nozzles: Normal nozzles Reversible nozzles Adjustable nozzles Fine-finish nozzles Normal nozzle/standard nozzle Reversible nozzle for quick nozzle change Reversible nozale Adjustable nozzle Reversible nozzle for quick nozzle change Fine-finish nozzle Cross-section of fine-finish nozzle MOURNS Figure 3.59 Various nozzle types for airless spraying Standard nozzles The standard nozzles are also called “fixed nozzles” as opposed to the reversible and adjustable nozzles. The standard nozzles are best suited for industrial lacquer- ing and spray painting in stationary plants. When the nozzle becomes blocked it must be removed from the retainer for ‘3 SURFACE PREPARATION ANO APPLICATION EQUIPMENT 143cleaning, This takes time. Consequently, it must be ensured that the paint which is to pass through the nozzle is so clean that it will not become clogged. ‘The normal nozzles are standardized. Nozzles from various manufacturers are therefore interchangeable. However, it should be realised that the manufacturers may have different systems for identification marking of the nozzles. Reversible tips The reversible tip nozzles are used in connection with major as well as minor spraying jobs within marine painting, painting of offshore structures, industry, construction work and civil engineering projects. This is the case irrespective of whether fine filters are used or not, and whether the paints have high or low viscosity, or are heavy-duty or finishing types. Tris an obvious advantage to be able to use an Allen wrench for reversing the tip 180° and use the paint pressure (o “shoot” out any contaminants having blocked the nozzle. This is possible because the inlet orifice, which is facing outwards when the nozzle has been tured 180°, is considerably wider than the nozzle orifice (out- let orifice), ‘There are not only advantages associated with the use of reversible tips. Ifabra- sive pigments or contaminants are attached on the outside of the nozzle when it is reversed, the outer surface of the nozzle may be damaged. Packings bearing against the nozzle may also be damaged. Such damage may be aggravated by use and leakage will occur. ‘Another disadvantage is that the design of the nozzle retainers results in a too wide distance between the nozzle and the seat (inner nozzle) of the needle. In this space a small amount of paint will be present. This paint may drip onto the surface or be carried along as an unatomized drop when spraying is resumed. Such imper- fections are not acceptable when there are high demands tothe finish ofthe surf for example within automotive and industrial finishings. Consequently, reversible tips are not used for such types of job. Adjustable nozzles By means of a regulating needle in the outlet orifice on the adjustable nozzles the desired orifice and fan width can be set. However, its not possible to quantify nor document these parameters. The nozzles come in four sizes which overlap to a certain extent and are to cover the following areas of use: Application of lacquers Application of latex paints Application of high-build paints Application of specially heavy-duty paints 114 Connosion protectionFine finish nozzles The fine finish nozzles are manufactured with high precision. The paint is atomized very finely, This takes place in two steps. The first part of the atomization takes place ina nozzle with circular orifice, The material is then further atomized through an oval orifice. This is also where the spray pattem is formed. Fine finish nozzles are used for fine finishing jobs like automotive and industrial finishes Selection and maintenance of nozzles Painters working extensively with certain types of paints or lacquers usually select nozzles based on experience. The manufacturers of paints and lacquers may have ‘changed the spraying properties without the painters being aware of it. Itis there- fore important to make a habit of studying the technical data sheet of the paint or lacquer in question before the material is taken into use. The paint producer has test sprayed the product, resulting in recommendations for nozzle orifices within a cer- tain range, Nozzles with the same orifice but with different fan widths will supply the same quantity of paint provided that for example viscosity and pressure are the same. This means that the nozzle with the smallest fan width will apply the thickest paint film when pressure, viscosity, gun speed and spray distance are the same. If a certain film thickness is to be obtained, itis important to take this into considera- tion when replacing the nozzle. The nozzles can be cleaned in thinners or paint removers. If something has got stuck within the nozzle, an attempt can be made to remove the block by compressed air. If this is not successful, bits of wood must be used, for example toothpicks. Do not use cleaning needles made of steel or other metals. 3 Sunpice PREPHRATION AND APPLCATION EQUIPMENT 145Airassisted airless spraying ‘The figures show four systems for air-assisted airless spraying Figure 3.60 Standard system for air-assisted airless spraying Air motor Paint pump (airless) Gun Paint hose Paint can Air hose Air regulator NOG RUN 4146 Connosion protecnon Figure 3.61 Air-assisted airless equipment for hot spraying Air motor Paint pump Gun Paint hose Paint can Air hose Heater Regulation system for recirculation of paint 9 Air regulator NAHAS,4.62 Electrostatic air-assisted airless 3.63 Two-component air-assisted equipment airless equipment 1 Air motor 1 Air motor 2. Paint pump (airless) 2 Paint pump (airless) 3 Gun with high-voltage charging ‘for component A 4 Electrostatic unit 3 Paint pump (airless) 5 Paint hose for component B 6 Paint can 4. Solvent pump for cleaning 7 Low-voltage cable 5. Mixing unit for components 8 Air hoses Aand B 9 Air regulator 6 Gun 7 Air hose 8 Paint hose 9 Air regulator When spraying with air-assisted airless equipment an air pressure of 0.1-0.15 MPa ‘used for atomizing the paint, while for ordinary air atomization or conventional spraying 0.3-0.5 MPajis used. This is the result of the fact that the paint has already been atomized at 2-4 MPa in the nozzle by the pressure from the airless pump. Cleaning and maintenance of spraying equipment Several factors determine how often and how carefully the spray unit must be cleaned, Ifa change is made to another colour or type of paint, itis usually sufficient to run thinner through the unit Chemically curing materials have a tendency to become attached in a cured or partly cured condition on the inside of hoses, gun and pump components. If such Products are used, it may be necessary to have the thinner circulate through the unit ‘one or more times a day. ‘3 SURFACE PREPARATION AND APPLICATION EQUIPMENT. 147Many two-component, solvent-free products are sprayed with one-component airless spray equipment. The products usually have very short pot life, in the case of some types down to only a few minutes. Do not mix greater volumes than can be sprayed before the end of the pot life. Nevertheless, thinner must be run through and allowed to citculate in the unit, perhaps as often as once per hour. In addition, strainers, external parts of the pump and the gun must be cleaned on a regular basis. During breaks the unit must be cleaned. During breaks, while working with other types of chemically curing products, it may also be necessary to clean the unit. At any rate, it is necessary to wash out the ‘gun and immerse the tip in thinner, This prevents the material from curing inside the nozzle orifice. A complete cleaning of the unit is carried out when the job is finished and after the end of working hours. This is a principal rule because insufficient cleaning is the main cause for downtime and malfunctions. When dismantling and cleaning, the safety regulations must be observed. During a complete cleaning the paint is first forced out by means of thinner, which is then allowed to circulate in the gun without the nozzle. It may be necessary to change the thinner several times to clean the unit. The gun is then dismantled and the thinner is allowed to continue circulating, When after some time the pump is stopped and emptied, filters, gun, nozzle, external pump parts, and hoses are cleaned. It may be necessary to take out the bottom ball valve to clean it. Before we leave the work place hoses must be coiled up, compressed air switched off, the pressure regulator relieved and we must check that no parts of the unit are under pressure. Ifthe high pressure pump is to be put away for a lengthy period of time, oil (for example diesel oil) must be run into the pump. Maintenance Maintenance mainly consists of oiling and replacement of worn parts. It is impor- tant to check that the cup on the lubricator to the air motor is filled with special- purpose oil and that the lubricator works. The oil cup must contain a special- Purpose agent or mixture of thinner and oil. Important wearing parts in the pump are packings/packing sets, valve balls, valve seats and piston rod. Many pumps also have replaceable cylinder sleeves. These parts are to be replaced when wear or damage are observed. Damaged or clogged filters must be replaced. Repairs and ‘major overhauls should be carried out by skilled repairers, Hoses and couplings must be checked and replaced when damaged or broken and when there are any doubts about the quality and strength of the hose materials, ‘Wearing parts in the gun, needle, seat, nozzle and cap are replaced when wear or damage are observed. The trigger mechanism is worn with time. Damaged or clogged filters are replaced. Spring and open trigger mechanism are oiled. 148 Corrosion prorectionLiterature 1 HU. Plaster. Blast Cleaning and allied Processes. Volume I and If 1972/1973. Industrial Newspapers Limited. 3 Sunerce PREPARATION AND APPLICATION EQUIPMENT 1194 Pretreatment Introduction In this chapter, different pretreatment methods used for surface preparation of steel, zinc and aluminium are discussed. This chapter will focus on pretreatment of steel as this is the most commonly used construction material of these three metals. ‘The chapter begins with different kinds of degreasing methods. Degreasing is followed by dry mechanical preparation methods: manual and mechanical wire brushing, grinding and abrasive blasting. Subsequently, flame cleaning, which isa thermal pretreatment method, is discussed. The “dry” methods are followed by the “wet” methods: wet abrasive blasting, high pressure hosing and ultra high pressure water jetting Pickling in acid solutions is a chemical pretreatment method, which is a part of the pretreatment process in hot galvanizing. After pickling, it is only natural to discuss chemical pretreatment, Under chemical pretreatment two methods are men- tioned: phosphatizing and chromatizing Finally, rust removers and rust cleaning detergents based on phosphoric acid are discussed. These remove rust and mill scale and at the same time the surface is passivated, obtaining a certain degree of protection. Wash primers will also be discussed in this chapter as the phosphoric acid in the wash primer provides the surface with unique properties especially as a primer on zinc and aluminium. Cleaning and surface preparation Is cleaning and surface preparation the same? Yes, cleaning is a kind of surface preparation, but surface preparation is not always carried out for the purpose of cleaning, ‘When a steel frame is phosphatised prior to powder coating, phosphatizing is a surface preparation method. Cleaning, which is a part of the surface preparation process, should be carried out in advance. In this chapter, mainly surface prepara- tion methods and working procedures are discussed in connection with surface preparation of iron and steel. But also treatment of zinc and aluminium are being discussed 120. Connosiow protectionPrior to painting or coating a stee! surface, the surfaces should be cleaned for scale (mill scale) and rust. Ifgalvanized materials are exposed outdoor without protection, corrosion prod- ucts (White rust) will develop on the surface over time. Prior to painting or applica- tion of any other coating, white rust must be removed and the zinc surface treated in order to obtain proper adhesion. Aluminium will protect itself by forming an oxide layer on the surface. If the aluminium is to be painted, the oxide layer will provide poor adhesion. ‘Some plastic materials will deteriorate when exposed to sunlight and must be pretreated prior to painting, varnishing or lining. Contaminants such as oil, grease, wax, oil, soot, dust, sand or soil, ie. every- thing thatis usually called dirt, must be removed. The same goes for water-soluble salts (chlorides, sulphates) and condensation in the form of acid or alkaline com- pounds. It is important to remove any of these external contaminants prior to paint- ing and coating irrespective of the underlying substrate. If previously painted surfaces are to be repaired or repainted, any damaged paint must be removed completely or as much as is economically sound or neces- sary. In some cases, it may be necessary to remove all the damaged paint despite it may appear intact. This is especially the case when undercorrosion is suspecte: The cleaner the surface, the more powerful are the resulting strength that binds the paint to the surface. The adhesion strength that applies in every tiny little bit of contact points between the surface and the coating will together form adhesion that can be measured over a certain area. (See chapter 13 regarding measuring adhe- sion) Especially in a corrosive environment, the adhesion between the substrate and the coating plays a vital role. It is very difficult if not impossible to clean a surface completely. The cost would be exorbitant. However, numerous practical tests as well as laboratory tests have proven that in the end it may also be very expensive to perform a too poor cleaning job. In many cases therefore you should ask yourself whether the cleaned surface is sufficiently clean or not. ie. sufficiently clean for further treatment, ‘what are the conditions the final system will be exposed to, and what is the expected lifetime. Surface preparation is the most important single factor when a surface is to be protected by a film-forming material, e.g. paint. Good and proper surface prepa~ ration will prolong the lifetime. ‘The methods of surface preparation can be divided into three categories: 1. Degreasing and removal of oil, ditt, etc. 2. Removal of rust, mill scale and any cover adhering to the surface 3. Chemical processed layers with properties that passivate and improve the adhe~ sion ‘A number of factors in the surface preparation proc ‘of surface preparation method. These are The size of the subject ‘The number of items ‘The construction material The coating system (paint system) are important for the choice 4 Pretnearwent 124Degreasing Phosphating Abrasive blasting hay ky Ah Clearing Pretreatment Both cleaning and pretreatment Figure 4.1 Degreasing Everybody knows how water on a greasy surface forms beads. Water on a poorly cleaned windscreen, on a newly polished car or on oily thin plates are all good examples of this. If these surfaces are cleaned sufficiently ie. removal of any wax and grease, and then applied with water, the water will again spread out over the surface and form a coherent film, Greasy surtace - water drops form beads Nongreasy surface - water lows out onto the surface and forms an even im Figure 4.2 On this greasy surface the water drops will form beads while they flow ‘out and form an even surface on the non-greasy surface This has to do with the surface tension and can be explained as follows: Solid substances, liquids and gasses in contact with each other exhibit attractive forces. Also individual substances exhibit attractive forces between the molecules that hold the substance together. These attractive forces also work between the sparkling drops and the greasy surface. In this case, the attractive forces between the mol- ecules in the water drops are stronger than between the water and grease on the surface. Le. the tension of the surface causes the water drops to contract because the surface tension of the water is higher than the surface tension of the grease. On clean surfaces on the other hand, the attractive forces between the water ‘molocnton and tha suf between the water molecules themselves. Therefore, the water drops are drawn over the surfaces and at the same time wetting the surface. Le. the attractive forces of the clean surfaces are stronger than that of the water. When a surface is cleaned, the surface tension increases. Knowing the physics of surface tension it can be claimed that the higher the surface tension of a substrate, the better the adhesion of a coating to that substrate ‘Many kinds of degreasing methods exist, but all can be divided into two groups: Degreasing in or by solvents or in solvent vapours that dissolve grease Degreasing in water-soluble chemicals that decompose or emulsify the grease. mw ele. 122 Connosion protecronWaterbosed = ewe: e| [3 ste Dipping EE} Btls Dipping ==} ene LEE, wosting win vgs Figure 43 Degreasing in water-soluble, alkaline chemicals Jn the case of alkaline degreasing not only oil and grease are removed, but also contaminants in the oil and grease. Combined with high pressure washing or high pressure jetting, also water-soluble salts are removed. Degreasing can be done by dipping in bath by open-air spraying by spraying in more or less closed chambers by scrubbing or brushing Before deciding upon degreasing agent, it should be ensured that the composition of the degreaser will not harm the substrate to be degreased. Zine and aluminium will be damaged if the degreaser is too alkaline. Also the types of fats and oils and other contaminants must be known prior to finding the correct degreasing agent. Most alkaline degreasers consist of chemical compounds as phosphates, hy- droxides and silicates. These are water-soluble. In most cases, the degreaser con- tains 0.5-5% surface-active compounds such as wetting agents and emulsifiers. Hydroxides, e.g. sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) are strongly alkaline, Their main purpose is to saponify animal fat and vegetable oil. Animal fat derives from animals whereas vegetable oil derives from plants. Saponification is the process used for producing soap. The animal fat reacts with the alkalis and develops into soluble soap, which is dissolved in hot water. The tensides are important during the degreasing process since the wetting agent reduces the surface tension of the liquid. The access of the liquid to the metal surface is enhanced and the fat is forced away or wound up just as we wind up a string, the so-called winding effect. The purpose of the emulsifier is to disperse the oil drops in the bath or in the case of degreasing by spraying the liquefied film. The result is an emulsion. When non-saponifying mineral oils and fats are present, the emulsifying agent penetrates to the surface and emulsifies the oils and fats. In this way, also mineral oil and fat are removed. 4 Prcrncament 123It is not a question of making the baths or the washing liquid as alkaline as possible, Ithas been proven that the ability of the degreasing solution to emulsify fat is more important than the ability to saponify animal fat and vegetable oil. Sodium silicate and sodium ortho silicate are alkaline compounds, which have good emul- sifying properties ‘Care must be taken not to use a too strong alkaline solution when degreasing zinc and aluminium, When degreasing iron and steel on the other hand, solutions with stronger alkalinity can be used, preferably with a pH value from 12 to 14. ‘The baths should be hot. In some facilities, the liquid is even boiling. The baths should be agitated in order to enhance the degreasing action. By agitation is meant that the degreasing liquid is set in motion by stirring. Spraying is also used. The baths should be skimmed off to remove any fats and oils, which float on the surface. Heavily polluted baths must be exchanged, ‘Washing with alkaline solutions is less efficient than dipping in liquid baths and spraying since the temperature will be lower. Only if none of the other methods can be used, washing by hand is done. After alkaline degreasing, itis important to rinse carefully with fresh water to remove any alkaline remnants before continuing pretreatment. Alkalis are etching and especially the hot solutions are dangerous. Skin and eyes must be protected from splashes of the alkaline solution. If by accident skin or eyes are hit by splashes from the alkaline solution, rinse carefully with plenty of fresh water fora long time. Also acidic degreasing compounds exist, but these will not be discussed in this section. Use of emulsifying solvents Emulsifying solvents (engine degreasers) are concentrated solutions of organic sol- vents, emulsifying agents and water. Before use, the concentrate is often thinned with 4 to 10 parts of paraffin or white spirit. According to the size or the design of the object, the solvent can be applied by dipping, spraying or by brush. After the solvent has reacted for some minutes, the surfaces are washed down with water. ‘The best result is obtained with hot water, e.g. high pressure hosing combined with hot steam. Also high pressure hosing with cold water can be used. If high pressure hosing is carried out with hot water, steam or a combination of these two methods, the greasy film left on the surface will be insignificant. Solvent-based degreasing Solvent-based degreasing may take place in liquid form in tubs in vapour form in tubs by washing with rags wetted with a suitable solvent Washing with rags wetted with solvents ‘The method is not suited for cleaning of strongly greasy surfaces or mass-produced 124 Corrosion prorecTONparts or in the case of high requirements to cleanness. It is neither suitable as a degreasing method for complex constructions or areas where access is difficult Itis important to notice that any water-soluble salts (sulphates, chlorides) present ‘on the surface are not removed by the solvents. ‘The method may be suited for large constructions with only sporadically oil and ‘grease, In these cases this method is used in order to avoid assembling high pres- sure hosing equipment. Furthermore, most of the solvents evaporate ata rapid rate and the surfaces are ready for further treatment as soon as they are dry. However, ‘ittention should be paid to the fact that a thin greasy film is often left on the surface ater the solvents have evaporated from the surface. In order to ensure the best result, always use clean rags to avoid spreading the urease to otherwise clean surfaces, Solvents are often used for washing and degreasing purposes before further surface preparation in tanks and confined spaces. Working with solvents is a seri- ‘ous hazard to health if proper ventilation is not provided and if the workforce do ‘not wear proper safety equipment. Working with solvents therefore requires a com- bination of providing proper ventilation and proper safety equipment. Furthermore, when working with solvents the risk of explosion is enhanced. This is dealt with in ‘more detail in chapter 14: safety, health and environment. Table 4.1 is a summary of solvents used for degreasing, including the health hazards they imply. lable 4.1 Solvents for degreasing Agent Description [Flash [Explosion —_| Toxicity point | limit | White spirit Petroleum Approx. |0.85 vol% — |May cause fraction with | 38°C skin eczema a boiling point | High flash of 150-200°C | 52°C Toluene Transparent, | 7° 1.36.8 vol% May cause aromatic skin eczema | carbons Xylene Transparent, | 27°C | 1.06.0 vol.% | May cause aromatic ‘skin eczema carbons Tichloroethylene |Transparent, | None _—_|Nonflammable| Toxic. May | strongsmelling Jat room cause skin | heavy liquid temperature |eczema. Carcinogenic. Perchloroethylene | Similar to None —|Non-fiammable |Toxic. May trichloroethylene| cause skin but has a higher| eczema, boiling point Carcinogenic. —_L 4 Prereeament 125Dippingin solvents Ifa greasy object is dipped in solvents, a thin film of solvents will remain on the. surface when the object is removed from the solvents. After a while the solvents Will evaporate, but not all of the grease. Instead, some of it will remain on the surface as a thin greasy layer. Heavily polluted surfa serubbing should also be agitated mechanically by brushing or Degreasing in trichloro ethylene vapours Within some areas of the surface preparation industry, degreasing in vapours from eg. trichloro ethylene, tetrachloro ethylene and triefiloro ethane is still a preferred degreasing method. It is most commonly used on plants that require cleaning of components in caskets, series or mass-produced goods and other small compo- nents. ‘At the same time, these plants have high requirements to the cleanness after degreasing Paint contractors sometimes have these facilities. Depending on the type of the material and production method, the choice is most often made between two types of facilities Facilities in which the components are lowered into a tub (the vapour area) by means of a crane or a hoist Facilities with a conveyor traverse The principles and operation of these two types of facilities are in short: In both types of facilities, heating elements in the bottom of the tubs causes the solvents to boil. The vapour generated fills the tub up to the cooling pipe. The tub remains clean all the time despite the solvents become polluted after each treat- ment. When lowering cold objects into the vapour, the vapour will condense on the surface of the material. ‘The solvent together with dissolved oil and grease run off the material down to the bottom of the tub (liquid phase) ‘The temperature of the object will soon be the same as that ofthe vapour and the surface will dry rapidly. Some facilities contain a reservoir for cold degreasing liquids. Any grease the ‘vapour has not removed can be washed down in order to loosen the grease. Thereby, ‘mechanical treatment is obtained. By spraying any dirt will also be removed and furthermore degreasing time can be prolonged. As previously stated, there are facilities in which the material is lowered into the tub by a crane or a hoist. A drawing of this type of facility is shown in Figure 4.4, which shows how a facility with a conveyor may look like. In principle, vapours from the chlorinated solvents should not rise any higher than to the cooting pipes. In case this occurs, exhausts have been mounted at the top of the tub. The purpose of these exhausts is to absorb any vapour on the way out of the tub. When removing objects from the tub there will anyway be some amount of overflow of the vapour. Facilities, which are not in use, must be covered to prevent any spillage of 126 —Conrosion protectionsolvent vapours. In Table 4.2 some types of solvents used for vapour degreasing can be found. Note that the higher th g point, the longer the degreasing time. Exhaust duct Fiashoff zone Cooling pipes {vapour zone Condensate Solvent srr b— Hteating one Vigure 4.4 Due to environment and health reasons use of chlorinated solvents is being phased out lable 4.2 Chlorinated solvents ype |__ Boiling point °C _| Relative time of treatment Methylene chloride | 40 - Trichloroethane 74 el | ‘Tichloroethylene 87 — | Perchioroetiyiene 421 — Mechanical and thermal surface preparation ‘Almost everybody has tried to remove rust and old paint by wire brushes, scrapers, hammers or rotating and chipping equipment. Everybody experiences the same: It is a heavy and tiresome job. Ichas been attempted to quantify how much rust can be removed by wire brush- ing oF scraping By wire brushing, 5-10% of the total amount of rust can be removed By hard-metal scraper almost 1/3 of the rust is removed by scraping back and forth 30 times, or approx. 30-35% by scraping 45 times one way. {In practice it is completely unrealistic to carry out scraping 45 times on the same pot. But the figures give a good indication of the efficiency, 4 Premeswent 127When scraping or wire brushing manually, much force is put on the tool to remove as much rust as possible. The static strain of the body in combination with the dynamic strain when scraping and wire brushing back and forth is exhausting Therefore, itis easy to end the job before the surface is sufficiently clean ‘Mechanical equipment will remove rust and old paint faster and more efficient than manual equipment. The equipment will execute the dynamic work, the rotating or chipping movement, whereas we perform the static work when we hold the equip- used to re- ‘ment. Therefore, mechanical equipment with rotating wire brushes move rust from large areas. The most high-powered equipment is effi high weight makes it heavy to handle In confined spaces, dust from the rust developed during mechanical cleaning will remain in the air for a long time. Dust filter and safety glasses should always be used during work. Furthermore, adequate ventilation should be provided in con- fined spaces. Today, the major part of construction steel is delivered wheel-abrasive blast cleaned and shopprimed. Consequently, there is less need for wire brushing and scraping rust on new constructions. What should be treated is welding seams and any damage of the shopprimer. Usually itis small areas. If feasible, these areas are cleaned by abrasive blasting instead of wire brushing and scraping. Scraping, wire brushing and chipping are used as methods for removing rust and old paint on constructions, which are to be maintained by painting. These ‘methods are only used on the condition that no underrust is hidden beneath the old paint film. In the case of underrust, the extent and amount should be established. Should large areas with underrust or corrosion be the case, a solution may be to abrasive blast clean the entire construction or part of it to the desired preparation grade. Abrasive blast cleaning Abrasive blast cleaning is @ collective name for methods of which grains of differ- ent size are projected against the surface of a workpiece. ‘The method is widely used within the craft and manufacturing industries and is an efficient way of cleaning or preparing surfaces prior to coating or lining, Abra- sive blast cleaning is also used for cleaning moulds for rubber and plastic materials and for cleaning and deburting of cast iron. Different kinds of methods for abrasive blast cleaning have long been used for decorating stones and glass. Ceramic can be decorated by blasting before it is finally fired. Concrete can be both cleaned and decorated. High tensile (or probably hardened) steel is shot-peened to reduce or adjust surface tensions. Springs and machine elements, which for example are exposed to torsion or bending movements are treated the same way. The treatment will prolong the lifetime of the elements. The method may also be used for shaping constructions into e.g, laminated springs and aireraft wings [1]. ‘Now relevant methods and materials in connection with surface preparation of steel, zine-coated steel, aluminium and concrete will be discussed, By equipment and facilities for abrasive blasting is meant machines, which are able to transport, accelerate and control the flow of an abrasive. 128 Conrosion PRoTecTONHydraulic methods where water from a high pressure aggregate with high ve- locity is blasted against the object (water jetting). To increase the efficiency of this method, an abrasive may be added to the water. Mechanical methods where the centrifugal force will actuate the abrasive di- rectly when itis fed from the centre and out to the periphery of the paddle wheel. The wheel subsequently projects the abrasive against the object (wheel blast cleaning), The abrasive is a grained or fluid substance, which is projected against an object to clean or prepare the surface. Abrasives can often be divided into the following main groups: Mineral abrasives Metallic abrasives Organic abrasives Mineral abrasives comprise the following subgroups: Natural mineral abrasives ‘Sand quartz (prohibited in many countries) Garnet Olivine Synthetic mineral abrasives Coal slag (aluminium silicate) Iron furnace slag Nickel slag ‘Aluminium oxide Ceramic glass Other types Metallic abrasives comprise Cast-iron grit and shot Steel grit and shot Aluminium, Other types Organic abrasives comprise Plastics ‘Nutt shells Water Tee crystals Carbon dioxide pellets Zinc-coated grain Some abrasives are unsuitable for recycling. Therefore, these abrasives are called disposable abrasives whereas abrasives which can be used several times are called recycled abrasives, ‘The factors mentioned below are important for the surface preparation process in connection with efficiency, quality, environment and economy: 130. Conposion prorectonParameters for abrasives ‘Type Shape of grain Hardness, strength and tendency to generate dust Chemical composition Grain size and distribution Whether itis harmful tothe organism (health hazard) Parameters for abrasive blast-cleaning equipment. ‘Air pressure and air volume Nozzle, type and size Equipment, type and size Nozzle handling, distance and angle to the object Abrasive and abrasive/air mixture Size of compressor and energy consumption Visibility and amount of dust Parameters for construction Steel quality Rustdegree Contamination Design Cleanness and roughness Physical cleanness Chemical cleanness Roughness Miscellaneous Facilities Accessibility to the surfaces Climatic conditions Flame cleaning, Flame cleaning has previously been a very common surface preparation method. Now wheel blast cleaned and primed steel has taken over resulting in construction steel free of rust and mill scale. In most cases it is therefore only necessary to repait welding zones and any damage in the shopprimer and clean the surfaces prior to painting. ‘The decline in the shipbuilding industry is one of the reasons that the use of flame cleaning is less widespread together with the fact that many ships are built of centrifugally blast cleaned and shopprimed stee. Flame cleaning is a suitable surface preparation method for large, exterior sur- faces of a ship’s hull built of untreated steel. The capacity, however, is very low ‘compared with abrasive blasting. Furthermore, abrasive blasting provides a cleaner surface. 4 Premeesment 134Flame cleaning is a so-called thermal cleaning method. Iti the flame and the heating of the surface that perform the job. The purpose of the method is To loosen as much mill scale as possible To loosen and transform the rust into less hazardous oxides as seen from a corrosion point of view ‘To bum organic compounds such as oil, grease and similar To dry the steel surface To paint on a heated surface Flame cleaning is performed by moving a bumner across the steel surface at a cer- tain rate. When heated, the expansion rate of the mill scale and rust is higher than hat of steel, The tension from this expansion causes the mill scale to crack and loosen provided it does not adhere too well to the surface. Provided moisture is present in the crevices and beneath the mill scale, the water ‘evaporation may also cause the mill scale to loosen. The surface temperature may reach approx. 150°C. This temperature does not cause any structural changes of the steel. The thickness of the material should be more than 5-6 mm. Flame cleaning does not remove all well adhering or loose rust or mill scale. ‘Therefore, the process must always be followed by mechanical wire brushing. Thick layers of rust should be chipped off prior to flame cleaning. Abrasive blast cleaning and wire brushing have long been standardized surface preparation methods. Now also flame cleaning has been included in this standard, ‘The standard is an international standard with the designation ISO 8501-1. The abbreviation used for flame cleaning in this standard is FL.. By following up on jobs with flame cleaning, it has been possible to estimate how much mill scale and rust are removed from the steel surface. New steel of which the surface is almost covered by mill scale, A-steel, it should be possible to remove approx. 20% of the rust or millscale. If much or most of the mill scale has been loosened and the surface has rusted (B and C -steel) between 70-100% of the contaminants can be loosened and removed. Flame cleaning facilitates painting on a heated substrate. If this possibility isto be utilized, final clean up must not take too long, It has been common practice to paint while the surface temperature has been between 30-50°C. Inthe case of repeated flame cleaning, allow the surface to cool. Ifnot, heating takes place at a too slow rate and the tensions in the surface necessary to remove rust and mill scale are not obtained. ‘The operators should use personal safety equipment such as safety glass, gloves, etc. and necessary respiratory protection. Furthermore, fire and explosion hazard when using the equipment should be observed and general regulations followed. Water-based cleaning methods Wet abrasive blasting (slurry blasting) is a method, utilizing a mix of water and abrasives and is primarily used for cleaning surfaces or for removal or reducing the amount of dust from the abrasives or the substrate. Slurry blasting may also soften 132 Corrosion PRotecHonthe surface. The water softens the surface or contaminants, enhancing th performance of the abrasives, e.g. removal of some types of antifouling on ship’s hulls. The two main principles of slurry blasting are Blast cleaning using high pressure and water: The water accelerates the abrasives Slury blasting using air and abrasives: The air pressure accelerates the abrasives In the first principle, relatively much water is used compared to the abrasives. The water pressure is relatively high, in industrial contexts usually between 70-170 Mpa. The abrasives are drawn into the water stream through a hose or a pipe from the abrasive container (the ejector effect). In the other principle in which air pressure is utilized to convey and accelerate the abrasives and water, the supplied water, which usually derives from the water supply piping systems, is usually less than that of the first principle. The mixed air! abrasive stream is fed from a blasting pot. The water is mixed inside the nozzle or just outside the nozzle orifice of the blasting nozzle. The velocity of the particle flow is reduced when the supplied water is accelerated and conveyed with the mix ture, In addition to these principles there are systems in which abrasives and water ave mixed in a container. The mixture is often dosed into a compressed air stream sand through hoses conveyed to the nozzle. The recoil power can be substantial provided large quantities of water are used. The appearance of a wet abrasive blasted steel surface is during blasting and immediately after similar to the one observed in the case of dry abrasive blasting as the abrasives clean, cut and deform the surface the same way as dry abrasives When the surface has dried off, the surface changes colour and gloss, i. flash rusting. Flash rust is a more or less adhering rust screen on the surface. ‘After wet abrasive blasting, it may be necessary to wash down the surface to remove any slurry that may settle on the surface. This will prolong the time the surface is exposed to moisture and consequently formation of rust. Wet abrasive basting will remove a large part of water-soluble contaminants. ‘The American standard, SSPC-SP 12, describes the condition of untreated steel surfaces before and immediately after wet abrasive blasting, Making and selecting photos for the standard are in progress. ‘Some paint manufacturers have their own standards, which have already been incorporated in the working procedures in many places. The standards also include photos of different rust degrees. High pressure water cleaning and water jetting When water without adding any kind of abrading material is used for cleaning surfaces, the ability of the water to clean a surface depends on the energy of the ‘water when it hits the surface. This energy may vary a great deal. The hydro blast- ing methods therefore can be used for cleaning very different surfaces and materi- als with different coatings and types of contamination. In Norwegian there is no precise term for the methods only using water under pressure for cleaning. The usual term is most probably high pressure hosing, which 4 Preteesment 133comprises the methods from simple low pressure cleaning to ultra high pressure water jetting, In English, the term “hydro blasting”, “hydro jetting” and “water Jetting” are found. Its important to distinguish between low pressure cleaning and high pressure water jetting, The standard from SSPC-SP12 suggests several definitions on water pressure: Table 4.3 Definition of high pressure cleaning and high pressure water jetting according to the American standard (NACE/SSPC): Method ____|Weter pressure MPa | Area of use a Low pressure water cleaning | Lower than 34 | For industrial an - LPC | domestic use High pressure water cleaning | From 34 to 70 Heavy cleaning HeWC High pressure water jetting _| From 70-210 Removal of paint, HPW) partly rust Ultrarhigh pressure water | Higher than 210 | Removal of coatings | jetting - UHPWJ 1 | and finings and rust, LPWC_ = Low Pressure Water Cleaning HPWC = High Pressure Water Cleaning HPWJ _ = High pressure Water Jetting UHPWJ = Ultra High Pressure Water Jetting The following terms may also be used: LPWW = Low Pressure Water Washing HPWW = High Pressure Water Washing HPH = High Pressure Hydroblasting UHPH = Ultra High Pressure Hydroblasting Water jetting is used for cleaning different surfaces. In the case of concrete con- struetions, any weak concrete can in addition to cleaning the surface be removed by water chiselling, and laying bare plus clean the reinforcement bars. ‘A water jetted steel surface looks different than an abrasive blasted (dry blasting) surface or wet blasted steel surface. This is because abrasives have not been added to the water. When the abrasives hit the surface, the surface is chipped or deformed by the abrasives causing deformations in the surface, which reflect light. Such a surface will therefore appear bright and glossy. Even water under ‘ultca igh pressure dogs meh yh ox GeLorma Way sles] as de abrasives: The lash of glossy surface deformations makes the surface look dull even before flash rusting Steel of rust grade D with active pit corrosion will appear with a marbled or fissured look. If the corrosion products are washed away, the steel will get a light colour whereas the surrounding areas will appear mat grey, brownish or almost black. 134. Comasion ProrecnonThis appearance is different from what is seen after blasting with abrasives. With abrasive blasting the anodic pits are usually dark due to corrosion products left on the surface whereas the surrounding areas appear light and clean, Hydroblasted steel changes appearance at a rapid rate as the surface dries up and flash rust starts (o develop. This means that some oxidizing of the steel has taken place. If the amount of flash rust is of a magnitude that the surface cannot meet the requirements to cleanness prior to repainting, the rust must be removed or reduced, e.g. by stiff brushes (piassave), synthetic sanding pads, wire brushes or with high pressure fresh water cleaning. High pressure cleaning is most suited for surfaces where the water can run off the cleaned surfaces. After cleaning some flash rust will occur, however, it is possible to obtain a cleaning degree down to light flash rusting. Of the dry methods only the mechanical methods will effectively remove heavy flash rusting from large areas. After cleaning by mean of the dry methods, the surfaces should be cleaned to remove the loosened flash rust. ) “Light abrasive sweep blasting is often used to remove flash rust. Water jetting is an efficient method to remove water-soluble salts from corroded surfaces. Furthermore, oil and grease removed during water jetting become emulsi- fied. This effect does not exclude that requirements to degreasing prior to water jetting are specified. Ifthe surface temperature of a steel surface is measured before and after water jetting, it is observed that the temperature has increased during water jetting. Two conditions have caused the temperature to rise: On its way through the high pres- sure unit (the pump), the water is supplied with the amount of energy necessary to obtain the water jetting pressure. Some of the energy is transformed into heat caus- ing the water temperature to rise. Some of the heat is then transferred to the steel. The main reason for the increase in temperature is also that the kinetic energy in the water will be transformed to heat when it hits the steel surface. The increase of the temperature can be high. The water evaporates at a more rapid rate and the sur- faces dries off more rapidly. Pickling Dipping of steel (iron) in diluted acids in ordet to remove rust has been known for along time. The method is called pickling and today mostly known as a part of the pretreatment process of hot-dipped galvanizing of steel. Pickling is also a part of other galvanizing processes and when coating steel with other metals or conversion coatings. ‘The method was previously used for removing rust and mill scale from stecl plates and profiles prior to painting. In the USA, large facilities for pickling and shoppriming of steel could be found especially within the shipbuilding industry. In Norway, those types of facilities were very rarely found. However, one piant, which could handle small parts (profiles, etc.) up to a length of 16 metres and wide parts up to a length of 8 m, was put in operation at the beginning of the 70’ies. The process was divided into 5 stages: 4 Premeaext 1351 Degreasing (hot alkaline solutions) 2. Rinsing (fresh water) 3. Pickling (diluted hydrochloric acid) 4. Rinsing (fresh water) 5 Passivation (hot, diluted phosphoric acid solution) Degreasing, pickling and rinsing resulted in a very clean, but active surface, which flash rusted ata rapid rate. The workpiece was therefore dipped in hot phosphoric acid solution immediately after final rinsing down. This process provided a thi passivating phosphate layer on the surface even though this process is called nor film forming phosphatizing. The layer only provided temporary protection against corrosion, but the adhesion to the following coating was improved. While the workpiece was still hot, a shopprimer was applied and in some cases also anticorrosive oils were applied. ‘The plant was only in operation for approximately one year. The result of the pre-treatment was very good, however, too expensive compared to the prices the wheel abrasive blast cleaning and priming facilities could offer. Furthermore, per- haps the largest group of customers, i.e. the oil industry, demanded the objects to be applied a zine-rich primer or zine-rich paint This type of priming or painting requires a certain roughness of the substrate in order to obtain proper adhesion — i.e. a mechanical anchorage to the substrate is required. The surface of pickled steel is too smooth and will consequently result in a poor mechanical anchor pattern for most zinc-rich products. By contrast, most other paint types adhere well to pickled, possibly passivated steel The pickling process ‘The various stages in the pickling process have now been covered in brief. We will subsequently take a closer look at various operations and baths, First the objects must be degreased. The choice of method depends on the type of object, the size, design and contamination present on the surface. Most of the ‘methods mentioned in the section on degreasing can be used, Degreasing with rags is too demanding ifthe result should be satisfactory. In most cases old paint, mark- ing colours, etc. must be removed prior to degreasing. Some paints can also be loosened in a hot lye bath provided it is sufficiently alkaline, but abrasive blast cleaning is recommended. Before lowering the steel into the pickling bath, it must be free from grease and any paint that may hinder the pickling solution in getting into contact with the ‘oxides (rust and mill scale). If degreasing is done by alkalis, any residues of these substances must be rinsed off carefully. ‘The pickling solution consists of diluted acid. Any alkaline substance left on the stee] will neutralize the acid. The result is that the acid will become more and more inefficient. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sulphuric acid H,SO, are the two acids that are generally used. In some cases, phosphoric acid H,PO, is used. ‘The hydrochioric acid pickling solution is concentrated hydrochloric acid, app 33%, which is diluted with equal parts of water. The result is a solution of app 16%. Note: the acid must be added to the water, not the other way round. The 136. Connosion protection