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Hydro Treating
Hydro Treating
Introduction
CHAPTER # 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 NAPHTHA
Naphtha is a petroleum fraction invariably consists of c 6 to c10 hydrocarbons.
Naphtha is widely used in fertilizer plants and petrochemical industries as a feed stock. It
is a highly volatile product, manufactured from crude oil by direct atmospheric
distillation and by catalytic cracking of heavy residues. There are two types of Naphtha
marketed namely, High Aromatic Naphtha (HAN) and Low Aromatic Naphtha (LAN)
known as Naphtha (Petrochemical). Naphtha essentially consists of paraffin, naphthenic
and aromatic Hydrocarbons. The presence of Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Naphtha is very
critical especially when it is used in fertilizer plants. In fact, the design of a fertilizer plant
may entirely depend upon the composition of Naphtha available or a refinery has to
produce Naphtha according to the needs and specifications demanded by a fertilizer
plant. This is one of the reasons that IS Specifications for Naphtha has been withdrawn.
Naphtha is used as a fuel in fertilizer plant reformers where high temperatures are
required. It is also used as a fuel for steam generation in the plants where reforming is
done with the help of steam. Some gas turbines for power generation have also been
installed recently which will require Naphtha as fuel.
Chapter #1
Introduction
Chapter #1
Introduction
and other contaminants, and may not be stable in storage. These naphthas may be
hydrotreated to stabilize the olefins and to remove organic or metallic contaminants, thus
providing a marketable product.
REFINING PROCESSES
Today's refinery is a complex combination of interdependent processes. These processes
can be divided into three basic categories:
a. Separation processes
The feed to these processes is separated into two or more components based on some
physical property, usually boiling point. These processes do not otherwise change the
feedstock. The most common separation process in the refinery is distillation.
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
Chapter #1
Introduction
b. Upgrading processes
These processes improve the quality of a material by using chemical reactions to remove
any compounds present in trace amounts that give the material the undesired quality.
Otherwise, the bulk properties of the feedstock are not changed. The most commonly
used upgrading processes for jet fuel are sweetening, hydrotreating, and clay treatment.
c. Conversion processes
These processes fundamentally change the molecular structure of the feedstock, usually
by "cracking" large molecules into small ones, for example, catalytic cracking and
hydrocracking
Here we are concerned with upgrading processes for petroleum
UPGRADING PROCESSES
Sweetening processes remove a particular class of sulfur-containing compounds called
mercaptans from jet fuel. Mercaptans are undesirable because they are corrosive and also
because of their offensive odor.
Processes for merceptans removal:
Several processes have been developed to remove mercaptans by converting them to
disulfides. These disulfides are not corrosive and their odors are not as strong as the
mercaptans they replace. Sodium plumbite and copper chloride have been used as
catalysts for this conversion in the past.
Merox Process:
In recent years, the Merox (mercaptan oxidation) process, which uses a cobalt-
Most of these chemical sweetening processes do not change the total sulfur
content of the fuel; they merely convert sulfur from one chemical form to another.
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
Chapter #1
Introduction
Some versions of the Merox process extract the disulfides that are formed and
Hydrotreating Process:
The objective of the Hydrotreating processes is to remove sulfur as well as other
unwanted compounds, e.g. unsaturated hydrocarbons, nitrogen, oxygen, organo-metallic
compounds from refinery process streams. It is catalytic hydrogenation process with very
high efficiency, even some plants remove sulphur up to 0.2ppm.
A main representative reaction is shown as under.
The liquid phase (or trickle flow) process for kerosene and heavier
Both processes use the same basic configuration: the feedstock is mixed with hydrogenrich make up gas and recycle gas.
The mixture is heated by heat exchange with reactor effluent and by a furnace and it
enters a reactor loaded with catalyst, in the reactor, the sulphur and nitrogen compounds
present in the feedstock are converted into hydrogen sulphide and ammonia respectively.
The olefins present are saturated with hydrogen to become di-olefins and part of the
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
Chapter #1
Introduction
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
Chapter #1
Introduction
The hydrotreating process is used in every major refinery and is therefore also
termed as the work horse of the refinery as it is the hydrotreater unit that ensures several
significant product quality specifications.
Sulphur specifications are getting more and more stringent. In Asia, countries such as
Thailand, Singapore and Hong Kong already have a 0.05%S specification and large
hydrodesulphurization units are required to meet such specs.
The by-products obtained from HDT/HDS are light ends formed from small amounts of
cracking and these products are used in the refinery fuel gas pool. The other main byproduct is Hydrogen Sulphide which is oxidized to sulphur and sold to the chemical
industry for further processing.
In combination with temperature, the pressure level (or rather the partial pressure
of hydrogen) generally determines the types of components that can be removed and also
determines the working life of the catalyst. At higher (partial) pressures, the
desulphurization process is 'easier', however, the unit becomes more expensive for
instance due to larger compressors and heavier reactors. Also, at higher pressure, the
hydrogen consumption of the unit increases, which can be a significant cost factor for the
refinery. The minimum pressure required typically goes up with the required severity of
the unit, i.e. the heavier the feedstock, or the lower levels of sulphur in product required.
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
Chapter #1
Introduction
CONCLUSION
It is obvious from economical data of many commercial Plants that the fixed Capital
Investment on Merox sweetening Process is 90% less then Hydrotreating and the
operating Cost is almost 95% less then Hydrotreating, But the efficiency of Hydrotreating
Units are normally above 99% which cannot be achieved by Merox process, the feed
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
Chapter #1
Introduction
CHAPTER 2
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
Chapter #1
Introduction
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
A typical Naphtha Hydrotreating unit processing a straight run naphtha for Platfonner
feed will have a reactor section and a stripper 'section. In addition, some units have a
prefractionation section upstream of the reactor section.
A. Prefractionation Section
In some special applications, it is desirable to produce a narrow boiling range naphtha cut
for feed to a Platformer. An example of this would be an operation aimed at making
aromatics, where the end point of the feed to the Platformer is limited to about 160C
(325F) to concentrate aromatic precursors in the feed. A full boiling range naphtha cut
from the crude unit could be processed through a prefractionation section to accomplish
this task.
The prefractionation section typically consists of two fraction-action columns in series,
with the overhead of the second (rerun) column being the heart cut for processing in the
reactor section of the hydrotreater. The heart cut boiling range is controlled by the amount
of light naphtha taken overhead in the prefractionation column and by the amount of
heart cut taken overhead in the rerun column. For example, if a 38-204C (100-400F)
boiling range naphtha is charged to a prefractionation section, the overhead temperature
controller of the first column sets the amount of overhead product, and increasing the
overhead temperature will increase the endpoint and quantity of the overhead product.
This cut is what controls the initial boiling point of the heart cut.
The prefractionator column bottom is charged to the second (rerun) column, where the
desired product is taken overhead, again controlled by an overhead temperature
controller. Increasing the overhead temperature will increase the amount of material taken
overhead and will increase its endpoint. Thus, if a heart cut of 82-174C (180-345F) is
desired, it can be obtained by adjusting the prefractionation column overhead/
temperature to set the initial boiling point, and the rerun column overhead temperature to
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
10
Chapter #1
Introduction
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
11
Chapter #1
Introduction
low enough temperature to ensure complete recovery of the naphtha and enters the
product separator. A mesh blanket coalescer is provided in the separator to ensure
complete separation of gas, hydrocarbon liquid, and water. The product separator is also
provided with a water boot to collect the water injected for salt removal. This water is
usually pressured to a sour water stripper for disposal.
There are alternate methods for providing the required hydrogen-rich gas to the reactor.
Most common is a recycle gas compressor taking suction from the top of the product
separator with the discharge joining the naphtha feed upstream of the combined
feed/reactor effluent exchanger. Since the process consumes hydrogen, a hydrogen-rich
gas stream is brought into the unit as makeup just upstream of the product condenser.
This stream is controlled by the product separator pressure controller, allowing gas to
enter and hold a constant separator pressure. This flow scheme is depicted in Figure IV-2.
In some units, rather than having a recycle gas compressor, a comparable amount of a
hydrogen-rich gas stream is brought Into the unit on flow control, and flows on a oncethrough basis through the reactor section to the product separator where it is vented ''on
pressure control. This flow scheme is depicted in Figure IV-3.
The choice between these two flow schemes is made during the design of each unit based
upon the availability of a high pressure hydrogen-rich gas stream, and the cost of
compression for each stream.
Stripping Section
The liquid hydrocarbon in the separator is pressured on level control through the stripper
feed/bottoms exchanger, and thus heated enters near the top of the stripper. A reboiler is
provided to supply the required heat input for generating vapor. This vapor strips
hydrogen sulfide, water, light hydrocarbons and dissolved hydrogen from the feed to the
stripper, which then passes overhead to the overhead condenser and to the overhead
receiver. Normally, no net overhead liquid product is produced, and all of the liquid in the
receiver is pumped back to the stripper as reflux. A reflux/feed ratio of approximately
0.25 is sufficient to strip the light ends and water from the tower. The reflux is pumped
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
12
Chapter #1
Introduction
into the stripper on receiver level control. To increase the amount of reflux, the reboiler
heat Input must be Increased to provide more overhead material. The net overhead gas
leaves the receiver on pressure control, usually to amine scrubbing and then to fuel gas.
The stripper overhead system is equipped with inhibitor addition facilities to prevent
corrosion of the process lines and equipment by the hydrogen sulfide in the overhead
vapor. The corrosion inhibitor is pumped directly from a drum, diluted with a small'
slipstream of reflux, and injected directly into the overhead vapor line at the top of the
stripper.
The stripper bottoms material is pumped through the feed/bottoms exchanger and usually
is charged directly to the Plat forming unit. On many units, a small slipstream of stripper
bottoms is further cooled in a trim cooler and sent to storage for later use as sweet startup
naphtha. This flow scheme is depicted in Figure IV-4.
The dry, stripped naphtha hydrotreating unit product must meet the following
specifications to be acceptable as Plat former feed:
Total Sulfur, wt-ppm 0.5 max.
Total Nitrogen, wt-ppm
0.5 max.
1 max.
1 max.
<25 max.
Additionally, water plus total oxygen must be low enough to produce less than 5 mole
ppm water in the Platformer Recycle Gas with no water injection to that unit.
2.2
CHEMISTRY
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
13
Chapter #1
Introduction
As previously stated, the main purpose of the Naphtha Hydrotreating Process is to "cleanup" a naphtha fraction so that it is suitable as charge to a Platforming unit. There are six
basic types of reactions that occur in the hydrotreating unit.
A. Reactions
1.
2.
3.
4.
Saturation of olefins
5.
6.
B,
Discussion
1.
Sulfur Removal
For bimetallic Platforming catalysts, the feed naphtha must contain less than 0.5 weight
ppm sulfur to optimize the selectivity and stability characteristics of the catalyst. In
general, sulfur removal in the hydrotreating process is relatively easy, and for the best
operation of a Platformer, the hydrotreated naphtha sulfur content should be maintained
well below the 0.5 weight ppm maximum. Commercial operation at 0.2 weight ppm
sulfur or less in the hydrotreated naphtha is common.
Typical sulfur removal reactions are shown below.
a. (Mercaptan) C-C-C-C-C-C-SH + H2 >
C-C-C-C-C-C +H2S
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
14
Chapter #1
C
e.
C
Introduction
C-C
It is possible, however, to operate at too high a temperature for maximum sulfur removal.
Recombination of hydrogen sulfide with small amounts of olefins or olefin Intermediates
can then result, producing mercaptans in the product.
C-C-C-C = C-C + H2S> C-C-C-C-C -CIf this reaction is occurring, the reactor temperature must be lowered. Generally,
operation at 315-340C (600-645F) reactor Inlet temperature will give acceptable rates
of the desired hydrogenation reactions and will not result in a significant amount of
olefin/hydrogen sulfide recombination. This temperature is dependent upon feedstock
composition, operating pressure, and LHSV.
2.
Nitrogen Removal
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
15
Chapter #1
Introduction
5. Halide Removal
Organic halides can be decomposed 1n the Naphtha Hydrotreating Unit to the
corresponding hydrogen halide, which is either absorbed In the reactor effluent water
wash or taken overhead in the stripper gas. Decomposition of organic halides is much
more difficult than desulphurization. Maximum organic halide" removal is thought to be
about 90 percent, but is much less at operating conditions set for sulfur and nitrogen
removal only. For this reason, periodic analysis of the hydrotreated naphtha for chloride
content should be made, since this chloride level must be used to set the proper
Platformer chloride injection rate. A typical organic chloride decomposition reaction is
shown below.
C-C-C-C-C-C-C1 H2 > HC1 + C-C-C-C-C-C
6. Metal Removal
Most metallic impurities occur at the part per billion (ppb) levels in naphtha. The UOP
Hydrobon catalyst is capable of removing these materials at fairly high concentrations, up
to 5 weight ppm or more, on an intermittent basis at normal operating conditions. Most
metallic Impurities are permanently deposited on the catalyst when removed from the
naphtha. The catalyst loses activity for sulfur removal as higher metal loadings are
reached. Some commonly detected components found on used Hydrobon catalyst are
arsenic, iron, calcium, magnesium, phosphorous, lead, silicon, copper, and sodium.
Removal of metals from the feed normally occurs in plug flow with respect to the catalyst
bed. Iron is found concentrated at the top of catalyst beds as iron sulfides. Arsenic, even
though it is rarely found in excess of 1 weight ppb in straight run naphtha's, is of major
importance, because it is a potent Platinum poison. Arsenic levels of 3 weight percent and
higher have been detected on used Hydrobon catalysts that retain their activity for sulfur
removal / Contamination of storage facilities by leaded gasoline and reprocessing of
leaded gasoline in crude towers are the common sources of lead on used Hydrobon
catalysts. Sodium, calcium and magnesium are apparently due to contact of the feed with
salt water or additives. Improper use of additives to protect fractionators overhead
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
16
Chapter #1
Introduction
systems from corrosion or to control foaming account for the presence of phosphorus and
silicon.
Removal of metals is essentially complete above temperatures of 315C (600F) up to a
total metal loading of about 2-3 weight percent on the catalyst:. Above this level, the
catalyst begins approaching the equilibrium saturation level rapidly, and metal
breakthrough is likely to occur. In this regard, mechanical problems inside the reactor,
such as channeling, are especially bad since these results in a substantial overload on a
small portion of the catalyst in the reactor.
I.e Reaction Rates and Heats of Reaction
The approximate relative reaction rates for the three major reaction types are:
Desulphurization
100
Olefin Saturation
80
Denitrification
20
The approximate heats of reaction (1n kJ per kg of feed per cubic meter of hydrogen
consumed) and relative heats of reaction are:
Heat of Reaction
Desulphurization
8.1
Olefin Saturation
40.6
Denitrification
0.8
0.1
As can be seen from the above summary, desulphurization is the most rapid reaction
taking place, but it is the saturation of olefins which generates the greatest amount of
heat. Certainly, as the feed sulfur level increases, the heat of reaction also increases.
However, for most of the feedstock processed, the heat of reaction will just about balance
the reactor heat loss, such that the Naphtha Hydrotreating reactor inlet and outlet
temperatures are essentially equal. Conversion of organic chlorides and oxygenated
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
17
Chapter #1
Introduction
S-6*
S-9*
S-12
S-15
S-16 /
Base
Form
Size
Alumina
Sphere
1/16"
Alumina
Sphere
1/16"
Alumina
Extrudate
1/16"
Alumina
Extrudate
1/16"
Alumina
Extrudate
1/16"
ABD
ABD
(lbs/ft3)
36
38
45
45
45
Lbs/Drum
250
275
300
325
300
Metals:
Ni
N1
Ni
Mo
Mo
Regeneration:
Mo
Mo
Mo
Co
Co
Co
Steam/
Steam/
Inert
Inert
Inert
A1r
A1r
Gas
Gas
Gas
2.3
PROCESS VARIABLES
A. Reactor Pressure
The unit pressure is dependent on catalyst life required and feed stock properties. At
higher reactor pressures, the catalyst is generally effective for a longer time and reactions
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
18
Chapter #1
Introduction
are brought to a greater degree of completion. For straight run naphtha desulphurization,
20 to 35 kg/cm2g (300 to 500 psig) reactor pressure is normally used, although design
pressure can be higher if feed nitrogen and/or sulfur contents are higher than normal.
Cracked naphtha contain substantially more nitrogen and sulfur than straight run naphtha
and consequently require higher processing pressures, up to 55 kg/cm2g (800 psig).
Similarly, higher operating pressures are necessary to completely remove organic halides.
Halide contamination of naphtha is usually sporadic in occurrence and is normally due to
contamination by crude oil well operators.
The selection of the operating pressure is influenced to a degree by the hydrogen to feed
ratio set in the design, since both of these parameters determine the hydrogen partial
pressure in the reactor. The hydrogen partial pressure can be increased by operation at a
higher ratio of gas to feed at the reactor inlet. The extent of substitution is limited by
economic considerations.
Most units have been designed so that the desulphurization and denitrification reactions
go substantially to completion well below the design reactor temperature, for the design
feedstock. Small variations in pressure or hydrogen gas rate in the unit will not cause
changes great enough to be reflected by significant differences in product quality.
B. Temperature
Temperature has a significant effect in promoting hydrotreating reactions. Its effect,
however, is slightly different for each of the ' reactions that occur. Desulphurization
increases as/ temperature 1s raised. The desulphurization reaction begins to take place at
temperatures even as low as 230C (450F) "With the rate of reaction increasing
markedly with temperature. Above 340C (650F) there are only slight increases in
further removal of sulfur compounds due to temperature.
The decomposition of chloride compounds in low concentrations (< 10 weight ppm) will
require about the same temperature as the sulfur compounds decomposition.
Olefin saturation behaves somewhat similarly to the desulphurization reaction with
respect to temperature, except that olefin removal may level off at a somewhat higher
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
19
Chapter #1
Introduction
temperature. Because this reaction is very exothermic, the olefin content of, the feed must
be monitored and perhaps limited to keep reactor peak temperature within an acceptable
temperature range.
At very high temperatures, an apparent equilibrium condition limits the degree of olefin
saturation. This may even cause the residual olefins in the product to be greater at higher
temperatures than would be the case at lower operating temperatures. In certain cases,
when processing a naphtha with a significant amount of light ends over fresh catalyst, S
can react with these olefins to form mercaptans. In such a case, lowering the reactor
temperature can eliminate residual olefins and thus mercaptan formation.
Decomposition of oxygen and nitrogen compounds requires a somewhat higher
temperature than desulphurization or olefin saturation, and the removal of these
compounds does not appear to level .off in the same way at elevated temperatures. Units
with significant levels pf nitrogen or oxygen must be designed for high pressure and low
LHSV to ensure complete conversion.
The demetalization reactions are not very dependent on temperature. Above 315C
(600F), metals removal is essentially complete. Below this temperature, there may be
some cases where all the metals will not be removed.
The .recommended minimum reactor inlet temperature to ensure a properly prepared
Platformer feed is 315C (600F). There are two factors which are important in
determining this minimum temperature; first, below the minimum temperature, reaction
rates for contaminant removal may be too low. Second, the temperature must be
maintained high enough to ensure that the combined feed (recycle or once-through gas
plus naphtha) to the charge heater is all vapor.
Normal reactor design temperatures for both straight run and cracked naphtha (SRN) are
399C (750F) maximum. "Actual operating temperatures will vary, depending upon the
feed type, from 285C (550F) to 285 C (650F). Cracked stocks may require processing
at higher temperatures because of the higher sulfur, nitrogen, and olefin contents. For
these feeds, the reactor delta T will be higher, 1n the range of 10-55C (20-100F).
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
20
Chapter #1
Introduction
As the catalyst ages, the product quality may degenerate, which may be corrected by
Increasing reactor inlet temperature. If increasing the temperature does not improve the
product quality, a regeneration or change of catalyst will be required, depending on the
history of the operation and catalyst state.
In addition to catalyst deterioration, scale and polymer formation at the top of the bed
may cause high reactor pressure drops which may result in reactor channeling. This may
be corrected by skimming the top of the catalyst bed; and/or unloading, screening and
reloading. High pressure drop problems should be/ corrected as soon as possible to
minimize the possibility of equipment damage and degradation of product quality
C. Feed Quality
For normal operation, daily changes in hydrotreater inlet temperature to accommodate
changes in feed quality should not be necessary. However, in some cases, such as when a
refinery is purchasing outside crude from widely different sources, the naphtha quality
may change significantly, and adjustment of reactor Inlet temperature may be necessary.
The final selection of reactor temperature should be based upon product quality. The
above relations of feed quality and temperature assume operation within the normal
temperature operating ranges given 1n the preceding section.
D. Hydrogen to Hydrocarbon Ratio
The minimum hydrogen to feed ratio (nm 3/m3 or SCFB) is dependent on hydrogen
consumption, feed characteristics, and desired product quality.
For straight run naphtha of moderate sulfur content, 40-75 nm 3/m3 (250-400 SCFB) is
normally required. Cracked naphtha must be processed at higher H2 ratios [up to 500
nm3/m3 (3000 SCFB)]. As feedstock varies between these limits, the hydrogen to feed
ratio is proportioned between the extremes.
Ratios above 500 nm3/m3 (3000 SCFB) do not contribute to the rate of reactions. The use
of low purity hydrogen as makeup gas is limited by economical operation of the recycle
compressor. Recycle gas with hydrogen sulfide contents up to 10X and with large
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
21
Chapter #1
Introduction
quantities of carbon monoxide and nitrogen are not harmful/ to the catalyst, again when
reasonable desulphurization is the only criterion. For nitrogen removal or complete'
sulfur removal, high hydrogen purity (70X minimum) is necessary, and CO may act as a
temporary catalyst poison. The prevention of excessive carbon accumulation on the
catalyst requires maintenance of a minimum H2 partial pressure, so impurities present in
the makeup gas require higher operating pressures.
Lower hydrogen to hydrocarbon ratios can be compensated for by increasing reactor inlet
temperature. The approximate relation for these variables is 10C (18F) higher reactor
temperature .requirement for a halving of the hydrogen/feed ratio. This rule assumes
operation above the minimum values of 315C (600F) reactor inlet temperature and 40
nm3/M3 (250 SCFB) hydrogen ratio. This relation is approximate, and it should again be
pointed out that product quality should dictate the actual reactor temperature utilized.
E. Space Velocity
The quantity of catalyst per unit of feed will depend upon feedstock properties, operating
conditions, and product quality required. The liquid hourly space velocity (LHSV) is
defined as f ol1ows:
LHSV = volume of charge per hour volume of catalyst
With most charge stocks and product objectives, a simplified kinetic expression based on
sulfur and/or nitrogen removal determines the initial liquid hourly space velocity. This
initial value may be modified due to other considerations, such as size 'of unit, extended
first cycle catalyst service, abnormal levels of feed metals and requirements of other
processing units in the refinery flow scheme. Relative ease of conversion for Hydrobon
catalysts indicate that olefins react most easily sulfur compounds next, then nitrogen and
oxygen compounds. There is considerable overlap with several reactions occurring
simultaneously and to different degrees. Charge stock variability is so large that only
approximate ranges of space velocities can be indicated for the various feed types. SRN
is processed at 4-12 LHSV and cracked naphtha at 2-8 LHSV.
For daily changes in the LHSV, inlet temperature on the Naphtha Hydrotreating reactor
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
22
Chapter #1
Introduction
(for F) LHSV2
or
T2 = TI - 25 in LHSVi
(for C) LHSV2
"
"
"
"
LHSV2
The above relation assumes operation between 4 and 12 LHSV and assumes that reactor
temperatures are within the limits discussed in Section II.
F.
The process variables employed affect the catalyst life by their effect on the rate of
carbon deposition on the catalyst. There is a moderate buildup of carbon on the catalyst
during the initial days of operation, but the rate of increase in carbon level soon drops to a
very low figure under normal processing conditions. This desirable control of the carbonforming reactions is obtained by maintaining the proper hydrogen to hydrocarbon ratio
and by keeping the catalyst temperature at the proper level.
Temperature is a minor factor in respect to the hydrotreating catalyst life. A higher
catalyst temperature increases somewhat the rate of the carbon-forming reactions, with
other factors being equal. It must be remembered that a combination of high catalyst
temperatures and inadequate hydrogen is very injurious to the catalyst activity.
Catalyst deactivation Is measured by the decrease in relative effectiveness of the catalyst
at fixed processing conditions after a period of catalyst use.
The primary causes of catalyst deactivation are: 1. accumulation of coke on the active
sites, and 2. chemical combination of contaminants from the feedstock with the catalyst
components. In normal operation, a carbon level above 5 wt-% may be tolerated without
significant decrease in desulphurization although nitrogen removal ability may be
decreased.
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
23
Chapter #1
Introduction
Permanent loss of activity requiring catalyst replacement 1s usually caused by the gradual
accumulation of inorganic species picked up from the charge stock, makeup hydrogen or
effluent wash water. Examples of such contaminants are arsenic, lead, calcium, sodium,
silicon and phosphorus. Very low concentrations of these species, ppm and/or ppb, will
cause deactivation over a long period of service because buildup of deposits depends on
the integrated effect of both temperature and time. This effect is important in SRN
processing for Platformer feed.
Apparent catalyst deactivation may be caused by the accumulation of a deposit on top of
the catalyst bed. The flow pattern through the balance of the bed is disturbed and product
quality is diminished. This condition is easily remedied by skimming a portion of the
catalyst, screening and reloading, or replacing with fresh catalyst. The deposit is
generally iron sulfide,
Hydrobon catalysts exhibit a high tolerance for metals such as arsenic and lead. Total
metals content as high as 2 to 3 wt-% of the catalyst have been observed with the catalyst
still effective. However, if the calculated metals content of the catalyst is 0.5 wt-%, the
frequency of product analyses should be increased to prevent metal breakthrough to the
Platforming catalyst. Organic lead compounds are decomposed by Hydrobon catalysts
and for the most part deposit in the upper portion of the catalyst bed as lead sulfide.
Metals are not removed from the catalyst during regeneration. When the total metals
content of the catalyst starts to approach 1 to 2 wt-%, consideration should be given to
replacing the catalyst.
The only certain method of minimizing the effect of trace metal contaminants on the
catalyst is to limit their entry to the system. This is done by careful, conscientious feed
analysis and correcting the source of, or conditions, causing the presence of the metal
contaminant.
Dissolved oxygen, though not a catalyst poison, should be eliminated from the feed. With
oxygen in the feed, excessive fouling of equipment, particularly the feed-effluent
exchangers can occur.
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
24
Chapter #1
Introduction
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
25
Chapter #3
CHAPTER 3
MATERIAL BALANCE
Basis
4000 Barrel of Naphtha per stream day to be Hydrotreated
Bbl/hr Hydrotreated
4000/24
166.66 bbl/hr
MW
109.7
Density
0.7424 kg/lit
So
Weight of Naphtha
=
19539.18 kg/hr
42987 lbs/hr
For getting high %age desulphurization we take 400 SCF H2 Per bbl
(from literature)
So
Feed rate of H2
166.66 400
66664 scf/hr
Chapter #3
Taking H2 purity
0.712
66664/379
175.9 lb mol
79.95 kg moles
79.95/.712
247.05 lb
10.02
So w.t. of H2 Stream
2475.44 lb
1125.2 kg
Total H2 Stream
Balance Around Heat Exchanger and furnace is same as same amount of combined feed
is entering and leaving that is
Wt of comb feed
42987 + 2475
45462 lbs/hr
20664.5 kg/hr
Chapter #3
Br
extra consumption
0.10335%
.10335 0.9995
.1033
N2 contents in feed
0.001%
= 0.001 0.95
Extra Cons.
0.0095 % wt
0.042
Chapter #3
0.0598 wt % H2 on feed
0.0598
42987
100
25.71 lbs
11.68 kg/hr
0.1033 42987
100 32
1.388lbs
0.63 kg mol/hr
So
H2 Consumption
The reactor effluents pass through H. exchanger & after this some amount of condensate
is added for removing salts coming with Naphtha and for dissolving some NH 3 which is
formed in reactor.
Water added
1750lbs
795.45 kg/hr
45462 lbs/hr
Water in
1750 lbs
1736 lbs
Chapter #3
1257 lbs
Naphtha out
44219 lbs/hr
44219 lbs/hr
Gases out
1275 lbs/hr
44219-1275
42944 lbs/hr
19520 kg/hr
3.2
ENERGY BALANCE
42987 lb/hr
19539.18 kg/hr
1125.2 kg /hr
Naphtha + H2 Stream in at
120F = 49C
Chapter #3
Cp
(0.388+0.00045T)/(SP.G)
Cp1
0.745 k cal/kg
Cpg
(4-Sp) (T+670)/(6450)
Cp
0.616 kcal/kg
m Cp T
2352419.57 kcal/hr
Chapter #3
19539.18 98
1,914,839.64 kcal/hr
m Cp T
953.502.60 kcal/hr
Heat Requirements for heating hydrogen gas stream from 49C 327.22C
=
m Cp T
233,224.59 kcal/hr
5,453,986.4 kcal/hr
Inlet stream at
374C
Overall Cp
0.715
Hot side
Chapter #3
20664.2 kg/hr
mCp T
1950287.19Kcal/hr
1914839.64 kcal/hr
Heat required to lower the temp of liquid naphtha + gaseous stream up to 115C.
For Naphtha
For H2 Stream
Total load
1586176 kcal/hr
105453.74
19539.18 + 1125.2
20664.38 kg/hr
105453.74
Chapter #3
Feed in at
621F
327.2C
Over all Cp
0.715
Out Temp
696F
368.8C
m Cp T
Heat Requirements in F1
20664.38 kg/hr
368.8C
100
2
1.21 kg moles
So
Heat evolved due to desulphurization=
=
1.21 11000
13310 kcal/hr
Chapter #3
So
H2 Extra consumption
0.042 19539.18
100
2
4.103 kg mol/hr
65651.64 kcal/hr
65651.64 + 13310
78961.64 kcal/hr
0.72 Kcal/kg
mCpT
Q/mCp
78961.64
20664.38 0.72
5.3C
368.8 + 5.3
374C
Cp
Temp rise in reactor
93.3C
Chapter #3
Outlet temp
60C
Heat load
mCp0.A T
443063 Kcal/hr
60C
Outlet Temp
43.3C
Heat load
mCp T
221480 kcal/hr
BALANCE AROUND
COLUMN FEED/EFFLUENT HEAT EXCHANGER E-185
Inlet temp
43.3C
Outlet temp
173.9C
Heat load
mCp0.AT
1643156.7 kcal/hr
Chapter #3
Inlet Temp
151.66C
Outlet Temp
60C
4645 .95
441275 kcal/hr
52250.62(151.66-60)
296932.5 Kcal/hr
441275 + 296932.5
60C
Outlet temp
43.3C
Heat load
mCp0.A T
53925.13 kcal/hr
Chapter #3
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
CHAPTER 4
EQUIPMENT DESIGN
4.1 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN
Introduction:
In the majority of chemical processes heat is either given out or absorbed, and fluids must
often be either heated or cooled in a wide range of plant such as furnaces, evaporators,
distillation units, dryers and reaction vessels.
The process of heat exchange between two fluids that are at a different temperature and
are separated by a solid wall occurs in many chemical engineering applications. And the
device used to implement this exchange is known as heat exchanger.
Definition:
The word exchanger really applies to all type of equipment in which heat is exchanged
but is often used specifically to denote equipment in which heat is exchanged between
two process fluids.
Such as:
Heaters And Coolers:
Exchangers in which a process fluid is heated or cooled by a plant service stream.
Vaporizer:
If the process stream is vaporized the exchanger is termed as a vaporizer.
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Reboiler:
If the stream is essentially completely vaporized then the exchanger is a reboiler. It is
associated with a distillation column.
Evaporator:
For the purpose of concentration of a solution the exchanger is called as an evaporator.
Fired exchanger:
It is used for exchangers heated by combustion gases, such as boilers.
Natural convection
Force convection
when convective heat transfer is caused by temperature variation and some external
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Transmitted
Reflected
Absorbed
Depending upon the material upon which they fall. Only the absorbed radiations affect
the heat transfer.
In many of the applications of heat transfer in process plants, one or more of the
mechanisms of heat transfer may be involved. For example in the case of heat exchangers
heat passes through a series of different intervening layers before reaching the second
fluid.
1.
2.
(b)
Storage type
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
(2)
1.
Compact
2.
(3)
According to construction:
1.
Tubular
2.
3.
4.
(a)
Double pipe
(b)
(c)
Spiral Plate
Plate
(a)
Gasketed
(b)
Spiral
(c)
Lamella
Extended Surface
(a)
Plate-Fin
(b)
Tube-Fin
Regenerative
(a)
Rotary
(b)
Fixed- matrix
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
(4)
1.
Single Pass
(a)
Parallel Flow
(b)
Counter Flow
(c)
Cross Flow
2.
Multi Pass
(5)
1.
Two-Fluid
2.
Three-Fluid
3.
n-Fluid(n >3)
(6)
1.
2.
Single phase convection on one side, two phase convection on other side
3.
4.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Chapter #4
6.
7.
8.
Agitated Vessels
9.
Fired Heaters
Equipment Design
Thermal requirement
2.
Material Compatibility
3.
Operational maintenance
4.
5.
Availability
6.
Cost
In the chemical industry the preferred choice has been the shell and tube heat exchanger
due to the fact:
(1)
(2)
(3)
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
(4)
(5)
Easily Cleaned
(6)
(7)
More than one heat exchanger can be used in a parallel or series arrangement to
___________________________________________
Tube Side Outlet
Temp=T2= 230
o
F=110oC
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Naphtha + H2
Reactor effluents
= t1 = 49 oC = 120.2 oF
= t2 = 104 oC = 219.2 oF
Total Pressure
= T1 = 162oC = 323.6 oF
= T2 = 110oC = 230 oF
= 42987 lb / hr
= 42987 lb / hr
= 2475 lb / hr
Designing Steps:
STEP 1
To Calculate Heat Duty Q:
= mCp T
= 42987 x 0.6 (219.2-120.2)
= 2553427.8 Btu / hr
For H2 Stream
= mCp T
= 2475 x 0.73 (219.2-120.2)
= 178868.25 Btu / hr
= 2553427.8+ 178868.25
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
= 2.74 x 106 Btu / hr
STEP 2
Assumed Overall Coefficient:
U = 50 Btu /hr ft2 oF
STEP 3
Log Mean Temperature Difference:
T1 T2
Tl m =
ln T1
T2
(T1 t2) - (T2 t2)
=
ln (T1 t2)
(T2 t1)
(323.6 219.2) - (230 120.2)
=
ln (323.6 219.2)
(230 120.2)
104.4 - 109.8
=
ln (104.4)
(109.8)
=
107 oF
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
= 0.94
219.2 120.2
(t2 t1)
S =
(T1 t1)
219.6 120.2
=
= 0.48
323.6 120.2
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
STEP 5
Heat Exchanger Specifications:
1 2 Pull Through Floating Head Type
Tubes
16BWG
Outside Dia 0D
Inside Dia
1D
Length of Tubes L
= 12 ft = 3.65 m
Square pitch
= 1 inch = 0.0833 ft
Baffles:
25% cut horizontal segmental baffles
Area of single tube = (0.1623 x 12 x 30.48) / 100 = 0.1809m2
No. of tubes
Bundle Dia:
Db = do (Nt / K1)1/n1
(From Table 12.4 Coulson)
For Square Pitch:
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
K1
0.156
N1
2.291
Db
0.58 m
1.9 ft
Shell:
(From Fig 12.10)
Shell-bundle clearance:
C = shell inside dia bundle dia
0.093 m
0.093 + 0.58
0.673 m
(Ds)
= 0.31 ft
= 2.21 ft
No of Baffles:
No. of Baffles = 3.65 / 0.4 = 9.1 9 Baffles
STEP 6
Physical Properties:
Average Temp Shell Side
= 169 oF
= 276.8 oF
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
API Gravity
59
k H2 in leaving stream
0.545 Btu / lb oF
0.650 Btu / lb oF
0.9 Btu / lb oF
1.025 Btu / lb oF
for H2 in feed
0.0099 cP
for H2 in product
0.011 cP
0.3 cP
0.2 cP
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
=
43.958 lb / ft3
0.285 c
0.6897 lb / ft hr.
0.669 Btu / lb oF
4309 lb / ft3
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
0.19 cP x 2.42
0.4598 lb / ft hr.
Flow Area :
ID x C x B
as
=
PT
ID
= 0.673 m
= 0.673 x 3.281
= 2.2 ft.
= 1 0.75
= 0.25 inch.
= 0.0208 ft.
= 0.4 m
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
= 1.3124 ft
Pt
as
0.72 ft2
Equivalent Dia.
For square pitch:
1.27
(Pt2 0.785 do2 )
De =
do
3.
do
Pt
= 0.083 ft
De
= 0.078 ft
Mass Velocity
Gs
= Ws / as
= 45506.67 / 0.66
= 68949.5 lb/hr ft2
4.
Reynolds No
Re.s
De Gs /
0.078 x 68949.5
=
0.6897
= 7797.68
Chapter #4
5.
Equipment Design
jH Factor
From fig (28)
jH
6.
47
(c / k) 1/3
1.6475
Prandtl No
Pr
7.
jH k (c / k) 1/3 ( / w)0.14
De
= 47 x (0.087/0.078) x 1.6475 x 1
ho
Flow Area:
Nt at
at =
n
n
Nt
324
at
0.0021 ft2
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
324 x 0.0021
at
=
2
= 0.34 ft2
2.
De
= ID of tube
= 0.62 inches
= 0.0516 ft.
3.
Mass Velocity
Gt
= Wt / at
= 45506.67 / 0.34
= 133843.14 lb/hr ft2
4.
Reynolds No
Re.t
= De Gt /
0.0516 x 133843.14
=
0.4598
= 15020.2
5.
6.
jH Factor
jH
= 70
Pr
= (c / k) 1/3
Prandtl No
= 1.5228
Chapter #4
7.
Equipment Design
=
De
= 70 x (0.087 / 0.0516) x 1.5228
= 179.7 Btu/ hr. ft2 oF
8.
= hi x ID/OD
= 179.7 x (0.0516 / 0.0625)
= 148.36 Btu/ hr. ft2 oF
9.
Uc
10.
= Nt a L
= 324 x 0.1623 x 12
= 631.0 ft2
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
= 58.6 m2
Corrected Area
2.74 x 106
Ud =
631.0 x 92.02
= 0.00243
Ud
Uc
Ud
48
STEP 8
Pressure Drop:
Shell Side Pressure Drop: ( Ps)
For single phase flow:
f Gs 2 Ds (N + 1)
Ps =
5.22 x 1010 De S s
Re.s
7797.68
0.0023
0.642 m
2.11 ft.
N+1
10
De
0.078 ft.
Ds
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
s
0.7424
Gs
68949.5 lb / hr ft2
0.0023 x (68949.5) 2 x 2.11 x 10
Ps =
= 0.076 Psi
10
xg
0.95
2
=
Y+ 1
0.25
2/2.25 1
8-1 = 7
49 [0.01187 + 0.9025]
=
44.8
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
PTP =
44.8 x 0.076
3.42 Psi
15020.2
0.00025
12 ft.
De
0.0516 ft.
0.7424
Gt
0.00025 x 133843.142 x 12 x 2
Pt =
5.22 x 1010 x 0.0516 x 0.7424
=
4n
0.053 Psi
v2
Pr =
s
2g
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
0.0023 x 46/144
7.3 x 10-4
2g
4 x 2 x 7.3 x 10-4
Pr =
0.7424
=
7.8 x 10-3
Pt + P r
0.053 + 0.0078
0.0608 psi
lo2
lo2
49 [ 0.001187 +0.9025 ]
44.8
lo2 x PT
44.8 x 0.0608
2.7
PT
PT
PTP
psi
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
SPECIFICATION SHEET
Identification:
Unit
Item No.
E-110-A
Type
Function:
Operation:
Heat Duty Q
690480 kcal/hr
58.6 m2
301.5 W/ m2. K
Uc
272.55 W/ m2. K
Ud
Rd
0.00243
Fluid Circulated
Flow Rates
Temperature
Shell Side
Naphtha + H2
20664.5 kg / hr
Inlet 49 oC
Tube Side
Naphtha + H2
20664.5 kg / hr
Inlet 162 oC
Pressure Drop
Material Of Construction
Specification
Outlet 104 oC
0.23 atm
Carbon Steel
I.D
0.67 m
Outlet 110 oC
0.18 atm
Carbon Steel
I.D
0.015 m
0.094 m
O.D
0.4 m
Pt
0.0253 m
3.65 m
Nt
324
0.019 m
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
4.2 FURNACES
Introduction:
Furnace is a device for generating the control heat with the objective of performing work.
Definition:
A furnace is an enclosed place in which heat is produced by the combustion of fuel, as for
reducing ores or melting metals, for warming a house, for baking pottery, etc. this is
drawn sufficiently wide terms to cover almost all heating operations. The range of
operation and the condition under which those processes must be carried out cover a very
wide field, and the types of furnaces are equally diverse; therefore, no attempt will be
made to describe or figure particular types of furnace.
Furnaces may operate over a range of temperature from 300 F or thereabouts, to upwards
of 3000 F and they may be intermittent or continuous in operation. The capacity may
vary from that of a small pot furnace used for the tempering steel springs, where a few
gallons of oil is heated to about 500 F to a blast furnace producing a thousand tons of pig
iron a day at a temperature of about 3000 F. The number of types are as great as the
number of heating operations, but most comprise a combustion chamber in which the fuel
is burned and a hearth (or its equivalent) on which the charge is heated.
The principle of fuel economy is the same in all furnaces, and involve
a) The complete combustion of fuel
b) The rejection of the products of combustion at the lowest practicable temperature
b) The reduction of external losses by means of suitable insulation
Types of Furnaces
However we have made an attempt to classify the furnaces so only the names are
indicated here, which also shows the purposes for which the furnaces are employed.
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Without blast
With blast
Natural draught
Forced blast
Natural Draught
Forced Draught
Solid charge
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Liquid Charge
- Electrical furnaces
(2)Classification
Longitudinal Drum
For Tempering
For Annealing
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
For Carbonizing
For Forging
For Ensiling
Direct Fired
Over Fired
Side Fired
Under Fired
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Most of the fired heaters used in the petroleum refinery and petrochemical and other
chemical plants is a pipe still heater, which is designed to heat process fluid in tubes
effectively by burning fuel. The function of the heater is similar to that of the steamgenerating boiler except that usually process fluid is heated instead of water.
Basically a pipe still heater consists of a combustion chamber for heat release, surrounded
by tubes through which the process feedstock flows to absorb heat by both radiation and
convection. Using a predetermined air mix ratio, the heat is supplied by the gas or oil
burners provided on the floor or on the walls of combustion chamber.
The feedstock is fed into and passed through tubes inside the heater. If a convection
section is provided, the feedstock is fed to the convection section first, then introduced
into the radiant section. During passage of the feedstock through the fired heater, it is
subjected to both radiant and convection heat.
The inside walls of the heater are refractory lined, to cope with the high temperatures
generated by the firing fuel.
The feed stock is heated to the required temperature at the specified phase and fed to the
next unit in the process sequence; e.g., distillation column, fractionators or reactor etc. the
temperature of the feed stock when leaving the fired heater differs according to the
operating requirements, but is generally with in a range of 250oC to 500oC.
The fired heaters most generally used are the box type and the vertical cylinder type.
Types of Fired Heaters
Fired heaters are classified by their construction and purpose. There are basically two
types of construction, the box type and the vertical cylinder type. These are further
divided by their tube layout, combustion method, purpose and characteristics. Although
there are many types of construction to meet process requirements
Purpose of fired heaters
1) Heating
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Burners
The following types of burners are used for the combustion of oil or gas, or both in fired
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
heaters:
1) Premix gas burner
2) Non-Premix gas burner
3) Steam atomizing oil burner
4) Combination gas and oil burner
The burners are designed to produce a uniform flame suitable to the type of firebox
involved, together with the most efficient, safe and complete combustion of the fuel.
Refractory
The following kinds of refractories are used in fired heaters to protect the heater casing
(insulating materials) from hot flue gas:
1) Cast able (aluminum cement +aggregates)
2) Brick (fire bricks & insulation fire bricks)
3) Ceramic fiber (Al2O3 and SiO2)
Heating tube
Heating tube is a kind of container in which high temperature and high pressure process
feed stock is contained and receives the heat of combustion.
In some special heaters the tube metal temperature will be more then 8000C.
The material of heating tube is selected from among carbon steel, low alloy and high
alloy steel depending upon service temperature, corrosiveness of process feed stock and
others.
Generally the heating tube is classified into three types, that is, bare tube, finned tube and
studded tube.
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Tube Support
The tube support is literally, the component that supports the tubes.
Tube supports are usually of high alloy casting.
Auxiliary Equipment
There are some auxiliary equipment for fired heaters to achieve higher heater efficiency
and to keep the fired heater in proper condition.
Air Preheater
The flue gas at the exit of the fired heater still contains some available heat which is high
enough to heat the combustion air.
Air Preheater is a kind of heat exchanger and is designed to exchange the heat between
flue gas and combustion air efficiently.
With preheated combustion air the fuel quantity required can be reduced, since preheated
air has more heat than ambient air.
When the flue gas is cooled too much some trouble may occur in the air preheater
elements, fan elements and the refractories in the duct or stack, since flue gas generally
contains sulfur compounds.
Soot Blower
When fuel oil is used as a fuel, a large amount of ash, carbon etc. will be generated and
accumulate onto the convection heating tubes, resulting in low heat transfer.
Furnace Calculation
Step 1
Partial pressure of CO2 and H2O (P) is found from graph which is plotted against excess
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
air.
Step 2
Emmisivity is found from the graph, it is plotted against PL (product of partial pressure
and flame length) different curves for different temperatures.
Step 3
Exchange factor finally is found by graph, where it is plotted against ratio of refractory
area to cold plane area, (AR/a ACP), different curves for different emmisivities.
What is meant by design of a furnace?
When we talk about furnace design it means we want to find
1. Size require for the given heat duty
2. Number of tubes require
3. Arrangement of tubes
4. Flue gas temperature
5. Amounts of fuel air steam
Methods for designing
There is no universally applicable method for the furnace design for all types of the
furnaces specially fuel used determent the design method applicable , there are four
known design methods
1. Method of Lobo and Even
2. Method of Wilson Lobo and Hattel
3. The Orrak- Hudson equation
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Acp= Equivalent cold plane surface (ft2)
= effectiveness factor
Acp=effective cold plane surface (ft2)
Q= heat transferred to cold surface (Btu/hr)
3- Overall exchange factor () :
Assume overall exchange factor. Normally it is in the range of 0.55 to 0.65
Here lets take = 0.57
4- Actual heat transfer between hot and cold surfaces:
Q/Acp = 6000/0.6
= 10000(Btu/ hr. ft2)
5- Tube surface temperature (Ts):
It is fixed depending upon the desired temperature of fluid in tubes.
Lets,
Ts=800 F
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
7- Heat balance:
Heat balance is necessary for the solution of heat absorption problem. The heat balance is
as follows:
Q = Qf + Qa + Qr + Qs Qw Qg
Where,
Q = total radiant section duty , (Btu/hr)
Qa =Sensible heat above 60F in combustion air, (Btu/hr)
Qf = Heat liberated by fuel, (Btu/hr)
Qr =sensible heat above 60F in recirculated flue gases, (Btu/hr)
Qs =Sensible heat above 60F in steam used for oil atomization, (Btu/hr)
Qw =Heat loss through furnace walls, (Btu/hr)
Qg =Heat leaving the furnace radiant section in the flue gases, (Btu/hr)
A- Total required heat duty (Q):
Q =2.3x 106 Btu/ hr
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
We have taken refinery gases as fuel which are obtained during distillation , cracking and
other processing of petroleum and its fractions which contain paraffins (e.g. methane
ethane , propane and butane) olefins (e.g. ethylene, propene and butene) and hydrogen
are called refinery gases.
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
COMPOSITION %
LBS./LB.MOLS.
Propane
40
=0.4 x 44
17.6
Butane
30
=0.3 x 58
17.4
Ethane
10
=0.1 x 30
0.3
Methane
10
=0.1 x 16
1.6
Hydrogen
10
=0.1 x 2
0.2
=39.8
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Qa = qa x Ha
= 3263.43 x10.78
= 35179.8 Btu/ hr.
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
O2
Required
H2O Produced
(lb.mols.)
(lb.mols.)
H2O + 0.5O2H2O
0.05
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.35
0.2
0.3
1.2
1.6
1.95
1.2
1.5
=4.55
=2.7
=3.7
0.1
b-
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
N2
8004
O2
8427
CO2
12200
H2O
9602
So,
Q (N2) = 81.4x8004 = 651925.8 Btu/ hr.
Q (O2) = 3.606x8427 =8430.606 Btu/ hr.
Q (CO2) = 10.207x12200 =124525.4 Btu/ hr.
Q (H2O) = 14.67x9602=140861.34Btu/ hr.
Therefore,
Qg = Q(N2) +Q(O2) + Q(CO2) +Q(H2O)
= 925743.146 Btu/ hr.
So overall heat balance is:
Q = Qf + Qa + Qr + Qs Qw Qg
= 3.28 x 106 + 35179.8 + 0+0 - 65714.28 925743.146
= 2.3 x 106 Btu/ hr.
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
= 590.32- 413.33
= 176.99 ft2
b-
Calculate pxL:
pL = p (CO2+ H2O) xL
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
= 0.24x8
=1.92 atm.ft.
c-
18- CHECK:
Check of gas temperature (Tg) required to effect assumed duty on
assumed surface)
a-
Tg = 1170 F
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
So, trial indicates that less duty than 2.2 million Btu/ hr. is performed since this duty
does not cool the fuel gases to 1140 F but to only 1170 F , while the flux corresponding to
this duty could be effected by a gas temperature of 1140F.
In short as assumed Tg (1140 F) is quite different from calculated Tg (1170 F), so we
have to repeat the calculations by assuming another value of Tg.
SECOND TRIAL:
Suppose Tg = 1160
N2
8774
O2
9251
CO2
13470
H2O
10562
So,
Q (N2) = 81.4x8774 = 714203.6 Btu/ hr.
Q (O2) = 3.606x9251 =33359.1 Btu/ hr.
Q (CO2) = 10.207x13470 =137488.29 Btu/ hr.
Q (H2O) = 14.67x10562=154944.54 Btu/ hr.
Therefore,
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
We have,
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Tg = 1155F (calculated)
Where as assumed Tg was 1160 that is close enough.
Circumferential flux = Q / (Dl) (Nt)
=(2.3x106 )/ (3.14x0.29x22x38)
= 3019 Btu/hr.ft2
As compared with the specified flux =3000 Btu/hr.ft2
Such a difference is negligible.
Final Results
Number of tubes = 38
Flue gas temperature = 1160F
Heat duty = 2300000 Btu / hr
Flux calculated 1 = 3019 Btu/ hr ft2
Dimension of furnace = 23.5 x 8
% Error = [(3000-3019) / (3000)]x 100 = 0.63 %
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
SPECIFICATION SHEET
Identification:
Unit
Item No.
Type
Function:
Furnace
E-120
Vertical Cylinderical
Operation:
2.42*109 J/hr
Heat Duty Q
Furnace
Combustion Gases
Fluid Circulated
Flow Rates
Temperature
Material Of Construction
Refractory material
Specification
Carbon Steel
Refractory Brick
Diameter 2.44 m
Height
B
6.55 m
0.4 m
Tube
Naphtha + H2
20664.5 kg / hr
Inlet 327 oC
Outlet 369 oC
Carbon Steel
L.T
6.096 m
O.D
0.088 m
C-C.Dis 0.1905 m
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
4.3 REACTOR
Types of Reactors
The most common types of Reactors are
1.
2.
3.
Fixed bed reactor can be further classified on the biases of either heat is supplied during
reaction or not.
o
Adiabatic
Non adiabatic
The reactions taking place within the reactor may be in gas phase or there might a case of
trickle operation.
For gas phase reactions some important reactor configurations are as under.
1.
2.
Radial flow
3.
4.
Direct-fired non-adiabatic
Except reactor type and configuration some other factors are important like , Distribution
system and Sporting ceramic balls which also serves for uniform distribution of flow as
well.
Our Reactor in this case is non isothermal adiabatic reactor with basket type distribution
system and standard ceramic balls installation . Detailed calculations of distribution
system is given in design calculations.
Chapter #4
REACTOR DESIGN CALCULATIONS
Equipment Design
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
PLANT SPECIFICATIONS
Feed rate
4000 bbl/std
Wt % S in Feed
= .10335
Wt % S in Product
= .00005
Operating Pressure
Operating Temperature
= 700 F
= 374oC
.474cm2
0.388cm
0.474
(/4)(0.31743)
0.6 cu ft
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
(0.6)(18.9)(30.48)
345 ft 2 / ft 3
However, some of surface is blocked where the pellets touch. A better figure is 310ft2
=
28.81m2
Per cu ft bed, obtained by graphical interpolation of the values given by Sherwood and
Pig ford, p. 87.
Pellet surface in sq ft/ cuft of bed
From test data
Kg = Gm/(aPl) pf dy/y
45.9
ln(.10335/.00005)
(310)(30)(9)
=
Feed rate =
4000bbl
42gal *
24hr
1bbl
0.004186
3.76 lit
* 0.7424 Kg
1 gal
1 lit
* 2.2 lbs
1Kg
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
As Gm = G/S
0.10335 = 310*29.25*0.004186 L
0.00005
DpG
Nre
0.364 G
(30.48)(0.0383)(2.42)
0.128G
637.6
4`2987+``2475
637.6
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
=
71.3
(2fG2) (30.48)
= 2fU2 = 2fG2
gcDp
gcDp
(32.2)(36002)(2.31)(0.364)
0.0000001737fG2
=
G = 45462/S
F = 5Nre 1 + 0.4Nre 0.1
dia
45.46
2.82
0.08
7.61
192.00
30.31
4.23
0.25
6.21
2000
256.00
0.019531 0.22974
0.249 0.10
22.73
5.64
0.56
5.38
2500
320.00
0.015625 0.22467
0.24
0.15
18.18
7.05
1.06
4.81
3000
384.00
15.15
8.46
1.78
4.39
3500
448.00
12.99
9.87
2.76
4.07
4000
512.00
11.37
11.28
4.05
3.80
4500
576.00
10.10
12.69
5.67
3.59
5000
640.00
9.09
14.10
7.67
3.40
5500
704.00
8.27
15.51
10.08
3.24
6000
768.00
0.00651
7.58
16.92
12.94
3.10
6500
832.00
0.00601
0.204196 0.21
0.89
6.99
18.33
16.28
2.98
7000
896.00
0.00558
6.49
19.74
20.15
2.87
Nre
5/Nre
1000
128.00
1500
0.4/Nre
P/L
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
G (m ass velocity)
According to stander procedure ceramic balls are located at both ends of catalyst bed.
Generally the balls used are of 3mm Dia, 6mmdia and 19mmdia.
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
= 4 ft = 1.219m
=7
According to the conventional procedure 60% of small baskets is dipped in catalyst bed,
So increase in catalyst bed height due to dipping of small baskets.
=
7x (0.52) x 4 x 0.6
4 x 13ft2
0.217 ft = .0661m
So
Corrected bed height = 11.28 + 0.217 = 11.5 ft
Bed height with ceramic ball = 11.5 +2 = 13.5 ft
Giving 20% vacant space on top and bottom.
Additional Reactor height = .4 x 11.5 = 4.6 ft
Total Reactor Height
= 18.1ft = 5.51m
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Identification:
Unit
Item No.
Type
Function:
Type of Operation
Fluid Circulated
Feed Rates
Temperature
Inlet
369 oC
Outlet 374 oC
Reactor
R-130
Fixed Bed, Catalytic, Adiabatic,
Nonisothermal
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
Continuous, Gas phase operation
Reactor
Naphtha + H2 Stream
20664.5 kg / hr
Sulphur Contents
Catalyst
Name S-7
Composition
5% Cobalt Oxide
Feed
1033.5ppm
Product: 0.5ppm
P = 0.278atm
Material Of Construction
Killed Steel
Distribution System
No
Dia
Specification
Height
Main basket
0.61m
0.914m
Diameter 1.16 m
Small Baskets
0.152m
1.21m
Height
5.51 m
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Air
1.
Water
Air is available free in 1
deposition of dirt.
Mechanical design of an air 2
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
accessibility
for weather.
maintenance.
Easy
work
on
assembly.
42987lb/hr
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
1750lb/hr
42987+2475+1750
47212.2 lb/hr
Inlet temperature
2000F
Outlet temperature
1400F
mCpT
47212.2x0.74x(200-140)
2096221.68Btu/hr
75 Btu/hr.ft2. 0F
Feed Temperature:
Assuming,
U
Calculation of temperature difference:
T1 = Process fluid inlet temperature
2000F
T2 =
1400F
Ta1=
900F
Height of fins
5/8in
Thickness
0.017in
Fins Selection:
Circular fins of aluminum
8fins/inch
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Number of tube rows
5.04
1 in
650ft/min
Tube OD
Air velocity employed
For calculating face area required of bundle
75x5.04/1.08x650
0.5384
1.8
From graph
KVfAf/wCp
So,
Af
= 1.8x47212.2x0.74/1.08x650
=
90ft2
Q/KAfVf
2096221/1.08x90x650
33.170F
90+33
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
=
Tlm =
1230F
62.54 0F
t2-t1/T1-t1
123-90/200-90
0.3
T1-T2/t2-T1
60/33.1
1.81
From graph we found the correction factor for log mean temperature difference
For two pass flow,
FT
0.99
Tlm
62.54x0.99
61.90F
U A LMTDc
2096221/61.9x75
451.41 ft2
90x5.04
As,
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
=
453.1 ft2
96x5.04
483.84 ft2
Number of tubes /Row = Total bare area/No. of row x Length x Tube bare area /ft of tube
23
Total no of tubes
483.84/4x24x0.2260
90 tubes
650 ft /min
0.073 lb/ft3
12(2.375-1)
16.5 in2
12x8x2x0.017x0.625
2.041 in2
14.4 m2
14.46/2.375x12
0.508
650x0.073x60/0.508
5604.3 lb/ft2.hr
Fin blockage
Gm
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
From figure,
h
Dfo/Dt
(2x9.8/120x0.017x12)1/2 x0.625/12
0.56
2.25/1
2.25
86%
Fin area
12x8[(2.25)2-12]x2x/4 + x2.25x0.017
624in2
4.33ft2
do(1-nt) L
3.14x1x(1-8x.017)x12/144
0.2261 ft2
4.33/0.2261
19.15
9.8(1915x0.86+1)
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
ho
Re
hi
4.5 x x (0.0695)2/4
0.1707ft2
47212/0.1707
276578.8lb/ft2hr
DG/
0.0695x276578.8/0.46
41787.44
0.023xk/dx(Re)0.8 x(c/k)1/3
0.013308
75.15
So from above it is proved that selection of U is right so the area selected is right too
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
= density of gas
= 0.516 in H20
= 0.916 in
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Fans
As fan area is 40 to 50% of bundle face area, fan must be 6in apart from the bundle wall
So,
6 fans of diameter 3ft will be suitable
For a bundle of 4 x 24 ft2
Total fan area
Motor Hp
/4x 32x 6
42.41 ft2
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Kg/hr
0
C
0
C
atm
KJ/Kg0C
Kg/m hr
KJ/hr
atm
atm
21460
93.33
60
26.4
0.0035
0.72
2.09106
0.916in
H2O
AIR SIDE
AIR VELOCITY
MASS VELOCITY
INLET TEMPERATURE
OUTLET TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE DROP
m/min
Kg/m2 hr
0
C
0
C
atm
198.12
23635
32.2
50.7
0.0306
CONSTRUCTION
TUBE
MATERIAL
OUTER DIA
INNER DIA
NO. OF TUBES
PITCH
NO. OF PASSES
NO. OF ROW
FIN
m
m
m
Killed
steel
0.0254
0.0211
90
0.06
2
4
MECHANICAL
EQUIPMENT
FAN
NO. OF UNIT
DIAMETER OF FAN
NO. OF BLADE
BLADE MATERIAL
FAN MATERIAL
POWER
m
PLASTIC
CAST
IRON
KW
6
0.9146
4
MATERIAL
TYPE
HEIGHT
NO. OF FIN /m
THICKNESS
ALUMINUM
CIRCULAR
m
m
0.0158
315
0.0004
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Liquid stream
Water
DATA:
Gas:
In soluble phase
1275 lbs/hr
In gaseous phase
1257.2 lbs/hr
Liquid Naphtha
42987 lb/hr
45955.32 lbs/hr
1257.2 lbs/hr
0.349 lb/sec
Liquid:
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Moles of gas
=
1257.2/6.4
196.43 lbmoles / hr
Pressurjre of gas
370psi
Temperature of gas
110F =
196.43 lbmoles / hr
Gas constant =
10.72psi.ft3 / lbmole.oF
PV
nRT
nRT / P
3245.8 ft3
1257.2 / 3245.8
46.9 lbs/hr
Volume of gas:
Volume of gas
570R
Density of gas ( )
v
Density of liquid ( )
l
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Selection of Lv/Dv
The most economical length to diameter ratio depends upon operating
pressure here from 290 to 507.64 psi we use Lv / Dv = 4 and the operating pressure of
that process is 370psi
Selection of liquid height hv
hv
Dv / 2
0.5
0.767 ft / sec
0.15 x Ut
0.115 ft / sec
0.349 / 0.387
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Dv2 / 4 x 0.5
0.392 Dv2
Qv / Av
2.3 Dv-2
Vapor velocity Uv
Vapor residence time required for the liquid droplets to settle on the liquid surface:
=
hv / Ua
0.5 Dv / 0.115
4.347 Dv
L v / Uv
4 Dv / Uv
4 Dv / 2.3 Dv-2
1.74 Dv3
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
= 4 Dv
= 4x1.6
= 6.4 ft
Hold up volume
= area x length
= 1 x 6.4
= 6.4 ft3
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Hold up time = liquid volume / liquid flow rate
=
6.4/0.272
23.52 sec
0.392 min
This is unsatisfactory, 3 minutes minimum required. Need to increase the liquid volume
this is best done by increasing vessel diameter the diameter must be increased by the
factor of roughly (3/0.392)1/2
2.76
New Dv
1.6 x 2.76
4.42 ft
4 x Dv
16 ft
100.5 ft3
volume/flow rate
100.5 / 0.272
369.5 sec
6.15 min
New Lv
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
BOOT DESIGN:
Residence time
6.15 min
1750 ft3 / hr
1750 x 6.15 / 60
179.4 lbs
82.6 L
2.92 ft3
area x length
D2 / 4 x 5 x D
Dv
1.23 ft
Lv
1.23 x 5
6.2 ft
Lv/Dv
As interphase is on 50%,
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Factors that depend on the system i.e. scale, foaming, fouling factors,
iii)
Factors that depends upon the physical characteristics of the column and its
Factors that depend upon mode of operation i.e. batch distillation, continuous
Plate column are designed to handle wide range of liquid flow rates without
flooding.
ii)
solid will accumulate in the voids, coating the packing materials and making it
ineffective.
iii)
Dispersion difficulties are handled in plate column when flow rate of liquid
Chapter #4
iv)
Equipment Design
For large column heights, weight of the packed column is more than plate
column.
v)
vii)
Design information for plate column are more readily available and more
plate column.
ix)
For this particular process, Acetaldehyde, ethyl alcohol and water system, I have
selected plate column because:
i)
System is non-foaming.
ii)
They are lighter in weight and less expensive. It is easier and cheaper to
install.
ii)
iii)
iv)
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
X nl
rf
1 r f 1 i x fh
6.26
0.738
1 r 6.26 1 0.195
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Rm
Rm
LH
X dA
X
LH dB
1 X nl
X nH
1
0.02448
0.0078
1
.
776
0.776 1 0.118
0.738
= 0.31
Fenske equation
X X
log a b
X b D X a
Nm 1
log AB
Nm + 1 =1.298/0.249 = 5.16
Nm = 4.16
N N m R Rm
N 1
R 1
N 4.16 8 0.3
N 1
8 1
N 4.16 0.85 N 0.85
N = 33.4
Viscosity
0.24,
LH 1.776,
LH 0.355
0.75
So,
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
FW
LW
VW
V
L
24434
25710
9
700.4
= 0.1076
FLV Bottom
90132 10.26
47193 742.4
= 0.22
From figure 11.27 Coulson and Richardson vol.6
t1 = a constant obtained from fig 11.27
K1 Top = 0.08
K2 Bottom = 0.07
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Uf = flooding velocity
L V
V
U f K1
U f Top 0.08
700.4 9
9
= 0.700 m/s
U f Bottom 0.07
742.4 10.2
10.2
= 0.6 m/s
Based on 80% flooding velocity
25710
0.36 m3/sec
2.2 9 3600
Bottom
47193
0.58
2.2 10.26 3600
0.36/0.56 = 0.643
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Bottom
0.58/0.48
1.2
0.643/0.88
0.73
Top
1.2/0.86
1.36
Column Diameter
Top
0.73 4
,
Bottom
= 0.96 m
= 1.31 m
11.38
Bottom
3.08
1.31m
2
d
4
Column Area Ac
Ac
Downcomer area Ad
0.12 1.33
Net area An
1.36 4
1.33 m2
0.159 m2
Ac Ad
1.33 0.159
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
active area Aa
1.171 m2
Ac 2Ad
1.33 2(0.159)
1.012
0.1012 m2
1.3 0.76
=
0.988 m
50 mm
Hole diameter
5 mm
Plate thickness
5 mm
Check Weeping
Maximum liquid rate
11.38 kg/sec
0.7 11.38
= 7.966 kg/sec
how
= weir crust
11.38
742.4 0.159
5/ 4
= 40.29 mm liquid
7.966
742.4 0.98
2/3
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
= 37.86 mm liquid
at minimum hw + how = 50 + 37.86
= 87.86 mm liquid
K 0.9 25.4 an
U min 2
10.26 1/ 2
0.7 0.58
0.1012
= 4.01 m/s
So minimum vapor rate will be well above the weep point.
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
0.58
U h
5.73 m/s
0.1012
from fig. 11.34 for plate thickness/hole dia = 1
and
Ah Ah
0.1
Ap Aa
lo = 0.84
U
hd 51 h
lo
5.73
hd 51
0.84
V
L
10.26
= 32.8 mm liquid
742.4
Residual Head
12.5 103
hr
16.83 mm liquid
742.4
Total pressure drop = 32.8 + (50 + 40.20) + 16.83
ht = 139.92 mm liquid
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
hdc
166 wd
L An
11.38
hdc 166
742.4 0.039
= 25.64 mm ~ 26 mm
Backup in downcomer
hb
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
= 3.03 sec
> 3 sec satisfactory
Check Entrainment
UV
0.58 / 1.171
0.495 m/s
Percent flooding
0.495/0.6
0.082%
FLV = 0.22
Satisfactory
0.76
QL
99
81180 1.76
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Ah 0.1012
0.11
Ap 0.917
From fig. 11.33 lp/dh = 2.6, satisfactory within 2.5 = 4.0
No of Holes
Area of one hole 1.964 105
No. of holes
0.1012
1.964 105
= 5152.74
TOP DIAMETER
Max. volume liquid flow rate
24434 kg/hr
25710 kg/hr
V 9
L 700.4
Liquid flow rate
6.787 kg/sec
7.141 kg/sec
0.96 m
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Ac = Column Area
2
d 0.72 m2
4
0.6336 m2
0.5472 m2
0.05472 m2
Weir length
Aa = Ac 2Ad
0.0864
100 12
0.72
lw
0.76
Dc
lw 0.76 0.96 0.7296
Take weir height
50 mm
Hole diameter
5 mm
Plate thickness
5 mm
6.78 kg/sec
Check Weeping
Maximum liquid flow rte
Minimum liquid. Rate at 70% turn down 0.7 6.78 4.76 kg/sec
6.78
700 0.0864
5/ 4
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
=
4.76
700 0.729
At min. rate
48.65 mm liquid
2/3
33.24 mm liq.
50 + 33.24
83.24 mm liq.
30.8
0.7 0.36
0.054
= 4.66
So well above weep point
6.78 / 9
U h
13.95 m/sec
0.054
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Ah / Ap
0.1
13.95
Ad 51
0.84
9
700
21.5 mm liq.
138 mm liq.
hw 10 = 40 mm
Residual Head
ht
hdc
0.0291 m2
6.78
166
700 0.029
18.51 mm liq.
255.16 mm
0.255 m
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
3.24 sec
>
3 is Satisfactory
Check Entrainment
Uv
0.36
0.36
0.56 m/sec
Ah
0.6336
Percent flooding
FLV = 0.107,
0.56
0.81%
0.7
= 0.05
Trial Layout
Use cartridge type construction. Allow 50mm upperforated strip vannd plate edge; 50mm
wide calming zone.
From fig. 11.32
lw
Dc
0.76
QC = 99o
Angle subtended at plate edge by unperforated strip = 180 99 = 81o
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Ah 0.0547
0.11
Ap 0.478
From fig. 11.33 lp/dh = 2.6 satisfactory
No. of Holes
Area of one hole
2
1.964 105 m
No. of holes
0.0547
1.764 105
2785.13
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
SPECIFICATION SHEET
Identification:
Unit
Item No.
Type
Function:
Type of Operation
Distillation Column
D-180
Sieve Tray Column
DESIGN DATA
Trays design
No of Trays :
43
Tray Spacing:
0.4m
Diameter:
1.3m
Hole design
Weir Height: 1in
Weir Length: 0.988m
Hole area:
0.1012m2
Efficiency:
75%
Pressure drop per plate: 139.92mm liq
0.159 m2
0.018
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
CHAPTER 5
MECHANICAL DESIGN
5.1 Shell & Tube heat exchanger:
Shell side:
Material carbon steel
Working pressure 0.1N / mm 2
Design pressure 0.11N / mm 2
Permissible stress for carbon steel 95 N / mm 2
Dia of shell = 673mm
Tube side:
Working pressure = 0.5N / mm 2
Design pressure = 0.55N / mm 2
Shell thickness:
ts = PD/2f J+P = (0.11x 673) / {(2 x 95 x 0.85) + 0.11}
= 0.45mm
Minimum thickness of shell must be 6.3 mm
Including corrosion allowance, ts = 8mm.
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
Head thickness:
Shallow dished & torispherical head
t h = PRcW / 2 fJ
Rc crown radius
W stress intensification factor
W= 1/4 [Rc / Rk] 0.5
Rk = 6% Rc
W= 1 / 4 [3+ (1 / 6) 0.5]
J= 1
th = (0.11 x 1.77 x 673) / 2 x 95
= 0.689 mm.
Use thickness as it for shell i.e. 8 mm
Segmental baffles:
Baffle spacing = 0.4 x 673 = 269.2 mm
Thickness of baffles = 6 mm
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
Flanges:
Shell thickness = go = 8 mm
Flange material IS: 2004 1962 class 2
Gasket material asbestos composition
Bolting steel = 5% Cr Mo steel
Allowable stress of flange material 100 MN / m2
Allowable stress of bolting material, Sg 138 MN/m2
Outside diameter = B = 673 + (2 x 8)
= 689 mm
Gasket width:
do / di = [(y- pm)/ (y- p{m+1})] 0.5
m gasket factor 2.75
y min design seating stress 25.5 MN / m2
Gasket thickness = 1.6 mm
Thus,
do / di = 1.002
Let di of the gasket equal 683 mm [10 mm greater than shell dia]
do = 0.683 x 1.002.= 0.684m
Mean gasket width = (0.684 0.683) /2
= 6.83 x 10-4
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
5.2
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
Gby
0.2783 MN
Controlling load
0.2783 MN
=
0.2783/138
2.02 x 10-3 m2
Am
Wg/Sg
B +2(g1+R)
0.027m
g1
go/0.707
go
8mm
0.76564 m
44 x 0.066 /
0.9243 m
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
0.93 m
0.968 =
0.97m
W1 + W2 + W3
W1
(B2 / 4) P
/ 4 (0.689)2 0.11
W2
W3
0.0410
H-W1
0.06004 0.0410
1.9 x 10 -3
Wo-H =
6.6 x 10 -3 MN
Hp (gasket load)
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
a1 = (C-B) / 2 = 0.93-0.689/2 = 0.241
a3 = (C-B) / 2 = 0.93-0.689 / 2 = 0.241
a2 = (a1+a2) /2 = 0.241
Mo = 1.1 x 10 -2
Flange thickness:
t 2 = (MCfY)/(BSt) = (MCfY/BSfo)
K= (A/B)
= (0.97/0.689)
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Mechanical Design
= 1.407
Assume, Cf =1
From the graph, Y = 3
M = 0.1275MN-m
St = Allowable stress
=100MN / m 2
t 2 =(0.1275 x 3) / (0.689 x 100)
= 0.0055
t = 0.074m
Nozzle:
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Mechanical Design
= 0.293
Corrosion allowance 3 mm
tn = 4 mm
Considering the size of the nozzle & the pressure rating, it is necessary to provide for a
reinforcing pad on the channel cover.
Area required to be compensated for each nozzle
A = d x th = 100 x 10 = 1000 mm 2.
Saddle Support:
Material- low carbon steel
Diameter = 454 mm
Length of the shell, L = 3.8 m
Knuckle radius = 6% of diameter
= 27.24 mm
Total depth of head = [Dx r /2]1/2
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Mechanical Design
= [454x27.4 / 2 ]1/2
H= 78.63mm
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
= 0.9865 Kg / cm2
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
CHAPTER 6
PUMP SELECTION
6.1 FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF A PUMP
1)
Many different factors can influence the final choice of a pump for a particular
operation. The following list indicates the major factors that govern pump selection.
2)
The amount of fluid that must be pumped. This factor determines the size of pump
The properties of the fluid. The density and the viscosity; of the fluid influence
the power requirement for a given set of operating conditions, corrosive properties of the
fluid determine the acceptable materials of construction. If solid particles are suspended
in the fluid, this factor dictates the amount of clearance necessary and may eliminate the
possibility of using certain types of pumps.
4)
The increase in pressure of the fluid due to the work input of the pumps. The head
change across the pump is influenced by the inlet and downstream reservoir pressures,
the change in vertical height of the delivery line, and frictional effects. This factor is a
major item in determining the power requirements.
5)
Chapter #5
7)
Mechanical Design
= 46.25 Lb/ft3
= 1388.62 ft
Chapter #5
Where
GPM = flow rate in Gallon Per min.
P = Developed pressure, Psi
eff = Efficiency in fraction
Pump Horsepower = H.P = 35.67 h.
Mechanical Design
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
CHAPTER 7
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
Measuring Means
As all the parts of the control system, measuring element, is perhaps the most important.
If the measurements are not made properly the remainder of the system cannot operate
satisfactorily. The measured variable is chosen to represent the desired condition in the
process.
Pressure Measurement
b.
Temperature Measurement
c.
d.
Level Measurement
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
Variables to be Recorded
Indicated temperature, composition, pressure etc.
7.3 CONTROLLER
The controller is the mechanism that responds to any error indicated by the error
detecting mechanism. The output of the controller is some predetermined function of the
error. There arc three types of controllers.
1.
Proportion action which moves the control valve indirect proportion to the
Integral action (reset) which moves the control valve based on the time integral of the
error and the purpose of integral actions is to drive the process back to .its set point when
it has been disturbed.
3.
Ideal derivative action and its purpose are to anticipate where the process is
heading by cooking at the time a rate of change of error. The final control element
receives the signal from the controller and by some predetermined relationship changes
the energy input to the process.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTROLLER
In general the process controllers can be classified as
a.
Pneumatic controllers
b.
Electronic controllers
c.
Hydraulic controllers
While dealing with the gases, the controller and the final control element may be
pneumatically operated due to the following reasons.
Chapter #5
i.
The
Mechanical Design
pneumatic
controller
is
very
rugged
and
almost
free
of
maintenance. The maintenance men have not had sufficient training and background in
electronics, so pneumatic equipment is simple.
ii.
Transmissions
distances
are
short
pneumatic
and
electronic
transmissions system are generally equal up to about 200 to 300 feet. Above this distance
electronic system beings to offer savings.
MODES OF CONTROL
The various types of control are called modes, and they determine type of response
obtained. In other words these describe the action of controller that is the relationship of
output of output signal to the input or error signal. It must be noted that is error that
achieve the controller. The four basic mode of control are:
1.
On-off control
2.
Integral control
3.
Proportional control
4.
In industry purely integral, proportional or derivative modes seldom occur alone in the
control system. The on-off controller is the controller with very high gain. In this case the
error signal at once off the valve or any other parameter upon which it sites or completely
sets system.
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
A sensor to monitor the control variable and provide and output signal when a preset
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Here is given a short outline of these control schemes, so that to justify our selection of a
control loop for specified equipment.
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
RATIO CONTROL
A control loop in which, the controlling element maintains a predetermined ratio of one
variable to another. Usually this control loop is attached to such as system where two
different streams enter a vessel for reaction that may be of any kind. To maintain the
stoichiometic quantities of different streams this loop is used so that to ensure proper
process going on in the process vessel.
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
be take at different conditions. The advantage of this loop is to maintain the proper
conditions and avoid abnormalities at very differential levels.
7.6 INTERLOCKS
Where it is necessary to follow a fixed sequence of operations for example, during a plant
start-up and shut-down, or in batch operations. Interlocks are includes to prevent
operators departing from the required sequence. They may be incorporated in the control
system design, as pneumatic or electric relays or may be mechanical interlocks.
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
deviation from controller set point is normally required to correct for off set in the
controlled variable (temperature). It there are process load change and reset response can
be eliminated in cases where disturbance such as heating fluid header pressure, product
flow rate or inlet temperature changes have small effects relative to desired tolerance on
the controlled variable.
When throughout to a heat exchanger is changed rapidly a short-term error in control
temperature results. The magnitude and duration of this error can normally be reduced by
a factor of two by adding derivative response to the control mechanism and adjusting it
properly. In derivative responses, heating fluid flow rate is proportional to rate or change
of temperature derivation from the set point.
A Pressure Cascade Control
A pressure cascade control system cascades output of a standard three action temperature
controller into the set point of a pressure controller. It achieves a more rapid recovery to
process load disturbances in a shell-and-tube exchanger than can be obtained without the
pressure controller. Heating fluid to the heater is regulated by the pressure controller
which is normally provided with proportional and reset responses. Load change is rapidly
sensed by a change is shell pressure which is compensated for by the pressure controller.
The temperature control system senses the residual error and resets the pressure control
set point.
Bypass Improves Control of Slow-Response Exchanger
In certain cascade, the time response characteristic of heat exchanger is too slow to hold
temperature deviations resulting from load changes within desired tolerances. In some of
these cases, the transient characteristic of the heat exchanger can be circumvented by bypassing the heater with a parallel line and bledding cold process fluid with hot fluid from
the heater. In the by-pass system care must be taken in sizing valves to obtain the-desired
flow sprit with adequate flow versus steam travel characteristics. Thermal elements
response time is particularly important since this tie constant is a major factor influencing
performance of the system.
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
Flow Controllers
These are used to control tin- feed rate into a process unit Orifice plates are by far the
most type of How-rate sensor. Normally orifice plates arc designed to give pressure drops
in the range of 20 to 200 inch of water Venture tubes amand turbine meter are also used.
Temperature controller
Thermocouples are the most commonly used temperature sensing device. The two
dissimilar wires produce a millivolt emf that varies with the hot-functions temperature.
Iron constant to thermocouples are commonly used over the 0 to 1300 F. temperature
range.
Pressure Controller
Bourdon
tubes,
bellows
and
diaphragms
are
used
to
sense
pressure
and differential pressure. For example, in mechanical system the process pressure force is
balanced by the movement of a spring. The spring positing can be related to process
pressure.
Level Indicator
Liquid levels are detected in a variety of ways. The three common are
1.
The following the position of a float that is lighter than the fluid.
2.
Measuring the difference in static pressure between two fixed elevations, one in
the vapour above the liquid and the other under the liquid surface. The differential
pressure between the two level taps is directly related to the liquid level in the vessel.
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
Transmitter
The transmitter is the interface between the process and its control system.The Job of the
transmitter is to convert the sensor signal (millivolts, mechanical movement, pressure
difference etc.) into a control signal 3 to 15 psig air pressure signal, 1 to 5 10 to 50 milli
ampere electrical signal etc.
Control Valves
The interface with the process at the other end of the control loop is made by the final
control element in an automatic control valves control the flow of heating. fluid the open
or close and orifice opening as the system is raised or lowered.
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
CHAPTER 8
-money must be
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
supplied to purchase and install the necessary machinery and equipment, land and service
facilities must be obtained and the plant-must be erected. Complete with all pipe controls
inn services. In addition it is necessary to have money available for payment of expenses
involved in the plant operation.
The capital needed to supply the necessary manufacturing and plant facilities is called the
fixed capital investment while the necessary for the operation of the plant is termed as the
working capital investment.
1.
The capital which is necessary lor the operation of the plant is called working capital
investment.
2.
The capital needed to supply flu- necessary maMiif'acttirini 1 and plant facilities is called
fixed capital investment.
The fixed capital investment classified in to two sub divisions,
i.
Direct Cost
ii.
Indirect Cost
DIRECT COST
The direct cost items arc incurred in the construction of the plant in addition to the cost of
equipment.
1.
Purchased Equipment
2.
3.
4.
Piping
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Mechanical Design
5.
6.
7.
Yard Improvement
8.
Services Facilities
9.
Land
INDIRECT COST
1.
2.
Contractor's Expenses
3.
Contractor's Fee
4.
Contingency
b.
Accuracy Desired
2.
Unit estimate
3.
4.
Chapter #5
5.
Mechanical Design
Investment cost per capacity
The accuracy of an estimate depends on the amount of design detail available; and the
accuracy of the cost data available; and the time spent on preparing the estimate. In the
early stages of a project only an approximate estimate will be required an justified by the
amount of information by then developed.
PERCENTAGE DELIVERED EQUIPMENT
This
method
for
estimating
total
investment
requires
the
determination
of the delivered equipment cost. The cost of purchased equipment is the basis of several
pre design methods for estimating capital investment.The most accurate methods for
determining process equipment costs is to obtain firm bids from fabricators or suppliers.
Percentage of delivered equipment cost is the method used for estimating the fixed or
total capital investment requires determination of the delivered equipment cost. The other
items included in the total direct plant cost are then estimated as percentage of the
delivered equipment The addition components of the capital investment are based on
average percentage of total direct plant cost total direct and indirect plant costs or total
capital investment.
Estimating by percentage of delivered equipment cost is commonly used for preliminary
and study estimates. It yield most accurate results when applied to a project similar in
configuration to recently constructed plants.
Chapter #8
DIRECT COST
PURCHASED Equipment Cost =E
COMPONENTS
% AGES OF E
COST ($)
47% E
Instrumentation (installed)
12%E
Piping (installed)
66% E
Electrical (installed)
11 % E
18% E
Yard improvement
10% E
Service facilities
70%. E
Land
6% E
D
=
INDIRECT COST
Engineering and supervision
33%E
Construction Expenses
41%E
D+I
Contractor's fee
5%(D+I)=y
Contigency
10%(D+I)= x
D+I+x+y
Chapter #8
Working Capital investment
W.C.I
Chapter #8
Furnace E-120
1710000 Rs
Reactor R-130
5700000 Rs
ACHE E-140
1180000Rs
1220000 Rs
1300000 Rs
2230000 Rs
5759280 Rs
CHE-187
2145454 Rs
770000Rs Rs
860000 Rs
Total Purchase
3, 74, 54734 Rs
3, 74, 54734 Rs
= Rs. 24720100
Chapter #8
= Rs. 3745473
= Rs. 2247282
= Rs. 123225961
INDIRECT COST
Engg & Supervision = 0.33 3, 74, 54734 = Rs.12360051
Construction expenses = 0.41 3, 74, 54734 = Rs.15356427
Total Indirect Cost
= Rs. 27716478
= Rs150942439
= Rs. 7547121.95
= Rs. 15094243.9
Chapter #8
F.C.I + W.C
Now
W.C
0.15 (T.C.I)
26037570.74
0.85
30632436.15 Rs
20,42,16,241 Rs.
(Twenty caroor Fourty two lakes sixteen thousands ,two hundred and fourty one rupees
only)
INVESTMENT
Plant
New Money
Existing facilities
Working capital
Annual sales
Cost
Chapter #8
Manufacturing
Distributing
Selling
Research
Annual Earnings
Operative
Net after taxes
Net annual return
On total investment
The limitations of preliminary plan! location cost studies should be recognized pointed
out a management. No matter how carefully a survey is prepared, future trends such as
population and marketing shifts, development of competitive processes and the advent of
new industries. Services and transportation facilities cannot be reliably predicated.
Probably the location of the raw materials of an industry contributes more towards the
choice of a plant site than any other factor. This is especially noticeable in those
industries in which the raw material is inexpensive and bulky and is made more compact
and obtains a high bulk value during the process of manufacturing.
Chapter #8
ii.
Marketing Area
For materials that are produced in bulk quantities, such as cement, minerals acids and
fertilizers, where the cost of e product per ton is relatively low and cost of transportation
has a significant fraction of the sale price. The plant should be located closed to the
primary market. This consideration will be less important for low volume production,
high price product such as pharmaceuticals.
iii.
Transportation Facilities
The Transport of material and products too and from the plant will be over riding
consideration in site selection.
If practicable, a site should be selected that is closed to at least two major forms of
transport, road, rail, water way (canal or river) or a sea port. Road transport is being
increasingly used and is suitable for local distribution from a central ware house. Rail
transportation will be cheaper for long distance transport of bulk chemicals.
Air transport is convenient and efficient for the movement of personnel and essential
equipment and supplies and the proximity of the site to a major airport should be
considered.
iv.
Sources of Power
Power for chemical industry is primarily from coal, water and oil; these fuels supply (he
most flexible and economical sources, in as much as they provide for generation of steam
both for processing and for electricity production power can be economically developed
as a by-product in the most chemical plants. If the needs are great enough, since the
process requirements generally call for low-pressure steam. The'turbines of engines used
to generate electricity can be operated non-condensing and supply exhaust steam for
processing purposes.
Chapter #8
v.
Availability of Labour
Labour will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled construction
workers will usually be brought in from outside the site area, but here should be an
adequate pool of unskilled labour available locally; and labour suitable for training to
operate plant. Skilled tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance. Local trade union
customs and restrictive practices will have to be considered when assessing the
availability and suitability of the local labour for recruitment and training.
vi.
Water Supply
Water for industrial purpose can be obtained from one of two general sources: the plant's
own source or municipal supply. If the demand for water is larger, it is more economical
for the industry to supply its own water. Such a supply may be obtained from drilled
wells, rives, lakes, dammed streams or other impounded supplies. Before a company
enters upon any project, it must ensure itself of a sufficient supply of water for all
industrial, sanitary and fire demands, both present and future.
vii.
Effluent Disposal
All industrial process produce waste products and full consideration must be given to the
difficulties and cost of their disposal. The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents will be
covered by local regulations and appropriate authorities must be consulted during the
initial site survey to determine the standards that must be met
viii.
The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full
consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it dies not impose a
significant additional risk to the community.
On a new site, the local community must be able to provide adequate facilities for, the
plant personnel: school, banks, housing and recreational and cultural facilities.
Chapter #8
ix.
Land Considerations
Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed pant and for future expansion.
The land should ideally be flat, well drained and have suitable load bearing
characteristics. A full site evaluation should be made to determine the need for piling or
other special foundation.
x.
Climate
Adverse climatic conditions at a site will increase costs. Abnormally low temperature will
require the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment and pipe
runs. Stronger structures will be need at locations subjected to strong winds (cyclone
hurricane areas) or earthquakes.
xi.
Capital grants, tax concessions, and other inducements are often given by government's
direct new investment to preferred locations such as areas of high unemployment. The
availability of such grants can be over-riding consideration site selection.
Chapter #8
CHAPTER 9
HAZOP STUDY
9.1 HYDROGEN SULFIDE POISONING
Hydrogen sulfide is an extremely poisonous gas. Hydrogen sul-fide poisoning results
from breathing hydrogen sulfide gas (2$), even in very low concentration. Two forms of
poisoning occur - acute and subacute.
1.
Breathing air or gas containing as little as 0.10% (40-60 grains of H 2S per 100 standard
cubic feet) for ONE MINUTE can cause acute poisoning.
Much sour natural or refinery gas contains more than 0.10% (60 grains per 100 cubic
feet), so care must always be taken to avoid breathing such sour gas. The naphtha
hydrotreating recycle gas and high pressure stripper gas contain from 0.5 to 5% H2$,
while the low pressure stripper gases contain from 10 to 50% H2S,
These gases must NEVER be breathed. One full breath of high concentration hydrogen
sulfide gas will cause unconsciousness, and may cause death, particularly if the victim
falls and remains in the presence of such gas.
The operation of any unit processing gases containing H 2S is perfectly safe, provided
ordinary precautions are taken and the poisonous nature of the gas is .recognized. No
work should be undertaken on the unit where there is danger of breathing H2S, and one
should never enter or remain in an area' containing it without wearing a suitable fresh air
mask.
2. Symptoms of Acute Hydrogen Sulfide Poisoning
Muscular spasms, irregular breathing, lowered pulse, odor to the breath, nausea. Loss of
consciousness and suspension of respiration quickly follow.
Chapter #8
After apparent recovery, edema (dropsically swelling) of the air passages or lungs may
cause severe illness or death in 8 to 48 hours.
3. First Aid Treatment of Acute Poisoning
Remove the victim at once to fresh air. If breathing has not stopped, keep the victim in
fresh air and keep him quiet. If possible, put him to bed. Secure a physician and keep the
patient quiet and under close observation for about 48 hours for possible edema of the air
passages or lungs.
In cases where the victim has become unconscious and breathing has stopped, artificial
respiration must be started at once. If a Pulmotor or other mechanical equipment is
available, it may be used by a trained person; if not, artificial respiration by mouth-mouth
method must be started as soon as possible. Speed in beginning the artificial respiration is
essential. Do not give up. Men have been revived after more than four hours of artificial
respiration.
If other persons are present, send one of them for a physician. Others
patient's arms and legs and apply hot water bottles, blankets or other sources of warmth
to keep him warm.
After the patient is revived, he should be kept quiet and warm, and remain under
observation for 48 hours 'for the appearance of edema of the air passages or lungs.
4. Subacute Hydrogen Sulfide Poisoning
Breathing air or gas containing 0.01 to 0.6% HS (6 to 40 grains per 100 cubic feet) for
an hour or more may cause subacute or chronic hydrogen sulfide poisoning.
5. Symptoms of Subacute Poisoning
Headache, inflammation of the eyes and throat, dizziness, indigestion, excessive saliva,
and weariness are all symptoms which follow continued exposure to H2$ in low
concentrations. Edema of the air passages and lungs may also occur.
Chapter #8
Chapter #8
regeneration is not desirable, maintain the system in a reducing or inert atmosphere until
all the catalyst has been cooled to at least 66C (150F). Unregenerated catalyst should be
unloaded with Ng purged before receiving used catalyst. Oxidation (burning) must be
avoided.
There are many published techniques for determining the concentration of nickel
carbonyl in air (such as a vessel to be entered for maintenance), and several direct reading
Chapter #8
SAFETY
PRECAUTIONS
FOR
ENTERING
CONTAMINATED
ATMOSPHERE
Anyone entering a vessel which contains- an inert or contaminated atmosphere must
follow all prescribed standard safety precautions and regulations which apply. In
particular, when entering a reactor containing used catalyst, and which therefore can
contain some hydrocarbons and H2S along with possible pyrophoric iron sulfide deposits,
there are a number of additional precautions which apply and which should not be
overlooked. For this discussion, it is assumed that entry into a reactor containing used
catalyst under a nitrogen blanket is planned. In this case, the following precautions
should be included in the standard procedure:
1. The reactor should be isolated by positive action, such as blinding, to exclude all
sources of hydrocarbon, hydrogen, air, etc.
2.
Just prior to entry, all purging of nitrogen through the catalyst bed should be
discontinued, and nitrogen purge lines should be inserted at points ABOVE the catalyst
bed.
This is to assure that there will be no forced flow of vapors passing upward through the
catalyst bed and into the working area.,
3. Install an air mover outside the reactor near the open man way nozzle to sweep away
the vapors leaving ,the reactor.
4. The man entering the reactor must be equipped with a fresh air mask in proper
working condition, with a proper air supply.
5. "There should be available and ready for immediate use and transfer to the man in the
reactor, a separate spare air supply which is independent of electrical power.
6. The man entering the reactor should wear a safety harness with a properly attached
Chapter #8
safety line.
7. There should be a minimum of two backup men at the man way nozzle in continual
surveillance of the actions of the man in the reactor.
8. There should be a spare fresh air mask complete with its own separate air supply to
allow a second man to enter the reactor quickly in case of an emergency. Therefore, this
spare equipment must be compact enough to allow the second man to enter through the
man way while wearing the equipment.
9. It is recommended that any man working in a. reactor which is under a nitrogen
blanket not be permitted to descend through any appurtenance, such as a tray or quench
gas distributor. The reason for this precaution is that should the man develop some
difficulty while below a tray, for example, to the point where he could not function
properly or lost consciousness, it would be extremely difficult for the surveillance team
outside the reactor to pull the man up through the small tray man way by use of the safety
line.
10. As an added precaution, it is suggested that the man in the reactor have available to
him in the reactor, an emergency self-contained air supply and appropriate associated
equipment. Preferably, the emergency air supply could be connected to the fresh air mask
he is wearing. Such "reserve air supply" systems are available commercially.
Chapter #8
CHAPTER 10
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Petroleum refining is one of the largest industries in the United States and a vital part of
the national economy. However, potential environmental hazards associated with
refineries have caused increased concern for communities in close proximity to them.
This update provides a general overview of the processes involved and some of the
potential environmental hazards associated with petroleum refineries.
10.1 DEFINITION OF A PETROLEUM REFINERY
Petroleum refineries separate crude oil into a wide array of petroleum products through a
series of physical and chemical separation techniques. These techniques include
fractionation,
cracking,
hydrotreating,
combination/blending
processes,
and
manufacturing and transport. The refining industry supplies several widely used everyday
products including petroleum gas, kerosene, diesel fuel, motor oil, asphalt, and waxes.
10.2 BACKGROUND
The United States is one of largest producers and consumers of crude oil in the world.
Based on data from the U.S. Department of Energy (1998), in 1995 the United States was
responsible for about 23% of the worlds refinery production. With a record high of 324
refineries in the early 80s, the U.S. was able to produce about 18.6 million barrels per
day. However, because of changes in oil prices, a shift to alternate fuel use and an
increasing focus on conservation, by 1985 the industry lost several primarily small,
inefficient refineries that could not continue to compete. Over the last decade, the number
of refineries has continued to shrink from about 194 to the current 155. This decrease has
been due in part to increasing requirements placed on the facilities for producing cleaner
fuels along with a number of mandated federal and state clean air and water regulations.
Chapter #8
hydrocarbon compounds that make up crude oil based on their boiling point differences.
Crude oil generally is composed of the entire range of components that make up gasoline,
diesel, oils and waxes. Separation is commonly achieved by using atmospheric and
vacuum distillation. Additional processing of these fractions is usually needed to produce
final products to be sold within the market.
2
processes used to break down large longer chain molecules into smaller ones by heating
or using catalysts. These processes allow refineries to break down the heavier oil
fractions into other light fractions to increase the fraction of higher demand components
such as gasoline, diesel fuels or whatever may be more useful at the time.
3
components and impurities such as sulfur, nitrogen and heavy metals from the products.
This involves processes such as hydrotreating, deasphalting, acid gas removal, desalting,
hydrodesulphurization, and sweetening.
4
create mixtures with the various petroleum fractions to produce a desired final product.
An example of this step would be to combine different mixtures of hydrocarbon chains to
produce lubricating oils, asphalt, or gasoline with different octane ratings.
5
Auxiliary processes: Refineries also have other processes and units that are vital to
operations by providing power, waste treatment and other utility services. Products from
these facilities are usually recycled and used in other processes within the refinery and
are also important in regards to minimizing water and air pollution. A few of these units
are boilers, wastewater treatment, and cooling towers.
Chapter #8
Air pollution hazards: Petroleum refineries are a major source of hazardous and toxic
air pollutants such as BTEX compounds (benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, and xylene).
They are also a major source of criteria air pollutants: particulate matter (PM), nitrogen
oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and sulfur dioxide (SO2).
Refineries also release less toxic hydrocarbons such as natural gas (methane) and other
light volatile fuels and oils. Some of the chemicals released are known or suspected
cancer-causing agents, responsible for developmental and reproductive problems. They
may also aggravate certain respiratory conditions such as childhood asthma. Along with
the possible health effects from exposure to these chemicals, these chemicals may cause
worry and fear among residents of surrounding communities. Air emissions can come
from a number of sources within a petroleum refinery including: equipment leaks (from
valves or other devices); high-temperature combustion processes in the actual burning of
fuels for electricity generation; the heating of steam and process fluids; and the transfer of
products. Many thousands of pounds of these pollutants are typically emitted into the
environment over the course of a year through normal emissions, fugitive releases,
accidental releases, or plant upsets. The combination of volatile hydrocarbons and oxides
of nitrogen also contribute to ozone formation, one of the most important air pollution
problems in the United States.
2
Water pollution hazards: Refineries are also potential major contributors to ground
Chapter #8
water and surface water contamination. Some refineries use deep-injection wells to
dispose of wastewater generated inside the plants, and some of these wastes end up in
aquifers and groundwater. These wastes are then regulated under the Safe Drinking Water
Act (SDWA). Wastewater in refineries may be highly contaminated given the number of
sources it can come into contact with during the refinery process (such as equipment
leaks and spills and the desalting of crude oil). This contaminated water may be process
wastewaters from desalting, water from cooling towers, storm water, distillation, or
cracking. It may contain oil residuals and many other hazardous wastes. This water is
recycled through many stages during the refining process and goes through several
treatment processes, including a wastewater treatment plant, before being released into
surface waters. The wastes discharged into surface waters are subject to state discharge
regulations and are regulated under the Clean Water Act (CWA). These discharge
guidelines limit the amounts of sulfides, ammonia, suspended solids and other
compounds that may be present in the wastewater. Although these guidelines are in place,
sometimes significant contamination from past discharges may remain in surface water
bodies.
3
Soil pollution hazards: Contamination of soils from the refining processes is generally
a less significant problem when compared to contamination of air and water. Past
production practices may have led to spills on the refinery property that now need to be
cleaned up. Natural bacteria that may use the petroleum products as food are often
effective at cleaning up petroleum spills and leaks compared to many other pollutants.
Many residuals are produced during the refining processes, and some of them are
recycled through other stages in the process. Other residuals are collected and disposed of
in landfills, or they may be recovered by other facilities. Soil contamination including
some hazardous wastes, spent catalysts or coke dust, tank bottoms, and sludges from the
treatment processes can occur from leaks as well as accidents or spills on or off site
during the transport process.
Chapter #8
Chapter #8
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Chapter #8
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