GlobalWarmingand

FreshwaterMusselFiltration
Efficiency
TheEffectsofRisingWaterTemperaturesonthe
FiltrationEfficiencyof
Elliptiocomplanata
Mussels

AroobaLodhi
NilesNorthHighSchool
2015

Lodhi

TableofContents

Acknowledgements.3

PurposeandHypothesis......4

Variables.........5

ReviewofLiterature.......7

Materials........16

Procedure.......17

Results
DataTablesandGraphs.....22
DataAnalysis.....30
Discussion......33
ExperimentalError.....35

Conclusion.........37

ReferenceList........39

Lodhi

Acknowledgements
Aspecialthanksgoestomycrucialsupervisor,Mrs.ChristineCamel.Thesupportand
guidancesheprovidedmeinordertoprogressmyprojectwastrulyneeded.Anotherthanksis
alsoextendedtoMr.RichardThielsenwhoseguidancewascrucialtobegintheexperimental
process.Thesupportandadviceprovidedbybothoftheseinstructorswasgreatlyneededand
muchappreciated.
MyutmostappreciationisalsogiventoMr.JeffreyDavidsonoftheUniversityofPrince
EdwardIslandwithoutwhomthisprojectwouldnotbepossible.Theideasandgeneral
knowledgeMr.Davidsonwaswillingtosharewithmeledtothesuccessofthisprojectwell
beforetheexperimentationprocesshadevenbegun.MyappreciationalsoextendstoMr.Ihor
HlohowskyjoftheArgonneNationalLaboratoryforhisrevisionsandideastofurtherimprove
myproject.ThetimeandefforttakentoassistmebyMr.DavidsonandMr.Hlohowskyjdidnot
gounnoticedanddeserverecognition.
MyfinalthanksextendstothecontributionofhelpIreceivedfrommyclassmateswhen
twohandsandonebrainwerenotenough.LilyShearer,KaylaChinitz,andSumonaBanarjee,
thankyouforalwayslisteningwhenIwastalkingoutmyissuesandthanksforallthesolutions
youprovidedmewithinordertostartmyexperimentation.Duringmytestingtrials,Iappreciate
thegreatinterestyoualldisplayedinmyprojectandyourwillingnesstoassistmeinthecareof
mymussels.AgreatthanksalsogoestoJieDongDuanforalltheassistancegiveninhelpingme
toquicklyandeffectivelyanalyzeallmydata.Allotherclassmates,teachers,andfamily
memberswhosupportedmeinthisendeavoralsohavemygreatestgratitudeandappreciation.

Lodhi

Purpose
Theultimatepurposeofthisstudyistomodeltheeffectsofglobalwarmingsrisingwater
temperaturesonthefiltrationefficiencyof
Elliptiocomplanata
(easternelliptio)mussels.Ifthis
experimentissuccessful,itcouldallowforfurtherresearchtobeconductedinordertodiscover
newwaysinwhichmusselspeciescouldfilterthroughfreshwatersuppliestomaintainandcreate
improvedenvironmentswithaddedbenefitsforthesurroundingmarinelifeandhumans.

Hypothesis
IfElliptiocomplanata(easternelliptio)musselsareplacedinalgaefilledwaterenvironmentsof
10,15,20and25,thenthemusselsplacedinthe25environmentwillhavethe
lowestfiltrationefficiencywhencomparedtothenormgroupof10.

Rationale

Duetotheeffectsofglobalwarming,manyphysiologicalandinternalprocessessuchasthe
productionofbyssalthreadsandthemobilityofmusselspecieshavebeenshowntofunctionless
efficientlyinresponsetotherisingwatertemperatures.Therefore,thefiltrationsystemofa
musselspeciesshouldalsohaveadeclineineffectivenesswhenexposedtorisingwater
temperaturesbecausethispurificationsystemisconsideredtoplayavitalroleintheinternal
processesofamusselspecies.Furthermore,thefiltrationsystemsoffreshwatermusselshave
beennotedtobesensitivetodrasticchangesinenvironmentalconditions,andthesharpriseof
watertemperatureshasalreadyalteredmanymarinehabitatsofcountlessspecies.
4

Lodhi

Variables:
IndependentVariable:

Thevaryingwatertemperaturesforeachenvironment(10,15,
20and25)

DependentVariable:
Thefiltrationefficiencyofeacheasternelliptiospecimen
Thefiltrationefficiencyoftheeasternelliptiomusselswillbedeterminedbyrecording
thepercentageofalgaethateachindividualspecimenfilteredthroughinthe25minutetesting
period.Inordertoreceivethesepercentagereadings,aspectrophotometeratthesettingof
transmittancepercentagesandawavelengthof525nmwillbeused.Twomeasurementswillbe
taken,thefirstofwhichisaninitialtransmittancereadingofthealgaewaterenvironmentbefore
themusselfiltersthrough.After25minutesareover,afinaltransmittancereadingofthe
algaewaterenvironmentwillbetakenoncethespecimenhavehadtheentiretimetofilter
throughthefood.Thedifferencebetweenthefinalandtheinitialtransmittancepercentages
representsthepercentageofalgaethatthespecimenfilteredthroughduringthetestingperiod.

ControlGroup:

Theeasternelliptiospecimentestedwithinthe10waterenvironmentwill
representthecontrolgroup,seeingasawatertemperatureof10istheaveragetemperaturea
freshwatermusselthrivesin.

ControlledVariables:
Experimentalprocedurefollowedeverytrial
Timeforacclimatizationperiod
Speciesofmussel

Lodhi
Plasticaquariumenvironmentconditions(includingamountofgravel,amountofwater,
typeofairstone)
Amountofdailyalgaefedperwatertemperaturegroup

ControlledVariablesforTrials:
Amountofalgaefed
Amountofwaterinbeakers
Amountoftimegivenforfiltration
Typeofspectrophotometercuvettes
Settingsforspectrophotometer
Amountoficeuseddailyregardingthe10and15environments

Lodhi

ReviewofLiterature
Wheredidthefirstsignsoflifeoriginatefrom?Whydoesourclimateactthewayit
does?Whyisitimportanttohavefresh,decontaminatedtapwater?Eachofthesequestionscan
betracedbacktoacommonsourcewater.Earthswatersystemsconsistofhavingavery
balancedmarinelife.Environmentalissues,suchasglobalwarming,arenowinterferingwith
thesedelicateaquariaecosystems.Althoughavarietyoflargeanimalsareindeedaffectedbythe
drasticriseofwatertemperatures,manysmallcreatures,suchasmussels,arealsoradically
impacted.Bydecreasingpopulationsofmanymusselspecies,othermarinelife,andlifeonland,
willfacedramaticconsequencesthatwillgoontodestabilizethedelicatebalanceofour
ecosystems.Becausemusselsandtheirfiltrationpropertiesareessentialinsustainingahealthy
marineenvironment,researchersaretryingtodeterminehowmusselsareaffectedbyother
factorstofurthertheknowledgeonhowtobettermaintainhealthyecosystems.
Tobeginwith,thereareprimarilytwomaingroupsofmusselspecies:saltwaterand
freshwater.Althoughresearchersmayfocusonsaltwatermusselsforspecificstudies,many
speciesoffreshwatermusselsarealsoobservedinexperimentsrepresentingthegeographical
qualitiesofnearbylakesandrivers.Oneofthemostobservedspeciesoffreshwatermusselsis
theeasternelliptio(
Elliptiocomplanata)
.Thisbivalvespecies,atypeofmolluskthatcontainsa
bodyinsidetwoshells,ispartoftheUnionidaefamilyunderthephylumMollusca(Eastern
Elliptio,2010).Easternelliptiomusselsarefoundinfreshwaterstreams,lakes,andriversall
acrosstheUnitedStatesandCanada(Mulcrone,2006).Theyaremostfrequentlyfoundin
streamsrunningfromGeorgiatotheSt.LawrenceRiverinCanada,aswellasstreamsstemming
fromLakeSuperiorandLakeHuron(Mulcrone,2006).These
7

Lodhi
streamsandlakes,particularlyLakeSuperior,arethemarineecosystemsthatwillberepresented
throughexperimentation.

Moreover,asshowninFigure
1,thestructureoftheeasternelliptio
speciesalsoenablesthemtosurvivein
thefreshwaterregionstheyarefound
in(Mulcrone,2006).Accordingto
Mulcrone,specimenofthespecies
varyfrombeing5cmto12.5cmand
ExteriorStructuresDiagram
(Figure1)
areusuallyquadrateorrectangularinshape

(Mulcrone,2006).Ontheinnershell,therearetwopseudocardinalteeththataretriangularand
roughandtwolateralteeththatarestraightandlong(Mulcrone,2006).Theseteethareusedto
ingestfilteredfoodthatthemusseldirectstothemouthviatheciliaandsiphon,wherefoodis
caughtinthemucus(Mulcrone,2006).Theexteriorofelliptiomusselsaredescribedas,The
periostracum(outershelllayer)istanorbrown,sometimeswithgreenrays.Olderspecimens
tendtobemorebrownorblack(Mulcrone,2006).Byhavingsuchdarkcoloredshells,the
musselsareabletoblendintotheirsurroundingswhenpredators,suchasmuskrats,raccoons,
minks,otters,andsomebirds,arelurkingnearby(EasternElliptio,2010).
Continuingonwithstructuresassociatedwithfreshwatermusselsinparticular,many
speciesarecarriersofpearlshiddenwithintheirshells.Thisdiscoverywasmadein1857bya
localcarpenterfromNewJerseywhostumbleduponwhatisnowknownattheQueenPearl

Lodhi
(FreshwaterMussels,1992).Afterthisalarmingdiscovery,DanSalleedescribedtherushthat
followedasAGoldRush,withpeoplegoingthroughmillionsandmillionsjusttofindafew
pearls,(MillerM,2013).Duetothispopulardemandformusselpearlsinthelate1800sand
early1900s,manyspeciesoffreshwatermusselsbegantodecreaseintermsofpopulationand
diversity(FreshwaterMussels,1992).Inmoderntimes,thisdecreaseoffreshwatermusselshas
becomeanissuethatresearchersarecurrentlytryingtofix.Becausefreshwatermusselsare
valuedforthebenefitstheyprovidetotheirhabitats,researchershavebeguntofocusonhowto
onceagainrestorestreamswithgrowingpopulationsoffreshwatermusselsinordertocreate
morehealthierstreamsandecosystems.
Withintheirfreshwaterhabitats,theeasternelliptioprefertoinhibitareaswithlarger
watershedwithlittleurbanland,lownutrients,andhigherbiologicalscores(EasternElliptio,
2010).Theyalsoflourishinstreamsthatconsistofhavingavailablesubstratesofclay,marl,and
finesand(Mulcrone,2006).Aresearchstudyconductedondunkerfreshwatermussels
(Limnopernafortunei)observedthedifferenttypesofsubstratesthatthespeciespreferredto
stationthemselves(Uryu,Iwasaki,&Hinoue,1995).Byplacingmusselspecimenintanksfilled
witheitherwhiteorblacksubstrates,theresearcherswereabletoobservethatthemajorityofthe
specimenpreferredtoburrowindarkersubstrates(Uryu,Iwasaki,&Hinoue,1995).The
researchconductedtoobservesubstratepreferencesiscrucialbecauseitprovidesadeeper
understandingofwhattypeofareasmusselsprefertoinhibit,thusnarrowingdownlocationsof
wheretheelliptiobettersurviveandreproduceinstreams.Thecolorofthesubstratealsorelates
tothetemperatureofthewaterwherethemusselssurviveandreproduce.Basedonprevious
research,naturalstreamsandlakesmusselsinhibittendtohavedarkerwaterbedsand

Lodhi
temperaturesbetween1525(Nordsieck,2013).Asmuchresearchhasshown,thereseemsto
beacorrelationbetweenthecompositionofwaterbedsandwatertemperaturesthatgreatly
influencestheareasmusselsthrivein(Nordsieck,2013).
Althoughfreshwatermusselshavetheabilitytomoveintheirenvironmentsviatheuseof
theirfoot(athickwebthatprotrudesoutwardtoserveasaropethetheorganismcanglide
along),astudyconductedonfreshwaterdunkermusselsdisplaysthatmostspecimenprefernot
tomoveexcessively,evenwhenallowedasignificantamountofareatoshiftaround(Uryu,
Iwasaki,&Hinoue,1995).Thisresearchgoestoshowthatmostfreshwatermusselshavethe
abilitytomoveinanysortofenvironment,butmostspecimenprefertoremainstationaryto
createamorestablehabitat.Therisingwatertemperaturesofmarineenvironments,duetoglobal
warming,arenowforcingmanymusselspeciestomoveandtravelmore(HowMusselsLive,
2010).Forexample,intheHudsonRiver,musselpopulationsthatusedtobeafewhundredhave
beguntoincreasetothousandsofspecimenduetotemperaturechangesandreproductionrates
(MillerR,2013).Thisnewshiftinnecessarymobilityhasledtospikesofincreasingand
decreasingpopulationsofmusselsindifferentareas,thusalteringthesurroundingecosystemand
marinelife.
Furthermore,previousresearchhasshownthattheeasternelliptiospeciestendtobest
surviveinwatertemperaturesthataveragefromabout1015(Price,n.d.).But,becauseglobal
warmingisraisingwatertemperatures,manystreamsthatthemusselsoccupyarecloserto
1525(Nordsieck,2013).Accordingtoaresearchstudyconductedonthesaltwaterblue
musselspecies(Mytilusedulis),changingthewatertemperaturethataspecimenisexposedto
affectstheproductionofbyssalthreadsthespecimenproduces(Young,1985).Byssalthreadsare

10

Lodhi
describesas,Strong,silkyfibersmadefromproteinsthatareusedbymusselsandother
bivalves
toattachtorocks,pilings,orothersubstrates(Kennedy,2011).Inthestudyconducted
ofthebluemussels,theresultssuggestedthatthewatertemperatureof15allowedforthe
mostbyssalthreadproduction,whereashigherwatertemperaturesgenerallybegantodecrease
theamountofbyssalthreadsproducedbyabluemusselspecimen(Young,1985).Basedonthis
particularexperiment,othertestshavealsobeenconductedbyresearcherslookingtodetermine
howwatertemperaturescanaffectotheraspectsofamusselspeciesphysiologyandinternal
processes.
Inadditiontoalltheexternalandinternalphysiologyassociatedwithmusselspecies,the
easternelliptio,aswellasmostmusselspecies,alsohaveotherimportantanatomicalparts
necessarytorespirateunderwater.Likemanymarineanimals,musselsusegillstohelpthem
breathunderwater(HowMusselsLive,2010).Specifically,theuseofincurrentandexcurrent
siphons,tubelikestructures,areneededtoallowtheoxygentoreachthemusselandtoallow
carbondioxidetoescape(HowMusselsLive,2010).Inafreshwatermussel,thecreature
breathesby,drawingwaterinthroughtheirincurrentsiphon,movingthewaterovertheirgills,
andthenpassingthewateroutthroughtheirexcurrentsiphon.Oxygenisabsorbedthroughthe
gills(HowMusselsLive,2010).Althoughtheeasternelliptioburrowthemselvesinsidea
substrate,theyleavethesiphonstickingoutinordertoallowforwellregulatedbreathing
(FreshwaterMussels,1992).
Assomestudieshavebeenconductedtoresearchthebehaviorofmusselspecies,other
studieshavebeenconductedtofocusonhowenvironmentalchangesimpactthetrademark
propertiesofmussels.Tofollowalongthisidea,astudyconductedonmusselbedsfoundin

11

Lodhi
PadillaBaydisplayedhowtheeffectsofglobalwarmingdrasticallychangedthecompositionof
thesurroundingmusselbeds(Gooding,2005).Inordertoconductthisstudy,twogroupsof
musselbedswereobservedandonamonthlybasis,recruitplotsfromthemusselbedwere
broughtintoalabtodeterminethepopulationsanddiversityofthemusselbed(Gooding,2005).
Itwasdeterminedthatrisingwatertemperaturesaffectmusselbedsbydecreasingtheamount
anddiversityofspeciesthatcometogethertoformthebed(Gooding,2005).Thisdecreaseof
populationanddiversitythenledtoincreasingsafetyissuesforthemusselspeciesandthe
smallermarinelifewhichhadmadetheirhomesinthemusselbeds(Gooding,2005).Basedon
theresultsgatheredfromthisexperiment,manyotherresearchershavebeenfocusingtheir
attentiontoothermusselpropertiesthatareaffectedbythedrasticriseofwatertemperatures.

Furthermore,manyresearchersarguethatthefreshwatermusselsarecrucialtohavein
variousstreamsandriversbecauseoftheirfilteringcapabilities.Inordertogatherallthe
nutrientstheyneedtosurvive,musselspeciesusuallyconsumealgae,plankton,protozoans,
bacteria,andotherorganicparticles(Mulcrone,2006).Theprocessoffilteringusedbythe
easternelliptiospeciesisquitesimilartothefilteringprocessofmostmusselspecies.Themussel
willfirstpumpwaterintotheincurrentsiphonviatheciliacellslocatedontheirgills(How
MusselsLive,2010).Then,withintheincurrentsiphon,thefoodparticleswillbecometrappedin
themucuswithintheorganism(HowMusselsLive,2010).Thelabialpalps,laterallipsofthe
mouth,willthensortthedifferentfoodparticlesanddirectthemtowardthemouth(Mulcrone,
2006).Thisfilteringprocessthatallmusselsundergoiscrucialtothesurvivalofthemussel
species,andforfreshwatermusselsinparticular,itiscrucialtothemaintenanceofthe
surroundingmarineenvironment.

12

Lodhi
Expandingupontheimportanceoftheeasternelliptiospeciesfilteringabilities,many
studieshavebeenconductedtodeterminehowdifferentenvironmentalchangeshaveaffectedthe
filteringsystemsofallmusselsingeneral.Inaresearchstudyconductedoncommonblue
mussels,samplegroupswereplacedinaquariumscontainingdifferentlevelsofsalinity(Young,
1985).Overaperiodoftwoweeks,thebyssalproductionandfilteringabilitiesoftheblue
musselspecimenwereobservedtoseehowanychangesoccurredinresponsetosalinity
concentrationsrangingfrom15%to50%(Young,1985).Thegatheredresultsdisplayedthat
filteringabilitiesandbyssalthreadproductionwereattheirpeakatabout30%salinity,andthat
therewasadeclineinbyssalproductionandeffectivefiltrationwhenthesalinityconcentrations
werelowerthan20%andhigherthan40%(Young,1985).Inordertomeasurefiltrationabilities,
thevolumeofwaterthataspecimensuccessfullyclearedofalgaepasteinacertainamountof
timewasobserved(Clausen&Riisgard,1996).Researchsuchasthisshowsthatchangesina
musselsordinaryenvironmentdoindeeddisturbtheirdailylifestyle,whichinturncan
drasticallyimpacttheecosystemthebivalveinhabits.
Additionally,manyresearchersarefocusingtheirattentiononmusselsbecausetheir
purificationprocessprovidesmanybenefitsforthemarineecosystemstheyinhabit.For
example,streamswithfreshwatermusselsprosperbecause,Duringtheirfeedingprocess,the
mussels"clean"thewatertheyliveinbyremovingphytoplanktonandthebacteriaandfungithat
areattachedtothenonlivingorganicparticlestheyhaveremovedfromthewatercolumn(How
MusselsLive,2010).Byremovingthesebacteria,freshwatermusselsareabletocreateamore
healthyanddecontaminatedhabitatforthemselvesandothervariousmarinelife.Another
contributionofthesefilterfeedersisthattheyareabletoprovideothermarineorganismswith

13

Lodhi
nutrientsnecessarytosurvive(FreshwaterMussels,1992).Byfilteringorganicmatterinorderto
providefortheirownshellsandbody,freshwatermusselsalsoexcretenutrientsthatare
immediatelyavailabletotheunderwaterplantlife(FreshwaterMussels,1992).Someofthe
leftoverorganicmaterialisalsodepositedtothewaterbedsediment,makingitavailablefor
otherinvertebratesandfishtoconsume(HowMusselsLive,2010).Becausethefiltration
characteristicsofmusselshelptocreatemoresalutaryenvironments,researchersarebeginning
todirecttheirattentiontothefiltrationabilitiesofmusselspecies.
Furthermore,onewaytodeterminethecleanlinessofwaterfilteredbymusselsisto
useaspectrophotometer.Aspectrophotometerisadevicethatmeasurestheamountoflightofa
specifiedwavelengththatpassesthroughamedium(Fankhauser,2007).Inanexperimentthat
willrecordthefiltrationefficiencyofamussel,thespectrophotometerwillbeusedtocalculate
theabsorbancepercentage.Byusingcuvettesfilledwithalgaecontainingwatersamples,the
spectrophotometerwillbeabletopassasectionofthewavelengththroughthesolutionto
indicatetheabsorbanceofthesolution(Fankhauser,2007).Theabsorbancepercentagescanthen
beanalyzedtodeterminethedifferenceofanalgaeandwatersolutionbeforeandafterthe
musselfiltrationprocessoccurs(Fankhauser,2007).
Becauseresearchershavebeenexperimentingonfreshwatermusselstoobservetheir
internalprocesses,theymustbeabletoprovideasuitableaquariumenvironmentforthemussel
specimentosurviveinforthedurationofthetests.Inordertocreateasuitableenvironment,all
researchersmustfirstmakesuretoobtainamoderatesizedtanksothatthemusselspecimen
havespaceformobility(Toonen,2003).Next,becausefreshwatermusselsburrowwithin
substrates,theaquariummusthaveabout510cmofasuitablesubstrate,suchasgravelorsand

14

Lodhi
(Engelking,1999).Dependingonwhatspeciesofmusselisbeingexperimentedupon,thewater
temperatureinthetankmustbesuitableforthatparticularspecies.Usually,awatertemperature
ofabout1015ispreferredbytheelliptiocomplanata,alongwithotherfreshwaterspecies
(Engelking,1999).Bycreatingstableaquariumenvironments,theselectedmusselspecimen
willsurvivelongerandtheresultsgatheredfromastudywillbemuchmoreaccurateand
reliable.
Inconclusion,theeasternelliptiospecies,alongwithothermusselspecies,havebeen
experimentedonfordecadesinordertoobservetheirremarkableinternalprocessesanduncover
moreabouttheimpactstheyhaveontheirmarinehabitats.Byfocusingonfreshwatermusselsin
particular,researchershopetolearnmoreabouttheirfiltrationabilitiesinordertodetermine
waystohelpthemusselspeciesprosper,creatingstrongermarineenvironments.Asnatureis
currentlydisplaying,manyongoingenvironmentalchangesarehavingnegativeeffectsonthe
abilitiesofthefreshwatermussels.Inparticular,globalwarmingisbecominganincreasingissue
thatisdecreasingtheoutputbenefitsdeliveredfromfreshwatermusselspecies.Inordertogain
moreknowledgeabouthowglobalwarmingspecificallyaffectsamusselspecies,theideabehind
thisstudyistoobservetheeffectsofrisingwatertemperaturesontheeffectivenessofa
freshwatermussels(easternelliptio)filteringproperties.Inthisdayandage,itiscriticalto
determinewaystodecreaseineffectivewaterfiltrationinordertomaintainhealthyand
consumablewatersupplies.Ifmeasurementsarenottakentothoroughlypurifywaterin
economicallyefficientways,thedrasticeffectsofcreatingtoxicandbacteriainfestedwater
supplieswillsoonemergeinmanyregionsaroundthecountry.

15

Lodhi

Materials
EasternElliptioFreshwaterMussels(12specimen)
SpectrophotometerandCuvettes
Plasticshoeboxsizedcontainers(4)
ClearAirlineTubing(3.5m)
TetraAirPump(1)
AccuairAquariumGangValve(2)
DiscardAStoneAirStones(6)
AlgalFoodSource(FreshwaterNannochloropsisgrowninAlgaGroFreshwater
Medium)
TopFinPremiumAquariumGravel(11.3kg)
Styrofoamcoolers(2)
Icemaker
WaterThermometer(1)
Greenhousesetto25(1)
UVlight(1)
25mLbeaker(1)
50mLbeaker(1)
ILbeaker(3)
GraduatedCylinder(1)
Pipettes
TapWater
1rolloftape
PaperTowels
PlasticBags
Gloves

16

Lodhi

Procedure:

PreparingtheIndividualTemperatureEnvironments
1. Obtainfourshoeboxsizedplasticcontainersinwhichthemusselspecimenwillbe
placed.
2. Layertheaquariumgravelinthebottomofeachplasticcontainer,fillingthecontainerup
aboutonefourthoftheway.
3. Eachplastictankshouldbefilledaboutthreefourthstothetopwithregulartapwater.
4. Obtaintwocoolers.Oneofthesecoolerswillbefilledhalfwaywithiceandtheotherwill
befilledlittleoverone/fourthwithice.Labelthecoolerfilledhalfwaywithiceas10
andlabelthecoolerfilledone/fourthswithiceas15.
5. Placeoneplasticcontainerinthe10coolerbyalmostfullysubmergingthetankinto
theiceandplaceanotherplasticcontainerinthe15coolerbyonlyplacingitontopof
theice.Labelthesetwocontainersas10and15,basedonwhichcoolertheyare
assignedto.
6. Determineandplaceaplasticcontainerinacoolspaceatroomtemperaturetorepresent
the20trial.Labelthiscontaineras20.
7. Usingagreenhouse,adjustaUVlighttobe25.5cmawayfromthelastplasticcontainer
withinthisarea.Labelthiscontaineras25.
8. Usingawaterthermometer,makesuretochecktoseethatthewatertemperaturesfor
eachindividualplasticcontainersmatchwiththetemperaturetheyarerepresenting.

17

Lodhi
9. AttachAccuairaquariumgangvalveontothe15plasticcontainerandattachthe
secondoneontothe20plasticcontainer.
10. Usinganappropriateamountoftheclearairlinetubing,connecttheairpumptothetwo
aquariumvalves.
11. Placeoneairstoneintoeachofthefourplasticcontainersandusingappropriateamount
offourindividualcleartubing,connecttwoairstonestotheairvalveattachedontothe
10environmentandconnecttheothertwoairstonestotheairvalveattachedontothe
20environment.individualplasticcontainersmatchwiththetemperaturetheyare
representing.
12. Duringthethreeweektestingperiod,makesuretoaddanappropriateamountoficeinto
the10andthe15coolerenvironmentsdailytomaintainaconsistenttemperature.
13. Makesuretochangethewaterandcleantheplasticcontainerenvironmentsatleasttwice
aweekduringthethreeweektestingperiod.Constantlycheckthewatertemperaturesso
thattheyaccuratelyrepresentthewatertemperaturetheyaremeantto.

PreparingtheMusselSpecimen
1. Obtain12specimenofeasternelliptiofreshwatermussels.
2. Labeleachmusselspecimenfromnumbers112andwritetheassignednumberona
smallpieceoftape.Attachtapetothefrontsideshellofeachmusselspecimen.
3. Musselspecimenlabeledfrom13willbepartofthe10controlgroup.Placethese
musselsintheplasticcontainerheldwithinthecoolerlabeled10.
4. Specimenlabeledfrom46willbepartofthe15group.Placethesemusselsinthe
plasticcontainerheldwithinthecoolerlabeled15.

18

Lodhi
5. Specimenlabeledfrom79willbepartofthe20groupandshouldbeplacedinthe
plasticcontainerbeingheldatroomtemperature.
6. Specimenlabeledfrom1012willbepartofthe25groupandshouldbeplacedinthe
plasticcontainerpositionedwithinthegreenhousearea.
7. Makesuretoplaceallmusselspecimenanappropriatedistancefromoneanotherto
providesomemobilityspace.Alsoturnontheairpumpwiththeconnectinggangvalves
andairstoneswithineachoftheplasticenvironments.
8. Allowthemusselspecimentospend5daysintheirplastictankstobecomeaccustomed
tothenewenvironment.
9. Feedthemusselspecimen15mLofalgaefood(perexperimentalgroup)dailyforthe5
daystheyspendintheirplastictanks(5mLpermusselspecimen).
10. Whentakingindividualdataforthedifferentwatertemperaturespecimen,makesureto
continuetofeedtheexperimentalgroups15mLofalgaefoodeveniftheyarenotbeing
tested.
11. If,duringanytimeintheacclimatizationperiodorthetestingperiod,amusselspecimen
dies,reducetheamountofalgaefoodforonlythatenvironmentby5mL.

TakingData
1. Inordertotestforeffectivefiltrationwithinthespecimen,obtain3clean,1Lsized
beakers.
2. Assignandlabeleachbeakerwithnumbers13.Thesenumbersstandfortheparticular
musselspecimenthatwillbetestedwithinthem.

19

Lodhi
3. Filleachbeakerwithabout600mLofwaterandplaceeachbeakerinthecoolerlabeled
asthe10controlgroup.Allowthebeakerwiththewatertobeplacedwithinthecooler
foratleastadaytoreachthedesiredwatertemperature.
4. Tobeginthetrial,add5mLofalgaefoodsourceintoeachofthethree1Lbeakerand
pouroutasmallsampleofthisalgaewatermixtureintothreeseparatespectrophotometer
cuvettes.
5. Makesuretosetthespectrophotometersettingstorecordtransmittanceratesandto
recordthewavelengthatameasurementof525nm.
6. Usingaspectrophotometer,insertthecuvettes,oneatatime,intothedeviceandreceive
areadingforthetransmittancepercentagetheinitialalgaemixturecontains.Thesefirst
threereadingswillserveastheinitialtransmittancereadingofthealgaemixture.
7. Totakedata,placespecimen1fromthe10plasticcontainerintothebeakerlabeled
1,placespecimen2intobeaker2,andspecimen3intobeaker3.Turnofftheair
pumpsothattherearenoairbubblesfilteringthewaterenvironmentsforanygroup
duringthe25minutetestingperiod.
8. Startatimerfor25minutesandcarefullyobservethethreeindividualbeakersbeing
tested.Noteanykeyobservations.
9. Afterthe25minutesareover,pipetteoutasmallsampleofthisfilteredalgaemixture
intothreeseparatespectrophotometercuvettes.
10. Usingaspectrophotometer,insertthecuvettes,oneatatime,intothedeviceandreceive
areadingforthetransmittancepercentagethefilteredalgaemixturecontains.These
threereadingswillserveastheendpointtransmittancereadingsofthealgaemixtures.

20

Lodhi
11. Carefullyplacethethreetestedmusselspecimenbackinsidetheiroriginalplastic
containers.
12. Feedtheremainingthreeexperimentalgroups15mLofalgaefoodsourceandturnthe
airpumpbackontoaerateallfourwaterenvironments.
13. Rinseoutthethree1Lbeakersandfillthembackupwith600mLoftapwater.Placethe
threebeakersintothe15watercoolerforatleastadaytoreachthedesiredwater
temperature.
14. Runthroughsteps412usingthedifferentlabelsforeachtestandusingthespecimen
fromthe15waterenvironment,the20waterenvironment,andthenthe25
environment.
15. Repeatandrunapproximatelythreetrialsforeachofthefourwatertemperaturegroups.

Disposal
1. Ifduringtheexperiment,anymusselspecimendiesduetoanyenvironmentalreason,
disposeofthemusselbyplacingtheminaplasticbag.
2. Sealthebagandplaceitintoarefrigeratorforthreedays.
3. After3daysdisposeoftheunopenedbaginthetrash.

21

Lodhi

Results:DataTablesandGraphs
Week1Trials
MusselSpecimen

InitialAlgae
Transmittance
Percentage

FinalAlgae
Transmittance
Percentage

Percentageof
FilteredAlgae

1(10)

70.50%

96.70%

26.20%

2(10)

71.60%

94.60%

23.00%

3(10)

72.70%

88.50%

15.80%

4(15)

72.40%

88.60%

16.20%

5(15)

72.20%

90.70%

18.50%

6(15)

70.30%

83.30%

13.00%

7(20)

70.60%

88.10%

17.50%

8(20)

72.10%

84.60%

12.50%

9(20)

71.60%

82.50%

10.90%

10(25)

deceased

deceased

deceased

11(25)

73.00%

81.50%

8.50%

12(25)

72.40%

83.10%

10.70%

AveragesforWeek1

WaterTemperature
()

InitialAlgae
Transmittance
Percentage

FinalAlgae
Transmittance
Percentage

Percentageof
FilteredAlgae

10

71.60%

93.30%

21.70%

15

71.60%

87.50%

15.90%

20

71.40%

85.10%

13.70%

25(1dead)

72.70%

82.30%

9.60%

22

Lodhi

Week2Trials
MusselSpecimen

InitialAlgae
Transmittance
Percentage

FinalAlgae
Transmittance
Percentage

Percentageof
FilteredAlgae

1(10)

72.10%

92.60%

20.50%

2(10)

70.20%

92.50%

22.30%

3(10)

70.40%

90.30%

19.90%

4(15)

70.90%

91.70%

20.80%

5(15)

72.40%

88.60%

16.20%

6(15)

72.60%

84.30%

11.70%

7(20)

deceased

deceased

deceased

8(20)

71.50%

79.50%

8.00%

9(20)

72.80%

77.90%

5.10%

10(25)

deceased

deceased

deceased

11(25)

71.20%

78.60%

7.40%

12(25)

72.30%

74.30%

2.00%

AveragesforWeek2

WaterTemperature
()

InitialAlgae
Transmittance
Percentage

FinalAlgae
Transmittance
Percentage

Percentageof
FilteredAlgae

10

70.90%

91.80%

20.90%

15

72.00%

88.20%

16.20%

20(1dead)

72.20%

78.70%

6.50%

25(1dead)

71.80%

76.50%

4.70%

23

Lodhi

Week3Trials

MusselSpecimen

InitialAlgae
Transmittance
Percentage

FinalAlgae
Transmittance
Percentage

Percentageof
FilteredAlgae

1(10)

72.50%

88.60%

16.10%

2(10)

72.40%

83.40%

11.00%

3(10)

71.00%

85.10%

14.10%

4(15)

72.70%

86.40%

13.70%

5(15)

71.30%

84.30%

13.00%

6(15)

72.00%

82.40%

10.40%

7(20)

deceased

deceased

deceased

8(20)

71.00%

75.20%

4.20%

9(20)

72.40%

76.30%

3.90%

10(25)

deceased

deceased

deceased

11(25)

71.20%

74.40%

3.20%

12(25)

deceased

deceased

deceased

AveragesforWeek3

WaterTemperature
()

InitialAlgae
Transmittance
Percentage

FinalAlgae
Transmittance
Percentage

Percentageof
FilteredAlgae

10

72.00%

85.70%

13.70%

15

72.00%

84.40%

12.40%

20(1dead)

71.70%

75.80%

4.10%

25(2dead)

71.20%

74.40%

3.20%

24

Lodhi

OverviewofFiltrationEfficiency

WaterTemperature
()

InitialAlgae
Transmittance
Percentage

FinalAlgae
Transmittance
Percentage

Percentageof
FilteredAlgae

10

71.5%

90.3%

18.8%

15

71.9%

86.7%

14.8%

20

71.8%

79.9%

8.1%

25

71.9%

77.7%

5.8%

25

Lodhi

26

Lodhi

27

Lodhi

28

Lodhi

29

Lodhi

Results:DataAnalysis

AccordingtotheWeek1Trialsgraph,thepercentageofalgaeshowedastrongnegative
correlationwithdecreasingfiltrationefficiencyinregardstoincreasingwatertemperature(the
regressionlinehasanrvalueof0.801).Musselspecimeninthe15and20water
environmentsdisplayedfiltrationrelativelycloseinpercentagelevels.The10,15and20
watertemperaturessupportedthreemusselspecimen,butthe25environmentwasonlyableto
supporttwospecimenwiththedeathofone.Withineachwatertemperaturegroup,thevarietyof
filtrationpercentagesforeachindividualenvironmentgraduallydecreasedasthewater
temperaturesrose.RegardingtheAveragesforWeek1,thenegativecorrelationdisplayedhada
relativelygradualdecreaseinfiltrationefficiencyfromonetemperaturetothenext.
AccordingtotheWeek2Trials,thegraphcontinuestodisplayastrongnegative
correlationasinWeek1(theregressionlinehasarvalueof0.91),butwithmuchgreater
differencesinfiltrationefficiencybetweengroupsasthewatertemperaturesrose.Compared
withtheWeek1Trial,thefiltrationpercentagesdecreasedforallfourtemperature
environments.Thedifferenceoffiltrationefficiencybetweenthe10andthe25
environmentswasfargreaterthanWeek1.The10andthe15environmentsproduced
relativelyclosefiltrationpercentageslikewisethe20and25environmentsproduced
relativelyclosefiltrationpercentages.Bythissecondweekoftesting,the10and15were
stillabletosupportthreespecimen,butthe20environmentwasonlyabletosupporttwo
specimenwiththedeathofonethe25environmentcontinuedtosupportonlytwospecimen.
Withinthe10environment,therewasalessamountoffiltrationvarianceamongthespecimen,
whereasefficiencypercentagesforthe15,20,and15environmentsdisplayedmuchmore
30

Lodhi
variety.AsfortheAveragesforWeek2,therewasarelativelygradualdecreaseinfiltration
efficiencyfromthe10environmenttothe15,aswellasfromthe20environmenttothe
25thedecreasefromthe15environmenttothe20wasamuchgreaterdropin
percentageefficiency.
AccordingtotheWeek3Trials,thegraphstilldisplaysanegativecorrelation,butitwas
slightlystrongerthanWeek1yetlessthanthatofWeek2(theregressionlinehasarvalueof
0.880).Thedifferencesinfiltrationefficiencyamongthefourtemperaturegroupswererelatively
similartothoseinWeek2,buttheoverallpercentagesforeachindividualenvironment
decreasedincomparisontoWeek2.The10and15environmentsproducedsimilar
percentagesoffiltrationlikewise,the20and25environmentsalsoproducedsimilar
percentagesoffiltration.Bythislastweekoftesting,the10and15environmentsstill
supportedallthreemusselspecimenwhilethe20environmentcontinuedtosupportthetwo
specimenfromWeek2the25environmentwasonlyabletosupportonespecimenwiththe
deathofanothermussel.Inthisfinalweekoftesting,thevarietyoffiltrationpercentageswithin
eachindividualgroupwasverylimited.AsfortheAveragesforWeek3,therewasamuch
smallerdecreaseofefficiencyfromthe10tothe15environmentandfromthe20tothe
25environmentwhencomparedtoWeeks1and2.Thefiltrationefficiencydecrease,
however,didhavethemostdrasticdropfromthe15tothe20environmentwhencompared
totheprevioustwoweeks.
RegardingthecomprehensivedatadisplayedforOverviewofFiltrationEfficiency,a
relativelygradualnegativecorrelationbetweenthedecreaseoffiltrationefficiencyinregardsto
theincreasingwatertemperatureisshown.Inthisoverview,the10andthe15environments

31

Lodhi
doseemtohavecloselyrelatedfiltrationpercentages,aswellasthe20and25
environments.Consequently,thebiggestdecreaseinfiltrationpercentageswasbetweenthe15
tothe20environment.

32

Lodhi

Discussion
Accordingtothecomprehensivedatadisplayedforallthreetrials,theresultsdisplaythat
thespecimenheldincolderwatertemperaturesdisplaymorefiltrationpercentagevariability
withintheirowngroupthanthoseheldintheraisedtemperatures.Itisinferredthatthis
variabilityinthecolderenvironmentscomesfromthefactthatthemusselheldinthese
temperatureshaveagreaterchanceofhavingbothweakandstrongfiltrationabilitieswhereas
thespecimenheldinthehottertemperaturesaremorelikelytohaveweakerfiltrationabilities.
Thespecimenheldintheraisedtemperaturesalsodiedoutmorerapidlythanthoseheldinthe
coolertemperaturesbecausetheincreaseoftemperatureledtoweakeningoftheinternal
processesandstructuresofthespecimenthespecimenheldinthecoolertemperaturescontinued
tohavestrongprocessesandstructureswhichenabledtheirsurvival.Inaddition,thedecreasing
ofoverallpercentagesforeachindividualgroupaseachweekprogressedisattributedtothe
weakeningofallthespecimenduetosurvivinginanonnaturalenvironment.Acrossallthree
weeksofdata,thesharpestdecreaseinfiltrationefficiencywasnotedbetweenthe15and20
environment.Inthisexperiment,thechangeintemperaturebetweenthosetwoenvironments
representsthegreatestenvironmentalshiftfromonetemperaturetoanother.The10and15
environmentsproducessimilarresultsbecausenaturalwatertemperaturesvaryaroundthat
range.Likewise,the20and25environmentsproducedsimilarresultsbecausetherange
wasrelativelysmall.But,the15to20shiftisthegreatestchangesimulatedinthis
experimentaswellaswhennotedinnature.
Incomparisontootherstudiesthathavealreadybeenconducted,theresultsgathereddo
agreeandsupportpreviousresearch.Indifferentexperimentsthattestedtheeffectsofother
33

Lodhi
environmentalchangesonfreshwatermussels,theresultsconsistentlydisplayedadecreasein
musselfunctioningwhenthechangesweretoodrastic(Young,1985).Otherprocessesof
freshwaterspeciessuchasbyssalthreadformationandthemobilityofthemusselshave
decreasedinregardstoextremeshiftsinwateracidity,watervelocity,wateragitation,and
salinity(Young,1985).Thisexperimentalsosupportsthefindingspreviouslynotedthrough
evidenceofthedecreaseinfreshwatermusselfiltrationfunctioninginrelationtodrasticwater
temperaturechanges.

34

Lodhi

Results:ExperimentalError
Inthisexperiment,errorscouldhaveoccurredmainlyduetotheunpredictivemannersof
the
Elliptiocomplanata
specimen.First,sincetherewereapproximatelythreemusselspecimen
livingineachexperimentalgroup,therewasnodefinitewayofaccountingfortheamountof
algaeeachindividualspecimenconsumedduringtheacclimatizationandtestingperiods.
Althoughaspecificamountofalgaewasgiventoeachgroup,onespecimeninthegroupcould
haveconsumedmorethananother.Thiscouldhaveledtosomespecimenconsumingmoreor
lessalgaeduringthe25minutetestingperiodduetolackorexcessoffoodfromthepastdays.In
ordertohelpreducethechanceofthiserror,eachmusselspecimenperenvironmentalgroupwas
givenapproximately5mLofalgaefoodforatotalof15mLpergroupcontainingthree
specimentheamountoffoodwasreducedby5mLtoaccountforthedeathofaspecimen.
Anothererrorcouldhavebeenthatthedeathofonespecimeninanenvironmentcould
haveaffectedthehealthoftheothermusselsinthegroup.Afteramusseldies,thesurrounding
waterbecomesfouledandmayalsoweakentheotherspecimencausingimbalancesintheir
filtrationabilities.Inordertoavoidtheweakeningofthesurroundingspecimen,thedead
musselswereimmediatelyremovedfromtheenvironmentatfirstsignofanopenedshell.The
waterineachenvironmentwasalsoconstantlyreplacedtoreducethechanceoffoulwater
harmingthespecimensinternalsystems.
But,followingthisconstantchangingofwater,anothererrorcouldariseregardingthe
watertemperatureseachexperimentalgroupwassupposedtorepresent.Byconstantlyreplacing
thespecifictemperaturewaterforregulartapwater,thespecimenmaynothavebeenabletoget
accustomedtotheirassignedtemperaturebeforebeingtestedforfiltrationefficiency.Inorderto
35

Lodhi
avoidtestingasubjectthatdidntrepresentthewaterenvironmentitwasassigned,mussel
specimenweregivenatleastfivedaystogetaccustomedtotheirspecifictemperature
environmenteverytimethewaterwasreplacedduringthetestingperiod.
Anothererrorregardingtheeffectivenessofequipmentcouldhavecausedsome
specimentohavealessaeratedenvironment.Thiscouldhaveconsequentlyledtoweakened
internalsystemsforthosespecificsubjects.Sincetheairstonesplacedineachofthefour
environmentswerequitesensitive,theywouldsometimesgetcoatedwithalayerofalgaefrom
whenthespecimenneededtobefed.Theaerationoftheenvironmentswouldnotbeaseffective
iftherewasanythingblockingtheairstones.Inordertoavoidunequalwateraerationamongthe
environments,eachairstonewasconstantlycleanedandreplacedtoavoidthebuildupofalgae.
Also,eachexperimentalgroupwasaeratedviatheairstonesandairpumpforthesameamount
oftimedailyfortheentireacclimatizationandtestingperiod.

36

Lodhi

Conclusion:
Inthisexperiment,thepurposewastodeterminetheimpactofglobalwarmingsrising
watertemperaturesonthefiltrationefficiencyoffreshwater
Elliptiocomplanata
mussels.The
hypothesisthataccompaniesthispurposestatesthatif
Elliptiocomplanata
musselsweretobe
placedinalgaefilledwaterenvironmentsof10,15,20and25,themusselsplacedin
the25environmentwouldhavethelowestfiltrationefficiencywhencomparedtothenorm
groupof10.Essentially,theriseofwatertemperaturesshoulddecreasethefiltration
efficiencyoftheeasternelliptiomusselsthefiltrationsystemsofthefreshwatermusselshave
beenpreviouslyshowntobesensitivetodrasticchangesinenvironmentalconditions.
Inordertoconductthisexperiment,12musselswereevenlydividedwithin4plastic
containerswiththesameamountofwater,amountofgravel,andmethodofaeration.10and
15environmentsweresimulatedthroughtheuseoftwocoolerscontainingdifferentamounts
ofice.A20environmentwasachievedatroomtemperature,anda25environmentwas
simulatedthroughtheuseofUVlightshiningdownintothelastwaterenvironment.All12
specimenwereinitiallygivenfivedaystoacclimatizetotheirassignedwatertemperature.To
begintesting,three1Literbeakerswereobtainedandfilledwithspecificamountsofwaterand
algae.Throughtheuseofaspectrophotometerandcuvettes,aninitialtransmittancereadingof
thethreealgaewatermixtureswasrecorded.After25minutesofallowingeachspecimenfroma
specifictemperaturegrouptofilterthroughthealgae,afinaltransmittancereadingwasrecorded
forthepercentageofalgaewatermixturethatremainedforeachbeaker.Forathreeweektesting
period,thespecimeninonetemperatureenvironmentweretestedonceperweek.Thefiltration

37

Lodhi
efficiencyofeachspecimenwasdeterminedbyrecordingthedifferencebetweenthefinaland
initialtransmittancepercentages.
Accordingtothedata,itcanbeconcludedthatthehypothesiswasindeedsupported
becausethemusselspecimeninthe25environmenthadsignificantlylessfiltrationefficiency
thanthosetestedinthe10environmentwhentestedduringallthreetrials.Evenmoreso,for
allthreeweeks,thereappearstobeagradualnegativecorrelationbetweenthedecreaseof
filtrationefficiencyinregardstotheincreaseofwatertemperatures.Uponfurtheranalyzation,it
isinferredthatmusselspecimenweremoresusceptibletofiltrationfailurewhichultimatelyled
todeathasthetemperaturesrose.Ontheotherhand,becausemusselshaveadaptedtoandare
mostaccustomedtolivingin1015environments,thespecimeninthosegroupssurvived
thelongestandmaintainedthemosteffectivefiltrationsystem.Overall,itcanbesaidthatglobal
warmingsraisedwatertemperaturesdoindeednegativelyaffectthefiltrationoffreshwater
musselsbecausethepurificationsystemsaretoosensitivetohandleextremehottemperatures.
Therefore,ifwatertemperaturescontinuetorise,freshwatermusselfiltrationsystemswillbegin
toweaken,causingmoretoxicandbacteriainfestedwaterenvironments.Moreanimalswould
begintodiebecauseofthetoxificationofthewater,directlyimpactingthemarinelifebeneath
thewater.

38

Lodhi

ReferenceList

Clausen,I.,&Riisgard,H.U.(1996).Growth,FiltrationandRespirationintheMusselMytilus
edulis(Vol.141,pp.3745).Odense,Denmark:MarineEcologyProgressSeries.
RetrievedOctober30,2014,from
http://www.intres.com/articles/meps/141/m141p037.pdf

EasternElliptio(Elliptiocomplanata).(2010).N.p.:MarylandDepartmentofNaturalResources.
RetrievedOctober24,2014,from
http://www.dnr.state.md.us/streams/pdfs/elliptioComplanata.pdf

Engelking,R.(1999,July).FreshwaterMusselsBetterthanaRock.InAquarticles.Retrieved
October31,2014,from
http://www.aquarticles.com/articles/ponds/Engelking_Freshwater%20Mussels.html

FreshwaterMussels.(1992).N.p.:FreshwaterMolluskConservationSociety.RetrievedOctober
28,2014,from
http://molluskconservation.org/MUSSELS/Habitat.html

Gooding,R.(2005).ImpactsofClimateChangeonMusselBedCommunities.N.p.:Department
ofEcology.Retrievedfrom
http://www.padillabay.gov/researchselectedgooding.asp

HowMusselsLive(2010).InDepartmentofNaturalResources.RetrievedOctober27,2014,
from
http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/mussels/howlive.html

Kennedy,J.(2011).Byssal(Byssus)Threads.InMarineLife.RetrievedOctober27,2014,from
http://marinelife.about.com/od/glossary/g/byssalthread.htm

Miller,M.(2013,February19).FreshwaterMusselRestoration.InTheNatureConservancy.
RetrievedNovember6,2014,from
http://blog.nature.org/science/2013/02/19/experimentfreshwatermusselrestoration/

Miller,R.(2013,June14).ZebraMusselsandtheHudsonRiver.InCaryInstituteofEcological
Studies.RetrievedDecember8,2014,from
http://www.caryinstitute.org/newsroom/zebramusselsandhudsonriver

Mulcrone,R.S.(2006).ElliptioComplanata.InAnimalDiversityWeb.RetrievedOctober24,
2014,from
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Elliptio_complanata/

39

Lodhi
Nordsieck,R.(2013).TheLivingWorldofMollusks.N.p.:GermanMalacozoologicalSociety.
RetrievedOctober6,2014,from
http://www.molluscs.at/bivalvia/index.html?/bivalvia/common_mussel.html

Price,J.(n.d.).ElliptioComplanata(ElliptiocomplanataComplex).RetrievedOctober27,2014,
from
http://www.dnr.sc.gov/cwcs/pdf/EasternElliptio.pdf

Fankhauser,D.(2007).SpectrometerUse.Batavia,OH:UniversityofCincinnatiClermont
College.Retrievedfrom
http://biology.clc.uc.edu/fankhauser/Labs/Microbiology/Growth_Curve/Spectrophotomet
er.htm

Toonen,R.(2003).AquariumInvertebrates:.InAdvancedAquarist.RetrievedOctober10,
2014,from
http://www.advancedaquarist.com/2003/5/invert
s

Uryu,Y.,Iwasaki,K.,&Hinoue,M.(1995).LaboratoryExperimentsonBehaviorand
MovementofaFreshwaterMussel,LimnopernaFortunei(Dunker)(pp.327341).Kyota,
Japan:DepartmentofZoology.RetrievedSeptember27,2014,from
http://mollus.oxfordjournals.org/content/62/3/327.full.pdf

Young,G.(1985).
ByssusthreadFormationbytheMusselMytilusedulis:Effectsof
EnvironmentalFactors
(Vol.24,pp.261271).Anglesey,NorthWales:Departmentof
MarineScience.RetrievedSeptember27,2014,from
http://www.intres.com/articles/meps/24/m024p261.pdf

40