I) If the gasket is relatively inflexible,

compared with the flexibility of the

bolts and flange, the bolt load will remain constant2 until P equals the total
(initial) bolt load lsince the bolts can

BOLIS

IilIIIAL

UNDER TO{AL
TENSIO}T ftr'!I

APPLTED D(TERI{AL LOAD

(r[rriALLY

ent,
n

iP"

zERo)

Figure I

1948

Simple Bolted Assembly

rf

Soetrole,

rry at
large
\\-nr

rr a4cl
tities.
.ns to
arrel

Bending iAoments qnd Leokoge

At Flqnged Joints

rupcd

PART

Nord
bar-

ROBERT G. BLICK

:arbyGetr-

d the

, vvrrl.

concerned directly
with the problem of finding simple criteria which will show whether the joint

co11-

mentary problem of determining the

stresses in the flange material (under

Liorrs

the
been
.o11S,

Pethe

:of
kers

rdeI-os
'eal.
,,lecr

code, Section W-317, rvhere 116 (which

amounts to the gasket load) is taken

rn

tire
concries
, the

IHIS article is

rvill or rvill not leak. The comple-

pressure load) has been well covered

by many investigators, notably Messrs.
Waters, Vesstrom, Rossheim and Williams in the United States. Some extension is necessary, however, to include
the effect of bending moment.
If the published gasket coefficients
and constants are aecepted as a pro-

visional basis, the analysis is fairly

simple. These various coefficients and
constants are presumably deterrninate
for pressure loads, and have been
established with the idea of providing

a pressure-tight, or leakproof design.l

If external bendine moments can be
broken dorvn in sote simple manner

Dressure on the compression side

of the ''rreutral" axis, and de-

creased pressure on the "tension"

side of the axis. and that the bolt

Ioad is not affected.
Before using such a simplifying assumption, it is lvorthwhile to try to

It can in part be justified

by reference to Figure l, rvhich reprejustify it.

sents a simple kind of bolted assembly.

If P is zero, and I,

the initial bolt

tension, is 100 pounds, then G, the
initial gasket compression, must be 100
pounds. With P given some value,
several types of behavior are possible.
ol major importonce
petroleum plonts. Yet the
problem ol their behovior under lorces other
thon pressure lodds has received little recorded thought. If a llange /eoks in service,
FLANGED JOTNIS dre

in the design of

the gosket is replaced. Or perhops the construction crew just heaves up on the wrench

that sholvs ho'rv they affect gasket pressures, then these modified gasket pressures can be compared rvith the gasket
coefficients, and the pressure-tightness

In extrcme coses the piping may he

revised. The problem, once repoired lor a
particular cdse, con ogoin return in onother

effect of

promptly lorgotten. Unfortunotely it moy

periodically recur os o mdintenonce hedd-

of the joint including the

bending-moment evaluated along

-s1and-

ard lines.
Since simplifying assumptions often
lead to clarification of problems, it is
of value to search for some simpli{ication at this point. One possible assumplion is the folloning:
That the external moment is re-

strained (r'nternally at the iunction of the Ilanee faces) eiclu-

sivell by a rediitribution of

the

gasket pressures. That is. increased

February,

1950-A Gulf Publishing

apply more load only by stretching,

and if they stretch, the flanges separate. As the {langes tend to separate
the bolts immediately tend to force
thern together again). The gasket load
will then be zero, and has deereased
at a uniform rate as P lr.as increased.
If the load P is further increased, the
total bolt load rvill increase to equal
P, but the gaskets will have lost contact rvith the {lange faces. 2) If the
bolts and flange are relatively inflexible compared to the flexibility of the
gasket, the bolt load will increase as
the load P increases. The gasket load
will remain constant, and in contact
with the flange faces. 3) If the bolts
and flange are of about the same order
of flexibility as the gasket, the gasket
load rvill decrease and the bolt load
rvill increase, to about the same extent.
Behaviorl is more or less implied in
standard flange design methods, as
shorvn bv reference to the API-ASI\{E

handle.

plant-generolly is again repoired,

and

ache.

This orticle presents a simple method lor

the onalysis ol llonged joints under a bending-moment load due to weight, expansion,
or the like, acting obout the ioint. The conclusions hove been derived lrom o basis ot
theory, becouse ol the obsence of experimentol dota. Since every set ol experimental
dota needs some theoreticol bosis-first to
determine what dotd to occumulate, ond second to make possible on evoluation ol thot

onalysis is presented also with

the thought in mind that some such invesfigotion might be stimuloted,

ddto-the

Com,pany Pttblication

as W-H (.H : total hydraulic endload,, W

tetal bolt load). It should
be noted -that despite the fact that the
code goes to great lengths Io auoill.
defning tlrc gasket load,. the implication is there. So that, using behaviorl
as the most probable, we partly justify
the simplifying assumption that the

external moment is restrained almost

exclusivelv bv a redistribution of the
gasket pressuies. British investigations

is no
in bolt load during ap-

have also indicated that there

great change

plication of hydraulic load. The

gas-

ket, once yielded, is most likely a rela-

tively in{lexible thing, compared to

the axial flexibility of the bolts and
the twisting or rotating {lexibility of
the flange. Figure 2 shows the gasket
acting as a fulcrum, the metallic flange

segment acting as a stiff leter, the

bolts represented as a spring, the

"trvisting" effect of the flange as a

thin rod in torsion,3 capable only of
supplying a nloment load, and the ex-'
ternal load represents any kind of

axial load (hydraulic, axial thrust,

etc.) applied to the pair of flanges.
Inspection of the figure shows that, if
the external load equals the bolt load,
then the fulcrum load is zero. Since

the flange can supply only the "twisting" resisting momenta necessary to

in equilibrium, artd
no force-loads, it is evident that the
gasket load must always equal the

keep the system

aleebraic sum of the bolt load and the

external load,5
It should be re-emphasized here,

that this article is concerned immedi101

Tlris establishes the maximum

( SPRING)

g4s.

ket pressure not to have gasket crrish.

ing (and, presumably, leakage will be

BOLT LOID

\\'ith any crushing of

associated
gasket).

Referring

usine

the above tr.o relationships plus a dgl

Figure 2.
Flonge Segment
Symbolized

GASKET
( FI'LcRUM)

to Figure 4, and

ths

fined quantity "H1;r)' (the yield load

necessarv to initially seal the gasket)"
bv a ferv mathematical operations ii

EXTEF.I.{AL

L0ti

can then be determined that:6

I. to avoid gasket crushing (and pre.
sumably atterrdant leakagei.

I9I S1!- MOi,fENT

("mRsroNu RoD)

I],AN 3E

rJ 1+ H",.-H,'

,'l|L\

IL to avoid leakage
ately, not with the flange stresses. but

u ith criteria for determinins if tlre

joint rrill or rrill not leak. Alllrouglr.
natural l1-. if tlre flanse is rroI strorrq
etrorrgh 1o Legin rritlr" tlre joint 1,r.esumably rvill leak. Ho.tvever. the ?act

that the fl.ange malr not be orrr.:rslrcs.sed

does not cleterminc that the ioint l'ill
not leak. Preserrl flanee slr.esi arralr.is
methods are rcialirelrl lel l-knorrrr ind

reliable.

the gasket. and next to it a "maximurn

l)ossibilit)." for the r,r.ay the gasket carr
be loaded. under direct and bendine
loads. Several other confisurations ar!
examined irr llre last sections of tlris

article,
Since one

of the "best"

conditiorrs

lr'ould be the "maximum possibilitv"

case. minirnum requirements can I'e
deternined b1- rvorkine rrith that case.
Since manv designeis use the analy.

Having hypotheticallv establi-qhed

the idea tlrat tlrc exterrril ni()melI i:
restrained alrno-st exclusivellby a re-rrressures"
distribution oi the gasket
it is necessarr. to dciermine po-.sible
redistribution l)rtlerns. so tlrat sonre
kind of boundaries for this "no leak-

code.

poses can be considered

to change in-

"m," the minimum total gasket

load ean he cxpressed as ''rz''-timcs
the internal pressure times the effec-

ser-er.ai Ito.-

tive gasket area. Stated matbematicallv.

leak" criterion can be rvorked up.

Since the gasket is not acting in an
elastic rarrgc. and for all practical prrr-

sigrrificantlr irr thickness.

siL,ilities preserrt llremselres. Figrrie 3

shows a cross-section of the saskct"
and next to it a ''standard possibiliti"
for the lva,v the gasket is loaded, .rvhen
under direct (bolt and pressufe) loads

and berrdinpr loads.

Figure 4 sholr.s

cross-section of

si,s forms in the excellent tleatise

"Modern Flange Design" published hv
the Taylor Iiorge Company. the rvriter
rrill use the same notation. The nomenclature cross-references some of these

terms 'r,ith those

in the API-ASME

Using the recommended g-asket con-

stanL

Hun :2lr:;(irlrl

This establislres the minirnum tolal

gasket load not to have leakage.

''l\lodern FIange Design! recomunit load on the eross

gasket area shou]d nol excecd irrir.t'

Lr . Ho-

rl'', \

in-s1ff1-

H,,r.

2
\l

lrclt' H," : ---,

atrrl f [ - extcrnal
nr()lnent in inch porrnds.
If gasket crushing is discounted as
the factor in lea-kage, then II becomes
the criterion for deterrnining leakage.

rr

"'' -H.''"'
exceed. H,t
tlren the
2
flange most certainly rr.ill leak. Pro.
uided, that the initial a-qsumption. that
r. rlf 11-

the gasket is relativel,v incompressible,

holds true.

H"--I"" criterion
['sitrg the H.
on the example shorvn in "NIodern
Flange Design" (a 4t/s-ir'ch thick

flange lor 3:l.ineh o.d. pipe. operatirrg

at a pressure of 400 psi. and 750o F.):
Hc

Hcr

-:

lf

.i1,000

107,000
r

" l\f"' :fl.0tl{J

)a

H-

_4.1.000

mends that the

the sasket yield load.

due to

cient gasket pressure.

x 3-1
: 475,000 inch pounds

3.1,116

If the moment

exceeds

that

r.alue,

r TENSIONfl

MOMENT LOAD

lDot Tm nn

GASKEI THRU
FLANGE FAC

Figure 3.

"Stondord Possibility"

for Gosket Looding

CASKET

COWRESSION

GASKET UNDTR IJNIFORM

GASEET

LOAD FROM BOLTING

TARrING LOAD
FROM IMMElrl

HIDRAIJLIC

102

PRE.SSURE

AND

UNDER

LARGE COI,IPRESSION

RSSI'LTANT
CASTET LOADING

PL:trolcunt,

Refner-l7ol. 29,

Ittro. 2

rh
1e

rl)

IT

t(

I
I
i

5qD-

rsh-

lbe
the

;ing
de-

oad

er),

sit

pre-

'rffi-

joint almost certainl,v rvill

ieak.t This does not mean that a

then the

pounds
moment less than 475,000 inch
the
since
leakage,
cause
l ould not
de'
has
been
value
possible
natcifiLunl
termined.

It is interesting to note that- using

half-inch rvall pipe in this case, tlte
pipe stress involved due lo the 475.000-

in"h-pound moment tonlv) would be

about 1200 psi.-rvhich is indeed a
small value, compared with the allol''
able stress of 10,400 psi. This shorvs
that there is wisdom in trying to locate
flanges at points of lorv bending mo'

ment-but unfortunately this

cannot

ahvays be done.

The writer does not possess

eco-

nomic breakdorvn shon'ing the evils of

rnal

las
mes
*b''

the
Pro-

that
ble,

rion
lern
hick

ting
F.)

flanged-joint leakage. However, it is

certain that there is appreciable eartr'
ings-loss from periodic maintenance
shutdowns. If a reasonably practical

I
I

NOMENCLATURE

""

or Hcp

Total gasket load required to hold pressure 'i.vithorrt leagage

2b

Effective operating u'idth of gasket

trIean gaskct diarneter
Gasket coefficient-ratio of the requirccl gasket pressure to t

nl

interr-ral hydraulic pressure

internal hydraulic pressrrrc (psi.)

H, or Hcy Totai gasket load required to initialll' yield (sct) the gasket
p

l{e Total gasket load

\{ Bending moment (inch porrnds)
n Total gasket nidth
y Gasket constant-"yic1rl" stress (psi.) of the gasket nraterial
Ar or Ar Total bolting area (sq. in.)
Sr or S,p Operating bolt stress (psi)
C Diameter of bolt circle
1^ Loeflrcrent use(1 to nultipl]' the h1'draulic encl load to obtain
-lK
folmulas
the charrge in bolt load Iassumecl to decreasc

u
Ar"
A.r
En
A

(10) and (11)l

(.lrangc i. L,,,lr lerrstl,

method can be'rvorked out to determine

the effects of moment-loads on flanged
joints, therr certainlv tlre small invest-

u'ill be rvell
It is surprising that nothing
has been done to establish "moment
raiings" for flanges, considering that

ment in engineering cost

justified.

codes specify the pressure-temperature

ratings. This is probably because the
p r e s s u r e - temperature characteristics
are more obviously related to safet-v,
lvhereas the presence of bending mo-

ment primarily influences the pressuretightness of the joint. But if flanges

leak, an explanation rvhy this happens,
and a simple analysis procedure to pre.rncls

it, is certainly desirable. The fol'

lowing sections of this article further

Llue,

expand several ideas

vent

in the direction

of developing such a procedure.

Tr.ni.^l
'^

Changc in bolt folcc |

Change in rnornellt
E,lastic constant of half the bolt

t""ett;-4(.,ier"u
Lctrtfth

X,,p,,

72 -

Iralf the ga-sket thickr't.ss: #/" =

_.-Gasket Contact Are:r X "li"
-C;rip
Thickness /2
Ciasket

El:rstic constant of the flange: "f /Radian :

Total Bolt Load X I-ever Arttr
R"s,tltittg A"grtiir Rot"ti* G Rt,li,,tt

NO'f!ls
t llcduce.l to essenlials, the I)ressure oll the
gasket coltiiitt surflces should not be iess
than "rD" ljnes the internal pressure' nor be
so g:reat ttrat an "uliirnate compression allowabtc' (that clcllerlds or1 tlle gAsliet ]'ield
lroint) is er|eedcii. 'I'hese constalrts a.e Eienerally found in the API--ASN{E co.le, Se(ltion
\\.-31?. 1'het are Dot rnancliltory.
2 c)r in fact lrral_ de(rrease sonrelthat.
3 Although,
of ( ourso, the flange is nor
under "torsi!rn" i1s such.
{ Tending to turrl it inside-out.
5 If the bolt load is assumed to decrease
with application of external load, the gasket
load must allYays equal ress th&n the algebraic
sum of the 1:7?r:Iiol bott load and the ext'rnal
load. By proceeclilrg on the assumption of a
corlstant bolt load. results nlay be obtaiDed

rvhich &rc less obscure, aDd whi.rh do rlot

prevent subsequenL corrcctions for changing
holt-load- Il can be reaclily seen, for iilstance,
that if tlre flange is extrernely flexible rotationally, il Nill behave cxactl},- likc & le!er,
ln that casc, the bott load reduction lvould
depend on the reletive distance of the external
toad to the fulcruD and the bolt loa.c1 to the
fulcau rn.

6 Assuming the siml)lest typc of gasket.

? "Lealiage" is a vague term. -{lrnost all
joints continuously leak to some small extent.
It would l)e more correct to say that, "the
joint is definitelt' operating: outside the
recommendeal linril.s Ior reasonable assurance
of n.glicil'lp l'.Nkrg..

End. ot' Part

in an early

I.

Part

II uill

appear

issue.

LOA!
APFLIED TO

MO},TENT

GASKET

FtA\GE FACES
Figure 4.

lity"
ing

"Moximum Possibility" for Gosket

Looding
LARCE CCI.PRESSION

COMPRESSION

GASKET IJNDER

INIMRM

LOAD FROM BOLTING AND

HYDRAIJLIC PRESSIJRE

o.2

February,

1950-A Gulf Publishirry

Companv Prftlication

GASKET IJNDE1

TVARYINGtr LOAD
FROht M0MENT

RESIJLTAilT
G.{SKET LOADING

From formula (2):

trTENSION|r
Ies

fo < fc-"for*f"offaor ( fe-"'

fcu ( fc-""-fc"-f6,

Jto

rh,

ro
les

ICriterion for excessive gasket pressure]

est

(s)

le.

It is now necessary

to determine

f611.

This may be done rr.ith the following

assumptions:

(a) That each circle defined by the

gasket surfaces remains plane
at the flange faces.

(b) That the unit load

GASKET

hen

the
Figure

l1-

moment has the customary'otri.

5. Gosket Under Rondom Stress Due to Moment'

angular" pattern, increasing

uniformly from the centroidal
axis, or:
(b)'That the unit gasket load distriliution due to bending mo-

ch-

ard
the
acr

ri-

ses

cts
of,'

rto

Bending Xloments ond Leokoge

At Flonged Joints

ment has some other pattern.

Assuming (a) and (b),

PAR.T II

)er

to
nihe

ng

nry,
nd

nt

id.

T_l
IJ

the basic assumption is made

moment t'ill be re'
bending
the
that
strained exclusively by a redistribution of the gasket loads'
The unitl gasket load necessary to
hold the pressure without leakage:

f tnSf

fc*r": *mp
rl.
:(l

)n
S-

ih
a
le

The "extreme fiber" unit gasket load

due to a bending moment:

: (t) fau
Total unit gasket
fc :

The unit gasket load not to be exceeded rvithout danger of crushing the
gasket:2

<e

lc

(1)

),,

tc^"":

n
rl.2h.

on the basis of
:

. l'n
b.

The unit gasket load due to

/)\
\.1
the

bolting:
rub

Bolt Load
Effective opcrating gasket area

- |
| AoS"n
-- --zwc-

rcn:-

S,o
*
8b
zb,iic - -QP-

An

Effective operating gasket al'ea

May, 1950-A Gulf Publi'shing

II

several ideas

ol

auolitotive nqture were discussed, towqrd the develoPment

of o simple method to deline the

moment caPocitY ol llonged

ioints. Part ll Presents o mothe'moticol

oPProoch deriving some

those relotionshiPs necessory

more accuratelY deline this

copocity. Introduced is s "leokoge enieloPe," o groPh on which

the operating

moment-Pressure

condiiions may be Plotted, com'

pored with the coPobilities of

orn,pany P u'blicttion

AB

S"" ,

rr - Zbnc -

Gp
sb

G_aq!er-

On the other hand, assuming (a)

and (b)', one may refer to figure 5,
rvhich shon's the gasket under some
symmetrical (but random) stress pattern due to bending moment. Working
with this figure, equilibrium requires

that:

(4)

lN PARI I

ln

(7)

the ioint, ond the morgin agoinst

leokoge reodily determined.

__,ir/4Grp ___9p
8b
2birc

And formula (5) becomes:

f,r,,

ICritcriorr for srrfficielrt gasket Pressurel

to

HYdraulic End Load

(6)

r\f <n_itG' -r-24

r rG')'rL_

-F fe.t

la 2 fc",t"
fcB*{co-fc.t ) fc"""
) fc-,"-fc"-fco
-fc.r
ferr ( fct*fco-fc''t'

of

The unit gasket load due to hydrau'

\
lic end load:

.
r"r'

II
Gp
1 Ae S"o
;/icr:r \ 2bnc - 8b -"'u
or. "o;t""-'f(++b-)

7+c'5o

eJ

Hou'ever, this is the maximum value

computed over tlre gross gasket area,
ruheiea. the effeetivi operating gasket
rvidth is 2b. The apparent erushing

stress allowable
rvidth of 2b is:

fcs

fco

(3)

load:

From formula ( 1)

Section modulus of gasket

I\{

Box 232, Sun VolleY, Colif.

ler

- n/4 G'2b
Then formula (4) becomes:

ROBERT G. BLICK

itu

rrc\I

iie-

es-

distribution

on the gasket due to bending

COIIPRESSION

v =zJG/z
o

f*ry y da

Let f", : some mean value of

fcot",

such that

xt
b,,,

zt,,

(G/2

Ja,

1' rla

fG'2 :''1^.=
QoI {asKet
trI
trm

:2f*
-

Statical ntoment

:2f-

bG'

t,f
-4,.lD Lr'

Lct the maxirnum perrnissible

f- be
f", : fart
tIG\I

rralue for

2b G"
t 19

Then formula

(4)

N{ / AB S""
G" - 2bqr G

2b
11

{-- _

becomes:
Go

-;r/4 Gz

F-rilP
6D

q -G4i!es -\
ti
-o(-G"4 *2bG'm)
(8)

An

ISolring Area

Grr

express

qzb:lp
Z
Ar

The "extreme fiber" bolt stress

to bending moment:

ceivable3 (under the basic assumntion)

without leakage. Thev correspond to
th_e "maximr- pos.ibility" ease of

l_
rB\I

Again using the example in ,,N[odern Flange Design." the "leakage en.

Sno.

trl <CA"S,

tioned earlier.
Another "leakage envelope" may be
conslnrcted on this hasis.

The bolt stress due to hvdraulic

(IICf,.POIII{DS)

II

l}r

-+

: +
"(
8it,J00-222p

fI < 88,300 inch pouncls

\\'l,crrlr -{).p: -i:TO -JOSpsi.

an "allo.rvable liolt stress envelope,"

l'ith this type of behavior, the
flange rvould not' ieak until the bolts
failed. The .rvriter n'ould speculate
that, if joints leaked onlv l'hen bolts

of joint

. A straight line is drau'n

-{s arr example of horr these

these poinls, forrning part

age envelope.

14lq

intersecting

of the leakl

Referring to for-mula (7)

rt(p

leak-

I,x2.s)

\\-hcn p : O,

u,ould
this envelope

age.

-r,'.":( 3 .b,,)

3'1-11rt

It

he

oiS:,

rr.9\1.+lYt6,2-r0

+II

since,

cases

""

C-{"

Fi-gure 7 defines the "leakage enve-

be more correct to call

rr-/(nn

2.JJ sq. in

j't'' -1"'''\ -etrI (

lopeo' under this assumption.

lerv ferv

16,2-50 psi.

- 1,icc/t:

failt'd. tlrele slrouirl irr,leed

Referring to formula (6)

stress.

> fr,,*f"**fnn,
2rtil'rrrp
c : f,G'I
-1.4,' '
Ao

Gasket

G:9"
b: tA"

.\,,

S.o

gas-

ket load does not chunge rvith ap'plication of bending moment, the 6olts
must resist the nroment. This is the
(improbable) "Behavior No. 2,' men-

end load:

the allorvable bolt

Bolts
at t7t,, clta.

S,,r

The total bolt ,.tress must not exceed

tribution.

unil

tr{oment
Sectiorr n)o(kllus of l,6l1i11g nr"^

l\I ,, r.
1. , ..oli,IrnJlr. 61r.1a;
a (ttalileter
(..\r,. .:
-

velopeso

It is of interest. at this point. to

compare another assumption. other
than that the moment is'resisted exclusively by a redistribution of gasket

150 psi. Norv. assumi'ng thnt tlte llanse

u,ould not /ail, inasmuih as rhe'speiified bolts have an allorrable streis of
16,250 psi., at a "factor of safety', of
l. the follorring data can lre sei up:

Assumine that the bolt stress due to

moment is "trianeularly" distributed:

Fieure 4.

of Figure (r have been d-rarvn.

shorving maximum bending moment
versus pressure. The ordinaies for the
"rectangular" distribut iot-t are 4/r
times the ordinates for trianeular dis-

its-primlry service pr".rut" rating of

due

_t

Ihe maximum possible moments con-

pressures._Assuming that the

The bolts are assumed to he A-96.

Grade A. The florv temperature is taken
as 5000 F., and the bolt temDerature
is assumed to be 4500 F. (90 per cent
of flo'n temperature) . Under these cir.
cumstances. the flange is operating at

,- _ Area of gasket times (nr p)

S,,o

(8) and (9)

150-pound raised face carbon steel

rvith a compressed asbestos gasye.t 8l/z inches i.d. by tl inch rvide.

flange_

pressure):

zbc"\b2a.c -' -8b

u<o 9'4 f2G'yn--941 S'" (s)
Relationships

rBs

MzYn

"leakage envelopes" may be dralvn for

anv fl ange, bolt, and gasket cornbination.
Figure 8 has been made for an B-inch-

The bolt stress due to the minimum

gasket load requiremenr (to hold

And formula (5) becomes:

Hydraulic end loarl

Bolting Area

3.1.116

Xj

x f.

-f

l()

X
2q{0t\ 2,,

\l

!? x t6140_

II < 143 p + 287,000-88,300

lor0oor0@

\t<143pf198,700
at p -: O, \I : 199,769 it.r."
lrour rls

81000,000
at p

100,

}I :213,669

1tr.',

porrn ds

4,ooo r0oo

A straight line is drarvn inter,secting these points. Since it does

not inter-sect the first line. it is
cr ident tlral "crushirrg" the gasket is not a factor in this case.
This rvould shorr that a better

2,0oo,0o0

Figure

6rooorooo

i
,i

robo ble

Leokoge
E

nve lo pes

p
(

t20

prr)

Pctroleunt Reftner-l/ol. 29, Ilro. 5

dralvn for
mbination,

an B-inch-

rbon

10,ooo,ooo

lrgure /

steel

lmproboble

bestos gasinch wide.

"Leokoge"
Envelo pe

be A.96,

8,00o 1000

rre is taken

)mperature
0 per cent
: these cirrerating at

6rooo rooo

I rating of
the t'lange
the specie stress of

/+

1000 r0O0

safety" of
)e set up:
sket

2,0o0,0o0

- 9t'
= %,,

=2 \

.4500

.P

(psl)

;\-+Dnr

\)l

f-xzs)
ch pounds

398 psi.

tersecting
the leak-

choice of gasket materialt could have

been made. A gasket rvith a lorver y

generallv has

the leakage envelope leads to the follolvine conclusion:

Thal lf the flanse will not be over-

would raise the rieht-hand end of the

then

a loner m, and consequently uould be more efficient. It

first line [from foimula (6)], allowing greater moments at higher pressures.

Getting Lack to the primary pressure rating of the flange, a heavy line
has been drarvn vertically from I50
pounds on Figure 8. Study-

of the mo-

ment defined bv its intersection \\'ith

I
x]!]so

it rvill

moment ol 55,000 inch pounds simul'

taneously applied.o Some readers may
care to run a check on this flange for

these operating conditions. rvith the

specified bolting. It should be noted
rhar some of thJ B l6E flanges do not

hold up under a standard pressure

analysist-but rvork satisfactorily de'

conservative assumption that

the

of

can

flange-gasket-bolt combination can (at

150 psi.) carry no bending moment
rvithout danger of leakage or danger

flange failure, the following

be deduced:

Referring to formula (6)

\r<co;t''-o'?"(f+r*1

(r!{cH-P0urDs)

-l--

I
BB,3OO

rvith 4-96. Grade A bolts,

probably not be overstressed at 150 psi. with a bend'ing

stressed

spite this mathematical obstacle.

Fieure t has been constructed for
this same example on a quite different,
conservative, basis. Starting with the

200 ro0o

198,

inch
1@,ooo

) inch
Figure 8
Leokoge Envelope
for 8-lnch,

wn inter-

it

does

.his

case.

ce

ine, it is
the gas-

better

120 r0oo

1SO-Poun{ Flonge
NA

--t

80,0o0

40,ooo
p

(plt)

No. 5

May, 1950-A Gulf Publishing Company Publtcation

l2L

,f
tl
rl

There are several factors that influ.

NOMENCLATURE
Hn or rf^
2b
G
IN

Total gasket load required to ho1c1 pressllre n,ithorrt

Effective operating $,idth of gasket

leagage

trfean gasket dianreter

Gasket coefficient-ratio of the requiretl gasket pressure to the

internal hydraulic pressure

intcrnal hydraulic pressrrre (psi.)
H" or lf6, Total gasket load reclrrirc<l to initiallr-

1..ielcl

(set) thc gasket

Bending moment (inch pounds)

Total gasket s,idth
Gasket constant-"yielcl" stress (psi.) of the gaskct n.raterial
Total bolting area (sq. in.,
Operating bolt stress (psi)
Dianreter of bolt circle

L,Ising the same gasket as

ceolng example,

trI

<'A

at

o (Ao S"o)

)))

in the

: 150 psi ( rlre primarl.

9

(AR S.,,)

'1A" S^,)

222

X 159

-222z.zl

service

150

ra xrro

Using this value of (AB S,,") to obtain

a maximum permissible moment at

p: o,
II< ftla.s00;222X0
4
tr{

:33,200 inch

servative leakage envelope of Figure 9

is drarvn for this joint. That this is a
conservative envelope maY l)e demon.strated as follorvs:

pressure rating)

o<

pre_

pounds

By dran'ing a line intersecting this

point and M: O at 150 psi." the con-

th_e_

leakage envelopes

of

flanged

joints. Chief among these is the chaige

in bolt-load that occurs rvhen intern"al
pressure aud bending momenl are ap-

plied. In Part III some of these fai.

tors are evaluated. and an analytical

metlrod is developed to drarv envelopes

Total gasket load

ence

Ar S,,', : l4,ggg
Ilnt Ar :2.42 sq. in.

e _

14,800
:
""': -'2llL'

61oo Psi'

In other lvords. on this basis even

the use of Grade A-107 carbon steel
bolts, rvith an Sop allowable of 6875

psi. rvould be excessive for these

flanges. In fact, these bolts r-ould not
even,develop the load necessar)' to
initialll'_yield the gasker for proper
setting. Figure 8 is probably the mbre
corre_ct envelope

for this joint

vided 4-96-4 holts are used).

(pro-

that include the effect ol the dlnami-

callv changing bolt-load.

End ot' Part

tn on earLy

II.

Part

III will

appear

t,ssue,

\OTES
rlt is $ortlri" 0f note that ISritish investigations tend to indicate that the ratio of the
(total ) h]-draulic load t.o the net (total)
g:rsltet load is deterntinate, rather thaln the
|atio of the htdraulic l)fessure to a unit
Bask.it load. This $-oulcl tend to require a
gasliet load per inch of circunference (not
r.lated
to gasl<et \ridilr)
dependent on
{llalrleter, }rressule an(l a q:1sket constant.
:l'he unit gasket loa{1 trot to be ex{.eeded
\\-ithout danraBing thc fl.rtrge contact fa(.e-s is
not (.onsidcfed here.
3 (larcful
retiglrterriDg oi the bolts after
:rpplicatioD of pressure Dlight in effe.t pro,lu, o llri{ ,listril,uri^rr l,iltprn,
if it \routd
llot occur normall]-.
{ These tnight ilot.
(orre.tly
be called
"leak&ge en\-elopes lrith fixed bolt load_,,
since the installeal bolt load rvill determiie
the gasket lo.d. -{s arl example of what this
rneans, the bolt load has been taken as Asrct
(41.6 sq. in.) times ttle allo\yatlle ol)erating
irolt stress of 13,11)r) l)si. If the bott load had
L,ppn takpn as (ABAc, I, .{n-inr : 2, a smaller
!alue. thF Frrt ploppj s orrl,l L,p smallpr, The
"crushin8" part of thc envelope would move
up, but the "insufficient g.ashet pressure,'part
s-oul(l nloye to the left. If the bolt area
and/or bolt stfess lrcre increased, the
"crushing" part of the envelope would move
dos'n, but the "insufficient gasket pressure"
part \rould move to ilre .ignr,
5 Or perhaps a smaller
width.
6 Due to the relatively
sman effect on the
ilango-monrpltls
oi shifring 1,art of tlrp Hc
luad to HD, and vi.e r
This will inl rorluci
an effective "torsion' "rsa.
on the cross-section of
the flange, lvhich.ran lrobablt be ignored,
r lrua lo hA rilrq I,epn ill .ommon u."e betore
the de|elopnent of ilre present method of
flange stress anal)-sis. 1.his particular case
shoulcl proye satisfactory.
8An "effcctive bolting,', so to speak.

200,000

160,0o0

120,000

r
Figure 9
Conse rvotive
Leokoge

40,000

33'

Envelope

300

Pctrolettm I?efiner-\,'ol. 29, No. 5

Bending lAoments qnd Leokoge

At Flqnged Joints

lN PARI It ol this series, mothemoticol relotionshiPs lor iointtiofitness were derived that ostii" o constont boltJood' Also,
the ideo ol q "leokoge envelopel' plotting Performonce ca-

B1

discusses seYerol other lactors

Ei

oitititi"t ol the- ioint, wos deter'i,in"a.

This concluding orticle
and derives the mathemotics

to evoluate the effect

the dynamicollY chonging

necessorv

PAR.T III

ol

bolt-load.
ROBERT G. BLICK
Box 232, Sun VolleY, Colif

TT

it lras heen as'

U P fO this point.
t'neutral'' axis of the
.ilred that the
n".1", ..i""ides rvith the centroidal
l*L. ftti. is ttot necessarily so' Horrever. it is a logical assumption" an!
for all PractrProbablv a correct one
cal purposes.

Figuie l0 is a qtralitative represeltatioi of the stress-strain characteris-

compressed aslreslos' lt shou s

-thut ttupp.ns rvhen a load is gradually
anplied't'o and released from the gas'

ii.. of

i[i- R.tott. on the curve indicate

the

Jir""tio., of the cvcle, from initial ap'

n-

io.. foi an\

nlication of Pressure lo some final

i'alue. and tlren reduction of pressure
[o zero.
The return-path has a greater sloPe
than the increase'path-that is' the-gas-

["i-i. 4tln*" unier a decreasing

tt un una.t an increasing load'

lo-ad

Tlris

can be deduced from purely theorellcal

considerations. Assuming that the,gas-

ket rvill take a permanent set' ther-e

*lif U" a positive amount of rvork
Jrt* i" tlre total compression cycle'
The shaded area in the figure represents the net loss of enerqv for a com-

1S

rd

Dlete cvcle.l That there must be a net

Compressed Asbestor
Figure 10. Lood-Deflection Curve for

Portion

of the cvcle

can

also he deduced - for otherrvise it

rvould be possible to oPerate over a
Dortion of-the cycle and obtain pernetnal motion.

' Since gaskets lre stiffer utrder reau"i"g lou,l.;' th"t" will be a shift of
*r"::"?"".f axis torvard the "tension"
.iJ" of the centroid. Figure^ lI shorvs
an exaggerated piclure of tllts hehavior. ictuallr-. the shif t of tlre "neu'
irut;; u*i. l'ill'probablv be extremely
sl

iglrt- so tlrat calcrrlations ma) lre

assrrrnption that
cides rvith the centroidal axis'

-Ja" o" tlre

it

coirr'

Sonre invcstigators 1nay care to run

load-deflection tesls olr Practrccl gasKet

material . The load catt hrst lle run-up
to..ih" ittltiul bolt-load value, and then

r"a*"a to the operating vah'e (that

oh,"in. rrhen llre joirrt is under lres'

sure). Then the load can lre reduced

ry

corresporrdin s to . ( n:p ).
irt otte lest- arld inercascd an equllalenr

to the valrre

ii

amount (or to a load corresPondlng

io tlt. gu.k"t ''cruslritrg" load) in an'

other test. These tests clll l)e rePeatecl

for a number of cvcles' From the re'
."i,i"* "tit"s the relative stiffnessde'
-of
if'"' *l.f."t urtcler increasing and l he
.r"u.ing loads mav Ite determined'
.l'r;t, oi the neutral axis can be com'
puted from this data'
Similar load-deflection tests mal- be

the {lange and bolt combinaiion toithout a gasket' or the flange rotations arrd bolt deflections may he
computed. The lesulting curves may
be compared uith tlre gasket curves'
In this rval'. it can readrt)' tt9. o9'rs
termined rvhether tlre gaskel really
appreciablv stiffer than the bolt ano
.";Uination. and rthether the
nii'-.t
'U"ti?-.i-piiiving
asiumption is a valid

t""i" f.t

one.

Corrections for Change in

Bolt-Load
The logical starting point. for correr:tion ol tlre leakage envelopes I or
change in bolt'load is to determine
-tl'r"tii"t the bolt'load decreases or in'

..""."" after

Con'
ltressure is appli.ed'

clusions ma1 tlren be reaclred regard'

t29

Iunc, 1950-4 Gulf Publishirtg Contlany

Publication

,.'s

'&

1i*

tfr
,E

SMATL COMPRESSIOH

r+_

Figure

ll.

Shift of

"Neutrol" Axis

_L

SIITT

--T-

i:

COMPRESSION

CHANOED GASKET LOAD

DI'E K} iOMENT

TAL COMPRESSIOIf
INGE COMPRESSION

ing its behavior when moment is ap- holds for the effect of moment on the
plLd. If the bolt-load d,eueases,'it tension and compression sides of the
means that the joint will start to leak,
neutral axis, then the adiusted boltand the gasket to crush, sooner (at a load on the tension side (with no pressmaller moment). The converse will sure) will be approximarelybe true if there is an increase in bolt-

corrected for both pressure and mo.

ment can then be called
(Ar Sop)prrt: (A" S*)"
-

load.'z The simplest, and probably an

and this value used in formula (6),

(Ar S.o)u.

effective, correction may be made by

altering the value of As So, in the

criteria formulas.
Actually, A" Son will be a function

of the pressure and of the moment,

rather than a constant. To illustrate

E;l
ll r,

ntj
t:

8.'

Hti

fii'
fl1

#i
ni

fl{

this further, assume that the bolt-load

will decrease as internal pressure is
applied. Then the value of As S", will
decrease as pressure is applied. The
maximum pressure capacity of the

joint with no moment will be smaller

than figures based on the initial boltload would imply. Assuming the joint
to be under some intermediate pres.
sure, and moment to be applied, the
maximum value of the allowable moment would be smaller than formulas

based on the initial bolt-load, or for

bolt-load corrected for pressure only,

would imply. This would be so for

two reasons, On the "tensiontt side of
the neutral axis, the bolrload will be
decreasing, This will tend to open up
the joint sooner. On the compiession
side of the neutral axis. the bolt-load
will be increasins.3 This rvill tend to
crush the gasketlooner.
Assuming that the no-pressure, nomoment bolt-load is (As Son)o, and
that when internal pressure is applied,

I/K of the hvdraulic end tt'ua it

ffi'J,,;"',l1

(A, S.")"

rrc'
I
I l-41f-l
K ^" 4 - KL;TI

- +-

which

:::;:"-.*",,,,, i,,u1'

as the summation of the easket stress

due to moment. and a triangular distribution is assumed, this force will
equal

Fv':

M<

"+

I [4

to

insufficient gasket p."su.", cor.

for the effect of a change in
bolt-load. assuming that the boltiload
decreasesa when pressure is applied.
In the same manner as tle foregoing, formula (7) may be reworked
to read
rected

K L;dJ

The bolt.load on the "tension" side.

NOMENCLATURE
-;,I
N

AB

Att
AM

F.

Coefficient used to multiply the hydraulic end load to obtain

the change in bolt load [assumed to decrease in formulas

(10) and (11)l
in bolt length

Change

Change in bolt force )

Change in moment

Elastic constant of half the bolt length

no moment)
(Ar

S.p)o

will

Ec

----6tFrsth /,

Elastic constant of half the gasket thickness

- (AB S.D). -

nG

KP

ratio

(f)

Er

- #/"

=X
Gasket Contact Area

be approximately

Assuming that this same

130

p (with

#/"

- Bolt=Area X "E"
Total

"picked up" as a d,ecrease in bolt-load,

tlren the bolt-load at a pressure

(r0)

Formula (10) then expresses the max.

be

7Gt
16K

imum moment not to have leakaee due

as
S.o)^

- it=1
' Kz'

as

and on the compression side may

(A"

ry (12/(-!

";(; + bm)
- r
----_--.1 + _-1
l!
''

(A"Son)'.- (AnS"").- 1 [4I\tl

"- K L' c-l

G/4 ( ABS,')"

G/4

neutral axis may be taken

(Ar Sq)u"

become

97-

so that the bolt-load corrected for

amount on the "tension" side of the

taken

will

Elastic constant of the

"E"

Gasket Thickness /2

flange-"f/Radian:
Total Bolt Load X Lever Arm
Resulting Angular Rotation in Radians

Petroleum Refiner-Vol. 29, No. 6

M<

pr--9" azGlyn__c
'1624
-l

iA,S"o).

ttr
t

- Krt'
PTG

-F 1l

16K

,'K,

(Summation of forces)

LPern-

(11)

a change in bolt.load, assuming that

the bolt-load decreasesa when prissure

is applied.

Evaluation of the Change in

Bolt-Load Factor
1

has been conveniently defined so

to permit a simple correction for

change in bolt-load. Off hand it may
as

e and mo'

T_441

6lrGJ

rmula (6),

u-)t
/9+
\8

_!t

,
J

(10)

;
:es the max'

leakage due
gSSUr, col.

change in
he boltiload
s applied.

tle

forego'

re reworked

appear difficult to evaluate. However,

this may be done without too niuch
labor.
Figure 12 shows a segment of the
flange rvith loads applied at the gasket,
bolt circle, and mean diameter of the

pipe. Intitially,

it is assumed that the

flange has been bolted-up to some ini.

tial bolt-load, the bolts have extended
somewhat, the gasket has compressed
somewhat, the flange has rotated
through some angle, and that the value

of Ap" is zero. This is the condition

represented by the solid-lined figure.

The dashed outline shows the new picture when the load Ap" is given some

finite value. Ac is (half) ihe change

in thickness of the gasket (assuming
that the center of the gasket does not
move). A 6 is the change in rotation
of the flange.
' Inspection of the geometry of the
figure will yield the following results:
Aa'- half the chanse
An - L 46
- of bolts
in length
Apn- change in bolt-load

:EsA"
:Eo(LA+

Aru

Ao

Eu

(-En

(L'A +
Ec)

[_En Lr (L, S L,)

Equations

A
Jc

and, since

lEr

(EB

Ar- L' Ao

Ec)

Es Eo

L"]

(16)

Aa:

a?F

equation (12),
that:
_-I

it

can be determined

L L,- Er]
[Er (EB + Ea) + Ea Ec L1]
(18)
Er [Eo

That value of f may then be used

in formulas (10) and (ll). Inspection of the terms of equation (lB)
t
shows that t *"y be either positive
or negative (that the bolt-load may
either decrease or increase) depend'
ing on the relative magnitudes of
(EcL,L,) and (Er).

load

P,q

decreases when answer is oositive.

: cha{rgg in internal flange

resrstlng moment
:E"Ao
where Er- rotational stiffness of flange
': inch pounds per radian

AM

Sign convention assumes moment

increases when answer is positive.

29, No.

tEslrL-ld
^- te'tn;+E;)T-E"
ilH
By substituting equation (17) in

\-JB-

G:26'!4"
fEc:4960x106

(Assuming E:29r
106, and discount

ing any oiher

flexibilities)

lEelrtlelL+ L)l

A4 :Ap.

stiffness of gasket
- pounds
per inch deflection
Sign convention assumes gasket load

i.

be

[EnL'(L'+L,)+E']
-A
- rP' tp' rp"+ p") + p" g" Ht
(1s)

(12)

Figure 12. Loods on

IABLE I

solved simultaneously to yield the following results:

decreases when answer is oositive.

where

Comparison With Test Data

5 contains test data
on the behavior of an experimental
ffange when internal pressure is applied. It will be informative to use
formula (IB) on this test flange, com'
pute the bolt-load change after internal pressure is applied, and compare
the computed value with the actual
test figure. The data on flange C-l of
this reference is as shown in Table 1.
Reference No.

""r _ro!

(13) and (J4) may

-A")
stiffness of the bolts
- pounds
per inch deflection
Sign convention assumes bolt load
in gasket
-: change
EoAc

4ot

EoAc : 0
-Ac)
A+ L- EB *
-AP"
(13)
En (L A+
and Eo Ao L,
- Ac)(L*Lz):EuA
e1 As [EoL,*Er (L*L)] *a+
_
At"

or

where En

Apc

(L * L'; '-

(evaluation of change in flange moment)

These equations may be rewritten as:

Formula (11) then expresses the maximum moment not to have crushine of
the gasket, corrected for the effeci of

The f ollowing equilibrium equations

may be written:

,nffi

Iune, 7950-A Gulf . Publishing Company Publicotion

* Computed from the data in reference.

i Some question can be raised as to what constitutes the
"gasket" in al assembly of ihis stifiness.

From this data, using formula (17),

l_10"K-*
1tl'^

e214960 X.938 X .726-861

86 [92 + 496A] + 92:X 4960 X .938',

K \{rhen the internal pressure is 300

psi., the hydraulic end lbad Ap" will be:
Lp.t: "tr /4 G2 p : 'n/,1 (26 7 /8)' X 300

.s6z

#
,l
from the value
170,000

of

ii

computed above,

the change in bolt-load should be:

ApB :-^--

Ape

:.362X

170,000

:61,500 pounds

That is, the bolt-load should de.

by 6I,500 lbs. By comparison,
the test values ransed from 46.000 to

plained by decreasing "twisting stiff-

crease

ness" of the flange as flange moments

are increased. The smaller flange stiff-

24.000-rhe mean'value being 73.000

pounds. Assuming this mean value to
be "correct," the discrepancl. betrveen
the computation and the test is about

ness-f

15 percent, In terms of the many factors that can contribute to this discrepancy, the agreement betrveen the
values is quite good. In terms of
"safety-factors" generally employed
and the small over-all effect on the
leakage envelope. the discrepancy is
prol'ablr negligiLle.
Figure 13 shows the effect o"
K
of varying each of the stiffness factors
rvhile holding the. others constant. It
will be seen thatf is not sensitive to
changes in E6, in the neigJhborhood of
the operating value. That is, the gasket

is behaving rather effectively as

fulcrum. On the other hand. it is some-

what sensitive to changes in Ep and

Ee. Readers familiar t'ith Reference
No. 5 may note that the value of ]o
that lvould be required bv the test data
increascs as the irrternal pressure is

increased. This

mar in

pa

rt he

ex-

actor u'ould then make for a

thus it can
greater value of rra
1

-and

be seen that the results of the formulas

agree rvith ttre trend of the test data.

Use of the Formulas

The general suggestion of this arti'
cle is to use formulas (6) and (7) to
construct leakage. envelopes ignoring
the influence of -i. The formulas are

easj to apply and should be of accuracv sufficient for practical design'

Evaluation of the various stiffness factors. normalll a somervhat complicated

undertaking. is thereby avoided. It is

nossible for the formulas to be either
somer-hat conservative or somewhat
unconservative. Figure 14 has been
constructed to shorv the influence of -"
on the leakage envelope. It has been
made from formulas (10) and (11).
for the 8-inch-150-pound flange of the

previous example. i is permitted to

vary from f.50 to .50. The shaded
area in the figure de{ines the question-

able zone. Inspection of the figure will

shol'that even for this rvide range of

f values, the results of formulas (6)

and (7) are of good accuracy. Also"

it can be demonstrated mathematicallv that the maximum positive

/r \':
value (*
rf can have, for any combi.
nation of the various stiffness factors, is (
i:) t.r tnis example, (h)
is .25; the . boundary corresponding
/l\
to that [*J 'r-alue lies uithin the

lolver part of the shaded area. l,eakage

envelopes constructed using formulas

(10t and (11) u,ith u rro.iUu" ({)

value taken equal to (rt-r)
"'iff af.
\\'a)-s be conservative. If formulas (6)
and (.7) place the moment-pressure
condition rvell rvithin the envelope, the

problem is adequatelv solved. If the

operating condition falls close to the

of the envelope. formulas

l0) and ( l I ) mar I'e used rrirh an
assumed ( l- ) t"t,," not greater than
\ !"/
( ;; ) .As a Iast resort. the rarious
extremes
t

,stiffness factors mav be calculated and

Figure l3

l.rl

H
F
H

I'K
o

Ats 2

*2,

&F
&lo
N.1

-t{

.739

.n5

!=
I

EB

rc,F

.0182

0. r0

. 6.tn=L3
v
Lr
-Ar@*

O-

SETTING rn= 0 IN REALITI DEFINES THAI TXE FLANGE WILL SEHAVE AS

LEVER AEOUT THE GASKET N'LCRU}I POIIIT.

SETIIN0
SETTII|G

%- o llt REALIII
En- 0 IN REALITI

THEREFORE"THE BOLTS ffUST

DEFINES A CONSTA$! BOLT-LOAD.

DEFII{ES A CONSf,[}ll GASXET
OF TXE LOAD.

iE5fu-loof

L0lD---

Petroleunt Refiner-l'-ol. 29, No. 6

l:

il'

t (r*ot

PourDs)

1- -.fu
K

20or00o

I
)
a

l-

160rooo

1201000

'e
re

te
IE

80,o0o

l.c

.n

tn
_ls

/+0 rOO0

rd

1t0
Figure

used to correctly evaluate (* ) tnti

usins that value in formulas (10) and
{11)". These latter formulas have been
arranged so that the numerical com'
putati-ons of (6) and (7) are used'
ihar calculation labor is reduced'

,F

so

General Conclusions
The rvriter hoPes that the conclusions drawn in this article may stimulate further research, bring into pub]ication anY private test data that may
be availabie, and point a direction for
further experiment. Despite the f act
that the methods of this article are
rational. the problem is by no means
completelv solved' Additional data on
the elastic and plastic charaeteristics
of gasket material are needed' The
tor.ional effect on the flange of the
non-uniform flange'momenls needs lo

I4. lnfluence

of

-a
I

life characl'ith static

correlation
need
ieristics
These are but a fen' of
"iru.u"t"ti.ti"s.
along rr'hich teavenues
the manl

searclt must travel until the llanged

ft". been thoroughly explored'
'i"i"i
(End ol Part III and series')
I{O'I'DS AND III]}'ERENCNS
I l-lrp npl l,,ss rr itl senprill] l'c slnaller ^ftor
"t'i!tXt"itit"T;rs mal' note that ttre terl'lencl'
exaggeRte
.t "-"."if,t*i"" ot t ott-toad is to
-;;"ss-pattern -under morlent-thtrt
;h";;"k;

}ii"i:l:.."i,r:t"il"*ilH:"\'l"i.L"lil':tl:';

il;"ll"f ";:X,lf .i'Ji'"i;

:l:,::1":l*l*'i#,f
iii"i"'ii*.ti"j. : p"ot-.i'ty an additional refine-

il"iri itr tiris nature ltould be urisleading'

i;:',*li'*lli...:":H,1?,,iii.1ii,i,:x,,"?J,L'J'1i
high acculilclobtain
";ij;.;' suctr -;;frs5rr"

t'ill have the nesatire

;
"tt";tt ?t"i'-tlEtti" "t*" or all ternrs inrolvlhe formula lvill reacl the \:alue ob,"* *,
lrrin..l tf rll. I olI-lojr'l.increilscs'
:l'. B. lios-llpirr. U. H 'lpl'h'rdt lI (l'

Iune, 1950-A Gulf Pubtishing Cottt'fany Publicotiott

>F

Psi,)

on Leokoge EnveloPe

be evaluated. And service

>r

o.6

400

200

(lliIer' "Tcsts ol 1{r'al Exchall'er Flarlgeg -'l'ransitItions of the -\SIIE, 193E'

6 The readcr mal_ rewrite the tornlulas to use
i wlri.h t'as used to avoid
"Ii instrrad ., i-l
('ontusi()ll Nith -q. Labro\\''s lacior'
BIBI,IOGR.{PHY
RossE. O. \\-atcrs, D. B. lvesstrom' Il Il'Stresses
freim. l', S. G' Williams. Forlnulas for
i" fiori.O ]'lange Oonnections - Transactiotrs
Also I)iscussion' Transot tft" eSlfo,1937.
actions of 1938.
l). B. Rossheim, E. I{' Gebhardt' II' G'
Oliver. Tests of rJcat Exchanser FlaDgesTr.rnsaclions of tl e ASNE, 1938'
'I'hc 1fa:'lor Forie Clo. Modern Flange L)esign'
Fitst Rcport of the PiI)e Flanges Researeil
r""titution of Me':hanical EnEicn--itf""
1936, volume 132 (British)'
"""1"1-ij*.""a;nas
Flaneies Research
-qecond Report of the Pipe Ifechanical Engi,',i--il."n-ilo"""ainas
-i 1n'.li1qtion of
1939, \'olume 141 (British)'
r"..",
S. I-al)row Design of lrlanged Joints-I-nstitoiinti or tr{e.rha;ical }lniineels Proceedings
191?, Volume 156 (British)'
(iasket
Ll. R. Ros-rheirn and A. Ii (l l'Iarkl
tri{echani( al EnBineerlng'
T,oading Constants
Septembcr 1943.
Coale for lrnfired I'ressu|e Ves,lf'f-,lSUp
Steel Flanges A5-L 13161')
ASA Clode for Pressure I'jl)ing'

>r

r33

', ,,i

r**
, '.1
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i{."
1.8