Running head: INCREASING ORTHOGRAPHIC KNOWLEDGE

Increasing Orthographic Knowledge Among Limited English Proficient Students

Emilia Sotolongo
East Carolina University

INCREASING ORTHOGRAPHIC KNOWLEDGE

Abstract
The purpose of this action research study was to determine how the use of authentic texts and
word sorts affects the orthographic knowledge of students receiving services for English as a
Second Language. This single-subject design study included two students from the same
classroom. Both students participated in three treatment periods; utilization of authentic texts,
utilization of word sorts, and utilization of both. Data was analyzed using a line graph to chart
the growth of the students. The data collected indicates an overall trend of growth, indicating
that intervention positively impacted the orthographic knowledge of both students.

INCREASING ORTHOGRAPHIC KNOWLEDGE

Introduction
English Language Learners are students who speak a language other than English as their
primary language. They are the fastest growing population of students in public schools in the
United States. According to a synthesis of review conducted on English Language Learners by
Cheung and Slavin (2012), English Language Learners are over-represented in Special
Education services, as many times limited English proficiency is identified as a disability. It
should be noted that not all English Language Learners qualify for English as a second language
(ESL) services even if English is not their first language. In order for students to receive ESL
services, it must be determined that the student is Limited English Proficient.
While examining literacy practices for native English speakers, research indicated that
all students go through the same orthographic development, regardless of the students native
language (Shaw, 2014; Williams et. al, 2009). Because of this, I examined patterns in effective
approaches to increase orthographic knowledge among English native speakers with the
intention of using this information to shape instruction for English Language Learners. After
reviewing further research involving the orthographic process, I was able to identify a trend of
successful patterns. Students who receive word study typically strengthen their orthographic
knowledge based on the effectiveness of this approach (Allington, 2013: Shaw, 2014; Williams
et. al, 2009; Tompkins, Abramson, & Pritchard, 1999).
The purpose of this study is to synthesize these principles to design an intervention that
is grounded in the findings of orthographic development and targets successful intervention
strategies used with English Language Learners. The patterns that emerged from research
emphasized success when utilizing two frameworks: explicitly teaching strategies and fostering
student connections to text by the use of authentic learning experiences. The design of this study
focuses on word sorts as direct instruction, and authentic texts as authentic experiences. This

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study aims to examine the effectiveness of word sorts, the use of authentic texts, and the
combined approach in the acquisition of orthographic knowledge. This study utilizes a singlesubject design approach, but incorporates a pre and posttest to strengthen the quantitative data
collected. The next section will investigate and analyze the literature on orthographic
development of students as well as current practices for English Language Learners, and
explore the way the literature shaped this particular study.

Literature Review
Research surrounding best reading practices for English Language Learners has made a
dramatic transition over the past two decades. While researchers once focused their efforts on
debating the effects of monolingual versus bilingual instruction, a new shift towards English
only and subsequent mainstreaming of most English Language Learners has resulted in a lack of
long-standing reports on best literacy practices for this population of students. While there are
studies dedicated towards exploring the benefits of bilingual instruction for both English
Language Learners as well as native English speakers, the reality is that this approach is
impractical to be implemented in the majority of school settings. An increase in number of
languages spoken by English Language Learners has risen so dramatically in the past ten years
that very few, if any, ESL or classroom teachers will be able to speak the native language of
every student they serve (Braker, 2013; Cheung & Slavin, 2012). This magnifies the need for
English instruction for all English Language Learners dramatically.
One of the focal points of English Language Learner instruction is effective reading
programs, specifically those with vocabulary-based interventions. At this time, the majority of
studies conducted including English Language Learner populations within a larger
mainstreamed classroom setting, and are mainly focused on the acquisition of academic

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vocabulary. Typically English Language Learners who remain in the classroom during literacy
instruction perform high enough on ESL assessments that they do not require ESL services in
reading or writing, according to lawmakers. Subsequently, it can be assumed that these students
have a higher level of English vocabulary than English Language Learners who receive ESL
services in reading and writing.
The term vocabulary acquisition has come to mean acquisition of academic
vocabulary, and not Basic English vocabulary. Studies have shown that English Language
Learners who receive pullout-reading instruction from an ESL teacher have a significantly
smaller English vocabulary than those students who receive interventions by their classroom
teachers (Cheung & Slavin, 2012). Cardenas-Hagan (2010), stresses the importance of
immediate vocabulary instruction, both with academic and conversational language. According
to her, English Language Learners require explicit instruction in their native language while
building upon their English skills. Without connecting the commonalities of their native
language to the English language, mastery of English will be difficult. Cardenas-Hagan (2010)
expresses that English Language Learners dont require someone to speak their language, but
thrive with a professional who can identify language patterns that are familiar in order for them
to accrue a new word base. This process is imperative as it lays the foundation for
understanding of new vocabulary that is presented to them in conversation or in the educational
setting.
A review of research studies conducted to measure the effects of different vocabulary
interventions found several major trends, highlighting the benefits of direct instruction and
authentic learning tasks (Cheung & Slavin, 2012). Multiple studies discovered a correlation
between cooperative learning, direct instruction, and small group work. The studies attributed

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each of these strategies to playing a pivotal role in facilitating the acquisition of reading skills
and comprehension and increased vocabulary skills among English language learners (Vaughan,
Mathes, Lian-Thompson, & Francis, 2005; Chambers, Cheung, Madden, Slavin, & Gifford,
2004; Adams& Engelmann, 1996; Calderon et. al, 2004). One consistent, noteworthy pattern
throughout all of these studies is that all teachers received extensive professional development
and personalized support to implement the interventions in their classrooms. In all but one
study, each teacher had a full-time personal facilitator to assist with the implementation of the
programs, which aided in the implementation process and makes it unreasonable to generalize
to general school populations that do not have these supports in place (Cheung & Slavin, 2012).
Kamps et. al (2007) compared direct instruction, word study, and balanced literacy
within the same study. The design of this study is problematic because it disconnects the theory
and practice behind the approaches being studied. For example, the authors of Words Their Way
specifically define a crucial part of word study as utilizing direct instruction (Bear, Invernizzi,
Templeton, & Johnston, 2012). Yet in the design of the story word study and direct instruction
are two separate treatments and thus different. More problems with the implementation of the
treatments in this study come to light as the researchers separate phonics and phonemic
awareness from balanced literacy. The study noted that, phonemic awareness and phonics
instruction are taught in teachable moments, but not directly (Kamps et. al, 2007 p. 157). The
researchers claimed to implement a balanced literacy approach, and this lens of phonemic
awareness and phonics instruction is in opposition to the way many other researchers in the
field define aspects of balanced literacy. This study is important to explore because it directly
refutes and challenges the other research conclusions made in this field. Additionally, the same
study described their word study intervention only briefly, noting that students read whole group

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texts and then extended their knowledge into writing (Kamps et. al, 2007). To dispute the
design of this study further, word study also primarily requires direct instruction in order to
gradually shift reading responsibility over to students so that they are successful on extension
activities, such as writing (Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, & Johnston, 2012). It is logical then,
that the group in this study receiving direct instruction benefitted the most, as the other two
interventions, (word study and balanced literacy), were poorly defined and implemented in a
way that made them inherently different in practice from their theoretical backing.
There is a lack of research surrounding effective reading programs or approaches that
are incorporated within the ESL classroom. The studies that examine small group work
predominately occur in the general education setting (Carlo et. al, 2003; August, Shanahan, &
Escamilla, 2009; Arujo, 2009; Braker, 2013). It is not pragmatic to generalize these strategies
without a closer examination of the nature of these specific students. It is important to
understand that students who are receiving reading instruction from an ESL teacher have much
less advanced English vocabularies than English Language Learners who are not pulled out for
instruction. While some strategies and approaches are certainly applicable to both groups, it is
crucial to note that literature exists supporting beneficial interventions for ESL teachers when
working with students during a literacy block. This new understanding highlights the
importance of using best practices for English language acquisition for native speakers as a
framework for which to shape instruction for English Language Learners who receive reading
instruction from their ESL specialists.
Authentic Texts
Research conducted on reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition for English
Language Learners supports the use of authentic texts in instruction (Arujo, 2009; DelliCarpini,
2011; Culpepper & Watson, 2007; Braker, 2013). A study done by DelliCarpini (2011) noted a

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statistically significant gain in the reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition scores of
her students by encouraging and prompting them to read authentic texts. DelliCarpini selected
texts based on interest and themes instead of levels. She explained that the books the students
selected more often than not werent remarkably above the students independent reading levels.
However, this was not the case when it involved books of high-interest, which were chosen at
times.
Braker (2013) also concludes that exposing English Language Learners to authentic
texts improves vocabulary, reading comprehension, and literacy as a whole. This study explores
the importance of creating avid readers, and links a students desire to read and become engaged
in books with success. Braker notes that continuing to give English Language Learners
meaningless passages and prompting them to answer multiple-choice questions is detrimental to
their ability to become literate students. Braker emphasizes to educators how important it is to
prioritize and integrate texts that are of high-interest in order for students to encounter increased
motivation; subsequently, allowing for authentic learning experiences. (Gambrell, 2007 as cited
by Braker, 2013). The results of Brakers study show a statistically significant growth in the
group of students who had opportunities for daily exposure with authentic texts when
participating in the following: listening centers, silent reading, or read aloud sessions with
buddy pairings or within a small group setting. The research published on the use of authentic
texts in the classroom does not specifically correlate to orthographic knowledge, but instead
shows a linear correlation with motivation and increased components of literacy for this
population of students.

Word sorts

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It has been established by reputable researchers that English learners go through the
same sequence of orthographic development as English speakers when pertaining to reading,
writing, and spelling (Tompkins, Abramson, & Pritchard, 1999). The approaches explored in
regards to reading programs for English Language Learners seem not to be grounded in this
framework. Instead, many studies approach English Language Learners vocabulary and
literacy instruction from a deficit model, promoting the idea that the languages and cultures
these students bring into the classroom prevent them from learning, instead of utilizing these
experiences and funds of knowledge to help students make meaning of new language and
culture (Culpepper & Watson, 2007; DelliCarpini, 2011; Carlo et. al, 2003; August, Shanahan,
& Escamilla, 2009).
Word study instruction focuses on the connection between phonological and
orthographical knowledge in relation to reading and spelling, and is an effective system in
developing orthographic knowledge among English natives. This developmental approach is
founded on years of research focused on the continuum of developmental stages of orthographic
knowledge (Bear et. al, 2004; Tompkins et. al, 2009). This body of research states that all
literacy learners progress along this developmental continuance, only varying at the rate in
which they acquire this knowledge. This same research notes the role of teachers in providing
scaffolding and support to help students move along this sequence in terms of instructional
support word study facilitates the generalization of knowledge beyond specific words to groups
of words with different spelling patterns (Shaw, 2014; Williams et. al, 2009). The conclusions
drawn that word study are beneficial to English natives because it targets a language
development continuum. It is subsequently rational to conclude that this same approach will

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benefit English Language Learners, especially those receiving ESL services for reading, as they
are arguably towards the beginning of this developmental sequence.
Another widely used text that supports word sorts to develop orthographic knowledge
among English Language Learners is Words Their Way for English Language Learners (2011).
Combining theory with practice, the authors suggest that it is important for English Language
Learners to consistently participate in activities that facilitate the furthering of orthographic
development just like their English-speaking peers. For these students in particular, the authors
convey it is important to review and introduce new orthographic features by comparing them to
each other so that students are not just focusing on the letters, but the sounds that the words
make. The authors suggest that especially for Spanish speakers, it is often confusing for the
students to differentiate between vowel sounds and the letters that represent them because they
are used differently in their native language. This text encourages teachers to allow students to
interact with the different sounds and engage in intentional practice when it comes to
understanding spelling and sound patterns. The authors explain that as the students transition
into the within-word pattern stage their students ability to recognize spelling patterns becomes
increasingly important, but it is notably difficult to help students understand the different
spelling patterns without a solid base in comparing different sounds and the patterns those
sounds make.
In looking at various studies and texts to craft my intervention, Words Their Way for
English Language Learners provided the outline for my intervention, as well as an appendix of
other resources. Furthermore, this text suggests that there is a lack of research surrounding the
effects of word sorts on English Language Learners, but cites the benefits this has on English
native speakers. The text highlights the subsequent research on orthographic processes for all

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students regardless of native language to emphasize the important role teachers have in
implementing this research-based theory into practice in classrooms. The text provided one very
interesting study about the effect of word study on adult English Language Learners, and the
success of this study was integral into the shaping of my intervention.
Shaw (2014) bases her study of implementing word study in a classroom of adult
English Language Learners on the findings that word study has shown to be beneficial for
English speakers, similar to the claims made in Words Their Way (2011). Shaw further reasoned
that because all students and learners of English, regardless of first language go through the
same sequence of developmental stages, word study could be an effective intervention for adult
English learners as well as elementary-aged English speaking natives (Shaw, 2014). Students
utilized word sorts to explore orthographic features to enhance orthographic knowledge,
resulting in higher reading, writing, and spelling.

Methodology
This study utilized a single-subject design alternating treatments for all five students
involved in the study. One of the main goals of this study sought to compare the effect of three
different treatments on rate of acquisition of orthographic knowledge for each student.
Subsequently, orthographic knowledge served as the dependent variable for this study. There
are three independent variables; the use of authentic texts, the use of word sorts, and the use of
authentic texts and word sorts together. Integrating three different independent variables
resulted in three different, two-week long treatment periods. Both students were administered
the same two pretests, the Primary Spelling Inventory as well as the Phonological Awareness
Assessments found in Words Their Way (2014). Both of these quantitative assessments were
issued to determine the effect of the treatments on orthographic knowledge. While the

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researcher initially aimed to administer both assessments at the end of each treatment period as
well as a pretest, time became a factor. As a result, the Phonological Awareness Assessment was
only given as a pre and posttest, while the Primary Spelling Inventory was administered as a
pretest as well as at the end of each treatment period.
After the pretests were given to each student, the first treatment period (B) began.
During this period of time, the students were exposed to authentic texts containing the
orthographic features that the Primary Spelling Inventory revealed as their instructional level.
Students interacted with these texts two times a week for two weeks, totaling four sessions for
the duration of treatment (B). After these four sessions were complete, the students were given
the Primary Spelling Inventory for the purpose of measuring gains or lack thereof during
treatment (B). After this assessment was administered, the second treatment period (C) launched
within that same week/on the following week, as the researcher only worked with the students
two times a week. The word sorts chosen for introduction in this period were directly related to
the results of the Primary Spelling Inventory, as this assessment detailed specifically the
orthographic stage of each student. The sorts targeted where the students were instructionally,
pinpointing objectives toward distinguishing between orthographic features, for example
distinguishing between a short o and a long o. The sorts facilitated the comparison of sounds
and spelling patterns into different categories. This treatment period also lasted approximately
two weeks, with the students receiving treatment two times a week for a total of four sessions.
At the conclusion of this treatment period, the students were administered the Primary Spelling
Inventory.
The final treatment period (BC) begins, combining the use of word sorts and authentic
texts within this two-week period. Students were reintroduced to word sorts targeting

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instructional orthographic features to begin the lessons. For the first part of the session, the two
students completed word sorts. Once the word sorts were finished, the students spent the final
half of the lesson reading text that contained words with the same phonics skills that were just
being addressed within the sorts. In order to keep the length of each treatment period as
consistent as possible, this treatment was given twice a week for two weeks, which resulted in a
total of four sessions. At the end of this treatment period the students were given the Primary
Spelling Inventory as well as the Phonological Awareness Assessments.
At the conclusion of all treatment periods, the growth between the beginning and end of
each individual treatment period was examined in order to make conclusions about the
effectiveness of each treatment on the rate of acquisition of orthographic knowledge. In order to
strengthen this design, the Primary Spelling Inventory and Phonological Awareness
Assessments were administered a week after treatment ends as a probe to glean how much of the
instruction was retained by the students. Because there were three treatment periods and only
two participants, it was necessary to report the results for each individual student, while
ensuring that all of the data was represented visually in order to see the growth that is being
described.

Dependent
Variable:
Orthographic
Knowledge

Treatment 1:
Use of authentic texts
only

Treatment 2:
Use of word sorts only

Treatment 3:
Combined use of word sorts
and authentic texts

1. Primary Spelling
Inventory
2. Researcher log
observations

1. Primary Spelling
Inventory
Assessments
2. Researcher log
observations

1. Primary Spelling
Inventory
2. Phonological Awareness
Assessments
3. Researcher log
observations

Figure 1. Chart of Independent and Dependent variables.

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Participants and Setting

This study examined a group of two-second grade boys who receive ESL services in a
rural school in Eastern North Carolina. Both of these students are Spanish-dominant English
Language Learners who receive reading remediation from an ESL specialist twice a week for
thirty minutes. In order to gather consent from the students parents, consent forms were
translated into Spanish (See Appendix A and B). Remediation services are determined from the
results that the students received on the W-APT Assessment as well as their yearly results from
the WIDA- ACCESS Achievement Test. The county considers ESL services as a Tier 1
intervention in Response to Intervention, a multi-tier approach to identifying students who are
struggling to stay abreast of the Common Core Objectives. Both students have been retained in
the second grade, but only receive ESL instruction as remediation for Tier 1. These two
assessments identify areas of strengths or weaknesses in reading, writing, listening, and
speaking. Students receiving ESL services at this school are already grouped based on their
classroom teacher and grade level when they are removed to participate in these services in a
separate setting.
Are removed to participate in these services in a separate setting. All of the students in
the school who receive ESL instruction come in groups by their classroom teacher. In this case,
both students had the same classroom teacher and were projected by this classroom teacher and
the ESL teacher of record to be reading at about the same level. For the purposes of this study,
these two students were selected based specifically on an anticipated early letter namealphabetic orthographic stage to ensure that the students were able to receive treatment as a pair.
Although no specific assessment level was given to gage orthographic knowledge in Spanish, it
is estimated that neither of the students in the group are able to read past the emergent stage in

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Spanish, the native language for both students in the group receiving treatment. Both the
classroom teacher, as well as the teacher of record for this study, was consulted in estimating
where the students were performing orthographically when the study was implemented.

Intervention
The intervention was designed to specifically compare the effect of three different
treatments on the development of orthographic knowledge. The intervention was divided into
three different treatment periods with regular and systematic assessments. Each treatment period
lasted approximately two weeks, intervention being incorporated twice a week, amounting to
four instructional sessions. The decision to implement the intervention at this frequency was
made to stay consistent with the amount of time students actually receive ESL services. By only
implementing treatment when the students are scheduled to receive ESL services, the ability for
these findings to be used practically for ESL teachers is strengthened. The first treatment period
(B) solely introduced authentic texts, while the second treatment period C only
engaged/immersed the students in word sorts. The final treatment (BC) combined the use of
words sorts, while simultaneously presenting authentic texts as an extension activity to reinforce
the patterns that were studied and explored in the word sorts that were just introduced within
that session. The Primary Spelling Inventory as well as the Phonological Awareness
Assessments were administered before each treatment period and at the conclusion of the final
treatment period.
The use of authentic texts to create meaning is supported by Words Their Way (2012),
whos authors note that phonetic patterns were supported by the use of Words Their Way, which
is especially critical for English language learners. The purpose of incorporating authentic texts
allows for students to see what they are learning in relation to context in which it is being used.

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This supports the construction of meaning, while assisting them with building background
knowledge. Concurrently, Harvey and Goudvis (2007) explain that struggling readers benefit
from reading and being read texts that are high interest, and have the capacity to reinforce
explicit instruction in the classroom.
Although research insinuates that authentic texts are best utilized when reinforcing direct
instruction, this treatment period only examined the effect of authentic texts. Therefore, there
was no connection to any kind of direct instruction students are receiving in their general
education classroom. The design of this treatment (B) was based off of the research by Eeds and
Cockrum (1985) and Culpepper and Watson (2007), both of whom conducted studies which
found gains in the knowledge of their English Language Learners purely by exposing them to
new words and spelling patterns by the use of books.
In order to eventually make claims about the effect of authentic texts in isolation on the
orthographic knowledge of English Language Learners, it is important that this treatment was
only focused on the reading of these texts. Specifically, the researcher spent time exploring the
digital website with the students and modeling how to navigate specific features such as
selecting a language, playing audio, and selecting a new book. The results of the Primary
Spelling Inventory and Phonological Awareness Assessments played a role in determining the
text selections for each child. The texts the students read and listened to targeted specific
features that the assessments have indicated are at the independent level of the learner. The
researcher and teacher of record explored the books and made a personalized list of appropriate
texts for each student. The students alternated listening to the texts, reading them to a partner,
and reading them silently through all four sessions. The two quantitative assessments were
given in the session immediately after the fourth session of treatment B.

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At the conclusion of treatment B (authentic texts) and after completing subsequent

assessments, treatment C (word sorts) commenced. In order to maintain consistency, this
intervention consisted of two sessions a week for two weeks, equaling four sessions. This
intervention followed the model detailed in Words Their Way for English Language Learners
(2014). This model promotes student comprehension of orthographic features by prompting
them to sort word cards based on sounds and word patterns. The text encourages teachers to
model sorting, and as students demonstrate proficiency with sorting word cards, facilitating
other types of sorts and activities that utilize the word patterns, such as speed sorts and blind
sorts. Instruction was crafted based on the scores of the two quantitative assessments. The
Primary Spelling Inventory specifically denoted which orthographic features students grasp
independently, instructionally, and features that are completely absent. The features that were
scored on the instructional level were the features targeted for beginning instruction.
Specifically, one feature that the students have demonstrated independently was used to
compare a feature that has been demonstrated instructionally, in order to build on what the
student already knows (Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, & Johnston, 2012). The pace of instruction
depended entirely on the ability of the students to be able to do the sorts independently. The
general outline of this treatment period was that the first three sessions compared two features,
and the second three lessons compared a second set of features, as determined by the pacing
guide and orthographic development chart in Words Their Way (2012).
The researcher spent the first lesson explaining sorting to students and using concept
sorts if the students are unfamiliar with the concept of sorting. The researcher then modeled for
the students how to complete the sorts. The researcher picked two word cards each containing a
different feature and placed them as headings. The researcher modeled the process of reading a

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card, and asking aloud, does this word sound like _______ (word in column one) or
_________ (word in header two)? The researcher completed the sort independently and then
sorted the same words with the help of the students. The researcher prompted the students to
read the words aloud and then think aloud in order to make guesses about which column the
word belonged. Additionally, the researcher asked students to move the cards themselves;
however the researcher was still assisting them in working through their answers.
Students eventually moved into sorting stacks of cards independently, and this occurred
at different rates depending on the students level of proficiency (Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, &
Johnston, 2012). Words Their Way (2012) also offered templates to facilitate the completion of
speed sorts, focusing on their automaticity, writing sorts to focus on spelling of the words, and
blind sorts, during which students only hear the words and must categorize and spell the words
all in the same activity. The participant worked their way through these various types of sorts,
and when the student was able to independently complete the blind sort, he moved to the next
feature on the pacing guide outlined Words Their Way (2012), and repeated the sorting process,
in their given order, with the new feature cards. The researcher was there to provide assistance
when necessary (Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, & Johnston, 2012). After the fourth session of
treatment C was complete, the next session involved the administration of the Primary Spelling
Inventory as well as the Phonological Awareness Assessments. At the conclusion of these
assessments, the next session opened with treatment BC, the use of authentic texts and word
sorts.
The final treatment period was designed specifically to incorporate the use of word sorts
and authentic texts to create meaningful learning for students by allowing them to see explicitly
taught patterns in a context that is engaging and relevant (Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, &

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Johnston, 2012). Further, the purpose of this design was to use both of the previous treatments
in conjunction with each other, and for that reason the structure of using word sorts did not
change, however the use of authentic texts was altered slightly, moving from using the texts in
isolation to having the researcher link the word sorts to the texts. The justification for a slight
alteration to the authentic texts portion of the intervention is the research highlighted in Words
Their Way (2012) that shows a correlation between the increase of orthographic knowledge by
using authentic texts when the teacher specifically points out patterns and features to make
connections between the sorts and the texts. Whereas treatment B was designed so that students
were using authentic texts in isolation, this was not the case for the utilization of authentic texts
treatment BC.
The results of the quantitative assessments following treatment C were used to
determine which orthographic features were highlighted during the final treatment period.
Mirroring how instruction was designed for treatment C, one feature that was scored as
independent will be compared with one feature that was scored as instructional, and these
features were used for the initial sorts during the intervention period. The students spent the first
half of the thirty-minute period sorting the words, and the second half of the period reading or
listening to the texts. Students worked through the various kinds of sorts in the same
progression as described during treatment C. The researcher provided verbal prompting to
encourage students to identify the features from the sorts in the authentic texts, both during and
after reading. However, the students were not asked to write down any of the words from the
texts that identify the features. To allow continuity from the previous two treatment periods, the
final treatment period also consisted of two sessions a week for two weeks, amounting to four
instructional treatment sessions.

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Data Sources and Data Collection Procedures

There were three data sources utilized during the research study. The Primary Spelling
Inventory and Phonological Awareness Assessments provided quantitative data. Anecdotal notes
recorded during each session in a researcher log provided qualitative data.
The first source of quantitative data collected was assessed through the administration of
the Primary Spelling Inventory. The Primary Spelling Inventory was administered as a pre-test
and after the first treatment period, and a modified version of the inventory was administered
after the second treatment period and the posttest (See Appendix C). This assessment was
utilized because it directly assesses the research question being posed, and provided the
researcher with a better understanding of where to begin instruction during each treatment
period (Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, & Johnston, 2012). To prevent the students from
memorizing the words on the inventory the researcher changed the words, but kept the same
orthographic features that the inventory scored in each word. This prevented the students from
being able to memorize the words, but allowed the validity of the features assessed on the
Primary Spelling Inventory to remain. The researcher, in addition to the teacher of record,
scored each inventory to ensure trustworthiness.
The second source of the quantitative data collected was assessed through the
administration of the Phonological Awareness Assessment found in Words Their Way PrekKindergarten (See Appendix D). This assessment consists of ten activities including; primary
consonant sounds, blends, rhyming, short vowels and ending consonants. Words Their Way
(2012) emphasizes the need to focus on phonological awareness with English Language
Learners. Understanding the phonological awareness of students serves to support data collected
from the Primary Spelling Inventory. This assessment was selected because Words Their Way

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(2012) recommended its use in conjunction with the Primary Spelling Inventory in order to
better shape instruction for students. The study was initially designed with the framework of
administering this assessment as a pretest, after each treatment, and as a posttest, but due to time
constraints this assessment was only administered as a pre and posttest. As with the Primary
Spelling Inventory, both the researcher and the teacher of record to ensure consistency and
trustworthiness of the data also scored the Phonological Awareness Assessment.
Finally, a researcher log detailing anecdotal notes from each session was kept throughout
the duration of the study. Although this study slightly deviates from a true single subject design,
the population and size of the group depends on the use of qualitative data to triangulate the data
that was collected from the quantitative measures (Hendricks, 2012). The consent forms that
were sent home to parents as well as the assent script being read to students specifically
requested permission to audio and video tape the sessions. This was employed in order to ensure
high quality qualitative data through observations. The use of audio and visual recording
allowed the researcher to re-watch sessions and glean more details and observations instead of
trying to manually write down observations during the lessons. This method is also beneficial as
it eliminated the idea that the researcher is grading the students as they go, as many students
seem to become uncomfortable or nervous when they see a teacher or observer continually
writing notes. After each session the researcher recorded objective observations, subjective
observations about how the lesson went and the students responses, challenges, triumphs, and
anything else that happened during the time. The researcher also recorded ideas for the next
lesson so that a connection was made between what happened in the lesson and what would
subsequently be appropriate for the next lesson. The researcher used this log to triangulate that

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quantitative data found from the study, and to also look for for bigger themes. The researcher
identified three major themes that appeared.

Data Analysis
The purpose of this study was to assess the use of authentic texts, word sorts, and then a
combined use of both on the orthographic knowledge of students receiving services in ESL.
Analysis of this data involved two comparisons because the Primary Spelling Inventory as well
as the Phonological Awareness Assessment was used as measures for quantitative data while
additionally acting as an independent analysis for the qualitative data. The researcher was
previously trained in administering the Primary Spelling Inventory in a previous setting, and
learned to administer the Phonological Awareness Assessment. In adhering to all University
regulations, IRB approval was obtained before any data collection began (See Appendix E). The
researcher selected a colleague who was also trained in administering both assessments to serve
as a second scorer to ensure trustworthiness of the data collected from both assessments. The
researcher attended Sabameetings and conferenced with a single-subject expert to be trained on
how to record and maintain a researcher log.
Quantitative Data
For the first quantitative data analysis, the scores of each students Primary Spelling
Inventory Assessment were compiled. Because the research question is specifically targeting
growth in orthography, the data being graphed comes from the features correct portion of the
inventory. This column indicates how many orthographic features the student got correct
overall, regardless of the spelling of the word. This was utilized because it most directly aligns
with the research question. Once the data was compiled, each students scores on the Primary

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Spelling Inventory were graphed using a line graph. The line graph depicts both students scores
on the pretest, assessment #1, assessment #2, and assessment 3.
The second quantitative analysis was also completed using a line graphs however; this
time the graph represented the overall growth from the pretest to posttest on the Phonological
Awareness Assessment. This particular assessment is divided into sections, providing scores for
each portion as well as giving an overall score from all pieces. This overall score is the number
represented in the graph. In summation, each students quantitative data was analyzed and
depicted using a line graph, one graph representing the data collected from the Primary Spelling
Inventory over four assessments, the other graph representing the data collected from the
Phonological Awareness Assessment from the pretest to the posttest.

Qualitative Data
A qualitative analysis of the data collected from this study was conducted utilizing the
researcher log. After the initial findings had been recorded, the researcher printed out the log
and read it over twice. The first time the researcher highlighted any major themes that emerged.
The second time, however, the researcher highlighted only those themes that specifically
correlated to the research question. Each of the three themes was highlighted using a different
color, making visual patterns in the data more apparent. Once this was completed, the researcher
identified the three major themes; motivation/confidence of the student, students perception of
his own ability, and the role of seeing their progress on each assessment.
Validity and Reliability or Trustworthiness
There are several threats to validity, all of which are common among single-subject
research designs. The first is that this study is not generalizable due to the size of the group. The

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second biggest threat that was encountered was the mortality threat to this population of highly
transient students. The group was designed for five students, but was reduced down to two
students almost immediately. One particular strength of this study is the reliability of the
quantitative assessments, especially the Primary Spelling Inventory. This assessment is
specifically designed to determine the orthographic level of a student, which us ultimately used
to shape instruction. The assessment even contains a numerical score pertaining to the amount
of orthographic features the student answered correctly, which shows growth without the
possibility of any subjective conclusions drawn from the researcher.
To ensure inter-rater reliability, both the teacher of record and the researcher scored both
quantitative assessments independently and then compared the scores. This ensured that the data
drawn from the assessments is valid and can be used to make statements regarding the research
question being posed.

Findings/Results
The findings of both quantitative assessments were compiled to examine the growth of
both participants. The Primary Spelling Inventory data collected highlights growth for each
participant during each treatment period, and the Phonological Awareness Assessment data
reveals the growth of both participants throughout the entirety of the intervention.
Quantitative Data
The results of the Primary Spelling Inventory assessment show a general upward trend
across the four data points for both students. Student 1 scored a 22/65 on the pretest, 25/65 on
Treatment 1 Assessment, 28/65 on Treatment 2 Assessment, and decreased to a 26/65 on
Treatment 3 Assessment. Student 2 scored a 25/65 on the pretest, 31/65 on Treatment 1

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Assessment, 33/65 on Treatment 2 Assessment, and 31/65 on Treatment 3 Assessment, also

decreasing in the final assessment.
Student 1 improved 3 points on the Primary Spelling Inventory after the first treatment
period, increased 3 points after the second intervention, and decreased 2 points after the third
treatment period. Student 2 improved 6 points on the Primary Spelling Inventory after the first
treatment period, demonstrated 2 points of growth after the second treatment period, and
decreased 2 points after the third treatment period. Both students achieved growth during the
first two treatment periods and regressed during the final treatment period (See Figure 2).

Figure 2. Line graph data collected from the Primary Spelling Inventory. This figure shows the
results from pretest, Treatment 1 Assessment, Treatment 2 Assessment, and Treatment 3
Assessment data for both participants.

The results of the Phonological Awareness Assessment (Words Their Way Pre-KKindergarten, 2015) indicated an upward trend across pre and posttest data. Student 1 scored a
92/108 on the pretest, and increased his score to a 104/108 on the posttest, with a total gain of

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12 points. Student 2 scored a 90/108 on the pretest and increased his score to a 106/108 on the
posttest with a total gain of 16 points (See Figure 3).

Figure 3. Line graph data collected from the Phonological Awareness Assessment. The figure
shows data points for the pre and posttest for both participants.

Qualitative Analysis
Over the course of the intervention, the researcher kept a log of observations, reactions,
reflections, and other evidences of learning. This researcher log was used to qualitatively
analyze the progress of both students. A qualitative analysis of the log resulted in the emergence
of three trends that emerged over the course of the intervention period.
Student motivation and confidence. After reviewing the researcher log the researcher
noticed an increase in student confidence and motivation that was often preceded by student
engagement. The researcher log highlights several specific occasions during which both
students were engaged in reading high-interest authentic texts. In all of these instances the
students were encouraged to read a book the researcher believed would be interesting,
regardless of the fact that the book was often several levels above the students reading level.
The researcher recorded that during this time of heightened motivation and confidence both

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students were; asking questions about text features, asking clarifying questions, making
connections to the text, and making predictions, all without being prompted by the researcher.
Likewise, anecdotes were recorded that imply an increase in student motivation and
confidence surrounding word sorts. Student 2 in particular grasped the orthographic feature
being addressed more quickly. While previous notes about this student indicated shyness and
the propensity to let Student 1 take the lead, this particular day during which Student 2
understood the orthographic feature sort resulted in a new level of confidence and motivation.
Student 2 began making predictions about words on the word sorts, asked for a word sort to take
home, and specifically asked the researcher to tell his teacher about this experience.
Interestingly enough, Student 1 who is usually the first to understand, immediately began
demonstrating shut down behaviors that resulted in decreased confidence. His behavior changed
after Student 1 a one on one session and received personalized attention and praises directly
linked to how he was thinking through his word sorts, his confidence began to rise, and he
displayed attributes of a student who was more motivated and confident. By the end of the
session he verbally indicated how much he liked doing the word sorts because he finally got
them.
Specific quotations were recorded in the log that show a consistent pattern of both
students asking the researcher if they could bring the books home to read to their families, or if
the researcher would tell their classroom teacher how well they did during a particular session.
The classroom teacher reported an increase in confidence and motivation of the students,
reinforcing the pattern discovered in the researcher log.
Self-perception of abilities. A second striking theme that was uncovered in the researcher
log was the visibility of both students self-perception of abilities. Each time a book was utilized

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in the intervention, either Student 1 or Student 2 would ask the researcher to identify the level of
the book. If the book was technically above their reading level designated by Accelerated
Reader, one of the students would ask if they were allowed to read the book. This happened
with 3 out of 4 of the books used in the intervention, with the exception of The Cat in the Hat.
The students clearly had an indication of what their perceived ability was based on their
Accelerated Reading reading level. Not only did they relate this to their overall intelligence, but
also they linked this ability with being allowed to read the books. The students did not ask if
they would be able to read the book, or if it would be too hard, but each time indicated that they
didnt think the rules would let them.
The researcher notes specifically highlight the negation of this mindset once the
students became involved and engaged in the books. Both students would ask to take the books
home and read them, or would ask if they could read other books like the ones that were used.
During these conversations, which always occurred at the end of the session, neither student
mentioned level of the book or his ability to be able to read the book. This led the researcher to
believe that the self-perception of ability was usually higher after increased engagement with
the texts used.
The researcher log reveals a trend that both students had an increased perception of
their own ability when receiving individualized attention and praise during word sorts. During
four sessions involving word sorts, the students were separated and did their sorts apart from
one another. Each of these sessions involved a statement by each student in regards to his ability
to understand how to sort and understand the orthographic features being utilized. This does not
conclude that there is an absence of self-awareness during group sessions, but draws attention to
a pattern of self-awareness when the students were working one on one with the researcher.

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Desire to see progress and growth. After each assessment given, with the exception of
the pretest, both students asked the researcher to see their results immediately. The students not
only asked to see their score, but also asked the researcher how much better they did,
indicating that they believed they were improving each time. This was recorded because the
teacher of record for the ESL classroom had previously indicated that the students were tested
nonstop and she believed they had become immune to this pattern. The teacher of record, as
well as the researcher, was surprised when the students continually requested to see their
progress and growth, unprompted by anyone. The reactions in seeing growth by both students
seems to align with an increase in motivation; however, this only occurred during three
assessment periods and more notes and sessions would be necessary in order to analyze
observations recorded on the video or in the researcher log to make claims for this linear
correlation.

Discussion/Conclusions
The purpose of this study was to determine how the utilization of authentic texts and
word sorts affected the orthographic knowledge of elementary-aged ESL students. The
researcher anticipated that the data would indicate overall growth, as well as growth during each
treatment period. Specifically, the researcher anticipated that the data would indicate the most
growth occurred during the third and final treatment period. According to the data collected and
analyzed, the results do not entirely support the researchers beliefs. Quantitative data indicated
an overall trend of growth, however it revealed a digression between Treatment 2 and 3
Assessments, which is when the researcher expected the most growth to occur.
In order to verify the strategies implemented in the intervention were evidence-based, the
researcher first investigated the utilization of these strategies. Previously published research on

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orthographic knowledge, as well as research surrounding English Language Learners, was used
to support the conclusions and findings of the researcher as to which strategies were most likely
to increase orthographic knowledge.
The majority of research published on English Language Learners targets vocabulary
acquisition, and targets students who are not necessarily receiving ESL services. However,
research reviewed on these populations showed gains in vocabulary and reading comprehension
when students were reading authentic and engaging texts. These studies were also used to
support the implementation of authentic texts in the intervention, as well as to define what
aspects of the text make it authentic (DelliCarpini, 2011; Culpepper & Watson, 2007). These
studies only used authentic texts and did not link them to orthographic features, which is the
model the researcher used for the first treatment period. The researcher hypothesized that the
least amount of gains would be made during this period because the students were not linking
the texts to anything related to direct-instruction. Nonetheless, the results of this treatment
period parallel those of published research, which indicate that this is beneficial for students
who are English Language Learners.
Previously conducted research on orthographic knowledge reported that students who
are engaged in categorizing and exploring orthographic features (spelling patterns) and linking
these to real, authentic texts will see an increase in growth (Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, &
Johnson, 2012). Categorizing and exploring orthographic features has been successfully
implemented with the use of word sorts for young students as well as adults (Bear, Invernizzi,
Templeton, & Johnston, 2012; Shaw, 2014; Williams, et. al, 2009). The results of this
intervention parallel those of Shaw (2014). Shaws study revealed an increase in orthographic
knowledge and vocabulary acquisition with the use of word sorts and authentic texts, but never

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used them in tandem in a single session. Shaws study limitations reveal that time was a concern
and the design of her intervention alluded it would be more beneficial to link the word sorts and
the texts over the course of a larger period of time, but not within the same lesson.
Although there are many limitations discussed in this paper, the data from this intervention
does not support the idea that specifically linking word sorts to authentic texts results in growth
in orthographic knowledge. In fact, this was the only treatment period that saw a decrease in
growth. It is important to understand, however, that the same research discusses the importance
of continuity and building on the known (Bear, Invernizzi, Johnston, & Templeton, 2012). The
circumstances surrounding this final treatment period resulted in a sporadic implementation of
the final treatment period, and one less session than the other periods. It is also important to
realize that the students were receiving significantly less time to engage with materials, whether
it is word sorts or authentic texts, when the third treatment was in place. Each session only
lasted thirty minutes, and using two strategies in each of these sessions resulted in less time
spent on both strategies. If this study were to be implemented again the researcher would redesign the intervention framework so that both strategies were not being used in the same
session.
The results of the study seem to mostly agree with the research. The students showed
growth during the implementation of authentic texts as well as the implementation of word
sorts. The only decline in the intervention was seen during the final treatment period, which
incorporated both strategies. The method will be shared with the teacher of record as well as the
other ESL teacher at the school, and will be used to craft professional development to begin
conversations with ESL teachers about effective strategies that can be used during reading
intervention and literacy blocks. Although the design of the study makes generalizations

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impossible, the intervention method can be used by other ESL teachers to pilot additional
studies or extend support to students outside of instructional time.

Study Limitations
Several key limitations were involved with this study. The most prevalent of these were:
population, sample size, and schedule changes. This study utilized only two participants,
following a single-subject design. The design of the study subsequently results in the inability to
make generalizations for students who did not participate directly in the study. Although growth
occurred during various treatment periods, the results of this study only indicate growth for
these two students, not that growth will occur for other students who are categorically similar to
the students who participated. In order to use this study to make larger recommendations and
broader generalizations about the results, this study would need to be replicated several more
times with a much larger sample size.
Both students who participated in the intervention were male, Spanish-dominant English
Language Learners who were retained in the 2nd grade. The specificity of the subjects does not
allow for claims to be made that this intervention would benefit all English Language Learners,
or all ESL students, many of who are not native Spanish speakers. No females participated in
the study, which also limits the ability to extend generalizations out to all Spanish-dominant
ESL students. The participants in the study are not reflective of the general population of
students receiving ESL students, which makes it difficult to use this study to rationalize
accommodations based on this study for all elementary-aged ESL students.
Lastly, schedule changes acted as a major limitation for this study. The students only
receive ESL instruction twice a week, and intervention only happened during scheduled ESL

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instruction time. This means the any last minute adjustments due to weather, holidays, or illness
greatly impacted the regularity of the intervention. The students had off for Martin Luther King
Day, and the following two days were teacher workdays. That resulted in the students only
meeting once that week. Further, school was closed a total of six days over the course of two
weeks, which means the students had a gap of two weeks without receiving intervention during
the final treatment period. While the missed days were eventually made up, the erratic
changes to schedule greatly impacted the ability for students to get into a routine and retain the
information that they had been learning. Finally, both students fell ill on one day of the
intervention during the final treatment period and due to time constraints from missing six days
previously, that day of instruction was lost. The majority of irregularity occurred during the
final treatment period, and the data indicates that this was the treatment period during which the
students scores on the Primary Spelling Inventory declined.

Implications
The findings from this study indicate growth in orthographic knowledge with the
utilization of authentic texts and word sorts. Both students grew during the treatment period
centered only on the use of authentic texts, as well as during the treatment period centered on
the use of word sorts. Both students scores declined on the Treatment 3 assessment, indicating
that the use of authentic texts and word sorts within the same lesson adversely affected their
orthographic knowledge. As mentioned in the limitations section, however, this treatment period
contained a heavy amount of schedule changing. The students met less regularly and went
longer periods of time between sessions. This treatment period also contained one less session
due to the illness of both students. It is also important understand that the sessions were only

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thirty minutes each. Subsequently, when integrating both authentic texts and word sorts into the
same lesson, the students are receiving only fifteen minutes of each, instead of thirty minutes in
the previous treatment periods.
The researcher recommends the continued use of authentic texts and word sorts.
Research in the field recommends linking the word sorts to the authentic texts (Bear, Invernizzi,
Johnston, & Templeton, 2012). Therefore, it is the researchers suggestion that the continued use
of authentic texts and word sorts is linked; however, it is not crucial that both strategies are
implemented within the same session. For example, one session a week could focus specifically
on the sorts, and the other could target linking the sorts to the authentic texts.
Future Directions for Research
There is a limited amount of research conducted on orthographic development of
elementary aged- English Language Leaners receiving ESL services (Cheung & Slavin, 2012).
This researchers main motive in conducting this study was to close the gap of literature and
examine the way research-based practices with positive gains for English native speakers
affected students receiving ESL services. Because ESL students receive literacy support in their
ESL classrooms, the results of this study can guide ESL teachers in examining their current
supports in place to help improve the orthographic knowledge of their students.
Future studies need to be conducted with a much larger sample size, and should include
other language-dominant ESL students to see if similar growth patterns occur. The use of the
teacher of record in implementing the intervention and analyzing the qualitative results should
also be considered, as this could change the results of the study. A repeat of this study with male
and female participants in addition to students who have not been retained would also be
beneficial. Adding a probe to gage retention would help strengthen the results for future studies.

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It would also be beneficial to track the progress of the students in their main classrooms and see
if their reading or writing scores are also increasing outside of the ESL classroom.

Reflection
The process of researching, implementing, and analyzing the components of this action
research project stretched me in ways I never thought imaginable. This project pushed me to
become the expert not just in reading, but in ESL reading curriculum as well. The research
question was crafted in my mind long ago, as I heard numerous ESL teachers lament about the
lack of direction they receive in terms of implementing reading instruction in their classrooms.
In fact my aunt, an ESL teacher for over 20 years, said she believes it should be a future
requirement for anyone who teaches ESL to have obtained a reading certification or license on
his or her license. This was the first time I really began to think about the lack of research
guiding ESL teachers on how to support their students in the short time they have them. While
the time is short, ESL teachers are often the educators that are most closely connected to the
ESL students and families, which makes them an excellent resource to promote literacy in the
home. Why then, I lamented to myself, is a literacy curriculum in the ESL classroom so hard to
research?
The lack of research made this project interesting and engaging. I found myself trying to
hone in on orthographic development, because there was so much research on vocabulary and
reading comprehension for English Language Learners. I remember reading the theoretical
framework on orthography and understanding that all students go along the same continuum of
gaining orthographic knowledge, and a light bulb went off. I had been so passionate about using
word sorts and authentic texts for native English speakers, and based on what I was just reading

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about orthographic development, these strategies had the potential to work for this population of
students as well.
It was incredibly difficult to not be the teacher of record for this project. I think that
being the teacher of record results in more trust from the students, and more continuity for the
students. In addition, I think that being a teacher researcher with your own students is more
meaningful, and helps with the ability to plan and carry out the intervention. Furthermore, I was
lucky to have an extremely accommodating teacher of record who bestowed trust by allowing
me free reign and control over the intervention and let me make all of my own decisions. By
early February she had become so busy with ESL testing that I would go several weeks without
seeing her at a time. Because of this, the two students I worked with eventually viewed me as
their primary ESL instructor, and I think that this was beneficial. I wanted to replicate the
conditions of the ESL classroom as much as possible, and this made planning and implementing
this intervention exceedingly tricky. The ESL teacher only sees her students twice a week for
thirty minutes, so this is the time allotment that I followed. This meant that anytime a child was
sick, or there were holidays or workdays, or there were illnesses, I could go an entire week
without implementing the intervention. And while this was frustrating for me, it is very realistic
in terms of how these changes and illnesses affect the regular schedule of an ESL teacher on a
weekly basis.
I was disappointed in the final treatment period assessment. I could tell the students were
distracted, but we had also missed so many school days due to snow, and had one less lesson
because both students had the flu and time was running limited. I think that had these things not
happened, the final treatment period would have shown gains. The silver lining in this was that I
started to realize the flaw in implementing both authentic texts and word sorts in the same

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session. While the students were receiving 30 minutes of each when only one strategy was the
focus, this was cut in half when both strategies were implemented. I felt rushed, the students felt
overwhelmed, and it felt like we were making connections just to make the connections instead
of authentically relating to the material. Besides this, however, the growth of both students in
the other two treatment periods exceeded my expectations. I loved being able to collect
qualitative data, and I am Thankful that qualitative data was just as important as quantitative
when analyzing data The students growth in regards to confidence and motivation were
heartwarming, and this made the whole experience even more meaningful Again, this is
something that while I appreciate, I think that had I been the teacher of record would have been
more meaningful.
This action research process was very valuable. In talking with the teacher of record she
reminded me that even if the third treatment period wasnt the most successful, as I had initially
predicted, there was still overall growth that was obtained. Even if that growth had been small,
the students I was working with were really struggling, both the classroom teacher and teacher
of record for these students extended ongoing thanks and gratitude for the help I was providing
for the students. This made me realize that while the research itself is important, its what we do
with the research that matters even more. Yes, this isnt necessarily generalizable data, and I
cant make published claims recommending other teachers do what I did. However, this will not
stop me for advocating for more attention and focus on the reading intervention and curriculum
used in ESL classrooms, nor from sharing my results in hopes that it will help teachers better
advocate or their students. Action research, while time consuming and sometimes stressful,
helps teacher researchers obtain a better understanding of current trends and translate this
understanding to more research-related strategies and instruction in the classroom. This project

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has definitely helped me to see the professional advantage of periodically carrying out action
research in my classroom, and this is something that I will definitely strive to do once I have my
own classroom. I feel much more confident about how to analyze data, and how to use research
findings to direct instruction. Most importantly, I feel more confident in my knowledge about
reading interventions for ESL students and this will make me a better teacher and advocate in
the future.
References
Allington, R. (2013). What Really Matters When Working With Struggling Readers. The Reading
Teacher, 66(7), 520-530.
Araujo, L. (2009). The Literacy Development of Kindergarten English-Language Learners. Journal of
Research in Childhood Education, 232-247. Retrieved October 5, 2014, from
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ujrc20
August, D., Shanahan, T., & Escamilla, K. (2009). English language learners: Developing literacy in
second-language learners report of the national literacy panel on language-minority children.
Youth.Journal of Literacy Research, 432-452. Retrieved October 4, 2014, from
http://jlr.sagepub.com/content/41/4/432
Bear, D.R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S., & Johnston, F. (2012). Words their way (5th ed). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Braker, J. (2013). Linking vocabulary acquisition with word knowledge to improve reading
comprehension for ELLs. Illinois Reading Council Journal, 42(1), 28-36.
Cardenas-Hagan, E. (2010). Response to intervention: Implications for spanish-speaking English
Language Learners. Perspectives on Language and Literacy, 36(2), 24-29.

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Carlo, M., August, D., McLaughlin, B., Snow, C., Dressler, C., Lippman, D., Lively, T., White, C.
(2003). Closing the gap: Addressing the vocabulary needs Of english-language learners in
bilingual and mainstream Classrooms. Reading Research Quarterly, 39(2), 188-215.
Cheung, A., & Slavin, R. (2012). Effective reading programs for spanish-dominant English language
learners (ELLs) in the elementary grades: A synthesis of research. Review of Educational Research,
82(4), 351-395.
Culpepper, M., Watson, C. (2007). Use of evidence-based, small-group reading instruction for English
language learners in elementary grades: Secondary-tier intervention. Learning Disability
Quarterly, 30(3), 153-168.
DelliCarpini, M. (2011). Success with ELLs. English Journal, 100(5), 108-112.
Eeds, M., & Cockrum, W. (1985). Teaching word meanings by expanding schemata vs. dictionary
work vs. reading in context. Journal of Reading,28(6), 492-497.
Gambrell, L. (2011). Seven rules of engagement: What's important to know about struggling readers.
The Reading Teacher, 65(3), 172-178.
Harvey, S., & Goudvis, A. (2007). Strategies that work: Teaching comprehension for understanding
engagement (2nd ed.). Portland: Stenhouse.
Helman, L., Bear, D., Templeton, S., Invernizzi, M., & Johnston, F. (2012). Words their way with
English learners (2nd ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Johnston, F., Invernizzi, M., Helman, L., Bear, D., & Templeton, S. (2014). Words their way for preKK. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Shaw, D. (2014). The impact of word study intervention on adult English learners' spelling and
reading. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 5(2), 245-252.

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Tompkins, G.E., Abramson, S., & Pritchard, R.H. (1999). A multilingual perspective on spelling
development in third and fourth grades. Multicultural Education, 6(3), 12-18.
Williams, C., Phillips-Birdsong, C., Hufnagel, K., Hungler, D., & Lundstrom, R. (2009). Word Study
Instruction In The K2 Classroom. The Reading Teacher, 62(7), 570-578.

Appendix A: English Consent Form

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Appendix B: Spanish Consent Form

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Appendix C: Primary Spelling Inventory

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Appendix D: Phonological Awareness Assessment

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Appendix E: IRB Approval

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