3. CLAUSE STRUCTURE A) GENERALITIES When we make a statement, we use a clause. A clause, which is used to make a statement, contains a noun group, which refers to the thing or person that we are talking about, and a verb group, which indicates the action, the process or the state we are talking about. Traditionally, the clause (or simple sentence) is divided into two basic constituents, Subject and Predicate: eg. Bllen laughed. or The girl screamed. (SP) Something is predicated about the Subject, of Ellen, namely, that she laughed, and of the girl, that she screamed. But when we say something, we can also be talking about an action that involves one or more participants, Indicating participants in a clause is called transitivity: eg. They handed me the application form, (SPOIOd) We have here two participants: me and the application form. Moreover, we can also be describing someone or something (ranging from Subject, to Object and up to the Predicate), in other words, we say who or what they are, what qualities they have, and how the action is performed (completion of the predication). This is called complementation (for which we use link verbs or copulas) and is realized by Subject ‘Complements, Object Complements and Predicator Complements: e.g. Cigarette smoking is prohibited, (SPCs) They found the test difficult. (SPOdCo) These gloves don’t ime. (SPCp) Sometimes, instead of Subject and Object Complements we can use Prepositional Phrases or another kind of Adjunct eg. He was ina state of shock Tom disappeared suddenly. (SPA) Adjunets are not conditioned by any particular type of verb and are not limited in number, as are Complements (different structures, based on different verbs, require one, two or three Complements). They can be used with both transitive and intransitive verbs. Complements are nuclear constituents realized by Noun Groups and Adjectival Groups, whereas Adjunets, being non-nuclear constituents, are realized by Adverbial and Prepositional Groups. A PrepG realizes the Adjunet “on Monday evenings” in “I run on Monday evenings.” and another PrepG realizes the Predicator Complement fo work in “I run to work.” The difference between locative and directional Adjunets and locative or dircetional Complements can be established by paraphrase, acceptable in the case of the Adjunct and unacceptable in the case of the Complement: e.g. [run on Monday evenings. (that happens on Monday evenings = acceptable) vs. Trun to work (*that happens to work = not acceptable) Having reached this point, we believe that distinction must be made between Objects ‘and other ty pes of Complement 1. OBJECTS refer to participants in the event or affected by the action, which are different from the Subject and are placed immediately afer the verb. (The bomb killed a policeman.) 162. Singular or plural number of the Object is independent of the Subject. (The bomb killed a policeman / two policemen.) Objects can normally become Subjects in a passive clause. (The policeman was killed by the bomb.) 4. Objects can be realized by objective-case pronouns, (Zhe bomb killed kim.) COMPLEMENTS give more information about the Subject, the Object of a clause or complete the predication, and will be classified as follows: Complement of the Subject Cs (He is a teacher) Complement of the Object. Co (I found the test difficult) Predicator complement Cp (The book costs $200.) ‘Complements have the following features: 1, Subject and Object Complements predicate something about the Subject or the Object. Consequently, there is number agreement between the Subject or Object and Complement (He is a police officer vs. They are police officers.) Complements do not become Subject in passive clauses (The book costs $200. $200 is cost the book. = not acceptable). Since Complements predicate rather than refer, many cannot be replaced by a personal pronoun (He is John vs. *John is herhim = not acceptable). p sp John / arrived. sPOd John / bought / a car. SPOIOd —_I/ gave /him / an umbrella. SPOprep You /can rely / on him. SPCs The idea / sounds / great, SPOdCo —__They’/ appointed / him / Chief Inspector. SPOdCp They / charged / him / with assault, Other optional elements can be added to the basic clause, for the purpose of commenting on the content or of connecting it to another clause. According to the types of functional relation they realize, there are three primary classes of optional elements: (@) ADJUNCTS (A): a word or combination of words added to a clause to give more information about time, place and manner. (e.g. He disappeared / suddenly / after the meeting.) () DISSUNCTS (D): an additional unit, outside the clause structure, which expresses a comment by the speaker on the clause or sentence as a whole or relating it to something outside it, (e.g. Obviously / he'll rely on you even more, now that you promised to help him.) (© CONJUNCTS (Conj): the joining of two utterances, or parts of an utterance, together with the semantic relationship holding between them [also known as sentence adverbials connecting what is being said with what was said before] (e.g. The restaurant was rather noisy. On the other hand, it was less expensive than we had imagined. We paid him a large sum. So he kept quiet about what he saw.) 17B) FEATURES AND REALIZATIONS 1. The SUBJECT (S) is that element of which something is predicated in a clause and which must be present in declarative and interrogative sentences (See Downing and Locke, 1992:32); the noun group in a clause that refers to the person or thing that does or experiences the action expressed by the verb (Collins Cobuild, 1991 :xxii): e.g. We were going shopping. The ball was headed into the net. I feel a little tired today 1.1 Syntactic features © The Subject is placed before the Predicator in declarative clauses and in IV#. interrogative clauses where the 17H-element is Subject, and after the operator (finite part of the Predicator) in polar (yes/no) interrogative clauses and in IVH- interrogative clauses in which the I7H-element is Object or Adjunct: eg. Everyone left early. Who came in last night? Did you leave early? Whoim) did you see yesterday? How does going there affect you? ‘+ The element which is picked up in a tag-question phrase and referred to anaphorically (use of a word referring back to a word used earlier in a text or conversation) by a pronoun: e.g. Not many people were there, were they? Your brother is good at drawing, isn’t he? * Possessive forms may stand as Subject (Relationship to previous context): e.g. Mine was rather difficult to follow. (Previous context: Pete’s reasoning was easy to follow.) ‘Subjects determine number and personal concord with the Predicator. When the Subject is realized by a collective noun, agreement depends on how the referent is visualized by the speaker, ie. as a whole or as a number of members in their individuality: e.g. The student has checked the exercise vs. The students have checked the exercises. The committee is taking a decision (seen as a whole) vs. The committee have decided to extend the loan (seen as a number of members). ‘+ The Subject typically determines the number of the Noun Group realizing the Subject Complement, and of reflexive pronouns at Cs, Oi and Od, together with person and gender: eg. ‘hey are my friends. She cut herself a new hat. Why don’t you give yourself a treat? 1.2 Realizations of the Subject Subjects can be realized by various classes of groups and clauses (@) Nominal Groups arc the most typical realization of Subject ranging from simple heads to complex dmhq structures: e.g. Itis alarming. The precise number of heart attacks from using cocaine is not known. (b) Finite Clauses in the form of that-clauses and IV H-clauses: c.g. That he skipped his classes surprised nobody. (1Hat-clause) The fact that he skipped his classes surprised nobody. (NG) What he did surprised me profoundly. (J/H-nominal rel. ol.) Why the shop was closed for months was not explained. (I7H-interrog.) How they managed to get there is a mystery. (nominal relative) Ig(© Non-finite Clauses: * in the form of fo-infinitive clauses, which can be introduced by a IVH-word, and ing-clauses ¢.g. To go there was rather foolish. (to-inf.cl.) Where to put them up for the night is the problom. (IVH- + to-inf. clause) Talk to him is what he may do. (bare inf. clause) Having to go back for the books was a nuisance. (-ing clause) + to-infinitive clauses and ing-clauses can have their own Subject; @ ‘o-infinitive clause with its own Subject must be introduced by for e.g. For everyone to return by car was practically impossible, Peter having to go back for the books was a * The pronominal Subject of an —ing clause can be in the possessive or the objective case (less formal) e.g. Him / his having to go back for the books was a nuisance. @ Anticipatory it + extraposed finite / non-finite clause (a kind of substitute for the postponed Subject) e.g. It surprised nobody that he skipped the classes. It was practically impossible for everyone to return by car Its no use waiting any longer. It is no good crying over 5} (© Prop it in expressions of time, atmospheric conditions and distance; €.g. Itis raining. It was a dark and windy night. It is almost 300 km from Sibiu to Bucharest © Unstressed there in existential clauses ‘presenting’ the notional Subject €.g. There’s plenty of time to do it. There’s a man at the door. *Note: In informal spoken English plural concord is not always made with the present tense of be, and when the notional Subject is a serics of proper names concord is never made. e.g. There's several pages of this book missing. How many are coming to the party? Well, there's Andrew and Silvia, and Jo and Pete. (g) Prepositional Groups specifying spatial or temporal meanings of location or extent, as well as instrumental meanings: e.g. Will up in the front suit you? (spatial locative) Before midday would be convenient. (temporal locative) By plane costs more than by train. (instrumental) (h) Adverbial Groups headed by now, here and there, as well as certain manner adverbs such as slowly and gently in stereotyped expressions e.g. Now is the time to go. Over there is where I put it. Here would be a good place for a picnic. Slowly / gently does it! @ Adjectival Groups in the form of certain adjectives preceded by a definite determiner (normally def. article) and which represent conventionally recognized classes of people and of abstractions: e.g. The very young and the very old need State care. The supernatural attracts many people, 2, The PREDICATOR (P) is the verbal component of a clause and expresses a state, an action or an event. Through tense and aspect, it relates the event to other points in time and visualizes it as on-going (in progression). Moreover, it can specify phases of the process (seeming, turning out to be), it can express the speaker’s viewpoint (modal verbs) as well as the speaker’s organization of the message (active — passive voice alternative): c.g. Our flat is being redecorated. (Present tense, progressive. aspect, milk, 19passive voice, material process redecorate) You must be dreaming. (modality. progressive aspect, Present tense, active voice, verbal process dreamt) 2.1, Realizations of the Predicator It is always realized by a VERB GROUP, whose structure may consist of one single form, cither finite (ate, wrote, brings) or non-finite (saying, written, to bring), or a number of forms in which the primary or modal auxiliaries stand in initial position and function as operator (is waiting, has waited, must write, shall/ should have written, will write, did write) eg. He gave me the book. This building must have been being repainted. 3. The DIRECT OBJECT (Od) is a NOUN GROUP referring to a person or thing affected by an action, in a clause with an active verb. It must fulfill the following criteria: (@) It is placed right after the Predicator. (b) After passivization the Od becomes the Subject of the passive clause, the meaning of the latter remaining unchanged. (6) In clauses with two Objects, the Od is placed after the Oi, (@) No prepositional paraphrase is possible for the Od. 3.1 Realizations of the Direct Object (@) Nominal Groups are the typical realization of the Direct Object: e.g. Ishut the windows. She has made herself an extraordinary fancy-dress the shape of a balloon. ite clause in the form of 1/#-clauses and that-clauses, that being often omitted: eg. They hope that there may be some survivors. It is said that he is a diligent student. We realize that he is under great pressure. You know how nice that can be. You can say whatever you like. nite clauses of two types: infinitive clauses with or without fo, and ~ing clauses: e.g. The Smiths wanted to leave immediately. Do you mind seeing him for a few minutes? He likes to tell / telling jokes. @ Anticipatory it necessary as an “anticipatory Direct Object” in SPOUCo structures in which the Direct Object is realized by a finite or non-finite clause: eg. [find it strange that he refuses to come. She might consider it unlikely for him to return so soon. (©) Prepositional Groups of time or place: €g. I would prefer in the afternoon for a meeting. Don’t choose by a busy for a picnic. 4, The INDIRECT OBJECT (Oi) is a second object used with a transitive verb to indicate who or what benefits from an action (Beneficiary Indirect Object), or gets something as a result of it (Recipient Indirect Object). It must fulfill the following criteria: (a) In clauses with two Objects, the Oi is placed before the Od, right after the Predicator. (b) It can be replaced by a to-phrase complement, which follows then the Od. €.g. John is teaching English to the students. (6) It cannot be fronted in a passive IVH-interrogative or in a relative clause. The prepositional altemative is used instead. e.g. To whom was the book sent? [Not correct: Who(m) has the book been sent?] ‘The man to whom the book was sent has just come, [Not correct: The man who(m) the book was sent has just come] (@) It can generally be left unexpounded without affecting the grammaticality of the clause. vad&.g. Someone has sent the book. Sammy is teaching English, (©) With some verbs (show, tell, teach, etc.) the Direct Object may be unexpounded. The single Object is regarded as Indirect Object, since a Direct Object could easily be added. e.g. Who told you (the answer)? Perhaps you could show me (how to do it.) 4.1 Realizations of the Indirect Object (a) Nominal Groups prototypically realize Indirect Objects. €.g. [have taught my son to drive, (b) WH-nominal relative clauses are a less typical realization of Indirect Objects. ¢.g. Give whatever you think best priority Save whoever goes there the trouble of booking tickets. (© Non-finite —ing clauses and Prepositional Groups can realize Recipient Indirect Objects, but not Beneficiary Indirect Objects, since the latter always refer to an enti e.g. I'm giving writing letters less importance lately. Let’s give before noon priority. 5. The PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT (prep) is an additional type of Object which is mediated by a preposition and it fulfills the following criteria: (@) The out off point between the prepositional verb and its complement is before the preposition, not after it, although in Deep Structure the preposition belongs to the verb (to belong to / to agree to), This can be tested by inserting an adverb: e.g. He agrced to the change of plan. He agreed unreservedly to the change of plan. INot correct: He agreed to unreservedly the change of plan.] (b) Ability to passivize. (The NG completive of the preposition can become Subject in the passive clause, the preposition being “stranded”): e.g. The change of plan was agreed to. The patient is being looked after. 5.1 Realizations of the Prepositional Object Prepositional Groups are made up of a Preposition + Nominal Group / Nominal Clause: eg. This job calls for a quick decision. (NG) Istrongly object to what you are trying to do. (nominal clause) The two mechanios were arguing about how much to charge for the job. (WH + to-inf. clause) He believes in going there as soon as possible. (-ing cl.) 6. The SUBJECT COMPLEMENT (C9 is the obligatory constituent which follows a copular/linking verb, describes (Attributive), identifies (Identifying) the Subject, or expresses an inherent circumstance (Circumstantial) that is in intensive relation with the Subject. It generally agrees in number with the Subject and cannot be made Subject in a passive clause. c.g. The trip there was a total mistake. Fccl free to ask questions! I’m getting rather bored. He died young. (When he died he was young.) The opening was on Sunday. Yesterday was Monday. Common exceptions to number agreement: eg. John and Helen make a good couple. (inherently plural meaning) My cats arc a joy. Are your shirts sills? No, they're cotton.6.1 Realizations of the Subject Complement (@) Attributive Complements realized by Adjectival Groups and by indefinite Nominal Groups: ©.g. Paragliding can prove very perilous indeed. He is twenty-one, Peter is a very nice man, The two friends are both teachers. (b) Identifying Complements by definite Nominal Groups and by clauses (finite and non-finite): e.g. For twenty years the Smiths have been our next-door neighbors. She has become what she always wanted to be. My advice is to go there at once. The best thing is for you to go by bus. (© Circumstantial Subject Complements are realized by Nominal Groups, Adverbial Groups, Prepositional Groups and finite 1H-clauses: e.g. The exam is next month. (NG) The park is over there, (AdvG) The chairperson is ina good mood. (PrepG) This is how one should do it. CIE) 7. The OBJECT COMPLEMENT (Co) is the constituent witch completes the predication describing the object of a clause (Attributive), identifying the Direct Object (Identifying), or expressing an inherent circumstance that is in intensive relation with the Direct Object (Circumstantial), c.g. We found him helpful. They appointed him Sales Manager. | like it on toast. ‘The Object Complement must fulfill the following criteria: G) Itis normally placed afier the Direot Object and is not linked to it by a copula: eg. [like my coffee black. (I like my coffee when it is black and strong.) (b) There is number agreement between the Direct Object and its Complement when the latter is realized by a Nominal Group: e.g. The heritage has turned the brothers enemies. (©) Occasional exceptions from number agreement in expressions of size, shape, color, height, ete: e.g, You haven't made the socks the length and color. 1 Realizations of the Object Complement (a) Attributive Object Complement realized by Adjectival Groups and indefinite Nominal Groups: €.g. They found the cat dead. She considers herself a genius. e.g. Can you imagine yourself the owner of a car Our members’ enthusiasm has made the department what it is today. © Circumstantial Object Complements can be realized by Prepositional Groups and Non-finite Clauses: e.g. The party guests left the house in a mess. We shouldn't leave the children playing in the garden. They believe him to be a genius. 8. The PREDICATOR COMPLEMENT (Cp): Some grammarians define it as the obligatory constituent that is not classed as an Object or the types of Complement (Subject or Object) 50 far discussed, (See Downing and Locke, 1992:55-57) We can distinguish the following types of Predicator Complement:(a) The constituent following relational verbs: have, possess, deprive of, lack, suit, contain and fit: eg. We have plenty of time. His argument lacks foree. Will 10 o'clock suit ‘you? This jar contains nails. These shoes don’t fit you. (b) The constituent following verbs of measure: measure, cost, take and weigh: e.g. The window measures Im by 2m, The ticket costs 2 €. This bag weighs S kilos, © The constituent following verbs of equal reciprocity: resemble and marry; ¢.g. Mary resembles her mother. Tom married Jane last month. *Note: The verbs mentioned at (a), (b) and (€) cannot be passivized because the relationships expressed by them are by their very nature not extensive, Verbs of possession and non- possession, of suitability, resemblance and measure are processes of being, and the Nominal Groups that follow them cannot be considered Direct Objects. (@) Obligatory Directional Complements, naming the direction or destination of the action. They follow verbs that combine movement with manner of moving (creep. slip, steal, slide, skid, tiptoe, ete.) €.g. He tiptoed into the room. Il slip into something more comfortable. He tends to slide over questions without answering them, (©) Other obligatory Predicator Complements in the form of Finite or Non-finite Clauses (which cannot be replaced by Nominal Groups or by it) following verbs such as: complain, wish, wonder, fancy, bother, force, encourage, remind, urge, etc. e.g. He complains that he is never consulted about anything. I wish he wouldn't go there. Fancy getting up so early! Don’t bother to clear away the dishes, I urged her to see a doctor. 8.1 Realizations of the Predicator Complement (@) Nominal Groups: e.g. Ihave no money. Smoke means fire. The tent sleeps four. (b) Prepositional Groups: €.g. She dashed into her bedroom, They deprived him of © Finite Clause: e.g. He complains that she doesn’t write, He boasts that no one can beat him. I wonder why he hasn't come. (@) Non-finite Clause: e.g. Ican’t help thinking he must be crazy. He doesn’t bother to change the sheets. s rights. 9. The ADJUNCT (A), as optional element has the following character * Itcan be omitted without affecting the grammaticality of the clause. €4g. (fat all possible) I'll see you (omorrow) (after the show) (with Pete and Susan) (outside the main entrance). It is flexible as regards position. (Determined by semantic and pragmatic considerations.) e.g. Quickly she hid the note. She quickly hid the note. She hid the note quickly «Different Adjuncts may appear in a single clause as separate, multiple Adjunets, not as coordinated realizations of a single adjunctive element. e.g. He worked for a year (Al) as a part-time teacher (A2) in Paris (A3)before getting a tenure. (A4). 9.1 Realizations of the Adjunet: (a) Prepositional Groups expressing: time, intention, accompaniment, reason, place, frequency, means, instrument, and manner; ¢.g. Sot the alarm clock for 9:00. Did you do that on purpose? I can’t live without you. He married her for her dowry. He was seen in that ear. We take a few days off from time to time. I never travel by bus. You'll never open the door with that key. He spoke to me in a very strange way. (b) Closed-class adverbs (belonging to one class only = not extendable) expressing space (here, there, everywhere, abroad, upstairs, where, ete.), time (then, tomorrow, now, yesterday, always, when, ete.) and manner (thus, so, wrong, likewise, how, well, ete.) © Open-class adverbs (derived from adjectives = those ending in —Iy): probably, possibly, certainly, undoubtedly (modality), quickly, carefully, cheaply, angrily, gently (manner); hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, annually (frequency); previously, subsequently, recently, presently (time), (@) Adverbial Groups expressing manner, direction, location in space, location in time, frequency, extent, ete. (very hard indeed, due south, quite near here, just then, every other day, much further), © Finite Clauses in the form of circumstantial clauses adjunctive to a main clause. e.g. He talks to his colleagues as if he were the boss. (manner) As you drive north, the weather gets colder. (proportion) Bring the book back as soon as you've finished with it. (time) ( Non-finite Clauses with or without a Subject eg. He wrote hastily, in order to finish in time. (purpose) Horrified at what he had done, Pete turned himself in. (reason) For John to recover his sight, every possible treatment was tried, (purpose) © Abbreviated Clauses, especially verbless clauses: eg. Ifin doubt, count ten and think again. (condition) When on holiday, try to forget your problems. (time) ps referring mainly to circumstances of time and manner: minal Gré eg. Are you going there this year? I want to do it my way @) 10. The DISJUNCT (D), as optional additional unit to a clause or sentence and somewhat separate from it, the Disjunct is usually found before the clause or after it, but it can also be placed parenthetically or between commas, within a clause or sentence, e.g, Naturally, he spoke to me when he saw me, He spoke to me when he saw me, naturally, He naturally spoke to me when he saw me, He spoke to me, naturally, when he saw me. 10.1 Realizations of the Disjunet: (@) Adverbs: frankly, honestly, confidentially, hopefitlly, truly; (b) Prepositional Groups: in fact, in reality, at a rough guess, by any chances © Non-finite clauses: to be frank, to tell the truth, strictly speaking, @ Finite Clauses: if may be frank with you...; don’t take this personally, but..; 11, The CONJUNCT (Conj), as connector of structure and expressing textual relationship (unlike Conjunctions which express logical relationship), it tells us how the speaker or writer 24understands the semantic connection between two utterances, or parts of utterances. They connect groups (furthermore). clauses (nevertheless, moreover) sentences (consequently), paragraphs (in addition to all this, first of all, in conclusion). According to the semantic nature of the link, Randolph Quirk (1993:247-8) classifies Conjunets as follows © Enumerative: first, second, firstly, secondly, one, two, three, a, b, ¢, for one thing, for another thing, to begin with, to start with, in the first place, next, then, finally, last, lastly, to conclude; + Reinforcing (additive): also, furthermore, moreover, then, in addition, above all, what is more, besides; + Equative (comparative): equally, likewise, similarly, in the same way: Transitional: by the way, incidentally: © Causal: because of this, for this reason, so, © Summative: the,( all) in all, in conelusion, to sum up; © Appositive: namely (viz), in other words, for example (e.g. or eg), for instance, that is (ice., oF ie), that is to sa © Result (consequential): consequently, hence, so, therefore, thus, ay a result, somehow [for some reason or another]: + Inferential (conditional): else, otherwise, then, in other words, in that case, under the circumstances, © Reformulatory: better, rather, in other words, + * Replacive: alternatively, rather, on the other hand; ‘© Antithetie: instead, the, on the contrary, in contrast, by comparison, on the one hand...on the other hand, either...or, neither...nor; © Concessive: anyhow, anyway, besides, else, however, conversely, nevertheless, still, though, otherwise, yet, in any case, at any rate, in spite of that, after all, on the other hand, all the same, y, after that, at once: meantime, meanwhile, in the meantime; 11.1 Positions of Conjunets The normal position for most conjunets is initial. In that position they are separated from what, follows by a tone unit boundary in speech or a comma in writing. Some Conjunets are restricted to initial position: again, also, altogether, besides, better, else, equally, further, hence, likewise, more, only, overall, similarly, so, still, then (antithetic), yet. Medial positions are rare for most Conjunets, and final position rarer still. Those occurring finally include anyhow, anyway, otherwise and though. The last two frequently appear medially. Virtually all conjunets can appear with questions, most of them initially: e.g. Anyway, do you know the answer? Will you therefore resign? 11.2 Realization of Conjunets occurs by various classes of units: (a) Closed-class adverbs: nevertheless, moreover, first, thert (b) Open-class adverbs: namely, accordingly, consequently, alternatively: © Prepositional Groups: in other words, by the way, on top of that: (@) Adjectival Groups: last of all, better still, (© Adverbial Groups: more accurately, fore, next, now’(Final Clauses: that is to say, what is more; (g) Non-finite Clauses: to stim up, to cap it all. HIGHLIGHT = The independent clause (simple sentence) has two basie constituents: Subject and Predicate. ‘The Subject is the element of which something is predicated, + The Predicate may consist simply of the Predicator (realized by the Verbal Group) or of the Predicator plus one ot more nuclear constituents (three types of Objects and three types of Complements), "In addition, the clause may contain optional non-nuclear (Adjuncts) constituents that express inesscntial circumstances, which arc alway’s omissible. 1 Less integrated in the clause are the Disjunets and the Conjunets. PRACTICE TASKS, 1,) Identify the constituent which realizes Subject function in the following clauses: ‘The use of caves for smuggling is a8 old as the hills. jere were about half a dozen men seated in the bar. ‘The light of a torch flickered. It was my great good fortune to meet him before he died. The wind coming down from the snowfields above woke us every night as we lay in our tent. It makes sense to tell the neighbors you are going away on holiday. There’s no way of knowing what goes on in their minds. 2.) Identify the constituents which function as Objects and Complements in the followin clauses: He banged the door as he went out, They did not give the leaders time to establish contact, Why should I write him his French essay? He pointed out that foreign doctors were not permitted to practice in that country He left his daughter most of her fortune. They must prove themselves fit for the task. A team of divers have discovered what they believe to be a sunken treasure. He kept us laughing all evening with his jokes. ‘The weather has turned unexpectedly cold lately. They don’t approve of what we are doing, A burglar could not easily break into his house. Tom reached for his pipe Make the coffe a bit stronger, would you? Her parents have told the doctors that they are grateful and thankful They accused him of illegal possession of firearms. The robot costs over a million dollars3.) Identify the connectors used in this text and say what type of units they connect: She was beautiful. Everything you have ever imagined about a solid, mannish-looking writer with a sensible haircut and glasses is pure fiction. As a young woman, and she was very young, when she first achieved success. Agatha Christie was a tall, Scandinavian-looking blonde who ‘was, on the one hand, secretive and introverted, and on the other hand, impulsive, passionate and sensitive, She could have been a concert pianist if she hadn’t suffered terribly with nerves. She could have been a professional singer, so clear and perfect was her voice. Instead she became the best-known, best-selling detective writer in the world, outselling Shakespeare and only beaten in book sales figures by the Bible, Yet her background was most unlikely for a writer, In Britain, August 1990,