29.3 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN VERTEBRATES, Vertebrate evolution shas given rise to the close link between reproductive biology and sexual behavior. -the strong drive to mate or reproduce DOMINATES the lives of many vertebrates. Eg. Salmon’s fateful spawning run or the rutting of bullelk. FEMALE of most MAMMAL SPECIES come into HEAR OR ESTRUS about the SAME TIME EACH YEAR. -Genetic, Hormonal, and Nervous System controls usually time estrus so that young are born, when environmental conditions make survival most likely. SOME BASIC VERTEBRATE REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES FISHES -known for their high potential fecundity -most species releasing thousands to millions of ‘egas and sperm annually (external fertilization). -have reproductive methods structures. ‘attendant physiology that have allowed them to adaptto a great variety of aquatic conditions. AMPHIBIANS (CAECILIANS, SALAMANDERS, ANURANS) -much more diverse -trends toward terrestriality -varietly of these adaptions is especially noteworthy in ANURANS -the reproductive adaptations have been viewed ‘as pioneering evolutionary experiments in the conquest of terrestrial environments by vertebrates. noteworthy is the evolution of the direct development of terrestrial eggs, ‘Ovoviviparity, viviparity Have been important in the successful invasion of mountainous environments by ‘amphibians. Reproductive adaptations of BIRDS, REPTILES, AND EARLY MAMMALS, Evident in reproductive systems of later mammals including, humans. REPTALIAN SYSTEM shelled, desiccation-resistant eggs ‘These EGGS has 3 embryonic membranes that still characterize the MAMMALIAN EMBRYO, as. well as FAT EMBRYO that develop an UNDERWENT GASTRULATION ATOP A HUGE YOLK MASS. “SAME PROCESS OF GASTRULATION IS STILL SEEN IN MAMMALIAN EMBRYOS, EVEN THOUGH ‘THE MASSIVE YOLK HAS BEEN LOST. MECHANISM FOR DEVELOPING EMBRYO 1. GESTATION Embryo NOURISHED with NUTRIENTS and OXYGEN (yet it was protected from attack by female's immune system) 2. AFTER BIRTH The first mammals nourished their young with milk from MAMMARY GLANDS MAINTAINING — THE FEMALE APES AND MONKEYS -are asynchronous breeders -mating and births can take place over much a year -mate only in ESTRUS PROBABILITY OF FERTILIZATION) (INCREASING HUMAN FEMALES -LESS DISTICTIVE ESTRUS PHASE AND CAN REPRODUCE THROUGHOUT A YEAR -can also engage in sexual behavior without reproduction purpose (no longer sexual behavior tied to ovulation) ‘The source of this reproductive adaptation may be PHYSIOLOGICAL OR AS A RESULT OF CONCOMITANT EVOLUTION OF THE BRAIN ~ a process that gives humans some conscious control over their emotions and behaviors that hormones, instincts, and environment control in other animals SEPARATION OF SEX FROM A PURELY REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTION has evolve into the long lasting pair bonds between males and females that support offspring. resulted in transmission of CULTURE --A KEY TO EVOLUTION AND SUCCESS OF HUMAN SPECIES*ESTRUS CYCLE - hormones control the fertility period in order for the yoing to be born when environmental conditions are most favorable *DESICCATION-RESISTANT EGGS = reptilian system = Common reproductive strategy found in REPTILES, BIRDS AND MAMMALS 29.4 EXAMPLES OF REPRODUCTION AMONG VARIOUS VERTEBRATE CLASSES ALL VERTEBRATES REPRODUCE SEXUALLY ONLY A FEW LIZARDS AND FISHES normally reproduce parthenogenetically -all fishes reproduce in aquatic environments a. BONY FISHES -EXTERNAL ~ fertilization is usually external, and eggs con ‘enough yolk to sustain the developing fish for a short time 1. after yolk is consumed, the growing fish should seek FOOD. 2. Many THOUSANDS OF EGGS are PRODUCED and FERTILIZED 3. FEWsurvived and grow to maturity 4, SUCCUMB FUNGAL BACTERIAL INFECTIONS Others fo SILTATION, and to PREDATION THUS, for reproduction to be successful ‘The FERTILIZED EGG must develop RAPIDLY, and the YOUNG must ACHIEVE MATURITY WITHIN A SHORT TIME. In contrast, bCARTILOGINOUS FISHES- INTERNAL -male produces sperm into the female through modified PELVIC FIN ‘The YOUNG DEVELOP within the MOTHER and ‘obtain NOURISHMENT FROM MOTHER'S BLOOD THROUGH UMBILICAL CORD rather than from EGG. YOLK AMPHIBIANS - Tiny gametes were especially vulnerable due to danger of frying out or dessicating - Gametes could not simply be released one another on land because they would quickly desiccate. ~ First to invade land - However, they have not adapted to a completely _ terrestrial environment ~ Their life cycle is inextricably linked in WATER. - Although internal _ fertilization occurs in some AMPHIBIANS AND FISHES. - FERTILIZATION is EXTERNAL usually FROGS AND TOADS - Male grasps the female and discharges fluid containing sperm onto eggs as she releases them into the water. -developmental period is much longer in AMPHIBIANS than FISHES though eggs does not contain more yolk EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATION of AMPHIBIANS is the presence of TWO PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT: a. Larva b. Adult stages “The aquatic larval stage (tadpole) develops rapidly -animal spends much time eating and growing “after reaching specific size, the tadpole undergoes a developmental transition CALLED METAMORPHOSIS into the adult.-early group of amniotes to completely abandon the aquatic habitat because of adaptations that permitted sexual reproduction on land. FYE: MAMALIAN LINEAGE "SYNAPSIDS” - Now considered the first group of AMNIOTES to diverge (eg turtle) A crucial adaptation first found in reptiles is INTERNAL FERILIZATION INTERNAL FERTILIZATION - Protects the gametes from drying out - Freeing the animals from having to return to the water to breed OVIPAROUS - Eggs are deposited outside the body of the female (eg birds) OVOVIVIPAROUS - They form eggs that hatch in the body of the female and the young are born alive SHELLED EGGS AND EXTRAEMBRYONIC MEMEBRANES -common fo the mammalian and reptilian lineages constitutes two other important evolutionary adaptations to life on land -these adaptations allowed reptiles to: a. lay eggs in dry places without danger of desiccation b. as embryo develops, the extraembryonic chorion and amnion help protect it, the latter by CREATING A FLUID-FILLED SAC for the EMBRYO. c. ALLANTONIS permits gas exchange and stores excretory products d. COMPLETE DEVELEOPMENT can occur within the EGG SHELL. e. when animal HATCHES, developed to the point that it can survive ON ITS OWN OR WITH SOME PARENTAL CARE. BIRDS (AVIAN REPTILES) - Birds have retained the important adaptations for life on land that evolved in the early reptiles. - With the exception of most waterfowl, BIRDS LACK PENIS. - Males simply deposit semen against the CLOACA for internal fertilization. Sperm migrate up the cloaca and fertilize the eggs before hard shells form. THIS METHOD OF MATING OCCURS MORE QUICKLY THAN THE INTERNAL FERTILIZATION THAT NONAVIAN — REPTILES PRACTICE - ALLBIRDS ARE OVIPAROUS - EGG ARE MUCH THICKER THAN THOSE OF NONAVIAN REPTILES THICKER SHELLS PERMITS BIRDS TO SIT ON THEIR EGGS AND WARM THEM THIS BROODING OR INCUBATION HASTENS (FAST) EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT. - When many young birds hatch, they are incapable of surviving on their own EXTENSIVE PARENTAL CARE and FEEDING OF YOUNG ARE MORE COMMON AMONG BIRDS THAN: a. FISH c. NONAVIAN REPTILES b. AMPHIBIANSMAMMALS -most primitive mammals ~"MONOTREMES" (DUCKBILLED PLATYPUS AND SPINY ANTEATER) -LAY EGGS (OVIPAROUS) as did the reptiles from which they evolve ALL OTHER VIVIPAROUS, MAMMALS ARE VIVIPARY -another major evolutionary adaptation and it has taken two forms: a. MARSUPIALS. (OPPOSUMS/ KANGAROOS) -developed the ability to nourish their young in a pouch after a short gestation inside the female. The other much larger group: b. PLACENTALS retain the young inside the female, where mother nourishes them by means of a placenta Even after birth, mammals continue to nourish their youngs. Mammary glands -unique mammalian adaptation that permit the female to nourish the young with milk that she produces. Some mammals nurture their young until adulthood, when they are able to mate and fend for themselves MAMMALIAN BEHAVIOR -also contributes to the transmission and evolution of culture that is the KEY TO EVOLUTION OF HUMAN SPECIES, REPRODUCTIVE 29.5 THE HUMAN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IS TYPICAL OF MALE MAMMALS: The reproductive role of the human male is to PRODUCE SPERM and DELIVER them to VAGINA of FEMALE Its function requires the following features: 1. TWO TESTES that PRODUCE SPERM AND THE MALE SEX HORMONE, TESTOSTERONE 2. ACCESSORY GLANDS and TBES that FURNISH A FLUID FOR CARRYING THE SPERM TO THE PENIS. This fluid together with the spermis called SEMEN. 3. ACCESSORY DUCTS that store and carry selections from the TESTES and ACCESSORY GLANDS to the PENIS 4, PENIS deposits SEMEN in the VAGINA during = SEXUAL INTERCOURSE. Production and Transport of Sperm PAIRED TESTES -male reproductive organs (gonads) that produce sperm. -shortly after birth, the testes descend from the ABDOMINAL CAVITY to the SCROTUM ---hangs between the thighs.Because testes hang outside the body, the temperature inside the scrotum is about 34C compared to a 38C core temperature. The lower the temperature is necessary for active sperm production and survival Muscles elevate or lower testes depending on the outside air temperature EACH TESTIS. -contains 800 coiled SEMINIFERMOUS TUBULES ---produce thousands of sperm each second in healthy young men. The walls of the seminiferous tubules are lined with two types of cell: a. SPERMATOGENIC CELLS - give rise to sperm b, SUSTENTACULAR CELLS- nourish the sperm as they form and which they also secrete a fiuid (as well as the hormone inhibin) into. the tubules —-providing aliquid medium for the sperm INTERSTITIAL CELLS (Leydig cells) - BETWEEN THE SEMINIFERMOUS, TUBULES are CLUSTERS OF ENDOCRINE CELLS - Secretes the male sex hormone testosterone SYSTEM OF TUBES - caries the sperm that the testes produce to the penis SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES merge into a network of tiny tubules called RETE TESTES which merges into a coiled tube called EPIDIDYMIS EPIDIDYMIS has 3 functions 1. If stores sperm until they are mature and ejaculated 2. It contains smooth muscle that helps propel the sperm toward the penis by peristaltic contractions 3. Serves as a duct system for sperm fo pass from the testis to the ductus deferens DUCTUS DEFERENS - Vas deferens or sperm duct - Dilated continuation of epididymis - Continuing upward after leaving scrotum - Ductus deferens passes through the lower part of the abdominal wall via the inguinal hernia may result. In an Inguinal Hernia; the intestine may protrude downward into the scrotum - Ductus pass through urinary bladder - Enlarges from ampulla - Ampulla stores. sperm unti ejaculated - Distal to ampulla — ductus because the ejaculatory duct - Urethra is the final section of reproductive duct system - After duct deferens passes through urinary bladder, several accessory glands add secretion to. sperm ACCESSORY GLANDS are: 1. Seminal Vesicles -secrete water, fructose, prostaglandins, and vitamin C. “secretion provides an energy source for the motile sperm and helps to neutralize the natural protective acidity of the vagina(PH of vagina is 3 to 4, but sperm and fertility enhanced when it increases to about 6) 2. Prostate Gland -secretes enzymes,cholesterol, salts, and phospholipids. 3. Bulbourethral glands - secrete a clear, alkaline fluid that lubricates the urethra and facilitates the ejaculation of semen and lubricates the penis prior to sexual intercourse. water, buffering SEMEN - The fluid that results from the combination of sperm and glandular secretions Average human ejaculation produces 3- Aml of semen and contains 300 to 400 million sperm PENIS Two functions: 1. Carries urine through the urethra fo the outside during urination, and 2. it transports semen through the urethra during ejaculation Penis contains three cylindrical strands of erectile tissue a. two carporacavernosa b. corpus spongiosum -extends beyond the carpora cavernosa and_—sbecomes expanded tip of the penis called GLANS PENIS. GLANS PENIS -loosley fitting skin of the penis that folds forward over the glans to form the prepuce or foreskin CIRCUMSION -removal of prepuce for religious or health reasons belief that they lessen cancer of the penis MATURE HUMAN SPERM. -consist of: a. head b. midpiece c. tail a. head - contains haploid nucleus, which is mostly DNA b. Acrosome - cap over the most head contains ACROSIN that assist sperm in the penetrating the outer layer surrounding secondary oocyte. c. Sperm tail — contains an array of microtubules that bend and produce whiplike movements d. Spiral mitochondria in midpiece - supply the ATP necessary for the movements HORMONAL CONTROL OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM a, Androgens — male sex hormones (collectively) b, Gonadotropins — hormones that travel from the brain and pituitary gland to the testes (and ovaries in the female) c. INTERSTITIAL CELLS - produce male sex hormone called TESTOSTERONE See page 538THE HUMAN FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IS TYPICAL OF FEMALE MAMMALS, -more complex than of males -not only do they produce gametes (egg/ova) but after fertilization, they also nourish, carry, and protect the developing embryo -after offspring is born, the mother may nourish it for sometime -monthly rhythmicity of the female reproductive system Female reproductive system consist of numbers of structure with specialized functions 1. Two ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone . Two uterine tubes, one from each ovary, carry eggs from the ovaries to the uterus - Fertilization occurs in the upper third of the uterine tube . If fertilization occurs, the uterus receives the blastocyst and houses the developing embryo 4, Vagina receives semen - Itis the menstrual flow and it is the canal through which the baby passes from the uterus 5. The external genital organ have protective functions and play a role in sexual arousal 6. Mammary glands, contained milk in the paired breast that produces milk for the new born baby N w Production and transport of egg a. Paired ovaries - femalegonads os produce female hormones located in the pelvic part of the abdomen, one each side of the uterus FOLLICLE A cross section of and ovary reveals this round vesicle Actual centers of egg production (oogenesis) PRIMARY OOCYTE - Immature egg that is contained by the follicle Follicle are always present in several stages of development After release of SECOND OOCYTE “egg’ in the process called OVULATION the lining of the follicle grows inward forming the corpus luteum “YELLOW BODY” which serves as a temporary endocrine tissue and continues to secret the female hormones estrogen and progesterone UTERINE TUBES or FALLOPIAN TUBES The paired tubes that receive the secondary oocyte from the ovary and convey it to the uterus Feathery fimbriae fringe part of the uterine tube that encircles the ovary. Each month. A secondary oocyte is released the motion of the fimbriae sweep it across a tiny space between the uterine tube and the ovary into the tube. Unlike sperm, secondary oocyte cannot move on its own. PERISTALTIC contractions of the tube and the waving motions of the cilia in the mucous membrane od the tube carry the secondary oocyte eggs andFERTILIZATION -occurs in the uppermost third of the uterine tube. A fertilize oocyte (zygote) continues its journey toward uterus, where it will implant. -journey takes four to seven days - if fertilization does not occur, the secondary oocyte degenerates in the uterine tube UTERUS -where uterine tubes terminate - a hollow muscular organ in front of the rectum and behind the urinary bladder. -uterus terminates in a narrow portion called CERVIX -which joins the uterus to the vagina -has 3 layers of tissue 1. OUTER LAYER (PERIMETRIUM) -extends beyond the uterus to form the two broad ligaments that stretch from the uterus to the lateral walls of pelvis 2. MIDDLE MUSCULAR LAYER (MYOMETRIUM) -makes up most of the uterine wall 3. ENDOMETRIUM -is the specialized mucous membrane that contains an abundance of blood vessels and simple glands. -Cervix leads to vagina VAGINA -amuscular tube 8 to 10 om long. - wall of vagina is composed of mainly a. smooth muscle b. elastic tissue EXTERNAL “GENITALIA” Includes: a. Mons pubis b, Labia Mojora c. Labia minora GENITAL ORGANS d. Vestibular glands e. Clitoris f. Vaginal opening These organs as a group are called, VULVA In young women, VAGINAL OPENING IS PARTIALLY COVERED BY A THIN MEMBRANE -HYMEN Which rupture during normal strenuous activities or may be stretched or broken during sexual activities MAMMARY GLANDS -are modifies sweat produce and secret milk “contain carrying amounts of adipose tissues - amount of adipose tissue determine size of breasts, but the amount of mammary tissue does not vary widely from one woman to another. glands that HORMONAL CONTROL OF FEMALE REPRODUCTION -male is continuously fertile from puberty to old age, and throughout that period, sex hormones are continuously secreted. -female is fertile ONLY DURING FEW DAYS EACH MONTH, and the pattern of hormone secretion is intricately related to the cyclical release of a secondary oocyte from the ovary -the cyclical production of hormones controls the development of a secondary oocyte in a follicleGnRH from the hypothalamus acts on the anterior pituitary gland, which releases FSH and LT TO BRING ABOUT THE OOCYTE’S MATURATION AND RELEASE FROM THE OVARY GnRH,FSH,LT fregulates MENSTRUAL CYCLE -the cyclic preparation of the uterus to receive a fertilized egg OVARIAN CYCLE -during which oocyte matures and ovulation occurs This monthly preparation of the uterine lining for the fertilized egg usually begins in PUBERTY 4510 55 years of age -ovaries lose their sensitivity to FSH and LH, they stop making normal amounts of progesterone and estrogen and the monthly menstrual cycle ceases in MENOPAUSE On average, it takes 28 days to complete a menstrual cycle, although the range may be from 22 to 45 days During this time, the following events take place: 1. Controlling center for ovulation and menstruation is HYPOTHALAMUS, - It releases on a regular cycle GnRH which stimulate the anterior pituitary to secrete FSH and LH 2. FSH promotes the development of the oocyte in one of the immature ovarian follicles . Follicles produce —_estrogen causing a build up and proliferation to the endometrium, as well as the inhibition of FSH production . Elevated estrogen level about midway in the cycle triggers the anterior pituitary (via the hypothalamus) to secrete LH. This positive feedback causes mature folicle to enlarge rapidly and release the secondary oocyte(ovulation). LH also causes the collapsed follicle become another endocrine _ tissue, CORPUS LETEUM . Corpus leteum secretes estrogen and progesterone which act to complete the development of endometrium and maintain if for 10 to 14 days . If oocyte is not fertilized, corpus leteum disintegrates into corpus albicans and estrogen and progesterone secretion cease. . Without estrogen and progesterone, endometrium breaks down and menstruation occurs, Menstrual flow is composed of mainly sloughed off a, endometrial cells b, mucus c. blood . Progesteron and _ estrogen decrease further, the pituitary renews and active secretion of FSH which — stimulates the development of another follicle, and the monthly cycle begins again.HORMONAL REGULATION IN THE PREGNANT FEMALE -ovaries are directly affected because as the embryo develops the cells of the embryo and placenta release the hormone human chronic gonadotropin (hCG), which keeps the corpus luteum from disintegrating, Progesterone that it secretes is necessary to maintain the uterine lining Placenta takes over progesterone production and corpus luteum degenrates End of two weeks hCG is high in females blood and in her urine as well. hCG immunological test can check for pregnancy as embryo develops, other hormones are secreted eg prolactin and oxytocin induce the mammary glands to secrete and eject milk after childbirth. Oxytocin and proglandins also stimulate the uterine contractions that expel the baby from the uterus during childbirth. MAMMALS WITH ESTROUS CYCLES Menstruation is absent in mammals with an estrous cycle -these mammals do cyclically shed cells from the endometrium, they do not bleed in the process. Estrous cycle has 4 phases: 1. Proestrus 2. Estrus 3. Metestrus 4. Diestrus PRENATAL, DEVELPPMENT AND BORTH IN A HUMAN, Events of prenatal development: from zygote to newborn Divided into: a. Pre-natal (before birth) b, Posinatal (afterbirth) PRE-NATAL PERIOD -developing individual begins with a ZYGOTE -becomes a ball of cells called MORULA -BLASTOCYST -that implants in the endometrium From 2 weeks after fertilization until the end of the 8" week of existence, the individual is called the Embryo (2-8week) Fetus (9-birth) Baby/newborn (During/after birth) Pregnancy is divided into three-month periods called TRIMESTERS TS TRE begins at FERTILIZATION During this time most organs are formed 2° 3 TRI: mainly periods of growth for the fetus FIRST TRIMESTER After fertilization Usually in the upper third of the uterine tube,1. zygote goes through several cleavages as it moves down the tube 2. becomes a solid ball of cells called MORULA 3. 4" day, develops into a 50-to- 120 cell blastula stage called BLASTOCYST 4, Blastocyst adheres to urine wall and implants, during the implantation, the outer cells of the blastocyst called trophoblast invade the endometrium 5. Implantation usually completed 11 to 12 days after fertilization; from then on, the females is considered to be PREGNANT 6. UNIQUE FEATURES OF MAMMALIAN DEVELOPMENT 1S THAT MOST OF THE CELLS OF THE EMBRYO MAKE NO CONTRIBUTION TO EMBRYO'S BODY -giving rise instead to supportive and _ protective membranes 7. Only INNER CELL mass gives rise to embryonic body 8. THESE CELLS ARRANGE IN FLAT SHEET THAT UNDERGOES A GASTRULATION SIMILAR TO THAT OF REPTILES AND BIRDS 9. Once gastrulation is completed, the rest of the trimester is devoted to organogenesis and growth. 10. Regulatory events and inductive tissue interactions shape organ system 11. By the middle of the trimester the major body organ has developed SECOND TRIMESTER (4 month) Fetal growth is spectacular Pregnant mother is aware of fetal movements Heartbeat can be heard with a stethoscope 6" month — upper and lower eyelids separate, and the eyelashes form. 7 month -eyes open BONES BEGAN TO OSSIFY THIRD TRIMESTER (7 month until birth) -fetus has developed sufficiently (with respect to circulatory and respiratory systems) to potentially survive if born prematurely. During the last month, fetal weight doubles. THE PLACENTA: EXCHANGE SITE AND HORMONE PRODUCER ‘lengthy pregnancy characteristics of mammals is possible because embryonic membranes that originated in early amniotes: a. Amnion b. Yolk sac c.Chorion d. Allantois -latter 2 gave rise to embryonic parts of the placenta Placenta -organ that sustains the embryo and fetus throughout the pregnancy and through which GASES NUTRIENTS WASTE Are exchanged between the maternal and fetal systems The tiny fingerlike projections that were sent out from the blastocystduring implantation develop into numerous chorionic villi CHORIONIC VILLI -contains embryonic blood vessels. UMBILICAL CORD -connects the placenta to the abdomen of the fetus TWO UMBILICAL ARTERIES and ONE FETAL UMBILICAL VEIN SPIRAL ABOUT EACH OTHER IN THE UMBILICAL CORD BIRTH: AN END AND A BEGINNING 266 days after fertilization or 280 day from the beginning of the last menstrual period, human infant is BORN. Birth is called PARTURITION PARTURITION — mother’s uterine muscles begin to contract and cervix begins to dilate or open. HORMONE RELAXIN — produced by the ovaries and placenta causes the mother’s PELVIC BONES to slightly separate so that the baby can pass through the BIRTH CANAL Changing hormone levels initiate PARTURITION. When its time for baby to be born, its PITUITARY GLAND SECRETES ACTH -which stimulates adrenal glands to secrete steroids STEROIDS stimulates the placenta to produce prostaglandins that along with the hormone oxytocin from the mother's pituitary, cause the uterus to begin powerful muscular contractions. Contractions build In length and increase in frequency over a period that usually lasts from 2 to 18 hours During that time, cervix becomes fully DILATED and the AMNIOTIC SAC RAPTURES. Usually within an hour of these events, the baby is expelled from the uterus After baby is emerges, uterine contractions continue to expel the placenta and membranes commonly called AFTERBIRTH The UMBILICAL CORD is severed and the newborn embarks on its nurtured existence outside the world MILK PRODUCTION AND LACTATION a. LACTATION - Includes milk secretion (production) by mammary glands and mile release form the breasts. - MAMMARY GLANDS -unique characteristic of mammals evolve from sweat glands in the skin During pregnancy breast ENLARGE in response fo increasing levels of hormone prolactin. BEFORE BIRTH, placental secretion of estrogen and progesterone drop and the breast begins to produce copious amounts of milkAFTER PLACENTA has been EXPELLED from uterus, the concentrations of estrogens and progesterone drops and breast begin to produce copious amount of milk Mother's breast do not actually release milk until one to three days after baby is born During these first days, the suckling baby receives COLOSTRUM COLUSTRUM -high protein fluid that present in the breast at birth -contains and abundance of maternal antibodies and thus helps strengthen babys immune system -also function as laxative removing fetal waste/ MECONIUM retained in the intestines After about three days, the prolactin secreted from the pituitary stimulates milk production The newborn's suckling stimulates the pituitary to release oxytocin as well as prolactin Oxytocin triggers milk release from the mammary glands