ΓΙΑΝΝΟΠΟΥΛΟΣ PDF

Shmeiseic
Sunarthsiakc Anlushc
Apstoloc Giannpouloc
Panepisthmio Krhthc
Tmhma Majhmatikwn
Anoixh 2003
1
Tm. Majhmatikn, Panep. Ajhnn
Perieqmena
1
1.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
21
2.1
Cauchy - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
2.2
- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
2.3
* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
2.4
Baire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
2.5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
3
3.1
45
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
3.2
- Banach
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
3.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
3.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
59
4.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
4.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
4.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
71
5.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
5.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
5.3
- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
5.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
6 Hilbert
6.1
89
Hilbert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
89
6.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
6.3
- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
6.4
Riesz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
6.5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
6.6
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
7 Hahn - Banach
107
7.1
Zorn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.2
Hahn - Banach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
8 Banach
125
8.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
8.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
141
9.1
- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
9.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Keflaio 1
Metriko qroi
1.1 Orismc
X . d : X X R X (
X) x, y, z X :
(1) d(x, y) 0,
(2) d(x, y) = 0 x = y,
(3) d(x, y) = d(y, x),
(4) d(x, y) d(x, z) + d(z, y) ( ).
(X, d) . X ,
d(x, y) x y. (1)(4) .
(X, d) , Y X. d
Y Y . d : Y Y R
y) = d(x, y)
d(x,
: d (1)(4).
x, y Y . (Y, d)
(Y, d) (X, d). d Y d.

.
.
.
() . X = R ,
d(x, y) = |x y|.
() . m- x = (1 , . . . , m )
, : x = (1 , . . . , m ) y = (1 , . . . , m )
Rm ,
p
d(x, y) = (1 1 )2 + + (m m )2 .
() ` . X = ` : x = (1 , . . . , k , . . .) ( x = (k )) X
Mx > 0 ( x)
k N,
|k | Mx .
5
,
x = (k ) X sup{|k | : k N} < +.
x = (k ), y = (k ) :
d(x, y) = sup{|k k | : k N}.
() C[a, b]. [a, b] R. X = C[a, b]
f : [a, b] R ( ).
: f, g : [a, b] R ,
d(f, g) = max |f (t) g(t)|

t[a,b]
( max : |f g| [a, b], ).

, C[a, b] [a, b].
() . X, x, y X
6 y,
1 , x =
d(x, y) =
0 , x = y.
d X.
1.2 Paradegmata metrikn qrwn

() B(A) A. A.
f : A R B(A) (, sup{|f (a)| : a A} < +.)
f, g B(A),
d(f, g) = sup |f (a) g(a)|.
aA
: f, g B(A), Mf , Mg > 0
: a A, |f (a)| Mf |g(a)| Mg . , a A
|f (a) g(a)| |f (a)| + |g(a)| Mf + Mg ,
0 d(f, g) = sup |f (a) g(a)| Mf + Mg < +.

aA
(2) (3) : f, g B(A),

d(f, g) = sup |f (a) g(a)| = sup |g(a) f (a)| = d(g, f ),
aA
aA
d(f, g) = 0
sup |f (a) g(a)| = 0

aA
a A, |f (a) g(a)| = 0
a A, f (a) = g(a)
f g.
: f, g, h B(A). a A
|f (a) g(a)| = |f (a) h(a) + h(a) g(a)|
|f (a) h(a)| + |h(a) g(a)|

sup |f (a) h(a)| + sup |h(a) g(a)|
aA
= d(f, h) + d(h, g).
aA

d(f, g) = sup |f (a) g(a)| d(f, h) + d(h, g).
aA
() `p . 1 p < . `p
x = (k )
X
|k |p < +.
k=1
( ). 1 < p < +. q p
1 1
+ = 1.
p q
()
, q = p/(p 1). q 1, () p
q. p q . , p
q ,
p + q = pq (p 1)(q 1) = 1.
f (t) = tp1 , t [0, +), f ,
g f . g(s) = sq1 , s [0, +). ,
g(f (t)) = [f (t)]q1 = t(p1)(q1) = t.
`p , :
H
older Minkowski. Young.
Young. f : [0, +) [0, +) , ,
f (0) = 0. g f , a, b > 0
Z
ab
Z
f (t)dt +
g(s)ds.
0
: . 1.1.
s = f (t)
s = f (t)
b
E2
b
E2
E1
E1
a
b > f (a)
Sqma 1.1: Oi periptseic
b < f (a)
b > f (a)
kai
b < f (a)
ab . ,
Z b
Z a
g(s)ds.
f (t)dt +
ab E1 + E2 =
0
b = f (a).
: f (t) = tp1 , p > 1. f g(s) = sq1 , q

p. Young, a, b > 0,
Z a
Z b
ab
tp1 dt +
sq1 ds,
0
ab
(1)
ap
bq
+
p
q
a, b 0.
(1) .
C R. f : C R
f (tx + (1 t)y) tf (x) + (1 t)f (y)
(2)
x, y C t (0, 1). f (1)

x = y. f : C R (, ) f (,
).
f : (0, +) R f (x) = ln x ( ).
x, y > 0 t, s (0, 1) t + s = 1,
(3)
ln(tx + sy) t ln x + s ln y = ln(xt y s ).

xt y s tx + sy,
(4)
x = y. a, b > 0 p, q . (4) x = ap ,
y = bq t = 1/p, s = 1/q, (1). ap = bq .
H
older (1889) p, q > 1 .
x = (k ) `p
y = (k ) `q ,
z = (k k ) `1 ,
|k k |
k=1
!1/p
|k |
k=1
!1/q
q
|k |
k=1
|k |p =
k=1
|k |q = 1.
k=1
k = 1, 2, . . ., (1)
|k k | = |k ||k |
|k |q
|k |p
+
.
p
q
|k k |
k=1
k=1
1X
1X
|k |p +
|k |q
p
q
1 1
+ = 1,
p q
k=1
H
older (;).
: x, y 6= 0 (;),
k
k0 = P
1/p
( k=1 |k |p )
k
k0 = P
1/q
( k=1 |k |q )
k N.
, (k0 ), (k0 )
|k0 |p =
k=1
X
k=1
k=1
X
X
| |q
| |p
P k
P k
=1=
=
|k0 |q .
p
q
|
|
|
|
k
k
k=1
k=1
|k0 k0 | =
k=1
k=1
(k0 ),
(k0 )),
|k k |
1,
P
P
1/p
1/q
p
( k=1 |k |q )
k=1 (
k=1 |k | )
|k k |
k=1
!1/p
p
|k |
!1/q
q
|k |
k=1
k=1
: p = 2, p q = 2, Holder p = q = 2
Cauchy-Schwarz: x = (k ), y = (k ) `2 ,
v
v
u
u
X
uX
uX
|k |2 t
|k |2 .
|k k | t
k=1
k=1
k=1
Minkowski (1896) p 1. x = (k ) `p y = (k ) `p , z =
(k + k ) `p
!1/p
!1/p
!1/p
X
X
X
|k + k |p
|k |p
+
|k |p
.
k=1
k=1
k=1
: p = 1,
|k + k |
k=1
|k | +
k=1
|k |
k=1
|k + k | |k | + |k | k N.
p > 1. n N :
n
X
|k + k |p
k=1
n
X
k=1
n
X
k=1
n
X
|k + k |p1 |k + k |
|k + k |p1 (|k | + |k |)
|k + k |p1 |k | +
k=1
n
X
|k + k |p1 |k |.
k=1
Holder p, q (
n , - ;). ,
Sn
:=
n
X
|k + k |p
k=1
n
X
k=1
!1/q
|k + k |q(p1)
n
X
k=1
!1/p
|k |p
n
X
k=1
!1/p
|k |p
10
q(p 1) = qp p = p,
Sn Sn1/q
n
X
!1/p
|k |p
n
X
k=1
1/q
Sn > 0, Sn , 1
n
X
|k |p
k=1
= p1 ,
1
q
!1/p
|k + k |
!1/p
n
X
k=1
!1/p
p
|k |
n
X
k=1
!1/p
|k |
|k |
k=1
!1/p
p
|k |
k=1
!1/p
.
k=1
( Sn = 0, .) ,
n. n ,
z = (k + k ) `p
!1/p
p
|k + k |
!1/p
p
|k |
k=1
k=1
!1/q
q
|k |
k=1
dp `p , p 1: x = (k ) `p y = (k ) `p ,
!1/p
X
p
dp (x, y) =
|k k |
.
k=1
(1)(3) .
Minkowski: , x = (k ), y = (k ), z = (k ) `p ,
dp (x, y)
!1/p
|k k |p
k=1
!1/p
p
|(k k ) + (k k )|
k=1
!1/p
p
|k k |
k=1
!1/p
p
|k k |
k=1
= dp (x, z) + dp (z, y).

, `p dp , .
1.3 Topologikc nnoiec

() (X, d) . x0 X r > 0,
1. x0 r
D(x0 , r) = {y X : d(y, x0 ) < r}.
2. x0 r
B(x0 , r) = {y X : d(y, x0 ) r}.
11
3. x0 r
S(x0 , r) = {y X : d(y, x0 ) = r}.
(i) x0 X r > 0 x0 D(x0 , r) B(x0 , r).

(ii) S(x0 , r) = (: ).
(iii) S(x0 , r) = B(x0 , r)\D(x0 , r).
( ) - ,
.
() x0 X > 0. D(x0 , ) - x0 . x0 A X, x0
A > 0 D(x0 , ) A.
A X A .
A X, A A A. A
A. A A = A .
() (xn ) (X, d) x X ( xn x) limn d(xn , x) = 0.
, > 0 n0 = n0 () N : n n0 , d(xn , x) < .
.
(i) xn x xn y, x = y ( ).
(ii) xn x, (xn ) (, X xn ).
(iii) xn x yn y X, d(xn , yn ) d(x, y).
() K X : (xn ) K xn x X, x K.
K X \ K .
x0 X K > 0 K D(x0 , ) 6= .
K K, ( ) K,
K. K K = K.
() (X, d) (Y, d) . T : X Y x0 X
> 0 > 0 : d(x, x0 ) < d(T (x), T (x0 )) < . T
x0 X.
:
(i) T x0 xn x0 d, T (xn ) T (x0 ) d.
(ii) T A Y , T 1 (A) X.
: , (
).
(X, d) . M X X
M = X.
(, x X (xn ) M xn x. , x X
> 0 D(x, ) M 6= .)
(X, d) M X X.
12
() R ( d(x, y) = |x y|.) R :
Q , Q = R ( x R > 0, (x , x + ),
D(x, ) Q 6= .)
() ` . ,
:
: (X, d) . xi , i I X (I
) > 0
i, j I
i 6= j = d(xi , xj ) .
, M X I.
: D(xi , /2), i I . M , D(xi , /2)
mi M . i 6= j, mi 6= mj D(xi , /2) D(xj , /2) = . , f : I M f (i) = mi
. , M I.
2
` , A = {x = (k ) : k {0, 1}, k N}.
0 1 , A ` .
x = (k ), y = (k ) A x 6= y, d(x, y) = 1 (;).
, M ` , M A.
, Cantor A .
` , ` .
() `p , 1 p < .
M = {y = (1 , . . . , n , 0, 0, . . .) : n N, k Q}.
M (;) M = `p . x = (k ) `p > 0. y M
dp (x, y) < .
:
P
(i) k |k |p , n N
|k |p <
k=n+1
p
.
2
(ii) k = 1, . . . , n k .
k , k = 1, . . . , n
|k k |p 0 , M = `p (, `p ).
13
1.4 Askseic
1. X m- 0 1. , X = {0, 1}m . d(x, y) =
m- x y. d .
2. C[0, ] d(f, g) = maxt[0,] |f (t) g(t)|. x(t) = sin t y(t) = cos t,
r > 0 y B(x, r).
3. A (X, d) .
4. x0 A (X, d) > 0 y A, y 6= x0
d(x0 , y) < . x0 A > 0
D(x0 , ) A.
5. A, B (X, d), A B = A B A B A B.
6. (X, d) , =
6 A X. diam(A) A diam(A) =
sup{d(x, y) : x, y A}. :
() A B = diam(A) diam(B).
() diam(A) = 0 A .
7. A, B (X, d). d(A, B) A, B
d(A, B) = inf{d(a, b) : a A, b B}. A B 6= = d(A, B) = 0.
A, B R2 d(A, B) = 0.
8. B (X, d). x X B
d(x, B) = inf{d(x, b) : b B}. x, y X |d(x, B) d(y, B)| d(x, y).
9. A (X, d), x A d(x, A) = 0. A
X x
/ A, d(x, A) > 0.
10. (X, d) , A, B , X. f : X [0, 1]
, : f (a) = 0 a A, f (b) = 1 b B.
11.
P s . (mk )
, k mk < +. d s : x = (k ), y = (k ) s,
d(x, y) =
mk
k=1
|k k |
.
1 + |k k |
(s, d) , .
12. 1 , . . . , n R,

2
(|1 | + + |n |) n |1 |2 + + |n |2 .
13. () x = (k ) 0, x
/ `p p 1.
() x `p p 1, k 0.
14. x = (k ) x
/ `1 x `p p > 1.
15. B[a, b] f : [a, b] R d(f, g) = supt[a,b] |f (t)
g(t)|. B[a, b] .
14
16. C[a, b] f : [a, b] R d(f, g) = maxt[a,b] |f (t)

g(t)|. .
17.
.
18. f, g : [a, b] R , p, q .
H
older
!1/p Z
!1/q
Z
Z b
b

b
p
q

f (t)g(t)dt
|f (t)| dt
|g(t)|
.
a
Minkowski
Z
!1/p
|f (t) + g(t)| dt
|f (t)| dt
!1/p
|g(t)| dt
!1/p
19. f : [a, b] R , 0 < q < p < r < +.

Z
a
|f (t)|p dt
Z
a
! rp
rq
|f (t)|q dt
Z
a
! pq
rq
|f (t)|r dt
15
-
1.
x = (1 , . . . , m ) kai y = (1 , . . . , m ) X , tte: an k = k qoume |k k | = 0, en

|k k | = 1. 'Ara, to pljoc twn suntetagmnwn stic opoec diafroun oi x kai y isotai me
Parathrste ti an
k 6= k
qoume
d(x, y) =
m
X
an
|k k |.
k=1
Tra mporome ekola na elgxoume ti h
an
d(x, y) =
x = y.
Pm
(b)
d(y, x) =
Pm
(a)
(g) An
k=1
k=1
|k k | 0,
|k k | =
x = (k ), y = (k )
kai
enai metrik:
me isthta mno an
Pm
k=1
|k k | = 0
z = (k ) X ,
k=1
m
X
|k k | =
|k k | +
k = k
gia kje
k,
dhlad
an kai mno an
m
X
|(k k ) + (k k )|
k=1
m
X
|k k |
k=1
k=1
y B(x, r)
x kai y :
dhlad an
tte
m
X
'Eqoume
k,
|k k | = d(x, y).
d(x, y)
2.
gia kje
d(x, z) + d(z, y).
d(x, y) r.
O mikrteroc
gia to opoo isqei aut h anisthta enai h
apstash twn
d(x, y)
=
=
3.
max | sin t cos t| =
max (sin t cos t)2
0t
0t
max (1 sin(2t)) =
0t
2.
A = iI D(xi , ri ) pou xi X kai ri > 0. An a A,

r(a) = ri0 d(a, xi0 ) > 0. Ap thn trigwnik anisthta,
'Estw ti
Jtoume
tte uprqei
i0 I
gia to opoo
a D(xi0 , ri0 ).
D(a, r(a)) D(xi0 , ri0 ) A.

To tuqn
'Estw
aA
enai eswterik shmeo tou
A anoikt uposnolo tou X .
A,
ra to
Gia kje
enai anoikt.
a A mporome na brome r(a) > 0 ttoio ste a D(a, r(a)) A.
Tte,
A=
D(a, r(a)).
aA
4.
Upojtoume prta ti to
x0
enai shmeo sussreushc tou
A.
'Estw ti uprqei
> 0 ttoio ste to D(x0 , ) A
na enai peperasmno snolo. Dhlad,
D(x0 , ) A = {x0 } {y1 , . . . , yN }

gia kpoia yi 6= x0 (toulqiston na ttoio yi
min{d(x0 , y1 ), . . . , d(x0 , yN )} > 0. Tte,
uprqei, ap ton orism tou shmeou sussreushc).
Jtoume
1 =
D(x0 , 1 ) A = {x0 },
to opoo enai topo, pli ap ton orism tou shmeou sussreushc.
Antstrofa: upojtoume ti kje perioq tou
A periqei peira shmea tou A. Tte, gia kje > 0, to D(x0 , )A

x0 . 'Epetai ti to x0 enai shmeo sussreushc tou A.
enai peiro snolo, ra qei stoiqeo diaforetik ap to
5.
(a) Afo
A, B A B ,
qoume
A, B A B .
'Ara,
A B A B.
16
x A B.
xn A B me xn x. Qwrc periorism thc genikthtac mporome na

(xn ) brskontai sto A. Dhlad, uprqoun k1 < k2 < . . . < kn < . . . ttoioi ste
xkn A. Afo xn x, petai ti xkn x. Afo xkn A, sumperanoume ti x A. An peiroi roi thc (xn )
brskontai sto B , me ton dio trpo blpoume ti x B . Se kje perptwsh x A B , opte
Antstrofa, stw
Uprqoun
upojsoume ti peiroi roi thc
A B A B.
A B A, B ,
(b) Afo
qoume
A B A, B .
'Ara,
A B A B.
6.
(a) An
A B,
tte
{d(x, y) : x, y A} {d(x, y) : x, y B}.
'Ara,
diam(A) = sup{d(x, y) : x, y A} sup{d(x, y) : x, y B} = diam(B).

(b) An
sto
7.
A,
A = {a}, tte diam(A) = sup{d(x, y) : x, y A} = sup{d(a, a)} = sup{0} = 0.

diam(A) d(a1 , a2 ) > 0. 'Ara, diam(A) = 0 to A enai monosnolo.
An pli uprqoun
a1 6= a2
tte
(a) 'Estw
w A B.
Tte,
0 d(A, B) = inf{d(a, b) : a A, b B} d(w, w) = 0.

d(A, B) = 0.
Dhlad,
(b) Orzoume ta uposnola

ta
A, B
A = {(n, 0) : n N} kai B = {(k, k1 ) : k N} tou Eukledeiou qrou R2 .
Tte
A B = ,
enai kleist giat la ta shmea touc enai memonwmna, kai
d(A, B) d((n, 0), (n, 1/n)) = 1/n

gia kje
8.
'Estw
n N,
d(A, B) = 0.
ra
x, y X .
Gia kje
bB
qoume
d(x, b) d(x, y) + d(y, b).
Afo
d(x, B) d(x, b),
sumperanoume ti
d(x, B) d(x, y) + d(y, b) = d(x, B) d(x, y) d(y, b).

Afo aut isqei gia kje
b B,
parnoume
d(x, B) d(x, y) inf{d(y, b) : b B} = d(y, B),

dhlad
d(x, B) d(y, B) d(x, y).

'Omoia blpoume ti
d(y, B) d(x, B) d(x, y).
'Ara,
|d(x, B) d(y, B)| d(x, y).

'Epetai ti h
9.
d(, B) : X R
enai omoimorfa suneqc.
x A. Uprqei akolouja (xn ) sto A me xn x. Tte, 0 d(x, A) d(x, xn ) 0. 'Ara, d(x, A) = 0.

d(x, A) = 0, tte gia kje n N mporome na brome xn A me d(x, xn ) < 1/n, opte xn x kai
shmanei ti x A.
(a) 'Estw
Antstrofa, an
aut
x
/ A kai to A enai kleist,
a A, ra d(x, A) r > 0.
(b) Afo
kje
uprqei
r>0
ttoioc ste
D(x, r) A = .
Aut shmanei ti
10. Gia kje x X qoume d(x, A) + d(x, B) > 0. An to jroisma aut tan so me mhdn,
d(x, B) = 0 kai afo ta A, B enai kleist, ap thn prohgomenh skhsh ja eqame x A B ,
giat ta A, B qoun upoteje xna.
Orzoume
f :XR
me
f (x) =
d(x, A)
.
d(x, A) + d(x, B)
d(x, a) r
ja eqame
gia
d(x, A) =
to opoo enai topo
17
O paronomastc den mhdenzetai, ra h
Epshc, h f
d(x, A), d(x, B) 0,
enai kal orismnh.
enai suneqec sunartseic ap thn 'Askhsh 8.
Afo
d(, A) kai d(, B)

0 f (x) 1 gia kje
enai suneqc giat oi

enai faner ti
x X.
Tloc, an
aA
tte
d(a, A)
= 0,
d(a, A) + d(a, B)
f (a) =
en an
bB
tte
f (b) =
11.
enai kal orismnh, giat an
d(b, A)
d(b, A)
=
= 1.
d(b, A) + d(b, B)
d(b, A)
x = (k )
d(x, y) =
tte
mk
X
|k k |
mk < +.
1 + |k k |
k=1
k=1
Aut deqnei tautqrona ti h dimetroc tou
y = (k ) s,
kai
(s, d)
enai
diam(s)
k=1
mk .
Ap tic idithtec thc metrikc, h mnh pou qreizetai legqo enai h trigwnik anisthta: an
z = (k ) s, tte gia kje k N, qrhsimopointac

|k k | |k k | + |k k |, parnoume
kai
|k k |
1 + |k k |
k=1
xM = (M, . . . , M, . . .)
|k k |
1 + |k k |
mk
X
|k k |
|k k |
+
mk
1 + |k k |
1 + |k k |
k=1
d(x, z) + d(z, y).

pou
M > 0,
diam(s) d(xM , y) =
kai
M
1+M
%1
M ,
tan
y = (0, . . . , 0, . . .),
mk
k=1
kai afo
12.
diam(s) =
k=1
Ap thn anisthta
qoume
M X
M
=
mk ,
1+M
1+M
k=1
parnoume
Dhlad,
qoume
mk
k=1
=
Tloc, an proume
mk ,
afo pollaplasisoume me touc jetikoc
d(x, y)
x = (k ), y = (k )
[0, +) kai thn
t
enai axousa sto
1+t
|k k | + |k k |
1 + |k k | + |k k |
|k k |
|k k |
+
1 + |k k | + |k k |
1 + |k k | + |k k |
|k k |
|k k |
+
.
1 + |k k |
1 + |k k |
Prosjtontac wc proc
to gegonc ti h
diam(s) sup d(xM , y) =
sup
M >0
M >0
M
1+M
k=1
mk =
mk .
k=1
mk .
Cauchy-Schwarz,
|1 | + + |n |
1 |1 | + + 1 |n |
` 2
1/2 ` 2
1/2
1 + + 12
|1 | + + |n |2
1/2
` 2
n |1 | + + |n |2
.
Uynontac sto tetrgwno parnoume to zhtomeno.
13.
(a) Parnoume
k =
1
,
ln(k+1)
k N.
Tte,
k 0
X
k=1
tan
k ,
mwc to kritrio sumpknwshc deqnei ti
1
= +
[ln(k + 1)]p
18
p 1.
gia kje
'Ara
(b) Upojtoume ti
1
)
/ `p
( ln(k+1)
x = (k ) `p
gia la ta
gia kpoio
p 1.
p 1.
Tte,
|k |p < +.
k=1
Afo h seir sugklnei, parnoume
14.
Dokimste
k =
1
. 'Eqoume
k
|k |p 0.
1
k=1 k
'Epetai ti
= +
|k | 0,
ra
k 0.
(h armonik seir apoklnei), mwc gia kje
p>1
h seir
1
k=1 kp
sugklnei (Anlush II).
15.
x (a, b) jewrome th sunrthsh fx : [a, b] R pou orzetai wc exc: fx (t) = 1 an a t x kai

x < t b. Kje fx enai fragmnh, ra ankei ston B[a, b]. To pljoc twn fx enai uperarijmsimo (sa
tou (a, b)).
Gia kje
fx (t) = 0
an
ta shmea
'Estw
x<y
sto
(a, b).
Tte, uprqei
t0
me
x < t0 < y .
Aut mc dnei
fx (t0 ) = 0
kai
fy (t0 ) = 1.
'Ara,
d(fx , fy ) = sup{|fx (t) fy (t)| : t [a, b]} |fx (t0 ) fy (t0 )| = 1.

Sto metrik qro
B[a, b]
brkame uperarijmsima to pljoc shmea (tic
fx )
pou an do apqoun apstash toulqi-
ston sh me 1 (enai akribc sh me 1 - giat?). Ap genik paratrhsh, o qroc den mpore na enai diaqwrsimoc.
16.
p(t) = a0 + a1 t + + am tm , ai R, enai na polunumo sto [a, b], tte gia

q(t) = b0 + b1 t + + bm tm me rhtoc suntelestc bi Q, ttoio ste
Deqnoume prta to exc: an
>0
kje
mporome na brome polunumo
d(p, q) = max |p(t) q(t)| < .

t[a,b]
Prgmati, an
M = max{|a|, |b|},
gia kje
i = 0, 1, . . . , m
mporome na brome
bi Q
ttoion ste
.
|ai bi | <
M j (m + 1)
Tte, an orsoume
q(t) = b0 + b1 t + + bm tm ,
|p(t) q(t)|
t [a, b]
qoume
|(a0 b0 ) + (a1 b1 )t + + (am bm )tm |
|a0 b0 | + |a1 b1 | |t| + + |am bm | |t|m
+
M + + m
Mm
m+1
M (m + 1)
M (m + 1)
.
<
=
Dhlad,
gia kje
d(p, q) < .
D = {q(t) = b0 + b1 t + + bm tm : m N {0}, bi Q}. To D enai arijmsimo snolo. An f C[a, b] kai

> 0, ap to jerhma tou Weierstrass uprqei polunumo p me pragmatikoc suntelestc, ttoio ste d(f, p) < /2.
Ap thn prohgomenh paratrhsh, uprqei q D gia to opoo d(p, q) < /2. 'Ara,
d(f, q) d(f, p) + d(p, q) < + = .

2
2
Orzoume
Afo h
17.
kai to
Jtoume
tan tuqnta, blpoume ti
X=Y =R
D = C[a, b].
me th sunjh metrik
Afo to
d(x, y) = |x y|.
18.
f (A) = {0},
f 0
Young grfoume
f :RR
me
C[a, b]
enai diaqwrsimoc.
f (x) = 0
se anoikt uposnola tou
x R. H
6= A R
gia kje
R:
an
to opoo den enai anoikt.
1/p
`R
A=
|f |p
g 0 sto [a, b], opte h
(a) Jtoume
enai arijmsimo, o
Orzoume
enai suneqc, all den stlnei ta mh ken anoikt uposnola tou
anoikt, tte
kai
B=
`R
|g|q
1/q
anisthta gnetai
b
a
f (t) g(t)
dt
A B
. An
0 0.
|f (t)| |g(t)|
dt
A
B
Z b
1 |f (t)|p
1 |g(t)|q
+
dt
p Ap
q Bq
a
Rb p
Rb q
1 a |f |
1 a |g|
+
p Ap
q Bq
1
1
+ = 1.
p
q
a
=
=
A = 0 B = 0, tte ap th sunqeia twn f, g blpoume ti

An A > 0 kai B > 0, qrhsimopointac thn anisthta tou
19
'Ara,
An
p = 1,
p > 1,
h anisthta tou
|f + g|p
|g|q
1/q
.
H
older
grfoume
Z
|f + g|p1 |f + g| |f + g|p1 (|f | + |g|)
Z
Z
|f + g|p1 |f | + |f + g|p1 |g|
Z
Z
+
|f + g|(p1)q
|f + g|(p1)q
Z
|f + g|
=
(p 1)q = p. An
1 = p1 , parnoume
1/p Z
giat
|f |p
Minkowski enai apl:

Z
Z
Z
Z
|f + g| (|f | + |g|) = |f | + |g|.
qrhsimopointac thn anisthta tou
(b) An
f g AB =
1/q Z
|f |p
1/q Z
1/q
Z
|f |
|g|p
p
1/p
1/p
1/p
1/p !
|g|
to arister mloc enai gnsia jetik, diairntac me
`R
|f + g|p
1/q
1/p
kai qrhsimopointac thn
1
q
Z
|f + g|
An
19.
tou
|f + g|p = 0,
gia tic
1/p
Z
|f + g|
1 1
|f |p
1/p
+
|g|p
tte den qoume tpota na dexoume.
Parathrome ti oi
H
older
|f |
q/
=
kai
rq
kai
rp
r/
|f |
rq
enai suzugec ekjtec kai
pq
p=
, parnoume
|f |p
Z
=
|f |q/ |f |r/
Z
=
(|f |q/ )
|f |q
1/ Z
rp Z
rq
|f |r
(|f |r/ )
pq
rq
1/
r
. Efarmzontac thn anisthta
20
Keflaio 2
Plreic metriko qroi

2.1 Akoloujec Cauchy - plreic metriko qroi
(X, d) . (xn ) X Cauchy
> 0 n0 = n0 () N
n, m n0 = d(xn , xm ) < .
: (xn )
Cauchy.
(X, d). : X = (0, 1]
d(x, y) = |x y|. xn = n1 Cauchy X ( 0,
(xn ) , X.)
x X xn x.
Cauchy
(X, d) R.
2.1.1. (xn ) x, (xn ) Cauchy.
: > 0. xn x, n0 = n0 () N
n n0 = d(x, xn ) < .
2
n, m n0 ,

d(xn , xm ) d(xn , x) + d(x, xm ) < + = . 2
2 2
A X x0 X r > 0 A B(x0 , r).
(xn ) x0 X, r > 0
n N, xn B(x0 , r).
2.1.2. Cauchy (xn ) .
: = 1. n0 N : n, m n0 , d(xn , xm ) < 1. ,
n n0 = d(xn , xn0 ) < 1.
r = max{d(x1 , xn0 ) + 1, . . . , d(xn0 1 , xn0 ) + 1}.
d(xn , xn0 ) r
n N, (xn ) B(xn0 , r).
21
22
2.1.3. (xn ) Cauchy. x X (xkn )

(xn ) xkn x. , xn x ( Cauchy ,
.)
: > 0. (xkn ) x, n0 N
n n0 = d(x, xkn ) < .

2
(xn ) Cauchy, n1 N
n, m n1 = d(xn , xm ) <
.
2
n2 = max{n0 , n1 }. n n2 , kn n n2 n1 ,
d(xn , xkn ) < ,

2
kn n n2 n0 ,
d(x, xkn ) < .

2
, n n2 ,

d(x, xn ) d(x, xkn ) + d(xkn , xn ) < + = .
2 2
, xn x.
(X, d) . X Cauchy (xn ) X

( X).
, X = (0, 1], d(x, y) = |x y|, .
( ,
X (xn ) X, x X (xkn ) (xn ) xkn x):
2.1.4. (X, d) .
: (xn ) Cauchy X. X , (xkn )
(xn ) xkn x X. 2.1.3,
xn x.
,
:
2.1.5. (X, d) , Y X.
() Y , Y X.
() (X, d) Y X, Y
.
, X , Y Y
X.
: () xn Y xn x X. (xn ) X, Cauchy
X ( 2.1.1). d Y d, (xn ) Cauchy Y .
(xn ) Y .
Y d,
d X, , x. , x Y .
Y X.
() (xn ) Cauchy Y . xn Y X, (xn ) Cauchy X.
X , x X xn x. , x Y . Y ,
x Y . , xn x Y .
2
23
2.2 Plreic metriko qroi - paradegmata

:
(xn ) Cauchy (X, d),
() x (xn ) ( ,
).
() x X.
() xn x d.
2.2.1. Rm
m
X
d(x, y) =
!1/2
2
(k k )
k=1
.
: (xn ) Cauchy Rm . xn = (n1 , . . . , nm ), nk R.
> 0. (xn ) Cauchy, n0 () N
n, s n0 = d(xn , xs ) < .

m
X
n, s n0 =
()
!1/2
2
(nk sk )
< .
k=1

k = 1, . . . , m,
m
X
|nk sk |
!1/2
2
(nk sk )
< .
k=1
, n, s m0 , k = 1, . . . , m
|nk sk | < .
: k = 1, . . . , m (nk ) Cauchy R. R
1 , . . . , m R
n1 1
...
nm m
n . x = (1 , . . . , m ) Rm , d(xn , x) 0 n .
(): n, s n0
m
X
!1/2
(nk sk )2
< .
k=1
n s :
!1/2
!1/2
m
m
X
X
(nk sk )2
(nk k )2
.
k=1
k=1
, n n0
d(xn , x) =
m
X
!1/2
2
(nk k )
k=1
> 0 , d(xn , x) 0. , xn x.
24
2.2.2. ` ,
d(x, y) = sup{|k k | : k N}
.
: (xn ) Cauchy ` . xn = (nk ) = (n1 , . . . , nk , . . .).
> 0. (xn ) Cauchy, n0 () N
n, s n0 , sup{|nk sk | : k N} < .
()
, n, s n0 k N
()
|nk sk | < .
k N (nk ) Cauchy ( n) R. , k R

n1 1 , . . . , nk k , . . . (n ).
x = (1 , . . . , k , . . .). x ` .
() s = n0 ,
n n0 k N, |nk n0 k | <
, k N,
|nk n0 k | |k n0 k |
n . , |k n0 k | k N,
k N, |k | |n0 k | + .
xn0 ` . , M > 0 |n0 k | M k N. supk |k | M + ,
x ` .
, (), s :
n n0 k N, |nk k | ,
, n n0 ,
d(xn , x) = sup{|nk k | : k N} .
> 0 , xn x d.
. c . , c ` .
` ,
d(x, y) = sup{|k k | : k N}.
c0 (x = (k ) c0 k 0 k )
c.
2.2.3. c c0 .
: c ` . 2.1.5,
` .
x = (k ) c. , xn = (nk ) c xn x. x c,
(k ) R. (k ) Cauchy R.
> 0. xn x, n0 N d(x, xn ) < n n0 . ,
(1)
n n0 k N, |k nk | < .
25
n: n0 . xn0 = (n0 k ) c, , Cauchy. ,

k0 N
s, r k0 , |n0 s n0 r | < .
(2)
, (1) (2) , s, r k0 ,
|s r |
|s n0 s | + |n0 s n0 r | + |n0 r r |
<
+ + = 3.
, (k ) Cauchy, x c. c c, c ` .
, x = (k ) c0 . , xn = (nk ) c0 xn x.
x c0 , k 0 k .
> 0. xn x, n0 N d(x, xn ) < n n0 . ,
n n0 k N, |k nk | < .
(3)
xn0 = (n0 k ) c0 , , k0 N
k k0 , |n0 k | < .
(4)
, (3) (4) , k k0 ,
|k | |k n0 k | + |n0 k | < + = 2.
2
, k 0 k , x c0 .
2.2.4. `p , 1 p < +, .
: 2.2.1. (xn ) Cauchy `p .

xn = (nk ) = (n1 , . . . , nk , . . .), nk R.
> 0. (xn ) Cauchy, n0 () N
()
n, s n0 =
!1/p
|nk sk |p
< .
k=1
, n, s n0 k N
|nk sk |
!1/p
|nk sk |
< .
k=1
, k N (nk ) Cauchy ( n) R. R,
1 , . . . , k , . . . R
n1 1
...
nk k , . . .
n . x = (1 , . . . , k , . . .). x `p .
N N , ()
n, s m0 ,
N
X
!1/p
|nk sk |
< ,
k=1
N
X
k=1
!1/p
|nk sk |p
N
X
k=1
!1/p
|nk k |p
26
s ,
n n0 ,
N
X
!1/p
|nk k |
|nk k |
k=1
N
()
n n0 ,
!1/p
.
k=1
, .. n = n0 , (nk k ) `p , (nk ) `p , Minkowski

x = (k ) = ((k nk ) + nk ) `p .
, ()
n n0 , d(x, xn ) ,
2
xn x.
:
() Q , d(x, y) = |x y|. (Q, d) :
, R. ,
Q = R.
() C[a, b] f : [a, b] R,
d(f, g) = max |f (t) g(t)|.
t[a,b]
(C[a, b], d) (). X C[a, b]

p : [a, b] R. Weierstrass, f C[a, b] > 0,
p X
d(f, p) = max |f (t) p(t)| < .
t[a,b]
, X = C[a, b] 6= X ( f ). , X
C[a, b], 2.1.5 X .
() () : ( [a, b]),
( ) , .
, . :
() X f : [0, 1] R, :
Z 1
d(f, g) =
|f (t) g(t)|dt.
0
d (M1)(M4).
(X, d) : (fn ), n 3, X :
0
, 0 t 21 ,

fn (t) = n t 12
, 12 < t < an = 21 + n1 ,
1
, a t 1.
n
27
0
1/2
an
Sqma 2.1: Ta grafmata twn sunartsewn
fn
(1) (fn ) Cauchy d: n > m. ,

am =
1
1
1
1
+
> + = an ,
2 m
2 n
( 2.1),
1/2
Z
d(fn , fm )
am
|fn fm | +
=
0
1/2
am
|fn fm | am
=
1/2
> 0. n0 N
1
n0
|fn fm | +
|fn fm |
am
1
1
= .
2
m
< , n, m n0 ,
d(fn , fm )
1
1
< ,
m
n0
, (fn ) Cauchy.
(2) fn f ( d) f : [0, 1] R. ,
Z
|fn (t) f (t)|dt 0

0
n . ,
Z
0
1/2
Z
|f (t)|dt =
1/2
Z
|fn (t) f (t)|dt
|fn (t) f (t)|dt 0,

0
f [0, 1], f (t) = 0, t [0, 1/2].

(1/2, 1). n0 N 21 + n1 < n n0 . , n n0
fn (t) = 1,
t [, 1].
,
Z
0
Z
|fn (t) f (t)|dt
|fn (t) f (t)|dt 0,

0
28
|1 f (t)|dt = 0
(;). f , f (t) = 1 t [, 1],

(1/2, 1), f (t) = 1 t (1/2, 1]. f t0 = 1/2,
f [0, 1].
Cauchy (fn ) X, ( d) X. ,
(X, d) .
2
2.3 Plrwsh metriko qrou*

Q d(x, y) = |x y| .
, R. R
Q. R\Q Cauchy Q
R ( ).
( ) X
( X).
X
Q R.
(X, d) (Y, ) . T : (X, d) (Y, )
. , x1 , x2 X
(T (x1 ), T (x2 )) = d(x1 , x2 ).
: T (x1 ) = T (x2 ),
0 = (T (x1 ), T (x2 )) = d(x1 , x2 ) = x1 = x2 .
X Y T : X Y .
,
.

d)
2.3.1. (X, d) . (X,
W (X, d).
: X , 2.2 (
Q). Cauchy X X (.. (xn ) :
). , (yn ), y X.
(1) Cauchy X:
(xn ) (x0n ) d(xn , x0n ) 0.
, (yn ), y X :
yn y X (yn ) (y, y, . . .).
(
X
).
y X, y
(2) X X:
Cauchy (y, y, . . .), , X.

y 6= y 0 X, (y, y, . . .) (y 0 , y 0 , . . .) (;) ,
X X.
29
xn
x0n
yn
Sqma 2.2: Apdeixh tou Jewrmatoc 2.3.1
x
(3) X
, y, . . ..
x
(xn ) X,
(yn ) Y ,
(4) d X;
, y X.

x, y) = lim d(xn , yn ).
d(
n
. (xn ), (yn ) Cauchy:

,
|d(xn , yn ) d(xm , ym )| d(xn , xm ) + d(yn , ym ) 0
n, m . , (d(xn , yn )) Cauchy R, .
xn
X
yn
Sqma 2.3: Qrsh thc trigwnikc anisthtac sthn apdeixh
(xn ) x
(yn ) y ,
d).
d (). , (X,
(5) W = {b : b X}, b, b X, (b, b, . . .).
b1 , b2 ) = limn d(b1 , b2 ) = d(b1 , b2 ) b1 , b2 X. , T : (X, d) (W, d)

d(
b b .
, W = X
d)
().
(6) , (X,
(X, d),
d)
(7) (X,
(X,
. , (X, d)
d)
d)
(X,
.
30
. , ..
E. Kreyszig.
2.4 To Jerhma tou Baire

Baire :
2.4.1.
S(X, d) . (Fn )
X X = n=1 Fn , Fn .
. (X, d) , =
6 A X. A
diam(A) := sup{d(x, y)|x, y A}.
.
(i) 0 diam(A) +.
(ii) diam(A) < + A .
(iii) diam(A) = diam(A).
Baire
(Cantor):
2.4.2. (X, d) . X
F1T F2 . . . Fn . . . X diam(Fn ) 0, x X
n=1 Fn = {x}.
: ()
n=1
Fn 6= . , x, y
n=1
Fn
0 d(x, y) diam(Fn ) 0,
T
d(x, y) = 0, x = y. n=1 Fn , .
T
n=1 Fn , : Fn 6= ,
xn Fn , n N.
. (xn ) Cauchy X.
: > 0. diam(Fn ) 0, n0 N : n n0 , diam(Fn ) < .
n > m n0 , xn , xm Fm ( (Fn ) ),
d(xn , xm ) diam(Fm ) < . 2
X (xn ) Cauchy, x X xn x.
T
n=1 Fn :
T m N. xm , xm+1 , xm+2 , . . . Fm xn x, x Fm = Fm . m ,
m=1 Fm .
() (xn ) Cauchy X. :
Fn0 = {xn , xn+1 , . . .} = {xm : m n},
Fn = Fn0 . (Fn0 ) , (Fn )

.
31
. diam(Fn ) 0.
: > 0. (xn ) Cauchy, n0 N :
n, m n0 , d(xn , xm ) < . n n0 , x, y Fn0 d(x, y) < (;)
diam(Fn ) = diam(Fn0 ) . 2
n=1
Fn = {x} x X. ,
0 d(xn , x) diam(Fn ) 0,
2
xn x. , X .
. diam(Fn ) 0 .
Fn = [n, +), n N. Fn
T
R, F1 F2 . . . Fn . . ., n=1 Fn = (;).
Baire :
2.4.1. (X, d) , G1 , G2 X. , G1 G2
() X.
x0
r0
x1
Sqma 2.4:
: D(x0 , r0 ) X.
D(x0 , r0 ) G1 G2 6= .
G1 X, x1 D(x0 , r0 ) G1 . D(x0 , r0 ) G1 , x1
. , r1 > 0
D(x1 , r1 ) D(x0 , r0 ) G1 .
G2 ,
x2 D(x1 , r1 ) G2 D(x0 , r0 ) G1 G2 .
, D(x0 , r0 ) G1 G2 6= .
, , G1 , . . . , Gm
(X, d), . (X, d) ,
(Baire):
2.4.3. T
(X, d) . (Gn )
X, n=1 Gn X.
32
: D(x0 , r0 ) X.
!
\
D(x0 , r0 )
Gn 6= .
n=1
G1 , x1 D(x0 , r0 ) G1 , D(x0 , r0 ) G1 , r1 > 0

( r1 1, )
D(x1 , r1 ) D(x0 , r0 ) G1 .
( x1 , , ). G2
, x2 D(x1 , r1 ) G2 , D(x1 , r1 ) G2 ,
0 < r2 1/2
D(x2 , r2 ) D(x1 , r1 ) G2 .
, xn X 0 < rn 1/n,
D(xn , rn ) D(xn1 , rn1 ) Gn ,
n N.
,
D(x1 , r1 ) D(x2 , r2 ) . . . D(xn , rn ) . . .
diam(D(xn , rn )) 2rn 0. X , Cantor
D(xn , rn ) = {x}
n=1
x X. ,
(i) x D(xn , rn ) D(xn1 , rn1 ) Gn Gn n N, x
n=1
Gn .
(ii) x D(x1 , r1 ) D(x0 , r0 ) G1 D(x0 , r0 ).

,
D(x0 , r0 )
!
Gn
6= . 2
n=1
2.4.1 2.4.3:
2.4.1:
S (X, d) , (Fn )
X, X = n=1 Fn .
Fn = n N. Gn = X\Fn . Gn ,
Gn = X\Fn = X\Fn = X\ = X,
Gn X. 2.4.3,
\
n=1
Gn 6= = X\
Fn 6= .
n=1
. , Fn .
Baire Banach. ,
:
(1) Osgood (1897) fn : [0, 1] R, n N, .
t [0, 1] (fn (t)) . , [a, b] [0, 1] M > 0
t [a, b] n N, |fn (t)| M.
33
0
1
1/n
Sqma 2.5: To grfhma thc
fn
(, (fn ) [a, b].)

: fn 2.5.
t [0, 1], fn (t) 0 n . , (fn (t))nN t.
(fn ) [0, 1], maxt[0,1] |fn (t)| = n . (fn )
.. [ 21 , 1], fn 0 [ 21 , 1] n 2, |f1 (t)| 1 [ 12 , 1]. ,
t [1/2, 1] n N,
|fn (t)| 1.
: m N
Am = {t [0, 1] : n N, |fn (t)| m}.
() Am : tk Am tk t,
n N, |fn (tk )| m
, fn fn (tk ) fn (t) k ,
n N, |fn (t)| m,
t Am .
S
() [0, 1] = m=1 Am : t [0, 1]. , (fn (t)) , Mt > 0
, n N, |fn (t)| Mt . m = m(t) N m Mt , m
t Am .
() [0, 1] , Baire Am0
, [a, b] Am0 . , (fn )
[a, b]:
t [a, b] n N, |fn (t)| m0 . 2
(2) . f : [1, ) R :
x 1,
, f (y) 0 y .
lim f (nx) = 0.
34
: > 0.
Am = {x 1 : n m |f (nx)| }.
() Am : xk Am xk x, n m, f nx,
|f (nx)| = lim |f (nxk )| .
k
, x Am .
S
() [1, ) = m=1 Am : x 1. , f (nx) 0. , m0 N ,
n m0 , |f (nx)| . , x Am0 .
() [1, ) ( ).
Baire, Am . , m N [, ] Am . :
1. x [, ], |f (nx)| n m. , |f (y)|
y [m, m] [(m + 1), (m + 1)] . . .
()
2. k m , s k, s > (s + 1) ( k > /( ).) ,

[k, k] [(k + 1), (k + 1)] . . . = [k, ).
() , y k, |f (y)| .
2
> 0 M (= k) > 0 |f (y)| y M . , limy f (y) = 0.
(3) . C[0, 1] [0, 1], d(f, g) =

maxt[0,1] |f (t) g(t)|. M f C[0, 1] [0, 1]
C[0, 1].
Baire :
2.4.1. f : [0, 1] R > 0, g : [0, 1] R
, d(f, g) < .
[ g P = {0 = t0 < t1 < . . . < tN = 1} g
(ti1 , ti ), i = 1, . . . , N .]
: f : > 0 > 0
: t, s [0, 1] |t s| < |f (s) f (t)| < /2.
N 1/N
< , [0, 1] N .
1
N 1
P
=
0,
,
.
.
.
,
,
1
. g
N
N
i1 i
,
,
i
=
1,
.
.
.
,
N
,
f :
N
N
g(i/N ) = f (i/N ),
t [0, 1]. 1 i N
()
i = 0, 1, . . . , N.
i1
N
i
N.
|f (t) g(t)| |f (t) f (i/N )| + |f (i/N ) g(t)|.
,

t i < = f (t) f (i/N ) < ,

N
2
i
i
i1
1
, g [ i1
N , N ] | N N | = N < ,

i
i
i
i 1 i
i 1
f
= g
g
g(t)
g(t)
g
=
f
f
< .
N
N
N
N N
N 2
35
0
t0 = 0
t1
t2
Sqma 2.6: Prosggish miac suneqoc
tN = 1
ap mia kat tmmata grammik sunrthsh
(), |f (t) g(t)| <
= . t , d(f, g) < .
n N

1
1
Dn = f C[0, 1] : t [0, 1] y t , t +
(0, 1) : |f (y) f (t)| > n|y t| .
n
n
. f
n=1
Dn , .
T
: f n Dn . t [0, 1] n N, yn = yn (t) (0, 1)
|t yn | < n1 |f (yn ) f (t)| > n|yn t|. yn 6= t, yn t,
f (yn ) f (t)
= ,
lim
n
yn t
f 0 (t).
T
n Dn C[0, 1], , Baire,
Dn .
. Dn C[0, 1].
: Dnc Dn . fk Dnc
fk f d ( - ;)
fk Dnc , tk [0, 1] , y (0, 1) |y tk | < 1/n |f (y)
f (tk )| n|y tk |.
tk [0, 1], t [0, 1] (tkm ) (tk ) tkm t.
y (0, 1) |y t| < 1/n, |f (y) f (t)| n|y t| (, f Dnc .)
> 0 y (0, 1) |y t| < 1/n. :
(i) ykm = y+(tkm t), ykm y. , m ykm (0, 1) |ykm tkm | = |yt| < 1/n.
,

fk (yk ) fk (tk ) n|y t|.
m
36
tkm
ykm
Sqma 2.7:
(ii) f tkm t. , ykm y = tkm t 0. , m
|f (t) f (tkm )| < , |f (y) f (ykm )| < .

(iii) m, d(fkm , f ) < ( fkm f .)
m (i), (ii) (iii),
|f (y) f (t)|
|f (y) f (ykm )| + |f (ykm ) fkm (ykm )| + |fkm (ykm ) fkm (tkm )|
+ |fkm (tkm ) f (tkm )| + |f (tkm ) f (t)|

<
+ d(f, fkm ) + n|y t| + d(fkm , f ) +
<
n|y t| + 4.
> 0 , |f (y) f (t)| n|y t|. y (0, 1) |y t| < 1/n,

2
f Dnc .
. Dn C[0, 1].
: f C[0, 1] > 0. , g : [0, 1] R ,
, d(f, g) < /2. , h Dn d(g, h) < /2.
g , 0 = t0 < t1 < . . . < tN = 1 g
(ti1 , ti ). li g (ti1 , ti ).
w : [0, 1] R : 0 w(t) < /2 [0, 1],
w ( ) n + max{|lj | : j = 1, . . . , N }.
h = g + w,
d(g, h) = max |w(t)| < .

2
t[0,1]
h Dn : t [0, 1]. i N t [ti1 , ti ].
|s| < 1/n t, t + s g w ( s
). y t, t + s,
y (0, 1), |y t| < 1/n,
|h(y) h(t)|
|w(y) w(t)| |g(y) g(t)|

>
n + max |lj | |y t| |li ||y t|
j
= n|y t|.
, h Dn .
2.5 Askseic
1. (xn ) (X, d). (xn ) Cauchy; ;
2. (xn ) (yn ) Cauchy (X, d).
an = d(xn , yn ) .
37
3. d1 d2 X. a, b > 0 :
x, y X,
ad1 (x, y) d2 (x, y) bd1 (x, y).
(xn ) X Cauchy (X, d1 ) Cauchy (X, d2 ).
4. (xn ) (X, d),
d(xn , xn+1 ) < +.
n=1
(xn ) Cauchy.
5. (X, d) . B(x, r) X
, X .
6. (X, d) , M X. Cauchy
M X, X .
7. Z d(m, n) = |m n|. (Z, d)
.
1
8. N d(m, n) = | m
.
1
n |.
(X, d)
9. U , R.

1
1

(x, y) = |x y| +
c
c
d(x, U ) d(y, U )
U U . (U, ) .
10. () C[a, b] f : [a, b] R d(f, g) =
maxt[a,b] |f (t) g(t)| .
[ d(fn , f ) 0 fn f .]
11. c00 ` x = (k )
. , x c00 nx N k = 0 k nx .
c00 .
12. R d(x, y) = | arctan x arctan y|. d , (R, d)
.
13. Y C[a, b] f : [a, b] R f (a) = f (b).
Y .
14. X .
15. C[a, b] d(f, g) =
fn (t) =
R1
0
,0 t
Cauchy, .
|f g|. (fn )
1
n2 ,
, n12 t 1,
38
P
16. c00 d(x, y) = k=1 |k k |. (
: n(x, y) N k = k = 0 k n(x, y).)
xn = (1, 212 , . . . , n12 , 0, 0, . . .) Cauchy d, (c00 , d).
17. X , Y , f : X Y .
T(An )
T
X diam(An ) 0, f ( n An ) = n f (An ).
39
40
-
1.
'Oqi.
opte h
2.
ak = (1)k
Prte ac pome thn akolouja
(ak )
Gia kje
den enai akolouja
m, n N
Cauchy.
sto
Afo den enai
R. Enai fragmnh, all |ak ak+1 | = 2

Cauchy, den sugklnei.
gia kje
k N,
qoume
d(xn , yn ) d(xn , xm ) + d(xm , ym ) + d(ym , yn ),

dhlad,
an d(xn , xm ) + am + d(yn , ym ) = an am d(xn , xm ) + d(yn , ym ).

Lgw summetrac,
|an am | d(xn , xm ) + d(yn , ym ).

'Estw
> 0.
Afo oi
(xn ), (yn )
Cauchy,
enai
d(xn , xm ) < ,
2
Tte, gia kje
(an )
n, m n0 ,
3.
enai akolouja
Cauchy
sto
R,
tte
(xn ) enai akolouja Cauchy ston (X, d1 ).

d1 (xn , xm ) < /b. Tte, an m, n n0 ,
>0
tan tuqn, h
(xn )
tte
opte sugklnei.
'Estw
d2 (xn , xm ) b d(xn , xm ) 0.
Uprqei
n0 N
ttoioc ste, an
= ,
b
(X, d2 ).
H antstrofh katejunsh enai entelc
anlogh.
4.
'Estw
> 0.
Afo
n=1
d(xn , xn+1 ) < +,
uprqei
N N
ttoioc ste
d(xn , xn+1 ) < .
n=N
An
k > l N,
tte
d(xl , xk )
d(xl , xl+1 ) + d(xl+1 , xl+2 ) + + d(xk1 , xk )
X
d(xn , xn+1 )
n=l
d(xn , xn+1 ) < .
n=N
(xn )
'Ara, h
5.
'Estw
xX
enai akolouja
Cauchy.
(xn ) akolouja Cauchy ston X . 'Eqoume

r > 0 ttoia ste: gia kje n N,
de ti kje akolouja
Cauchy
enai fragmnh. Uprqoun loipn
kai
xn B(x, r).
B(x, r) enai plrhc metrikc qroc me thn epagmenh metrik (ap thn upjesh), kai h (xn ) enai Cauchy ston X ,
ra Cauchy kai ston (B(x, r), d). Epomnwc, uprqei x0 B(x, r) ttoio ste d(xn , x0 ) 0. Dhlad, xn x0 ston
X.
H
6.
(xn )
tan tuqosa akolouja
Cauchy
X,
(xn ) akolouja Cauchy ston X . To M

wn M me thn idithta d(xn , wn ) < 1/n.
'Estw
brome
ston
'Estw
> 0.
Afo h
(xn )
enai
Cauchy,
ra o
(X, d)
enai plrhc.
enai pukn uposnolo tou
uprqei
n0 N
X,
ra gia kje
ttoioc ste: gia kje
d(xn , xm ) <
.
3
n, m n0 ,
nN
mporome na
41
Epshc, uprqei
n1 N
ttoioc ste
1/n1 < /3.
d(wn , wm )
<
(wn ) enai Cauchy sto M .
d(wn , xn ) 1/n, dhlad d(wn , xn ) 0.
n2 = max{n0 , n1 },
tte gia kje
n, m n2
qoume
d(wn , xn ) + d(xn , xm ) + d(xm , wm )
1
1
+ +
n
3
m
+ + = .
3
3
3
<
Epomnwc, h
An jsoume
x X
Ap thn upjes mac, uprqei
ttoio ste
d(wn , x) 0.
'Omwc,
'Ara,
0 d(xn , x) d(xn , wn ) + d(wn , x) 0 + 0 = 0.

Dhlad,
xn x.
Afo h
(xn )
tan tuqosa akolouja
Cauchy
7.
'Estw (xn ) akolouja Cauchy sto Z. Gia = 1/2 > 0,

d(xn , xm ) < 1/2. Eidiktera, gia kje n n0 qoume
d(xn , xn0 ) <

'Omwc, ap ton orism thc metrikc, qoume
Dhlad, h
8.
(xn )
Orzoume
1/n0 < /2.
d(y, xn0 ) 1
an
ston
X,
brskoume
(X, d)
n0 N
enai plrhc.
ttoion ste, an
n, m n0
tte
1
.
2
y 6= xn0 .
xn = xn0
Aut shmanei ti
gia kje
n n0 .
enai telik stajer, opte sugklnei (giat?).
xn = n. H (xn )
m, n n0
enai akolouja
Tte, an
Cauchy
ston
(N, d):
stw
> 0.
Uprqei
n0 N
ttoioc ste
qoume
1
1
1
2
1
d(xn , xm ) = d(n, m) = +
< .
n
m
n
m
n0
Ac upojsoume ti uprqei
kN
ttoioc ste
xn k
wc proc thn
d.
Tte,
1
1
1
1
d(xn , k) 0 0
n
k
n
k
n .
kajc
'Omwc,
1/n 0,
ra
1/k = 0
Cauchy
ston
(N, d),
Brkame akolouja
9.
Parathrome ti an
x, y U ,
to opoo enai topo.
h opoa den sugklnei wc proc thn
d(x, U c ) > 0
tte
kai
d(y, U c ) > 0
(giat to
d.
Uc
'Ara, o
(N, d)
den enai plrhc.
enai kleist kai
x, y
/ U c ).
'Ara, h
orzetai kal.
Den enai dskolo na elgxete ti h
enai metrik. To pio endiafron shmeo enai ti
(x, y) = 0 = |x y| +
'Estw
(xn )
akolouja
Cauchy
ston
(U, ).
1
1
= 0 = |x y| = 0 = x = y.
c
c
d(x, U )
d(y, U )
Gia kje
>0
uprqei
n0 N
ttoioc ste, an
m, n n0
tte
0 |xn xm | (xn , xm ) < ,

ra h
(xn )
enai akolouja
(1/d(xn , U c ))
n N,
dhlad, h
kje
Afo
xn x
Cauchy
enai
wc proc thn
(R, | |). Uprqei loipn x R ttoio
1
1
(xn , xm ) < ,
0
d(xn , U c )
d(xm , U c )
kai ston
Cauchy
ston
(R, | |),
ra enai fragmnh. Uprqei loipn
1
1
.
M = d(xn , U c )
d(xn , U c )
M
| |,
qoume
d(xn , U c ) d(x, U c ),
kai
d(x, U c ) = lim d(xn , U c )

n
dhlad
x U.
ste
1
> 0,
M
Tloc,
1
1
0.
(x, xn ) = |x xn | +
d(x, U c )
d(xn , U c )
|xn x| 0.
M >0
Epshc,
me thn idithta: gia
42
10.
C[a, b],
Ap ton orism thc metrikc tou
d(fn , f ) 0
> 0 n0 () N : n n0 d(fn , f ) <
> 0 n0 () N : n n0
> 0 n0 () N : n n0 t [a, b] |fn (t) f (t)| < ,
to opoo enai akribc o orismc thc omoimorfhc sgklishc thc
'Estw tra
(fn )
akolouja
max |fn (t) f (t)| <
t[a,b]
Cauchy
ston
C[a, b].
'Estw
(fn )
> 0.
sthn
Uprqei
f.
n0 () N
ttoioc ste
n, m n0 d(fn , fm ) < ,
dhlad,
n, m n0 t [a, b] |fn (t) fm (t)| < .

Aut shmanei ti h
f : [a, b] R
d(fn , f ) 0.
Afo h
11.
(fn )
enai omoimorfa
fn f
ttoia ste
(fn )
tan tuqosa akolouja
Arke na dexoume ti o
c00
Cauchy.
Ap gnwst jerhma (Anlush II), uprqei suneqc sunrthsh
omoimorfa.
Cauchy
'Opwc edame parapnw, aut grfetai isodnama sth morf
ston
C[a, b],
C[a, b]
den enai kleist uposnolo tou
enai plrhc.
(giat o
enai plrhc).
Orzoume
` 1
1
xn = 1, , . . . , , 0, . . . ,
2
n
` 1
1
1
x = 1, , . . . , ,
, . . . ` \c00 .
2
n n+1
Tte,
ff
1
1
1
1
d(xn , x) = sup |1 1|, . . . , , 0
0.
,... =
n
n
n+1
n+1
Brkame
12.
(xn )
ston
c00
me
xn x ` \c00 .
'Ara, o
c00
den enai kleist uposnolo tou
Den enai dskolo na elgxete ta aximata thc metrikc.
` .
To mno shmeo pou qreizetai prosoq enai h
aitiolghsh thc sunepagwgc
d(x, y) = | arctan x arctan y| = 0 = x = y,

h opoa mwc prokptei mesa ap to gegonc ti h
f (x) = arctan x
enai gnhswc axousa, ra na proc na, sto
R.
Gia na dexoume ti o (R, d) den enai plrhc, orzoume xn = n. H (xn ) enai akolouja Cauchy ston (R, d): stw
> 0. Afo limx arctan x = /2, uprqei n0 N ttoioc ste |/2 arctan n| < /2 gia kje n n0 . Tte, an
m, n n0 qoume
d(xn , xm )
d(n, m) = | arctan n arctan m|
|/2 arctan n| + |/2 arctan m|
+ = .
2
2
<
Ac upojsoume ti uprqei
wR
ttoioc ste
xn w
wc proc thn
d.
Tte,
d(xn , w) 0 | arctan n arctan w| 0 arctan n arctan w

n .
kajc
'Omwc tte
Brkame akolouja
arctan w = /2,
Cauchy
ston
13.
(R, d),
O C[a, b] enai plrhc, epomnwc

[a, b] R me fn Y kai d(fn , f ) 0.
Ap thn upjesh pou knoume,
to opoo enai topo.

h opoa den sugklnei wc proc thn
arke na dexoume ti o
fn (x) f (x)
gia kje
fn (a) f (a),
'Omwc
fn Y ,
ra
fn (a) = fn (b)
gia kje
n N.
x [a, b],
ra
fn (b) f (b).
f (a) = lim fn (a) = lim fn (b) = f (b),

dhlad
f Y.
Aut apodeiknei ti to
'Ara, o
(R, d)
enai kleist uposnolo tou
'Epetai ti
d.
C[a, b].
den enai plrhc.
C[a, b].
'Estw
f, fn :
43
14.
'Estw (xn ) akolouja Cauchy ston X .

d(xn , xm ) < 1/2. Eidiktera, gia kje n n0
Gia
= 1/2 > 0,
d(xn , xn0 ) <

'Omwc, h
Dhlad, h
15.
enai h diakrit metrik, dhlad
(xn )
brskoume
d(y, xn0 ) = 1
m < n.
fn , f m
Oi
d(fn , fm )
an
y 6= xn0 .
1/n
xn = xn0
gia kje
n n0 .
n0 N
ttoioc ste
1
n0
'Estw ti uprqei
1/n20 < .
1/n2
< .
An
d(fn , fm ) =
enai akolouja
1/m
1/ t).
'Ara,
mdt
t
1
m
2
2
1
m
2 +

+ 2
n
n
m
n
m
n
1
1
1
< .
m
n
m
ste
tte
1/m
` 1
1
nm
+
2
t
2 m m2 n2
n2
1/n
Uprqei
(sec me
|n m|dt +
=
=
(fn )
Aut shmanei ti
[ m12 , 1]
'Ara, h
n, m n0
1
.
2
sumpptoun sto
> 0.
ttoio ste, an
enai telik stajer, opte sugklnei (giat?).
Knte na sqma. 'Estw
'Estw
n0 N
qoume
n > m n0 ,
tte
1
1
1

< .
m
n
n0
Cauchy.
f : [0, 1] R suneqc, ttoia ste d(fn , f ) 0. Gia kje > 0

n n0 qoume
Z 1
Z 1
1
1
f (t)dt
f (t)dt
0
t
t
1/n2
Z 1
Z 1
=
|fn (t) f (t)|dt
|fn (t) f (t)|dt
brskoume
n0 N
ttoio
Tte, gia kje
1/n2
d(fn , f ) 0.
'Ara,
(0, 1)
f C[0, 1].
To
16.
An
tan tuqn, ra
n > m,
1
f (t)dt = 0 = f (t) = 1 ,
t
t
f (t) =
sto
t
'Omwc tte,
k=1
k=m+1
k=n+1
1
k=1 k2 sugklnei, ra an mc dsoun
>0
X
k=m+1
n > m n0 ,
Ac upojsoume ti
tte,
x
/ c00 ).
n > k0
to opoo enai topo afo
m
n
X
X
X
X
X
1
1
1
1
1
0
|0
0|
=
.
k2
k2
k2
k2
k2
'Epetai ti: an
limt0+ f (t) = +,
tte
d(xn , xm ) =
'Omwc h seir
(0, 1].
t [, 1].
tte
d(xn , xm ) < .
xn x = (k )k
k0 N
'Estw ti uprqei
uprqei
k=m+1
n0 () N
k=m+1
ttoioc ste, gia kje
m n0
1
< .
k2
Dhlad, h
(xn )
enai akolouja
Cauchy
ston
c00 .
c00 . Ja dexoume ti k = k12 gia kje

, to opoo enai topo (giat
kN
2
1
ttoioc ste k0 6= 1/k0 . Dhlad, k0 2 = > 0. Tte, gia kje
k
0
isqei
d(xn , x) =
X
X
1
k +
|k | 2 k0 = ,
2
k
k0
k=1
to opoo enai topo afo
k=n+1
d(xn , x) 0.
'Alloc trpoc: dexte ti o
c00
me aut th metrik den enai kleist uposnolo tou
`1
(giat aut enai arket?).
44
17.
'Eqoume
n=1
An Am
gia kje
m N,
f
ra
!
f (Am ) gia
An
kje
m N.
n=1
'Epetai ti
f
Gia ton antstrofo egkleism: stw
!
An
n=1
T
n=1
f (Am ) =
m=1
f (An ).
Gia kje
f (An ).
n=1
n N,
uprqei
xn An
ttoio ste
f (xn ) = y .
Afo diam(An ) 0, h (xn ) enai akolouja Cauchy (jumhjete thn apdeixh tou jewrmatoc tou Cantor). O
T
X
enai plrhc, ra uprqei x X gia to opoo xn x. Aut to shmeo x ankei sto
n=1 An (gia thn akrbeia,
T
n=1 An = {x} - jumhjete pli thn apdeixh tou jewrmatoc tou Cantor). Tloc, afo h f enai suneqc, qoume
f (x) = lim f (xn ) = lim y = y.

n
Dhlad,
y = f (x) f
` T
n=1
An
Keflaio 3
Qroi me nrma
3.1
Grammiko qroi
3.1.1 X ( ) R

+ : X X X ( )
: R X X ( )
:
() : x, y, z X,
1. x + y = y + x.
2. x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z.
3. ~0 X , x X, ~0 + x = x.
4. x X () x X x + (x) = ~0.
, X .
() : x, y X , R,
1. (x) = ()x.
2. 1x = x.
3. (x + y) = x + y.
4. ( + )x = x + x.
, ,
0x = ~0,
~0 = ~0, x = (1)x.
( ,
, ). X ( ).
3.1.2. () Rm
(1 , . . . , m ) + (1 , . . . , m ) = (1 + 1 , . . . , m + m ),
45
46
(1 , . . . , m ) = (1 , . . . , m ).
~0 = (0, . . . , 0) (1 , . . . , m ) = (1 , . . . , m ).
() s
: x = (k ), y = (k ), R,
x + y = (k + k )
x = (k ).
() A 6= F (A) f : A R, F (A)
: f, g F (A) R, f + g, f
F (A)
(f + g)(t) = f (t) + g(t) , (f )(t) = f (t) , t A.
3.1.3 X Y X, Y ()
X x, y Y , R x + y Y .
Y X Y
+, Y Y R Y . Y X
X Y 6= {0}, X.

s F (A):
(1) ` : , R x = (k ), y = (k ) ,
x + y = (k + yk ) .
(2) c : x = (k ), y = (k ) c, a, b R k a, k b.
, , R k + k a + b. , x + y c.
(3) c0 : x = (k ), y = (k ) c0 , R,
k 0, k 0 = k + k 0 = x + y c0 .
(4) `p , 1 p < + :
|k |p < + ,
k=1
|k |p < +,
k=1
, , R, Minkowski,
!1/p
|k + k |
k=1
||
X
k=1
!1/p
p
|k |
+ ||
!1/p
|k |
< +,
k=1
(k + k ) `p .
(5) B(A) : f, g : A R , R,
f + g .
(6) C[a, b] : f, g : [a, b] R , f + g , R. , C 1 [a, b],
D[a, b], Riemann I[a, b] F [a, b].
3.1.4 x1 , . . . , xm X, xi

1 x1 + + m xm , i R.
47
M X, M 6= , M ( span(M ) hM i)
M :
span(M ) = {1 x1 + + m xm : i R, xi M, m N}.
span(M ) X.
3.1.5 x1 , . . . , xm X, xi
1 x1 + + m xm = ~0 = 1 = . . . = m = 0.
, xi xj , j 6= i.
{x1 , . . . , xm } x1 , . . . , xm . ,
M X .
x1 , . . . , xm i R , 1 x1 + +m xm = ~0.
M 6= ,
x1 , . . . , x m M .
. () C[a, b], M = {1, t, . . . , tN , . . .} : 0 + 1 t + + N tN = ~0 N N, N 6= 0.
P (t) = 0 + 1 t + + N tN [a, b]. N -
0 [a, b]. ,
P (N ) (t) N !N 6= 0,
. , M (;).
() nk = 0 n 6= k nk = 1 n = k. M = {en : n N} ( en = (nk )kN )
s (), `p , 1 p , c, c0 .
3.1.6 X n N
1. X n x1 , . . . , xn .
2. k n + 1, k X .
x1 , . . . , xn : X = span{x1 , . . . , xn } ().
X X 6= {0} X . ,
.
: C[a, b] `p , 1 p .
3.1.7 M X (Hamel ) X
X. :
X . X
.
X X.
3.2 Qroi me nrma - Qroi Banach

. X . k k : X R
: x, y X R,
(1) kxk 0.
48
(2) kxk = 0 x = 0.
(3) kxk = || kxk.
(4) kx + yk kxk + kyk.
( x x 0,
.)
X: x, y X,
d(x, y) = kx yk.
3.2.1. d .
: (1) d(x, y) = kx yk 0, (1).
(2) d(x, y) = 0 kx yk = 0 x y = 0 x = y, (2).
(3) d(y, x) = ky xk = k(1)(x y)k = | 1| kx yk = kx yk = d(x, y), (3).
(4) d(x, y) = kx yk = k(x z) + (z y)k kx zk + kz yk = d(x, z) + d(z, y), (4).
. Banach (,
d .)
p
2 , x = ( , . . . , ).
12 + + m
. () Rm kxk =
1
m
k k ( Minkowski p = 2.)
pPm
2
2.2 Rm d(x, y) =
k=1 |k k | . ,
m
(R , k k) Banach.
() `p = {x = (k ) :
|k |p < }, 1 p < ,
kxk =
!1/p
p
|k |
k=1

kxk
!1/p
|k |
||
k=1
= ||
!1/p
p
|k |
k=1
!1/p
|k |
= || kxk.
k=1
Minkowski. , `p .
2.2 `p
d(x, y) =
!1/p
|k k |
k=1
, `p , 1 p < , Banach.
() kxk = sup{|k | : k N} ` . `
d(x, y) = sup{|k k | : k N}.
, ` Banach. c, c0 ` , Banach.
() C[a, b] Banach kf k = maxt[a,b] |f (t)|. .
49
() kf k0 =
d(f, g) =
Rb
R ab
a
|f (t)|dt C[a, b]. C[a, b]

|f (t) g(t)|dt. , (C[a, b], k k0 ) , Banach.
:
3.2.2. , k k +, .
: : -, xn , x X, xn x X d(xn , x)
0, kxn xk 0. , f ,
xn x = f (xn ) f (x).
() k k : , xn x = kxn k kxk.

kxk kxn k kx xn k,
kx xn k 0.
() + : xn x yn y, xn + yn x + y.

k(xn + yn ) (x + y)k = k(xn x) + (yn y)k kxn xk + kyn yk 0.
() : n xn x, n xn x.
()
kx n xn k = kn (x xn ) + ( n )xk |n | kx xn k + kxk | n |.
, n , M > 0 |n | M , n N. , ()
kx n xn k M kx xn k + kxk | n | 0. 2
: (
3.2.1 ):
3.2.3. X , d . , x, y, z X
R,
1. d(x + z, y + z) = d(x, y),
2. d(x, y) = ||d(x, y).
: () d(x + z, y + z) = k(x + z) (y + z)k = kx yk = d(x, y).
() d(x, y) = kx yk = k(x y)k = || kx yk = ||d(x, y).
: s,
d(x, y) =
X
1 |k k |
2k 1 + |k k |
k=1
. s , d k k s:

d(2x, 0) = k2xk = 2kxk = 2d(x, 0),
x = (k ) s
X
X
1 2|k |
1 |k |
=
2
.
2k 1 + 2|k |
2k 1 + |k |
k=1
k=1
(, , x = (1, 0, . . .).)
X . BX X 0
1. ,
BX = {x X : kxk 1}.
50
3.2.4. X, BX , ,
0, .
: () BX : BX D(0, 2).
() kxn k 1 xn x, kxk = limn kxn k 1. , BX .
() BX : x, y BX (0, 1),
kx + (1 )yk kxk + k(1 )yk + (1 ) = 1,
, x + (1 )y BX .
() x BX , k xk = kxk 1, x BX . , BX 0.
2
() D(0, 1/2) BX , BX
6= .
3.3 Sgklish seirn

: xn , x X, n N,
xn x kxn xk 0.
, (xn ) X Cauchy > 0
n0 = n0 () N
n, m n0 = kxn xm k < .
X , X.
:
() (xk ) X. (sn ) (xk )

sn = x1 + + xn ,
n = 1, 2, . . .
P
x X sn x, k=1 xk x,
x=
xk .
k=1
()
k=1
xk ,
kxk k < +
k=1
(, kx1 k + kx2 k + R.)

P
3.3.1. X Banach. k=1 xk X,
X.
: (xk ) X,
n0 () N , n > m n0 ,
k=1
kxk k < . > 0,
kxm+1 k + + kxn k < .

, n > m n0 ,
ksn sm k = kxm+1 + + xn k kxm+1 k + + kxn k < .
> 0 , P
(sn ) Cauchy. X , sn x X.
k=1 xk x.
2
3.3.1 :
51
3.3.2. X , , X
( Banach).
: (xn ) Cauchy X. =
n1 < n2 < . . . < nk < . . .
n > m nk ,
1
,
2k
k = 1, 2, . . ., (;)
kxn xm k <
1
.
2k
,
1
,
2
1
x n2 k < 2 ,
2
n2 > n1 n1 = kxn2 xn1 k <

n3 > n2 n2 = kxn3
, ,
nk+1 > nk nk = kxnk+1 xnk k <

k N. ,
1
2k
kxnk+1 xnk k < 1 < +.
k=1
P
k=1 (xnk+1 xnk ) , ( ) : x X
m
X
(xnk+1 xnk ) x,
k=1
, xnm+1 xn1 x. , xnk x + xn1 . (xn ) .

Cauchy, X ( 2.1.3). X .
2
,
Hamel :
(en ) Schauder X, en X, n N, x X

X
an en .
x=
n=1
( an = an (x) R
kx (a1 e1 + . . . + am em )k 0
m .)
n=1
an en x (en ).
1 p < +, (en ) en = (nk ) Schauder `p ().

3.3.3. X . X Schauder (en )nN , X .
Pm
: M = { n=1 qn en : m N, qn Q}. M . x X > 0.
an R, n N
X
x=
an en ,
n=1
m N
m
X

x
an en < .
2
n=1
n = 1, . . . , m, qn Q
|qn an | ken k <
.
2m
52
Pm
n=1 qn en
M ,
m
X

x
qn en
m
m
X

X

x
an en +
(an qn )en
n=1
n=1
<
n=1
m
X
+
|an qn | ken k
2 n=1
+m
= .
2
2m
, M = X.
: 1936, Mazur 3.3.3: , Banach Schauder. : 1973, Per Enflo

.
3.4 Askseic
1. Y Z X, Y Z X, Y Z
X Y Z Z Y .
2. () , 1 p < r , x Rn
1
kxkr kxkp n p r kxkr .

x .
() > 0 N N : N 0
B(x, r) = D(x, r).
5. X , Y X. Y 6= , Y = X.
6. X , k k, k k0 X. kxk kxk0 x X,
B(X,kk0 ) B(X,kk) .
7. c00 `p , 1 p . `p , 1 p < +, ` .
P
8. S = {x ` : k=1 |k | 1}. S `1 ( ` )
kxk = sup{|k | : k N} .
`1 kxk = sup{|k | : k N} Banach.
9. `1
X

X
1
1+
kxk0 = 2
k +
|k |.
k
k=1
k=2
P
k k0 . kxk = k=1 |k |; (`1 , k k0 ) Banach;
53
10. X n- , x1 , . . . , xm
Pm X.
, x X 1 , . . . , m R ( ), x = i=1 i xi .
X

m
m
X
kxk = inf
|i | : i R, x =
i xi .
i=1
i=1
(X, k k) .
11. C 1 [0, 1] f : [0, 1] R,

0
kf k = max max |f (t)|, max |f (t)| .
0t1
0t1
k k , (C 1 [0, 1], k k) Banach.

12. c0 kxk0 =
Banach.
|k |
k=1 2k .
(c0 , k k0 ) ,

P
13. Pc00 ` . yn = 0, . . . , 0, n12 , 0, . . . , n N. n kyn k
, n yn Y . ;
54
55
-
1.
(a) Gia thn tom: upojtoume ti
X,
parnoume
x + y Y .
(b) Gia thn nwsh: an
Omowc,
Y Z
X.
tte
x, y Y Z kai , R. Afo x, y Y
x + y Z . Dhlad, x + y Y Z .
Y Z = Z,
en an
Z Y
tte
kai o
Y Z = Y.
enai grammikc upqwroc tou
Se kje perptwsh, o
Y Z
enai
grammikc upqwroc tou
Antstrofa, ac upojsoume ti o
z Z\Y ,
kai
Y Z
ja katalxoume se topo. Prgmati, afo
An
y+z Y
tte
(y + z) y Y
giat o
An
y+z Z
tte
(y + z) z Z
giat o
Afo den mporon na isqoun tautqrona oi
2.
(a) Dexte thn exc anisthta: an
kai
a1 , . . . , an 0,
r1
kai
y, z Y Z ,
X.
Me thn upjesh ti uprqoun
qoume
enai upqwroc, dhlad
zY
to opoo enai topo.
enai upqwroc, dhlad
yZ
Y \Z 6=
qoume ete
a, b 0,
kai
tte
Z\Y 6= ,
y Y \Z
y + z Y Z.
to opoo enai pli topo.
(a + b)r ar + br .
Y Z
ete
Z Y.
Epagwgik blpoume ti an
r1
tte
(a1 + + an )r ar1 + + arn .

'Estw
p < r.
An
x = (1 , . . . , n ) Rn ,
qoume
kxkrp = (|1 |p + + |n |p )r/p (|1 |p )r/p + + (|n |p )r/p = |1 |r + + |n |r = kxkrr ,

opte
x = ~0
kxkr kxkp (qrhsimopoisame

x = ei , i = 1, . . . , n.
thn prohgomenh anisthta gia ta
Gia thn llh anisthta qrhsimopoiome thn anisthta tou
kxkpp
r/p > 1
kai
ak = |k |p ).
H
older:
|1 |p 1 + + |n |p 1
p
p
r
(1 + + 1)1 r
(|1 |p )r/p + + (|n |p )r/p
kxkpr n1 r ,
Isthta isqei an
ra
11
r . Isthta isqei an
kxkp kxkr n p
x = (1, . . . , 1).
H perptwsh
r=
enai apl.
kxk kxkp n1/p kxk gia kje p 1 kai kje x Rn . 'Estw > 0. Afo n1/p 1
N N ttoioc ste n1/p < 1 + gia kje p > N . Tte, gia kje p > N isqei h
(b) Ap to (a) qoume
p ,
uprqei
x Rn .
kxk kxkp (1 + )kxk ,
3.
'Estw
tou
X,
z, w Y kai , R. Uprqoun zn , wn Y
n N qoume zn + wn Y .
me
zn z
tan
kai
wn w.
Afo o
enai grammikc upqwroc
gia kje
'Omwc oi prxeic tou
enai suneqec wc proc th nrma, ra
zn + wn z + w.
Aut shmanei ti
4.
B(x, r)
z + w Y .
enai kleist snolo kai
D(x, r) B(x, r).
'Ara,
D(x, r) B(x, r).

Antstrofa, stw
y B(x, r), y 6= x. Orzoume yn = x + n (y x),

yn x + (y x) = y kai
pou
(n )
gnhswc axousa akolouja jetikn
arijmn me rio to 1. Tte
kx yn k = kn (y x)k = n ky xk < ky xk r,
dhlad
5.
yn D(x, r) kai yn y .
Afo
Y 6= ,
uprqoun
'Epetai ti
yX
kai
y D(x, r), kai afo to y B(x, r), y 6= x tan tuqn, B(x, r) D(x, r).
r>0
ttoia ste
D(y, r) Y .
Eidiktera,
y Y.
56
'Estw
x X , x 6= y .
Tte,
r xy
2 kxyk
y+
D(y, r)
y+
'Omwc o
X,
(giat?), ra
r xy
Y.
2 kx yk
opte qrhsimopointac thn paratrhsh ti
yY
parnoume
r xy
Y = x y Y = x Y.
2 kx yk
To
6.
'Estw ti
tan tuqn, ra
Y = X.
kxk kxk0 gia kje x X . An x B(X,kk0 ) ,

x B(X,kk) . Dhlad, B(X,kk0 ) B(X,kk) .
ti
Antstrofa, upojtoume ti
kxk0 1.
tte
'Ara,
kxk kxk0 1,
B(X,kk0 ) B(X,kk) kai jewrome tuqn x X\{0}.
x 0
x
kxk0 = 1 = kxk0 B(X,kk0 ) B(X,kk) ,
to opoo shmanei
Tte,
dhlad
x
kxk
kxk0 1 = kxk0 1.
H
7.
k0k k0k0
x = (k ) `p , 1 p < +
p
k=N +1 |k | < .
P(a)
kxk kxk0
isqei san isthta, opte dexame ti
'Estw
kai
> 0.
Afo
k=1
Orzoume
w = (1 , . . . , N , 0, . . .) c00 .
x X.
gia kje
|k |p < +,
N N
uprqei
ttoioc ste
Tte,
!1/p
kx wk =
|k |p
< ,
k=N +1
dhlad D(x, ) c00 6= .
1 p < +.
(b) Jewrome to
>0
Afo to
kai to
x = (1, . . . , 1, . . .) ` .
x `p
An
tan tuqnta, sumperanoume ti o
w c00 ,
uprqei
N N
ttoioc ste
c00
wk = 0
enai puknc ston
gia kje
k N.
`p ,
'Ara,
kx wk = sup{|1 wk | : k N} |1 wN | = 1.
Dhlad
8.
d(x, c00 ) 1,
(a) 'Estw
to opoo shmanei ti
xn = (nk ) S ,
dhlad
D(x, 1) c00 = .
|nk | 1
gia kje
'Ara, o
n.
c00
den enai puknc ston
Upojtoume ti
` .
xn x = (k ) ` .
Tte,
sup{|nk k | : k N} 0
kajc
n ,
ra gia kje
kN
qoume
nk k
N
X
kajc
|nk |
k=1
n .
Gia kje
N N
qoume
|nk | 1,
k=1
ra
N
X
|k | = lim
k=1
P
Afo aut isqei gia kje N , petai ti
k=1 |k |
1,
N
X
|nk | 1.
k=1
dhlad
x S.
Aut apodeiknei ti to
enai kleist ston
` .
(b) Ja dexoume ti to
qei ken eswterik ston
(`1 , k k` )
- ra kai ston
` .
'Estw ti uprqoun
xS
kai
>0
me thn idithta
{z `1 : kz xk` < } S.
k1 < k2 < . . . < kN < . . . gia touc opoouc kj 0 (allic
n N tso meglo ste N /2 > 1 kai orzoume k0 1 = k1 + 2 , . . . , k0 N =
0
0
0
llouc k . Tte to x = (k ) `1 , kx x k` =
< , kai
2
Mporome na upojsoume ti uprqoun peiroi dektec

douleoume me ta arnhtik
kN +
, kai
2
k0 = k
k ).
Brskoume
gia louc touc
X
k=1
|k0 | =
X
k=1
|k | +
N
> 1,
2
57
dhlad
x0
/ S.
'Atopo, giat eqame upojsei ti
(g) 'Estw ti o
(`1 , k k` ) enai
n N orzoume
qroc
`1 D(x, ) S .
Banach.
Tte, o
`1
wc proc thn
k k`
(giat?). Gia kje
Fn = nS = {x `1 :
|k | n}.
k=1
`1 wc proc thn k k` , kai qei ken eswterik ston (`1 , k k` ): an to nS

S ja perieqe mpla aktnac r/n, topo ap to (b).
S
Ta Fn enai kleist uposnola tou `1 me ken eswterik kai `1 =
n=1 Fn (giat?). Aut enai topo ap to
jerhma tou Baire. 'Ara, o (`1 , k k` ) den enai qroc Banach.
Kje
Fn
perieqe mpla aktnac
9.
k k0
r > 0,
tte to
x `1 qoume
X
X
3X
1
2
|k | 2
k +
|k | +
|k | < +.
1+
k
2
orzetai kal, giat an
k=1
k=1
k=2
kxk = 0 = x = 0. 'Eqoume
X
X
1
0
kxk = 0 = 2
|k | = 0,
k +
1+
k
k=2
k=1
P
kje k 2 kai
k=1 k = 0. Aut ta do mc dnoun kai thn 1 = 0,
H mnh idithta thc nrmac pou qreizetai prosoq, enai h
ap pou parnoume
k = 0
Ja dexoume ti h
gia
k=2
k k kai h sunjhc nrma k k ston `1 enai isodnamec.

`1 enai plrhc wc proc thn k k0 (giat?). 'Eqoume:
Afo o
(`1 , k k)
ra
x = 0.
enai qroc
Banach,
aut deqnei amswc ti o
kxk0 2
|k | +
k=1
X
3X
3X
7
|k | 2
|k | +
|k | = kxk,
2
2
2
k=2
k=1
k=1
kai
kxk
=
=
|k | = |1 | +
k=1

X
k=1
k=2
10.
Ta
xi
pargoun ton
X,
k=2
+2
|k |
=
kxk
X
k +
|k |
7
kxk gia kje
2
X
X

k | +
|k |
k + |
k=2

X
X
1
2 2
k +
1+
|k |
k
k=1
0
k=2
2kxk .
x `1 ,
epomnwc kje
k=2
k=2
k=1
|k |
k=2
k=1
1
Edame ti
kxk
2
ra oi do nrmec enai isodnamec.
xX
grfetai me toulqiston nan trpo sth morf
x=
Pm
i=1
i xi .
'Ara, to
X
m
|i | : x =
i=1
m
X
ff
i xi
i=1
enai mh ken kai ktw fragmno ap to 0, opte h
kxk = inf
X
m
i=1
orzetai kal. Profanc,
kxk 0
gia kje
|i | : x =
m
X
ff
i xi
i=1
x X.
(k)
(N 2): 'Estw ti kxk = 0. Tte, gia kje k N uprqoun i

Pm (k)
(k)
(k)
0 gia kje i m. Prte

i=1 i xi . Afo |i | < 1/k , qoume i
Pm (k)
Pm
x = i=1 i xi k=1 0 xi = ~0 wc proc thn k k0 , ra x = ~0.
Gia to
ttoioi ste
Pm
i=1
opoiadpote nrma
(k)
|i | < k1 kai x =
k k0 ston X . Tte,
58
(N 3): 'Estw x X kai a P

R. Gia tuqn > 0
P
m
|
|
<
kxk
+
. Tte, ax =
kxk m
i
i=1 (ai )xi kai
i=1
Gia to
m
X
i R
uprqoun
ttoioi ste
x =
Pm
i=1
i xi
kai
|ai | < |a| kxk + |a| = kaxk < |a| kxk + |a|.
i=1
Afo to
(N 4):
Gia to
kaxk |a| kxk.
tan tuqn,
'Estw
x, y X
kai
> 0.
Telewc anloga deqnoume thn antstrofh anisthta.

Uprqoun
m
X
i , i R
|i | < kxk + ,
m
X
i=1
Tte,
x+y =
Pm
i=1 (i
+ i )xi
ttoioi ste
Pm
x=
i=1
i xi , y =
Pm
i=1
i xi
kai
|i | < kyk + .
i=1
kai
m
X
|i + i |
i=1
m
X
|i | +
i=1
m
X
|i | < kxk + kyk + 2.
i=1
'Ara,
kx + yk
m
X
|i + i | < kxk + kyk + 2,
i=1
kai afo to
tan tuqn, parnoume thn
kx + yk kxk + kyk.
k k enai nrma ston C 1 [0, 1]. Ac upojsoume ti (fn ) enai mia akolouja Cauchy ston
C [0, 1]. Gia kje > 0 uprqei n0 N ttoioc ste: an n, m n0 , tte kfn fm k < , dhlad kfn fm k < kai
0
kfn0 fm
k < , pou k k h sunjhc nrma ston C[0, 1]. O C[0, 1] enai plrhc, oi (fn ) kai (fn0 ) enai akoloujec
Cauchy, ra uprqoun suneqec f, g : [0, 1] R ttoiec ste fn f kai fn0 g omoimorfa. Ap gnwst jerhma
0
1
(Anlush II), h f enai paragwgsimh kai f = g . Afo h g enai suneqc, qoume f C [0, 1]. Tloc, kfn f k 0
0
0
kai kfn f k 0, ra
kfn f k = max{kfn f k , kfn0 f 0 k } 0.
11.
Ekola elgqoume ti h
Dhlad,
12.
fn f
k k0
ston
C 1 [0, 1].
orzetai kal: an
(fn )
tan tuqosa akolouja
x = (k ) c0 ,
tte
|k | 0,
Cauchy,
ra uprqei
ra o
M >0
(C 1 [0, 1], k k)
ttoioc ste
enai qroc
|k | M
Banach.
gia kje
k N.
Tte,
X
X
|k |
M
= M < +.
2k
2k
k=1
k=1
Ta aximata thc nrmac elgqontai ekola.

Ja orsoume akolouja
qroc
Cauchy
ston
(c0 , k k0 ),
h opoa den sugklnei. Aut ja dexei ti o
xn = (1, . . . , 1, 0, . . .) c0 (n
Orzoume
n > m n0 ,
mondec).
'Estw
n
X
k=m+1
(xn )
k 0,
dhlad h
enai akolouja
Afo
uprqei
k0 N
Cauchy
Aut enai topo, afo upojsame ti
n=1
kyn k =
An uprqe
ttoioc ste
1/2n0 < .
An
1
n=1 n2
1
1
< m < ,
2k
2
ttoio ste
kxn xk0 0.
k=n+1
kxn xk0 0.
< +.
Ta merik ajrosmata thc
yn
enai
1
1
, . . . , 2 , 0, . . .) x = (1/n2 )nN
22
k
y c00 gia to opoo sk y , ap monadikthta tou orou (ston ` ) ja eqame y = x

/ c00 ,
c00 h opoa sugklnei apoltwc all den sugklnei. 'Ara, o (c00 , k k` ) den enai qroc
topo. Brkame seir ston
Banach.
n0 N
n
X
X
|1 k |
|k |
|1 k0 |
1
+
k +1 .
2k
2k
2k0
2 0
sk = y1 + + yk = (1,
` .
Uprqei
k k0 . 'Estw ti uprqei x = (k ) c0
|k0 | < 1/2. An n k0 , tte
k=1
'Eqoume
> 0.
wc proc thn
ttoioc ste
kxn xk0 =
ston
den enai
tte
kxn xm k =
13.
(c0 , k k0 )
Banach.
Keflaio 4
Qroi peperasmnhc distashc

4.1 Basikc idithtec
, ,
. .
,
.
4.1.1. X , x1 , . . . , xm
X. c > 0 ( x1 , . . . , xm ),
a1 , . . . , am R
c (|a1 | + + |am |) ka1 x1 + + am xm k.
(, ai , a1 x1 + + am xm
.)
: c > 0
m
X
()
|i | = 1 = k1 x1 + + m xm k c.
i=1
(k)
(k)
. , k N 1 , . . . , m R
(k)
(k)
k1 x1 + + m
xm k <
, y (k) =
Pm
Pm
i=1
(k)
|i | = 1
1
.
k
(k)
i xi , ky (k) k 0.
Pm
(k)
(k)
: k i=1 |i | = 1, k |1 | 1.
(k )
(k)
, (1 s ) (1 ) 1 R.
(k )
i=1
(kls )
(k )
(2 s ): , |2 s | 1, (2
(k )
(k )
2 R. , 1 ls 1 ( (1 s ).)
(ks )
) (2
m , 1 , . . . , m R k1 < k2 < . . . < kn < . . .

i = 1, . . . , m,
(kn )
i .
y = 1 x1 + + m xm . ,
ky y (kn ) k = k
m
X
(kn )
(i i
)xi k
i=1
m
X
i=1
59
(kn )
|i i
| kxi k 0.
(kls )
) 2
60
, y (kn ) y ky (kn ) k 0,
kyk = lim ky (kn ) k = 0,
n
, y = 1 x1 + + m xm = ~0. x1 , . . . , xm , 1 = 2 =
. . . = m = 0. ,
m
m
X
X
(k )
|i | = lim
|i n | = lim 1 = 1,
n
i=1
i=1
. ().
a1 , . . . , am R. a1 = . . . = am = 0,
0 = ka1 x1 + + am xm k c
m
X
|ai | = 0.
i=1
A =
Pm
i=1
|ai | =
6 0, i = ai /A. ,
Pm
i=1
|i | = 1, ()

1
(a1 x1 + + am xm ) = k1 x1 + + m xm k c,
A
, ,
ka1 x1 + + am xm k cA = c
m
X
|ai |.
i=1
, :
4.1.1. X , Y X .
, Y . , .
: dimY = n, {e1 , . . . , en } Y . (y (m) )
Cauchy Y . y (m) ei :
y (m) =
n
X
(m)
ai
ei .
i=1
> 0. (y (m) ) Cauchy, m0 () N : m, s m0 ,

ky (m) y (s) k < . , m, s m0 ,
n
X

(a(m) a(s) )ei < .
i
i=1
ei , , c > 0 : m, s m0 ,
c
n
X
(m)
|ai
(s)
ai |
n
X

(m)
(s)

(ai ai )ei < .
i=1
i=1
, i = 1, . . . , n m, s m0 ,
(m)
|ai
(s)
ai | <
(m)
(;). , i = 1, . . . , n, (ai ) Cauchy R. , a1 , . . . , an R

(m)
a1 a1 , . . . , a(m)
an .
n
y = a1 e1 + + an en Y . ,
ky y (m) k
n
X
i=1
(m)
|ai ai
| kei k 0,
61
, y (m) y. , Y .
: 2.1.5() (X, d) ,
. 4.1.1 :
4.1.2. X , Y X .
, Y X.
2
: 4.1.1, Y .
: X Banach, Hamel X .
: X Hamel
e1 , e2 , . . . , en , . . .
Yn = he1 , . . . , en i. Yn , X.
, x X en ,
X=
Yn .
n=1
, X . Baire Yn .
n N, x Yn r > 0
{z X : kz xk < r} Yn .
: w X. > 0 kwk < r. , x + w Yn (;).
x Yn , Yn X. ,
w=
1
((x + w) x) Yn .
Yn = X. , X .
: X ,
X Banach. P [a, b]
[a, b] ().
X . k k k k0 X
a, b , x X
akxk kxk0 bkxk.
4.1.1. k k k k0 X. xn , x X,
kx xn k 0 kx xn k0 0.
(, xn x (X, k k) xn x (X, k k0 ):
.)
: kx xn k0 0, kx xn k a1 kx xn k0 0. , kx xn k 0.
, kx xn k 0, kx xn k0 bkx xn k 0, kx xn k0 0.
4.1.2. k k k k0 X. A X, A
(X, k k) A (X, k k0 ).
62
: A (X, k k). xn A xn x k k0 .
4.1.1, xn x k k, A k k,
x A. , A k k0 .
2
.
:
4.1.3. X X.
: A X k k k k0 (;).
2
,
:
4.1.4. X . k k k k0
X, a, b > 0 : x X,
akxk kxk0 bkxk.
: dimX = n, {e1 , . . . , en } X. 4.1.1 (
k k k k0 ), c, c0 , a1 , . . . , an R,
c
n
X
|ai | ka1 e1 + + an en k,
i=1
c0
n
X
|ai | ka1 e1 + + an en k0 .
i=1
x X. a1 , . . . , an R x = a1 e1 + + an en . ,
kxk
= ka1 e1 + + an en k
n
X
|ai | kei k
i=1
X
n
max kei k
|ai |
in
i=1
n
max kei k 0 X
c
|ai |
c0
i=1
max kei k
ka1 e1 + + an en k0
c0
1
kxk0 ,
a
a = c0 / max kei k. ,
kxk0 = ka1 e1 + + an en k0
max kei k0
kxk = bkxk.
c

a=
c0
,
max kei k
b=
max kei k0
.
c
4.1.4 ,
: X
.
63
.
c00 x = (k ) . ,
x c00 nx N : k > nx ,
k = 0.
c00 :
kxk = max{|k | : k N} , kxk1 =
|k |.
k=1
, kxk kxk1 . b > 0

x X,
kxk1 bkxk .
b, xn = (1, . . . , 1, 0, . . .)
n = kxn k1 bkxn k = b,
n N, . X .
4.2 Sumpgeia kai peperasmnh distash

: X
. M X (xm ) M
x M (xkm ) (xm ) kx xkm k 0.
4.2.1. M , .
: () M : x M . (xm ) M xm x. M
, y M xkm y. xm x, xkm x. , x = y M .
, M M .
() A > 0 kxk A x M . xm M ,
m N, kxm k > m. , x M xkm x. , kxkm k kxk. ,
xm , kxkm k . .
2
4.2.1 . , M = {en : n N}
`1 . n 6= m, ken em k1 = 2.
M ( ), . (en ) M
: , ,
2.
4.2.1. X , 6= M X. , M
.
(m)
: () dimX = n, {e1 , . . . , en } X. xm = a1 e1 +
(m)
+ an en , M .
M , A > 0
(m)
ka1 e1 + + a(m)
n en k = kxm k A,
m N.
, c > 0
c
n
X
i=1
(m)
|ai
| kxm k A,
m N,
64
, 4.1.1, k1 < k2 < . . . < km < . . . ai R
(k )
m)
a1 m a1 , . . . , a(k
an .
n
x = a1 e1 + + an en . ,
n
n
X
X
(k )
(k )
kx xkm k = (ai ai m )ei
|ai ai m | kei k 0,
i=1
i=1
xkm x. , x M xkm M M . M
( M ) , M .
2
, .
. , BX
X . :
F. Riesz (1918) X , Y, Z X. Y
, Z. , (0, 1) z Z kzk = 1
d(z, Y ) = inf{kz yk : y Y } .
: Y Z, v Z\Y . Y v
/ Y,
r > 0 D(v, r) Y = . , kv yk r y Y .
d(v, Y ) = inf{kv yk : y Y } = a > 0.
(0, 1), a/ > a. , y0 Y
kv y0 k <
a
.
vy0
z = kvy
( y0 6= v, kv y0 k =
6 0.) , kzk = 1, z Z v, y0 Z Z
0k
X.
kz yk y Y . , y Y :

v y0
v (y0 + kv y0 ky)

kz yk =
y =

kv y0 k
kv y0 k
kv (y0 + kv y0 ky)k
kv (y0 + kv y0 ky)k
=
kv y0 k
a/
a
= ,
a/
2
y0 + kv y0 ky Y ( Y ).
4.2.2. X . X BX
.
: X , BX : BX
, 4.2.1.
X , BX .
(xn ) X kxn k = 1, n N,
n 6= m = kxn xm k
1
.
2
(, (xn ) BX .)
1. x1 X kx1 k = 1.
65
2. x2 : Y1 = hx1 i , X.
X , Y1 X. Riesz Y = Y1 ,
Z = X = 21 : x2 X kx2 k = 1 d(x2 , Y1 ) 1/2. , x1 Y1 ,
kx2 x1 k 21 .
3. : x1 , . . . , xk kxn xm k 1/2 n 6= m,
n, m {1, . . . k}. Yk = hx1 , . . . , xk i. , Yk ,
X. Riesz Y = Yk , Z = X = 21 , xk+1 X
kxk+1 k = 1 d(xk+1 , Yk ) 1/2. x1 , . . . , xk Yk ,
kxk+1 xj k
1
,
2
j = 1, . . . , k.
,
kx1 k = kx2 k = . . . = kxk+1 k = 1,
, n 6= m {1, . . . , k + 1},
1
.
2
, (xn ) .
kxn xm k
:
() T : (X, d) (Y, ) , M X , T (M ) .
: (yk ) T (M ). k xk M T (xk ) = yk . M
, (xkn ) x M xkn x. T , T (xkn ) T (x). ,
T (xkn ) = ykn . ,
ykn T (x) T (M ). 2
() T : (X, d) (R, | |) M X , T
M.
: T (M ) R, .
sup inf, , sup max inf min. , a, b R
a T (x) b x M , a, b T M : x1 , x2 M
T (x1 ) = a T (x) b = T (x2 )
x M .
4.2.2,
: ,
() ().
4.3 Askseic
1. k k k k0 X.
f : B(X,kk) B(X,kk0 ) . , f , , f 1 .
2. () 1 p < q < +, `p `q , `q
c0 .
() k kp k kq `p (p < q).
S
() c0 = 1p<+ `p .
66
3. Riesz: Y X
, x X kxk = 1 d(x, Y ) = 1.
: v X\Y . Y , d(v, Y ) = a > 0. yn Y
a kv yn k < a + n1 . (yn ) Y , .
4. (X, d) ,
.
5. X M X, M .
6. .
: .
7. X, Y , X , T : X Y , .
T 1 : Y X .
8. C[0, 1] kf k = maxt[0,1] |f (t)|.
,
{g K : kf gk = d(f, K)}.
() K , f C[0, 1].
() K = {ax : a R}, f .
R1
() K = {g C[0, 1] : g 0, 0 g(t)dt g(0) + 1}, f 0.
67
-
1.
Oi
kk
kai
k k0
enai isodnamec, ra uprqoun
f : B(X,kk) B(X,kk0 )
Orzoume
me
f (~0) = ~0
a, b > 0
enai kal orismnh: an
x B(X,kk) , x 6= ~0,
f (x) B(X,kk0 ) .
An
x = ~0,
tte
kxk
x,
kxk0
f : an xn x0 wc
kxn k kx0 k, xn x0 wc proc thn k k0
0
pollaplasiasmo wc proc thn k k sumperanoume ti
f (xn ) =
k k kai x0 6= ~0, tte ap thn isodunama twn

kxn k0 kx0 k0 > 0, opte ap th sunqeia
kx0 k
kxn k
xn
x0 = f (x0 )
kxn k0
kx0 k0
kxn k 0
tte
kxn k0 0
ap thn isodunama twn normn, kai
kxn k/kxn k0 1/a
an
xn 6= ~0
f (xn ) = ~0
an
Se kje perptwsh,
1
b
kxn k0 kxn k 0,
a
a
kf (xn )k0
dhlad
proc thn
(giat?) kai
k k0 .
wc proc thn
An
ra
f (x) = ~0 B(X,kk0 ) .
(b) Deqnoume prta th sunqeia thc
xn = ~0.
x X.
kxk
kxk0 = kxk 1,
kxk0
normn parnoume
tou
gia kje
x 6= ~0.
kxk 1
tte
kf (x)k0 =
dhlad
akxk kxk0 bkxk
kai
f (x) =
(a) H
ttoioi ste
f (xn ) ~0 = f (~0).
(g) H
enai ep: an
'Epetai ti h
y 6= ~0
kai
enai suneqc.
kyk0 1,
tte to
x = (kyk0 /kyk)y
f (x) =
(d) H
enai na proc na: an
f (x) = f (x1 )
kai
kxk = kyk0 1
qei nrma
kai (elgxte to)
kxk
x = y.
kxk0
x 6= ~0,
tte
x1 6= ~0
(giat?) kai
kxk
kx1 k
x=
x1 .
kxk0
kx1 k0
()
Aut shmanei ti ta
x, x1
enai suggrammik kai mlista
x = tx1 , t > 0.
'Ara, h
()
parnei th morf
kxk
tkxk
x=
tx = x = tx = t = 1,
kxk0
tkxk0
opte
x1 = x.
(e) H
An pli
x = ~0
kai
f (x1 ) = f (~0) = ~0,
f 1 : B(X,kk0 ) B(X,kk)
enai faner ti
orzetai ap thn
f 1 (y) =
'Opwc sto (b) deqnoume ti h
2.
(a) 'Estw
blpoume ti
f 1
x1 = ~0 = x.
enai suneqc. 'Ara, h
kyk0
y.
kyk
enai omoiomorfismc.
P
p
x = (k ) `p . Tte
k=1 |k | < +, ra
P|k | 0q. Gia megla k qoume 0 |k | < 1 kai
q
p
0 |k | |k | . Ap kritrio sgkrishc
k=1 |k | < +, dhlad x `q . 'Ara, `p `q .
O egkleismc enai gnsioc. To
(b) Gia kje
nN
orzoume
x = (1/k1/p ) `q \`p
xn = (1, . . . , 1, 0, . . .) (n
afo
p<q
(giat?).
mondec kai met mhdenik). Tte,
11
kxn kp
n1/p
= 1/q = n p q +
kxn kq
n
tan
n .
isodnamec.
Dhlad, den uprqei
b>0
ttoio ste
kxkp bkxkq
gia kje
x `p .
'Ara, oi do nrmec den enai
68
(g) Parnoume
k =
1
,
ln(k+1)
k = 1, 2, . . ..
Tte,
X
k=1
gia kje
p 1.
'Ara
3.
'Estw v X\Y .
d(v, Y ) = a > 0. Gia
x=
1
)kN
( ln(k+1)
k 0
tan
k ,
mwc to kritrio sumpknwshc deqnei ti
1
= +
[ln(k + 1)]p
c0 \ p1 `p .
Y qei peperasmnh distash, enai kleistc upqwroc

n N mporome na brome yn Y me thn idithta
Afo o
kje
a kv yn k < a +
(jumhjete ton orism thc
d(v, Y )).
Gia kje
nN
(yn )
periqetai sthn
distash. 'Ara, uprqei upakolouja
(ykn )
X,
v
/Y
qoume
qoume
B(y1 , 2a + 2) pou enai

(yn ) me ykn y Y .
1
2a + 2.
n
sumpagc snolo giat o
qei peperasmnh
thc
kv yk = lim kv yn k = a. Dhlad, uprqei plhsistero proc to v shmeo tou Y .

Riesz. Orzoume x = a1 (v y). Tte kxk = 1 kai gia kje z Y
Tte,
kai afo
1
n
kyn y1 k kyn vk + kv yk < 2a + 1 +

Dhlad, h akolouja
tou
Suneqzoume pwc sthn
apdeixh tou Lmmatoc tou
kx zk = k
giat
y+az Y (o Y
d(x, Y ) = 1.
v (y + az)
kv (y + az)k
d(v, Y )
vy
zk = k
k=
= 1,
a
a
a
a
X ).
Dexame ti
d(x, Y ) 1 kai afo d(x, Y ) kx~0k = kxk = 1,
qoume
4.
xi 6= xj an i 6= j (o metrikc mac qroc qei peira shmea). H (xn ) den mpore

(xkn ) enai opoiadpote upakolouja thc (xn ), tte gia kje n 6= m qoume
d(xkn , xkm ) = 1 (giat?), opte h (xkn ) den enai Cauchy (ra, den sugklnei). Brkame akolouja ston X pou den
qei sugklnousa upakolouja. 'Ara, o X den enai sumpagc.
Uprqei akolouja
(xn )
ston
na qei sugklnousa upakolouja:
5.
(xn )
'Estw
xX
akolouja sto
ttoia ste
xkn x.
M.
me
an
xn X kai o X enai sumpagc, uprqoun upakolouja (xkn ) thc (xn ) kai

xkn M kai to M enai kleist, ra x M . Aut apodeiknei ti to M enai
Afo
'Omwc
sumpagc (giat?).
6.
Gia kje
nN
mporome na gryoume
X=
D(x, 1/n).
xX
Afo o
enai sumpagc, uprqoun
xn1 , . . . , xnk(n) X
ttoia ste
X = D(xn1 , 1/n) . . . D(xnk(n) , 1/n).

Orzoume
M = {xnj : n N, j = 1, . . . , k(n)}.
X.
To
enai arijmsimo wc arijmsimh nwsh peperasmnwn sunlwn.
Ja dexoume ti enai pukn ston
x X kai > 0. Uprqei n N ttoio ste 1/n < kai uprqei j k(n) ttoio ste x D(xnj , 1/n).
xnj M kai d(x, xnj ) < 1/n < , dhlad D(x, ) M 6= . 'Ara to M enai pukn kai, afo to M enai
arijmsimo, o X enai diaqwrsimoc.
'Estw
Tte,
7.
T 1 : Y X den enai suneqc se kpoio y0 . Tte uprqoun > 0

y0 ) gia kje n N. Jewrome ta xn = T 1 yn kai x0 = T 1 y0 X .
'Estw ti h
d(T
yn , T
O X enai sumpagc, ra uprqei upakolouja (xkn ) thc (xn ) me xkn w X .

ykn = T xkn T w. Afo yn y0 , qoume ykn y0 , ra y0 = T w. Dhlad,
kai
yn y0
ttoia ste
Ap th sunqeia thc
parnoume
xkn = T 1 ykn w = T 1 y0 .
Aut enai topo, giat
8.
(a) 'Estw
sto
[0, 1].
d(T 1 ykn , T 1 y0 )
f C[0, 1]
kai
gia kje
n.
To topo deqnei ti h
T 1
M = max{f (t) : 0 t 1}, m = min{f (t) : 0 t 1}.
Diakrnoume trec periptseic:
enai suneqc.
An
g K,
tte
g(x) = c R
69
1.
c m = kf gk = M c M m.
2.
c M = kf gk = c m M m.
3.
m c M = kf gk = max{M c, c m}
Ap ta parapnw petai ti
(b) 'Estw
d(f, K) =
f (x) = c, x [0, 1].
M +m
2
M m
.
2
= d(f, g0 )
Tte, gia kje
pou
g(x) = ax
sto
g0 (x) =
K
M +m
sto
2
qoume
[0, 1].
kf gk = max0x1 |c ax|.
1. An
c 0,
tte lec oi
g(x) = ax
me
0 a 2c
ikanopoion thn
kf gk = c = d(f, K).
2. An
c < 0,
tte lec oi
g(x) = ax
me
2c a 0
ikanopoion thn
kf gk = |c| = d(f, K).
(g) An
g K,
tte
()
kg f k = max0x1 |g(x)| = max0x1 g(x). 'Omwc,

Z 1
1 g(0) + 1
g(t)dt max g(x).
0x1
0
'Ara
kg f k 1,
g K tan tuqosa, d(f,

R 1 K) 1. 'Estw ti uprqei g K gia
(), ra 0 g 1 kai 0 g(t)dt = g(0) + 1 = 1, opte h g enai
R1
g(t)dt = 1, to opoo enai topo (giat?).
0
kai afo h
Tte qoume isthta sthn
g(0) = 0, 0 g 1
kai
Ap thn llh pleur,

kai
grammik sto
[0, ].
d(f, K) = 1. Prgmati, gia kje mikr > 0 orzoume g

R1
/2
An =
, tte
g (t)dt = 1. 'Ara, g K kai
1(/2)
0
kg f k = 1 + = 1 +
'Epetai ti
d(f, K) lim
0+
'Ara
d(f, K) = 1,
all den uprqei
gK
1+
me thn idithta
/2
.
1 (/2)
/2
1 (/2)
= 1.
kf gk = d(f, K).
me
thn opoa
kg f k = 1.
suneqc sunrthsh me
g (0) = 0, g 1 +
sto
[, 1]
70
Keflaio 5
Telestc kai sunarthsoeid

5.1 Fragmnoi grammiko telestc
X Y . X Y T : X Y

T (x1 + x2 ) = T (x1 ) + T (x2 )
x1 , x2 X , R. T x1 , T x2 , T (x1 ), T (x2 ).
T Ker(T ) = {x X : T x = 0}, T
R(T ) = {y Y |x X : T x = y} = {T x : x X}.
T : X Y X Y .
X Y ,
T : X Y . :
() X Y . T : X Y
c > 0
kT xkY ckxkX
()
x X ( , k k .)
() T , kT k T c ()
x X.
min :
CT = {c 0 : x X, kT xk ckxk}.
T , 0. , inf CT
inf CT CT CT (). ,
kT k = min{c 0 : x X, kT xk ckxk}
,
kT xk kT k kxk,
x X.
, , T :
5.1.1. T : X Y . ,
kT k = sup
x6=0
kT xk
= sup kT xk = sup kT xk.
kxk
xBX
kxk=1
71
72
: x 6= 0, y = x/kxk kyk = 1. ,

x
kT xk
= kT yk sup kT xk.
= T
kxk
kxk
kxk=1
x 6= 0 , {x : kxk = 1} BX ,
(1)
sup
x6=0
kT xk
sup kT xk sup kT xk.
kxk
xBX
kxk=1
, x BX \{0},
kT xk
kT xk
kT xk
sup
,
kxk
x6=0 kxk
sup kT xk sup
(2)
xBX
x6=0
kT xk
.
kxk
(1) (2) sup .

kT xk kT k kxk kT k x BX ,
sup kT xk kT k.
(3)
xBX
, kT k kT xk ckxk x X,
!
kT xk
kwk
kT wk sup
x6=0 kxk
w X,
kT k sup
(4)
x6=0
kT xk
.
kxk
2
(3) (4).
:
5.1.2. B(X, Y ) T : X Y . B(X, Y )

, k k : B(X, Y ) R T kT k .
: T, S : X Y R,
() k(T )xk = kT xk = || kT xk || kT k kxk, T kT k || kT k. ,
kT k = sup kT xk = sup || kT xk = || sup kT xk = || kT k.
kxk=1
kxk=1
kxk=1
, (3).
() k(T + S)xk = kT x + Sxk kT xk + kSxk kT k kxk + kSk kxk= (kT k + kSk) kxk, T + S
,
kT + Sk kT k + kSk.
(4), B(X, Y ) ( ).
kT k 0 (), kT k = 0, 0 kT xk kT k kxk = 0 x X,
kT xk = 0 = T x = 0 x X. , kT k = 0 = T 0.
2
73
() I : X X ,
kIk = sup kIxk = sup kxk = 1.
kxk=1
kxk=1
() P [0, 1] p : [0, 1] R, T : P [0, 1] P [0, 1]

T p = p0 ( , T .)
T :
T (p + q) = (p + q)0 = p0 + q 0 = T p + T q.
T : pn (t) = tn . P [0, 1] kpk = maxt[0,1] |p(t)|,
kpn k = 1, n N. p0n (t) = ntn1 , kp0n k = n.
sup kT pk kT pn k = kp0n k = n
kpk=1
n N, T (;).
() . C[0, 1]
kf k = max |f (t)|,
t[0,1]

K : [0, 1] [0, 1] R.
T : C[0, 1] C[0, 1]
Z
(T f )(t) =
K(t, s)f (s)ds.

0
K T . T , T f :

Z 1

0
0

|(T f )(t) (T f )(t )| = {K(t, s) K(t , s)}f (s)ds
Z
0
1
|K(t, s) K(t0 , s)| |f (s)|ds
kf k
|K(t, s) K(t0 , s)|ds.
, K [0, 1] [0, 1], > 0 > 0

|t t0 | < = s, |K(t, s) K(t0 , s)| < .
,
|t t0 | < = |(T f )(t) (T f )(t0 )| kf k,
T f . T . T
, K M > 0 |K(t, s)| M
(t, s) [0, 1] [0, 1],
Z 1
Z 1

|(T f )(t)| =
K(t, s)f (s)ds
|K(t, s)||f (s)|ds
0
Z
M kf k
ds = M kf k
0
t [0, 1], kT f k M kf k.

:
74
5.1.1. X, Y , dimX = n < , T : X Y . ,

T .
: {e1 , . . . , en } X. 4, x = a1 e1 + +
an en X,
n
X
c
|ai | ka1 e1 + + an en k = kxk,
i=1
c > 0 X.
kT xk
n
n
X
X

= T (
ai ei ) =
ai T ei
i=1
n
X
|ai | kT ei k
i=1
i=1

max kT ei k
X
n
1in
|ai |
i=1
max kT ei k
kxk.
c
T , kT k (maxi kT ei k)/c.
, T : X Y x0 X > 0,
= (, x0 ) > 0
kx x0 k < = kT x T x0 k < .
, : xn x X = T xn T x Y . T : X Y
.
5.1.2. X, Y , T : X Y .
() T .
() T x0 , .
: () T . , 0. = 1 > 0,
> 0
kxk < = kT xk < 1.
, y 6= 0 y/2kyk ( ),

y
T
< 1 = kT yk < 2 kyk.

2kyk
T , kT k 2 .
: T , x0 X. xn x0 ,
kT xn T x0 k = kT (xn x0 )k kT k kxn x0 k 0,
T xn T x0 . , T .
() T x0 . y0 X yn y0 . T yn T y0 .
, yn y0 + x0 x0 (;),
T (yn y0 + x0 ) = T yn T y0 + T x0 T x0 ,
T yn T y0 .
:
1. T : X Y , KerT X.
75
2. T : X Y , X 0 X, T
X 0 .
3. Y Banach, T0 : X0 Y X0
X. , T0 T : X Y kT k = kT0 k.
.
5.2 Grammik sunarthsoeid

X . F : X R. X
, F (X, k k)
(R, | |). , , :
5.2.1. X , F : X R . F
c > 0 , x X,
|F (x)| ckxk.
F ,
kF k = sup |F (x)|.
kxk=1
() X 6= {0}, k k : X R .
, kxk + k xk = kx + (x)k, 2kxk = 0 x X.
() X = Rn , a = (a1 , . . . , an ) X\{0}. F : X R,
F (x) = F (1 , . . . , n ) = a1 1 + + an n .
F ( a). Rn
k k, Cauchy-Schwarz
|F (x)| = |a1 1 + + an n |
!1/2 n
!1/2
n
X
X
|ai |2
|i |2
i=1
i=1
= kak kxk.
, F , kF k kak. ,
|F (a)| = a21 + + a2n = kak2 ,
kF k = sup
x6=0
|F (a)|
|F (x)|
= kak.
kxk
kak
, kF k = kak.
() F : C[a, b] R F (g) =
Z
|F (g)|
Rb
a
g(t)dt. F C[a, b],

|g(t)|dt

max |g(t)| (b a) = (b a)kgk.
t[a,b]
, F kF k b a. g0 g0 (t) = 1, kg0 k = 1
kF k = sup |F (g)| |F (g0 )| = b a.

kgk=1
76
, kF k = b a.
() X = C[a, b] kgk = maxt[a,b] |g(t)|, t0 [a, b],
F : C[a, b] R F (g) = g(t0 ).
F , |F (g)| = |g(t0 )| kgk. , kF k 1. g0 1,
kF k = 1.
X . X X
F : X R. ,
X = B(X, R).
X : F : X R F (x) = 0 x X, .
.. X = Rn C[a, b], X
{0}. , X , X
. ( Hahn-Banach).
X , W X. X/W
: X,
x y x y W.
, X/W [x] = x + W [x] = [x] [x] + [y] =
[x + y]. [x] = 0 x W .
W 1 X X/W dim(X/W ) = 1. W
1 x0 X, x0 + W .
, 1 :
5.2.1. X , W X. W
1 f : X R Kerf = W .
f, g 6= 0 g = f .
: f : X R, f 6= 0 . W = Kerf f
X, f : X/W R f(x + W ) = f (x) (;).
, dim(X/W ) = 1.
, W 1 X, T : X/W R.
f : X R f (x) = T (x + W ). f , f 6= 0, Kerf = W .
, g = f , 6= 0, Kerf = Kerg. , f, g : X R
Kerf = Kerg. f 0, . x0 X
f (x0 ) = 1 (, ;). g(x0 ) 6= 0. , x X
x f (x)x0 Kerf = g(x f (x)x0 ) = 0 = g(x) = g(x0 )f (x).
, g = f , = g(x0 ).
k k X.
5.2.2. X , W X 1. ,
: W X W X.
: W X. W ,
x W \ W , W 1 [z] span([x]) ( z = x + w R
w W ) z X (;), W = X.
2
: 1 : f : X R , f
W = Kerf = f 1 {0} X, 5.2.1 W
1. Hahn-Banach.
77
5.3 Qroi telestn - duko qroi

X, Y . 5.1 B(X, Y )
T : X Y ,
kT k = sup kT xk,
T B(X, Y ).
kxk=1
: B(X, Y ) ;
5.3.1. X Y . Y Banach, B(X, Y )
Banach.
: (Tn ) Cauchy B(X, Y ), > 0. n0 () N ,
n, m n0
kTn Tm k < .
()
x X. n, m n0 ,
kTn x Tm xk = k(Tn Tm )xk kTn Tm k kxk kxk.

(Tn x) Cauchy Y (;), Y , yx Y
Tm x yx m .
T : X Y
T x = yx = lim Tm x.
m
T : x1 , x2 X , R,
T (x1 + x2 )
lim Tm (x1 + x2 )
lim (Tm x1 + Tm x2 )
= lim Tm x1 + lim Tm x2
m
= T x1 + T x2 .
(). x X kxk = 1. n, m n0 ,
kTn x Tm xk kxk = ,
m ,
kTn x T xk , kxk = 1,
,
()
kTn T k = sup kTn x T xk .

kxk=1
: () n n0 , Tn T B(X, Y ), B(X, Y )
Tn B(X, Y ),
T = Tn (Tn T ) B(X, Y ).
() (), n n0 () kTn T k . , Tn T B(X, Y ).
5.3.1. X , X kF k = supkxk=1 |F (x)|

Banach.
78
: X B(X, R). R | |,
5.3.1.
2
() T : X Y , ,
T : X Y , T 1 : Y X .
() T : X Y , , x X
kT xk = kxk.
(i) T KerT = {0}.
(ii) T : X Y , , kT xk = kxk, x X, T
.
X Y T :
X Y . , :
,
.
Banach:
5.3.2. Rn . Rn . (Rn ) ' Rn .
: T : (Rn ) Rn : f : Rn R n- (f (e1 ), . . . , f (en ))
Rn , {e1 , . . . , en } Rn .
f P
T f = (f (ei ))in : x = (i ) Rn ,
Pn
n
x = i=1 i ei = f (x) = i=1 i f (ei ), f (x) x.
T , :
() ,
T (f + g)
((f + g)(e1 ), . . . , (f + g)(en ))
(f (e1 ) + g(e1 ), . . . , f (en ) + g(en ))
= (f (e1 ), . . . , f (en )) + (g(e1 ), . . . , g(en ))

= T f + T g.
() ,
T f = ~0
i = 1, . . . , n,
x Rn ,
f (ei ) = 0
n
X
f (x) =
i f (ei ) = 0
i=1
= f 0.
Pn
() a = (a1 , . . . , an ) Rn , f (x) = i=1 i ai . , f (Rn ) f (ei ) = ai , i = 1, . . . , n. ,
T f = a. T .
T . f (Rn ) . , f (x) =

Pn
i=1 i f (ei ),
kf k = k(f (e1 ), . . . , f (en ))k = kT f k. 2

5.3.3. (`1 ) ` .
: T : `1 ` : ek = (kn ) f : `1 R . :
79
x=
(i)
(ek ) Schauder `1 , , x = (k ) `1 ()
P
k=1 k ek .
P
(ii) f , f (x) = k=1 k f (ek ), x X.
T (f ) = (f (e1 ), . . . , f (ek ), . . .). T .

() T . k N |f (ek )| kf k kek k = kf k ( kek k = 1.) ,
kT f k kf k.
()
, T f ` .
() kxk1 =
k=1
|k | = 1,
|f (x)| =
X
X
f
(e
)
|k | |f (ek )|
k
k

k=1
k=1

X
sup |f (ek )|
|k | = kT f k .
k
k=1
,
kf k = sup |f (x)| kT f k .
()
kxk1 =1
() (), f `1 kT f k = kf k (, T .)
() T .
() T f = 0, k N f (ek ) = 0. , x `1 ,
f (x) =
k f (ek ) = 0 = f 0.
k=1
KerT = {0}, T .
()
a = (a1 , . . . , ak , . . .) ` ( M > 0 |ak | M , k N.)
P
f (x) = k=1 k ak . ,
|f (x)|
|k | |ak | (sup |ak |)
k=1
|k | M kxk1 .
k=1
, f `1 , f (ek ) = ak , T f = a. T .
5.3.4. 1 < p < +, `p `q , q

p.
:
P (ek ) Schauder `p ( ). x = (k ) `p
P
x = k k ek , f : `p R , f (x) = k k f (ek ).
T : `p `q T f = (f (e1 ), . . . , f (ek ), . . .).
() T : , f `p
|f (ek )|q < +.
80
N N. k = |f (ek )|q /f (ek ) f (ek ) 6= 0, k = 0 . ,

N
X
|f (ek )|
N
X
k=1
k f (ek ) = f
k=1
N
X
N
X
kf k
!
k ek
k=1
!1/p
|k |p
k=1
N
X
= kf k
!1/p
|f (ek )|
(q1)p
|f (ek )|
k=1
N
X
= kf k
!1/p
.
k=1

!1 p1
N
X
|f (ek )|
N
X
kf k =
k=1
!1/q
q
kf k,
|f (ek )|
k=1
N ,
()
kT f kq =
!1/q
q
|f (ek )|
kf k,
k=1
T f `q .
() f `p , Holder
X
X
|k | |f (ek )|
k f (ek )
|f (x)| =
k=1
k=1
!1/p
|k |p
k=1
!1/q
|f (ek )|q
k=1
= kxkp kT f kq .
,
kf k = sup |f (x)| kT f kq .
()
kxkp =1
() () T : f `p , kT f k = kf k.
() T .
() a = (a1 , . . . , ak , . . .) `q . ,
|f (x)|
|ak |q < +. f (x) =
k=1 k ak .
|k | |ak |
k=1
!1/q
|ak |
!1/p
|k |
k=1
= kakq kxkp .
, f `p , f (ek ) = ak , T f = a. T .
81
5.4 Askseic
1. T : C[0, 1] C[0, 1], (T f )(t) =
Rt
0
f (s)ds, t [0, 1].
() T , .
() R(T ) T .
() T 1 : R(T ) C[0, 1] ;
() kT k.
2. T : `2 `2 : x = (1 , 2 , . . . , k , . . .), T x = (2 , 3 , . . .).
() T , .
() Tn = T T T (n ). kTn k, n N, limn kTn k.
() x `2 , limn kTn xk.
3. C[0, 1] kf k = max1t1 |f (t)|.
F : C[1, 1] R:
R1
() F (g) = 1 g(s)ds g(0).
() F (g) =
g(1/2)+g(1/2)2g(0)
.
2
4. F : `1 R F (x) =
, ;
k=1 k .
F . ;
5. T, S : C[0, 1] C[0, 1]
Z
(T f )(t) = t
f (s)ds
(Sf )(t) = tf (t).
() T, S .
() T S S T . T S = S T ;
() kT k, kSk, kT Sk kS T k.
6. = {(x, y) R2 : a x b, a y x}, : R.
T : C[a, b] C[a, b]
Z x
(T f )(x) =
(x, y)f (y)dy.
a
T ,
kT k (b a) max{|(x, y)| : (x, y) }.
7. C 1 [0, 1] [0, 1]. C 1 [0, 1]

1/2
Z 1
1/2
Z 1
2
0 2
|f |
+ |f (0)|.
kf k2 =
|f |
, kf k1,2 =
0
0
1
I : (C [0, 1], k k1,2 ) (C [0, 1], k k2 ) .

[: {f C 1 : f (0) = 0}, CauchySchwarz.]
82
8. X f : R R kf k = suptR |f (t)|. T : X X,
(T f )(t) = f (t a), a > 0 . T ; ;
9. X, Y , Tn , T B(X, Y ) xn , x X. , Tn T xn x,
Tn xn T x.
10. F : X R . F
> 0 F (B(0, )) 6= R.
11. X , F X , F 6= 0.
kF k =
1
.
inf{kxk : F (x) = 1}
12. X . F : X R
.
13. T : X Y : xn 0 X, {kT xn k}
. T .
14. X, Y , T : X Y , .
T T (BX ) = BY .
15. X , M X .
N (M ) = {x X : F M , F (x) = 0}.
N (M ) X.
83
84
Upodexeic - apantseic
1.
t [0, 1]
(a) Gia kje
qoume
Z
|(T f )(t)| = |
Z
f (s)ds|
Z
|f (s)|ds kf k
ds = kf k t kf k,
ra
kT f k = max |(T f )(t)| kf k.

0t1
'Epetai ti o
a, b R,
enai fragmnoc kai
kT k 1.
t
f, g C[0, 1]
kai
g(s)ds
f (s)ds + b
(af (s) + bg(s))ds = a
ti
parathrome ti an
tte
[T (af + bg)](t)
ra
Gia thn grammikthta tou
a(T f )(t) + b(T g)(t) = [a(T f ) + b(T g)](t),
T (af + bg) = a(T f ) + b(T g). H T f enai suneqc paragwgsimh

o T enai kal orismnoc, all kai ti enai na proc na:
sunrthsh, afo
(T f )0 = f .
Aut apodeiknei
T f = T g = (T f )0 = (T g)0 = f = g.
(b) 'Opwc parathrsame sto (a) h
pou ankoun sthn eikna
R(T )
T f enai suneqc paragwgsimh kai (T f )(0) = 0. Autc enai akribc oi sunartseic

T . Prgmati, an g C 1 [0, 1] kai g(0) = 0, jewrome thn f = g 0 C[0, 1]. Ap to
tou
jemelidec jerhma tou apeirostiko logismo qoume
(T f )(t) =
f (s)ds =
0
dhlad,
g 0 (s)ds = g(t) g(0) = g(t),
T f = g.
n N, h sunrthsh fn (t) = tn
[T 1 (fn )](t) = fn0 (t) = ntn1 . 'Ara,
(g) Gia kje
(giat?). 'Epetai ti o
(d) An proume
f 1
T 1
sto
enai suneqc paragwgsimh kai
tte
kf k = 1
Ap to (b),
fn R(T )
kai
kT 1 (fn )k
n
= =n
kfn k
1
den enai fragmnoc: an tan, ja eqame
[0, 1],
fn (0) = 0.
kai
(T f )(t) =
Rt
0
kT 1 k n
ds = t.
gia kje
nN
(giat?).
'Ara,
kT k kT f k = max |t| = 1,
0t1
to opoo apodeiknei ti
2.
(a) O
kT k = 1.
orzetai kal, giat
kT xk22 =
|k |2
k=2
dhlad
T x `2 .
H dia anisthta deqnei ti o
|k |2 = kxk22 < +,
k=1
enai fragmnoc kai
kT k 1.
H grammikthta tou
Tn
kTn k kT k . . . kT k = kT kn 1.
elgqetai
ekola.
(b) Epagwgik deqnoume ti
Tn x = (n+1 , n+2 , . . .).
Gia th nrma tou
qoume
Isqei isthta, giat
kTn en+1 k2
1
= = 1.
ken+1 k2
1
kTn k
Eidiktera,
x `2 ,
x `2 .
(g) An
kje
3.
limn kTn k = 1.
tte
(a) Gia kje
kTn xk2 =
qP
k=n+1
|k |2 0
tan
(our sugklnousac seirc). Dhlad,
Tn x ~0
gia
2
g C[0, 1]
qoume
|F (g)| = |
g(s)ds g(0)|
1
|g(s)|ds + |g(0)| 2kgk + kgk = 3kgk.

1
85
'Ara, to F enai fragmno kai kF k 3. Gia kje mikr > 0 orzoume g C[1, 1] jtontac g 1
[, 1], g (0) = 1 kai epektenontac grammik sta [, 0] kai [0, ]. Tte kg k = 1 kai
Z 1
g (s)ds + 1|
kF k |F (g )| = |
1
0
|(1 ) + 0 + 0 + (1 ) + 1| = 3 2.
ds +
g (s)ds +
Afo h anisthta aut isqei gia kje mikr
g (s)ds +
> 0,
sta
[1, ]
kai
ds + 1
blpoume ti
kF k lim (3 2) = 3.
0+
'Ara,
kF k = 3.
(b) Gia kje
g C[0, 1]
qoume
|F (g)|
g(1/2)
g(1/2)
|g(1/2)|
|g(1/2)|
+
g(0)
+
+ |g(0)|
2
2
2
2
kgk
kgk
+
+ kgk = 2kgk.
2
2
'Ara, to
enai fragmno kai
kF k 2. Orzoume g C[1, 1] jtontac g 1

[1/2, 0] kai [0, 1/2]. Tte kgk = 1 kai
sta
[1, 1/2]
kai
[1/2, 1], g(0) = 1
kai epektenontac grammik sta
g(1/2)
g(1/2)
1
1
kF k |F (g)| =
+
g(0) = | + (1)| = 2.
2
2
2
2
'Ara,
4.
kF k = 2.
An
x `1 ,
h seir
k=1
sugklnei apoltwc ra sugklnei.
Aut shmanei ti to
grammikthta elgqetai ekola:
F (ax + by) =
(ak + bk ) = a
k=1
k + b
k=1
k = aF (x) + bF (y).
k=1
'Eqoume
|F (x)| = |
k |
k=1
ra to
enai fragmno kai
kF k 1.
k 0
Isqei isthta, giat an
|F (x)| = F (x) =
k =
k=1
5.
(a) H grammikthta twn
kai
ra
kT f k kf k.
|k | = kxk1 .
k=1
Z
f (s)ds| t
t [0, 1],
tte
elgqetai ekola. Epshc,
|(T f )(t)| = |t
gia kje
|k | = kxk1 ,
k=1
ds = tkf k kf k
Dhlad, o
Z
|f (s)|ds tkf k
0
kT k 1.
enai fragmnoc kai
'Omoia,
|(Sf )(t)| = |tf (t)| = t|f (t)| 1 kf k = kf k

gia kje
t [0, 1],
ra
kSf k kf k.
Dhlad, o
kSk 1.
enai fragmnoc kai
(b) 'Eqoume
Z
[(T S)(f )](t) = t
Z
(Sf )(s)ds = t
sf (s)ds,
kai
[(S T )(f )](t) = t(T f )(t) = t2
f (s)ds.
0
Den isqei ti
T S = S T.
An sque, gia thn
f 1
ja parname
Z
[(T S)(f )](t) = [(S T )(f )](t) = t
0
sds = t2
ds =
0
t
= t2
2
enai kal orismno.
86
gia kje
t [0, 1],
to opoo profanc den isqei.
(g) 'Opwc sto (a), elgqoume ti
kT Sk 1/2
kai
kS T k 1.
kT k = kSk = kS T k = 1,
Parnontac
kT Sk =
f 1,
blpoume ti isqoun isthtec:
1
.
2
Epalhjeste louc autoc touc isqurismoc.
6.
Tf
T orzetai kal: anpmac dsoun > 0, uprqei > 0 (mporome na

(x, y), (x1 , y1 ) kai (x x1 )2 + (y y1 )2 < na qoume |(x, y)
enai suneqc sunrthsh, dhlad o
upojsoume ti
< )
ttoioc ste an
(x1 , y1 )| < .
Eidiktera, an
me
x1 x < .
x < x1
kai
x1 x <
|(T f )(x1 ) (T f )(x)|
<
>0
|(x, y) (x1 , y)| < .
tte
tan tuqn, ra h
H grammikthta tou
Tf
x1
'Estw
x < x1
sto
[a, b]
(x, y)f (y)dy
(x1 , y)f (y)dy

Zax1

(x1 , y)f (y)dy +
x
x1
To
(x, y), (x1 , y) ,
kai
Tte,
[(x1 , y) (x, y)]f (y)dy
a
Z
|(x1 , y)| |f (y)|dy +

|(x1 , y) (x, y)| |f (y)|dy
a
x
max || kf k(x1 x) + kf k(x a)
i
max || + b a kf k.
enai (omoimorfa) suneqc.
x [a, b]
Z x
x
(x, y)f (y)dy

|(x, y)| |f (y)|dy
a
a
max || kf k(x a)
h
i
(b a) max || kf k.
elgqetai ekola. Tloc, gia kje
|(T f )(x)|
'Epetai ti
h
i
kT f k (b a) max || kf k.
'Ara, o
7.
'Estw
enai fragmnoc kai
f C 1 [0, 1]
me
kT k (b a) max ||.
f (0) = 0.
Tte,
kf k22
|f (t)|2 dt
=
0
1 Z t
2
f 0 (s)ds dt
0
0
Z
Z 1 Z t
0
2
|f (s)| ds
0
1 Z
Z
0
1 ds dt
0
1
|f 0 (s)|2 ds tdt
0
1
|f 0 (s)|2 ds
kf k21,2 .
kf k2 kf k1,2 se autn thn perptwsh. 'Estw tra tuqosa f C 1 [0, 1]. Tte, h g(t) = f (t) f (0)
0
0
ikanopoie thn g(0) = 0, ra kgk2 kgk1,2 . 'Omwc, g = f ra
Z 1
1/2
Z 1
1/2
kgk1,2 =
|g 0 |2
+ |g(0)| =
|f 0 |2
+ |f (0)| |f (0)| = kf k1,2 |f (0)|,
Dhlad,
epomnwc
kf k2 = kg + f (0)k2 kgk2 + |f (0)| kgk1,2 + |f (0)| = kf k1,2 .
87
I : (C 1 [0, 1], k k1,2 ) (C 1 [0, 1], k k2 )
Aut apodeiknei ti o tautotikc telestc
8.
'Estw
f, g : R R
fragmnec sunartseic kai
, R.
[T (f + g)](t)
ra
T (f + g) = T f + T g ,
dhlad o
enai fragmnoc kai
kIk 1.
Tte,
(f + g)(t a)
f (t a) + g(t a)
(T f )(t) + (T g)(t)
[T f + T g](t),
enai grammikc. Epshc,
|(T f )(t)| = |f (t a)| sup |f (s)| = kf k,

sR
ra
kT f k = sup |(T f )(t)| kf k.

tR
'Ara, o
9.
(Tn )
Oi
enai fragmnoc.
(xn ) enai fragmnec

M > 0 ttoioc ste
kai
Dhlad, uprqei
B(X, Y )
akoloujec stouc
kTn k M,
kxn k M,
kai
antstoiqa, wc sugklnousec akoloujec.
n N.
Epomnwc,
kTn xn T xk
to opoo shmanei ti
10.
'Estw ti to
kTn xn T xn + T xn T xk
k(Tn T )(xn )k + kT (xn x)k
kTn T k kxn k + kT k kxn xk
M kTn T k + kT k kxn xk 0,
Tn xn T x.
enai fragmno. Tte, gia kje
x B(0, 1)
qoume
|F (x)| kF k kxk kF k,
dhlad,
F (B(0, 1)) [kF k, kF k].
'Ara, gia
Antstrofa, ac upojsoume ti
=1
qoume
F (B(0, )) 6= R
kurt kai summetrik wc proc to 0 uposnolo tou

uposnolo tou
R,
F (B(0, )) 6= R.
> 0.
gia kpoio
Parathrome ti to snolo
(ap th grammikthta tou
- exhgste).
prpei na enai anoikt kleist disthma me kntro to 0. Dhlad, uprqei
F (B(0, ))
enai
Afo enai gnsio
M >0
ttoio ste
kxk = |F (x)| M.
'Epetai ti to
11.
An
enai fragmno: an
F (x) = 1,
tte
x 6= 0, tte
` x
2M
F
2kxk M = |F (x)| kxk.
1 = F (x) kF k kxk,
ra
kxk
1
. Dhlad,
kF k
Ap thn llh pleur, gia kje
Tte,
F (x /a ) = 1
0 < < kF k
uprqei
x X
me
1
.
kF k
kx k = 1
ttoio ste
kai
x
1
= 1 <
.
a
a
kF k
'Ara,
1
,
kF k
F (x ) = a > kF k
(giat?).
88
>0
kai afo to
tan tuqn, parnoume
12.
Jewrome mia bsh
Hamel
X.
tou
1
.
kF k
enai apeirodistatoc, epomnwc mporome na gryoume aut th bsh
sth morf
{xn : n N} {yi : i I}.

X
[Xeqwrzoume dhlad na peiro arijmsimo uposnolo mic bshc tou

grammik anexrthta, kje
xn
enai mh mhdenik. Orzoume
F :XR
F (xn ) = nkxn k,
X
Katpin epektenoume grammik se olklhro to qro

grammikc sunduasmc kpoiwn
xn
yi
kai kpoiwn
kai to arijmome.]
xn , yi enai
X , jtontac
Afo ta
prta sta stoiqea thc bshc tou
F (yi ) = 0.
x X grfetai monosmanta san peperasmnoc
F enai grammik sunarthsoeidc, mwc den enai
(kje
- exhgste). To
fragmno giat tte ja eqame
kF k
gia kje
13.
n N,
|F (xn )|
=n
kxn k
to opoo enai topo.
T den enai fragmnoc. Tte, o T den enai suneqc

n N uprqei zn X me kzn k < 1/n kai kT zn k .
'Estw ti o
ste: gia kje
xn = zn
Orzoume
kzn k
(afo
kT zn k
qoume
T zn 6= 0
ra
sto
zn 6= 0).
0.
Aut shmanei ti uprqei
>0
ttoio
Tte,
p
kzn k
1
kxn k = p
= kzn k < 0,
n
kzn k
ra
xn 0.
dhlad h
(kT xn k)
14. (=)
den enai fragmnh.
Upojtoume ti o
thn idithta
An
'Omwc,
kT xk = kxk
x BX ,
tte
kT zn k
kT xn k = p
n +,
kzn k
Katalxame se topo, ra o T enai fragmnoc.
T : X Y enai
x X.
isometrikc isomorfismc, dhlad grammikc, na proc na kai ep, me
gia kje
kT xk = kxk 1
ra
T x BY .
An y BY , afo o T enai na proc na kai

kyk 1, dhlad x BX . 'Ara, BY T (BX ).
Epomnwc,
'Ara,
T (BX ) BY .
ep, uprqei monadik
xX
gia to opoo
T x = y,
kai
kxk = kT xk =
T (BX ) = BY .
(=) Deqnoume prta

y
ste T x =
. Tte,
kyk
ti o
enai ep: an
y Y , y 6= 0,
y
kyk
tte
BY = T (BX ),
ra uprqei
x BX
ttoio
y = T (kykx) T (X).
Profanc,
O
0 = T (0) T (X).
'Ara,
enai isometra: an eqame
T (X) = Y .
kT xk > kxk
gia kpoio
x X,
tte ja eqame
kT (x/kxk)k > 1 = T (x/kxk)

/ BY ,
en
x/kxk BX .
Aut enai topo, afo qoume upojsei ti
upojsoume ti uprqei
Afo o
15.
'Estw
xX
gia to opoo
T (BX ) = BY .
enai isometra, prpei na enai kai na proc na. 'Ara, enai isometrikc isomorfismc.
x, y N (M )
kai
a, b R.
Gia kje
F M
qoume
F (ax + by) = aF (x) + bF (y) = a 0 + b 0 = 0,

ra
ax + by N (M ).
'Estw tra ti
Dhlad, o
xn N (M )
N (M )
kai
xn x X .
Gia kje
F M
X.
qoume
F (x) = lim F (xn ) = lim 0 = 0,

n
ra
'Omoia katalgoume se topo an
kT xk < kxk.
x N (M ).
Epomnwc, o
N (M )
enai kleistc grammikc upqwroc tou
X.
Keflaio 6
Qroi Hilbert
6.1 Qroi Hilbert
X . h, i : X X R
:
() hx, xi 0, x X.
() hx, xi = 0 x = ~0.
() hx, yi = hy, xi, x, y X.
() h1 x1 + 2 x2 , yi = 1 hx1 , yi + 2 hx2 , yi, x1 , x2 , y X 1 , 2 R.
()-() hx, 1 y1 + 2 y2 i = 1 hx, y1 i + 2 hx, y2 i y1 , y2 , x X 1 , 2 R.
, x = ~0 hx, yi = 0 y X.
() RN , x = (k ), y = (k ),
hx, yi =
N
X
k k .
k=1
() `2 , x = (k ), y = (k ),
hx, yi =
k k .
k=1
P
P 2
(
P 2 k k k , Cauchy-Schwarz k k <
+, k k < +.)
() C[a, b], f, g : [a, b] R,
b
Z
hf, gi =
f (t)g(t)dt.
a
()-() .
6.1.1. ( Cauchy-Schwarz) X . x, y X,
p
p
|hx, yi| hx, xi hy, yi.
x y .
89
90
: y = ~0, , ~0, x .
y 6= ~0. P : R R P () = hx y, x yi. , P () 0 R,
hx, xi 2hx, yi + 2 hy, yi 0,
R.
P () 0.
4hx, xihy, yi 0,
p
p
|hx, yi| hx, xi hy, yi.
, 4hx, yi2
P 0, , P 0 .
,
P (0 ) = 0 x = 0 y,
2
, x, y .
k k : X R kxk =
k k :
hx, xi. Cauchy-Schwarz
6.1.2. X . k k : X R, kxk =
p
hx, xi .
p
: () kxk = hx, xi 0, kxk = 0 hx, xi = 0 x = ~0.
p
p
p
() kxk = hx, xi = 2 hx, xi = || hx, xi = || kxk.
() kx+yk2 = kxk2 +2hx, yi+kyk2 kxk2 +2kxk kyk+kyk2 = (kxk+kyk)2 ,
Cauchy-Schwarz.
2
(X, k k) , (x, y) x + y, (, x) x
k k. k k:
6.1.3. X , k k . xn x
yn y k k,
hxn , yn i hx, yi.
:
|hxn , yn i hx, yi| =
|hxn , yn yi + hxn x, yi|
|hxn , yn yi| + |hxn x, yi|
kxn k kyn yk + kxn xk kyk.
(xn ) , kyn yk 0, kxn xk 0. ,

hxn , yn i hx, yi.
k k:
(i) . x, y X,
kx + yk2 + kx yk2 = 2kxk2 + 2kyk2 .
(ii) . x, y X hx, yi = 0,
kx + yk2 = kxk2 + kyk2 .
: k k X,
. (: k k
91
, hx, yi = 41 {kx + yk2 kx yk2 }. ,

k k .)
Hilbert k k
.
: () Rn `2 kxk =
, Hilbert.
() C[a, b], kf k2 =
qR
b
[f (t)]2 dt
a
Rb
kf k1 = a |f (t)|dt.)
pP
2
k k .
, (
() C[a, b] kf k = maxt[a,b] |f (t)| , kk ,

( .. f (t) = 1 t, g(t) = t C[0, 1].)
6.2 Kajetthta
() x, y X ( ),
x y, hx, yi = 0.
() {ei : i I} X ,
hei , ej i =
1 , i = j,
0 , i 6= j.
: () ~0 x X, X
.
() {ei : i I}
X, {ei : i I}
P
n
. , k=1 k eik = ~0, j = 1, . . . , n
0=h
n
X
k=1
k eik , eij i =
n
X
k heik , eij i = j .
k=1
{xn : n N} X, Gram-Schmidt
, {en : n N} X
{xn : n N} :
6.2.1. X , {xn : n N}
X. {en : n N} : k N,
span{e1 , . . . , ek } = span{x1 , . . . , xk }.
: ek : xn 6= 0, n N. k = 1, e1 = x1 /kx1 k.
, ke1 k = 1 span{x1 } = span{e1 }.
e1 , . . . , ek : hei , ej i = ij , i, j k, span{x1 , . . . , xk } =
span{e1 , . . . , ek }.
Pk
yk+1 = xk+1 i=1 hxk+1 , ei iei . yk+1 6= 0, xk+1
span{e1 , . . . , ek } = span{x1 , . . . , xk }, x1 , . . . , xk , xk+1 . ,
92
j = 1, . . . , k,
hyk+1 , ej i =
hxk+1 , ej i
k
X
hxk+1 , ei ihei , ej i
i=1
hxk+1 , ej i hxk+1 , ej i = 0.
, ek+1 = yk+1 /kyk+1 k , e1 , . . . , ek+1 . ,

ek+1 span{xk+1 , e1 , . . . , ek } span{x1 , . . . , xk+1 },
xk+1 span{yk+1 , e1 , . . . , ek } span{e1 , . . . , ek , ek+1 }.

2
, span{e1 , . . . , ek+1 } = span{x1 , . . . , xk+1 }.
: X , F (dimF =
n < ), F {x1 , . . . , xn },
Pn Gram-Schmidt
{e1 , . . . , en } F . x F x = i=1 i ei ,
hx, ej i =
n
X
i hei , ej i = j ,
j = 1, . . . , n.
i=1
,
x=
n
X
hx, ei iei ,
x F.
i=1
,
kxk2 =
n
X
khx, ei iei k2 =
i=1
n
X
hx, ei i2 ,
x F.
i=1
, : X , F X
, x X
d(x, F ) = inf{kx yk : y F },
x F . y0 F : kx y0 k =
d(x, F ).
, d(x, F ), yn F
d(x, F ) kx yn k < d(x, F ) +
1
.
n
, yn B(y1 , 2(d + 1)) F , F ,

ykn y0 F .
kx y0 k = lim kx ykn k = d(x, F ).
n
y0 : R2
k(1 , 2 )k = max{|1 |, |2 |},
x = (1, 1) F = {(1 , 0), 1 R}, d(x, F ) = 1, kx yk = 1 y = (1 , 0) 0 1 2.
k k , x F
:
6.2.2. X , F X P
n, n
{e
,
.
.
.
,
e
}.
X,
n
i=1 hx, ei iei .
P1n
, x i=1 hx, ei iei F .
93
: x
ej , j = 1, . . . , n. ,
hx
n
X
Pn
i=1 hx, ei iei
F .
hx, ei iei , ej i = hx, ej i
i=1
n
X
hx, ei ihei , ej i
i=1
= hx, ej i hx, ej i = 0.
Pn
y F . 1 , . . . , n R y = i=1 i ei . ,
n
n
n
X
X
X

2
2
x

i ei = (x
hx, ei iei ) +
(hx, ei i i )ei ,
i=1
i=1
i=1
,
kx
n
X
i ei k2
n
n
X

2 X
x
hx, ei iei +
(hx, ei i i )2
n
X
kx
hx, ei iei k2 .
i=1
i=1
i=1
i=1
, i = hx, ei i, i = 1, . . . , n, y =
Pn
i=1 hx, ei iei .
6.2.2 Bessel:
6.2.3. {enP: n N} X .
, x X n=1 |hx, en i|2 ,
|hx, en i|2 kxk2 .
n=1
: N N. FN = span{e1 , . . . , eN },
PN
PN
6.2.3. x FN n=1 hx, en ien , x n=1 hx, en ien
FN . ,
kxk2
N
X
= kx
hx, en ien k2 + k
n=1
N
X
hx, en ien k2 =
n=1
N
X
hx, en ien k2
n=1
N
X
|hx, en i|2 .
n=1
N ,
|hx, en i|2 kxk2 .
n=1
6.3 Orjognio sumplrwma - probolc

H Hilbert, M H ( ).
, , :
6.3.1. H Hilbert, M H, x H.
y0 M
kx y0 k = d(x, M ) = inf{kx yk : y M }.
y0 M PM (x), x M .
94
: = d(x, M ). (yn ) M
kx yn k .
,
kyn ym k2
k(yn x) + (x ym )k2
2kyn xk2 + 2kym xk2 k(yn + ym ) 2xk2

2
yn + ym
= 2kyn xk2 + 2kym xk2 4
x .
2
yn +ym
2
m
M , k yn +y
xk . ,
2
kyn ym k2 2kyn xk2 + 2kym xk2 4 2 2 2 + 2 2 4 2 = 0.

, (yn ) Cauchy H. H , y0 H yn y0 .
y0 M ( M ), kx y0 k = limn kx yn k = .
, . kx yk = =
kx y 0 k,
0 ky y 0 k2
2
y + y0
x
2kx y 0 k2 + 2kx yk2 4
2
2 2 + 2 2 4 2 = 0.
2
, y = y 0 .
x PM (x) M :
6.3.2. 6.3.1, x PM (x) M .
: z = x PM (x), hz, yi = 0 y M . y M .
F = {y, PM (x)} M . ,
d(x, F ) kzk = d(x, M ) d(x, F ),
F M , PM (x) F . kx PM (x)k = d(x, F ),
F ,
x PM (x) F.
, x PM (x) y, hz, yi = 0.
6.3.1. H Hilbert M H, z H, z 6= 0,
z M .
: x H\M . z = x PM (x) 6= 0.
6.3.2. F H
H F 0.
: () F H, hz, xi = 0 x F .
y H. F , (yn ) F yn y. , 0 = hz, yn i hz, yi.
, hz, yi = 0. hz, yi = 0 y H, z = 0.
() F H. , F H.
, z 6= 0, z F .
, z F , .
95
X , , 6.3.1
.
,
c00
P
P ,
hx, yi = k=1 k k . f : c00 R f (x) = k kk . f ,

!1/2
!1/2
X k
X 1
X
2
k
|f (x)| = |
|
k
k2
k
k
k
!1/2
X 1
kxk.
=
k2
k
, f , M = {x c00 : k
c00 .
k
k
= 0} c00 . , M
z M , z = (1 , 2 , . . .). yn = e1 nen M ,
hz, yn i = 1 nn = 0,
n N.
1 6= 0, n = 1 /n 6= 0, n N, , z .
, 1 = 0, n = 1 /n = 0, n N, z = 0.
, M , c00 M
0.
H Hilbert, A H, A 6= .
A = {x H : a A, hx, ai = 0}.
A H ().
6.3.1. H Hilbert, M H. , H = M M .
, x H
x = x1 + x2 ,
x1 M, x2 M .
: x H. x = PM (x) + (x PM (x)). ,
PM (x) M x PM (x) M .
x1 + x2 = x01 + x02 x1 , x01 M , x2 , x02 M ,
y = x1 x01 = x2 x02 M M
M, M , y y, y = 0. , x1 = x01 x2 = x02 ,
.
2
6.3.3. M 6= {0} Hilbert H. PM : H
H PM (x) = PM (x1 + x2 ) = x1 , x = x1 + x2 . PM
, kPM k = 1.
: x = x1 + x2 , x0 = x01 + x02 , R,
x + x0 = (x1 + x01 ) + (x2 + x02 ) M + M ,
PM (x + x0 ) = x1 + x01 = PM (x) + PM (x0 ),

PM . ,
kPM (x)k2 = kx1 k2 kx1 k2 + kx2 k2 = kx1 + x2 k2 = kxk2 ,
PM , kPM k 1. x0 M , x0 6= 0, PM (x0 ) = x0 . ,
kPM k
kPM (x0 )k
= 1.
kx0 k
96
6.4 To Jerhma anaparstashc tou Riesz

H 6= {0} Hilbert. H ,
H.
6.4.1. a H, fa : H R fa (x) = hx, ai H , kfa kH = kakH .
:
fa (x + y) = hx + y, ai = hx, ai + hy, ai = fa (x) + fa (y),
|fa (x)| = |hx, ai| kak kxk.

, fa H kfa k kak. , a 6= 0,
kfa k
|ha, ai|
|fa (a)|
=
= kak.
kak
kak
2
a = 0, kfa k = 0 (fa 0).

Riesz f H f = fa a H:
6.4.1. ( Riesz) H Hilbert, f H .

a H f = fa .
: M = Kerf = {x H : f (x) = 0}. M H.
M = H, f 0 f = f0 .
M 6= H, z 6= 0, z H M (;). , y H
f (f (z)y f (y)z) = f (z)f (y) f (y)f (z) = 0.
f (z)y f (y)z M , z M
hf (z)y f (y)z, zi = 0
= f (z)hy, zi = f (y)hz, zi
f (z)z
= f (y) = y,
= fa (y),
kzk2
a = f (z)z/kzk2 . a . f (y) = hy, ai = hy, a0 i y H,

a a0 y y H. , a = a0 .
2
6.4.1. H Hilbert. T : H H T (a) = fa
( ).
: () T ,
fa+a0 (x) = hx, a + a0 i = hx, ai + hx, a0 i = fa (x) + fa0 (x),
T (a + a0 ) = fa+a0 = fa + fa0 = T (a) + T (a0 ).

() , kT (a)k = kfa k = kak. , T .
() f H , a H T (a) = fa = f , Riesz.
, T .
2
97
6.5 Orjokanonikc bseic

X . {en : n N}
X,
X = span{en : n N}.
: {en : n N} Hamel X. ,
(en ) `2 (;), .
6.5.1. X , .
: X , {xn : n N} X.
Y = span{xn : n N}, Y = X.
xn
, {yn : n N} {xn : n N}
Y = span{yn : n N}.
Gram-Schmidt, {en : n N} span{y1 , . . . , yk } =
span{e1 , . . . , ek } k N. , Y = span{en : n N}. ,
X = Y = span{en : n N}. 2
PN
: X {en : n N}, . M = { n=1 an en :
N N, an Q} X.
6.5.2. X , {en : n N} X. ,
x X
P
() x = n=1 hx, en ien ,
P
() kxk2 = n=1 |hx, en i|2 .
: x X, > 0. X = span{en : n N}, N N 1 , . . . , N R

N
X

x
n en < .
n=1
, FN = span{e1 , . . . , eN }
N
N
X
X

x
hx, en ien x
n en < .
n=1
n=1
,
2
kxk
N
X
N
X

2

hx, en i = x
hx, en ien < 2 .
2
n=1
n=1
( .) , M N ,
0
M
M
X
X

2
x
hx, en ien = kxk2
hx, en i2
n=1
kxk2
<
2 .
N
X
n=1
n=1

hx, en i2 = x
N
X
2
hx, en ien
n=1
98
> 0 ,
PM
() n=1 hx, en ien x M ,
x=
hx, en ien .
n=1
() kxk2
PM
2
n=1 hx, en i
0 M ,
kxk2 =
|hx, en i|2 .
n=1
{en } X, x X
P {en },
Fourier hx, en i, x kxk2 = n hx, en i2 .
6.5.1. Hilbert H `2 .
: H {en : n N}. T : H `2
T (x) = (hx, e1 i, . . . , hx, en i, . . .).
() T ,
2
n hx, en i
= kxk2 < +, T (x) `2 .
() T .
P
() kT (x)k2`2 = n hx, en i2 = kxk2 , T ( ).
PN
() (a1 , . . . , an , . . .) `2 . xN = n=1 an en . , N > M
kxN xM k2 =
N
X
a2n 0
n=M +1
N, M , (xN ) Cauchy H. H ,
x H xN x.
hxN , em i hx, em i N , N > m,
hxN , em i = h
N
X
an en , em i = am .
n=1
, hx, em i = am , m N. ,
T (x) = (hx, em i)mN = (am )mN ,
T .
6.6 Askseic
1. X , x, y X.
() x y kx + ayk = kx ayk a R.
() x y kx + ayk kxk a R.
2. H Hilbert, xn , yn H, hxn , yn i 1. kxn yn k 0.
99
3. H Hilbert, xn , x H : kxn k kxk, , y H, hxn , yi hx, yi.

kxn xk 0.
4. X , x1 , . . . , xn X.
X
kxi xj k2 = n
n
X
kxi k2 k
i=1
i6=j
n
X
xi k2 .
i=1
p kxi xj k 2 i 6= j, xi ,
2(n 1)/n.
5. X , x1 , . . . , xn X.
n
n
X X
X
2

i xi = 2n
kxi k2 ,
i =1 i=1
i=1
(1 , . . . , n ) {1, 1}n .
6. X , A, B X, A B.
() A A ,
() B A ,
() A = A .
7. H Hilbert, Y H. Y Y = Y .
8. M, N Hilbert.
(M + N ) = M N
(M N ) = M + N .
9. Hilbert H F H H 6= F + F .
10. H Hilbert, W, Z H : w W z Z,
w z ( W Z ). W + Z H.
11. Hilbert H, M, N ,
PM , PN . PM PN = PN PM .
R1
12. C[1, 1] hf, gi = 1 f (t)g(t)dt.
Gram-Schmidt 1, t, t2 .
a, b, c R
Z 1
(t4 a bt ct2 )2 dt.
1
13. T : H H , .
u, v H
T (x) = hx, uiv, x H.
[: v H T (x) = x v, x H. x 7 x
, Riesz.]
14. W Hilbert H, f W .
f H f|W = f kfkH = kf kW .
[: Riesz W .]
15. X , {ek } X. x, y X,
X
|hx, ek ihy, ek i| kxk kyk.
k=1
100
16. Y Hilbert H, {en : nP

N} Y .
x H, Y x n=1 hx, en ien .

17. `2 :
f `2 ,
f (en ) 0.
18.
H (, n 6= m, xn xm .)
P H Hilbert, (xn )
P
, n xn n kxn k2 .
101
102
1.
(a) Gia kje
aR
qoume
kx + ayk2 = kx ayk2 = kxk2 + 2ahx, yi + kayk2 = kxk2 2ahx, yi + kayk2 ,

dhlad,
ahx, yi = 0.
Parnontac
a = 1,
blpoume ti
x y.
Gia thn antstrofh katejunsh, an
xy
gia kje
aR
qoume
kx + ayk = kxk + kayk2 = kx ayk2 .

(b) Gia kje
aR
qoume
kx + ayk2 kxk2 = kxk2 + 2ahx, yi + a2 kyk2 kxk2 ,

dhlad,
Diairntac me
'Ara,
kai parnontac
a0
2ahx, yi + a2 kxk2 0.
blpoume ti hx, yi 0, en
parnontac
a 0 ,
blpoume ti
hx, yi = 0.
Gia thn antstrofh katejunsh, an
xy
gia kje
aR
qoume
kx + ayk = kxk + kayk2 kxk2 .

2.
Uynoume thn
kxn yn k
sto tetrgwno:
0 kxn yn k2
'Ara,
3.
kxn xk
kxn k2 + kyn k2 2hxn , yn i
2 2hxn , yn i 0.
sto tetrgwno, kai efarmzoume thn upjesh gia
0 kxn xk
4.
kxn yn k 0.
Uynoume thn
'Ara,
y = x:
kxn k + kxk 2hxn , xi
kxk2 + kxk2 2hx, xi
kxk2 + kxk2 2kxk2 = 0.
kxn xk 0.
Me aplc prxeic blpoume ti
kxi xj k2
n
X
xi k2 =
i=1
i6=j
n
n
X
X
(kxi k2 2hxi , xj i + kxj k2 ) + h
xi ,
xj i
i=1
i6=j
(n 1)
n
X
i=1
n
X
i<j
i=1
i<j
kxi k2 .
i=1
An
kxi xj k 2
tan
i 6= j ,
tte gia kje
yX
qoume
i 6= j = k(xi y) (xj y)k 2.

Upojtoume ti uprqoun
yX
kai
r>0
ttoia ste
n(n 1)
4
2
ky xi k r, i = 1, . . . , n.
Tte,
k(xi y) (xj y)k2
i6=j
j=1
n
X
X
X
kxi k2 2
hxi , xj i +
kxi k2 + 2
hxi , xj i
n
X
kxi yk2 k
n
X
i=1
n
X
n2 r2 .
i=1
kxi yk n
xi nyk2
i=1
n
X
i=1
r2
hx, yi 0.
103
'Epetai ti
2(n 1)
= r
n
r2
5.
An
n = 1,
qoume
2(n 1)
.
n
kxk2 + k xk2 = 2kxk2 .
Gia to epagwgik bma, grfoume
X k+1
X
2
i xi
k
k
X
2 X
2
i xi + xk+1 +
i xi xk+1
i =1
i =1 i=1
i=1
i =1
i=1
k
X
2
i xi + kxk+1 k2
i=1
k
X X
2
2
i xi + 2 2k kxk+1 k2
i =1 i=1
k
X
2 2k
kxi k2 + 2 2k kxk+1 k2
i=1
k+1
X
2k+1
kxi k2 .
i=1
Qrhsimopoisame diadoqik: ton kanna tou parallhlogrmmou gia ta
1 , . . . , k ),
6.
thn epagwgik upjesh gia ta
(a) 'Estw
x A.
Ap ton orism tou
x1 , . . . , x k ,
A ,
gia kje
y A
qoume
x (A ) =: A
Afo to
(b) An
xA
x B,
tan tuqn, qoume
tte
xy
AA
y B.
gia kje
(g) Efarmzontac to (a) gia to
i xi kai xk+1
{1, 1}k qei 2k
i=1
kai to gegonc ti to
Pk
hx, yi = 0.
(gia kje epilog twn

stoiqea.
'Omwc aut shmanei ti
Afo
sth jsh tou
A B,
A,
aut shmanei ti
xy
gia kje
y A,
ra
x A .
qoume
A (A ) = A .
Ap thn llh pleur, afo
A A ,
to (b) mc dnei
A = (A ) A .
Epomnwc,
7.
A = A .
enai (pnta) kleistc grammikc upqwroc tou
Gia thn antstrofh katejunsh: xroume ti
Y Y
H,
tte o
, arke loipn na dexoume ti
H enai qroc Hilbert kai o Y kleistc upqwrc tou,

y Y kai z Y . 'Omwc, x Y kai y Y Y , ra
Afo o
pou
Y = Y
ra, an
to
enai kleistc.
Y Y .
x Y .
x = y + z,
'Estw
grfetai monosmanta sth morf
z = x y Y .
z Y Y ,
petai ti Y = Y
.
Afo
8.
Afo
qoume
M, N M + N ,
z z.
qoume
'Ara,
z = 0.
Aut shmanei ti
(M + N ) M , N ,
x = y Y,
kai afo to
x Y
tan tuqn,
ra
(M + N ) M N .
Antstrofa, stw
x M N
kai
w M + N.
Tte,
w = m+n
gia kpoia
parnoume
hx, wi = hx, mi + hx, ni = 0,

dhlad,
x w.
'Epetai ti
x (M + N )
, dhlad
M N (M + N ) .
mM
kai
n N,
kai afo
x m, n
104
Aut apodeiknei thn prth isthta. Gia th deterh, bzoume sthn prth touc
M , N
sth jsh twn
M, N :
qoume
M N = (M + N ) ,
M, N
kai afo oi
enai kleisto, parnoume
M N = (M + N ) .
Parnontac orjognia sumplhrmata, blpoume ti
(M N ) = (M + N ) .
()
F = F (shmeiste ti o M + N mpore
na mhn enai kleistc upqwroc tou H ). Sthn 'Askhsh 7 edame ti F F

kai afo o F
enai kleistc petai ti
F F . An uprqe z F \F , tte to mh mhdenik dinusma z PF (z) ja anke ston F F = {0} (giat?),
to opoo enai topo. 'Ara, qoume isthta, kai jtontac F = M

+ N sthn () qoume to zhtomeno.
Mnei na dexoume ti: an
9.
H = `2 ,
F 6= H , giat
Jewrome ton
Profanc
enai nac grammikc upqwroc tou
kai san
parnoume ton upqwro
Ap thn llh pleur,
en c00
gia kje
c00
y = 0.
10.
c
00 = {0}.
pou apoteletai ap tic telik mhdenikc akoloujec.
n N.
An loipn
y c
00 ,
to
y = (n )
prpei na ikanopoie tic
n N,
Tte,
c00 + c
00 = c00 6= `2 .
xn = wn + zn akolouja ston W + Z , h opoa sugklnei se kpoio x H . Ja dexoume ti uprqoun

z Z ttoia ste x = w + z . Aut apodeiknei ti o W + Z enai kleistc upqwroc tou H (giat?).
'Estw
wW
'Ara,
tte
1
1
1, , . . . , , . . . `2 \c00 .
2
n
n = hy, en i = 0,
dhlad
H,
kai
(xn )
sugklnei, ra enai akolouja
kajetthta twn
kai
Z,
Cauchy:
qoume
kxn xm k 0
kajc
m, n .
'Omwc, ap thn
kai ap to Pujagreio Jerhma, qoume
kwn wm k2 + kzn zm k2 = kxn xm k2 ,

kai aut deqnei ti oi
tou
H,
'Epetai ti
11.
(wn ), (zn )
enai akoloujec
Cauchy
W, Z antstoiqa. Oi W, Z enai kleisto upqwroi

w W kai z Z ttoia ste wn w kai zn z .
orou, x = w + z W + Z .
stouc
ra enai plreic san metriko qroi. Epomnwc, uprqoun
Ston
xn = wn + zn w + z ,
R2
jewrome touc
kai ap monadikthta tou
M = {(x, 0) : x R}
kai
N = {(x, x) : x R}.
Tte,
(PM PN )(1, 1) = PM (1, 1) = (1, 0),

en
(PN PM )(1, 1) = PN (1, 0) =
'Ara,
1
1
,
2
2
PM PN 6= PN PM .
Isqei mwc isthta an
M N:
gia kje
xH
qoume
(PM PN )(x) = (PN PM )(x) = 0,

dhlad
12.
PM PN = PN PM 0.
Oi trec prtec sunartseic pou prokptoun ap thn orjokanonikopohsh enai oi exc:

(a)
f1 (t) =
1
k1k
(b)
f2 (t) =
tht,f1 if1 (t)

ktht,f1 if1 k
(g)
f3 (t) =
t2 ht2 ,f1 if1 (t)ht2 ,f2 if2 (t)

kt2 ht2 ,f1 if1 ht2 ,f2 if2 k
.
2
3
t.
2
45 2
(t
8
31 ).
105
Parathrome ti
|t4 a bt ct2 |2 dt = d2 (t4 , h1, t, t2 i),
min
a,b,c
a, b, c brskontac to plhsistero shmeo

h1, t, t2 i, ra h lsh dnetai ap thn
epomnwc mporome na brome ta bltista

oi
f1 , f 2 , f 3
enai orjokanonik bsh tou
g(t) = ht1 , f1 if1 (t) + ht4 , f2 if2 (t) + ht4 , f3 if3 (t) = . . . =
to opoo dnei
a=
13.
Upojtoume ti
R(T ) = span{v}
gia kpoio
3
,
35
b = 0,
v 6= o.
tou
h1, t, t2 i
proc thn
t4 .
'Omwc,
6 2
3
t
,
7
35
6
.
7
c=
Tte, gia kje
xH
qoume
T (x) = x v,
pou o
x R
exarttai ap to
x.
Mporome na upologsoume to
msw tou
wc exc:
v
hT x, vi = x hv, vi = x = T x,
.
kvk2
Parathrome ti to
f :HR
pou orzetai ap thn
f (x) = T x,
v
,
kvk2
enai fragmno grammik sunarthsoeidc: h grammikthta elgqetai ekola, kai
|f (x)| = | T x,
Riesz,
Ap to jerhma anaparstashc tou
v
v
kT k kxk.
| kT xk
2
kvk
kvk2
kvk
uprqei
uH
ttoio ste
x = f (x) = hx, ui,

'Ara,
14.
T (x) = x v = hx, uiv
enai qroc
x H.
gia kje
Hilbert,
ra to jerhma anaparstashc tou
f (x) = hw, xi,

Afo (profanc)
w H,
mporome na orsoume
f : H R
f enai
fragmno grammik sunarthsoeidc ston
Riesz
mac dnei monadik
wW
ttoio ste
x W.
me
f(x) = hw, xi,

Tte, to
x H.
H,
x H.
epektenei to
f,
kai
kf kW = kwk = kfkH .
Mnei na dexoume th monadikthta: stw ti kpoio
rstashc tou
Riesz
ston
H,
uprqei
uH
g H
ikanopoie ta parapnw. Tte, ap to jerhma anapa-
ttoio ste
g(x) = hu, xi,

'Omwc tte,
hw u, xi = 0
gia kje
x W,
x H.
w u = z W .
opte
Tte,
kuk2 = kwk2 + kzk2

ap to Pujagreio jerhma (exhgste), kai afo
dnei
z = 0 = w = u.
15.
Efarmzoume prta thn anisthta
'Epetai ti
kuk = kgk = kf k = kfk = kwk,
prpei na qoume
g = f.
Cauchy-Schwarz,
|hx, ek ihy, ek i|
k=1
kai katpin thn anisthta tou
!1/2
hx, ek i2
k=1
kxk kyk.
!1/2
hy, ek i2
k=1
Bessel:
kzk = 0,
to opoo
106
16.
to
'Estw
to plhsistero shmeo tou
proc to
x.
Afo
yY
kai h
{en : n N}
enai orjokanonik bsh tou
Y,
grfetai sth morf
y=
hy, en ien .
n=1
'Omwc xroume ti
xy Y
kai
en Y
gia kje
n N.
'Ara,
hx y, en i = 0 = hx, en i = hy, en i
gia kje
n N.
Sunduzontac ta parapnw, parnoume
y=
hx, en ien .
n=1
17.
'Estw
f `2 .
Ap to jerhma anaparstashc tou
Riesz,
f (x) = hy, xi,

Eidiktera,
f (en ) = hy, en i.
'Omwc, ap thn tautthta tou
uprqei
y `2
ttoio ste
x `2 .
Parseval
qoume
hy, en i2 = kyk2 < +,
n=1
2
ra,
hy, en i 0,
18.
enai
dhlad
f (en ) 0.
P
H enai plrhc, ra h n xn sugklnei
Cauchy. 'Omwc, an l > m qoume
an kai mno an h akolouja twn merikn ajroismtwn
ksl sm k2 = kxm+1 + + xl k2 =
l
X
kxn k2 ,
n=m+1
ap to Pujagreio jerhma. 'Ara, h
(sm )
enai
Cauchy
tm =
an kai mno an h
m
X
kxn k2
n=1
enai akolouja
Cauchy
sto
R,
dhlad an kai mno an h seir
n=1
kxn k2
sugklnei.
sm =
Pm
n=1
xn
Keflaio 7
To Jerhma Hahn - Banach

7.1 To Lmma tou Zorn
M . M :
(1) a M , a a ( ).
(2) a b b a, a = b ( ).
(3) a b b c, a c ( ).
M ( ). M
a b a b b a (, a b
.) a b a b b a.
() A M ( )
.
() W 6= , W M u M , u W : x W
x u. W M .
() r M x M x r. M ,
().
() m M M : x M m x m = x. ,
M m. M
. M ,
M (;).
() R
.
() X 6= M = P(X) X ( X).
M :
A B A B.
M ( X , A, B M
: .. A , X, B = X\A.) M ()
, X ( M ).
() M = Rn , n 2, n- . x =
(1 , . . . , n ), y = (1 , . . . , n ), x y i i i = 1, . . . , n. M
, .
107
108
() M = N , m n m n.
N ( 3 7 N .) A = {3 2k : k = 0, 1, 2, . . .}
N. N .
P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, . . .} ,
P . , {2, 3, 4, 8} : 3 8 (
.)
Zorn M 6= ( ).
A M M . , M .
: M ,
x1 M . x1 , x2 M x1 < x2 , {x1 , x2 }
. x2 , x3 M x1 < x2 < x3
{x1 , x2 , x3 } . , xn
{xn : n N}. , y1 . y1 , .
; .
M .
, : Zorn
, .
Zorn
( ):
7.1.1. X 6= {0} Hamel.
: M X. M
: X 6= {0}, x X, x 6= 0. {x} , {x} M .
M , A B A B. (
, , , .)
. (M, ) Zorn.
: A M . A = {Ai : i I}, Ai
X, , i, j I, Ai Aj Aj Ai .
S
U = iI Ai . , U X Ai U i I. U M ,
U . U A M .
x1 , . . . , xm U . xk U , k = 1, . . . , m, Ai1 , . . . , Aim xk Aik .
A , Aik . , k0
Aik Aik0 , k = 1, . . . , m. , x1 , . . . , xm Aik0 . Aik0 ,
{x1 , . . . , xm } Aik0 . {x1 , . . . , xm }
U , U .
2
, Zorn: M B. B ,
X.
Y = span(B). Y 6= X. , z X\Y , z
B. B {z} :
1 x1 + + m xm + z = 0, = 0, z x1 , . . . , xm .
, 1 x1 + + m xm = 0, B , 1 = = m = 0.
, B M . B {z} M B.
.
X = Y = span(B), B .
: . B
X X, B
109
B 0 = B {z}, . Zorn
X.
, , .
, , Zorn
. Hahn-Banach , , .
7.2 To Jerhma Hahn - Banach

X , p : X R. p ,
:
() p(x + y) p(x) + p(y) x, y X,
() p(x) = p(x) 0 x X,
, . : p
, p(x) = ||p(x), R ( p , .)
p(0) = 0 p(x) p(x), x X ().
() f : X R , f, |f | .
() k k : X R .
() p : ` R p((k )) = limsupk ` .
7.2.1. ( Hahn) X , p : X R
. Z X, f : Z R
: x Z,
()
f (x) p(x).
, f : X R
() f(x) = f (x) x Z ( f f ),
() f(x) p(x) x X.
() X (
.)
() , f
W W1 ,
(). , Zorn f,
( ) X.
:
7.2.1. ,
W1 X Z, f1 : W1 R f1 |Z = f f1 (x) p(x)
x W1 .
y X\W1 , W2 = span{W1 , y}. , f2 : W2 R f2 |W1 = f1
f2 (x) p(x) x W2 .
110
: z W2
z = x + y
x W1 R (). f2
a R f2 (y). f2 (y) = a,
(1)
f2 (z) = f2 (x) + f2 (y) = f1 (x) + a,
f2 f1 . a :
x W1 R,
f1 (x) + a p(x + y).
(2)
, (1) (2), a R : x W1 > 0,

(3)
f1 (x) + a p(x + y) ,
f1 (x) a p(x y).
p f1 W1 , (3) :
x W1 > 0,
x
x

x
x

(4)
f1
+ap
+y
, f1
ap
y ,
W1 , a R : x, x0 W1 ,
f1 (x0 ) p(x0 y) a p(x + y) f1 (x).
a x, x0 W1 ,
f1 (x) + f1 (x0 ) p(x0 y) + p(x + y).
,
f1 (x) + f1 (x0 )
= f1 (x + x0 )
p(x + x0 )
= p((x0 y) + (x + y))
p(x0 y) + p(x + y),
p, f1 W1 , f1 p W1 ,
p X. .
2
: W (W1 , f1 )
:
() W1 X, Z W1 .
() f1 : W1 R , f1 |Z = f .
() f1 (x) p(x) x W1 .
W , (Z, f ) W. W (W1 , f1 ) (W2 , f2 )
W1 W2 f2 |W1 = f1 .
(W, ) . S
Zorn: C = {(Wi , fi ) : i I} (W, ). W 0 = iI Wi f 0 : W 0 R
f 0 (x) = fi (x), x Wi . :
() W 0 X, Z Wi W 0 i I (
i, j I , Wi Wj Wj Wi , C .)
() f 0 , , f 0 (x) p(x) x W 0 (
i, j I , fj |Wi = fi fi |Wj = fj C .)
111
() i I, f 0 |Wi = fi .
(W 0 , f 0 ) W, (W 0 , f 0 ) C.
Zorn, (W, ) (W0 , f0 ). 7.2.1
W0 = X: , y X\W0 , W00 = span{W0 , y} f0
f00 : W00 R, (W00 , f00 ) (W0 , f0 ), .
f = f0 : X R f X.
, Hahn-Banach :
7.2.2. (Banach) X , Y X, f : Y R
. ,
kf kY =
|f (x)| < +.
sup
xY,kxk=1
, f : X R f|Y = f kfk = kf kY . (,
f X, .)
: |f (x)| kf kY kxk x Y . p : X R p(x) = kf kY kxk. p
:
() ,
p(x + y)
kf kY kx + yk kf kY (kxk + kyk)
kf kY kxk + kf kY kyk
p(x) + p(y).
() p : > 0,
p(x) = kf kY kxk = kf kY kxk = p(x).
Hahn, f : X R f ,
f(x) p(x) = kf kY kxk,
(1)
x X.
x x f,
(2)
f(x) = f(x) p(x) = kf kY k xk = kf kY kxk,
x X.
(1) (2) , x X,
|f(x)| kf kY kxk.
, f X , kfk kf kY . , f|Y = f ,
kfk =
sup
xX,kxk=1
, kfk = kf kY .
|f(x)|
sup
|f (x)| = kf kY .
xY,kxk=1
7.2.2 X .
. .
7.2.1. X , x1 , . . . , xm X,
a1 , . . . , am R. f X f (xi ) = ai , i = 1, . . . , m.
112
: Y = span{x1 , . . . , xm }. Y m x1 , . . . , xm
. f0 : Y R
!
m
m
X
X
f0
i xi =
i ai .
i=1
i=1
, f0 (xi ) = ai , f0 Y , Y
Pm ( f0 , x Y
x = i=1 i xi .)
Hahn-Banach, f0 f X . ,
f (xi ) = f0 (xi ) = ai ,
i = 1, . . . , m. 2
7.3 Efarmogc
() X ,
7.3.1. X 6= {0} , x0 X, x0 6= 0.
f : X R kfk = 1 f(x0 ) = kx0 k.
: Z = span{x0 } x0 , f : Z R
f (x0 ) = kx0 k. f ,
|f (x0 )|
= 1.
6=0 kx0 k
kf kZ = sup
Hahn-Banach, f : X R , kfk = kf kZ = 1
f(x0 ) = f (x0 ) = kx0 k. 2

7.3.1. X 6= {0}, X 6= {0}.
: x0 6= 0 f 7.3.1, f =
6 0.
:
7.3.2. X , x X. ,
kxk = max |f (x)|.
kf k=1
: 7.3.1, f X , kfk = 1 f(x) = kxk. ,

()
sup |f (x)| |f(x)| = kxk.

kf k=1
, kf k = 1 |f (x)| kf k kxk = kxk. ,

()
sup |f (x)| kxk.

kf k=1
() (), kxk = supkf k=1 |f (x)|. sup max f.
: kf k = supkxk=1 |f (x)| f X (
.) Hahn-Banach, 7.3.2,
kxk = supkf k=1 |f (x)|: x f
.
113
7.3.2. f (x) = f (y) f X , x = y.

: kx yk = supkf k=1 |f (x y)| = supkf k=1 |f (x) f (y)| = 0, x = y.
: X X: x 6= y, f X
f (x) 6= f (y).
114
() -
X . X Banach kf k = sup{|f (x)| : kxk =
1}. (X ) ,
F : X R,
kF k = sup |F (f )|.
kf kX =1
:= (X ) . X
X.
x X (x) X : (x) : X R,
[ (x)](f ) = f (x),
f X .
7.3.1. (x) X .
: (x): f, g X , R,
[ (x)](f + g)
(f + g)(x)
f (x) + g(x)
[ (x)](f ) + [ (x)](g).
,
|[ (x)](f )| = |f (x)| kf k kxk = kxk kf k,
f X .
2
, (x) X k (x)kX kxkX .
7.3.2. : X X x 7 (x) . ,
.
: () x1 , x2 X 1 , 2 R. f X
[ (1 x1 + 2 x2 )](f )
f (1 x1 + 2 x2 )
1 f (x1 ) + 2 f (x2 )
1 [ (x1 )](f ) + 2 [ (x2 )](f )
[1 (x1 ) + 2 (x2 )](f ).
, (1 x1 + 2 x2 ) = 1 (x1 ) + 2 (x2 ), .
() x X. 7.3.1, f X kfk = 1 f(x) = kxk. ,
k (x)kX = sup |[ (x)](f )| |[ (x)](f)| = |f(x)| = kxk.
kf k=1
, k (x)kX kxk. . ,
k (x)kX = kxk,
.
() , (x) = 0 = k (x)kX = 0 = kxk = 0 = x = 0. ,
.
2
:
7.3.3. X X
: X X
[ (x)](f ) = f (x). 2
115
(1) X Banach (x) X .

, X (X) X . (X)
, (X) X. , (X)
X .
(2) X X . X
(X) = X , . , X X .
(3) X
X . X , X , :
X X . James (1951)
, .
(4) . -,
(;).
c0 , c0 ' `1 `1 ' ` . c0 , c0 `
. , c0 ` .
`1 . , ` , `
. , ` ,
.
7.3.1. `p , 1 < p < , .
: P
(`p ) = (`p ) . , f `p y(f ) = (k ) `q
f (x) = k k k x = (k ) `p .
Sp : `p `q Sp (f ) = y(f ) . Sq : `q `p .
F (`p ) . F Sp1 `q , x `p
X
(F Sp1 )((k )) =
k k , y = (k ) `q .
k
(x) = F . f `p . y = (k ) `q
X
f (x) =
k k ,
k
, y = Sp (f ). ,
F (f ) = F Sp1 Sp (f ) = F Sp1 ((k )) =
k k = f (x) = [ (x)](f ).
, F = (x). F , (`p ) = `
p .
() X X.
7.3() X X. X
:
7.3.4. X , Y X, x0 X\Y .
= d(x0 , Y ) = inf{kx0 yk : y Y },
f X kfkX = 1, f(y) = 0 y Y , f(x0 ) = .
: Z = span{Y, x0 }. x Z
x = y + x0 , y Y R. f : Z R
f (x) = f (y + x0 ) = .
116
, f (y) = 0 y Y , f (x0 ) = . f Z,
kf kZ = 1. , Hahn-Banach f f X
( .)
f : x = y1 + x0 Z. 6= 0,
|f (x)| = || = || inf kx0 yk
yY

1

|| x0 + y1

= kx0 + y1 k = kxk.
= 0, |f (x)| = 0 kxk. , f Z kf kZ 1.
kf kZ : yn Y kx0 yn k . , > 0, Y
x0
/ Y.
n N 0 6= x0 yn Z,
kf kZ
|f (x0 yn )|
=
1
kx0 yn k
kx0 yn k
2
n . , kf kZ = 1.
7.3.4, :
7.3.5. X , X .
: :
7.3.3. SX = {f X : kf k = 1} .
: M X .
M1 = {g = f /kf k : f M \{0}}.
M1 SX , SX .
f SX . {hk } M hk f . , khk k kf k = 1, ,
hk 6= 0. lk = hk /khk k M1 ,

hk

kf lk k = f
khk k

1

= f hk + hk 1
khk k

1

kf hk k + khk k 1
0.
khk k
2
, M1 = SX .
: {gn : n N} SX .
n N kgn k = supkxk=1 |gn (x)| = 1, xn X, kxk = 1,
|gn (xn )| >
1
.
2
Y = span{xn : n N}. gn SX , xn
SX , Y = X, X .
: Y 6= X. , 7.3.4, f X kfk = 1
f(y) = 0 y Y . , f(xn ) = 0, n N.
117
, n N,
kf gn k |(f gn )(xn )| = |f(xn ) gn (xn )| = |gn (xn )| > 1/2,
, {gn : n N} SX .
, Y = X. , Y : xn
2
Y (). , X .
7.4 Diaqwristik jewrmata

X , A, B X.
() A, B , f X R : f (a) a A,
, f (b) b B.
() A, B , f X R : f (a) >
a A, , f (b) 0 : x tA}.
, qA , M > 0
qA (x) M kxk,
()
xX
A = {x X : qA (x) < 1}.
()
: qA : A 0, > 0
D(0, ) A. 0 6= x X, (/2kxk)x A, 2 kxk {t > 0 : x tA}
0, . ,
qA (x)
2
kxk,
() M = 2/ ( x = 0, A 0 tA t > 0
(;), qA (0) = 0.)
: > 0. ,
qA (x)
inf{t > 0 : x tA} = inf{t > 0 : x (t/)A}
= inf{(t/) : t > 0, x (t/)A} = inf{s > 0 : x sA}

= qA (x).
, x, y X > 0. t, s > 0 t < qA (x) + ,
s < qA (y) + , x tA, y sA. A
tA + sA = (t + s)A
118
(;), x + y (t + s)A.
qA (x + y) t + s < qA (x) + qA (y) + 2,
> 0 ,
qA (x + y) qA (x) + qA (y).
, A = {x X : qA (x) < 1}. qA (x) < 1, r qA (x) < r < 1
x rA A. , x A, A t > 0 . x + tx A (),
1
< 1.
2
qA (x) 1+t
7.4.1. X , A , X
0. , f X f(x) > 0 x A. , f A
{0}.
: x0 A. A0 = x0 A , 0.
q : A R
q(x) M kxk,
x X,
q(x) < 1 x A. , q(x0 ) 1 (;).

W = hx0 i x0 , f : W R f (x0 ) = q(x0 ).
f q: 0, f (x0 ) = q(x0 ), < 0, f (x0 ) < 0 q(x0 ). ,
f W
|f (x0 )| = ||q(x0 ) M || kx0 k = M kx0 k.
Hahn-Banach, f f X kfk = kf kW . , x A
x0 x A0 , q(x0 x) < 1,
f(x0 ) f(x) = f(x0 x) q(x0 x) < 1.
q(x0 ) 1,
x A, f(x) > f(x0 ) 1 = q(x0 ) 1 0.
7.4.2. X , A, B , A . ,
f X R : f (a) < a A, f (b) b B. B ,
A, B .
:
G = A B := {a b : a A, b B}. G ,
S
G = bB (A b), G . A B 6= 0
/ G. ,
f X f (x) > 0 x G.
a A, b B. , a b G f (a b) > 0. , f (a) > f (b). R

()
sup{f (b) : b B} inf{f (a) : a A}.
A , f (A) R (), ()
a A,
f (a) >
b B,
f (b) .
B , f (B) , f (b) 0
K + D(0, r) A,
K + D(0, r) = {x + y : x K, kyk < r} = {x X : d(x, K) < r}.
: x K x A A , rx > 0
D(x, rx ) = x + D(0, rx ) A.
,
K
D(x, rx /2),
xK
K , x1 , . . . , xm K
K D(x1 , rx1 /2) D(xm , rxm /2).
r = min{rx1 /2, . . . , rxm /2}. ,
K + D(0, r)
m
[
(xi + D(0, rxi )) A. 2
i=1
7.4.3. X , A, B X. B
, A, B .
: A, B , B X\A,
r > 0 B + D(0, r) X\A,
(B + D(0, r/2)) (A + D(0, r/2)) = .
A + D(0, r/2), B + D(0, r/2) : A, B D(0, r/2) ,
D(0, r/2) . 7.4.2 ,
A, B.
2
: A, B , 7.4.3 . ,
R2 A = {(x, y) : y 0} B = {(x, y) : x > 0, xy 1}. A, B ,
, .
7.5 Askseic
1. .
2. .
3. X , p : X R (
.) :
() p(0) = 0 p 0, x0 X.
() p(x) 0 {x : kxk = r}, p(x) 0 x X.
4. p X. Z = hx0 i, f (x) = ap(x0 )
x = ax0 Z. f f (x) p(x), x Z.
5. X p : X R .
f : X R
p(x) f (x) p(x),
x X.
120
6. X , (fn ) X . f X
liminf n fn (x) f (x) limsupn fn (x), x X.

7. X n , X
n .
8. Y X, : f X f |Y 0, f 0.
Y = X.
9. Y X.
A = {f X : Y Kerf }.
Y =
{Kerf : f A}.
10. X Y . T : X Y , T

M = sup{f (T x) : kxk 1, kf k 1} < +.
, kT k = M .
11. X , A X. : x span(A) ,
f X f |A 0, f (x) = 0.
12. Y X,
N (Y ) = {f X : y Y, f (y) = 0}.
() N (Y ) X .
() Y1 , Y2 X Y1 6= Y2 , N (Y1 ) 6= N (Y2 ).
13. X, Y , T : X Y . T : Y X
T (f ) = f T . T , , kT k = kT k.
14. X, Y , X 6= {0}. B(X, Y ) , Y
.
121
122
1.
'Estw
f :XR
p(x) = |f (x)|.
grammik sunarthsoeidc, kai
x, y X ,
An
tte
p(x + y) = |f (x + y)| = |f (x) + f (y)| |f (x)| + |f (y)| = p(x) + p(y).

xX
An
kai
0,
tte
p(x) = |f (x)| = |f (x)| = |f (x)| = p(x).

p
'Ara, to
2.
'Estw
enai upogrammik sunarthsoeidc.
k k : X R+ .
'Opwc prn, elgqoume ti gia kje
kx + yk kxk + kyk,
x, y X
kai
0,
isqoun oi
kxk = || kxk = kxk,
ap tic gnwstc idithtec thc nrmac.
3.
(a) To
p(0) = 0,
enai suneqc sto 0 kai
>0
ra gia dosmno
>0
uprqei
ttoio ste
kzk < = |p(z)| < .

'Estw
x0 X
kai
> 0.
An
kx x0 k < ,
tte kai
kx0 xk = kx x0 k < ,
|p(x x0 )| < ,
opte
|p(x0 x)| < .
p,
Ap thn upoprosjetikthta tou
p(x) p(x0 ) p(x x0 ) |p(x x0 )| <

kai
p(x0 ) p(x) p(x0 x) |p(x0 x)| < ,

ra
|p(x) p(x0 )| < .
(b) 'Estw
r > 0,
Dhlad, to
x0 .
enai suneqc sto
kai ac upojsoume ti gia kpoio
x0
me
kx0 k = r
isqei h
p(x0 ) < 0.
Tte,
p(2x0 ) = p(x0 + x0 ) p(x0 ) + p(x0 ) = 2p(x0 ) < 0.

k2x0 k = 2r 6= r, ra 2x0
/ {x : kxk = r}.
p(x) 0 kai sthn {x : kxk = r}.
'Omwc,
An
r = 0,
tte
p(x) 0
gia kje
x
/ 0.
'Omwc,
Ap thn upjes mac,
p(0) = p(0 + 0) 2p(0)
p(2x0 ) 0,
ra
p(0) 0.
to opoo enai topo.
Dhlad,
p(x) 0
'Ara,
gia kje
x X.
4.
To
enai profanc grammik, giat an
f (x + y)
Gia thn anisthta
f (x) p(x)
, R
kai
x = ax0 , y = bx0 Z ,
tte
f ((a + b)x0 ) = (a + b)p(x0 )
(ap(x0 )) + (bp(x0 )) = f (x) + f (y).
parathrome ti: an
a 0,
tte
f (ax0 ) = ap(x0 ) = p(ax0 ),
en an
a < 0,
tte
f (ax0 ) = f ((a)x0 ) = p(ax0 ) p(ax0 ),

afo kje upogrammik sunarthsoeidc ikanopoie thn
5.
Parnoume tuqn
'Askhsh 4, to
x0 6= 0
ston
X.
Jewrome ton
enai grammik sunarthsoeidc ston
Ap to jerhma
Hahn-Banach,
uprqei
p(z) p(z).
Z = hx0 i, kai orzoume g : Z R, me g(ax0 ) = ap(x0 ).

Z , kai ikanopoie thn g(z) p(z) ston Z .
f :XR
grammik sunarthsoeidc, pou epektenei to
thn
f (x) p(x),
x X.
Tloc,
f (x) = f (x) p(x) = f (x) p(x),

Dhlad,
p(x) f (x) p(x)
gia kje
x X.
x X.
g,
Ap thn
kai ikanopoie
123
6.
To
p(x) = lim sup fn (x)
p(x + y)
kai an
X.
enai upogrammik sunarthsoeidc ston
An
x, y X ,
tte
lim sup fn (x + y) = lim sup[fn (x) + fn (y)]
lim sup fn (x) + lim sup fn (y) = p(x) + p(y),
0,
p(x) = lim sup fn (x) = lim sup[fn (x)] = lim sup fn (x) = p(x).
Tra efarmzoume thn 'Askhsh 5: uprqei grammik sunarthsoeidc
f : X R,
ttoio ste
lim inf fn (x) = lim sup fn (x) f (x) lim sup fn (x),
7.
'Estw x1 , . . . , xn grammik anexrthta diansmata ston X .

a1 , . . . , an , uprqei f X me f (xi ) = ai , i = 1, . . . , n.
Mporome loipn na brome
f1 , . . . , f n X
f1 , . . . , f n
enai grammik anexrthta: an
Xroume ti gia kje epilog pragmatikn arijmn
ttoia ste
fi (xj ) = ij ,
Ta
x X.
i, j = 1, . . . , n.
t1 f1 + . . . + tn fn 0,
tte gia kje
jn
qoume
0 = (t1 f1 + . . . + tn fn )(xj ) = t1 f1 (xj ) + . . . + tn fn (xj ) = tj 1 = tj .

'Ara,
8.
t1 = . . . = tn = 0.
'Estw
x X\Y .
Afo o
enai kleistc kai
x
/ Y,
uprqei
f (y) = 0, y Y,
(basik efarmog tou jewrmatoc
Hahn-Banach).
f X
kf k = 1,
pou ikanopoie ta exc:
f (x) 6= 0.
Aut enai topo, giat h upjesh mac lei ti
f |Y 0 = f 0.
'Ara,
9.
Y = X.
'Estw
y Y.
Uprqoun
yn Y
yn y .
me
Gia kje
f A
qoume
f (yn ) = 0, n N,
ra
f (y) = lim f (yn ) = 0.

Dhlad,
y Kerf .
Afo to
f A
y {Kerf : f A}. Afo

\
Y {Kerf : f A}.
tan tuqn,
to
yY
tan tuqn,
z {Kerf : f A}\Y . Ap to jerhma Hahn-Banach,

y Y . Tte, g A kai z
/ Kerg , to opoo enai topo.
'Estw ti o egkleismc enai gnsioc. Tte, uprqei
g X
10.
me
kgk = 1, g(z) 6= 0
kai
g(y) = 0
gia kje
To dexi mloc isotai me
!
M=
ap to jerhma
Hahn-Banach
(gia to
sup
sup
kxkX 1
kf kY 1
T x Y ).
f (T x)
'Omwc, o
sup kT xkY ,
kxkX 1
enai fragmnoc an kai mno an
sup kT xkY < +,

kxkX 1
kai tte
11.
kT k = supkxkX 1 kT xk
'Omoia me thn 8. An
(Keflaio 5).
Y = span(A),
parathrste ti
f |A 0 f |Y 0.
12.
(a) O
N (Y )
X :
an
f, g X
kai
, R,
tte gia kje
(f + g)(y) = f (y) + g(y) = 0 + 0,
yY
qoume
uprqei
124
dhlad
f + g N (Y ).
N (Y )
fn N (Y )
enai kleistc: an
kai
fn f X ,
tte gia kje
yY
qoume
f (y) = lim fn (y) = lim 0 = 0,

n
dhlad
f N (Y ).
(b) 'Estw Y1 , Y2 kleisto upqwroi tou X

y Y2 \Y1 . Sthn prth perptwsh, afo
brome f X
me tic idithtec
me
o
Y1 6= Y2 . 'Eqoume do periptseic: ete uprqei y Y1 \Y2 ete uprqei

Y2 enai kleistc grammikc upqwroc tou X kai y
/ Y2 , mporome na
f |Y2 0,
Tte,
f N (Y2 )\N (Y1 ),
ra
f T :X R
kf k = 1,
f (y) 6= 0.
N (Y1 ) 6= N (Y2 ).
y Y2 \Y1 ,
Entelc anloga, an uprqei
13.
brskoume
f N (Y1 )\N (Y2 ).
enai grammik san snjesh grammikn sunartsewn, kai gia kje
x X,
|[T (f )](x)| = |f (T x)| kf k kT xkY kf k kT k kxk,

dhlad
T (f ) X
kai
kT (f )k kT k kf k.
Aut deqnei ti o
orzetai kal, kai
kT k kT k.
()
[H grammikthta tou
elgqetai ekola:
T (f + g) = (f + g) T = (f T ) + (g T ) = T (f ) + T (g).]
kT k kai kT k qrhsimopoiome to jerhma Hahn-Banach:
ste kf k = 1 kai f (y) = kyk = kT xk. 'Ara,
Gia thn isthta twn
f Y
ttoio
kT xk
'Ara,
kT k kT k,
14.
Stajeropoiome
Tn (x) = f (x)yn .
kai ap thn
()
f X
'Estw
f (y) = (f T )(x) = [T (f )](x)
kT (f )k kxk kT k kf k kxk
kT k kxk.
x X.
Tte,
Tx Y
kai uprqei
petai to zhtomeno.
me
kf k = 1.
'Estw
(yn )
akolouja
Cauchy
ston
Y.
Orzoume
Tn : X Y
me
Tte,
!
kTn Tm k
sup kf (x)(yn ym )kY =
sup |f (x)|
kxkX 1
=
dhlad, h
(Tn )
enai akolouja
grammikc telestc
T :XY
kf k kyn ym k = kyn ym k,
Cauchy
B(X, Y )
T (x) = lim (f (x)yn ),
x X.
ston
ttoioc ste
()
Afo
B(X, Y ). Afo
Tn T , dhlad
n
f 6= 0,
uprqei
xX
me
kyn ym k
kxkX 1
f (x) = 1.
Tte, an orsoume
y = T (x),
qei upoteje plrhc, uprqei fragmnoc
qoume
yn y
ap thn
().
Keflaio 8
Basik jewrmata gia qrouc

Banach
Banach:
, .
Baire:
.
8.1 To jerhma omoimorfou frgmatoc

2.4 Osgood: {fn }
[0, 1] {fn (t)} t [0, 1], [a, b] [0, 1]
{fn } . Baire.
Tn B(X, Y )
{Tn (x)} Y x X. X ,
Tn Osgood kTn k
:
8.1.1. X Banach, Y , Tn : X Y
, n N. , x X Mx > 0
kTn xkY Mx ,
n N.
(, {Tn x} Y ). , M > 0
kTn k M, n N.
(, {kTn k} ).
: n N
Ak = {x X : sup kTn xk k}.
n
() Ak X: xj Ak xj x. n N kTn xj k k
j,
kTn xk = lim kTn xj k k.
j
n, x Ak .
125
126
()
X=
Ak .
k=1
, x X,
S Mx > 0 supn kTn xk Mx , kx > Mx , kx N,
x Akx k Ak .
() X Ak . Baire, k0 N Ak0
. , x0 X r > 0
D(x0 , r) Ak0 .
x X, x 6= 0. ,
x0 , x 0 +
r
x D(x0 , r) Ak0 ,
2kxk
, n N,

Tn x0 +
kTn x0 k k0

r
x k0 .
2kxk
,

Tn

r
x
2kxk

r

=
Tn x0 +
x + Tn (x0 )
2kxk

r

Tn x0 +
x + kTn (x0 )k
2kxk
2k0 .
T ,
kTn xk
kTn k
4k0
r
4k0
kxk.
r
2
n N.
:
8.1.1. X , {xn } X. {xn }
f X {f (xn )} R.
: () M > 0 kxn k M , n N. , f X
|f (xn )| kf k kxn k M kf k, n N.
, {f (xn )} .
() Tn = (xn ) : X R Tn f = [ (xn )](f ) = f (xn ). , {Tn f }
f X . X Banach,

sup kxn kX = sup k[ (xn )]kX = sup kTn k < +.
n
, {kxn k} .
:
P
8.1.2. y = (k ) : x = (k )
c0 , k k k . , y `1 . ,
X
k
|k | < +.
127
: Tn : c0 R, Tn ((k )) =
:
|Tn x| =
Pn
n
X
k=1 k k .
k k |
k=1
n
X
k=1
n
X
n
X
Tn -
|k | |k |
k=1
!
|k | sup |k |
k
!
|k | kxkc0 .
k=1
,
kTn k
n
X
|k |.
k=1
:
k =
, k > n,
sign(k ) , k n,
x0 = (k ) c0 , kx0 k 1. ,
Tn (x0 ) =
n
X
sign(k )k =
k=1
n
X
|k |.
k=1
kx0 k 1,
kTn k |Tn (x0 )| =
n
X
|k |.
k=1
P
Pn
, x = (k ) c0 , k k k = limn k=1 k k = limn Tn x . , {Tn x}
. ( c0 ), supn kTn k < +,
n
X
X
|k | = sup
|k | < +.
k=1
k=1
, y = (k ) `1 .

. : Tn : X Y supn kTn k = +, x X
supn kTn (x)kY = +.
( Fourier). f : [, ] R . Fourier
f
()
X
a0
+
(am cos mt + bm sin mt),
2
m=1
am , bm
Z
1
am =
f (t) cos(mt)dt ,

bm
1
=
f (t) sin(mt)dt.
f t [, ] ()
( f (t)). , :
8.1.3. f : [, ] R Fourier t0 = 0.
128
: C[, ] kf k = maxt[,] |f (t)|. (C[, ], k k)

Banach. Tn : C[, ] R,
Tn f =
n
X
a0
+
am ,
2
m=1
n- () t0 = 0. , (;)
"
#
Z
n
1 X
1
f (t)
+
Tn f =
cos mt dt.

2 m=1

n
1 sin(n + 12 )t
1 X
.
+
cos mt =
2 m=1
2
sin 2t
,
Tn f =
1
2
sin(n + 21 )t
.
sin 2t
f (t)qn (t)dt,
qn (t) =
1
|Tn f |
2

|f (t)| |qn (t)|dt
Tn ,
1
kTn k
2
1
2

|qn (t)|dt kf k,
|qn (t)|dt.
, f kf k = 1 sign(qn ),
Z
Z
1
1
Tn f
sign(qn )qn (t)dt =
|qn (t)|dt.
2
2
,
kTn k =
1
2
|qn (t)|dt.
,
1
2
| sin 2t |
|t|
2
|qn (t)| =
1
2
Z
0
| sin(n + 12 )t|
1
dt
| sin 2t |
Z
0
| sin(n + 12 )t|
dt,
t
[, ], v = (n + 21 )t
kT k
(2n+1)
| sin v|
dv
v
2n Z
1 X (k+1) | sin v|
dv
v
k=0 k
Z (k+1)
2n
1X
1
| sin v|dv
(k + 1) k
k=0
2n
2 X 1
2
k+1
k=0
n . , supn kTn k = . , f C[, ] (Tn f )

. Fourier f t0 = 0.
2
, : J = [a, b] C[a, b] kf k = maxt[a,b] |f (t)|.
129
J a1 , . . . , am t1 < < tm J.
Rb
ti , ai , f C[J] a f (t)dt
m
X
ai f (ti ).
i=1
ti , ai ,
f . , ti , ai ,
f C[J] : .. f ti
t J.
J : n N

f0 (t) = 1, f1 (t) = t, , . . . , fn (t) = tn ,
(n)
(n)
(n)
(n)
(n)
(n)
t0 , t1 , . . . , tn J a0 , a1 , . . . , an R,
n
X
()
(n)
(n)
fj (t)dt,
ai fj (ti ) =
j = 0, 1, . . . , n.
i=0
(n)
: , , t0
(n)
() ai
n
X
(n)
(n)
ai (ti )j =
i=0
(n)
ai
bj+1 aj+1
,
j+1
(n)
< t1
(n)
< < tn J. ,
j = 0, 1, . . . , n.

h
in
(n)
det (ti )j
i,j=1
(n)
( Vandermonde). ti ,
(n)
ai
Z b
n
X
(n)
(n)
Tt(n) ,a(n) (fj ) :=
ai fj (ti ) =
fj (t)dt, j = 0, 1, . . . , n.
i
i=0
f ,
Tt(n) ,a(n) (p) =
i
n
X
(n)
(n)
ai p(ti )
Z
=
p(t)dt
a
i=0
p : [a, b] R n.
Tn := Tt(n) ,a(n) , (Tn ) J:
i
i
f C[J]
n
X
(n)
(n)
Tn (f ) =
ai f (ti ),
i=0
Tn n.
f : [a, b] R
Z
()
Tn (f )
f (t)dt,
a
n . Polya:
130
8.1.4. (Tn ) = (Ta(n) ,t(n) ) ,

i
i
() f C[a, b] M > 0 , n N,
n
X
(n)
|ai | M.
i=0
: Tn : C[a, b] R ,
|Tn (f )| =
n
X
(n)
i=0
n
X
(n)
ai f (ti )|
n
X
(n)
(n)
|ai | |f (ti )|
i=0
!
(n)
|ai | kf k,
i=0
Tn , kTn k
(n)
Pn
|ai |.
i=0
f : [a, b] R |f (t)| 1 [a, b]
(n)
, ai > 0,
1
(n)
f (ti ) =
(n)
1 , ai < 0,
kTn k |Tn (f )| =
n
X
(n)
(n)
ai sign(ai ) =
n
X
(n)
|ai |.
i=0
i=0
() . M > 0
Pn
(n)
i=0 |ai | M , n N, kTn k M , n N. :
() , p : [a, b] R ( m), n m,
Rb
Rb
Tn (p) = a p. , Tn (p) a p n , .
() C[a, b] ( Weierstrass). f C[a, b]
> 0, p
kf pk = max |f (t) p(t)| < .
t[a,b]
,

Z

Tn f

Z

|Tn f Tn p| + Tn p
Z

p +

Z

kTn k kf pk + Tn p
<

Z

M + Tn p
Tn p
Rb
a
p, n n0 ()

Z

Tn f

> 0 , Tn f
Z
p
a
b
p + (b a)kp f k

p + (b a).

f < (M + 1 + b a),
Rb
a
f.
() : Tn f
f C[a, b], {Tn f } f . , supn kTn k < +.
Pn
(n)
, kTn k = i=0 |ai |, n N. ,
sup
n
n
X
i=0
(n)
|ai | = M < +. 2
Rb
a
131
8.2 To jerhma anoiqtc apeiknishc

X Y , T : X Y . T
A X , T (A) Y .
T : X Y , T : , T : (0, 2) R
T (x) = sin x , T ((0, 2)) = [1, 1].
X Y Banach, T : X Y
. , T .
:
8.2.1. X, Y Banach, T : X Y ,
T (DX (0, 1)) 0 Y .
: 1 DX (0, 1/2) X.
kDX (0, 1/2) = DX (0, k/2) ,
k = 1, 2, . . . ,
X=
kDX (0, 1/2).
k=1
T ,
Y = T (X) =
kT (DX (0, 1/2)).
k=1
,
Y =
[
k=1
kT (DX (0, 1/2)) =
kT (DX (0, 1/2)).
k=1
Y , kT (DX (0, 1/2)) . Baire, k0

k0 T (DX (0, 1/2)) DY (y0 , ) Y . ,
(1)
y0 + DY (0, ) k0 T (DX (0, 1/2)).
2 y DY (0, ). , y0 + y k0 T (DX (0, 1/2)), xn DX (0, 1/2)

k0 T (xn ) y0 + y.
, y0 k0 T (DX (0, 1/2)) (;), x0n DX (0, 1/2)
k0 T (x0n ) y0 .
, xn x0n DX (0, 1),
k0 T (xn x0n ) = k0 T (xn ) k0 T (x0n ) y.
,
y k0 T (DX (0, 1)).
,
(2)
Y , 0 = /k0 .
T (DX (0, 1)) DY (0, /k0 ) = DY (0, 0 )
132
3 T (DX (0, 1)) DY (0, 0 ) Y .

T (DX (0, 1)) .
DY (0, 0 /2). y Y kyk < 0 /2. ,
y
1
T (DX (0, 0 /2)) = T (DX (0, 1/2)),
2
x1 DX (0, 1/2)
ky T x1 k <
, y T x1
1
22 T (DX (0, 1))
0
.
22
= T (DX (0, 1/22 )), x2 DX (0, 1/22 )

ky T x1 T x2 k <
0
.
23
, xn DX (0, 1/2n )
ky T x1 T xn k <
()
0
2n+1
zn = x1 + + xn Cauchy X: m > n,
kzm zn k
=
<
kxm + + xn+1 k kxm k + + kxn+1 k

1
1
1
+ + n+1 < n .
m
2
2
2
X , x X zn x.
kzn k = kx1 + + xn k kx1 k + + kxn k < kx1 k +
1
1
1
+ + n < kx1 k + .
2
2
2
2
,
1
< 1.
2
, x DX (0, 1). (), T (zn ) = T (x1 ) + + T (xn ) y. zn x T ,
T (zn ) T (x). , T (x) = y, y T (DX (0, 1)).
kxk = lim kzn k kx1 k +
n
y DY (0, 0 /2) ,
T (DX (0, 1)) DY (0, 0 /2). 2
: A X .
T (A) : y T (A). x A T x = y. A ,
r > 0 DX (x, r) A.
, > 0 T (DX (0, 1)) DY (0, ). ,
T (DX (0, r)) = T (rDX (0, 1)) = rT (DX (0, 1)) rDY (0, ) = DY (0, r).
y 0 DY (y, r), y 0 y DY (0, r), z DX (0, r) T (z) = y 0 y.
x + z DX (x, r), T (x + z) = y 0 . ,
T (A) T (DX (x, r)) DY (y, r).
y T (A) , T (A) .
8.2.1. ( ) X, Y Banach, T : X Y ,
, . , T 1 : Y X .
: T 1 (;). T ,
A X (T 1 )1 (A) = T (A) Y . , T 1
.
2
133
8.3 To jerhma kleisto grafmatoc

,
.
X, Y , T : X Y . T
(T ) = {(x, y) : y = T x} X Y.
T :
xn x X, yn y Y , yn = T (xn ), n N, y = T (x).
, (T ) X Y , .. k(x, y)k = kxkX + kykY
().
X, Y Banach, T : X Y .
(T ) T X Y , T .
: X Y k(x, y)k = kxkX + kykY . X Y :
zn = (xn , yn ) Cauchy X Y > 0, n0 N ,
n > m n0 ,
> kzn zm k = k(xn xm , yn ym )k = kxn xm kX + kyn ym kY .
, kxn xm k < kyn ym k < , (xn ), (yn ) Cauchy X, Y
. X, Y , x X y Y xn x yn y.
, z = (x, y),
kz zn k = kx xn k + ky yn k 0.
, zn z.
, (T ) X Y ,
X Y . X Y Banach, (T ) Banach.
P : (T ) X P (x, T x) = x. P ,
P (x, T x) = 0 = x = 0 = T x = 0 = (x, T x) = (0, 0),
P . , P . , P :
kP (x, T x)k = kxkX kxkX + kT xkY = k(x, T x)kXY .
, kP k 1.
, P 1 : X (T ) P 1 (x) = (x, T x) . ,
M > 0 , x X
kT xkY kxkX + kT xkY = k(x, T x)kXY = kP 1 (x)kXY M kxkX .
, T .
8.4 Askseic
1. X Banach, Y , Tn : X Y .
x X (Tn x) Cauchy. (kTn k) .
134
Y , T : X Y
Tn x T x x X.
2. X : c00
` , Tn : c00 R Tn (x) = nn .
3. X , xn x X, f (xn ) f (x) f X . ;
4. X , (xk ) X
M > 0
|f (xk )| < + f X .
|f (xk )| M kf k
k=1
f X .
5. X Banach, (fn ) X , n > 0 : n 0 ,
x X Kx > 0 |fn (x)| Kx n n N. kfn k 0.
6. X, Y Banach, Tn B(X, Y ), n N. :
() supn kTn k < +.
() x X, supn kTn xk < +.
() x X g Y , supn |g(Tn x)| < +.
7. X, Y Banach, T : X Y .
M > 0 : y Y x X T (x) = y kxk M kyk.
8. X , k k1 k k2 .
kxn k1 0 = kxn k2 0.
.
9. c00 ` , T : c00 c00 T x = (1 , 22 , 33 , . . .).
T , , . T 1 ; .
10. X, Y Banach, T : X Y , , .
a, b > 0
akxk kT xk bkxk
x X.
11. X, Y , T1 : X Y , T2 : X Y
. T1 + T2 .
12. X, Y , T : X Y . :
() C X , T (C) Y .
() K Y , T 1 (K) X.
13. .
14. X, Y Banach T : X Y : kxn k 0
f Y , f (T xn ) 0. T .
15. X Banach, xn x X. (fn ) X , fn (x) f (x)
x X. fn (xn ) f (x).
135
16. X, Y Banach, T : X Y , .
T 1 : R(T ) X R(T ) = {T x : x X} Y .
17. X, Y Banach, T : X Y . T
g Y g T X .
18. C[0, 1] C 1 [0, 1] f
f 0 [0, 1]. C 1 [0, 1] : X C[0, 1] T f = f 0 .
() T .
() T (;). ;
136
1.
Kje akolouja
Cauchy enai fragmnh, ra h upjesh mac dnei to exc: gia kje x X h akolouja (Tn x)
X enai qroc Banach, ap to jerhma omoimorfou frgmatoc uprqei M > 0 ttoioc ste
n N.
enai fragmnh. Afo o
kTn k M
gia kje
Me thn epiplon upjesh ti o

uprqei to
limn Tn x Y .
Orzoume
Y enai plrhc,
T : X Y me
qoume:
xX
gia kje
(Tn x)
enai akolouja
Cauchy,
ra
T x := lim Tn x.
n
Mnei na dexoume ti o
Tn y T y ,
x, y X
enai fragmnoc grammikc telestc: gia kje
kai
a, b R
qoume
Tn x T x
kai
ra
Tn (ax + by) = aTn x + bTn y aT x + bT y.

T
'Omwc, ap ton orism tou
qoume
Tn (ax + by) T (ax + by).
'Ara,
T (ax + by) = aT x + bT y,
T enai grammikc. Gia na dexoume ti o T enai fragmnoc, parathrome
kTn xk M kxk gia kje x X kai n N. Afo Tn x T x, blpoume ti
dhlad, o
kT xk = lim kTn xk M kxk,

T
dhlad o
2.
enai fragmnoc, kai
Jewrome ton
c00
ti, ap to prto mroc, qoume
xX
kT k M .
me nrma thn
kxk = supk |k |.
Orzoume
Tn : c00 R,
me
Tn (x) = nn .
Kje
Tn
enai grammik
sunarthsoeidc, kai
|Tn x| = n|n | nkxk,

ra, kje
(kTn k)
Tn
enai fragmno kai
kTn k n.
'Eqoume
Tn (en ) = n,
kTn k = n
ra
(giat?). Aut deqnei ti h akolouja
den enai fragmnh.
x c00 enai telik mhdenik akolouja, ra uprqei n0 = n0 (x)

n n0 . Dhlad, h akolouja (Tn x) enai fragmnh gia kje x c00 .
Ap thn llh pleur, kje
Tn (x) = nn = 0
gia kje
To jerhma omoimorfou frgmatoc den efarmzetai ed, giat o
3.
An
xn x,
tte gia kje
f X
c00
ttoioc ste
den enai plrhc.
qoume
|f (xn ) f (x)| = |f (xn x)| kf k kxn xk 0,

dhlad
f (xn ) f (x).
To antstrofo den isqei: an, gia pardeigma, ston
`2 proume xn = en ta diansmata thc sunjouc orjokanonikc
bshc, qoume
f (en ) 0 = f (0)
gia kje
4.
f `2
Orzoume
('Askhsh 17, Keflaio 6). 'Omwc,
Tn : X `1 ,
ken k = 1
gia kje
n N,
ra den isqei ti
en 0.
me
Tn (f ) = (f (x1 ), . . . , f (xn ), 0, 0, . . .).

Kje
Tn
enai grammikc telestc, kai
kTn (f )k`1 =
n
X
|f (xk )|
k=1
Pn
n
X
kf k kxk k =
k=1
n
X
!
kxk k
kf k.
k=1
|f (xk )| < + gia kje f X , mac lei
ti h akolouja (Tn (f )) enai fragmnh ston `1 gia kje f X

(giat?). O X
enai qroc Banach, ra efarmzetai
to jerhma omoimorfou frgmatoc: uprqei M > 0 ttoioc ste kTn (f )k M kf k gia kje n N, dhlad
'Ara, o
Tn
enai fragmnoc, kai
kTn k
k=1
kxk k.
H upjesh ti
n
X
|f (xk )| M kf k
k=1
gia kje
f X
kai kje
n N,
dhlad,
X
k=1
|f (xk )| M kf k
k=1
137
gia kje
5.
f X
(giat?).
Jewrome thn akolouja
(gn ) = ( 1n fn )
X .
ston
Ap thn upjesh,
|gn (x)| Kx ,
(gn )
M >0
n N,
dhlad, h
ikanopoie tic upojseic tou jewrmatoc omoimorfou frgmatoc.
uprqei
ttoioc ste
kgn k M,
ra,
6.
Afo o
enai qroc
Banach,
n N = kfn k M n 0,
kfn k 0.
Ap to (a) sto (b): an
x X,
tte
kTn xk kTn k kxk (sup kTn k) kxk,

n
ra
sup kTn xk (sup kTn k) kxk < +.

n
Ap to (b) sto (g): pwc prn, gia kje
xX
g Y ,
kai
qoume
sup |g(Tn x)| sup(kgk kTn xk) = kgk sup kTn xk < +.
n
Ap to (g) sto (b): Gia kje
dnei ti h
(Tn x)
gY
enai fragmnh ston
, h akolouja
(g(Tn x))
enai fragmnh sto
R.
Sth jewra edame ti aut mac
Y.
Ap to (b) sto (a): aut enai akribc to jerhma omoimorfou frgmatoc.
7.
enai anoikt apeiknish.
Eidiktera, uprqei
> 0
ttoioc ste
T (DX (0, 1)) DY (0, )
(jumhjete to
basik lmma sthn apdeixh tou jewrmatoc anoiktc apeiknishc).

'Estw 0 6= y Y . Tte, y/2kyk DY (0, ), ra uprqei z X me kzk < 1
x = 2kykz/ . Ap th grammikthta tou T ,
2kykz
2kyk y
T (x) = T
=
= y,
2kyk
kai
kxk =
to opoo enai to zhtomeno, me
8.
kai
T z = y/2kyk.
Jtoume
2kyk kzk
2
kyk,
M = 2/ .
Jewrome ton tautotik telest
I : (X, k k1 ) (X, k k2 ).
O
enai grammikc, na proc na kai ep, kai h upjesh mac dnei ti o
X enai plrhc wc proc tic do

= I : (X, k k2 ) (X, k k1 ) enai epshc fragmnoc.
telestc (giat?). Afo o
I 1
Uprqoun loipn
a, b > 0
ttoioi ste: gia kje
enai suneqc sto 0, ra fragmnoc
nrmec, to jerhma antstrofhc apeiknishc mac lei ti o
x X,
kxk2 = kI(x)k2 akxk1 ,
kxk1 = kI 1 (x)k1 bkxk2 .
Oi do anisthtec deqnoun ti oi do nrmec enai isodnamec.
9.
Ekola elgqoume ti o
enai grammikc isomorfismc. O
T 1 : Y X
orzetai ap thn
(y) = (1 , 22 , 33 , . . .).
'Eqoume
kT xk = sup
k
ra o
enai fragmnoc, kai
kT k 1
|k |
sup |k | = kxk,
k
k
(isqei isthta - giat?). 'Omwc, gia kje
kT
(en )k
knen k
=
= n,
ken k
ken k
qoume
138
ra o
10.
T 1
den enai fragmnoc. To jerhma antstrofhc apeiknishc den efarmzetai, giat o
enai fragmnoc, ra parnontac
b = kT k
x X.
X, Y
x = T 1 (T x)
enai fragmnoc, grammikc, na proc na kai ep, kai afo oi
T 1
antstrofhc apeiknishc o
den enai plrhc.
qoume
kT xk bkxk,
Afo o
c00
enai fragmnoc. An
x X,
tte
enai qroi
Banach,
ap to jerhma
ra
kxk = kT 1 (T x)k kT 1 k kT xk,

dhlad isqei kai h arister anisthta, me
11.
Upojtoume ti
xn x
ston
a = 1/kT 1 k.
(T1 + T2 )(xn ) y
kai
ston
Y.
Ja dexoume ti
(T1 + T2 )(x) = T1 x + T2 x = y,
opte o
qei kleist grfhma.
Afo o
T2
enai fragmnoc kai
xn x,
qoume
T2 xn T2 x.
'Omwc tte,
T1 xn = (T1 + T2 )(xn ) T2 xn y T2 x.
Afo o
12.
T1
qei kleist grfhma, aut shmanei ti
(a) 'Estw
ste
yn = T xn
sto
T (C),
me
yn y
y T2 x = T1 x
ston
Y.
(giat?), dhlad to zhtomeno.
Ja dexoume ti
y T (C),
dhlad ti uprqei
xC
ttoio
y = T x.
Afo to
Tte, afo h
C enai sumpagc kai xn C , uprqoun upakolouja (xkn ) thc (xn )

(ykn ) enai upakolouja thc sugklnousac akoloujac (yn ), qoume
kai
x C,
ttoia ste
xkn x.
T xkn = ykn y.
O
qei kleist grfhma,
(b) 'Estw
kai
xn = T 1 yn T 1 (K),
Afo to
xkn x
ykn y .
me
'Ara,
xn x X .
enai sumpagc uposnolo tou
Y,
y = T x T (C).
Ja dexoume ti uprqei
uprqoun
(ykn )
kai
yK
yK
me
x = T 1 y .
ttoia ste
ykn = T xkn y.
'Omwc,
13.
xkn x,
kai o
qei kleist grfhma. 'Ara,
y = T x.
X, Y qroi Banach, kai T : X Y fragmnoc, grammikc, na proc na

T 1 : Y X enai fragmnoc, arke na dexoume ti qei kleist grfhma.
'Estw
ti o
'Estw
yn y
ston
Y,
kai
xn = T 1 yn x
ston
X.
kai ep telestc. Gia na dexoume
Ja dexoume ti
x = T 1 y T x = y.
(h isodunama exhgetai ap to ti o
enai na proc na kai ep). O
enai fragmnoc, kai
xn x.
'Ara,
yn = T xn T x.
'Omwc, qoume kai thn
14.
yn y .
Arke na dexoume ti o
dexoume ti
qei kleist grfhma.
y = T x.
Upojtoume ti
y = T x.
Gia kje
(a) Afo
Ap monadikthta tou orou,
f Y
T xn y
isqoun ta exc:
kai to
f :Y R
enai suneqc,
f (T xn ) f (y).
xn x
ston
kai
T xn y
ston
Y.
Ja
139
xn x 0,
(b) Ap thn upjesh, afo
f (T (xn x)) = f (T xn ) f (T x) 0 = f (T xn ) f (T x).

Dhlad, gia kje
f Y
f (T x) = f (y).
'Omwc aut shmanei ti
y = Tx
(basik sunpeia tou jewrmatoc
15.
Hahn-Banach
Parathrome prta ti gia tic
X enai qroc Banach

M > 0 ttoioc ste
enai ti o
kf k M
fn : X R ikanopoiontai oi upojseic tou jewrmatoc omoimorfou frgmatoc.

x X h akolouja (fn (x)) enai fragmnh (giat sugklnei). 'Ara, uprqei
n N.
(blpe 'Askhsh 1), kai qrhsimopointac to gegonc ti
|fn (xn ) f (x)|
fn (x) f (x)
blpoume ti
|fn (xn x) + fn (x) f (x)|
|fn (xn x)| + |fn (x) f (x)|
M kxn xk + |fn (x) f (x)| 0,
fn (xn ) f (x).
dhlad,
16.
Y ).
kai gia kje
kfn k M,
Tte
{diaqwrzei} ta shmea tou
R(T )
An o
enai kleistc upqwroc tou
grammikc, na proc na kai ep telestc.
Y,
tte enai qroc
Banach,
kai o
T : X R(T ) enai fragmnoc,

T 1 : R(T ) X enai
Ap to jerhma antstrofhc apeiknishc, o
fragmnoc.
T 1 : R(T ) X
T x = y.
Antstrofa: stw ti o
xX
uprqei
Uprqoun
ttoio ste
xn X
me
T xn = yn ,
enai fragmnoc, kai stw
T 1
kai afo o
yn R(T )
me
yn y Y .
Ja dexoume ti
enai fragmnoc, qoume
kxn xm k = kT 1 (yn ym )k kT 1 k kyn ym k
()
n, m N. 'Omwc h (yn ) sugklnei ston Y ra enai akolouja Cauchy ston Y , kai ap thn () sumperanoume
(xn ) enai akolouja Cauchy ston X . O X enai plrhc, ra uprqei x X ttoio ste xn x.
gia kje
ti h
enai fragmnoc kai
xn x,
ra
yn = T xn T x.
Ap monadikthta tou orou,
y = T x R(T ),
dhlad to
R(T )
17.
An o
enai kleist.
enai fragmnoc, tte gia kje
g Y
to g T : X R
g T X .
snjesh suneqn grammikn sunartsewn), dhlad
enai fragmno grammik sunarthsoeidc (wc
g Y = g T X
T xn y ston Y .
Gia thn antstrofh katejunsh, me thn upjesh

opte enai fragmnoc: stw
An
g Y ,
xn x
ston
kai
deqnoume ti o
qei kleist grfhma,
ap th ma meri qoume
T xn y = g(T xn ) g(y),
kai ap thn llh, afo
gT X
kai
xn x,
qoume
g(T xn ) = (g T )(xn ) (g T )(x) = g(T x).

Dhlad,
g(y) = g(T x),

kai afo o
18.
(a) An
diaqwrzei ta shmea tou
fn f
ston
C 1 [0, 1]
kai
Y,
parnoume
T fn g
ston
y = T x.
C[0, 1],
fn f,
Enai gnwst ti me autc tic upojseic qoume
f0 = g
sto
g Y
'Epetai ti o
qei kleist grfhma.
tte qoume tic omoimorfec sugklseic
fn0 g.
[0, 1],
T (f ) = g.
dhlad
140
Aut deqnei ti o
qei kleist grfhma.
(b) Jewrome tic sunartseic
fn : [0, 1] R,
me
fn (t) = tn .
(T fn )(t) = ntn1 ,
dhlad,
kT fn k = n.
Aut deqnei ti o
Tte
kfn k = 1
gia kje
n,
all
t [0, 1],
den enai fragmnoc (giat?).
To jerhma kleisto grafmatoc den efarmzetai s autn thn perptwsh, ki aut shmanei (anagkastik) ti o
C 1 [0, 1]
den enai qroc
Banach.
Keflaio 9
To jerhma stajero shmeou

9.1 Sustolc - jerhma stajero shmeou
() (X, d) T : X X . x X
T T (x) = x.
() T X, 0 < a < 1 , x, y X
d(T (x), T (y)) ad(x, y).
(Banach) (X, d) . X
T : X X X. , T .
: (xn ) X : x0 X,

x1 = T (x0 ), x2 = T (x1 ) = T 2 (x0 ), x3 = T (x2 ) = T 3 (x0 ), . . .
,
xn = T n (x0 ),
n N.
(xn ) Cauchy X: m N,
d(xm+1 , xm )
= d(T xm , T xm1 )
ad(xm , xm1 )
= ad(T xm1 , T xm2 )
a2 d(xm1 , xm2 ),
, ,
d(xm+1 , xm ) am d(x1 , x0 ),
m N.
m > n, ,
d(xn , xm ) d(xm , xm1 ) + d(xm1 , xm2 ) + + d(xn+1 , xn )
am1 d(x1 , x0 ) + am2 d(x1 , x0 ) + + an d(x1 , x0 )
1 amn
= an d(x1 , x0 )
1a
d(x
,
x
)
1
0
an
.
1a
141
142
0 < a < 1, an d(x1 , x0 )/(1 a) 0 m, n . , (xm ) Cauchy.

(X, d) , x X xm x.
d(x, T x) d(x, xm ) + d(xm , T x)
= d(x, xm ) + d(T xm1 , T x)
d(x, xm ) + d(xm1 , x) 0,
d(x, T x) = 0, T x = x.
y T ,
0 < d(x, y) = d(T x, T y) ad(x, y),
2
, 0 < a < 1.
x
T m- :
9.1.1. T : X X , x0 X. x
T ,
() d(xm , x)
am
1a d(x1 , x0 ),
() d(xm , x)
a
1a d(xm , xm1 ).
: , s > m
am
d(x1 , x0 ).
1a
d(xs , xm )
s , xs x,
d(x, xm ) = lim d(xs , xm )
s
am
d(x1 , x0 ).
1a
()
y0 = xm1 ,
y1 = x m ,
...
ys = xm1+s x.
() (ys ) s = 1,
d(y1 , x)
d(xm , x)
a
d(y1 , y0 ),
1a
a
d(xm , xm1 ). 2
1a
T : X X Y X (
X). Y , x0 Y (xm )
Y , T Y (, X):
. (X, d) , T : X X. T
( 0 < a < 1) Y = {x X : d(x0 , x) r}, x0 X r > 0.
d(x0 , T x0 ) < (1 a)r, xm = T m x0 T .
: xm Y .

an
d(x1 , x0 ).
d(xm , xn )
1a
, n = 0,
d(xm , x0 )
, xm Y , m N.
1
1
(1 a)r
d(x1 , x0 ) =
d(T x0 , x0 ) <
= r,
1a
1a
1a
2
143
9.2 Efarmog stic diaforikc exisseic

f 0 = F (t, f ), f (t0 ) = x0 .
9.2.1. (Picard) F
R = {(t, x) : |t t0 | a, |x x0 | b},
|f (t, x)| M (t, x) R. F Lipschitz
: L > 0 , (t, x), (t, y) R,
|F (t, x) F (t, y)| L|x y|.
b 1
, L }.
, f 0 = F (t, f ), f (t0 ) = x0 , [t0 h, t0 + h], h < min{a, M
: C[J], J = [t0 h, t0 + h], d(f, g) =

maxtJ |f (t) g(t)|,
C1 = {f C[J] : |f (t) x0 | M h}.
C1 C[J], . f T f = f ,
Z t
(T f )(t) = x0 +
F (s, f (s))ds, t J.
t0
|f (s)x0 | M l b, (s, f (s)) R s, F R,

. ,
Rt
t0
F (s, f (s))ds

Z t

F (s, f (s))ds M |t t0 | M h,
|(T f )(t) t0 | =
t0
,
f C1 = T f C1 .
,
Z t

{F (s, f (s)) F (s, g(s))} ds
|(T f )(t) (T g)(t)| =
t
0

L max |f (s) g(s)| |t t0 |
J
(Lh)d(f, g),
0 < Lh < 1, T : d(T f, T g) (Lh)d(f, g).
, f C1 T f = f ,
Z
f (t) = x0 +
F (s, f (s))ds,
t J,
t0
f 0 = F (t, f ), f (t0 ) = x0 .
: f

Z t
fn+1 (s) = x0 +
F (s, f (s))ds,
t0
f0 C1 .
144
9.3 Efarmog stic oloklhrwtikc exisseic

() Fredholm. J = [a, b], K : J J R, g : J R .
|K(t, s)| M J J, || < 1/M (b a),
Z b
f (t) = g(t) +
K(t, s)f (s)ds
a
J.
: T : C[a, b] C[a, b],
b
Z
(T f )(t) = g(t) +
K(t, s)f (s)ds.

a
T (;). ,
d(T f, T h)
max |(T f )(t) (T h)(t)|

tJ
Z

b
K(t, s)(f (s) h(s))ds
|| max
tJ
a

||M max |f (s) h(s)| (b a)
{||M (b a)} d(f, h).
=
=
sJ
||M (b a) < 1, f0 C[a, b]

T f0 = f0 .
2
() Volterra J = [a, b], K : J J R, g : J R . ,
R,
Z b
f (t) = g(t) +
K(t, s)f (s)ds
a
J.
: f C[J]
Z
(T f )(t) = g(t) +
K(t, s)f (s)ds,
t J.
T (f ) C[J]. , T : C[J] C[J]. f, h C[J],

Z b

|(T f )(t) (T h)(t)| = ||
K(t, s)(f (s) h(s))ds
a
||(max |K|)d(f, h)
ds
a
= ||(max |K|)d(f, h)(t a).

|(T m f )(t) (T m h)(t)| ||m (max |K|)m
()
(t a)m
d(f, h).
m!
:
|(T m+1 f )(t) (T m+1 h)(t)| =

Z t

||
K(t, s) {(T m f )(s) (T m h)(s)} ds
a
Z t
(s a)m
||(max |K|)
||m (max |K|)m
d(f, h)ds
m!
a
(t a)m+1
||m+1 (max |K|)m+1
d(f, h).
(m + 1)!
145
()
d(T m f, T m h)
max |(T m f )(t) (T m h)(t)|

t

(b a)m
d(f, h).
||m (max |K|)m

m!
=
m ||m (max |K|)m (ba)

< 1. , T m C[a, b]. T m
m!
: f0 T m f0 = f0 . f C[a, b], (T m )n f f0
n .
f = T f0 ,
f0 = lim T mn (T f0 ) = lim T (T mn f0 ) = lim T f0 = T f0 .
n
f0 T , T
T m , T m ( ).
2
9.4 Askseic
1. T : X X .
2. X
.
3. T : [1, +) [1, +) T x = x + x1 . x 6= y |T x T y| < |x y|, T
.
4. T , T n , n N . .
5. X , T : X X d(T (x), T (y)) < d(x, y)
x 6= y X. T .
6. g : [a, b] R , g(a) < 0, g(b) > 0, 0 < c g 0 (x) d
[a, b]. (;)
g(x) = 0 [a, b].
[: f (x) = x g(x) , f .]
7. f : [a, b] R , x0 f (a, b).
g(x) = x
f (x)
f 0 (x)
x0 , x1
(xn ) xn+1 = g(xn ), xn x0 .
8. x = Ax + b, A = (aij )i,jn b = (b1 , . . . , bn ).
n
X
|aik | < 1
k=1
i = 1, . . . , n, .
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , . . ., x1 Rn , xn+1 = Axn + b.
9. () 9, A
n
X
k=1
|akj | < 1,
j = 1, . . . , n.
146
() ,
n X
n
X
a2ij < 1.
i=1 j=1
10. f 0 = |f |1/2 , f (0) = 0 f 0 g(t) = t|t|/4.

Picard; .
11. tf 0 = 2f , f (t0 ) = x0 ()
, () , () .
12.
Z
()
K(x, y, f (y))dy + (x),
f (x) =
a
K , K Lipschitz
|K(x, y, z1 ) K(x, y, z2 )| M |z1 z2 |.
() || <
1
M (ba) .
13.
Z
f (t)
ets f (s)ds = g(t)
|| < 1, f0 = g fn+1 = T fn T .
14. X, T : X X,
K X T (K) K. T K (
Markov-Kakutani), :
() T0 , T k = T T (k ).
Sn =
n1
1X k
T ,
n
nN
k=0
, , Sn (K) K.
() Sn : Sm Sn = Sn Sm , m, n N.
() n1 , . . . , ns N
Sn1 Sns (K) Sn1 (K).
() (Y, d)
T
T . (Fn ) Y
n=1 Fn 6= .
jn Fk 6= n,
T
() n=1 Sn (K) 6= .
T
() x n=1 Sn (K), T (x) x n1 (K K), K K = {u v : u, v K}.
T
() x n=1 Sn (K), T (x) = x.

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Shmeiseic

Tm. Majhmatikn, Panep. Ajhnn

Hahn - Banach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

(Y, d) (X, d). d Y d.

d(f, g) = max |f (t) g(t)|

( max : |f g| [a, b], ).

1.2 Paradegmata metrikn qrwn

0 d(f, g) = sup |f (a) g(a)| Mf + Mg < +.

(2) (3) : f, g B(A),

sup |f (a) g(a)| = 0

|f (a) h(a)| + |h(a) g(a)|

= d(f, h) + d(h, g).

Sqma 1.1: Oi periptseic

: f (t) = tp1 , p > 1. f g(s) = sq1 , q

x, y C t (0, 1). f (1)

ln(tx + sy) t ln x + s ln y = ln(xt y s ).

= dp (x, z) + dp (z, y).

1.3 Topologikc nnoiec

(i) x0 X r > 0 x0 D(x0 , r) B(x0 , r).

16. C[a, b] f : [a, b] R d(f, g) = maxt[a,b] |f (t)

19. f : [a, b] R , 0 < q < p < r < +.

x = (1 , . . . , m ) kai y = (1 , . . . , m ) X , tte: an k = k qoume |k k | = 0, en

Tra mporome ekola na elgxoume ti h

d(x, z) + d(z, y).

gia to opoo isqei aut h anisthta enai h

max | sin t cos t| =

max (sin t cos t)2

A = iI D(xi , ri ) pou xi X kai ri > 0. An a A,

D(a, r(a)) D(xi0 , ri0 ) A.

enai eswterik shmeo tou

A anoikt uposnolo tou X .

a A mporome na brome r(a) > 0 ttoio ste a D(a, r(a)) A.

enai shmeo sussreushc tou

> 0 ttoio ste to D(x0 , ) A

na enai peperasmno snolo. Dhlad,

D(x0 , ) A = {x0 } {y1 , . . . , yN }

uprqei, ap ton orism tou shmeou sussreushc).

A periqei peira shmea tou A. Tte, gia kje > 0, to D(x0 , )A

enai peiro snolo, ra qei stoiqeo diaforetik ap to

xn A B me xn x. Qwrc periorism thc genikthtac mporome na

upojsoume ti peiroi roi thc

{d(x, y) : x, y A} {d(x, y) : x, y B}.

diam(A) = sup{d(x, y) : x, y A} sup{d(x, y) : x, y B} = diam(B).

A = {a}, tte diam(A) = sup{d(x, y) : x, y A} = sup{d(a, a)} = sup{0} = 0.

0 d(A, B) = inf{d(a, b) : a A, b B} d(w, w) = 0.

(b) Orzoume ta uposnola

A = {(n, 0) : n N} kai B = {(k, k1 ) : k N} tou Eukledeiou qrou R2 .

enai kleist giat la ta shmea touc enai memonwmna, kai

d(A, B) d((n, 0), (n, 1/n)) = 1/n

d(x, b) d(x, y) + d(y, b).

d(x, B) d(x, b),

d(x, B) d(x, y) + d(y, b) = d(x, B) d(x, y) d(y, b).

d(x, B) d(x, y) inf{d(y, b) : b B} = d(y, B),

d(x, B) d(y, B) d(x, y).

d(y, B) d(x, B) d(x, y).

|d(x, B) d(y, B)| d(x, y).

enai omoimorfa suneqc.

x A. Uprqei akolouja (xn ) sto A me xn x. Tte, 0 d(x, A) d(x, xn ) 0. 'Ara, d(x, A) = 0.