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Key Aerodynamic Technologies For Aircraft Engine Nacelles
Key Aerodynamic Technologies For Aircraft Engine Nacelles
MAY 2006
265
ABSTRACT
Customer requirements and vision in aerospace dictate that the next
generation of civil transport aircraft should have a strong emphasis
on increased safety, reduced environmental impact and reduced cost
without sacrificing performance. In this context, the School of
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at the Queens University of
Belfast and Bombardier have, in recent years, been conducting
research into some of the key aerodynamic technologies for the next
generation of aircraft engine nacelles. Investigations have been
performed into anti-icing technology, efficient thrust reversal, engine
fire zone safety, life cycle cost and integration of the foregoing with
other considerations in engine and aircraft design. A unique correlation for heat transfer in an anti-icing system has been developed.
The effect of normal vibration on heat transfer in such systems has
been found to be negligible. It has been shown that carefully
designed natural blockage thrust reversers without a cascade can
reduce aircraft weight with only a small sacrifice in the reversed
thrust. A good understanding of the pressure relief doors and
techniques to improve the performance of such doors have been
developed. Trade off studies between aerodynamics, manufacturing
and assembly of engine nacelles have shown the potential for a
significant reduction in life cycle cost.
NOMENCLATURE
Symbols
A
C
CD
CL
Cx
D
D
F
f
H
H
K
K
M
.
m
.Nu
q
Pr
Re
area
cost
body drag coefficient
body lift coeffcient
distance between the holes in piccolo tube
jet diameter
diameter of holes in piccolo tube
learning factor
frequency
convection coefficient
jet height
thermal conductivity of air at film temperature
coefficent in cost estimation
Mach number
average mass flow rate, (j Aj Vj)
Nusselt number
internal heat flux
Prandtl number
Reynolds number (VD/)
Paper No. 2976. Manuscript received 22 April 2005, revised paper received 2 September 2005, accepted 26 February 2006.
266
S
s
St
T
U
Ue
V
VR
y
y+
arc length
jet width
Strouhal number (fD/V)
air temperature
velocity in the boundary layer at y
velocity at the edge of the boundary layer
velocity
velocity ratio
distance in the boundary layer normal to the surface
wall units (uy/)
boundary-layer thickness
dynamic viscosity
density
Subscripts
a
Amr
Anti
Asm
Fab
I
J
Mat
Misc
NC
Sup
s
SIZE
w
average
amortisation
anti icing
assembly
fabrication
internal
jet exit
material
miscellaneous cost
nose cowl
support
surface area
wall
Abbreviations:
ACARE
BPR
engine by pass ratio
CANICE
simulation code for ice accretion
CS
certification standards
DEMARDOC design for manufacture of aerodynamic profiles to
reduce aircraft direct operating cost
DFMA
design for manufacturing and assembly
DFR
discharge flow ratio
DOC
direct operating cost
EASA
european aviation safety agency
EBU
engine built unit
FAA
federal aviation administration
FAR
federal aviation regulations
GLARE
glass-reinforced fibre metal laminate
LEBU
large eddy breakup device
MEMS
micro electro-mechanical machine
pdf
probability density function
PRD
pressure relief door
RCM
rapid cost model
RPR
ram pressure recovery
sfc
specific fuel consumption
SOAMATAS simultaneous optimisation of aerodynamic and
manufacture tolerances to reduce life cycle cost
VG
vortex generator
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Aerospace design is driven by customer requirements, where the
customer may be thought of in the widest context as including
aircraft operators, fare paying passengers, national transport
systems and international treaty organisations. Current trends
suggest that the design of the next generation of civil transport
aircraft should place a strong emphasis on increased safety,
MAY 2006
2.0 ANTI-ICING(1-34)
For an aircraft to meet safety regulations (expressed as certification
requirements)(1,2) for flight into icing conditions, it must be
protected against the formation of ice. Ice can cause impact
damage to the aircraft structure and systems and/or performance
degradation effects due, for example, to its influence on the wing
aerodynamics. Lift can be reduced dramatically in conjunction
with very large increase of the drag. The requirements for wing and
engine installation on an aircraft, as set out in the relevant US
Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) and European Aviation Safety
Agency (EASA) Certification Standards (CS), are typically met by
providing the forward lip skin of each vital surface with a hot air
anti-icing system (Fig. 2). A hot air system ensures that even a
minimum thickness of ice can be prevented from forming on the
external surface; a performance level that cannot be reached with a
pneumatic boot system. Other systems present some limitations in
the form of performance loss or energy cost(3).
The general principle of the hot air system is that it takes high
temperature air from the engine compressor and directs it forward
RAGHUNATHAN ET AL
onto the inner lip skin surface to evaporate impinging water or melt
accreted ice on the outer side of the skin, limiting finally the
formation of ice. A preferred method of directing the hot air onto
the inside skin of the forward lip is through the use of a piccolo
tube (Fig. 2), though other methods, having varying degrees of
effectiveness, may be used. The piccolo system utilises the effect
of multiple steady hot jets impinging on the surface and interacting
in various ways, thereby efficiently heating the inner surface.
In an effort to support the objectives of the FAA Icing Plan and
facilitate Bombardier in the certification process, the School of
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at QUB in conjunction
with Ecole Polytechnique, Montreal has been involved with the
development of reliable ice accretion and anti-icing prediction
methods. The effect of engine vibration and possibility of
enhancement of heat transfer by pulsejets were also considered in
these studies.
267
Plug
Thrust
Reverser
Exhaust
Nozzle
Inlet Cowl
Fan Cowl
Figure 1. A nacelle.
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Figure 3. Unique correlation for heat transfer in anti-Icing system (b and c are indices).
drain on the engine power as a result of operating the hot-air antiicing system.
The first step towards achieving an optimum design of a hot-air
anti-icing system is the development of a reliable database, experimental and numerical, related to the heat transfer from a single jet or
an array of jets impinging on a curved surface. Recent studies(27, 28) on
the usefulness of the empirical relations developed for hot-air jet
impingement on a flat surface for a highly curved two-dimensional
(2D) surface showed that the flat-plate empirical relations are inadequate for predicting heat transfer on curved surfaces. Figures 4 and 5
present some results of the numerical simulation of a hot-air jet
impingement on a concave surface for a 2D case. Here, Res is the
Reynolds number based on the arc length s , and H and S are the jet
height and width, respectively. As evident from Fig. 5, the most
important conclusion drawn from these studies is that the flat plate
correlations are not reliable enough for predicting heat transfer on a
concave surface. To overcome this limitation, a numerical correlation was developed for the 2D case(28) and is now being used in the
2D version of the CANICE code.
q = hanti (Ti Tw )
. . . (1)
RAGHUNATHAN ET AL
269
0.9
0.8
0.7
y/
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
U / Ue
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
y/
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
U / Ue
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Figures 8. Turbulence intensity plots for a 30Hz and 80Hz sinusoidal vibration with 2mm pk-pk amplitude, over one rebuilt
phase averaged cycle. Both figures contain 300 separate turbulence profiles representing 12 intervals from 0 to 360
RAGHUNATHAN ET AL
and several harmonics. The boundary layer results show that the
disturbances propagate through at the plate excitation frequency and
the second harmonic only. These plots highlight the fact that the
boundary layer exhibits a very narrowband response to the vibration,
located solely around the input frequency and its associated second
harmonic.
The results also showed that the displacement thickness exhibits
some phase shift, suggesting that the boundary layer does not react
instantaneously to the sudden change in wall position; instead there is
a delay. When probability density distributions are considered no
significant change between the vibrating cases and the stationary one
was observed. Finally it can be deduced that within the range of tests
conducted, although the boundary layer responds to normal vibration,
the effects on the velocity and turbulence profiles are very small. It
could be argued therefore, that the effect of normal vibration on heat
transfer is negligible and normal vibration of an engine is not a key
design parameter of an aircraft anti-icing system. However, further
study is required, since these observations from laboratory experiments may not be consistent with data from aircraft flight testing.
2.4 Effect of pulsing the jets on heat transfer(51-59)
Heat transfer in pulsating jet flows has been the subject of renewed
interest in recent years in an effort to enhance the performance of the
many industrial applications that use hot or cold jets. The purpose of
the investigations at QUB was to assess the current understanding of
the effect of pulsing a hot jet on impingement heat transfer with
reference to anti-icing applications.
Test carried out by Nevins and Ball(51) on heat transfer between a
flat plate and a pulsating jet showed that no significant heat transfer
enhancement was obtained by using a pulsed air jet. The test was
conducted at 1,200 < ReG < 120,000, 10-4 < St < 10-2, and nozzle to
plate spacing from 8 to 32 nozzle diameters. The average Reynolds
number ReG was calculated based on the average mass flow rate for
each test frequency, and corresponding Strouhal number St determined using Equation (2):
ReG =
mD
fDA
St =
A
m
. . . (2)
where, m is the average mass flow rate calculated from the jet exit
velocity profile, D is the nozzle diameter, A is the nozzle area, is
dynamic viscosity and is density of air at supply air temperature,
and is pulsation frequency.
Nevins and Ball(51) did not document the extent of secondary flow
structures in their experiments. Further, the experiment was studied
at a very low Strouhal number which might have affected the ability
to demonstrate pulsed flow heat transfer enhancement.
Kataoka and Suguro(52) show that stagnation point heat transfer for
axisymmetric submerged jets is enhanced by the impingement of
large-scale structures on the boundary layer, such as vortex rings
which occurred in pulse flow. Further tests carried out by Sailor et
al(53) on the effect of duty cycle variation on heat transfer
enhancement for an impinging air jet showed significant heat
transfer enhancement.
Mladin and Zumbrunnen(54) investigated theoretically the influence
of pulse shape, frequency and amplitude on instantaneous and timeaveraged convective heat transfer in a planar stagnation region using
a detailed boundary layer model. They reported that there exists a
threshold Strouhal number, St > 026 below which no significant
heat transfer enhancement was obtained. Results obtained by
Zumbrunnen and Aziz(54) on the effect of flow intermittency on
convective heat transfer to a planar water jet impinging on a constant
heat flux surface reinforces this finding. This experiment carried out
at St > 026 found that local Nusselt number increases by up to
100%. However, Sailor et al(53) used Strouhal numbers between
0009 and 0042 and still recorded significant enhancement in
stagnation point heat transfer for pulse flow.
271
Nu =
q D
(T j Tw )k
. . . (3)
Where q" is the stagnation point heat flux measured by the sensor, D
is the nozzle diameter, k is the thermal conductivity of the air jet
evaluated at film temperature, Tj is the temperature of the hot air jet
and Tw is the temperature of the plate at the stagnation point. The
average Nusselt number based on the local temperature difference
was calculated by numerically integrating the heat flux measurement
over the impingement area. The uncertainty in the heat flux
measurement is estimated at 5%.
The tests were conducted(59) in the pulse frequency range of 10 to
80Hz and Reynolds number based on the jet diameter in the range
16,000 to 32,000. The nozzle to plate spacing, x/D was fixed at 4.
The duty cycle of the pulse airflow, that is the fraction of time in a
pulse cycle during which there was jet flow, was 033.
Figure 11 shows the velocity profile at pulsation frequencies of 10
and 20Hz for a jet nozzle diameter of 20mm. The ON part of the
pulsation duty cycle has a velocity variation similar to a half-cycle of
a sinusoid and the velocity at the nozzle exit is close to zero during
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Figure 12. Variation of local Nusselt numbers with radial distance at frequencies of 10 and 20Hz for ReG = 16,000, 23,300 and 32,000.
(b)
Figure 14. Variation of Nusselt numbers averaged over
the impingement area with frequency for Reynolds
Number = 16,000, 23,300 and 32,000.
(c)
(b) (c) types of thrust reversers.
Figure 15. Thrust reverser.
RAGHUNATHAN ET AL
273
the nominally OFF part of the duty cycle. This shows minimal air
leakage in contrast with the work carried out by Azevedo et al(56)
where the leakage is quite significant. The stable flow structure
created in the experiment is important in order to measure the instantaneous heat transfer correctly.
Figure 12 shows typical graphs of local Nusselt number against
radial distance for frequencies of 10Hz and 20Hz for all the three
Reynolds numbers under investigation. The graph shows that the local
Nusselt numbers for pulse flow are higher than for steady flow at
positions from 1-diameter outwards. Higher turbulence intensity at
these positions is believed to contribute to the increase in heat transfer.
Figure 13 shows the dependence of stagnation Nusselt number on
frequency for three Reynolds numbers at . For stagnation point heat
transfer, jet pulsation has the effect of decreasing the heat transfer
for all the frequencies studied. The highest frequency degradations
are between 20 to 50Hz and above 80Hz. This generally is in
agreement with the results obtained by Azevedo et al(56). In their
experiments, where the Reynolds numbers were less than 25,000, the
heat transfer results at all frequencies showed significant degradation. The results show that higher mass flow rate can influence the
heat transfer measurements.
Figure 14 shows the variation of Nusselt number averaged over
the impingement area with pulsed frequency f, for jet Reynolds
numbers at 16,000, 23,300 and 32,000. The flow structure changes
with frequency in a complex manner so the Nusselt number versus
frequency curve shows no clear trend. The average Nusselt numbers
for the pulse jet are equal or higher than the steady jet for all the
frequencies tested except at 50Hz. The maximum average heat
transfer enhancement occurs at a frequency of 70Hz for a Reynolds
number of 32,000. The enhancement of heat transfer at this
frequency is approximately 40%.
It should be noted that the present results were obtained at nondimensional distance, x/D equal to four while those obtained by
Azevedo et al(56) were at six. This explains why a higher stagnation
heat transfer value was obtained here.
The present results show that the average heat transfer on the
impingement area is enhanced for almost all of the pulse frequencies
investigated even though the stagnation point heat transfer decreases.
These increases are shown to be available for a system that uses a
single pulse jet impinging on an area with radius up to six times the
nozzle diameter.
The results of the experiments show that there is significant
enhancement in the local heat transfer of the pulse flow at positions
one nozzle diameter or more away from the stagnation point for all
the pulse frequencies. The stagnation point heat transfer does not
show any enhancement for the three Reynolds numbers investigated.
The average Nusselt number for the pulse jet is enhanced for all the
frequencies investigated except at 50Hz. The degree of enhancement
is in the range 0-40% with the greatest benefit at frequency of 70Hz
for Re = 32,000.
Heat transfer in the pulse flow mode is complex and dependent on
the flow structure of the jet. The significant enhancement of the heat
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Figure 19. (a) No porous surface on diverter fairing, (b) Effect of porous diverter Mach number contours.
RAGHUNATHAN ET AL
275
Figure 21. Cascade design for weight reduction. Mach number contours. (a) Design 1, Original, (b) Design 2, 10% Weight reduction.
3.2 Natural blockage thrust reverser cascade-less
Cascade vanes can be costly to manufacture and maintain, and have
a weight penalty associated with them. Having no cascade vanes
removes these disadvantages and allows the cavity in the transcowl
to be closed over. However, the reverse thrust performance is
markedly reduced with such a configuration. The inclusion of a slat
close to the diverter fairing improves the reverse thrust performance
by controlling the flow at the diverter fairing. CFD analyses of the
cascade-less configurations, with and without a slat, have been
carried out and typical Mach number contours are presented in Fig.
22. These CFD predictions have been validated against wind tunnel
test data collected at Flow Science Ltd, Manchester, UK on a 40%
scale model. Although the tests were not fully exhaustive the
cascade-less configuration gave a reverse thrust performance that
was 75% of the configuration with cascade vanes. Consideration of
the test results indicate that with careful choice of diverter faring
and transcowl geometry, slat profile and slat position a reverse
thrust performance that is 90% of the cascade vanes configuration is
achievable.
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Figure 22. Cascadeless thrust reverser Mach number contours. (a). Without Slat; (b). With Slat.
(b) T injection nozzle. The flow direction is into the plane of the page.
Figure 26. Schematic of the experimental setup(88).
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RAGHUNATHAN ET AL
279
correct, but the concentration levels were slightly high for 135 <
< 225. For the round injection nozzle (Fig. 29), there is a significant
change in the concentration profile compared to the T injection
nozzle. The concentration levels are extremely low for 90 < <
270, and very high elsewhere. The agent dispersion is much better
for the T nozzle. The CFD results for the round nozzle show a fair
correlation with the experimetal values. To conclude, CFD can
model the dispersion of a model fire suppressant with a reasonable
degree of accuracy, provided adaptive grid refinement is used in the
agent plume region. Further validation is underway to study the
effect of introducing more clutter into the domain.
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RAGHUNATHAN ET AL
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Number of Parts
No. of Fasteners
Assembly time (Hrs)
Weight (lbs)
Recurring manufacturing Cost
Before
After
110
1090
116
86
86
916
96
71
500
Percentage
Reduction
22
16
17
17
RAGHUNATHAN ET AL
283
However the drag implications cannot be predicted and the computational cost is three times that of the basic Euler calculations(34).
RANS calculations can predict the lift accurately and the change in
lift. In addition, the drag implications can be predicted, which means
a full investigation can be performed. However the computational
cost can be as much as hundred times greater than the basic Euler
calculations(34).
This research was completed using an unstructured mesh and
solver. The computational fluid dynamics package Fluent 6 was
used and the mesh was generated using ICEMCFD. The reason
for choosing unstructured meshing techniques was the relative
automation of mesh generation. To meet the mesh requirements for
an accurate simulation using unstructured meshes is difficult,
especially in the near wall regions. A solution to this problem is to
create a hybrid mesh, which allows for sufficient gird resolution in
the near wall region. To create a hybrid mesh using ICEMCFD,
prismatic layers were grown from a surface mesh. The first cell
height was set to 0003mm and 30 prismatic layers were grown at a
growth rate 12 (Fig. 36), resulting in a mesh y+ of approximately 1.
To validate the computational methodology the flow over a variant
of the DLR-F6 was simulated. This configuration was subjected to
many wind-tunnel experiments in the 1990s. The CFD results
obtained in this work were compared to published experimental data
on the DLR-F6. The predicted and experimental drag polar can be
seen in Fig. 37 for the wing body configuration and the wing body
nacelle pylon configuration. From this figure it can be seen the total
drag for both cases is over predicted for every design point, by approximately 12%. However, with closer analysis of the results the
predicted drag rise due to the installation of the nacelle and pylon was
predicted to with in 1% of the experimental result. Therefore using
these computational methods one could compare different configurations and accurately predict the drag change of each within sensible
limits. Using this validated technique a new pylon design was investigated to determine the influence of the pylon. The conventional pylon
shape was redesigned to a compression pylon shape (Figs 38 and 39).
The new design had an impact on the drag of the aircraft. Studying the
result in Fig. 40 it is clear the drag has reduced for each design point
by as much as five drag counts.
284
Where subscript Mat stands for Material, Fab for Fabrication Asm
for Assembly, Sup for Support Amr for Amortisation and Misc for
Miscellaneous Cost.
Methodologies were developed for each of the six cost components. For example, nose cowl manufacturing cost C'Man consisted of
two items: parts fabrication and parts assembly to finish. Man-hours
required for the fabrication of each part and assembly were a combination of operations; machining, forming, fitting and mounting into
jigs. Manufacturing cost was expressed as:
Manufacturing cost = rates man-hours learning curve
factor size factor manuf. philosophy.
.
or CMan = CFab + CAsm = [(Ksize )0.5 1m [1n F1 F2. Fn]m (man hour rates
.
learning factor)] Fab + [(Ksize )0.25 1m [1n Fi] (man hour rates learning factor)] Asm.
. . . (5)
This analysis led to a simple tool for the calculation of nacelle B
nose cowl cost, as given by:
CNC_B = 0 8306 Mat_NacA + 1 0878 C Fab_NacA + 0 759 C Asm_NacA + 0 05
(0828 CMat_NacA + 1 0878 C Fab_NacA + 0 759 C Asm_NacA )
. . . (6)
Analysis of industrial cost data showed that the nose cowl A cost
fractions were as follows:
CMat_NacA /CNoseCowl_A = 0 408, C Fab_NacA /CNoseCowl_A = 0 349
C Asm_NacA /CNoseCowl_A = 0 149
. . . (7)
. . . (8)
Analysis of components such as the fan cowl, thrust reverser and tail
cone followed the same procedure as the nose cowl. In developing
MAY 2006
RAGHUNATHAN ET AL
7.0 CONCLUSIONS
The School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at the QUB
and Bombardier have, in recent years, been conducting research into
some of the key aerodynamic safety technologies for the next generation of aircraft engine nacelles. Investigations have been performed
into anti-icing technology, efficient thrust reversal, engine fire zone
safety, noise attenuation and trade off between aerodynamic performance and manufacturing cost.
Studies on the usefulness of the empirical relations developed for
hot-air jet impingement on a flat surface for a highly curved twodimensional surface showed that the flat-plate empirical relations are
inadequate for predicting heat transfer on curved surfaces. Extensive
experimental work was performed on a piccolo type of anti-icing
system. The results led to a unique correlation between average
Nusselt number and Reynolds number for such a system. The correlation is independent of the diameter, number and the distance
between the holes and the impinging surface provided these are
within the known optimal range, depending mainly on mass flow per
unit area and weakly on jet spacing. The effect of normal vibration
on heat transfer is negligible and normal vibration of an engine is not
a key design parameter of an aircraft anti-icing system. When
compared with a steady jet piccolo system a pulse jet anti-icing
system could produce an enhancement in heat transfer of 10-20% or
reduce the bleed air requirements by 10-20%.
CFD analysis in conjunction with Finite Element Analysis was
performed on the Natural Blockage Thrust reverser. The results
showed that the quality of the flow field in the fan duct was significantly improved and the flow instabilities eliminated, with the introduction of a porous fairing in the duct. A new cascade design with
reduced number of blades eliminated the shock waves, produced a
10% reduction in weight and an improvement in the structural
performance in both maximum vane displacement and mid-vane
stress levels. However, there is a penalty of thrust reversal, which
was reduced by 9%. Cost and ease of manufacture will also have to
be taken into consideration before any firm conclusions are drawn
regarding the final cascade configuration. A cascade-less configuration gave a reverse thrust performance that is 75% of the cascade
configuration. Consideration of the test results indicate that with
careful choice of diverter faring and transcowl geometry, slat profile
and slat position, a reverse thrust performance that is 90% of the
cascade vanes configuration is achievable.
An attempt was made to model fire propagation and heat transfer
in the fan compartment (fire zone one) of the BR710 nacelle. Both
experiments and calculations revealed consistent trends, indicating
hot-spots in which the air temperature rose to between 800C and
1,100C, while the air temperature in the rest of the zone remained
in the range 40C to 100C. Whole zone heating was not as
prevalent as was initially assumed.
Simulations were performed to begin validating the use of CFD
for predicting the dispersion of a fire suppressant inside the fire zone
of an engine nacelle. Accurate results were obtained for a model fire
suppressant dispersing in an idealised nacelle, provided adaptive
mesh refinement was used in the agent plume region. It was found
that using a T injection nozzle, rather than a circular nozzle,
improved the dispersion of the agent. The introduction of clutter
hinders the dispersion of the agent, and further studies are underway
to investigate the flow in a more realistic, cluttered geometry.
Flap type pressure relief doors with flap angles of 15 to 45, in
5 increments and in the Mach mumber range 04 to 085 were
studied. Generally good agreement was obtained between
measurement and prediction of integral quantities such as DFR
and thrust coefficient. Predictions under estimated discharge by
between 5% and 20%, depending on pressure ratio; the thrust
coefficient was slightly over-predicted. A freely hinged,
weightless flap would achieve a trimmed balance in the range of
angles considered. Increasing Mach number decreases this angle,
while increasing pressure ratio increases it.
285
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper is based on a collaborative research programme on
Aircraft engine nacelle aerodynamics between the School of
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at QUB and Bombardier,
sustained over a ten year period and funded by Bombardier, the
Department for Education and Learning, InvestNI, EPSRC and the
Royal Academy of Engineering. The authors wish to acknowledge
the contribution made during this period by researchers Dr Jeffrey
Brown, Dr Kevin Donaghy, Dr Darren ONeill, Dr Paul Humphries,
Mr Peter Pratt, Dr Manuel Sanchez, Mr Ciaran Regan, Mr Rozli
Zulkifli, Mr Stephen Crossby and Dr Ajoy Kundu.
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