major volatiles are CO2, created by the breakdown of carbonate and bicarbonate

mentioned earlier, and SiO2. Although the CO2 can be neutralized, it is prudent
to reduce feed water alkalinity to minimize its formation. For all practical purposes, external treatment for silica reduction and blowdown are the only means
to avoid excessive SiO2 discharges for protection of turbine blading. Hydroxyl
alkalinity helps reduce silica volatility.
Oxygen is the chief culprit in boiler systems corrosion. Deaeration reduces this
to a low concentration in the preboiler system, but does not completely eliminate
it. Application of sulfite, hydrazine, or hydrazine-like (all-volatile) compounds
after deaeration scavenges the remaining O2 and maintains a reducing condition
in the boiler water. An advantage of hydrazine is that it is discharged into the
steam to become available in the condensate as protection against oxygen corrosion in the return system. If oxygen is present, ammonia can attack copper alloys
in condensers and stage heaters. The removal OfNH 3 by external treatment may
be necessary. The corrosive aspects of CO2 have already been mentioned in relation to condensate systems. The beneficial and detrimental aspects of NaOH in
the boiler circuit in relation to corrosion control have also been discussed earlier.

BLOWDOWN

Boiler feed water, regardless of the type of treatment used to process the makeup,
still contains measurable concentrations of impurities. In some plants, contaminated condensate contributes to feed water impurities. Internal boiler water treatment chemicals also add to the level of solids in the boiler water.
When steam is generated, essentially pure H2O vapor is discharged from the
boiler, leaving the solids introduced in the feed water to remain in the boiler circuits. The net result of impurities being continuously added and pure water vapor
being withdrawn is a steady increase in the level of dissolved solids in the boiler
water. There is a limit to the concentration of each component of the boiler water.
To prevent exceeding these concentration limits, boiler water is withdrawn as
blowdown and discharged to waste. Figure 39.16 illustrates a material balance for
a boiler, showing that the blowdown must be adjusted so that solids leaving the
boiler equal those entering and the concentration is maintained at the predetermined limits.
Stearrr.900,000 Ib/doy
Solids content essentially zero

Boiler water
Feedwater: 1,000,000 Ib/day
Solids content -100 mg/l
Solids added/day-100 Ib

Solids level1000 mg/l

Blowdown: 100,000 Ib/day

Solids content -1000 mg/l
,Solids removed-100 Ib/doy

FIG. 39.16 How boiler water solids are controlled by blowdown.

Of course it is apparent that the substantial heat energy in the blowdown represents a major factor detracting from the thermal efficiency of the boiler, so minimizing blowdown is a goal in every steam plant. There are ways to reclaim this
heat that will be examined later in the chapter.
One way of looking at boiler blowdown is to consider it a process of diluting
boiler water solids by withdrawing boiler water from the system at a rate that
induces a flow of feed water into the boiler in excess of steam demand.
There are two separate blowdown points in every boiler system. One accommodates the blowdown flow that is controlled to regulate the dissolved solids or
other factors in the boiler water. The other is an intermittent or mass blowdown,
usually from the mud drum or waterwall headers, which is operated intermittently at reduced boiler load to rid the boiler of accumulated settled solids in relatively stagnant areas. The following discussion of blowdown will be confined only
to that used for adjusting boiler water dissolved solids concentrations.
Blowdown may be either intermittent or continuous. If intermittent, the boiler
is allowed to concentrate to a level acceptable for the particular boiler design and
pressure. When this concentration level is reached, the blowdown valve is opened
for a short period of time to reduce the concentration of impurities, and the boiler
is then allowed to reconcentrate until the control limits are again reached. In continuous blowdown, on the other hand, the blowdown valve is kept open at a fixed
setting to remove water at a steady rate, maintaining a relatively constant boiler
water concentration. Since the average concentration level in a boiler blown down
intermittently is substantially less than that maintained by continuous blowdown,
intermittent blowdown is less efficientmore costlythan continuous
blowdown.
Figure 39.17 is a schematic diagram of a typical industrial boiler plant that
discharges steam to a turbine, with part of the steam being condensed in the condenser and the remainder extracted for a process use where the steam may be lost
or the condensate become so contaminated that it must be wasted. With reference

Feedwater

Steam
generator

F@C F

Blowdown B
Deaerator @CB
steam

Losses
L

Makeup
M@CM

FIG. 39.17 Schematic of industrial boiler system.

to this diagram, the following relationships apply in determining blowdown

losses:
M X CM = F X CF = B1 X C81

M+C+D=F=S+B

(all in Ib/h) (or kg/h)

M = L + B2

(all in Ib/h) (or kg/h)

rR

-^B,-Z

<-*V - C
.r, - #,
p

TR-

<-^M -

r
F

.. o x

Cv1 _ M
r~ "B"
CA/
#,

CR,

-SXCRF-I

B1 = F/CRF
,
Percent 11
blowdown
=100

CR

where B1 = boiler blowdown flow containing CB] mg/L solids

B2 = blowdown flow from flash tank
CR = concentration ratio; CR, is concentration ratio based on feed water;
CRM is based on makeup
C = returned condensate flow, assumed to be free of solids
D = steam flow used for deaeration
F = feed water flow containing CF mg/L solids
L = loss of steam or condensate
M = makeup flow containing CM mg/L solids
S = steam flow
It is common to express blowdown as a percentage of feed water. However,
this may give the utilities engineer a false sense of security. If the plant has 80%
condensate return and 20% makeup, a 5% blowdown would appear satisfactory,
but it indicates that the makeup is being concentrated only 4 timesof the four
units of makeup entering the boiler, one unit is being thrown away. Perhaps that
is as much usage as can be made of that particular quality makeup, but the operator should be aware of it.
Since the main purpose of blowdown control is to reach the maximum permissible concentrations for best boiler efficiency without exceeding concentrations that would harm the system, the first step in developing a blowdown control
program is to establish allowable limits. The conventional limits recommended
to provide boiler cleanliness and adequate steam quality are shown in Tables 39.8
and 39.9. These limits cover most situations encountered in industrial boiler
operations, but not the coagulation treatment used in low-pressure boilers. With
the coagulation treatment, total dissolved solids are usually limited to 3500 mg/
L, and adequate alkalinity is maintained to provide the carbonate for calcium
precipitation and the hydroxide for magnesium precipitation. These levels can be
established only after the nature of the makeup treatment system has been
considered.
As shown by Tables 39.8 and 39.9, the limits on such things as total dissolved
solids, silica, and alkalinity are basically related to the amounts of these materials

TABLE 39.8 Optimum Boiler Water Control Limits*

Drum-type boilers using softened (not deionized) feed waters
Pressure, lb/in2

TDS (max.)
Phosphate (as PO4)+
Hydroxide (as CaCO3)
Sulfite
Silica (as SiO2) mas.J
Total iron (as Fe) max.
Organics

150

300

600

900

1200

1500

4000
30-60
300-400
30-60
100
10
70-100

3500
30-60
250-300
30-40
50
5
70-100

3000
20-40
150-200
20-30
30
3
70-100

2000
15-20
120-150
15-20
10
2
50-70

500
10-15
100-120
10-15
5
2
50-70

300
5-10
80-100
5-10
3
1
50-70

* Heat release below 150,000 Btu/h/ft. 2

+ Where conditions warrant, chelants (EDTA or NTA) may be used in place of phosphates to achieve
a hardness-solubilizing rather than a hardness-precipitating effect. In certain programs, phosphate and
chelant are used together. Where chelant residuals are to be maintained, recommended boiler water control limits are: (1) boiler pressure below 400 lb/in2, 4 to 8 mg/L; (2) 401 to 600 lb/in2, 3 to 6 mg/L; (3)
601 to 1000 lb/in2, 3 to 5 mg/L (all residuals are as CaCO3).
$ See Table 39.5 for intermediate pressure.

entering with the makeup water; these concentrations can be adjusted by blowdown, but also by some adjustment in the makeup treatment system if that flexibility is provided. On the other hand, such constituents as phosphate, organics,
and sulfite are introduced as internal treatment chemicals, and their concentration can be adjusted both by blowdown and by rate of application.
For purposes of illustrating the calculation of boiler blowdown related to the
concentrations, a 900-lb/in2 (40 bars) boiler system in a paper mill is used as an
example. The steam goes both to a condensing turbine and a back pressure turbine, with 50% condensate return. The makeup is treated by hot lime-zeolite softening, and, after treatment, has a total dissolved solids concentration of 150 mg/
L, silica of 3 mg/L, and total alkalinity of 20 mg/L. Table 39.10 summarizes the
conditions established in this example.
With a silica concentration of 1.5 mg/L in the feed water and an allowable
limit of only 10 mg/L in the boiler water, silica is the controlling factor and sets
the concentration ratio (based on feed water) at 6.7. Since the water could be concentrated to a factor of 10 based on total dissolved solids, there is incentive for
additional silica reduction in the hot process unit. If the addition of dolomitic
lime would permit a reduction from 3 mg/L shown to less than 2 mg/L in the
makeup, the blowdown rate could be reduced from 15 to 10%.
A second example explores the use of a simple sodium zeolite softener to treat
city water as makeup for a 300-lb/in2 boiler. The water analyses in Figure 39.18
show the results of treating the city water through a zeolite softener, and the allowable concentrations in a 300-lb/in2 (20 bars) boiler. The concentration ratio is
calculated for each of the constituents to be controlled; the lowest CR determines
the blowdown rate. In this example, the lowest ratio is 2.5, applying to alkalinity.
So the blowdown rate, controlled by alkalinity, would be:
100
Percent blowdown = = 40%

This is a high blowdown loss, expressed as a percentage of makeup. However,

in a small plant that generates less than 50,000 Ib/h (22,700 kg/h) of steam with

TABLE 39.9 Optimum Boiler Water Control Limits*

Drum-type boilers using high purity (deionized) feed waters
Pressure, lb/in2
TDS (max.)
Phosphate (as PO4)
PH
Silica (a SiO2)
Total iron (as Fe)
Hydrazine (as N2H4)

Up to 600

90Ot

120Ot

1500

1800

2400

Use same optimum

limits as for soft
(not deionized)
feed waters

500
15-25
9.8-10.2

300
15-25
9.8-10.2

200
5-10
9.4-9.7

100
5-10
9.4-9.7

50
5-10
9.4-9.7

10
2
0.04-0.06$

5
2
0.04-0.06J

2
1
0.04-0.06$

1
0.5
0.04-0.06J

0.25
0.2
0.04-0.06t

* Heat release below 1 50,000 Btu/h/ft2.

t For most boilers installed before 1950, and for boilers installed since but not having waterwall heat transfer
rates conducive to DNB (departure from nucleate boiling) under anticipated operating conditions, control limits
applicable for softened (not deionized) feed waters may be used.
$ Hydrazine residuals in feed water just ahead of boiler, e.g., at economizer inlet.

less than 10 to 20% makeup, this process might be acceptable just for its simplicity
and low cost. Larger plants would find this high blowdown loss unacceptable
because of the high energy loss and the cost of preparing and treating makeup that
is concentrated to such a limited degree.
TABLE 39.10 Summary of Controls
(All concentrations in mg/L)
Factor

Makeup

Feed water

Boiler
limit*

Max CRF

TDS
SiO2
Alkalinity

150
3
20

75
1.5
10

2000
10
150+

26.7
6.7
15

* From Table 39.8.

* Assuming 90% of boiler alkalinity is hydroxyl, an average
hydroxyl alkalinity of 135 mg/L (Table 39.8) corresponds to an average total alkalinity of 150 mg/L. Since silica is controlling, the blowdown rate is:
Blowdown =

100

= 15% of feed water

CR/r

Two processes are explored to modify the sodium zeolite system to reduce
alkalinity, Figure 39.19 shows these two modifications, sodium zeolite plus acid
and split-stream treatment. Both of these significantly reduce alkalinity and blowdown. The first process increases the critical CR to 12.5, so blowdown would be
controlled by alkalinity at a level close to the optimum TDS. Further reduction
in blowdown is achieved by using split-stream treatment, since TDS is reduced
as well as alkalinity. At these low levels, silica becomes a controlling factor at a
blowdown of 6% of makeup. Capital cost and operating cost figures are needed to
decide whether the reduction in blowdown from 8% achieved with the first process to 6%, which can be reached with the split-stream treatment, is justified. The
split-stream process is more costly and it creates a secondary problemdisposal
of spent regenerant acid.
These examples show that concentration ratios are determined by chemical
analyses. Since blowdown rate is never measured, but most plants meter both
makeup and feed water as well as steam, the chemical determination of concentration ratio is the most accurate means of determining blowdown loss. It is
apparent that careful sampling of both the feed water and makeup is required to
properly control blowdown and be able to determine blowdown rate. The boiler
water must be cool before it can be analyzed, and leakage in the cooler could affect
the composition of the boiler water. The boiler water sample is usually taken from
the blowdown collection pipe in the boiler drum, and if this is not properly
designed, the blowdown sample may be nonrepresentative. An example is the
accumulation of steam bubbles within the blowdown line which is then condensed through the sample cooler and dilutes the boiler water.
Although one of several boiler water constituents may determine the required
blowdown ratefor example, silicait is general practice to determine all of the
critical concentrations in the boiler on a regular basis. Each of these can then be
related to the total dissolved solids as measured by a conductivity instrument,