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1988
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Jos Pedro S. Martins, Latinamerica Press (Lima), March 17, 1988.

Philip Lee, ed., Communication for All (Orbis, 1985); William Preston, Edward S. Herman, and
Herbert Schiller, Hope and Folly: the United States and UNESCO, 1945-1985 (U. of Minnesota).

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of Books, Nov. 26, 1987.

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M. P. Crozier, S. J. Huntington, and J. Watanuki, The Crisis of Democracy: Report on the
Governability of Democracies to the Trilateral Commission (New York University, 1975).

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Turning the Tide (South End, 1985, 5) On Power and Ideology (South End,
1987, ). Thomas Ferguson and
Joel Rogers, Right Turn (Hill & Wang, 1986). Emma
Rothschild, "The Real Reagan Economy" "The Reagan Economic Legacy," New York Review of
Books, June 30, July 21, 1988.
6
FAIR, Press Release, July 19, 1988. Poll on Constitution, Boston Globe Magazine, Sept. 13, 1987,
Julius Lobel, in Julius Lobel, ed., A Less than Perfect Union (Monthly Review, 1988, 3).


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7

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Kissinger and Vance, Foreign Affairs, Summer 1988. , 20
20-
, , . Wall Street
Journal, Oct. 19, 1988. ,
, Fred R. Harris and Roger Wilkins, eds., Quiet Riots (Pantheon,
1988).
9
Globe and Mail, March 28, 18, 5, 1986.
10
, Mark Green and Gail MacColl, Reagan's Reign of Error (Pantheon, 1987).
8


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John P. Roche, Washington Star, Oct. 26, 1977.
12
Peter Braestrup, Big Story (Westview, 1977).

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Landrum Bolling, ed., Reporters under Fire: U.S. Media Coverage of Conflicts in Lebanon and
Central America (Westview, 1985, 35, 2-3).

- 1986
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Justice Holmes, Abrams v. United States, 1919.

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Benjamin Ginsberg, The Captive Public (Basic Books, 1986, 86, 89).
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.
16
, ..

. Jerome A. Barron, "Access to the Press -- a New First Amendment
Right," Harvard Law Review, vol. 80, 1967; Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy.
17
Sir George Lewis, cited in James Curran and Jean Seaton, Power without Responsibility (Methuen,
1985, 31); Paul Johnson, Spectator, Nov. 28, 1987.
18

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Economist, Dec. 5, 1987.

, Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky,
Manufacturing Consent: the Political Economy of the Mass Media (Pantheon, 1988), .
21
, 1, 1.
22
Bolling, op. cit., 8.
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Herman and Chomsky, Manufacturing Consent; Chomsky, The Culture of Terrorism (South End,
1988). Political Economy of Human Rights (South End, 1979),

; . Herman,
The Real Terror Network (South End, 1982); Pirates and Emperors (Claremont, 1986; Amana,
1988) 20 . James Aronson, The Press and the
Cold War (Beacon, 1970); Michael Parenti, Inventing Reality (St. Martin's, 1986).

12

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, Edward S. Herman and Frank Brodhead, Demonstration
Elections (South End, 1984, appendix I), Manufacturing Consent.
, ,

( , 45),
. Robert Parry and Peter Kornbluh, "Iran-Contra's Untold Story," Foreign
Policy, Fall 1988; , Winter 1988-89.
,

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Martin Peretz, New Republic, Aug. 2, 1982. Fateful Triangle (South End, 1983),
; 1, 2.
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Bolling, op. cit. 1, 2 Manufacturing Consent

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, Mark Hertsgaard, On Bended Knee (Farrar Straus Giroux, 1988, 84-85).
29
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( William Rusher, The Coming Battle for the Media, WP
Weekly, June 27, 1988).
. , ,
New York Times Book Review,

, , .
30
, Tony Platt, ed., Tropical Gulag
(Global Options, 1987). ,
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; Social Justice, Summer 1988. 1,
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Appleby, Capitalism and a New Social Order (NYU, 1984, 73).

, Lawrence J.
Friedman, Inventors of the Promised Land (Knopf, 1975, ).
, .
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Fateful Triangle, 175, ).

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(New Republic, Aug. 10, 1987).

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Frank Monaghan, John Jay (Bobbs-Merrill, 1935); Richard B. Morris, The Forging of the Union
(Harper & Row, 1987, 46-47, 173, 12f.). Political Economy of Human Rights, II, 41ff.
,

; ,
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, Morris, 13, 17.
35
The American Revolution Reconsidered (Harper & Row, 1967, 57-58).
36
Joshua Cohen and Joel Rogers, On Democracy (Penguin, 1983),
.
37
, Turning the Tide, 232f.

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, El Tiempo, May 5, 10; Hondupress (Managua), May 18, 1988,

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4, 5. ,

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39
Alex Carey, "Reshaping the Truth," Meanjin Quarterly (Australia), 35.4, 1976; Gabriel Kolko, Main
Currents in American History (Pantheon, 1984, 284). , Alex Carey,
"Managing Public Opinion: The Corporate Offensive," ms., U. of New South Wales, 1986.

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, Towards a New Cold War (Pantheon, 1982, ). Niebuhr,

Moral Man and Immoral Society (Scribners, 1952, 221-23, 21;
1932 ); Richard Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr (Pantheon, 1985, 138-39).
, Grand Street,
Winter 1987.

-
(1945-52)
(. .).
41
Bailey, Jesse Lemisch, On Active Service in War and Peace: Politics and Ideology in
the American Historical Profession (New Hogtown Press, Toronto, 1975). Huntington, International
Security, Summer 1981.

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England in the Age of the American Revolution (Macmillan, 1961, 40); Francis
Jennings, Empire of Fortune (Norton, 1988, 471).
43
Frits Bolkestein, NRC Handelsblad, Oct. 11, 1988. (
) 1977
, Towards a New Cold War, .
44
Fyodor Dostoyevsky, The Brothers Karamazov (Random House, 1950).

21

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Alfonso Chardy, Miami Herald, July 19, 1987.

, ,

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, Staff Report, State Department and
Intelligence Community Involvement in Domestic Activities Related to the Iran/Contra Affair,
Committee on Foreign Affairs, U.S. House of Representatives, Sept. 7, 1988; Parry and Kornbluh, op.
cit. Culture of Terrorism, 10
Miami Herald.

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Christopher Hill, The World Turned Upside Down (Penguin, 1984, 60, 71),
.

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49
Edward Countryman, The American Revolution (Hill and Wang, 1985, 200, 224ff.)
50
James Curran, "Advertising and the Press," in Curran, ed., The British Press: A Manifesto (London:
MacMillan, 1978).

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1939 1945 .
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,
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. , William S. Borden, The Pacific
Alliance: United States Foreign Economic Policy and Japanese Trade Recovery, 1947-1955
(Wisconsin, 1984); Andrew J. Rotter, The Path to Vietnam: Origins of the American Commitment to
Southeast Asia (Cornell, 1987).
54
WP Weekly, Dec. 28, 1987.

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Lippmann and Merz, "A Test of the News," Supplement, New Republic, Aug. 4, 1920.
Aronson, The Press and the Cold War, 25f.
56
2, 1.

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H. D. S. Greenway, Boston Globe, July 8, 1988. , Turning the Tide,

194f., ; Christopher Simpson, Blowback (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1988).
58
60-
, , ,
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,
- .
At War with Asia (Pantheon, 1970, introduction); For Reasons of State (Pantheon, 1973);
Chomsky and Howard Zinn, eds., Critical Essays. vol. 5 of the Pentagon Papers (Beacon, 1972);
. , , Borden, Pacific Alliance; Michael
Schaller, The American Occupation of Japan (Oxford, 1985); Rotter, Path to Vietnam.

29

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Acheson, Present at the Creation (Norton, 1969, 374, 489); Borden, op. cit., 44, 144.
Acheson, Present at the Creation (Norton, 1969, 374, 489); Borden, op. cit., 44, 144.

30

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Carey, "Managing Public Opinion."

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Ibid., Bell, "Industrial Conflict and Public Opinion," A. R. Dubin A. Ross, eds.,
Industrial Conflict (McGraw-Hill, 1954).
63
5, 5.
64
Carey, "Managing Public Opinion." 50-, Ellen
Schrecker, No Ivory Tower (Oxford, 1986). ,
Philip J. Meranto, Oneida J. Meranto, and Matthew R. Lippman, Guarding the Ivory Tower
(Lucha publications, Denver, 1985).
65
, "Democracy in the Industrial Societies" Z
Magazine, Jan. 1989.
66
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Pacific Alliance, 182f.; .

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NYT, Oct. 30, 1985.

Political Economy of Human Rights Manufacturing Consent.
69
NYT, March 25, 1977; .
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Los Angeles Times, Oct. 25, 1988; Robert Reinhold, NYT, .

, Political Economy of Human Rights, II, 3.
72
NYT, March 3, 1985.
71

35

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T. Hunter Wilson, Indochina Newsletter (Asia Resource Center), Nov.-Dec. 1987. Mary Williams
Walsh, Wall Street Journal, Jan. 3; George Esper, AP, Jan. 18; Boston Globe, picture caption, Jan. 20,
1989.
74
Walsh, Wall Street Journal, Jan. 3, 1989. Robert Pear, NYT, Aug. 14; Elaine Sciolino, NYT, Aug. 17;
Paul Lewis, NYT, Oct. 8; Mary Williams Walsh, Wall Street Journal, Sept. 1, 1988.
3 1989 , , ,

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Barbara Crossette, NYT, Nov. 10, 1985.

36

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Crossette, NYT, Feb. 28; E. W. Wayne, Christian Science Monitor, Aug. 24, 1988.
Anderson, "The Light at the End of the Tunnel," Diplomatic History, Fall 1988.

37

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Lee H. Hamilton, "Time for a new American relationship with Vietnam," Christian Science Monitor,
Dec. 12, 1988; Frederick Z. Brown, Indochina Issues 85, Nov. 1988; Boston Globe, July 8, 1988.
79
Jennings, Empire of Fortune, 215.

38

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Kapeliouk, Yediot Ahronot, April 7, 1988; April 1, 15.

Ziem, Indochina Newsletter (Asia Resource Center), July-August 1988; Susan Chira, NYT, Oct. 5,
1988; Wall Street Journal, April 4, 1985. Manufacturing Consent
10- ( 1985 ) , .
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Demonstration Elections.
84
Jorge Pinto, NYT Op-Ed, May 6, 1981; Ricardo Castaeda,
, Edward Mason Fellow, Kennedy School, Harvard University; "Salvador Groups
Attack Paper and U.S. Plant," World News Briefs, NYT, April 19, 1980.

.

41

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Sad Tales of La Libertad de Prensa," Harper's Magazine, Aug. 1988. 5, 6,

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International Security, Summer 1986.
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Robert W. Tucker, "Reagan's Foreign Policy," Foreign Affairs, "America and the World 1988/89,"
Winter 1989, . John Lewis Gaddis, The Long Peace (Oxford, 1987, 129).

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Washington Times), Oct. 3, 1988.

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104
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Feb. 1986,
. Edgar Chamorro, Packaging the Contras: A Case of CIA Disinformation, Institute for Media
Analysis Monograph Series, No. 2 (New York, 1987, 49);
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103

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1988
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(South End, 1989).
111
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112
, Z Magazine, March 1988.

53


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Towards a New Cold War, 51.

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55


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; Barricada (Managua), Aug. 3; Julie Light, Guardian (New York), Aug.
17, 1988. , .
121
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4, 5.

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U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Feb. 27, 1986.
125
NYT, March 14, 1986.
126
, WP Weekly, March 1, 1986.
127
New York Times Book Review, April 12, 1987. Z Magazine 1989
.
128
Wall Street Journal, March 26, 1987.

58

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206-7, COHA, Washington Report on the
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132
NYT Magazine, Jan. 10, 1988.

60


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Oct./Nov. 1987. ,
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Mary Speck, "Nicaragua's Economic Decline Takes Toll on Health," Miami Herald, Sept. 15, 1988;
William Branigin, "Let Them Eat Fruit Rinds," Washington Post Weekly, Oct. 10-16, 1988.

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Thomas W. Walker, Nicaragua (Westview, 1986, 67).

Morris Morley and James Petras, The Reagan Administration and
Nicaragua, Institute of Media Analysis, Monograph Series No. 1 (New York, 1987),
, ,
, ,
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"U.S. Polity and Society: the Lessons of Nicaragua" Thomas Walker, ed.,
Reagan versus the Sandinistas (Westview, 1987).
137
NYT, Dec. 31, 1987.
136

62


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Rosenthal, NYT, March 8; Rosenfeld, WP, April 24, 1987.
143
Stephen Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines (U. of North Carolina, 1980, 194).
142

64

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Kenneth Roth, , NYT, Aug. 17, 1988; BG, Dec. 26, 1988.
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, Culture of Terrorism; 1,
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( Americas Watch, Human Rights in Nicaragua, March
1986).
.
145
Bernard Diederich, Somoza (E.P. Dutton, 1981, 74). Memorandum
Robert McNamara McGeorge Bundy, June 11, 1965; , On
Power and Ideology, 22f. .

65


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Schoultz, Human Rights and United States Policy toward Latin America (Princeton, 1981, 7).
. . F. Parkinson, Latin America, The Cold War, and The World Powers (London, 1974), 40.
148
"Democracy in the Industrial Societies" Z Magazine, Jan. 1989,
.
147

66



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Torture in Latin America, LADOC (Latin American Documentation), Lima, 1987.

Shultz, "Moral Principles and Strategic Interests: The Worldwide Movement Toward
Democracy," State Dept. Bureau of Public Affairs, Current Policy no. 820,
14 1986 ; LeMoyne, NYT, Feb. 7, 1988.
150

67


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The Political Economy of Human Rights, vol. I; Lars Schoultz, Comparative Politics, Jan.
1981. Human Rights and United States Policy toward Latin America.
152
NYT, March 15, 1987.
153
AP, Feb. 1, 1988.
154
, WP Weekly, March 31, 1986; Pamela Constable, BG, March 15, 1987.

68


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, Morley and Petras, op. cit.

Council on Hemispheric Affairs (COHA) , 1975
,
(. .).
156
Walker, Reagan vs. the Sandinistas; Culture of Terrorism, 219f.; WP,
Oct. 15, 1985; Peter Kornbluh, Nicaragua (Institute for Policy Studies, Washington, 1987).
157
Ibid.

69

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159

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Turning the Tide, 72f. Walker, Reagan versus the Sandinistas. Michael
Parenti, "Afterword," Morley and Petras, The Reagan Administration in Nicaragua Michael
Linfield, Human Rights in Times of War, ms., 1988.

71

 , .
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181
1986 ;
. 161

1978 .
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Spence, "The U.S. Media: Covering (Over) Nicaragua," Walker, Reagan vs. the Sandinistas.
, 1, 1 .
162
Council on Hemispheric Affairs (COHA), "News and Analysis," Feb. 29, 1988.
163
,
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72

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Manufacturing Consent .
165
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Manufacturing Consent , .
166
Seattle Central America Media Project, Out of Balance, n.d. 5, 6
.
167
Donald Fox and Michael J. Glennon, "Report to the International Human Rights Law Group and the
Washington Office on Latin America," Washington D.C., April 1985, 21,
.
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168

1980
1986 , Walker, Reagan vs. the Sandinistas.
, ,
Culture of Terrorism, 101f. ,
Turning the Tide, 3, 5.2; Cooper, "Whitewashing Duarte," U.S. Reporting on El Salvador,
NACLA Report on the Americas, Jan./March 1986.
169
, ,
; 5, 6, - .

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Lydia Chavez, NYT, April 24, 1983. , ,

Ray Bonner, Weakness and Deceit (Times Books, 1984, 106).
171
4, 1 . ,
Political Economy of Human Rights .
172
1980
1981 , Towards a New Cold War, ; The
Chomsky Reader. , Ed
Harriman, Hack: Home Truths about Foreign News (Zed, 1987);
. ,
,
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, .
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( - . .) ,
( - . .) ,
(op. cit.).

76

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1986 ,
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77

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171 ( - . .)
27 1986 .
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. ,
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175

NYT Magazine, May 25, 1980. Oduber, Kenneth M. Coleman and George C. Herring, eds., The
Central American Crisis (Scholarly Resources Inc., 1985, 196).
176
, ,
. ,
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(Jonathan Karp, WP, June 28, 1986).
-
, Culture of Terrorism, 205f.

.. (,
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78


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178
NYT, June 29, 1986.

79

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Extra!, FAIR, Dec. 1987.
, AP, WP, Aug. 4, 1988, ; Boston Globe, 29 .
180
U.N. Press Release GA/7572, Nov. 12; AP, Nov. 12; Paul Lewis, NYT, Nov. 11, 13, Dec. 26, 1987.

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty

1988 (. .).
181
1987 1988 , 4, 3.

80


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. 182


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U.N. Press Release GA/7591, 30 November; AP, Nov. 30; William Broad, "Star Wars is Coming,
but Where is it Going?," NYT Magazine, Dec. 6, 1987.
183
Paul Lewis, NYT, Dec. 2, 1987.
184
U.N. Press release GA/7603, Dec. 7, 1987.

81

,
. 185

242 338
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185

New York Times, Nov. 17, 1988.

Yehoshafat Harkabi, Israel's Fateful Hour (Harper and Row, 1988, 31).
187
5, 4.
186

82

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, "Taking Arafat's `yes' for an answer" (BG, Dec. 24, 1988).
, ,
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83


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190
Paul Lewis, NYT, March 11; Joseph Treaster, NYT, May 31, 1988. Karen Wald, Z Magazine,
July-August 1988, .
191
AP, March 11, 1988.
192
, 4, 4.
189

84


1984 ,
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194
Dennis Volman, Christian Science Monitor, June 26, 1987.
195
El Tiempo, July 3, 1987, -
(ALASEI).

85

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Robert Pear, NYT, April 6; COHA Washington Report on the Hemisphere, May 11; AP, May 12, 11;
Reuters, BG, May 13, 1988.
208
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209
LeMoyne, NYT, May 12; Pear, NYT, May 10, 1988.

92

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John Goshko, WP, May 14; John McCaslin, WT, June 14, 1988; COHA press release, May 12,
1988; Don Podesta, WP, Sept. 21, 1988.
211
NYT, Peter Kilborn, April 5; , BG, April 17, 1988.

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212

Center for International Policy, "The Nicaraguan Cease-Fire Talks: a Documentary Survey," June
13, 1988; Cease-Fire Primer, International Policy Report, CIP; Julia Preston, WP, June 10,
1988.
213
COHA, "A Critique of the Dole Amendment," Aug. 1, 1988,
, 4, 5, 3.

94

 90-. 214

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214

Michael Conroy Thomas Walker, ed., Nicaragua: The First Years (Praeger, 1985,
232f).

,
(. ).
215
Julia Preston, WP Weekly, Jan. 2-8, 1989;
. 80-

, Culture of Terrorism, 205f.

95




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. 217

, . ,
,

, Holly Sklar, Washington's War on

Nicaragua (South End, 1988, 114f.).
216
BG, Dec. 25, 1988.
217
3, 47.

96

 . 218
. ,
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. 219 ,


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, . 220
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218

BG, Oct. 30, 31, Nov. 1, 1988. ,

, 1988 ,
600 000 1995 ,
( - ..) .
, ,
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.
219
5, 3 .
220
Preston, WP Weekly, Jan. 2-8, 1989.
, Howard Frederick, "Electronic Penetration," vo Walker, Reagan vs.
the Sandinistas.

97


. . ,
1982
,
,
.

. -

,
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, ,
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, . ,
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1981 : ' '
, , .
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.
, .

221

Thomas Walker, Coleman and Herring, The Central American Crisis; Carlin, Independent
(London), Feb. 1, 1988.

98

, ,
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, . ,

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.


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, . 222
, , ,
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, .
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,

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. 223 ,
222

Milton, Paradise Lost, Bk. III, 682-84; Pascal, Provincial Letters, Letter VI.

, ,
, Linda McQuaig, Behind Closed Doors: How the Rich
Won Control of Canada's Tax System (Penguin, 1987). ,
.
223
Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 5 (Houghton Mifflin, 1951, 382).

99

 ,

.
,

,
. 224
,
,
- (),

- .
,
,


.
,

,

, . 225
,
,
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, , ,
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80-;
-
.
, , 1965
,
.
,
,
()
- , ,
, ,
, . 226
224

.
, Douglas Pike, Viet Cong (MIT, 1966).
226
, NYT, Dec. 22, 1965.

; Culture of Terrorism, 181 Peter Dale Scott, "The
United States and the Overthrow of Sukarno, 1965-1967," Pacific Affairs, Summer 1985.
, ,
,
- ,
,
; Manufacturing Consent, 174.
225

100

 ,
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14 .

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. 228 ,
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227

Sam Pope Brewer, "Iran is Reported Subversion Free," NYT, Dec. 2, 1956; NYT, Aug. 30, 1960.
. . William A. Dorman and Mansour Farhang, The U.S. Press and Iran (California, 1987, 77,
72).
228
UPI, BG, July 27, 1987.
229
Turning the Tide, 161.

101


. 230
,
. ,
.

, ...

( ).
1955

. 1944

, ,
,
. 231

.
,
.
,


. -
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, ,
.

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, ,
, .
;
, ,
,
1978 ;
, , ,
,
230

NYT, Sept. 25, 1988. ,

,
, ,
,
- (Bruce Cumings "The
origins and development of the Northeast Asian political economy," International Organization 38.1,
Winter 1984).
231
FRUS, 1955-57, Vol. VII, 88f., NIE 82-85. ,
, "Agenda of the Doves," Z
Magazine, September 1988.

102

 . ,

,
, . ,
,
, , ,
. 232
,
,
1973 ,
,
. 233

,

1977
,
, . 234

1975
,
,
(, , ).
, , ( - . .)

. 1975 , ,
,
,
,
, . 235

. , ,
,
- . ,
, ,

, .
.
232

John Murray Brown, CSM, Feb. 6, 1987; Economist, Aug. 15, 1987.
, Political Economy of Human Rights, Towards a New Cold War The
Chomsky Reader,
.
, .
, .
233
, Manufacturing Consent, 6.
;
ibid .
234
Ibid. ; Ben Kiernan, "The American Bombardment of Kampuchea," Vietnam
Generation 1.1, Winter 1989.
235
, NYT, July 16, 1988. ,
Manufacturing Consent, .

103

 .

-
,
. -
,
.
,

.

,
(
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, -
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, ,
. 236

;

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.
, .
,

, 1980
. ,
, , , ;
,

, . 237

.
, ,

236

Elaine Sciolino, NYT, Oct. 16; Clayton Jones, CSM, Aug. 24, 1988.
, Peter Carey, Far Eastern
Economic Review, Dec. 22, 1988.
,
.

.

, (KPNLF ) , (
) . ,
,
.
Manufacturing Consent .
237
, Turning the Tide , 5.2.

104

 ,
- . 238


.
,
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, 239
. .
,
. -
-
, 240
,
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;
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1948 .

,
, 241
,
.
1949 .
, .
,
,
. 60-
, .
,
. , 1953

238

"Democracy in the Industrial Societies," Z Magazine, January 1989.

Victor Bulmer-Thomas, On Power and Ideology, Third World Quarterly, January
1988.
240
Connell-Smith, The Inter-American System (Oxford, 1966).
241
Charles Ameringer, Don Pepe (U. of New Mexico, 1978, 114).
239

105

 . 242
-
,
-


,


. 243
,
,

,
. , .
, 1955 ,
,

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1953


.

. , ,
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242

LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions (Norton 1983, 187, 105); Charles F. Denton and Preston Lee
Lawrence, Latin American Politics: a Functional Approach (San Francisco, 1972), . . LaFeber;
Ameringer, op. cit., 105.
243
FRUS, 1952-54, vol. IV, 1170,
16 1954 ; pp. 1157f. . ,
, ,
. ,
,
.
,
, , ,
, (Bryce Wood, The Dismantling of
the Good Neighbor Policy (Texas, 1985, 177).)
, ,

, , .
,
.

106


. 244

, ,

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, ,

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. 245
,
; ,
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80-
. 246

,
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,

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,

, . ,
,
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, .
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,
. 1985


,
. 1986


,
.

, :

, -
244

LaFeber, op. cit., 105-6.

. 5, 1.
246
, ,
Herman, The Real Terror Network Towards a New Cold War (), Fateful Triangle
Pirates and Emperors; , .
245

107



200
,

1988 .
-
- 1981 :
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.
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. 247 ; ,
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.

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.


. 248
, ,


247

5, 2.

1931 1948
(. .).
248
Martha Crenshaw, ed., , Terrorism, Legitimacy and Power: The Consequences of Political
Violence (Wesleyan, 1983).

108


.
.



,
. ,
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1988 ,
.
.

: (1) ,
. (2)
, . (3)
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. 249 ,


.

, , , ,


. ,
:
. 250 , ,
249

Dodd, AP, Nov. 25; Shultz, Robert Pear, NYT, Nov. 28, 1988.
,
. , ,
. Apple, Dec. 15, 1988.
250
, WP Weekly, Dec. 5-11, 1988.

110

 , ,
, , , .


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, . , ,


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,
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, , . 251
.
,

. 252


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. ,
,
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, . , .

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,
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,

. 253

,
, ,
100 ,
251

Szep, BG, Dec. 4, 1988. ,

, , ,
,
.
252
, 25.
253
Pirates & Emperors, .

111


,
.
, 1987
. 18
,
. , .
,
, - 1985
,
.
. 254
,
.

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. ,
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,
,
.
,
.
254

Ibid., 87f.; Al-Fajr, Aug. 2, 1987; Danny Rubinstein, Ha'aretz, Aug. 29, 1987;
, State Terrorism at Sea (Jerusalem, n.d.); Joseph Schechla, "Israel's
Piracy on the High Seas," The Return (September 1988); Joost Hiltermann, Middle East International,
Oct. 10, 1987.

112

 ,
, .
,
22 ;

. 255
:

, ...
. ,



.
.
,
,
. .

,

.

.
30-
, . ,

,
.
,

. 256
,
,
,
.
: ,
. ,
, . 257


.
,
.


255

; BG, Oct. 5, 4; Joel Greenberg, Jerusalem Post, Sept. 28; Mary Curtius,
BG, Sept. 28, 1988.
256
BG, Oct. 10, 1988.
257
, 5, 3.

113

 .
. ,
, -
,
,

.
,
,
. , - .
1988
: :
. 258


. ,

,

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,

.
, ,

;
, ,
. ,
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, ,

...;

.

:
. 259
, .

- .

, , 70-,

. :
, , .
258

Michael Wines and James Gerstenzang, LAT, Jan. 26, 1988.

Robert Pear, NYT, July 3, 1988; LAT, July 17, 1988.

1984- (. .).
259

114

 , .
,
.
, . 260

,
.
; ,
,
1967
, .

. , ,

.
, - , .
,
,
,
. ,
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. 1977 ,
-

, .
,
.
.
.
,

, . , ,
.
,
,
.

. , ,
.
, ,
( - . .),
. 261 .
,
.
260

5, 4 .
Montague Kern, Television and Middle East Diplomacy: President Carter's Fall 1977 Peace
Initiative (Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown, Occasional Papers Series, 1983).

261

115

, -
.
. ,
,

, , . 262

. 263 .
,
. , ,

,

. , ,
, .
.
, ,
.
80- .


.

1986 ,
100 ,
, ,
.
, ,
,
. ,


,
,
,
- .
, ,
10 .
,

. 264
262

5, 5.
Niebuhr, Moral Man and Immoral Society, 95.
264
Kempton, NYRB, Nov. 26, 1986; Bob Woodward, Veil (Simon & Schuster, 1987, 113); ,
WP, March 29, 1987. John Spicer Nichols, Columbia Journalism Review, July/August 1988,
,
; , CJR, Sept./Oct.
,
, 500.000
; Washington Report on the Hemisphere, March 16, 1988.
263

116


,
. ,

, -
, ,
? . .

, ,
.
,
.
, ,


,
.
,
. ,
;
. .
,
. 1988
-
, .
()
:
. 265 .

.
...
' '.
,

. 266
, 10- ,
,
, . ,
,
.
.
14
,
.
,
,
,
265
266

South, Oct. 1988.

, WP, April 25, 1988. 4 4, 5.

117

 ,
. .
,

,
. 267

.
, . 268
,
.
, NACLA : ,
4
. ,
9
137 ,
80 , ,
, ,

. 269
.
,
, -,
-
. 270
; ,
.
, , -
10 , , .
, :
.



, ,
267

Central America Report (Guatemala City), June 10, 17, 1988; Jean-Marie Simon, ed., Guatemala
News in Brief, no. 23, May 11-July 1988, Americas Watch; Human Rights Watch, The Persecution of
Human Rights Monitors, Dec. 1988.
268
, 17-
,
,
- . Kinzer, NYT, July 6, 1988;
David Unger, NYT Weekly Book Review, Aug. 7, 1988.
,
;
, ,
.

NACLA - ,
1966 ,
(. .)
269
"Freedom of the Press," NACLA Report on the Americas, May/June 1988.
270
, Boston Globe, Sept. 5, 1988.

118

 ,
, 1978 .
;
. .
1980
.
, ,
1980 ; 80 %
, ,
,
. ,
, ,
,
, . 271

;

, ...
' '
- 80 %
,
. 272

.
. 1986 ,
,
, ,

( ).

' '
, ,

,
. ,
; ,

.
1987 , . 273
,

271

5, 6.
Kinzer, NYT, April 20, 1987. 1980 ' '
,
- . ,
, , , ' '
(NYT, Oct. 2, 1987).
80 % .
273
Chamorro, WP, April 3, 1986; Nichols, op. cit.; 5, 6.
272

119

 ,
. 274
, ,


. , ,
, .
,
.
, ,
1987 ,

, -
, .
, ,

, ,
, ,




.
, . 275

- , ,

. .
1986 ,
,
, ,
...
.

.
, ,
.


, ,
, ;
. 276
,
.
274

,
4, 3.
275
AP, Dec. 22, 1987; Cal Thomas, BG, Jan. 3, 1988.
276
Al-Hamishmar, July 25, Aug. 13; Jerusalem Post, Aug. 12, 24; Al-Hamishmar, July 25, Aug. 13,
1986.

120

 1987 ,
(
)

;


.

1948 .
,


, . 277
; , ,

. 278
,


, ,

, .
,
,
. 279
,

.
,
,
, . 280

,
, ,
.
,

.


277

Yediot Ahronot, Aug. 16, 1987, The Other Israel (Israeli Council for IsraeliPalestinian Peace), Sept. 1987; Ha'aretz, Jan 1, 1988; AP, Oct. 25, 26. ,
Avigdor Feldman, B. Michael, Hadashot, Aug. 14, 1987.
278
NYT, Oct. 26, 1987.
279
Simon Edge, Middle East International, Jan. 20, 1989.
280

.


.

121

.
,
, ,
, .
, ,
,
. ,
,

.
, ,
, .

,
, ,
, .
, ,
. 1948 ,
,
, ,
,
,
, , ,

.
( )
. 281
, , 1982

,

,
, .

. 282
,
. ,
,

242 338 ,
, :
,

.
281

Leah Enbal, Koteret Rashit, June 8, 1988,

. Moshe Negbi, Politika, Sept. 1986; "Press in Chains,"
Shomer Hanitzotz, May 1988 (
Derech Hanitzotz ); "Paper Tiger: The Struggle for Press
Freedom in Israel," Jerusalem Quarterly, #39, 1986. Ha'aretz, September 29, 1986.
282
Fateful Triangle, 139.

122


. , :
. ( - . .)

,
, . 283

.
1987
.
;
. . 1988
. 284 ,
, 285

.



,
.

. ,

.
,
.
,

:

; ,
,
. , ,
,

.
, ,
,
, .


.
'',

,
283

Avigdor Feldman, Hadashot, Nov. 18, 1988. 5, 7

.
284
Rosenthal, NYT, May 27, 1988.
285
, Dan Fisher, Los Angeles Times, Oct. 5, 1985.

123

 ,

. 286

,



,
.


. 287
,
, ,
. ,
.

,
.
17-
, 1661
: ...
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...


. 288
,
, ,
. 1695
, - ,


. ,
,
.
. , ,
, . 289
, ,
,
.
,

. :
,
286

Jo Ann Boydston, ed., John Dewey: The Later Works, vol. II, Common Sense, Nov. 1935.
5, 8.
288
. . Hill, The World Turned Upside Down, 72.
289
Ibid., 385, 353.
287

124

 .
. ,


/ ,

, . 290
60- 1966
, .
,


,
:

.
, laissez faire
. 291
.
-,
,

,
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Mark Hollingsworth, The Press and Political Dissent (Pluto, London, 1986)
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Barron, "Access to the Press".
292
St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Aug. 24, 1967, . . Jerome A. Barron, "An Emerging First
Amendment Right of Access to the Media?," George Washington Law Review (March 1969), 498.
Aronson, The Press and the Cold War, 273-74, .

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295
NYT, Dec. 29, 1987.
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Thomas Friedman, NYT, Oct. 16; , p. 1. AP, Oct. 15, 1986.

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, (Tad Szulc, WP, Aug. 4, 1986,

( - . .) ).
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300
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op. cit. , 7 8, .

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European Press Coverage of the 1982 and 1984 Elections in El Salvador," Creating
Reality: Media Coverage of International Affairs,
, (CFIA Publishers, Cambridge Mass., 1989)
.
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For Reasons of State, 232-23; Manufacturing Consent, 181.
309
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311
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& Ronald Kasrils, Bertrand Russell's America: 1945-1970 (South End, 1983).

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Central America (Westview, 1985).
333
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156


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339
, inter alia, Fateful Triangle 3, 23.

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341
Reporters under Fire.
, Fateful Triangle, 284f.
342
Reuven Padhatzur, Ha'aretz, Nov. 14, 1983; Ya'acov Friedler, Jerusalem Post, Feb. 24, 1984; Drew
Middleton, NYT, Feb. 26, 1984.
343
5, 4 .
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345

Ibid., 184f., .
Naomi Joy Weinberger, Syrian Intervention in Lebanon (Oxford, 1986, 179); Dov Yermiya, My
War Diary (South End, 1983, 62) ( ); Laqueur, The Age of
Terrorism (Little, Brown and Co., 1987, 218); Silver, Manchester Guardian Weekly, Oct. 3, 1982;
Schiff and Ya'ari, Israel's Lebanon War (Simon and Schuster, 1984, 87). ,
5, 3.

346

160

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; 100 200 1975 1982 ,
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Rabinovich, The War in Lebanon (Cornell, 1984, 57). 1975-6 ,

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348
Fateful Triangle, 188f.
349
Ibid, 243f., , . .

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Shipler, NYT, July 25, 1982.
351
Mansour, Ha'aretz, July 27, 1982. Benny Morris and David Bernstein, Jerusalem Post, July
23, 1982. Fateful Triangle, 186f., .
Shipler, op. cit., ,
, .

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Porath, Ha'aretz, June 25, 1982; Yaniv, Dilemmas of Security (Oxford, 1987, 52-3, 67ff., 100-101).
Harkabi, Israel's Fateful Hour, 100-1. Eitan, . . Rafi Ga'on, Ha'aretz, Dec. 27, 1983.
, 6
, 3 (,
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1982 , Fateful
Triangle Schiff and Ya'ari, Israel's Lebanon War.
353
Fateful Triangle .

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356
Council on Hemispheric Affairs, Washington Report on the Hemisphere, Nov. 23, 1988;

1988 .
355

165

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357

Center for Cuban Studies, New York, Oct. 28, 1983.

Knight-Ridder Service, BG, Oct. 27; WP, Oct. 27; NYT, BG, Nov. 20. Latin America
Regional Reports Caribbean, Nov. 4, 1983; Michael Massing, Atlantic Monthly, Feb. 1884,
.
359
Thomas, NYT, Nov. 1; , NYT, Nov. 10, 1983.
358

167


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.
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Long Peace, 43.
362
Wm. Roger Lewis, Imperialism at Bay: the United States and the Decolonization of the British
Empire, 1941-1945 (Oxford, 1978, 481). , Shoup and
Minter, Imperial Brain Trust.
, Bruce Cumings, Cumings, ed., Child of Conflict
(Washington, 1983).
363
Lewis, op. cit., 550; Christopher Thorne, The Issue of War (Oxford, 1985, 225, 211).
361

169

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364

Gaddis, The Long Peace, 10-11, 21; Andy Thomas, Effects of Chemical Warfare (SIPRI, Taylor &
Francis, 1985, 33f.), - .
365
Gaddis, The Long Peace, 37, 11.

170


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Secrecy and Power (Free Press, 1987); Aronson, The Press and the Cold War.
373
David Brion Davis, ed., The Fear of Conspiracy (Cornell University Press, 1971).
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AP, March 17; Alan Cowell, Jerusalem, NYT, March 18; UPI, Boston Globe, March 20; NYT, March
24; NYT, March 25; AP, March 24; NYT, March 31, 1988.
385
UPI, BG, March 24; AP, March 24; UPI, BG, March 31, 1988.

179

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388
AP, NYT, Jan. 12, 1989,
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Feb. 9, 1989.

181


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AP, NYT, Jan. 5; Stephen Kinzer, NYT, Jan. 6; AP, BG, Jan. 8; , NYT, Jan. 8; Bernard
Weinraub, NYT, Jan. 15; Abrams, , NYT, Jan. 15; David Shipler, NYT, Feb. 26, 1986.

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NYT, Aug. 13, 1987.

, Morley and Petras, The
Reagan Administration and Nicaragua.
397
Extra!, Oct.-Nov. 1987. 11 1988 ,

(Extra!, Sept./Oct. 1988,
, .). .
398
Humberto Ortega, FBIS-LAT-87-239, Dec. 14, 1987; LeMoyne, Dec. 20, 1987.
399
NYT, Dec. 18, 1987.
396

184

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J. D. Gannon, Christian Science Monitor, Aug. 26, 1988.
402
NYT, Feb. 7, July 4, 1988; .
403
Trainor, NYT, April 3, 1988; Rivera y Damas, Oct. 26, 1980, Bonner, Weakness and
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"Salvador Rebels: Where Do They Get the Arms?", NYT, Nov. 24, 1988. ,

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Morley and Petras, Reagan Administration and Nicaragua.

186

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188

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1988; Rubn Montedonico, El Da (Mexico City), Nov. 6, 7, 1988,
Honduras Update, Nov./Dec., 1988. , Turning the Tide, 104.
408

189



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Towards a New Cold War,
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1974, 5), Fateful Triangle.
410

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413
Wiesel, , NYT, June 23; Reuven Padhatzur, Ha'aretz, May 16, 1988.

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, Fateful Triangle Turning the Tide.
,
Yediot Ahronot, Jan. 22, 1988, : ,
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1988
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Ha'aretz, July 15, 4; Jerusalem Post, July 6; Ya'akov Lazar, Hotam, July 15,
; William Montalbano, Los Angeles Times, May 31, 1988, AP, May 30, ,
, Yediot
Ahronot, June 10; Yerushalayim, June 17, ; JP, June 24, 22,
, ; JP, Aug. 3, 1988, 3
. , Punishing a Nation: Human Rights Violations During the
Palestinian Uprising, December 1987 December 1988 (Al Haq -- Law in the Service of Man,
Ramallah, December 1988).
416
Yizhar Be'er, Kol Ha'ir, Aug. 26, 1988; Joshua Brilliant, JP, Aug. 26, 1988.

193

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Eitan Rabin, Ha'aretz, Sept. 23, 1988.

Shimon Elkavetz, Hadashot, Sept. 28; Tali Zelinger, Jerusalem Post, Sept. 29, 1988.

194

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Jan. 26, Feb. 3; JP, Feb. 10, 1989. Glenn Frankel, WP, Feb. 12; George Moffett, CSM, Feb. 15,
1989.
420
Reuven Padhatzur, Ha'aretz, Nov. 30, 1988. Eitan Rabin, Ha'aretz Supplement, Dec. 2,
1988, .
421
Hadaf Hayarok, Al Hamishmar, Aug. 23, 1988.

195

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Gilat, Hadashot, Dec. 16; Gissen, Joel Brinkley, NYT, April 28; AP, NYT, Dec. 15; special, NYT,
Dec. 5, 1988. Eiran Taus, Al-Hamishmar, Nov. 19; Judith Green, News from Within, Dec. 14, 1988.
,
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197

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Magazine, May 1988. Poll, Ha'aretz, June 8, 1988; ,
, 41% .
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1988. Rav Kook, Eyal Kafkafi, Davar, Sept. 26, 1988. Yehoshafat Harkabi, Israel's
Fateful Hour (Harper & Row, 1988),
.
426
Michael Walzer, "Nationalism, internationalism, and the Jews," Irving Howe and Carl
Gershman, eds., Israel, the Arabs and the Middle East (Bantam, 1972); Cockburn, Nation, Nov. 21,
1988.
427
.

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Extra!, Dec. 1987.
429
CBS News, 6:30 P.M., Dec. 7, 1987.
; .
430
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431
NYT, Dec. 4, 1987.

199


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Steven Roberts, NYT, May 31; , NYT, June 1.

Alexander Cockburn, Nation, June 18, 1988.
434
, Globe and Mail, June 10, 1988; James LeMoyne, New York Times Magazine, June 5,
1988. ,
. , 5, 6.
433

200

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New Statesman, June 3, 10, 1988. ,

Boston Globe, June 1 Michael Parks, Los Angeles Times, May 28, 1988.
436
.
437
American-Arab Affairs, Winter 1987-88.
438
Paul Lewis, NYT, Nov. 4, 1988.
439
The U.N. versus the U.S.," NYT Magazine, Jan. 22, 1984.

201

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Shirley Hazzard, Defeat of an Ideal (Atlantic Monthly Press, Little, Brown, 1973, 201).
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Times Literary Supplement (London), Sept. 17, 1982.

Defeat of an Ideal, 9, 14ff., 60f., 65, 71.

203


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; David Johnston, NYT, June

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444
Paul Lewis, NYT, Oct. 16, 1987; AP, Feb. 28, 1988.

204

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AP, March 22; Christian Science Monitor, March 25, 43 ; Treaster, NYT, March 27, 1988.
Mary McGrory, Boston Globe, March 23,
.
446
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Michael Allen, Wall Street Journal, Aug. 10; Central America Report (Guatemala City), Aug. 14,
1987. Culture of Terrorism, 141f., 18-19, .
450
, ; Special Document,
Esquipulas II Accord, Central America Report, August 14, 1987.
451
LeMoyne, NYT, Aug. 6, 7. ,
Central America Report, Aug. 14. Culture of Terrorism, 141f.,
.

206

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Rosenthal, NYT, Aug. 21, 1987.

Brian Barger, UPI, Philadelphia Inquirer, Oct. 22, 1987; Excelsior (Mexico City), Oct. 22, 1987.
, Z
Magazine, January, March, 1988.
454
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Neil Lewis, NYT, Nov. 12, 1987. .

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U.N. General Assembly, A/42/PV.67, Nov. 16, 1987. ,
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459
Stephen Kinzer, NYT, Oct. 15, 1987.


.
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,
, Council on Hemispheric Affairs, "News and
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209

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COHA, Washington Report on the Hemisphere, Feb. 3, 1988; Update, Central American Historical
Institute, Dec. 28, 1987; Cultural Survival, vol. 12, no. 3, 1988.

210

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.

,
,

. 465
CDHES,
,
,
.
1986 , . ,
462

Jonas, San Francisco Bay Guardian; Cockburn, Anderson Valley Advertiser; June 8, 1988.
Human Rights Watch (Americas Watch/Asia Watch/Helsinki Watch) and Lawyers Committee for
Human Rights, Critique: Review of the Department of State's Country Reports on Human Rights
Practices for 1987, June 1988.
-
.
.
464
COHA Washington Report on the Hemisphere, Feb. 17, 1988; Latinamerica press (Peru), Nov. 19,
1987.
465
Z Magazine, March 1988, ;
, La Voz, CDHES, March 24, 1988.
463

211

 ,
.
430
.
(
), . ,
(
1, 1).
,
.
, ,
,

, ,
. 466
,

( - . .)
,
,
- .
;
,

. 467


,
, ...


-
. 468


,


,
,

466

AP, Nov. 15, 1987; .

20 ,
.
467
LeMoyne, NYT, Nov. 29, 1987; COHA Washington Report on the Hemisphere, Feb. 17, 1988.
,
1987
- .
, 5, 6.
468
NYT, Nov. 29, 1987; June 5, Feb. 22, 1988.

212


. 469
-
,
, .
,

, . 470
. ,

1979
,
. 471
1980
,
.
, 7-
. ,
. 25 1988
,
, .

, . ,
. 472

.
.
,
.


. ,

,
,
.
, ,
,

. ,
,

,
. :
, ,
469

5, 6.
Ibid. , COHA, News and Analysis, Feb. 20, 1988.
471
Turning the Tide, 109-10.
472
El Sol (El Salvador On Line, Center for Central American Studies, Washington), Aug. 29, 1988;
Sam Dillon, "El Salvador's Violent Past Returns in Poverty, Death," Miami Herald, Sept. 6, 1988.
470

213


. ,
,
.
. ,
. 473
,
, ,

.
,
. 474
,
.
.
( ) 475 ( 1972
)
.
, .

, ,
.
,
. , ,
, ,
,
, .
,
.
,

.
, ,
, .


( );
, ,
, ,
.
473

LeMoyne, NYT, Nov. 21; Stephen Kinzer, NYT, Nov. 16, 1987.

,

.
.
474
El Norte (Mexico), July 17, 1988; Central America NewsPak.
475
.
, ,
COHA Washington Report on the Hemisphere, Aug. 31, 1988.

214

 -
.

- - ,
. 476

.
80- ,
. ,
(CODEH), 1987 ,
,
. ,


.

,
. 477
CODEH 263 1987 ,
144 1986 , 107
, .


, .

, .
,
,
.
,
. 478

,
.
,
,
( 1988 - . .)
88,5% .
. ,


500 , ,
. ,
, ,

476

LeMoyne, , NYT, Nov. 4, 1987; NYT, October 28, 1987.

, 64.
478
Central America Report, July 15, 1988; Latinamerica Press (Peru), July 21, 1988,
.
477

215


. 479

.
, 1988

,
48 ,
, .

,
.
. -
-
.
. ,

,

. 480
481
.
,
,
, - .
,
, ,
:
, ,

- . ,
,
,

. ,
.
,
. ,
- , .
1988
, 479

Reuter AP, Toronto Globe and Mail, March 23; Pamela Constable, Boston Globe, March 20,
1988. El Tiempo, July 14, 1987.
480
Toronto Globe and Mail, March 23, 1988. 3
.
, Susan Rasky, NYT, March 19, 1988.
481

, ,
; NYT, March 21, 27.

216

 , .
; ,
, .
,
,

.
-

.
, ,
-
.

.
,
, ,
, ,
(
). 9
,
,
' '; , ,
,
. 482
,


.

,
,
( - . .)

( ).
,
. ,
,
- . 483
,
.
,
.

(
5 15 1987 5 7 1988
). 10
482

. Peter Ford, Christian Science Monitor, Jan. 15; Richard Boudreaux, Los Angeles
Times, Jan. 14; LeMoyne, NYT, Jan. 16; Kinzer, NYT, Jan. 25, 1988.
483
NYT, Nov. 10, 1987.

217

 , 11
. . 484
.
. ,
23

,

. ,
16

19 ,
( 19
);
, ,
:

. ,
15
160 ,
.

23 ;

21 . 485

.

,
,
10 ,
,
, . ,

.
.
7
( - . .),
( - . .)

( ). 486
,
3

484

San Francisco Bay Guardian, Jan. 6, April 20, 1988.

Ibid.,
, Jan. 23, 1988. Gutman, WP, Aug. 7, 1988.
486
AP, Feb. 2, 3; Globe and Mail, Feb. 3, 1988; Amnesty International, El Salvador: `Death Squads' -a Government Strategy (October 1988). Z Magazine, Jan. 1988,
.
485

218

 ,


. 487
,

,
.

,

. ,
, ,
. ,
,

-
,
.
.
. 488
, ,
. ,
:
12- ,
,
, . 489
. ,
:
,
. ,
,
.
,

,
. 490 ,
.
487

Douglas Farah, WP, Jan. 4; COHA Washington Report on the Hemisphere, Jan. 20, 1988.
AP, Feb. 26, 23, 1988; Congressional Record, House, Dec. 8, 1987, H11037f. Envo, Jan.
1988, .
489
Feb. 18; March 20; April 20, 1988.
, 5, 4.
490
March 20; March 20, "Review of the Week"; Feb. 29, 1988. ,
, . ,
10
,
, -
; 11-

, (NYT, Oct. 20, 1988).
488

219



.
.
, ,
,
, ,
. 491


.
, .
, , 492
.
,
,
. ,
,
,

. 493
, , ,

.
,
,
,
,
. 494
- , ,
-
.
, .
,
,
-
.

-
5 , ,
, ,

. 495
. ,
30
491

, Observer (London), Feb. 7, 1988.

, Z Magazine, January, March 1988.
493
, NYT, Jan. 31.
494
LeMoyne, NYT, Jan. 22, 1988.
495
LeMoyne, NYT, Jan. 18; Globe and Mail, Feb. 5, 1988.
492

220

 - , ,
.
, .
,
.

, . ,

.
, , ,
. ,
,
. , ,
, .


1988 . 496
,
.
,
()
,
. 497 ,
. .
, , , ( ). 1)

? 498 2)
?
,
1987 ,
,


,
( - . .)
.
,
, , . 499 ,
, ,
496

, El Tiempo, May 5, 1988; Hondupress, May 18.

Central America Report, June 17, 1988.
498

, . Z Magazine, Jan. 1988, .
499
Reuters, NYT, Nov. 9, 1987, 8 ; ,
1987 , ,
, , ,
.
497

221

 . , ,
.
,
.
, ,
,
: ,

. 500 ,
,

.
, -
,
,
.
, .
,
,
.

,
,
501 - , ,
, .
,
.
,
(
, ), ,

,
( - . .)
.
, . 502
, ,

, .
,
( ) ,

. 503
- , ,
,
, ;
FDN,
500

Nov. 18, 1987.

Lindsey Gruson, NYT, Oct. 29; LeMoyne, Nov. 29, 1987.
502
Chris Norton, Globe and Mail, Feb. 10, 1988.
503
Chamorro, Packaging the Contras.
501

222

,
,
,
. 504
, ,

.

,

- ,
. 505 ,
,
; ,

. 506 ,
, .


,

, ,
,

507
, , .

,
,
,
,

, ,

.
,
,
504

Harper's, Oct. 1987.

Lindsey Gruson, NYT, Dec. 15, 1987.
506
Tad Szulc, Parade Magazine, Aug. 28, 1988.
507
,
(WP, Feb. 4, 1988),

.
, , Culture of Terrorism, 91.

, ,
, ( Joe Gannon, Christian Science Monitor, Feb. 13,
1989).
, ,
.
505

223



.


,
. ,
, .
1989
2
, (CQ) 25 1988 ,
.
, CQ,
3% ; ,
9%, .
Centro
Interamericano de Investigaciones
(UCA) . , 42%
/ 29% . , UCA
, 6%
, 10% ARENA, 75%
. 508
95%

, 4%
13% .
10%
. 509


.
- -
. , ,
77% 1.129


,
.
1987 , 65%

38%
. 510

ARENA (. .).
Interamerican's Public Opinion Series, no. 7, June 4-5, 1988, Interamerican Research Center, Los
Angeles. Alert! (CISPES), March 1988.
509
.
510
William Bollinger and David M. Lund, Latinamerica Press (Peru), Sept. 22, 1988.
,
Universidad Autnoma .
, .
508

224

 ,
.
,
,
. 1988 ,

. 60 ,
, ,
, , , ,
. 511 (95 100%)

; ;
,
;
,
,
,
, -
.
(95 100%) :
1. ;
2. ,

, , - ,
;
3.

;
4. ;
5.
,
;
6.
.
, 88%
,
- ;
,

.
FMLN
(55 59%).
81%
,
.

511

Conclusions of the National Debate for Peace in El Salvador, Called by Archbishop Arturo Rivera
y Damas, Sept. 1988. National Agenda for Peace in El Salvador, Box 192,
Cardinal Station, Washington DC 20064.

225


.
, .


.
.
, ,
,
. ,
.
, ,

;

.
:

.
.
, .
, .
, ,

, , .
,
. ,
.

,
UCA (
) ,
, , .
( 119)
1984 , 1987

. .
, ( 3, 47).
-
, 1988
. ,
,
:
. ,


,
,

226

1988 ; , ,
, - . 512

,
;
.
.
,
.

, , 513
.
1988 ,
,
( FDR, - . .) , ,
FMLN,
. 514
8
;
, . 515
FLMN/FDR
.

. , ,
, ,
,
- .
,
.
. 516 ,
,
.
, 29
; , ,
. ,
, , .
, ,
, ,
512

Katherine Ellison, Knight-Ridder Service, BG, Aug. 1, 1988.

,
, ,
,
; , NYT, March 11, 1988.
513
; .
.
514
COHA News and Analysis, Jan. 14, 1988. FDR
FMLN.
515
Excelsior, Feb. 9; Central America Report, Feb. 26. BG, Feb. 9, 11;
CSM, Feb. 10, 1988.
516
El Sol, Feb. 22; WP Weekly, March 28; AP, May 13; BG, May 14; Tad Szulc, LAT, May
22, 1988.

227

 . 517
, .



.

.

,
. , ,
,

. 518
23 ; ,
. 519
,
,
. ,
. ,
, - ,

, .


:

, ,
,

,
.
.
, : ' .'

,

;
, , ,

. , COHA
15 ,
,
. , COHA,

517

Central America Report, March 4, June 24; AP, Feb. 24, March 30, 1988.
Congressional Quarterly, June 25, 1988.
519
, ,

.
518

228


. 520
,

,
.
,
1987 .
-

;
- . ,

( - . .)
. 521 , ,
. ,
.
,

. ,

1988 . , ,

; ,

UNITS, -
.
,
, 99-
. 28
, , ,
, .
, . 21
,
.
.
,
,

.
.
,
; 5 ,
CDHES,

. . . 522
520

COHA press release, June 11, 1988.

Kinzer , NYT, June 25; LeMoyne, NYT, June 7, 1988.
522
COHA's Washington Report on the Hemisphere, July 20, .
, 29 , , 14 ;
521

229

 .
. ,
( ).
21
,
, .
12 , , ,

;
( 1 100 ). ,
,
UNITS,
, UNITS
.
,
, , .

, ;
,
,
, , ,
, , 7
, .

,

. 523

, .
,

,

.
,
, .
,
; , , .
4


, ,
Alert! (CISPES), July, June. El Sol, Aug. 8. Orellana, El Sol, Aug. 1; Guardian (New York), Aug. 17.
El Sol, Aug. 29, 1988. European Parliament, Excelsior (Mexico), Oct. 7, 1988; Central America News
Update.
523
Brook Larmer, CSM, Aug. 16. Zamora, NPR, July 19. El Sol, July 25; AP, BG, June 22, 100 .
El Sol, July 18; AP, NYT, July 14, 125 . Joel Bleifuss, In These Times, May 18. Hondupress, May
4; , El Tiempo, May 4; Hondupress, May 18, June 15; Central America Report, Nov. 18, 1988.
,
, Nicaragua Through Our Eyes (Americans working in Nicaragua), July 1988.

230

, .
-
, 10 ,
,
, 10
( - . .)
, ,

.
. 18
, -
, . 524
- -
. ,
,
, - ...
, 13- ,
. 525

,

-
,
;

, .
,
, (91 4 ,
358 18 )
, . 526

, ,


.

, ,
.

,


- .
. 527
, ,
524

WP Weekly, Aug. 15-21; NYT, Aug. 19; COHA's Washington Report on the Hemisphere, Aug. 31,
1988.
525
NYT, July 11, 1988.
526
Robert Pear, NYT, July 15, 1988 .
527
.

231





,
-
: , ,
.



. ,
,

, .
,
,
, ,
,
.

,
,
. .



, ,

.
;
, ,

. , ,


.
, ,

,
,
. 528
-


,
, , ,
528

NYT, July 18, Aug. 7; Kinzer, NYT "Week in Review," July 17, 1988.

232

 ;
,
.
, ,
. ,
;
,


,
1942 ,
.
, ,
,
, :

.

, . 529
.
,

, . 530
,
, ,
,
.

- .
, .
, ,
.
,

,
,

... , 700.000
.


. 531
1988 , ()
: ' ' - ,
18
, ,
529

WP Weekly, July 18-24, 25-31; COHA press release, July 14; Update, Central American Historical
Institute (Georgetown U., Washington), Aug. 17, 1988.
530
The National Interest, Fall 1988.
531
COHA, "News and Analysis," Sept. 8, 1988.

233

 . 532
,
.
, , ,
... , .
,
. ,
,
, , ,
.
.

:

,
. , ,

, .
1987

,
1988 .

,

.
.
, 54 12,

' '
. 533 :


.
1988 ,

1987 . 534

, ,

, ;

1988 .
,
. ,

532

Reuter, Toronto Globe and Mail, Oct. 26; Miami Herald, Oct. 26;
Boston Globe, AP, . Americas Watch, Nightmare Revisited, September 1988.
533
Pamela Constable, BG, Oct. 27, 1988.
534
Central America Report, Oct. 14, 1988.

234

 , ,
.
,
. 535 ,
,
,

- - .
, .
, ,

( , ).
,
.
, .
.

,
, ,
. 536
1988 ,
. . 16
,
,
, ;
, . 22

. ;
50-.
:
, .

, .
,
. ,
,
. ,
, . , ,
.
.

. 537
, ,
.
. 13
,
535

NYT, Nov. 13, 1988.

LAT-BG, Nov. 25, 1988.
537
Chris Norton, CSM, Jan. 13; El Sol, Jan. 9, 1989.
536

235

 ,
UNITS. 250
;
600 400 .

3000 ,
( ).
30
,
10 .

, ,
230.

.
, ,
.
. , COHA,
500 ,
, 15,
. 538
,
.
,

. , ,

. ,
,
.
,
...
, ,
-
, . 539
,
.
,
, .
,
, ,

.
,
... ... ,
250
.
538

UPI, BG, Sept. 14; El Sol, Sept. 19, Central America Report, Sept. 23; Sam Dillon, MH, Sept. 20;
COHA "News and Analysis," Oct. 19, 1988.
539
Preston, WP, Nov. 8, 1988.

236


- .
, , ,
,


.
. 540
,


.

, ...
,
... .
, ,

.
, .
, ,

''. '
.' 541
.

. , :

.
, ,
. ,
1987
;

, . 542 ,
,
, .
-
, .
,
-
, .

,
.
540

Sam Dillon, MH, Oct. 1, 1988.

Excelsior (Mexico City), Aug. 31, Central America NewsPak. AP, Nov. 15;
,
, Nov. 16, 1988.
542
Lindsey Gruson, NYT, Nov. 18, 1988.
541

237

 ,
' '
.
,
,


. 543
:
,
.


.
. 1988
,
- .

, ,
.
,
, ,
;
, ,
.

. -

,

. -
, ,
' ,
, , ',
. 544




;

. ,


. 545
, ,
,
543

Excelsior, Oct. 19, 21, 1988; Central America NewsPak.

Kinzer, NYT, Aug. 2, 1988.
545
138.
544

238

 ,

'' ,
. 546

. ,
.
, .
;
,
.

,
;
(
)
. ,
,
,

,
.
,
, ,

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,
,
, ,

.
,
,
,

, .

,
,
-

.
,
,
( , )
( , ,
).
.
546

Rasky, NYT, Aug. 2; AP, BG, Aug. 3, 1988.

239

 , ,
,

. ,

- , .
,

- -
.
, .
;
,

.
.
, ,
.


-
( . .),
.
, : 1987
1988 ,
.

.

. ,
, .

- 1984-
,
(. .).

240


1. 547
, ,
1948 ( )
,
. .
,

, ,
1949 .
, .
,
. 548 1952 ,

-
, 300 000
, . ,

, ...

1944 ,
10- .
,
,
, ' ',
.


, .
, ,

' ',
;
.
''
'.'
1944
,
' ',

. , (' - . .)
'
547

.
, Foreign Relations of
the United States, 1955-7, VII, 2ff., 198f.
548

241

 .
,

. 549
.
1955

.
' '
.

; ,
.

, ,
.
, ,

.
,
.

? , 20-

,
1984 -
.
-
. 550
, ,
,
.
,
,
,


.

.

.
,
(
)
,
549

Memorandum by the Director of Central Intelligence (Smith) to the Under Secretary of State
(Bruce), Dec. 12, 1952; NIE-84, May 19, 1953. FRUS 1952-1954, vol. IV, 1055, 1061ff.
550
Sol W. Sanders, The Costa Rican Laboratory (Twentieth Century Fund, Priority press, 1986).

242


,

.
, ,

. ,
' '
.
,


.

.


-

:
. 551


.
,
.

,
-
... .

,
,
,

.
, .

. ,

. 552
,
, ,
,
.

551

Feb. 26, 1953; Stephen G. Rabe, Eisenhower and Latin America (North Carolina,
1988, 33).
552
58.

243


,

.
,

. 553 ,
,
.
,
.


,

, ,
, ,
. 554
80-
,
,
, .
,
,

-
,
. 555

,
-
. 1987 ,
(COHA),
, ,
.
,
.
, COHA
: '
?' ,


. 556
553

Tom Barry and Deb Preusch, AIFLD in Central America (Resource Center, Albuquerque,
1986); Daniel Cantor and Juliet Schor, Tunnel Vision (South End, 1987); Al Weinrub and William
Bollinger, The AFL-CIO in Central America (Labor Network on Central America, Oakland, 1987).
Turning the Tide, 273, 61.
554
Ameringer, Don Pepe.
555
Richard Boudreaux, Los Angeles Times, Aug. 5, 1988.
556
COHA "News and Analysis," Aug. 18, 1988.

244

 , - -
-

,
.
, -

. 557
,

.
1977 1981
4 ,
500 1988 200
. 200
,
,
.
, 1988
, 5
42 %,
. ,
,
,
. ()
,
,

,
. ,

, ,
- - ,
.
,
COHA,
,
,
- . 558
.
,
.

,
,
557

Sanders, Costa Rican Laboratory.

LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions; Mesoamerica, July 1988; Central America Report, Nov. 1988;
COHA's Washington Report on the Hemisphere, Nov. 23, 1988. Donald Dye, In These Times,
Nov. 23, 1988. ,
80- .
558

245

, . ,
100 ,
,
.
, ,

. 559
80-,
,

.

, ,
,
.
... .
.

, ,
.
;

- ,
. 560
,
, , COHA,

,
COHA 1988 ,
...
, . 561

.
,

-
.
.. ,

-
(. ).
559
Linnea Capps, Links, Central America Health Report (NCAHRN), Summer 1988. ,
Leslie Cockburn, Out of Control (Atlantic Monthly Press, 1987). 1989

; Stephen Kurkjian, Boston Globe, Jan. 14, 1989.
560
Sanders, Costa Rican Laboratory.
561
COHA "News and Analysis," Aug. 18, 1988.

246


. , . 562
2. 563

:
.
, 80-
,
,

.

. . 564
.

.


, .
, .

,
. 565
,
(),
,
.

, .
- ,
- -
..
, .
,

. ,
, .

562

, World Policy Journal, Spring 1986.

.
564
5, 25,
.
565
US Army Operational Concept for Terrorism Counteraction (TRADOC Pamphlet No. 525-37,
1984); Robert Kupperman Associates, Low Intensity Conflict, July 30, 1983.
Michael Klare and Peter Kornbluh, eds., Low Intensity Warfare (Pantheon, 1988, 69, 147).
;
.
563

247

 - : ,

, ,
.
. ,

-
. ,
.
. 566
; -
-
.
.

, ,
, ,
,
. . 567

,
.
,
. ,
80-
- -
, ,
, 80-,
.
1985 ,
.
, 329 .

,
. ,

,
. ,

,
. 568 , ,

.
,
,
1985 -
566

Culture of Terrorism, 77, Z Magazine, January 1988.

Shultz, "Moral Principles and Strategic Interests," U.S. Department of State, Current Policy No.
820, 14 1986 .
568
Pirates and Emperors, 136; Cockburn, Out of Control, 26.
567

248

 80 200. ,
, .

, ,
,
. 569

.
.

, (
)
, ,
,
. 570
1986 ,
-
.
,
,
.
, ,

.



10 .
,
,
.
,


, ,
,
-
, ,
10
;

10
- . ,
- -
, , . ,
,
569

Woodward, Veil (Simon & Schuster, 1987, 396f.).

5.
.
570

249

, .
,
, . ,

,
15
, ;
, BBC .

,
; ,
- 1986
, ,
- ; .

,
,
, , 100
,
.
,
. 571
,
,

, 572
,
.
1986 ,
,
,
, , -
. 573

80- . ,
,
. ,

, ,
571

, "Libya in U.S. Demonology," Covert Action Information Bulletin,

Summer 1986, Pirates and Emperors, 3; William Schaap, CAIB, Summer 1988.
Dave Griffiths, Business Week, Sept. 19, 1988.
,
,
( ),
, ( - .
.).
572
Newsweek, Aug. 3, 1981.
573
, -
16 1985 , Peter Kornbluh Walker, Reagan vs. the
Sandinistas.

250

 - ,


- . ,

, , ,
( , . .), .

. 574
, , 80-.
, .

1961
, 400
, 2000 , 50

, ,
. 575
,
, ,
, .
,

.

- 1962 .
,


,
;

,
, ,

.
, 8 ,

, .
,
400 ,
(
).
574

Fred Barnes, TNR, May 30, 1988; , TNR, April 2, 1984. , Turning
the Tide, 167-68 ,
. Hertzberg, TNR, Feb. 6, 1989.

, .
575
Raymond L. Garthoff, Reflections on the Cuban Missile Crisis (Brookings Institution, 1987, 17).

251

, ,

,
, .

1969 . 576

.
,
70-
, ,

( ,

-
, ,
). 577 ,
,
,
, ,
- , ,
.

. ,

.
ABC, , ,
.
,

'' ,
. ,
,
1982 .
, .

( - . .)
,
,

.
: , ,
.
576

Ibid., 16f., 78f., 89f., 98; International Security, Winter 1987-88, 12.
, 5, 25;
Bradley Earl Ayers, The War that Never Was (Bobbs-Merrill, 1976); Warren
Hinckle and William Turner, The Fish is Red (Harper & Row, 1981); William Blum, The CIA (Zed,
1986); Morris Morley, Imperial State and Revolution (Cambridge, 1987).
577
Jerusalem Post, Aug. 16, 1981; Fateful Triangle, 5, 1, 3.4
, .

252


;
... 241 23 1983
. ,
, ,
,
,
-

. 578


,
10 ;
,
. 579
,
,
.
.
; . 1981 ,
,
6

. ,
,
. 580
,
. , ,

,
. ,

,
,
- -
.
.
578

Glass, - ,
, 4 1988 ; Index on Censorship (London), January 1989.
579
Yaniv, Dilemmas of Security, 70. 1973
. :
. 1977 ,
11 Towards a New Cold War. .
580
Towards a New Cold War Fateful Triangle Pirates and Emperors
.
, Schiff and Ya'ari, Israel's Lebanon War.
, ;
20% , 50%
, (Kol Ha'ir, Feb.
10, 1984; Middle East Journal, Summer 1985).

253

 ,
. 581

- ,
,
.
' ' ,
. '
.'
. 582

.
,
.
; ,
,
- .
, 20.000 ,
, ,
.
,
,


, 41 70
. 583
,

(... )
.
,


,
, , ,

?
, , ,
?
. , ,
.
;
, .
,
. . ,
581

Washington Post, April 22, 1982; Fateful Triangle

Yaniv, op. cit., . 1, 2, .
582
Harkabi, Israel's Fateful Hour, 100-1. 1, 2.
583
NYT, Sept. 7, 1987.

254

 584
,
, . 585

- .
,
.
. ...
,
. , ,
, ,
- , ,
, .
,
,
, .

.
,
1982
; , ,
. , ,
, 600 , ,
, .


; , ( - .
.) , ,
... .

. 586
,
,


- .

,
,
- ,
-
.
.
,
584

Laqueur, The Age of Terrorism. :. 8, 91-92, 218, 215, 139,

166, 232, 141, 106, 21-22, 291-92, 204, 262, 245, 296-97, 310, 300.
585
Laqueur and Charles Krauthammer, New Republic, March 31, 1982.
586
, 1, 2.

255

 ,

; ,

, .

.

- .

,
, .
,
- 1985 80
. -
. ,
, -

. , -
-,
1956 ,

. 587 ,
,
(Lehi, ). 1983
-. 1946 ,
70
,
,
. 1947 ,

- . 588

50- 60-,
, :

, -
- ,



587

Ehud Ya'ari, Egypt and the Fedayeen (Hebrew) (Givat Haviva, 1975, 27f.),
. , ,
, - ,
, ibid.
588
Uri Milshtein, Hadashot, Dec. 31, 1987,
1983 Hamevukash.

256

 ,
. 589
-
, , ,
, .
- -
' '
. -
,
.
, ,
- .
.
.
, , ,
,

, -

. 590
60-,
,
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,
, -
- - .
,
; -
.
, ,
, -
.
- , ,


. 591
, , ,
. ,
, , , . ,
.
589

, , Jeffrey Race, War Comes to Long An (California, 1972, 197

3).
590
Alfred W. McCoy et al., The Politics of Heroin in Southeast Asia (Harper & Row, 1972).
, Jonathan Kwitny, The Crimes of Patriots (Norton, 1987). Stone, "Is the
Cold War really over?," Sunday Telegraph (London), Nov. 27, 1988.
591
, ,
Herman and Brodhead, Rise and Fall of the Bulgarian Connection, 81f.

257

, .

,
,
,
,
. 592

, .
,
,
. , obiter dicta
.


; - 1985
,
, . , .


.
,
, ,

. ,
, ,
( - . .)
.
, ,
(
- )

.
,
, , ,
,

,
. ,
,
.

. ,
, , ,

Weather Underground 1969 ,

:
(. .).
592
, Harold Jacobs, ed., Weatherman
(Ramparts, 1970).

258

 . ,

.

, .
3. 593
,

. -
,

. ,
,
, , , ,
, .
, .
,
.
. 594
,
,
,
. 1946
.
,
.
,
,
. 595 1951 ,
,
. 1953 ,
. ,
.
40% ,
. 596 ,

, 1978 ,
.

, ,
, ,
,
593

.
- , James A. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion (Yale, 1988).
595
Ibid., 55-56.
596
; Towards a New Cold War, 313f.
594

259

 . ,

. 597
1951 ,
,
,

. ,
. ,

. , ,

, , . ,
-
. , , ;
, .

1953 .


,
.
,
. 598
.
,

. ,
.
1953 1978 ,
,
1967


. 1978 ,
,
,

.

, ,
,
, ,
( ).
, , ''
1953
597

Dorman and Farhang, The U.S. Press and Iran. ,

.
598
, NYT, Aug. 6, 1954; , Towards a New Cold
War, 99 11.

260

( - . .)
. .


. 10
99- ,

.
.

1953 , , 17
.
,
,
(
). ,

,
. 599
25
,
, ;


- . 600
.
, . 1960
1977 ,
( 1963 1967 )
1978-79 .
, . 80-,
,
, 1986 .
-
,
,
,
- 19 1979 .
599

U.S. Press and Iran, 33ff., 123, 164, 91f., 120, 54, 148, 157.

, John
Hess, Grand Street, Winter 1989.
. , , ,

,
. ,
(
),
-
.
600
Bill, op. cit., 283-84.

261

 .
,
.

1979 , , .
,
1979 ,
'',
. 601
.

;
.

:
. ,

, : , ,
, ,
;
, ,
.
,
,
.
1976 ,
,
' ' ,
. 1980 ,
.
, . , ,
, -
,
( ).

.
1975 ,



. ,
,
- .
.
, ,
.
, . ,
601

Saeedpour, "Kurdish Times and the New York Times," Kurdish Times (Brooklyn),
Cultural Survival, Summer 1988. .

262

 ; , ,
, .
.
- 1980
,
,
.
- ,

, .
, ,

.
, ,
. ,
, ,
, ,

.
.
,
-
.
4. 602

- ,
,
.
,


. 1988
, .
60-
( 1967 )
, . ,

,
1969 .
70-
,
,
. ,
602

263


. ,
,
, .
,

,
. ,
,
.
,
,
.
, , ,
.
,



.
( )
.


;
,
. 603

,
. -

.
, 1947

,
. 604
603

,

.
, ,
Norman Finkelstein dward Said Said and Hitchens, Blaming the Victims.
,
, .
(
), ,
, ,
.
.
604
.
, ,

264

 -
,
.



, .
, . 605

1971 ,

,
.
, .
, , 1977 ,


606 -
,
.

.
, 1973

, 1967 . ,

,
,
,
. -
- 1978-79 . ,
1977 .

1977 .

1976 ,
, , ,
, ,
, ,
40-.
605
, Fateful Triangle; Pirates and
Emperors "The Palestinian Uprising," Z Magazine, May 1988, "The U.S. and the
Middle East" ( 3, 23).
.
.
606
Mary Curtius, Boston Globe Magazine, Aug. 14, 1988. ,
.
, Fateful Triangle 3 2.4.2.

.

265


, . ,

242 ,
... ... ,

.
242 ,
.
. ,
.
() 1981
: (1)
; (2)

.



,
- .
-
,
,

,
. ,
.
,

.
,

. , ,
,
, ,


. 607 ,
.
1984
,
, :
,
,

, .

607

Friedman, NYT, Aug. 7, 1988.

266

 , ,
, ,
. 608 :

,

. ,

, 1971
, ,
1977 ,
,
. 609
,
;
,
. , ,
,
,
, .
1988 ,

,

. :
.

, ,
,
, . '
' ,

, , -
.

; ,
(
) 1976 -
, . 610
. ,
. ,
.

,
; , ,
608

Pirates and Emperors, 2, 58

.
609
Friedman, "The Power of the Fanatics," NYT Magazine, Oct. 7, 1988.
610
, NYT, June 13, 1988.

267

 . ,
, ,
,
.
. ,
. 611
,

. , - 1984
,
.
,
,
( ) ,

: . ,

,



-
,
,
.

. ,
?,
- -
. 612

. ,
.
, ,

.

. 10 1986
,
. 613
,

611

59.
NYT, March 17, 21; June 2, 1985.
613

. ,
, .
612

268

. 614

.

,
:
.
.
,
,
.
... ,

. ,

, :
.
,
...
.
,
. , ,
, , .
...
...
. ,
.
- .

. 615
,


,
.
.
1988
,
. .
,
,
, . ,
, ,

614
615

Friedman, NYT, Dec. 10, 1986; March 27, 1987.

Yitzhak Ben-Horin, Ma'ariv, Dec. 4; Ma'ariv, Dec. 5; Eyal Ehrlich, Ha'aretz, Dec. 19, 1986.

269

 ,
. 616
,
, 617
, ,

.
.
-
-
;
, ,
, .
. ,

. , .
, :
,
- ,
,
. :
, .
.
30 (
),

. , -
, .


,
, ,
, 8
, -

, , -
, , , ,
. 618
.
, .

,
: ,

616

AP, April 1, 1988.

, , ,
.
617
"The Man who Foresaw the Uprising," Yediot Ahronot, April 7; Hotam, April 15.
618
Friedman, NYT News in Review, Jan. 29, 1989.

270

 . 619
. ,


,
, , , , . 620
, -
.
14 1988


, 242. 621
,
-
. , ,

() ,
,



, 242
338. 622
1988 ,
, 623 .
: - .
. , :
; ,
,
242 338,

. 624
;
.
, 1984

, ,

, , ,

619

Hadashot, Jan. 7, 1988; Ha'aretz, Dec. 31, 1987.

, Nouvel Observateur, Jan. 7, 1988.
621
AP, Jan. 15; Toronto Globe and Mail, Jan. 15, 1987;
.
622
NYRB, June 25, 1987. The Other Israel,
- -. 1987 .
623
,
1976 (NYT, Jan. 27, 1988),
.
624
NYT, March 12, 1988.
620

271


- . 625
1988 , ,
,
1947 . ,
( )

.
, ( )
242
, ; ,
242,
. , ,
,
, ,
,
, .
( )
( - . .),

,
(
). 1988 ,

, 60%
-
, . ,
,
.
,
,
242, (
242 338 - . .) ,
1984
242
. 626

625

"Israeli Supreme Court lets two extremist parties run," Christian Science Monitor, June 29, 1984.
1947 30%
55% , 1948 78%
, 22%
(. .).

.. ,
1967 , .. (. .).
626
Ha'aretz, April 12; Jerusalem Post, April 13; Shamir, Ha'aretz, April 7; Herut, Dorit Gefen, AlHamishmar, Feb. 29, 1988; Milo, , Maariv,
Jan. 3, 1984; Globe and Mail, April 26; Rabin, Tony Banks, Jane's Defence Weekly, May 7; Eban,
Jerusalem Post, Dec. 3, 1988.

272

 . 627
, ,
,
,
.
,
, ,
, , , , - ,
. ,
, . 628
1988 ,

, ,
8 .
242 338 ,
. ,
,
,
.
, ,
242 338
.

242 338
.
- , .
.
,
: -
.


, .

. 629


, 13 ,
. , ,
, ,

, (
). 1988

627

Z Magazine, May, July 1988.

.
628
Sciolino, NYT, April 6, 8, 1988.
629
In These Times, June 22, ; New York Times, June
22, 1988.
.

273

 ,

. 630 - -
.

,
,
. , ,
. 631
1988
-
,
-
,
. , ,
,
242 338 ( ,
),
.

-
.
. , ,
- :
,

. 632
,
.

, ,
. ,
630

1988 , - -
. ,
( ) ,
( , ., "The Central Question," Tikkun
1.2, 1986). 1988 ,

. 1988
,

.
( )
. .
631
, - ,

. , ,
, , 70-.
20 . ,

1947 ,
.
632
Jewish Post and Opinion, Nov. 16, 1988.

274

 , .

, ,
, . 633
,

,



242 338
.
,
.
242 338 ,

. :
242, 338
.
,

,

. 634

,
.
.
.
,
,
.


,
''
.

, .
,
. ,

;
. ,
, ,

633

4. , NYT, Nov. 16, 1988.

, Dec. 8, 1988; Steve Lohr, "Arafat says P.L.O. Accepted Israel, NYT, ;
, .

634

275

; ,

. 635
,

( ) ,
Endloesung, '
.' ,
,
,
- ,
(, , )
.
, ,
.
, ,
()

;
,
. 636
,

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.
:

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. , , .
, .
.
, :
?

. ,
, ,
. ,
,
, ;
,
, .
,
,
635
636

, LAT, Nov. 16, WP, Nov. 15, 1988.

Will, BG, Nov. 20; Kipper, Lewis, NYT, Dec. 1, 1988; Weinstein, BG, Dec. 4, 1988.

276

 .
,
,
. 637
, ,
, .
.

.

,
(
). -
,
( ).
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; ,
( ). 638 ,
, .
.
,
,
: ,

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1976 ,
.
...
; 13 ,
(,
, ) ,
.

. ,
: ,
? , ,
,
, 242
. ,
.
,
- ,
, ,
637
638

CSM, Dec. 8, 1988.

Peter Steinfels, Dec. 8, 1988.

277

 54 44
. 639
, ,
, , ,
,
,

.


,
. 640
"Endloesung."

, .

;
.
,
: ,
,

.
. .
1988

. ,
,

.
,
. ,
;

. 641
.
, .
1987
.
,
.
639

Aryeh Dayan, Kol Ha'ir, Nov. 25; , Nov. 23; , Yediot

Ahronot, Dec. 23, 1988.
640


'' ,
(WP, Dec. 14, 1988). ,
.
.
641
, NYT, Dec. 21, 1988; Friedman, "Reality Time in Mideast," NYT, Dec. 19, 1988.
, .

278


,
.
.
, ,
, .
,
, -
,
,

(
, ,
). 642 1982
,
1973 ,

.
, ,
, .
,
. , 1988 ,
, ,
.
1988 ,

, .
,
.
,
, :
1. 242 338;
2. ;
3. .
, ,
, .
.
, .
NBC:
.
. 643 .
. 242
338
642

,
, Peace in the Middle East?, 5; Fateful Triangle, 146f.,
263f., 378f. .
643
, NYT, Dec. 14; Marie Colvin, NYT Magazine, Dec. 18;
Chancellor, NBC, Dec. 13, 1988, .
, Alfred P. Rubin, CSM, Dec. 15, 1988.

279

 . 1976
.
.
.

.
.
,
. . ,

( , ,
,
68).
, ,
.
,
.
:
,
. ,
, :
. 644
.
,


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;
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,

. ,
,
.
-
; ,
, - . .

,
,
,
.
. , .

Captive Nations Week 1959

(. .).
644
Richard Strauss, BG, Dec. 14; Charlotte Saikowski, CSM, Dec. 15, 1988.

- ; ( , ) (. .).

280

,
;
,
,
,
. ,
1971
.


,
.

. ,
, :
.
,

. 645

-
- ,
, . 646

, .
( 242),

,
,

, , .

- .
,
,
, ,
, .
645

- , Avi Shlaim, Collusion across the Jordan

(Columbia, 1988). Van Creveld, Jerusalem Post,, Feb. 1, 1989.
646
, WP Weekly, Dec. 19, 1988,
1975 ,
. 1975

. ,

. Fateful Triangle,
, Towards a New Cold War, 267f.
,
50 . .
, .

281

 ,
, .
, , .
, ,
.
1988 ,


,
. ,
: ( 4,
40): ,
,
. ,
,

.
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1987
.


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1973

. ,
.
,
,
,
, , (
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,
...
,

. 647
, :
: ,
-
, ,
.
647

H.D.S. Greenway, BG, Dec. 15; Randolph Ryan, BG, Dec. 16, 1988,
.

282


-

. ,
,

.

.
.
,
, . , ,

.
, ,

.

,

. , ,
.
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;
-
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( ).
:

1973 ,

(
1971 ,
,
,
).
, ,

.

,
. 648
, (
) . ,
, (
648

Alan Cowell, NYT, Dec. 19; Robert Pear, NYT, Dec. 15; , WP Weekly, Dec. 19; "Palestinian
Semantics: Arafat's Changing Words," NYT, Dec. 15; , NYT, Dec. 16; , BG, Dec. 16;
Pipes, "How the U.S. Should Handle Arafat," Dec. 20; Friedman, "Reality Time," NYT, Dec. 19, 1988.
1971 ,
, Fateful Triangle, 3.

283

 , ,
), ,
; ,
.
, ,
, .
, , , ,
,
, ,
.

;
-
, . 649
, , ,
,

, , ,
, 242 338; ,
13
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. 650
, .
1976 ( )
242,
,
; .
,
, .
,
.
( 4), ,


.

. , .
. ,
,
.

, .
649
650

, NYT, Jan. 28; Brinkley, Jan. 29, 1989.

"Palestinian Semantics," NYT, Dec. 15; Alan Cowell, NYT, Dec. 19, 1988.

284


,
. , ,
(
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, .
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,
. ,
,
. 651
, :

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.

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.

. 652
,

, ,
.
- ,
651

- , ,
,
, , .
;
, , .
,
.
.
652
Safire, NYT Magazine, Jan. 1; Berman, "What is a Jew?," Village Voice, Jan. 3, 1989.
, 96.

285


. ,
,
,

-
,
,
, , .

: ,

1967 .
, . 653
. ,


.

.
,
,
.
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.

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:

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, :


, .
, ,
, . 654
653

BG, Dec. 19; NYT; Peres, , NYT, Dec. 21; John Kifner, NYT, Dec. 20, 1988.
, Daoud Kuttab, Middle East International, Jan. 20, 1989, 31
( ) ,
, 1000 .
. , , Yizhar Be'er, Kol Ha'ir, Dec. 30,
1988,
16 , .
, Z Magazine, March 1989.
654
Hadashot, Feb. 14; Rabin, Nahum Barnea, Yediot Ahronot, Feb. 24; JP, Jan. 6, 1989.
JP.

286

,
.
,
,


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,

( , -); ,
( ),

, ,
. 655
,
. , .
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.

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,


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,
.

,
1988 .
,
,
.
. .
.
,
,
.
.
,
.
655
; NYT, Nov. 6, 1982.

287

 .
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. 656
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.
,

. 657 , .
,

.
.

: ,
,
,

.
,
. ,
656
657

Wilkie, BG, Dec. 1, 1985.

NYT Magazine, Oct. 30, 1988.

288

 ,
. .
.

, -19 -
( );
Der Stuermer.
,
, ,
,
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).

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Klein, "Our Man in Managua," Esquire, Nov. 1986; Howe, NYT Book Review, May 16, 1982;
Peretz, New Republic, Aug. 29, 1983, May 7, 1984, ; Brooks Jackson, Wall

289


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Wisse, , Commentary, May 1988.
659
Eban, Congress Bi-Weekly, March 30, 1973.
660
Nathan and Ruth Perlmutter, The Real Anti-Semitism in America (Arbor House, 1982); Fateful
Triangle, 14f., .

290


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. 661
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, . 662


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661

Colin Campbell, NYT, Jan. 30, 1985. Fateful Triangle (11f.) Pirates and Emperors (29f.,
46n) ,
, - ,
- .
662
,
,
. Russell C. Bellant, "Will Bush Purge Nazi
Collaborators in the G.O.P.?," , NYT, Nov. 19, 1988.

,
, 1988
(. .).
663
Judis, In These Times, Sept. 28; New Republic, Oct. 3, 1988. David Corn, Nation, Oct. 24,
1988,
. Holly Sklar, Z Magazine, Nov. 1988; Charles Allen, Village Voice,
Nov. 1, 1988. ,
FAIR, Extra!, Sept./Oct. 1988.

291

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Ed Vulliamy, WP Weekly, Oct. 24-30. Christopher Kenneally, BG, Oct. 16; David Korn and
Jefferson Morley, Nation, Nov. 7, 1988.

292

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Spector, , NYT, March 17, 1988,

; LAT-BG, NYT, Oct. 31, 1984; BG, NYT, Feb. 25, 1987.
666
Abraham, AAUG Mideast Monitor, April 1987.
667
Fateful Triangle, 7, 4.2.

293

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. 668
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, ( ),
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240 ,
. 669 . ,
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, 17 . 670

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Sunday Times, Aug. 9, 16; NYT, Aug. 31, 1987. Jerusalem Post, Aug. 9,
.

, Robert I. Friedman, Mother Jones, Feb.-March, 1987.
669
AP, Sept. 19, 1987.
670
Victoria Brittain, Guardian (London), June 6; Anthony Robinson, Financial Times, June 7;
Economist, June 14, 1987; BBC.
671
.

294


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. 672

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.

, 1988

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. Sarah Honig, JP Magazine, Sept. 23, 1988.

, ABC NEWS VIEWPOINT Show #1794, ABC, April 7, 1988.
, .

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295

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Wieseltier, New Republic, Sept. 23, 1981; Pipes, NYT, Aug. 3, 1988; Herzog, LAT, July 9, 1988.
Dorman and Farhang, The U.S. Press and Iran, 24; FRUS, 1952-1954, vol.
IV, 1132, Memorandum of NSC discussion, May 27, 1954; Harrison E. Salisbury, Without Fear or
Favor (Times Books, 1980, 479); Thomas P. McCann, An American Company (Crown, 1976, 47).
Turning the Tide, 164f.,
.

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296

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676

Brzezinski, The National Interest (Fall, 1985); Tucker, Commentary, Oct. 1982.
, Manufacturing Consent, 6, 2.8.

. Ibid.,
.
677
Hollander, Wall Street Journal, Dec. 24, 1985; Diggins, NYT Book Review, Oct. 20, 1985; NYT,
, Aug. 22, 1988
678
.

297

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. 680
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23 . 681
. ,

679

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(, Extra! (FAIR), Oct./Nov. 1987; Packaging the Contras).
680
Michael Massing, Columbia Journalism Review, July/August, 1987. Update, Dec. 29, 1987
(Central American Historical Institute, Georgetown University, Washington).
681
.

298

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NYT, Jan. 31, 1988.

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301

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. 686
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686
687

Kinzer, NYT, Oct. 20, 22, 25; LeMoyne, Nov. 5, 1987.

"Sad Tales of La Libertad de Prensa," Harper's, Aug. 1988.

302

( - . .)... .
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,
. 688
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688

Chamorro, Packaging the Contras.

, 1988
,
, ,
. , ,
, ,
.
690
Council on Hemispheric Affairs and The Newspaper Guild, A Survey of Press Freedom in Latin
America 1985-1986 (Washington, Dec. 1986).
689

303

 - , . 691


, . ,

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. 692 ,
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. 18-
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.
,

. 693
691

, Mario Zeledn, ed., La Desinformacin de la

Prensa en Costa Rica: Un grave peligro para la Paz (Istituto Costarricense de Estudios Sociales, Costa
Rica, 1987).
692
nzer, NYT, Oct. 3, 1987; , .
693
Full Amnesty Seen as Test for Managua," Sept. 10, 1987; "Life on a Cooperative: `A Little Better
Off'," Sept. 7, 1987. ,
Z Magazine, Jan. 1988.

304

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.

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. 694 , -
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. 695 , ,
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. 696
.
,

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Gutman, Banana Diplomacy (Simon and Schuster, 1988, 371).

NYT, Nov. 8, 1987.
696
Christian Science Monitor, Nov. 9, 1987.
695

305

 , ,
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. . ,
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697

Kinzer, NYT, Jan. 31, 1988.

4, 5. LeMoyne, NYT, June 15, 1988.
699
NYT, Nov. 10, 1985.
698

306

 .
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,
. 700


,

.
,
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1 ,
. , :
.
. 701
,
. 702

1987 ,
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,
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. ,
.
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, . ,
. 703
,
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700

Kinzer, Dec. 4; Jonathan Steele, , Guardian (London), Nov. 17; Kinzer, Nov.
15, 1987.
701
Michael Emery, San Francisco Bay Guardian, Dec. 3, 1988, Tony
Avirgan Martha Honey La Penca: Pastora, the Press and the CIA,

. , , ,
, ' ' 31 1984
.
702
, Culture of Terrorism Z Magazine, January, March 1988.
703
NYT, Dec. 25, 1987; Cook, "Nicaragua: the Show Goes On," , Managua, Dec. 28, 1987;
Cockburn, Nation, Jan. 30, 1988. , Nation, July 2/9, 1988.
, 17 000

, Excelsior (Mexico), Dec. 12, 1987; Central America NewsPak.

307


() ;



. ,
UNITS
1988 40.000 1986 3.000
. 20.000 , 40.000,
1986 , AP, UPI, PBS
Frontline ( )
20.000, 3.000, 1988 ,
1987 .

,
UNITS .

,
, . 704

,
.
,
, .
1988 ,
29
...
...
,

.

, .
...
,
. ,

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,
.
,
, ,
. , , ,

, . 705
704

LeMoyne, NYT, June 26, 1988; Cockburn, Nation, July 30/Aug. 6, 1988.
Chris Norton, Extra! (FAIR), July/August 1988. Alexander Cockburn, Nation, Aug. 27/Sept. 3,
1988, Marc Cooper, Los Angeles Weekly, May 27-June 2.
, (15
)
705

308

 ,
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,
. ,

,
, .
. 706

,


, .


;
, .
caveat emptor
:
, .
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5,


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.

. ( 21 ), ,
,
.
. ,

.
, - ,
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706
LeMoyne, "Testifying to Torture," NYT Magazine, June 5; , Sept. 18, 1988.
,
,
Honduras Update, June/July 1988.
.
, .

Caveat emptor! (.) - , ! (.

.).
707
.

309

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, , . ,
, ,




.

.

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( , 28 1987 );
, ;

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1988 ,

,

. ,

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708

, NYT, Oct. 26, 1988,

.

310

,
. 709

, 3 .
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,
.
.
, .
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,

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,


. 1988 ,
, 20 , ,
65- , ,
,

.

V

.
, ,
. 710
,
, ,
1974 ,
. ,

, . ,
,
. 1987
,
709

Al-Haq Newsletter, March/April 1987, July/August 1987; Marty Rosenbluth, "Harassing Palestinian
unions," Middle East International, Nov. 7, 1987; Amnon Barzilai, "Danger: a Painter," Ha'aretz, Dec.
21, 1984. , , Shirley Eber, "Censorship in the Middle East," Third World Affairs,
1988, . Shyam Bhatia, Observer (London); Jerusalem Post, Nov. 17; Avigdor
Feldman, Hadashot, Nov. 18; Daniel Williams, LAT, Nov. 20, 1988. Committee to Protect
Journalists, Journalists Under Occupation (New York, 1988).
710
Irit Nahmani, Hadashot, Aug. 29, 1988; Khaled Abu-Tuama, Yerushalayim, Nov. 11, 1988.
.

,
, .
, , ,
, . (Al Hamishmar, Sept. 15, 1988).

311

 . ,
, ,
, .
. 711
1967
, ,
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.

.
1987 , -

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; . 712
.
. 713
1988 ,
.
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,

711

Inbari, Al-Hamishmar, Nov. 27, 1987.

, .
713
NYT, Feb. 18, 1987.
712

312

;
. 714

, . 1988
,
.
,


. 715
.
, 1988
,


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,

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,
,
. 716
.
,
.
, ,
.
, ,



.
. 717


.
.

714

Oren Cohen, Hadashot, March 24; Peretz Kidron, Middle East International, May 14; AP, May 25;
News from Within (Jerusalem), July 10, 1988.
715
, 1988 .
716
Aryeh Dayan, Kol Hair, Aug. 5, 1988; LAT, Aug. 1; NYT, Aug. 1; Joel Greenberg, Christian
Science Monitor, Aug. 3; Geraldine Brooks, Wall St. Journal, Aug. 26, 1988.
717
Dayan, op. cit.; The Other Israel, Nov./Dec. 1987; Porath, Ha'aretz, Aug. 9, 1988.

313

 , ,
. 12-
,
.
.
,

, .



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.
, :

. 718

, .

,
, .
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,
718

Reuters, NYT, Nov. 13, 1986; EEC reaction, Manchester Guardian Weekly, Jan. 4, 1987; "Natan
Sharansky Clarifies," advertisement, Jerusalem Post, Ma'ariv, Nov. 13, 1986; Louis
Rapoport, JP, Dec. 5, 1986; Award, Samson Krupnick, Jewish Post & Opinion, Dec. 3, 1986; William
Claiborne, Washington Post, Feb. 19, 1986; Robert Stone, NYT Book Review, June 5, 1988. New
Republic, Feb. 27, 1989.

314


,
. 719
.
,
, 30
15 ,
60 1988 ,
190
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720 - , ,

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. 721 ,
719

NYT, July 1, 1988.

Ihsan Hijazi, NYT, Aug. 10, 1988, 190 .
721
NYT, April 24, 1988.
720

315


, - .
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,
. 1988 ,



; , , ,

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20
,

,
,
,
. 722

,
.
8. 723
,
,
,
. 724 . ,
:
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. ,

. 725
.
,
. 130 ,
722

El Pais (Madrid), May 3; Egin (San Sebastian), June 28, August 2, June 22, July 24, 28, 1988.
.
724
,
, .
725
Rocker, "Anarchism and Anarcho-Syndicalism," Paul Eltzbacher, ed., Anarchism (Freedom
Press, 1960). 1938 Anarcho-Syndicalism (Pluto
Press, London, 1989).
723

316



.
,
,

,
.
,
.
.
, ,
. ,
, 1931
:

; ;
, ,
. ,
. 726
,
,
,
1919 1940 .
, ,
, ,
.

, ,
,
. 727

1959 1974
,

. 1798
1964 ,
.

,
, . , 1964
, ,
- -
'
.' 728 ,

726

Hughes, Near v. Minnesota, 1931, Jerome Barron, "Access to the Press."

Kairys, "Freedom of Speech," David Kairys, ed., The Politics of Law (Pantheon, 1982).
728
Jamie Kalven, Harry Kalven, A Worthy Tradition: Freedom of Speech in
America (Harper & Row, 1988); 66 .
727

317


;
,
, . 729
,

.
1917



,
, ,

. 730 1918
, , ,
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. 731
, ,
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.

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).

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.
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,
,
. 732

;
.
729
Ibid., 63.
730
"Espionage Act of 1917," Harold L. Nelson, ed., Freedom of the Press from
Hamilton to the Warren Court (Bobbs-Merrill, 1967, 247f.)
731
Kairys, op. cit.
732
Burleson, , Nelson, op. cit.; William Hard, New Republic, May 10, 1919,
Nelson, 253f.

318

 . 733
,
( 1919 ) 10-
,
,
,

. 734
2000 .
,

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.
YMCA . 735

, .
,
,
.
1943 , ACLU

,
, ;
, ,
;
; ;
. 736

( )
110.000 ;
1940 , 737
30 ;
733

1917 1918 ,
1919 , ACLU,
Nelson, op. cit., 307f.
734
Robert J. Goldstein, Political Repression in Modern America (Cambridge: Schenkman, 1978).
2, 2.

Young Men Christian Associaton (YMCA) (. .).

735
Chafee, Free Speech in the United States (Harvard, 1941), Kairys, op. cit.
736
ACLU Review of the Year (to June 1943), Nelson, op. cit., 264.
737
, ,
, ,
, ,
,
,
, ,
. 1961
Scales v. United States. Kalven, op. cit.

319


;
, habeas corpus ;

;
;

; . 738
, -

,



. 739
,
,
1812 .

,
. 1919 ,
,
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, ,
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,
. 740

, ,


,

: , ,
60-.



. , ,
,
. -
, ;
738

Goldstein, Political Repression.

Ibid., New Republic, New Leader, Nation; Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr, 293.
740
Richard Polenberg, Fighting Faiths (Viking, 1987, 367).
739

320

 ,
.

,
, - -

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,

60-,
COINTELPRO
60-

.
1988
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. 741

,
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. ,
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. 742

50-.
,
741

America in Vietnam, Towards a New

Cold War ( ).
742
Lewy, "Does America Need a Verfassungsschutzbericht?," Orbis, Fall 1987.

321

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327

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