Connor Souchek

Laura Vandyke
Johanna Vo
Pollution & Regulation
ENVL-3241
Fall 2014

Hotel Air Quality 2

Abstract


Major indoor air pollutants, their effects on human health, their sources, and
their concentrations in various locations within hotels were studied. In addition, the
standards set forth by federal and state agencies regulating the allowable
concentrations of each pollutant were also analyzed. Concentrations of each of
these pollutants were then examined in guest rooms, common areas, lobbies, and
outside of six New Jersey hotels. Samples were collected using a GrayWolf WolfPack
Modular Area Monitor placed in each sampling location. The monitor was set to
collect data for five minutes. Three separate visits were made to each of the six
hotels and data was collected in the same locations mentioned above. Parameters
that were tested for in each hotel included sulfur dioxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen
dioxide, ammonia, ozone, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide,
temperature and relative humidity. Upon completion of the final visit to each hotel,
average concentrations of each pollutant was calculated. Average outdoor
concentrations were then compared to average indoor concentrations of four major
parameters. In addition, hotel guest room concentrations were compared to hotel
common area concentrations. It was discovered that on average, carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide concentrations were greater inside of the hotel, with guest rooms
displaying the highest concentrations. Nitric oxide and relative humidity was found
to be greater and more variable outside of the hotel. Nitric oxide levels were also
observed to be equal between guest rooms and common areas.

Introduction


On average, Americans spend an astonishing twenty two hours per day
indoors (Bernstein, et al., 2007). Whether in their own homes, workspaces, or the
supermarket, we hardly pay any attention to the quality of the air that is found in
these spaces. More so, how many of the millions of Americans that travel every year
via car, plane, or train to some destination spend a fraction of those twenty two
hours indoors inside of a hotel or motel? The indoor air pollutants and the
standards that govern their allowable concentrations are facts that are not
frequently analyzed. As the nation as a whole spends more time isolated from the
outside, information regarding these pollutants, their sources and health effects, and
what laws and regulations are set to protect us from them will quickly rise to
paramount importance.

Indoor air pollutants that are commonly found within the confines of a hotel
can range in severity from a mild health hazard to a deadly cancer causing
substance. Pollutants that were tested for within the report include, carbon dioxide,
nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, ammonia, ozone, hydrogen sulfide,
carbon monoxide, and formaldehyde. While some of these pollutants such as carbon
dioxide produce relatively benign effects at higher concentrations, pollutants such
as carbon monoxide and formaldehyde can be deadly. However, while not all
contaminants are fatal, all of them have the ability to cause indoor air quality
problems that result in human discomfort.

Hotel Air Quality 3

Sources of these indoor air pollutants can range from building materials to
industrial cleaners. Even poorly filtered outdoor air pollutants can be introduced
into the guest rooms or common areas of a hotel through faulty heating and air
conditioning systems.

Finally, while so many people nationwide rely on hotels as a safe, affordable
place to relax after a tiring day of travel, there are no standards set to regulate the
levels of indoor air pollutants that can be found within them. The lack of standards
allows for any concentration of a hazardous substance to be found in the air inside
of a hotel, thus jeopardizing the health of employees and guests alike.

Indoor Air Pollution


Health effects related to indoor air pollution can span from a mild human
health irritant to a serious, possibly fatal condition. The severity of the health
effects experienced by a person depends on a multitude of factors such as the type
of pollutant present, the duration the person was exposed to the pollutant, the
dosage of the pollutant the person received, and how sensitive the person is to the
pollutant.

First, the risk a pollutant poses to an individuals health depends on the type
of pollutant present. For example, high concentrations of carbon dioxide can be
irritating for many people, but would be highly unlikely to cause any permanent
adverse effects or death. These mildly irritating health effects include headaches,
dizziness, or fatigue. While some indoor air pollutants only pose an inconvenience,
others pose a much greater risk to ones health. Pollutants such as formaldehyde
are known human carcinogens and high concentrations of carbon monoxide can
cause death (Hill, 2010).

Furthermore, the duration a person was exposed to a certain chemical could
influence the extent and severity of damaging health effects that would be
experienced. For some indoor air pollutants, health effects could be observed
almost immediately after exposure. These types of health effects such as headaches
or dizziness would be classified as acute effects due to their rapid onset. On the
other hand, people who are exposed to a pollutant may show signs of exposure days,
months, or even years after exposure. These chronic health effects could be asthma,
cardiovascular disease, or cancer (United States Environmental Protection Agency
[USEPA], 2013).

Also, the dosage of a pollutant that a person receives could determine the
health effects that are seen. Exposure to a contaminant such as formaldehyde at low
doses over a long period of time has vastly different effects compared to a high
dosage of carbon monoxide over a short period of time (Bernstein, et al., 2007).

Finally, preexisting health conditions and age of the person being exposed to
the pollutant could determine the extent of unfavorable health conditions
experienced. Children and the elderly frequently exhibit a stronger reaction to an
increase in concentration of an indoor air pollutant. Shortness of breath and
headaches are just a small sample of the myriad of negative health effects
experienced by this group of people. In addition, those who are afflicted by asthma

Hotel Air Quality 4

are at a greater risk for developing a negative reaction to concentrations of
pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide, ozone, and carbon dioxide (Jones, A.P., 1999).

Sick Building Syndrome: A Result of Poor Indoor Air Quality


One sickness that has become prevalent in recent years is an illness known
commonly as sick building syndrome, or SBS. Caused by high concentrations of
indoor air pollutants, SBS is a disorder that triggers drowsiness, headaches and also
affects the skin, eyes, nose and throat. While these symptoms could signify a large
number of common ailments such as the common cold or the flu, SBS has one
property that sets it apart from the rest of the conditions that have the potential to
plague us; symptoms of SBS appear only when a person is within a building with
poor air quality and dissipate when the person exits the structure.

As described above, the sensitivity to the concentrations of the air pollutants
present dictate the severity of the symptoms of SBS that are experienced. Many of
those who have encountered the indicators of SBS report stuffy noses, dry skin, dry
eyes, headaches, and lethargy. These symptoms are also experienced at peak
severity when the person is inside. When they leave the building, symptoms
improve within hours.

When the cause of SBS is examined, it was seen that many instances in which
people suffered from the syndrome occurred where the building was air-
conditioned. Furthermore, age and maintenance of the HVAC units played a major
role in the severity of SBS. Units that were operating inefficiently did not adequately
move and replace air in the workspace. Studies have shown that ventilation rates
less than 10 liters of air per second per person led to an increase in symptoms. As a
result of the poor ventilation an increase in concentrations of indoor air pollutants
that are known to cause SBS was seen (Burge, 2004).

Indoor air pollutants that were commonly seen as causes of SBS were
normally released from products frequently found in hotels. These pollutants are
generated from fabrics such as furniture and carpets, chemicals found in cleaners,
toners and inks, and from the occupants of the building themselves. People who
smoked tobacco products introduced contaminants found in the smoke into the
workspace via their clothing. Outdoor air pollutants such as vehicle exhaust, dust,
asbestos, carbon monoxide and other combustion byproducts can enter the building
through poorly located intake vents or malfunctioning purification systems (Joshi,
2008).

In order to decrease concentrations of indoor air pollutants and
subsequently reduce occurrences of SBS, it is necessary that building owners and
managers ensure that air filtration and circulation systems are operating in an
efficient manner. Buildings that allow workers to control their own working
environments are also beneficial and may help control and reduce the symptoms
related to SBS (Burge, 2004).

Hotel Air Quality 5

Health Effects and Sources of Common Indoor Air Pollutants


Of the abundant indoor air contaminants, there are several that are frequent
causes of indoor air quality issues. These pollutants are known to have detrimental
health effects sometimes at relatively low concentrations. Below is a detailed list
describing each pollutant in detail, their known health effects, the concentrations in
which the pollutants become a health risk, and sources in which the pollutant is
commonly released from.


Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas that is a byproduct of fossil fuel
combustion. Stoves, chimneys, fireplaces, gas water heaters, furnaces, heaters,
and exhaust from gas burning engines are all sources of the pollutant.
Malfunctioning equipment paired with inefficient air ventilation systems can
result in a rapid increase in carbon monoxide levels within a building. Health
effects related to carbon monoxide exposure begin with impaired vision and
cognitive abilities, headaches, fatigue, nausea, and dizziness at lower
concentrations. As concentrations surpass 1,000 ppm, oxygen intake is inhibited
and death could occur. It is recommended that indoor concentrations of carbon
monoxide remain below 200 ppm (USEPA, 2013).

Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is also a colorless, odorless gas. Sources of carbon dioxide
include improperly vented gasoline and kerosene fueled appliances. As the gas
is a byproduct of combustion reactions, carbon dioxide is also released from
automobiles. Indoor carbon dioxide concentrations are typically found to range
from 100-1000 ppm. Health effects from these concentrations are minimal, with
the most severe effect resulting from headaches and shortness of breath at levels
from 1000 ppm and above. It is recommended that indoor carbon dioxide levels
be maintained below 2000 ppm (Occupational Safety & Health Administration
[OSHA], 1999).

Hydrogen Sulfide
Hydrogen sulfide is a colorless gas with a strong odor comparable to rotten
eggs. Also, hydrogen sulfide is a flammable, explosive gas that produces other
harmful chemicals such as sulfur dioxide if it is burned. Incomplete fossil fuel
combustion is the most common source of hydrogen sulfide gas. Acute effects
associated with exposure include dizziness, loss of apatite, coughing, headaches,
and shortness of breath. Prolonged exposure to the gas results in chronic effects
such as pulmonary edema and loss of smell. Unconsciousness and death
ultimately occur if concentrations exceed 100 ppm. It is recommended that
hydrogen sulfide levels be kept below 0.01 ppm (OSHA, 1999).

Hotel Air Quality 6

Temperature/Relative Humidity
Temperature and relative humidity can play a role in the formation of mold
spores and other bacteria. It is often discovered that buildings with high
temperature or high relative humidity have issues with leaking pipes and other
plumbing fixtures, flooding, and unmaintained air conditioners and other
ventilation systems. Health effects of exposure to high humidity include asthma,
sinusitis, and hypersensitivity (OSHA, 1999). The Environmental Protection
Agency recommends that humidity in structures be maintained between thirty
to fifty percent (2014).

Ozone
At low concentrations, ozone is known to cause acute health effects such as
respiratory and eye irritation. Those who suffer from asthma and other lung
disorders experience shortness of breath and other detrimental health effects
when a higher concentration of ozone is present (USEPA, 2013). Copy machines,
electrical arcing, electrostatic air cleaners, and photochemical smog are all
sources of ozone (OSHA, 1999).

Ammonia
Ammonia is a corrosive, colorless gas with a sharp odor. Common sources of
ammonia include industrial cleaners, fertilizers, and refrigeration units.
Exposure can occur via contact of liquid or gaseous ammonia. A concentration
above 1 ppm normally results in headaches, nausea, and intense burning in the
eyes, nose, throat, and skin. Those who suffer from asthma are normally more
sensitive to the presence of ammonia (USEPA, 2013).

Nitrogen Dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide is produced during the incomplete combustion of natural
gas or other fossil fuels. Unvented furnaces, stoves, fireplaces, heaters, and other
gas-burning appliances are the major contributors to high concentrations of
nitrogen dioxide. High concentrations of the gas normally result in eye, nose,
and throat irritation. Exposure to extremely high concentrations could result in
diffuse lung injury or pulmonary edema. Finally, continued exposure to elevated
levels of the gas could result in chronic bronchitis (USEPA, 2013).

Nitric Oxide
Main sources of nitric oxide are from combustion in gas stoves, dryers,
furnaces, heaters, automobile exhaust, and tobacco smoke. Health effects of
nitric oxide include irritation to the mucus membranes, eyes, and lungs. High
concentrations of nitric oxide were also found to be responsible for increased
frequencies of asthma attacks and bacterial infections (Hill, 2010).

Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur dioxide is a colorless gas associated with the combustion of fossil fuels
such as oil, coal, and natural gas. As a result, improperly vented stoves, heaters,

Hotel Air Quality 7

furnaces, and automobiles are all sources of the gas. Health effects associated
with exposure include coughing, shortness of breath, and asthmatic symptoms
(USEPA, 2013).

Building Characteristics and Indoor Air Quality


Maintaining satisfactory indoor air quality is an issue that building designers,
engineers, and managers have tried to deal with, but have often failed at handling.
Poor ventilation in a building is often responsible for high concentrations of indoor
air pollutants accumulating within. The lack of outdoor air moving into a structure
due to inefficient, underpowered, poorly maintained or malfunctioning air
circulation systems are often seen as the cause for the buildup of hazardous indoor
air pollutants.

Poor filtration of outside air is also a factor that degrades the quality of
indoor air. Particulate matter and ozone being deposited into a building through a
ventilation system are repeatedly seen as sources of these indoor air pollutants.
Poor placement of these ventilation systems could also increase the concentrations
of pollutants inside of a building. For example, a circulation intake system located in
a place where diesel exhaust is ubiquitous would be a major contributor for those
toxins found inside (Jones, 1999).

Issues controlling temperature and humidity within a building are also
factors that negatively impact indoor air quality. Higher temperatures and humidity
can cause species of mold and fungi to flourish, thus degrading air quality and
negatively impacting human health. Increased temperatures can also lead to an
increase in chemical off gassing of some building materials. These chemicals that
are released include volatile organic compounds that could have serious and long
lasting negative effects on human health (Bernstein, et al., 2008).

Lastly, the building materials and chemicals utilized inside of a structure are
known to be sources of volatile organic compounds, formaldehyde, and other
known dangerous substances. Vinyl flooring, paints, and cleaners can all contribute
to the degradation of air quality within a structure such as a hotel (Jones, 1999).


Indoor Air Quality Standards


Standards regarding the regulation of indoor air pollutant concentrations are
sparse and only apply to certain pollutants if a standard does exist. Suggestions of
healthy levels of indoor air pollutants are more common than strict legislation
governing their allowable levels.
Several different entities are responsible for publishing these suggestions or
in rare cases, standards. The United States Environmental Protection Agency
publishes a limited list of suggested indoor air pollution levels. The Occupational
Safety and Health Administration sets ventilation standards but does not address
allowable pollutant concentrations in places such as hotels or workspaces. Finally,
while indoor air pollutant concentration regulation is almost nonexistent on a state
government level, California and New Jersey have set regulations regarding indoor
air quality.

Hotel Air Quality 8

The EPA has published a short list of suggested indoor air pollutant levels for
carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone. However, these concentrations
apply to residential structures and not hotels or office buildings. For carbon
monoxide, suggested concentrations range from 0.00-5 parts per million (ppm).
Recommended nitrogen dioxide levels are normally a fraction of the concentration
found in outdoor air, which is less than 100 parts per billion (ppb). Ozone levels
should not exceed 0.05 ppm indoors (USEPA, 2012)

OSHA publishes suggestions for indoor ventilation, air conditioning, and
heating so that indoor air quality can be managed. However the administration
does not set or publish regulations regarding the concentrations of indoor air
pollutants that can be found within workspaces, hotels, or other public gathering
places. Within their reports, the importance of maintaining and cleaning air
ventilation systems is stressed in order to keep people healthy (OSHA, 2011).

As stated above, only two states in the United States set standards for
maintaining healthy indoor air quality. These two states, California and New Jersey,
set standards for public employees, but not hotels. New Jerseys indoor air quality
regulations mainly focus on indoor air temperature, relative humidity, and carbon
dioxide. The regulations also govern the proper maintenance of air circulation
systems so that these levels can be attained. For example, indoor air temperature
should range from 68-79F and carbon dioxide levels should not exceed 1000 ppm.
In addition, public employers must establish a maintenance schedule for the
buildings HVAC system so that indoor air pollutants can be managed. Finally, under
New Jerseys indoor air quality standards managers are required to promptly
investigate any complaints or reports of employee sickness related to poor indoor
air quality (State of New Jersey Department of Labor, 2007).

While indoor air quality suggestions and standards do exist in the United
States, they are not regulated as strictly as outdoor ambient air quality.
Furthermore, these suggestions are only established for public employees inside of
workspaces during regular business hours. There are currently no regulations or
suggestions that govern the maximum concentrations of indoor air pollutants in
hotels or other public lodging establishments.

Indoor Air Quality Case Study: Helsinki, Finland


A similar study to our hotel air quality study was performed in an office
building in Helsinki, Finland. The study, conducted by Koponen and others,
examined the effect of outdoor air on indoor air quality. This research was
prompted by the statistic that on average people spend over ninety percent of their
day indoors.

Air quality sampling was conducted in an office room on the first floor of the
building as well as on the roof, outside of an air intake duct. Particulate matter and
aerosol concentrations were studied. Different aerosols included those examined in
our own study such as ozone, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and
carbon monoxide.

Indoor concentrations of these gases were found to be influenced by outdoor
concentrations. It was also found that increased concentrations of outdoor air

Hotel Air Quality 9

pollutants were a direct result in an increase in motor vehicle traffic outside of the
office building. It was concluded that particulate matter and ozone levels inside of
the building increased as activity outside of the building increased. However,
aerosols such as carbon monoxide and other combustion byproducts did not
increase mostly due to the absence of sources in an office environment (Koponen,
Asmi, Keronen, Puhto & Kulmala, 2000). For our study, since sources that generate
indoor air pollution related to combustion are present within the building, we
expected to encounter measurable levels of these pollutants.

Methods


There are several methods that can be performed when testing the
concentrations of indoor air pollutants. Sampling equipment and techniques can
vary depending on the type and concentration of the pollutant in question. For
example, sampling compounds that are hazardous to human health at low
concentrations require precise equipment that can measure levels at parts per
billion or less. Methods for sampling indoor air quality are thoroughly detailed by
OSHA and are referenced when an office building or hotel receives complaints from
staff or customers about indoor air quality.

Beginning with relatively benign compounds, carbon dioxide concentrations
are sampled with detection devices capable of reading concentrations from 0-2000
ppm. These detector tubes or infrared spectrometers measure indoor
concentrations and the results are useful in analyzing how much fresh air is being
introduced into the building. Generally, up to 600 ppm show adequate ventilation
within a structure.

Nitrogen dioxide and ozone are sampled with devices that measure levels of
the compounds from 0.01-10 ppm. Values that are observed inside of a building are
then compared to samples obtained from outdoor ambient air to determine whether
an issue of elevated concentrations originated from outdoor ambient air quality
problems or a source inside.

Carbon monoxide is measured with low-level detector tubes that are capable
of measuring concentrations from 0-200 ppm. Measurements are taken over eight
hour periods, or on thirty-minute intervals to determine the average exposure to the
compound. When the average exposure concentration is attained, it is compared
against the maximum acceptable concentration of 50 ppm over an eight-hour work
shift.
Formaldehyde is sampled using a standalone detector. This detector tube is
capable of very low-level sampling from 0.04-1 ppm. These detectors are normally
placed in locations where off gassing of the pollutant is suspected to occur, such as
around exposed treated wood, furniture, or office equipment such as printers and
copiers.
Finally, OSHA outlines methods for sampling indoor airborne particulates
and microorganisms. Particle counting instruments are utilized in areas where
employee complaints are widespread. These counters are capable of measuring less
than 2,000 particles per cubic centimeter (cm3) of air. If concentrations of airborne
particulates are higher (greater than 40,000 particles/cm3) in certain sections of a

Hotel Air Quality 10

building it is advised that air ventilation be increased in that region. Also, if bacteria
contamination of water tanks or ventilation systems is suspected, testing of bacteria
colony concentrations are performed. Unsafe bacteria colony concentrations are
determined by the type of bacteria present as well as the amount of complaints
received by employees or customers (OSHA, n.d.).

When the air quality of six hotels was analyzed, a GrayWolf WolfPack
Modular Area Monitor was utilized. This unit allowed for the simultaneous
sampling of several different indoor air quality pollutants. Also, a formaldehyde
sensor was placed in the lobby of each hotel and was allowed to collect samples for
thirty minutes. Contrary to the methods outlined above, one multiparameter sensor
was used to test the concentrations of a number of pollutants instead of using a
standalone sensor for each parameter.
From each hotel, the following parameters were sampled from the WolfPack
Area Monitor: sulfur dioxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, ammonia, ozone,
temperature, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, and relative
humidity.
These parameters were then sampled in a hotel common area, a guest room,
lobby, and outside of the hotel. In some cases, hotel banquet areas, laundry rooms,
and basements were sampled. In each location the WolfPack sensor took readings
for five minutes. Finally, each measurement was repeated in the same location over
the course of three separate visits.
The air quality study was conducted in the following hotels: Hotel A in Cape
May, New Jersey, Hotel B in East Rutherford, New Jersey, Hotel C in Avalon, New
Jersey, Hotel D in Cape May, New Jersey, Hotel E in Galloway, New Jersey, and
Hotel F in Wildwood, New Jersey.
Upon completion of the study from the six hotels listed above, the data was
downloaded from the WolfPack sensor and compiled into Microsoft Excel
spreadsheets. The data obtained for each parameter from each visit from the hotel
and location within the hotel was graphed and analyzed. Changes in indoor air
quality between hotel guest rooms and common areas were examined as well as the
differences between outdoor air quality and indoor air quality.

Hotel Air Quality 11

Results and Comparisons

Nitric Oxide Concentrations (ppm)

Exterior
Common Area
Lobby
Guest Room
0

0.05

0.1
Series1

0.15
Series2

0.2

0.25

0.3

Series3

On average, concentrations of nitric oxide outdoors was greater than
concentrations found within the hotels. When a common area was compared to a
guest room, average concentrations of nitric oxide appeared to be equal.

CO Concentrations (ppm)
Exterior

Common Area

Lobby

Guest Room
-0.2

0.2
Series1

0.4
Series2

0.6

0.8

Series3

Outdoor concentrations of carbon monoxide were observed to be more
variable than indoor levels. However, median concentrations were greater inside of
the hotel compared to outside. Guest room concentrations were observed to be
greater than concentrations measured in common areas. Error bars were adjusted
by multiplying the values by 1.5.

Hotel Air Quality 12

CO2 Concentrations (ppm) per

Sampling Location
Exterior
Common Area
Lobby
Guest Room
0

100

200

300

Series1

400

500

Series2

600

700

800

900

Series3

Carbon dioxide concentrations were greater indoors than outdoors. Indoor
concentrations were generally higher, but levels were not high enough to cause
human discomfort. Guest room concentrations were more variable than those
observed in common areas. Error bars were adjusted by multiplying the values by
1.5.

Relative Humidity per Sampling

Location
Exterior
Common Area
Lobby
Guest Room
0

10

20
Series1

30
Series2

40

50

60

70

80

Series3

Outdoor relative humidity percentage was greater and more variable than
percentages observed inside of the hotels. Guest room relative humidity
percentages were on average slightly higher than values observed in common areas.

Hotel Air Quality 13

Hotel A

Indoor Air Pollutant Concentrations per Room

0.06

0.05

ppm

0.04
Common Area
0.03

Guest Room
Lobby

0.02

Exterior

0.01

0.00

Sulfur
Dioxide

Nitric Oxide

Nitrogen
Dioxide

Ammonia

Ozone

Hydrogen
Sulmide

Outdoor Air Quality compared to Indoor Air Quality



For the air quality samples taken within the Hotel A hotel, it was seen that
concentrations of indoor air pollutants were higher inside the building than outside.
Nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone were all present in higher levels inside of
the building. In addition, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide concentrations were
also higher inside of the hotel.

Guest Room Air Quality compared to Common Area Air Quality



It was observed that in all cases for each pollutant sampled, concentrations
inside of guest rooms were lower than concentrations in the hotels common area.
For example, nitric oxide concentrations were twice as great as those within a guest
room. Also, concentrations of carbon dioxide in the common area was close to
exceeding the 1000 ppm threshold for human comfort, while the carbon dioxide
levels in a guest room appeared normal, or around 600 ppm. Carbon monoxide
levels were also higher in the common area compared to guest rooms. This could be
influenced by the proximity to an improperly adjusted stove in a kitchen or furnace.

Hotel Air Quality 14

Hotel B

Indoor Air Pollutant Concentrations per Room

ppm

0.2

0.1

Banquet Center
Guest Room
Lobby
Exterior

0.0
Sulfur
Dioxide

Nitric
Oxide

Nitrogen Ammonia
Dioxide
Pollutants

Ozone

Hydrogen
Sulmide

Outdoor Air Quality compared to Indoor Air Quality


Except for sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide concentrations, all of the
sampled air pollutants such as carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and
ozone were significantly greater than concentrations observed within the hotel.
These drastic differences in pollutant concentrations could be explained by an
efficient and well-maintained air filtration system being utilized by the hotel.
Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide concentrations are approximately equal
between indoor and outdoor locations, indicating possible sources are coming from
within the hotel.

Guest Room Air Quality compared to Common Area Air Quality


For this analysis, the lobby will be identified as the common area. Sulfur
dioxide concentrations were considerably higher in guest rooms compared to the
common area. If this room allowed cigarette smoking, this could be the reason why
concentrations were so high. For all other sampled pollutants including carbon
dioxide and carbon monoxide, guest room concentrations were significantly lower
than common area concentrations. The higher levels seen in the common area could
be explained by acknowledging the proximity of the lobby to the main doors of the

Hotel Air Quality 15

hotel. Constant influxes of customers entering and exiting the hotel through the
main entrance could allow for higher concentrations of pollutants to enter from the
outside. This effect could be magnified by the amount of vehicles idling near the
main entrance.


Hotel C

Indoor Air Pollutant Concentrations per Room

0.1
0.1
0.1
Common Area

ppm

0.1

Guest Room
Lobby

0.1

Exterior
0.0
0.0
0.0
Sulfur
Dioxide

Nitric Oxide

Nitrogen
Dioxide

Ammonia

Ozone

Hydrogen
Sulmide

Outdoor Air Quality compared to Indoor Air Quality


Only nitrogen dioxide and ozone concentrations were higher than indoor
concentrations. Nitric oxide concentrations were nearly equal to common area
concentrations, but other locations were considerably lower. Carbon monoxide and
carbon dioxide levels were also lower compared to indoor levels. This could
indicate that outdoor air pollution is not having a strong influence on pollutant
concentrations within the building. There could be another factor such as inefficient
air ventilation systems or malfunctioning equipment allowing for a buildup of
indoor air pollutants.

Guest Room Air Quality compared to Common Area Air Quality

Hotel Air Quality 16

Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide concentrations in guest rooms were
observed to be greater than those in the hotels common area. Furthermore, carbon
dioxide levels within the guest room were observed to be relatively high, at 800
ppm. However, neither of the values would be expected to cause any adverse health
issues. Ozone and nitrogen dioxide levels were higher in guest rooms, but
concentrations were still relatively low. Nitric oxide was almost three times greater
in the common area than the level observed in a guest room. This could be coming
from the combustion reactions in a gas powered furnace or stove.


Hotel D

0.5

Indoor Air Pollutant Concentrations per Room

0.4
0.4
0.3
ppm

0.3

Guest Room

0.2

Lobby

0.2

Breakfast place
Exterior

0.1
0.1
0.0
Sulfur
Dioxide

Nitric
Oxide

Nitrogen Ammonia
Dioxide

Ozone

Hydrogen
Sulmide

Outdoor Air Quality compared to Indoor Air Quality


Concentrations of nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone were all greater
outside of the hotel. Inside of the hotel, concentrations of hydrogen sulfide, carbon
dioxide, and carbon monoxide was higher. This could indicate a problem with not
only the buildings air ventilation system but with stoves or furnaces as well since
these indoor air pollutants are commonly associated with combustion products.
Since this hotel is equipped with kitchens in rooms as well as a main kitchen utilized
for breakfast, improperly adjusted gas ranges could be used as an explanation.

Guest Room Air Quality compared to Common Area Air Quality

Hotel Air Quality 17

For this analysis, the hotel lobby will be identified as the common area.
Levels of ammonia, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide were negligible. The
concentration of nitric oxide was higher in the common area compared to the guest
room. Carbon monoxide and ozone levels were higher in the guest rooms, but both
levels were not at concentrations that would cause adverse health effects. Carbon
dioxide concentrations were nearly equal in both locations, with concentrations
around 875 ppm. Prolonged exposure could result in moderate discomfort.


Hotel E

0.3

Indoor Air Pollutant Concentrations per Room

0.2

ppm

0.2
Guest Room
Hallway

0.1

Lobby
Exterior

0.1

0.0
Sulfur
Dioxide

Nitric
Oxide

Nitrogen Ammonia
Dioxide

Ozone

Hydrogen
Sulmide

Outdoor Air Quality compared to Indoor Air Quality


For each pollutant that was sampled, exterior concentrations were greater
than indoor concentrations. Exterior carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide levels
were both considerably higher possibly due to the buildings proximity to a busy
highway (U.S. Route 30). Lower indoor air pollutant concentrations could be a
result of properly functioning air ventilation equipment.

Hotel Air Quality 18

Guest Room Air Quality compared to Common Area Air Quality


For this analysis, the hotels lobby will be identified as the common area.
Nitric oxide concentrations were equal for both locations. Ozone concentration was
also nearly equal, however the levels observed were extremely low. Carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide levels in the guest room were lower than levels
observed in the lobby. This trend is similar to what was observed in Hotel B and
could be explained in a similar fashion. Pollutants entering the lobby from the
outside could be the cause of the higher concentrations versus the concentrations
detected in the guest room.


Hotel F

1.2

Indoor Air Pollutant Concentrations per Room

1.0

ppm

0.8
Room 1

0.6

Laundry Room
Lobby

0.4

Exterior

0.2

0.0
Sulfur
Dioxide )

Nitric
Oxide

Nitrogen Ammonia
Dioxide

Ozone

Hydrogen
Sulmide

Outdoor Air Quality compared to Indoor Air Quality


Outdoor concentrations of nitric oxide and ozone were greater than indoor
concentrations, however sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide levels
were lower in exterior samples than indoor samples. Sulfur dioxide, carbon
monoxide, and carbon dioxide levels indoors could be a result of a malfunctioning
furnace. Carbon dioxide levels were very high, and almost exceeded 1400 ppm.

Hotel Air Quality 19

Guest Room Air Quality compared to Common Area Air Quality


For this analysis, the hotels lobby will be identified as the common area.
Guest room and lobby carbon dioxide concentrations were both high, but the
concentration in the lobby was slightly higher. There is an elevated possibility for
human discomfort here if prolonged time is spent in these locations. Carbon
monoxide levels were greater in the lobby than the guest room, but concentrations
were generally not harmful. Nitric oxide and ozone levels were equal between the
two sampling locations. Finally, sulfur dioxide concentrations were found to be
greater in the guest rooms. Due to the high concentrations of some indoor air
pollutants in this hotel, air ventilation systems, furnaces, heaters, and stoves should
be inspected to ensure that they are operating efficiently.


Conclusions


Throughout the research that was presented, there is one fact that became
obvious; regulations regarding acceptable concentrations of air pollutants found
within hotels are nonexistent. While observed concentrations of indoor air
pollutants never reached dangerous levels in the hotels that were sampled, there
are no legal standards in place to protect patrons from unhealthy quantities of these
contaminants. This fact raises several questions such as what could be done to
reduce levels of indoor air pollutants? Also, how can regulations be improved to
better protect hotel staff and customers?

When determining how to effectively reduce indoor air pollutants, the
management practices of the building should be analyzed. For example, what types
of chemicals are being used inside of the hotel? Also, how are these chemicals being
stored? How efficient are the air ventilation systems? Lastly, are building or
furniture materials responsible for the presence of certain airborne chemicals?

One of the most effective methods to reduce indoor air pollutants is to
discontinue and remove any products that are the source of a certain pollutant and
to replace them with a safer alternative (United States Environmental Protection
Agency, 2008). This includes any cleaners that contain harmful volatile organic
compounds or ammonia. Replacing these with disinfectants that employ non-toxic
compounds could significantly decrease the amount of pollutants found in the air.
Furthermore, educating personnel who handle cleansers on safe usage, storage, and
dilution of cleansers could also aid in decreasing harmful levels of pollutants
(USEPA, 2011).

In addition, consistent monitoring of the efficiency of hotel air ventilation
systems is key to reducing indoor air pollutant concentrations. Ensuring that filters
are changed frequently and kept unclogged as well as keeping circulation units in
optimal working condition are key factors to maintaining healthy, clean air. Moving
HVAC air intake units away from areas where idling vehicles or other sources of

Hotel Air Quality 20

pollutants are would help reduce the amount of contaminants entering the building
(USEPA, 2011).

In order for hotel air quality regulations to be enacted, maximum allowable
concentrations of each pollutant must be established. This could occur through
analyzing the effect various concentrations of pollutants have on human health, then
setting an allowable yet attainable limit that benefits the greatest amount of people.
Furthermore, restrictions could be placed on the type of building materials,
furniture, and cleaners used in hotels. For example, wood, paint, carpets, and floor
finish have the potential to release formaldehyde and other volatile compounds
(Chao, 2000). Restricting the use of these products would in turn reduce the indoor
air pollutants that are a result of the off gassing from these products. Lastly, it could
be mandated that all hotels implement some sort of air purification measure in their
establishment. Units such as air scrubbers could be operated to remove any
harmful contaminants from the air (USEPA, 2011).


References

Bernstein, J., Alexis, N., Bacchus, H., Bernstein, L., Fritz, P., Horner, E., Tarlo, S.

(2007). The health effects of nonindustrial indoor air pollution. The Journal

of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 121, 585-591.
Burge, P.S. (2004). Sick building syndrome. Occupational and Environmental

Medicine, 61, 185-190.
Chao, C. (2000). Indoor air quality issues for hotels. Lecture conducted from

Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.
Hill, M.K. (2010). Understanding Environmental Pollution. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.
Jones, A.P. (1999). Indoor air quality and health. Atmospheric Environment, 33,

4535-4564.
Joshi, S. 2008. The sick building syndrome. Indian Journal of Occupational &

Environmental Medicine, 12, 61-64.
Koponen, I.K., Asmi, A., Keronen, P., Puhto, K. & Kulmala, M. 2000. Indoor air

measurement campaign in Helsinki, Finland 1999-the effect of outdoor air

pollution on indoor air. Atmospheric Environment, 35, 1465-1477.
Occupational Safety & Health Administration (2011). Indoor air quality in

commercial and institutional buildings. OSHA 3430-04.
Occupational Safety & Health Administration. (1999). OTM Section III: Chapter 2

Indoor Air Quality Investigation. Retrieved from

https://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_iii/otm_iii_2.html.
Occupational Safety & Health Administration. (No date). Sampling and analytical

methods. Retrieved from https://www.osha.gov/dts/sltc/methods/.
Papinchak, H., Holocomb, E., Best, O., Decoteau, D. 2009. Effectiveness of

Houseplants in Reducing the Indoor Air Pollutant Ozone. HortTechnology
State of New Jersey Department of Health (2007). Chapter 100. Safety and health

standards for public employees. Subchapter 13. Indoor air quality standard.

Trenton, NJ: N.J.A.C.

Hotel Air Quality 21

United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2012). Air pollutants. Retrieved

from http://www.epa.gov/air/airpollutants.html.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2008). Care for your air: a guide

to indoor air quality. Washington, D.C: USEPA.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2011). Indoor air: the lodging

sector. Retrieved from

http://www.epa.gov/airquality/community/details/i-lodging.html.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2013). Indoor air quality: an

introduction to IAQ. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iaq/ia-intro.html.

MEAN OF MEANS OF THE VISITS

Hotel B

Banquet
Center
Guest Room
Lobby
Exterior

Sulfur Nitric Nitrogen

Dioxide Oxide Dioxide Ammonia
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

Hotel A

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

1.0
0.6
1.1
1.2

Sulfur Nitric Nitrogen

Hydrogen Carbon

Dioxide Oxide Dioxide Ammonia Ozone Sulfide
Monoxide
Common Area
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.6
Guest Room
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.9
Lobby
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.4
Exterior
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.6

Hotel E

Guest Room
Hallway
Lobby
Exterior

Sulfur Nitric Nitrogen

Hydrogen
Dioxide Oxide Dioxide Ammonia Ozone Sulfide
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0

Hotel D

Guest Room
Lobby
Breakfast

Sulfur
Dioxide
0.0
0.0
0.0

Sulfur Nitric Nitrogen

Hydrogen Carbon

Dioxide Oxide Dioxide Ammonia Ozone Sulfide
Monoxide
Common Area
0.00 0.04
0.03
0.00
0.06
0.00
1.19
Guest Room
0.00 0.02
0.01
0.00
0.05
0.00
0.77
Lobby
0.00 0.01
0.03
0.00
0.06
0.00
0.94
Exterior
0.00 0.03
0.02
0.00
0.04
0.00
1.05

Hotel C

Hotel Air Quality 22
Relative
Hydrogen Carbon
Humidity
Ozone Sulfide
Monoxide %RH
Temp C

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

Carbon
Monoxide
ppm
0.6
0.1
1.0
1.4

87.4
38.5
83.8
92.7

Carbon
Dioxide
ppm

48.0
51.0
48.9
46.5

928.0
605.4
947.4
816.8

Relative
Humidity Temperature
%RH
C
68.05
64.08
34.15
58.45
51.23
65.21
44.68
58.34

Carbon
Dioxide
ppm
######
677.58
######
777.16

Relative
Humidity Temperature Carbon
%RH
C
Dioxide
60.7
48.7 620.4
67.2
43.8 831.1
33.5
55.3 785.2
59.1
52.1 408.9

Relative
Humidity Temperature Carbon
%RH
C
Dioxide
54.5
44.7 418.3
7.3
44.9
51.1
70.1
45.8 469.7
131.7
42.4 758.8

Nitric Nitrogen
Hydrogen Carbon
Relative Temperature Carbon
Oxide Dioxide Ammonia Ozone Sulfide
Monoxide Humidity C
Dioxide
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.0
108.5
72.2 894.9
0.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.4
0.6
120.7
67.0 890.8
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.0
112.7
68.1 993.3

Hotel Air Quality 23

place
Exterior

0.0

Hotel F

Room 1
Laundry
Room
Lobby
Exterior

0.4

0.1

0.4
0.4
0.5

0.2

0.0
0.0
0.0

0.0

0.0
0.0
0.0

0.7

127.6

0.1
0.1
0.4

61.3

Sulfur
Relative
Dioxide Nitric Nitrogen
Hydrogen Carbon
Humidity Temperature
)
Oxide Dioxide Ammonia Ozone Sulfide
Monoxide %RH
C
1.1
0.4
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
1.6
194.8
69.5
0.8
0.8
0.9

0.0

0.0
0.0
0.0

0.7
2.3
1.6

124.2
172.8
140.0

832.0

Carbon
Dioxide
1339.8

71.9 846.9
73.5 1434.4
64.0 687.8