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How Do Metals Respond To External Loads?: Mechanical Properties of Metals Chapter 6 Outline
How Do Metals Respond To External Loads?: Mechanical Properties of Metals Chapter 6 Outline
Chapter 6 Outline
Mechanical Properties of Metals
How do metals respond to external loads?
Stress and Strain
Tension
Compression
Shear
Torsion
Elastic deformation
Plastic Deformation
Yield Strength
Tensile Strength
Ductility
Toughness
Hardness
Not tested: true stress-true stain relationships, resilience, details
of the different types of hardness tests, variability of material
properties
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
Introduction
Stress, (MPa)
Types of Loading
Tensile
Compressive
Shear
Torsion
Stress
(For Tension and Compression)
= F / Ao
F: is load
A0: cross-sectional area
A0 perpendicular to
application of the load.
before
Strain
(For Tension and Compression)
Strain:
= l / lo ( 100 %)
l: change in length
lo: original length.
Stress / strain = /
Shear strain:
= tan ( 100 %)
is strain angle
Shear
Torsion
Torsion
Torsion: like shear.
Load: applied torque, T
Strain: angle of twist, .
Shear
Torsion
Stress-Strain Behavior
(Tension)
Elastic
Plastic
Elastic deformation
Reversible:
( For small strains)
Stress
Stress
removed
material returns to
original size
Plastic deformation
Irreversible:
Strain
Stress
removed
Elastic deformation
Gives Hooke's law for Tensile Stress
= E
E = Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity
(same units as , N/m2 or Pa)
Stress
Unload
Slope = modulus of
elasticity E
Load
Strain
/ = tangent modulus at 2
Definitions of E
/ = secant modulus
between origin and 1
Force, F
High
modulus
Strongly
bonded
Attractive is
positive here
Separation, r
Low
modulus
Weakly
bonded
E ~ (dF/dr) at ro
F= (sign) dV/dr
E~ curvature of potential
at equilibrium, r0
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
11
Anelasticity
(time dependence of elastic deformation)
Have assumed elastic deformation is time
independent
(applied stress produces instantaneous
strain)
Elastic deformation takes time; can
continue even after load release.
This behavior is known as anelasticity.
Small effect in metals; can be significant
for polymers (visco-elastic).
Poissons ratio
Unloaded
Loaded
Poissons ratio
y
x
z
z
dimensionless.
Sign:
lateral strain opposite to
longitudinal strain
Theoretical value:
for isotropic material: 0.25
Maximum value: 0.50,
Typical value: 0.24 - 0.30
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
Shear Modulus
y
Unloaded
Zo
Loaded
= G ,
= tan = y / zo
Elastic Modulus
Poissons Ratio
and
Shear Modulus
For isotropic material:
E = 2G(1+) G ~ 0.4E
Single crystals are usually elastically
anisotropic
Elastic behavior varies with
crystallographic direction.
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
Plastic deformation
(Tension)
Plastic deformation:
stress not proportional to strain
deformation is not reversible
deformation occurs by breaking and rearrangement of atomic bonds (crystalline
materials by motion of defects)
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
Stress
Yield point: P
Where strain deviates from
being proportional to stress
(the proportional limit)
Strain
Yield strength: y
0.002 Permanent strain= 0.002
A measure of resistance
to plastic deformation
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
Strain
Tensile Strength
If stress maintained specimen will break
Stress,
Fracture
Strength
Necking
Tensile strength =
max. stress
(~ 100 - 1000 MPa)
Strain,
lf l0
100
%EL
l0
A0 Af
%RA
A0
100
Toughness
= F/Ao = (li-lo/lo)
True Strain
y
y
Hardness (I)
Hardness measure of materials resistance
to localized plastic deformation
(e.g. dent or scratch)
Mohs scale ability of a material to scratch
another material: from 1 (softest = talc) to 10
(hardest = diamond).
Variety of hardness tests
(Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers, etc.).
Small indenter (sphere, cone, or
pyramid) forced into surface of
material
under
controlled
magnitude and rate of loading.
Depth or size of indentation is
measured.
Tests are approximate, but
popular because they are easy and
non-destructive (except for the
small dent).
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
Hardness (II)
Stress
Design stress:
d = N c : c = maximum anticipated stress,
N the design factor > 1.
Make sure d < y, safe or working stress:
w = y/N where N is factor of safety > 1.
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
Summary
Make sure you understand language and concepts:
Anelasticity
Ductility
Elastic deformation
Elastic recovery
Engineering strain
Engineering stress
Hardness
Modulus of elasticity
Plastic deformation
Poissons ratio
Proportional limit
Shear
Tensile strength
Toughness
Yielding
Yield strength
Strengthening mechanisms
Grain Size Reduction
Solid Solution Strengthening
Strain Hardening
Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth
Optional reading (Part that is not covered / not tested):
7.7 Deformation by twinning
In our discussion of slip systems, 7.4, we will not get into
direction and plane nomenclature
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering