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How to Start and How to Start: AC/DC

Motor Control

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How to Start and How to Stop: AC/DC Motor Control

Robert J. Scoff, PE
Copyright 2008

Copyright 2008, Robert J. Scoff, PE

Table of Contents
Section
1. Introduction
2. AC Induction Motor Starters
3. International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC
4. Wye Detla Starters
5. Auto Transformer Reduced Voltage Starting
6. Wound Rotor Motor Starting
7. Synchronous Motor Control Schemes
8. Inverters or Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs
9. Solid State Soft Starters
10. DC Motor Starters
11. Conclusions

Copyright 2008, Robert J. Scoff, PE

Page #
4
4
11
11
13
15
17
20
22
23
27

List of Illustrations
Title

Page #

Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5
Figure 2.6
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.2
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.4
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
Figure 6.1

Schematic Drawing Showing the Parts of a Starter

Start Stop Circuit
Typical Power Circuit for a Motor Control
Complete Motor Control Circuit
General Electric CR306 Starter Showing Various Parts
Power and Control Schematic of an Across the Line Reversing Starter
Schematic Drawing showing Wye-Delta Motor Starting Technique
A Way to See How the Voltage Is Reduced to 58% for Wye Delta Starting
Schematic of a Wye Delta Starter
Ladder Logic for a Wye Delta Starter
Schematic Drawing of an Autotransformer Reduced Voltage Starter
Typical Control Scheme for an Autotransformer Reduced Voltage Starter
Schematic of a Wound Rotor Motor Showing Speed Control Resistors and
Contactors
Figure 6.2 Power Circuit for a Wound Rotor Induction Motor
Figure 6.3 Typical Start Stop Circuit for a Wound Rotor Induction Motor
Figure 7.1 Schematic Diagram of How a Synchronous Motor Is Made
Figure 7.2 Starting Technique for a Three Phase Synchronous Motor
Figure 8.1 Diagram Showing VFD Controller Block Diagram
Figure 8.2 Control Scheme for Use When it is Desired to Bypass the Inverter
Figure 8.3 A Way to Control the Contactors in an Inverter Bypass Circuit
Figure 9.1 Schematic of Solid State Soft Start Motor Starter
Figure 10.1 Schematic of a DC Motor
Figure 10.2 Picture of How a DC Motor Is Constructed
Figure 10.3 Older Style DC Motor Controller
Figure 10.4 Schematic Layout of a Typical Small Single Phase DC Drive
Figure 10.5 Typical Three Phase DC Drive Layout

5
6
7
7
8
10
11
12
12
13
14
15

Copyright 2008, Robert J. Scoff, PE

15
16
16
18
19
20
21
21
23
24
24
25
26
27

1. Introduction
The industrial world uses electric motors to move solids, liquids, and gases. These electric motors could
be alternating current or direct current. The motors range from fractional horsepower to thousands of
horsepower. For the motors to be effective there has to be a way to turn them off and on. The whole
purpose of this course is to show how motors are turned off and on, or controlled. Motors can also be
speed controlled. Since this is a course about motor control, various ways to control the speed of motors
will also be discussed. With that in mind, lets look at starters for AC induction motors.
2. AC Induction Motor Starters
When AC induction motors are started, there is a large current that flows as soon as the power is applied
to the motor. It is typically 6 to 10 times the running current. This means that the device that turns power
on to the motor has to be able to handle a lot of current. Just to give some idea of the magnitude of this
current, the following information was copied from the 2005 National Electric Code.

Full Load Current Three Phase AC Motors

Horsepower

1
1&1/2
2
3
5
7%1/2
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
75
100
125
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500

Current at 460 volts, 3 phase

1.1
1.6
2.1
3
3.4
4.8
7.6
11
14
21
27
34
40
52
65
77
96
124
156
180
240
302
361
414
477
515
590

Copyright 2008, Robert J. Scoff, PE

At 460 volts, the full load current rating is just a

little higher than the horsepower rating for 3 phase
motors. Notice that a 10 horsepower motor has a
current rating of 14 amps, and a 100 horsepower
motor has a current rating of 124 amps.

Even for a relatively small 10 Horsepower motor, the running current is 14 amps. That would make the
starting current somewhere between 84 and 140 amps. Clearly this requires a relatively heavy duty
switch. And that is what a motor starter is, a heavy duty electro-mechanical switch. This heavy duty
switch consists of 3 main parts. They are a coil that is energized to operate the second part, a three pole
relay or contactor. The third part is an overload relay. The overload relay consists of a current measuring
device and an auxiliary contact. Usually there are also some low current auxiliary contacts that operate at
the same time as the main high current contacts. Figure 2.1 shows a schematic drawing of the main parts
of a three phase motor starter.
M
Auxiliary
Contacts, One
M
Normally Open
and One
Normally Closed

A1

M
L1

Three
Leads
from
Power
Supply

A2

Motor
Starter Coil

Overload
Heaters
T1

M
L2

T2

Three
Leads to
Motor

M
L3

T3

Auxiliary
Overload
Contact

Figure 2.1 Schematic Drawing Showing the Parts of a Starter

The function of each of the parts is as follows:
1) Power is supplied to the M coil through the A1, A2 terminals.
2) All of the M contacts change state, the three main contacts close, and the two smaller auxiliary
contacts change. The Normally Open (NO) contact closes, and the Normally Closed (NC) contact
opens.
3) If there is power at the L1, L2, L3 terminals the T1, T2, T3 terminals become energized through
the main M contacts.
4) If there is a motor connected to the T terminals, current flows to the motor and causes it to develop
torque and start turning.
5) The current will cause the Overload Heaters to get warm.

Copyright 2008, Robert J. Scoff, PE

6) If too much current flows to the motor for too long of a time, the now hot overload heaters will
cause the Overload Contact to open.
Figure 2.1 shows a schematic of a typical circuit that is used to start and stop a motor.

Figure 2.2 Start Stop Circuit

Something to note here is that X1, X2 is a low voltage, low power circuit. The X1, X2 voltage can be 120
Volts AC, 24 Volts AC, or as a DC voltage of 12 or 24 Volts. The only function of the X1, X2 power
supply is to supply a current to energize the M coil. In operation, if the start pushbutton is pushed, current
flows through the M coil, causing the M contact to close. The closing of the M contact causes current to
flow through the M coil continuously. This is often called a seal in contact. If the stop pushbutton is
pushed, the current flow through the M coil is broken, and the M contact opens. Thus, when the Stop
pushbutton is released, the M coil stays de-energized.
Note that the OL contact is in series with the M coil. If the overload heaters get too hot and cause the OL
contact to open, the M coil will lose power. The overload contact can be self resetting or non self
resetting. If it is non self resetting, an operator has to reset the overload contact so that the motor can be
restarted.
The drawing of Figure 2.2 is called a ladder diagram. In control schemes there can be many lines of
control logic. This drawing only shows one line to start and stop one motor. Complicated control
schemes can have dozens or even hundreds of lines.
The power circuit of a motor control circuit is used to connect a high power voltage source to a motor.
The contacts are completely different from the low power auxiliary contact. They are usually made of
silver because silver is a good conductor and relatively corrosion proof. Figure 2.3 shows the power
circuit of a motor starter.
One thing to notice here is that the control power X1, X2 comes directly off of the power to run the motor
through a transformer. The main disconnect not only turns off the power to the motor, but also turns off
the power to the control transformer. The control transformer is used to lower the control voltage to a
safer level and to isolate the control voltage from the three phase power voltage. Also, notice that there
are three main fuses for the current going to the motor. These are a special type of fuse called time delay
or dual element fuses. They are designed to carry a large current for a short period of time. Then, they
will trip if the rated current or higher is flowing for a longer period of time. Since induction motors have
6 to 10 times rated current at start up, this type of fuse is necessary on motor starting circuits.

Copyright 2008, Robert J. Scoff, PE

Figure 2.3 Typical Power Circuit for a Motor Control

When the Power Circuit and the Control Circuit are put together, the circuit of Figure 2.4 is the result. To
review, the contacts that carry current to the motor are much bigger that the auxiliary contacts and the
overload contacts. The overload contacts and heaters are one unit often called an Overload Relay. Notice
also, that one end of the control voltage, X2, has been connected to ground.
Disconnect

OL

Fuse

Three
Phase
Power

OL

Motor

Fuse

OL

Motor
Information
Such as HP,
RPM, Full
Load
Current

Fuse

Control
Transformer

Fuse

Fuse

Fuse
X1

Control Voltage to Ladder

Logic Circuit

Start

X2
OL

Stop

M
M

Figure 2.4 Complete Motor Control Circuit

Copyright 2008, Robert J. Scoff, PE

Figure 2.5 shows a typical National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) starter. This one
happens to be a General Electric Style CR306.
A1

Input Power
Terminals

Power contacts are

underneath the coil

Auxiliary
Contact

Coil

A2
Overload
Heaters

Overload
Contact

Connections
to Motor
Figure 2.5 General Electric CR306 Starter Showing Various Parts
There are many manufacturers of NEMA rated starters in the country. Among them are Westinghouse,
Cutler Hammer, Allen Bradley, Square D, General Electric, Siemens, and ABB. They all have to meet
rigorous performance standards. The physical size and cost of NEMA starters increases quite a bit as the
size of the starter goes up
NEMA electrical motor starters refer to a standardized rating system for the electrical performance of the
most common style of American-built motor starters. NEMA starters are rated by size: 00, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6 and 7. Typical list prices of NEMA starters are as shown below:
Size
00
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

List Price
$272
$332
$375
$651
$1030
$2305
$5573
$13199
$19547

These prices were taken from the Siemens website, reference given
below. They are only meant to show the relative cost of different size
starters. There may be discounts available. Do note that the price
approximates doubles for each size above a size 1.
http://www2.sea.siemens.com/Products/Controls/Resources/Class+14
+Non-Reversing+Starter+Configurator.htm

Copyright 2008, Robert J. Scoff, PE

Maximum electrical motor horsepower and continuous current rating for different size NEMA starters for
three phase motors can be found in the table below:
Maximum Horsepower (hp)
NEMA
Full Voltage Starting
Continuous
NEMA
Amp
Size
Rating
460V
200V 230V
(Amp)
575V

Part Winding Starting

Wye Delta Starting

200V

230V

460V
575V

200V

230V

460V
575V

00

1.5

1.5

18

27

7.5

7.5

10

10

10

15

10

10

15

45

10

15

25

20

25

40

20

25

40

90

25

30

50

40

50

75

40

50

75

135

40

50

100

75

75

150

60

75

150

270

75

100

200

150

150

350

150

150

300

540

150

200

400

300

600

300

350

700

810

300

600

450

900

500

500

1,000

http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/nema-starters-d_918.html
One thing that has to be done when applying NEMA starters is that the overload relays and heaters have
to be sized to the motor horsepower. Notice that each starter size is good for a maximum horsepower.
That means that a size 00 starter can be used for a fractional horsepower motor to a 2 horsepower motor at
480 volts. Look at the above chart for a size 00 starter at 480 volts. See that the maximum motor that it
can control is 2 horsepower. The overload relays then have to have overload heaters sized to the motor
size, or more specifically, the full load motor current.
There are two types of thermal overload relays. They are bi-metal and eutectic melting alloy types. In the
bi-metal type, a bi-metallic strip is heated by the current flowing to the motor. As it heats, it bends, and if
it bends too far it causes the overload contact to open. The eutectic melting alloy type actually has two
pieces of metal soldered together. The current flowing to the motor causes the two pieces of metal to heat
up, and if it gets too hot the solder melts and causes the overload contact to open. For both types, the
overload heaters are sized to the motor full load current. The National Electric Code (NEC) allows the

Copyright 2008, Robert J. Scoff, PE

heaters to be oversized by 25%. The same is true for the motor protection fuses. The disconnecting
switch and fuses can be replaced by a proper type and size of circuit breaker.
Newer starters come with an electronic overload relay. These overload relays perform the same function
as the older thermal overload relays. A small special purpose micro-processor inside the device measures
the current and causes the overload contacts to change state if too much current flows for too long a time.
They are priced about the same as the older thermal types of overload relays.
Reversing starters are used when it is desired to have a three phase induction motor run in either direction.
A schematic of a reversing starter is shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6 Power and Control Schematic of an Across the Line Reversing Starter
Look at Figure 2.6 and see that if the F contacts are closed, L1 is connected to T1, L2 is connected to T2,
and L3 is connected to T3. Then if the R contacts are closed, L1 is connected to T3, L2 is connected to
T2, and L3 is connected to T1. The effect is to reverse the T1 and T3 Motor connections. If that is done,
The motor will run in the opposite direction.
The sequence of operations for an across the line full voltage reversing starter is as follows:
Copyright 2008, Robert J. Scoff, PE

10

1.
2.
3.
4.

To go forward, press the forward pushbutton.

To go in reverse, push the reverse pushbutton.
To stop, push the stop pushbutton.
Notice that the forward and reverse contactors are interlocked so that the forward contactor cannot
pull in if the reverse contactor is pulled in and vice versa.

Another rating system for motor starters is the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). The IEC
standards are somewhat different from NEMA standards.
3. International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
The IEC is a non government, not for profit organization whose function is to develop standards for the
world market. Low voltage motor control is covered by IEC Standard Numbers 60947-4-1 for electromechanical devices and 60947-4-2 for semi-conductor devices. As a general rule, NEMA starters are
tougher than IEC starters of similar ratings. IEC starters are also somewhat less expensive. All IEC
starters are labeled the same. The terminals on an IEC device from one manufacturer will have the same
terminal numbers as a device from another manufacturer. This is a real advantage when it is necessary to
replace a starter from one manufacturer with a starter from another manufacturer.
In application and operation the IEC starters will function just like the NEMA starters. The drawings for
IEC devices are very specific. The standards tell how each device should be represented. This course is
not intended to cover IEC designations. There are many websites where the standards can be purchased.
4. Wye Detla Starters
Starting larger motors requires some way to limit the initial large currents that flow when starting such
motors. One way to do that is to connect the three phases of a motor in a wye connection for starting.
This will limit the voltage across each winding, and hence the current, to 58% of the current if the
windings were connected in a delta configuration. Figure 4.1 shows a schematic of the wye and delta
connections of a motor that can be started by this method.

Figure 4.1 Schematic Drawing showing Wye-Delta Motor Starting Technique

The voltage across each winding for the Wye connection is one divided by the square root of 3 or 58% of
the voltage across the Delta connected winding. We can get this directly from pretending the Wye is
inside of a delta, as shown in Figure 4.2.
Copyright 2008, Robert J. Scoff, PE

11

Figure 4.2 A Way to See How the Voltage Is Reduced to 58% for Wye Delta Starting
Not only is there a special motor, but there has to be a special starter for doing a Wye Delta start. The
motor is different because all 6 leads are brought our so that connections can be made. If the motor were
not being used as a reduced voltage start application, only three leads need to be brought out where
connections can be made. This is true for both Wye and Delta wound motors. As a matter of fact, it is
not really necessary to know if the motor is wound as a Wye or Delta motor, if reduced starting voltage is
not being done. Reduced voltage starting is done when large motors are started, and/or large static loads
need to be moved on starting.
The starter for a Wye Delta start is different form a standard motor starter. Figure 4.3 shows a schematic
of a Wye Delta starter.
M1

OL

L1

M2
Fuse

M1

OL

L2

S1

M2
Fuse
4

3
S1

M1

OL

M2

L3
Fuse

Fuse

S1
5

Three Motor Windings with

Six Leads Connected to Wye
Delta Starter

Fuse

Fuse
Control Transformer
Control Voltage to Ladder Logic

Figure 4.3 Schematic of a Wye Delta Starter

Copyright 2008, Robert J. Scoff, PE

12

Notice that there are 3 power contactors, M1, M2, and S1. Each of them has 3 power rated contacts. The
ladder logic diagram of the control of a typical wye delta starter is shown in Figure 4.4.
X1

OL X2

Start
Stop

M1
M1

TD
TD

TD

M2

S1

S1
M2

Figure 4.4 Ladder Logic for a Wye Delta Starter

The sequence of operations is as follows:
1. The Start Pushbutton is pushed.
2. M1 and S1 contactors close and TD coil is energized and TD starts timing.
3. This causes the motor to be connected in a Wye configuration and current flows through the motor
windings. Figure 4.1 shows the schematic of this connection, and the connection can also be
traced out in Figure 4.3. The starting torque is about 33% of full load torque and the starting
current is approximately 200% full load current.
4. After a time delay determined by TD, the S1 contactor drops out and the M2 contactor pulls in. If
the time delay is set properly, the motor is up to speed, and the current is held to a reasonable
value. Time Delay TD is a time delay to operate.
This starting technique is primarily used for motors of 50 horsepower and more. Because it uses three
power contactors with three contacts each, it is much more expensive than an across the line starter. The
main advantage is that it limits the starting current to 200% of running current instead of a more typical
600% starting current. In many plants with marginally adequate power supplies this technique can mean
the difference between being able to start large motors and not being able to start them. The torque
limiting (to 33%) also helps prevent damage to mechanical components.
5. Auto Transformer Reduced Voltage Starting
Another way to get a reduced voltage and thus current on motor starting is with an autotransformer
reduced voltage starter. A typical autotransformer reduced voltage starter uses two autotransformers and
two power contactors. One of the power contactors has three contacts and the other one has five contacts.
The autotransformers typically have three taps. They are at 50%, 65%, and 80% of full voltage. The
following chart shows the typical percent torque and current that result when a reduced voltage
autotransformer starter is applied.
Copyright 2008, Robert J. Scoff, PE

13

% Voltage

%Torque

% Rated Current

50
65
80

45
76
115

300
390
480

http://literature.rockwellautomation.com/idc/groups/literature/documents/wp/150-wp001_-en-p.pdf
A schematic of a autotransformer reduced voltage starter is shown in Figure 5.1. A real advantage of this
technique is that it is possible to select the amount of current and torque reduction that you desire. Most
of the time the units are shipped form the factory with the 65% tap chosen.
Notice that the drawing shows five M1 power contacts and three M2 power contacts. Like most control
circuits, there are various techniques that will work to make this starter work properly. This starter
requires that the five contact contactor M1 close first, and then after a short time delay, contactor M1 will
open and contactor M2 will close and stay closed as long as the motor is running. Figure 5.2 shows a
scheme that will work.

Figure 5.1 Schematic Drawing of an Autotransformer Reduced Voltage Starter

In this control scheme, when the start pushbutton is pushed, control relay CR pulls in and causes M1 to
pull in through the normally closed M2 and TD contacts. Then, since the TD coil is activated, it starts
timing and after its time delay, M1 drops out, and M2 pulls in. This causes the motor to go from reduced
voltage to full voltage. Although not usually done, it is possible to make a control scheme where the
autotransformer can go through two or three steps as the motor accelerates. This would add considerably

Copyright 2008, Robert J. Scoff, PE

14

to the cost and complexity of the control scheme. The time delay (TD) is a time delay on operate. That
means that the TD contacts will close a period of time after power is supplied to the coil.

Figure 5.2 Typical Control Scheme for an Autotransformer Reduced Voltage Starter
6. Wound Rotor Motor Starting
There is a type of induction motor called a wound rotor induction motor. It is different from a standard
induction motor in that the rotor windings are connected to slip rings. The slip rings are then connected to
a resistor network that can be switched into and out of the rotor circuit. Figure 6.1 shows a schematic of a
wound rotor three phase induction motor. Note that there is a primary and secondary winding. The
primary circuit is directly connected to the three phase power through a conventional starter. The
secondary, which is actually the part that turns, is connected to the resistor network.

Figure 6.1 Schematic of a Wound Rotor Motor Showing Speed Control Resistors and Contactors
The control scheme for this kind of motor requires that first the three phase stator must be supplied with
power by a standard motor starter. Then three 2 pole contactors (C1, C2, and C3) must be operated in
sequence as the motor speeds up. Figure 6.2 shows the power circuit for a wound rotor induction motor.

Copyright 2008, Robert J. Scoff, PE

15

Figure 6.2 Power Circuit for a Wound Rotor Induction Motor

There are many different control schemes to operate a wound rotor motor starter. The first thing that must
happen is that the M contactor must operate, just like in a standard induction motor across the line starter.
Then the Contactors C1, C2, and C3 must operate in the sequence C1, C2, C3. Figure 6.3 shows a control
scheme that will work.

Figure 6.3 Typical Start Stop Circuit for a Wound Rotor Induction Motor

Copyright 2008, Robert J. Scoff, PE

16

The sequence of operation is as follows:

1. The Start pushbutton is pushed.
2. Starter M1 pulls in and the auxiliary contact seals in the start stop circuit and activates timer TD1.
3. TD1 is a delay on operate, and after it times out contactor C1 pulls in.
4. This causes the right hand part of the resistor network in Figure 6.2 to be shorted out.
5. In the meantime an auxiliary contact from C1 causes TD2 to activate and start timing.
6. After TD2 times out (It is also a delay on operate), it causes contactor C2 to pull in.
7. That causes the center part of the resistor network in Figure 6.2 to be shorted out.
8. In the meantime an auxiliary contact from C2 causes TD3 to activate and start timing.
9. Finally, TD3 times out (it is also a delay on operate) and causes contactor C3 to pull in.
10. Now, the rotor windings of the wound rotor motor are shorted out.
11. The motor is now running in a normal condition.
Notice that when the start sequence is finished, the C3 contacts short out the wound rotor that is inside the
motor.
There are many control schemes to start a wound rotor motor. This particular one has 4 steps to get the
motor up to running speed. This way of starting a motor is especially useful for starting large motors that
need to get a large mass moving as it speeds up. Many older cranes also used this method as a speed
control method. Controlling the rotor current also controls the stator current. An induction motor, after
all, looks like a transformer whose secondary rotates. If you short out the secondary of a transformer, the
primary current becomes very high. This technique limits the primary current.
It is possible to get very good control of the starting current for a wound rotor motor by choosing the
resistor values properly, choosing the number of steps of resistance, and setting the time delays. The big
disadvantage is that this is an expensive technique. One of the newer methods of changing the resistance
is to use a liquid resistor. In this method three rods are immersed in a tank of conductive liquid. The
depth that the three rods are immersed is controlled by a small motor. At running speed the three rods are
completely immersed in the liquid, and the effective resistance is very low.
There are times where it is desired to control the rotor current to control the speed of the motor. This is an
expensive way to control speed because the speed control resistors get very hot and dissipate a lot of
energy that does no useful work. Applications include water pumps that need to adjust water output and
pressure, such as municipal drinking water systems. There are solid state systems that take the electrical
energy that would be dissipated as heat and return it to the electrical system. These help by not only
lowering the electric bill, but by lowering the temperature of the control room where the motors and
associated resistors are located.
This covers many, but not all, of the induction motor control schemes. We will next look at starting and
running a synchronous motor.
7. Synchronous Motor Control Schemes.
A synchronous motor operates somewhat differently from an induction motor. An induction motor works
because a voltage is induced in the rotor from the voltage that is connected to the stator. The two currents
each produce a magnetic field. The two magnetic fields push against each other to cause the motor to
rotate. This is a simplified explanation of what happens, and we will let the understanding of motor
design principles to the motor designers.
Copyright 2008, Robert J. Scoff, PE

17

For a synchronous motor, the stator is very much like an induction motor. However the rotating part, or
rotor, is actually a DC electro magnet that catches the rotating magnetic field of the stator, and rotates
with it. Hence it has the name, synchronous motor. It will rotate at a speed determined by the frequency
of the incoming power supply. In the United States that is 60 cycles per second. Sixty cycles per second
is 3600 cycles per minute, and 3600 revolutions per minutes is the fastest a synchronous motor can rotate.
Other possible speeds include 3600 divided by any integer. So, 3600, 1800, 1200, 900, 720, 600, 514.28
revolutions per minute and so on are possible speeds.
To get a synchronous motor to start some way has to be devised to get the motor up to speed before the
rotating electromagnet is turned on. If the magnet were turned on before the synchronous speed was
reached, the motor could shake itself apart as it first tried to go one way, and then the other. To imagine
this, think of two permanent magnets that are brought close together. If a north pole were facing a south
pole, and moved slightly off center, the magnets would want to move in one direction. If they were off
center in the other direction, they would try to move in the other direction. This is no problem with two
small magnets, but if one on the magnets is a rotating magnet that weighs several tons, real problems can
occur.
There are several methods to get the rotor of a synchronous motor up to speed before the rotating magnet
is turned on. One is to actually mechanically couple a small motor to the rotor of the synchronous motor
and get it up close to synchronous speed before turning on the DC rotating field. At best, this is kind of
cumbersome. A better method is to actually build induction motor windings onto the rotor of the
synchronous motor. Then, the motor could be started as an induction motor with some induction motor
starting technique, and then switching on the DC rotating magnet when the motor got close to
synchronous speed. With the right engineering, the rotating stator magnet would catch the now rotating
DC magnet and the synchronous motor would run properly at the synchronous speed. Figure 7.1 shows a
schematic of how a synchronous motor is made.

Figure 7.1 Schematic Diagram of How a Synchronous Motor Is Made

Lets look at a technique for starting a synchronous motor. Figure 7.2 shows a workable starting method
for Synchronous Motors.

Copyright 2008, Robert J. Scoff, PE

18

Disconnect

Slip Ring
and Brush

OL

Fuse
Three
Phase
Power

Rotor
Winding

OL

Note: Rotor
winding includes
an induction
motor winding to
get motor up to
speed

Stator
Windings

Fuse

OL

M
Fuse

Slip Ring
and Brush
Fuse

Fuse

Fuse
Stop

OL

Start

M
M
M

Variable
DC Power
Supply
TD

TD

TD

Figure 7.2 Starting Technique for a Three Phase Synchronous Motor

The way that this motor would start would be as follows:
1. The Start Pushbutton is pushed.
2. The M contactor pulls in and supplies power to the Stator windings.
3. At the same time the M contact in parallel with the start pushbutton seals in and keeps the M coil
energized.
4. The M contact feeding the Variable DC Power Supply closes and DC voltage is produced.
5. The M contact on the bottom line activates a On Delay Timer, TD.
6. After a pre set time delay the TD contacts supply power to the DC rotating magnet.

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19

7. If all goes well the rotor catches the rotating magnetic field of the stator and the motor runs
properly.
8. The variable voltage DC power supply is now adjusted to change the power factor of the motor to
leading, lagging, or unity. The Power Factor of a synchronous motor can be changed by adjusting
the strength of the rotating magnet. At one time this was a common method of keeping the power
factor of industrial plants high.
There are other types of AC motors used for industrial purposes, but we have covered most applications.
We will now look at another soft start technique, Inverters.
8. Inverters or Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)
An inverter or VFD is a motor control element that is fed by a standard three phase power supply such as
480 VAC. Then, by use of modern solid state electronics, it produces a variable frequency three phase
AC output voltage. Modern inverters are very easy to apply and are sometimes used to soft start a motor.
Figure 8.1 shows a typical inverter connected to a motor with feedback.
Start

Stop

3 Phase Power
to Motor

+10
VDC

3 Phase
Input
Power

VFD
Controller

Rev
Speed
Pot

Run Stop

Rev Fault

Display

Motor

Tachometer Feedback
Signal

Figure 8.1 Diagram Showing VFD Controller Block Diagram

Almost any three phase induction motor can be run by an inverter. Even wound rotor motors sometimes
have their wound rotors shorted at the slip rings and are run by inverters. Modern electronics has made it
possible to have low voltage inverters (less than 700 volts) of up to 1000 Horsepower. Higher voltage
inverters can run even higher Horsepower motors.
The sequence of operations for the VFD as shown in Figure 8.1 is as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Make sure that the three phase power is on.

Set the speed Potentiometer to the desired speed.
Push the Start Pushbutton.
Thats it, the inverter will ramp the speed up to the desired speed as set on the speed pot.
If it is desired to change the speed, just move the speed pot to the next desired speed.
The tachometer is not necessary. Using the tachometer just gives better speed regulation.
The inverter has a built in overload circuit, so overloads are not needed, but can be used.

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8. The display can be programmed to read one of several quantities including speed, current, and
voltage.
Sometimes bypass contactors are used with VFDs in case of VFD failure. Figure 8.2 shows a control
scheme that will work in this case.
C2

C1
Three
Phase
Input
Voltage

C2

C1

OL

OL
Motor

Inverter
C1

C2

OL

C3

C3

C3

Figure 8.2 Control Scheme for Use When it is Desired to Bypass the Inverter
It is never advisable to connect AC power to the output of an inverter. Depending on the price of a new
inverter, it can be a very expensive mistake. C1 and C2 can be a 6 pole power contactor, if such a device
is made. At the very least, C2 and C3 should be mechanically interlocked to make sure that both of them
cannot be closed at the same time. Note that overload heaters have been added because the motor can run
across the line. This particular overload relay would need 2 normally closed contacts, one to turn the
inverter off and one to turn the C3 contactor off in case of an overload condition. The control scheme for
this circuit is shown in Figure 8.3.

Figure 8.3 A Way to Control the Contactors in an Inverter Bypass Circuit

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The operation of this circuit would be as follows:

1.
2.
3.
4.

If VFD is selected, start the inverter normally as shown in Figure 8.1.

If Bypass is selected, the motor will run.
If Off is selected, the motor will not run.
Notice that the contactors are electrically interlocked so that Bypass and Inverter cannot be turned
on at the same time.

The use of inverters to run and control AC motors is becoming more and more common in the industrial
world. The development of a transistor called an Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor has enabled engineers
to design reliable and affordable AC variable speed motor controllers. In many places where small DC
motors and drives were formerly used, VFDs and small induction motors have taken their place. One of
the reasons is that an AC induction motor is a very reliable piece of equipment. It has only one moving
part, the rotor. DC motors have brushes that require periodic changing. It seems that for the foreseeable
future, Inverters are going to be more and more commonly used.
Another solid state device used to start induction motors is a controller called a Soft Start.
9. Solid State Soft Starters
Solid state soft starters are solid state devices that use 6 Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs) to ramp up
a motors voltage, current, and speed. They are not speed controllers. They only allow a motor to go
from zero speed to full speed without a large current flow and they also minimize shock loads caused by
starting a motor too quickly. With that in mind, lets see how a soft start is made. Figure 9.1 shows how
the power circuit of a Solid State Soft works.
The sequence of operations is as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

8.

Supply power to the circuit by closing the main disconnect.

Push the Start Pushbutton.
This seals in the control relay (CR), and supplies power to the control circuit.
The control circuit turns on the 6 SCRs so that the voltage being supplied to the motor rises
slowly over time.
An adjustment called Acceleration time sets the time for the voltage going to the motor to go from
zero to full voltage of the incoming power supply.
The Current Transformer measures the current flowing to the motor.
The control circuit adjusts the turn on pulses going to the 6 SCRs to keep the motor current from
going too high during the start up process. The maximum current allowed to flow is set by a
Current Limit potentiometer.
The current limit may slow down the start up time to be longer than the time set by the
Acceleration time potentiometer.

Solid State soft starts are used primarily when a motor has to start a large static load such as a large
flywheel or a conveyor belt. They are also usually only used for motors of 50 horsepower or greater.

Copyright 2008, Robert J. Scoff, PE

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1
OL
Fuse

2
3
OL

Motor

Fuse

4
5
OL
Fuse
Current
Transformer
6
Fuse

Fuse
Stop

Start

To
Control
Circuit

Fuse

Control
Transformer

OL

CR
CR
From
Current
Transformer

Control Circuit

To Gates of the Six SCRs

Figure 9.1 Schematic of Solid State Soft Start Motor Starter

10. DC Motor Starters
To understand DC motor starting, we need to review DC motors, and how they are made. A DC motor is
really two magnets, one that stands still, the stator and one that rotates, the rotor. The one that stands still
is called the field, and the one that rotates is called the armature. The field (the part that stands still), can
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be a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. Permanent magnets are usually only found on smaller
motors of 2 horsepower or less. There are two kinds of electromagnetic fields, series and parallel. Lets
look at Figure 10.1 to see a schematic of a DC motor. Note that the electromagnetic fields can be
replaced by a permanent magnet.
Series Field
Brush
VDC
Armature

Shunt
Field
Brush

Figure 10.1 Schematic of a DC Motor

Before we talk about how this works, lets talk about how it is constructed. Figure 10.2 shows the
construction of a typical DC motor showing the fields and the armature, and a most important part, the
communtator.

Figure 10.2 Picture of How a DC Motor Is Constructed

Looking at Figure 10.1, notice that the shunt field and the series field both are used to make the stator
magnet, shown in grey, stronger. The armature is shown with 4 coils. The brushes that the A1 A2 leads
are connected to are stationary. Thus, when the armature turns, the coils that make the rotating magnet
change. This is done by the communtator, shown in orange. The effect is that the two magnets always
push against each other. Thus, the motor will turn and generate torque. Another thing to note is that the
armature, as well as the series field, is a low resistance. That means that if the motor has a voltage across
the armature a large current should flow. The current is actually limited as the motor speeds up, but at
zero or low speed, the motor current is very large.
Direct current also has the characteristic of not being easy to switch off for large motor loads. This makes
the design of DC motor controls difficult. With that in mind, lets look at several ways to control DC
motors.
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It should be possible to use a similar technique as used for AC motors to control DC motors. And
it is. Figure 10.3 is a schematic of an older style DC motor controller made with contactors
OL

Fuse

Series Field

VDC
Disconnect

Shunt
Field
M

Fuse
Fuse
Stop

Armature

Fuse
Start

OL

M
M

Figure 10.3 Older Style DC Motor Controller

Notice that the shunt field is on as soon as the Disconnect is closed. This is to prevent a condition called
Run-Away that occurs when a DC motor is operated without a field. Large motors have been known to
literally tear themselves apart when they lose their fields. The voltage that runs the motor is also the
control voltage. The series field is shown, but is not always used. The contactors are special design
contactors that are able to handle both large turn on currents, and also the turn off transient currents that
happen with DC motors. The contactors themselves are big, ugly, obsolete, and expensive. The only
place where this kind of starting equipment is found is in older equipment that has not been modernized.
Other than some smaller applications, most DC motors are controlled by solid state DC drives. The
typical DC drive is fed by an AC voltage that is turned into a variable DC voltage by an electronic circuit
consisting of SCRs and a control circuit. Figure 10.4 shows a schematic of how a simple single phase
DC drive is constructed.
First, notice that there is no big contactor. Bigger DC drives have them, but they are not necessary on
smaller motors. The armature voltage can be turned off by the control signals to the gates of the SCRs.
The gates need to be connected to the proper terminals on the control circuit, but this is done at the
factory.
Next notice that the field is fed by a bridge rectifier diode circuit that gives a full wave rectified current to
the field. That current is present as soon as the disconnect is turned on. I emphasize again that the field
current to a DC motor must never be turned off if there is a chance that the armature will have a DC
voltage across it.
Both the armature and the shunt field have a full wave solid state bridge feeding them, but the armature
voltage is variable. For a 120 VAC supply, the field voltage is 100 VDC, and the armature voltage can
vary from 0 to 90 VDC. For 240 VAC supply, the field voltage is 200 VDC and the armature can vary
from 0 to 180 VDC.
Copyright 2008, Robert J. Scoff, PE

25

+VDC

+VField

Disconnect
VAC
Fuse
Armature
3

Fuse

Shunt
Field

-VField

Control Circuit
-VDC
1

To Control
Circuit

Current Shunt Feedback Resistor

Figure 10.4 Schematic Layout of a Typical Small Single Phase DC Drive

The control circuit will have inputs that are connected to start stop controls and a speed setting
potentiometer. Tachometer feedback is also possible to give better speed regulation. The control circuit
will also have current limit and acceleration de-acceleration adjustments.
Bigger motors need bigger equipment, and run on three phase instead of single phase. Figure 10.5 shows
the layout of a typical three phase DC drive.
For this drive, there is an emergency stop circuit consisting of an Emergency Stop Relay (ESR), a start
pushbutton, and an emergency stop pushbutton. This is for safety purposes. An emergency stop circuit
can have 2, 3, or more emergency stop pushbuttons in series so that an emergency stop can be initiated at
more than one location. Pushing the Master Start (sometimes called Reset) pushbutton only allows the
drive to run the motor. To actually run the motor the Motor Start pushbutton must be pushed, and then
the control circuit causes the M contactor to pull in.
Then, depending on the setting of the speed potentiometer, the motor will ramp up to speed. The
acceleration time of the motor is set by an adjustment inside of the control circuit. There is also a current
limit adjustment. The current is measured by the current shunt feedback resistor.
The shunt field uses three diodes to generate a field voltage. Two of the diodes are used to rectify the
incoming three phase voltage and one of them is called a flyback diode. Its function is to absorb the
current that wants to keep flowing when the shunt field is turned off. Many DC drives incorporate a field
loss relay. The function of the field loss relay is to shut down the drive when the field current drops
below an acceptable level. The contact of the field loss relay is used to not allow the M contactor to pull
in.
One other thing that many larger DC drive systems have is a tachometer or encoder feedback. The
tachometer is a small DC generator that attaches to the shaft of the motor and generates a voltage

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proportional to the motor speed. That feedback voltage is used by the control circuit to hold the speed of
the motor more constant as the load varies.

1
Three
Phase
Input

Disconnect
Fuse

Armature

Fuse
Fuse
6

Shunt
Field

Fuses

Fuse
Emergency
Stop

Master
Start

To
Control
Circuit

ESR

M
Current
Shunt
Feedback
Resistor

Control Circuit

ESR
Motor
Stop

Speed
Potentiometer

Motor
Start

Figure 10.5 Typical Three Phase DC Drive Layout

The shunt field of modern DC motors controlled by DC drives and run on 480 VAC is 300 volts DC and
the armature voltage varies from 0 to 500 volts DC.
11. Conclusions
This course covered many of the most common industrial motor control circuits that are in use today.
Any questions or comments will be gladly answered by the author.

Copyright 2008, Robert J. Scoff, PE

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