Final Paper Ever

The Effect of Surface Area and Angle of Incidence on Output of Chlorophyll Solar
Cell
Nicolas Giallombardo and Nathaniel Nunez
Macomb Mathematics Science Technology Center
AP Chemistry
12
Mrs. Hilliard, Mrs. Cybulski, Mrs. Tallman, Mr. Acre
5 December 2014
The Effect of Surface Area and Angle of Incidence on Output of Chlorophyll Solar
Cell
The evolution of the study of green technology is one of the most
important projects today. Organic photovoltaic are one of the leading prospects in
this field of research. Organic photovoltaic utilize renewable materials to
generate solar power much like a silicon based solar cell. Organic photovaltics
have a distinct advantage over their silicon based counterparts in that they are
cheaper to produce and far less harmful to the environment. The purpose of this
experiment was to further this field by creating a variant of the organic
photovoltaic cell known as the dye sensitized cell.An experimental extracted
chlorophyll based dye for use within their cell. This chlorophyll dye was used due
to how inexpensive it is to manufacture, very limited environmental impact, and
the prospect of dramatically increasing energy output. The data was collected by
testing different surface area solar cells (7.5x2.5cm and 2.5x2.5cm) at varying
angle of incidences (90, 75, and 60 degrees). Each cell was exposed to a high
intensity light bulb and the voltage generated by each cell was measured. The
data was then analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively, and a two-sample t
test was used to determine the significance of surface area and angle. After the
conclusion of the experiment, the large area solar cells routinely generated over
1 volt of electricity per cell and it was determined that surface area was a
significant effect at any angle of incidence because the p-values calculated were
all less than the alpha level of .05.
Table of Contents
Introduction1
Review of Literature.4
Problem Statement...................16
Experimental Design.17
Data and Observations..24
Data Analysis and Interpretation..41
Conclusion...66
Acknowledgements72
Appendices..
Appendix A: Randomizing Trials .73
Appendix B:Constructing the Angle-Adjustable Platform......82
Appendix C:Two Sample t -test Sample Equation..84
Works Cited.....85
Giallombardo Nunez 1
Introduction
Since the industrial revolution, humans have had an insatiable thirst for
power. This conquest for new sources of energy to power this new mechanized
world has led to rapid progress, but at what cost? The most common and
economical methods of generating electricity today involve the burning of fossil
fuels. Although economically convenient and high in energy yield, the extraction
methods and utilization process of these fuels is detrimental to the environment.
The extraction of these fuels involves stripping the land of its natural vegetation
and habitat and the mining process can leave scars and craters in the ground for
hundreds of years. Worse yet, the burning of these fuels release a lethal
concoction of carcinogens and greenhouse gases into the environment. These
gases not only destroy our atmosphere, but poison the air we breathe and the
water we drink. Americas dependence on fossil fuels is blatantly apparent in the
fact that coal and natural gas account for generating over 60 percent of the
electricity used in every day American life (United States Environmental
Protection Agency). With this in mind, the pressure to create and harness new
energy sources that are both efficient and environmentally friendly has been one
of the largest and paramount challenges today.
Solar cells, or photovoltaic cells, are electrical devices that are able to
convert light to usable energy. With their conception over 50 years ago, solar
cells have had a tremendous impact on the green technology front. However,
some of the largest issues facing conventional silicon-based solar cells is their
high cost, detrimental effects to the environment during their production in which
harmful acids are used to bind the silicon, and relatively wide efficiency range.
This is compounded by their relatively low lifespans, leaving barely enough time
for the consumer to truly make any real savings in energy bills. However, what if
it was plausible to harness a cheap material such as plants and naturally use
them as a more efficient source of energy? One of the main issues of siliconbased solar cells is that they use hazardous materials for their production, which
almost defeats the purpose of a solar cell altogether. The objective of this
research experiment was to create a far more environmentally friendly solar cell
and test the effect of surface area of the cell and angle of incidence on the cell on
the overall voltage output of a dye-sensitized chlorophyll solar cell. With this data,
the purpose is to improve upon the concept of a greener way to harness
energy, with the method still being highly efficient.
Engineers and scientists are always looking for different methods to make
their products as environmentally friendly as possible. In many cases, they have
to sacrifice the efficiency of their product in order to create a greener product.
Solar cells are a perfect example. Photovoltaics can be used in multiple facets of
life.Solar cells are placed on top of houses in order to power the many electrical
appliances a family may use. In addition, automotive engineers have been
studying the use of solar cells on top of cars in order to power them. There are
also calculators that are powered by light with the use of solar cells.
With the versatility of solar cells, they are known to be fairly expensive to
the middle-class consumer. A dye-sensitized chlorophyll solar cell would
hopefully be able to allow the average consumer to be able to purchase their own
solar cell and start saving right away (Salisbury). Another distinct advantage of
using dye sensitized photovaltics is that the cells are often much thinner and less
bulky than traditional silicon cells as well as being much more easily
manipulated. In turn many unique apparatuses could be constructed with these
cells, such as roll out mat like solar cells where a consumer could simply keep a
pre-packaged solar cell in a back pack and then on a sunny day remove the cell
from the back pack and unfold it to increase its surface area, plug in a lap top or
other device and start creating free green energy instantly (Moskvitch). Dye
sensitized cells also have the aesthetic advantage of being able to conform to
any color that the consumer wishes and can even be transparent. By combining
its aesthetic properties of color and easy application ability whole panes of glass
could be transformed into solar cells. Not only could these windows look beautiful
but they could also help to supplement the facilities electrical needs. Finally
chlorophyll solar cells greatest and most crucial advantage comes in their
miniscule environmental impact. Along with the fact that these cells practically
turn yard waste into efficient green energy with their replacement of chlorophyll
for silicon, the processes used to create dye-sensitized solar cells are much
more practical and environmentally friendly than the production of silicon-based
solar cells. These solar cells would not only offer massive advantages to
consumers but also help to ensure a brighter future and greener environment for
all.
Review of Literature
One of the leaders in green energies is photovoltaics or solar cells. These
devices utilize radiation from the sun to generate electricity to power different
devices. Solar cells have been in existence for decades now. However, their cost
effectiveness and efficiency have not been keeping up with the expanding needs
of a growing population. Standard photovoltaic cells (photo meaning light and
voltaic meaning electricity) are prominent in many calculators and satellites
(Toothman). They are heavily composed of the element silicon in its crystalline
structure due to its ability to be a semiconductor. Also, silicon is not heavily
expensive. Solar cells function off the principle of P and N type layers. It is the
differential within the charges of these layers that allow for the movements of free
electrons to generate electricity. These layers are created by a process called
doping. This process takes a pure elemental substance and adds impurities
(other atoms or molecules) within the substance for the purpose of modulating
the substances electrical properties (Seshadri). The N type layer is the negatively
charged silicon and it is the first layer of the solar cell. Beneath the N type layer
lies the P type layer or positively charged layer. This layer is comprised of silicon
that has been doped so that there are fewer electrons than protons, thus
generating a positive charge. Finally, when solar radiation strikes the solar cell,
the free electrons on the N type layer become excited and move to a wire fixated
on the solar cell. The electrons traverse through the wire because it offers the
path of least resistance, which makes for more convenient travel by the
electrons. The electrons are then passed through a battery or electrical device
and fed back into the solar cell and are absorbed through the P type layer back
into the N type layer.
Figure 1. P and N type Layer Diagram (Brooks)

Figure 1 shows the basic structure of a P and N type layer. As described,
the N type layer contains an abundance of free electrons that grants the layer its
negative charge. Also located within the layer are donor atoms. These atoms will
act to replenish lost electrons during the photoelectric conversion process. Next,
the P type layer is comprised of free holes and these holes act as entry points
for returning electrons. The highly positive charge of this layer is utilized to attract
the incoming electrons and then fixate them to the acceptor atoms. These
acceptor atoms are the same donor atoms found within the N type layer and as
such, these atoms rapidly fluctuate between accepting incoming electrons from
the P type layer to transplanting them to the negatively charged N type layer.
Although silicon based solar cells process of generating energy is almost
completely renewable, the process of creating solar cells is far from it. The
materials used to create solar cells most commonly silica are non renewable and
the process of acid etching the cell and gathering the required components is
devastating to the environment. However this does not mean that the whole idea
has to be scrapped, in fact many believe it may be improved with the addition of
some insight from nature. By creating organic based solar cells it is possible to
reinvent what it truly means to be green while also lowering costs and potentially
increasing efficiency rates
By far the most popular organic photovoltaic is the dye-sensitized solar
cell. These solar cells behave much like a normal solar cell in the fact that they
have a semi conductive surface and catalyst material to allow electron
transportation, however they differ in that their main component is not a metal
base at all, rather a liquid dye. Dye-sensitized solar cells have three distinct
layers, the conductive outer electrode, the titanium dioxide dye layer, and the
electrolyte layer.
Dye sensitized solar cells generate electricity by forcing electrons through
a circuit. This happens when photons of light strike the dye molecules. These dye
molecules possess high-energy electrons that, once struck by light, become so
excited that they leave the dye molecule and attach themselves to the titanium
dioxide molecule. Once this occurs, these high-energy electrons move in circuit
through the electrolyte layer and into the conductive electrode layer. From here,
the electrons continue to move to wires hooked to the solar cell and eventually
enter some electrical device.
Once exiting the device, the electrons enter through the bottom of the
solar cell into the electrolyte layer. With the help of a catalyst substance (carbon
soot in this case) the electrons enter the electrolyte complex. Once in this layer,
the electrons fixate to the mediator triiodide molecule, and are then carried back
to the dye molecule to restart the process (Schulze).
Figure 2. General Composition of a Dye-Sensitized Photovoltaic (Brooks)

Figure 2 illustrates the general construction of a dye-sensitized
photovoltaic cell. As displayed above, the cell is constructed with a positive
electrode layer on bottom and a negative electrode layer on top, which is
represented by the green sheets of conductive glass. The arrows represent the
direction from which solar radiation is entering the cell. Located between the two
sheets of conductive glass is the titanium dioxide layer. The titanium dioxide
molecules are very large and as such, allow for multiple attachment points for the
dye, which is represented by the small purple dots. Finally, the entire titanium
dioxide layer is encased within an electrolyte solution that allows for the
replenishment of electrons.
The electrode layer is the outermost portion of the cell and is generally
composed of two sheets of a type of conductive glass, in most cases indium tin
oxide glass. This outer electrode layer will allow electrons found within the
titanium dioxide dye layer and electrolyte layer to move freely throughout the cell,
eventually powering a device. Indium tin oxide glass is comprised of a normal
sheet of glass and an incredibly thin-layered deposit of indium tin oxide. It is this
extremely thin layer of indium tin oxide that allows for electrons to be transported.
Indium tin oxide acts as a N-type layer, meaning that it is an electron donor.
Indium tin oxide glass is incredibly effective when utilized in a photovoltaic cell
due to its absorption bands or lack thereof, rather. Indium tin oxide possesses an
absorption gap between 380 and 750 nm (the visible light spectrum), which in
turn renders it relatively transparent (Choi). It is this lack of absorption of visible
light radiation that allows photons with this particular wavelength to penetrate the
electrode layer and in turn, excite the free electrons in the titanium dioxide layer.
However, it is imperative that the electrode layer is not too dense, due to the fact
that as density increases, the transparency of the glass decreases. This would
be detrimental to overall efficiency, as vital solar radiation would be obstructed
from penetrating the deeper layers of the cell. Consequently, there must always
be a compromise between indium tin oxide density leading to higher conductivity
and transparency correlating too higher absorptions.
Figure 3. Layering of Indum Tin Oxide (Choi)

Figure 3 is an image of a piece of indium tinoxide glass analyzed using
an SEM viewing apparatus. As illustrated by this figure, the indium tin oxide is not
infused within the glass itself, but rather an icredibly thin (170 nm thick) layer of
indium tin oxide rests on top of the glass.
The titanium dioxide dye layer is the most important layer of the cell
and is what gives the solar cell its unique name. The layer is in paste form and
placed over one conductive side of the electrode layer. Next a type of dye,
generally organic in nature such as crushed raspberries, is then fused to the
titanium dioxide in a process known as sensitization. This bond between the
titanium dioxide and dye is crucial because the titanium dioxide acts as a base
for the electron donating dye to attach to as well as increasing overall surface
area for attachment. The dye is important because it increases the titanium
dioxides light absorbing properties as well as being the initial electron donor.
Figure 4. Atomic Structure of Bond Formed Between Dye and Titanium Dioxide
(Physik)
Figure 4 illustrates the bond formed during the senistization proccess
between the titanium dioxide and the organic dye. The titanium dioxide is the
large crystalin structure at the bottom left. The open spaces and structure within
this metal compound allow for mutiple fixation points for the organic dye. The
organic dye is modeled by the large grey hexagonal-shaped structure branching
off from the titanium dioxide molecule. This dye is in an excited state and its free
electrons have left and reaatached themselves on the titanium dioxide molecule.
The final layer is the electrolyte layer. This layer can be liquid or solid so
long as it conducts electricity and also contains a mediator. This mediator is a
substance that will replenish the dye molecule with electrons in order for the
reaction to continue. The mediator molecule is the molecule that once an
electron renters the cell after completing the circuit it will carry that electron back
to the dye molecule where it will fixate itself once again.
Figure 5. Model Electrolye Solution (HomoFaciens)

Figure 5 displays the iodine electrolyte solution that acts to replenish
electrons to the dye molecule. The triiodide ions located within the solution work
by accepting returning electrons and then fixate them to the dye molecules based
of charge differentials.
Dye sensitized solar cells have also been constructed using only solid
materials and bypassing the whole electrolyte layer. In an experiment conducted
by Simon Mathews and his fellow researchers a dye-sensitized solar cell that
generated over 13 percent efficiency was created. This solar cell operated on the
same principals as shown, above, however Mathews and his team produced
their own new dye type known as SM315. On top of this Mathews cell was also
completely solid utilizing a solid electrolyte layer as well as utilizing new cutting
edge materials such as graphine to act as a superconductor of electrical charges.
Like Mathews and his researchers, the purpose for this experiment is creating a
solid based dye sensitized solar cell as well as utilizing a special dye type. The
dye type utilized was a hexane, chlorophyll based dye that offers numerous
advantages to some of the more commonly created dyes.
Chlorophyll is a natural substance found in plants that is responsible for
aiding the process of photosynthesis. It developed in bacteria hundreds of
millions of years ago and without it complex life would not have been able to
evolve. Chlorophyll is a chelate, which means that it has a central metal ion
bonded to a large organic molecule. The organic molecules that are bonded to
the metal atom are four nitrogen atoms in the form of a square with various
amounts of carbon, oxygen and hydrogens bonded to the nitrogens.
Figure 6. Atomic Structure of Chlorophyll (Chemical of the Week Chlorophyll)

Figure 6 shows the atomic structure of chlorophyll A (one of the many different
types of chlorophyll found in different plants). The main metal atom found in
chlorophyll a is magnesium metal. The structure formed around the magnesium
atom is called porphyrin, which contains the four nitrogen atoms and then various
other elements attached to the nitrogen. Chlorophyll is such an effective
photoreceptor because it contains a network of single and double bonds, as well
as having orbitals that can delocalize thus stabilizing the compound (Chemical of
the Week-Chlorophyll). This is important because delocalization allows for the
spread of electrons to increase, which has many advantageous characteristics.
First, delocalization allows for even spread of charge throughout the molecule,
which in turn generates a far more stable compound. This then paves the way for
more electrical conductivity, which is a highly lucrative trait when working with
photovoltaics. Furthermore, delocalization also plays a role in the determination
of absorption bands of molecules due to the fact that it deals with the placement
of electrons.Consequently delocalized polyenes such as chlorophyll have strong
absorption bands in the visible spectrum meaning that they readily absorb
radiation in the 700 to 390 nanometer wavelength range (Chemical of the WeekChlorophyll). With this in mind understanding the process in which chlorophyll
converts solar radiation into usable energy is crucial in adapting the compounds
photoreceptors to generate electricity in a usable form for machinery.
Chlorophyll converts this solar radiation into useable energy in the form
of carbohydrates. It does this through an oxidation-reduction reaction utilizing
carbon dioxide and water. The formula for this reaction is
CO2 + H2O
(CH2O) + O2
Due to the nature of this reaction it occurs in two separate half reactions
2H2O
O2 + 4 [H.]
In this step, photon radiation is utilized to split the 2H 2O molecule into O2

and 4 [H.] ions. Next the [H.] ions reduce free carbon dioxide to form
carbohydrates, a usable form of energy for plants.
4 [H.] + CO2
(CH2O) +H2O
Finally, this reaction creates its end products carbohydrates and oxygen (CH 2O)
and oxygen (O2). The energy used to drive this reaction is solar radiation
(Diwan). When the photons of light strike the leaf the electrons in the chlorophyll
become excited. In this excited state the electron is more readily available to
transfer to another molecule, in this case it transfers to the carbon dioxide in a
serious of steps known as the electron transport chain thus reducing it. This lost
electron is then replaced by then stealing an electron from water. As such without
chlorophyll, carbon dioxide and water could not react to form carbohydrates.
Chlorophyll is also important in the later stages of ATP synthesis during
photosynthesis. During this stage a reaction known as the electron transport
chain creates a high proton gradient within the thylakoid membrane of the
chloroplast. For this too work electrons from water are pumped through the cell
membrane in multiple steps carried out by many protein complexes. Each protein
complex will utilize one electron to bring one proton (H+ ion) into the cell
membrane. This then creates a proton gradient with a high concentration of
protons inside the thylakoid membrane (highly acidic) and a high electron
concentration outside the cell (highly basic). This then creates an electric charge
and the protons are pumped through a final protein complex known as ATP
synthase (Rochaix.) The movement of the protons out of the thylakoid and
through the ATP synthase then converts the energy of the electrons and proton
into a useable form of energy for the plants, ATP.
With this information of chlorophyll in mind it is clear to see the
molecules applications for creating a solar cell. Key to creating this cell however
is extracting useable chlorophyll without damaging it. In an experiment designed
by Lucas Horener a method utilizing a centrifuge and hexane is used to extract
chlorophyll. The material used to extract the chlorophyll can be any plant-based
matter and as such it is quite cheap and can even turn yard waste into a useable
solar cell. To extract the chlorophyll the plant matter is carefully cut removing
stems and other waste products leaving only the green fleshy part of the leaf.
The matter is then submerged in ethanol for 24 hours to dissolve it. The solution
is then strained and placed in a centrifuge. Hexane is then added before the
solution has ben spun. Once spun the solution should separate out leaving the
chlorophyll on top and byproducts on the bottom. This liquid chlorophyll may then
be applied to a conductive material to form the base of the solar cell. The
chlorophyll in the cell will function similar to how it does in a plant, by acting as a
medium for electrons to flow through as well as offering the potential benefits of
higher energy conversion rates due to the presence of photosystem I proteins.
With this information in mind chlorophyll offers many unique benefits for
use as a dye in a solar cell. With its cheap cost of acquiring and potential to
dramatically increase efficiency rates it serves as a clear choice for future
research into organic photovoltaics.
Problem Statement
Problem:
How can surface area and angle of incidence of light affect the overall
output of a dye-sensitized solar cell using the extracted chlorophyll from organic
spinach leaves?
Hypothesis:
The solar cell with the larger surface area at the greatest angle of
incidence will create the greatest voltage output.
Data Measured:
The solar cells will be placed under a high intensity light source and
directed at different angles towards the cell and using the voltmeter, their voltage
output will be measured and recorded. The dependent variable will be voltage
output and current of the solar cell. The independent variables will be the surface
area of the solar cell and the angle that the cell is manipulated under the light
source. In addition, since we are comparing two independent sample means at
each angle, we will be conducting a 2-sample t test for each angle that the solar
cells are placed at (90, 75, 60).
Experimental Design
Materials:
0.5 g Titanium Dioxide
(anatase structure), TiO2
12 mL Hexane, C6H14
10 mL 1 M Vinegar, C2H4O2
10 mL Ethylene Glycol,
C2H6O2
0.5 M 830 mL Potassium
iodide, KI
127 mg Iodine crystals, I2
Organic Meijer spinach leaves
(2) Sheets Indium Tin (II)
Oxide 1 cm x 1 cmglass,SnO
(2) Sheets Indium Tin (II)
Oxide 1 cm x 3 cmglass,SnO
95% Ethanol, C2H6O
Cascade dishwasher
detergent
(2) 200 mL beaker
250 mL Erlenmeyer flask
Test tube rack
TI-Nspire Calculator
Angle-adjustable Platform
Voltmeter
Connecting wiring/clamps
(2)Paper clips
200W Full Spectrum Lightbulb
Centrifuge (3000 rpm)
30 centrifuge capsules
Distilled water
Cheese cloth
Funnel
Paint tape
Balance (0.01 g precision)
Hot plate
Tongs
Candle
Lighter
Kim wipes
(2) 2 mL pipet
Centrifuge 3000 rpm
(2) 10 mL pipet with Dial-Bulb
Rubber band
Pre-Procedure:
1. Cut the stems off theorganic spinach leaves.
2. Carefully remove the back spine of the leaf.
3. Next, remove as many of the veins within the leaf as possible without
damaging the leaves.
4. Place the processed leaf particles within the 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask.
5. Add enough ethanol to completely submerge all of the processed leaves.
6. Let the mixture of leaf particulate and ethanol set for 24 hours.
7. After the mixture has set for 24 hours, the ethanol should have turned green
and the majority of the leaf should have decomposed into the liquid. Using
aBuchner funnel and cheese cloth wrapped around the flask with a rubber
band, carefully pour the mixture into the small centrifuge capsules.
8. Place 2 ml of hexane into each capsule using a 2 mL pipet.
9. Set the centrifuge to rotate at 3000 rpm for 45 minutes. Make sure that the
centrifuge is equally weighted.
10. Using a 2 mL pipet, remove the green chlorophyll from the top of the solution.
Procedure:
1. Place 0.5 g of titanium dioxide into the 200 mL beaker. Add two drops of
vinegarat a time with the 2 mL pipetand stir. Continue to do so until the
powder reachesthe consistency of a thin paint.Place a drop of cascade
dishwasher detergent into the graduated cylinder with a 2 mL pipet.
2. Gently rinse off indium tin oxide glass to clean.
3. Lay the indium tin oxide glass on a smooth, flat surface, with the conductive
side facing up. Check by using the voltmeter.
4. Cover the top quarter inch by taping it down to the surface with paint tape.
Cover the left and right sides a quarter inch from the edge by taping both
sides down with paint tape.
5. With the glass stirring rod, apply enough titanium dioxide to cover the glass
that is not covered by the tape. Be careful not to apply too much, and spread
it by rolling the glass stirring rod across the glass.
6. Carefully remove the tape from the glass, and wipe off any excess titanium
dioxide off the back or edges of the glass.
7. Heat a hot plate to high, or its highest numerical setting. Place the glass
onto the hotplate and heat it for approximately 20 minutes. Check
temperature using a laser thermometer.
8. Take another sheet of indium tin oxide glass and with a tong, and gently hold
it over and around a lit candle until a complete layer of soot has formed on the
conductive side. Make sure not to overheat/burn the glass.
9. With tissue, lightly rub away the soot on the edges of this sheet of indium tin
oxide glass, so that the soot layer matches the layer of chlorophyll.
10. Lay the indium tin oxide glass with the titanium oxidedown with the titanium
oxide facing up.
11. Lightly pour chlorophyll onto theglass. Allow to dry. Once the chlorophyll dries
into the glass, wash off the excess and make sure that the edges are still
clear.
12. Prepare the redox shuttle and electrolyte by placing 127 mg of iodine crystals
and 830 mg of potassium iodide into a beaker.
13. Shake the mixture lightly then add 10 mL of ethylene glycol. Shake well.
14. With a pipet, add a couple drops of the solution on the chlorophyll side of the
indium tin oxide glass.
15. Place the soot covered side of the one piece of indium tin oxide on the
chlorophyll side of the other indium tin oxide glass. Offset the edges of the
glass that are still clear.
16. Attach the two pieces of glass with two paper clips on the long edges. Dab off
any excess solution on the outside.
17. Randomize order of which the cells will be placed under the lamp using the
TI-Nspire calculator. Refer to Appendix A.
18. Assemble the voltmeter and connect a clamp to each side of the cell. Place
the cell on the angle-adjustable platform. Refer to Appendix B for
construction.
19. Place a lamp 90 degrees over the cell and measure voltage. Record. Repeat
at angles of 75 and 60 degrees. Repeat for as many trials needed for
statistical analysis. Refer to Appendix C for statistical test.
Figure 7. Chlorophyll Extraction

Materials
Figure 7 displays all of the
materials needed to extract the
chlorophyll. Included is the
centrifuge, where the test tubes
were placed and the chlorophyll
was placed in to be separated with
the ethanol that it was placed in.
The hexanes were placed in the
chlorophyll to help create a noticeable layer between the extracted chlorophyll
and the chlorophyll that was still mixed with ethyl alcohol. The rubber band,
pipets, cheese cloth, Buchner funnel, and flask are also shown to display how
the chlorophyll was taken from the original solution with all of the leaves to
have a mainly liquid solution. The test tube rack displayed held all of the test
tubes for the extraction process.
Figure 8. Solar Cell Construction Materials

Figure 8 is a diagram of all of the materials needed in order to construct a
single solar cell of each surface area. Included are two pieces of indium tin
oxide glass sheets of each size with the paper clips to hold them together.
Also included are the iodine crystals, potassium iodide, and ethylene glycol
for the electrolyte. The lighter, candle, tongs, and kim wipes are also shown
since they were used to create the carbon soot layer on one side of one glass
sheet. The titanium dioxide, dishwasher detergent, vinegar, hot plate, tape,
and ruler were all used to apply the titanium dioxide evenly and cleanly. The
scale was used to mass some of the chemicals to assure that an accurate
amount was being used for each trial. The beakers are also displayed and
were used to contain the electrolyte solution.
Figure 9. Experimental Set-up

Figure 9 displays all of the materials needed to run the trials. Included are
the 200W full spectrum light bulb and lamp to place over the completed solar
cells. Also included is the wooden platform that the solar cell was placed on,
whose angle could be manipulated from 90 to 60 degrees. The voltmeter
shown was connected to the solar cell and was used to take readings for the
data. The Kim wipes pictured were used to wipe off any excess chemicals
from the solar cells after they were constructed and before being tested as to
keep the platform and voltmeter as clean as possible.
Data and Observations

Table 1
Raw Experimental Data for Solar Cells Placed at 90
90
Voltage of
Voltage of
Trial
Large Cell
Small Cell
(V)
(V)
1
1.60
0.04
2
0.90
0.03
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
1.21
1.61
0.00
0.04
0.99
0.60
0.57
0.02
0.76
0.74
1.33
0.50
1.01
0.03
0.90
0.03
0.23
0.04
0.03
0.33
0.94
0.00
0.05
0.20
2.23
0.12
Table 1 displays all of the raw data that was collected through testing how
the surface area and placing the solar cell at 90 degrees relative to a high
intensity light source would affect the voltage of the solar cell. Each trial was
randomized; however, only 5 cells could be completed each day so trials 1-5
were performed on day 2, trials 6-10 on day 3, and so on. Each voltage was
found by taking the reading of the voltmeter.
Table 2
75
Voltage of
Voltage of
Large Cell
Small Cell
(V)
(V)
Trial
1
1.58
0.03
2
0.88
0.03
3
1.20
0.03
4
1.58
0.89
5
0.00
0.03
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
0.04
0.99
0.64
0.56
0.02
0.74
0.75
1.30
0.50
1.00
0.03
0.04
0.03
0.33
0.86
0.00
0.04
0.18
2.23
0.12
Table 2 displays all of the data that was collected through testing how
surface area and placing the solar cell at 75 degrees relative to a high intensity
light source would affect the voltage of the solar cell. Each trial was run the same
way as the cells placed at 90 degrees relative to the light. They were all also
broken up by the day they were made.
Table 3
60
Voltage of
Voltage of
Large Cell
Small Cell
(V)
(V)
Trial
1
1.56
0.02
2
0.84
0.03
3
1.20
0.03
4
1.56
0.88
5
0.00
0.03
6
0.04
0.03
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
0.96
0.64
0.56
0.02
0.73
0.73
1.28
0.48
0.97
0.03
0.03
0.32
0.84
0.00
0.04
0.23
1.57
0.11
Table 3 displays all of the voltages that were read for solar cells of each
surface area placed at 60 degrees relative to the high intensity light source. Each
of these trials were run exactly like the trials ran at 90 and 75 degrees and were
also broken up by day.
Table 4
Observations
Day
Observations
Spinach was cut by the researchers. The spinach was still a very dark green
color because it was fresh. After cutting the stems out of the spinach the
processed material was placed in a 200ml flask and submerged in ethanol (95
1
percent.) The titanium dioxide layers were also prepped allowing for quick
assembly on day two. The titanium dioxide was mixed with 4.5 ml of white
vinegar and 1 ml of dish soap. The titanium dioxide was then mixed until it was
the consistency of marshmallow fluff.
Researchers applied carbon soot to the conductive sides of remaining glass by
placing the conductive sides of the glass over a candle. The carbon soot easily
flaked off and had to be reapplied many times before a substantial layer had
been produced. The chlorophyll solution that was prepping over night was
removed from the flask and strained through cheese cloth into a beaker. 3 ml of
chlorophyll ethanol solution was placed in each centrifuge capsule. This solution
was a very dark green. 2 ml of hexane was added to each capsule and the
mixture was centrifuged for 20 minutes. Two distinct layers were then created.
2
The two layers were taken out using pipets and separated into two different
beakers. The bottom layer was much darker then the top layer. The electrolyte
solution was then prepared using .127 grams of iodine crystal, .830 grams of
potassium iodide and 10 ml ethylene glycol. The potassium iodide had taken up
a slight yellowish brownish hue, on further inspection it was determined to be
iodine within the powder reacting and trials proceeded. The chlorophyll solution,
electrolyte solution and titanium dioxide glass were combined and 5 solar cells
of each surface area were created.
Day
Observations
The cells were checked again to see if they were still producing voltage. It was
found that the majority of the larger cells still produced voltage readings around
1 volt. The cells were then dismantled and cleaned to restart the procedure. The
excess electrolyte solution and centrifuged chlorophyll solution from the
3
previous day were reused to speed up the process. A new batch of spinach was
processed and submerged in ethanol to create fresh chlorophyll solution for
future trials. Readings were taken that day and found to be slightly lower than
the day previous, possibly due to the wear of the indium tin oxide glass sheets.
The centrifuged chlorophyll solution was spilled at the end of the day.
More chlorophyll solution was centrifuged out and a new batch of electrolyte
solution was created. The chlorophyll did not have as noticeable a layer
between the hexane and separated chlorophyll as it was during day 2 of trials
but still noticeable enough to where the researchers could distinguish the two.
The titanium dioxide layers applied to the cells on this day were not as
4
consistent and smooth as days previous, which lead to minor breakage when
they were heated on the hot plate. However, they remained closely intact and
was not deemed significantly egregious to the data. Also, while placing carbon
soot on one of the larger indium tin oxide glass sheets, a very small piece of
glass chipped off. However, this edge would not be offset by the other sheet of
glass so this would not be detrimental to the data.
Most of the time was spent cleaning out beakers, solar cells, and other
5
materials used throughout the experimentation period.
Table 4 displays all of the observations taken throughout the 5 days of trials.
There were not really any major errors made that could have hindered any data
that was collected and the researchers should be able to recognize their data as
reliable thus far.
Figure 10.Chlorophyll Extraction

Figure 10 displays the Erlenmeyer flask filled with the spinach leaves 24
hours after the ethyl alcohol was mixed in with them and then strained out in
order to extract the chlorophyll. The leaves went from a dark green to a faint,
sickly greenish-white.
Figure 11. Extracted Chlorophyll
Figure 11 is a picture of the spinachs chlorophyll after extracting it from

the leaves using ethyl alcohol and then separating it out by placing it in a
centrifuge with hexane in order to have a more pure chlorophyll substance.
Figure 12. Indium Tin Oxide Sheets

Figure 12 is a picture of the 20 sheets of glass that were used in order to
construct 5 solar cells of each surface area. Some were previously used, and
thus have left over pencil markings on them. However, this did not seem to
reduce their conductivity as those that were clear produced the same current as
the ones that were heavily marked. Each glass sheet was cleaned before and
after they were constructed since they had to be remade 2 more times after the
initial run through of trials in order to run 15 separate trials for each surface area.
Figure 13. Titanium Dioxide Substance
Figure 13 displays the titanium dioxide substance that was to be placed on

the indium tin oxide sheets in order to create a superconductive layer. The
titanium dioxide was mixed with vinegar and dishwasher detergent to give it a
consistency that would help it be more applicable to the glass and so that it
would stick after heating the sheets to bond them.
Figure 14. Indium Tin Oxide Sheet Preparation

Figure 14 shows how the indium tin oxide glass sheets were taped down
in order to create an even coating of titanium dioxide and not spreading out to the
edges that needed to be exposed. Each side was taped down a half centimeter
to the edge each time so that each cell was uniform.
Figure 15. Titanium Dioxide Application

Figure 15 shows what the glass sheet would look like after applying the
titanium dioxide while the tape was still on. It was alright if the titanium dioxide
ran to the tape, but the researchers were careful in making sure that the tape
stayed down so that the titanium dioxide, while still not dried, would not run to the
edges.
Figure 16. Finished Titanium Dioxide

Figure 16 displays what a cleanly applied layer of titanium dioxide looked
like on the indium tin oxide glass sheet. Barely any of the substance ran through
past the taped edges and this sheet could be used in the solar cell.
Figure 17. Carbon Soot Layer

Figure 17 shows what the indium tin oxide glass sheet looked like after
placing it over a lit candle in order to create an even carbon soot layer that would
increase electron transport. The edges were also wiped off with kim wipes in
order to match and offset the layers of titanium dioxide on the other half of
titanium dioxide glass sheets.
Figure 18. Baking Indium Tin Oxide Sheets

Figure 18 displays the indium tin oxide sheets baking on the hot plate on
the highest setting in order to bond the titanium dioxide to the glass sheets. If any
cracking was noticed on the glass, the researchers would immediately turn off
the hot plate and remove the glass sheets to prevent from any further cracking.
However, the glass rarely cracked. For the most part, the titanium dioxide would
discolor a bit, and then return to its white color, thus the researchers knew that
the titanium dioxide had bonded.
Figure 19. Chlorophyll Application

Figure 19 shows one of the smaller indium tin oxide glass sheets with the
titanium dioxide glass sheets after being baked. It is then taped down again and
chlorophyll was applied. Although not very noticeable, there is a slight green tint
to the titanium dioxide. The electrolyte was then applied, which helped replenish
the electrons to the dye.
Figure 20. Electrolyte Solution

Figure 20 is a picture of the electrolyte solution that was applied to the
solar cells. It is comprised of potassium iodide, iodine crystals, and ethylene
glycol. The potassium iodide and iodine crystals reacted almost immediately
upon contact, creating a dark yellowish-brown mxiture.
Figure 21. Solar Cell

Figure 21 shows the constructed solar cell, with the titanium dioxide
layered glass sheet facing the carbon soot layered glass sheet. Then, they were
held together using two paper clips on each side. Each exposed edge was an
edge that had no substance applied to it so that they were offset and the alligator
clips could grab each edge.
Lamp and light

bulb
Angle-adjustable
platform
Solar
cell
Chair to elevate light
Connecting clamps and

wiring for voltmeter
Figure 22. Experimental Set-up
Figure 22 displays how the actual trials were ran. The solar cell would be
placed on a platform whose angle relative to the ground could be manipulated.
The high intensity light source would then be placed on a chair and the bulb
would be directly above the platform. The voltmeter would be attached to the
solar cell and its reading at each angle would be read and recorded before
moving on to the next solar cell.
Data Analysis and interpretation
Modern science is centered on a system of exploration, discovery, and
explanation. As such one of the most crucial components of the scientific method
is the ability to properly analyze and explain data. By analyzing the data recorded
from experiments scientists around the globe may work as a community and
further advance the field of research. Proper data analysis is crucial in
determining what was truly important in an experiment and what was mere
chance. Not only this but proper statistical and scientific analysis also allows for
scientists to form explanations for the causes of events as well as what
components of the project may be improved to increase the desired effect.
However no one method of analysis is foolproof as there are often lurking
variables that may render any results completely irrelevant. As such it is critical
that multiple forms of analysis are conducted. Just as in a court of law where one
single piece of evidence does not prove guilt, one single test does not prove
scientific significance. Instead however a case must be constructed in which
multiple layers of observations, explanations, and tests. Together in collaboration
these elements work to build a case of support for the research showing that the
results acquired are of any significance as well as opening the door for future
research. With this in mind the researches of this project sought to apply the
elements of proper analysis to their project as well to help improve the validity of
their work.
As stated above no one statistical test is perfect and as such a variety of
different measures were utilized to analyze the data presented. The analysis of
this data will focus primarily on descriptive statistics used to support the validity
of the inferential statistics that follow. The main components of the descriptive
statistics will work to quantitatively analyze the samples themself. These
methods will include normal probability plots to assess the normality of the data,
box plots to describe any skew and outliers within the data, and the
accompanying five number summary to further support the box plots. The
statistical test that was utilized was three two-sample t tests. These tests analyze
the relationships between the two populations of large area solar cells and small
area solar cells at varying angles of incidence.
The first section of the descriptive quantitative analysis will aim to build a
case for the validity of the data and show that the data was collected responsibly
and in accordance with proper statistical procedure. The first component of
reliable data is that the data was collected randomly. In many cases this
randomization is accomplished through a sampling procedure know as Simple
Random Sampling. A Simple Random Sample or SRS is defined as a subset of
individuals chosen from a larger set in which individuals are chosen randomly
and completely by chance alone such that each individual has the same
probability of being chosen at any stage during the sampling process, and each
subset of k individuals has the same probability of being chosen for the sample
as any other subset of k individuals. This in turn makes a SRS an unbiased
surveying technique. What this means is that a SRS eliminates or greatly
reduces many forms of bias. This bias may come from outside factors as well as
the researchers themselves. This is crucial in proper statistical analysis and in
the application of inferential analysis techniques because it insure that the data
collected will most accurately represent the population that the sample was
drawn from. The design of a SRS acts to reduce this bias by forcing all choices to
be random thus eliminating favoritism in the selection process. The experimental
design meets the qualifications for an SRS because of the fact that there is a
double randomization process. This double randomization process occurs first
with the numbering of the cells in which each cell is randomly numbered 1-5 for
both the large and small surface area cells. Next the two cells that are selected
for testing (one large and one small) are randomly chosen using the random
integer function on the Tinspire calculator. This process is discussed in further
depth in Appendix (C). The second part of this assumption is that the SRS is off
two distinct independent populations. This is met due to the fact that the large
surface area solar cell (7.5cm x 2.5cm) is a completely different solar cell than
the small surface area solar cell (2.5cm x 2.5cm). As such each of these two
solar cells fall within their own populations, a population of large area cells and a
population of small area cells. Next the 15 trials for each size at each angel of
incidence may be thought of as the sample of the population. There can be an
infinitely many number of large or small area solar cells and as such the 15 used
in testing may be considered a sample of the population. With these explanations
in mind it may be reasonably asserted that the requirement of randomization was
achieved for this experiment
The second step towards proving the validity of the collected data is to
attempt to prove a certain level of normality within the data. A normal distribution
is defined as a function that tells the probability that any real observation will fall
between any two real limits or real numbers, as the curve approaches zero on
either side. This implies that the distribution of the points vary randomly and are
not clustered in groups. There are a number of different ways to test for normality
with the most common being the application of the Central Limit Theorem. The
Central Limit Theorem states that given certain conditions the arithmetic mean of
a certain number of iterates (x bar statistic) of independent variables will be
approximately normal regardless of underlying distribution if the sample is large
enough. This sample number is generally accepted to be 30 or higher.
Unfortunately the data collected does not meet the qualifications for the Central
Limit Theorem because only 15 data points for each angel were collected.
Consequently secondary methods of assessing normality were utilized such as
examining the dot plots, box plots, and normal probability plots of the data.
The first method of assessing normality will simply be examining the dot
plots of the data. By analyzing the dot plots of the data distinct and underlying
patterns within the data sets may be found and inspected with thorough scrutiny.
Figure 23. Dot Plot of Voltage Values Acquired for Large Surface Area Solar
Cells
Figure 23 displays the voltage values acquired during experimentation for
the large surface area solar cells. As shown each of the three angles of
incidences are plotted against each other in order to assess the data collectively.
The data is relatively evenly distributed along the x-axis for each angle with slight
clustering around the y-axis. This lack of clustering and overall even diffusion of
data points is a key indicator that the data collected is relatively normal.
Figure 24. Dot Plot of Voltage Values for Small Surface Area Solar Cells
Figure 24 displays the dot plot for the collected voltage values for small
surface area solar cells. As shown above each of the three angles on incidence
and their corresponding values have been plotted against each other. The data
displays a large clustering effect close to the y-axis (an x value of 0) this in turn
means that the majority of the voltage values collected were relatively small and
many of the larger values may potentially be considered outliers.
The second method utilized to determine normality was a normal
probability plot. A normal probability plot is a graphical technique to identify
substantive departures from normality. The plot works by taking the sorted data
and plotting it against their corresponding z values in turn making the resulting
image look like a straight line if the data is normally distributed. Deviations from
the line or non-linear patterns within the plot imply a lack of normality within the
data. As such by applying normal probability plots to the collected data the
normality of the data may be assessed both visually and numerically.
Figure 25. Normal Probability Plot of Large Surface Area Cell at 90 Angle of
Incidence
Figure 25 shows the normal probability plot of the large surface area solar
cells at an angel of incidence of 90. The data follows a mainly linear distribution
throughout the graph implying normality. One area of concern is the far left or
beginning of the graph. The data at this end deviates slightly from a linear
distribution however; the scale of the graph may explain this issue. All of these
far left data points are very low numbers (close to zero volts) and as such on a
scale that reaches too 1.6 volts these data points would tend to be clustered
closely together. Also this trend is not the rule in fact they are simply exceptions
to the average regression of the plot itself and as such it is reasonable to
conclude that the data is normally distributed.
Figure 26. Normal Probability Plot for Large Surface Area Cell at Angle of
Incidence of 75
Figure 26 displays the normal probability plot for the large surface area
solar cells at an angel of incidence of 75. Just like the data in the previous angle
of incidence the majority of the data points fit the normal probability plot
exceptionally well. However the bottom three points again do not take up a linear
pattern. This may be explained again by the range of the graph and also it is not
unfair to assert that the three data points found at the bottom of this plot are the
same solar cells as the bottom three points on the previous plot. This makes
sense because if a nonoperational or dud cell was created it would likely lack
energy production at any angel of incidence.
Figure 27.Normal Probability Plot for Large Surface Area Cell at Angle of
Incidence of 60.
Figure 27 shows the normal probability plot for the large surface area solar
cells at an angel of incidence of 60. Again this data set exhibits the same
characteristics as the previous two probability plots. With this in mind this plot
has the tightest grouping of points although marginally. Again based of the
normal probability plot it is reasonable to conclude that the data is normally
distributed.
Figure 28. Normal Probability Plot for Small Surface Area Cell at Angle of
Incidence of 90
Figure 28 illustrates the Normal Probability Plot for the small surface area
cells at an angel of incidence of 90 . It is clear to see that unlike the large
surface area solar cells the small surface area solar cells exhibit a much less
normal distribution. This is shown in the hooked shape of the majority of the data.
Also unlike the large surface area solar cells the small surface area cells possess
a much higher probability distribution density or they are more tightly packed
together. The scale of the distribution may explain this phenomenon. As
observed the probability plot reaches 2.4 units along the x axis which is about .8
units larger then the distributions of the large surface area cells. This is due to
the outlier at point 2.23 along x-axis. This was the largest recorded data point for
the whole project, which was peculiar in relation to the other small area surface
cells. This large outlier in turn exaggerates the actual range of the probability
distribution and as such points that would often exhibit a normal distribution
cluster together because of their relatively miniscule value in comparison to the
outlier. Although this explanation does not completely defend the abnormality of
the data it offers some explanation as to why the distribution exhibits this pattern.
Figure 29.Normal Probability Plot for Small Surface Area Cell at Angle of
Incidence of 75
Figure 29 displays the Normal Probability Plot for the small surface area
cells at an angel of incidence of 75. Just as the previous Normal probability
distribution an abnormal pattern is shown within the data. As well as with the
previous plot the outlier points within the distribution also cause this abnormality
and as such the data may still be credible after further analysis.
Figure 30.Normal Probability Plot for Small Surface Area Cell at Angle of
Incidence of 60
Figure 30 shows the Normal Probability Plot for the small surface area
cells at an angel of incidence of 60. This Probability plot also displays the
aforementioned abnormality within the data. However it may be dually noted data
in this particular distribution exhibits slightly more spread as evident is the top of
the curved tail. This decrease in density helps to improve statistical reliability as
the data begins to take on a more normal shape albeit a very small improvement.
The standard probability plots shown above have helped to prove the
normality of the large surface area solar cells however, complications are still
present within the small surface area solar cells. These complications may be
attributed to the outliers found within the data. As such a second round of
probability plots will be constructed that omit the outliers to test the normality of
the remaining data.
Figure 31. Revised Normal Probability Plot for Small Surface Area Cells at Angle
of Incidence of 90
Figure 31 shows the revised Normal Probability Plot for the small surface
area solar cells at an angle of incidence of 90. This probability plot contains 12
data points instead of the original 15. This is because three points that were
considered outliers were removed for the purpose of further analysis. As shown
the graph still exhibits moderately abnormal behavior with a large cluster of
points at the beginning. However the very first few data points and upper
percentage of data points have acquired a far more normal distribution. The
large cluster in the middle may be explained by a clump of many inefficient cells.
Due to the fact that the small surface area pieces of indium tin oxide glass were
much older and far more deteriorated then the large surface area pieces of glass
there was a higher likelihood for Dud cells or highly ineffective cells. This in turn
would lead to many dud trials that would make the data skew slightly towards
the left or zero end of the spectrum. Although the omission of the outliers is not a
perfect fix it helped to demonstrate that there was some normality within the data.
of Incidence of 75
Figure 32 displays the revised Normal Probability Plot for the small
surface area solar cells at an angle of incidence of 75 . Again similar to the
above data set the three largest outliers were removed for the construction of this
plot. This Normal Probability distribution is by far the most abnormal of the
revised Probability distributions. The removal of the outliers had a small but
rather insignificant effect on the normality of the data. The same lurking variable
of wear and tear that tormented the previous data sets for the small cells was
also at play here. This is because these solar cells would have undoubtedly been
constructed using the same pieces of indium tin oxide glass as the other data
sets. With this in mind the abnormality of this data will have to be noted when
conducting the inferential analysis and it may play a role in any conclusions
formed based off this data.
of Incidence of 60
Figure 33 illustrates the revised Normal Probability Plot for the small
surface area solar cells at an angle of incidence of 60 . Very similar to the data
sets of the previous small solar cells this data set is also relatively abnormal.
Although not as abnormal as the 75 angle, this data set did not benefit nearly
as much from the removal of the outliers as the 90 data set. With that being
said this does not completely eliminate this data from future statistical analysis.
However any results derived from this data will have to be closely scrutinized due
to the lack of normality.
The third method of analyzing the normality of a data set through the
application of descriptive statistics that was utilized was the construction of box
plots. A box plot is instrumental in assessing key quantitative characteristics
because it allows for the analysis of the inner quartile range of the data set as
well as the median of the data set and the minimum and maximums. All of these
characteristics are crucial in describing a sample because they help other
researchers get a sense of just what type of numbers the experiment yielded.
The inner quartile range is useful because it allows for the analysis of the spread
of the data. A large Inner quartile range (IQR) shows high variability between
trials and a lack of constancy within the data. The median is important in
statistical analysis because it is an unbiased estimator. This means that median
is not heavily by abnormally large or small outliers. This in turn makes the
median very useful when dealing with data that is not 100 percent normal (pretty
much all data). Finally the sample maximum and sample minimums are important
because they may highlight possible best-case scenario yields or highlight areas
of a breakdown of the scientific method.
Figure 34.Box Plot of Large Surface Area Solar Cells.

Figure 34 shows the box plot of the data collected from the large surface
area trials at all three angles of incidences. As shown by the top box plot (90
angle of incidence) the data has a range of roughly 1.6 units along the x-axis.
The box plot also highlights the fact that the data is slightly skewed to the right.
This in turn means that the majority of the data points are less then the sample
mean or that the median is on the lower end of the range for the data. This data
is not horribly skewed however and with any real world results there is bound to
be slight variations from what is considered to be a completely normal or nonskewed distribution. The box plot also displays the inner quartile range. As
shown in the box plot the IQR is relatively compact thus showing that there was
not a tremendous amount of variability in the trials. The five number summary for
the box plot above is Median = .75 volts, Minimum = 0 volts, Q1 = .4936 volts, Q3
= 1.21 volts maximum = 1.61 volts. By subtracting the Q1 value from the Q3
value the IQR of .7164 may be calculated. All of these numbers presented within
this five number summary are simply means of quantitatively expressing the prior
observations on the box plot above.
The second box plot displays the box plot of the data collected when the
large solar cells were placed at an angel of incidence of 75 . Just as the
previous box plot this box plot has a range of roughly 1.6 units along the x-axis. It
also displays very similar characteristics of slight right skew and relatively
compact IQR. The five number summary for this box plot is Median = .76 volts,
Minimum = 0 volts, Q1 = .5 volts, Q3 = 1.21 volts maximum = 1.61 volts. As
shown this box plot of a 75 angle of incidence has a slightly higher median and
a slightly higher Q1. This is then related to a slightly lower IQR of .71 volts.
The bottom plot shows the box plot of the data collected when the large
solar cells were placed at an angel of incidence of 60 . This boxplot exhibits
many of the same characteristics of the other box plots of large surface area
cells. However this box plot exhibits the most right skew as well as posses the
smallest median at .73 volts. This is still relatively insignificant and may be
explained by simple variation between trials. All of these factors show that this
data set as well as the other two previous data sets contains relatively normal
data and as such they may be utilized in further statistical analysis. The five
number summary for this particular box plot is Median = .73 volts, Minimum = 0
volts, Q1 = .48 volts, Q3 = 1.2 volts maximum = 1.56 volts. The calculated IQR
is .72 volts.
When compared collectively it may be observed that the box plots have a
large range of overlap and have incredibly similar IQRs medians and maximums
and minimums. This in turn may question the effect that angle of incidence has
on overall cell efficiency.
Figure 35. Box Plot of the Small Surface Area Solar Cells
Figure 35 shows the box plot for the small surface area solar cells at an
angle of incidence of 90. As shown in this box plots the data possess three
outliers with one relatively extreme outlier at 2.26 volts. These outliers have
disrupted the range of the box plot and granted it a range far greater then
appropriate. Also the box plot illustrates the easily visible right skew that was
observed within the normal probability plot. As stated earlier this skew may be
explained by multiple dud solar cells. However the normality of this data may be
questioned and as such the outliers will have to be removed in order gain a
deeper understanding of this data. The five number summary for this box plot is
Median = .05 volts, Minimum = 0 volts, Q1 = .03 volts, Q3 = .33 volts maximum =
2.26 volts. The calculated IQR for this sample is .3 volts. This is a very compact
IQR and in most cases would be considered positive however given the
circumstances that have lead to the development of this low IQR it is merely
neutral.
The middle plot displays the data collected for the small surface area solar
cells at an angle of incidence of 75. As shown the data has a severe right skew
as well as possessing three outliers. Similar to the previous box plot this set of
datas skew and relative tight IQR may be explained by the outliers to the far right
as well as the abundance of solar cells that failed to generate electricity. The five
number summary for this box plot is Median = .04 volts, minimum = 0 volts, Q1
= .03 volts, Q3 = .33 volts, maximum = 2.26 volts. An IQR of .3 was calculated,
the outliers and high concentration of failed trials might again explain this small
IQR in comparison to the range.
The bottom plot represents the data collected for the small surface area
solar cells at an angle of incidence of 60. The five number summary for this data
set is Median = .03 volts, minimum = 0 volts, Q1 = .03 volts, Q3 = .32 volts,
maximum = 1.57 volts.
This data set also posses the smallest IQR of .29
Due to the continuous trend of abnormalities within the box plots of the
small surface area solar cells the refined data set was again utilized.
Figure 36. Refined Box Plots for Small Surface Area Solar Cells
Figure 36 juxtaposes the three revised box plots of data for the small
surface area solar cells. It is clear that the 90 angle of incidence trials had the
largest IQR as well as the largest median value. Furthermore this larger median
and IQR leads to points that are considered outliers for the smaller angles of
incidences to simply become part of the upper limit of the data set instead of
being a statistical abnormality. By removing the three main outliers from the data
set the 90 trials still display a right skewed distribution however it is not as
severe as before. However a general pattern of shrinking of the IQR and median
is observed in the smaller angles of incidence trials. This phenomenon may be
explained by the degradation of the indium tin oxide layer as time passed due to
general wear and tear. As these cells received less light at the lower angles of
incidence the flaws within the indium tin oxide glass layer were amplified and as
such the smaller angles of incidence suffered harsher results due to the
deterioration of this electrode layer.
Through the analysis of the dot plots, normal probability plots, and box
plots it is relatively safe to assert that the data for the large surface area solar
cells is for the most part normal. Although the data for the small surface area
solar cells possess some abnormalities, after removal of outliers as well as
examining the possible causes behind these discrepancies and skewness, the
data was deemed competent for further statistical analysis. However it should be
noted that any results derived from this data set should be carefully scrutinized
and applied with caution due to the abnormality.
The second portion of this statistical analysis will focus on applying a form
of statistical test too the data in the hopes of deriving a more quantitative analysis
to the data. As previously stated the method of inferential statistics that was
utilized for the data was a two-sample t test. A two-sample t test was deemed the
appropriate test for this data for numerous factors. First the two sample t test
allowed for quantifying the probability of achieving results as extreme as the ones
collected during experimentation. Secondly the two- sample t test was utilized
due to the fact that it would allow for quick and easy comparisons between the
different surface areas and angles of incidence. Finally the data fit a two-sample t
test exceptionally well because there was two independent populations whose
sample means were being compared. As such these sample means may then be
utilized to form conjectures about the populations they represent.
The first step in performing a two-sample t test is too form a null and
alternate hypothesis. The alternate hypothesis is the hypothesis expressed in the
problem statement. For this instance that would be that the large surface area
solar cells would have a higher output then the smaller surface area solar cells.
For this instance the null hypothesis would state that there is no statistical
difference in output between the small and large surface area solar cells.
H o : large= small
H a : large small
The mathematical notation above is used to represent the null hypothesis H o and
the alternate hypothesis Ha. As shown the null hypothesis states that the two
population means are equal while the alternative hypothesis states that the large
surface area solar cell population will have a greater mean output.
Figure 37. Results of Two-Sample t test at 90

Figure 37 depicts the calculated results acquired from the two-sample t
test. As shown in the chart the calculated p value was .020386, the sample
standard deviations were .525 and .603, and the sample means were .790 and .
347. the sample means and standard deviations with sub notation one refer to
the large solar cells while the sub notation two refers too the small surface are
solar cells.
To gain a further understanding of how the p value is represented
graphically the p value may be highlighted on a normal distribution.
Figure 38.Graphical Representation of p value for 90 Angleof Incidence.

Figure 38 displays where a p value of .020386 would fall on a normal
distribution. As shown this is in the far right tail probability because the
construction of the test was testing to see if the large surface area solar cells
produced more output not just to show an inequality.
By applying the above information above a three-part conclusion may now
be used to form a statistical conclusion on that acquired data for large surface
area solar cell vs. small surface area solar cell at an angle of incidence of 90.
The constructed three-part conclusion would be as follows. The null
hypothesis that there is no significant difference between large surface area solar
cells and small surface area solar cells at an angle of incidence of 90 was
rejected. The null hypothesis was rejected because the p value of .020386 is
below the alpha level of .05. In turn this means that as surface area increased so
did the overall voltage output of the cell. This means that there is approximately
a 2 percent chance of achieving results as extreme or more extreme than the
ones depicted if the null hypothesis is true.
Finally the two-sample t test was conducted two more times for the angle
of incidence of 75 and 60. The calculated p values were .015784 and .004785
respectively. As such the three part conclusion would be the same for these
angles as the one described for the 90 angle as well. This in turn means that
there is statistically significant evidence to show that surface area is crucial in
determining solar cell output at varying angles of incidence.
Conclusion
The objectives of this experiment were to create an organic solar cell,
improve the overall efficiency of the cell in comparison to other dye sensitized
cells, and to test its efficiency at varying angles of incidence with two different
surface areas. The first twoobjectives were met as the solar cell was successfully
createdand the overall efficiency in terms of voltage of the cell was higher than
similar low budget organic photovoltaics that had been researched. It was
hypothesized that the solar cells with the largest surface area at the greatest
angle of incidence, 90 degrees, would generate the highest mean output of
voltage.
A two-sample t test was used to determine how significant, surface area
was on output at varying angles of incidences as well as the angles effects
themselves. It was determined that surface area does have a significant impact
in determining the mean output of a solar cell. This is derived from the fact that
all three p-values at each angle of incidence were below the alpha level of 0.05,
thus each effect was significant. However, the analysis also shows that the angle
of incidence does not have a statistically significant effect on determining mean
output of a solar cell. This is derived from the fact that the p-values obtained from
the two-sample t test were not below the alpha level of 0.05, as that indicates the
insignificance of the effect. It should be noted, however, that the data did follow a
trend of mean output generally decreasing as angle decreased, so the
manipulation of angle may still be significant with more data points. However, this
difference between outputs by angle was relatively small and was not significant.
With a larger sample size, this effect could turn out to be significant.Although the
angle of incidence should have been significant, in overall mean output it was
not.
The results of creating this dye-sensitized solar cell are significant in the
science world because they illustrate the concept that an organic photovoltaic
that is both cheap and relatively efficient may be created. The research also
shows how effective the chlorophyll molecule may be in processing light energy,
although a different dye was not used to compare to so it is not clear yet. The
researchers primary hypothesis that chlorophyll may be utilized to create an
organic photovoltaic must consequently be considered accurate. Chlorophyll is
an obvious choice for photovoltaic research because of its light conversion
properties. In plants, chlorophyll is the primary molecule that utilizes
electromagnetic radiation from the sun in the form of light to generate energy. It
does this through multiple reduction reactions that move electrons throughout the
grana of the plant, thus creating an electrical gradient that is used to synthesize
ATP. Further supporting chlorophylls ability to convert light energy is the
photosystem one proteins that are found within the chlorophyll and chloroplast of
light. These proteins are a crucial fixation and conversion point within the
electron transport chain and it has been observed to operate near 100 percent
efficiency. This means that almost all of the energy that enters this protein is
converted to a usable form, with very little to no energy lost to the surroundings.
These scientific concepts support the researchers hypothesis that the utilization
of extracted chlorophyll would be able to create a relatively efficient solar cell
because of the fact that the numerous light conversions of chlorophyll would work
in conjunction with the electron fixation and reduction process that govern a dye
sensitized photovoltaic. The hypothesis was also correct in that the greatest
surface area of chlorophyll solar cell would produce the greatest voltage. This is
due to the fact that with more surface area, there is more chlorophyll, thus more
electrons and more space for the electrons to transport thus creating a more
powerful solar cell. Along with surface area, the data failed to justify the
researchers hypothesis that the greatest angle of incidence, 90 degrees, would
produce the greatest voltage. However, there was a general trend noted that as
the angle of incidence decreased, the overall voltage output of the cells
decreased. This concurred with scientific knowledge. The lack of a significant
change in voltage between each angle of incidence may be affected by the size
of the solar cell, since the cells may not have been large enough to create a
difference in voltage that was statistically significant. This may also be
attributable to the ceiling limit of output of the cell, considering that the cell was
only able to produce so much voltage given the amount of surface area it
employs. Essentially, if the cell was larger it may be more powerful, and a greater
difference in voltage could be noticed at each angle of incidence, thus making
the effect significant.
The data collected supports the utilization of chlorophyll as a serious
contender in future photovoltaic research. Many other experiments have been
conducted highlighting chlorophylls effectiveness such as the experiment
conducted at Vanderbilt University where photosystem 1 proteins were isolated
and utilized in a hybrid cell to produce astounding efficiency rates.
Although there are already some chlorophyll solar cells being built at
leading universities and research laboratories, the solar cell used in this
experiment is unique in its structure. Structural techniques were pulled from
multiple examples of solar cells in order to create what was believed to be the
most practical and effective solar cell possible in the given amount of time for
experimentation. With solar cells being a relatively new invention, scientists are
learning more and more every day about how they can be improved. Through
this experiment and its analysis, the data is helping to further the knowledge
base on a growing invention in chlorophyll-based solar cells.
With any experimental process, there are bound to be mistakes and errors
that the experimenters can and will run into. For the given amount of time, the
experimentation was smooth. Although the voltmeter proved to be a bit unreliable
at times, with the reading increasing and decreasing slightly for some time,
although the voltages could still be recorded at a precision of 0.01 volts. Also,
since each solar cell was not exactly like the next, it was not certain that each
solar cell would produce a relatively productive amount of voltage. However, the
solar cells were created with the idea that they would have relatively consistent
output throughout. After running through multiple forms of descriptive statistics,
the conclusion was made that the data was normal, thus further analysis could
be conducted in the form of a two sample t test.
In further experimentation, it would enlighten the scientific community to
extrapolate or interpolate on these results. For instance, a larger solar cell, such
as a 10 cm by 10 cm, or a smaller solar cell, 0.5 cm by 0.5 cm, could be created.
Also, the production of voltage at angles in between 90 and 60 degrees or at less
than 60 degrees could be analyzed. They could also be tested outside and
measure their output as the sun moves and how the seasonal change affects
output. With these results, the effect of surface area and angle and how
significant they truly are to the productivity of the solar cell could be studied. In
addition, the ethyl alcohol used to extract the chlorophyll may have been slightly
detrimental to the cells. By using a form of liquid nitrogen in order to extract the
chlorophyll, it would be possible to flash freeze the chlorophyll without damaging
the cells. The electrolyte solution may have also aided in the damaging of the
cells, so a cleaner substance to help replenish the electron transport in further
research would be advised. The longevity of the cell could be analyzed at
different controlled temperatures, also. Another major difference in future
research would have to be using new sheets of indium tin oxide for each trial,
instead of reusing the same glass for every five trials. It would also be beneficial
to have more time to build as many cells as possibly needed, while also being
able to take more time and build a more precise solar cell. This solar cell could
even be placed into a circuit and see if it has the ability to power something like a
light bulb and how long it is able to do so, serving as a real world application.
With this data, engineers will be able to improve their current chlorophyllbased solar cells and how they can be built as efficiently and cost-effectively as
possible. Even more, the scientific community should be closer to creating a
greener and cleaner world. After all, that is the overall objective of inventing such
a thing. Silicon-based solar cells were built in order to create a renewable energy
source. Thus, chlorophyll-based solar cells were created in order to create a
green and renewable energy source that also may be more powerful once its
greatest possible efficiency is achieved.
Appendix A: Randomizing Trials
1.
Using the Ti-Nspire calculator, open a calculator page and press

the menu button.
2.
Select the Probability option.
3.
Choose the Random option.
4.
Select the Integer Option.
5.
Enter the number 1 followed by a comma on the keypad on the

calculator. Then enter the number 5.
6.
Determine mentally which solar cell represents which number (i.e.

the first solar cell constructed is 1 and the second solar cell
constructed is 2, so on and so forth).
7.
Hit enter to randomly choose a number.
8.
Repeat step 7 for the desired amount of trials.
Appendix B: Constructing the Angle-Adjustable Platform
Materials:
4x 1 Board (3)
1 x 4 Lateral Support (2)
1 meter piston tube at diameter
Pipe Clamp (2)
Tube Supports (4)
meter guide tube at diameter.
Drill
Hammer
Screwdriver
4 x 1 Boards
meter guide
tube at
diameter.
1 x 4 Lateral
Supports
Pipe
Clamp
Tube Supports
Figure 39. Materials Used in Construction

Figure 39 shows the materials required for the construction of the
platform. As shown in the picture 3-4x1 foot long boards were needed,
various pieces of wood, and numerous tools.
1. Take one of the 4x1 boards and drill support beams on its underside that
run the length of the board on both sides and are an inch in width.
1 Inch Wide
Support Beam
1 Inch Wide
Support Beam
Figure 40. Construction of

1 Inch Wide
Support Beam
Supports
Figure 40 shows the
wooden supports that run down
the underside of the 4x1 board.
In order to attach these simply
place them under the board and
mate them with the board using
screws to hold them in place, 46 screws per support down the
length of the board should be
sufficient.
2. Attach the flat screws into the sides of the supports on the 4x1 board.
Wood
Screw
Figure 41.Flat Screw Drilled into Support

Figure 41 shows the flat screws that are put in both sides of the wooden
board. It is crucial that washers be placed at the end of these screws in order to
reduce friction and allow the board to rotate smoothly as these screws are what
allow the board to pivot from the base in turn adjusting the angle.
3. In order for the base to be constructed two one foot long lateral supports
must be made. These may be constructed by simply cutting one foot long
pieces of wood from any larger source of wood, however do not use the
two remaining 4x1 boards.
1 x 4 Lateral
Support
Figure 42. Lateral Support Attached to Outside Base

Figure 42 shows one of the two lateral supports. As shown in the picture
the lateral support has been connected to one of the 4x1 boards and the other
end will soon be attached to the last remaining 4x1 board to create the base of
the kicker.
4. In order to construct the base take the two lateral supports and use them
to join the two reaming 4x1 boards together and mate them with screws.
4 x 1 Board
1 x 4 Lateral
Support
Figure 43. Construction of the Base

Figure 43 shows the two 4x1 boards being joined together with the lateral
supports. As shown in the picture a screw is place on the outside of the 4x1
board and then drilled through the 4x1 board into the lateral support, two screws
will be sufficient in holding one side together. This process is then repeated on
the opposite side to insure the base is sturdy and eliminate any unwanted
movement in the system. This brings the total two 4 screws for each lateral
support or 8 screws total to hold the base together.
5. Mount the front board to the base and attach the wing nuts. Note that in
order for this step to move as smoothly as possible it is crucial to find the
center of the 4x1 board in terms of length (2 feet from one end). Once this
is done for each 4x1 board mark them and pre-drill the hole through which
the flat screw will enter into the 4x1 board.
4 x 1
Rotating
Front Board
Wing Nut
4 x 1 Board
Figure 44. Mounting of the Front Board to the Base

Figure 44 shows the mounting of the front board to the base. As shown in
picture board is held in place using a wing nut and washer that is attached to the
flat screw. It is however important to note that a washer must be placed behind
the wing nut to reduce friction and maintain the integrity of the design.
Figure 45. Fully Constructed Base with Mounted Front Board

Figure 45 shows the base fully constructed base with the front board
mounted. The view in this picture is of a birds eye view and the front board is
lying flat on the base at a zero degree angle.
Angle has been
adjusted
Figure 46. Demonstration of Front Board Angle Adjustment

Figure 46 shows how the front board may move freely on the base by
rotating off the flat screw and wing nut. If the design can not do this, disassemble
the base and try to realign the components so that they are centered and be sure
to place washers at both sides of the flat screw.
6. Attach the front mount onto the front board. This piece acts as a booster
and is where the guide tube will be mounted. To construct the front mount
cut a block that is 8.5 inches in length and 3 inches in width. Next cut out
the corners one the top of the block. The piece of wood that is removed
should remove about 2 inches of the width and an inch and a half of the
length.
Front Mount
Figure 47. Attached Front Mount

Figure 47 shows the constructed front mount attached to the front board.
This mount should be placed about 11-14 inches back from the front of the
board.
Appendix C: Two Sample t -test Sample Equation
Once an alternate and null hypothesis has been formed the next step is to
insert all relative information into the formula for a two-sample t test.
t =
x 1x 2
s 12 s 22
+
n1 n2
In the equation depicted above
is the sample mean with the sub
notation 1 and 2 referring to the different samples in this case large surface area
solar cells and small surface area solar cells. Next s is used to represent the
sample standard deviation with sub notation for 1 and 2 referring too the different
samples. Finally n represents the sample size or number of trials conducted.
After inputting the results of the experiment the equation will yield a T value,
which can be compared to a bell curve to derive a p value. This p value is then
compared to an alpha level to describe the likelihood of achieving results
comparable to the ones used in the equation based off the assumption that the
null hypothesis is true.
t cone vs . face =
x cone x face
s cone2 s face2
+
ncone n face
0.5249892 0.6029292
+
15
15
(0.789840.346667)
t=
t=2.14695
Figure 48. Two Sample ttest Sample Calculation
Figure 48 is a sample problem of how the t value was found for each
angle comparing the larger surface area against the smaller surface area. The
tvalue obtained was -62.415132. This t-value is the number of standard
deviations away from the mean, and this value is quite a high value. The p-value
in this casewas found to be 0.020386.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Mrs. Hilliard for all of her help in the experimental
design, providing lab materials, and explaining many of the scientific concepts at
work throughout the project. In addition, we would like to thank Mrs. Cybulski for
aiding in the formatting and writing the paper itself along with many of the
statistical methods used in analyzing the data. We would also like to thank Dr.
Kane Jennings for all of his expertise that he provided on the subject of
chlorophyll solar cells and their efficiency. We want to acknowledge our parents
for buying some of the materials that were used in experimentation. Finally, we
would like to thank Mrs. Tallman for revising the analysis of our data.
Works Cited
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Nebraska, n.d. Web. 4 Dec. 2014.
<http://dwb4.unl.edu/Chem/CHEM869M/CHEM869MLinks/www.solideas.c
om/solrcell/english.html>.
Choi, Dongchul. "Characteristics of Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) Nanoparticles
Recovered by Lift-off Method from TFT-LCD Panel Scraps."Materials
7 (2014): 7662-7669. Web. 4 Dec. 2014.
Diwan, Joyce J. "Photosynthesis." Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute, n.d. Web. 4 Dec. 2014.
<http://homepages.rpi.edu/~bellos/photosynthesis.htm>.
"Dye-sensitized Solar cell (DSSC) - MSE 5317."Welcome - MSE 5317. WikiDot,
n.d. Web. 4 Dec. 2014. <http://electrons.wikidot.com/dye-sensitized-solarcell>.
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<http://www.homofaciens.de/technics-semiconductordiode_en_navion.htm>.
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The Effect of Surface Area and Angle of Incidence on Output of Chlorophyll Solar

Figure 1. P and N type Layer Diagram (Brooks)

Figure 2. General Composition of a Dye-Sensitized Photovoltaic (Brooks)

Figure 3. Layering of Indum Tin Oxide (Choi)

Figure 5. Model Electrolye Solution (HomoFaciens)

Figure 6. Atomic Structure of Chlorophyll (Chemical of the Week Chlorophyll)

In this step, photon radiation is utilized to split the 2H 2O molecule into O2

Figure 7. Chlorophyll Extraction

Figure 8. Solar Cell Construction Materials

Figure 9. Experimental Set-up

Data and Observations

Figure 10.Chlorophyll Extraction

Figure 11 is a picture of the spinachs chlorophyll after extracting it from

Figure 12. Indium Tin Oxide Sheets

Figure 13. Titanium Dioxide Substance

Figure 13 displays the titanium dioxide substance that was to be placed on

Figure 14. Indium Tin Oxide Sheet Preparation

Figure 15. Titanium Dioxide Application

Figure 16. Finished Titanium Dioxide

Figure 17. Carbon Soot Layer

Figure 18. Baking Indium Tin Oxide Sheets

Figure 19. Chlorophyll Application

Figure 20. Electrolyte Solution

Figure 21. Solar Cell

Lamp and light

Chair to elevate light

Connecting clamps and

Figure 34.Box Plot of Large Surface Area Solar Cells.

Figure 37. Results of Two-Sample t test at 90

Figure 38.Graphical Representation of p value for 90 Angleof Incidence.

Using the Ti-Nspire calculator, open a calculator page and press

Select the Probability option.

Choose the Random option.

Select the Integer Option.

Enter the number 1 followed by a comma on the keypad on the

Determine mentally which solar cell represents which number (i.e.

Hit enter to randomly choose a number.

Repeat step 7 for the desired amount of trials.

Figure 39. Materials Used in Construction

Figure 40. Construction of

Figure 41.Flat Screw Drilled into Support

Figure 42. Lateral Support Attached to Outside Base

Figure 43. Construction of the Base

Figure 44. Mounting of the Front Board to the Base

Figure 45. Fully Constructed Base with Mounted Front Board

Figure 46. Demonstration of Front Board Angle Adjustment

Figure 47. Attached Front Mount

In the equation depicted above

is the sample mean with the sub

Jennings, Kane, Dr. "Professional Contact." E-mail interview. 3 Dec. 2014.

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