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Marcel - Dekker.protective - Relaying.theory - And.applications.2nd - Ebook TLFeBOOK
Marcel - Dekker.protective - Relaying.theory - And.applications.2nd - Ebook TLFeBOOK
Marcel - Dekker.protective - Relaying.theory - And.applications.2nd - Ebook TLFeBOOK
Continuous change in protective relaying has been caused by two different inuences. One is the fact that the
requirements imposed by power systems are in a constant state of change, and our understanding of the basic
concepts has sharpened considerably over the years. The other is that the means of implementing the fundamental
concepts of fault location and removal and system restoration are constantly growing more sophisticated.
It is primarily because of these changing constraints that this text has been revised and expanded. It began with
contributions from two giants of the industry, J. Lewis Blackburn and George D. Rockefeller. From the nucleus of
their extensive analyses and writings, and the desire to cover each new contingency with new relaying concepts, this
volume has evolved. New solutions to age-old problems have become apparent as greater experience has been
gained. No problem is without benet in the solution found.
This new edition weeds out those relaying concepts that have run their course and have been replaced by more
perceptive methods of implementation using new solid-state or microprocessor-based devices.
No single technological breakthrough has been more inuential in generating change than the microprocessor.
Initially, the methods of translating a collection of instantaneous samples of sine waves into useful current,
direction, and impedance measurements were not obvious. Diligent analysis and extensive testing allowed these
useful functions to be obtained and to be applied to the desired protective functions. This text attempts to describe,
in the simplest possible terms, the manner in which these digital measurements are accomplished in present-day
devices.
In addition to those already mentioned, huge contributions were made in the development and renement of the
concepts described in this book by Hung Jen Li, Walter Hinman, Roger Ray, James Crockett, Herb Lensner, Al
Regotti, Fernando Calero, Eric Udren, James Greene, Liancheng Wang, Elmo Price, Solveig Ward, John
McGowan, and Cliff Downs. Some of these names may not be immediately recognizable, but all have made an
impact with their thoughtful, accurate, well-reasoned writings, and they all deserve the gratitude of the industry for
the wealth of knowledge they have contributed to this book. I am keenly aware of the high quality of the technical
offerings of these people, and I am particularly grateful for the warmth and depth of their friendship.
Walter A. Elmore
iii
Contents
Preface
iii
1 Introduction
2 Classication of Relays
2.1
Analog/Digital/Numerical
3 Protective Relaying Systems and Their Design
3.1
Design Criteria
3.2
Factors Inuencing Relay Performance
3.3
Zones of Protection
4 Applying Protective Relays
4.1
System Conguration
4.2
Existing System Protection and Procedures
4.3
Degree of Protection Required
4.4
Fault Study
4.5
Maximum Loads, Transformer Data, and Impedances
5 Relays and Application Data
5.1
Switchboard Relays
5.2
Rack-Mounted Relays
6 Circuit-Breaker Control
7 Comparison of Symbols
2 Technical Tools of the Relay Engineer: Phasors, Polarity, and Symmetrical Components
Revised by W. A. Elmore
1 Introduction
2 Phasors
2.1
Circuit Diagram Notation for Current and Flux
2.2
Circuit Diagram Notation for Voltage
1
1
2
2
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
7
8
9
11
11
11
11
12
vi
Contents
2.3
Phasor Notation
2.4
Phasor Diagram Notation
2.5
Phase Rotation vs. Phasor Rotation
Polarity in Relay Circuits
3.1
Polarity of Transformers
3.2
Polarity of Protective Relays
3.3
Characteristics of Directional Relays
3.4
Connections of Directional Units to Three-Phase Power Systems
Faults on Power Systems
4.1
Fault Types and Causes
4.2
Characteristics of Faults
Symmetrical Components
5.1
Basic Concepts
5.2
System Neutral
5.3
Sequences in a Three-Phase Power System
5.4
Sequence Impedances
5.5
Sequence Networks
5.6
Sequence Network Connections and Voltages
5.7
Network Connections for Fault and General Unbalances
5.8
Sequence Network Reduction
5.9
Example of Fault Calculation on a Loop-Type Power System
5.10 Phase Shifts Through Transformer Banks
5.11 Fault Evaluations
Symmetrical Components and Relaying
12
13
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15
15
15
16
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18
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Contents
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viii
Contents
Introduction
Sampling Problems
Aliasing
How to Overcome Aliasing
4.1
Antialiasing Filters
4.2
Nonsynchronous Sampling
5 Choice of Measurement Principle
5.1
rms Calculation
5.2
Digital Filters
5.3
Fourier-Notch Filter
5.4
Another Digital Filter
5.5
dc Offset Compensation
5.6
Symmetrical Component Filter
5.7
Leading-Phase Identication
5.8
Fault Detectors
6 Self-Testing
6.1
Dead-Man Timer
6.2
Analog Test
6.3
Check-Sum
6.4
RAM Test
6.5
Nonvolatile Memory Test
7 Conclusions
95
95
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Contents
ix
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Contents
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Phase-Fault Protection
Ground-Fault Protection
Locked-Rotor Protection
Overload Protection
Thermal Relays
6.1
RTD-Input-Type Relays
6.2
Thermal Replica Relays
Low-Voltage Protection
Phase-Rotation Protection
Negative Sequence Voltage Protection
Phase-Unbalance Protection
Negative Sequence Current Relays
Jam Protection
Load Loss Protection
Out-of-Step Protection
Loss of Excitation
Typical Application Combinations
147
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Contents
10.5
10.6
xi
11 Station-Bus Protection
Revised by Solveig Ward
1 Introduction
1.1
Current Transformer Saturation Problem and Its Solutions on Bus Protection
1.2
Information Required for the Preparation of a Bus Protective Scheme
1.3
Normal Practices on Bus Protection
2 Bus Differential Relaying with Overcurrent Relays
2.1
Overcurrent Differential Protection
2.2
Improved Overcurrent Differential Protection
3 Multirestraint Differential System
4 High Impedance Differential System
4.1
Factors that Relate to the Relay Setting
4.2
Factors that Relate to the High-Voltage Problem
4.3
Setting Example for the KAB Bus Protection
5 Differential Comparator Relays
6 Protecting a Bus that Includes a Transformer Bank
7 Protecting a Double-Bus Single-Breaker with Bus Tie Arrangement
8 Other Bus Protective Schemes
8.1
Partial Differential Relaying
8.2
Directional Comparison Relaying
8.3
Fault Bus (Ground-Fault Protection Only)
12 Line and Circuit Protection
Revised by Elmo Price
1 Introduction
1.1
Classication of Electric Power Lines
1.2
Techniques for Line Protection
1.3
Seleting a Protective System
1.4
Relays for Phase- and Ground-Fault Protection
1.5
Multiterminal and Tapped Lines and Weak Feed
2 Overcurrent Phase- and Ground-Fault Protection
2.1
Fault Detection
2.2
Time Overcurrent Protection
2.3
Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection
2.4
Overcurrent Ground-Fault Protection
3 Directional Overcurrent Phase- and Ground-Fault Protection
3.1
Criteria for Phase Directional Overcurrent Relay Applications
3.2
Criteria for Ground Directional Overcurrent Relay Applications
3.3
Directional Ground-Relay Polarization
3.4
Mutual Induction and Ground-Relay Directional Sensing
3.5
Applications of Negative Sequence Directional Units for Ground Relays
3.6
Selection of Directional Overcurrent Phase and Ground Relays
4 Distance Phase and Ground Protection
4.1
Fundamentals of Distance Relaying
4.2
Phase-Distance Relays
4.3
Ground-Distance Relays
4.4
Effect of Line Length
4.5
The Infeed Effect on Distance-Relay Application
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260
xii
Contents
4.6
The Outfeed Effect on Distance-Relay Applications
4.7
Effect of Tapped Transformer Bank on Relay Application
4.8
Distance Relays with Transformer Banks at the Terminal
4.9
Fault Resistance and Ground-Distance Relays
4.10 Zero Sequence Mutual Impedance and Ground-Distance Relays
5 Loop-System Protection
5.1
Single-Source Loop-Circuit Protection
5.2
Multiple-Source Loop Protection
6 Short-Line Protection
6.1
Denition of Short Line
6.2
Problem Associated with Short-Line Protection
6.3
Current-Only Scheme for Short-Line Protection
6.4
Distance Relay for Short-Line Protection
7 Series-Capacitor Compensated-Line Protection
7.1
A Series-Capacitor Compensated Line
7.2
Relaying Quantities Under Fault Conditions
7.3
Distance Protection Behavior
7.4
Practical Considerations
8 Distribution Feeder Protection
8.1
Relay Coordination with Reclosers and Sectionalizers on a Feeder
8.2
Coordinating with Low-Voltage Breaker and Fuse
Appendix A: Equation (12-2)
Appendix B: Impedance Unit Characteristics
B.1 Introduction
B.2 Basic Application Example of a Phase Comparator
B.3 Basic Application Example of a Magnitude Comparator
B.4 Practical Comparator Applications in Distance Relaying
B.5 Reverse Characteristics of an Impedance Unit
B.6 Response of Distance Units to Different Types of Faults
B.7 The Inuence of Current Distribution Factors and Load Flow
B.8 Derived Characteristics
B.9 Apparent Impedance
B.10 Summary
Appendix C: Infeed Effect on Ground-Distance Relays
C.1 Infeed Effect on Type KDXG, LDAR, and MDAR Ground-Distance Relays
C.2 Infeed Effect on Type SDG and LDG Ground-Distance Relays
Appendix D: Coordination in Multiple-Loop Systems
D.1 System Information
D.2 Relay Type Selection
D.3 Relay Setting and Coordination
13 Backup Protection
Revised by E. D. Price
1 Introduction
2 Remote vs. Local Backup
2.1
Remote Backup
2.2
Local Backup and Breaker Failure
2.3
Applications Requiring Remote Backup with Breaker-Failure Protection
3 Breaker-Failure Relaying Applications
3.1
Single-Line/Single-Breaker Buses
3.2
Breaker-and-a-Half and Ring Buses
261
261
262
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270
270
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309
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323
323
323
324
326
327
327
328
Contents
xiii
7
8
10
Introduction
Steady-State Stability
Transient Stability
Relay Quantities During Swings
Effect of Out-of-Step Conditions
5.1 Distance Relays
5.2 Directional Comparison Systems
5.3 Phase-Comparison or Pilot-Wire Systems
5.4 Underreaching Transfer-Trip Schemes
5.5 Circuit Breakers
5.6 Overcurrent Relays
5.7 Reclosing
Out-of-Step Relaying
6.1 Generator Out-of-Step Relaying
6.2 Transmission-Line Out-of-Step Relaying
Philosophies of Out-of-Step Relaying
7.1 Utility Practice
Types of Out-of-Step Schemes
8.1 Concentric Circle Scheme
8.2 Blinder Scheme
Relays for Out-of-Step Systems
9.1
Electromechanical Types
9.2
Solid-State Types
Selection of an Out-of-Step Relay System
15 Voltage Stability
L. Wang
1 Introduction
1.1
Small-Disturbance Instability
1.2
Large-Disturbance Instability
1.3
Voltage Instability Incidents
2 Voltage Instability Indices
2.1
Indices Based on Current Operating Condition
2.2
Indices Based on Stressed System Conditions
2.3
Summary
3 Voltage Instability Protection
3.1
Reactive Power Control
3.2
Load Tap Changer Blocking Schemes
3.3
Load Shedding
329
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343
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357
357
360
362
362
362
362
362
xiv
Contents
Introduction
Rate of Frequency Decline
Load-Shedding
Frequency Relays
4.1
KF Induction-Cylinder Underfrequency Relay
4.2
Digital Frequency Relays
4.3
Microprocessor-Based Frequency Relay
5 Formulating a Load-Shedding Scheme
5.1
Maximum Anticipated Overload
5.2
Number of Load-Shedding Steps
5.3
Size of the Load Shed at Each Step
5.4
Frequency Settings
5.5
Time Delay
5.6
Location of the Frequency Relays
6 Special Considerations for Industrial Systems
365
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368
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381
381
383
384
384
385
385
385
385
386
386
387
388
388
389
Contents
7 Restoring Service
8 Other Frequency Relay Applications
xv
390
391
Bibliography
395
Index
399
1
Introduction and General Philosophies
Revised by: W. A. ELMORE
INTRODUCTION
Regulating relays. Are activated when an operating parameter deviates from predetermined
limits. Regulating relays function through supplementary equipment to restore the quantity to
the prescribed limits.
Auxiliary relays. Operate in response to the opening or closing of the operating circuit to
supplement another relay or device. These
include timers, contact-multiplier relays, sealing
units, isolating relays, lockout relays, closing
relays, and trip relays.
Synchronizing (or synchronism check) relays. Assure that proper conditions exist for interconnecting two sections of a power system.
CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS
Inputs
Current
Voltage
Power
Pressure
Frequency
Temperature
Flow
Vibration
1
Chapter 1
2.1.3
3
Performance Characteristics
Differential
Distance
Directional overcurrent
Inverse time
Denite time
Undervoltage
Overvoltage
Ground or phase
High or low speed
Pilot
Phase comparison
Directional comparison
Current differential
A separate volume, Pilot Protective Relaying, covers
pilot systems (those relaying functions that involve a
communications channel between stations.
2.1 Analog/Digital/Numerical
Solid-state (and static) relays are further categorized
under one of the following designations.
2.1.1
Analog
Digital
Numerical
3.1
Design Criteria
3.1.1
Reliability
System reliability consists of two elements: dependability and security. Dependability is the degree of
certainty of correct operation in response to system
trouble, whereas security is the degree of certainty that
a relay will not operate incorrectly. Unfortunately,
these two aspects of reliability tend to counter one
another; increasing security tends to decrease dependability and vice versa. In general, however, modern
relaying systems are highly reliable and provide a
practical compromise between security and dependability. The continuous supervision made possible by
numerical techniques affords improvement in both
dependability and security. Protective relay systems
must perform correctly under adverse system and
environmental conditions.
Dependability can be checked relatively easily in the
laboratory or during installation by simulated tests or
a staged fault. Security, on the other hand, is much
more difcult to check. A true test of system security
would have to measure response to an almost innite
variety of potential transients and counterfeit trouble
indications in the power system and its environment. A
secure system is usually the result of a good background in design, combined with extensive model
power system or EMTP (electromagnetic transient
program) testing, and can only be conrmed in the
power system itself and its environment.
3.1.2
Speed
Chapter 1
Simplicity
Figure 1-1
4.
5.
Generators
Transformers
Buses
Transformer connections are particularly important. For ground relaying, the location of all ground
sources must also be known.
4.2
4.3
desired. Information on the following associated or
supporting areas is necessary:
System conguration
Existing system protection and any known deciencies
Existing operating procedures and practices and
possible future expansions
Degree of protection required
Fault study
Maximum load and current transformer locations
and ratios
Voltage transformer locations, connections, and
ratios
Impedance of lines, transformers, and generators
4.1
System Conguration
4.4
Fault Study
Chapter 1
Phase rotation
Tripping direction
Current and voltage transformer polarities
Figure 1-4 Typical internal schematic for a switchboardmounted relay. (The circuit shown is for the CR directional
time overcurrent relay of Figure 1-3.)
Figure 1-6 Typical dc schematic for a switchboardmounted relay. (The connections are for three phase type
CR and one CRC ground directional time overcurrent relays
of Figure 1-3 applied to trip a circuit breaker.)
Figure 1-5 Typical ac schematic for a switchboardmounted relay. (The connections are for the CR phase and
CRC ground directional time overcurrent relay of Figure 1-3.)
5.2
Rack-Mounted Relays
Solid-state and microprocessor relays are usually rackmounted (Fig. 1-8). Since these relays involve more
complex and sophisticated circuitry, different levels of
information are required to understand their operation. A block diagram provides understanding of the
basic process. Figure 1-9 is a block diagram for the
MDAR microprocessor relay. Detailed logic diagrams
plus ac and dc schematics are also required for a
complete view of the action to be expected from these
relays.
Chapter 1
Figure 1-9
CIRCUIT-BREAKER CONTROL
9
Table 1-1 Comparison of Symbols
Element
U.S.
practice
European
practice
A,B,C
(preferred)
1, 2, 3
1, 2, 0
RST
1, 2, 0
I
V
I
U
COMPARISON OF SYMBOLS
Component designations
(positive, negative, zero)
Current
Voltage
2
Technical Tools of the Relay Engineer: Phasors, Polarity, and
Symmetrical Components
Revised by: W. A. ELMORE
INTRODUCTION
2.1
PHASORS
12
Chapter 2
2.3
Phasor Notation
Figure 2-3b
13
jcjy ^c
2.3.2
y1 y2
I
jIj
jIjejy2
2.3.3
2-1
2-2
Division Law
2-8
2-9
2 j2y
where
a real value
b imaginary value
jcj modulus or absolute value magnitude
y argument or amplitude relative position
jIj2 ejyy
c a jb
jIj2
then
2-3
2-4
2-11
^c a jb
Some references use c* to represent conjugate.
The absolute value of the phasor is jcj:
p
jcj a2 b2
2-10
2-5
2.4
Multiplication Law
2-6
2-7
or
Figure 2-4 Other reference axes for phasors used in relaying
and power systems.
14
Chapter 2
generally recommended since it often promotes confusion by combining the circuit and phasor diagrams.
Notation for three-phase systems varies considerably in the United States; the phases are labeled a, b, c
or A, B, C or 1, 2, 3. In other countries, the
corresponding phase designation of r, s, t is frequently
used.
The letter designations are preferred and used here to
avoid possible confusion with symmetrical components
notation. A typical three-phase system, with its separate
circuit and phasor diagrams, is shown in Figure 2-7.
The alternative closed-system phasor diagram is shown
in Figure 2-8. With this type of diagram, one tends to
label the three corners of the triangle a, b, and c
thereby combining the circuit and phasor diagrams.
The resulting confusion is apparent when one notes
that, with a at the top corner and b at the lower right
corner, the voltage drop from a to b would indicate the
opposite arrow from that shown on Vab .
However, when it is considered that, always,
Vab Van Vnb , it is evident that Vab Van Vbn .
15
3
3.1
3.2
16
Chapter 2
3.3.2
Figure 2-11
3.3.3
3.4
17
Figure 2-15
18
Chapter 2
Electrical
Thermal
Mechanical
Cause
Design defects or errors
Improper manufacturing
Improper installation
Aging insulation
Contamination
Lightning surges
Switching surges
Dynamic overvoltages
Coolant failure
Overcurrent
Overvoltage
Ambient temperatures
Overcurrent forces
Earthquake
Foreign object impact
Snow or ice
19
Figure 2-16 Directional unit connections (phase a only) for four types of connections plus the ground directional relay
connections.
20
Chapter 2
Fault Angles
In a symmetrical system, where the three capacitances to ground are equal, g equals n. If phase a is
grounded, the triangle shifts as shown in Figure 2-18.
p
Consequently, Vbg and Vcg become approximately 3
times their normal value. In contrast, a ground on one
phase of a solidly grounded radial system will result in
a large phase and ground fault current, but little or no
increase in voltage on the unfaulted phases (Fig. 2-19).
4.2.3
Fault Resistance
System Grounding
System grounding signicantly affects both the magnitude and angle of ground faults. There are three classes
of grounding: ungrounded (isolated neutral), impedance-grounded (resistance or reactance), and effectively grounded (neutral solidly grounded). An
ungrounded system is connected to ground through
the natural shunt capacitance, as illustrated in Figure
2-18 (see also Chap. 7). In addition to load, small
(usually negligible) charging currents ow normally.
21
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Basic Concepts
22
Chapter 2
Negative
sequence
Zero
sequence
Va1 Va1
Va2 Va2
Va0 Va0
Vb1 a2 Va1
Vb2 aVa2
Vb0 Va0
Vc1 aVa1
Vc2 a2 Va2
Vc0 Va0
change in magnitude:
a 1120
0:5 j0:866
a 1240
2
2-13
0:5 j0:866
2-14
a 1360
1:0 j0
3
2-15
2-16
or
p
3210
p
a 1 3150
2-17
p
3 30
p
a2 a 3270
2-18
a2 1
or
1a
or
a a2
2-12
p
390
2-19
2-20
2-21
2-22
2-23
and
Ib a2 I1 aI2 I0
Figure 2-21
Vc aV1 a2 V2 V0
2-24
23
and
Ic aI1 a2 I2 I0
2-25
and
1
Ia1 Ia aIb a2 Ic
3
1
Va2 Vag a2 Vbg aVcg
3
1
V0 Van Vng Vbn Vng Vcn Vng
3
2-26
1
Ia2 Ia a2 Ib aIc
3
1
Va0 Vag Vbg Vcg
3
2-27
and
1
I0 Ia Ib Ic
3
2-28
System Neutral
and
5.2
2-29
5.3
24
Chapter 2
Synchronous Machinery
magnitude 3=x1 x2 x0 greater than the threephase fault current magnitude 1=x1 . Since the
machine is braced for only three-phase fault current
magnitude, it is seldom possible or desirable to ground
the neutral solidly.
The armature winding resistance is small enough to
be neglected in calculating short-circuit currents. This
resistance is, however, important in determining the dc
time constant of an asymmetrical short-circuit current.
Typical reactance values for synchronous machinery are available from the manufacturer or handbooks.
However, actual design values should be used when
available.
5.4.2
Transformers
Impedance
Winding
measured
from
Shorted
winding
Open
winding
ZHM(ZHL)
ZHL(ZHT)
ZML(ZLT)
H
H
M(L)
M(L)
L(T)
L(T)
L(T)
M(L)
H
25
Figure 2-23 Equivalent positive, negative, and zero sequence circuits for some common and theoretical connections for twoand three-winding transformers.
or
1
ZL ZHL ZLT ZHT
2
1
ZL ZHL ZML ZHM
2
1
ZH ZHM ZHL ZML
2
or
1
ZH ZHL ZHT ZLT
2
1
ZM ZHM ZML ZHL
2
or
1
ZT ZHT ZLT ZHL
2
26
Chapter 2
Transmission Lines
Figure 2-24
Sequence Networks
With the system assumed to be balanced or symmetrical to the point of unbalance or fault, the three
sequence components are independent and do not
react with each other. Thus, three network diagrams
are required to separate the three sequence components for individual consideration: one for positive,
one for negative, and one for zero sequence. These
sequence network diagrams consist of one phase to
neutral of the power system, showing all the component parts relevant to the problem under consideration. Typical diagrams are illustrated in Figures 2-24
through 2-26.
The positive sequence network (Fig. 2-24) must
show both the generator voltages and impedances of
the generators, transformers, and lines. Balanced loads
may be shown from any bus to the neutral bus.
Generally, however, balanced loads are neglected.
Compared to the system low-impedance high-angle
quantities, they have a much higher impedance at a
Figure 2-26
27
5.6
very low angle. In short, balanced loads complicate the
calculations and generally do not affect the fault
currents signicantly.
With two exceptions, the negative sequence network
(Fig. 2-25) will be a duplicate of the positive sequence
network: (1) There will be no generator voltages, since
synchronous machines generate a positive sequence
only, and (2) the negative sequence reactance of
synchronous machinery may be different from the
positive, as previously described. For all practical
calculations involving faults or discontinuities remote
from the generating plant, however, X1 is assumed to
be equal to X2 .
The zero sequence network (Fig. 2-26) is quite
different from the other two. First of all, it has no
voltage: Rotating machinery does not produce zero
sequence voltage. Also, the transformer connections
require special consideration and grounding impedances must be included. Figure 2-23 shows the zero
sequence circuits for many transformers.
Figure 2-27
28
Chapter 2
Figure 2-29
Figure 2-28
29
5.8
When manual calculations are performed, the complete system networks are reduced to the single
impedance values of Figures 2-29 through 2-32.
To simplify this reduction, with negligible effect on
the results, the following basic assumptions are sometimes made:
All generated voltages are equal and in phase.
All resistance is neglected, or the reactance of
machines and transformers is added directly
with line impedances.
All shunt reactances are neglected, including loads,
charging, and magnetizing reactances.
All mutual reactances are neglected, except on
parallel lines.
By using these assumptions, the positive sequence
network can be drawn with a single-source voltage Van
connected to the generator impedances by a bus.
If voltages are different, either the voltages must be
retained in the network or Thevenin theorem and
superposition must be used to reduce the network and
calculate fault currents and voltages. Note that for the
series unbalances of Figure 2-34, a difference in
30
Chapter 2
Figure 2-33
per unit current ows in these single-sequence impedances at the fault or point of discontinuity.
Network reduction calculations for the system of
Figure 2-24 are illustrated in Figures 2-36, 2-37, and 238. In these gures, X1, X2, and X0 are the impedances
between the neutral bus and the fault at bus G. I1R, I1L,
I2R, I2L, I0R, I0L are the per unit distribution factors. I1,
I2, and I0 are all assumed to be equal to 1 per unit.
Analog or digital studies should be tailored to
produce outputs that allow each branch current in
Figure 2-34
31
each network to be identied. For single-phase-toground faults, 3I0 is required for relays.
When using the computer for sequence network
reduction, the impedance data are input for the
positive and zero sequence networks, along with bus
and fault node points. The network is then solved for
three-phase and single-phase-to-ground faults. Tabulated printed data are provided for phase-a fault
current and three-phase fault voltages, along with the
corresponding 3I0, 3V0 values for the phase-to-ground
fault. I2 and V2 values should also be obtained for
negative sequence relays.
These voltage and current values are needed for not
only faults near the relay, but also those several buses or
lines away. Among the operating conditions normally
considered are maximum and minimum generation,
selected lines out of service, and line-end faults where the
adjacent breaker is open. This information allows the
32
Chapter 2
Figure 2-35
5.9
33
34
Chapter 2
Zero sequence
network
X1 24628 j10:84
62
Y1 28610 j4:52
62
24610
j3:87
Z1
62
X0 966 j0:72
75
Y0 6660 j4:8
75
9660
Z0
j7:2
75
Zero sequence
network
0:4716 0:5284
44:52649:87
94:39
23:52
0:2594 0:7406
56:86162:2
219:0
42:07
35
Figure 2-42
36
Chapter 2
I1 I2 I0
j1:0
0:4507
2:22 p:u:
The 100% (1 p.u. base) current is
kVA base
IB p
3 kV
100;000
p
36110
524:86 A at 110 kV
I1 I2 I0
2:226524:86
1164:55 A at 110 kV
The current owing in each branch of the networks can
now be determined by multiplying the actual fault current by the distribution factor. These currents may be
expressed in either per unit or ampere values. Currents
in the fault are calculated for each phase as follows:
0:8661 0:3598
0:9379202:56 p:u: 59;564:65 V
or
Ia 3493:66 A110 kV
Ib a I1 aI2 I0
I1 I0 0
2
Ic aI1 a I2 I0
2
j1:0 j0:4101
j0:5899 p:u: 37;463:68 V
I1 I0 0
For each branch, the per unit positive, negative, and
zero sequence currents can then be used to determine
the individual phase currents by using Eqs. (2-23),
(2-24), and (2-25). These are recorded in Figure 2-43.
Next, the sequence and phase voltages at each bus are
determined as in Figure 2-28. It is convenient to calculate
the voltages in per unit values. Note that the impedances
listed in Figure 2-39 appear in percent, rather than
ohms, and may be converted easily to per unit.
In the following calculations, the values in parentheses are volts, converted from the per unit values for
the 110-kV system of Figure 2-39:
Vline-to-neutral 1:0 p:u:
110;000 V
p
3
63;508:53 V
V2 0 1:02536j0:40
j0:4101 p:u: 26;044:85 V
V0 0 1:79866j0:1
Vag
Figure 2-43
37
Current and voltage distribution for a single phase-to-ground fault at bus D of the system of Figure 2-37.
5.10
calculated at bus E:
Vag j0:6352 p:u: 40;340:62 V
2-30
2-31
38
Chapter 2
Va2
VA2
nVA2 aVA2
n1 aVA2
p
n 3VA2 30
NVA2 30
Va2
30
IA1
Ia1
Va1
Va1
Va1
VA1
n1 aIa1
p
n 3Ia1 30
NIA1 30
IA1
30
N
nVA1 VB1
2-32
nVA1 a2 VA1
2-33
n1 a2 VA1
p
n 3VA1 30
NVA1 30
Va1
30
2-34
1
Ia IA IB
n
1
VA Va Vc
n
2-38
2-39
n
IA1
30
Ia1
N
IA1 NIa1 30
2-40
2-41
2-35
2-36
2-37
1
VA1 Va1 Vc1
n
1
Va1 aVa1
n
1
1 aVa1
n
p
3Va1
30
n
Va1
30
VA1
N
Va1 NVA1 30
39
Table 2-2
Banks
IA1
30
N
Va1 NVA1 30
I
Ia2 A2 30
N
Va2 NVA2 30
Ia1
2-42
2-43
n
IA2
30
Ia2
N
IA2 NIa2 30
1
VA2 Va2 Vc2
n
1
Va2 a2 Va2
n
1
1 a2 Va2
n
p
3Va2
30
n
Va2
30
VA2
N
Va2 NVA2 30
5.11
2-44
2-45
2-46
2-47
Fault Evaluations
40
Chapter 2
Figure 2-46
41
42
Chapter 2
87
46
46
Application
Ground overcurrent
Ground voltage
Ground directional
overcurrent
Ground product
overcurrent
Ground distance
Phase and ground pilot
Phase unbalance voltage
Phase unbalance current
Blown fuse detection
Sequence quantities
used
I0
V0
I0 with I0 or V0I0
or V2I2
I20 or I0, V0
I0 , V 0
I0, V0, V1 V2
K1I1 K2I2 K0I0
V2
I2
V0 and not I0
3
Basic Relay Units
Revised by: W. A. ELMORE
INTRODUCTION
ELECTROMECHANICAL UNITS
Plunger Units
44
Chapter 3
Figure 3-1
Plunger-type units.
2.1.2
Figure 3-2
Clapper Units
45
K3
f
3-1
2.1.3
Polar Units
2.2
46
Chapter 3
dampens the disc, and magnetic plugs in the electromagnet control the degree of saturation. The spring
tension, damping magnet, and magnetic plugs allow
separate and relatively independent adjustment of the
units inverse-time current characteristics.
2.2.2
47
Cylinder Units
3-2
DArsonval Units
Thermal Units
SEQUENCE NETWORKS
48
Chapter 3
3-3
Ib , and Ic inputs. Similarly, the secondaries of threephase voltage transformers, connected in series with
the primary in grounded wye, provide 3V0 .
3.2 Composite Sequence Current Networks
The network shown in Figure 3-8 can be adapted for a
variety of single-phase outputs. Output lter voltage
Figure 3-8
49
Network type
Positive sequence
Negative sequence
HCB composite
HCB-1 and SKB
composites
Switch r
Switch s
closed
closed
open
open
open
open
closed
closed
Xm
p
R1 =p3
R1 =p3
R1 = 3
1:46R1 or
0.191 ohms
Equation
To equal
Interchange Ib and Ic
As shown
Interchange Ib and Ic
As shown
(3-6)
(3-5)
(3-6)
(3-5)
2R1 I1
2R1 I2
2R1 I1 R1 3R0 I0
0:2I1 0:462I2
R1 3R0 I0
Eq. (3-5) to
p
3Xm I1
p
R1 3Xm I2 R1 3R0 I0
VF R1
3-6
p
Note that the choice of design constant Xm R1 = 3
causes the I2 term in Eq. (3-6) to become 0. With
switch r closed and switch s open, the zero sequence
response of Eq. (3-5) and (3-6) is eliminated. The zero
sequence drop across R1 is 2=3R1 Iao 1=3R1
Ib0 Ic0 0. The switches r and s are used in
Figure 3-8 as a convenience for description only.
Several typical sequence network combinations are
given in Table 3-1.
3.3
50
Chapter 3
4 SOLID-STATE UNITS
Varistor, Thermistor
4.1.4
Transistor
Diode
Zener Diode
Figure 3-11
teristics.
51
Figure 3-13
Figure 3-12
bols.
4.1.6
4.1.5
Unijunction Transistor
Thyristor
Figure 3-14
52
Chapter 3
Figure 3-15
istics.
Basic Principles
AND Unit
Figure 3-16
Figure 3-17
53
Figure 3-18
AND logic.
Figure 3-20 OR logic.
OR Unit
NOT Unit
Figure 3-19
4.3.4
Time-Delay Units
Figure 3-21
Variations of OR logic.
54
Chapter 3
Magnitude Comparison
Figure 3-23
Figure 3-24
NOT logic.
Ground distance
Phase distance
Directional
Logic circuits
Magnitude
comparison with
xed reference
Magnitude
comparison with
xed reference
and time
Magnitude
comparison with
variable reference
Block-block
comparison
Coincident-time
(ring modulator)
Typical relay
types
SI-T 50B
50D 51
SDG-T
SKD-T
SRGU
55
Variable-Reference
This logic unit discriminates between the value of an
operate voltage and the smallest of three restraint
voltages. Shown in Figure 3-26, this type of circuit
forms the decision logic element for the SDG ground
distance relay described in Chapter 12. The restraint
voltages (Vx, Vy, and Vz) and operating voltage are
connected in opposition through tunnel diode TD1
and diodes D25, D26, and D27. When the operating
voltage is larger than any of the three restraint
voltages, current will ow through TD1. A small
current through TD1 drives it to a high voltage,
turning on Q1 and producing a voltage across the
output terminal. The tunnel diode characteristic
provides a sharp turn-on point, which serves as an
effective triggering action.
Since double phase-to-ground faults may cause
over-reach of the ground distance relay, a desensitizer
circuit is included. This circuit consists of three
minimum voltage networks. A portion k of each of
5.1.2
Phase-Angle Comparison
56
Chapter 3
Figure 3-26
57
Figure 3-29
circuit.
58
Chapter 3
components becoming larger, that is, the zero condition no longer exists.
Figure 3-30a shows the ring modulator operation
when the operating current is larger than the polarizing
5.2
5.2.1
Amplication Units
Breaker Trip Coil Initiator
59
Figure 3-31
Except for the transformer T2, the devices associated with Q4 provide security. Zener Z1 clips highvoltage transients on the battery leads to a level of onethird of the Q4 rating. This voltage clipping prevents
the false operation of Q4 from surges and overvoltage.
The two-winding reactor LA-LB suppresses any
transients that could be transmitted through the
interwinding capacitance of T1 or between the trip
circuit and other logic circuit wiring. Zener Z4 prevents
shock excitation from setting up high-frequency
oscillation, which might reverse the current through
Q4 and return it to a blocking state.
Capacitor C3 is initially charged through R9 and Z3
when the breaker or switch is closed, bypassing T2 to
avoid a false indication. When Q4 res, C3 discharges
through Q4, Z2, and R8. This discharge provides a
holding current for Q4 of about 1 msec, long enough
for the current through the inductive trip coil to reach
the required holding current for Q4.
5.3
5.3.1
Auxiliary Units
Annunciator Circuits
60
Chapter 3
Figure 3-32
5.3.2
Figure 3-33
Figure 3-34
61
62
5.3.4
Chapter 3
Figure 3-37
63
Figure 3-38
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
Optical Isolator
The isolation of solid-state circuits and components
from input and output signals is also accomplished
with the use of optocoupler devices. This integrated
circuit component uses an internal light-emitting diode
(LED) and a photon detector to transmit signals,
providing optical isolation between inputs and outputs.
Figure 3-39
6.1
Operational Amplier
Figure 3-40
64
Chapter 3
Figure 3-41
amplier.
3-7
3-8
Figure 3-43
back.
3-9
3-10
e0
3-12
eref
ein
A Zin Zf
Zf Zin
If we assume that A is very large, 1/A approaches 0
and is much less than
Zin
Zin Zf
Thus,
Zf
Zf
e0 1
eref
ein
Zin
Zin
Figure 3-42
3-41.
3-13
6.2
65
Inverting Ampliers
6.2.2
Noninverting Ampliers
Figure 3-45
unit.
Rf
Rin
Adders
Figure 3-44
Rf
Rf
ea1
ea2
Ra1
Ra2
3-16
66
Chapter 3
Figure 3-48
Figure 3-46
6.2.4
Subtractors
and since
Rf
eb ea
Rin
ein
iin
Rin
Z
1
e0
ein dt
Rin C
if
3-17
If Rf Rin , then e0 eb ea .
Zf
1
2pfC
6.2.5
3-19
An adder unit.
1
jein j
2pfCRin
3-20
dein
dt
3-21
dein
dt
3-22
so that
e0 Rf C
1
2pfC
and
Z f Rf :
Thus,
Figure 3-47
A subtractor unit.
3-23
67
Phase-Shift Units
6.2.8
Level Detectors
Figure 3-51a shows a level detector using the operational amplier in the differential mode. From Eq.
(3-7), we have
e0 Aeref ein
and
eref
R2
Vcc
R1 R2
3-24
3-25
6.2.9
Active Filters
68
Chapter 3
6.3.1
Figure 3-51
P1
R4
Figure 3-52
Figure 3-53
6.3.2
69
Sequence Networks
Sequence networks can be designed by using operational ampliers. A negative sequence circuit is shown
in Figure 3-54. From Chapter 2, we have
1
I2 Ia a2 Ib aIc
3
With phase-shift units (Fig. 3-50), Ib is shifted 2408 and
Ic 1208. With adder units, the nal output is
e0
R
Ia Ib 240 Ic 120
3
and with R 1 O,
Figure 3-54
network.
1
e2 e0 Ia a2 Ib a1c
3
Positive sequence and composite lters can be designed
following the same techniques.
6.3.3
Figure 3-55
70
Chapter 3
MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE
4
Protection Against Transients and Surges
W. A. ELMORE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Electrostatic Induction
72
Chapter 4
1.3
Figure 4-3 illustrates electromagnetic pickup. Fluxlinking of the signal pair, resulting from current ow in
an adjacent circuit, induces a false signal voltage. The
73
2.1
Capacitor Switching
2.2
Figure 4-5 Transients generated by energizing a capacitive
circuit.
Bus Deenergization
Bus dropping is similar to capacitor bank deenergization, except the capacitance C is very much smaller.
74
Chapter 4
2.5
Many other switching-type operations generate transients: unequal pole-closing of a circuit breaker, fault
occurrence, fault clearing, load-tap changing, line
reactor deenergization, series capacitor gap ashing
and reinsertion, and so forth. In general, the peak
magnitude of such transients is substantially less than
for the phenomenon described above.
3
3.1
75
PROTECTIVE MEASURES
4.1
4.1.1
Separation
Physical Separation
76
Chapter 4
Similarly, control circuits should be routed perpendicular to noisy circuits. For example, a cable duct
should be run perpendicular to a high-voltage bus
when possible. Another way of effectively controlling
surges is to group circuits with comparable sensitivities. Low-energy-level circuits, especially, should be
grouped together and placed as far as possible from
power circuits.
4.1.2
Figure 4-10
Electrical Separation
Figure 4-12
Figure 4-11
Figure 4-13
voltage.
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
Parallel Clamp
77
Suppression by Shielding
Suppression by Termination
Suppression by Twisting
78
Chapter 4
Figure 4-16
Figure 4-15
relays.
4.7
Optical Isolators
79
Figure 4-17
4.8
5
Instrument Transformers for Relaying
W. A. ELMORE
INTRODUCTION
2.1
2
Saturation
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
For large-magnitude, close-in faults, the current
transformer may saturate; however, the magnitude of
fault current is not critical to many relays. For
example, an induction overcurrent relay may be
operating on the at part of the curve for a largemagnitude, close-in fault. Here it is relatively unimportant whether the current transformer current is
accurate, since the timing is essentially identical. The
same is true for instantaneous or distance-type relaying
82
Chapter 5
3 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
An approximate equivalent circuit for a current
transformer is shown in Figure 5-1. Current is stepped
down in magnitude through the perfect (no-loss)
transformation provided by windings ab and cd. The
primary leakage impedance (ZH) is modied by n2 to
refer it to the secondary. The secondary impedance is
ZL; Rm and Xm represent the core loss and exciting
components.
This generalized circuit can be reduced, as shown in
Figure 5-1b. ZH can be neglected, since it inuences
neither the perfectly transformed current IH/n nor the
voltage across Xm. The current through Xm, the
magnetizing branch, is Ie, the exciting current. The Rm
branch produces a negligible inuence.
The phasor diagram, with exaggerated voltage
drops, is shown in Figure 5-1c. In general, ZL is
resistive and ZB is resistive or has a lagging angle. Ie
lags Vcd by 908 and is the prime source of error. Note
that the net effect of Ie is to cause IL to lead and be
smaller than the perfectly transformed current IH/n.
Any simple equivalent diagram for a current
transformer is, at best, crude. Exciting current is
accompanied by harmonics that, in turn, produce
harmonic relay currents. An analysis for application
83
5-1
where
VS = rms symmetrical secondary induced voltage
Fig. 5-1)
IL = maximum secondary current in amperes
(symmetrical)
ZB = connected burden impedance in ohms
ZL = secondary winding impedance in ohms
Zlead = connecting lead impedance in ohms
Bmax
4.2
4.1
Formula Method
5-2
2316108
70;000 lines=in:2
4:4466063:16400
where
f = frequency in hertz
A = cross-sectional area of the iron core in
square inches
N = number of turns
Bmax = ux density in lines per square inch
Both the cross-sectional area of the iron and its
saturation density are sometimes difcult to obtain.
Current transformers generally use silicon steels, which
saturate from 77,500 to 125,000 lines/in.2. The lower
gure is typical for current transformers built before
1947; a value of 100,000 is typical of most transformers.
The formula method consists of determining VS
using Eq. (5-1), then calculating Bmax using Eq. (5-2).
If Bmax exceeds the saturation density, there will be
appreciable error in the secondary current.
Assume, for example, that a 2000:5, high-permeability silicon steel transformer has 3.1 in.2 of iron and
a secondary winding resistance of 0.31 O. The maximum current for which the current transformer must
operate is 40,000 A at 60 Hz. The relay burden,
including the secondary leads, is 2.0 O. Will this
current transformer saturate?
If the current transformer does not saturate, the
secondary current IS would be 40,000 divided by 400,
or 100 A, since N equals 400. Thus, the current
transformer should be able to produce a secondary
84
Chapter 5
Phase Relays
85
Figure 5-4 Connections for Example 2 illustrating calculation of current transformer performance.
IH 2:5620 50 A primary
Thus, 50 A is required to operate the ground relay. If
the exciting requirements of the three current transformers had been ignored, the current required to
operate the ground relay would have been estimated to
be 0.5 times 20, or 10 A primary. From this, it is
apparent that such may be a signicant factor.
Using the 200:5 tap on the current transformer
could improve sensitivity here. Dramatic improvement
would also be possible if a modern, low-impedance
ground relay were substituted.
4.3
86
Chapter 5
87
NP Vcl
100
5-3
where
ZB permissible burden on the current transformer
NP turns in use divided by total turns
Vcl current transformer voltage class
Standard relaying burdens are listed in Table 5-1.
B-0.1, B-0.2, B-0.5, B-0.9, and B-1.8 are standard
metering burdens. These burdens are dened with a 0.9
power factor.
The following example shows current transformer
calculations using ANSI classications: the maximum
calculated fault current for a particular line is 12,000 A.
The current transformer is rated at 1200:5 and is to be
used on the 800:5 tap. Its relaying accuracy class is
C200 (full-rated winding); secondary resistance is
0:2 O. The total secondary circuit burden is 2:4 O at a
60% power factor. Excluding the effects of residual
magnetism and dc offset, will the error exceed 10%? If
Impedance
(r)
VA
Power factor
1.0
2.0
4.0
8.0
25
50
100
200
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
(proportion of total
turns in use)
Thus
ZB
0:667200
1:334 O
100
EUROPEAN PRACTICE
88
Chapter 5
5.1 TPX
The TPX is a nongapped core current transformer with
a 0.5% ratio error and secondary time constant of 5 sec
or more. It may be used with other TPX or TPY cts in
all types of protection applications.
5.2 TPY
This ct has a gapped core and secondary time constant
of 0 to 10 sec. It has a ratio error of +1% and larger
cost than the TPX. Its transformation of the dc
component of fault current is not as accurate as the
TPX. It may be combined with other TPX or TPY cts
in any relaying application. Its advantage is that its
remanent ux is quite small compared to that of a
nongapped core ct.
5.3 TPZ
TPZ cts have a linear core with a secondary time
constant of 60+6 msec for 50-Hz and 50+5 msec for
60-Hz applications. This provides a very short dc
collapse time, making the ct suitable for breaker failure
applications in which the overcurrent supervision is
susceptible to dc inuence. When used in combinations, it should be used only with other TPZ cts. It has
a +1% ratio error at the rated primary current.
89
RESIDUAL FLUX
90
Chapter 5
Figure 5-12
91
MOCT
Figure 5-14
Voltage transformers (formerly called potential transformers) and coupling capacitance voltage transformers are selected according to two criteria: the system
voltage level and basic impulse insulation level
required by the system on which they are to be used.
Under ANSI, two nominal secondary voltages, 115
and 120 V, are allowed for voltage transformers;
p the
corresponding
line-to-neutral
values
are
115=
3 and
p
120= 3. The applicable voltage depends on the
primary voltage rating, as given in ANSI C57.13.
The nominal secondary voltages for coupling capacitance voltage transformers are 115 and 66.4 V.
Most protective relays applied in the United States
have standard voltage ratings of 120 or 69 V, depending on whether they are to be connected line to line or
line to neutral.
9.1
92
Chapter 5
93
Type
Steadystate
Max.
Cost accuracy burden
p.u.
(%)
(VA)
PCA-5
PCA-7
PCA-8
PCA-9
PCA-10
PCM-X
1.57
1.0
1.94
1.26
2.51
1.2
1.2
1.2
0.3
1.2
0.3
200
200
200
400
200
400
Capacitance
p.u.
(1 p.u.
0.006 at
115 kV)
1.0
4.1
1.0
4.1
4.1
4.1
Transient
response
(% voltage)
8 msec 16 msec
23.5
7
23.5
15
17.5
12
12
6.2
12
10.5
11
9.5
Voltage sensing also may be accomplished using beroptic technology. The MOVT uses the Faraday effect
described above, sensing the current owing through a
capacitor stack connected from line to ground.
Another voltage-sensing device, the EOVT, uses a
Pockel cell rather than the Faraday rotator. Its
principle uses light from an optical ber, which is
passed through a special crystal that produces equal
components in the X and Y directions. An electric eld
causes one of these components to be retarded, and
this results in a phase difference between the two
components. This, in turn, changes the light intensity
at the sensor ber in proportion to the electric eld.
With additional renements, it produces an analog
output proportional to the electric eld present, and
this is, in turn, proportional to the instantaneous
magnitude of the voltage at the point of measurement.
10
Figure 5-19
system.
MOVT/EOVT
NEUTRAL INVERSION
Neutral inversion, in which ground becomes external to the system voltage triangle, can occur on
ungrounded systems with a single potential transformer connected line to ground. Figure 5-19 shows the
possible voltage across an unloaded voltage transformer. Note that an Xc/Xm ratio of 3 would theoretically
cause an innite voltage across the voltage transformer. Such a situation never occurs, of course, because
Xm reduces as saturation occurs.
By loading the transformer carefully, this large,
sustained overvoltage phenomenon can be avoided.
Caution should always be exercised when the secondary voltage of the transformer is used for synchronism
check, since the loading will cause a phase shift.
6
Microprocessor Relaying Fundamentals
W. A. ELMORE
INTRODUCTION
96
Chapter 6
NOVRAM (nonvolatile RAM) or EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory). Data
that are stored in this type of memory are not lost
when power is removed from the relay. Settings and
target data are usually stored here.
Microprocessor-based algorithms typically require
time-coincident sampling of the input quantities.
Considerable ingenuity is used to address this in real-
Figure 6-3
97
SAMPLING PROBLEMS
Figure 6-4
ALIASING
98
Chapter 6
Figure 6-5
4
4.1
Figure 6-6
This effect may be removed by ltering the highfrequency components from the input. The element
that accomplishes this function is called an antialiasing
lter. The Nyquist criterion states that in order to
avoid the aliasing error, frequencies above one-half the
sampling rate must be removed. Figure 6-8 shows a
typical antialiasing lter.
4.2
Nonsynchronous Sampling
99
Figure 6-8
response.
100
Chapter 6
6-5
Fourier-Notch Filter
The comparable digital process involves the multiplication of individual samples by stored values from a
reference sine wave and summing the products over a
full cycle
AC
N
1
X
f K tCAK
K0
AS
N
1
X
f K tCBK
K0
where
2
K
CAK cos 2p
N
N
2
K
CBK sin 2p
N
N
K number of sample
N samples per cycle
where
f(t) original function
T0 period of the waveform
n order of the harmonic
Consider, for example, an application in which there
are eight samples per (fundamental 60-Hz) cycle. The
corresponding samples of a sine wave may be chosen
as 0, 0.707, 1.0, 0.707, 0, 0.707, 1.0, and 0.707.
These are xed values, being sinK2p=8, where K are
the samples 0 to 7 and 2p=8 corresponds to 458. These
values are then multiplied by 2/N to obtain the
constants that are used.
If then the sampled values of the measured quantity
over a full cycle are multiplied by these constants in the
proper order and summed, the process of Eqs. (6-3)
and (6-4) is duplicated. This provides information that
excludes all frequencies except the fundamental. By
this process, any frequency component can be isolated
and utilized to perform a desired function. From this
process results a function As K sin ot.
Similarly, by using a set of cosine function
constants, the sample multiplication and summation
5.4
101
5.5
dc Offset Compensation
IK IK4
2
102
Chapter 6
6-6
5.8
Leading-Phase Identication
Fault Detectors
103
6.2
Analog Test
Figure 6-11
D1 fault detector.
SELF-TESTING
6.1
Dead-Man Timer
6.3
Check-Sum
6.4
RAM Test
6.5
104
7 CONCLUSIONS
The introduction of microprocessor technology into
protective relaying has afforded us the ability to
achieve new functions and self-checking provisions
not previously possible. At the same time, it has caused
a reevaluation of long-established practices, resulting
Chapter 6
7
System Grounding and Protective Relaying
Revised by: W. A. ELMORE
INTRODUCTION
Ground fault protection is dependent on the powersystem grounding, which can vary from solidly
grounded (no intentional impedance from the system
neutrals to ground) to ungrounded (system
grounded only through the capacitance of the system).
Ground relaying for effectively grounded systems is
discussed in Chapter 12. In these systems, the X0/X1
ratio is 3.0 or less, and the R0/X1 ratio is 1.0 or less at
all points and under all operating conditions. With
effective grounding, the line-to-ground fault current is
equal to or greater than 0.6 times the three-phase fault
current.
Solid grounding is necessary to meet these standard
criteria, particularly with overhead lines where the
X0/X1 ratio averages between 1.6 to 3.5. In solidly
grounded systems, the neutrals of the wye-delta power
transformers are directly connected to earth through
the station ground mat. Considerable design effort is
expended to keep the resistance in this connection to a
minimum: Typical values of ground mat resistance to
earth are on the order of 0.1 O or less in areas of low
ground resistivity. Typical values are higher in high
ground resistivity areas, resulting in a large station
ground mat rise (voltage gradient) between the station
area and remote grounds during ground faults.
Earth, remote ground, and true earth are difcult
terms to dene precisely, since the earth is a very
heterogeneous mass. The terms represent a mathematical ction needed to identify the zero potential earth
plane. In practice, they are considered to exist within
the earth at any point remote from the inuence of the
Ungrounded
Reactance-grounded
Resistance-grounded
In addition, this chapter will discuss the special
problems of sensitive ground relaying on distribution
circuits and ground fault protection for both
ungrounded and multigrounded three-phase, fourwire systems.
2
2.1
UNGROUNDED SYSTEMS
Ground Faults on Ungrounded Systems
106
Chapter 7
7-1
Figure 7-3
107
Resistor (O)
2400120
4200120
7200120
14,400120
250
125
90
60
108
Chapter 7
Figure 7-4
3 REACTANCE GROUNDING
There are three different types of reactance grounding:
High-reactance grounding
Resonant grounding
Low-reactance grounding
109
p p
corresponding
theoretical transient peaks are 3; 3 3;
p
5 3, and so on. For these reasons, high-reactance
grounding was discontinued many years ago.
3.2
Low-Reactance Grounding
110
Chapter 7
RESISTANCE GROUNDING
Resistance grounding is applied in systems with threewire distribution at the generator voltage and for unitconnected generators. The two general types of
resistance grounding are low- and high-resistance
grounding.
4.1
Low-Resistance Grounding
Whenever low impedance grounding is desired, resistance grounding is generally preferred to the lowreactance systems described above. Specically, lowresistance grounding is used for systems fed directly at
the generator voltage (Fig. 7-7a) or through a deltawye transformer (Fig. 7-7b). When a line-to-ground
fault occurs in the system, the current owing in the
ground resistor results in a sudden change in generator
111
and
X0
20
X1
7-2
High-Resistance Grounding
j 1 j 1 40 j 20X1
3:0
3:0
28:8
40 j 22X1 45:65 X1
0:066
4.2
Ig 3I0
7-3
V2
1000R
7-6
1:0
per unit
X1
7-4
7-5
112
Chapter 7
5.1
Figure 7-10
113
7-7
Figure 7-11 Phasors for Figure 7-10b for a phase a-toground fault on a high-resistance grounded system.
5.2
114
Chapter 7
6
6.1
Unigrounded, four-wire systems have insulated neutrals; the only ground connection is at the substation.
Loads generally are connected phase to neutral, and
the net load unbalance returns through the neutral as a
residual current. For faults from phase to ground, the
current returns through the earth to the substation
neutral.
There are three different relay schemes for ground
fault protection for unigrounded systems, as shown in
Figure 7-14. Figure 7-14a illustrates the conventional
Table 7-1 Relay Settings and Sensitivities Using the 50/5 BYZ Zero Sequence Current Transformers
Minimum sensitivity in primary 3I0
amperes
Relay type
Relay setting
(43=4 ID)
(73=4 ID)
(43=4 ID)
(73=4 ID)
IT
CO-8 or 9
CO-8 or 9
CO-11
CO-11
0.15
0.5
2.5
0.5
2.5
5.0
9.0
24.0
6.0
24.0
5.0
10.0
24.0
7.0
24.0
25
540
70
700
112
1215
150
900
115
Figure 7-14
systems.
8
Generator Protection
Revised by: C. L. DOWNS
INTRODUCTION
CHOICE OF TECHNOLOGY
118
Chapter 8
Figure 8-1
3.1
Figure 8-2 Schematic connections of the percentage differential type relay. (Only one-phase connections are shown.)
Generator Protection
3.2
3.3
119
3.4
Split-Phase
Machine Connections
120
Chapter 8
95% Scheme
Generator Protection
121
Figure 8-5 Schematic connections for ground fault protection of a unit type machine resistance grounded through a
distribution transformer.
4.3
Figure 8-6 describes a scheme for detecting a neutralto-ground fault on the generator. This fault is, in itself,
not hazardous. A second ground fault at the machine
terminal, however, causes a line-to-ground fault that is
not limited by any neutral impedance. This fault
current magnitude will quite likely exceed the current
magnitude for which the machine is designed. Machine
122
Chapter 8
4.4
Generator Protection
Figure 8-7
123
5
5.1
BACKUP PROTECTION
Unbalanced Faults
8-1
8-2
124
Chapter 8
Figure 8-8 Relative magnitudes or negative sequence currents for line-to-line faults on a typical machine under different
operating conditions. (From AIEE Transactions, Volume 72, 1953, Part iii, Page 283, Figure 1.)
5.2
5.2.1
Balanced Faults
Distance Relay (21)
Generator Protection
Figure 8-9
istics.
125
5.2.2
Voltage-Controlled Overcurrent
Relay (51 V)
If a negative sequence overcurrent relay is used, one 2to 6-A 51-V relay also may be used to provide the
balanced fault backup function. A simple overcurrent
unit is unsuitable for preventing a sustained machine
contribution to a fault because, with a regulator out of
service, the bolted sustained (or synchronous) threephase fault contribution is less than machine full-load
current. The 51-V relay, on the other hand, can be set
well below full-load current and not operate on load.
Its overcurrent unit is supervised or torque-controlled
by an undervoltage unit, and therefore voltage must be
below the voltage setting to permit the overcurrent unit
to function. Both the voltage and current units are
independently adjustable, making coordination with
other overcurrent devices simpler than if the current
unit response were a function of voltage level.
126
Chapter 8
6 OVERLOAD PROTECTION
6.1 RTD Schemes (Device 49)
Most large generators are equipped with resistance
temperature detectors (RTDs), which may be used in a
bridge circuit to provide sensing intelligence to an
indicator or a relay such as the DT-3 or 49 T.
This relay is restrained when the resistance is low,
indicating low machine temperature. When the temperature of the machine exceeds some preset level such
as 120 8C for class B insulated machines, the bridge
becomes unbalanced and the contacts close.
8
6.2 Thermal Replicas (Device 49)
A thermal replica relay utilizes stator current to
approximate the heating effects in the generator. The
machine thermal time constants on heating and cooling are represented to take cognizance of previous and
present loading effects. When the replica indicates that
temperature in excess of the allowable value for the
machine insulation has been reached, tripping takes
place.
OVERSPEED PROTECTION
E
f
Figure 8-11
relay.
Generator Protection
127
LOSS-OF-EXCITATION PROTECTION
9.1
Figure 8-12
9.2
Hazard
128
Chapter 8
Figure 8-13 Trip circuits and R-X diagram showing operation of the KLF (40) loss-of-eld relay.
9.4
Zp
8-3
8-4
Generator Protection
129
step of Figure 8-15a. To be useful in setting a loss-ofeld relay, these per unit values must be converted to
secondary ohms.
Figure 8-16 relates KLF (or KLF-1) setting to
capability and minimum excitation limiter (MEL)
curves. Assume a given kW load on the machine and
that the vars into the machine are gradually being
increased by decreasing machine eld current,
producing a trajectory, as in curve A of Figure 816. If the regulator is in service, the MEL prevents
operation at a level that would jeopardize the
machine thermally. If the regulator is out of service,
Z continues to decrease until the KLF impedance
unit operates. An alarm indicates a hazardous
operating condition if the voltage is high. A low
voltage, which may seriously jeopardize system
stability, trips the machine after 0.25 sec (Fig. 813a). The loss-of-eld relay must reach into the plus
X area if its locus is to follow closely the machine
characteristic. A directional unit is included in the
relay to avoid tripping for close-in faults beyond the
unit transformer.
9.5
Figure 8-14
plot.
130
Chapter 8
Figure 8-15
10
Generator Protection
131
Figure 8-16
curves.
1 to 3%
3%
25%
0.2 to 2%
Steam Turbines
Diesel Engines
Gas Turbines
Hydraulic Turbines
132
Table 8-1
Chapter 8
Recommended Settings for KLF Relay
Setting
Zone 1 (alone)
Zone 2 (alone)
Impedance setting
Voltage setting
1 min.
Advantages
11
INADVERTENT ENERGIZATION
Zone 1 (alone)
See Figure 8-17.
(a) Undervoltage contact
shorted or
(b) set at 87% for security.
1/4 to 1 sec (1/4 sec adequate).
Not required for (a) above.
For (b) above use 10 sec for
directly cooled, 25 see for
indirectly cooled.
Zone 2 (alone)
See Figure 8-17.
87%.
Generator Protection
Figure 8-18
and 8.2.)
133
Type KLF or KLF-1 dc schematic for zone 2 loss of excitation protection. (Timer settings are given in Tables 8.1
may operate, but again the time delay for tripping may
be unsuitable.
To further compound the difculties associated with
detecting inadvertent energization is the fact that
generator potential circuits are often disconnected in
the interests of safety when a machine is shut down.
Any of the normal relays that are dependent on this
voltage supply will be unable to respond at the very
time when they are needed. Also, it must be
remembered that the ashover of an open breaker
cannot be cleared by energizing its trip coil.
Several protective schemes have been used successfully to detect three- or single-phase inadvertent
energization. Among them are
Directional overcurrent relays
Pole disagreement relays
Relays containing logic to detect overcurrent for a
short time following 0 V
Frequency-supervised overcurrent relays
134
Chapter 8
Figure 8-19 Typical schematic for antimonitoring protection using CRN-1 (32) relay.
12
Generator Protection
12.1
Brush-Type Machine
135
Figure 8-20 Path of the currents in a machine when using an ac eld ground relay.
136
Chapter 8
13
Figure 8-21
erator.
Alternating-current overvoltage protection is recommended for hydroelectric generators subject to overspeed and consequent overvoltage on loss of load.
Some hydroelectric generators can go up to 140% or
more of rated speed when full load is dropped. The
voltage may reach 200% or more.
The ac overvoltage protective scheme is shown in
Figure 8-23. The relay, which changes the excitation to
reduce the output voltage, can also provide backup
protection for the voltage regulator.
14
12.2 Brushless Machines
For a brushless type of machine, no normal access is
available to a stationary part of the generator eld
circuit, and no continuous monitoring to detect eld
grounds is possible. One widely employed scheme uses
a 60-Hz tuned overvoltage relay connected between the
neutral of the three-phase ac exciter and ground. A
ground on the exciter, in the three-phase rectier
bridge, in the eld, or on the dc leads will be detected.
ALTERNATING-CURRENT OVERVOLTAGE
PROTECTION FOR HYDROELECTRIC
GENERATORS
Generator Protection
Figure 8-22
137
138
Chapter 8
Voltage (59)
Differential (87)
Negative sequence
(46)
Loss of eld (40)
CO-2
CO-5
CO-6
CO-7
CO-8
CO-9
SC
COV
SV
CV contact-making
voltmeter
CV-8
CA generator
CA transformer
SA-1
HU-1
COQ
SOQ
KLF (or KLF-1)
30 Hertz
165
115
150
b
143
b
140
262
138
260
140
85
93
Performance same as CO Unit used in relay
26
50
122
120
b
255
b
370
250
123
149
175
130
Classicationa
A
B
B
B
A
A
A
A
A
C
A
B
A
A
O
D
(A) Protection available at both 15 and 30 cycles. (B) Protection available at 30 cycles only. (C) Additional protective relays required for start-up
or low-frequency operation. (O) The sensitivity of the COQ & SOQ relays to negative sequence currents is a direct function of frequency, while its
sensitivity to positive sequence currents is an inverse function of frequency. This relay will operate for heavy three-phase and phase-to-phase faults
at reduced frequencies, but should not be relied upon for primary protection during warm-up. (D) Since the KLF or KLF-1 relays operate on
lagging reactive power into the machine, the relay will neither operate falsely nor provide loss-of-eld protection during the warm-up period.
b
Very insensitive or nonoperable at the frequency indicated.
15
OFF-FREQUENCY OPERATION
Generator Protection
Figure 8-24
139
16
RECOMMENDED PROTECTION
17
OUT-OF-STEP PROTECTION
18
18.1
Fast Transfer
140
Chapter 8
Figure 8-25
18.2
Generator Protection
141
Figure 8-26
Figure 8-27
142
Chapter 8
Description
Traditional
Solid-state or numerical
GPU-2000R
REG 216
REG 316
Timer
62T
TD-5
21
24
Phase backup
Volts/hertz
KD-11
X
X
X
X
X
X
32
Motoring
CRN-1
40
46
Loss of eld
Negative sequence
KLF
COQ
X
X
X
X
X
X
49
50/51
59
59F
Thermal
Stator overcurrent
Overvoltage
Field ground
DT-3
CO-ITH
CV-5
CV-8
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
59N
64S
64R
67
76
78
CV-8
X
X
CRG-9
D-3
KST-KD-3
81
Underfrequency
86G
87G
Generator lockout
Generator differential
LOR
CA
LOR
X
LOR
X
LOR
X
87N3
87T
Stator-neutral-ground
Overall differential
DGSH
HU-1
X
X
59F
MVH
32R
SRW
40
46Q
SOQ
49T
Micro 51
59
59G
64F
59G
GIX-104
32D
76H
GZX-104
MDAR
81
MDF
LOR
87M
SA-1
27G
87T
18.3
Slow Transfer
Generator Protection
143
point where no damage can be expected with out-ofphase energization. This level is generally considered to
be 25% of rated. Figure 8-28b describes this arrangement.
19
MICROPROCESSOR-BASED GENERATOR
PROTECTION
Figure 8-28
9
Motor Protection
Revised by: C. L. DOWNS
INTRODUCTION
1.1
4.
General Requirements
5.
Motor protection is far less standardized than generator protection. Although the National Electric Code
and NEMA standards specify basic protection requirements, they do not fully cover the many different types
and sizes of motors and their varied applications. There
are many other schemes, all of which offer different
degrees of protection. As with generator protection, the
cost and extent of the protective system must be
weighed against the potential hazards. The size of the
motor and type of service will also inuence the type of
protection required. Electromechanical, solid-state, or
microprocessor-based relays can be used stand-alone or
in combination with one another to achieve the desired
degree of security and dependability.
Motor protection should involve the detection of
the following hazards:
1.
2.
3.
6.
7.
145
146
Chapter 9
ns nr
per unit
ns
RR
jXs jXR
2s
Figure 9-3
Motor Protection
147
PHASE-FAULT PROTECTION
Figure 9-4 Comparison of sensitivities of type CA differential relay and IT instantaneous trip unit.
1
0:08 XM
GROUND-FAULT PROTECTION
148
Chapter 9
Figure 9-5
Table 9-1 Relay Settings and Sensitivities Using the 50/5 BYZ Zero Sequence Current Transformers
Relay type
IT
CO-8 or 9
CO-8 or 9
CO-11
CO-11
Relay setting
0.15
0.5
2.5
0.5
2.5
a 3
73=4 IDa
5.0
10.0
24.0
7.0
24.0
25
540
70
700
73=4 IDa
112
1215
150
900
Motor Protection
149
LOCKED-ROTOR PROTECTION
150
Chapter 9
Figure 9-7
Typical connections of the product type CWP-1 (32N) for high-resistance grounded systems.
Motor Protection
151
152
Chapter 9
Figure 9-11
Area comparison.
Figure 9-10
Figure 9-12 KD-10 distance relay (21) used for locked rotor
and backup protection for large motor.
Motor Protection
153
OVERLOAD PROTECTION
THERMAL RELAYS
Figure 9-13
acteristics.
154
Chapter 9
6.2
Figure 9-14
Motor Protection
LOW-VOLTAGE PROTECTION
155
PHASE-ROTATION PROTECTION
where
ER rated motor voltage
E voltage available at motor bus
TL load torque
Tm rated voltage motor torque
TA average accelerating torque
It can be seen that the voltage available to the motor
signicantly affects the accelerating torque of the
motor.
Motors should be disconnected when severe lowvoltage conditions persist for more than a few seconds.
Use of ac contractors, which generally release at 50 to
70% of rated voltage, provides some low-voltage
protection. However, time-delayed undervoltage protection is preferred, since it delays contactor release on
momentary voltage dips. For switchgear applications,
the electromechanical CV (27), CP (27/47), and CVQ
156
Chapter 9
10
Figure 9-17
PHASE-UNBALANCE PROTECTION
Motor Protection
157
11
12
JAM PROTECTION
A motor can experience excessive torque and overcurrent in response to a jam condition that can be
caused by a binding action of the motor, bearings, or
driven load. To detect a jam condition, the relay has to
screen out other possibilities. The motor contribution
to a nearby fault, which can last for a few cycles, can
be screened out by setting the jam time delay greater
than the motor fault contribution time. High current is
not recognized as a jam condition unless the motor has
been through a start and is in a normal running state.
Multifunction relays usually include this element, as
they are capable of keeping track of the state of the
motor. The advantage of the jam function is much
faster tripping than would be provided by the locked
rotor protection.
13
Figure 9-19
158
Chapter 9
14
OUT-OF-STEP PROTECTION
15
Figure 9-20
LOSS OF EXCITATION
Figure 9-21
Motor Protection
Table 9-2
159
Device number
Quantity
Description
Typical setting
49/50
51/50
50G
47/27
51N/50N (alternative
to 50G where BYZ
cannot be applied)
0.15 A.
Low voltage 75 to
80%. V2 5%.
Remarks
Good overload
protection.
Locked-rotor
protection when
starting time 20 to
70 sec.
Locked-rotor
protection when
starting time
20 sec.
For use with 50/5
BYZ.
Undervoltage, phase
sequence, and
unbalanced voltage
protection.
Provides ground
protection. Time
unit overrides false
residual during
starting.
16
160
Chapter 9
Figure 9-23
Motor Protection
161
Quantity
49
51
Description
Typical setting
CO-11, 412 A
50
50G
46
47/27
CVQ, 5 to 10% V2
sensitivity, 55- to
140-V range
87f
0.15 A.
87 (alternative to 50
and 87fuse where
minimum 3f fault
current available is
less than 5 times
motor starting
current and 87f
cannot be used)
51N/50N (alternative
to 50G where BYZ
cannot be applied)
CA, 10%
None.
Remarks
Overload protection:
blocked ventilation
or high ambient.
Locked-rotor
protection when
starting time is 20 to
70 sec.
Locked-rotor
protection when
starting time
20 sec.
Fault protection.
For use with 50/5
BYZ.
Unbalanced current
protection.
Undervoltage, phase
sequence, and
unbalanced voltage
protection. Note:
CP volt relay can be
used in place of
CVQ if all threephase motors on bus
are protected by CM
relays.
Provides phase and
ground protection.
Use three 50:5 BYZ
transformers. 50G
still required for
cable protection if
BYZ at motor.
Phase-fault protection.
Provides ground
protection.
10
Transformer and Reactor Protection
Revised By: J. J. McGOWAN
INTRODUCTION
MAGNETIZING INRUSH
2.1
Initial Inrush
164
Chapter 10
Figure 10-3
165
Because of the delta connection of transformer winding or current transformers, the maximum line-current
inrush value should be considered when applying
current to the differential relay.
2.2
Recovery Inrush
2.3
Sympathetic Inrush
Figure 10-5
cleared.
Closing angle
Ia
Ib
Ic
IaIb
IbIc
IcIa
08
308
08
308
5.60
5.10
6.53
6.03
3.73
1.87
4.67
2.80
3.73
5.10
4.67
6.03
8.33
5.96
10.20
7.83
3.73
5.10
4.67
6.03
8.33
9.20
10.20
11.06
166
Chapter 10
3.1
3.1.1
Figure 10-7
167
Figure 10-10
3.1.3
168
Chapter 10
Figure 10-11 Schematic connections of the HU and HU-1 variable percentage differential relays with second harmonic
restraint supervision.
169
3.1.5
Modied HU Relays
Figure 10-12
170
Chapter 10
171
Fifth harmonic blocking is favored for those overvoltage cases (long EHV line energization, hydromachine load rejection, etc.) where undesired high-speed
tripping on elevated magnetizing current may occur. It
should be recognized that while transformers can
support short-time overvoltage, they are vulnerable
to prolonged overvoltage heating. If differential tripping is to be blocked when inordinate fth harmonic is
observed on overvoltage, the block must be released
(or tripping imposed by other means) prior to the
occurrence of damage to the transformer.
All-harmonic blocking is moderately less dependable because of the increased harmonics that are
present in arcing faults.
Cross-blocking, the feature that blocks all differential tripping when the harmonic restraint setting and
the operating current are exceeded in any one or more
phases, increases security against an unwarranted
operation during inrush. This feature is partially
inherent where cts are traditionally connected in delta
for balancing the transformer phase shift and is useful
with the harmonic-restraint mode of second or second
and fth. For an internal ground fault, possible
elevated voltage on an unfaulted phase should be
investigated to assure that excessive fth harmonic in
that phase cannot block tripping of the faulted phase
differential unit. Where this can occur, cross-blocking
must not be used.
3.2
172
Chapter 10
arrangement provides good sensitivity without introducing thermal problems in the current transformer,
leads, or relay itself. Sensitivity can be improved by
using a tap that gives more than 5 A; however, the
current transformer, leads, and relay capability must
be checked carefully to guard against thermal overload.
3. In general, for all except the TPU, the current
transformers on the wye side of a wye-delta bank must
be connected in delta, and the current transformers on
the delta side connected in wye. This arrangement (1)
compensates for the 308 phase-angle shift introduced
by the wye-delta bank and (2) blocks the zero sequence
current from the differential circuit on external ground
faults. As shown in Figure 10-13, zero sequence current
will ow in the differential circuit for external ground
faults on the wye side of a grounded wye-delta bank; if
the current transformers were connected in wye, the
relays would misoperate. With the current transformers connected in delta, the zero sequence current
circulates inside the current transformers, preventing
relay misoperation.
4. Relays should be connected to receive in and
out currents that are in phase for a balanced load
condition unless the relay itself is designed or set to
accommodate the difference. When there are more
than two windings, all combinations must be considered, two at a time.
Figure 10-13
windings.
When there are more than two windings, all combinations should be calculated, two at a time. When taps are
changed under load, the relays should be set on the basis
of the middle or neutral tap position. The total mismatch, including the automatic tap change, should not
exceed the recommended values shown in Table 10-2.
For example, for a transformer bank with a +10%
on-load tap changer device, the calculated mismatch
value should not be greater than +5% for a 30% HU
relay application. However, if the transformer bank
does not have an on-load tap changer, then the
calculated mismatch value can be tolerated up to the
limit of (M LTC) value.
173
Table 10-3
Relay
CA
HU, HU-1, HU-4, TPU
HU, HU-1, HU-4, TPU
CA-26, RADSB
Sensitivity
(%)
Limit of
(M LTC)
(%)
50
30
35
35
15
20
10
10-2
where
Np proportion of total current transformer turns
in use, for example, if 1000/5 tap is used for a
2000/5 MR current transformer, then
Np 0.5
VCL current transformer accuracy, class C voltage; for example, 200 for a class C200
current transformer
Iext maximum external fault current in secondary
rms A (let Iext 100 if maximum external
fault current is less than 100 A)
Rs current transformer secondary winding resistance in ohms
ZT total current transformer secondary circuit
burden impedance in ohms, determined by
equation:
ZT 1:13m6RL relay burden ZA
10-3
where
RL one-way lead resistance
1.13 multiplier used to accommodate temperature
rise of the conductors during faults
ZA burden impedance of any devices (other than
the relay) connected or reected to the
current transformer secondary circuit
m multiplier, depending on the current transformer connection and type of fault to be
considered, as shown in Table 10-3
Wye-connected ct
Delta-connected ct
3fF
fGF
m1
m3
m2
m2
Phasing Check
174
Chapter 10
Figure 10-14
Figure 10-15
4.1.2
175
Ratio Check
4.1.3
4.1.4
176
Chapter 10
Table 10-4
Step
1. For the example shown in Figure 10-14, assume that the maximum load
is 30,000 kVA. Then the rating of the bank IFL is
2. For increased sensitivity, select current transformer ratios as close to the
IFL value as possible. Practically, a calculated value of
(IFL/0.8) can be used as the reference for determining the current
transformer ratios for this example.
Then use
3. Calculate current transformer secondary currents IS (IFL/n)
LV (wye)
HV (delta)
p30;000
1506 A
3611:5
p30;000
251 A
3669:0
1506
0:8 1882:5
2000
n 5
IRL
IRL
IRH
Step 11
60
251
60
4.18 A
IRH 4.18 A
6:52
1
6100%
M 4:18
S
1:560 1
6100% 56%
1
400
1506
400
3.77 Ap
3:77 3
6.52 A
6:52
4:18 1:560
251
0:8 313:7
300
n 5
4:17
1
6100% 0:24%
M 4:18
1
4.1.5
177
Step 17
Calculate mismatch:
5:0
3:2
6100%
S
1:560 1:563
100% 0:2%
1:560
6:52
M 4:18
Table 10-5
2.9
2.9
3.2
3.5
3.8
4.2
4.6
5.0
8.7
3.5
3.8
4.2
4.6
5.0
8.7
1.448
1.313
1.200
1.105
1.000
1.586
1.438
1.314
1.211
1.095
1.000
1.724
1.563
1.429
1.316
1.190
1.087
1.000
3.000
2.719
2.486
2.289
2.071
1.890
1.740
1.000
Low
voltage
High
voltage
15,000
2500
400
60
37.5
2000
3000 0:67
41.7
300
600 0:50
178
Chapter 10
0:56400
2:0 O
100
Figure 10-17
179
Step 6
7:577
1
6100% 26%
MHM 6:012
1
6:012
1
MML 4:380
6100% 37:3%
1
7:577
1
6100% 73%
MHL 4:380
1
Table 10-6
Step 8
4:395
1
6100% 0:1%
MHM 4:389
1
4389
1
MML 4:380
6100% 0:2%
1
4:395
1
6100% 4:4%
MHL 4:380
1
Step
1. If 25,000 kVA ows through
the bank, the currents in
each winding are IFL
2. If we assume current
transformer turn ratios of
3. Then the current
transformer secondary
currents are IFL/n
4. Relay currents are
5. Relay current ratios are
66 kV (Y)
25;000
p
219
3666
n 250/5
50
219/50
4.380
p
IRH 364:380 7:577
IRH 7:577
IRH 6:012 1:260
26 kV (Y)
11 kV (D)
25;000
p
556
3626
25;000
p
1314
3611
800/5
160
556/160
3.475
1500/5
300
1314/300
4.380
p
IRM 363:475 6:012
IRM 6:012
IRL 4:380 1:373
IRL 4:380
IRH 7:577
IRL 4:380 1:730
180
4.2.2
Chapter 10
5
5.1
Figure 10-19
181
The appropriate phase shift is taken into consideration internally in the relay. The currents that are
delivered to the relay are modied in the setting
process to cause them to appear to have the same value
they would have had if conventional ct connections
had been used. This modier is called the compensation factor. Figure 10-20 shows the majority of
connections that are in use, the appropriate phaseangle settings, and the compensating factors that
should be used. Consider, for example, that a delta
connection of the cts were in use in the conventional
setup. The current delivered to the
prelay would be
multiplied, by the connection, to be 3 times the phase
current. Using wye currents only instead of the
conventional delta currents, the
are multipcurrents
5.2
182
Chapter 10
Figure 10-20
Figure 10-21
183
5.4
184
Chapter 10
Figure 10-23 Differential protection of the unit-type generator-transformer system with separate differential protection for the
station service unit.
C37.1061987 IEEE Guide for Abnormal-Frequency Protection for Power Generating Plants).
In a generator-transformer unit system, the transformer may be subjected to an overvoltage or overexcitation condition on load rejection or as external
faults are cleared by the high-side breaker. During
periods of high overexcitation, conventional transformer differential relays and relaying schemes may
operate. Some users, however, consider this misoperation an advantage, since it protects against
transformer damage from overvoltage.
Figure 10-25 shows a scheme for preventing undesired tripping of the differential relay and of protecting
a transformer-generator combination against overvoltage. The differential relay must be equipped with
some form of restraint that will recognize excessive
volts/hertz. Either fth-harmonic or all-harmonic
restraint is available for this function.
Figure 10-24 provides some help in establishing
permissible limits for transformers, but the individual
manufacturer should be contacted for assurances.
In Figure 10-25, device 87 is chosen to provide
protection to both the transformer and generator
(and provide backup to the generator differential
relay, not shown). As voltage increases, due to, for
185
5.6
example, load rejection, the tendency of the differential relay to operate is blocked by, say, the
detection of increased fth harmonic. As the voltage
increases farther, to the point where damage may
occur to the protected apparatus, device 24 (volts/
hertz relay) takes over to provide tripping that is
186
Chapter 10
Figure 10-25
Figure 10-26
187
Singlephase
Threephase
Reference
protective
curve
5500
5011667
166810,000
above 10,000
15500
5015000
500130,000
above 30,000
Fig. 10-27
Fig. 10-28
Fig. 10-29
Fig. 10-30
188
Figure 10-27
Chapter 10
Through-fault protection curve for category 1 transformers 5 to 500 kVA single-phase 15 to 500 kVA three-phase.
Figure 10-28
189
Category II transformers 501 to 1667 kVA single-phase 501 to 5000 kVA three-phase.
190
Chapter 10
Figure 10-29
Category III transformers 1668 to 10,000 kVA single-phase 5001 to 30,000 kVA three-phase.
Figure 10-30
1.
191
Category IV transformers above 10,000 kVA single-phase above 30,000 kVA three-phase.
192
Chapter 10
Figure 10-31
3.
4.
Infrequent-frequent fault incidence zones for category II and category III transformers.
K
200
8 sec
2
I
0:5102
5.9
193
Figure 10-32
194
Chapter 10
Figure 10-35
Figure 10-36
grounded.
Connections and operation at the CWC (87TG) ground differential relay where the connected system is
195
Figure 10-37 Connections and operation of the CWC (87TG) ground differential relay where the connected system is
ungrounded or the external ground source is not always available.
196
Chapter 10
Figure 10-38
RCL
or higher
RCN
Figure 10-39
197
PROTECTION OF PHASE-ANGLE
REGULATORS AND VOLTAGE
REGULATORS
198
Chapter 10
Figure 10-40
Typical 400 MVA 115 KV phase-angle regulator, +268 with voltage control.
Figure 10-41
199
Figure 10-42 Overall differential protection for the phaseangle regulator of Figure 10-40.
p
3 to operate the relay and two out of the three
relays in the scheme will pick up on an internal fault
providing redundant backup.
Device 87S (HU relays, one per phase or TPU)
provides differential protection for the series unit. As
shown in Figure 10-44, the current transformers for
current Ie should be located at the neutral end of the
windings to provide some backup protection for the
exciting unit.
The series winding has very low impedance and is
designed for rated voltage equivalent to the quadrature
voltage at maximum phase-angle shift. For the
example shown in Figures 10-43 and 10-44, it is
approximately [2 sin (268/2)] or 45% of the line-toneutral voltage. As a result, the transformer windings
are subject to over-voltage or overexcitation conditions
on external fault, which may produce saturation of the
series windings and cause false operation of the 87S
relays.
Figure 10-43
200
Chapter 10
201
189/252/315 MVA
2 6 280 turns
232 turns
334 turns
528 A
1274 A
2204 A
1200/5 delta
3000/5 wye
3.804
3.673
2.071
2.
Rce 600
RcL 240
ne 6Rce 2326600
2:071
Current ratio
ns 6RcL 2806240
Selected relay taps ratio 8:7=4:2 2:070
Calculated mismatch
< 0:01%
Use 8.7 taps for the series-unit cts and 4.2 tap
for the exciting-unit ct.
In the event that ct ratios are to be
determined, the following expression may be
helpful. Make M% approach 0; then the ct
202
Chapter 10
ne 6Rce
ns 6RcL
TTLe
! 0:0
where
M% percent mismatch
TL relay line/restraint tap setting
Te relay exiting-unit/restraint tap setting
ne secondary series-winding number of turns
ns half-primary series-winding number of
turns
RcL line/source ct ratio
Rce secondary of exciting-unit ct ratio
S smallest of the two ratios
Devices 51N1 (short time) in the neutral circuit of the
exciting-unit secondary provides sensitive ground fault
protection for single-phase-to-ground faults on the
secondary side of the exciting unit. The zero sequence
current distribution for a ground fault in this area is
shown in Figure 10-45.
Device 51N2 provides backup for devices 51N1 and
87E during single-phase-to-ground faults on the
exciting-unit primary. The current ow in neutral
depends on the autotransformer action of the faulted
winding (Fig. 10-46).
Refer to Figure 10-47. Since there is no deltaconnected winding in the exciting unit for this
Figure 10-45 Sensitive ground protection zero sequence currents for a secondary ground fault in the exciting unit of the phaseangle regulator of Figure 10-40.
203
Figure 10-46 Ground backup protection and zero sequence currents for a primary ground fault in the exciting unit of the
phase-angle regulator of Figure 10-40.
of transformers. The harmonic restraint relay (singlephase-type HRU), as shown in Figure 10-48, can be used
to prevent inadvertent tripping during energization.
Some power transformer banks consist of zig-zagconnected windings for phase correction or system
grounding. As shown in Figures 10-49 and 10-50, the
phase-angle shift between the primary and secondary
sides of the banks depends on their connections. In
these examples, windings on one side are deltaconnected. As shown in Figure 10-51, however, a
wye connection could also be used, introducing a
phase-angle shift of either plus or minus 308. The
grounded wye is not a zero sequence current source for
ground faults on the wye side, even if both windings
are grounded. It is, however, a good zero sequence
current source for ground faults at the zig-zag side.
Both the phase-angle shift and zero sequence current
source should be considered when applying the
differential scheme for these transformers.
10
10.1
Both EHV transmission lines and long HV transmission lines and cables require shunt reactance to
compensate for their large line-charging capacitance.
This capacitance produces VAR generation that the
system generally cannot absorb. This VAR genera-
204
Chapter 10
Figure 10-47 The exciting unit provides no zero sequence current path for external ground fault. Devices 51N1 and 51N2 do
not have coordination problem on external faults.
Figure 10-48
205
Protection of a zig-zag grounding transformer and the zero sequence currents for an external ground fault.
10.2
10.3
Rate-of-Rise-of-Pressure Protection
Overcurrent Protection
206
Chapter 10
Figure 10-49
Interconnected delta zig-zag transformers with voltages in phase on the two sides.
Figure 10-50
207
Interconnected delta zig-zag transformer with voltages 608 apart on the two sides.
10.5
On delta systems, shunt reactors are usually connected to the tertiary of a power transformer
associated with the line. Since most faults will involve
ground, the units or associated system are grounded
through high resistance for detection purposes. Neutral resistance grounding is shown in Figure 10-56,
and voltage transformer grounding in Figure 10-57
(see Chap. 7). To limit both transient overvoltage and
ground fault current, the resistor is sized so that I0R
equals or exceeds I0C. Since the system capacitance to
ground is very large, the impedance of the associated
system is essentially negligible and is not shown in the
208
Figure 10-51
Chapter 10
Interconnected wye zig-zag transformer with wye phase voltages lagging 308 from zig-zag phase voltage.
209
10.6
Turn-to-Turn Faults
210
Chapter 10
Figure 10-56
Figure 10-57
211
11
Station-Bus Protection
Revised by: SOLVEIG WARD
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Figure 11-1
214
Chapter 11
Station-Bus Protection
2.
3.
4.
1.2
215
2.
3.
4.
1.3
transformer
transformer
transformer
transformer
location
ratios
accuracy class
saturation curves
3.
4.
5.
6.
216
7.
8.
Chapter 11
Figure 11-2
Figure 11-3
protection.
Station-Bus Protection
217
11-1
VCL
O
46Imin pickup
11-2
11-3
where
NP proportion of total current transformer
turns in use
VCL current transformer accuracy-class voltage
IEXT maximum external symmetrical fault current
in secondary (amperes rms) (use IEXT 100
if IEXT < 100)
RS current transformer secondary winding resistance of the turns in use (in ohms); for
example, if the 400:5 tap of a 600:5 wyeconnected class C200 current transformer is
used,
then
NP 400/600 0.67
and
VCL 200
If IEXT 120 A and RS 0.5 O, then the burden of
the cts secondary circuit, excluding current transformer secondary winding resistance, should not exceed
0:676200 120 1000:5
0:78 O
1:336120
Settings for the CA-16 relay need not be calculated.
Field experience indicates that one CA-16 relay per
phase is satisfactory for the vast majority of applications.
218
Chapter 11
Station-Bus Protection
219
IF
N
11-4
Where
VR pickup setting of the V unit in volts rms
RS dc resistance of current transformer secondary
winding, including internal leads to bushing
terminals
RL resistance of lead from junction points to the
most distant current transformer (one-way
lead for phase faults, two-way lead for
phase-to-ground faults)
IF maximum external primary fault current, in
amperes rms, contributed by the bus
N current transformer turns ratio
K margin factor
The maximum voltage occurs for the external fault
when the faulted circuit current transformer is
220
Chapter 11
SF
NVk
11-5
where
Vk knee voltage value of the poorest current
transformer connected to the relay. For type
11-6
Station-Bus Protection
4.1
221
4.2
Figure 11-9
action.
222
Chapter 11
Figure 11-10
0:93 1:0760,000
300
400
Phase-to-ground fault
Three-phase fault
0:8
SF
4006375
From Figure 11-8, 1.2 > K 0.82 (use the lower value
of 0.82 for sensitivity); therefore, using Eq. (11-4), we
get
VR 0:820:93 1:07
60,000
246 V
400
0:92
SF
4006375
And from Figure 11-8, 1.1 > K 0.77; therefore, using
Eq. (11-4) yields
VR 0:770:93 261:07
45,000
266 V
400
4.3.2
0:93 261:0745,000
345
400
Station-Bus Protection
223
Figure 11-11
224
Chapter 11
The double-bus single-breaker with bus tie (Figure 111e) provides economic and operating exibility comparable to the double-bus double-breaker arrangement
(Fig. 11-1c). However, the cts are normally on the
line-side location, which results in increased differential relaying problems. Two different approaches have
been used in the bus protection of such arrangements:
the fully switched scheme (Fig. 11-14) and the
paralleling switch scheme (Fig. 11-15). They are both
complicated (inserting switch contacts in the ct
circuits) and/or imperfect in protection. These schemes
either require switching cts and/or disabling the bus
protection before any switching operation. This is a
period when the probability of a bus fault occurring is
high and it is most desirable that the bus protection be
in service. A third scheme as shown in Figure 11-16 can
be considered. It is similar to the paralleling switched
scheme except a check-zone relay is added as shown.
Station-Bus Protection
225
Figure 11-14
Figure 11-15
226
Chapter 11
Figure 11-16
Figure 11-17
Station-Bus Protection
227
Figure 11-18
and have only one connection to ground. An overcurrent relay is connected in this ground path as shown
in Figure 11-19. Any ground fault to the supporting
structure will cause fault current to ow through the
relay circuit, tripping the bus through the multiplecontact auxiliary tripping relay. A fault detector,
energized from the neutral of the grounded transformer or generator, prevents accidental tripping. This
scheme requires special construction measures and is
expensive.
Figure 11-19
Fault bus.
12
Line and Circuit Protection
Revised by: ELMO PRICE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
1.
2.
3.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Distribution (2.4 to 34.5 kV) Circuits transmitting power to the nal users.
Subtransmission (13.8 to 138 kV) Circuits
transmitting power to distribution substations
and to bulk loads.
Transmission (69 to 765 kV) Circuits transmitting power between major substations or
interconnecting systems, and to wholesale
outlets. Transmission lines are further divided
into
1.3
1.2
Instantaneous overcurrent
Time overcurrent
Directional instantaneous and/or time overcurrent
Step time overcurrent
Inverse time distance
Zone distance
Pilot relaying
3.
4.
230
Chapter 12
Type of protection
Device
no.
Time overcurrent
51
CO
50/51
CO with IIT
67
CR
67
KRV
MCO, MMCO, 51
IMPRS, MICRO-51
MCO, MMCO, 51
IMPRS, MICRO-51
32 MMCO, 32 51
32 MICRO-51
32 50Db
51
67
CO-4
IRV
51 50D
32 MMCO, 32 MICRO-51
21/51
21
Directional instantaneous
overcurrent
Step time overcurrent
Directional instantaneous and
directional time overcurrent
Inverse time distance system
Zone distance system
Complete zone phase distance
system
Complete distribution package
a
Electromechanical
Static or numericala
Type numbers refer to ABB circuit-shield types. Certain functions require two relays, with the output of the controlling relay wired to the torquecontrol input of the second relay.
b
Select 50D with a 0.01 to 0.03 adjustable range.
231
Type of protection
Device no.
Static or numericala
Electromechanical
Time overcurrent
51N
CO
MSOC
MICRO-51
MSOC
MICRO-51
50N/51N
CO with IIT
Product overcurrent
Directional time overcurrent
67N
67N
CWC or CWP
CRC, CRP, CRD, or CRQ
Directional instantaneous
overcurrent
Directional instantaneous and time
delay
Complete zone ground distance
system
Complete distribution package
67N
67N/50N
Type numbers refer to ABB circuit-shield types. Certain functions require two relays, with the output of the controlling relay wired to the
torque-control input of the second relay.
b
Select 50D with a 0.01 to 0.03 adjustable range.
2
2.1
Fault Detection
Figure 12-1
232
Chapter 12
Time-Delay Relaying
Coordination
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
2.2.3
3.
233
2.2.4
2.2.5
234
Chapter 12
M 1 24; 000
where
T trip time in seconds
D time dial setting from 1 to 63
M operating current in terms of multiple of tap
setting
T0 denite time term
K scale factor for the basic inverse time
P an exponent determining inverseness
T0, K, C, P, and R are constants and are shown as
below:
Curve
no.
T0
CO-2
CO-5
CO-6
CO-7
CO-8
CO-9
CO-11
111.99
8196.67
784.52
524.84
477.84
310.01
110.00
735.00
13,768.94
671.01
3120.56
4122.08
2756.06
17,640.00
0.675
1.130
1.190
0.800
1.270
1.350
0.500
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
501
22,705
1475
2491
9200
9342
8875
Figure 12-3
235
Type of relay
CO-6
CO-7
CO-8
CO-9
CO-11
MCO or MMCO
Time dial
set at
Time of operation
at 4 6 pickup current
(Fig. 12-3) (sec)
Time dial
set at
Time of operation
at 4 6 pickup current
(sec)
0.6
1.0
1.2
2.1
5.0
0.25
0.40
0.60
0.70
2.00
6
7
7
11
31
0.25
0.44
0.58
0.62
2.00
faults near the source are very long. For this reason,
this arrangement is not practical when there are more
than one or two radial feeders from the distribution
substation.
The lower chart of Figure 12-4 shows inverse-time
relay characteristics. For faults near the relay, particularly for the maximum conditions, operating times
are very short. Unfortunately, as system conditions
change from maximum to minimum, operating times
vary considerably. Even though this arrangement can
3.
236
Chapter 12
Figure 12-5 Typical example of feeder load current following extended outage (cold load inrush).
237
Figure 12-7
2.3
12-1
SIR1 Ki 1
Ki
12-2
238
where
n per unit of line section length protected by
the instantaneous unit
instantaneous unit pickup current; I
Ki maximum far-end fault current; I IT
F
SIR source impedance ratio
source impedance; ZS
protected line impedance;
ZL
Refer to Appendix A in this chapter for more
information about Eq. (12-2).
Recommended values of Ki, are 1.3 for the solenoid
or plunger units with transient overreach (IIT, SC, IT
units), 1.2 for static or mumerical units (MCO, LI
units), and 1.1 for the cylinder units with negligible
transient overreach (KC-2, KC-4, KO, KR, and IR
types). The value of 1.25 can be used as a general
factor.
The minimum value that can justify the use of an
instantaneous unit for line protection is a matter of
choice. Since the relative cost of adding the instantaneous units is quite low, they are recommended even
when the line coverage is low for maximum faults
and 0 for minimum faults. The arrangement provides
fast protection for the most severe, heavy, close-in
faults.
Cold-load inrush may be above the instantaneous
unit setting desired for maximum fault protection. To
avoid operation when a setting above this inrush is
not practical, the instantaneous trip circuit can be
manually opened at restoration and left open until
the instantaneous trip unit resets. For manual
operation, a slip contact on the control switch that
is open while the switch is held in the close
position (or its equivalent) prevents operation until
the inrush subsides to drop out the instantaneous
unit. If set above cold-load inrush, the instantaneous
trip unit setting should be at least three times the
overcurrent tap setting, or around six times the
normal maximum load.
Chapter 12
Normally load current does not affect the groundrelay operation. This means that the ground relay
can be set more sensitively than the phase relay.
Ground relays are not affected by out-of-step
conditions.
Ground relays always have available the unfaulted
phase voltages for polarizing. They may not
require a memory circuit.
The higher zero sequence line impedance Z0L, as
compared with the positive line impedance Z1L,
may allow one to use a high-set ground overcurrent unit and make coordination easier than
for phase faults.
The zero sequence isolated system may make
coordination easier.
2. Factors that are not favorable to ground-fault
protection:
Most of the time, ground faults involve higher fault
resistance; this may introduce an over- or underreach problem to the relay.
Zero sequence mutual effect may cause a groundrelay directionality problem.
The zero sequence current distribution factor is not
equal to the positive sequence current distribution factor, except for a single end feed condition;
this makes the ground relay more complicated
than the phase relay in design.
The ground relay faces more problems than the
phase relay on reverse fault clearing (e.g., contact
bounce, unequal pole clearing, etc.).
3
3.1
239
12-3
240
Chapter 12
Figure 12-9
3.3.2
Current Polarization
Figure 12-10
241
of the bank is
INH
VH
3 I0H P0
I0H
VL
VH
3I0H 1 P0
VL
P0
ZT
Z0LS ZL ZT
12-4
12-5
242
Chapter 12
Figure 12-11
Substituting yields
INH 3I0H 6 1
ZT
VH
6
Z0S L ZL ZT VL
12-6
INH
12-7
VL
3 I0L R0
I0L
VH
VL
3I0L 1 R0
VH
12-10
Z0SL ZL
1 P0
Z0SL ZL ZT
Z0SL ZL
ITH I0H
Z0SL ZL ZT
VH
at VT
6 p
3V T
12-8
R0
ZT
Z0SH ZH ZT
12-11
Substituting yields
12-9
INL
ZT
VL
3I0L 6 1
6
Z0SH ZH ZT VH
12-12
12-13
and since
243
Z0SH ZH
Z0SH ZH ZT
Z0SH ZH
I0L
Z0SH ZH ZT
VL
at VT
6 p
3V T
1 R0
ITL
12-14
12-15
Dual Polarization
12-16
Z0SR Z0L Z0SS
I0M
where
n per unit fraction of Z00L from bus G to the
fault
DVSR induced voltage drop from S to R
As the fault moves from G to H, the induced current
I0M in line RS will decrease, reverse, and then increase
244
Chapter 12
12-17
12-18
3.5
2.
3.
4.
5.
3.6
245
3.6.1
246
Table 12-4
Chapter 12
Summary of Available Independent Single-Function Directional Phase and Ground Relays (67/67N)
Fault-sensing unit operating quantities
Relay type
CRa
CRC
CRP
CRD
CRQ
IRVa
IRC
IRP
IRD
IRD
KRVa
KRC
KRP
KRD
KRQ
CWC
CWP
CWP-1
32b
32Db
32Qb
a
b
Directional unit
polarizing or
operating quantities
Directional controlled
time-overcurrent unit
L-L voltage
I0
V0
I0 and/or V0
I2 and V2
L-L voltage
I0
V0
I0 and/or V0
I2 and V2
L-L voltage
I0
V0
I0 and/or V0
I2 and V2
I0
V0
V0
L-L voltage
I0 or V0
I2 and V2
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Nondirectional
controlled
instantaneous unit
Directional controlled
instantaneous unit
Option
Option
Option
Option
Option
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Phase units.
Solid-state high-speed directional units that can be used to control overcurrent relay units such as MMCO, MICRO-51, 51, or 50D.
Fault levels are usually high for high-voltage transmission circuits and, if faults are not cleared rapidly, they
can cause system instability as well as extensive
damage and hazards to personnel. For these reasons,
phase distance relays are generally used in place of the
directional overcurrent relays, except at the lowervoltage levels. Even at the lower-voltage levels, the
trend is toward distance relays. For the higher-voltage
lines, one or two pilot systems are used in conjunction
with or as a supplement to phase distance relays.
The advantages of the application of a distance
relay in comparison to that of an overcurrent relay are
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
4.1
247
nZ1L
IR
IR
12-19
Figure 12-16
248
Chapter 12
12-20
12-21
12-22
RV
12-23
249
Figure 12-19
250
Chapter 12
With single-phase-type relays connected as phaseto-ground elements, those with one distance element
connected to each phase, the R-X characteristic of
Figure 12-19 applies to only the unit on the faulted
phase. For three-phase faults, load, and three-phase
power swings, all three single-phase distance relays
have a reach of nZ1L along the line (if arc resistance is
neglected). All three will operate for any three-phase
fault between the relay and nZ1L set point.
Three-phase-type relays respond to all phase faults,
regardless of the specic phases involved. For example,
the KD-10 relays have two operating units. One unit
responds to any three-phase fault between the relay
and set reach of nZ1L; the other responds to any phaseto-phase fault (AB, BC, and CA) between the relay and
set reach of nZ1L. One or both of the two units will
respond to all two-phase-to-ground (ABG, BCG, and
CAG) faults from the relay to the set reach of nZ1L.
4.1.4
ZC ZC y
2
12-24
4.2.1
12-25
4.2
Figure 12-20
ZC ZS ZC ZS y
2
Phase-Distance Relays
The KDAR Phase-Distance Relays
251
Figure 12-21 illustrates the operation of the threephase unit of the KD-10 relays. With three-phase
potential VA, VB, and VC applied with line current
(IA 3I0),
VX 1:5 VA 1:5IA 3I0 ZC
VY VB
VZ VC
12-26
The I0 component in Eq. (12-26) provides doublephase-to-ground fault coverage for systems with a very
low Z0s relative to Z2s. For these faults, the three
sequence networks are connected in parallel. If, in the
limit, Z0s goes to 0, the negative sequence network is
shorted out, leaving only the positive sequence network, as for a three-phase fault. For very low Z0s
systems, therefore, double-phase-to-ground faults
look like three-phase faults, and the three-phase
unit responds. The 3I0 helps cover these faults but does
not enter into the phasors of Figure 12-21, which are
for three-phase faults.
The compensator is set so that ZC equals the
positive sequence line impedance from the relay to the
balance point (ZL). For the three-phase fault at the
Figure 12-21
Phasor diagrams of KD-10 phase distance relays for faults at various locations (three-phase unit).
252
Chapter 12
Figure 12-22
Phasor diagrams of KD-10 phase distance relays for faults at various locations (phase-phase unit).
12-27
253
Operating
For threephase fault
For phase-tophase faults
VXG IXZC
VQ
(12-28)
VAB IABZC
VCB ICBZC
(12-29)
Reference
where
Figure 12-23
4.2.3
Microprocessor-Based REL-512
Figure 12-24
REL-100 characteristics.
254
Chapter 12
Ground-Distance Relays
Fundamentals of Ground-Distance
Relaying
3V0G
3I0G
I0 P0 Z0S
K0
Figure 12-25
12-30
VAG
IAG
K1 I1 K2 I2 nZ1L K0 I0 nZ0L
K1 I1 K2 I2 K0 I0
12-31
255
Figure 12-26
Zrelay
12-32
K 1 I1 K 2 I2 K 0 I0
K1 I1 K2 I2 pK0 I0
nZ1L
K1 I1 K2 I2 K0 I0
Zrelay
12-33
where
p
Z0L
Z1L
and
p 1
Substituting yields
Z0L Z1L
IR IAG
K 0 I0
Z1L
Z0L Z1L
Z1L
12-35
256
Chapter 12
4.3.2
VAG
3I0
nZ1L RG
IR
IR
12-36
where
Z0L Z1L
K 0 I0
Z1L
Z0M
I0E
Z1L
IR IAG
12-37
In these formula,
RG arc plus tower footing resistance and includes
ground wires, when used
Z0M mutual impedance to a parallel line where I0E
current ows
I0 total zero sequence current, of which K0 I0 is
the portion through the relay
Figure 12-27
257
4.4
4.4.1
Figure 12-28
Basic trip and control circuit for the KDXG relay system.
258
Chapter 12
Figure 12-29
Figure 12-30
2 relay at G would operate, even though the bottomline zone 2 relay should clear this fault.
When several remote lines have different lengths,
the zone 2 and 3 settings involve compromises (Fig. 1231). Since line HV is short compared to lines HS and
HR, setting zone 2 at G for 50% of line HV provides a
maximum of 5.5% coverage for line HR and 8.4% for
line HS. This coverage is further reduced by the infeed
effect. Additional coverage could be obtained by
increasing the G zone 2 setting and the corresponding
Figure 12-31
259
Distance relays looking into a bus with various lengths of adjacent line sections.
Short line
Medium line
Long line
SIR > 4
0.05 < SIR < 4
SIR < 0.05
260
Chapter 12
12-37
VG
IG
ZL ZH
ZL
ZH
K
IH
ZH
IG
12-38
12-39
12-40
Zapparent
47:46
4:33 O relay side
10:95
34:69
3:00 O relay side
11:56
the relay will see the fault. Hence, the reach of the
Figure 12-33
Z0L Z1L
I0
Z1L
261
51:78
5:99 O relay side
8:67
4.7
48:6
4:66 O relay side
10:42
Figure 12-34
262
Chapter 12
VG nZL IG ZT IG IH
IG
IG
4.8
ZT
nZL
K
12-43
ZT
1K
12-44
Figure 12-36
4.8.2
263
4.8.3
12-46
and
Zapparent
1 KIZT
KI
1K
ZT
K
4.8.4
12-45
264
Chapter 12
Figure 12-37
265
4.9
3RSG RTF
K0
K1 K2 ZZ0L
1L
ZC Z0S Z0TF
12-47
4.10
266
Chapter 12
P0 n 1
Z0U =Z0S Z0U n 1
I0
I0
2
2
12-48
267
2.
3.
4.
LOOP-SYSTEM PROTECTION
5.1
5.1.1
Without mutual compensation, a zone 1 distance relay set for 85% of the line will cover
from 70 to 88% if the breakers are all in, and
from 85 to 100% of the line after the far breaker
opens.
For most applications, a zone 2 distance relay
without mutual compensation will provide
complete end-zone coverage when set for
150% of the line.
Compared with an uncompensated relay,
mutual compensation usually increases zone 1
coverage with the breakers all in, but decreases
sequential coverage.
Mutual compensation must be used with caution when looking into a weak source. In
these cases, K0I0 ows from A toward B; and
for faults near C, the large mutual compensation current from the parallel line can cause
misoperation.
268
Chapter 12
Figure 12-42
2 to 9
Directional
inverse
Relays if
directional
instantaneoustrip units are
applicable
Inverse time
with
instantaneous
trip
Directional
Directional
inverse with
inverse with
directional
instantaneous
instantaneous
trip
trip
Figure 12-43
5.1.3
269
Figure 12-44
270
Chapter 12
1.
2.
3.
4.
6.3
6 SHORT-LINE PROTECTION
6.1 Denition of Short Line
6.4
6.4.1
Table 12-6
Zs
(O)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
SIR
IF1
(A)
IF2
(A)
Instantaneoustrip unit
setting
1
2
3
4
138.6
69.3
46.2
34.6
69.3
46.2
34.6
27.7
90.1
60.1
45.0
36.0
Coverage
(O)
(%)
0.27
0.15
0.04
No
53.8
30.6
8.0
No
271
6.4.2
Table 12-7 shows the per unit values of VR, the fault
voltage at the relay location, and VR-IRZC, the relay
operating voltage, for the simple system of Figure
12-45 with a fault applied at 85% of the relay reach.
The relay is set for 90% of the line, i.e., ZC 0.9ZL.
The relay operating quantity, VR -IR ZC , becomes
very small when the SIR value increases. For example,
on SIR 30, the voltage that can be applied to the
relay VR and the relay operating quantity are less than
3 and 0.5%, respectively. When the signals are so small,
any error in the voltage or current can be substantial
relative to the theoretical values.
6.4.3
Current Source
VR
VR-IRZC
0.754
0.433
0.071
0.025
0.007
0.133
0.076
0.012
0.004
0.001
Figure 12-45
6.4.4
Potential Source
272
Chapter 12
Figure 12-46
voltage fault.
2.
fault
relay
relay
ratio
6.4.5
Arc/Fault Resistance
7
7.1
SERIES-CAPACITOR COMPENSATED-LINE
PROTECTION
A Series-Capacitor Compensated Line
273
274
Chapter 12
Figure 12-50
Figure 12-49
conditions.
7.3
275
276
Chapter 12
sated line. This way, the settings will make sure that
the line is fully covered under all operating conditions.
Figure 12-52 illustrates the coverage of a zone 2
application.
The reverse-reach characteristic of the ground
units enables the proper coverage of the negative
reactance of the series capacitor as shown in
Figure 12-52. It is unfortunate that the unit is not
inherently directional since it will operate for reverse
faults; however, for a time-delayed backup zone, this
is acceptable.
In applying stepped-distance protection to a seriescapacitor environment, coordination may be a problem since the reach of the zones depends on the
conducting state of the surge protective equipment for
the capacitor. Some compromises will result from the
application and they may include the time delaying of
the compensated line protective zones to also timecoordinate with adjacent lines.
Figure 12-52
Figure 12-53
277
8.2
278
Chapter 12
Figure 12-54
279
Figure 12-56
Protection and coordination for a typical secondary unit substation and load center.
280
This fuse protection is very inadequate for transformer secondary faults located between the transformer and main secondary breaker (C). The maximum
secondary fault would take approximately 1 sec to
blow the fuse. For a more probable 50% fault, the fuse
would take between 15 to 20 sec. This illustrates that a
high-side fuse is very good for primary maximum
phase-to-phase and three-phase faults, but very inadequate for the more probable high-side ground faults
and restricted secondary faults.
The best protection and coordination with the
secondary-unit substation secondary protection are
provided by a step-time characteristic that approaches
the low-voltage breaker characteristic very closely
(Fig. 12-56). The relay consists of a long timeovercurrent unit and two instantaneous-trip units,
one of which operates through a timer that can be
adjusted from 0.25 to 3.0 sec. Normally, the IT unit
has a range of 10 to 40 A; the second unit (IIT) has a
range of 20 to 80 A. As illustrated in Figure 12-56, the
relay will recognize a transformer secondary fault
down to 25% of the maximum value and operate in
0.6 sec.
Extremely inverse relays could be applied and set as
shown as an alternative. Usually, it is very difcult to
coordinate this characteristic between the breakers
time interval (CTI). Long operating times will occur
for light secondary faults as compared to the step-time
protection
In areas of high load density, the trend in
secondary-unit substations is toward larger and fewer
units to transform the distribution voltage down to a
utilization voltage of 600 V or less.
Associated with the larger units are higher interrupting requirements that may necessitate much largerframe breakers than the load requirements dictate.
When larger-frame breakers are required, smallerframe integrally fused circuit breakers may be economically applied.
A fused breaker is a standard breaker with special
current-limiting fuses (limiters) to extend the upper
limit of interrupting capability to possibly 200,000
symmetrical rms A. This breaker-fuse combination
may consist of integral or separately mounted apparatus.
The current-limiting fuse restricts the peak letthrough current on the rst cycle to a value that is
within the air breakers interrupting capability. This
limiting is illustrated in Figure 12-57. Figure 12-58
shows the instantaneous peak currents for various fuse
ratings as a function of the available short-circuit rms
symmetrical current and system x/r ratio of 6.6. Note
Chapter 12
Figure 12-57
fuse.
281
IF
ZS nZL SIR n
IF
Solve for n:
n
SIR1 Ki 1
Ki
12-2
Introduction
There is no topic in protective relaying more challenging and interesting than high-speed relaying using
distance concepts. It is also true that the operation of
different impedance units remains a mystery for most
engineers and has generated several misconceptions on
impedance relay applications. In most cases, as it
should for any application, the characteristics of the
distance elements are not an issue. Most of us tend to
disregard the inuence that particular system parameters have on the performance of the units.
The purpose of this appendix is to illustrate the
performance and characteristics of the different distance elements found in ABB relays. More than
stressing the operating characteristics of the units, the
reader will notice that the equations and derivations to
be presented are nothing more than academic exercises.
Perhaps, as will be described, the simple mathematical
models of the units are overshadowed by the superior
performance of the distance elements in real life.
This appendix will introduce step by step the
various factors inuencing the performance of distance
elements. Symmetrical components analysis is important and will be used throughout the development of
the equations.
B-1
Figure 12B-1
B-2
282
Chapter 12
jS1 j
jS2 j
Figure 12B-3
Magnitude Comparators
Given two arbitrary phasors, SA and SB, the output of
a magnitude comparator is a logic 1 (the comparator
has operated) if
SA
Ce jr
SB
B-3
B-4
Figure 12B-4
istics.
Figure 12B-2
B-5
B-6
Figure 12B-5
283
S1
B.1.2
B-7
B-8
B-9
B-10
k3 V k4 I
k1 V=I k2 =k1
k3 V=I k4 =k3
k1 Z k2 =k1
k3 Z k4 =k3
B-11
284
Chapter 12
B-12
a Zc
b0
B-17
B-18
where
k2
k1
k4
b
k3
a
B-13
B-14
B.1.3
B-15
S2 V
B-16
B-19
285
Figure 12B-6
B.3
B-20
B-21
B-22
286
Chapter 12
Figure 12B-7
Figure 12B-8
Figure 12B-9
Figure 12B-10
comparator.
Throughout the remainder of this section, the following list of symbols and abbreviations will be used:
Vs, V0s
VA, VB, VC
Source voltages
Line-to-ground voltages at the relay
location
287
288
Chapter 12
ZRcF
ZRcR
XRc
ZR00l
PANG
RT
S1, S2
SA, SB
K1
K2
K0
k1, k2, k3, k4
a
a, b
e jy
SB VA1 IA1 Zc
Using Figure 12B-11, we obtain
SA
IA1 Z1s IA1 Zc
e jy
SB IA1 2Z1l Z1s IA1 Zc
or, in the positive sequence R-X plane, the units
characteristic equation is
Z1l
Phase-to-Phase Unit
B-23
SB VA1 IA1 Zc
B-24
Figure 12B-11
e
2
2
B-26
B.4.2
B-25
Three-Phase Unit
289
of Figure 12B-13
KDAR (KD, KD-4,
and Uniex (LKD)
to the magnitude
B-27
B-28
e jy
SB VA1 Zc =2IA1
Zc =2IA1
e jy
Z1l IA1 Zc =2IA1
Then,
Zc
Zc jy
Z1l
e
2
2
B-29
B.4.4
Ground Units
Figure 12B-14
the Z1l plane.
VA1 VF1
IA1
B-30
B-31
290
Chapter 12
Z0c Z0l
Z1c Z1l
B-36
ejr
B-37
B-39
dened by
SA
VA0 IA0 Z0c
B-32
B-33
B-34
B-35
Figure 12B-16
LDG units.
291
ZRl ZRc
b Z1s
2 ZRs
2 ZRl
B-45
B-44
a Z1c
Z1l Z0l
Z0l Z0c
Z1l Z1c
For the phase comparator to operate, using Eqs. (B40) and (B-41), we obtain
VA1 VF1
Z1c 2 ZRc Z1l Z0l
S1
I
o
pn A1
S2 3 VA1 VA1 Z1s 2 ZRs Z1l Z0l
IA1
B-42
B-43
292
Chapter 12
B-48
and
S2 VA1 VA2 VA0
IA1 2Z1cR Z0cR VF1 VF1
VA1 VF1 IA1 Z1s
IA1 Z0s IA1 2Z1cR Z0cR Z1s
k2 Z1cF 2 ZRcF
k4 Z1cR 2 ZRcR
Z0cF Z0cR
Z1cF Z1cR
Z0l
Z1l
B-52
Therefore, the reference vectors dening the characteristic of the unit on the Z1l plane are
B-53
B-54
k1 2 ZRl
k3 2 ZRl
a Z1cF
b Z1cR
B-49
B-50
Therefore, Eq. (B-50) can be reduced to
S1
Z1l 2 ZRl Z1cF 2 ZRcF
B-51
293
B.4.5
B-57
and
S2 j2X1c X0c IA1
B-58
j2X1c X0c
S2
S1 Z1l 2 ZRl jX1C 2 XRc
jX1C 2 XRc
S2
M1 e
+j90
B-59
Blinder Units
Blinders are impedance elements that are used for outof-step relaying and also supervising impedance units
on load current encroachment. These elements have
been employed in REL-300 and REL-350 systems.
Implementation is similar to that for the reactance
unit, and the phase comparator approach makes it
easier to understand. A typical implementation in a
phase comparator has inputs
S1 VA IA RT e jPANG90
S2 IA e jPANG90
B-63
B-64
B-60
S1 Z1l RT e jPANG90
M1 e+j90
S2
e jPANG90
B-65
Z0l X0c
Z1l X1c
k2 jX1c 2 XRc
k4 jX1c 2 XRc
It follows that
B-61
a jX1c
b < +e
j90
infinity at 90
B-62
Equation (B-62) might not be a rigorous mathematical expression, but it identies the location of one of
our reference vectors. It can be thought, therefore, that
Z b is always perpendicular to the reactance line
and the phase comparator characteristic angle require-
Figure 12B-19
294
Chapter 12
k2 RT e jPANG90
k4 e jPANG90
B-66
B-67
jPANG90
B.5.1
Phase-to-Phase Unit
Following the same approach used before, for a phaseto-phase fault, Figure 12B-22 describes the connection
of sequence networks for a phase-to-phase fault.
The direction of the currents in Figure 12B-22
indicates the proper direction of the sequence components that the unit sees. The inputs to the magnitude
comparator are again
SA VA2 IA2 Zc
SB VA1 IA1 Zc
B-68
B-69
e jy
SB VA1 IA1 Zc
Figure 12B-20
B-70
295
e jy
SB IA1 2Z001l Z001s IA1 Zc
B-72
Three-Phase Unit
Zc
IA1
2
Zc
SB VA1 IA1
2
SA
B-73
B-74
e jy
SB VA1 Z2c IA1
B-75
ejy
SB Z001l IA1 Z2c IA1
B-76
Zc Zc jy
e
2
2
B-77
Ground Units
B-78
B-79
296
Chapter 12
B-80
e jy
SB IA1 2Z001l Z000l Z000s 2IA0 Z1c
or
SA
Z000s Z0c
00
e jy
SB 2Z1l Z000l Z000s 2Z1c
B-81
Z001l
e
2 ZR00l
2 ZR00l
B-82
B-83
B-84
Figure 12B-27
297
modied to
and
Z0c Z1c
S1 VA1 VA2 VA0 IA1 6 3
Z1c
Z1c
VA1 IA2 Z001s IA0 Z000s IA1 2Z1c Z0c
VF1 VF1
00
VA1 VF1 IA1 Z001s Z0s
2Z1c Z0c Z001l
Z000l Z001s Z000s
b
2 ZR00s
Z1s
2 ZR00l
B-89
or
S1
Z001l Z000l 2Z1c Z0c
IA1
Z001l 2 ZRl00 Z1c 2 ZRc
B-85
jVA1 a a2 VA2 a a2
p
3VA1 VA2
p
3VA1 IA1 Z001s VF1 VF1
p
3VA1 VF1 IA1 Z001s VF1
S1
Z001l 2 ZR00l Z1cF 2 ZRcF
IA1
B-92
and
or
p
S2
3Z001l Z001s Z001l Z001s Z000l Z000s
IA1
p
32Z001l 2Z001s Z000l Z000s
p
00
3Z001l 2 ZR00l Z1s
2 ZR00s B-86
S2
Z001l 2 ZR00l Z1cR 2 ZRcR
IA1
B-93
M1 e+j90
B-87
B-88
2 ZRc
Z1c
2 ZR00l
298
Chapter 12
B-94
SB VA1 IA1 Zc
B-95
Figure 12B-29
ground unit.
B-96
The characteristic for the response of the phase-tophase unit to all phase-to-ground faults is shown in
Figure 12B-30.
B.6.2
Quadrature-Polarized Ground-Distance
Unit
Phase-to-Phase Unit
299
Figure 12B-31
faults.
a Z1s
B-97
a phase comparator, the reference vectors are
and
1 a ZRs
b Z1s
2 ZRl
B-98
a Z1s
B-99
and
b Z1s
1 a2 ZRs
2 ZRl
B-100
B-101
B-102
a Z1c
b0
B-103
B-104
B-105
S2 jVCm VBm
B-106
300
Chapter 12
modied to
S2 ja a2 VAm
p
3Vs
p
3IA1 Z1l Z1s
B-107
B-108
a Z1s
B-111
b0
B-112
For a CA fault,
Z1s a 1 a 1Z1c
a
2
2
Zs1 1 a
b
2
B-113
B-114
or
For a AB fault,
S1
Z1l Z1c
p
M1 e+j90
S2 3Z1l Z1s
The reference vectors a and b are
a Z1c
B-109
b Z1s
B-110
Z1s a2 1 a2 1Z1c
a
2
2
2
Zs1 1 a
b
2
B-115
B-116
B.6.3
Figure 12B-33
faults.
301
a Z1s
B-117
S1 VA IA1 Z1cF
S2 VA IA1 Z1cR
B-121
B-122
a Z1s
B-119
a Z1cF
B-123
b Z1cR
B-124
This means that the units characteristic for a threephase fault will be the same as for phase-to-ground
faults (Fig. 12B-18). In REL 350 the operation of all
the three-phase-to-ground units indicates the occurrence of a three-phase fault.
Response to Phase-to-Phase Faults
B-120
a
2
2
Z1s 1 a a 1Z1cR
b
2
2
For a AB fault,
Z1s 1 a2 a2 1Z1cF
a
2
2
2
2
Z1s 1 a a 1Z1cR
b
2
2
B-125
B-126
B-127
B-128
B-129
B-130
Figure 12B-34
faults.
302
Chapter 12
B.7
Figure 12B-35
phase faults.
Figure 12B-36
connection.
303
Vs Z01s
B-131
B-132
B-133
K1
IF3ph
B.7.1
Phase-to-Phase Unit
Using the general procedure for a magnitude comparator, we can show the locus of impedances Z1l that
denes the impedance characteristics for this unit to be
Z1l
Zc Z1s 1 IL =IF3ph
2 IL =IF3ph
Zs1 Zc 1 IL =IF3ph jr
e
2 IL =IF3ph
B-137
S1
K0
IL
Z1l 2
ZRl
K1 IA1
K1
IF3ph
K0
IL
Z1c 2
ZRc
K1
IF3ph
B-138
S2 jVC VB
B-136
K1 Zc IA1
Figure 12B-38
Figure 12B-39
304
Chapter 12
Figure 12B-41
and reduce to
Figure 12B-40
ground fault.
that reduces to
S2
K1 IA1
p
K0
IL
3 Z1l 2
ZRl
K1
IF3ph
K0
IL
Z1s 2
ZRs 2
K1
IF3ph
2
3
IL
0
2K
ZR
2
s
K1
IF3ph
5
b Z1s 4
K0
IL
2 K1 ZRl IF3ph
B-139
B-140
B-141
B-142
Also,
S1
K0
IL
Z1l 2
ZRl
K1 IA1
K1
IF3ph
K0
IL
Z1cF 2
ZRc
K1
IF3ph
Z0cR Z1cR
Z1cR
S2 VA IA K0 IA0
Z1cR
and it reduces to
S2
K0
IL
Z1l 2
ZRl
K1 IA1
K1
IF3ph
K0
IL
Z1cR 2
ZRc
K1
IF3ph
B-143
B-144
B-145
B.8
Derived Characteristics
The discussion above showed the different characteristics that can be obtained with either a phase or
magnitude comparator. The characteristics of the units
derived are smooth and simple.
Designs have been made, however, in which
different characteristics, many comparators, have
been used to achieve characteristics that are not
necessarily smooth. This is done for many purposes,
like load restriction for heavily loaded long lines, and
to try to accommodate more fault resistance, although
actual apparent impedance is not simply a resistance
component.
It is not the scope of this section to discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of impedance characteristics. Therefore, a simple description of how these
characteristics are obtained will be given through
examples.
Refer to Figure 12B-42a. It shows an application
with mixed reactance and blinder units. To derive this
characteristic, four units are required. The reactance
unit X determines the X reach, the resistance unit R
determines the R reach, and blinders A and B provide
the necessary directionality of the unit. For the relay to
operate, the four units should pick up.
In Figure 12B-42c, two comparators are used to
achieve the characteristic. In this case, any of the units,
offset mho or lens, will provide the output of the entire
distance unit. This characteristic has been used in
heavily loaded lines for the starting impedance unit.
305
B.9
Apparent Impedance
VA
IA
B-146
VB VC
IB IC
B-147
Figure 12B-42
VA
1c
IA Z0cZZ
IA0
1c
B-148
306
Chapter 12
B-149
where
Rf fault resistance
I0E zero sequence current in the parallel line
Z0m zero sequence mutual between parallel lines
and the rest of the symbols are as described before.
It should be noticed that apparent impedance will
change with fault resistance and mutual effects, and if
Zapp enters the operating characteristics of the different
ground units described, the relay may under- or
overreach.
B.10 Summary
The purpose of this appendix is to illustrate the
different properties of distance elements found in
ABB relays. In microprocessor technology, several
of these units can be found and the detection of
faults in power systems is, in general, a combination of the operation of all the phase and ground
units. In some designs, such as MDAR (REL-300)
all the distance units are supervised by a phase
selector and/or forward directional unit. This limits
the interaction of the several units that MDAR has
available. In conclusion, although distance elements
have been designed with a denite type of fault
detection, they will respond to other types of faults
as well.
It is an objective of this appendix, as well, to clarify
the meaning of forward and reverse. These concepts
are totally opposite to each other. It is not proper to
draw the forward-looking characteristics Z1l plane
on the reverse-looking characteristics Z1l00 plane. It is
hoped that the reader can now make such a distinction.
They are totally different concepts.
The inuence of current distribution factors and
load is simply an academic exercise since these factors
change as the fault moves within the protected line. To
nd rigorously the operating characteristic with
distribution factors and load ow would be an iterative
process. However, the development illustrates the
dynamic performance of the different units.
C.1
C-1
C-2
C-3
C-4
307
C.2
C-1
C-2
C-3
C-6
1L
IR
IG Z0LZZ
IA0G
1L
h
i
h
i
Z0L Z1L
1L
Z1L IG
IA0G Z1H IG IH IA0G IA0H Z0LZZ
Z1L
1L
1L
IA0G
IG Z0LZZ
1L
3
2
Z0L Z1L
IG IH IA0G IA0H Z1L
4
5
Z1L Z1H
1L
IA0G
IG Z0LZZ
1L
3
2
1L
IH IA0H Z0LZZ
1L
4
5
Z1L Z1H 1
1L
IG IA0G Z0LZZ
1L
3
2
1L
IH IA0H Z0LZZ
1L
5
C-5
Z1L Z1H Z1H 4
1L
IG IA0G Z0LZZ
1L
ZAPP
p
Z1C Z1L
or
VA1 VX1 IA1G Z1C
VA2 VX2 IA1G Z1C
VA0 VX0 IA0G pZ1C
From Eqs. (C-3), (C-6), and (C-7), we obtain
2VX1 2IA1G Z1C VX0 IA0G pZ1C
Z0L Z1L
Z1L IG IA0G
Z1L
Z0L Z1L
Z1H IG IH IA0G IA0H
Z1L
C-7
308
Chapter 12
Z0L Z1L
Z1L IG IA0G
Z1L
Z0L Z1L
Z1H IG IH IA0G IA0H
Z1L
Z0L Z1L
Z1C IG IA0G
Z1L
Z0L Z1L
Z1L IG IA0G
Z1L
Z0L Z1L
Z1H IG IH IA0G IA0H
Z1L
3
2
1L
IG IH IA0G IA0H Z0LZZ
1L
5
Z1C Z1L Z1H 4
1L
IG IA0G Z0LZZ
1L
3
2
Z0L Z1L
1L
IG IA0G Z1L
IH IA0H Z0LZZ
1L
5
Z1C Z1L Z1H 4
1L
IG IA0G Z0LZZ
1L
Z1C Z1L Z1H
3
2
1L
IH IA0H Z0LZZ
1L
5
Z1H 4
1L
IG IA0G Z0LZZ
1L
D.2
C-8
System Information
Breaker
location
IRM
IRL
4 (IRM or IRL)
I
FN
Directional
required
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
250
1000
1100
200
200
1100
1000
250
125
125
125
125
125
125
125
125
1000
4000
4400
800
800
4400
4000
1000
750
210
180
800
800
180
210
750
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes/no
Yes/no
Yes
Yes
Yes
Table 12D-2
Breaker
location
ICM
2:5 I
FM
IFM
Instantaneoustrip unit
applicable
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
2750
1100
1000
3200
3200
1000
1100
2750
2500
500
500
2750
2750
500
625
2500
1000
250
200
1100
1100
200
250
1000
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Figure 12D-1
309
unit application. It indicates that the instantaneoustrip unit can be set to underreach if applied to all these
breakers.
D.2.4
D.3
D.3.1
310
Chapter 12
Figure 12D-2
Table 12D-3
Relay
Breaker
location
IRM
I
FM
Required
directionally
controlled IT unit
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
250
1000
1100
200
200
1100
1000
250
1000
250
200
1100
1100
200
250
1000
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
311
Breaker location
Time-overcurrent
unit needing
directional control
Instantaneous-trip
unit can be set to
underreach
Instantaneous-trip unit
requiring directional
control
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
CR with
IRV
IRV
CR with
CR with
IRV
IRV
CR with
IIT
IIT
IIT
IIT
200 7:2
6
225 A at
5
23
23 kV
Type of relay
selected
200 7:2
6
125A at 23 kV
5
23
D.3.4
Multiples of tap
setting
Primary current
at 23 kV
Time to close
contacts (sec)
1.0
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0
7.0
10.0
16.0
125
250
312
375
500
625
875
1250
2000
4.00
2.38
1.65
1.05
0.78
0.58
0.46
0.36
5
5A
250
312
Chapter 12
Multiples of tap
setting
Primary current
at 23 kV
Time to close
contacts (sec)
1.0
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0
7.0
10.0
250
500
625
750
1000
1250
1750
2500
4.00
2.38
1.65
1.05
0.78
0.58
0.46
Multiples of tap
setting
Primary current
at 23 kV
1.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
10.0
14.0
20.0
40
120
160
200
400
560
800
Time to close
contacts (sec)
3.40
2.10
1.58
0.95
0.80
0.70
313
Figure 12D-3 Typical time curve of the type CO-8 or IRV-8 relay.
314
Chapter 12
315
316
Chapter 12
317
Multiples of tap
setting
Primary current
at 23 kV
Time to close
contacts (sec)
1.0
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0
7.0
280
560
700
840
1120
1400
1860
2.50
1.55
1.00
0.600
0.45
0.35
Multiples of tap
setting
Primary current
at 23 kV
1.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0
7.0
10.0
16.0
40
100
120
160
200
280
400
640
Time to close
contacts (sec)
2.38
1.65
1.05
0.78
0.58
0.46
0.36
Since relay K operates instantaneously for the maximum fault (2), the critical fault is (2) minimum. Critical
fault current is 1550 A for relay K and 750 A for relay
H. Relay H is set for a minimum pickup of 2 6 125, or
250 A primary (6.25 A secondary) load current. Tap 7 is
selected to give a minimum pickup of 7 6 40, or 280 A.
The critical fault multiple is 750/280, or 2.68 for
relay H. The operating time of relay K for the critical
fault value of 1550 A is 0.70 sec (1550/280, or a 5.52
multiple). The set point for relay H should be 0.70 plus
0.30, or 1 sec at 750 A. From Figure 12D-3, for a 2.68
multiple and 1 sec, the time dial is 1. Using tap 7 (280 A
primary) and a time dial of 1, we can nd the curve
points for Figure 12D-9:
Multiples of tap
setting
Primary current
at 23 kV
Time to close
contacts (sec)
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0
7.0
560
700
840
1120
1400
1960
2.1
1.2
0.8
0.5
0.38
0.30
318
Chapter 12
319
320
Chapter 12
321
D.3.10
D.3.11
Summary
13
Backup Protection
Revised by: E. D. PRICE
INTRODUCTION
2.1
Backup relaying, which provides necessary redundancy in protective systems, is dened in the IEEE
Standard Dictionary as protection that operates
independently of specied components in the primary
protective system and that is intended to operate if
the primary protection fails or is temporarily out of
service.
Backup protection includes remote backup, local
backup, and breaker-failure relaying. Breaker failure is
dened as a failure of the breaker to open or interrupt
current when a trip signal is received.
Backup protection for equipment such as generators, buses, and transformers usually duplicates
primary protection and is arranged to trip the same
breakers. In the event of a breaker failure, some remote
line protection would isolate the fault.
In the past, backup protection for transmission
lines was provided by extending primary protection to
line sections beyond the remote bus. This remote
backup is dened in the IEEE Dictionary as backup
protection in which the protection is at a station or
stations other than that which has the primary
protection.
With the advent of EHV and increased concern
about both service continuity and possible breaker
failures, local backup, including breaker-failure protection, has become common.
Remote Backup
Selectivity
323
324
Chapter 13
Sensitivity
Speed
Application
2.2.
Local Backup
Backup Protection
325
separate fuses leads are run from the voltage transformer to the relays.
Instantaneous relays can be considered an independent protective system. Because these relays do not
fully cover the line section, however, a remote endzone fault would require an additional protection
system. Local backup is usually applied only on lines
equipped with a primary pilot system backed up by a
second pilot system or nonpilot backup relays, or both.
2.2.2
326
Chapter 13
2.3
Timer 62BF should be energized with device 50
(Fig. 13-6) rather than through the breaker auxiliary
contacts 52a, since these contacts may be open, while
the contacts in a damaged breaker are closed.
Alternatively, breaker 52a contact can be used together
with the 50 relay (Fig. 13-7).
Since transformer faults may not provide sufcient
current to operate device 50, a transformer differential
relay auxiliary contact 86T can be used instead,
Backup Protection
BREAKER-FAILURE RELAYING
APPLICATIONS
327
1.
2.
3.
When protective relays are being tested, the breakerfailure scheme should be properly blocked or isolated to
prevent misoperation.
3.1
Single-Line/Single-Breaker Buses
328
Chapter 13
3.2
Backup Protection
329
Table 13-1 Breaker-Failure Operations for Breaker-and-aHalf Bus (Fig. 13-13)a
For local backup or
breaker failure no.
1
2
3
Figure 13-13
bus.
86 Relay operations
2
3
4
a
86 Relay operations
4
4.1
Figure 13-14
330
Chapter 13
Four types of relays are used in the traditional breakerfailure scheme: current-detector relays, timer relays,
auxiliary relays, and multitrip auxiliary relays.
4.2.1
Backup Protection
331
Figure 13-16
4.2.2
Time chart of the traditional breaker failure scheme (time not to scale).
Timer (62BF)
4.2.4
4.3
4.2.3
Microprocessor Relays
The microprocessor breaker-failure function is generally implemented in line relays in two levels. The rst
level provides only a breaker-failure initiate signal
(BFI, 62X, 62Y) simultaneously with the breaker trip.
332
Chapter 13
Figure 13-17
Backup Protection
333
5.2
Figure 13-18
detectors.
Transformer Breaker-Failure
Considerations
2.
3.
Figure 13-19
Transformer BF considerations.
Figure 13-20
334
Chapter 13
Figure 13-21
Figure 13-21
5.3
Backup Protection
335
Figure 13-22
336
Chapter 13
16 ms
16 ms
Total
32 ms
Figure 13-23
Backup Protection
337
Figure 13-24
14
System Stability and Out-of-Step Relaying
W. A. ELMORE
INTRODUCTION
VS VR
sin f
X
14-1
where
VS and VR sending- and receiving-end voltages,
respectively
X reactance between VS and VR
f angle by which VS leads VR
See Figure 14-1.
If system resistance is not neglected, different
equations apply for the sending- and receiving-end
power. The variables, however, are essentially the same.
If phase-to-phase voltages are used, Eq. (14-1) yields
three-phase power. For this discussion, VS and VR are
taken as per unit quantities, and Eq. (14-1) gives per
unit power. If VS, VR, and X are held constant in Eq.
(14-1), the power ow is changed by varying the angle f.
As the load increases at the receiving end, synchronous machines are momentarily slowed down, and the
machine-rotor inertia meets the increased load requirements. That is, an increase in load results in a small
reduction of system frequency until there is a change in
mechanical input via the governor or manual action.
STEADY-STATE STABILITY
Figure 14-1
339
340
Chapter 14
Figure 14-2
3 TRANSIENT STABILITY
Transient stability is the ability of the system to
properly adjust (remain in synchronism) to sudden
large changes. Again, if we ignore system resistance
and machine saliency, the power transmitted during
the transient interval P is given by the following
equation:
P
V0S V0R
sin f
X0
14-2
VS0
0
0
VR
341
342
Chapter 14
Figure 14-6
343
such a swing is virtually nil. In general, zone 1 swingtrips occur only on unrecoverable swings.
Some form of blinding is required to screen overreaching distance relays against tripping on severe
swings from which recovery is possible. Operating
independently, a phase-distance relay (21) will initiate
tripping when the angle between the two system
voltages is very large and increasing (Fig. 14-7).
Figure 14-8a shows that zone 1 tripping is highly
dependent on the locus of the swing ohms and
therefore the distance to the electrical center for the
case involved.
Figure 14-8
systems.
344
Chapter 14
Overcurrent Relays
Reclosing
345
6.1
OUT-OF-STEP RELAYING
Figure 14-11
346
Chapter 14
6.2
PHILOSOPHIES OF OUT-OF-STEP
RELAYING
4.
5.
6.
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Figure 14-13
detection.
Utility Practice
347
348
Chapter 14
Figure 14-14
detection.
9.1
9.1.1
Electromechanical Types
KS-3 (68) OS Blocking Scheme
349
Figure 14-17
Figure 14-16
9.2
9.2.1
Solid-State Types
SDBU-1 (21B), SI-T (50), ARS (94), OS
Tripping Scheme
350
Chapter 14
Figure 14-18
Lens Scheme
Figure 14-19
104.
351
Figure 14-20
352
Chapter 14
15
Voltage Stability
L. WANG
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Small-Disturbance Instability
1.1.1
SD Angle Instability
354
Chapter 15
Figure 15-1
Figure 15-2
Figure 15-3
1.1.2
SD Voltage Instability
Figure 15-4
Voltage Stability
355
Large-Disturbance Instability
Figure 15-5
356
Chapter 15
Figure 15-6
LD Voltage Instability
1.3
Voltage Stability
357
2.1
French system: December 19, 1978; January 12,
1987
Swedish system: December 27, 1983
Figure 15-8
358
Chapter 15
2.1.1
Q Angle Method
Figure 15-9
15-1a
15-1b
qP
qV2
qQ
qV2
qP
qd
qQ
qd
Voltage Stability
Figure 15-10
359
Real and reactive power curves in the state space for the two-bus system (P is xed).
j1
i 1; . . . ; n
n1
X
15-2a
j1
i 1; . . . ; n m
15-2b
where
Pi ; Qi constant part of the net power
entering bus i
pi Vi ; qi Vi voltage dependent part of the net
power entering bus i
Vi di ith bus complex voltage
Yij yij (i, j)th element of the network
admittance matrix
360
Chapter 15
Figure 15-11
Real and reactive power curves in the state space for the two-bus system (Q is xed).
2.2
Voltage Stability
361
Figure 15-12
Relative movement between the space surface and the space curve, Q < Q0 .
predetermined load variation pattern. The continuation load ow method may be utilized to nd the
low-voltage solutions required in plotting these
curves.
Once the P-V and Q-V curves are drawn, system
voltage stability can be evaluated based on the distance
362
Chapter 15
For transmission systems over 230 kV, fast capacitor switching is required due to the potential impact
of prolonged low-voltage conditions. Similar to subtransmission systems, capacitor switching is activated
only after faults have been cleared. Programmablelogic-controller (PLC)-based high-speed capacitor control schemes have been used for fast capacitor switching. Low voltages at all three phases are the trigger
conditions, and a time delay of 0.2 sec is used to avoid
switching during fault conditions.
Other than mechanically switched capacitors, there
are other reactive power sources which can prevent
voltage collapses. The reactive sources include
static var compensators (SVCs), static condensers
(STATCONs), synchronous condensers, and generators. They are usually controlled by solid-state switches
so they provide varied reactive power in a continuous
manner. When the reactive power sources reach their
maximum limits and voltages at main buses are
still in a dangerous state, other remedial means such
as load shedding will have to be used.
3.2
Load Shedding
Voltage Stability
363
Figure 15-13
3.3.1
General Considerations
16
Reclosing and Synchronizing
Revised by: S. WARD
INTRODUCTION
RECLOSING PRECAUTIONS
366
Chapter 16
Immediate
Second (15 to 45 sec)
Third (120 sec)
83.25
10.05
1.42
Total successful
Lockouts
94.72
5.28
3.2
Selective Reclosing
3.3
kV
cycles
34:5
16-1
3.4
Synchronism Check
Live-Line/Dead-Bus, Live-Bus/Dead-Line
Control
Instantaneous-Trip Lockout
367
Intermediate Lockout
All reclosing systems should incorporate some provision allowing circuit breakers to be tripped manually
or by supervisory control without inadvertent reclosing
action. Such a provision is inherent in any reclosing
system that has an initiate function. In other
reclosing systems, lockout must be accomplished by
other means, such as a breaker control-switch slipcontact or the temporary removal of control voltage to
the reclosing relay.
368
3.8.1
Chapter 16
Reset Time
Follow-Breaker Function
3.9.1
3.10
3.11
Manual Close
1.
2.
Drive to Lockout
3.
4.
2.
3.
4.1
4.2
4.3
369
5
5.1
5.2
Figure 16-1
cycle.
370
Chapter 16
Figure 16-2
371
5.2.2
372
Chapter 16
Figure 16-4
5.3.2
5.3.3
373
Lockout
Failed reclose
Alarm (processing failure)
Reclosing in Feeder and Distance
Protection Terminals
The feeder protection DPU2000R and distance protections REL301/302, REL512, and REL521/531 all have
optional reclosing functions. A summary of the
reclosing relay implementation in these protections is
given here.
Reclosing in Feeder Protection DPU2000R
DPU2000R provides three overcurrent steps that can
be coordinated with up to four-shot reclosing. Each
current element can be enabled or disabled at each
step. For instance, instantaneous-trip lockout can be
employed as described in Section 3.6.
79 CUTOUT TIMER. The 79 cutout timer (79-CO)
function provides for the detection of low-level
intermittent faults prior to the resetting of the reclose
sequence as shown in Figure 16-5. At the end of the
selected cutout time period, all overcurrent functions
are reenabled based on the 79-1 settings. In fuse-saving
applications involving downstream fuses, the 50P and
50N instantaneous functions are set below the fuse
curve to detect faults on tapped laterals. These
functions are blocked after the rst trip in the reclose
sequence. The 51P and 51N time overcurrent functions
are set above the fuse curve. This results in the
374
Chapter 16
Figure 16-6
Figure 16-7
375
376
4.
5.
6.
7.
Chapter 16
4.
5.
6.
2.
3.
4.
377
SYNCHRONISM CHECK
378
Chapter 16
379
Figure 16-13
AUTOMATIC SYNCHRONIZING
380
2.
Chapter 16
2.
3.
4.
1.
17
Load-Shedding and Frequency Relaying
Revised by: W. A. ELMORE
INTRODUCTION
17-1
17-2
where
df
per unit initial rate of change of frequency
dt
Dp decelerating power in per unit of connected
kVA
MW sec
KW sec
H inertia constant,
or
MVA
kVA
In this text, all H constants and DP values are related
to a kVA rather than kW base.
The inertia constant (H) is dened as the ratio of the
moment of inertia of a generators rotating components to the unit capacity. It is the kinetic energy in
382
Chapter 17
Interconnected system S.
17-3
kVA of S2
1000=0:85
0:17 per unit
DP
383
Figure 17-4
Figure 17-3 Frequency change response to moderate overload (all per unit).
LOAD-SHEDDING
384
4 FREQUENCY RELAYS
Many different types of frequency relays have been
used over the years. The induction-disk relay that was
the forerunner of all frequency relays has faded into
disuse in favor of more accurate devices. Three general
Chapter 17
4.1
KF Induction-Cylinder Underfrequency
Relay
385
5
4.2
FORMULATING A LOAD-SHEDDING
SCHEME
386
Chapter 17
387
% overload
17-6
Event
Loss of interconnection B
Loss of generator A
Loss of both A and B
simultaneously
1.
2.
3.
4.
Frequency Settings
Table 17-1
Both
Percent of
generation
lost
Percent
overload
from Eq. (17-6)
12
20
32
13.6
25
47
5.
388
Chapter 17
Figure 17-8
load.
389
Load-shedding programs are recommended for industrial power systems. Frequency relaying is highly
desirable for those systems in which loads are supplied
either exclusively by local generation or a combination
of local generators and utility ties. Power must often be
maintained to certain essential processes to avoid
danger of personal injury, equipment damage, product
loss, or process disruption.
For local generators, the same type of single- or
multiple-step frequency-based load-shedding program
can be applied as that described for utility systems.
Special precautions may be necessary, however, to
accommodate the relatively small number of power
sources, each of which can supply a considerable part
of the total load. This type of scheme can produce
different, more serious disturbances.
For example, the scheme shown in Figure 17-9a is
for a plant that generates about half its own power
requirements, the balance being supplied through a
utility tie. If this tie is lost, the local generators will be
390
Chapter 17
7 RESTORING SERVICE
In general, the reclosing of feeders that have been
tripped for load-shedding is left to the discretion of
system or station operators. Frequency relays can be
used, however, either to supervise restoration or
restore loads automatically.
The following considerations apply to any restoration of service, whether manual or automatic:
1. Frequency should be allowed to return to
normal before any load is restored. Reclosing feeders
when the frequency is still recovering may plunge the
system back into crisis and will certainly prevent
reunication of islands. Resetting of load-shedding
frequency relays cannot be used for the supervision of
restoration.
2. Once the frequency has returned to normal, all
serviceable interconnections must be allowed to
resynchronize and reclose. Unifying an islanded system
as much as possible generally facilitates service
restoration.
further load should be added until additional generating capacity is available. Restoring excessive load may
cause the frequency to settle below-normal system
frequency, making further reclosing of interconnections impossible.
4. If a signicant loss of generation occurs in a
concentrated area of the system, transmission lines into
that area may be heavily loaded just to supply essential
loads. In this case, the imbalance should not be
increased by restoring expendable loads.
If frequency relays are used for automatic restoration, as they sometimes are at unattended installations,
they should have a frequency setting of the normal
system frequency. The load should be restored in
blocks of 1 to 2% of system load, and restoration
should be sequenced by time delay. After the initial
system recovery to normal system frequency, there
should be a delay of 30 sec to several minutes,
implemented automatically with a timer or manually
via supervisory control. This delay allows for resynchronizing of islands, reclosing of interconnections,
and starting of peaking generators when available. The
rst block of load may then be restored; the frequency
will dip and return to the normal system frequency.
The next block should also incorporate several seconds
of delay to permit frequency stabilization.
Each successive block should use a slightly longer
time delay than the previous one. Thus, the secondblock relays will time out before the third and reclose
next. The frequency will reestablish at the normal
system frequency, and the third block will time out and
reclose. This process will continue until all blocks are
restored or the spinning reserve is exhausted.
When restoring cold loads, it may be necessary to
temporarily disable the instantaneous-overcurrent
fault protection to prevent the initial current surge
from retripping the feeder.
Restoring load for the example used in Sections 5.3
and 5.4 can be described as follows. Assume that 10%
of generation is lost, causing an 11% overload. The
rst-step relays shed a block equal to 12% of system
load. The block shed consists of groups of distribution
feeders located at six different unattended substations,
each equipped with an underfrequency relay. A second
set of six frequency relays (or the same set of relays
equipped with a restore function) used in the
overfrequency mode automatically restores service.
All relays are set at the normal system frequency and
reclose feeders, one substation at a time, using external
timers for sequencing and delay. The initial delay is
45 sec after the frequency returns to normal; subsequent delays are as follows:
391
Substation no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
2.
3.
392
Chapter 17
Figure 17-11
4.
Behavior of frequency during automatic load shedding and restoration. (Example for a 60-Hz system.)
5.
6.
393
Bibliography
BASIC FUNDAMENTALS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
5.
MICROPROCESSOR RELAYING
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
1.
2.
3.
4.
IEEE/PES Power System Relaying Committee. Transient Response of Current Transformers, IEEE New
York, 1976, 76-CH, 1130-4 PWR.
IEEE/PES Power System Relaying Committee. Guide
for the Grounding of Instrument Transformer Secondary
Circuits and Cases, ANSI/IEEE C57.13.3-1983.
IEEE/PES Power System Relaying Committee. Potential
Transformer Application on Unit Connected Generators, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems, Vol. PAS-91, Jan/Feb, 1972 pp. 2428.
IEEE/PES Power System Relaying Committee. IEEE
Guide for the Application of Current Transformers Used
6.
7.
8.
395
396
Bibliography
GROUNDING SYSTEM
1.
2.
Electrical Transmission and Distribution Book. Westinghouse Electric Corp., Trafford, Pennsylvania, 1964.
IEEE. Recommended Practice for Grounding of
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems, IEEE Std.
142-1982
4.
BUS PROTECTION
GENERATOR PROTECTION
1.
2.
3.
4.
MOTOR PROTECTION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
AC Motor Protection Guide, Industrial and Commercial Power System Application Series, PRSC-2E Feb.
1992, ABB Allentown.
Elmore, W. A., and Kramer, C. A. Complete Motor
Protection by Microprocessor Relay, RPL 87-1, May
1987, ABB Coral Springs, FL.
IEEE/PES Power System Relaying Committee. IEEE
Guide for AC Motor Protection, ANSI/IEEE C37.962000.
Some Thoughts on Large Motor Protection, RP1 762A Sept. 1978, ABB Coral Springs, FL.
Zocholl, S. E. Motor Analysis and Thermal Protection, IEEE/PES Winter Meeting, Feb. 1990, IEEE
Paper 90 WM 247-7 PWRD.
TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
Bibliography
11. Sun, S. C., and Ray, R. E., A Current Differential
Relay System Using Fiber Optics Communications,
IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,
Vol. PAS-102, No. 2, Feb. 1983, pp. 410419.
12. Udren, E. A., and Cease, T. W. Transmission Line
Protection with Magneto-Optic Current Transducers and
Microprocessor-Based Relays, Texas A&M Relay
Conference, College Station, TX, April 1315, 1992.
13. Udren, E. A., and Li, H. J. Transmission Line Relaying
Conference, 1987, Washington State University, Pullman, WA.
14. Crockett, J. M, and Elmore, W. A. Performance of
Phase-to-Phase Distance Units, Conference for Protective Relay Engineers, Texas A&M, College Station, TX,
April 1315, 1987.
15. Gilchrist, G. B., Rockefeller, G. D., and Udren, E. A.
High Speed Distance Relaying Using a Digital Computer, IEEE Transactions, Vol. PAS 91, May/June
1972, pp. 12351258.
16. Calero F. Development of a Numerical Comparator for
Protective Relaying: Part I, IEEE Transactions on
Power Delivery, Vol. 11, No. 3, July 1996, pp. 1266
1273.
17. Elmore, W. A., Calero, F., and Yang, L., Evolution of
Distance Relaying Principles, Conference for Protective
Relay Engineers, Texas A&M, College Station, TX,
April 35, 1995.
18. Wang, L., and Price, E. High Speed Microprocessor
Distance Relaying for Transmission Lines, Western
Protective Relaying Conference, Spoken, WA, October
2022, 1998.
19. Elmore, W. A., and Price, E. Ground Relaying
Fundamentals, 53rd Texas A&M Conference for
Protective Relay Engineers, College Station, TX, April
1113, 2000.
20. IEEE/PES Power System Relaying Committee. Guide
for Protective Relay Applications to Transmission
Lines, IEEE Std. C37.113-1999.
21. Novosel, D., Phadke, A., Saha, M. M., and Lindahl, S.
Problems and Solutions for Microprocessor Protection
of Series Compensated Lines, Sixth International
Conference on Developments in Power System Protection, The University of Nottingham, UK, March 2527,
1997.
397
4.
5.
6.
7.
VOLTAGE STABILITY
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
3.
8.
9.
398
Bibliography
RECLOSING
1.
2.
2.
3.
Index
[Application]
maximum load, 6
rack mounting, 78
switchboard relays, 67
system conguration, 5
transformer data, 6
Arc/fault resistance, 272
Arcing grounds, 108109
Arc resistance, 2021, 265
Armature-winding resistance, 24
ARS out-of-step tripping, 349350
Automatic reclosing, 196, 370
Automatic restoration, 391
Automatic synchronizer, 379380
Autotransformer banks, 2426
Autotransformers, 240241
Auxiliary relays, 1, 331
multitrip and lockout, 331
Auxiliary switches, 327
Auxiliary units, 5963
annunciator circuits, 5960
coordinating and loop logic timers,
6061
isolator and buffer circuits, 6263
toggle or latching circuits, 61
Back-to-back capacitor switching,
73
Backup protection, 323352
breaker-and-a-half and ring buses,
328329, 336
breaker-failure relaying applications,
327336
for generators, 123125
improved breaker-failure scheme,
333336
399
[Backup protection]
open conductor and breaker pole
disagreement, 336337
remote vs. local, 323327
single-line/single-breaker buses, 327
328
single-pole trip-system, 337
traditional scheme, 329332
problems with, 332333
type SBF-1 breaker-failure relay,
334336
Batteries, for tripping, 7
Battery circuit, grounding of, 75
BC phase-to-phase fault, 298
Blinders, 293294, 348
double, 351
with lens, 350351
in line protection, 249
Block-block comparison logic circuit,
5559
BL-1 relays, 153, 154155
Breaker-and-a-half, 326, 328329, 336
reclosing, 376377
Breaker-failure relaying, 327336
breaker-and-a-half and ring buses,
328329, 336
improved breaker-failure scheme,
333336
recommendations, 327
single-line/single-breaker buses, 327
328
for single-pole trip-system, 337
traditional scheme, 329332
problems with, 332333
Breaker-failure relays, 325326, 334
336
400
Breaker poles, 336337
Breakers, current-limiting, 280
Breaker-trip coil initiator, 59
Bridge-type relays, 154
Brushless machines, 136
Brush-type machines, 136
Buffer and isolator circuits
Buffer circuits, 6263
Buffers, 78
Bus deenergization, 7374
Bus differential relaying:
dc saturation effect, 89
directional comparison, 227
fault bus, 227
high-impedance, 219222
with overcurrent relays, 216217
partial, 226227
Buses:
double, single-breaker, 216, 223
main-and-transfer, 215
multiple, 359360
single-line/single-breaker, 327328
single-machine innite, 353356
See also Ring buses
Bushing voltage transformers, 92, 93
Bus protection, 213227
buses with transformer bank, 223
224
current transformer saturation
problem, 213215
differential comparator relays, 222
223
differential relaying
with overcurrent relays, 216217
double-bus single breaker, 216, 223
with bus tie, 224226
high-impedance differential system,
219222
information requirements, 215
KAB bus protection example, 222
multibus systems, 359360
multirestraint differential system,
217219
normal practices, 215216
other schemes
directional comparison relaying,
227
fault bus (ground-fault protection
only), 227
partial differential relaying, 226
227
against overloads, 226227
Bus transfer systems, 139143
fast transfer, 139142
slow transfer, 142143
BYZ current transformer, 148149
Index
Capacitors:
in line protection, 273
for suppression at source, 77
Capacitor switching, 73
CA relays:
generator protection, 166167
shunt reactor application, 206, 207
transformer protection, 166167,
193
CA, 175
CA-16, 206, 215, 217219, 224,
226
CA-26, 167, 171, 224, 226
checks, 175, 178179
C class, 86
CCVT. See Coupling capacitance
voltage transformers
Check-sum test, 103
Circuit-breaker auxiliary switches,
327
Circuit-breaker control, 89
Circuit breakers, 204, 344
See also Breaker-failure relaying
Circuit diagrams, voltage in, 12
Circuits:
battery, grounding of, 75
induction motor equivalent, 146
integrated, 6370
logic, 5463
open, 18
sample-and-hold (S/H), 9597
secondary, 71
typical, 7
Clapper units, 44
Classication:
of electric power lines, 229
of performance, 4
of relays, 13
Closed transfer, 142
Close fail time, 368
CM relay, 156157
Coincident time comparison, 55
Cold load, 236, 238
restoring, 390391
Commercial and industrial power
transformers, 193197
Common-mode surges, 72
Comparators, 281285
distance relaying applications, 285
294
multiple, 305
Compensation factor, 180182
Complexity, 3, 4
Composite sequence current networks,
2632, 4849
Concentric circle scheme, 348
Index
DArsonval units, 47
See also DT-3 relay
Dc offset compensation, 101
Dead-line or dead-bus reclosing relay,
379
Dead-man timer, 103
Dead tank breakers, 4
Deionizing times, 366
Delta systems, 207209
Dependability, 3, 4
Design, of protective relay system, 24
design criteria, 34
design factors, 2
economics vs. performance, 34
performance factors, 4
zones of protection, 3, 4
Device 46, 160, 161
Device 47/27, 159, 161
Device 49, 161
Device 49/50, 159
Device 50, 161
Device 50/51, 159, 193, 206
Device 51, 161
Device 67, 196
Device 87, 118119, 161
Device 87E, 202
Device 50G, 159, 161, 195
Device 51G, 196
Device 51N, 231
Device 51N1, 202
Device 51N2, 202
Device 59N, 208
Device 67N, 231
Device 87N, 208
Device 87N3, 121122
Device 50N/51N, 208, 209, 231
Device 51N/50N, 159, 161, 195
Device 67N/50N, 231
Device 87S, 199200
Device 151G, 196
Diagrams:
circuits, 12
notation, 9, 1115
phasors, 11, 1215
Diesel engines, 131
Differential-mode surges, 72
Differential relaying:
for bus protection, 213
high impedance, 219222
multirestraint scheme, 217219
overcurrent, 216217
partial, 226227
for transformer protection, 166173
differential relays, 166171
guidelines, 171173
sample checks, 173182
401
[Differential relaying]
for multiwinding banks
for two-winding banks, 173178
Differential relays:
comparator, 222223
for generator protection, 118119
for shunt reactor applications, 206
207
for transformer protection, 166171
Digital lters, 100, 101, 102
Digital relays, 2
frequency relays, 385
Diodes, 50
Direct current circuit energization, 75
Direct current coil interruption, 7475
Direct current (dc) offset, 101
Direct current offset, 101
Direct current saturation, 82, 8889,
215
Directional comparison schemes:
in bus protection, 227
and system stability, 344
Directional ground-relay polarization,
239243
Directional overcurrent relays, 267
268, 269270
inverse-time, example of, 308321
Directional relays:
instantaneous-trip, 309
overcurrent, 267268, 269270
inverse-time, 308321
polarity, 1516
and three-phase power systems,
1718
types, 16
Directional sensing, 243244
Distance relaying:
comparator applications, 285294
for line protection, 247250
ground-distance, 254257
in- and outfeed effects, 260262
length factor, 235, 257259
equation, 281
phase-distance, 250254
and series compensation, 275
for short-line, 270272
and transformer banks, 261265
zone application, 257259
for motors, 150151
for transformers, 192
Distance relays:
and current transformers, 271
in generator protection, 124125
inverse-time, 268, 270
in line and circuit protection, 247
250
[Distance relays]
in loop systems, 268169
mho-type, 250, 270
in motor protection, 150
and out-of-step conditions, 344
Distribution factors, 3536, 39
and impedance units, 302305
Distribution feeder protection, 276280
Distribution lines, 229
Double-bus single breaker, 216, 223
with bus tie, 224225
Double phase-to-ground faults, 301
302
Doughnut current transformer, 148
DPU2000R feeder protection, 365,
373374
DT-3 relay, 154
Dual polarization, 243, 247
Earth, 105
Economics vs. performance, 34
EEPROM (electrically erasable
programmable read-only
memory), 9596
Electrical separation, 76
Electromagnetic induction, 72
avoidance, 78
Electromagnetic transient programs
(EMTP), 3
Electromechanical out-of-step
relaying, 348349
Electromechanical relays:
for line protection, 244, 256257
for out-of-step systems, 348349
for phase-unbalance protection,
156157
for reclosing, 371372
at reduced frequencies, 138(table)
for switchgear applications, 155
for transformer protection, 166171
Electromechanical units, 4347
DArsonval units, 47
ground faults, in ungrounded
systems, 47, 107108
magnetic attraction units, 4345
magnetic induction units, 4547
thermal units, 47
Electrostatic induction, 7172
Energization, inadvertent, of
generators, 132134
EOVT (voltage-sensing device), 93
EPROM (erasable programmable
read-only memory), 95
Essentially in phase, 15
Excitation, loss of:
in generators, 127129, 133
402
[Excitation, loss of]
in motors, 158159
Existing protection, 5
Failures, causes of, 4, 1820
Faraday effect, 91, 93
Fast transfer, 139142
Fault angles, 20
Fault current:
angle of, 20
calculation, 3137
maximum dc component, 101
sustained, 24
Fault-current detectors, 330
problems with, 332333
overcoming, 333336
Fault detectors, 102103
Fault resistance, 305306
Faults, 1821
balanced, 124125
calculation of, in loop system, 3237
characteristics, 2021
large-magnitude, close-in, 8182
phase-to-ground, 39, 298, 300301,
305
phase-to-phase, 298, 300301, 305
simultaneous, 1820
three-phase, 298, 299300, 345
turn-to-turn, 209211
types and causes, 1820
unbalanced, 123124
Fault-sensing data processing units
magnitude comparison, 5455
phase-angle comparison, 5559
Fault study, 5
Fault voltage, calculation of, 3132
Feeder protection relays, 365, 373374
Feeders:
instantaneous reclosing, 369
and load-shedding, 390
with no-fault-power back-feed, 369
Ferroresonance, 107108
Fiberoptics, 93
Field, loss of, 127129, 133
Field ground detection, 134136
brushless machine, 136
brush-type machine, 135136
injection scheme, 136
50D relay, 148
Filters:
antialiasing, 98
digital, 100, 101
Fourier-notch, 100101
Fixed-reference circuit, 5455
Fixed shunt reactors, 203
Flip-ops. See Toggle circuits
Index
Flux:
and frequency, 184
notation of, 11
saturation, 8182, 213215
and voltage, 184
Follow-breaker function, 368
46Q relay, 124
Forward, as concept, 306
Fourier-notch lter, 100101
Four-wire systems:
multigrounded, 115
unigrounded, 114115
Frequency:
decline rate, 381383
and ux, 184
and overloads, 381384, 387388,
390392
rating deviations, 138139
reduced, 136138
and turbine blades, 138139
Frequency relays, 384385
for automatic restoration, 391
digital frequency relays, 385
and generators, 391
KF induction-cylinder
underfrequency relay, 384
in load-shedding, 388389
microprocessor-based, 385
non-load-shedding uses, 391393
Fused breaker, 280
Fuses, coordination with, 236237,
277280
Gas turbines, 131
Generator motoring, 130134
Generator protection, 117143
ac overvoltage, 136
backup protection, 123125
bus transfer systems, 139143
eld ground detection, 134136
and frequency relays, 391, 392393
against generator motoring, 130134
for hydroelectric generators, 136
inadvertent energization, 132134
loss-of-excitation protection, 127
129
machine connections, 119
microprocessor-based, 78, 117, 143
off-frequency operation, 138139
out-of-step protection, 139, 345346
overload protection, 126
overspeed protection, 126127
phase fault detection, 117119
recommendation, 139
at reduced frequencies, 136138
for station auxiliary loads, 139143
[Generator protection]
stator ground fault protection, 120
123
neutral third harmonic
undervoltage, 120
neutral-to-ground fault detection,
121122
95% ground relays, 120121
100% winding protection, 120,
122123
unit-connected schemes, 120
technology trend, 117
in ungrounded systems, 105108
volts per hertz protection, 126
Generators:
cross-compound, 136138
hydroelectric, 136
off-line status, 392393
with split-phase windings, 119120
wye-connected windings, 119
Generator-transformer unit:
differential protection of, 183
overexcitation protection of, 184
185
GIX-104, 122
GPU2000R relay, 137138
Ground:
terminology, 14
virtual, 64
Ground directional relay applications,
239
Ground directional unit, 16
Ground-distance relays, 254257
infeed effect, 306308
and zero-sequence mutual
impedance, 265267
Ground-fault protection:
for motor, 147149
for power lines, 231 (table)
directional sensing, 243244
high-voltage side, 241242
low-voltage side, 242243
in ungrounded systems, 105108
Grounding:
of battery circuit, 75
classes of, 20
high resistance, 111112, 149
low impedance, 110112
low-resistance, 148
of shield, 77
in symmetrical system, 20
Ground overcurrent relays, 238
conventional transformers, 112
113
zero sequence transformers, 114
Ground product relays, 113114
Index
Ground-relay directional sensing, 243
244
Ground relaying, sensitive, 112114
Ground relays:
directional sensing, 243244
negative sequence, 244
for line protection, 244247
performance estimation, 85
setting, 233
Ground-Shield TM series, 148
Ground units, 289293
quadrature-polarized, 290291, 296
297
and distribution factors, 303304
and phase-to-ground faults, 299
and phase-to-phase faults, 300
and three phase faults, 299300
reactance, 292293
reverse characteristics, 295297
self-polarized, 291292, 297
and distribution factors, 304
and phase-to-ground faults, 300
301
double, 301302
and phase-to-phase faults, 300
301
Ground wires, overhead, 265
Harmonic restraint unit (HRU), 169,
192193
Harmonic voltage:
and generators, 120, 122
and transformers, 167171, 180182
Heat, generated within motor, 149
High-frequency distortion, 98
High impedance differential relays, 119
High impedance differential scheme,
219222
High-pass lter, 6667
High-reactance grounding, 108109
High-resistance grounding, 111112,
149
High-voltage problem, 221222
Hi-Lo CO relays, 245
HU relays, 167168, 171, 193
checks, 176177
HU-1, 167168, 171, 198199
checks, 180
HU-4, 169, 171, 206, 224
modied, 169
Hydraulic turbines, 131132
Hydroelectric generators, 136
Hysteresis, 67
Impedance:
apparent, 305306
403
[Impedance]
of capacitance voltage transformers,
93
different, and motor ground faults,
148
and ground-distance relays, 265267
leakage, 24
in locked-rotor situation, 150
and metal oxide, 273, 275
mutual, in power lines, 243
in shunt reactors, shorted turn, 211
source impedance ratio (SIR), 270,
272
in synchronous machinery, 24
three-winding banks, 2426
in transformers, 2426
in transmission lines, 26
zero sequence mutual, 265267
Impedance unit characteristics, 281306
apparent impedance, 305306
comparators
basic concept, 281
distance relaying applications,
285294
magnitude comparators, 282283,
284, 285
phase comparators, 281284
current distribution and load ow,
302305
derived characteristics, 305
different fault types, 298302
distance relaying applications, 285
294
practical applications, distance
relaying
reverse characteristics, 294297
IMPRS relays, 153, 154155, 157
Inadvertent energization, 132134
Induction disc units, 4547
Induction motor equivalent circuit, 146
Induction motor loads, 392
Industrial plants, 369
Industrial power systems:
industrial transformers, 193197
load-shedding programs, 389390
Infeed effect, 260261, 306308
Initial inrush, 163164
Inputs, of relays, 1
Inrush currents, 163166
cold load, 236, 238
monitoring, 171
Instantaneous overcurrent protection,
237238
Instantaneous overcurrent unit, 68
Instantaneous reclosing, 368369
Instantaneous-trip lockout, 367
404
Lens scheme, 350351
Level detectors, 67
Limiters, 280
Line and circuit protection, 229321
directional overcurrent phase- and
ground-fault protection, 239
247
distance phase and ground
protection, 247267
distance relay basics, 247250
fault resistance and grounddistance relays, 265
ground-distance relays, 254257
infeed and outfeed effects, 260
261
length factors, 235, 257259, 270
272
equation, 281
phase-distance relays, 250254
and transformer banks, 261265
zero sequence mutual impedance
and ground-distance
relays, 265267
distribution feeder protection, 276
280
electric power line classes, 229, 257
impedance unit characteristics
infeed effect, on distance relaying,
260261
infeed effect, on ground-distance
relays, 306308
line protection techniques, 229
loop-system protection, 267270
single-source, 267269
multiple loop systems, 269270, 308
321
relay selection, 308
settings, 309321
multiterminal, tapped lines, and
weak feed, 230231
out-of-step relaying, 346
overcurrent phase-and ground-fault
protection, 231239
power line classication, 229
relay selection, 244247
relays for phase- and ground-fault
protection
series-capacitor issues, 273276
short-lines, 270272
Line-connected reactors, 203204
Live-line/dead bus, live-bus/dead-line
(LLDB/LBDL), 367, 369
Live tank breakers, 4
Load ow, 302305
and voltage instability, 358359
Load loss protection, 157158
Index
Load-reduction factor, 386
Load-shedding:
formulation, 385391
anticipated overload, 385386
frequency settings, 387388
location of frequency relays, 388
389
relays, number of, 386
size of loadshed, at each step, 386
387
steps, number of, 386
time delay, 388
and frequency relaying, 381393 (see
also Frequency relays)
frequency decline rate, 381383
in industrial systems, 389340
load-shedding, 383384
restoring service, 390391
handling, 383384
and system splitting, 391392
and voltage stability, 362363
Load tap changers, 362
Local backup:
and breaker failure, 324326
vs. remote, 323327
Local generation, 369
Locked-rotor, 149152
Lockout, 367
Logic circuits, 5463
amplication units, 59
auxiliary units, 5963
fault-sensing data processing units,
5459
and out-of-step tripping, 351
Logic units:
principal, 5253
solid-state, 52
Loop-type system:
fault calculation example, 3237
in power line protection, 267270
multiple loops, 269270, 308
321
relay selection, 308
settings, 309321
Loss-of-excitation protection
for generators, 127129, 133
for synchronous motors, 158159
Loss-of-eld relays, 345346
Low-pass lter, 66
Low-reactance grounding, 109110
Low-resistance grounding, 110111
Low-voltage breakers, 277280
Low-voltage protection, 155
Magnetic attraction units, 43
Magnetic induction units, 4547
Index
Microprocessors:
in generator protection, 78
and transformer protection, 171
Mismatched currents, 172
MMCO relay, 234
MMCO relays, 234235
MOCT (magneto-optic current
transducer), 91
Monitoring relays, 1
Motoring, 130134
Motor protection, 145161
application combinations, 159161
excitation loss, 158159
and frequency relays, 392
general requirements, 145
ground-fault protection, 147149
hazard types, 143147
induction motor equivalent circuit,
146
jam protection, 157
KVA criteria, 147
load loss protection, 157158
locked-rotor protection, 149152
low-voltage protection, 155
motor thermal capability curves,
146147
negative sequence current relays, 157
negative sequence voltage
protection, 155156
out-of-step protection, 158
overload protection, 153
phase-fault protection, 147
phase-rotation protection, 155
phase-unbalance protection, 156
157
thermal relays, 153155
RTD-input type, 154
thermal replica, 154155
Motor thermal capability curves, 146
147
MOVT (voltage-sensing devices), 93
MPR relays, 153, 157
MRC-2 relays, 372373
MSPC relays, 291292
Multibus systems, 359360
Multigrounded four-wire systems, 115
Multiplexors, 95
Multi-shot reclosing relays, 366, 371
377
Multiterminal transmission lines, 230
Mutuals, 305306
MVA margin, 360361
National Electric Code (NEC), 153
Negative logic, 52
Negative sequence current relays, 157
405
Negative sequence directional units,
244
Negative sequence impedance, 24, 26
Negative sequence networks, 27, 35
36, 50
Negative sequence polarization, 243,
245247
Negative sequence voltage protection,
155
Neutral:
in symmetrical components, 23
vs. ground, 1415
Neutral inversion, 9394, 108
No-fault-power back-feed, 369
Noninverting ampliers, 65, 67
Nonvolatile memory test, 103
Notation, 9, 1115
for comparator applications, 287
288
for logic units, 52
for operational amplier, 63
for three-phase systems, 14
NOT unit, 53
NOVRAM (nonvolatile RAM), 9596
testing, 103
Numerical relays, 2, 222223
Nyquist criterion, 98
Off-frequency operation, of generators
One-shot reclosing relays, 366
Open circuits, 18
Open conductor, 336337
Open transfer, 140
Operating principle, of relays, 2
Operational ampliers, 6364
relay application, 6870
types of, 6568
Operation times, 234235
Optical isolators, 63, 78
OR unit, 53
Outages, extended, 236
Outfeed, 27, 261262, 274
Out-of-step relaying, 345352
blinders, 293294, 348
concentric circle scheme, 347348
generator out-of-step relaying, 139,
345346
for motor protection, 158
philosophies of, 346347
relays for, 348351
strategy selection, 351352
blocking vs. tripping, 352
for transmission lines, 346
Overcurrent directional relays, 267
268, 269270
inverse-time, example of, 308321
406
Phase-to-phase faults, 298, 305
Phase-to-phase units
directionality, 276
and distribution factors, 303
and magnitude comparator concept,
288
and phase-to-ground faults, 298
and phase-to-phase faults, 298
reverse characteristics, 294
and three-phase faults, 298
Phase-unbalance protection, 156157
Phasing checks, for transformer banks,
173178
Phasing voltage, 377378
Phasors:
diagram notation, 1115
in directional relays, 1518
leading (time-coincident), 102
multiplication law, 13
notation, 1213
phase rotation vs. phasor rotation, 15
sum of, and buses, 213
and symmetrical components, 22
Pickup current, 119, 169
Pilot-wire systems, 6970, 344
Plunger units, 43
Pockel cell, 93
Polarity, 1518
directional relays, 1518
connections to three-phase
systems, 1718
cylinder-type, 16
ground-type, 16
watt-type, 16
of protective relays, 1516
Polarization:
dual, 243, 247
negative sequence, 243, 245246
zero sequence, 243, 245247
See also Quadrature-polarized
ground units; Self-polarized
ground units
Polar units, 45
Positive sequence impedance, 26
Positive sequence network, 2627, 35
Potential polarization, 240
Potential transformers. See Voltage
transformers
Power, reactive, 362
Power factor, 20
Power lines:
classication, 229
cold load, 236, 391
length of, 235, 257259, 270272
equation, 281
protection selection, 229230
Index
[Power lines]
protection techniques, 229
series-capacitor compensated, 273
See also Line and circuit protection;
Transmission lines
Power systems:
faults, 1821
loop type, 3237
Problem, statement of, 45
PRO*STAR relay, 151152, 153, 157,
160
Protective relays:
application, 46
denition, 1
in motor protection, 145
performance factors, 4
in systems, 24
Q angle, 358360
Quadrature-polarized ground-distance
unit, 298299
Quadrature-polarized ground units,
290291
and distribution factors, 303304
and phase-to-ground faults, 299
and phase-to-phase faults, 300
reverse characteristics, 296297
and three-phase faults, 299300
Rack-mounted relays, 78
Radial systems, 39
RADSB relays, 169171
checks, 175176, 178179
RADSS relays, 222
RAICB relay, 185
RAM (random access memory), 95
testing, 103
Rate-of-rise-pressure, 205, 209211
Ratio checks, for transformer banks,
175179
RC reclosing relay, 371372
Reactance, for synchronous
machinery, 24
Reactance grounding, 108110
low-, 109110
Reactance ground units, 292293
Reactive power control, 362
Reactor protection. See Shunt reactor
protection
Read-only memory (ROM), 95
check-sum test, 103
REB551 package, 365, 376
REB-103 relays, 222223
Reclosers, 277
Reclosing, 334335, 365377
automatic, 196, 370
[Reclosing]
dead-line or dead-bus, 379
industrial plants, with local
generation, 369
instantaneous, 368369
of lines with sources at both ends,
369
precautions, 365366
selective, 366
system considerations, 366369
compatibility with supervisory
control, 367368
deionizing times for three-pole
reclosing, 366
factors governing application of
reclosing, 368
inhibit control, 368
instantaneous-trip lockout, 367
intermediate lockout, 367
live-line/dead-bus, live-bus/deadline control (LBDL), 367,
369
one-shot vs. multiple-shot, 366
selective reclosing, 366
synchronism check, 366367, 377
378
voltage block function, 373374
Reclosing relays:
denition, 1
multi-shot, 366, 371377
operation, 369
single-shot, 366, 369371
Recovery inrush, 165
RED-521 relays, 215, 222223, 226
Redundancy, 143, 325
REG-100 relay, 124, 139, 143
REG-216 relay, 124, 139, 143
Regulating relays, 1
REL 521/531, 376
REL 551/561, 376
Relays:
auxiliary, 1, 331
breaker-failure, 325326, 334336
bridge-type, 154
classication, 13
coordination of, 232237
denition, 1
directional overcurrent, 267268,
269270
inverse-time, 308321
distance (see Distance relays)
fault-current detectors, 330
feeder protection, 365, 373374
ground-distance, 254257, 265267
ground overcurrent, 112113, 114,
238
Index
[Relays]
input types, 1
instantaneous, 308309, 325
inverse, 268, 270, 280
for line protection, 230 (table), 244
245
loss-of-eld, 345346
low excitation detecting, 128
monitoring, 1
for motoring detection, 131
for multiple-loop systems, 308321
negative sequence, 157
operating principle, 2
operation time, 235
overcurrent, 150, 216, 344
overfrequency, 138, 391, 393
performance characteristics, 2
phase, 84
phase-distance, 250252
for phase faults, 230 (table)
polarity, 1516
protective, 16
reclosing, 1, 366, 369373, 369377
regulating, 1
synchronism-check, 1, 366367, 377
380
thermal, 126, 153155
underfrequency, 138, 391392
See also Devices; Distance relays;
Electromechanical relays;
Frequency relays; Solid-state
relays; specic relays
Relay taps:
in bus protection, 221222
for overcurrent relay, in line
protection, 233
in transformer protection, 172, 201
202
Reliability, 3, 4
REL-100 relays, 253
REL-300 relays, 252253, 306
REL-350 relays, 276
REL-512 relays, 253254, 374375
Remote backup, 323324
with breaker-failure protection, 326
327
Remote ground, 105
Remote tripping, 197
REM543 relays, 153, 157
Requirements
degree of protection, 5
Reset times:
and breaker-failure protection, 332,
333
and reclosing relays, 368
Residual current, false, 148
407
Residual ux, 8991
Resistance:
arc, 2021, 265
arc/fault, 272
tower footing, 265
Resistance grounding, 110112
Resistance temperature detectors
(RTDs), 126, 153154
Resistive loads, 392
Resistor switching, 77
Resonant grounding, 109
Reverse, as concept, 306
Reverse active power, 130134
Reverse characteristics, of impedance
units, 294297
Ring buses:
backup protection, 326, 328329, 336
normal protection, 215
reclosing, 374376
ROM (read-only memory), 95
check-sum test, 103
Root-mean-square (rms) values, 100
RTD (resistance temperature
detector)-input type thermal
relays, 126, 154
RTQTB-061 units, 171
Sample-and-hold (S/H) circuit, 9597
Sampling, 9597
non-synchronous, 9899
SA-1 relays, for shunt reactor, 206, 207
Saturation, 75, 8182, 213215
SBF-1 breaker-failure relay, 334336
SC relay, 137
SDBU out-of-step tripping, 349350
SDG ground units, 289290
SDG relays, 307308
SDGU ground units, 289290
reverse characteristics, 295296
SD voltage, 354355
Sectionalizers, 277
Security, 3
Selective backup protection, 226227,
323324
Selective reclosing, 366
Self-polarized ground units, 291292
and distribution factors, 304
and phase-to-ground faults, 300301
double, 301302
and phase-to-phase faults, 301
reverse characteristics, 297
Self-testing microprocessor hardware,
103
analog text, 103
check-sum, 103
dead-man timer, 103
408
Small stations, 7
Solid-state out-of-step relaying, 349
350
Solid-state relays:
for bus protection, 222223
classication, 2
for line protection, 244
for negative sequence voltage
protection, 156
for out-of-step protection, 349350
rack-mounting, 78
single shot reclosing, 370371, 372
for switchgear applications, 155
Solid-state single-shot reclosing relay
Solid-state units, 5053
principal logic units, 5253
semiconductor components, 5051
solid-state logic units, 52
SOQ relay, 124
Source impedance ratio, 270272
Spark-gaps, 273
Speed, 3, 276
of remote backup, 324
Spinning reserve, 383384
Split-phase winding, generators with,
119
Square wave detectors, 6970
Stability. See System stability; Voltage
stability
Standardization, 23
Station auxiliaries, bus transfer system
for
Station-bus protection. See Bus
protection
Stator ground fault protection, 120
123
neutral third harmonic
undervoltage, 120
neutral-to-ground fault detection,
121122
95% ground relays, 120121
100% winding protection, 120, 122
123
unit-connected schemes, 120
Steady-state system stability, 339340
Steam turbines, 131
Subtractors, 66
Subtransmission lines, 229
Sudden-pressure relays (SPR), 185, 202
Supervisory control, 367368
Surges, 71, 72, 79
See also Transients and surges
Sustained fault current, 24
SV relays, 137
Swings, 341343, 344
Switchboard relays, 67
Index
Switchgear applications, 155
Symbols, 9, 1115
for ANSI accuracy class, 8586
for comparator applications, 287288
for logic units, 52
for operational amplier, 63
Symmetrical component lter, 102
Symmetrical components, 2139
basic concepts, 2123
fault calculation in loop-type power
system, 3237
fault evaluations, 39
phase shifts through transformer
banks, 3739
sequence impedances, 2426
synchronous machinery, 24
transformers, 2426
transmission lines, 26
sequence networks, 2632
connections and voltages, 2728
faults and imbalances, 28
reduction, 2932
sequences, in three-phase system,
2324
system neutral, 23
Sympathetic inrush, 165166
Synchronism:
automatic, 379380
loss of, 128, 158
and reclosing, 369
Synchronism check:
angular method, 378379
and bus tie breaker, 142
and generator protection, 142
phasing voltage method, 377378
purpose, 379
reclosing, 366367
Synchronizing relays, 1, 366367, 377
378
in automatic system, 379380
Synchronous machinery, 24
System conguration, 5
System grounding, 20, 105115
ground fault protection for threephase, four-wire system, 114
115
multigrounded, 115
unigrounded, 114115
reactance grounding, 108110
resistance grounding, 110112
sensitive ground relaying, 112114
ground overcurrent relay
conventional current
transformers, 112113
zero sequence current
transformers, 114
[System grounding]
ground product relay with
conventional current
transformers, 113114
ungrounded systems, 105108
System stability, 339352
out-of-step conditions, 343345
circuit breakers, 344
directional comparison systems,
344
distance relays, 343
overcurrent relays, 344
phase comparison (pilot-wire)
schemes, 344
reclosing, 344345
underreaching transfer-trip
schemes, 344
out-of-step relaying, 345352
relay quantities during swings, 341
343
steady-state, 339340
transient, 340341
Tapped transmission lines, 230
Taps:
in bus protection, 221222
load tap changers, 362
and loop circuits, 269
multiples, 311, 313
overcurrent relay, in line protection,
233
in transformer protection, 172, 201
202
T class, 86
Temperature, 50
Termination, suppression by, 77
Testing, 327
Thermal capability curves, 146147
Thermal relays, 153154, 153155
RTD-input type, 126, 154
Thermal replica relays, 126, 154155
Thermal units, 47
Thermistors, 50
Three-line connections, 6
Three-phase, four-wire systems:
ground fault protection for, 114115
multigrounded, 115
unigrounded, 114115
Three-phase faults, 298, 299300, 345
Three-phase systems:
connected to directional relays, 17
notation, 14
sequences, 2328
symmetrical components method,
2123
Three-phase units, 288289, 295
Index
Three-pole reclosing, 366
Three-winding banks, 2426, 179
Threshold squarers, 6970
Thyristors, 51
Time:
in breaker-failure schemes, 329336
coordinating interval, 233
deionizing, 366
interval coordination, 233
inverse, 234235, 238, 268269, 270
example, 308321
and load-shedding, 388, 390391
and microprocessor relaying, 9597,
236
nonsynchronous sampling, 98
99
to reach saturation ux density, 89
relay operation, 235
Time-current characteristics, 234237
Time-delay, 5354, 6061
and power line protection, 232237
Time overcurrent protection, 232237
Time-overcurrent relays, 308309
Timers, 6061
adjustability, 61
for breaker-failure protection, 331,
332, 333336
and distance relay, 125
and locked-rotors, 150, 152
and reclosing, 373
and turbine blades, 138
Toggle circuits, 61
Torque, 47, 155, 196
Tower footing resistance, 265
TPU relays, 171, 172, 180, 193, 198, 199
checks, 177, 180
TPX transformers, 88
TPY transformers, 88
TPZ transformers, 88
Transfer bus, 215
Transfer-trip schemes, 344
Transformer banks:
and bus protection, 223224
initial inrush, 163165
and line protection, 261265
maximum inrush, 165
phase shifts, 3739
remote tripping, 197
sympathetic inrush, 165166
Transformer protection, 163203
differential relaying for, 166173
differential relays, 166171
general guidelines, 171173
and frequency relays, 392
magnetizing inrush, 163166
initial inrush, 163164
409
[Transformer protection]
recovery inrush, 165
sympathetic inrush, 165166
phase-angle regulators and voltage
regulators, 197202
remote tripping of transformer
bank, 197
sample checks for differential relay
application, 173182
checks for multiwinding banks,
178180
checks for two-winding banks,
173178
modern microprocessor relay, 180
typical applications, 180193
differential protection generatortransformer unit, 183
differential scheme with harmonic
restraint relay supervision,
180182
distance relaying for backup, 192
ground source on delta side, 182
183
industrial and commercial, 193
197
overcurrent and backup
protection, 185192
overcurrent relay with HRU
supplement, 192193
overexcitation protection of
generator-transformer
unit, 183
sudden-pressure relay (SPR), 185
three-phase banks of single-phase
units, 183
zig-zag protection, 202203
See also Shunt reactor protection
Transformers:
air-gap current, 91
burden limit calculation, 177178
in bus protection, 215, 216
bus with banks of, 223224
BYZ, 148149
commercial, 193197
doughnut current, 148
with ground product relay, 113114
overexcitation limits, 184185
phase-angle regulating, 197202
phase shifts through banks of, 3739
polarity of, 15
quality, 81
for short-line application, 271272
small, 196
system impedance, 2426
two current, 118
voltage, 9193, 271272
[Transformers]
voltage-regulating, 197202
Wye-connected, 107, 195, 199
zero sequence type (BYZ), 114
See also Current transformers;
Instrument transformers
Transient overreach, 272
Transient reactance, 24
Transients:
denition, 71
and line protection, 275
Transients and surges, 7179
differential- and common-mode, 72
electromagnetic induction, 72
electrostatic induction, 7172
high-voltage system origin, 7374
bus deenergization, 7374
capacitor switching, 73
coupling capacitor voltage
transformer (CCVT)
switching, 74
transmission line switching, 74
low-voltage system origin, 7475
battery circuit grounding, 75
current transformer saturation, 75
direct current circuit energization,
75
direct current coil interruption,
7475
other sources, 74
protective measures, 7579
buffers, 78
energy requirement increase, 79
optical isolators, 78
radial routing, of control cables, 78
separation, 7576
suppression at source, 7778
by shielding, 77, 78
by termination, 77
by twisting, 7778
Transient stability, 340341
Transistors, 5051
Transmission lines:
as classication, 229
instantaneous reclosing, 369
length of, 235, 257259, 270272
equation, 281
mutual induction, 243244
out-of-step relaying for, 346
switching, 74
system impedance, 26
See also Power lines
Tripping
instantaneous, 308309
Tripping:
energy for, 7
410
[Tripping]
incorrect, 4
True earth, 105
Turbine-blade damage, 391
Turbines:
blades, 138139, 391
and frequency, 138139
gas, 131
generator, indirect cooling, 123
hydraulic, 131132
steam, 131
and timers, 138
Turn-to-turn faults, 209211
Twisting, 7778
251G relay, 196
Underfrequency relays, 138, 391392
Underreaching transfer-trip schemes,
344
Ungrounded systems, 105108
ground faults on, 105107
detection of, 107108
Uniex relays, 289290
Unigrounded four-wire systems, 101
102
Unijunction transistors, 51
Variable-reference circuit, 55
Varistors, 50
Vectors. See Phasors
Virtual ground, 64
Voltage:
in bus protection, 221222
in circuit diagrams, 12
of faults, calculation of, 3132, 3637
Index
[Voltage]
and ux, 184
harmonic, 120, 122
induced, in a coil, 126
knee, 220
low, and arc resistance, 20
memory, 299
notation for, 12
and phase distortion, 21
phasing method, 377378
in reactance-grounding, 109
reversal of, 274
SD, 354355
in sequence networks, 2728
standard U.S. ratings, 91
and torque, 155
in ungrounded systems, 106107,
109
See also Harmonic voltage; Voltage
stability
Voltage block function, 373374
Voltage-controlled overcurrent relay,
125
Voltage polarization, 240
Voltage-regulators, protection of, 197
202
Voltage sensing devices, 93
Voltage stability, 353363
instability indices, 357362
MVA margin, 360362
large-disturbance instability, 355
356
protection schemes, 362363
load tap changers, 362
reactive power control, 362
[Voltage stability]
small-disturbance instability, 353355
Voltage transformers, 9193
bushing, 92, 93
equivalent circuit, 92
for short-line application, 271272
Volts per hertz protection, 126
Watt-type directional unit, 16
Weak feed terminal, 231
Windings:
three or more, 172, 178180
two, 173178
zig-zag connected, 202203
Wye-connected transformers, 107, 195,
199
Zener diodes, 50, 77
Zero sequence impedance, 24, 26, 39
mutual impedance, 265267
Zero sequence networks, 27, 35, 4748
Zero sequence polarization, 243, 245
247
Zero sequence transformer, 114
BYZ, 148149
Zero sequence voltage comparison, 336
Z2G relays, 291292
Z3G relays, 291292
Zig-zag transformer protection, 202
203
Zone application, of distance relaying,
257259
Zones:
in distance relaying, 257259
of protection, 3, 4
WALTER A. ELMORE is Consulting Engineer, Blue Ridge, Virginia, and retired from the Relay Division of the
ABB Power T & D Company, Inc., Coral Springs, Florida. The author or coauthor of more than 100 professional
publications including Pilot Protective Relaying (Marcel Dekker, Inc.), Mr. Elmore is a Life Fellow of the Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and a member of the National Academy of Engineering, and holds
six patents. He is a recipient of the IEEEs Gold Medal for Engineering Excellence (1989) and the Power System
Relaying Committee Award for Distinguished Service (1989). A registered Professional Engineer in Florida, Mr.
Elmore received the B.S. degree (1949) in electrical engineering from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville