CHAPTER

Properties of Fluids

1.1 INTRODUCTION
A fluid can be defined as a substance which deforms or yields continuously when shear stress is applied
to it, no matter how small it is.
Fluids can be subdivided into liquids and gases. Liquids occupy a certain volume and have a free
surface. Gases have a tendency to expand and fill the container in which they are kept; they do not have
a free surface. Gases, when subjected to normal stress change their volume considerably. Liquids can
be compressed to a small extent. Solids are least compressible. Solids when subjected to shear stress
deform until internal resistance to deformation equals the externally applied stress. Some of the
examples of fluids are water, air, hydrogen gas, oils, paint, blood, glycerine, brine, honey, etc.
In this book SI system (Systeme Internationale dunites) of units is adopted, in which the following
are the units of basic quantities that are used in fluid mechanics:
Length
metre (m)
Mass
kilogramme (kg)
Time
second (s)
Thermodynamic
temperature
kelvin (K)
Temperature
celsius (C)
A unit of force is newton (N) which is the force that produces 1 m/s2 acceleration is a mass of 1 kg.
Unit of work is joule (J) which is the work done when 1.0 N force acts through a distance of 1.0 m. Unit
of power is watt (W) which is the power necessary for 1 J of work in 1 s.
1W=

1 J 1 Nm
=
1s
1s

Unit of frequency is hertz (H) having dimension of s1.

1.2 MASS DENSITY, SPECIFIC WEIGHT, SPECIFIC VOLUME,

RELATIVE DENSITY, PRESSURE
Mass density, (Rho) is the mass per unit volume;

2 Fluid Mechanics through Problems

DM
DV

r = lim

D V 0

...(1.1)

r = f ( x , y, z , T )

and

where x, y, z are co-ordinates of the point in flow field and T is temperature. At 20C and atmospheric
pressure, for
water: = 998 kg/m3
air: = 1.208 kg/m3
Specific weight (Gamma) is weight per unit volume;
= g N/m3
...(1.2)
Specific volume is volume per unit weight and hence
v=

1 3
m N
g

...(1.3)

Relative density is the ratio of mass density to mass density of pure water at standard pressure of
101.325 N/m2 and temperature of 4C.
Pressure is force acting on unit area normal to it and has unit of N/m2;
DF
DA 0 D A

p = lim

...(1.4)

1.3 VISCOSITY
Viscosity is that property of fluid by which it offers resistance to shear acting on it. According to
Newtons law of viscosity the shear F acting between two layers of fluid is proportional to difference
in their velocities u and area A, and inversely proportional to the distance y between them (see
Fig. 1.1).
F

Dy

u + Du
u

Area A
b
a

b
a Fluid

Fig. 1.1 Shear and velocity distribution

Therefore
F = mA

Du
Dy

or the shear stress is

t=

F
du
=m
A
dy

...(1.5)

Properties of Fluids 3

where (Mu) is the constant of proportionality with dimensions of

[m ] =

[ F A] = N sm ,
[du dy] m 2 m

i.e.,

Ns
m

or

kg
ms

One gm/cms dynamic viscosity is known as poise (P).

du/dy gives the angular velocity of line ab or it is the rate of angular deformation.
Coefficient of kinematic viscosity, n =

m
r

...(1.6)

(Nu) has dimensions of m2/s. One cm2/s kinematic viscosity is known as stoke (S).
or = f (p, T)
Variation of viscosity of liquids with pressure is very small and can be neglected. The variation
with temperature is given by
T = AeB/T
...(1.7)
where T is dynamic viscosity at absolute temperature T, A and B are constants. Viscosity of liquids
decreases with increase in temperature.
In the presence of suspended matter the viscosity of liquids increases according to the law
m/ = 1 + aC
...(1.8)
where m is the viscosity of liquid when suspended matter concentration in absolute volume is C and
is the viscosity of clear liquid; a is 2.5 according to Einstein for C upto 0.30 and 4.5 for higher
concentration as recommended by Ward. Viscosity of gases increases with increase in temperature and
can be given by the formula proposed by Sutherland
mT =

bT 1 2
1+ a T

...(1.9)

where a and b are constants for a given gas.

Fluids are classified according to the relation between shear and rate of angular deformation:
=0
Ideal fluids
t=m

du
dy

Newtonian fluids

du
t = const + m
dy

du
t = const + m
dy
du
t = m
dy

Ideal plastics of Bingham plastics

n

Thyxotropic fluids

Non Newtonian fluids

For non Newtonian fluids, if n is less than unity, they are called pseudo-plastics while fluids in
which n is greater than unity are known as dilatants. These are shown in Fig. 1.2.

4 Fluid Mechanics through Problems

Thyxotropic
Non Newtonian
(Dilatants)

Yield stress

lastic
Ideal p

Newtonian
m
1

Non Newtonian
(Pseudoplastics)
Ideal

du/dy

Fig. 1.2 Rheological classification of fluids

1.4 BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

Bulk modulus of elasticity of fluid, E, is defined as follows:
dp
...(1.10)
dv
where v is the specific volume and dv is the change in v due to increase in pressure dp. E is expressed
in N/m2 or kN/m2 (kilo newtons per m2).
E = -v

1.5 GAS LAWS

Compression or expansion of gases can occur either under isothermal condition (i.e. at constant
temperature) or under adiabatic condition (i.e. at constant heat content).
Isothermal condition is governed by Boyles law according to which, for a given weight of gas at
constant temperature,
pV = const.
...(1.11)
2
2
where p is the pressure in N/m or kN/m and V is the volume of given weight of gas. According to
Charles law, for a constant volume of a given weight of gas
p/T = const.
...(1.12)
where T is the absolute temperature of gas in kelvins.
T = tC + 273.16
Equation of State of gas is
pv/T = R
...(1.13)
where R is known as the universal gas constant having the units of
Nm
or m K .
NK

In adiabatic process
pvk = const.
...(1.14)
If adiabatic process is reversible, it is known as isentropic. Value of k varies with different gases
(see Appendix D).

Properties of Fluids 5

1.6 SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY

Coefficient of surface tension is force per unit length (N/m) which is caused when liquid-gas interface
meets a solid wall.
Capillary rise or depression, h =

2s cos q
gR

...(1.15)

where is the angle of contact between solid surface and liquid. If is greater than 90, there will be
depression of surface in the tube (e.g. mercury in glass tube). If is less than 90 there will be a
capillary rise (e.g. water in glass tube) (Fig. 1.3). For clean glass and water, is nearly equal to zero.
R

h
q

h
Mercury

Water

Fig. 1.3 Capillary rise and depression

Difference of pressure p between inside and outside of a droplet of radius R

2s
...(1.16)
R
Appendix A gives the basic properties of common fluids at 20C, whereas Appendix B gives
properties of water at different temperatures. Appendix C lists the properties of air at different temperatures and at atmospheric pressure. Appendix D lists the properties of common gases while Appendix E
gives properties of standard atmosphere.
Dp =

1.7 FLOW REGIMES

Depending on relative effects of viscosity and inertia, flows can be classified into laminar and turbulent
flows.
In pipes:

UDr
Reynolds No. Re =
< 2100

Re > 3000
Here U is average velocity of flow in a pipe of diameter D.
URr
In open channels: Re =
> 500

Re > 2000

laminar flow
turbulent flow

laminar flow
turbulent flow

6 Fluid Mechanics through Problems

Depending on the relative importance of gravity and inertial forces, flow in open channels can be
classified into subcritical and supercritical flows.

< 1.0
Froude No. Fr =
gD

subcritical flow

Fr = 1.0
critical flow
Fr > 1.0
supercritical flow
Here R is the hydraulic radius which equals area of flow divided by wetted perimeter; D is hydraulic mean depth which equals area of flow divided by water surface width.
Depending on relative importance of compressibility and inertia, flows of compressible fluids are
classified as follows:

Mach No. M = U

E r < 1.0

M slightly less than unity to slightly greater than unity:

1.0 < M < 6.0
M > 6.0
It may be noted that

subsonic
transonic
supersonic
hypersonic

E r is the velocity of sound or compression wave in the medium.

Depending on distance between different molecules of the fluid relative to characteristic length of
flow, one can have either continuum flow or free molecular flow.
Knudsen Number N =

Mean free path of molecules

Characteristic length of flow

If N < 0.01
continuum flow
N > 10
free molecular flow
In all discussions in this book, the flow is treated as continuum.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
1.1 If 3.5 m3 of oil weighs 32.95 kN, calculate its specific weight, specific volume, mass density
and relative density.
weight 32.95
=
volume
3.5
= 9.414 kN/m3

Specific weight g =

Specific volume v =

Mass density r =

1
1
=
= 0.106 m 3 kN
g 9.414
g 9.414 10 3
=
= 960.0 kg m 3
g
9.806

960
= 0.960
1000
1.2 If the kinematic viscosity of benzene is 7.42 103 stokes and its mass density is 860 kg/m3,
determine its dynamic viscosity in kg/m s.
Relative density =

Properties of Fluids 7

v = 7.42 10 -3 S

= 7.42 10 -3 10 -4 m 2 s = 7.42 10 -7 m 2 s
m = rv = 860 7.42 10 -7

= 6.381 10 -4 kg m s
1.3 If the mass density of a fluid is 789 kg/m3, determine its specific weight and specific volume.
g = rg = 789 9.806
= 7736.934 N m 3 or 7.737 kN m 3
Specific volume v =

1
1
=
= 0.129 m 3 kN
g 7.737

1.4 Determine the kinematic viscosity of air at 20C if its dynamic viscosity is 1.85 104 poise
and its mass density is 1.208 kg/m3.
m = 1.85 10 -4 poise
= 1.85 10 -5 kg ms

v=

m 1.85 10 -5
=
= 1.531 10 -5 m 2 s
r
1.208

1.5 The space between two parallel horizontal plates kept 5 mm apart is filled with crude oil of
dynamic viscosity 2.5 kg/ms. If the lower plate is stationary and upper plate is pulled with a
velocity of 1.75 m/s, determine the shear stress on the lower plate.
1.75
du
=
= 0.35 103 s -1
dy 5 10 -3
t=m

du
= 2.5 0.35 103
dy

= 875.0 N/m2
1.6 A 50 mm diameter and 0.10 m long cylindrical body slides
vertically down in a 52 mm diameter cylindrical tube. The space
between the cylindrical body and tube wall is filled with oil of
dynamic viscosity 1.9 N s/m2. Determine its velocity of fall if its
weight is 16 N (Fig. 1.4).
Let U be its terminal velocity of fall. Shear stress will be
du
U
t=m
= 1.9
dy
1 10 -3

52 mm

Oil

50
mm
16 N

= 1.9 103 U N m 2
The shear stress will act on the surface of the cylinder. Hence

Fig. 1.4

0.10 m

8 Fluid Mechanics through Problems

Total force F = A
= 1.9 103 U 3.142 50 103 0.10
= 29.849 U
Under equilibrium condition, the weight will be balanced by the total shear force. Hence
16.0 = 29.849 U
or
U = 0.536 m/s
Here it is assumed that velocity variation across the gap of 1 mm is linear.
1.7 A rectangular plate of 0.50 m 0.50 m dimensions weighing 500 N slides down an inclined
plane making 30 angle with horizontal, at a velocity of 1.75 m/s. If the 2 mm gap between the
plate and inclined surface is filled with a lubricating oil, find its viscosity and express it in poise
as well as in Ns/m2 (Fig. 1.5).

F = 0.5 0.5 m

Oi l

1.75
2 10 -3

= 0.219 103
For equilibrium, this must be equal to component of
weight along the inclined surface.

500 sin 30 = 0.219 103

2 mm
5m
1.7

/s

30

500 N

500 0.50
Fig. 1.5
10 -3
0.219
= 1.142 Ns/m2
The viscosity in poise units will be 11.42 poise.
1.8 The velocity distribution, for small values of y, in laminar boundary layer on a flat plate is
given by the equation
m=

u = 5y 2y3
in which u is the velocity in m/s at a distance y m above the plate. Determine shear stress at
y = 0 and y = 0.25 m if = 1.85 105 kg/m s.
du
= 5 - 6 y2
dy

du
du
= 5 s 1 and
= 5.0 0.375 = 4.625 s 1
dy
dy
y=0
y = 0.25

at the boundary = 5 1.85 105

= 9.25 105 N/m2
At y = 0.25 m, = 4.625 1.85 105
= 8.556 105 N/m2
1.9 If the velocity distribution in laminar boundary layer over a flat plate is given by
u = 2y 2y3 + y4
determine the shear stress on the plate and at y = 0.10 m if dynamic viscosity of the fluid is
1 103 kg/ms.
du/dy = 2 6y2 + 4y3

Properties of Fluids 9

du
at y = 0, t = m
dy y =0

= 1 103 2
= 2 103 N/m2

du
At y = 0.10 m, t = m
dy y = 0.10
= 1 103 (2 0.06 + 0.004)
= 1.944 103 N/m2
1.10 A closed vessel of volume 80 litres contains 0.50 N of gas at a pressure of 150 kN/m2. If the
gas is compressed isothermally to half its volume, determine the resulting pressure.
For isothermal process

p1v1 = p2 v2

p2 =

p1v1 150 80
=
= 300 kN m 2
40
v2

1.11 When the pressure of an enclosed gas is doubled, its new volume is 0.591 times the initial
volume. Determine the value of k assuming the process to be adiabatic.
For adiabatic process p1v1k = p2v2k
k

p2 v1
v1
= \ 2=
= 1.691k
p1 v2
0.591 v1

k = 1.319
1.12 What will be the change in pressure of a gas enclosed in a container at 300 kN/m2 pressure if
its temperature is changed from 30C to 65C.
For constant volume

p2 =

p1 p2
T
=
or p2 = 2 p1
T1 T2
T1

(273.16 + 65.00)
300
(273.16 + 30.00)

= 334.635 kN/m2

Change in pressure = (334.635 300.000)

= 34.635 kN/m2
1.13 Determine the specific weight of hydrogen at 40C at a pressure of two atmospheres absolute.
One atmospheric pressure = 101.325 kN/m2
p = 2 101.325 = 202.650 kN m 2

From Appendix D,

= 202.65 103 N/m2

R = 420.3 and
T = 273.16 + 40
= 313.16K

10 Fluid Mechanics through Problems

pv
1
p
= R or g = =
T
v RT
202.65 103
= 1.540 N m 3
420.3 313.16
1.14 What should be the internal diameter of a glass tube if capillary rise of water in it is not to
exceed 2.0 mm?
g=

h=

Since

R=

2s cos q
and q = 0
gR

2 0.0735
2 10

-3

9787

= 7.5 10 -3 m

= 7.5 mm

diameter = 2 7.5 = 15 mm
1.15 Assuming that sap in trees has the same characteristics as water and that it rises purely due to
capillary phenomenon, what will be the average diameter of capillary tubes in a tree if the sap
is carried to a height of 10 m?
Taking

= 0, h =

2s
gR

2 0.0735
= 1.502 10 -6 m
10 9787

diameter = 3.004 106 m

= 3 103 mm
1.16 What will be the difference of pressure between inside and outside of a droplet of water 1 mm
in diameter.
Since
p = 2/R = 4/d
R=

4 0.0735

= 0.2940 103 N m 2
1 10 -3
= 294 N/m2
1.17 A glass tube of 2 mm internal diameter is immersed in an oil of
mass density 960 kg/m3 to a depth of 10 mm. If a pressure of
172 N/m2 is needed to form a bubble which is just released,
determine the surface tension of the oil (Fig. 1.6).
(pi p0) = 2/r; but p0 = 960 9.806 10 103
= 94.138 N/m2
Inside pressure pi = 172.00 N/m2

(pi p0) = (172.000 94.138) = 77.862 N/m2

s=

77.862 1 10
2

-3

= 0.0389 N m

2 mm

Oil
10 mm

Bubble

Fig. 1.6

Properties of Fluids 11

1.18 If velocity distribution for laminar flow in a pipe is given by

{ (

u umax = 1 - r 2 R 2

)}

where u is the velocity at a distance r from the centre line, umax is the centre line velocity and
R is the pipe radius, determine expression for shear stress .
Since

r = R y, 1 = -

t=m

However,

dy
or dy = dr
dr

du
du
= -m
dy
dr

du
2r -2rumax
= umax - 2 =
R
dr
R2
t=

2mr umax

R2
1.19 Calculate the force required to lift a thin ring of wire 20 mm in diameter from water surface.
Neglect the weight of the ring.
Perimeter of ring = D
= 3.142 20 103 m
= 0.06284 m
Surface tension force will be due to surface tension on both sides of wire
F = 2 0.06284 0.0735
= 9.238 103 N
1.20 In the flow conditions given in Fig. 1.7 determine the velocity at which the central plate of area
5.0 m2 will move if a force of 150 N is applied to it. The dynamic viscosities of the two oils
are in the ratio of 1 : 3 and viscocity of top oil 0.10 Ns/m2.
m

5 mm

150 N

10 mm
3m

5 mm

Fig. 1.7

F = F1 + F2

du
du
= Am1 + Am 2 .
dy
dy

150 = 5 0.1

U
5 10

-3

+ 5 0.3

= U(100 + 300) = 400 U

U = 150/400 = 0.375 m/s

U
5 10 -3

12 Fluid Mechanics through Problems

1.21 Determine whether the flow in a 1.5 m wide rectangular channel with 0.75 m depth of flow and
1.25 m/s velocity is (i) subcritical or supercritical, (ii) laminar or turbulent.

R=

(1.5 0.75)
By
=
= 0.375 m
(
B + 2 y 1.5 + 0.75 2)

Assuming water temperature to be 20C, = 1 103 kg/ms, and = 998 kg/m3.

Re =

URr 1.25 0.375 998

=
m
1 10 -3

= 4.678 105
Hence the flow is turbulent.
Hydraulic mean depth D =

Fr =

A 1.5 0.75
=
= 0.75 m
T
1.5

U
gD

1.25
9.806 0.75

= 0.461

Hence flow is subcritical.

1.22 Obtain an expression for volume modulus of elasticity of atmosphere assuming the process to
be isothermal.
dp
dv
but pv = constant for isothermal process.
pdv + vdp = 0
E = -v

vdp
=p
dv

E=p
1.23 What will be the velocity of sound in water and in air at atmospheric pressure and temperature
of 20C?

or

2.075 10 9
= 1441.93 m s
998
For air at 20C and assuming isothermal process

For water

E r=

E r=

p r=

101.325 10 3
= 289.61 m s
1.208

If the process is assumed to be adiabatic, E = kp (see Problem 1.32 for solution). Taking
k = 1.4,
E r = kp r =

1.4 101.325 103

= 342.68 m s
1.208

1.24 Air is introduced through a nozzle into a tank of water to form a stream of bubbles. If the
process requires 2.5 mm diameter bubbles to be formed, by how much the air pressure at the
nozzle must exceed that of the surrounding water?

Properties of Fluids 13

2s
R
Assuming water temperature to be 20, = 0.0735 N/m

p = 2 0.0735/1.25 103 = 117.6 N/m2

1.25 Discuss how properties of the atmosphere change with altitude.
The atmosphere can be broadly divided into the following four regions:
Troposphere
up to 11 km above mean sea level.
Stratosphere
11 km to 32 km above msl.
Mesosphere
32 km to 76 km above msl.
Ionosphere
Beyond 76 km above msl.
The pressure of the atmosphere always decreases with the increase in altitude. The temperature
in troposphere decreases at the rate of 6.5C per km; this is known as the lapse rate. The
temperature in stratosphere remains constant at 216.5 K i.e. 56.5C. In mesosphere the
temperature first rises linearly to 350 K at 50 km, remains constant at 350 K up to 60 km, and
then decreases linearly to 240 K at 76 km. It remains constant at 240 K up to 84 km and then
rises with increase in elevation in the ionosphere.
In troposphere, which is of interest to us, the pressure, density and temperature vary as follows
Dp =

(p

1 aR

p0 ) = (T T0 )

(r r0 ) = (T

T0 )

1
-1

aR

T = T0 - aZ
where p0, 0 and T0 are the pressure, density and temperature (in K) at sea level and p, , and
T are the corresponding quantities at elevation Z; is the lapse rate. The viscosity is related to
the temperature by the empirical relation

(m

m 0 ) = (T T0 )

0.75

one can take = 0.0065 C/m and R = 29.57 m/K.

1.26 Calculate the capillary depression for mercury in a 2.5 mm diameter glass tube. Take the angle
of contact = 140.
See Appendix A; for mercury = 132.880 N/m3 and = 0.510 N/m.

2 s cos q
2 0.51cos (140)
=
gR
132.880 1.25 10 -3
= 4.7 103 m or 4.7 mm
The negative sign indicates that it is a capillary depression.
1.27 A 20 mm diameter soap bubble has an internal pressure 27.576 N/m2 greater than the outside
atmospheric pressure. Compute the surface tension of soap-air interface.
The soap bubble has two surfaces with the airthe inner and the outer, and almost the same
radius since the soap film is very thin.

p = 4/R
h=

14 Fluid Mechanics through Problems

DpR 27.576 10 10 -3
=
4
4
= 0.06894 N/m
s=

PROBLEMS
1.1 If the relative density of a fluid is 1.59, calculate its mass density, specific weight and specific
volume.
(1590 kg/m3, 15.591 kN/m3, 0.064 m3/kN)
1.2 If relative density of a liquid is 13.6, find its specific volume.
(0.00750 m3/kN)
1.3 If the dynamic viscosity of liquid is 0.012 poise and its relative density is 0.79, obtain its
(1.522 106 m2/s)
kinematic viscosity in m2/s.
1.4 Two horizontal plates are kept 12.5 mm apart and the space between them is filled with oil of
dynamic viscosity of 14 poise. If the top plate is moved at a constant velocity of 2.5 m/s,
determine the shear stress on the lower plate.
(280.0 N/m2)
1.5 When a real fluid flows past a plate held parallel to flow, the velocity distribution near the plate
is given by
uU=

1.6

1.7

1.8
1.9

3
1
( y d ) - ( y d )2
2
2

where u = U when y = . Determine the shear stress at y = 0 and when y/ = 0.50.

(3U/2, U/)
A cylindrical body of 75 mm diameter and 0.15 m length falls freely in a 80 mm diameter
circular tube kept vertically. If the space between the cylindrical body and tube is filled with
oil of dynamic viscosity 0.9 poise, determine the weight of the body when it falls at a speed of
1.5 m/s.
(1.909 N)
A circular disc of 0.30 m diameter and weighing 50 N is kept on an inclined surface with a
slope of 45. The space of 2 mm between disc and inclined surface is filled with oil of dynamic
viscosity 1.0 Ns/m2. What force will be required to pull the disc up the inclined plane at
velocity of 0.50 m/s?
(53.029 N)
What will be the dynamic viscosity of muddy water at 20C if it contains 30 per cent fine
sediment by volume?
(2.35 103 kg/ms)
Express the bulk modulus of elasticity in terms of mass density of the fluid and pressure.
dp

E = r dr

1.10 Find the increase in the pressure required to reduce the volume of water by 0.8 per cent if its
(1.66 107 N/m2)
bulk modulus of elasticity is 2.075 109 N/m2.
1.11 Assuming depth of sea to be 10.000 m, determine the mass density of sea water at this depth
if its relative density at sea level is 1.026. Take a constant value of E as 2.113 109 N/m2.
(1072.60 kg/m3)
1.12 Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a fluid that has a density increase of 0.002 per cent
for a pressure increase of 44.540 kN/m2.
(2.227 109 N/m2)
1.13 What change in pressure is required to compress a given mass of gas to one third its volume
under isothermal condition?
(2p1)

Properties of Fluids 15

1.14 If 1.0 m3 of gas is compressed to 0.20 m3 volume when its initial pressure was 150 kN/m2
determine the final pressure if the compression takes place under (i) isothermal condition,
(ii) adiabatic condition. Take k = 1.30.
(750 kN/m2, 1215.492 kN/m2)
1.15 In an adiabatic compression when final pressure was four times the initial pressure, the ratio
of final to initial volume was 0.315. Determine the value of adiabatic constant.
(1.20)
1.16 Determine the temperature and pressure of oxygen if from its original p, v and t of 1 bar,
1.5 m3 and 20C it is compressed to 0.30 m3 volume under adiabatic condition. Take k = 1.29.
(194.37C, 7.974 bars)
1.17 A cylinder of 0.30 m length and 0.10 m diameter rotates about a vertical axis inside a fixed
cylindrical tube of 105 mm diameter and 0.30 m length. If the space between the tube and the
cylinder is filled with liquid of dynamic viscosity 0.125 N s/m2, determine the speed of rotation
of the cylinder which will be obtained if an external torque of 1.0 N m is applied to it.
(81.03 rpm)
1.18 A circular disc of radius R is held parallel to a large plane and stationary surface at a small
distance from it. If the space t between the two is filled with oil of dynamic viscosity and the
disc is rotated at N rpm, determine the torque required to maintain this rotation.
p 2 N mR 4

60t

1.19 A circular cylinder of radius R1 and height h rotates at N rpm in a cylindrical container of radius
R2 with their axes vertical and coinciding. If the spacing between the bottoms of the cylindrical
container and cylinder is t which is small and if the space between the cylinder and container
is filled with oil of dynamic viscosity , obtain an expression for the total torque T required to
maintain the motion. Assume R2 to be slightly larger than R1.

p 2 N mR13 h
p 2 N mR14
+
T =

15 ( R2 - R1 )
60 t

1.20 What will be the temperature of oxygen in C if at 4.0 kN/m2 pressure its unit weight is
(25.35C)
0.50 N/m3? (Use value of R = 26.8 m/K).
1.21 What per cent error will be made in the viscosity of blood if clear water viscosity at 20C is
assumed when it contains 50 per cent by volume of red blood cells? Use Wards equation.
(225 per cent)
1.22 Determine the capillary rise in a clean glass tube of internal diameter 2.5 mm if the liquid is
carbon tetrachloride.
(2.71 mm)
1.23 Two vertical parallel glass plates distance t apart are partially submerged in a liquid of specific
weight and surface tension . Show that the capillary rise is given by
h=

2s cos q
tg

1.24 Determine the diameter of a droplet of water in mm if the pressure inside is to be greater than
the outside pressure by 130 N/m2.
(2.262 mm)
1.25 A soap bubble of 50 mm diameter has a pressure difference of 20 N/m2 between its inside and
outside. Determine the coefficient of surface tension of the solution.
(2.5 101 N/m)
1.26 For flow in a pipe take

16 Fluid Mechanics through Problems

t=m

u
y

and shear stress at the wall 0 to be related to shear stress at distance y by the relation
y

t = t 0 1 - . Determine the velocity distribution by integration of the equation for shear

R
assuming u = umax at the centre and u = 0 at the wall. Here R is the radius of pipe.

r2
= 1 - 2

umax
R

1.27 Three cylindrical tubes of 0.50 m length are place co-axially and the central tube is rotated at
5 rpm applying a torque of 6.0 N m. Determine the viscosity of oil which fills the space
between the tubes. Take R1, R2 and R3 as 0.150, 0.152 and 0.154 m.
(1.0384 Ns/m2)
1.28 Determine whether the flow in the following cases is laminar or turbulent:
(i) 0.30 m diameter pipe carrying water at 20C at 3.0 m/s velocity.
(ii) Flow of oil at 0.50 m/s velocity in 25 mm diameter tube. The dynamic viscosity of oil is
1.0 Ns/m2 and its mass density is 970 kg/m3.
(iii) Water flowing at 1.5 m/s velocity in a rectangular channel of 4.0 m width and 1.0 m depth.
Water temperature is 20C.
Also note the Reynolds numbers in each case.
(8.982 105, turbulent; 12.125, laminar; 9.985 105, turbulent)
1.29 Determine whether the flow in the following cases is subcritical, critical or supercritical (list
the Fr number in each case).
(i) Water flowing at 0.75 m/s velocity in a rectangular channel of width 5.0 m and depth
1.0 m.
(ii) Water flowing in a triangular channel of central angle 90 when the velocity is 0.99 m/s
and depth of 0.20 m.
(iii) Water flowing at 3.0 m/s velocity in a trapezoidal channel of bottom width 1.0 m and side
slope of 1 : 1, at a depth of 0.8 m.
(0.239, subcritical; 1.0, critical; 1.287, supercritical)
1.30 If an aeroplane is moving through air at 800 km/hr, determine the flow regime if velocity of
sound in air is 340 m/s. (Note the Mach number).
(0.654, subsonic)
1.31 Obtain expression for E when the flow is adiabatic.
(E = kp)
1.32 A long rigid pipe of 0.30 m diameter is used for pumping oil across the country. The pipe
becomes plugged at some unknown point so that no fluid can flow. A piston inserted from one
end of the pipe slides without leakage through 0.50 m causing an increase in pressure of
200 kN/m2. Assume E for oil to be 1.8 109 N/m2, determine the approximate location of
obstruction.
(4.5 km)
1.33 A cubical block of side 0.20 m and weighing 1.0 kN slides down an inclined plane of an angle
of inclination of 20 with the horizontal. If oil of dynamic viscosity 7 103 kg/ms forms a
thickness of 0.005 mm between the block surface and the inclined surface, what will be its
terminal velocity?
(6.107 m/s)

Properties of Fluids 17

1.34 Show that the capillary rise between two concentric glass tubes of radii R1 and R2 (R2 being
greater than R1) and contact angle is given by

h=

2 s cos q
g ( R2 - R1 )

1.35 A small circular jet of water of 2 mm diameter issues from an opening. What is the pressure
difference between inside and outside of the jet?
(73.6 N/m2)
2
3
1.36 Take air properties at the sea level as p0 = 101.325 kN/m , 0 = 1.225 kg/m , T0 = 288.2 K and
0 = 1.789 105 kg/ms, and determine the corresponding quantities at an elevation of 10.000 m.
Take R = 29.57 m/K, = 0.0065 C/m.
(26.803 kN/m2, 0.418 kg/m3, 223.2 K, 1.477 105 kg/ms)

DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6

Does definition of fluid include only substances in liquid phase? Explain.

List the differences between liquids, solids and granular material.
List the differences between liquids and gases.
Give five examples of fluid flow phenomena encountered in every day life.
What is continuum? Is air a continuum? Does it always remain so?
Classify the fluids A and B for which following values of deformation rate and shear stress are
obtained experimentally.
0
100
200
300
400
N/m2
Fluid A

du -1
s
dy

0.30

0.60

0.90

1.2

Fluid B

du -1
s
dy

54.8

77.5

94.9

109.5

DM
?
DV
Give one example each of Newtonian fluid, pseudoplastic, dilatant, ideal plastic and thyxotropic
fluid.
Classify the following fluids: Water, sugar solution, printers ink, air, glycerine, and molten
metal.
Under what conditions is the elasticity of the fluid important?
Differentiate between adiabatic and isentropic processes.
Even though needle is heavier than water, it can float on it if it is placed lengthwise on the
water surface. Why?
Why does oil spread when it is poured on water surface?
Why does the viscosity of a liquid decrease with increase in temperature whereas it increases
with increase in temperature in the case of a gas?
Give two examples each of (i) laminar flow, (ii) turbulent flow, and (iii) supersonic flow.
Show that the velocity gradient can be interpreted as rate of angular deformation.
Which fluid property/properties are important in the following physical phenomena?

1.7 How small should be the value of D V in the definition of mass density r = lim

D V 0

1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.17

18 Fluid Mechanics through Problems

Lubrication
Rise of sap in trees
Ground water flow
Settling of a sediment particle in water
Force acting on the bottom of water tank
Formation of droplets
Energy loss is pipelines
Water hammer phenomenon in pipes
Echo sounders
Formation of waves on water surface
Cavitation
Pumping of blood through arteries to capillaries.
1.18 Arrange the following fluids according to increasing values of dynamic viscosity and also
according to decreasing values of mass density: air, water, alcohol, glycerine, castor oil.
1.19 Give one example each where air can be treated as an incompressible fluid and water has to be
treated as compessible fluid.
1.20 Mention different ways in which the fluid can be set in motion; give one example each.
1.21 Draw a sketch of smoke issuing from the cigarette and sketch its path. Indicate to what regimes
of flow the portion near the cigarette, away from it, and in between the two belong.
1.22 A fluid is a substance that
(i) has to be kept in a closed container
(ii) is almost incompressible
(iii) has zero shear stress
(iv) flows when even a small shear is applied to it.
1.23 A Newtonian fluid is that
(i) which follows Newtons laws of motion
(ii) which needs a minimum shear before it starts deforming
(iii) for which shear and deformation are related as = u/y.
1.24 Dimensions of dynamic viscosity are
(ii) M/LT
(i) L2/T
(iii) MT/L
(iv) T/L2
1.25 Dynamic viscosity of a gas
(i) increases as temperature decreases
(ii) increases as temperature increases
(iii) is independent of temperature
(iv) may increase or decrease with increase in temperature, depending on nature of gas.
1.26 An isentropic process is one in which
(i) pv = constant
(ii) pvk = constant
(iii) pvk = constant, and process is reversible, (iv) none of the above.
1.27 Bulk modulus of elasticity of liquids has the dimensions
(i) MT 2/L
(ii) ML2/T
(iii) M/LT 2
1.28 If the mass of the body at sea level is 3.0 kg, what will be its mass on a planet where the
gravitational acceleration is 1.4 m/s2?
1.29 If the diameter of a capillary tube is doubled, the capillary rise will be
(i) unaffected
(ii) doubled
(iii) halved
(iv) none of the above

Properties of Fluids 19

1.30 If the depth of flow and average velocity in a wide rectangular channel are 3.0 m and
2.5 m/s respectively, the flow regime will be
(i) laminar and supercritical
(ii) turbulent and supercritical
(iii) laminar and subcritical
(iv) turbulent and subcritical
1.31 Ten poise of viscosity is equal to (i) 1.0 kg/ms, (ii) 10 kg/ms, (iii) 100 kg/ms, (iv) 1000 kg/ms.
1.32 Mass density of air at 20C and atmospheric pressure of 101.325 kN/m2 is
(ii) 12.08 kg/m3
(i) 120.8 kg/m3
3
(iii) 1.208 kg/m
(iv) 0.1208 kg/m3
1.33 Assertion A: Viscosity of a gas increases as its temperature decreases.
Reason R: With decrease in temperature the molecular activity of the gas is reduced.
Choose the correct answer from the following
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) A is true but R is false.
(c) A is false but R is true.
(d) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
1.34 If kerosene has a bulk modulus of elasticity E = 1.49 100 N/m2 and its relative density is
0.806, the speed of sound in kerosene in m/s will be
(i) 184
(ii) 1331
(iii) 1078
(iv) 1200
1.35 If the rate of angular deformation

du
is plotted on x axis and the shear stress on y axis,
dy

Newtonian fluid will be represented by

(i) a curved line passing through origin
(ii) a curved line passing through yield stress and zero
(iii) a straight line passing through yield stress and zero
(iv) a straight line passing through origin and inclined to x axis
1.36 If a capillary rise of water in a glass tube of 2.5 mm diameter is 2.7 mm, the capillary rise in
1.25 mm diameter tube will be
(i) 2.7 mm
(ii) 1.35 mm
(iii) 5.4 mm
(iv) none of the above