2012

3 4
.

,

.
, , ,
.

. ,
o
,
.
.

, .
,
. ,
, .
,
,
.

2012.


1.

1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
1.1
1.2
1.3

2.

2.1.
2.2.
2.3. CCD
2.1
2.2 o

3.

3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
3.6.
3.6.1.
3.6.2.
3.1
3.2

4.

4.1

5.
5.1.
5.1

6.

6.1. :
6.1.1.
6.2.

6.3.
6.4.
6.1
6.2
6.3

7. a
7.1.
7.1

1
1
2
5
6
7
8
9
11
15
16
18
19
21
23
24
24
25
26
28
30
31
31
31
32
34
36
39
40
42
45
47
47
48
49
51
53
54
55
56
57
59
60

 7.2

7.3
7.4 ()

61
62
63
64

1.
1.1.

.
; ,
.
.
, .
.

.
,
.
(n ~ 1 jon/cm3 ).

.
. .
,
.
( , X ) -
.
( 1.1).
,
.
.
.
.

,
.
, . .

.


.

. - ( ). -
1.1
1.1.
, .


1.2.

.
10-5 10-1 .
( )
.
( 1. 2.).

U
U [V]

A
R

800

600

400

200

10-10

10-5

10-4

10-3

10-2

10-1

I [A]

1.1. - .

(Aston)
. ,
.
(Crookes) .

1.2. .

,
.
.
.
,
(Faraday) .
( )
.

.
,
.

.
.
.
,

.
, ,
3


. ,
,
.
.
,
.
.
,
. 1.3.
, ,

1.3. .

.

.

( )
.

( ) ~ 100 500 Pa.
,
(. Pb, Zn, Ca...).
4



(Geissler) , 1.4, 19.
. .
,
.
(
, , , , , , ,

1.4. .

, ).
(. non-thermal)
, Tg ,
Ti Tg .
: >> Ti Tg. T 5000 10 000 ,
.
,
.
.
1.3.
o (
),
.

1.4. . ) ;
) .


. , ,
. ,
, , ,
. 1 eV (1 eV = 11 600 K),
.
,
.
,
.
1.4.

,

1.5. -. )
; ) ; ) ;
) .

.
.

, .
1.5.

1.6. )
; )
.

1.6.
1.5.

. ,
.

.

, .


1.1


.
1.7.

, R.
: U = UP IR.

UP
A
R
1.7. .

1.7
.
, .
( . ).
1 mA,
.
U = f(I) .
U = f(I)
.
P = f(I) , P
.


1.2

.
(Marx) .
,
.
200 kV,
, 1.8.
1.8.

R (Rogowsky).

1.8. .

. .


.
- 1.9.
90

45

80
40

70

Voltage [kV]

50
30

40

25

30
20

20

Current [A]

60

35

10
0

15

-10
10
0

200

400

600

-20
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

t [ns]

1.9. .

1.8
.
( ) U(t) I(t).
U = f(I) .
, P = P(t)
W = W(t).

10

1.3

( 20 000 V, 50 Hz 17 000 Hz).
, , ,
(
)
. ,
.
, ,
. P(t) = U(t)I(t );
t2

W (t 2 t1 ) = U (t ) I (t )dt
t1

[t1, t2] :
1.10
.

1.10.
. ) 1000 V,
) 1700 V.

. (
) .
100 ns,
,
.
1.11 .
: U(t) , I(t)
, Q
11

30

P=800 mbar

40

25

I (mA)

20

U (kV)

I (mA)

20

15

10
-20

-2
5

-40

-4
0
0

12

16

20

100

t (ms)

200

300

400

t (ns)

1.11. ) . )
, 128 .
800 mbar. 2 mm.

1.12.
I(t)
. Q U,
( )
U

1:1000

IQ
U

1:10

Rm
I

Cm
Q

1.12. , .

12


(Lissajous) . Q
Um Cm . U
( 1.12).
Rm Cm

Qcel
Qmax
Qc

1
ducel / dQcel = Cdie

2 ub

Qd

umax

ucel

ducel / dQcel = Ccel

Vc
Vc

1.13 Q U ( )
.

. ,
(Rm ~ 50), (Cm ~ 10 nF).

(~10 - 100 ns) ,
( Rm)
.
Q U

. .
Q U
.
.
, , ,
. ( , )
.
:
W = u(t)dQ = Cm u(t)dum = Q U
13


P = Wf, f = 1/, .
, .

,
.

1.12
-
.
U = f(I), P = P(t) W = W(t) .

. (Cm = 470 nF, f
= 300 Hz)

14

2.
0,1
10 m .
.
. ()
,
. ()
S()
.

( ) =

( )

( ) =

( )

(2.1)

P

(2.2)

a S AW-1.
,
,

:

( ) =

(2.3)

Ne , Np - .
S() ()
E = hc/ :

( ) =

()

( ) = ( )

(2.4)

(2.5)

, : (. PhotoDiode - PD),
(. PhotoMultiplier Tube PMT) CCD (. Charge
Couple Device).


1
.
2.1. , CCD.
(PD)

CCD
(PMT)

: 0,1 5,0 mm
: > 2 cm
: ~2 cm
: 0,1 100 mm
: >1 cm
:
~10 m

100%
30%
90%

190 10000 nm
190 1000 nm
190 1000 nm

(0,5 A/W)
(1 A/W)
(0,5 A/W)

10 fW
0,01 aW
~100 fW

1 mW
1 nW

> 0,01 ns
> 0,1 ns
~ 1 ms

0 60 V
500 2000 V
0 60 V

-
-
-
-
-

-
-
-CD DVD

2.1.
p-n .
( , . )
- p n ( 2.1).
.
n- (n "negative")
, p (p - "pozitive") .
.
( ) ,

. (
80%) .
.
HgCdTe,
0,3 5,2 m, .

16

2.1. PN .

:
.


, . 2.2,
. ,
,
2.2.
.

2.2.
.

.
,
,
.

, . .
R.

17


,
.
2.2.
, ,
,

.
.
(. single photon counting). 2.3.
D .
.
( Vc) ,
,
( V1).
, e(V1 Vc),
D. D

, ,
.
, 4 14 200 eV.

V. n a n-
.

, G G = n.

2.3. .

, 2.4.
18


.
IA 1% IR
,
.
Uc,
,
.

.

2.4.

2.3. CCD
CCD
( )
. ,
. () -

2.5. CCD .

19


(.
metaloxide-semiconductor - MOS) 2.5.
.
-,
.
;
.
(. ), CCD ,
. ,

,
,
- (A/D)
. CCD
,
.

20


2.1
,
PDA36A, ThorLasbs, 2.6.
350 - 1100 nm.

70 dB. ( + )
VW-1.
.
,
.
.

2.6. .

, 633 nm 810 nm, HeNe .
, Edmund
Optics ( . : 0,5 W 1 W; : 400 nm
1064 nm; 5%).

Edmund Optics.
2.7.

2.7. .

21




( )
.
.

. U BNC
P.
U = f(P)
( VW-1).
(2.5)
.

( . ).

22


2.2 o
:
1 mW (.
) . ,

.
.

633 nm 810 nm, HeNe
. P
. ,

.


.
, .
HeNe
.
- 200 V,
( -1000 V).
, .
. .

BNC (. ) (
100 mV),
.
.
,
,
.
.

U P.
U = f(P),
HeNe .

811 nm.

CCD ,
+ CCD .

23

3.

,
.
,
(
),
( ). ,

, ,
.

(, , ).
( )
,
( ).
,
.
.
3.1.
102 108 .
, (Plank)
( ),
,
a a (. Infra Red IR) .
, ,
.
380750 nm (. . VIS)

.
,
.
, , 380 nm,
.
200 - 380 nm (. . UV)
,
210 nm (
180 nm).
105 - 200 nm (. . VUV)


200 nm ,
, 195 nm,
145 nm.

.
. (
) LiF CaF2.
3.2.

.
:

vac =

(3.1)

je c . (He
rtz; 1 Hz = 1 s-1), (nm),
(ngstrm; 1 = 10-1 nm) (m).
:

vac

(3.2)

,
. m-1 ,
cm1.
E = h
(eV)).

h vac
= 1239,842
eV nm

(3.3)

,
. J , ,

(. NIST)
: http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/ASD/lines_form.html

, .
eV cm1
(1 eV = 8065,541 cm1)

25


E(p)
E(q): = E(p) E(q) = 1/.

:
n = /n
n 1 + 6, 43281011.
3.3.
.
, ,
:

,

,

( )
.
(UV), (VIS)
(IR) :

3.1 .
.
.
L1 ( 1)
(. slit)
L2 ( 2)
( ).
. ,


. ,
, o

26

d
d

3.1. .

. ,
L1 L2 ( 1 2) .

:
d
d

(3.4)

d
d ( ).
rad/nm.

dy ,
d

(3.5)

.

nm/mm /mm.
R
. R
:

=
R

= =

(3.6)

( )

.

27


,
.
.

.
CCD
, ,
.
( 0,05 100 m)
(
) .
( )
,
.
3.4.
,
.


.
.
.
-
-.

.

(. groovs)
. :

.

, (
).
.

, ( )

:
m = d (sin + sin)

(3.7)

28

, m
d - .
.
(1/d) . .

, .
Echelle .
3.2 .
,

3.2. .

.
B blaze-. B

.

blaze-.

R = mN

(3.8)

m , N .
W = Nd

R =W

m
d

(3.9)

d, W
. ,
29


(. )
( )
.

echelle, 3.3.
,
.

3.3. echelle .

( 3.3), .

.
,
() .
.
3.5.
EbertFastie
CzernyTurner. 3.4.
EbertFastie

.

3.4. EbertFastie CzernyTurner.

30


,
, .
CzernyTurner,
.
, . ,
.
3.6.
3.6.1.

,
.
.

. J

.
UV-VIS IR
, .


.
3.6.2.

( , ,
) ,
. :

I rel = I aps f spec ( )

(3.10)

Irel - , Iaps -
, fspec() - .

- .

.
180 270 nm
270 650 nm.
NIST-.

31


3.1

. USB - 2000
30 nm/mm ( 3.5),
MSDD1000 0,78 nm/mm ( 3.6).
- CCD 2048 ,
14 m 200 m.

, , ,

3.5. USB - 2000 . 1

, 4 , 5 - , 6
, 7 - CCD .
.

3.6. MSDD1000
. 11 i 12 , 2 , 3
, 41, 71 i 42, 72 , 5 i 6
, 8 , 9 ,
101 i 102 (101 , 102 - CCD ), 111 i 112 - .

. ,
32


> 300 nm.
.

( )
. CCD
~ 10 %
. USB - 2000
( ),
MSDD1000
. ,
.
> 500 nm
,
.


.

NIST- .

spec,
, . .
= f(spec), .
.

.
.

33


3.2
,
. ,
. ,

.
.


NBS Modified Type FEL-000 ( 1000 W,
2856 K)
. 50 cm
, 7,900 ,
3.7.
,
1 %
~ 10 %.

100
0.8

0.6

10

0.4

Osetljivost

Spektralna radijancija [W/cm3]

1.0

0.2

0.0

NBS model FEL-000

1
300

400

500

600

700

[nm]

800

900 300

400

500

600

700

800

900

[nm]

3.7. FEL .

34


,
, .

1.0

Osetljivost

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
300

400

500

600

700

800

900

[nm]
3.8. McPherson Model 218
EMI 9816 QB.

3.8
McPherson Model 218 EMI
9816 QB .

35

4.
() ( n k)

.
( )
:
=
I nk

h nk Ank g n
E
N exp( n )
4
S
kT

(4.1)

N ( ), ,
nk, nk n k, gn
n, En n, S
.
(4.1)
,
.
,
.

I = I(),

. ,
,
.
(
)
.
( ),
.
.

:
I 2 A2 g 2 2
E E1
exp( 2
)
=
I1
A1 g1 1
kT

(4.2)

I1 I2, 1 2 ; 1
2, g1 g2
; 1 2
(4.2) :

T=

( E2 E1 ) / k
A g
I
ln 2 2 2 ln 2
A1 g1 1
I1

(4.3)

.
.
(4.3)
:

T
=
T

kT ( A2 / A1 ) ( I 2 / I1 )
+

E2 E1 A2 / A1
I 2 / I1

(4.4)

(4.4)

.
:

( A2 / A1 )

kT
1 / 3,
E 2 E1

A2 / A1

10%

( I 2 / I1 )
I 2 / I1

5%

T
T

5%

. (4.3)

ln

Ii
E
= yi= a i
Ai gi i
kT

(4.5)

a . (4.5)
1/kT.
(Ei, yi)
Ii, .
(Boltzman plot).

37


4.1.

4.1.
, Ar I.

38


4.1

(,
) USB 2000.

.
NIST- ,
i
gi.

.
.

39

5.
(. Dielectric Barrier Discharge - DBD)
150 .
DBD- (Siemens) 1857.
,
je 5.1.

.
, ,
.
,
.
(. silent
discharge), .
DBD-
.
DBD
. :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

( )

-
VUV UV

5.1.
.

,
. DBD -

. 100 kPa 300 kPa.
.
( )
.



, .

+ 2 + 3* + 3 +
: 2, 3, N2
. 3*
2 .
.
, :
+ + 2 +
+ 3 + 22 +
+ 3* + 22 +

.
.

-
-. ,
,
0,2%
.
N2+, N+, ,
,
.
: N, N2, N2, N3 N25.
,
,
.

.
( 100 s) ( 10 s).
N,
,
.
1860. .
N
.
. 800C
.

41


DBD-
.

.
,
.
, .
1921.

50 Hz 10 kHz.

20 50 mm 1 3 m.
. 0,5 2 mm.

().

,
,
.
.
5%
, 12% .
.
5.1.
UV
230 290 nm .
UV . HR2000
(Ocean Optics) 200
390 nm 0,1 nm. ()
UV
,
( 5.1). UV d
, , ,
.

.
UV 180 nm.

42


UV
(
UV ).
,
(.
, NO, NH3).

5.1. ( )
. , .

, .
~ 1 m
.
- (LambertBeer) :

I ( ) = I 0 ( ) exp(c gas gas ( ) d )

(5.1)

c gas =

I ( )
1

ln 0
gas ( ) d I ( )

(5.2)

cgas (molekulm-3), I()

UV d (m)
, I0()
gas ()
(m2molekul-1). gas ()

43


, ,

.

Intenzitet (arb. jed.)

40000

I0()
I()

30000

20000

10000

0
200

250

300

350

(nm)
5.2.
. I0() - ; I() - .

44


5.1


,
( )
UV I0(). , 10-
I() ,
. I().
.
I0() I(), (5.2),
3 () ( 6.1) d,
c3 molekulm-3.
I0()/I() 10
250 270 nm ( 5.2),
.
10 .

P ,
5 l/min.
c3 = f(P).

.
c3 = f(Q), Q
l/min.

45


6.1 298 .

[nm]

1020
[cm molecule- l]

185.0
186.0
187.0
188.0
189.0
190.0
191.0
192.0
193.0
194.0
195.0
196.0
197.0
198.0
199.0
200.0
201.0
202.0
203.0
204.0
205.0
206.0
207.0
208.0
209.0
210.0
211.0
212.0
213.0
214.0
215.0
216.0
217.0
218.0
219.0
220.0
221.0
222.0
223.0
224.0
225.0
226.0

65.37
61.87
59.41
56.59
54.24
51.14
48.80
46.06
43.36
40.66
38.64
36.73
35.00
33.49
32.09
31.54
31.15
31.79
32.51
33.65
35.85
38.55
42.00
46.40
51.18
57.16
64.02
71.94
81.04
90.96
102.3
114.6
128.7
143.9
160.1
178.5
198.2
220.0
242.9
268.4
294.3
322.6

[nm]
227.0
228.0
229.0
230.0
231.0
232.0
233.0
234.0
235.0
236.0
237.0
238.0
239.0
240.0
241.0
242.0
243.0
244.0
245.0
246.0
247.0
248.0
249.0
250.0
251.0
252.0
253.0
254.0
255.0
256.0
257.0
258.0
259.0
260.0
261.0
262.0
263.0
264.0
265.0
266.0
267.0
268.0

1020
[cm molecule- l]
2

351.3
382.9
414.1
447.6
481.4
518.1
554.9
589.1
631.8
672.2
709.4
748.6
781.9
831.4
860.3
897.1
933.3
971.7
993.2
1033
1047
1071
1112
1124
1114
1155
1140
1159
1161
1154
1139
1124
1145
1080
1094
1057
1022
1006
965.7
948.5
884.1
875.4

[nm]
269.0
270.0
271.0
272.0
273.0
274.0
275.0
276.0
277.0
278.0
279.0
280.0
281.0
282.0
283.0
284.0
285.0
286.0
287.0
288.0
289.0
290.0
291.0
292.0
293.0
294.0
295.0
296.0
297.0
298.0
299.0
300.0
301.0
302.0
303.0
304.0
305.0
306.0
307.0
308.0
309.0
310.0

1020
[cm molecule- l]
2

810.4
798.0
741.5
714.7
669.8
614.0
591.3
545.0
509.6
466.8
432.6
400.1
367.3
325.0
302.5
271.2
246.5
223.8
203.4
175.0
158.5
141.8
128.5
111.1
100.2
87.11
77.53
67.27
59.55
51.24
45.51
39.64
34.63
30.73
26.50
24.01
20.15
18.08
15.65
13.64
12.43
10.20

[nm]

1020
[cm molecule- l]

311.0
312.0
313.0
314.0
315.0
316.0
317.0
318.0
319.0
320.0
321.0
322.0
323.0
324.0
325.0
326.0
328.0
330.0
332.0
334.0
336.0
338.0
340.0
342.0
344.0
346.0
348.0
350.0

9.260
7.947
6.883
6.294
5.199
4.792
4.146
3.757
2.765
3.243
2.041
2.435
1.983
1.250
1.727
1.105
1.300
0.4923
0.4347
0.5343
0.1875
0.2086
0.2082
0.0776
0.1419
0.0641
0.0386
0.0294

46

6.
1959.,
(Schawlow) (Townes)
. () 1962. ,
IBM General Electric
-,
.
(< -150oC),
. 1970-

.
-

. 1970-

. -
, CD DVD , .

6.1. .

6.1. :
" "
.
( ) (
),



( ) ( ).
6.1 ,
,
.
.
Eg,
. , (
) . h = Eg
,
,
6.2. (. Photo Diode PD)
.
,
( 6.2)
(Light Emitting Diode - LED).

( ),

, 6.2.
(. Laser Diode LD).

()

6. 2. .

: (PD) ,
(LED) ,
(LD) .
6.1.1.

( ) p-
n- , 6.3.
. ,
( ),
Eg2 > Eg1 ,
.
,
,
48


, ,
. GaAs
GaAs/AlxGa1-xAs,
6.3.

6.3. .

Eg1 = 1.424 eV,

= hc/Eg1 = 871 nm. ,
750 - 880 nm, ,
.
GaAs n = 3,5
AlxGa1-xAs .
InP, GaN PbS.
6.2.

6.4
, GaAs
.
.

n 1
=
R =
0,32
n +1
2

(6.1)

n = 3,5, ,

.

( ) ()

49


( ).
, , W 10 m, ,

6.4. .

H 2 m,
.

, 5.5.
d :

= arcsin
d

(6.2)

6.5. .

50

, = 850 nm d = W = 10 m,
W = 10o, d = H = 2 m H 50o.
6.6

, (6.2).

. L
n, .
nL.
(. Free spectral range)
fs = c/2nL. 6.6

6.6. AlxGa1-xAs .

,
. = 817.5 nm,
= 0.45 nm.
fsr fsr = c/2,
, n = 3,5 GaAs. L = 215 m,
(
L 20 50 cm He-Ne ).
6.3.

.
( - )

Pi =

J hc

(6.3)

51

/ , = QReff
(Q
, Reff )
hc/ .
() ,
,
Jth,
.
:

Pi =

( J J th ) hc

(6.4)

P0 = PT
i 0

(6.5)

0 = 68% .
6.7
Jth 14 mA. Jth
LED.

.
Jth.

6.7. - .

52


6.4.
.
(LD) (PD) ( 6.8),

.

6.8. ( ).

.
6.9
.

.

6.9.
.

53


6.1

15
.
2 mA, 0 64 mA.
P = P(J).
P = P(J) Jth .
P = P(J) J > Jth
= 810 nm.
25 .

54


6.2

.
CCD
810 nm.
CCD ,
( ).
20 .
5 mA 65 mA, 10 mA.
:
.
GaAs n = 3,5,
.

55


6.3
x-y .
0,5 mm.
.
1 m
( ), ,
1 mm
. .

.
W H.

.

56

7. a
,
,

.
,
.
, . ,

. , .
, ,
.
,
,
.

().
( )
() .

.
(
, ,
).

.

. 1
:
1. :
+ + + 2

(7.1)

2. :
+ * + ,

* + + + 2

(7.2)

.
, ,
,
. (7.2) , *
( ).
.

Ei Ek
,

a

:
Ni = Ni0 NiL = Nk
R
U = RI = a(Ni PI(Ei )NkPI(Ek))
PI(Ei ) Ei.
/
Ei Ek.

(
) .


(. sputtering). ,
.

58

a
7.1

7.1.

7.1.
. , ,
, , .

,
(
). 2 ()
() ,

.
,

, .
.
.
()
.

(
),
(. ).

59

a
7.1

.
, . 15 25,
,
.

1 mA

.

, = (J).
NIST-
( )
.


.

60

a
7.2



, .
1 10 kHz 1 V.
,

, . .

(
)
.
64 .

UOG = UOG (t), .

UOG = f(J).

61

a
7.3

( 7.2).

.
.

7.2.
.

,
1 mm,
.
64 .

UOG = f(t), .
UOG = f(r), r
.

62

a
7.4 ()
3

7.3.

7.3.
. ,
.

NIST-
( )

.

.
.

, I = I(J).

.
.

63

1. . , . , . , . . ,
, . 6, 45 96 -
, . . , , (1997).
2. . , ,
, (2007).
3. U.Kogelschatz, Plasma Chem. Plasma Process. 23 (2003) 1 - 46.
4. Hans-Joachim Kunze, Introduction to Plasma Spectroscopy, Springer-Verlag, Berlin
Heidelberg (2009).
5. W. Lochte-Holtgreven, Evaluation of Plasma Parameters, in Plasma Diagnostics, ed.
by W. Lochte-Holtgreven, North-Holland Pub. Co., Amsterdam (1968).
6. W. Demtrder, Atoms, Molecules and Photons, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
(2006).
7. G.J.J. Winands, Efficient Streamer Plasma Generation, Ph. D. Thesis, Technische
Universiteit Eindhoven, Eindhoven (2007).
8. B. J. Finlayson-Pitts and J. N. Pitts Jr. Chemistry of the Upper and Lower
Atmosphere, Academic Press, San Diego (2000).
9. W. Demtrder, Laser Spectroscopy, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg (2003).
10. B. Barbieri, N. Beverini and A. Sasso, Optogalvanic spectroscopy, Reviews of
Modern Physics, 62 (1990) 603 644.