THE SOLO GUITAR WORKS OF LEO BROUWER by Dean Paul Suzuki ele kirjasto | ll -32 12975 FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfitiment of the Requirements For the Degree MASTER OF ARTS Music) August 1981 Sus skatetaan cnsasto WiganYoruba people (Yorba in Yoruba orthography) are one of the largest ethnic ‘2ouns in West Aftice. The majority ofthe Yoruba speak the Yoruba language Yoruba: édée Yoriibd; ed8). The Yoruba constitute between 30 and 50 milling individualstaiotztiel trouohout West Attica and are found predominantly in ‘Nigeria with around 21 percent of its total population.#! ‘Yoruba settlements are often described as primarily one or more of the main social groupings called "generations": Folk music Ensembles using the dundun play a type of music that is also called dunahon, These ensembles consist of various sizes of tension drums along with special band drums (egido). The leader of a dundun ensemble is the onivalu who uses the drum to “talk” by imitating the tonality of Yoruba, Much of Yoruba music is spiritual in nature, and is devoted to the Orisas of Yoruba mythology. See also: Yoruba folk oper Popular music ‘Yoruba music has become the most important component of modem Nigerian popular Imusic. Although traditional Yoruba music was not influenced by foreign musi¢ the ame cannot be said of modem day Yoruba music which has evolved and adapted itself through contact with foreign instruments, talents and creativity, Interpretation involves rendering Aftican, here Yoruba, musical expression using a mixture of instruments from different horizons. Yoruba music traditionally centred around folklore and spiritual/deity worship, utilising basic and natural instruments such as clapping of the hands. Playing music fora living was not something the Yoruba’s did and singers were referred to in a derogatory term of Alagbe, itis this derogation of tnusicians tat made it not appeal to "civilised" Yorubas at the time who were either traditionalist or Christians. ‘hacitonal Yorubs music and instruments: (1) sekere, a shaker; beads or cowie shells beauty {yoWd around a gourd To produce a sound the gourds then shaken and beaten by Hats occaocally, its holsted up in the air to ereatea festive mood, 2) agogy, also called saworo ahigh-ptchat une instrument like a 3-dimensional "tuning fork. (3) agidigho, a pieno-ike instrument es wend end {he neck and stabilized bythe player’ chest. (4) ashiko, a cone-shaped drum. (5) baa, is 2 wadtions! sam wth strong ks tthe sango deity, it roduces sharp high tone sounds (6) ddan, consisting of “gaily, main oF ‘mother’ crum and omiele, smaller accompanying drums. (7) gudugtit 2 onalins cata.) aoe, violn-lik instrument lke the sahelin kor, (9) omele, are smaller droms, Played as an acoompaniment o bata drums to create a base forthe Baas sharp beats (10) bamibe i bass drum ala Kite drum. (11) aro, alo-pitched instrument, much like a saworo. 1) ger combination of ar, suworo and handling. Yoruba also have "Oriki”, a kind of praise recital used to emphasize the achievements of the ancestors of the family. Oriki could be a single word like “Adunni", or it could be a verse or a series of verses. Though not typically part of a standard name, the oriki is often used alongside one and is usually generally known to 8 person's contemporaries. Many an individual ean even be recognised by the people of another town or even clan by using the oriki of his or her ancestral line.CHAPTER IV EARLY ORIGINAL GUITAR SOLOS The early original compositions are essentially tonal or at least tonally oriented and, with the exception of Suite No. 2, nationalistic. Like the popular song arrangements, these works are characterized by the free treatment of dissonance, but to an even greater extent. The dissonances tend to be more harsh and biting. Brouwer tends to favor the second and related intervals: Sevenths, diminished and augmented octaves, and ninths. The Interest in dissonances of this nature, particularly the adjacent seconds, anticipates the extensive use of Clusters found in the guitar solos which follow these early works. As in the popular song arrangement, quartal harmonies are found, but again, they are in greater numbers. Such harmonies exploit the tuning structure of the guitar. In spite of the use of dissonances and some mon-terttan harmonies, each work has a pitch or chordal center, If not a specific key. These works also tend not to be overly chromatic which helps preserve their tonal nature,The nationalistic flavor of these compositions ts imparted in large part by the use of characteris rhythms. With the exception of Suite No. 2 and Formulas found in Cuban folk music can be detected in the early works. Syncopation and a general rhythmic vitality are at the heart of the Cuban rhythms. In many instances Brouwer has altered the original formulas of the Cuban rhythms to suit the needs of his music, yet the source is readily Sdentifiable. As he progressed, nis works tended fo become more rhythmically complex and Sophisticated, but the Cuban influence 1s always present, Idiomatic treatment of the guitar is a natural and essential aspect of these early works, as is the case with all of Brouwer's guitar music. Freed From the Vimitations imposed by the melodies and basic harmonte Progressions of the popular song arrangements, he was able to write works that are extremely well suited to the guitar. ANI of the pieces under consideration here are relatively short. Some of the Estudios sencillos are | tremely brief, lasting less than a minute. Estudio No. 2, while it lasts about two minutes due to its Slow tempo, is only fourteen Measures in length. Even j the longest works, Suite No. 2, Tres apuntes, andElogio de la danza consist of short movements. The | longest movement or single piece lasts only a little over three minutes. Brouwer has always favored and appreciated brief works, which he calls eptgrams, condensed and compact musical statements which are common in much of the guitar repertoire. Brouwer's earliest known guitar solo for which the manuscript still exists is the Suite No. 2 (see Exampte 69). It was probably written as early as 1953 or 1954, though the exact date is unknown. This | work was preceded by a Suite No. 1 which has since been | lost or destroyed. Suite No. 2 has survived through the efforts of J o Nercadal, @ prominent guitarist and guitar pedagogue who emigrated to the United States from Cuba. As a teenager Brouwer was a friend of Mercadal's, though Brouwer was never one of his students. He provided Mercadal with an autograph copy of Suite No. 2 which Mercadal brought with him to the United States. Brouwer never intended the work to be Published; however, the scholar, researcher, and | publisher of Latin-American guitar music, Richard Stover obtained a copy of the manuscript and published it through his Gringo Publications. Brouwer had forgotten the work and was unaware that it stil) existed, when Stover showed the piece to him, he did not recognize it | 4afet? his own. This work is regarded by Brouwer as that of | i | | | | | t an Immature novice at composition and he aid not mention TE Ho tMis writer when he provided a list of nis works for solo guitar. The extant manuscript in Nercadal's Possession is sianed with the name Leo Brouwer-Mesquida, Mesquida being his mother's maiden name. Brouwer went by this name until about 1958, Suite No. 2 is in three movements, though they are not specific dances as in the Baroque suite, The movements are Preludio, Allegretto Burlesco, and Andantino. The suite is in the key of p major and uses the standard 0 scordatura, hile it is not an exceptional work, it is impressive for a largely self-taught composer at the age of only fourteen or i fifteen years. The extended tertian harmonies are influenced by Popular Cuban music, flamenco, and a number of Compositions of the early twentieth century, including "orks For the guitar by composers such as mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Joaqufn Rodrigo, and Frederico Moreno Torroba. These inftuences Constitute the types of muste that he had most contact with at this Point in his Nfe. The harmonic structures found in this piece include many seventh chords, elevenths, and added sixths. : 49 |THIS piece 1s obviously not a mature work. There are a number of awkward passages. In attempts to be idfomatically consistent, awkward harmonic Passages result. For example, as a result of the use of parallel chords, which are very idiomatic on the guitar, a rather clunsy harmonic progression 1s seen in the succession of major thirds at m. 5 of the second movement. In mm. 6-7 Of the same movement, he experiments with the free Usage of dissonances and another idiomatic device: maintaining a position with a barre. A barre is executed by Stopping several strings at one fret with the index finger. At the same time, other fingers may stop some of the strings at different positions. In this instance the result 1s again, a bit ungainly, Imm. 7, the resolution of the dissonances of m. 6 1s almost Percetved as a correction rather than a resolution. Balance and unity are achieved, as the final movement recapitulates material from the first Movement. In this work, the idiomatic treatment of the guitar and the harmonic structures anticipate the basic style of j COMPOSition employed by Brouwer in Ms guitar sotos through 1964,Example 7. Brouwer, Suite No. 2, Canoga Park, California: Gringo Publications, n.d., Movement or Allegretto Burlesco, mm. 5-7. Srouwer seems to have overcome the awkwardness of Suite No. 2 in the works that follow it. Pieza sin tftulo (see Example 70) is a very lively and colorful work with much syncopation and the characteristic Cuban rhythms. Its 7/4 meter is divided into groups of three and four beats, but there is no consistent pattern as to which group comes first from one bar to the next, The form 1s an unusual set of variations. The fundamenta?' : i i i : materials appear in mm. 1-6. The material in mm. 1-4 appears to be that which is varied, as it is beginning at m. 11, However, it returns in m. 22 almost exactly as it was in the beginning, Material which appears to constitute a refrain at mm. 5-6 is repeated nearly exactly at mm. 13 and 20. This is not the case at m. 26, following the repetition of the first four measures of the piece. The refrain material is replaced by variatton material similar to that of m. 17. The-work ends with a brief codetta based on the rhythmic formulas of mm. 2-3, The surviving member of Brouwer's Dos preludios (1956) 4s Preludio (see Example 71). The other Preludio has apparently been lost or destroyed. With the exception of Fuga No. 1, this is his most contrapuntal work for solo guitar, yet unlike the former it has a relatively sparse texture and the polyphonic writing tends to be centered more around guitar idioms. while this work 1s often coupled with Fuga No. 1 in Performance, they were not conceived of as a unit. Fuga ; No. 1 was written a year after Preludio and was never intended to be performed with it. One of the more unusual works of Brouwer's ts nis Fuga No. 1 (see Example 72). It 4s by far the most polyphonic of his compositions for solo guitar. Wntle polyphony is found in large passages of Pieza sin 52titulo and Pretudio, and to a lesser degree in works Vike Danza caracter{stica, Estudio No. 8, and Ojos brujos, none of these works are as densely and thoroughly contrapuntal as Fuga No. 1, and such a texture is, by far, the exception rather than the rule. Brouwer has never been much of a contrapuntalist. His guitar solos are generally homophonic, as is the case with most of the works through 1964, or a collection of contours, points, and smat} sound masses, as in the works from Canticum on. Fuga No. 1 is a very brief fugue, or perhaps more accurately described as a fughetta of three voices with a traditional structure. The answer to the subject in the exposition 1s at the dominant and the return to the Subject in the third voice is back at the tonic. There is mo counter-subject, only contrapuntal matter moving against the subject and answer. Techniques such as stretto, sequence, motives based on the subject, and pedal points are employed. Because of the dense Polyphonic texture, this is the least idiomatic of Brouwer's works for guitar. While the guitar ts very Capable of accommodating polyphonic writing, such material is generally not idiomatic, especially when the texture is thick. What gives this work its distinctive flavor are the Cuban rhythms and Brouwer's harmonic language.In contrast to Fuga No. 1, the work that perhaps best exemplifies Brouwer's style of writing for guitar in the early solos is Danza caracter{stica (see Example 73) which 1s dedicated to his First classical guitar instructor, Isaac Nicold. It is one of his most ‘dtomatic works for the instrument, designed to lie welt under the left hand. A number of colors and effects, including rasquede, tamboura (striking, not plucking, the strings with the thumb or fingers near the bridge nut), and harmonies, are employed. A variety of typical Cuban rhythms play an fmportant role in this rhythmically vital piece, As indicated by the work's subtitle, “Para el ‘Quftate de 1a acera'* (literally "After ‘Get ore of the Sidewalk’), it {s based on the popular conga of the same title. "Quftate de 1a acera" is chanted to the conga rhythm, water is 27e Dy DYI TU DYL in its simplest form and is often heard at outdoor festivities as bands of people roam the streets warning others to get out of ; their path. This conga is the basis of the slow central | section of the piece's simple ternary form (see mm. 54-69), The rhythm used here is a variant of the basic conga formula given above. The chant has no Gistinctive melody, and 1s approximated here by the | interval of a fourth. It is cast in a simple imitative | Polyphonic texture.i SSE EER tee eee eee The chant also appears in the outer section such as in mm, 19-23 where it is cast in a series of rasqueado block chords. As in the central section, the basic rhythm has been modified into a more intricate and lively formula. The conga also appears in less obvious passages where the melodic structure is not based on the fourth and the rhythm is somewhat obscured (see mm. 5-8, 29-32, 35-38, and 45-48), Here the fourth is replaced, in part, by a tritone. In each case, the tresillo rhythm ( wT ), which is of vital importance in the conga, fs clearly heard. is similar to that The form of Danza caracterfsti | of the Cuban danzdn, though it is not nearly as long and | compiex. The danzdn is in 2/4 and has a basically i ternary form, as is the case with this Piece. An | Smportant element of the danzdn 1s a short eight measure introduction which serves as a ritornello, Because of the brevity of Brouwer's work, the introduction has been reduced to a length of four measures. This ritornello Section is based on the motive in the first measure (see j mm. 1-4, 11-14, 25-28, 41-44, and 70-73). The motive Incorporates the tresillo, though it is somewhat obscured by the stream of sixteenth notes. The use of the tresillo here is very likely another reference to the conga on which this piece is based. The basic rhythm of 5, | | i | |lr, ‘ ji the danzdn is the cinquilto (SJP9) ) which is found in'mm. 14-18, The son, which replaced the danzdn in popularity in Cuba, is characterized by the rhythmic formula JJ] Fod , which fs closely related to the rhythm of the latter form. This rhythm is also found in Danza caracter{stica, as in mm. 9-10. A more complete discussion of the rhythmic aspects of Brouwer's works will follow in subsequent passages of this paper. Though the two series of Estudios sencillos (see Examples 74 and 75) were composed three years apart, they will be considered together here. Each series consists of five brief études. As of this writing, a third series of five Estudios sencillos is being written and it is in the same basic style, though most of Brouwer's music is no longer in a tonal idiom. The first set was written in 1958 and is the simpler of the two, suitable for the first or second year students of the classical guitar. None of these études requires a reading ability beyond the second position of the instrument. The highest pitch is an at at the fifth fret of the first string. The purpose of this series is not to challenge the student's ability to read a wide range of pitches, but to develop basic techniques and the ability to comprehend and execute subtle and relatively complex rhythms. Each of these pieces addresses one important aspect of technique.The second series, written in 1961, is considerably more difficult, yet remains within the grasp of an intermediate guitar student. Both the technical and reading demands are greater. Estudio No. 6 requires a reading ability up to the twelfth fret. With the possible exception of Estudio No. 6, each etude focuses on technique that, while not virtuosic, is relatively difficult. The first series exists in two published editions: one published in Cuba and the other published in France (the different editions, their contradictions, and errors will be discussed more fully in subsequent passages of this study). The Cuban edition includes brief descriptions of the five études. Estudio No. 1 is marked “movido" and is “para el dedo pulgar* (for the thumb). It is “acompafiado casf siempre de doble cuerda al atre (pulsadas por lus dedos indices y medio)" (almost always accompanied with double open strings pulsated by the index and middle fingers). The melody is given to the thumb throughout the piece, as indicated in the inscription "cantado e} bajo." The development of the thumb involves not only the placement of the melody in the bottom voice, but the changing dynamic levels when phrases are repeated and the execution of the melody's syncopated rhythms."coral," Estudio No. 2, is a series of “acordes a tres notas" (chords of three notes), The description states that “en el coral todos los acordes son pulsados de mano por Tos dedos medio, indice y pulgar cada form izquierda permite hacer cambio sosteniendo la ‘posicion' para lograr el ‘legato'* (in the chorale the chords are pulsated by the middle finger, index finger and thumb; each formula of the left hand allows one to make changes, maintaining the "position® in order to achieve “legato"). Again, syncopation is used, but it is not as irregular as in Estudio No. 1, and the tempo, lento, makes it less severe. The title "Coral" appears appropriate considering the four-voice texture and the final plagal, or "Amen" cadence found tn many hymns. Estudio No. 3 1s, perhaps, the most technically demanding of the first series, Marked “rapido,” it fs a “paqueno trémolo (pulgar, indice y medto)* (little tremolo for thumb, index, and middle fingers). Thts two finger tremolo is an unusual but helpful study in | developing the much more common and technically demanding ‘three finger tremolo, The structure of dynamics 1s similar to Estudio No. 1, requiring the performer to develop not only speed, but dynamic control. This studyis constructed such that the left hand requirements are very idiomatic and allow the performer to concentrate on right hand technique, Marked "comodo," Estudio No. 4 “introduce al alumno en los compases de 'metrica variable’ (amalgama)* (introduces the student to variable meters famatgamated] ), that is, an alternation of 2/4 and 3/4 in the context of a notated 5/4 meter. Like Estudto No. 1, the technical demands are purposely simple so that the student may concentrate on the metric design and syncopated rhythms. The last number of this first series of études, Estudio No. 5, 1s an arpeggio study which involves two patterns; p, i, m, a, { (thumb, index, middle, ring, index) which ts described as "semicircular," and p, m, 4 (thumb, middle, index). Initially the two patterns are employed separately, but in the middle section they are | mixed (see mm. 10-13). The second series does not contain any verbal description, however, their purpose fs easily discerned. Estudio No. 6 is a simple arpeggio exercise. As in Estudio No. 5, there are two arpeggio patterns. In | this étude the second pattern is required because of the | change of meter (see m. 23). This study ts designed as a harmonic progression to which any number of arpeggto; the Tres apuntes of 1959 is the basis of Estudio No. 8. This study introduces the student to polyphonic writing | patterns may be applied, as noted in the example in the published edition. Brouwer has confirmed the design of Estudio No. 6 to this writer. As mentioned, this study requires an almost complete knowledge of the fingerboard and is, perhaps, the most difficult to read. Slur technique (so-called "hammer-ons" and “pull-offs") is developed in Estudio No. 7. As in several other Estudios sencillos, along with the basic technique under consideration, changes in meter, control of timbre, articulation, dynamics, and speed, as indicated in the inscription, "Lo mas ‘rapido posible," are also involved. |The canonic treatment of the same Bulgarian folk melody that Brouwer used in the third of for the guitar and to the ability to bring out melody in an arpeggio. Like the seventh Estudio, Estudio No. 9 develops slur technique; however, it is complicated by the employment of double strings which are adjacent. In several instances, special care must be taken to avoid damping the adjacent string when executing the slur, The tenth and final Estudio develops cross stringing technique with chromatic lines. Besides his intention to develop guitar technique, | Brouwer also works with other guitaristic idioms inEstudios sencillos. Parallel motton, which is particularly suited to the guitar, appears in Estudios wos. 1 and 6. Asimilar and more pervasive idiomatic device is that of a left hand formula that moves across the fingerboard rather than along the string length. this device 1s used in Estudios Nos. 3, 7, 9, and 10, and toa lesser degree, in Estudio No. 8, Common tones between harmonies or chords are also used in all of the studies except Estudio No. 10 which was specifically designed to avoid this idiom. In all of the studies, figures, motives, phrases, and entire sections are repeated, not only to reiterate the technical devices to be developed, dut also to give the student the opportunity to make changes and contrasts, and to develop | interpretational approaches. The harmonic content of the Estudios sencillos 1s based on diatonic chords within a key, as it is in all of the works of this period. The harmonic tdtom 1s also expanded by unresolved harmonfes such as sevenths, ninths, and suspensions. Quartal harmonies which take advantage of the guitar tuning in fourths also occur. The effect of the harmonic content ranges from the Miting quality of Estudios Nos. 2 and 6 to the aggressiveness of Estudios Nos. 1 and 7. Chromaticism occurs to some degree in all of the Est. os and isLs Particularly rich tn Estudio No. 10. Later works such as Elogio de la danza and Canticum are anticipated by the tendency toward harsh dissonance and cluster type harmonies, particularly in Estudio No. 3. In this Particular study the diminished octave and minor seventh figure prominently at the beginning of each phrase after the pedal E and often within the phrases. Chromatic Vines and melodic tritones are also found in abundance, intensifying the dissonant nature of the study. However, tonality is confirmed by the pedal £ and: the final cadence on the fifth between b' and et, Brouwer's involvement with film music Influenced some of his compositions after his return to Cuba from the United States. He has created musical analogues to ain cinematic devices tn some of the Estudios Sencillos. Stop action film has been portrayed in the abrupt pauses and sustained notes of Estudio No. 7. | Brouwer has likened the return of the first section of | the ternary form of Estudio No. 8 to Flashbacks in film. i ANT of the Estudios sencillos manifest Brow ts intimate knowledge of the guitar and the inventiveness with which he approaches the instrument. These didactic works are sophisticated, yet not complex, and entirely musically satisfying,Tres apuntes (literally Three Notes or Sketches) (see Example 76) is a unique work among Brouwer's guitar solos, in that the first two movements are based on two of his previous compositions. The first movement, titled “De el ‘Homenaje a Falla,’* {s based on his chamber composition Homenaje a Manuel de Falla for flute, oboe, clarinet, and guitar from 1959. The second movement, “De un fragmento instrumental," is based on a woodwind quintet. The third movement, "Sobre un canto de Bulgaria," fs based on a Bulgarian folk tune that he heard around 1958. As mentioned, it is the same tune found in Estudio No, 8. The source of this melody is not known to this writer, This work is more metrically irregular than any of the previous works for solo guitar and acknowledges Brouwer's advance to more free methods of composition. There is also a tendency toward increased chromaticism and dissonance compared to previous works. Each of the three movements has a simple structure, al} concluding with a recapitulation of their opening materials. The First movement begins with material that ts Similar to the idiomatic technique of the introduction of Danza caracterfstica which consists of much rhythmic activity and the use of augmented octaves performed while maintaining one position with a barre. While this piece See4s fdfomatically constructed, as are virtually all of Brouwer's guitar compositions, it is one of the more difficult works and was written with less concern for ease of performance. The second movement is characterized by severa) ostinato figures. The final movement is a series of variations of a Bulgarian folk tune. The first appearance of this tune, which will be called the theme for the sake of clarity, begins at the first measure over a series of broken harmonies. This 1s followed by a bridge which consists mainly of a pedal A (see Movement TIT, mm, 13-14). The first varfation begins at m. 16 and consists of a truncated version of the theme doubled at the major seventh over the pedal A and punctuated by an arpeggiated E minor triad. A single bar of F's in three octaves precedes another bridge which sets up the accompanimental pattern for the second varfation (see mm. 21-23). The melody, transposed down an eleventh from the original theme, is tn the bass voice below the accompaniment and is again fncomplete. The third variation immediately follows the second with no intervening bridge (see mm, 30-33). The theme 15 again Shortened and below the accompaniment which consists of broken harmonies and scale passages. Some of the accompaniment is similar to that of the theme, though ingeneral it 1s a bit more dissonant due to the use of the tritone (see m. 30). The recapitulation and extension of the original thene immediately follows the third variation at m. 34, Perhaps the least known of Brouwer's works 1s Pieza para quitarra (see Example 77) which was completed tn September of 1962, It is the only guitar solo of his which has not been recorded (though only the Preludio of Suite No. 2 has been recorded). Like Suite No. 2, it is available in the free wortd only through Gringo Publicatfon which only does a limited mail-order business. The work is dedicated to the prominent Cuban guitarist Jesus Ortega. It reflects none of the radical advances that Brouwer was beginning to make at this time in his compositions for media other than guitar. The work Is clearly tonally oriented, What appears to be a Jazz taf luence can be ovserved in the Final cadence toa seventh chord, The Tast of the early works for solo guitar 4s Elogio de la danza (see Example 7g) which was chor: Commissioned by the Cub ographer Luts Trapaga. While this Piece fits tn Brouwer 's tonal, nationalistic 4, 1t was, tn 1964, a throwback, as he had begun to write atonal, serial, and avant-garde music as early as 1962 with his Variantes for solo Percussfonist. UnlikePieza para guitarra which was also written at the time of these new advances and experimentation, this work reflects some of the more progressive aspects of Brouwer's compositional style. Harmonically, this work is more chromatic than most of the previous guitar solos, and, in some respects, 1¢ anticipates Canticum and the works that follow. malt clusters are found in several places in this work. The material inm, 5 1s a series of four clusters consisting of three chromatic notes. The first three are in closed Position, but in the final cluster the last note is displaced an octave below. Such displacement is a characteristic feature of the compositional method employed by Brouwer in his next style period. Another | cluster appears in m. It is not as dense as the first series, but octave displacement is again used. The first three notes ornament the last pitch (c.f. Canticum, Example 79, system 2). Block cluster chords in | | closed position appear in mm, 20 and 22, The use of the Cluster in both closed and open positions 1s a natural | | | extension of his fondness of seconds and related | ' intervals. \ The consideration of colors and timbres in this work | anticipates some of the later works, particularly | } | Canticum and La espiral eterna, This is a logicalextension of the discoveries made in the Composition of Vartantes which exploits and experiments with the resources of a battery of percussion instruments Performed by a single percussionist. Specific Indications for timbre, articulation, dynamics, tempi, and other interpretational details are carefully notated, A brief survey of the Cuban edition of Elogio de Ja danza reveals such indications as golpe, rasqueado, Pizzicato, dolce (sul tasto), metético (sut Ponticetlo), molto sonoro, glissando (with a chord), natural, secco, marcato, dejar vibrar (let vibrate or Sustain), as well a8 numerous dynamic, tempo, and metronome markings, It Should be noted that the Cuban edition of this work is much more accurate than the Schott edition with regards to such notation. like so many of these solos, Elogio de Ja danza fs very ‘diomatically constructed, yet is at the same time difficult. Cuban Rhyt! One of the very most important elements common to all of Brouwer's early work, with the exception of Suite No. 2, 18 the use of Cuban rhythmic formulas. These rhythms are found in much of the traditional folk musicof Cuba. Some of the rhythms are linked with one or Several specific forms, while others are in more general use. Brouwer has used these rhythmic formulas unaltered as they are found in traditional Cuban music and has also adapted and altered these rhythms to suit the music depending on the character (and often the meter) of his work. In some cases, particularly in the later works of thts early period, the rhythms that he uses are only reminiscent or vaguely related to those of the traditional formulas. The Cuban habaner. y which 1s of Spanish origin, was an extremely ‘popular dance which led to the development of several other dance forms, including the Argentine tango. It is always in a stately 2/4 and utilizes a number of rhythmic figures, the two most common being SFI) and FT. other cuban forms, including the danza, danzén, and tango contain these same rhythms. The habanera was taken to Europe where it found its way into works by such composers such as Bizet, Debussy, and Falla. The first of the habanera rhythms, J. ITF. has | | been used by Brouwer in more works than any other of the fypteal Cuban rhythms. It can be found tn some form in atl of his early works. This formula can be clearly seen in Pieza sin tftulo at m. 12, unchanged except for the 10] 7 * viujalyosnjadg x DANYOIDA * WONN! x AL * HAISHOY x Yap 0UDS x jawsayuy + vary xaugmentation. It is also used in m. 2. filling tn the last two beats. In Fuga No. 1 (e.g. m. 9) and the fifth of the Estudios sencillos (e-g. m, 9) the habanera rhythm is altered by substituting two sixteenth notes for the last eighth note. Que to the alternation of 2/4 and 3/4 meters, an extra quarter beat has been added to the habanera rhythm 'm Estudio No. 4 (e.g. mm. 1-2). In Pretudio (e.g. m 5) and Ines apuntes (e.g. Movement 11, m..17) the formuta is again adapted to an unusual metric setting, though in these cases, it 1s found in compound meters. Some of the uses of this habanera rhythm are more obscure, as tn Estudio No. 1, where a syncopation is j 2dded by placing the third note off of the beat te.g. m1). In Piers para quitarra the rhythn J fy jor FF) may be retates to the habanera rhythm, but it can be more closely linked with the tresillo, j Will be discussed later, which Another rhythm which appears to be related to that of the habanera is found in the first movement of Elogio de la danza where a double dotted eighth note is followed bya thirty-second note (e.g. m6). The danzén or tango rhythm includes the first 1 jhabanera rhythm over a continuous series of sixteenth » with eighth notesnotes and appears to be the basis for parts of Danza caracterfstica (e.g. mm. 1-4) and Estudio No. 9 (e.g. m. 7), The second species of habanera rhytha, FJ, is 4180 found in the danza and tango. Brouwer has used it very simply in Fuga No. 1 (e.g, m. 5), Estudio No. 2 (e.g. m. 6), Estudio No. 5 (e.g. m. 16), and Elogio de la danza (e.g. "Obstinato,* m. 82). This rhythm fs extended and displaced in Pieza para quitarra (e.g. mm. 22-23) where it 1s somewhat obscured by a rallentando. A similar displacement and extension occurs in Elogio de 1a danza (e.g, mm. 3-4). In Pieza sin titulo it is again used, though somewhat obscured by the Surrounding rhythmic context. It is also found within a larger rhythmic context in Tres apuntes (e.g. Movement 1, m, 53; Movement II, m. 4, tied to the Previous note). In the second movement of Tres apuntes the second { habanera rhythm is an integral part of a larger rhythmic Structure which 1s similar to that of the rumba. The funba 1s a Cuban dance of African origin, full of we nee syncopations and irregular rhythms. The meter of the j traditional runba 1s always 2/4, but the rhythms may vary from one measure to the next.' A typical rumba j Thythmic structure might be: | Ouran, Recordings of Latin-American Songs and Dances, p, 32, YO] * Duspahyosnjadg x vanyoyp, x JONNY x, AL * HAISHOY * Hysu0UNS * JausaqUy x DfT x| Estudio No. 1 (e.g, Pom) TUT In In Ines apuntes the structure is a little more regular and controlled. It appears that an additive process, in which a kernal motive is repeated with extensions and minor alterations, has been employed in mm. 3-5, A similar process occurs at mm. 7 and 8. Another formula called the cingufllo 4s commonly found in many forms of Cuban music, including the danzén, and in an altered state, the son. the rhythm, JI] 3), can be clearly seen in Danza caracter{stica (e.g. mm. 15-18) and in Pieza sin tftulo at m. 3 and slightly altered, though immediately recognized in m. 4, The cinguillo appears to be used tn altered forms in m. 2) and also in Pieza para awitarra (m. 6) where it is less syncopated. A truncated form of this rhythm can be found in Fuga No. 1 at m- 3, as well as m, 12 where the first eighth note ts divided into two sixteenths. The related son rhythm, JJ] dad. is found in Danza garacterfstica (e.g. m. 9, slightly altered by a Sixteenth rest) and Pieza sin tftulo (e.g. m. 2, also altered by an efghth rest}, The cinquillo and son rhythms are the basis for the arpeggio patterns of Estudio No. 5, The relationship of this work to the 19]] * Dusjafyosnjadg « DANMOIVA * ONAN x A -L* MAISHOM * WYa[ViOUDS * JausayU 1 * Diary xSon 18 underscored by the inscription "montuno,* which {s the name for the refrain of the son. A montuno is usually a four bar phrase. Estudio No. 5 can generally be broken down into four bar phrases with occasional short bridges, the rhythm J. J.) catied the tresillo, like the Einquillo, 1s not limited to specific musical forms, but 1s found in many types of Cuban music. As mentioned, the tresillo is found in Danza caracterfstica as a part of the conga on which this piece fs based, and ft 4s also used fn Pieza para quitarra (e.g. m. 1). “In a slightly altered form, this rhythmic figure is used in Fuga 1 No. (e.g. m. 1) where the final eighth note is divided into two sixteenths. In “Obstinato" of Elogio de la:danza the tresiilo 1s displaced off of the beat and incorporated within an active syncopated structure (e.g. mm. 17-25). tae formula JJ) | J round tn estudio to. 2 (e.g. Not all of the rhythmic structures can be readily identified with specific Cuban rhythms, but generally the Cuban influence can be easily detected. Syncopation {5 an Integral part of these works, and as has been seen, 1s a major factor in the characteristic Cuban rhythms, Particularly those of African origin. While Estudio No. 10 may not have specific Cuban rhythmic formulas | MYO] * Dunjafyosnjadg « DANIYOIDA * JONNY x 10-A.L * BAISIFOY * HYapUOUNG » yousayuy * Diary xnr other than the cinquillo like rhythms of mm. 13-14, its characteristic Syncopations and rhythmic verve are typteally Cuban. While Estudio Ho. 8 contains Syncopation (e.g. m. 7), the rhythm may very well be of Bulgarian origin as is the melody. In the last work of this early period, Elogto de la danza, many of the rhythms are obviously of Cuban origin or influence, though the general rhythmic structure of the work tends to be more subtie and complex. Examples of thts rhythmic sophistication can be-seen in the metered accelerando (e.g. m. 5), double dotted rhythms (e.g. mm 5-6), and the many shifts in rhythm, meter, and Fempo (e.9. "Lento mm. 5-7, 9-10, 30-32, “Obst inato® tm. 31-37). The second movement, *Odstinato," has Tigorous, driving rhythms which Brouwer explains: “The Second (movement) expresses a certain rhythmic itality anner of Stravinsky's Ballet Russe and is a tribute to the great Russian composer."2 Elogio de 1 i poe eee = macnn, Elegie de ta | danza is without doubt, Brouwer's most rhythmically after Complex and advanced work among the early guitar solos, ; Nonetheless, the link with traditional Cuban rhythms is Undeniable in spite of other influences, such as Stravinsky, “ Z 2 Leo Brouwer, Jacket notes, Oscar Cdceres inthrprete Leo Brouwer, Gseor Caceres, guitar, Erato, stu | 70738. ave a DD 14 * Dinpafyosnyadg * DANMYOIWA * JIJONN x L* MAISHOY * HYapoIOUDS x Jausaquy * Diary xOther rhythmic features found in many of these early works include triplets (e.g. Suite No. 2, Danz caracter{stica, Tres apuntes, Pieza para guitarra, and Elogio de 1a danza), hemiola (e.g. Preludio and Tres_ apuntes) which is, in part, derivative of the guajira forms, and even simple polyrhythms (e.g. Tres apuntes, Novement II, m. 24), In most of these works there are also changes of meter, though, with the exception of Elogio de la danza, the changes are rather simple and do not involve changes from simple to compound meters. Guitar Idioms and Techniques The idiomatic treatment of the guitar s a critical aspect of Brouwer's music for the instrument. His rapid development as a performer testifies to his complete understanding of the guitar. This thorough knowledge of technique and his creative imagination led to the construction and development of a number of idiomatic ; Structures. Most often, these structures are designed to be well suited to the left hand which must stop the | t strings. Of course, these Structures are chosen not only | for their physical design, but for their harmonic or melodic content as well, I OVg * Dusgafyosnjadg * DANYOpDA * sHOMN * | AL * MAISHOY * HYaWOUDS * JousaIUL x VieOne such chord structure found in most of the early work 1s one in which two strings are stopped at the same fret with the remaining strings open. A related structure involves the use of a barre substituting for the open strings, with two strings stopped at a higher Position. Different strings may be used at various Positions which vary from the first fret, as in Danza caracter{stica (e.g. m. 79) and Pieza para quitarra (e.g, m- 10), to the twelfth fret, as in Estudio No. 6 (e.g. m. 25). Because of the open strings and the option to employ a barre, this structure 1s quite versatile. tt can be used to create harmonies found in traditional tonal systems as in Estudio No, 6 (e.g. m. 19) and Elogio de la danza (e.g. “Obstinato,* m. 128), cross relations as found in Preludio (e.g, m. 1) and Pieza para auitarra (e.g. m. 10), quartal harmonies in Pieza sin Eftulo (e.g. mm, 19-20), Fuga Now 1 (e.g. mm. 37-38), Danza caracter{stica (e.g. m. 79), and Tres apuntes (e.g. Movement III, mm. 17 and 19), and clusters tn Pieza sin tftuto (e.g. m. 1), TMs Structure, with open strings, 1s used to begin both Pieza sin tftulo and Preludio. In both cases the | @'8Sonant chords created help establish the character of these works. Often Brouwer has used this structure as a block chord at or immediately preceding a cadence with (Oy q * Duatyosnjadg x DANYOIDA * JIFOMIN, & AL * NAISHOY * HYaPoUOUDS x Jousayuy * DLary xthe strings stopped at the first or second fret. such is the case in Danza caracterfstica (see mm. 79-80), Pieza_ para guitarra (see m. 10), Estudio No. 6 (see mm. 19-20) where the chord 1s arpeggtated, and Elogio de la danza (see "Obstinato," m. 124) where three, rather than two strings are stopped. The chords in the last two cases are suspensions, and in the case of Eloglo de la danza it remains unresolved. The effect {s similar to the cadences to the dominant, characteristic of the fuajira, as in Brouwer's popular song arrangements, Guajira criolta and Zapateo, the latter ending on a flatted suspended fourth, The barre form 1s also found in Tres apuntes (see Movement III, mm. 17 and 19) where it is arpeggtated and also includes the open sixth string, and Pieza sin tftulo (mm. 19 and 20). Another type of chord structure often used by Brouwer 18 one constructed such that adjacent strings are stopped at adjacent frets. This can be done tn two different j | Ways. The first form stops the lowest string with the index finger, while the second form is the opposite case where the index finger stops the highest string. WMyOTT * Dinpafiyosnjady * vanyoqy, x yony * YOAL* NAISHOY * WY wULOUDS * JausaqUy & viary «First form: Second form: Example 8. Chord formations, Ths type of structure is moveable both up and down, as well as across the fingerboard. With the exception of Pheza sin titulo, this structure, or forms related to it, appears §n all of the early original solos for guitar. In the case of Pieza sin t{tulo, the basic structure can | De used at m. 10, but It 1s not necessary to execute this Passage. It is used in its simplest forms in Suite No. 2 (@.9. Movenent It, m. 8), Fuga No. 1 (e.g. @. 5), Danza caracter{stica (e.g. mm. 28-35) where it is Danza caracterfstica found in arpeggios, broken harmonies, and block chords, Estudio No. 2 (e.g. m. 5), Estudio No. 10 (e.g. m. 15), j Tees apuntes (e.g. Movement I, m. 20), Pieza para | guitarra (e.g. m. 18), and Elogio de 1a danza (e.g. "Lento," m. 11) with a pedal B. The structure ts versatile and can be used to create tertian and quartal harmonies, as in Danza car terfstica (e.g. m. 19). It can be altered by extension efther 1 |