Lesson 3

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Three characteristics, or parameters:

its resistance,

inductance, and

capacitance.

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The dc resistance R of a conductor of length l

and cross-sectional area A is
R = pl/A (in ohms)
where p is the resistivity of the material of
the conductor in ohm-meters
The temperature dependence of resistance is
quantified by the relation
R2 = R1[1 + (T2 T1)]
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Resistivities and Temperature Coefficients of

Resistance

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The inductance per conductor of a two-wire, singlephase transmission line is given by

(in henrys per meters)
where 0 = 4p 10-7 H/m (the permeability of free space), D is the
distance between the centers of the conductors, and r is the radius
of the conductors. The total, or loop, inductance is then

where r' = re-1/4 is known as the geometric

mean radius (GMR) of the conductor.

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The per-phase (or line-to-neutral) inductance of a three-phase transmission

line with equilaterally spaced conductors is
where r is the conductor radius and D is
the spacing between conductors

Transposition is the interchanging of the positions of the

conductors at regular intervals along the line. Due to unequal
inductances in the three phases, leading to unequal voltage
dropst he cause by the usual nonsymmetrical spacing

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The average per-phase inductance for a

transposed line is still given by
D is equivalent to De, obtained from
De = (DabDbcDca) 1/3
where the distances Dab, Dbc, and Dca
are shown in Figure.

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The shunt capacitance per unit length of a single-phase,

two-wire transmission line is given by
(in farads per meter)
is the permittivity of free space

For a three-phase line with equilaterally spaced conductors,

the per-phase (or line-to-neutral) capacitance is

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Prepared by: Mr. John Mateo

A transmission-line cable consists of 19

strands of identical copper conductors, each
1.5mm in diameter. The length of the cable is
2km but, because of the twist of the strands,
the actual length of each conductor is
increased by 5 percent. What is the
resistance of the cable? Take the resistivity of
copper to be 1.72
10-8 m.
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Allowing for twist, we find that

l = (1.05)(2000) = 2100m.
The cross-sectional area of all 19 strands is
19(/4)(1.5 10-3 )2 = 33.576 10-6 m2
. R = rl/A = (1.72 10-8 2100)/(33.576 10-6)
= 1.076

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The per-phase line loss in a 40-km long

transmission line is not to exceed 60k
while it is delivering 100A per phase. If the
resistivity of the conductor material is 1.72
10-8 .m, determine the required conductor
diameter.

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The line loss is to be, at most,

I2 R = (100)2 R = 60 103
R = 6.
substitute A = D2 /4 to R = pl/A yields
D2 /4 = (1.72 10-8 )(40 103 )/6
D = 1.208cm
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A sample of copper wire has a resistance of

50 at 10C. What must be the maximum
operating temperature of the wire if the
resistance is to increase by at most 10
percent? Take the tenperature coefficient at
10C to be
= 0.00409C-1

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Here we have R 1 = 50 and

R 2 = 50 + 0.1 50 = 55 .
Also, T 1 = 10C, and we require T 2.
55 = 50[1 + 0.00409(T 2 10)] or
T 2 = 34.45C

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Determine the resistance of a 10km long solid

cylindrical aluminum conductor with a
diameter of 250 mils, at (a) 20C and (b)
120C.

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To find the cross-sectional area of the conductor, we

note that
250 mils = 0.25 in = 0.35 cm
so A = ( /4)(0.635) 2= 0.317cm2

Also, from Table 1,
r = 2.83 .cm and a = 0.0039C-1 at 20C

(a) At 20C, (
R20 = rl/A = 2.83 10-8 (10 103) / (0.317 10-4)
= 8.93

(a) At 120,
R120 = R20[1 + a(120 20)] = 8.93(1 + 0.0039 100)
= 12.41

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A single-circuit, three-phase, 60Hz

transmission line consists of three conductors
arranged as shown in the Figure. If the
conductors are the same as that in Question
no 5, find the inductive reactance of the line
per kilometer per phase

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De = (5 5 8) 1/3 = 5.848m
r = 0.635 10-2m, so that
De/r = (5.848 2 102)/0.635 = 1841.9
and In(De/r) = 7.52.

Hence, we have, for each kilometer of length,
L = 2(1/4 + 7.52) 10-7 103= 1.554 mH/km

The inductive reactance per kilometer is then
XL = L = 377 1.554 10-3= 0.5858

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Discuss the effect of TL parameters on the

operation and performance of transmission
lines.
Evaluate the losses, efficiency, and voltage
regulation of transmission lines
Determine the consequence of such
performance characteristics on the
operation of a power system.

Short line, - considered valid for lines up to 80km

long
- the shunt effects (conductance and
capacitance) are neglected
- represented by a lumped resistance
in series with a lumped inductance

Medium line - generally range from 80 to 240km in

length
- the shunt capacitances are
lumped at a few predetermined locations along the
line;
Long lines - longer than 240km
- have uniformly distributed

The short transmission line is represented

by the lumped parameters R and L is the
inductance (per phase) of the entire line.
The line is shown to have two ends: the
sending end (designated by the subscript S)
at the generator, and the receiving end
(designated R) at the load

Quantities of significance here are the voltage

regulation and efficiency of transmission.
These quantities are defined as follows for
lines of all lengths:
Percent voltage regulations =
= [|VR(no load)| - |VR(load)|]/|VR(load)| 100
Efficiency of transmission
= Power at receiving end / power at
sending end
= PR/PS
where VR is the receiving-end voltage.

In a medium-length transmission line the

shunt effect of the transmission line due to
the line capacitance is not negligible
Two representations for a medium-length
transmission line
a. the nominal-II circuit and
b. the nominal-T circuit

The parameters of a long line are

considered to be distributed over the entire
length of the line. One phase (with return
through neutral) of a long line, of length L, is
shown.

The voltage V at any point along this line is given

by

where = yz,
is known as the propagation constant
y is the shunt. admittance per unit length of the
line, and
z is the series impedance per unit length,

The voltage V at any point along this line

The current I at any point along the line is

given by

Zc = z/y is called the characteristic

impedance of the line

A transmission line may be viewed as a

four-terminal network.

the terminal voltages and currents are

related by
Vs = A VR + B IR
Is = C VR + D IR

where the constants A, B, C, and D are

called the generalized circuit constants or
ABCD constants and are, in general,
complex. By reciprocity, they are related to
each other as follows:
AD BC = 1

On a long transmission line, the voltage V

and current I everywhere along the line
satisfy a relation called the wave equation.
For a lossless transmission line, such that z
and y are purely reactive, the wave
equation may be written as

the superscripts + and denotes, respectively,

waves traveling in the +x and x directions
along the transmission line

A wave such as V+(t x/u) that is traveling

in the positive x direction is called a forwardtraveling wave,

and one that is moving in the negative x

direction is a backward-traveling wave

for a lossy line

Zc = z/y,

For a lossless line

Zc = L/C = Rc
V+ / I+ = L/C and V- / I- = L/C

A transmission line of total length L that terminates in a resistance RL and is

driven by a pulse voltage source having an open-circuit voltage waveform Vs(t)
as shown and an internal resistance RS. To determine the terminal voltages V(0,t)
and V(L,t) and terminal currents I(0,t) and I(L,t) as functions of time we consider
the portion of the line at the load). At x = L, we must have
V(L,t) = RL I(L,t)

If RL = RC; in that case there is no

backward-traveling wave and the line is said
to be matched at the load. But the
discontinuity in the produced by the load
resistor then results in a wave being
reflected in the form of a backward-traveling
wave.

A voltage reflection coefficient at the load is the ratio of

the amplitudes of the backward- and forwardtraveling voltage waves at x = L;

a current reflection coefficient at the load may be

defined as

The current reflection coefficient is thus the

negative of the voltage reflection coefficient

A 10km long, single-phase short

transmission line has 0.5<60 /km
impedance. The line supplies a 316.8kW
load at 0.8 power factor lagging. What is the
voltage regulation if the receiving-end
voltage is 3.3kV?

Essential Formula
cos = power factor (p.f.)
Ohms law : V = I x Z
Percent Regulation = (Vno load Vload )/ Vno
load
x 100

cos -1 0.8 = 36.87

and Z = (0.560)(10) = 5 60

I = [(316.8 103)/(3.3 103 0.8)]<-36.87
= 120 -36.87A

IZ = (5 60)(120 -36.87)
= (551.77 + j235.69)V

VS = (3300 + j0) + (551.77 + j235.69)
= (3851.77 + j235.69)V
|VS| = 3858.97V

Percent voltage regulation =

[(3858.97 3300)/3300] 100
= 16.94 percent

The per-phase impedance of a short

transmission line is (0.3 + j0.4) . The
sending-end line-to line voltage is 3300V,
and the load at the receiving end is 300
kilowatts per phase at 0.8 power factor
lagging.

Calculate (a) the receiving-end voltage and
(b) the line current

Essential Formulas
per-phase voltage : Vs= V/ 3
Ohms law : V = I x R ; P = I x V
Percent Regulation = (Vno load Vload )/ Vno load
x 100

Vs2 = (VRcosR + RI)2 + (VR sinR + XI)2

(a) On a per-phase basis,

Vs= 3300/ 3 = 1905.25V
and
I = (300 103)/(0.8) VR = (3.75 105)/ VR A

Vs2 = (VRcosR + RI)2 + (VR sinR + XI)2

1905.252 = [0.8 VR + (0.3 3.75 105)/ VR] 2 + [0.6 VR
(0.4 3.75 105)/ VR ] 2

VR = 1805V
(b) we have
I = (3.75 105)/1905 = 207.75A

What is the maximum power that can be

transmitted over a three-phase short
transmission line having a per-phase
impedance of (0.3 + j0.4) if the receivingend voltage is 6351 volts per phase and the
voltage regulation is not to exceed 5
percent?

Essential Formulas:
impedance magnitude: Z 2= R2 + X2
per-phase voltage :
Vs= V/ 3
Ohms law : V = I x R ; P = I x V
VS = VR + I(R + jX)
I = IR + ICR

On a per-phase basis,
VR = 6351V
VS = (1 + 0.05)(6351) = 6668.6V
Z = [(0.3) 2 + (0.4) 2] = 0.5

Pmax = (6351/0.5) 2(0.5 6668.6 / 6351 0.3)
= 36.3MW/phase
and the maximum total power that can be
transmitted is 3 36.3 = 108.9MW

The per-phase parameters for a 60Hz,

200km long transmission line are R =
2.07, L = 310.8mH, and C = 1.4774F. the
line supplies a 100MW, wye-connected load
at 215kV (line-t0-line) and 0.9 power factor
lagging. Calculate the sending-end voltage,
using the nominal-II circuit representation

Essential Formulas:
per-phase voltage : Vs= V/ 3
Ohms law : V = I x R ; P = I x V
VS = VR + I(R + jX)
I = IR + ICR

To use the nominal-II circuit, we first

express VR and IR per phase as follows:
VR = (215 103)/3 = 124.13kV
IR = (100 106)/(3 215 103
0.9)
= 298.37<-25.8
I CR = V R /X Rc/2
= (124.12 103<0)/[1/(377 0.5
1.4774 10-6) <90]
= 34.57<90A

I = I R + I CR = 298.37<-25.8 + 34.57<90
= 285 -29.5A
R + jXL = 2.07 + j377 0.3108 117.19
88.98 10-6
I(R + jXL) = 285<-19.5 117.19 88.98 =
33.4 69.48kV
VS = VR + I(R + jXL) = 124.13<0 +
33.4<69.48
= 139.39 12.97kV/phase

Determine the ABCD constants for the

nominal-T circuit of a transmission line for
which R = 10 , X = 20 , and Y = 400S
for each phase.

A = D = (1 + YZ)
= 1 + j[(4 10 -4)/2](10 + j20)
= 0.996<0.115
B = Z(1 + YZ)
= (10 + j20)[1 + (j4 10 -4)(10 + j20)]
= 22.25<63.45W
C = Y = j4 10 -4 = 4 10 -4<90S

A 138-kV three phase short transmission

line has a per-phase impedance of (2 +j4)
ohms. If the line supplies a 25 MW load at
0.8 power factor lagging, calculate (a) the
efficiency of transmission and (b) the
sending end voltage and power factor.

ANSWER: (a) 98.78 percent (b) 139.5 kV,

0.99

DIRECT & TRANSFER

SURGE CALCULATION

Overhead transmission lines and cables under

transient conditions can be represented by seriesconnected distributed inductances and shuntconnected distributed capacitances.
They can be considered to have a surge
impedance, which at any locations relates the surge
voltage and surge current by the equation:
Surge voltage = Surge current x Surge
impedance

The surge impedance of an overhead

transmission line is of the order of 500
OHMs, and that of a cable of the order of 50
OHMs.
With power transformer, the surge
impedance varies from 500 OHM to 800
OHM

BEWLEY LATTICE DIAGRAM

Trace the propagation of a travelling wave in

overhead transmission lines or cables.

Distance between P1 and P2 (ft) =

Travelling wave velocity (ft per
microsecond) x Transit time
(microsecond)

where the travelling wave is 550ft per

microseconds or 167.6 metre per
microsecond

The travelling wave with 1 p.u. magnitude on

reaching position P2 is reflected back into the line
with a reflection coefficient
where
and is refracted into
further lines beyond position P2 with a refraction
coefficient
, where
are the surge impedances of the line P1
P2 and that of the further line beyond P2.

Example:

A 132 kV cable is to cross a river, one mile

wide through a 132 kV overhead line and is
to connect to another 132 kV cable at the
other side of the river. Draw the Bewley
lattice diagram and trace the surge voltage at
the other side of the river crossing.