Professional Documents
Culture Documents
DNV NDT
DNV NDT
Non-destructive Testing
This document contains the web-based learning materials for this course.
Contents
Introduction and objectives .................................................................................4
Overviews and applicability of NDT methods....................................................5
Overview of defects in materials .............................................................................. 5
Common defects in cast materials. ......................................................................... 11
Common defects in forged or rolled materials. ...................................................... 12
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Introduction and
objectives
Many standards and codes require nondestructive testing. In some cases the testing
methods to be used are specified. In cases
where more than one method is permissible,
the DNV surveyor/inspector may be called on
to specify the method. Whether the inspection
method is specified or optional, it is
important for the inspector to have sufficient
knowledge of the advantages and limitations
of common non-destructive testing methods,
and how they relate to different defects in
materials and welds.
The objective of the netbased training module is to acquaint the participants with the
fundamentals of non destructive testing. The level of NDT knowledge shall be sufficient
to describe basic principles, advantages and disadvantages of the major non-destructive
testing methods, operator certification, interpretation of NDT reports and acceptance
criteria.
In particular the participants shall be familiar with:
The importance of visual inspection.
The application of radiographic testing and its dependence on weld joint location,
joint configuration, material thickness, etc. and principals of basic radiographic film
interpretation.
The use of ultrasonic testing and the basic steps in performing a pulse echo
examination.
The characteristics of magnetic particle testing, and the basic steps in performing
testing.
The use of liquid penetrant and the basic steps to performing testing.
The use of eddy current equipment and the basic steps for performing testing.
The use of alternating current field measurement equipment and the basic steps for
performing testing
Leakage tests, plastic replica technique, and acoustic emission methods.
The reliability of the inspection process, probability of detection.
Certification schemes and the required level for qualification and certification of
personnel performing NDT.
The necessity of documented procedures and knowledge of international standards.
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Inclusions
Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in
weld metal or between weld metal and base metal. They
may be found in welds made by most arc welding
processes. In general, slag inclusions result from faulty
welding techniques and the failure of the designer to
provide proper access for welding within the joint.
Slag lines are elongated cavities usually parallel to
the axis of the weld, which contain slag or other
foreign matter.
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Lack of fusion
Lack of fusion is the result of improper welding
techniques, improper preparation of materials for
welding or improper joint design. Deficiencies causing
incomplete fusion include insufficient welding heat or
lack of access to all boundaries of the weld joint that
are to be fused during welding, or both.
Incomplete penetration
Incomplete penetration is joint penetration which is less
than that specified. Technically, this discontinuity may
only be present when the welding procedure
specification requires penetration of the weld metal
beyond the original joint boundaries. Inadequate joint
penetration may result from insufficient welding heat,
improper joint design (too much metal for the welding
arc to penetrate) or improper lateral control of the
welding arc.
Undercut
Undercut is generally associated with either improper welding techniques or excessive
welding currents, or both. It is generally located at the junction of weld and base metal
(at the toe or root). Undercut discontinuities create a mechanical notch at the weld
fusion boundary (see figure in the chapter on Visual Inspection).
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Underfill/excess weld
Underfill is a depression on the face of a weld or root surface extending below the
surface of the adjacent base metal. It results simply from the failure of the welder or
welding operator to completely fill the weld joint as called for in the welding procedure
specification.
Overlap is the protrusion of weld metal beyond the toe, face, or root of the weld without
fusion. It can occur as a result of lack of control of the welding process, improper
selection of welding materials or improper preparation of materials prior to welding.(see
figure in the chapter on Visual Inspection)
Excess weld
reinforcement is, in the
root of the weld, (see
figure at right) caused
by improper fitup
and/or welding
technique. On the top
(see figure in the
chapter on Visual
Inspection) it may be
caused by one or more
of the following factors:
too low travel speed,
too low current, poor
planning of the welding
sequence and bead size.
Cracks
Lamellar tearing (cracks) are generally terracelike separations
in base metal typically caused by thermally induced
shrinkage stresses resulting from welding.
Cracks occur in weld and base metal when
localized stresses exceed the ultimate strength of
the material. Cracking is generally associated
with stress amplification near discontinuities in
Lamellar tearing in t butt weld
welds and base metal or near mechanical notches
associated with the weldment design. High residual stresses
are generally present and hydrogen embattlement is often
a contributor to crack formation. Cracks may be termed
longitudinal or transverse, depending on their orientation. When a crack is parallel to the axis of the weld it is
called a longitudinal crack regardless of whether it is a
centerline crack in weld metal or a toe crack in the heataffected zone of the base metal. Transverse cracks are
perpendicular to the axis of the weld.
Appearance of fracture
face of lamellar tear
Longitudinal cracks in
submerged arc welds
made by automatic
welding processes are
commonly associated
with high welding
speeds and sometimes
related to porosity
problems that do not
show at the surface of
the weld. Longitudinal
cracks in small welds
between heavy sections
are often the result of
high cooling rates and
high restraint.
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Crater cracks occur in the crater formed by improper termination of a welding arc. They
are sometimes referred to as star cracks though they may have other shapes. Crater
cracks are shallow hot cracks usually forming a multipointed star-like cluster.
Toe cracks are generally cold cracks. They initiate and propagate from the toe of the
weld where restraint stresses are highest. Toe cracks initiate approximately normal to
the base material surface. These cracks are generally the result of thermal shrinkage
strains acting on a weld heat-affected zone that has been embrittled by hydrogen or an
excessive cooling rate, or both.
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Underbead and heat-affected zone cracks are generally cold cracks that form in the heataffected zone of the base metal. They are generally short but may join to form a
continuous crack.
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Comments
Visual inspection is the basic non-destructive inspection method. Its ability to prevent
defects is perhaps the most important feature of visual inspection, and more than for any
other method its success is in direct proportion to the knowledge and experience of the
inspector. The method should be applied as early as possible in a production process.
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Comments
The applicability of radiography for weld inspection depends a great deal upon the weld
joint location, joint configuration and material thickness.
Radiography uses X- or gamma radiation that will penetrate through the part and
produce an image on a film or plate. The density of the material in a discontinuity (air in
the case of a crack, incomplete fusion, or porosity) is usually lower than that of the solid
metal. Different density material attenuate the radiation differently and consequently
produce optical density differences on a film or plate. The selection of the radiation
source (energy of the emitted rays) for a particular thickness of weld is a critical factor.
If the energy of the source is too high or too low for a given thickness of material, then
low contrast and poor radiographic sensi-tivity result.
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Comments
The ultrasonic method uses the transmission of mechanical energy in waveform at
frequencies above the audible range. Reflections of this energy by discontinuities are
detected. In the pulse-echo technique, which is most commonly used, a transducer
transmits a pulse of high frequency sound into and through the material and the
reflected sound is received from a discontinuity or the opposite surface of the test
object. The reflected sound is received as an echo which, together with the ori-ginal
pulse, is displayed on the screen of a cathode ray tube. The method can be used to detect
both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
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ET disadvantages
1. Can be more difficult than MT on tight geometry
2. Cannot assess sub surface defects
3. Depth of the defect will be along the surface of the defect not Through thickness
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Note: For non-magnetic materials liquid penetrant testing is used instead of magnetic particle inspection.
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Welding consumables
Consumables are to be checked to ensure that correct item is being used and that it is in
good condition.
Manual metal-arc electrodes
Type coding and/or makers identification and diameter are to be as called for by the
welding procedure. Taken from sealed packets, the covering shall not be flaked or
broken off and there shall be no sign of electrode having been damp and subsequently
dried out, such as crystallized salts on the covering or rusty core wire. Storage ovens
and heated quivers shall be used as applicable. (No unauthorized returns to packet by
economy-minded storekeepers!)
Submerged-arc wires and fluxes
Identification and matching of wire to flux are, to be checked. The flux shall not be
contaminated (caused by over-enthusiastic recovery) or damp.
Gas-shielded welding
Correct composition and diameter of wire, correct spooling for equipment in use, no
contamination by rust or grease, correct shielding gas and flow. In the case of mixtures
correct ingredients and proportions are important items.
Safe wire feeding is important for keeping a stable arc and preventing lack of fusion.
Protection of the arc from draught is also important.
Gas-cutting
The type and amount of fuel gas shall match the equipment in use. A correct cutting
speed is necessary to obtain a satisfactory surface of the cut.
Preheating
Rapid cooling after welding may lead to cracking, and the cooling rate may need to be
reduced by preheating. The faces to be welded and the adjacent metal, are usually
heated to a temperature in the range of 50 250 C immediately before welding.
Preheat temperature is normally to be re-established at the start of each run. There may
be adverse metallurgical effects if the required preheating temperature is not correct.
Two common methods of measuring the temperature are:
Surface pyrometer, the accuracy of this and other instruments should be checked
regularly
Temperature indicating crayon (often referred to as the trademark of a major
supplier, Tempilstick).
A check should be made that the preheat temperature is maintained at the specified
distance from the Joint, usually approx. 75 mm or six times the plate/wall thickness.
Electrical parameters
The welding procedure will normally specify the current and voltage to be used. When
assessing the tolerances for this, the following should be taken into consideration:
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The static and dynamic characteristics vary for the different makers of machines.
Increased fluctuations may be caused by loose connections (a loose welding return
often causes arc strikes which may be harmful to the material).
Meter readings may also for other reasons fluctuate substantially during normal
welding.
Meters on the equipment are not always trustworthy unless they have recently been
calibrated.
It is difficult to assess tolerances for current and voltage. Generally, a small deviation in
the volt reading is not so important, more important is that the heat input is sufficient to
keep balance between the melt and solid material and to keep good control of the melt.
A clamp meter is practical to control the current.
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Fig. 5.4 Incompletely filled groove can be measured and is normally not acceptable.
Root concavity may be acceptable in moderation.
Fig 5.6 Too much weld metal can adversely affect fatigue strength.
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Fig. 5.7 Overlap caused by weld metal flowing onto the parent metal without fusing
to it. Often difficult to identify positively.
Fig. 5.10 Leg lengths are the primary dimension of fillet welds, unless otherwise
stated the leg lengths are intended to be equal.
Fig. 5.11 Throat thickness, actual dimension is Tl. Dimension measura-ble by visual
inspection of finished joint is T2.
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Crancking unit
Extension cables
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In tables 6.1 and 6.2 some data on x-ray machines and gamma ray sources and their
applications are listed.
Table 6.2 Radioactive materials for industrial radiography (Iridium 192 and Cobalt
60 most commonly used)
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The penetrating power of the radiation increases with its energy. The energy of Iridium
192 radiation corresponds to a x-ray voltage of appr. 800 kV. For Cobalt 60 the
corresponding x-ray voltage is appr. 3000 kV. (Due to radioactive decay the activity of
radioactive isotopes decreases with time. After one half-life the activity measured in
Curie or Becquerel is reduced to one half.)
When using the x-ray machine as exposure source, the energy penetrating the test object
may be controlled both by the high voltage and by the exposure time. When using
radioactive sources (gamma rays), only the exposure time is controllable. This makes a
x-ray apparatus better suited for radiographic testing.
When a beam of x-rays or gamma rays strikes an object, some of the radiation is
absorbed, some scattered and some transmitted. A thicker portion of material will
absorb more rays than a thinner portion. The film under the thin portion will become
darker because more rays will penetrate to the film and give a higher exposure.
Discontinuities (pores, slag inclusions etc.) are normally light compared to the base
material and explain why discontinuities produce dark spots or lines on the radiograph.
An experienced inspector or interpreter will recognize the type of discontinuity from its
image (shape, size etc.) on the radiograph.
Sometimes discontinuities may produce light spots on the radiograph, due to heavy
metal inclusions e.g. tungsten inclusions from the tungsten electrode used with shielding
gas welding.
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For determination of exposure times, special calculators are provided with the
equipment. These calculators normally give exposure times referred to steel. If other
materials than steel are to be tested, the calculat-ed exposure times have to be adjusted
according to table 6.3.
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Quality of radiograph.
Geometrical unsharpness
One important variable related to radiography is the geometrical unsharpness Ug. The
factor is calculated from the following formula:
where
b. = object thickness + object to film distance
d. = effective width of the focal spot (given in the equipment documentation for the xray or gamma ray source)
f. = film to source distance
For high quality radiographs, a small value of Ug is desired (IIW allows Ug = 0,2 mm
for best quality).
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Lead intensifying screens are usually thin lead foils (0.02 0.15 mm) glued to a
cardboard support. Lead screens may have an intensifying effect of 5 times, depending
on the radiation energy. They have the further advantage of absorbing the longer
wavelength scattered radiation, thereby producing better contrast in the radiographic
image.
Certain chemical salts have
the property of
fluorescence (they emit
light) under the excitation
of x-rays. Placing a sheet
of this salt next to the film
will increase the sensitivity
of the radiograph by 10
100 times depending on
the screen type.
Lead salt intensifying
screens combine the
properties of the two
screen types mentioned
above: they are highly intensifying and absorb scattered radiation at the same time.
Codes and specifications normally require lead screens to be used.
Radiographic films
Radiographic film is
classified according to its
sensitivity to radiation
(often termed the speed of
the film). In USA four
sensitivity groups (14)
are usually specified, while
European manufacturers
specify three groups (G1
G3). High-speed films
are coarse grained and give
low contrast radiographs,
while slow-speed films are
fine grained and give better contrast and cleaner radiographs.
Standards and codes specify the films to be used, normally medium to fine grained
films.
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Image Quality indicator, ASME hole penetrameter and DIN wire penetrameter.
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Film interpretation.
Viewing of the radiographs is the most important part of
radiographic inspection. The interpreter must be familiar with
the radiographic method and techniques, welding processes
etc.
The interpretation and evaluation shall be in accordance with
valid specifications, codes or standards.
Identification
The radiographs must be marked in such a way that no doubt
Interpreting of
radiographs
can arise as
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to which part of the object it represents. The identification has to be beyond dispute
concerning the position and orientation of the film.
Lead letters and numbers, measuring tape and direction arrows should be fixed to the
Section being radiographed and should appear on the radiograph. Position/orientation
should be marked on a suitable sketch or drawing to show the necessary details.
Identification, traceability between the object being tested and the film
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Density
The density of the radiograph shall be correct
according to the procedure or specification.
Generally, a density less than 1 is underexposed
whiles a density above 4 is overexposed. The
density could be measured with a direct reading
densitometer or by means of density strips, i.e.
filmstrips with fixed density. The density should be
between 1,5 3,5 on a radiograph of a
homogeneous part of the object unless otherwise
specified.
Sensitivity
The radiographs should be checked for sensitivity level to prove that the recommended
radiographic technique is used.
For radiographic sensitivity, see page 52.
The sensitivity shall be within the limit stated in the procedure or specification,
normally 1,5 2,0 per cent of the radiographed cross section, see section 6.3.4.
Film quality evaluation
The radiograph shall be sharp and free from scratches, stains, unsharpness, fog and
imperfections due to processing. Where a continuous length of weld (object) is to be
radiographed (100 per cent) the separate radiographs should overlap sufficiently to
ensure that no portion of the weld remains unexamined.
All requirements in the sections above shall be fulfilled before an evaluation of the
quality/homogenity of the object is made. If one or more of these requirements is not
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fulfilled the inspector may find it necessary to repeat the radiographs with an improved
technique.
Material homogenity evaluation and grading
The evaluation and grading shall be carried out according to given standards or
specifications, considering:
type of defect
amount of defect
classification according to standard and specification (accepted/not accepted) or
grading in classes.
The radiographs should be examined on an illuminated diffusing screen (viewing box)
in a darkened room and the illuminated area should be masked to the minimum required
area for viewing of the radiographic image. The brightness of the screen should be
adjustable so as to allow satisfactory reading of the radiographs.
Some radiographs and sketchs of weld defects
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the radiation level. Due to the radiation danger, limitations may be imposed upon
time and place of radiography activities.
Access to both sides of the test object is necessary to produce a radiograph.
The shapes of the test object may make it difficult to produce a radiograph with
useful information.
Discontinuities such as cracks, laminations, lack of fusion, etc., must be aligned with
or parallel to the radiation beam to be detected clearly.
Choice of radiation energy for a particular thickness of weld is a critical factor.
Location of defect in test objects cross section is difficult to determine.
Information typical x-ray systems is given on below web links:
http://www.agfa.com/
http://www.yxlon.com/
http://www.ndt.net/
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When ultrasonic waves are used for material testing, the following applies:
shorter wavelengths will detect smaller defects
the penetrating power increases with the wavelength
longer wavelengths should be used on coarse grained material
Frequencies may therefore be selected as follows:
small defects: high frequency (2-4 MHz)
large defects: low frequency (0,5-2 MHz)
fine grained material: high frequency
coarse grained material: low frequency
Methods
When testing materials with ultrasonic waves, high-frequency sound waves propagate in
homogeneous solid bodies as directed beams, with very little attenuation. At interfaces
between media with different acoustic properties, such as air and metal, the waves are
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almost completely reflected. This makes it possible to detect cracks, inclusions and
other flaws by means of ultrasonic waves.
Ultrasonic testing of materials may be performed by the following methods:
a. The reflection (pulse-echo) method
b. The transmission method
c. The immersion method
The most important method is the pulse-echo technique which will be emphasized in
this section.
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Ultrasonic thickness measurement of piping using D-meter and single crystal 0degree
probe.
The reflection (pulse-echo) method
When an ultrasonic pulse is transmitted to the object, the time
delay between the initial pulse and the echo from the back wall,
or from a flaw inside the object, can be measured.
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For indication and measurement of thickness, distances and defect sizes, an ultrasonic
apparatus containing transmitter, receiver and indicating screen is required. Relevant
requirements for such equipment are:
The ultrasonic equipment should cover a frequency range of at least 1,0 - 6,0 MHz.
The ultrasonic equipment is to be fitted with a calibrated gain regulator with
maximum 2 dB gain per step.
Test range: applicable to the test
The ultrasonic equipment is to be equipped with a flat screen extending to the front
of the apparatus so that a reference curve can be drawn directly on the screen (see
calibration 7.3.5).
The ultrasonic equipment must be able to operate with both combined and separate
transmitter and receiver probes (fig. 7.5).
The ultrasonic equipment should allow echoes with amplitudes of 5% of full screen
height to be clearly detectable under test conditions.
Probes
When testing materials with ultrasound, two types of probes may be used; the normal
probes (0) (longitudinal waves) and the angle probes (transverse waves).
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The angle probe is constructed to transmit transverse waves at a defined angle into a test
object.
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The angle probes are to cover a frequency range of 2 - 6 MHz. Typical values are 2
MHz and 4 MHz.
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An ultrasonic pulse from the transmitter crystal will propagate via the delay block into
the material, and reflected pulses from defects will reach the receiver crystal resulting in
an echo on the screen. The delay block and separate transmitter-receiver configuration,
make the double crystal probe useful for detecting defects immediately below the
contact surface and for measuring thicknesses within the range 1 - 30 mm. It is of
importance to notice that with a double crystal probe, the first echo is always used for
detection.
Usually the double crystal probe is constructed with the piezo-electric elements at an
angle (1 - 5) to the normal. This will increase the detection efficiency close to the
surface of the material and prevent multiple echoes from reaching the receiver. A
double crystal probe with focused beam will be efficient for detecting pitting corrosion.
Note: The surface must be metallic clean when using double crystal probes.
On a surface with a small radius of curvature, such as pipes with a small diameter, it
may be necessary to adjust the probe shoe to attain sufficient contact between the
material and the probe.
Procedure
Ultrasonic examination must be performed in accordance with a written procedure.
Each procedure must include at least the following information, as applicable:
Type of instrument
Type of transducers
Frequencies
Calibration details
Surface requirements
Type of couplants
Scanning techniques
Recording details
Reference to applicable welding procedures
Coupling medium and contact surface
A satisfactory couplant, in either fluid or paste form, should be used to transfer the
ultrasound from the probe into the material. Oil, grease, or glycerine are well suited for
this purpose. A cellulose gum (wall paper paste) is particularly suitable as it can be
removed with water after inspection is completed. The contact surface should be free
from weld spatter and any other substance which may impede the free movement of the
probe or disturb the transmission of ultrasound to the material. Light grinding of the
surface and the weld may be necessary.
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Calibration
The calibration of the apparatus and probes are of decisive importance for the testing
result.
For the calibration of the equipment range scale and the angular determination of angle
probes, an IIW calibration block (V1 or V2) should be used
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Acceptance criteria often define a defect by specifying the size/height of the defect echo
in relation to a calibrated reference curve. As the sound velocity will vary with the
material tested (i.e. beam angle, range calibration, sound beam profile, etc., varies with
the material) it is imperative that the calibration blocks are of the same material as the
test object. For construction of a reference curve, see figure below.
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ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section V, Article 5, describes a method or
standard which is frequently used for ultrasonic testing of welds in steel constructions.
In the reference block (fig. 7.8) made from the production material (or of a material
with similar acoustic and metallurgical properties) a drilled hole is used as a reference
reflector for establishing the reference curve.
The diameter and hole location are dependent on the thickness of the plate, and are
given in the ASME-standard. By placing the probe in different positions on the
reference block and marking the corresponding echo height, one can establish a
distance-amplitude curve on the screen. Defects will be accepted or rejected depending
on the echo height compared to the reference curve and the length of the defect.
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Ultrasonic thickness measurement of piping using D-meter and single crystal 0 probe.
Ultrasonic thickness measurement of cast steel nozzle using D-meter and twin crystal
0degree probe.
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When using double crystal probes for measurement of pipe wall thickness, be aware of
correct probe position related to the axis of the pipe.
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Welding inspection on reactor tubes with hand yoke and isolating transformer
Method
The test object is magnetized
Magnetic powder (iron powder or iron oxide) is applied to the surface during
magnetization. The powder will accumulate where a surface flaw causes a leakage in
the magnetic field.
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Direct magnetization is induced when current is passing directly through the test
object, e.g. by applying prods. (Fig. 8.1)
Indirect magnetization is induced when placing the test object in a magnetic field,
e.g. by means of a yoke (electromagnet). (Fig. 8.2)
Fig. 8.1 Circular magnetization methods Fig. 8.2 Longitudinal (or axial) magnetization
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MT Performance
Wet particles (iron particles suspended in liquid) are recommended below 60 C.
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It is recommended to use contrast color to provide adequate contrast when using nonfluorescent particles. The thickness of the layer should not exceed 75 um. The
contrast color must not be electrically conductive.
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Surface preparation
Prior to magnetic particle inspection, the surface to be examined and all adjacent
areas within at least 25 mm shall be dry and free of all dirt, grease, lint, scale,
welding flux and spatter, oil, or other extraneous matter that could interfere with the
examination.
Rough surfaces hamper the mobility of magnetic powder due to mechanical trapping
which in turn produces false indications. Such areas should be surface ground.
Examination of welds
Recommended field strength, perpendicular to the defect, is in the range of 2,4 kA/m
(30 Oersted) to 4,0 kA/m (50 Oersted). The field strength should be checked by a
proper instrument (e.g. Hall probe).
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Welding inspection on tubes, longitudinal and transversal crack indication with cross
yoke
Non-relevant indications
Non-relevant indications that do not result from presence of flaws may occur. Examples
of such indications are:
When applying a too strong magnetic force, particle buildups may occur around
sharp corners, at rough surfaces, small undercuts etc.
Changes in magnetic properties may give indications, i.e. between steel and mill
scale, between different base metals or between weld metal and base metal. A well
known example is non-relevant indications between non-ferromagnetic weld metal
and ferromagnetic base metal.
Demagnetization
Reasons for demagnetization
All ferromagnetic metals, after having been magnetized, will to some extent retain a
residual magnetic field. Demagnetization may be necessary if :
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the magnetic field will interfere with the operation of instruments sensitive to
magnetic fields.
during machining or cleaning operations chips may adhere to the surface and
interfere with subsequent operations like painting or dimensioning.
the test object is to be used for parts/components where remains from the
magnetization is undesirable (e.g. bearings).
Acceptance criteria
The criteria are usually specified in the relevant standard/code.
Linear surface discontinuities (cracks, linear porosity) are usually not allowed.
Undercut may be accepted within specific limits in depth and length. In addition to
the magnetic particle examination, determination of the undercut depth must be
performed by visual inspection.
Reporting
Like other NDT methods the main purpose of an MPI report is to identify the object
examined and to state exactly the location of the defects found. Photos and sketches are
helpful enclosures to the MPI report.
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Capillary action: A force that is the resultant of adhesion, cohesion and surface tension
in liquids which are in contact with solids as in a capillary tube
2
Fluorescent: The property of a substance, such as fluorite, of producing light while it is
being acted upon by radiant energy, such as ultraviolet rays or x-rays.
3
Black light or Ultraviolet Light: Ultraviolet (UV) light or "black light" as it is
sometimes called, has wavelengths ranging from 180-400 nanometers. These
wavelengths place UV light in the invisible part of the electromagnetic spectrum
between visible light and X-rays. The most familiar source of UV radiation is the sun
and is necessary in small doses for certain chemical processes to occur in the body.
However too much exposure can be harmful to the skin and eyes. Excessive UV light
exposure can cause painful sunburn, accelerate wrinkling and increase the risk of skin
cancer. UV light can cause eye inflammation, cataracts and retinal damage.
Because of their close proximity, laboratory devices like as UV lamps deliver UV
light at a much higher intensity than the sun and, therefore, can cause injury much
more quickly. The greatest threat with UV light exposure is that the individual is
generally unaware that the damage is occurring. There is usually no pain associated
with the injury until several hours after the exposure. Skin and eye damage occurs at
wavelengths around 320 nm and shorter which is well below the 365 nm wavelength
where penetrants are design to fluoresce. Therefore, UV lamps sold for use in LP
application almost are always filtered to remover the harmful UV wavelengths. The
lamps produce radiation at the harmful wavelengths so it is essential that they be used
with the proper filter in place and in good condition.
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Crack indication in hydraulic pump housing. Note the enhanced contrast of the
fluorescent penetrant.
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soluble detergent which lifts the excess penetrant from the surface of the part with a
water wash. Solvent removable penetrants require the use of a solvent to remove the
penetrant from the part.
Method
The main steps of the method are as follows :
Precleaning of the surface to be tested
Drying of the surface
Application of penetrant by spraying, brushing or dipping
Penetration time
Removal of excess penetrant
Drying of the surface by normal evaporation or by careful blowing with a fan or hair
dryer
Application of developer as a thin layer by dipping, spraying, or by use of dusttank
Developing time
Inspection of the test object
Post cleaning (if required)
Principle of Liquid Penetrant Testing
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Surface preparation
The surface to be examined must be dry and free from paint, dirt, grease, lint, scale,
welding flux, weld spatter, oil or other extraneous matter that could obscure surface
openings or otherwise interfere with the examination (machining and grinding may
close surface cracks mechanically).
Types of penetrant
Three types of penetrant exist in both visible (most commonly red) and fluorescent
color. Ordinarily, fluorescent examination is the most sensitive.
Water washable penetrant
Water washable penetrants are most frequently used and are sensitive enough for
ordinary weld examination. For rough surfaces this is the only suitable type of
penetrant.
These penetrants may be removed from the surface by water washing. A none dusting
clean cloth or free flowing water may be used.
Post emulsifying penetrant
Post emulsifying penetrants are mainly used on smooth surfaces. For such surfaces this
type of penetrant has a higher sensitivity than the water washable penetrant.
After the necessary penetration time a thin continuos layer of emulsifier is to be added
to the top of the penetrant. The emulsifier will interact with the penetrant.
The resulting liquid from this interaction is water washable.
After an emulsifying time, depending of the type of surface, the liquids used and the
temperature, all surface penetrant may be washed away without disturbing the penetrant
inside the surface discontinuities.
Solvent removable penetrant
For low temperature examination and for examination of smooth surfaces the solvent
removable penetrant is recommended.
Excess penetrant is removed from the surface by wiping with a dry absorbing (nondusting) cloth followed by re-wiping the surface using a clean cloth damp with a solvent
remover.
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Testblock
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Comparator blocks
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Types of developer
Nonaqueous wet developer, which is a powder suspended in a volatile solvent.
Spraying with nonaqueous developer from a min. distance of 30 cm
gives the best result for field work.
Dry developer, which is a dry powder, less suitable for field use.
Aqueous wet developer, which may be either a powder suspended in water or a
powder water solution. The aqueous wet developer is suitable for high
temperature examination.
Evaluation of indications
Discontinuities at the surface will be indicated by bleeding-out of the penetrant,
however, local surface irregularities such as machining marks may produce false
indications.
Insufficient removal of excess surface penetrant may also produce red/ fluorescent
shadows or false indications.
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To evaluate indications, use a thin brush dipped in a solvent. Carefully remove just the
colored developer. Apply a new thin layer of developer. If the indication reappear, a
discontinuity exists. If not, there might have been a false indication.
Indication detected
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Acceptance criteria
Acceptance criteria will be stated in the relevant standard/code. Ordinary linear surface
defects like linear porosity, cracks, overlaps etc. are not accepted.
Reporting
It is important that the inspection results are stated clearly with exact location of any
defects found. See NDT procedure specifications and reports for further details about
reporting.
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Electromagnetic Effects
In the first half of the nineteenth century it was discovered that there are three effects. If
a loop of wire connected to a current measuring device is moved through a static
magnetic field then the device measures a current flow. This shows that electricity can
be generated by magnetism and is the principle of the dynamo or generator. A wire
carrying an electric current experiences a force when placed near a magnet. Also if the
electric current reverses the force changes direction. This is the principle of the electric
motor. The changing of a current in a wire will cause another current to flow in an
adjacent but not touching wire. This is illustrated below:
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The shape of the magnetic field from a coil is similar to that from a permanent magnet.
This can be represented as a series of lines or, for simplicity a single arrow. For D.C.
current the arrowhead is at the North Pole; for A.C. this only occurs at a certain point in
time but is related to the directions of currents flowing at the same point in time. The
magnetic field varies at the same frequency as the current in the coil. The coil windings
are also sometimes shown collectively. In practical eddy current probes a ferrite
material is often used to further concentrate and control the magnetic field. The ferrite is
usually in the centre of the coil, and in some applications (shielded probes) may also
surround the coil.
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Edge Effect
Edge effect
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5. Changing thickness of the material under test, again this can affect the results.
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Field distribution
If we consider a uniform AC current sheet in the surface of a material, as in Figure 6,
this will itself produce a magnetic field above the surface at right angles to the current
direction.
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The important principles to remember are that if a current is flowing in a surface (called
the x - y plane) then,
The magnetic flux density in the x direction is proportional to current in the y
direction
The magnetic flux density in the y direction is proportional to current in the x
direction
The magnetic flux density in the z direction (out of the x - y plane) is proportional to
the curvature of the current in the x - y plane
Fields around a defect
After having seen the way that an electric current can be induced into a metal surface
using a coil and the magnetic field that is produced above the surface of the metal by the
induced current, we can now look at the effect on the fields by the presence of a crack.
Remember that because the current flows in a thin skin the current will only be
disturbed by surface breaking defects.
Figure 8 shows the way that a uniform electric current flows around a surface breaking
crack and the shape of the resultant magnetic field.
Figure 8. Electric current flow and resultant magnetic field around a crack.
Current flowing near to the crack ends will try to flow around the crack ends, which will
cause a slight bunching of the current, flow lines and, more importantly, a curvature in
the lines. This can be seen in Figure 8.
In the centre of the crack the current will flow down one crack face and back up the
other side with the result that the current density will be reduced on the surface, with no
curvature of the flowlines.
Let us now look at how the Bx and Bz components of the magnetic field would change
if an appropriate sensor were moved along the length of the crack.
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Figure 9. X - section to show how Bx and Bz vary along the length of a crack.
With reference to Figure 9 it can be seen that away from the cracks the Bx is at a certain
background level and Bz is zero. As one end of the crack is approached the Bz shows a
peak, which corresponds, to the current curving around the crack end and Bx shows a
small rise in accordance with the bunching of the current at the crack end.
In the centre of the crack the Bz drops back to zero and the Bx drops into a trough as the
current density on the surface decreases. The drop in Bx is related to the crack depth.
A similar indication occurs at the other crack end: Bz shows a trough as the current
curves in the opposite direction around the crack end and Bx peaks slightly then returns
back to the normal background level. The ACFM software displays the Bx and Bz
traces as shown above which produce the characteristic signals shown in Figure 9 when
a crack is encountered.
The Butterfly Plot
As well as using the Bx and Bz signals the ACFM software also uses another display
called the butterfly plot. This is simply an X-Y graph with Bx plotted along the Y-axis
and Bz plotted along the (negative) X-axis as shown in Figure 10.
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When no cracks are present the butterfly display will show a slightly moving spot.
When a crack is encountered the responses in Bx and Bz are combined in the butterfly
to produce a loop, as shown above.
This loop is a very useful display as other disturbances in the Bx and Bz plots due to lift
off or other geometric changes usually give very different plots than a crack.
Summary
The main points to remember about ACFM theory are:
AC Current is induced into the test piece such that the current runs orthogonal to the
expected crack direction
The current flows in a thin skin on the surface of the material
The technique is sensitive to surface breaking defects
The Bx and Bz components of the magnetic field above the surface of the specimen
are measured
Bx is sensitive to defect depth
Bz is sensitive to defect length
A defect will normally produce a dip in Bx, a peak-trough pair in Bz and a loop in
the butterfly plot.
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Limitations
As with any NDT technique, ACFM does have some limitations to its use.
General
1. Scanning direction should take account of expected defect orientation.
2. Sensitivity reduces with increasing coating thickness.
3. Some probes are sensitive to gross geometry changes, such as plate edges. These can
be overcome by appropriate probe choice.
Carbon steel
1. Sensitive to surface breaking flaws only.
2. Depth sizing models are for isolated semi elliptical flaws
Non magnetic materials
1. Sub surface defects may be detectable depending on the skin depth, however the
predicted response can be difficult to quantify.
2. Sizing models for carbon steels may need modifying depending on skin depth.
General applications
Manual weld inspection
ACFM is extensively used for the inspection of welded connections in a wide range of
industries. Most in air manual weld inspection is carried out with the new AMIGO
instrument. The AMIGO has all the advantages of ACFM inspection available on other
TSC instruments, but in a smaller, lighter package, and with the added benefits of a
longer battery life and support for simple array probes.
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Some of the work involves the use of 2 man teams, including rope access specialists.
With 2 man operations ACFM allows the probe pusher to be remote from the inspector.
The butterfly plot removes the effect of non-uniform probe movement to allow reliable
use of non-inspectors as access providers. In this way it is not necessary to have skilled
inspectors who are also skilled divers or climbers.
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The use of rope access avoids the need for scaffolding. The use of ACFM avoids the
need for paint removal and re-application.
Sub-sea inspection
The same principals of 2-man operation are used for sub-sea inspections. The operator
remains on the surface and the diver deploys the probe. Good audio communications are
essential with good helmet mounted camera views required in most cases.
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Figure 15. The U21 Underwater Crack Microgauge and its use for node inspection
Automated and semi automated weld inspection
(Information available on request)
Elevated temperature inspection
(Information available on request)
Thread inspection
The inspection of threads can be difficult with conventional inspection methods
particularly with the female component. The use of MPI and penetrants requires high
levels of cleaning and in fact highly skilled operators, especially when the crack site is
only visible using mirrors.
The ACFM technique has successfully been used for thread inspection over a wide
range of thread types. ACFM can inspect through coatings or partially cleaned threads.
Threads ranging from 5mm (0.195) to 350mm (13.65) diameter have been
successfully inspected in either parallel or taper configuration. Sizes outside this range
are also possible. Materials that can be inspected include ferritic steels, stainless steels,
inconel, titanium and other electrically conducting materials. Special purpose automated
systems are also available and can be customised to suit particular customer
requirements.
Hand deployed probes are available for detection and crack depth sizing. A typical
manual inspection system is shown below.
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Application examples
The following pagescontain pictures of ACFM being used for several different
application areas. In most cases typical defect signals are shown along with pictures
showing the component or deployment method.
Comparison of ACFM
Comparison with eddy current
The main rival to ACFM as far as detecting and sizing surface breaking defects is
concerned is the Eddy Current (EC) technique. A summary of the differences between
ACFM and conventional EC is given in Table 1.
The main drawbacks of EC arise from the use of a compact circular excitation current.
This results in a very sensitive detection capability, but also makes the technique prone
to strong lift-off signals and signals due to material property changes. The non-uniform
nature of the current also limits its sensitivity to deep defects because the current does
not flow to the bottom. The most important consequence, however, is the inability to
model the current flow in a general way, making it necessary to use calibration
techniques for sizing.
The use in ACFM of passive sensor coils separate to the excitation field also makes it
much easier to build array probes than with conventional eddy currents. ACFM array
probes with up to 192 sensors have been built using a single large-scale excitation field.
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ACFM examples
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torr 1/sec.) is achieved by placing a sampling probe in a vacuum system and applying
tracergass from outside.
Helium leak detector is a helium mass spectrometer responding only to helium. This is
the most applicable and reliable instrument for leak testing, and is used with the
sampling probe either inside or outside the vacuum system. A leakage rate of 1 0-11 torr
1/sec. may be detected.
Thermographic inspection
A number of devices respond to the temperature radiated by an object at a temperature
above absolute zero and convert it to a proportional electric signal. Readouts may be
presented:
in digital form
as line graphs
on black-gray-white or colour screens
Thermographic inspection may be used for detection of heat leakage, e.g. as a survey of
refineries,oil installations, houses, cars etc.
Advantages
Some advantages of noncontact thermographic methods are:
the thermal output may be detected remotely
the thermal pattern is not disturbed by the instrument
inaccessible or difficult regions can be monitored, provided there is a clear view
between the sensor and the area to be measured
measurements may be made rapidly and accurately. In certain temperature ranges
temperature differences as small as 0.2 C may be measured.
Limitations
The surface emissivity of the material is to be known.
Glass, plastic, water vapor and carbon dioxide may disturbe the detection.
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Electrolytic polishing
Etching
Applying plastic
Examination of the removed plastic replica by microscope
Applications:
Examination of the microstructure of a material, e.g. after heat treatment of
materials.
Detection of surface cracks (e.g. running hot cracks in crankshafts), which are
difficult to find by any of the traditional NDT methods.
Surfaces may be studied for damages like wear, pittings, fracture etc.
Acoustic emission
Acoustic emission may be used for either continuous monitoring or during proof testing.
Acoustic emission as an instrumentation technique relies on the detection of acoustic
signals emitted from a growing crack or similar defect. By measuring the relative arrival
times for an acoustic signal from a crack at 3 or 4 transducers at different positions it is
possible to determine the location of the source of the signal. Areas or regions with a
high concentration of detected acoustic signals will indicate an active defect and can
be identified for further inspection by other NDT methods.
Advantages
Acoustic emission may be used in connection with full scale pressure testing of tanks or
containers of different materials such as wood, plastic, fiberglass, concrete or metals.
Necessary pressure may be provided either through a hydrotest or by raising the
pressure of the liquid in the system. In this way the shut-down costs can be reduced.
Limitations
The main disadvantages of the acoustic emission method are:
high costs due to advanced equipment and experienced personnel.
databank needed for testing of different materials.
difficulty in interpretation of results.
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POD Trials
In practice this means :
You cannot do trials on slots and relate that to real inspection in the field
You cannot rely on repeat inspections of the same crack
The way in which the POD is reported must refer to the way in which the trial was
conducted
Presentation of POD
POD is often presented as a POD curve
This curve is either nothing more than a series of individual data points, or a curve
fitted to the points
The data points are calculated on the basis of number of defects detected expressed
as a % of defects that could have been detected
The resulting point estimate of POD is an experimental POD
Typical POD Curve
Ideally the curve should show a rapid change from low detection to high over a small
size range - and detection should improve with crack size!
The ICON Project
ICON was a major European project conducted to evaluate the performance of
Offshore NDT Equipment
The trials were conducted in 3 countries using a library of fatigue cracked welded
tubular connections (mainly nodes)
The results provide POD data for a range of underwater equipment
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Spurious calls
Increasing sensitivity can lead to high numbers of false calls
POD does not take account of false calls
In the extreme, if an operator said everything was cracked, this could be interpreted
in terms of POD as a good result - all areas known to contain cracks were reported as
cracked! It is therefore necessary to consider false calls along with POD
One way of considering this is using Reliability Operating Characteristics ROC. In
fact this is little more than a data point plotting % POD against % false calls
Statistical treatment of POD data
POD trials give Experimental POD results
If all defects in a group are found, then the experimental POD for that group is 100%
However, statisticians will argue that just because all the defects in a group were
found, if the group were larger, then maybe one or more defects would be missed
To account for this, binomial statistics are usually employed
Binomial Statistics
Binomial statistics introduce the concept of Confidence Levels
If there are 29 cracks in a POD trial and all of them are found (100% experimental
POD), binomial statistics gives a 90% POD with 95% Confidence for the same data.
This is referred to as the 90/95% POD and cannot be achieved with less than 29
cracks in a size group. Thus a large number of cracks are required.
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Certification schemes
Certification schemes for NDT personnel
Most standards specifying NDT will require certification of NDT operators. The aim of
a certification system is to guarantee that the operator is experienced and has the
necessary qualifications to perform NDT. Such a certificate may be limited to specific
NDT methods and/or materials, welding etc. It is the duty of the surveyor to verify that
the operator has the necessary qualifications and a valid NDT certificate for the actual
testing to be carried out.
Different organisations and countries have established their certification schemes.
Below some of the best known is listed:
ASNT American Society for Non-Destructive Testing
CSWIP Certification Scheme for Weldment Inspection Personnel, United Kingdom
EN 473:2000 Qualification and Certification of Non-Destructive Personnel - General
Principles
ISO 9712:1999 Non-destructive testing Qualification and Certification of
Personnel
PCN Personnel Certification in Non-Destructive Testing, United Kingdom
Japanese Society for Non-Destructive Inspection
NORDTEST Nordtest Scheme for Certification of Non-Destructive Testing
Personnel
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A Level II
NDT operator shall be qualified to calibrate instruments and evaluate results with
respect to applicable codes, standards and specifications. He shall be familiar with the
scope and limitations of NDT methods and be capable of guiding level I NDT operators.
He shall be able to prepare written instructions and to organise and report nondestructive tests.
A Level III
NDT engineer shall be competent to perform training and examination of level I and II
NDT personnel. A level III NDT engineer will have several years experience in NDT
and have a detailed knowledge of standards and specifications. He shall be able to
designate NDT methods and techniques to be applied for a given NDT problem.
ASNT certificates are issued for level I and II for the following NDT-methods:
Ultrasonic Testing,
Radiographic Testing,
Magnetic
Particle Inspection,
Liquid Penetrant Testing,
Eddy Current Testing
Leakage Testing.
NDT engineers at level III are approved as such by appointment issued either by ASNT
or by the company.
ASNT Central Certification Program (ACCP)
Revision 3 (November 1997)
This document establishes the system for central certification of nondestructive testing
(NDT) personnel administered and maintained by the American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (ASNT). The purpose of the ASNT Central Certification
Program (ACCP) is to provide independent, transportable NDT certification by
examination to promote national and international acceptance of NDT certification and
reduce multiple audits of certification programs.
Categories of qualification are defined in terms of the skills and knowledge required in
given method(s) to perform specified NDT activity(ies).
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individual does not satisfy the annual near-distance vision examination requirement
in 7.9.1. Failure to comply with this vision requirement may cause revocation of
ACCP certification.
Employer authorization (see 2.8) shall expire when employment is terminated.
Recertification
Recertification is required in order to:
extend certification after the specified period of validity; and
maintain certification after a significant interruption of continued satisfactory work
activity in that NDT method or IS for which certification is held.
Note
A significant interruption of continued satisfactory work activity occurs when the period
of interruption is:
greater than the sum of an individuals NDT experience at all levels of qualification
in the method, or
less than the sum of an individuals NDT experience at all levels of qualification, but
greater than 12 of the last 24 months, or
less than the sum of an individuals NDT experience at all levels of qualification, but
greater than 36 of the last 60 months.
With this document visit ASNT homepage on Internet for more information about
certification http://www.asnt.org/certification/certification.htm
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The requirements for examination eligibility, examination format and the rules
governing certificate validity and renewal are, as a minimum in compliance with ISO
9712 (1999) and EN 473 (1993).
The certification system comprises three parts:
General (theory and practical common to all applications of a particular method of
NDT)
Sector specific (theory and practical for the method related to a specific application
in the present case this is welds made by conventional fusion welding processes,
casings and/or wrought components)
Job specific (practical related to the special needs of an individual employer) the
examination is conducted by the employer.
General and sector specific examinations are conducted by, or under the control of, an
Examining Body authorised by TWI Certification Ltd. The present requirements are
intended to meet the majority of users needs for the practical non-destructive testing of
welds, castings and wrought products and to provide industry with an assured minimum
standard of proficiency. The majority of users of independent certification find the
general and sector specific examinations sufficient for their needs, and do not require
job specific examinations. The specialist user may add job specific examinations related
to his/her own particular needs.
The examination is designed to test the candidates grasp of the subject and his/her
understanding of the operations he/she performs. The examination procedure involves
written and practical examinations.
Visit CSWIPs homepage on Internet for more information about certification
http://www.twi.co.uk/or contact:
TWI Certification Ltd
Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB1 6AL, UK
Telephone: +44 (0) 1223 891162
Telefax: +44 (0) 1223 894219
Email: twicertification@twi.co.uk
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of the competence defined on the certificate, level 2 personnel may be authorised to:
Select the NDT technique for the test method to be used.
Define the limitations of application of the testing method.
Translate NDT standards and specifications into NDT instructions.
Set up and verify equipment settings.
Perform and supervise tests.
Interpret and evaluate results according to applicable standards, codes or
specifications.
Prepare written NDT instructions.
Carry out and to supervise all level 1 duties.
Level 3
An individual certificated to Level 3 has demonstrated competence to perform and
direct non destructive testing operations for which he is certificated. An individual
certificated to level 3 may:
Assume full responsibility for a test facility or examination centre and staff.
Establish and validate NDT instructions and procedures.
Interpret standards, codes, specifications and procedures.
Designate the particular test methods, procedures and NDT instructions to be used.
Carry out and to supervise all level 1 and 2 duties.
Validity
The maximum period of validity of the certificate is five years. The initial period of
validity shall commence when all of the requirements for certification (training,
experience, success in examination and satisfactory vision test) are fulfilled.
Certification shall become invalid:
At the option of the certification body, e.g. after reviewing evidence of unethical
behaviour incompatible with the certification proceduresIf the individual becomes
physically incapable of performing his duties based upon failure of the visual acuity
examination taken annually under the responsibility of his employer
If a significant interruption takes place in the method for which the individual is
certificated.
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NDT standards
General
The amount and type of NDT to be performed will often be specified by reference to a
standard, code or guideline. The NDT programs may be specified at different levels:
Laws and Regulations:
Laws and regulations are issued by the authorities and are normally written in general
terms. In some cases NDT programs may be specified. Typical references are
Norwegian Maritime Directorate (NMD), Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD), US
Coastguard, UK Health & Safety Executive (HSE), Marine Safety Arency (MSA) UK.
EU Directives i.e. PED (Pressurised Equipment Directive).
Standards and Codes:
A standard is a document prepared by international or national standardization
organizations. Examples are ISO (International Standardization Organization) and
ANSI (American National Standards Institute). The term code may indicate the same
level of recognition as a standard. An example is the ASME Pressure Vessel Code.
EURO Norms (EN).
Guidelines and Recommendations:
Different international or national societies, organizations or bodies may issue
guidelines, recommendations etc. concerning NDT. Guidelines etc. are publications
giving practical information on specific items like for instance Ultrasonic Inspection of
Weld Connections issued by DNV (CL.No.7).
Specification:
A specification is a precise statement of a set of requirements to be satisfied by a
material, pro-duct, system or service, indicating, whenever appropriate, the procedure
by means of which it may be determined whether the requirements given are satisfied.
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ASME
American Society of Mechanical Engineers has issued a Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code containing 11 sections. The relevant sections are:
Section V, Nondestructive Examination, which describes in detail the performance of
NDT.
Section VIII Pressure Vessels describing NDT and acceptance criteria for such
vessels.
The ASME-code is extensively used throughout the world not only for pressure vessels
but is often adopted for other structures.
ASTM
American Society for Testing and Materials Standards are often referred to for
radiography of steel castings. Corresponding standards exist for castings of aluminium,
magnesium, tin, bronze and copper.
IIW
International Institute of Welding has established, as a recommendation, collections of
reference radiographs of welds in steel and aluminium. In the past these collections
were often referred to when specifying acceptance criteria of welds when radiographic
methods were used. Nowadays, national or international standards are more commonly
used.
According to the IIW Reference Radiographs the types of defects are given by a
lettering code and the quality of the radiographs by a colour code: black blue
green brown red, where black is the best quality and red the poorest.
Below is listed some typical standards, rules and guidelines often used in connection
with NDT.
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